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THE 

CYCLOPEDIC  REVIEW      - 

r 

OF 

Current   History 


Edited  by  ALFRED  S.  JOHNSON,  a.m.,  ph.d. 


VOL.  5 

COLUMBIAN    ANNUAL 


1895 


3IIu5trate5 


Ml«-° 


<\'] 


BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 
GARRETSON,  COX  &  CO. 

1896 


Copyright,  1895,  1896 

BY 

GARRETSON,  COX  &  COMPANY 


,.5 


INDEX. 


JANUARY,  1895 — DECEMBER,  1895. 


Page. 
Abbott,  Isaac  F.,  bank  defaulter, 

Dover,  N.  H 130 

Aberdeen,    Earl  of,    governor-gen- 
eral of  Canada,  made  a  G.  C. 

M.  G 400 

Abyssinia,  Russian  mission  to,  207,  453 

Mission  to  Russia 715 

War  with  Italy 86,  955 

Academy,    American,    of   Political 
and  Social  Science,  see  Ameri- 
can Academy,  etc. 
Academy,  French,  see  France. 

Academy  of  Design,  exhibition 218 

Acetylene  gas 960 

Ach,  L.,  German  chemist 460 

Aclierman,  Lieut.,  invents  new  kind 

of  armor-plate 625 

Adams,  J.  Q.,   obit 763 

Adventists,  Seventh    Day,  arrested  741 
Adventure,  Books  of,  see  Literature. 

Aerial  navigation, 215,  963 

Afghanistan,  Trouble  in  Chitral 200 

Waziristan  quiet 201 

Relations  to  England  and  Russia  343 
Son  of  Ameer  visits  England . .  .424,  692 
Chitral  expedition,  oee  India. 
Africa,  Affairs  in— 
Mt.  Kirunga,  only  active  volcano  205 
Discovery  of  Lakes  Umburre  and 

Kivu 205 

Exploration  by  Count  von  Gotzen,  205 
Financial  situation  in  Egypt,  206,  716 

Escape  of  Slatin  Bey 207 

Nile  dam  at  Assouan 207 

Rebellion  in  Morocco 207,  958 

Russian    expedition    to    Abyssin- 
ia    .   207,  453 

Portuguese  attacked  in  Delagoa 

bay 208 

Revolt  of  Brass  tribe 208 

South  African  gold  fields,  225,  958,  985 

Suez  canal 453 

Case  of  ex-  Consul  Waller,  453,  717,  959 

Port  of  Bizerta  opened 594 

Outrages   on    Europeans    in   Mo- 
rocco    603 

Abyssiaian  mission  to  Russia 715 

Castine  incident  at  Tamatave 716 

Fighting  in  British  East  Africa. . .    717 
Prospects  of  future  colonization..    722 

Crisis  in  the  Transvaal 954 

Dr.  Jameson's  invasion 954 

German  emperor's  telegram 954 

Italian  war  in  Abyssinia 955 

Ashanti  war 957 

English    relations    to   Bechuana- 

land 716,  957 

Change  of  ministry  in  Egypt 958 

Kongo  Free  State  affairs 597,  958 

Africa,  Partition  of— 

Franco-Belgian  Kongo  treaty 84 

France  and  England  in  upper  Nile 

region 84,  336 

Swaziland 

Italians  in  East  Africa 86,  340,  955 

Kongo  Free  State  and  the  powers, 

336,  597 

Fighting  with  rebels  in  the  Cam- 


Pagb. 

eroons 338 

British  East  Africa  Company  sur- 
renders its  charter 838 

Territory   annexed    to  Zululand, 
shutting    off    the    Transvaal 

from  the  sea 338 

France  and  England  in  the  Niger 

country 595 

French  in  Madagascar,  86. 339,  596.  857 
Agreement  of  Vatican  and  Quiri- 

nal  in  colonial  enterprises 702 

Dehmitation  of  Gambia,  Senegal, 
and /miierland  of  Sierra  Leone  859 

Africa,  steamer,  sunk 985 

Agliardi,  Archbishop,  opposes  Hun- 
garian ecclesiastical  bills 441 

Recalled 442 

Agramonte  claim 598 

Agrarianism  in  Germany 699 

Agricultural  products  of  U.  S 909 

Agriculture.  Dept.  of.  Seed  division 

abolished 658 

Ahlwardt,      Rector,     Anti-Semitic 

campaign  of ,  in  U.  S 940 

Air,  Liquid, 961 

Air-ship,  see  Aerial  navigation. 
Akers-Douglas,  Mr.,  first    commis- 
sioner of  works  (British) 417 

Alaska  boundary  dispute 340,  862 

New  missionary  jurisdiction  cre- 
ated  972 

Reindeer  in 886 

Albrecht,  Archduke,  of  Austria,obit.  250 

Alden,  H.  M.,  author 992 

Alfaro,  General,  head  of  provisional 

government  in  Ecuador 409 

See  Ecuador. 
Alien  labor  law.    Constitutionality 

of 659 

Allard,  F.,  tempers  aluminium 217 

Allen,  Grant,  author , 503,  748 

Alliansa  incident.  The 55.  331 

Almy,  John  J.,  obit 506 

Alsace-Lorraine 83 

Dictatorship  abolished 181 

Alvey,  Judge  Richard  H..  of  Md., 
Venezuela-Guiana     boundary 

commissioner 788,  808,  809 

Amapa  boundary  dispute,  see  Bra- 
zilian-French dispute. 
Amapala,  Honduras,  Treaty  of,  406,  676 

'•  America,"  Author  of,  obit 1008 

American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social       Science,       Publications 

of  233,  492,  751,  990 

American  Association  for  Advance- 
ment of  Science 719 

American  bimetallic  party 98 

American  Board  (foreign  missions)  976 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  128, 


American  Society  of    Church  His- 
tory   978 

Ames,  Oliver,  obit 1004 

Amicis.  E.  de,  author 756 

Amstutz,  N.  S.,  discovers  electro- 

artograph 4.54 

Anarchism  in  Europe 194,  435,  697 


IV. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Ancelet,  G.  A.,  obit -.   771 

Andr6e,  M.,  Balloon  polar  expedi- 

tlon -r    ri."A-  *^ 

Andrews,  A.  D.,  succeeds  John  C. 
Sheehan  as  police  commis- 
sioner, N.  Y..... IJC 

Andrews,   E. Benjamm,  author,...  ^3o 
Angers,  Hon.  A.  K.,  Canadian  minis- 
ter of  agriculture,  resigns  on 

Manitoba  school  question 393 

Annam- Tonkin  boundary  treaty. ...  315 
Antananarivo  captured  by  French. .  85/ 

Antarctic  exploration 7/il 

See  Science.  ^^ 

Anthony,  Miss  Susan  B.,  Woman 
suffrage  resolution  proposed 

by ..742 

Anthrax,  first  disease  known  to  be 

caused  by  bacteria 524,  529 

Anti-Semitic  movement  in  Germany,  444 

In  Russia  707 

In  Vienna 442,  944 

Rector  Ahlwardt's   campaign  in 

U.S 940 

Anti-slavery  agitation  in  U.  S.,  see 
Douglass,  Frederick,  Biogra- 
phy of. 
Anti-toxin  treatment  of  diphtheria,  213 

Statistics 727 

Aosta.  Duke  of.  marries  Princess 

II616ne  of  Orleans 427 

A.  P.  A.  riot  in  Boston 659 

Appropriations,  53d  congress 106 

Apocrypha,  Revision  of,  completed,  978 

Arabia,  Uprising  in  Muscat 202 

Arbitration  in   labor  disputes,  127, 

178,360,  631 

Illinois  law 631 

Arbitration*  International,  History 

of 

Proposed  tribunal  of 

Conference  in  Brussels 582 

Archaeology,  Ruins  of  the  temple  of 

Philae 207 

New  race  discovered  in  Egypt ....  467 

Another  Greek  hymn  found 73' 

Early  Christian  literary  find 73i 

Arctic  exploration,  see  Science. 
Argentine-Chilean     boundary    dis- 
pute   86 

Argentine  Republic,  Missiones  boun- 
dary award 95 

New  tariff  law 

Resignation  of  President  Saenz 

Pefia 168 

Seflor  Uriburu.  new  president. . 

Insurrection  in  Cornentes 408 

Census  and  public  finance 

Argon,  new  chemical  element,  209, 

257,  720 

See  Science. 
Armenian  Question- 
Agitation  in  Macedonia 83 

The  massacres 196.  327.  811 

Reforms  proposed  bv  Great  Brit- 
ain. Russia,  and  France. .  .325,  821 

First  reply  of  Turkey 325 

Attack  on  European  consulates  at 

Jiddah 326,  328 

Second  reply  of  Turkey 326,  .578 

Resignation  of  Turkish  ministry. .  329 
Legal  right  and  prospects  of  Euro- 


Page. 

pean  interference 384 

Shakir  Pasha  named  high  commis- 
sioner tor  Armenian  refomis.  578 

Agitation  in  England 578 

Third  reply  of  the  Porte 579 

Riots  in  Constantinople 581,  815 

International  crisis  serious....  810,  822 

Causes  of  the  troubles 817 

Extra  guard-ships  allowed  at  Con- 
stantinople    819 

Inaction  of  the  powers 828 

Attitude  of  the  United  States 824 

Red  Cross  Society 824 

Armies  of  Europe 82 

Armor-plate  tests 117,  £57,  624,  889 

Army,  British.  Reform  in  adminis- 
tration of 933 

Army,  U.  S. 

Grade  of  lieut.-gen.  revived 114 

Promotion    of    Brig.-Gen.  T.  H. 

Ruger 115 

Report  of  Inspector-General.  .115,  884 

New  judge-aavocate-general 117 

Retirement  of  Gen.  Wm.  Smith.. .  352 
Brig.-Gen.    T.   H.    Stanton,    new 

paymaster-general 352 

Retirement  of  Maj.-Gen.  A.  McD. 

McCook 353 

Brig.-Gen.  Wesley    Werritt     iro- 

moted  major-general 354 

Gen.  Miles    succeeds   Gen.  Scho- 

field  as  commander 618 

Rawhide  cannon 620 

G.  A.  R.  encampment 620 

Secretary  Lament's  report 884 

Defects  in  new  rifle 884 

Arnold,  Arthur,  chairman  London 

county  council 177 

Arnold,  Artnur,  obit 1012 

Arnold,  Matthew,  Letters  of 996 

Arnould,  Arthur,  obit 1012 

Alt,  The  Inness  sale 217 

Boston  exhibition  of  portraits  of 

women 217 

Suit  against  James  Whistler 218 

Exhibitions  of  Academy  of  Design 
and    Society     of     American 

Artists 218 

Renwick  bequest  to  Metropolitan 

Museum,  N.  Y.  city 461,  965 

Americans     exhibiting     at     the 

Champ  de  Mars  Salon.  Paris...  461 
Polish  exhibit  at  World's  Fair  sold  462 
Sale  of  James  Price  collection  of 

early  English  pictures 468 

Berlin  exhibition 468 

Sculpture  Society  exhibition 462 

American  Art  Association  sale 468 

Glasgow  School  in  America 964 

Loan  exhibition  of  portraits 965 

International  exhibition  at  Venice  965 
Art.  Books  on.  see  Literature. 

Arfels.  in  Russia 698 

Arton.  Panama  lobbyist,  extradited  943 

Ashanti,  War  with  England 426.  957 

Ashbourne.  Lord,  lord  chancellor  of 

Ireland 417 

Ashley,  B.  F.,  author 1002 

Asiatic  cholera 636 

Assemblies.  Presbyterian 470 

Association  for  Reform  and  Codifi- 
cation of  the  Law  of  Nations 


INDEX. 


V. 


Page. 

meets  in  Brussels 8G0 

Association  Literaire  et  Artistique  In- 

ternaiioriale  meets  in  Dresden  861 
Asteroids,    Diameters     of,    deter- 
mined   726 

Astor  library,  N.  Y.  city 141 

Astronomy,  see  Science. 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  F6  rail- 
road passes  out  of  receivers' 

hands 913 

Atkinson,  P.,  author 747 

Atlanta    Exposition,    see     Cotton 

States  Exposition. 
Atrocities,  Armenian,  see  Armen- 
ian question. 
Auroi'a  borealis.  Suggested  explana- 
tion of 212,  207 

Austin,  Alfred,  appointed  poet  lau- 
reate of  England 933 

Australasia,  Federation  question  203,  9.53 

Standard  zone  time  adopted 204 

New  South  Wales  returns  toward 

free  trade 451.  713 

Intercolonial  temperance  confer- 
ence   451 

Victorian  finances 713 

New  Zealand  tariff  revision 713 

Direct  taxation  in  N.  S.  W 952 

New  governors  of  Queensland  and 

Western  Australia 953 

Australia,  see  Australasia. 
Austria-Hungary— 
Protest  against  U.  S.  differential 

duty  on  sugar 52 

Baron  Banffy  forms  new  cabinet 

in  Hungary 191 

Count  Kalnoky's  retirement... 333,  441 
Count  Goluchowski  made  impe- 
rial foreign  minister 442 

Archbishop  Agliardi  recalled 442 

Municipal  charter  of  Vienna  sus- 
pended      442 

Windischgratz  cabinet  gives  way 
to  one  under  Count  Kielman- 

segg \--\'^^ 

Kielmansegg  mmistry  succeeded 
by  one  under  Count  Badeni....  704 

Telephone  newspaper 704 

Anti-Semitism  in  Vienna 442,  944 

Vienna  council  dissolved  a  second 

time 944 

Contrasts  of  Austria  and  Hungary  944 
State  of  siege  in  Prague  raised  —  945 
Hungarian  marriage  laws  in  force  945 

Automobile  carriages 728 

Aymar,  Samuel  E.,  bank  defaulter..  365 
Babb,  Judge  W.  S.,  democratic  can- 
didate for  governor  of  Iowa...  .568 

Babington,  C.  C,  obit 771 

Bach,    J.    Sebastian,    Remains    of, 

identified 737 

Bacilli,  see  Pasteur,  Biography  of. 

Bacon,  Sir  James,  obit 515 

Bacteriology,  see  Pasteur,  Biogra- 
phy of. 

Badeau,  Gen.  Adam,  obit 241 

Badeni,  Count,  forms  ministry  in 

Austria 704 

Bagot-Rush  treaty,  Proposal  to  ab- 
rogate    862 

Bahr-el-Ghazel  territory  in  Africa. .    84 
Baillon,  Dr.  E.  H.,  obit 771 


Page. 
Bakar,  Abu,  sultan  of  Johore,  obit.  515 
Baldv/in,  Prof.  J.  M.,  author...  232,  748 
Balfour,  Rt.  Hon.  A.  J.,  231,  417,  573,  687 
Balfour,  Gerald,  chief  secretary  for 

Ireland 418,  691 

Balfour,  Jabez  S.,  British  absconder 

178,426,  934 

Balfoiu",  Lord,  of  Burleigh,  secre- 
tary for  Scotland 417 

Balfour,  W.  D.,  new  speaker,  On- 
tario legislature 154 

Balkan  states,  see  Bulgaria,  Servia, 
Roumania,  Montenegro,  and 
European  situation.  General. 

Ballantine,  Henry,  author 239 

Balloon   polar    expedition,  M.  An- 

dr^e's 725 

Vovage  of  Dr.  Berson 215 

Ballot  bill,  Raines,  in  N.  Y 370 

Baltic  and  Black  sea  canal 706 

Baltic  and  North  sea  canal,  see  Ger- 
many. 
Banffy,  Baron,  Hungarian  premier 

191,  441 

Bangs,  J  Kendrick,  author 1000 

Bankers'  Association,    New    York 

state 568 

Banking-law  revision  in  U.  S 32 

See  Monetary  problem. 
Banking  scandals  in  Italy,  see  Italy. 

Bank  note  boycott 570 

Bankruptcy  bill,  United  States,  fails  109 

Banks,  Elizabeth  L.,  authoress 241 

Banks,  L.  A.,  D.  D.,  author 487 

Bannock  Indian  troubles 621,  887 

Banque  du  Peuple 671,  925 

Baptist  Young  People's  Union 740 

Baratieri,  Italian  general  in  Eryth- 

rea 715,  955 

Barberi,  Case  of,  sentenced  to  die. .  638 

Bardeen,  C.  R.,  B.  A.,  author 231 

Bardeen,  C.  W.,  publisher  and  edi- 
tor    997 

Baring  liquidation  completed 178 

Barnard,   Prof.  E.  E.,  astronomer 

386,  726 

Barnard,  Pi-of.  W.  S.,  inventor  of 

a  sprinkler 964 

Baseball 636 

Bassett,  Isaac,  obit 1004 

Batten  berg,  Princess  of,  obit 772 

Bayard,Hon.  Thos.  F.,United  States 
ambassador  to  Great  Britain, 

Proposal  to  impeach 868 

Beaman,  A.  H.,  author 754 

Beattie,  Rev.  F.  R.,  author 494 

Beaulieu,  A.  Leroy,  author 993 

Beaumont,  Comte  R.  de,  obit 772 

Beaumont,  Mary,  authoress 761 

Beazly,  C.  R.,  author 235 

Bechuanaland  annexed  to  Cape  Col- 
ony  716,  957 

Beddard,  F.  E..  author 748 

Beecher,  Rev.  E.,  obit 763 

Belasco,  David,  dramatic  writer....  968 
Belgium,  Quarantine  against  Amer- 
ican cattle 53 

Belgian  minister   expelled   from 

Venezuela 91 

Conviction  of  Mme.  Joniaux  ....  194 

Trial  of  Liege  anarchists 194 

Religious  instruction  in  schools...  707 


VI. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Brussels  a  seaport 947 

Communal  elections 947 

Kongo    Free    State,    see   Africa, 

Partition  of. 
Relations    of,  with    France   and 
England  in  Africa,  see  Africa, 
Partition  of. 

Bell,  D.  C,  editor 996 

Bell  Telephone  Company  monopoly 

continued 475 

Belmont-Morgan  syndicate 40,  617 

Bemis,  Prof.  E.  W.,  and  University 

of  Chicago 

Bengough,  J.  W.,  author 

Benjamin,  Parlt ,  author 

Benson,  E.  F.,  author 503 

Bentley,  Dr.  A.  F.,  author 492 

Beresford,  Lord  Wm.,  marries  Dow- 
ager Duchess  of  Marlborough.  427 

Bering  sea   dispute 

73,  75,  76,  329,  583,  857 

Negotiation  of  damage  claims  — 

75,  76,  857 

Berliner  microphone  patent  valid...  475 

Bernhardt,  Sarah,  in  Magda 465 

Berson,  Dr.  A.,  aeronaut 215 

Berthelot,  M.,  French  chemist 

212,  206,  942 

Besant,  Walter,  novelist 240,  999 

Knighted 427 

Bible  revision  completed 978 

Bida,  Alexander,  obit 250 

Bigelow,  Rev.  Prof.  P.  H 727 

Bigelow,  John,  author 49? 

Bimetallic  party,  American 

Bimetallism,  International 4,5, 

See  Mouetary  problem  and  Silver 
question. 
Bimetallism,  New  use  of  the  term. .  285 

Binner,  Paul,  author 1003 

Biography,  Books  of.  see  Literature. 

Biology,  Debt  of,  to  Pasteur 521 

Bi-partisan  police  bill  in  New  York 

passed 374 

Bisley,  Queen's  prize  won  by  a  Ca- 
nadian —    672 

Bismarck,  Prince,  Birthday  of,  cele- 
brated   180 

Bissell,   Hon.  W.  S.,  of  N.  Y.,  post- 
master-general, resigns 143 

Bizerta,  Port  of,  opened 594 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne,  Norwegian 

patriot  .,, 445 

•  Black  Flags  "  in  Formosa,  309,  555,  829 

Blackie,  Prof.  John  Stuart,  obit 250 

Black,  J.  S.,  author 7.52 

Black,  Mrs.  T.  F.,  authoress 760 

Blaikie,  W.  G.,  D.  D.,  author 497 

Blake,  Eli  W.,  obit 1004 

Blanc,  Mrae  ,  authoress 489 

Bland.  Hon.  R.  P.,  of  Missouri,  free- 
silver  advocate 100,  564 

Bluefields  incident.  The 78,  316 

Reparation  demanded    by   Great 

Britain 78 

Reply  of  Nicaragua 316 

Corinto  occupied  by  British 137 

The  United  States  and  the  Mon- 
roe doctrine 317 

Compromise  reached 319 

Boers  in  the  Transvaal 954 

Bogran,  Luis,  obit 772 


Page. 
Bohemia,  State  of  siege  in  Prague 

raised 945 

Bolivia  and  Peru 601 

Bolton,  Baron,  obit 1012 

Bonaparte,  Cardinal  Lucien,  obit... 1012 

Bond  issues  by  U.  S.  govt 

40.  a50,  835,  843 

Bond  bill  proposed  in  congress. ...  841 

Silver  substitute  inserted.' 842 

Powers   of  the  secretary  of  the 

treasury 835 

See  Monetary  problem. 

Bonghi,  Ruggiero,  obit 1012 

Booth,  Rev.  Dr.  R,  R.,  moderator 
Presbyterian  General  Assem- 
bly (North) 470 

Booth,  Wm.  Agur,  obit 1004 

Borchgrevink,  C.  E.,  antarctic  ex- 
plorer   721 

Borgeaud,  Charles,  author 495 

Boston  (Mass.),  Mayoralty  contest. ,  899 

A.  P.  A.  riot  in 659 

B5tticher,von,  Dr.,  on  labor  arbitra- 
tion    939 

Bounties  declared  unconstitutional.  223 
Bourgeois,  M.,  succeeds  M.  Ribot  as 

premier  of  France. . . ., 941 

Biography  of 942 

Bourget,  Paul,  French  author... 4.38,  501 

Bourinot,  Hon.  J.  G  ,  author 234 

Bowell,  Hon.  Mackenzie,  premier  of 

Canada,  made  a  K.  C.  M.  G... .  159 
See  Canada. 
Bowler,   R.  B.,  Comptroller  U.    S. 
treasury.  Decision  of,  re  sugar 

bounty  claims 743,  982 

Boycott,  National  bank  note 570 

Boyesen,  Prof.  H.  H.,  obit 1004 

Bradford,  Wm.  M.,  obit 506 

Brady,  W.  O.,  governor  of  Kentucky  849 

Brass  tribe  in  West  Africa  revolt.. ..  208 

Brazil,  M  issiones  boundary  award. . .    95 

Rupture  with  Portugal  healed ....    96 

Political  riots  in  Rio  de  Janeiro. .  407 

Death  of  Admiral  Da  Gama 407 

Trinidad  incident 600,  864 

Rebellion  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul 

ended 407,  678 

New  site  for  capital 678 

Monarchical  plot  discovered  928 

Brazilian-French  dispute.... 343.  599,  863 

Brazilian-Italian  dispute 599,  863 

Brearley,  W.  H.,  author 994 

Breckinridge,  Inspecto r-general , 

U.  S.  army,  Reports  of 115,  884 

Brewer,  Justice  David  J.,  of  Kan  , 
president      Venezuela-Guiana 

boundary  commission 786,  808 

Brice,  Hon.  Calvin  S,  of  Ohio 567 

Brierley,  Mrs.  M.  R.,  obit 763 

Briggs,  Rev.  C.  A..  D.  D.,  author...  493 
Brisson,  M.,  president  French  cham- 
ber of  deputies 184 

British  Association  for  Advance- 
ment of  Science 719 

British  Guiana,  see  Guiana,  British. 
British  parliament- 
Change  in  relation  of  parties 171 

Welsh    Church    disestablishment 

173,  174 

Indian  cotton  duties 173 

Irish  land  bill 173,  174 


INDEX. 


VII. 


Page. 

Factories  and  workshop  bill 173 

Payment  of  members 174 

Eesignation  of  Speaker  Peel 175 

William  Com-t  Gully,  new  speaker, 

176,414,  687 

Independent  labor  party  platform  176 
Visit   of    Mr.    W.    li.  Cremer   to 

America  re  arbitration 1 

The  unionist  alliance 411 

The  budget  presented 41^ 

Local  control  (liquor)  bill. ., 413 

Bill  against  plural  voting 413 

Fall  of  Eosebery  ministry 414 

New  Salisbury  cabinet 417 

General    elections  result  in  con- 
servative victory 41!), 

Broadhead,  James  O.,  U.  S.  minis- 
ter to  Switzerland,  resigns...  6.55 

Broadus,  Eev.  Dr.  John  A.,  obit 242 

Brooklyn,  Launch  of  the 88 

Brooklyn  trolley  strike 119,127,  36 

Brooks,  Eev.  Dr.  Arthur,  obit 76 

Brooks,  E.  S..  author 993 

Brooks,  James  J.,  obit 1005 

Brooks,  Noah,  author 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew 977 

Brotherhood    of    St.    Andrew  and 

Philip 9' 

"  Brother  Hugh  " 9 

Browning  rapid-fire  gun 8i 

Brown,  John,  author 994 

Brown,  Eobert,  obit... 1012 

Bruce,  M.  W.,  author 759 

Brussels  declared  a  seaport 947 

Peace  conference  at 582 

Briix,  Bohemia,  Disaster  at 74 

Bryan,  John,  author 1003 

Buchanan,  Sir  G.,  obit 515 

Buchanan,  Dr.  E.  W.,  executed 637 

Buckley,  E.  E.,  author 991 

Bulgaria,  Eeturn  of  M.  Zankoff....  195 
Sympathy  of,  with  revolt  in  Mace- 
donia  

Political  parties  in  '. . . .  585 

Ferdinand's  leaning  toward  Eus 

sia 

Assassination  of  M.  Stambouloff.  587 
Second  son  born  to  Prince  Ferdi 

nand 948 

Eeport  of  parliamentary  commis- 
sion on  acts  of  Stambouloff 

cabinet 948 

Bull,  E.  W.,  obit 764 

Bundy,  H.  S.,  obit 1005 

Buol-Berenberg,    Baron   von,    new 

president  of  the  Eeichstag. ...  181 

Burch,  E.  A.,  obit 764 

Burden  diamond  robbery 898 

Burmah,  Census  of 710 

Burnand,  P.  C,  operatic  writer 736 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  author- 
ess  1002 

Burnett,  Peter  IL,  obit 500 

Busch,  Dr.  Moritz,  obit 1012 

Bushnell,  Asa  S.,  governor  of  Ohio.  849 

Business  and  industry  in  (J.  S Ill 

Low  prices  112,  114,  347,  875 

Brightening  prospects 847 

Failures Ill,  347,  983 

The  oil  "boom" 

Iron  and  steel,  and  tin  plate. .  .607, 875 
Outlook  ill  the  South. . , 608,  881 


Page. 

Prices  of  stocks 608 

Imports  and  exports,  U.  S 874 

Biitte  City,  Mont.,  Explosions  in 228 

Byrnes,  Thomas,  chief  New  York 

city  police 140,  376 

Byron,  Dr.  James  M.,  obit 507 

Cable,  The  Hawaiian 71,109,  953 

Caceres,  Gen.,  president  of  Peru, 

overthrown 170 

Cadogan,  Earl,  lord  lieutenant  of 

Ireland 417 

Caffein  produced  synthetically 460 

Caine,  Hall,  author,  Visit  of,  to  Can- 
ada in  interests  of  cony- 
right 666,  919 

New  novel  by 240 

Calcic  carbide 960 

Calendoli,  Father,  Inventor 731 

California,  Monument  to  commem- 
orate history  of 147 

Cambridge,  Duke  of,  retiring  com- 
mander-in-chief    of     British 

army 689 

Cambridge-Oxford  boat  race 178 

Cambridge-Oxford  challenge  to  Yale 

and  Harvard 863 

Cambridge-Yale  athletic  contests..  896 

Cameroons,  Fighting  in  the 338 

Campbell,  Lord  Colin,  obit 515 

Campbell,  Hon.  James  E,,  of  Ohio, 
democratic  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor   .566 

Biography  of 567 

Campbell,  Hon.  J.  H.,  obit 507 

Campos,  Gen.  Martinez  de,  in  com- 
mand of    Spanish   troops   in 

Cuba 63,  189 

Biography  of 63 

Canada^ 

Manitoba  school  question  

147.388,  660,  913 

Privy  council  allows  right  of  ap- 
peal   150 

Eemedial  suggestion  of  the  fed- 
eral government 151 

Ontario  legislature 154 

Toronto  University  troubles..  154,  399 
Supreme  court  decisions  re  pro- 
hibition  1.56.  669 

Fires  in  Toronto 1E8,  925 

MaU  and  Empire,  Toronto,  amal- 
gamated    1.59 

Trinity  College  School,  Port  Hope, 

Out.,  burned 160 

Eesignation  of  Hon.  J.  C.  Patter- 
son, minister  of  militia 159 

Hon.  A.  E.  Dickey,  new  minister 

of  militia 159 

Hon.  Dr.  W.  H.  Montague,  new 
Canadian  secretary  of  state. .  1.59 

Copyright  question 159,  666,  919 

Ottawa  winter  carnival 160 

Westwood  murder  case 160,  399 

Chattelle,     murderer    of    Jessie 

Keith,  sentenced  to  death  ...  160 
Proposed  union  with  Newfound- 
land, see  Newfoundland. 
Policy  of  the  Dominion  govern- 
ment toward  Manitoba 151,  388 

Cabinet  crisis  at  Ottawa 392 

The  liberal  policy 393 

Letter  of  Mgr.  Gravel,  bishop  of 


VIII. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Nicolet 393 

The   budget  presented   and  de- 
bated   395 

Divorce  committee  of  the  senate.  39(1 

Public  debt 396,  664 

Iteport  of  commission  on  prohi- 
bition  390 

The  Hyams  trial,  Toronto 399 

Separate  school  troubles  at  Ot- 
tawa   400,  669 

Fire  in  McDonald's  tobacco  fac- 
tory in  Montreal 400 

Fire  in  Tottenham,  Ont 400 

Queen's  birthday  honor  recipients  400 
Monuments  to  Sir  John  A.  Mac- 

donald  unveiled 400,  671,  925 

Presbyterian  General  Assembly..  472 
Negotiatio  n  s  for  compromise  with 

Manitoba 661 

Principal      Grant       investigates 

school  question  in  Manitoba. .  663 
Hon.  J.  C.  Patterson  made  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  Manitoba .  604 

Dominion  voters'"  lists 665 

Nipissing  county  seat  election  —  670 
Hon.  Wm.  Harty  unseated  and  re- 
elected   671 

Monument  to  M.  Chenier  at  Chrys- 
ler's Farm 671 

Pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle 672 

Queen's  prize  at  Bisley  won  by  T. 

H.Hayhurst 672 

Failure  of  Banque  da Feuple..Q7l,  925 
Northwest  Territorial  exhibition.  672 
Col.  Gascoigne  succeeds  Maj.-Gen. 

Herbert  in  command  of  militia  672 
Resignation  of  Hon.  N.  C.Wallace.  913 
Hon.  J.  F.  Wood  made  comptrol- 
ler of  customs 914 

Lieut.-Col.  E.  G.  Prior  made  comp- 
troller of  inland  revenue 914 

Hon.  Dr.  Montague  made  minis- 
ter of  agriculture 914 

Manitoba's  reply  to  the  Dominion 

389,  915 

Bv-elections 918 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  steamer  serv- 
ice  921 

Pacific  cable 921 

Statistics  of  the  year's  business..  921 
"Independence       of       Canada" 

party 903 

Large  river  explored 923 

Hon.  D.  Girouard.  succeeds  Jus- 
tice    Fournier    on    supreme 

bench 924 

Unorganized  territory  districted .  924 
Canada  Revue  case.  Final  judg- 
ment in 924 

Section  14  of  Washington  treaty 

no  longer  in  force 924 

Canal,  Baltic  and  Black  sea 706 

Baltic  and  North  sea,  opened,  see 
Germany. 

Harlem  ship,  opened 383 

Kaiser  Wilhelm,  see  Germany. 

Manchester   ship 178,  932 

Nicaragua,  see  Nicaragua  canal. 
Panama,  see  Panama  canal. 

Suez 4.53 

Canal  extension 910 

C'anal  improvement,  N.  Y 140 


Page. 

Cancer,  Contagiousness  of  728 

Candamo,  Senor.  new  president  of 

Peru 170 

Cannibalism,  Outbreak  of,  in  Fiji..  204 

Cannon,  Rawhide 620 

Canrobert,  Marshal  F.  C,  obit 251 

Cantu,  Cesare,  obit 251 

Cape  Colony,  Annexation  of  Bechu- 

analand  to 716 

Cardiff,  Trades-union  congress  in..  693 

Cardinals,  New,  created 974 

Cardwell,  By-election  in 918 

Carleton,  H.  G.,  playwright 736,  968 

Carleton,  Will,  poet 758 

Carlisle  plan  of  currency-law  reform    33 

Carlisle,  Secretary,  Report  of 833 

Carlos  I.,  of  Portugal,  Visit  of,  to 

Italy,  abandoned 945 

Carlyle  museum,  London,  Eng 692 

Carmaux  strike 697.  937 

Carnegie  hbrary,  Pittsburg,  Penn., 

dedicated 911 

Carnival,  Winter,  at  Ottawa,  Ont...  160 

Caro,  President,  of  Colombia 166 

Carr,  Joseph  B.,  obit 243 

riages.  Horseless 728 

Carroll,  E.,  Jr.,  author 989 

Cartwright.  Rev.  B.  H.,  obit 507 

Carvalho-Miolan,  Mme.  Marie,  obit.  772 

Carver,  Prof.  T.  N..  author 751 

Cashmere,  see  Kashmir. 
Casimir-Perier,  president  of  France, 

resigns  office 183 

Castellane-Gould  wedding 145 

Castillo,   Canovas    del,  returns  to 

power  in  Spain 189 

Biography  of 190 

Castine  incident  at  Tamatave 716 

Castle,  Wm.  R.,  Hawaiian  minister 

at  Washington 452,  953 

Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union. ..  742 
Catholic  University  opened  to  wo- 
men and  laymen 734 

Cattle,     American,     Quarantine 

against,  in  Europe 52 

Cattle  quarantine,  Canadian 672 

Cavalotti,     Signer.     Charges      of, 

against  Signor  Crispi 701 

Cavendish,  Ada,  obit 1012 

Cavour,  Count,  Monument  to,  un- 
veiled   703 

Cayley,  Prof.  Arthur,  obit 251 

Central  America,  Conspiracy  in  Sal- 
vador   164 

"Greater  Republic " 406, 675,  927 

Treaty  of  Amapala 406,  676 

Murder   of    P.  G.  D.  Brooks   in 

Guatemala 677 

Chadwick,  J.  W.,  author 234 

Chamberlain,    Austen,    civil     lord 

British  admiralty 418 

Chamberlain,  Hon.  Joseph,  British 
secretary  of  state  for  the  col- 
onies  417,  689 

Trade  schemes  of,  for  British  em- 
pire  931 

Chambers,  G.  F.,  author 230 

Chaplin.  Mr.,  president  British  Lo- 
cal Govt.  Board 417 

Chapman.  F.  M.,  author 484 

Chemistry,  see  Science. 

Chenavard,  Paul,  obit . , ,. . i . . m . f .    515 


INDEX. 


IX. 


Page. 

Cheng-Tu  riot 533,  855 

See  Missionaries,  Outrages  on,  in 
China. 
Ch6nier,  B'rench-Canadian  patriot. 

Monument  to 671 

Chesney,  Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  G.  T.,  obit. 

252,  515 

Chess,  International 635 

Chicago,  111.,  Municipal  elections  in  360 
Confederate  monument  dedicated  387 
Chicago,  University  of,  and  Prof. 

Bemis. 654 

Chickamauga     and     Chattanooga 

National  park  dedicated 655 

Chilean- Argentine     boundary    dis- 
pute   863 

Chile,  Cabinet  crisis  in 681,  929 

Gold  standard  adopted 410 

Congressional  buildings  burned..  410 
China,  Anti-missionary  outrages  in, 
see  Missionaries,  Outrages  on, 
in  China. 

Railway  mileage 202 

Imperial  audience  granted  to  for- 
eign diplomats 203 

Commercial  concessions  to  Japan  5.56 

Rebellious  uprisings 711,  951 

Li  Hung   Chang   made   imperial 

chancellor 712 

Cedes  territory  to  Great  Britain  in 

Indo-China 

Effects  of  opening  up  of 

Functions     of     Tsung-Li-Yamen 

changed 952 

Railway  concessions 952 

War  of,  with  Japan,  see  Yellow 
war,  and  Orient,  Situation  in 
the. 

Chinese  exclusion  act  upheld 475 

Chishima  and  Ravenna,  case,  Dec! 

sion  reversed 712 

Chitral,  Di-sturbances  in 200 

Practically   annexed    to    British 

India  710 

Choctaw  Indian  council 887 

Cholera,  Asiatic 6.36 

Christian  Endeavor  convention 739 

Controversy  over  prohibition 978 

Christian  unity 468.  971,  973 

Christitch  M.,  Servian  premier,  re- 
signs    447 

Vhristus,  by  Rubinstein,  produced 

in  Bremen 464 

Chromatic  photography 4.54,  963 

Chrysler's  Farm  battle  monument. .  671 
Church  disestablishment  in  Wales 

173,174,  686 

Church  History,  American  Society 

of 978 

Churchill,  Lord  Randolph,  obit 2.52 

Cibola,  Steamer,  burned 744 

Cinqve  Ports,  Lord  Dufferin  resigns 

wardenship  of 937 

Circulation    of    money   in    U.    S. 

110,  .352,  615.  883 

Cisneros,    Salvador,    president    of 

Cuban  republic 851 

Civil  service  reform  in  consular  ap- 
pointments   6.57 

Clark,  Dr.  F.  C  ,  author 492 

Clark,  Rev.  George  H.,  D.  T).,  author  498i 

A4ar§s3  Qf,  Qfl  Crgmwell G58 


Page. 
Clark,  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  M.,  D.  D., 

LL.  D.,  author 498 

Classical  teachers.  Conference  of..  146 

Clendenin,  Col.  David  R.,  obit 248 

Cleveite,  Helium  discovered  in 267 

See  Science. 
Cleveland,  O.,  Street  car  disaster  in  986 
Cleveland,  President,  Letter  of,  on 

coinage  question 287 

Message  of,  on  Venezuelan  ques- 
tion   803 

Its  business  effects 874 

Special  financial  message  of 836 

Arbitrator  between  Italy  and  Co- 
lombia   604 

Birth  of  a  daughter  to 655 

Clyde,  Henry,  author 505 

Coffin,  C.  C,  author 504 

Coin''s  Financial  School  and  its  re- 
plies  287,  490 

Coinage,  Free-silver 97 

See  Monetary  problem  and  Silver 
question. 
Coinage  of  silver  in  II.  S.    partly 

stopped 883 

Colburn,  R.  T.,  author 234 

Colby,  C.  C,  obit 507 

Coleman,  L.,  author 492 

Colima,  Wreck  of  the 481 

Colleges,  Classification  of,  in  U.  S...  967 
Collier,  Chas.  A.,  director-gen.  Cot- 
ton States  Exposition 611 

Collisions,  see  Disasters. 

Colombia,  Rebellion  in 165,  406,  928 

Strike  on  Panama  canal 677 

Boundary  dispute  with  Peru  and 

Ecuador 863 

Colorado,  Gold  production  in... 225,  984 

Color  photography 454,  963 

Colton,  Joseph,  obit 507 

Columbia   College.    Gift   to,    from 

President  Seth  Low ,385 

Columbia,  Speed  of  the 623 

Comets 725,  959 

Commerce,  ForeiKU.  of  Canada 922 

Of  Japan  and  China 830 

Of  the  United  States 

49,  615,677,874,  909 

See  Imports  and  exports. 

Commercial  travellers'  tickets 101 

Committee  of  Seventy.  N.  Y. . .  .135,  377 

Committee  of  Ten,  N.  Y 13.5,  139 

Committees,    House,    in    congress. 

Chairmen  of 867 

Community  of  St.  Benedict 975 

Comstock,  Prof.  J.  H.,  author 485 

Comte,  Pierre  C.  obit 1012 

Confederate  disabilities  removed. ..  8C9 
Confederate  monument   dedicated 

in  Chicago,  111 387 

Confederate  pensions,  S.  C 907 

Conference,     International    mone- 
tary  47,  572 

Lake  Mohonk 885 

Peace,  in  Brussels 582 

Staten   Island    National   Reform 


Washington  free-silver 561 

Congo,  see  Kongo. 

Congregational  Triennial  Council..  973 

Congress.     Eucharistlc,     First,     in 

Ameno^MMM........ 9T-1 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Congress,  53d— 
Attempted  currency   legislation, 

'. 32,    36 

President's  currency  message 37 

Proposed  legislation  for  relief  of 

treasury 37 

Jones  free-silver  bill 38 

Income-tax  amendment 101 

Copyright  law  amended 102 

Resolution  re  British  Guiana-Ven- 
ezuela dispute , 103 

Pension  laws  amended.. 104 

Appropriation  bills ^ 106 

Pooling  bill  fails 109 

Pacific  railroads'  refunding  bill...  109 

"  Pop-gun  "  bills  dropped 110 

Congress.  54th— 
President's  Venezuelan  message..  803 

President's  financial  message 

Tar'fif  revision 

Bond  bill 841 

Composition  of  senate  and  house.  866 

House  organized 86'' 

Chairmen  of  house  committees...  867 
Proposed    impeachment   of   Am- 
bassador Bayard 

Confederate  disabilities  removed.  869 
Florida  election  irregularities  to 

be  investigated 869 

Senate  bills 869 

Senate  resolutions  871 

House  bills 871 

House  resolutions 873 

Action  of,  in  Venezuelan  matter, 

see  Venezuelan  question 

Congress,  Geographical,  see  Science 

International  co-operative 

Railway,  International ...  362 

Trades-union,  in  Cardiff 

Consens,  Rev.  W.  E..  author 758 

Constantinople,   Armenian  riot  in 

581,  815 

See  Armenian  question. 
Constitutional    convention,    S.    C, 
see  South  Carolina. 

Constitution  of  Utah  drafted 38! 

Consular  service.  Civil  service  rules 

applied  to  65' 

Consumption,  Cures  for 459,  727 

Convention,  Deep  Waterways 910 

Memphis  free-silver 293 

Memphis  sound-money 289 

Prohibition  national 8G5 

Protestant  Episcopal  triennial 969 

Republican  national 864 

Cooke,  Gen.  P.  St.  George,  obit 

Coomassie,  see  Kumassi. 

Co-operative  congress,International  696 

Cooper,  O.  H.,  author 753 

Copeland,  Charles  W.,  obit 243 

Cope,  Prof.  E.,D.,  of  Philadelphia, 

pres.  A.  A.  A.  S 719 

Copp6e,  Dr.  Henry,  obit 243 

Copyright  question  in  Canada..  159,  666 

Compromise  law  drafted 919 

Copyright,  Resolutions  of  the  Asso- 
ciation Litteraire  et  Artistique 

Internationale 861 

U.  S.  law  amended  102 

Corbett  and  Fitzsimmons 636,  896 

Cordero,  Dr.  F.  T.  B.,  see  Hodgkins 
prizes., ....„....!,..,,.  ?!?? 


Page. 
Cordero,    President,    of    Ecuador, 

overthrown 409 

Corelli,  Marie,  authoress 1000 

Corinto,  Occui)ation  of,  by  British, 
see  Bluefields  incident. 

Corn  crop  in  U.  S.,  1895 982 

Cornell-Harvard  athletics 363 

Corn  well,  W.  C,  author 2.33 

Corse,  Gen.  Montgomery  D.,  obit...  243 
Corson,  Prof.  Hiram,  LL.D..  author  2.37 

Cotes,  Mrs.  Everard,  authoress .504 

Cotton,  Artificial 213 

Cotton  manufactm-e  in  the  South. . 

479,  881 

Cotton  States  Exposition,  opened..  610 
Address  by  Prof.  Booker  Wash- 
ington    —  612 

General  influence  and  results. 875,  881 
View  looking  west  from  Trans- 
portation building 876 

View  of  U.  S.  Government  build- 
ing    878 

States  and  countries  represented.  877 

Exhibits  of  interest 879 

View  of  Woman's  building 880 

View  of  Art  building 881 

Coudert,  F.  R.,  of  N.  Y.,  Venezu- 
ela-Guiana boundary  com- 
missioner  808,  809 

Cowen,  F.  H..  composer  of  Harold.  465 

Crafts,  Rev.  W.  F 749 

Craighill,  Col.  W.  P.,  chairman  Uni- 
ted States  government  Nica- 
ragua canal  commission 165 

Crawford,  F.  Marion,  novelist 

240,758,  1000 

Cremer,  W.  R  ,  British  M.  P  ,  visits 

America  re  arbitration 177 

Crimes,  Notable — 
W.  W.  Taylor, treasurer  of  South 

Dakota,  absconds 130,  638 

Train  robberies 131 

Murder  of  Dr.  H.  E.  Pope,  Detroit, 

Mich 131 

Murder  of  Miss  Catharine  Ging, 

Minneapolis,  Minn 131,  897 

Montgomery  Gibbs  murder  case...  131 

Lynchings 132,  365,  897 

Westwood  murder  case 160,  399 

Chattelle,     murderer    of    Jessie 

Keith,  sentenced  to  death ICO 

Bank  robbery  at  Rainy  Lake  City, 

Minn 365 

Murder  of  Emily   Hall,    Detroit, 

Mich 305 

Murders   in   Emanuel  Baptist 

church,  San  Francisco,  Cal 

365,  897 

Samuel  E.  Aymar,  bank  defaulter.  365 
Ohl  and  Cochran,  Princeton  fresh- 
men, shot 366,  637 

Arrest  of  Captain  Howgate,  de- 
faulter    366 

The  Hyams  trial  in  Toronto,  Ont.  899 
Buchanan,  Dr.  R.  W.,  executed...  637 

Case  of  Maria  Barberi 638 

Mafia  outbreak  in  Louisiana 638 

H.  H.  Holmes,  accused  of  many 

murders.  Case  of 638,  897 

'■  Bat "  Shea  resentenced  to  death  897 
Durant  convicted  of  murder.  .865,  897 
H^rry  Hay  ward  executed 897 


INDEX. 


XI. 


Page.,  Page. 

Juvenile    train     wreckers     near        I    Of  the  U.  S 110,  350,  614,  882 

Rome,  N.  Y 898  Decatur,  111.,  Fire  at 986 

Burden  diamond  robbery 898  Deep  Waterways  convention 910 

Criminal  law  reform  in  France A'd'7  Defender-  Valkyrie  HI.  races 36.'5,  632 

Crispi,  Signor,  Italian  prime  minis-        |    Dunraven  charges  investigated...  894 

ler,  Charges  against,  188,  439,  701  Delagoa  bay.  Fighting  in 208 

Wins  in  general  election 438  Delaware,  Deadlock  over  senator- 


Crockett,  S.  R.,  author  1000 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  Proposed  statue 

to 658 

Crookes,  Prof.  Wm.,  eminent  spec- 

troscopist 211,  264 


ship 366 

Delyannis,  Nickolaos,  forms  ad  in- 
terim ministry  in  Greece 195 

Delyannis,   Theodor,  Greek   prime 

minister 447 


Crops  of  1895  in  U.  S 982  Demorest,  W.  J.,  obit 508 

Crossman,  Jas.  A.,  captain  of  the        IDempsey,  John  E.,  obit 1005 

AUian'ja 57:Denby,   Hon.  Charles,  of   Indiana, 

Cross,  Viscount,  Lord  privy  seal  of        |  U.S.  minister  to  China.. 23.  543,  548 

England  417  Denmark,  General  elections  in . . .   .  444 

Crostase 731 1    Prince  Karl  betrothed  to  Princess 

Cuba,  New  tariff  arrangement  with    541  Maud  of  Wales 936 

Cuban  revolt.  The 59,  320,  573,  850  Denver,  Colo.,  Mint  established  at. .  106 

Gen.  Martinez  de  Campos  in  com-        [Denver  '•  Healer,"  The 909 

mand  of  Spanish  troops  —  63,  321  Denver  labor  platform 891 

Arrest   of   American    citizens  at         Derelicts,  Destruction  of 106,  177 

Santiago 64  Derenbourg,  Joseph,  obit 772 

Death  of  Jos6  Maceo 322  Detring,  Mr.,  Chinese  peace  com- 


Death  of  Jose  Marti,  civil  leader 
of  the  rebels 323 

Neutrality  proclamation  of  Uni- 
ted States 324 

Battle  of  Bayamo 574 

Bartolom6     Masse    proclaimed 
president  by  nisurgents 576 

Battle  of  Ramon  de  las  Yaguas. . .  576 

Insurgents  appoint  a  government 
and  adopt  a  constitution 851 

Martial  law  declared  in  Havana 
and  Pinar  del  Rio 854 

See  AUianga  incident.  The. 
Currency  and  prices,  Their  relation  286 
Currency  question  in  U.  S 30 

See  Monetary  problem  and  Silver 
question. 
Curzon,  Hon.  G.  N.,  M.  P.,  Marriage 


missioner 24 

Detroit,   Mich.,  Truck-farming  ex- 
periment in 472 

Disastrous  boiler  explosion 986 

Devonshire,  Duke    of,  lord   presi- 
dent British  council 417 

Characteristics  of 687 

Diamond,  Black,  Largest 964 

Diamond,  Large,  found 964 

Diamond  robbery.  Burden 898 

Diaz,  Pres.,  on  business  condition 

of  Mexico 675 

Dickey,  Hon.  A.  R..  new  Canadian 

minister  of  militia 159 

Dickinson,    Mrs.    M.   L..  president 

Women's  National  Council. . .  222 

Authoress 1001 

Dictionai^,  The  new  Standard 238 


925 
159 

160 

228 
987 


of 388  Dimunganes,  see  Dunganis. 

Cyon,  M.  de,  deprived  of  rights  as  a        IDiphtheria  anti-toxin 213,  727 

Russian  subject 7071    See  Science. 

DaboU,  D.  A.,  obit 764  Disasters,  American- 

Dacre,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Arthur,  obit,..  1012 

Dale,  Rev.  Dr.  R.  W.,  obit 253 

Dale,  Wm.,  M.  A.,  professor  in  To- 
ronto University,  dismissed...   1.56 

Damascus  steel 731 

Damrosch,    Walter,    musical   con- 
ductor   220 

Dana,  Charles  A.,  lecturer 500 

Libel  suit  against,  fails 474 

Dana,  Prof.  J.  D  .  obit  507 

Darr.  Gen.  Francis,  obit 243 

Davies,  Gen.  H.  E.,  author 497 

Davies,  Rev.  H.  W.,  D.  D..  obit    .   .  243 

Davis,  Rev.  J.  D..  D.  D.,  author 236 

Davis.  Noah  K..  author 988 

Davis.  R.  H.,  author 504 

Davis,  V.  A.  Jefferson,  authoress. . .  761 

Dawes  Indian  Commissitm 887 

Deaf-mutes  present  a  drama  on  the 

stage 219 

Dean.  Rev.  Dr.  W..  obit 764 

Debs,  Eugene  V.,  Sentence  of,  con- 
firmed   362 

Debt.  Public,  of  Canada 396,  665 

Of  Newfoundland 401 


Fires  in  Toronto.  Ont 158, 

Wreck  on  G.  T.  R.  near  Weston, 

Ont 

Trinity  College  School,  Port  Hope, 

Ont.,  burned 

Explosions  in  Butte  City,  Mont. . . 

Steamers  sunk 228,  985, 

Fire  in  Milwaukee,  Wis 228 

Fire  in  Canaseraga.  N.  Y 229 

Fire  in  St.  Augustine,  Fla 229 

Wreck  of  the  Colima 481 

Buildings  collapse    in  Wheeling, 

W.Va 482 

Explosion  in  New  Orleans,  La. . .  482 
Tornado  in  northwestern  Iowa. . .  482 

Storms  and  floods 744 

Fatal  fire  in  Detroit,  Mich 744 

Forest  fires  in  Michigan 744 

Cibola  burned 744 

Liverpool,  N.  S.,  burned 744 

Railroad  collision  near  Levis, Que.  744 

Sea  Beach  railroad  collision 744 

Trolley  car  accident  at  Toronto. .  745 
Capsizing  of  yacht  Bung  Brothers  7'45 
In  Lorain,  0 985 


Xlt. 


INDEX. 


Page 

In  Dorrance  coal  mine lido 

Steamer  AjHca  sunk 985 

Trolley,  in  Pittsburg,  Peuu 9a5 

Burning  of  City  of /St.  Augustine..  986 

Fire  at  University  of  Virginia 986 

Fire  at  Decatur,  111 986 

Fire  at  Bleecker  and  Broadway, 

N.Y.  city 

Boiler  explosion  at  Detroit,  Mich.  986 
Street  car  disaster  in  Cleveland,  O.  986 

Fire  in  Indianapolis,  Ind  987 

Various  mining  disasters 985,  98" 

Sinking  of  the  Nansemond 98' 

Disasters,  Foreign- 
Loss  of  the  steamship  Elbe 

229,  483,  746,  987 

Loss  of  the  Spanish  ship  Reina 

Ilegente 

Earthquakes  in  Austria 482 

Keservoir  bursts  at  Bousey,  France  482 
Earthquakes  in  Florence,  Italy...  483 
Portuguese  chamber  of  deputies 

burned 483 

Loss   of    Spanish    steamer  JJom 

Pedro 483 

Flood  in  Koberndorf  valley,  Hun- 
gary   483 

Maria  P.,  steamer  sunk  in  collision  745 

Wreck  of  the  L'atterhun 745 

Japanese  troops  killed  in  railroad 

disaster 746 

Sinking  of  the  Sanchez  Bavcaiz- 

tegui  746 

Sinking  of  the  Edam 746 

Sinking  of  the  Vhristobal  Colon...  746 

At  Briix.  Bohemia 747 

Railroad,  in  Belgium 98 

Various  marine  disasters 987 

D'sciples  of  Christ 978! 

Dispensary  liquor  law,  S.  C 653,  906' 

See  South  Carolina. 

Divorces  in  Canada 396 

In  South  Carolina  prohibited.  .653,  907 
Djevad  Pasha,  grand  vizier  of  Tur- 
key, resigns 329 

Dobson,  G.  E.,  obit 1012 

Dock,  Largest  graving,  opened 692 

Dodge,  T.  A.,  author 994 

Dominican  republic,  see  San  Do- 
mingo. 

J)om  Pedro.  Loss  of  the 483 

Donnelly,  Ignatius,  author 489 

Don  Quixote,  dramatized 464 

Doucet,  Charles  Camille,  obit 515 

Dougherty,  Newton  C,  pres.  Na- 
tional Educational  Associa- 
tion   733 

Douglass,  Frederick,  obit 244 

Biography  of 1 

Douglas,  R.  K.,  author 754 

Dowden,  E.,  author 755 

Doyle,  A.  Conan,  author 736,  760 

Drake,  Gen.  F.  M  ,  governor  of  Iowa 

639.  849 

Dramatic    proiluctions,    see    Music 

and  the  Drama. 
Dreyfus,  Capt.,  French  officer,  de- 
graded    187 

Drown,  Prof.  T.  M..  new  president 

of  Lehigh  University .386 

Dubois,  Frank  L.,  obit 244 

Dufferin,  Lord,  resigns  as  warden  of 


Page. 

the  Cinque  Ports 937 

Duff,  Sir  R.  W  ,  G.  C.  M.  G.,  obit. ...  258 
Dumas,    Alexandre,    the   younger, 

obit 1013 

DuMaurier,George,  author  of  TrUhy  219 
Dun,  Hon.  Edwin,  of  O.,  U.  S.  min- 
ister to  Japan 23 

Duncan,  Sara  Jeannette.  authoress.  .504 

Dundee  jute  workers'  strike 697 

Dungan  rebellion  in  China 711,  951 

Dunraven,  Lord,  English  sportsman  633 

Charges  of,  investigated 894 

Dupont,    Col.   H.  A.,  in  Delaware 

senatorial  contest 366 

Dupuy,  M.,  French  premier,  resigns  182 
Dupuy  de  Lome,  Serior,  new  Span- 
ish minister  at  Washington  . .  191 
Durant,  Theodore,  on  trial  for  dou- 
ble murder 365 

Sentenced  to  death 897 

Duryea,  Rev.  Dr.  John,  obit 764 

Duse,  Signora,  in  Magda 465 

Dvorak,    Antonin,    composes    The 

American  Flag 463 

Dyche,  Pi  of.  L.  L.,  Peary  relief  ex- 
pedition    724 

Dyer,  H  ,  author 489 

Dynamite  guns  tested 890 

Earle,  A.  M.,  authoress 754 

Earthquakes,  Causes  of 21G 

At  Kuchan,  Persia 202 

In  Austria 482 

In  Florence,  Italy 483 

In  Rome 944 

Eastern  question,  see  Orient,  Situa- 
tion in  the,  and  Armenian 
question. 

Eaton,  D.  C,  obit 508 

Eaton,  Dr.  Darwin  G.,  obit 244 

Ecuador,    Colombia,     and     Peru. 

Boundary  dispute  of 863 

Ecuador,  Rebellion  in 169,  408,  679 

Government  of  President  Cordero 

overthrown 409 

Provisional    government     estab- 
lished under  Gen.  Alfaro 409 

Quito  captured  by  insurgents 680 

New  ministry  formed 929 

Edam,  Sinking  of  the .  746 

Edgerly,  Marvin  V.  B.,  obit 244 

Education,  Books  on.  see  Literature. 
Education,  Geographical,  Extension 

of 722 

Pan-American  congress 732 

National  Association 733 

Catholic  L'niversity  opened  to  wo- 
men and  laymen 7'34 

Colored  and  white  schools  in  Flor- 
ida    735 

Report  of  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  U.  S. 

commissioner,  for  1893 735 

In  South  Carolina 904,  907 

School  question  in  England 929 

School  question  in  Manitoba,  see 

Canada. 
Secondary,  in  England,  Report  of 

royal  commission  on 965 

University  extension  in  England.  966 
Classification    of   American    col- 
leges   967 

American  Historical  A.ssociation.  967 
Egypt,  The  financial  situation.  ..206,  716 


INDEX. 


XIII. 


Page. 

Escape  of  Slatin  Bey 207 

Nile  dam  at  Assouan ^ 207 

New  race  discovered  in 407 

Change  of  ministry  in 958 

Eidoloscope 730 

Eiglit-hour  law  for  women  declared 

void 126 

Eisteddfod,  National,  of  Wales 737 

Elbe,    steamship,    Sinking   of     the 

229,483,746,  987 

Election  laws  in  New  York 369 

Election  laws  in  S.  C.  declared  un- 
constitutional by  Judge  Goff .  379 
Decision  reversed  by  court  of  ap- 
peals   381 

Elections,  British  general 419,  6asl 


In  Italy 488 

In  Denmark 444 

In  Servia 447 

In  New  York 899 

In  the  United  States,  November 
See  Politics,  U.  S. 
Electricity,  New  applications  of,  see 
Science. 

Electro-artograph 454 

Elmendorf,     Mr.,     discovers    tele- 
photo 456 

Empire  and  MaU,  Toronto,  amalga- 
mated    159 


Page. 

See  Treasury,  U.  S. 
Exploration,  Geogi-aphical,   In  Af- 
rica   205 

Polar,  see  Science. 
Explosion,  Boiler,  at  Detroit,  Mich.  986 
Explosions,  see  Disasters. 

Exports,  Canadian 922 

Exports,  U.  S 615,  874 

Factories  and  workshop  bill,  Eng- 
lish   173 

Failures.  Business,  in  Canada 922 

InU.  S Ill,  98:^ 

Fairbanks,  Franklin,  obit 508 

FaithfuU,  Miss  Emily,  obit 516 

Far-Eastern   situation,   see  Orient, 
Situation  in  the. 


Farmer,  Mrs.  Eugenia,  organizes 
colored  equal  rights  associa- 
tion   146 

Farnham,  G.  L..  author 756 

844  Farrar,  Archdeacon,  made  Dean  of 

Canterbury 427 

Faure,  M.,  elected  president  of  the 

French  republic 1R5 

Biography  of 186 

Fawcett,  M.  G.,  authoress 498 

Faye,  Comet  of,  returns 725 

Fayerweather  deed  of  trust  set  aside  9Hl 

Federation,  Australasian 953 

Federation  of  Labor,  American.  128,  361 


Enabling  act,  Australian  Federation  203 

Encyclicals,  Papal 221.  468 

Engels.  F.,  obit 772 

England,  see  Great  Britain. 

England,  Bimetallism  in 299 

Kelations  of,  in  Orient,  see  Orient, 

Situation  in  the,  and  Yellow 

war. 

Eophone 962 

Episcopal  triennial  convention 969 

Epworth  League 741,  977iField,  H.  M.,  author 759 

Equal  Suffrage  Association.  Kansas  742[Field,  Dr.  Matthew  Dickinson,  obit.  244 
Erythrea.  Italian  operations  in,  see        Fiji  islands.  Cannibalism  in 204 

Africa,  Partition  of .  [Financial    problem,  see   Monetary 

Erzroom,  Massacre  at 813  problem. 

Espinasse,  F.,  author 498iFinck,  H.  T.,  author 501 

Essequibo    river,    see    Venezuelan        I  Fires — 


Female  suffrage  in  Ma.ss 980 

See  Sociology. 
Ferdinand,  Prince,  of  Bulgaria,  see 

Bulgaria. 
Fermentation,  Study  of,  by  Pasteur 

523,  525 

Fiction,  Books  of,  see  Literature. 

Field,  Eugene,  obit 1005 

Biographical  sketch 775 


question 

Estill,  H.  F.,  author 7.53 

Ethelwynn  and  Spruce  IV.  races 633 

Eucharistio  congress,  First,  in  Amer- 
ica   974 

Eucharistic  League 974 

European  retaliations  against  U.  S. 

tariff 52,    54 

European  situation,  General- 
Military  systems 82 

Alsace  Lorraine  83 

Agitation  in  Macedonia 83,  335,  585 

Count  Kalnoky's  retirement 333 

Fall  of  Rosebery  govt 333,  414 

The  Kiel  fetes 333,  430 

Crisis  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  see 
Armenian  question. 

Franco-Russian  entente 584 

Balkan  politics 83,  335,  .5&5 

Assassination  of  M.  Stambouloff..  587 
French  port  of  Bizerta  opened ...  594 
Evans,  H.  C,  claims  governorship 

of  Tennessee  142 


In  Halifax,  N.  S 160 

Laboratory  of  Nikola  Tesla 228 

In  Tottenham,  Ont 400 

At  Coney  Island,  N.  Y 482 

In  St.  Alban's,  Vt 482 

In  San  Francisco,  Cal 482 

Destruction  of  congressional 

buildings  in  Santiago,  Chile..  410 
See  Disasters,  American. 

Fischer,  E. .  German  chemist 400 

Fisheries,  Seal,  see  Bering  sea  ques- 
tion. 
Fisher  island.  Capture  of,  by  Jap- 
anese     22 

Fitzgerald,  Joseph.  M.  A.,  author..  500 
Fitzsimmons-Corbett  proposed  fight  896 

Flint,  Prof.  Robert,  author 490 

Florida,  Damage  in,  by  frost 144 

Colored  and  white  schools  in 735 

Election  irregularities  in,  to  be  in- 
vestigated   869 

Football,  Intercollegiate....  129,  S63,  895 
Foote.  A.  R  ,  author 487 


Evans,  Gov.  J.  G.,  of  South  Carolina  380, Forbes.  Archibald,  author 497 

Expenditures,  Public,  United  States        Ford,  Clara,  accused  of  murder  of 
Ill,  351,  615,  882l  Frank  Westwood 100, 


XIV. 


INDEX. 


Tage 
see  Coin- 


Foreign  commerce,  U.  S. 

merce.  Foreij^n. 
Formosa,    Japanese     campaign    in 

22,  308,  555,  826,  829 

See  Yellow  war. 

Fossil  remains  found  in  Java 216 

Foster,  C,  obit 764 

Foster,  Hon.  John  W.,  adviser  to 
Chinese  peace  plenipotentiar- 
ies  

Fournier,  Justice,  Canadian  su- 
preme court,  resigns 924 

France,  Relations  of,  in  Orient,  see 
Orient,  Situation  in  the,  and 
Yellow  war. 
Relations  of,  to  England,  in  Af- 
rica, see  Africa,  Partition  of. 

Bimetallism 46 

Treaty  with   Belgium  re  Kongo 

Free  State &4 

Madagascar  campaign.  86,  339,  596,  857 
Dispute  with  San  Domingo  —  94,  344 
Progress  of  arbitration  in  labor 

disputes  178 

Fall  of  Dupuy  ministry 182 

President  Casimir-P6rier   resigns 
office 183 


Brisson,    M.,     elected     president 

chamber  of  deputies 184         _     _ 

M.  Faure  elected  president  of  the        Geographical  education 

republic 185  of. 


Page. 
French  Guiana,  see  Guiana,  French. 

Friganza,  Capt.  R.,  obit 764 

Frith,  Henry,  author 1003 

Frothingham,  Rev.  O.  B.,  obit 1005 

Fuller,  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel,  obit 244 

Fulton,  Rev.  Canon,  obit 764 

Fulton,  Rev.  J.  R.,  S.  J.,  obit 764 

Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co.,  publishers.. .  238 

Gallenga,  Antonio,  obit 1014 

Galton,  Sir  D.,  pres.  B.  A.  A.  S 719 

Gama.  Da,  Brazilian  rebel  admiral, 

Death  of 407 

Gambia,  Delimitation  of 859 

Gardner,  Alice,  authoress 497 

Garment  workers'  strike  in  N.  Y. . .  893 
Garza,  Catarina,  Mexican    bandit, 

Alleged  death  of 166 

Gascogm,  La,  overdue  steamer 228 

Gascoigne,    Col.,  new    commander 

Canadian  militia 672 

Gatling  gun  improvement 889 

Gaudaur,  champion  sculler 896 

Gayarr6.  Charles  E.  A.,  obit  244 

Geary  Chinese  exclusion  act  upheld  475 

Geflfroy,  M.  A.,  obit 772 

Gelsoline 731 

Geodetic  line.  Largest  measured,  in 

U.  S 963 

Geographical  congress,  see  Science. 
Extension 
722 


Biography  of  M.  Faure 186  Geographical  exploration  in  Africa  205 

M.  Ribot  forms  a  cabinet 187     See  Science. 

Amnesty  bill  passed 187  Geomagnetifere 729 

Academy  of  Science  elections —  187  Georgia  bimetallic  convention 563 


Degradation  of  Capt.  Dreyfus 18 

Joins  Russia   in    interference  in 

Japan-China  negotiations  312,  314 
Relations  with  Venezuela  strained 

91,  332 

Relations  with  Brazil  strained... .  343 
Commercial  treaty  with  Switzer- 
land   344 

Criminal  law  reform  437 

Population  and  birth  rate 437 

M.  Bourget  and  M.  Lemaitre  re- 
ceived into  French  Academy.  438 

The  budget 438 

Dispute  with  England  over  Chi- 
nese  concessions    on    Upper 

Me-Kong .557,  829 

Treaty    of  arbitration  with    the 

United  States  suggested 583 

Relations  with  Russia.... 312,  314,  584 

Claims  of,  in  Newfoundland 673 

Anarchist  attempts  in 697 

Legion   of  Honor  council    reor- 
ganized  ". 700,  943 

Councils  elections 700 

Socialism  in 701 

First  temperance  society  formed .  701 
Bourgeois  ministry  succeeds  that 

of  M.  Ribot 941 

Emile  Arton  extradited 943 

Franciscan  monks.  Reunion  of 741 

Franco-Brazilian  dispute 599,  863 

Franklin,  Territory  of,  Canada 924 

Freedom  of  the  Press  involved  in 

libel  suit  against  C.  A.  Dana..  474 

Free-love  and  marriage 934 

Free-silver  coinage,  see  Silver  ques- 
tion and  Monetary  problem. 


992 


645 


Gerhart,  Prof.  E.  V.,  D.  D..  author. 
German-American  Citizens'  Union. 
German-American  Reform  Union. 

Germanic  sinks  the  CumbrcE 988 

Germany,  Relations  of,  in  Orient, 
see  Orient,  Situation  in  the, 
and  Yellow  war. 

Bimetallism  in 46,  299 

Protest  against  U.  S.  differential 

duty  on  sugar .52 

The  anti-revolutionary  bill 180,  435 

Bismarck's  birthday  celebrations.  180 
Reichstag  refuses  congratulations  181 
Dictatorship  over  Alsace-Lorraine 

abolished 181 

The  an ti- Jesuit  laws 181 

Grain  trade  monopoly  proposal . .  182 
Joins  Russia   in   interference  in 

Japan-China  negotiations 312 

International  bearing  of  the  fetes 

at  Kiel 333 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  canal  opened 430 

History  and  description  of  canal.  433 

Tobacco-tax  bill  defeated 436 

Yon  Kotze    acquitted  in  anony- 
mous letter  scandal 437 

Program  of  the  anti-Semitic  par*^y  444 
Interests  in  Norway  and  Sweden.  445 

Sociahsm  in 698.  939 

Charges  against    Von    Hammer- 
stein 699,  940 

Agrarianism 699 

Monument  to  William  I.  unveiled  699 . 

Sedan  anniversary  celebrated 699 

Army  manoeuvres 700 

S  o  c  i  a  1-democratic  congress    at 
Breslau 939 


INDEX. 


XV. 


Page.  I  Page. 

Anti-socialist  measures 939  Gould,  Miss  Helen  M.,  Gift  of,  to 


The   Volkspartei 939 

New  officers  of  the  Keichstaj? —  940 
Retirement  of  Von  Roller,  Pru 

sian  minister  of  the  interior. .  940 
Restrictions  on  American  insur 

ance  companies 940 

Anti  Semitic    campaign   of   Herr 

Ahlwardt  in  U.  S 940 

Emperor's  telegram  to  President 

Kruger  of  the  Transvaal 955 

Gettysburg  national  park 103 

Gibbs  murder  case,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. . .  131 

Giddings,  Prof.  F.  H.,  author 752 

Giers,  M.  de,  obit 253 

Gilnian,  President  D.  C,  of  Johns 
Hopkins     University,      Balti- 
more, Md.,  Venezuela-Guiana 
boundary  commissioner. . .  808,  809 
Ging,  Miss  Catharine,  Murder  case 

131,  897 

Giolitti,  Slgnor,  Italian  ex-premier. 

Charges  against 188,  439 

Girouard,  Hon.  D.,  new  puisne 
judge,      Canadian      supreme 

court 924 

Gladstone,  ]{t.  Hon.  W.  E.,  Speech 

of,  on  Armenia 578 

Glasgow     school    of    painters,    in 

America 964 

(Jlencoe,  New  march  through 692 

Glucinium,  new  metal 961 

Gneist,  R.,  obit 772 

Goa,  Mutiny  in  Ii30 

Godard,  H.,  author 756 

Golden,  Richard,  playwright 

Gold  mines  in  South  Africa 958,  985 

Gold  mining,  New  process  in 459 

Gold  outflow  from  United  States. . . 

40,  111,  350,  83a 

Gold  production 476,  883,  958,  984 

Gold  reserve  in  U.  S.  treasury.  De- 
cline of . .    . .  Ill,  350,  614,  SaS,  882 

Bond  bill  to  protect  841 

See  Monetary  problem. 

Golf  contests 896 

Goluchowski,  Count,  Austro-Hun- 
garian  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs  442,  704 

Biography  of 442 

Gomez,  Maximo.  Cuban  revolution- 
ary leader 59.  322 

Gompers,  Samuel,  re-elected  pres. 

Amer.  Federation  of  Labor. . .  891 
Good  Government  clubs,  see  New 

York. 
Goodridge    government    in     New- 
foundland resigns 162 

Gordon,  Rev.  Dr.  A.  J.,  obit 244 

Gorman,  J.  J.,  obit 508 

Gorman,  Sen.,    controls   Maryland 

democratic  convention 640 

Gorman-Wilson  tariff.  Working  of, 

see  Tariff. 
Gorst.  Sir  J.  E..  vice-president  Brit- 
ish council  for  education 418 

Goschen.  Hon.  G.  J.,  first  lord  of 

British  admiralty 417 

Gothenburg  system  of  controlling 

liquor  traffic        222 

Gotzen.  Count  von,  African  explorer  205 
Gould-Castellane  wedding 145 


New  York  University. 

Graham,  P.  A.,  author 1002 

Gramophone 730 

Grand  Trunk    ra'lway.   Sir   C.    R. 

Wilson  elected  president 427 

Granger,  Miles  T.,  obit 1005 

Grant,   Col.   Fred.    D.,    new  police 

commissioner.  New  York  city  375 
Grant,  Sir  Patrick,  K.  G.,  G.  C.  B., 

obit 254 

Grasby,  W.  C,  author 997 

Gray,  Miss  Anne,  christens  the  Wil- 

mington. 888 

Gray,  Major  H.,  obit 1005 

Gray,  Hon.  Isaac  P.,  obit 244 

Gray- Percy  racing  bill.  New  York. .  370 
Great  Britain,  Bimetallism  in. . .  .46,  299 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland- 
Parliamentary  proceedings 

171,  411,  686 

Party  changes 171,  411 

Church  disestablishment  in  Wales 

173,  686 

Irish  land  bill 173,  174 

Factories  and  workshop  bill 173 

Payment  of  M.  P."s 174 

Resignation  of  Speaker  Peel 175 

William    Court   Gully,    the   new 

speaker 176.  414,  687 

Lord  Rosebery's  health 176 

Independent  labor  party  plat  form  176 

London  county  council 177 

Rules  of  the  road  at  sea 178 

Baring  liquidation  completed —  178 

Manchester  ship  canal 178,  932 

Launch  of  the  Majestic 178 

Boxer,  torpedo  boat.  Speed  of 178 

Oxford -Cambridge  rowing  con- 
test   178 

The  unionist  and  conservative  al- 
liance    411 

Budget  presented 412 

Local  control  (liquor)  bill 413 

Bill  against  plural  voting 413 

Fall  of  Rosebery  ministry 333,  414 

The  new  Salisbui  y  cabinet 417.  686 

General  elections,  Resultsof .  .419,  682 

Causes  of  liberal  defeat 420 

Opium  commission  report 423.  950 

The  Shahzada's  visit 424,  692 

Wilde-Queensberry  scandal 425 

Launch  of  the  Tenible 425 

Queen    Wilhelmina   of    Holland 

visits  England 426 

Jabez  S.  Balfour  on  trial 426,  934 

Recipients  of  birthday  honors —  427 
Wm.  O'Brien,  M.  P.,  bankrupt,  re- 
tires from  parliament 427 

Irish  question  shelved 688 

Queen's  speech 689 

Lord  Wolseley  succeeds  Duke  of 
Cambridge  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  British  army C90 

The  Irish  factions 691 

Irish  convention  in  Chicago 691 

Launch  of  the  Powerfvl 692 

Relations  of,  to  France,  in  Indo- 
china  557,  829 

Dispute  with  Brazil  over  Trinidad, 

see  Trinidad  incident. 
School  question  in  England 929 


XVI. 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Intra -imperial  trade   schemes  of 

Mr.  Chamberlain 931 

War  office  reform     933 

Alfred  Austin  made  poet  laureate  933 
Expulsion  of  Mr.  Healy  from  Irisli 

parliamentary  committee 934 

Case  of  Edith  Lanchester  934 

Case  of  Lord  Sackville  recalled. . .  935 
Betrothal   of    Princess    Maud    of 
Wales   and    Prince    Karl    of 

Denmark 

Second  son  born  to  Duke  of  York  937 

Launch  of  the  Victorwus 937 

Strained  relations  with  U.  S.,  see 

Venezuelan  question. 
Strained  relations  with  Germany.  95.5 

War  with  Ashanti 957 

Relations  of,  to  France,  in  Africa, 

see  Africa.  Partition  of. 
Report  of  royal    commission    on 

secondary  education 965 

University  extension 96(5 

Relations  of,  in  Orient,  see  Orient, 
Situation  in  the,  and   Yellow 
war. 
"  Greater  New  York"  bill  defeated.   372 
"Greater     Republic''     of    Central 

America 406,  075,  927 

Greece,  Tricoupis  cabinet  resigns..    195 
New  cabinet  formed  under  Theo- 

dor  Delyannis 447 

Commercial  treaty  with  Russia..   344 

Foreign  debt  negotiations 949 

Greek  in  secondary  schools 146 

Greenbacks.  Proposed  retirement  of  834 

Green,  Dr.  D.  I.,  author 2^33 

(ireene,  P.  D.,  author 494 

Greenhalge,  Hon.  F.  T.,  governor  of 

Massachusetts 847,   899 

Greenland,  Walter  W.,  obit 245 

Green,  Robert  S..  obit  508 

Greer,  Rear-Admiral  James  A.,  U. 

S.  navy,  retired 118 

Gregor,  F.,  author 753 

Gregory,  Lady  Fanny,  obit 1014 

Gresham.  Hon.  W.  Q.,  obit 508 

Griffis,  W.  E.,  author 754 

Griggs,  John  W.,  governor  of  New 

Jersey 849 

Grosvenor,  E  A.,  author 998 

Guatemala,  Dispute  with  England.     87 

Guatemalan-Mexican  dispute 

92,  345,  599 

Guerin,  Alphonse,  obit 254 

Guiana,  British,  Dispute  with  Vene- 
zuela, see  Venezuelan    ques- 
tion 
Guiana,  French.  Boundary  dispute 
with    Brazil,     see    Brazilian      • 
French  dispute. 
Gully,  Rt.  Hon.  W.  C  ,  new  speaker. 

British  house  of  commons 

176,  414.  686 

Gurteen,  S.  H.,  author 499 

Gutierrez,   President,   of  Salvador. 

Conspiracy  against 164 

Haas,  M.  F.  H.  de,  obit 1005 

Hagerup.  Dr.,  new  Norwegian  pre- 
mier  947 

Haggard,  H.  Rider,  author 503 

Hale.  E.  E,  author  488 

Hall,  Rev.  Dr.  C  H.,  obit 764 


Page. 

Halle,  Sir  Charles,  obit 1014 

Hall6,  von,  Ernst,  author 486 

Halsbury,  Lord,  lord  chancellor  of 

England 417 

Hamilton,  Lord  George,  British  sec- 
retary for  India 417 

Hammerstein,    Von,    German     ab- 
sconder  699,  940 

Hdmel  and  Gretel,  fairy  opera 9o8 

Harcourt,  Sir  W.  V 687 

Hardie,  Keir,  English  labor  leader. .  694 

Harding,  Prof.  S.  B.,  author 751 

Hardin,   P.  Watt,  free-silver  nomi- 
nee for  governor  of  Kentucky 

298,  565,  847 

Hargis,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  H.,  obit 764 

Harland,  Sir  E.J. ,  obit 1014 

Harlem  ship  canal  opened 383 

Harmon,  Judge  J udson,  of  Ohio,  suc- 
ceeds Hon.  R.  Olney  as  U.  ». 

attorney-general 382 

Biography  of 383 

Harold,  by  F.  H.  Co  wen,  produced. .  465 

Harper,  E.  B.,  obit 765 

Harpiit,  Massacre  at 812 

Harrington,    Mark    W ,     removed 

from  head  of  Weather  bureau  6.53 
Harris,  Sir  Augustus,  playwright. ..  969 

Harris,  Gen.  T.  A.,  obit 510 

Harris,  W\  H.,  obit 1005 

Harris,  Dr.  W.  T.,  U.  S.  commis- 
sioner of    education,    Report 

of,  for  1893 735 

Author 238 

Hart,  A.  B..  Ph.  D.,  author 500 

Hartt,  Irene  W.,  authoress 506 

Uarty,  Hon.  Wm.,  unseated  and  re- 
elected    671 

Harvard  College,  Football  at 129 

Harvard-Cornell  athletics 363 

Harvard- Yale  athletics 303,  895 

Harvey-Horr  debate 569 

Harvey,  W.  H.,   author  Coirrs   Fi- 

7iar)cial  School 490 

Organizes  Patriots  of  America. .    805 
Harveyized  steel  plates.  Tests  of, 

see  Armor  tests. 
Haselton,  Hon.  Seneca,  of  Vermont, 
resigns  as  l^  S.    minister  to 

Venezuela 383 

Hatch,  F.  M..  Hawaiian  minister  at 

Washington 953 

Hawaii,  The  Republic  of— 
Insurrection    vainly  attempted 

Jan.  6 64 

Liliuokalani  renounces  her  claims    66 
Laws  for  public  safety  enacted. ..    69 

Immifirration 70 

Recall  of  Minister  Thurston ...  .71 ,  452 

The  cable  scheme 71.  109,  953 

Annexation  still  the  policy  of  the 

government 452 

Mr.  W.  R.  Castle  succeeds  Minis- 
ter Thurston  at  Washington. .  4.52 
Proposed  pension  for  Kaiulani... .  714 

Claims  against  government 714 

Cholera  epidemic 636,  953 

F.  M.  Hatch  succeeds  W.  R.   Cas- 
tle as  minister  at  Washington  958 
Hawkins.  Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  John  S.. 

K.  C.  M.  G.,  obit 2.54 

Hayman,  Gen.  S.  B.,  obit. 510 


INDEX. 


XVII. 

Page. 


Hayti,  Affairs  in 164.  9>iii  Hunt,  R.  M.,  architect,  obit 706 

Hayward,  Harry  T.,  convicted  of        Hurlbert,  W.  H.,  obit 767 

murdering  Miss  Ging 131,  897  Hurst, .  John  E.,  democratic  candi- 

"  Healer, "  Tlie  Denver 9091  date  for   governor  of   Mary- 

Healy,  T.,  M.  P.,  expelled  from  Irish        |  land 040 

parliamentary  committee 934  Hutton,  Laurence,  author ,502 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  author 501  Huxley,  Prof.  Thomas  Henry,  obit.  516 

Hebrews,  Anti-Semitic  agitation  in         Hwa-Sang  massacre 5.35,85.5 

Vieinia 442,  944  Hyde,  W.  DeWitt,  author 493 

In  Germany 444  Hydrogen,  Liquefaction  of 459 

In  Russia 707j    Critical  and  boiling  point  of 732 

See  Anti-Semitic  movement.  iHydropiiobia,     Prevention   of,    by 

Ilelene,  Princess,  of  Orleans,  mar-        |  Pasteur 531 

ried  to  Duke  of  Aosia 427|Hypnotism  admitied  asdefenseand 

Helium,  Terrestrial 212,  267,  720  a  ground  for  conviction 476 

Attempts  to  liquefy 961  Illinois,  Arbitration  law 631 


Henderson,  W.  J .,  author 762 

Henley  regatta 364,  633 

Herbert,     Maj.-Gen.,    commanding 

Canadian  militia,  retires 672 

Hesdin,  Raoul,  author 993 

Heureaux,  President,    of    San  Do- 
mingo, Financial  operations  of    94 

Heyerman  Oscar  ¥.,  obit 1006 

HiUer,  G.  J.,  killed  by  boiler  explo- 
sion, Detroit,  Mich 986 

Hills,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  G..  obit 1014 

Hind,  John  Russell,  obit 1014 

Hingston,  Dr.  W.  H.,  knighted 400 

Historical  Association.  American 
History,  Books  on,  see  Literature 


Hitt,  Hon.  R.  R.,  of  111.,  introduces 
bill  providing  for  Venezuela- 
Guiana  boundary  commission  F06 
Hoar,  Judge  E.  Rockwood,  obit —  245 
Hobart  Town,   Tasmania,    Federa- 
tion conference  at 203 

Hodgkins  prizes,  see  Science. 

Hodtrson,  J.  E.,  obit 516 

Holden,  Prof.  E.  S.,  receives  foreign 

liecoration 386 

Holland,  Rev.  Dr.  G.  W.,  obit 765 

Holland,   Queen  Wilhelmlna   visits 

England 426 

Holley,  Marietta,  authoress 1003 

Holmes,  H.  H.,   accused  of   many 

murders 638 

Sentenced  to  death 897 

Home  rule,  Irish,  see  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  British  par- 
liament. 

Honduras,  U.  S.  claim  against 406 

See  Central  America. 


Race  war  in 638 

Illiteracy  in  United  States 226 

Imports,  Canadian 922 

Imports  of  U.  S 49,  615,  874 

See  Commerce,  Foreign. 
Income  tax  in  U.  S .55,  101 

Decision  of  U.  S.  supreme  couit. .  271 

Tax  on  rents  or  income  from  mu- 
nicipal bonds  unconstitutional  276 

Whole  law  declared  invalid 279 

Quotations  from    the  final  deci- 
sion of  the  court 2^2 

Opinions  of  dissenting  justices 283 

967  Income  tax  law  in  Victoria 204 

Independence  of  Canada  "  party.  923 


Independent  labor  party  organized  694 
India,  Cotton  duties'  debate  in  Brit- 
ish parliament . .     173 

Disturbances  in  Chitral. .  .200,  448.  710 
British  expedition  under   Sir  R. 

Low :i01,  448 

Report  of  royal  commission    on 

use  of  opium 423,  9.'50 

Land  reform  in  Kashmir 450 

Chitral  practically  annexed 710 

Census  of  Burmah 710 

Mutiny  in  Goa 950 

f/idiana.  Speed  of  the 889 

Indians,  The,  in  U.  S.,  The  Southern 

Utes 105 

Kickapoo  reservation  opened 388 

Disturbance  at    Jackson's   Hole, 

Wyo ...621,  887 

Mohonk  Lake  conference 885 

The   Choctaws   and    the   Dawes 

commission 887 

Nez  Perc6s  reservation  opened  . . .  887 


Honolulu,  Cholera  in 636,  953  Indian    Territory,    Judicial  system 

Hopkins.  A.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  author. . . .    2321  for 104 

Hornby,  Sir  G.  T.  P.,  obit 2.54  Indo-China.  Relations  of  France  and 

Horr-Harvey  debate 569j  England  in 557,  829 

Horseless  carriages 728  Industrial  effects  of  developments 


Houghton,  H.  O.,  obit 

Housesmiths'  strike  in  N.  Y 

Hovenden,  Thomas,  obit 

Hovey,  tennis  champion 

Howe.  Rt.  Rev.  M.  A.  DeWolf,  obit 


651  in  the  Orient. 

893  Industrial    situation    in  U.  S  ,  see 
706|  Business  and  industry. 

6.35  Inness  .sale  of  pictures 217 

766  Inouye.  Count,  Japanese  represen- 

Howells.  W.  D  .  author 755j  tative  in  Korea 554,  827 

Howgate,  Capt.  H.  W.,  defaulter.         Insurance  companies,  American,  in 

arrested 366'  Germany 940 

Hudson  bay  railroad.  Bonus  to 660  International  bimetallism,  see  Mon- 

Hudson    river   bridge.     Plans    ap-        |  etary  problem. 

proved 377  I  n  t  e  r  n  a  t  i  o  n  a  1    law.    Proposed 

"Hugh,  Brother" 975]  changes  of 8C0 

Hughes,  Very  Rev.  James,  obit 7o6  International  Literary  and  Artistic 

Humperdinck,  E.,  operatic  writer. .  968'  Association  meets  in  Dresden.  861 


XVIII. 


INDEX. 


Iowa,  Mulct  law  declared  constitu- 
tional...   367 

Tornado  in 482 

Political  conventions  568, 

Political  campaign  in 847 

Ireland,  see  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, and  Britisii  parliament. 

Iron  industry 607 

Iron  miners'  strike  in  Michigan 629 

Iron  and  Steel  Association,  Report 

of 478 

Irving,  Henry,  actor 

Knighted 427 

In  Don  Quixote 464 

In  King  AHhur 7a5 

Ismail  Pasha,  obit 255 

Italian-Brazilian  dispute  599,  863 

Italian  Colombi  in  dispute 604 

Italy,  The  Giolitti  documents. .  .188,  439 

Amnesty  granted  to  offenders 188 

Attorney-general  of  Milan  assas- 
sinated  

Results  of  elections 438 

Budget  presented  in  parliament 

439,  943 

Charges  against  Crispi  — 188,  439,  701 

Socialistic  agitation (597,  943 

Rules  of  debate  revised 701 

Vatican  and  Quirinal 702 

Twenty-fifth       anniversary       of 

"  Italian  Unity  " 702 

Naval  squadron  visits  England. . .   703 
Visit  of  King  Carlos  I.  of  Portugal 

abandoned 943 

Improved  financial  condition 943 

State  of  siege  in  Sicily  raised 943 

War  in  Abyssinia 955 

See  Africa. 
Ito,  Admiral,  Japanese  naval  com- 
mander, see  Yellow  war. 
Ito,  Count,  Japanese  premier  and 

peace  commissioner 24 

Made  a  marquis 556 

Conspiracy  to  murder 713 

Jackson-Hai-msworth  Arctic  expe- 
dition   724 

Jackson,  Justice  H.  E.,  obit 767 

Jackson's  Hole,  Wyo,  Indian  distur- 
bance at  621,  887 

Jackson,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  W.  W.,  obit.. .1015 

Jamaica.  Revolt  of  Marooas  in 674 

James,  Bushrod  W.,  author 999 

James,  Sir  Henry,  chancellor  of  the 

Duchy  of  Lancaster 417 

Motion  of,  re  Indian  cotton  duties  173 
Jameson,  Dr.,  administrator  for  the 
British    South    Africa    Com- 
pany, invades  the  Transvaal..  954 
Japan,    Commercial    treaty     with 

Russia 315 

Political  agitation  over  retroces- 
sion of  Leao-Tong:  peninsula  551 
Indemnity   from    China   guaran- 
teed by  France  and  Russia 553 

Distribution  of  military   rewards  556 
Wins    commercial     concessions 

from  China 556 

Decision  reversed  in  case  of  Chi- 

shima  and  Ravenna 712 

Troops  killed  in  railroad  disaster.  746 

Industrial  future  of 831 

Introduction  of  purely  party  gov- 


Paue. 

ernment 952 

Results  of  war  with  China 824 

See  Orient,  Situation  in  the,  and 
Yellow  war. 
Java,  "Missing  link"  discovered  (?) 

in 216 

Jenks,  Prof.  J.  W.,  author 991 

Jesuits,  Laws  against,  in  Germany.  181 
Jews,  Condition  of  the,  see  Anti- 
Semitic  movement. 
Jiddah,  European  consular  officers 

attacked  at Seo,  328 

Johnson,  Dr.  E.  R.,  author..492,  990.  991 

Johore,  Sultan  of,  obit 515 

Joly,  Dr ,  Discovery    of,  in   color 

photography 454 

Joly,  Hon.  H.  G.,  made  a  K.  C.  M.  G.  400 

Jones,  H.  A.,  dramatist 466 

Jones,  Hon.  James  K.,  of  Arkansas, 

Financial  proposals  of 38 

Joniaux,  Mme.,  in  Belgium,  con- 
victed   194 

Jordan,  Gen.  Thomas,  obit 1006 

Jordan,  Eben  D.,  obit 1006 

Jordan,  Gen.  T.  J.,  obit  510 

'Joslah  Allen's  Wife,"  authoress...  1003 

Junimists  in  Roumania 948 

Jusserand,  J.  J.,  author 499 

Juvenile  books,  see  Literature. 
Kabayama,  General,  Japanese  gov- 
ernor of  Formosa 829 

Kai-Phing,  Capture  of 16 

Kai.ser  Wilhelra  canal,  see  Germany. 

Kaiulani,  Proposed  pension  for 714 

Kalnoky,  Count,  Retirement  of,  333,  441 

Biography  of 441 

Kamura,  General,  Japanese  repre- 
sentative in  Korea 828 

Kanitz-Podangen,  Count  von,  pro- 
poses government  monopoly 

of  grain  trade 182 

Kashmir,  Land  reform  in 450 

Kassala,  Fighting  at 86 

Katahdin  rejected 889 

Kautz,  A.  v.,  obit 767 

Kearsarge,  New  battle-ship 888 

Keasbey,  Prof.  L.  M.,  author 990 

Keeler,  Prof.  James  E.,  demon- 
strates   meteoric    nature    of 

rings  of  Saturn : 458 

Kendrick,  Dr.  A.  C,  obit 1006 

Kenealy,  A.  J.,  author 505 

Kentucky,  State  democratic  con- 
vention   297,  565 

Silver  question  in 565,  846 

Political  campaign  in 846,  847 

Keyes,  Gen.  E.  D.,  obit 1006 

Khama,  Bechuanaland  chief 957 

Kickapoo  Indian  reservation  thrown 

open 388 

Kiel  festivities  at  opening  of  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  canal,  see  Germany. 
Kielmansegg,  Count,  Austrian  prem- 
ier  443,  704 

Biography  of 444 

Kilgore,  Hon.  Buckley,  of  Texas, 
appointed  U.  S.  judge  for  the 
southern    district   of   Indian 

Territory 104,  144 

King's  Daughters 978 

iKirkland,  Rear- Admiral,  U.  S.  N., 
1  detached  from  command 890 


INDEX. 


XIX. 


Page. 
Kirunga,  only  active  volcano  in  Af- 
rica    205 

Kitashirakawa,  Prince,  obit 1015 

Kite,  Arctic  voyage  of 723 

Kivu,  Lake,  in  Africa,  discovered..  205 

Knights  of  Labor 361 

Knigiits  Templar  conclave  in  Boston  6.59 

Knowles,  E.  R.,  LL.  D.,  author !t35 

Knox,  Charles,  obit 510 

K611er,Von,  Prussian  minister  of  the 

interior,  retires 940 

Kongo  Free  State,  Relations  of,  to 
European  powers,  see  Africa, 
Partition  of. 

The  Stokes  case 597,  958 

Korea,  Developments  in.  .28,  310, 553,  826 
See  Yellow  war,  and  Orient,  Situa- 
tion in  the. 

Anti-Japanese  agitation 553 

Coup  d'etat  in 
Murder  of  the  queen 


I'age. 

Miners'  congress 428 

Arbitration  first  made  enforceable  429 

Paris  omnibus  strike 430 

Brickmakers'  strike  in  Vienna 430 

Trades-union  congress  in  Cardiflf.  693 
International    co-operative   con- 
gress  696 

Dundee  jute  workers'  strike 697 

Socialism  and  anarchism,  see  So- 
cialism. 

Trades-unionism  in  Russia 698 

Carmaux  glassworkers'  strike 937 

British  shipbuilding  strike 938 

Arbitration    bill    introduced     in 

Reichstag 939 

Ladd,  Prof.  G.  T.,  author 485 

Laidlaw-Sage  lawsuit 388 

Lake  Mohonk  conference 885 

Lakes,  War  vessels  on  the 862 

826  Lamington,  Lord,  new  governor  of 
8281  Queensland 953 


New  government  formed 828  Lamont,  Secretary  of  War,  Report 

Kotze,  Von,  German  court  chamber-        |  of 884 

lain,  acquitted 4.37,Lanchester,  Edith,  Case  of 934 

Koven,  De,  R.,  musical  composer. . .  463  Lansdowne,  Marquis  of,  British  sec- 

Krag- Jorgkensen  rifle  defective —  8H4l  retary  of  state  for  war 417 

Kruger,  President,  of  the  Transvaal  954,Lanston  monotype 961 


Kuchan,  Persia,  Earthquakes  at —  202 

Ku-Cheng  massacre 5:35,  855 

See  Missionaries,  Outrages  on,  in 

China. 

Kumassi,  British  expedition  to 957 

Kupprecht,  G.  J.,  invents  air-ship..  726 
Kurds  in  Armenia,   see   Armenian 

question. 
Labor  interests,  American- 
Brooklyn  trolley  strike..  119,  127,  360 
Building  trades  strike  in  N.  Y —  123 

New  Orleans  outrage 124 

Coal-mining  strikes 125 

Plans  for  settling  disputes 127,  360 

Platform  of  American  Federation 

of  Labor 128 

Arbitration  successfully  tried —  360 
Leading   labor   organizations   of 

U.  S 361 

Difference   between  the  Knights 

and  the  Federation 361 

Conviction  of  Debs  confirmed 302 

Mining  strike  in  "  flat-top"  region 

of  Virginia 362 

Plumbers'  strike  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  362 

Garment  workers'  strike 628,  893 

Iron  miners' strike  in  Michigan..  629 

Illinois  arbitration  law 631 

Constittitionality    of  alien   labor 

law 659 

Competition     from     Japan    and 

China 8-30 

Meeting  of  the  American  Federa 

tion 890 

Philadelphia  trolley  strike 891 

Housesmiths'  strike  in  New  York.  893 
Labor  interests,  European- 
Legislation  in  England 173 

Independent  labor  party  in  Eng- 
land  176,  694 

Progress  of  arbitration  in  France.  178 
Boot  and  shoe  strike  in  England . . 

179,  429 

Miners' strike  in  Belsiium 179 

May  day  demonstrations 428 


Larned,  J.  N.,  historian 493 

Lasar,  Sigismund,  obit 767 

Latimer,  Elizabeth  W.,  authoress..  996 

Laughlin,  Prof.  J.  L.,  author 750 

Laurier,  Hon.  W.,  see  Canada. 

Law,  Criminal,  Reform  of,  in  France  437 

Law,     International,    Proposed 

changes  in SCO 

Law  of  Nations.  Association  for  Re- 
form    and     Codification    of, 

meets  in  Brussels 860 

Lawrence,  E.  A.,  D.  D.,  author.  .235,  493 

Lawrence,  T.  J.,  author 990 

Lawson,  Prof.  G.,  obit 1006 

League  convention.  Republican 296 

League,  Eucharistic 974 

Leao-Tong  peninsula,  Retrocession 

of 311,  551 

Lebaudy,  Max.  obit 1015 

Lees,  Prof.,  author 997 

Legal  decisions.  Important — 
Eight-hour   law    for   women   de- 
clared void 126 

Of  Judge  Simonton  re  S.  C.  liquor 

dispensary  law 142,  378 

Of  Canadian  supreme  court  re  pro- 
hibition    156 

Sugar  bounties  declared  unconsti- 
tutional  223,  743,  982 

Life  of  patents 224 

Income-tax  law  unconstitutional.  271 
See  Income-tax  decision, 
Iowa  mulct  law  constitutional...  367 
Registration  and  election  laws  of 
S.  C.  declared  unconstitutional 

by  Judge  Goff 379 

Decision  reversed  by  court  of  ap- 
peals   381 

Libel  suit  against  C.  A.  Dana  dis 

missed 474 

Illegality  of  trusts 475.  980 

Berliner  microphone  patent  valid 

475,  743 

Geary  Chinese  exclusion  act  up- 
held   475 


XX. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Hypnotism  recognized  as  a  de- 
fense and  ground  for  convic- 
tion    47( 

In  pension  case  of  Judge  C.  D. 

Long  of  Michigan 476 

Re  Pilla  and  Bannock  Indians 88^ 

Stanford  estate  claims  upheld. 387,  912 

Against  tobacco  trus* 980 

Against  telegraph  monopoly 981 

Fayerweather  deed  of  trust  set 

aside ; 981 

Comptroller  Bowler's  decision  re 
sugar  bounty  claims.. 223,  74.3,  982 
Legal-tender  notes.  Proposed  retire- 
ment of 834 

Legion  of  Honor,  Council  of,  reor- 
ganized  700,  943 

Legrand,  Pierre,  obit 518 

Lehigh    University,    Prof,    T.    M. 

Drown,  new  president  of 386 

Leinster,  Duchess  of.  obit 255 

Lelaud    Stanford,    Jr.,    University, 

Govt,  suit  against .387,  912 

Lemaitre,  M.  Jules, elected  to  French 

Academy 438 

Lemmon,  Leonard,  authoi' 753 

Lenard,  Philipp,  scientist 213 

Lenox  library,  N.  Y.  city 141 

Leonard,  Rev.  D.  L.,  author — 493,  752 

Leo  XIII.,  American  encyclical  of..  221 

Encyclical  of,  on  church  unity. . .   468 

Opposed  to  promiscuous  religious        | 

congresses 97ri 

Levetzow,  Herr  von,  president  of 

the  Reichstag,  resigns 181 

Lexow  bills,  N.  Y 138 

Lexow   Police  Investigating  Com- 
mittee, Report  of 137 

Library  consolidation  in  N.  Y.  city.  141 

Lick  monument  in  California 147 

Lieber,  Col.  Guido  N.,  new  judge- 

advocate-general U.  S.  army..  117 
Liebknecht,  Herr,  German  socialist. 

Prosecution  of,  for  lese-jnajeste  939 
Lieutenant-general,    Grade  of,    re- 
vived    1 14 

Li-Hung    Chang,  Viceroy,   Chinese 

peace  plenipotentiary 25 

Attempt  to  assassinate 26 

Made    imperial    chancellor    of 

China 711 

Biography  of  711 

Liliuokalani,     Hawaiian   ex-queen, 

renounces  claims     66 

Lincoln's  Gettysburg  address 104 

Liquor  dispensary  law,  S.   C,  see 

South  Carolina. 
Liquor  traffic.  Regulation    of,    see 

Temperance. 
Literature — 
Actual  Africa;  or.  The  Coming  Con- 
tinent, by  F.  Vincent 501 

Adoption  and  Amendment  of  Con- 
stitutions in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, by  Charles  Borgeaud 495 

Advance  Japan,  by  J.  Morris 758 

The  Advantages  of  the  Nicaragua 

Route,  by  J.  W.  Miller 990 

^Esthetic  Princxples,  by  H.  R.  Mar- 
shall   485 

The  Aims  of  Literary  Study,  by 


Alaska,  by  M.  W.  Bruce 759 

The  Amazing  Marriage,  by  George 

Meredith 1001 

The  American  Congress,  by  J.  W. 

Moore 489 

The  American  People's  Money,  by 

Ignatius  Donnelly 489 

Architecture  for  General  Readers, 

byH.  H.  Statham 998 

The  Armenian  Crisis  in  Turkey,  by 

F.  D.  Greene 494 

Around  the   World  on  $60.  by  R. 

Meredith 999 

The  Arthujian  Epic,  by  S.  H.  Gur- 

teen 499 

The  Art  of  Newspaper  Making,  by 

C.  A.  Dana 499 

77ie  Art  of  Rutting   Questions,  by 

W.  T.  Young 997 

Beyond  the  Dreams  of  Avarice,  by 

Walter  Besant 240 

The  Blessing  of  Cheerfulness,  by  J. 

R.  Miller 992 

Boat  Sailing  in  Fair  Weather  and 

Foul,  by  A.  J.  Kenealy 505 

The  Book  of  Athletics  and   Out-of- 

Boor- Sports,  edited  by  N.  W. 

Bingham,  Jr 1003 

BoHs,    the   Bear  Hunter,    by    F. 

Whishaw. 761 

The  Boy  Soldiers  of  1812,  by  E.  T. 

Tomlinson 505 

Break-up  of  the  English  Party  Sys- 
tem, by  Edward  Porritt 233 

TIlc  Brownie  Song  Book,  by  S.  G. 

Pratt 341 

Campaigns  of  Curiosity,  by  E.  L. 

Banks 241 

Casa  Braccio,  by  F.  N.  Crawford.  1000 
Catholic  Socialism,  by  F.  S.  Nitti . .  749 
The  Christian  Consciousness,  by  J. 

S.  Black 752 

The   Church   in   America,  by   L. 

Coleman 492 

The  Claims  of  Greek,  by  Prof.  Lees.  997 
Coin's  Financial  School,  by  W.  H. 

Harvey,  and  its  replies 490 

Colin    Campbell,   Lord    Clyde,    by 

Archibald  Forbes 497 

Comte,  Mill,  and  Spencer,  by  Prof. 

John  Watson.  LL.  D . . . .  23 1 
The  Condition  of  Women  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  by  Mme.  Blanc 489 

Constantinople,     by   E.    A.    Gros- 

venor 998 

Constantinople,  by  F.  M.  Crawford  758 
Corea,  or  Chosen,  The  Land  of  the 

Morning  Calm,  by  A.  H.  Sav- 

age-Landor 239 

Country  Pastime  for  Boys,  by  P. 

A.  Graham 1002 

77ie    Currency   and    the   Banking 

Law  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
by  W.  C.  Cornwell 233 

The  Custody  of  State  Funds,  by  E. 
R.  Buckley 991 

The  Cyclopedia  of  Names,  edited    ^ 

B.  E.  Smith.  A.  M 239 

Daughters  of  the  Revolution   and 

Their  times,  by  C.  0.  Coffin  •  .504 
7'he  Days  of  Auld  Lang  Syne,  by 

"Ian M§9lftren ",,,",,,,,,,  ,,.jgQi 


INDEX. 


XXI. 


Page 

The  Decline  and  Fail  of  Napoleon, 
by  Viscount  Wolseley 405 

Degeneration,  by  Max  Nordau 487 

I'ke  Development  of  the  Present 
Constitulionof  France,  by  Prof. 
K.  Saleilles 751 

Mck  and  Jade's  Adventures  on-  Sa- 
ble Island,  by  B.  F.  Ashley  . . .  .1002 

Doctor  Gray's  Quest,  by  F.  H.  Un- 
derwood   503 

Fchoes  of  Battle,  by  B.  W.  James. .  999 

Fleeted  or  Appointed  Officials,  by 
Hon.  J.  G.  Bourinot 234 

Electricity  for  Everybody,  by  P. 
Atkinson 747 

Elementary  Greek  Educaiion,  by  F. 
H.  Lane 756 

The  Elements  of  Higher  Criticism, 
bv  A.  C.  Zenos 992 

The  Eleme?its  of  Navigation,  by  W. 
J.  Henderson 762 

Elements  of  Psychology,  by  Noah 
K.Davis 988 

Ethical  Basis  of  Distribution,  and       \ 
Ms  Application  to  Taxation,  by 
Prof.  T.  N.  Carver 751 

Europe  in  Africa  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  by  E.  W.  Latimer. ...  993 

The  Evolution  of  Industry,  by  IL 
Dyer 489 

Fables  and  Essays,  by  John  Bryan.  1003 

Facts  About  Money,  by  Prof.  J.  L. 
Lauffhlin 750 

Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and 
Garden,  by  F.  S.  JIathews. ...  484 

The  Female  Offender,  by  Prof.  C. 
Lombroso 488 

The  Foundations  of  Belief,  by  A.  J. 
Balfour 231 

Fi'om  Far  Fornwsa,  by  Rev.  G.  L. 
MacKay,D.D 998 

From  the  Memoirs  of  a  Minister  of 
France,  by  Stanley  J.  Weyman  760 

General  Hancock,  by  Gen.  Francis 
A.  Walker 236 

General  Stiendan,  by  Gen.  H.  E. 
Davies 497 

The  German  Declensions  Made 
Easy  for  Beginners,  by  W.  A. 
Wheatley 757 

The  German  Emperor  William  IL, 
by  C.  Lowe,  M.  A 995 

German  Universities:  Their  Char- 
acter and  Historical  Develop- 
ment, by  Prof.  F.  Paulsen 2.37 

Great  Men^s  Sons,  by  E.  S.  Brooks.  993 

The  Growth  of  Bntish  Policy,  by 
Sir  J.  R.  Seeley 993 

Gustavus  Adolphus,hyT.  A.Dodge  994 

Hadassah;  or,  Esther,  Queen  to 
Ahas^xerus.  by  Mrs.  T.  F.  Black  760 

The  Hamilton  Declamation  Quar- 
terly    500 

Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern 
North  America,  by  F.  M.  Chap- 
man    484 

Health  and  Condition  in  the  Active 
and  the  Sedentary,  by  N.  Yorke- 
DftviGS  484 

The  Heart  of  "aBay  '(Cuc^'e),  byE. 
de  Amicis 756 

Hmt  of  the  World,  by  H-  R.  Hag- 


gard. 
J  Fa 


Page. 
503 

His  Father''s  Son,  by  Brander  Mat- 
thews  1001 

Historic  Doiibts  as  to  the  Exeattion 
of  Marshal  Ney,  by  J.  A.  Wes- 
ton   4S6 

History  for  Beady  Reference,  by  J. 
N.  Larned 496 

A  History  of  Egypt,  by  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie 235 

A  Ilistm-y  of  Newfoundland,  by  D. 
W.  Prouse 495 

Historry  of  Our  Ccmntry,  by  O.  H. 
Cooper.  H.  F.  EstiJl,  and  L. 
Lemmon 753 

History  of  the  United  States,  by  E. 
Benjamin    Andrews 235 

A  House-Boat-mi-the-Styx,  by  J. 
Kendrick  Bangs 1000 

How  the  Bepublic  is  Governed,  by 
Noah  Brooks 489 

How  to  Make  Money  Althovgh  a 
Woman,  by  Irene  W.  Hartt. . .    506 

How  to  Save  Bimetallism,  by  the 
Due  de  Noailles 233 

How  to  Teach  Natwal  Science  iti 
Public  Schools,  by  W.T.  Harris, 
LL.D 237 

A  Hundred  Years  of  Missions;  or, 
Ths  Story  of  Ft  ogress  Since 
Ca7'ey''s  Beginning,  by  Rev.  D. 
L.  Leonard 752 

If  Jesus  Came  to  Boston,  by  E.  E. 
Hale 488 

The  Industrial  Seriice  of  the  Bail- 
ways,  by  Dr.  E.  R.  Johnson. . .  492 

Infection  and  Immunity,  by  C.  R. 
Bardeen,  B.  A f;31 

Institutes  of  the  Christian  Beligion, 
by  Prof.  E.  V.  Gerhart,  D.  D  ,  S92 

The  Intellectual  Rise  i?i  Electricity, 
by  Park  Benjamin 988 

An  Introductioyi  to  Comparative 
Psychology,  by  C.  L.  Morgan..  486 

Israel  Among  the  Nations,  by  A. 
Leroy  Beaulieu 993 

The  Jewel  of  Ynis  Galon,  by  O. 
Rhoscomyl 504 

John  Dalton  and  the  Pise  of  Modern 
Chemistry,  by  Sir  H.  E.  Ros- 
coe 484 

The  Journal  of  a  Spy  in  PaHs,  by 
R.  Hesdin 993 

The  Jucklins,  by  Opie  Read 1001 

The  Judgment  Books,  by  E,  F. 
Benson 503 

Julian,  by  Alice  Gardner 497 

Lakes  of  North  Atne/ica,  by  I.  C. 
Russell 747 

The  Laureates  of  England,  by  Ken- 
yon  West 995 

The  Laws  of  Social  Evolution,  by 
Rev.  P.  M.  Sprague 989 

Leading  Events  of  the  American 
Revolution,  by  W.  H.  Brearley.  994 

Lee's  Priceless  Recipes,  by  Dr.  T.  N. 
Oliver 762 

Letters  of  Matthew  Arnold 996 

The  Life  and  Letters  of  E.  A.  Free- 
man, by  W.  R.  W.  Stephens. ..  753 

Life  and  Letters  of  John  Greenleaf 

WMttkr,  by  s,  T.  PiQkwa, , , .  ^3Q 


XXII. 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Life  of  Ernest  Benan,  by  F.  Espin- 


LifeofHer  Majesty  Queen  Victoria, 


by  M.  G.  Fawcett. 
Life  of 


The  Life  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  by 
Jolin  Bigelow 497 

Li  Hung  Chang,  by  Prof.  R.  K. 
Douglas 754 

A  Literary  History  of  the  English 
People,  by  J.  J.  Jusserand 499 

Literary  Landmarks  of  Jerusalern, 
by  Laurence  Hutton 502 

The  Literature  of  the  Georgian  Era, 
by  W.  Minto,  LL.  D 236 

Lotos-Time  in  Japan,  by  11.  T. 
Finck 501 

The  Lottery  Ticket,  by  J.  T.  Trow- 
bridge  1000 

Madagascar  of  To-day, hy  Rev.  W. 
E.  Cousins  758 

The  Making  of  the  Nation,  by  F.  A. 
Walker 494 

Malay  Sketches,  by  F.  A.  Swetten- 
ham 758 

A  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects, 
by  Prof.  J.  H.  Comstock 485 

Manual  of  Home-Made  Apparatus, 
by  J.  F.  Woodhull 484 

A  Manual  of  Pedagogics,  by  D. 
Putnam 997 

Map  Modeling  in  Geography,  by 
Dr.  A.  E.  Maltby 996 

Margaret  Winthrop. hy  A.M. Earle  7.54 

The  Master,  by  I.  Zangwill 504 

Master  and  Man,  by  Count  Leo 
Tolstoi 502 

Memmrs  of  Barras,  translated  by 
C.E.Roche 495 

Memoirs  of  Constant,  translated  by 
E.G.Martin 995 

Memory,  by  A.  Loisette 757 

The  Men  of  the  Moss-Hags,  by  S.  R. 
Crockett 1000 

Mental  Development  in  the  Child 
and  the  Race,  by  Prof.  J.  M. 
Baldwin 748 

The  Messiah  of  the  Apostles,  by  C. 
A.  Briggs,  D.  D 492 

Meteorology,  Weather,  and  Methods 
of  Forecasting,  by  T.  Russell...  230 

The  Minimum  Principle  in  the 
Tariff  of  1828,  and  Its  Recent 
Revival,  by  Prof.  S.  B.  Hard- 
ing    751 

The  Mississippi  Basin,  by  Justin 
Winsor 490 

Modern  German  Literature,  by  B. 
W.Wells 755 

Modern  Missions  in  the  East,  by  E. 
A.  Lawrence,  D.  D 235 

The  Modem  Webster  Pronouncing 
and  Defining  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language,  by  E.  T.  Roe  763 

Money  and  Bank  Credits  in  the 
United  States,  by  H.  W  Wil- 
liams   233 

Money  and  Banking  Illustrated  by 
American  History,  by  Horace 
White 750 

M.  Stamlmloff,  by  A.  H.  Beaman...  754 

Municipal  Government  in  Continen- 
tai  Europe,  by  Dr.  Albert  bhaw  989 


Page. 

Munidjjal  Reform  Movements  in  the 
United  States,  by  W.  H.  Tol- 
man  489 

My  Early  Travels  and  Adverdvres 
in  America  arid  Asia,  by  H.  M. 
Stanley 502 

My  Lady  Nobody,  by  Maarten 
Maartens 761 

My  Literary  Passions,  by  W.  D. 
Howells 755 

Mysteria 762 

My  Strange  Rescue,  and  Other  Stor- 
ies of  Sport  and  Adventure  in 
Canada,  by  J.  Macdonald 
Oxley 761 

A  Neglected  Socialist,  by  Dr.  F.  C. 
Clark 492 

New  Studies  in  Literature,  by  E. 
Dowden 755 

The  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the  Eco- 
nomic Devolopment  of  the  United 
States,  by  Dr.  E.  R.  Johnson..  990 

The  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the  Mon- 
roe Doctnne,  by  Prof.  L.  M. 
Keasbey 990 

Notes  in  Japan,  by  Alfred  Parsons.  999 

Not  Yet,  by  Mary  W.  Robblns 241 

Old  and  New  Unitarian  Belief,  by 
J.  W.  Chadwick 2.34 

Old  Stor^ies  Retold,  by  Paul  Binner.1003 

Oliver  Cromwell,  by  George  H. 
Clark.  D.  D 498 

On  India's  Frontier ;  or,  Nepal,  the 
Gurkhas'"  Mysterious  Land,  by 
H.  Ballantine 239 

On  the  Suwanee  River,  by  Opie  Read  759 

Our  Fight  With  Tammany,  by 
Rev.  C.  H.  Parkhurst,  D.  D..  2-32 

Our  Western  Archipelago,  by  H.  M. 
Field ■ 7.59 

Outlines  of  Psychology,  by  H.  G. 
Williams ; 749' 

Outlines  of  Social  Tlteology,  by  W. 
DeWittHyde 493 

An  Outline  Study  of  United  States 
History,  by  H.  Godard 756 

Out  of  the  East,  by  Lafcadio  Hearn  501 

Outre  Mer,  by  Paul  Bourget 501 

I'he  Pacific  Railway  Debts,  by  R. 
T.  Colburn 234 

The  Parchments  of  the  Faith,  by 
Rev.  G.  E.  Merrill 2.34 

Patriotic  Citizenship,  by  T.  J.  Mor- 
gan   750 

The  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far 
East,  by  Henry  Norman 50:^^ 

The  Personal  Life  of  David  Living- 
stotie,  by  W;  G.  Blaikie 497 

Philosophy  of  Mind,  by  Prof.  G.  T. 
Ladd ■ 485 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  New  Eng- 
land and  their  Puritan  Succes- 
sors, by  John  Brown 994 

Pitfalls  in  English,  by  J.  Fitz- 
gerald, M.  A 500 

Pleasure- Cycling,  by  H.  Clyde 505 

The  Poor  m  Great  'Cities,  by  R.  A. 
Woods  and  others 989 

The  Practical  Application  of  Dyna- 
mo-Electric Machinery,  by  C. 
K.  McFadden  and  W.  D.  Ray..  748 

P?'a,ctical  Chmiim  Sociology,  by 


INDEX. 


XXIII. 


Rev.  W.  F.  Crafts 749 

Practical  Palmistry,  by  H.  Frith.. .1003 

Pnnce  Henry  the  Navigator,  by  C. 
R.  Beazley 235 

The  Princess  Aline,  by  R.  II.  Davis  504 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Finance, 
by  E.  Carroll,  Jr 988 

The  Piinciples  of  International 
Law,  by  T.  J.  Lawrence 990 

The  Problem  of  Sociology,  by  Dr. 
Georg  Simmel 991 

Psychology  i?i  Education,  by  R.  N. 
Roark.... 755 

Punishment  and  Refoiinaiion ,  by 
F.H.  Wines 488 

Qiinint  Korea,  by  L.  J.  Miln 759 

liadical  Criticism,  by  Rev.  F.  R. 
Beattie 494 

Railway  Developments  for  the  Re- 
lief and  Insurance  of  Employes, 
by  Dr.  E.  R.  Johnson 991 

Tlie  Ralstons,  by  F.  Marion  Craw- 
ford   240 

Rambles  in  Japan,  by  II.  B.  Tris- 
tram   998 

The  Reader's  Shakespeare,  by  D. 
C.Bell 

Recent  Political  Experiments  in  the 
Swiss  Democracy,  by  Prof.  L. 
Wuarin 

Reminiscences,  by  Bishop  Thomas 
M.  Clark 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen, 
by  W.  T.  Harris,  A.  S.  Draper, 

and  H.  S.  Tarbell 500 

^   Our   Planet,  by  Will 
"Carleton 758 

A  Ringby  Lass,  and  Other  Stories, 
by  M.  Beaumont 761 

The  Rise  of  Wellington,  by  Gen. 
Lord  Roberts 752 

The  Saloon- Keeper'' s  Ledger,  by  L. 
A.  Banks,  D.  D 487 

Samantha  in  Evrope,  by  "  Josiah 
Allen's  Wife." 1003 

The  Schoolmaster  in  Comedy  and 
Satire 237 

The  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching 
Reading,  Writing,  and  Spelling, 
by  G.  L.  Farnham 756 

Shakespeare's  Heroines  on  the  Stage, 
by  C.  E.  L.  Wingate 75' 

Sir  Samud.  Baker,  byT.  D.  Murray  498 

A  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Rev.  Joseph 
Hardy  Neesima,  LL.  D.,  by 
Rev.  J.  D.  Davis,  D.  D 236 

Social  Basis  of  Propo7'tional  Repre- 
sentation, by  Prof.  J.  W.  Jenks.  991 

Socialism,  by  Prof.  Robert  Flint...  490 

A  Son  of  Hagar,  by  Hall  Caine 240 

The  Soirows  of  Satan,  by  Marie 
Corelli 1000 

A  Sound  Currency  and  Banking 
System,  by  A.  R.  Foote 48 

A  Standard  Dictionary  qf  the 
English  Language 238 

The  Stark  Munro  Letters,  by  A. 
Conan  Doyle 760 

^tate  Education  for  the  People 238 

The  Story  of  Bohemia,  by  F.  Gregor  753 

The  Sto?'y  of  Sonny  Sahib,  by  Mrs. 
E.  Cotes 504 


Paue.- 
The   Story  of  the  Earth  in  Past 

Ages,  by  H.  G.  Seeley 988 

Tlie  Stoiy  of  the  Plants,  by  Grant 

Allen •,..  748 

The  Stm:y  of  the  Stars  Simply  Told 

for  General  Readers,  by  G.  F. 

Chambers 230 

Studies  in  American  Education,  by 

A.B.  Hart 500 

A  Study  of  Death,  by  H.  M.  Alden . .  992 
The  Supremacy  of  the  Spiritual,  by 

E.  R.  Knowles.  LL.  D 235 

The  Teacher  and  the  Parent,  by  C. 

Northend 757 

Teaching  in  Three  Continents,  by 

W.  C.  Grasby 997 

TJie  Temptationof  KatharineGray, 

by  M.  L.  Dickinson 1001 

Tei'm.inology  and   the  Sociological 

Conference,    by    Prof.   H.    H. 

Powers 492 

A    Text-book  of    the    History  of 

Painting,  by  J.  C.  Van  Dyke, 

L.H.D 238 

A  Text-book  of  Zoogeography,  by 

F.  E.  Beddard '. '. 748 

The   Theory  of  Social  Forces,  by 

Prof.  S.  N.  Patten 991 

The  Theory  of  Sociology,  by  Prof. 
F.  H.  Giddings 752 

Toasts  and  Forms  of  Public  Ad- 
dress, by  AV.  Pittenger 763 

Townsend  Harris,  by  W.  E.  Griffis.  754 

Ti'usts;  or.  Industrial  Combinations 
and  Coalitions  in  the  United 
States,  by  E.  von  Hall6 486 

Two  Little  Pilgrims'  Progress,  by 
F.  H.  Burnett .' 1002 

The  Units  of  Investigation  in  the 
Social  Sciences,  by  Dr.  A.  F. 
Bentley 492 

The  Up-to-Date  Primer,  by  J.  W. 
Bengough 989 

Use  of  Silver  as  Money  in  the  United 
States,  by  Prof.  A.  B.  Woodford  492 

Vailima  Letters,  Correspondence 
of  R.  L.  Stevenson 995 

Tlie  Veiled  Doctor,  by  V.  A.  Jeffer- 
son Davis 761 

A  Victorian  Anthology,  by  E.  C. 
Stedman. .....  .  '. 996 

A  Voice  in  the  Wilderness,  by  Maria 
Weed 505 

Ways  qf  Working;  or.  Helpful 
Hints  to  Sunday-School  Officers 
and  Teachers,  by  Rev.  A.  E. 
Schauffler 755 

Wealth  and  Waste,  by  A.  A.  Hop-    ' 
kins.  Ph.  D 232 

Westminster,  by  Sir  W.  Besant 999 

A  Wheel  Within  a  Wheel,  by  F.  E. 
Willard 506 

m.eser's  Natural  Value,  by  Dr.  D. 
I.  Green 233 

A  Woman  of  Impulse,  by  J.  H.  Mc- 
Carthy  240 

The  Woman  Who  Did,  by  Grant 
Allen 503 

A  Working  Manual  of  American 
Histoid,  by  W.  H.  Mace 757 

Yellow  Beauty,  by  Marion  Martin.  762 

Your  Will;  How  to  Make  It,  by  G.  F. 


XXIV. 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Tucker 505 

Youthful  Eccentricity  a  Precursor 

of  Crime,  by  F.  Winslow 997 

"Little  Boy  Blue" 781 

Liu,  agitator  in  Formosa 8<K) 

Liverpool,  N.  S  ,  burned 744 

Loan  exhibition  of  portraits 965 

Lobanof  Rostovski,  Prince,  Russian 

foreign  minister 193 

Lockhart,  Sir  W.,  British  military 

commander 201 

Locomotive  testing  plant 961 

Loisette,  A.,  on  Memory 757 

Lombroso,  I^of.  C,  author 488 

Lome,  Dupuy  de,   Sefior,    Spanish 

minister  at  Washington 191 

London  county  council  elections —  177 
Long  Island,  Battle  of,   Monument 

to  Maryland  patriots 660 

Long,  Judge  C.  D.,  Pension  case  of  476 
Long,     Walter,    president    British 

Board  of  Agriculture 417 

Loomis,  Dr.  A.  L.,  obit 240 

Lopez,  Gen.,  made  governor-general 

of  Cuba 57G 

Lorain,  O.,  Disaster  at 985 

Loring,  Sir  W.,  K.  C.  B.,  obit 255 

Lothaire,    Captain,    Arrest   of,    in 

Stokes  case 958 

Lottery  traffic.  Suppression  of 102 

Louisiana,  Mafia  outbreak  in 638 

Louisville,    Ky.,    State  democratic 

convention  at 297 

Loven,  S.  L.,  obit 772 

Lowe,  C.  M.  A.,  author 995 

Low,  Sir  R.,  British  commander  in 

Chitral 201,  448 

Low,  Hon.  Seth,  Gift  of,  to  Colum- 
bia College 385 

Lowndes,  Lloyd,  governor  of  Mary- 
land  640,  849 

L.  S.  &  M.  S.  R'y  breaks  long-dis- 
tance speed  record 911 

Liiger,      Dr.      Karl,       Anti-Semite 

leader  in  Vienna 944 

Lumby,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  R.,  obit 1015 

Lupin,  M.,  obit 772 

Lutheran  Church 976 

Lynchings 132,  897 

Maartens,  Maarten.  author 761 

Macdonald,  Sir  J.  A.,  Monuments  to 

400,671,  925 

Mace,  W.  H.,  author 757 

Macedonia,  Agitation  in,  83,  .335,  585,  593 
Maceo,  Cuban  insurgent  leader,  see 

Cuban  revolt, 
MacKay,  Rev.  G.  L.,  D.  D.,  author. .  998 

MacKay,  John  W.,  Jr.,  obit 1007 

Mackenzie,  Territory  in  Canada. . . .  924 
Maclaren,  John  C'lan  "),  author. .  ..1001 
Madagascar,  Campaign  of  French  in 

86,  339,  596,  716,  8.57 

Antananarivo  captured 857 

French  protectorate  recognized . .  858 

Mafia  outbreak  in  Louisiana 638 

Mahdi,  The 207 

Mahone,  Gfen.  W.,  obit 1007 

Mail  and  Empire,  Toronto,  amal- 
gamated   159 

Maine  put  in  commission 627 

Majestic,    British    battle-ship, 

launched 178 


Page. 
Malaysia,   Uprising    in    Philippine 

islands 204 

Cannibalism  in  Fiji 201 

Rebellion  in  Timor 714 

Maltby,  Dr.  A  E.,  author 996 

Manchester  ship  canal 178,  932 

Manchuria,  Fighting  in,  see  Yellow 

war. 
Manitoba  school  question,  see  Can- 
ada. 

Man-suffrage  association 980 

Mansur,  Charles  H.,  obit 510 

Mantz,  Paul,  obit 2.55 

Map,  Scene  of  the  Yellow  war 15 

Route  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  ca- 
nal  432 

Chitral  and  other  frontier  regions 

of  British  India 449 

Territory  in  dispul  e  between  Brit- 
ish Guiana  and  Venezuela 787 

The  Dardanelles  and  the  Bospho- 

rus 816 

Mapes,  Victor,  dramatist 460 

Marine  disasters,  see  Disasters. 
Markham,  R.,  pres.    Geographical 

Congress 722 

Marlborough,  Dowager  Duchess  of, 

marries  Lord  Wm.  Beresford,  427 
Marlborough,  Duke  of.  Marriage  of.  912 
Marocco,  see  Morocco. 

Maroons  in  Jamaica  revolt 674 

Marriage  custom  defied 934 

Man-iage  laws,  Hungarian,  see  Aus- 
tria-Hungary. 
Marriages,  Hon.  G.  N.  Curzon,  M.  P., 

to  Miss  Leiter 388 

Princess  Helfined'Orleans  to  Duke 

of  Aosta 427 

Dowager  Duchess  of  Marlborough 

to  Lord  Wm.  Beresford 427 

Duke  of  Marlborough  to  Miss  Van- 

derbilt 912 

Mr.  A.  Paget  to  Miss  P.  Whitney .    912 

Marshall,  H,  R.,  author 485 

Martha,  Benjamin  Constant,  obit...  518 
Marti,   Jose,  Cuban    revolutionary 

leader 59 

Death  of 323 

Biography  of 325 

Martin,  Marion,  authoress ....  762 

Marvil,  Gov.  J  P.  H.,  obit 510 

Maryland  patriots.  Monument  to..  6C0 
Maryland,   Political    campaign    in 

640,846,  847 

Mascagni,  operatic  writer 220,  968 

Massachusetts,  Political  campaign 

in 847,  898 

Road  improvement  in 385 

Referendum  on  woman  suffrage. . .  980 
Massacres  in  Armenia,  see  Arme- 
nian question. 
Of  missionaries  in  China,  see  Mis- 
sionaries,   Outrages     on,    in 
China. 

At  Port  Arthur 28 

Masso,  Bartolom6,  proclaimed  preiji- 

dent  by  Cuban  insurgents 576 

Mathews,  F.  S..  author 485 

Matterhorn  climbed  by  Miss  A.  S. 

Peek 6.55 

Matthews,  Brander,  author 1001 

Maxey,  S.  B,  pbit 768 


INDEX. 


XXV. 


Page. 

Maxim  rapid-firing  gun 359 

May  day  demonstration^ 428 

May,  Mgr.  Micliael,  obit  246 

McAdie,  Mr.,  see  Hodgkins  prizes. 

McAllister,  Ward,  obit 

McAnally,  Rev.  Dr.,  obit 

McCarthy,  Justin  Hnntiy,  author.. .  240 
McCiure,  Admiral,  in  Chinese  ser- 
vice     22 

McCook,  Maj.-Gen.  A.  McD.,  U.  S. 

A.,  retired 353 

McCulloch,  Hugh,  obit 511 

McCulIoch,  Rev.  Dr.  W.,  obit 768 

McDonald,  Marshall,  obit 768 

McFadden,  C.  K.,  author 748 

McGarey,  J.  R-.  dramatist 463 

McKinley    tariff  and  that  of  1894 

compared 47 

See  Tariff. 
McLaughlin,  W.  W.,  Inspector,  New 
York   (dty   police,    convicted 

140,  377 

McMillan,  W.  F.,  Toronto    incen- 
diary   925 

McPherson,  Edward,  obit 1007 

Meade,  Richard   W.,  rear-admiral, 

U.  S.  N.,  retired 355 

Biography  of 356 

Medicine,  Progress  in,  see  Science. 
Me-Kong,    Upper,    territorial    dis- 
pute  557,  829 

Melchers,  Cardinal  Paul,  obit 1015 

Memphis  sound-money  convention.  289 

Free-silver  convention 293 

Mendeleeff's  periodic  law,  and  ar- 
gon  269 

Menelek,  king  of  Abyssinia 955 

Meitjury,  Transit  of 213 

Meredith,  George,  author 1001 

Meredith,  R.,  author 999 

Merriam,  Prof.  Augustus  C,  obit...  246 

Merrill,  Rev.  G.  E.,  author . .  234 

Merritt,  Brig.-Gen.  Wesley,  U.  S.  A., 

promoted  major-general 354 

Biography  of 

Message,  Venezuelan,  of  Pres.  Cleve- 
land   

Financial,  of  Pres.  Cleveland 

Metal  for  type,  New 460 

Methodist  Church,  Problems  of 740 

Church  dedicated  in  Rome 741 

Metternich,  Prince,  obit 255 

Meunier,  L6on,  obit 7 68 

Mexican  free  zone 106 

Mexican-Guatemalan  dispute  92, 345,  599 
Mexico,  lion.  M.  W.  Ransom  of  IS. 

C,  U.  S.  minister  to. 143 

Conviction  for  duelling  in 675 

Indian  uprising  in  Yucatan 675 

Business  condition 675 

3Iexico  wrecked  on  Labrador  coast.  672 
Miles,  Gen.  Nelson  A.,  made  com- 
mander U.  S.  A 618 

Biography  of 619 

Miley,  Rev.  Dr.  John,  obit 1007 

Military  systems  of  Europe 

Militia.  Naval,  U.  S 359 

Millard,  Harrison,  obit 768 

Millard  Spencer  C,  obit 1007 

Mi'ler,  J.  R.,  author 092 

Miller,  J.  W..  author     990 

Mills,  Hon.  Roger    Q.,  of    Texas, 


Pagk. 

silver  ranks 565 

Miln,  L.  J.,  author 759 

Milne,  Mr.  A.  R.,  made  a  C.  M.  G. ..  400 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Fire  in 228 

Mindanao,  Spanish  victory  in 204 

Miners'  congress,  International 428 

Miners'  strike  (iron)  jn  Michigan...  629 
Mines,  Gold    and    silver,  see  Gold 
and  Silver  production, 

Minghetti,  Monument  to 703 

Minmg  disasters,  see  Disasters. 

Mining,  Gold,  Ne\;  process  in 459 

See  Gold  and  Silver  production. 
Minneapolis,  Episcopal  convention 

at    969 

Minor,  J.  B.,  obit 768 

Minto,  William,  LL.  D.,  author 236 

Mints,  U.  S.,  Operations  of,  1895. ...  883 
Mint  established  at  Denver,  Colo. . .  106 
"Missing  Link,"  alleged  find  in  Java  216 
Missionaries,  Outrages  on,  in  China. 

Their  causes 532 

The  Cheng-Tu  Riot 533 

Hwa-Sang  or  Ku-Cheng  massacre  535 
American  mission  at  Fat-Shan  at- 
tacked  538,  543 

Foreign  commissions  of  inquiry. .  543 
Spread  of  mission  work  and  for- 
eign problems  arising 538,  545 

The  "Vegetarians" 541 

Execution  of  murderers 543 

An  ultimatum  from  Great  Britain  544 
Arguments  for  and  against  mis- 
sions  545 

Ku-Cheng  investigation 8.55 

Missiones  boundary  a\\  ai  d 95 

Missions,  Foreign,  Arguments   for 

and  against 545 

The  American  Board 976 

Missouri  democratic  convention....  564 
Mohonk  Lake  Indian  conference...  885 
Monetary  problem  in  U.  S.-- 

Evils  cf  the  currency  system SO 

Attempted  currency  legislation..  32 
President    Cleveland's    currency 

message 36 

Defeat  of  "Currency  Bill  No.  3". .    36 

Sherman  treasury  relief  bill 37 

Senator  Jones  of  Arkansas,  Pro- 
posals of 38 

Bond  issues 40,  843 

Gold  outflow 40,  111,  ;  50,  833 

See  Gold  outflow  from  U.  S. 
Free-silver  conference  in  Wrsh- 

ington 43 

American  bimetallic  party 43,    98 

International  bimetallism 45.  298 

Another  monetary  conference 47 

Free-silver  coinage  question 

43,   97,    285,   287,  289,  293,  296, 

345,  842,  865 

New  use  of  term  "bimetallism"..  285 
Relation  of  currency  and  prices.  286 
Influence     of      Coin's     Fihancial 

School 287,  490 

President  Cleveland's  letter 287 

Memphis    sound-money    conven- 
tion   289 

Memphis  free-silver  convention..  293 
Springfield  free-silver  convention.  296 
Republican  League  convention...  296 
Kentucky  democratic  convention  297 


XXVI. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Politics  and  silver 345 

Secretary  Carlisle's  report 833 

Effects  of  silver  legislation 834 

Proposed  retiremeut  of  legal-ten- 
der notes 

President      Cleveland's      special 

message  on  finance 836 

Tariff  ciianges  proposed  in  con- 


New  bond  bill  proposed 841 

Silver  substitute  inserted 842 

Patriots    of    America,    a    silver 

league,  organized 

See  Silver  question,  and  Treasury, 
U.S. 

Money  circulation  in  U.  S 

110,  352,  615,  883 

Money  stock  of  the  world 884 

Monotype,  Lanston 961 

Monroe  doctrine.  The 80 

See  Bluefields  incident.  The. 

In  Venezuelan  matter 90,  793,  798 

See  Venezuelan  question. 

Book  on 990 

Montague,  Hon,  Dr.,  made  Canadian 

secretary  of  state 159 

Made  minister  of  agriculture 914 

Montegut,  J.  B.,  obit 1015 

Montenegro,  Kegular  army  in 948 

Monument,  Confederate,  dedicated 

in  Chicago,  111 .387 

ToSirJohnA.Macdonald.400,  671,  925 

To  Maryland  patriots 660 

To  M.  Ch6nier,  at  Chrysler's  Farm.  671 
To   Emperor   William  I.    of  Ger- 
many    699 

To  Cavour  and  Minghetti 

Moon,  Water  on 726 

Moore,  J.  W.,  author 489 

Moore,  Willis  L.,  head  of  Weather 

bureau 654 

Mora  claim 342,  598 

Morgan-Belmont  bond  syndicate  40,  617 

Morgan,  C.  L.,  autlior 486 

Morgan,  T.  J.,  author 750 

Morley,  Arnold 687 

Morley,  Prof.  E.  W.,  pres.  A.A.A.S., 

Biography  of 719 

Morley,  Rt.  Hon.  John 687 

Mormon  Church  in  politics  —     ...  908 

Morocco,  Rebellion  in 207,  9.58 

Outrages  on  Europeans 603 

Morris,  J.,  author 758 

Morris,  John  A.,  obit 511 

Morris,  L.  B.,  obit 768 

Morris,  Lewis,  knighted 427 

Morton,  Hon.  J.  S.,  sec.  of  agricul- 
ture. Report  of 909 

Morton,  Levi  P.,  governor  of  N.  Y. 

state 133,  138 

Mosquito  territory,   s^e   Bluefields 
incident. 

Mott-Smith,  Dr.  J.,  obit 769 

Mudgett,   Herman  W.,    accused  of 

many  murders 638,  897 

Mulct  law,  Iowa,  declared  constitu- 
tional    367 

Municipal  reform  in  New  York- 
Administration  of  Mayor  Strong 

133,  374 

Non-partisan  appointments 135 

Power  of  removal  bill 135,  376 


Page. 

Report  of  Lexow  committee 137 

The  Lexow  bills 138 

Committee  of  Ten,  N.  Y 13.5,  139 

Police  bills 139,  140,  373,  640 

Corrupt  officials  indicted 140,  640 

Police-Supt.  Byrnes  censured  by 

grand  jury 140 

Bi-partisan  police  bill 374 

New  police  commissioners 375 

Committee  of  Seventy  disbands. .  377 
Sunday  excise  law  enforcement 

641,  902 

See  New  Y^ork. 
Murders,  see  Crimes,  Notable. 
Murray.  Sir  H.  H.,  Newfoundland 
relief  commissioner  and  gov- 
ernor  405,  674 

Murray,  T.  D.,  author 498 

Muruaga,  Senor,   Spanish  minister 

at  Washington 58,  190 

Muscat,  Uprising  in 202 

Music  and  the  Drama— 

Trilby,  dramatized 219 

Gossip,  presented  by  Mrs.  Langtry  219 

An  Ideal  Husband 219 

Mine.  Bejane,  First  Ameiican  ap- 
pearance of 219 

Heart  of  Ruby 219 

First  appearance  in  America  of 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Beerbohm  Tree.  219 
Verdi's     Falstaff     produced     in 

America . . . ,' 219 

Deaf-mutes  present  a  drama  on 

the  stage 219 

Eatcliffe,  by  Mascagni 220 

J ohn-a- Dreams,  play 220 

Niblo's  Garden,  N.  Y.  city,  to  be 

torn  down 220 

Grand  opera  in  New  York 220 

Y^saye,  violinist 220 

King  Arthur,  presented  by  Henry 

Irving 220,  735 

The  American  Flag 463 

Pudd%n''liead  Wilson  dramatized.  463 

'The  Tzigane 463 

The  Jied  Queen 463 

For  Fair  Virginia 463 

Aladdin,  Jr 464 

A  Daughter  of  the  Eevolution 464 

Hamlet  II 464 

Rubinstein's  Vhristus  produced  in 

Bremen 464 

Don  Quixote,  Mr.  Irving  appears  in  464 

Fortunio 465 

The  Notorious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith 465 

Harold 465 

Magda 465 

La  Comtesse  de  Lisne 466 

The  Triumph  of  t/ie  PhUislines. ...  466 

A  Story  of  Waterloo 736 

Tlie  Chieftain 736 

The  Capitol 736 

The  Great  Diamond  Robbery 736 

That  Imprudent  Young  Couple —  736 

A  Social  Highwayman 736 

The  Wizard  of  the  Nile 736 

In  Sight  of  St.  PanVs 737 

The  Queen  of  Liars 737 

Remains  of  Bach  identified 737 

Welsh  Eisteddfod 7.37 

Another  Greek  hymn  to  Apollo..  737 
Hansel  and  Gretel 968 


INDEX. 


XXVII. 


Page. 

The  mart  of  Maryland 968 

LeOTiardo 908 

Ambition 908 

Benedict  Arnold 968 

Sylvano,  by  Mascagrni 908 

MarceUe,  by  V.  Sardou 968 

Tommy  Atkins 969 

La  Jacquene 969 

Cinderella 969 

A  yVoman''s  Reason 969 

Mustapha  Pasha  Fehmy,  Egyptian 

premier 958 

Nansemond,  Sinking  of  the 987 

NashvUle,  Launch  of  the 887 

Nason,  Prof.  Henry  B.,  obit 247 

Natalie,  ex-queen  of  Servia,  returns 

to  Belgrade 447 

National  bank  note  boycott 570 

National  Council  of  Education 733 

National  Educational  Association  .  733 

National  Reform  Conference 606 

Navies  of  the  world 480 

Navigation  laws  (Great  Lakes) 100 

Navy,  U.  S.,  Armor-plate  and  ord- 
nance tests..  11 7,  357,  359,  C24,  889 

Rear- Admiral  Greer  retired 118 

Rear-Admiral  VVm.    A.  Kirkland 

119,  890 

Retirement     of      Rear  -  Admiral 

Richard  W.  Meade 3.")5 

Strength  of  the  naval  militia 3.')9 

Fore  and  aft  fire 6;i3 

Speed  of  ColunMa 623 

Court-martial  of  Capt.  Sumner. . .  624 

New  navy  rifle 626 

Turret  controversy 626 

New  gunboats 627 

Texas Kud  Maine  commissioned...  627 

Launch  of  the  Brooklyn 887 

Launch  of  the  Nashville  and  Wil- 

mitigton 887 

New  battle-ship  Kearsarge 888 

Speed  of  the  Indiana 888 

Ram  Katahdin  rejected 889 

The  Texas  damaged 890 

Nebraska  democratic  convention . .  640 

Nebula  in  Scorpio  discovered 726 

Negro  population  in  IT.  s 480 

Negro  question,  see  South  Carolina, 
and  Cotton  States  Exposition. 
Newcomb,    Prof.    Simon,    astrono- 
mer, elected  associate  acade- 
mician by  French  Academy. ..  386 
Newfoundland,  Causes  of  financial 

crisis  in ., 160 

Cabinet  changes 162 

Conference  to  discuss  union  with 

Canada  163,  401 

Relief  work  under  Sir  H.  H.  Mur- 
ray   405 

Troubles  on  west  shore  revived . .  673 
Sir  H.  H.  Murray  appointed  gov- 
ernor   674 

New  coal  deposits  found 920 

Smuggling  scandals 920 

New  Jersey,  Official  corruption  in. .  307 

Political  campaign  in 847 

Chi  istian  unity  platform 973 

New  Orleans,  Outrage  on  colored 

workmen  at 124 

New  South  Wales,  see  Australasia. 
Newspaper,  Telephone — 704 


Pace. 

Newton,  Gen.  John,  obit 511 

New  unionists 693 

New  York.  Municipal  reform  in 

132,  137,  369,  373,  607,  640,  815, 

848,  900 

Administration  of  Mayor  Strong 

133,  375 

Work  of  Dr.  Parkhurst  and  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of 

Crime 1.33 

Power  of  removal  bill 135 

Non-partisan  appointments 1.35 

Opposition  of  T.  C.  Piatt  to  Mayor 

Strong 136 

Report  of  Lexow  committee 137 

Lexow  bills 138 

Committee  of  Ten 135,  139 

Police  bills 139.  140,  .373,  374 

Corrupt  officials  indicted 140 

Supt.  Byrnes  censured 140 

Retires .376 

Library  consolidation 141 

Power  of  removal  bill 369 

Canal  improvement 140,  369 

Election  laws 369 

Tenement  house  bills ...  140,  369 

Other  legislative  enactments 369 

Raines  ballot  bill 370 

Gray-Percy  rachigbill 370 

Additional    temperance    instruc- 
tion   370 

Rights  of  colored  people  and  He- 
brews protected 371 

Woman-suffrage    amendment 

pa!?ses  legislature 372 

Convict  labor  in  prisons 373 

"Greater    New    York  "bill   de- 
feated  372 

Charities  and  correction  depart- 
ments separated 374 

Removals  and   appointments  by 

Mayor  Strong fi75 

Police  justices  bill  passed 375 

Police  courts  reorganized 375 

Dismissal    of   Capt.    Devery    re- 
versed    376 

Inspector  W.  W.  McLaughlin  sen- 
tenced  377,  640 

Committee  of  Seventy  disbands..  377 
Hudson   river   bridge    plans   ap- 
proved    377 

Harlem  ship  canal  opened 383 

Washington  Arch  dedicated 387 

Police    census   of   population  of 

New  York  city 387 

Police  board  reorganization 640 

Sunday-excise  laws  enforced.  607,  641 

Influence  of  Tammany 642,  845 

German-American  Reform  Union.  645 
German-American  Citizens'  Union  646 
Republican  League  convention...  647 

Repubhcan  state  convention 047 

Democratic  state  convention 648 

Defeat    of    reform    interests   in 

N.  Y.  city 845,  848,  899,  900,  902 

Electoral  campaign  in 899 

Good  Government  strength  901 

Code  of  civil  procedure  revised. . .  903 
New  York  University,  Anonymous 

gift  to 386 

Gift  of  Miss  Helen  M.  Gould  to.. . .  386 
New  Zealand,  see  Australasia. 


XXVIII. 


INDEX. 


672 


94^ 


Page. 

Ne.  Perc6s  reservation  opened 887 

Niblo's    (lardoii,  N    Y.  city,  to  be 

torn  down 220 

Nicaragua  canal 164 

United  States   govt,    commission 

appointed 165 

Reports  and  prospects  927 

Work  on 990 

Nicaragua,  Dispute  of,  witli  Great 
Britain,    see     Bluelields    inci- 
dent. 
Nicliolas  II.,  czar  of  Russia,  upholds 

absolutism 192 

Niger  country,  see  Africa,  Partition 
of. 

Nihilism  in  Russia 70.5 

Nile  region  in  Africa,    see  Africa, 
Partition 'of. 

Nipissing  county  seat  election 670 

Nitti,  P.  S.,  author 749 

Noailles,  Due  de,  author 2.3.3 

Nordau,  Max,  author 487 

Norman,  Henry,  author 502 

Norman,  Sir  Henry,   retires  as  gov- 
ernor of  Queensland 95.3 

North  Carolina  silver  convention. ..  564 

Northend,  C,  author 757 

North  Land,  Launch  of  the 146 

North  sea  and  Baltic  canal,  see  Ger- 
many. 
Northwest  Territorial  exhibition... 
Norway  and  Sweden  Stang  minis 

try  resigns 194, 

Gothenburg  system 222 

German  and  Russian   interests  in 

Scandinavian  question 445 

Prospects  of  conciliation 709,  948 

Hagerup  cabinet  formed  in  Nor- 
way      947 

Commission  to  settle  the  dispute  948 
Novakovitch.  M.,  Servian  premier..  447 
Novels,  see  Literature. 

November  elections 844 

See  Politics,  U.  S. 

Nowlein,  Hawaiian  rebel 66 

Nubar  Pasha,  Egyptian  premier,  re- 
tires   9.58 

Oat  crop,  1895 983 

O'Brien,  Sir   Tei-ence,  governor  of 
Newfoundland,  see  New- 
foundland. 
O'Brien,   Wm.,    Irish   M.  P.,  bank- 
rupt, retires 427 

Ocean  depth,  Greatest 903 

O'Ferrall,     governor    of    Virginia, 

leaves  silver  ranks  5G5 

Ohio.  Political  campaign  in 566,  847 

Ohl,  P.  P.,  Princeton  freshman,  fa- 
tally shot 366 

Oil  "boom,"  The,  in  U.  S 348 

Old  unionists 693 

Oliver,  Prof.  James  Edward,  obit...  247 
Olney,   Atty.-Gen.,    succeeds  W.  Q. 

Gresham  as  secretary  of  slate  382 
Dispatch  of,  to  Ambassador  Bay- 
ard on  Venezuelan  matter 791 

Olszewski,  Prof.  K.,  eminent  chem- 
ist   210,  263,  459,  732 

Oman,  Arabia,  Uprising  in 202 

Omnibus  strike  in  Paris 430 

Ontario  legislature 154 

See  Canada. 


Page. 
Operatic  productions,  see  Music  and 

the  Drama. 
Opium,  Use  of,  in  India,  Report  of 

royal  ccjmmission  on 42a,  ( 50 

Ordnance  tests,  see  Navy,  U.  S. 
Orinoco  delta,  see  Venezuelan  ques- 
tion. 
Orient,  Situation  in  the— 
Decline  of  England's  commercial 

preponderance 549 

Political  agitation  in  Japan 551 

Relations  of  China  to  England, 
France,  Germany,  Russia,  and 

Japan 544,  549,  553,  824 

Russo-French    guarantee    of  in- 

deijinity  to  Japan 553,  825 

Anti-Japanese  agitation  in  Korea 

5.53,  826 

Subjugation    of  Black    Flags  in 

Pormosa .308,  .5.5.5,  829 

Commercial  concessions  granted 

by  China 556 

Anglo-French  dispute  over  terri- 
torial concessions  of  China  on 

upper  Me-Kong 557,  829 

Political    adjustments    resulting 

from  Japan-China  war 824 

Extension  of  trans-Siberian  rail- 
way to  Port  Arthur 825 

Port  Arthur  restored  to  China 826 

Coup  (Tetat  in  Korea 826 

Commercial  and  industrial  pros- 
pects of  Japan  and  China 830 

See  Yellow  war. 
Oscillator,  Electric,  of  Mr.  Tesla... .  4.57 
Ottawa,  Ont.,  Report   on  separate 

schools  in 669 

Winter  carnival 160 

Ottoman  empire.  Crisis  in  the,  see 

Armenian  question. 
Outhwaite,  Hon.  J.  H.,  of  Ohio,  in 

currency  debate 35,  144 

Outrages,  Anti-missionary,  in  China, 
see  Missionaries,  Outrages  on, 
in  China. 
Armenian,  see  Armenian  question. 

Oxford-Cambridge  boat  race 178 

Oxford-Cambridge      challenge     to 

Yale  and  Harvard .363 

Oxley,  J.  Macdonald,  author 761 

Pacific  cable 921 

See  Canada  and  Hawaii. 

Pacific  railroads'  debt 109 

Paget-Whitney  wedding 912 

Paintings,  James  Price    collection 

sold 462 

Paintings,  Renwick  collection.. 461,  965 
Pak  Yong  Ho,  Korean  home  minis- 
ter. Flight  of 554 

Palaeontology,  see  Science. 

Pamir  dispute  settled 96,  343,  604 

Panama  canal,  Strike  on 677 

Prospects  of  completion 92? 

Pan-American  Congress  of  Religion 

and  Education  732 

Pape,  von,  Gen.  A.  A.  W.,  obit 518 

Paris,  Omnibus  strike  in 430 

Park,    Chickamauga    and    Chatta- 
nooga   655 

Gettysburg 103 

Parker,  Gen.  E.  S.,  obit 769 

Parkhurst,  Rev.  C.  H.,  D.  D.,  author 


INDEX. 


XXIX. 


Page. 

reformer aiisJ 

Parliamentary  Arbitration  Confer- 
ence   582 

Parliament,  British,  see  British  par- 
liament and  Great  Britain. 

Parsons,  Alfred,  author 999 

Pasteur,  Louis,  obit 772 

Biofiraphy  of 521 

Patents,  Life  of 224 

Granted  in  U.  S 227 

Berliner  microphone,  valid 475 

Foreifjn.  in  Russia 707 

Patriots  of  America  organized 865 

Patten,  Prof.  S.  N.,  author 991 

Patterson.  Sir  J.  B.,  obit 1015 

Patterson,  Hon.  J.  C,  lieut.-gov.  of 

Manitoba 159,  C64 

Paulsen,  Prof.  F.,  author 237 

Pauncefote,  Sir  Julian,  British  am- 
bassador at  Washington 

: 75,  798,  801 

Payne-Smith,  Very    Rev.   Kobert, 

obit 519 

Peace  Conference,  International. . .  582 
Peary  arctic  expedition.  Results  of  723 
Pebrine,  Study  of,  by  Pasteur. .  .523,  528 
Peck.  ;^Iiss  A.  S.,  climbs  Matterhorn  655 
Peckham,  Rufus  W.,  of  N.  Y.,  assoc. 

justice  U.  S.  supreme  court...  908 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  obit 519 

Peel,  Speaker,  of  British  house  of 

commons  resigns 175,  414 

Pegamoid • 731 

Peixoto,  Floriano,  ex-president  of 

Brazil,  obit 511 

Penfield,  F.  (;.,  U.  S.  consul  at  Cairo, 

Report  of 716 

Pennsylvania    republican    conven- 
tion  507,  G50 

Pension  decision  in  case  of  Judge 

C.  D.  Long  of  Michigan 476 

Pension  laws  amended 104 

Periodic  law^  of  Mendel6eff 269 

Persia,  Earthquakes  at  Kuchan 202 

Bread  riots  in  Tabriz 711 

Peru,  Revolution  in 169 

Resignation  of  President  Caceres 
and  elevation  of  Sciior  c'an- 

damo 170,  411 

Gen.  Nicolas  de  Pierola  elected 

president 682 

Peru  and  Bolivia 601 

Peru,     Colombia,     and     Ecuador, 

Boundary  dispute  of 863 

Pescadore  islands 22,  308 

See  Yellow^  war. 
I'etrie,  Pi-of.  W.  M.  Flinders,  author  2a5 

Discoveries  of,  in  Egypt — 407 

Phantoscope 963 

Philadelphia,   Penn.,  Investigation 

of  affairs  of 377 

Trolley  strike  891 

Philippine  islands,  Spanish  victorv 

in 204 

Formosa  boundary 604 

Phillips,  Henry,  obit 512 

Philosophy,  Books  on,  see  Litera- 
ture. 

Phosphate  industry 227 

Photochromoscope 963 

Photographs  transmitted  by   elec- 
tricity  454 


Page. 

Photography  in  colors 45-1,  963 

Physics,  see  Science. 

Pickard,  S.  T  ,  author 236 

Pierola,  Gen.,  president  of  Peru 682 

Pilcher,  P.  S.,  aerial  navigator 9&3 

Pilling,  James  C,  obit 769 

Pillsbury,  H.  N.,  chess  champion...  035 
Pilocarpine,  used  iu  consumption...  459 

Pinero,  dramatist 465 

Pithecanthropus    erectus.  Fossil  of, 

found  in  Java 216 

Pittenger,  W.,  author 763 

Pixley,  F.  M.,obit 769 

Piatt,  Ex-Senator  Thomas  C,  of  N. 

Y.,  opposes  Mayor  Strong 1.36 

Poet  laureate.  New,  of  England —  933 
Poetry,  Books  of,  see  Literature. 
Polar  exploration,  see  Science. 
Police  bills,  N.  Y.,  see  New  York. 
Pohtical  Economy,  Books  on,  see 

Literature. 
Politics,  British,  see  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  British  par- 
liament. 
Politics,  U.  S.— 
Aspects  of  the  free-silver   ques- 
tion  97,  345 

Formation  and  platform  of  the 

American  bimetallic  party 98 

Sound-money  and  free-silver  cam- 
paigns   287 

The  fall  campaign 605,  844 

National  Reform  Conference.. 606,  865 

The  November  elections 60.5,  844 

Tabulated  results 849 

Republican  national  convention . .  864 
Prohibition  national  convention. .  805 

Patriots  of  America 865 

See    Silver    question.    Monetary 
problem,  and  Conventions. 
Polish   paintings  at  World's   Fair 

sold 462 

Ponsonby,  Gen.  Sir  Henry  F.,  obit.. 1015 

Poole,  Prof.  Reginald,  obit 247 

Pooling  bill  fails 109 

Pope,  Dr.  H.   E.,   Detroit,   Mich., 

murdered 131 

Pope  Leo  XIII.,  see  Religion. 

"Pop-gun"  bills  dropped 110 

Population  of  the  earth 4^0 

Population  of  U.  S.,  1894  and  1895. .  352 

Porritt,  Edw^ard,  author 233 

Portraits— 
Albrecht,  Archduke,  of  Austria..  251 

Alphonso  XIII ,  king  of  Spain 189 

Alvey,  Judge  R.  11.,  of  Maryland.  788 

Anthony,  Miss  Susan  B 742 

Atty.-Gen.  Sifton  of  Manitoba. . . .  891 
Badeni,  Count,  Austrian  premier..  945 

Balfour  Gerald 938 

Bate,  Hon.  W.  B.,  of  Tennessee. . .  291 

Berenberg,  von.  Baron  Buol 435 

Bissell,  Hon.  WMlson  S.,  of  N.  Y.. .  144 

Blackie,  Prof.  John  Stuart 252 

Bogran,  Luis,  of  Honduras 771 

Bond,  Hon.  Robert,  of  Newfd 403 

Bourgeois,  M.,  French  premier 941 

Brewer,  Justice  David  J.,  of  Kan.  786 

Broadus,  Rev.  John  A.,  D.  D 242 

Burns,  John,  M.  P 429 

Caine,  Hall,  British  novelist 918 

Cambridge,  Duke  of 690 


XXX. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Portraits— 

Campbell-Bannerman,  Rt.  Hon.  11.  175 

Campbell,  Hon.  James  E.,  of  Ohio  .566 

Campos,  Marshal  Martinez  de —  8.51 

Canovas  del  Castillo,  Seilor 322 

Carlos  I.,  king  of  Portugal 946 

Casimir-Perier,  M 184 

Chandler,  Hon.  Wm.  E  .  of  N.  H. .  806 

Churchill,  Lord  Randolph 2.53 

Collier,  Charles  A 877 

Coxe,  Rt.  Rev.  A.  C 972 

Crespo,  General  Joaquin 89 

Cummings,  Hon.  Amos  J.,  of  N.  Y.  900 

Curran,  Hon.  J.  J 1.58 

Currie.  Sir  Philip 813 

Dalzell,  Hon.  John,  of  Penn 842 

Daniel,  Hon.  John  W.,  of  Virginia    46 

Delyannis,  Theodor 949 

Denby,  Hon.  Charles,  of  Indiana..    23 
Dingley.  Hon.  Nelson,  Jr.,  of  Maine  835 

Djevad  Pasha 327 

Douglass,  Frederick,  opposite  p..      1 

Dufferin,  Marquis  of 935 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  the  younger..  1013 

Duu,  Hon.  Edwin,  of  Ohio 306 

Emerson,  Hon.  George  H 674 

Emperor  of  Japan 302 

Empress  of  Japan 303 

Eustis,  Hon.  James  B.,  of  La 53 

Evans,  Hon.  John  Gary,  of  S.  C. . .  378 
Fassett,  Hon.  J.  Sloat,  of  N.  Y. . .  046 

Faure,  M.  F61ix  FranQois 185 

Field,  Eugene,  opposite  page.   ...  775 
Foster,  Hon.  John  W.,  of  Indiana,    24 

Fournier,  Hon.  T 667 

George,  Hon.  J.  Z.,  of  Mississippi  561 

Giers,M.de 193 

Girouard,  Hon.  Desire 92.5 

Goluchowski,  Count  Agenor 705 

Gomez,  Maximo 853 

Gorman,  Hon.  A.  P.,  of  Maryland  639 

Gorst,  Sir  John  E 930 

Goschen,  Hon.  George  J 415 

Grant,  Rev.  G.  M.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. . .  394 
Gray,  Hon.  Isaac  Pusey,  of  Ind. . .  245 

Greenway.  Hon.  Thomas 390 

Gresham,  Hon.  W.  Q.,  of  Indiana.  509 

Gully.  Rt.  Hon.  Wm.  Court 086 

Halsbury,  Lord 683 

Hamilton,  Lord  George 711 

Hardie,  James  Keir 695 

Harmon,  Hon.  Judson 384 

Harvey,  W.  H.  ("  Coin  ") 569 

Harwood,  Hon.  W.  H 673 

•  Haycock,  Joseph,  M.  P.  P 917 

Henderson,  Hon.  D.  B.,  of  Iowa.  868 

Hicks-Beach,  Sir  Michael 416 

Hitt,  Hon.  Robert  R.,  of  III 805 

Houghton,  H.  O.,  publisher 765 

Huxley,  Prof.  Thomas  Henry....  516 
Irby,  Hon.  John  L.  M.,  of  S.  C.  652 

Irvmg,  Sir  Henry,  actor 7.36 

Ismail  Pasha 254 

Jackson,  Justice  Howell  E 708 

Jones,  Hon.  James  K.,  of  Ark...    .37 
Justices  of  U.  S.  supreme  court. .  275 

Kabayama,   Viscount 20 

Katsura,   Lieut.-Gen 14 

Kirkpatrick,  Hon.  G.  A 664 

Lansdowne,   Marquis  of 419 

Levetzow,  von,  Herr 4.3( 

Liliuokalani 6' 


Page. 

Portraits- 
Long,  Hon.  Walter 931 

Loudon,  James,  M.  A 1.55 

Low,  Hon.  Seth 385 

Low,  Maj.-Gen.  Sir  R.  C 448 

Luger,  Dr.  Karl 944 

Maceo,  Antonio 574 

Mackintosh,  Hon.  C.  H 661 

Maria  Christina,  queen-regent  ...  190 

Marlborough.  Duke  of 911 

Marter,  Hon.  George  F 670 

McAllister,  Ward 246 

McMillin,  Hon.  Benton .56 

Meade.  Rear-Admiral R.W., U.S.N.  355 

Milan  I.,  ex-king  of  Servia 447 

Mills,  Hon.  Roger  Q.,  of  Texas...  565 

Morley,  Rt.  Hon.  John 687 

Morris,  Hon.  Edward 403 

Naples,  Prince  of 702 

Natalie,  Ex-Queen,  of  Servia 708 

Nodzu,  General 18 

Olney,  Hon.  Richard,  of  Mass 383 

Oshima,  Maj.-Gen 17 

Outhwaite,  Hon.  Joseph  H.,  of  O . .  146 
Palmer,  Hon.  John  M..  of  Illinois.  295 
Pasteur,  Louis,  opposite  page. ...  521 

Patterson,  Hon.  J.  C 152 

Peel,  Rt.  Hon.  Arthur  Wellesley.  412 

Piatt,  Hon.  Thomas  C 1.36 

Potter,  Bishop  Henry  C 124 

Prior,  Lieut.-Col.  E.  G 914 

Quay,  Hon.  Matthew  S 651 

Ramsay,  Prof.  William 259 

Rayleigh.  Lord,  opposite  page 2.57 

Reid,  Hon.  George  H 204 

Rhodes,  Rt.  Hon.  Cecil  J 9.54 

Ribot,  M.,  French  prime  minister.  186 

Ridley,  Sir  Matthew  While 932 

Roosevelt,  Hon.  Theodore 899 

Ross,  Hon.  George  W 399 

Sagasta,  Senor 440 

Saigo,  Count,  Japanese  admiral. .     19 

Saint-Hilaire,  Barth61emy 1016 

Sala,  G.  A.,  British  journalist 1017 

Schofield,  Lieut.-Gen.  JohnM....  618 

Seelye,  Julius  H.,  LL.  D 513 

Sherman,  Hon.  John,  of  Ohio 38 

Sibley,  Hon.  Joseph  C,  of  Penn..  346 

Springer,  Hon.  Wm.  M.,  of  111 33 

Stambouloff,  M 587 

Stevens,  Hon.  John  L.,  of  Maine.  248 

Stevenson,  Hon.  Adlai  E 655 

Stewart,  Mrs.  R.  W..  missionary.  538 

Stewart,  Rev.  Robert  W 5.35 

Strong,  William  L.,  mayor  of  N.Y.  133 

Taaffe,  Count  Edward 1018 

Thompson,  Mrs.  Joseph 879 

Thurman,  Hon.  Allen  G.,  of  Ohio.lOlO 

Thurston,  Hon.  L.  A 70 

Tillmau,  Hon.  B.  R.,  of  S.  C 292 

Tupper,  Sir  Charles  Hibbert  149 

Turpie,  SenatorDavid,  of  Indiana.  290 

Victor  Emmanuel,  Prince 702 

Walthall,  Hon.  E.  C,  of  Miss  ...  .562 

Warner,  Hon.  A.  J. ,  of  Ohio 560 

Warner,  Hon.  John  DeWitt 34 

Whipple,  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  B 970 

Willard.  Miss  Frances  E 979 

Williams,  Hon.  Ramon  O a52 

Williams.  Rt.  Rev.  John 971 

Wilson,  Hon.  Wm.  L.,  of  W.  Va..  145 
Zelaya,  Gen.,  pres.  of  Nicaragua.  817 


INDEX. 


XXXI. 


Post,  Philip  Sidney,  obit 247 

Potato  crop,  1895 983 

Port  Arthur  atrocities 28 

Port  Arthur,  Cession  of,  to  Japan, 

opposed 31 1 

Restored  to  China 826 

Porter,  Sir  G.  H.,  obit 519 

Porto  Rico,  Revolutionary  attempt 

in 926 

Portraits,  Loan  exhibition  of 965 

Portugal,  Dispute  with  Brazil  set- 
tled     96 

Electoral  reform  in 191,  946 

Visit  of  King  Carlos  I.  to  Italy 

abandoned 945 

Biography  of  King  Carlos  1 945 

House  of  peers  reorganized 946 

Mutiny  in  Goa 950 

Potter,  Bishop,  of  New  York  city, 

in  mission  work 1 42 

Potter.  Paul  M.,  dramatizes  Tr-Uby.  219 

Foiverful,  Launch  of  the 692 

Powers,  Prof.  H.  H.,  author 492 

Prague,  State  of  siege  in,  raised  —  945 

Pratt,  S  G.,  composer 241 

Presbyterian  assemblies 470 

Prescott,  Benjamin  F.,  obit 247 

Press,  Freedom  of  the 414 

Preston,  Mr.,  director  of  the  mint. 

Report  of 883 

Prices  in  U.  S 112,  114,  347,  875 

See  Business  and  industry. 
Relation  of,  to  volume  of  currency  286 
Prince,  Ex  Governor,  of  New  Mex- 
ico,   Speech   of,  at  Memphis 

free-silver  convention 293 

Pi'inceton  freshmen  shot 366 

Prior,  Lieut.-Col.    E.  G.,  Canadian 

comptroller  of  inland  revenue  914 
Prohibition,  see  Temperance. 

Prouse.  D.  W.,  author 495 

Psychology,  Books  on,  see  Litera- 
ture. 

Psychrometer 729 

Public  debt  of  Canada 665 

Of  U.  S 110,  350,  614,  882 

Public  accounts,  U.  S.— 
Circulation  of  money  110,352.615,  883, 

Receipts  and  expenditures 

47,  111,351,615,  882 

Assets  and  liabilities 614  882 

Gold  reserve 110,  350,  614,  882 

See  Monetary  problem. 

Profits  of  bond  syndicate 617 

The  mints 883 

See  Public  debt,  U.S.;  Treasury, 
and  Commerce,  Foreign,  U.  S. 
Purdue  University  locomotive  test- 
ing plant 961 

Putnam,  D..  author 997 

Quay,  Sen.  M.  S.,  of  Pennsylvania 

567,  651 

Queensberry-Wilde  scandal 425 

Queensland,  see  Australasia. 
Queen's  prize  at  Bisley  won  by  a 

Canadian 672 

Quigley,  E.  O.,  bank  swindler 130 

Quinby,  George  T..  obit 1007 

Quincv,  Josiah,  mayor  of  Boston, 

Mass 899 

Rabies,  Cure  of,  by  Pasteur 531 

Race  question  in  S.  C 879,  658,  903 


Page. 

Races,  see  Sporting. 

Racing  bill.  Gray-Percy,  N.  Y 370 

Railroad  congress.  International...  362 
Railroad  wrecks,  see  Disasters. 

Raih-oads.  Pacific,  Debt  of 109 

Railway  mileage  in  China 202 

Railway  speed  records 6.56,  911 

Raines  ballot  bill,  N.  Y 370 

Ramsay,   Prof.  Wm.,  joint  discov- 
erer of  argon 209,  2.57,  720,  727 

Biography  of 270 

Discoveries  of.  regarding  helium  .  720 
Ransom,  Hon.  M.  W.,  of  N.  C,  U.  S. 

minister  to  Mexico 14S,  654 

Biography  of 143 

Ravenna  and   Chishima  case,  Deci- 
sion reversed 712 

Rawhide  cannon 620 

Kawlinson,  Sir  Henry  C,  Bart.,  G. 

C.  B.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  LL.  D.,  obit.  2.55 

Ray,  W.  D.,  author 718 

Kayleigh,  Lord,  joint  discoverer  of 

argon        209,257,  727 

Biography  of 270 

Read,  Opie,  author 759,  1001 

Receipts,  Govt.,  U.  S.  47,  111,  351, 615,  882 

Reciprocity  policy 54 

Red  Cross  Society  in  Armenia 824 

Reed,  Hon.  Thos.  B.,  of  Me.,  speaker 

of  the  house  of  representatives  867 

Reeve,  Henry,  obit 1016 

Reference  works,  see  Literature. 
Reform  Conference,  National.  .606,  805 
Reform,  Municipal,  see  Municipal 

reform. 
Registration  in  S.  C,  see  South  Car- 
olina. 

Reichensperger.  A.,  obit 772 

Reichstag,  see  Germany. 

Reid  Hon.  G.  H.,  premier  of  New 

South  Wales 713 

Reina  Regente,  Spanish  ship  lost 230 

Rejane.  Mme.,  actress.  First  Amer- 
ican appearance  of 219 

Religion,  the  Pope's  American  en- 
cyclical   221 

Encyclical  to  English  people  on 

church  unity 468 

Presbyterian  general  assemblies..  470 
Presbyterian  Church   committed 

to  temperance 471 

Pan-American  Congress 732 

Christian  Endeavor  Society. .  .739,  978 
Young  People's  Christian  Union 

(Universalist) 740 

Baptist  Young  People's  Union 740 

Methodist  Church  problems 740 ' 

Epworth  League 741,  977 

Seventh  Day  Adventists  arrested.  741 
Reunion  of  Franciscan  monks  —  741 

Bishop  Potter  in  mission  work 742 

Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union.  742 
Protestant     Episcopal     triennial 

convention 969 

Congregational  triennial  council.  973 

Christian  unity 468,  971,  973 

First     Eucharistic     congress    in 

America 974 

Mgr.  Satolli  made  a  cardinal 974 

Leo  Xin.  opposed  to  promiscuous 

religious  congresses 975 

Community  of  St.  Benedict 975 


XXXII. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Lutheran  Church 976 

The  American  Board  97G 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew..  .740,  977 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  and 

Philip 977 

Kinjj's  Daughters . .  978 

Unitarian  conference 978 

Anier.  Society  of  Church  History.  978 

Disciples  of  Christ 978 

Bible  revision  completed 978 

See  Missions,  Foreign. 

Ren  wick,  James,  obit 512 

Bequest  of,  to  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum of  Art 461,  965 

Revenue  of  U.  S.,  see  Receipts,  Govt, 
of  U.  S. 

Rhode  Island  elections 377 

Rhoscomyl,  O.,  author 504 

Ribot  cabinet,  formed  in  France. . .  187 

Fall  of 911 

Rice,  A  H.,  obit 769 

Richardson,  Col.  B.  H.,  obit 1007 

Richlieu  claim 5S)8 

Ridgawav,  Rev.  H  B.,  obit iJ47 

Ridley,  Sir    Matthew  W.,  English 

home  secretary 417 

Rifle,  New  U.  S.  army,  defective. .. .  884 

Riley,  Prof.  C.  V.,  obit    769,  964 

Riot,  Cheng-Tu,  see  Cheng-Tu  riot.  . 
In  Constantinople,  see  Armenian 
question. 

Ritchie,  Alex.  H.,  obit 770 

Ritchie,    C.    T.,    president    British 

Board  of  Trade 417 

Ritter,  Prof.  Ernst,  obit 770 

Road  improvement .385 

Roark,  R.  N.,  author 755 

Robberies,  see  Crimes,  Notable. 


Page. 
Rush-Bagot  treaty,  Proposal  to  ab- 
rogate   862 

Russell,  I.  C,  author. . .  747 

Russell,  Prof.  J.  E. ,  Report  of,  on 

university  extension  inEng..  966 

Russell,  Thomas,  author 230 

Russell,  W.  H.  H.,  obit 770 

Russell,  Dr.  Wm.  H.,  knighted 427 

Russia,  Relations  of,  with  Abyssinia 

207,453,  715 

Relations  of,  with  France 584 

See  European  situation.  General. 
Relations  of,   in  Orient,   see  Ori- 
ent. Situation  in,  and  Yellow 
war. 
Pamir  dispute,  see  Pamir  dispute. 
Nicholas  II.  upholds  absolutism. .  192 
Lobanof  Rostovski  becomes  for- 
eign minister 193 

Designs  of,  in  Korea 310,  313 

Interferes  in  China-Japan   nego- 
tiations   311,314,  825 

Commercial  treaty  of,  with  Japan.  315 
Commercial  treaty  of,  with  Greece  344 
Interests  of,  in  Norway  and  Swe- 
den    445 

Relations    of,    to   Bulgaria    and 

Macedonia 585,  593 

Trades-unionism  in 698 

Nihilism 705 

Abolition  of  private  saloons 706 

Baltic  and  Black  sea  canal 706 

Foreign  patents 707 

M.  de  Cyon  deprived  of  rights. . .    707 

Anti-Jewish  laws 707 

Daughter  born  to  czar 9^6 

Speed  of  torpedo-boat  Sokd 946 

Rustem  Pasha,  obit 1016 

r72 


Robbins.  Mary  W.,  authoress 241  jRydberg,  A.  V.,  obit 

Roberts.  Lord,  British  general.  .426,  752:Ryder,  Dr.  J.  A.,  obit 247 

Robinson,  Dr.  G.  T.,  obit 512|Sackville,  Lord,  Case  of,  recalled. ..  935 

Robinson,  Sir  Wm.,  retiring  gover- 
nor of  Western  Australia 

Roche,  C.  E.,  translator.     


Rochefort,  Henri,  returns  to  Frapce  187 
Rockefeller,  J.  D.,  Gifts  of,  to  Univ. 

of  Chicago 912 

Rogers,  J.  H.,  invents  rapid-printing 

telegraph  machine  456 

Home,  N.  Y.  Central  train  wrecked 


Saenz-PeHa,    President,  of   Argen- 

953  tine  Republic,  resigns 168 

495 'Sagasta  cabinet  in  Spain  resigns. . .  189 


Roosevelt,  Hon  T.,  of  N.  Y 375,  641 

See  New  York. 

Root,  Dr.  G  F.,  obit 770 

Koscoe,  Sir  H.  E.,  author 484 

Rosebery  ministry,  Fall  of 414 

See  British  parliament. 

Rostovski,  Prince  Lobanof,  Bi- 
ography of 193 

Rothermel,  Peter  F.,  obit 770 

Rothschild's  bank  in  Paris,  At- 
tempt to  wreck 697 

Roumania,  Catargi-Carp  ministry 
succeeded  by  one  under  M. 
Sturdza 948 

Rowe,  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  Trimble,  first 
Prot.  Episcopal  missionary 
bishop  of  Alaska 972 

Rovall,  Col.  W.  B.,  obit 1008 

Rubinstein's  Chrislus  produced 464!Saturn,  Rings  of 458,  725 

Ruger,  Brig. -Gen.  T.  H.,  promoted. .  115 [Savage-Land or,  A.  H.,  author 2.39 

Rules  of  the  road  at  sea 178  Savine,  M.,  invents  balloon 731 


Sage-Laidlaw  lawsuit. 

Said  Pasha,  grand  vizier  of  Turkey.  329 

Saint-Hilaire,  Barth61emy,  obit  — 1017 

Sala,  G.  A.,  obit  1018 

Saleilles,  Prof.  R.,  author 751 

Salisbury  cabinet.  New.  in  England  417 

See  British  parliament. 
Salisbury,  Lord,  Speech  of,  on  Ar- 
menia      579 

Characteristics  of 687 

Salisbury,  Prof.  R.  D.,  Peary  relief 

expedition 724 

Salvador,  Conspiracy  in,  suppressed.  164 

Guarantees  payment  of  Nicara- 
guan  indemnity  to  Great  Bri- 
tain   319 

Samoa  land  commission 204 

San  Domingo,  Dispute  with  France 

94,  344 

Uprising  in 926 

Sandwich  islands,  see  Hawaii. 

Sardou,  V.,  dramatic  writer 968 

Sassoun  massacre 327 

See  Armenian  question. 
SatoUi,  Mgr.,  made  a  cardinal 975 


INDEX. 


XXXIIl. 


Page. 
Scandinavian  question,  see  Norway 
and  Sweden. 

Schauffler,  Rev.  A.  E  ,  author 755 

Sfhenk,  C.  E.,  obit '^'^^> 

Schlatter,      Francis,    the     Denver 

'*  healer"  909 

Schofield,  Lieut'-GenV jolin  M '. '.  '..\'u,  618 

Schomburgk  line 89,  788 

See  Venezuelan  question. 

School  question  in  Belgium 707 

In  England 929 

In  Manitoba,  see  Canada. 

Schultz,  Hon.  J.  C 400 

Science — 

Discovery  of  argon 209,  257 

Processes  of  manufacture — 210,  201 

Properties  of  argon 

210, 212,  263,  268,  720 

Argon  and  the  periodic  law 269 

Helium  discovered  on  the  earth 

212,267,720,  901 

New    theory    regarding    auro9'a 

borealis 212,  267 

Transit  of  mercury 213 

Transparency  of  metallic  films. . .  212 

Artificial  cotton 213 

Anti-toxin 213,  727 

Aerial  navigation 215,  726 

Causes  of  earthquakes 216 

Alleged  find  of  the  "missing  link" 

in  Java 216 

Aluminium  tempered 217 

Color  photography "154,  963 

Electro-artograph 454 

Telephoto 4."i6 

Kapid-printing  telegraphy 456 

Mr.  Tesla's  oscillator 457 

Kings  of  Saturn 4.58,  725 

Liquefaction  of  hyd  ■•cgen 4.59,  732 

Cures  for  consumption 459,  727 

New  process  of  gold  extraction  . .  459 

New  type  metal 460 

Chemical  synthesis  of  caEfein 460 

American  Association 718 

British  Association 719 

Geographical  Congress 720 

Antarctic  exploration 721 

African  colonization 722 

Geographical  education 722 

Return  of  Peary  arctic  expedition  723 
Jackson-Harmsworth  expedition  724 
Balloon  expedition  of  M.  Andree..  725 

Comet  of  Faye  returns 725 

Rotation  of  Venus 725 

Water  on  the  moon 726 

Nebula  in  Scorpio  discovered 726 

Hodgkins  prizes 727 

Is  cancer  contagious  ? 728 

Horseless  carriages 728 

Geomagnetifei'e , 729 

Psychrometer 729 

Eidoloscope 730 

Gramophone 730 

Signalling  after  dark 730 

M.  Savine's  balloon 731 

New  type-setting  machine 731 

Crostase 731 

Damascus  steel  process 731 

Gelsoline 731 

Pegamoid 781 

New  stars  discovered 959 

Comets. 725,  959 


Pace. 

Acetylene  gas 960 

Glucinium,  new  metal 961 

Liquid  air 961 

Locomotive  testing  plant 961 

Lanston  monotype 961 

Eophone 962 

Telephotograph 962 

Largest  geodetic  line  measured...   S63 

Thermophone 963 

Phantoscope G63 

Photochromoscope 963 

Greatest  ocean  depth 963 

Largest  black  diamond 964 

Large  diamond  found 964 

Science,  Books  on,  see  Literature. 

Scott,  James  W.,  obit 512 

Sculpture  Society  exhibition 462 

Seal  fisheries  question,  see  Bering 
sea  question. 

Secretan,  Charles,  obit 256 

Sedan  armiversary  celebrated 699 

Seed  distribution  abandoned C.58 

Seeley,  H.  G.,  author 988 

Seeley,  Sir  J.  R.,  author 256,  993 

Seelye,  Julius  H.,  obit 513 

Selborne,  Earl  of,  obit 519 

Self  ridge.  Commodore  T.  O.,  Jr. . . .  890 

Senegal,  Delimitation  of 8.59 

Seoul,  Uprising  in 827 

Serum  cure  for  consumption 727 

Servia,  Elections  in 447 

Return  of  ex-Queen  Natalie  447 

Cabinet  changes 447,  709 

Seventh  Day  Adventists  arrested. . .  741 
Seventy,  Committee  of,  N.  Y....13.5,  377 
Shahzada's  visit  to  England. . .  .424,  692 

Shaw,  Dr.  Albert,  author, 989 

Shaw,  Rev.  Anna  Howard 222 

Shaw,  Rev.  Dr.  John,  obit 1008 

Shaw-Lefevre,  Mr 687 

Shea,  "  Bat, "  resentenced 897 

Shepherd  Capt.  R.  W.,  obit 770 

Sherman,  Hon.  John,  of  Ohio 37 

Shimer,  Mrs.  T:  K.  W.,  Gift  of,  to 

University  of  Chicago 912 

Shimonoseki,  see  Simonoseki. 

Shipbuilders' strike,  British 938 

Ship  canal,  Manchester 932 

Shoe-trade  strike  in  England 429 

Shufeldt,  Rear-Admiral  R.  W.,  obit.1008 
Siam,  Relations  of  France  and  Eng- 
land to 557,  829 

Siberian  railway.  Extension  of 825 

Sibley,  Hon.  J.  C,  of  Pennsylvania.    44 

Sicily,  State  of  siege  in,  t^ised 943 

Signalling  after  dark 730 

Silkworm  disease 523,  528 

Silver  coinage  in  U.  S 883 

Silver  production 476,  883,  984 

Silver  question.  The,  in  U.  S.— 

Attempted  legislation 36 

Jones  free-silver  bill 38 

Free-silver  conference  in  Wash.  4.3,  561 
International  bimetallism. 45,  298,  572 

Another  monetary  conference 47 

American  bimetallic  party 43.    98 

New  use  of  tenn  "bimetallism,"  285 
Infiuence  of  Coin''s  Financial  School  287 
President  Cleveland's  letter .. .287,  490 
Relation  of  prices  and  volume  of 

currency  2f  6 

Memphis  sound-money  convention  289 


XXXIV. 


INDEX. 


Page.!  Page. 

Mt'mplii.s  free-silver  convention. . .  293  question,  and  Politics,  U.  S. 

ISpriiifffield  free-silver  convention  296  South  Australia,  see  Australasia. 


Republican  League  convention. . .  296 
Kentucky  state  dem.  convention  2i>7 

Political  bearing  of 43,  34.5,  559 

National  committee  meets 5(5] 

Washington    free-silver     confer- 
ence  43,  561 

Georgia  bimetallic  convention....  .503 
Missouri  democratic  convention..  564 
North  Carolina  silver  convention  564 
Gov.  O'Ferrall    of   "Virginia   and 
Sen.  Mills  of  Texas  leave  sil- 
ver rauks 565 

Situation  in  Kentucky 297,  505 

Ohio  democratic  convention.....  .  566 

Pennsylvania  rep.  convention —  .567 

Iowa  democratic  convention 568 

Silver  question  in  N.  Y 568 

Horr-Harvey  debate 5G9 

Bank  note  boycott 570 

Substitute  inserted  in  bond  bill.. .  842 
Gold  standard  adopted  in  Chile. .  410 
See  Monetary  problem. 

Simmel,  Ur.  Georg,  author 991 

Simonoseki,  lYeaty  of,  see  Yellow 

war. 
Simonton,    Judge,    declares   S.    C. 
dispensary     law    unconstitu- 
tional...   378 

Slavery  in  United  States,  see  Dou- 
glass, Frederick,  Biography  of 
Smart,  Dr.  C,  see  Hodgkios  prizes. 

Smith,  Benjamin  E-,  editor 239 

Smith,   Col.    Gerard,    governor    of 

Western  Australia 9.53 

Smith,  Green  Clay,  obit 513 

Smith,  Harry  B.,  composer 403 

Smith;  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  F.,  obi^ 1008 

Smith,  Gen.  Wm.,  U.  S.  A.,  retired..  352 

Smithers,  Enoch  J.,  obit 248 

Smithsonian  Institution  prizes 727 

Snodgrass,  Chief  Justice  I).  S.,  of 
Tennessee,  shoots  Col.  J.  R. 

Beasley 913 

Socialism  in  England 176 

In  France 697,  942 

In  Germany 180,  4;J5,  698,  9.39 

Inltaly 697,  943 

Society  of  American  Artists 218 

Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Crime, 

N.Y 132 

Sociology,  Woman-suffrage  amend 
ment  to  N.  Y.  state  constitu 

tion 372 

Municipal  truck  farming  in  De- 
troit, Mich 472 

Woman-suffrage     resolution     of 

Miss  S.  B.  Anthony 

Bishop  Potter's  mission  work 742 

Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union.  74~ 

W.  C.  T.  U.  convention 979 

W^oman  suffrage  in  Mass 980 

See  Labor  interests,  Temperance, 
Woman  suffrage. 
Sociology,  Books  on,  see  Literature. 

Somaliland  explored 

Somerset,  Lady,  president  British 
Woman's  Temperance  Associ- 
ation   425 

Soudan,  Egyptian 207 

Sound-money  agitation,  see  Silver 


South    Carolina     iquor  dispensary 

law 141,  378,  653,  906 

Constitutionality  of  registration 

and  election  laws 379,  381 

Constitutional  convention 652,  903 

Suffrage  question 652,  904 

No  divorces  tc  be  granted. . .  .653,  907 

Outline  of  new  constitution 903 

South,  Business  outlook  in 608 

See  Business  and  industry,  and 

Cotton  States  Exposition. 

Sovereign,  J.  R.,   calls  for  boycott 

of  national  bank  notes 570 

Spain,  New  tariff  arrangement  with, 

re  West  Indies 54 

The  AUianga  incident 55.  331 

Sagasta  cabinet  gives  way  to  one 
under  Canovas  del  Castillo... .  189 

Military  and  press  riots 189 

Minister  Muruaga  at  Washington  190 
Seilor  Dupuy  de  Lome,  new  min- 
ister at  Washington 191 

Zorilla,  republican  leader,  resigns  191 

Mora  claim 342,  598 

Attempted  assassination  of  cap- 
tain-general of  Madrid 440 

Agramonte  claim 598 

Richlieu  claim 598 

Republican  uprisings 703 

Revolt  in  Cuba,  see  Cuban  revolt. 
Spectroscopic  properties  of  argon . .  264 

Speed  records.  Railway 656,  911 

Spencer,    Herbert,  rejects   knight- 
hood  428 

Sporting,    Intercollegiate    football 

129,363,  895 

Harvard-Cornell  agreement 363 

Intercollegiate  rowing  races 364 

Cornell  crew  at  Henley  regatta 

364,  633 

Bicycle  mile  record  of  A.  A.  Zim- 
merman   364 

America's  cup  races 365,  632 

Races  of  half -raters 633 

International  athletics... 363,  034,  896 

International  chess 6.35 

Tennis  championship 635 

Baseball 636 

Futurity  race 636 

CorbettandFitzsimmons....  6-36,  896 
Defender  yacht-race  investigation  894 

Sculling  contests 896 

Golf  contests 896 

Sprague,  Rev.  F.  M..  author        989 

Springer,  Hon.  Mm.  M..of  III.  33. 104,  144 
Springfield,  111.,  Free-silver  conven- 
tion at 296 

Spring  Valley,  III..  Race  war  at 638 

St.  Alban's.  Vt.,  Fire  in 482 

Stambouloff,  IM.,  Assassination  of.    587 

Biography  of 589 

Report  of  parliamentary  commis- 
sion on  acts  of 948 

Stanford  estate.  Legal  decisions  in 

favor  of 387,  912 

Stang  cabinet  in  Norway  resigns. . .  947 

St.  Andrew,  Brotherhood  of 740,  977 

St.   Andrew   and    Philip,    Brother- 
hood of 977 

Stanley,  H.  M.,  traveller  and  author  502 


INDEX. 


XXXV. 


983 


229 


Page. 

Stars,  New,  discovered 959 

Staten  Island  reform  conference  000,  805 

Statham,  H.  H.,  author 998 

Statistics,  Important- 
Illiteracy  in  U.  S 220 

Phosphate  industry 227 

Growth  of  trolley  systems 227 

Iron  and  steel  industry 478 

Cotton  manufacture  in  the  South  479 

Population  of  the  earth 480 

Negro  population  in  U.  S 480 

Navies  of  the  world 480 

Anti-toxin 

Crops  of  1895,  U.  S 

Business  failures,  1895 

Gold  and  silver  production 

225,  4r0, 

St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  Fire  in 

St.  Benedict,  Community  of 975 

Stearns,  J  B.,  obit 770 

Stedman,  E.  C 990 

Steel  and  iron  industry 478,  007 

Stephens,  G..  obit 773 

Stephens,  W.  R.  W.,  author 753 

Stepniak,  Sergius,  obit 1019 

Stevens,  Hon.  John  L.,  obit 248 

Stevens,  Mrs.  Paran,  obit 514 

Stevenson,  Cori'espondeuce  of.   .      995 

Stewart,  Rev.  R.  W 

Stiles,  Gen.  I.  N.,  obit 

St.  Lauis,  Speed  of  the 387 

Stocks,  Prices  of 008,  874 

Stokes  case  in  Kongo  State 597,  958 

Stone,  Prof.  D.  C,  obit 1009 

Stone,  David  M.,  obit 514 

Story,  W.  W.,  obit 1009 

St.  Paul,  Launch  of  the 387 

Strikes,  Trolley,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

119,  127 

Building-trades  in  N.  Y.  city..  123,  893 

Plans  for  settling 127 

Boot  and  shoe-trade,  in  England..  179 

Miners',  in  Belgium 179 

Garment  workers',  in  N.  Y.  ...028,  893 

Iron  miners',  in  Mich 029 

Dundee  jute  workers' 697 

Philadelphia  trolley 891 

Report  of  Commr.  Wright 894 

Carmaux  glass  workers',  France 


Pagk. 

Swain,  Gen.  J.  B.,  obit 514 

Swaziland ;  85 

Sweden,  see  Norway  and  Sweden. 

Swettenham,  F.  A.,  author 758 

Switzerland,  Treaty  with  France...  344 
lieferendum  in,  on  centralization 

of  military  power 947 

Sybel,  H.  von,  obit 773 

Taaffe,  Count  Edward,  obit  1019 

Tabriz,  Bread  riots  in 711 

Taft,  Levi  B.,  obit 514 

Tai-Won-Kun 827 

Tammany  victory  in  N.  Y.  .845,  848,  900 
See  New  York. 

Tangier  incident 602 

Tariff,  U.  S.,  Working  of 47,  49,  351 

European  retaliations 52 

New  arrangement  with   Spanish 

West  Indies .54 

Tariff  revision  in  54th  congress 837 

Tarsus  incident 603 

Tasmania,  see  Australasia. 

Tasse,  Hon.  Joseph,  obit 248 

Tauchnitz,  Baron,  obit 773 

Taylor,  Rev.  Wm.  M.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

obit 248 

Telegraph  line  mileage 227 

Telegi-aph  monopoly  981 

Telegraphy,    Rapid-printing 450 

Telephone  newspaper 704 

Telephone  patent  valid 475 

Telephoto,  The 456 

Telephotograph - 902 

Temperance  question.  The— 

S.  C.  liquor  dispensary  law 

141,378,653,  906 

See  South  Carolina. 

The  Gothenburg  system 222 

Iowa  mulct  law 367 

Additional  instruction  bill  inN.Y.  371 
Repoi-t  of  Canadian  commission. .  390 

British  local  control  bill 413 

Convention  of  British  Women's 
Temperance  Association  and 

World's  W.  C.  T.  U 424 

Intercolonial    conference  at  Ho- 

bart,  Tasmania 451 

Presbyterian  Church  committed 

to 471 

Prohibition  test  case  in  Canada  . . 

150,  669 

First  society  in  France 701 

Private  saloons  abolished  in  Rus- 
sia   706 

Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union.  742 
Prohibition  national  convention . .  865 
Controversy  in  Christian  Endea- 
vor Societv 978 

W.  C.  T.  U.  convention 979 

Tenement-house  districts  in  N.  Y. . 

140,  369 


British  shipbuilders' 

See  Labor  interests. 

Strong,  William,  obit 770 

Strong,  Mayor,  of  New  York....  133,  375 

Sturdza  ministry  in  Roumania 948 

Suez  canal 453 

Suffrage  in  S.  C,  see  South  Carolina. 
Suffrage,    Woman,     see   Sociology 
and  Woman  suffrage. 

Sugar  bounty  claims, 743, 

Sugar  differential  duty 

Sullivan,  Sir  A.,  composer 736  Tennessee  governorship  contett.142,  381 

Sumner.  Capt 624  Tennis  championship 6.35 

Sunday-law  enforcement 007,  641.Tesla,  Nikola,  Loss  of,  by  fire 228 

See  New  York.  Invents  electric  oscillator 457 

Suppe,  von,  Franz,  obit 519  Texas,  U.  S.  battle-ship 627.  890 

Supreme  court,  U.  S.,  R.  W^  Peck-       |Thedim,  SenhorA.de  Sequeira, obit.  1020 

ham  of  N.  Y.  succeeds  Justice        Thermophone 903 

Jackson 908  Thivrier,  C.  obit 773 

Portrait  of  the  Justices 275  Thomas,    Hon.  Allen,  of    Florida, 

See  Legal  decisions.  Important.           i           U.  S.  minister  to  Venezuela...  383 
Sutherland,  Charles,  obit 514  Thomas,  Augustus,  dramatist 736 


XXXVI. 


INDEX. 


Page 
Thomas,  Bishop  E.  S.,  D.  D.,  obit. ..  249 

Thomes,  Wm.  H.,  obit 249 

Thompson,  Rev.  A.  R.,  obit 249 

Thompson,  Miss  E.,  christens  Nash 

vUle 888 

Thompson,  Mrs.  Joseph,  president 

Woman's  Board,  Atlanta  Fair  879 

Thomson,  Joseph,  obit 

Thorold,  lit.  Kev.  A.  W.,  obit 773 

Thurman,  Hon.  Allen  G.,  obit 1009 

Thurston,  Hon.  L.  A.,  Recall  of.  .71,  452 
Tichborne  claimant  confesses  fraud  427 
Tiffin,  O.,  Attempted  lynching  at. . .  897 

Tilden  Ubrary,  New  York  city 141 

Tillman,  Ex-Gov.,  of  S.  C,  on  state 

rights 381 

Time,  Standard  zone,  in  Australasia  204 

Timor,  Native  rebellion  in 714 

Tin-plate  industry 227,  6( 

Tobacco  trust.  Decision  against —  980 

Tolman,  W.  H.,  author 490 

Tolstoi,  Count  Leo.  author 502 

Tompkins,  C.  H.,  obit 770 

Tomlinson,  E.  T.,  author 505 

Tongaland  annexed  to  Zululand. 
Tonkin- Annam  boundary  treaty . . .  315 

Toronto  University 154, 

Trade,  Foreign,  Canadian 922 

Trade,  Foreign,  of  Japan  and  China  8:30 

Trade,  Foreign,  U.  S 874,  909 

•  See  Commerce,  Foreign. 
Trades-union  congress  in  Cardiff. . .  693 

Trades-unionism  io  Russia 698 

Train  wreckers.  Juvenile 898 

Transit  of  mercury 213 

Trans-Mississippi  congress  910 

Trans-Siberian  railway 550,  825 

Transvaal,   The,  Swaziland   trans- 
ferred to 85 

Gold  fields  in 22,5,  958,  9a5 

Shut  olf  from  access  to  the  sea. . .  338 

Uitlander  crisis  in  the 954 

See  Africa,  Affairs  in. 
Travel,  Books  of,  see  Literature. 
Treasury,  U.  S.,  Proposed  legislation 

for  relief  of 37,  833,  a37 

Gold  outflow 40,  111,  350,  833 

Deficiency  under  tariff  of  1894.  .47,  351 
Gold  reserve,  see  Gold  reserve. 
Public  debt,  see  Debt,  Public. 

Bond  issues . .   40,  .3.50,  843 

Receipts  and  outlays Ill,  .351,  615 

Circulationof  money.  110.  3.52,  G15,  883 
Assets  and  liabilities,  U.S.  350,  614,  882 

Profits  of  bond  syndicate 617 

Secretary  Carlisle's  report 833 

See  Public  accounts. 

Treaty,  Japanese-American 29 

New    Spanish- American    recipro- 
city      54 

Franco- Belgian   Kongo 84 

Franco-Chinese,      over      Annam- 

Tonkin  boundary 315 

Japan  and  Russia,  Commercial,  i.  315 

Greek- Russian  commercial 344 

French-Swiss  commercial 344 

Amapala,  Honduras 406,  676 

Pamir  boundary 90.  .343,  604 

Great  Britain  and  China  re  terri- 
tory in  Indo-China 829 

Rush-Bagot,  Proposal  to  abrogate  862j 
Of  Simonoseki,  see  Yellow  war.  1 


Page. 

Trebizond,  Massacre  at 811 

Tree,  Beerbohm.  and  wife,  actors..  219 
Tricoupis,  M.,   Greek   premier,  re- 
signs   195,  447 

Trilby  dramatized  and  staged 219 

Trinidad  incident 600,  864 

Tristram,  H.  B  ,  author 998 

Trolley-car  systems.  Growth  of 227 

Trolley  strike  in  Brooklyn 119,  127 

In  Philadelphia 891 

Trowbridge,  J.  T.,  author 1000 

Trusts,  Illegality  of 475,  9b0 

Tsung-Li- Yamen 952 

Tuberculosis,  see  Consumption. 

Tucker,  G.  F..  author 505 

Tucker,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  I.,  obit 771 

Tuke,  D.  Hack,  M.  D.,  obit 256 

Pungan,  see  Dungan. 
Turkey,   Armenian   atrocities,    see 
Armenian  question,  and  Otto- 
man empire.  Crisis  in  the. 

Turner,  Paintings  by,  sold 462 

Turnev,  Peter,  governor  of  Tennes- 
see  142,  381 

Turret  construction  in  navy 626 

Tyler,  Tex..  Lynching  at 897 

Type  metal.  New 460 

Type-setting  contest 912 

Type-setting  machines 731,  961 

Uitlanders  in  tlie  Transvaal 954 

Umburre,  Lake,  in  Africa,  discovered  205 

Underwood,  F.  H.,  author 503 

Unemployed,  Pi'oblem  of  the 472 

Ungava,  territory  in  Canada 924 

Union  College  centenary 384 

Union    Seminary  boycotted  by  Gen- 
eral Assembly. 470 

LTnitarian  conference 978 

University  of  Chicago,  Gifts  to 912 

Case  of  Prof.  Bemis a54 

University  College,  London,  Eng...  270 

University  extension  in  England 966 

Upham,  Dr.  F.  W.,  obit 1011 

Upper  Me-Kong  dispute 557,  829 

Uriburu,  Senor,  president  of  Argen- 
tine Republic 168 

Utah,  Constitution  of,  drafted 382 

Star  added  to  national  flag 659 

Mormon  Church  in  politics 908 

Gold  mining  in 908 

Vaccination  experiments  by  Pasteur  .531 

Vaikyrie  I  IF.  -Defender  races 632 

Dunraven  charges  investigated . . ,  894 

Vanderbilt  divorce  case 145 

Vanderbilt -Marlborough  wedding..  912 
Van  Dvck,  Rev.  Dr.  C.  A.  Van  Alen, 

obit 1011 

Van  Dvke,  J.  C,  L.  H.  D.,  author.. .  238 

Van  Wvck,  Hon.  C.  H.,  obit 1011 

Vanx,  Calvert,  obit 1011 

Vaux,  Hon.  Richard,  obit 249 

"  Vegetarians  " 541 

Venezuela,    and  Venezuelan  ques- 
tion— 
British-Guiana  boundary  dispute 

87,  10.3,3.32.  787 

Dispute  with  Germany 87 

French  and  Belgian  ministers  ex- 
pelled  91,  332 

Revolutionary  plots  iu 167,  677,  928 

Relations  with  France  strained. . .  .s;32 
New  banking  law 407 


INDEX. 


XXXVIT. 


Page. 
Commerce  with  United  States. ...  677 
Claims  of  Great  Britain  332, 787, 798,  801 

Claims  of  Venezuela 788 

The  Schomburgk  hne 89,  788,  791 

Yuruan  incident 789 

Diplomatic  correspondence 790 

Scope  of  Monroe  doctrine  

90,  790,  793,  798 

Pres.  Cleveland's  message.... 803,  874 

Congressional  action  for *06 

Drift  of  public  sentiment 807 

Boundary  commission  appointed.  808 
Biographical  sketches  of  commis- 
sioners    80S 

Results  of  the  war  talk 810 

Venice,  Art  exhibition  at 96.') 

Venus,  Rotation  of 75J5 

Victoria,  see  Aiistralasia. 

Victorious,  Launch  of  the 937 

Vienna,     Municipal     charter    sus- 
pended  442,  944 

Vincent,  F. ,  traveller 501 

Virginia,  University  of,  Fire  at 986 

Vischnegradsky,  M.,  obit 519 

Vladivostock 193 

Vogt,  Karl,  obit 520 

Volk,  Leonard  W.,  obit 771 

Volk^partei,  The,  in  Germany 939 

Waddell,  Dr.  J.  N„  obit 2.50 

Wade.  Sir  Tliomas,  obit 773 

Wages  in  Japan  and  China 832 

Wainwright,  Gen.  W.  P.,  obit 1011 

Waldersee,  Gen.  Count  von 700 

Wales,  Church  disestablishment  in 

173,  174, 

Wales,  Prince  of,  chancellor  of  new 

Welsh  University 427 

Walker,  Gen.  P.  A.,  author 236,  494 

Walker,  Gen.  Ivan  N..  of  Indiana, 

commander-in-chief,  G.  A.  \i. .  621 

Wallace,  lion.  N.  C,  resigns 913 

Waller,  J.  L  ,  ex-Consul. 87,  453,  717,  9.59 

Walsenburg  affair,  The 

Ward,  Langdon  G.,  obit 2.50 

Warren,  John,  obit 771 

War  vessels  on  the  lakes 862 

War,  The  Yellow,  see  Yellow  war 
Washington  Arch,  New  York  city, 

dedicated 387 

Washington,  Prof.  Booker,  Address 

of,  at  opening  of  Atlanta  Fair  612 
Washington  free-silver  conference.  561 

Waterford,  Marquis  of,  obit  1020 

Waterways  convention 910 

Watson,  Prof,  John,  LL.  1).,  ailthor  231 

Wayman,  Bishop  A.  W^.,  obit 101 1 

W.  C.  T.  U.  convention 424,  979 

Weather  bureau,  W.  L.  Moore  new 

head  of 653 

Webster,  Sir  Richard,  on  interna 

tional  arbitration 860 

Webster,  Warren  T.,  obit. 

Weed,  Maria,  author 505 

Wei-Hai-Wei  captured 19 

Wells,  B.  W.,  author 7.55 

Wells,  Heber  M..  governor  of  Utah  849 
Western  Australia,  see  Australasia. 
West  Indies,  The,  New  tariff  agree 

ment  with  Spain .54 

New  cabinet  in  Hayti 164 

Revolt  of  Maroons  in  Jamaica 674 

Unrest  in  Hayti 926 


Page. 

Uprising  in  Porto  Rico 926 

Uprising  in  San  Domingo 926 

West,  Kenyon,  author 995 

Weston,  J.  A".,  author 496 

Westwood  murder  case 160,  399 

Weyman,  Stanley  J.,  author 760 

Wheat  crop,  1895 983 

Wheatley,  W.  A.,  author 7.57 

Whirled  psychrometer 729 

Whishaw,  F  ,  author 761 

Whistler,  James,  artist 218,  965 

Whitcomb,Russell,"  Brother  Hugh"  975 
White,  Hon.  A.  D.,   of  New  York, 
Venezuela-Guiana     bouiidaty 

commissioner L08,  809 

White,  Horace,  author 7.50 

White,  R.  S.,  M.  P, resigns 918 

Whiteway,  Sir  Wm.  V 162 

Whitney-Paget  wedding 912 

Whytal,  Russ.  playwright 463 

Wicklifife,  R.  C,  obit 514 

Wilde,  Oscar,   dramatist 219 

Convicted  of  immorality 425 

Wilhelmina,  queen  of  Holland,  vis- 
its England 426 

Willard,  Mrs.  Emma,  Statue  of 387 

Willard,  Miss  Frances  E.,  president 

W.  C.  T.  U 425,  .506,  979 

William  II.,  Telegram  of,  to  presi- 
dent of  the  '1  ransvaal 955 

Williams,  Hon.  G,  F.,  of  Mass 898 

Williams,  H.  G.,  author 749 

Williams,  H.  W.,  author 233 

Williams,  Hon.  Ramon  O.,  United 
States  consul-general  at  Ha- 
vana, Cuba,  refused  diplo- 
matic powers  by  Spain 852 

Williamson,  Rev.  Prof.,  obit  771 

Williamson,  Prof.  W.  C,  obit 520 

Wills.  W.  G.,  dramatist 464 

WUmingtotu  Launch  of  the 888 

Wilson,  Sir  C.  R..  president  G  T  R.  427 
Wilson-Gorman     tariff,  see   Tariff, 
U.S. 

Wilson,  James  F.,  obit 514 

Wilson,  Hon.  W.  L.,  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, postmaster-geneial 143 

Wiman,  Erastus,  Decision  in  favor 

of 145,  912 

Winchester,  Bishop  of,  obit 773 

Winchester,  Locke  W.,  obit 515 

Windischgratz.  von.  Prince,  resigns  443 

Wines,  F.  H..  author 488 

Wingate,  C.  E.  L.,  author 757 

Winslow,  Forbes,  author 997 

Winsor,  Justin,  historian 496 

Witwatersrand  gold  mines..225.  958.  985 
Wolseley,      Lord,      commander-in- 
chief  of  Brit'sh  army 496,  689 

Biography  of 690 

Woman  suffrage,  see  Sociology. 

Women's  National  Council 222 

Wood,  A.  M..  obit 771 

Wood,  Hon.  J  F.,  Canadian  comp- 
troller of  customs 914 

Woodford,  Prof.  A.  B.,  author 492 

Woodhull,  J.  F..  author... 484 

World's  C.  E.  Union  formed 739 

Worth,  Charles  Frederick,  obit 256 

Wright.    Hon.    Carroll   D.,    Report 

I  of 894 

Wright,  Gen.  Edward,  obit 1012 


XXXVIII. 


INDEX. 


Wright,  Harry,  obit 1012 

Wuarin,  Prof.  Louis,  autiior 991 

Wyoming,  Indian  troubles 621,  887 

Yaclit  races,  see  Sporting. 

Yale-Cambridge  athletics 896 

Yale-Harvard  athletics 363,  895 

Yalu,  Battle  of  the 307 

See  Yellow  war. 
Yellow  war,  The— 

Campaign  in  Manchuria 14 

Map-scene  of  the  war 15 


Page. 

Developments  in  Korea 

28,  310,  553,  826 

Russia.  France,  and  Germany  op- 
pose   cession    of   Leao-Tong 

peninsula 312 

Japan  modifies  her  claims 312 

Russian  aims  in  Korea 313 

Russo-French  loan  to  China.  ..314,  553 

Political  outlook  in  the  Orient 

_ 314,  549,  553,  824 

Orient,  Situation  in  the. 


Capture  of  Kai-Phing 16|  Yorke-Davies,  N.,  author 

Capture  of  Niu-Chwang 18|  Yost,  G.  W.  N.,  obit 771 


Capture  of  Wei-Hai-Wei 19 

Suicide  of  Admiral  Ting 21 

Peace  negotiations 23,  301,  304 

Attempted    assassination   of    Li 

Hung  Chang 26 

The  Port  Arthur  atrocities 28 

Japanese-American  treaty  ratified  29 
Attitude  of  European  powers.. 26,  312 
Results  of  the  war  27,  314,  556, 824,  830 

War  ended 301 

Rumored  offensive  and  defensive 

alliance  of  Japan  and  China. .  301 

Resume  of  tlie  war 3o5 

Lessons  in  naval  warfare 
Occupation  of  Formosa.... 20,  308,  5.55 


Young   People's    Christian    Union    • 

(Universalist) 740 

Young,  W.  T.,  author  997 

Ysaye,  Eug6ne,  violinist 220 

Yucatan,  Indian  uprising  in 675 

Yukon,  territory  in  Canada 924 

Yuruan  Incident 789 

See  Venezuelan  question. 

Zangwill,  I.,  author 504 

Zankoff,  M.,  Bulgarian  exile 195 

Zeitoun,  Siege  of 814 

Zenos,  Prof.  A.  C,  author 992 

Zimmerman,  A.  A.,  bicyclist 364 

Zorilla,  Manuel  Ruiz,  obit 520 

Zorilla,  Sef5or ]91 


' Black  Flag  "  troubles 309,  555'Zululand,  Territory  annexed  to. . . .  338 


FREDERICK  DOU(tLASS. 


THE   CYCLOPEDIC    REVIEW 
OF 

CURKENT     HISTORY 

VOL.  5.  JANUARY  1— MARCH  31,  1895.  NO.  1. 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS. 

"PREDERICK  DOUGLASS,  reformer,  orator,  and  jour- 
nalist, was  born  in  Tuckahoe,  near  Easton,  Maryland, 
in  February,  1817 — this  being  given  as  the  date  accepted  by 
him,  though  he  did  not  know  positively  even  the  year  of 
his  birth.  He  died  suddenly  at  his  residence.  Cedar  Hill, 
on  Anacostia  Heights,  a  suburb  of  Washington,  D.  C,  on 
the  20th  of  February,  1895.  He  was  a  mulatto,  in  whose 
blood,  from  two  races,  the  white  and  the  negro,  there  was 
a  slight  infusion  of  a  third,  the  Indian.  His  mother,  a 
slave  on  the  plantation  of  Colonel  Edward  Lloyd  in 
Tuckahoe,  was  an  unusually  handsome  negress,  with  a 
strain  of  Indian  blood.  His  white  father  he  never  saw, 
nor  did  he  ever  know  his  name;  and  his  mother  he  saw 
but  seldom  in  his  childhood,  and  never  after  his  eighth 
year.  His  name,  until  he  had  passed  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  was  Frederick  Lloyd,  as,  according  to  the  law  by 
which  a  child  inherited  the  mother's  condition  of  servi- 
tude, he  was  born  a  slave  of  his  mother's  owner. 

At  the  age  of  ten  years  Frederick  was  '^Hent''  by  his 
master  to  a  relative  in  Baltimore;  and  there  he  learned 
the  trade  of  a  ship-carpenter.  When  he  reached  the  age 
of  fifteen  Colonel  Lloyd  permitted  him  to  hire  his  own 
time — paying  his  master  three  dollars  a  week  for  the  privi- 
lege of  working  at  his  trade  and  of  keeping  the  rest  of 
his  earnings.  He  early  felt  a  longing  for  knowledge,  which 
seems  to  have  been  awakened  first  by  hearing  his  mistress 
read  the  Bible;  and  in  his  desire  to  gain  the  secret  of  such 
a  mysterious  and  forbidden  power — for  generally  it  was 
prohibited  to  teach  slaves  to  read — he  learned  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  by  laboriously  deciphering  them  from  the 
carpenters'  rude  marks  on  the  timbers  of  the  shipyard  and 
wharves  where  he  worked.  His  kind  mistress  yielded 
to  his  appeal  for  help  in  learning  to  read;  but  his  progress 
was  so  rapid  as  to  alarm  his  master,  and  all  help  was  sum- 

Vol.  5.— 1.  Copyright,  1895,  by  Garretson,  Cox  &  Co. 


2  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  1st  Qr.,  i895. 

marily  ended.  Nevertheless,  he  continued  his  effort  until, 
slowly  and  by  stealth,  he  had  gained  his  object.  Then,  with 
another  young  man,  he  gathered  a  little  Sunday-school,  with 
the  primary  aim,  doubtless,  to  teach  the  wonderful  art  of 
reading  to  other  youthful  slaves.  This  little  school  was  re- 
garded as  a  beginning  of  danger  to  society  and  to  the  state, 
and  as  a  bold  usurpation  of  the  functions  of  the  church; 
and  in  one  of  its  sessions  it  was  speedily  and  roughly 
dispersed. 

This  may  probably  be  regarded  as  the  decisive  point  in 
Frederick's  career.  The  boy's  eyes  were  opened  to  the 
helplessness  in  which  he  and  his  race  were  bound.  His 
nature,  peculiarly  sensitive,  was  thrilled  to  the  quick  with 
the  ignominy  of  his  race.  The  servitude  which  from  his 
early  childhood  he  had  felt  as  a  degradation,  and  which 
later  he  had  recognized  as  a  grievous  physical  restraint  in 
denial  of  natural  rights,  he  now  beheld  as  also  an  unrelent- 
ing repression  of  all  mental  and  moral  growth,  a  virtual 
exclusion  of  him  and  of  the  race  represented  in  him  from 
the  rank  of  a  true  humanity.  He  saw  himself  and  millions 
more  held  in  the  grasp  of  a  gigantic  system  of  robbery  of 
mind,  body,  and  estate — a  robbery  whose  clutch  tight- 
ened to  cruelty  and  destruction  at  the  least  sign  of  strug- 
gle by  the  victim.  This  system  of  robbery  he  saw  to  be 
defended  as  admirable  and  beneficent  not  only  by  those 
who,  having  inherited  it  in  the  South,  might  naturally 
have  pleaded  some  excuse  in  the  compulsory  conditions 
under  which  they  found  themselves,  but  defended  also  by 
the  vast  majority  at  the  North,  which  had  insanely  idol- 
ized this  relic  of  barbarism  as  the  product  and  the  in- 
surance of  the  highest  Anglo-Saxon  civilization.  It  was 
thus  a  national  system  for  the  robbery  of  a  race,  whicli 
this  young  slave  beheld  imbedded  in  the  constitution,  forti- 
fied by  statutes,  even  consecrated  by  the  Church  of  Christ. 
Against  this  organized  crime  his  whole  nature  rose  in  re- 
volt. From  this  time,  Frederick  Lloyd,  as  yet  scarcely 
more  than  a  boy,  began,  all  unaware,  that  training  of 
heart  and  intellect  for  the  great  anti-slavery  champion- 
ship which  in  long  subsequent  years  gave  renown  over  two 
continents  to  the  name  of  Frederick  Douglass. 

Naturally,  his  first  step  was  to  break  away  from  his 
bondage,  and  his  hope  turned  toward  New  England.  But 
in  those  days  a  man's  act  of  theft  in  stealing  himself  from 
his  owner  was  accounted  a  crime  so  heinous,  so  violative 
of  the  most  sacred  obligations,  that  it  was  guarded  against 
by    peculiarly    stringent  legal  provisions.      There  was  a 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS.  3 

dreary  delay  of  opportunity  for  esca|)e,  till  Frederick  had 
reached  the  age  of  twenty-one.  He  had  a  friend  some- 
what resembling  him,  who  had  been  a  seaman  and  had 
been  provided,  as  negro  seamen  were  required  to  be,  with 
*^ protection  papers"  certifying  that  they  had  due  permis- 
sion to  be  away  from  their  regular  places  of  abode.  Fred- 
erick procured  these  papers,  made  himself  up  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  accord  with  his  friend's  description  which 
they  contained,  and  furtively  set  forth  for  Washing- 
ton. There,  on  September  3,  1838,  he  entered  a  train 
starting  for  New  York,  which  city  he  succeeded  in 
reaching  without  arrest,  and  thence  proceeded  cautiously 
to  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  where  he  found  friends. 
During  his  stay  of  more  than  two  years  in  New  Bedford 
he  supported  himself  as  a  day-laborer  on  the  wharves, 
married  a  colored  woman,  who,  according  to  some  accounts, 
was  an  escaped  slave,  but  according  to  others  a  free  wo- 
man of  color,  who  had  aided  him  in  his  flight.  He  changed 
his  name  to  avoid  recognition,  which  would  have  brought 
his  arrest  as  a  fugitive  slave  to  be  returned  to  his  master 
under  United  States  law.  For  years  he  kept  secret  all  par- 
ticulars of  his  escape,  for  protection  not  only  of  himself, 
but  also  of  all  persons  who  had  aided  or  harbored  him,  and 
who  were  thus  liable  under  heavy  penalties  as  participants 
in  his  crime  of  self-stealing. 

Many  of  those  who  can  look  back  over  half  a  century  to 
their  school  days  in  Philadelphia,  and  doubtless  in  very 
many  other  places  as  well,  will  remember  Tlie  ColumUan 
Orator,  a  volume  of  selections  for  reading  and  speaking 
which  was  extensively  used  in  schools.  After  Frederick 
Lloyd,  as  a  slave,  had  toilfully  and  by  stealth  learned  to 
read,  a  stray  copy  of  this  book  fell  into  his  hands.  One 
of  its  selections  presented  a  supposed  conversation  between 
an  escaped  and  recaptured  slave  and  his  master:  this  and 
much  of  the  other  contents  of  the  book  were  mentally  de- 
voured and  digested  by  the  slave-boy,  who,  by  repeating 
and  reciting  them,  gained  at  least  the  rudiments  of  an 
English  vocabulary.  To  one  of  his  alert  intelligence  and 
tropical  ardor  of  feeling,  this  meagre  exercise  gave  the  ear- 
liest development  of  that  gift  of  argument  suffused  with 
personal  life,  first  gathering  to  itself  scenic  depictings  of 
the  bitterness  and  shame  of  the  oppression  under  which  the 
weak  lay  helpless,  then  merging  into  pungent  and  pathetic 
appeal — all  based  on  the  speaker's  own  experience,  all 
aimed  at  the  awakenment  in  the  hearer  of  his  slumbering 
sense  of  the  eternal  right — which  in  after  years  made  the 


4  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

oratory  of  Frederick  Douglass  one  of  the  forces  to  be  reck- 
oned with  by  the  advocates  of  man's  ownership  of  his  fel- 
low-man. At  New  Bedford,  Douglass  gave  all  his  spare 
time  to  self-education — his  efforts  in  study  being  known 
and  aided  by  William  Lloyd  Garrison;  and  he  showed 
powers  as  a  speaker  which  caused  him  to  be  appointed  a 
local  preacher  in  an  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 
church. 

His  public  work  as  one  of  the  chief  orators  of  anti-slav- 
ery began  in  1841,  when  at  an  anti-slavery  convention  in 
Nantucket,  which  he  attended,  he  made  a  speech  whose 
eloquence  and  force  greatly  impressed  William  Lloyd  Gar- 
rison, Lewis  Tappan,  and  other  leaders  in  the  abolition 
movement.  He  was  offered  the  agency  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Anti-slavery  Society,  which  position  he  accepted; 
and  for  four  years  he  was  engaged  in  travelling  through 
New  England,  making  addresses  and  organizing  societies 
in  the  interest  of  the  abolition  of  slavery.  Great  audi- 
ences assembled.  The  romance  of  his  early  struggles 
heightened  his  fame  as  an  orator  and  made  him  widely 
known.  He  spoke  in  various  parts  of  the  Northern 
states.  In  1845  a  committee  of  English  philanthropists, 
headed  by  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  invited  him  to  visit 
Great  Britain  on  an  extended  lecturing  tour.  He  ac- 
cepted; and  during  a  stay  of  two  years  addressed  admiring 
multitudes.  His  first  appearance  was  a  veritable  triumph : 
it  was  when  Lord  Shaftesbury  introduced  him  in  London 
to  a  great  company,  including  many  members  of  the  nobil- 
ity. When  his  address  ended,  the  audience  rose  and 
cheered  him  for  five  minutes.  His  English  audiences, 
while  comprising  all  ranks  of  the  people  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest,  were  composed  largely  of  tlie  middle  and 
working  classes.  He  formed  close  personal  friendship 
with  many  persons  of  the  highest  culture,  such  as  John 
Bright,  Daniel  O'Connell,  and  Father  Mathew.  As  Mr. 
Douglass  was  still  a  slave  in  the  judgment  of  the  United 
States  law,  and  therefore  under  serious  liabilities — since, 
from  the  eminence  which  he  had  attained,  a  light  was 
thrown  back  on  his  early  history  which  might  tend  to 
bring  against  him  the  persecution  of  the  pro-slavery  lead- 
ers— his  English  admirers  raised  a  purse  of  $750  for  the 
purchase  of  his  freedom,  according  to  the  forms  of  law. 
To  this  was  added  $2,500  toward  the  establishment  in  his 
own  country  of  a  newspaper  to  be  edited  by  him.  Be- 
cause he  was  a  colored  man,  and  was  suspected  of  being  a 
slave,  he  had  been   refused  passage  in  the  cabin  of  the 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS.  5 

steamship  on  his  voyage  to  England.  Returning  as  a 
free  man,  and  on  the  Cunard  steamer  under  the  British 
flag,  he  was  supposed  to  be  free  from  all  liability  to  a  like 
insult  on  his  voyage  home.  Yet,  though  holding  a  first- 
class  ticket,  he  was  again  refused  admittance  to  the  sa- 
loon. The  British  press  broke  forth  into  denunciation  of 
the  steamship  company;  and  the  result  was  a  letter  in 
The  Times  from  Mr.  Cunard,  expressing  his  deep  regret 
for  the  indignity  to  Mr.  Douglass,  and  engaging  that  dis- 
crimination on  account  merely  of  color  should  never  again 
occur  on  his  ships. 

Returning  to  this  country  in  1847,  Mr.  Douglass  made 
his  residence  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  he  established  a 
weekly  journal,  Frederick  Douglass's  Paper,  later  called 
The  North  Star,  devoted  chiefly  to  the  cause  of  emanci- 
pation. It  was  fourteen  years  before  the  war  of  the  rebel- 
lion. He  had  become  one  of  the  chiefs  of  that  little  band 
of  abolitionist  agitators  which  had  slowly  rallied  around  the 
pioneer  reformers,  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  Wendell  Phil- 
lips, Oliver  Johnson,  and  two  or  three  others.  His  sacri- 
fices were  indeed  not  such  as  were  theirs;  but  in  ardor, 
courage,  and  self-devotion  he  was  the  peer  of  any  of  them, 
while  in  eloquence  he  was  surpassed  by  few.  It  was  a 
little  company  of  men,  some  of  them  long-haired  and 
dreamy-eyed,  who  seemed  as  if  gazing  at  something  be- 
yond the  horizon;  and  of  women,  some  of  them  short- 
haired  and  keen-eyed,  who  seemed  as  if,  confused  by  sud- 
den waking,  they  were  trying  to  focus  their  eyes  on  every- 
thing at  once.  Few  little  groups  of  people  in  this  world 
were  ever  at  the  first  so  thoroughly  sneered  at  and  after- 
ward so  devoutly  despised  and  detested  as  were  these.  In 
Northern  cities  they  were  mobbed,  sometimes  narrowly 
escaping  with  life;  in  some  Southern  states  a  price  was  set 
on  the  heads  of  their  leaders.  They  were  people  mostly 
of  singularly  pure  and  simple  lives;  yet,  as  opposers  of 
some  laws  of  the  land  and  of  some  ecclesiastical  defenses 
of  those  laws,  they  were  usually  classed  as  opposers  of  or- 
ganized human  society,  opposers  of  the  church,  opposers 
of  God.  They  simply  opposed  human  slavery  and  what- 
ever defended  or  upheld  or  allowed  it.  On  this  subject 
they  would  not  consider  any  compromise,  admit  any  qual- 
ifications or  apologies,  yield  to  any  force,  turn  back  at  any 
obstacle,  or  turn  aside  to  follow  any  indirect  path  to  their 
object.  It  is  not  on  record  that  any  so  small  and  seem- 
ingly powerless  group  of  men  and  women  ever  before 
made  so   large   and   so   continuous  a  noise  in  any  land. 


6  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  1st  Qr.,  1895 

There  was  nothing  that  could  still  them.  They  could  not 
be  made  to  keep  their  peace:  they  cried,  "There  is  no 
peace  to  keep;  there  is  fire  with  none  to  extinguish  it; 
there  is  robbery  and  murder  all  abroad  in  the  land,  with 
none  to  help."  As  the  long  night  that  had  been  on  this 
land  gathered  into  its  final  hour  of  deepest  dark  through 
the  half-decade  of  years  before  the  morning  came — the 
fearful  morning  gloomy  and  heavy  with  the  storm  of  war 
— the  incessant  supernatural  alarm-cry  from  these  few 
people  went  forth  literally  through  all  the  nation,  and 
their  words  to  the  ends  of  the  land.  Their  outcry  swelled 
till  it  filled  the  night:  men  could  not  any  longer  sleep  in 
the  noise  that  they  made;  indeed,  these  disturbers  of  a  na- 
tion's long  dream  were  never  silenced  by  any  fear,  nor  by 
any  favor,  nor  by  any  force,  until  their  alarm-cry  was 
drowned  in  the  roar  of  the  first  cannon  that  opened  on 
Sumter,  echoed  by  the  thunder  of  battle  rolling  round 
half  the  continent.  At  last  the  nation  was  thoroughly 
awake;  the  dire  form  of  human  slavery,  a  thing  of  the 
night,  vanished  in  the  slowly  broadening  day;  and  high 
on  the  roll  of  the  few  prophetic  souls  who  had  unfalter- 
ingly proclaimed  the  crisis  as  inevitable,  and  had  sum- 
moned men  to  go  forth  to  meet  it  on  the  high  ground  of 
fundamental  and  eternal  righteousness,  stands  the  name 
of  the  ex-slave  Frederick  Douglass. 

Mr.  Douglass's  relations  to  the  abolition  movement 
were  such  that  he  could  not  avoid  being  the  confidant  of 
John  Brown  in  his  fantastic  and  fatal  attempt  at  an  at- 
tack on  slavery  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  1859.  He  knew  the 
zeal  and  nobleness  of  the  old  man;  he  saw  also  his  lack  of 
mental  balance,  and  refused  to  approve  his  project.  This 
refusal  he  has  left  on  permanent  record.  Nevertheless, 
Governor  Wise  of  Virginia,  deeming  Douglass  implicated 
in  the  raid,  made  requisition  for  him  on  the  governor  of 
Michigan,  where  for  the  time  Douglass  was,  though  still  a 
resident  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  In  the  naturally  excited 
state  of  the  public  mind  in  the  South  in  view  of  such  a 
raid,  the  ex-slave's  appearance  in  Virginia,  whether  he 
were  innocent  or  guilty,  would  have  been  perilous  in  a 
high  degree.  He  did  not  wait  to  be  arrested,  but  sailed 
for  England,  where  he  staid  for  several  months.  He  then 
returned  to  his  editorial  work  in  Rochester. 

When,  in  1861,  the  storm  of  war  broke  over  the  land, 
Mr.  Douglass,  who  had  the  acquaintance  and  friendship  of 
President  Lincoln,  was  prominent  among  those  who  in- 
stantly predicted  the  downfall  of  slavery,  and  urged  the 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS.  7 

president  to  hasten  it  by  declaring  emancipation  and  the 
enlistment  of  colored  men  in  the  army.  The  president 
waited  till,  under  the  tuition  of  events,  the  public  senti- 
ment had  been  educated  for  this  step,  and  then  called  in 
the  active  aid  of  Mr.  Douglass  in  the  new  enlistment.  His 
assistance  was  of  great  value  in  forming  the  Fifty-fourth 
and  Fifty-fifth  Massachusetts  regiments;  and  it  is  recog- 
nized by  those  who  know  the  facts  that  it  is  due  to  him 
more  than  to  any  other  one  man,  that  the  colored  soldier 
took  his  equal  place  with  the  white  soldier  in  the  North- 
ern army.  Two  of  his  own  sons  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Union;  and  after  the  proclamation  of  emancipation  had 
made  it  possible  for  him  to  advocate  the  national  cause 
without  upholding  what  was,  to  him,  the  crime  of  slavery, 
he  stirred  the  patriotism  of  the  people  by  many  eloquent 
addresses. 

The  only  unpleasant  experience  of  Mr.  Douglass  in  his 
connection  with  public  affairs,  so  far  as  is  known,  befell 
him  when  at  the  end  of  the  war  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  Freedmen^s  Bank  in  Washington,  an  institution 
whose  official  name  was  the  "Freedmen^s  Savings  and 
Trust  Company."  The  election  was  accounted  a  high 
tribute  to  his  honesty  and  capacity.  On  investigating  the 
condition  of  the  bank,  he  found  it  on  the  verge  of  inevit- 
able bankruptcy,  as  the  result  of  gross  mismanagement, 
and  (it  is  said)  of  even  criminal  delinquency  on  the  part 
of  its  officers.  He  immediately  made  the  facts  known  to 
John  Sherman,  and  for  protection  of  all  parties  concerned 
he  proceeded  to  close  the  bank.  Many  of  the  depositors 
were  ill-informed,  and  vented  their  indignation  at  their 
loss  in  a  deluge  of  detraction  and  abuse  upon  his  head, 
though  he  was  not  in  the  least  degree  responsible.  His 
natural  sensitiveness,  the  delicacy  of  an  honorable  man, 
appears  in  his  allusions  in  his  Life  to  this  affair.  When 
slavery  had  been  abolished  Mr.  Douglass  discontinued  his 
paper,  removed  to  Washington,  and  made  lecturing  his 
profession.  It  was  a  period  when  lectures  were  in  great 
demand  in  many  parts  of  the  country;  and  his  strange 
history  combined  with  his  eloquence  to  give  him  great 
popularity.  He  established  in  Washington  in  1870  a 
paper  called  The  New  National  Era,  which,  after  he  had 
conducted  it  for  several  years,  he  transferred  to  his  sons. 

Through  twenty  years,  from  1871,  Mr.  Douglass  was 
honored  with  high  public  office.  He  was  appointed  assist- 
ant-secretary to  the  commission  to  Santo  Domingo  in 
1871;  he  was  appointed,  by  President  Grant,  a  member  of 


8  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

the  territorial  council  of  the  District  of  Columbia  in 
1872;  he  was  presidential  elector-at-large  on  the  electoral 
ticket  of  the  republican  party  in  the  state  of  New  York, 
when  General  Grant  was  elected  to  his  second  term  in 
1872,  and  was  chosen  to  carry  to  Washington  the  pres- 
idential electoral  vote  of  the  state;  he  was  appointed  by 
President  Hayes  United  States  marshal  of  the  District  of 
Columbia  in  1876.  After  holding  this  office  till  1881,  he 
was  made  recorder  of  deeds  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
and  continued  in  this  office  till  his  removal  by  President 
Cleveland  in  1886.  He  was  appointed  by  President 
Harrison  United  States  minister  to  Hayti  in  1889,  and  re- 
signed in  1891.  In  all  these  offices  he  exercised  a  dili- 
gence and  capacity  which  abundantly  justified  his  ap- 
pointment. Throughout  his  public  and  private  affairs  he 
showed  himself  a  man  of  pure  life  and  noble  purpose. 
Mr.  Douglasses  personal  appearance  was  unusually  impres- 
sive, especially  in  his  later  years,  when  his  abundant  white 
hair  crowned  his  well-shaped  head.  His  figure  was  finely 
proportioned,  and  his  bearing  was  dignified.  In  public 
gatherings  he  was  a  picturesque  figure.  His  manners  in 
social  intercourse  were  noticeably  courteous  and  genial. 
After  the  war  he  held  a  high  place  in  popular  regard  as  a 
speaker  and  lecturer  on  various  topics,  and  his  oratory  in 
political  campaigns  was  very  effective.  By  his  extensive 
lecturing,  his  books,  his  editorships,  and  his  judicious  in- 
vestments, he  amassed  a  large  fortune.  Whatever  might 
be  his  subject,  there  was  an  unusual  charm  for  almost  any 
audience  in  the  fact  that  this  cultured  and  eloquent 
speaker,  evidently  familiar  with  art  and  literature,  politics 
and  history,  was  of  the  long-despised  negro  race  and  had 
been  a  slave  till  far  past  his  majority,  compelled  for  years 
as  a  fugitive  to  conceal  his  identity  from  the  officers  of 
the  law;  that  he  had  n^ver  known  a  father's  or  a  mother's 
care;  that,  being  forbidden  even  the  rudiments  of  educa- 
tion, he  had  by  stealth  taught  himself,  after  toil  as  a  day- 
laborer,  the  alphabet  and  the  art  of  reading;  that  under 
all  these  disadvantages  he  had  worked  his  way  up  to  a 
position  of  large  public  influence  and  to  the  level  of  a 
familiar  friendship  with  men  on  this  side  the  Atlantic, 
such  as  Lincoln,  Grant,  Sumner,  Beecher,  and  with  men 
of  the  highest  rank  in  the  British  aristocracy,  as  also  with 
great  political  leaders  of  the  English  people,  and  with 
Frenchmen  of  wide  literary  repute.  Such  a  man,  stand- 
ing before  an  audience,  was  a  living  link  between  the  new 
national  day  of  equal  rights  and  the  old  days  that  already 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS.  .  d 

had  begun  to  veil  themselves  in  mists  to  men's  common 
thought  as  days  of  a  dark  and  long-gone  time — days  before 
the  Flood,  when  the  robbery  of  a  race,  because  they  were 
defenseless,  had  been  lauded,  not  only  at  the  South  but 
equally  at  the  North,  as  a  needful  training  in  chivalry  and 
as  one  of  the  great  defenses  of  Anglo-Saxon  liberty.  This 
man  stood  as  a  living  epitome  of  a  pathetic,  tragic,  and 
tumultuous  historic  period — one  of  those  recurrent  periods 
when  the  romance,  which  always  is  latent  in  history  be- 
cause it  is  latent  in  even  the  most  prosaic  man,  comes 
forth  into  view,  asserts  its  power,  and,  by  dominating 
men's  action  through  their  higher  idealizing  faculties, 
fixes  facts,  decides  great  issues,  and  thus  actually  compels 
a  historic  record  after  its  own  fashion.  Wherefore,  it  is 
sometimes  said  that  no  romance  can  match  in  impressive 
unexpectedness  the  cold,  actual,  historic  occurrence — the 
deep  truth  being  that  history  is  itself  the  only  true 
romance,  and  so  must  necessarily  surpass  all  the  artificial 
products  that  take  that  name. 

Mr.  Douglass's  last  visit  to  the  Old  World  occupied  a 
portion  of  the  years  1887  and  1888.  He  greatly  enjoyed 
his  stay  in  France;  indeed,  he  has  left  on  record  his  delight 
in  Paris  with  its  brilliant  life  and  its  treasures  of  art,  and 
his  admiration  of  the  French  people.  W^hile  these  senti- 
ments may  in  part  be  ascribed  to  the  tropical,  ^w^.s^- Oriental 
strain  in  his  blood,  they  seem  more  largely  due  to  his  ap- 
preciation of  the  French  indifference  to  all  social  distinc- 
tions founded  on  race  or  color.  This '  ignoring  of  the 
whole  question  of  color  was  a  refreshing  contrast  to  the 
constant  intrusion  of  it  in  his  own  country.  Indeed,  he 
distinctly  declared  one  of  the  reasons  for  his  liking  France 
and  the  French  to  be  "because  the  negro  is  not  the  butt  of 
ridicule  here  as  he  is  in  the  United  States."  He  writes, 
*' There  are  no  minstrel  shows  in  Paris;  and  at  the  Louvre 
and  the  Luxembourg  galleries  and  elsewhere  I  find  that 
the  public  treats  the  African  as  an  equal  fellow-being." 
To  a  nature  so  keenly  sensitive  as  was  his,  it  was  like  cold 
water  to  a  thirsty  soul  to  enter,  after  nearly  seventy  years 
of  breathing  the  suffocating  atmosphere  of  such  a  preju- 
dice, a  land  of  high  historic  renown,  where  men  of  science, 
of  art,  of  philosophy,  of  social  prestige,  dealt  with  a  man 
as  a  man,  irrespective  of  the  color  of  his  skin.  We  on  this 
shore  of  the  Atlantic  of  course  shall  be  quick  to  show  our 
strong  excuse  and  to  protest  against  a  final  estimate  of 
comparative  national  nobility  framed  on  such  a  basis:  it  is 
well  that  we  be  quick  with  our  protest  and  excuse  if  they 


10  •  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

are  to  get  a  hearing  before  the  tribunal  of  the  world's 
rapidly  broadening  human  sympathy  and  deepening  sense 
of  justice.  Meanwhile,  this  nation  is  gaining  creditably  in 
the  science  of  applied  justice:  look  at  our  advance  in  civil- 
ization since  the  day  when  money  was  raised  in  the  British 
Isles  to  buy  Frederick  Douglass  from  being  returned  under 
United  States  law  to  the  slave-driver's  lash.  The  time 
may  come  when  this  land  of  the  free  shall  no  longer  need 
to  present  itself  among  the  foremost  civilized  nations  with 
any  apology,  protest,  or  excuse. 

Whatever  inherent  justice  there  may  have  been  in  Mr. 
Douglass's  criticism  of  his  native  land,  there  was  evi- 
dently some  glamor  for  him  in  France  and  all  things 
French.  Paris  was  the  capital  of  the  nation  whose  poet- 
president,  Lamartine,  nearly  forty  years  before  his  visit 
there,  had  signed  the  decree  of  emancipation  which  had 
stricken  the  bonds  from  all  slaves  throughout  the  French 
colonial  possessions.  Mr.  Douglass  was  presented  in  the 
reception-hall  of  the  Luxembourg  to  the  venerable  Sen- 
ator Schoelcher,  who  drew  up  the  decree  which  in  1848 
Lamartine  signed.  The  next  morning,  by  invitation,  the 
American  visited  the  senator  at  his  house.  The  interview 
was  a  delight  to  the  ex-slave.  He  saw  the  library  walls 
decorated  with  presents  from  the  freed  slaves  in  the 
colonies — all  that  they  had  to  give  in  grateful  recognition 
of  M.  Schoelcher's  service  to  their  race — old  slave  whips, 
broken  chains,  handcuffs,  iron  collars,  with  sharp  prongs 
to  gall  the  necks  and  limbs  of  the  bondmen.  Mr. 
Douglass,  in  his  long  and  bitter  antagonism  to  slavery,  had 
been  moved  indignantly  to  discard  the  dogmatic  '' ortho- 
doxy" which  was  the  pride  and  boast  of  the  American 
pro-slavery  churches;  and  in  conversing  with  the  senator, 
who,  having  thrown  off  the  faith  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  had  considered  himself  as  therein  disavowing  all 
religious  belief,  he  spoke  of  Father  Hyacinthe.  He  was  a 
great  admirer  of  Father  Hyacinthe's  superb  pulpit  oratory, 
and  was  a  constant  attendant  at  his  services,  but  expressed 
his  surprise  that  such  a  reformer  should  stop  half-way  be- 
tween Rome  and  an  independent  Protestantism,  and  took 
occasion  to  tell  Senator  Schoelcher  what  the  priest  had 
said  to  him  at  his  tea-table  on  the  evening  previous:  ^'He 
said  to  me  yesterday,  when  I  told  him  that  I  was  coming 
to  see  you  this  morning:  *  Well,  you  are  going  to  meet  a 
man  who  does  not  believe  in  heaven  himself,  but  who 
makes  other  people  believe  in  it.'"  Mr.  Douglass  found 
Paris  socially  and  in  other  respects  so  delightful  that  he 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS.  11 

even  meditated  making  it  his  place  of  residence  for  a  time; 
but  after  a  tour  through  southern  France,  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Egypt,  he  returned  to  his  native  country. 

After  years  of  diligent  and  faithful  work  in  the  inter- 
est of  reform,  in  literary  engagements,  and  in  official 
duty,  he  had  prepared  for  himself,  ten  or  eleven  years  be- 
fore his  visit  to  France,  a  plan  of  well-earned  rest  in  a 
quiet  and  pleasant  home  in  the  suburbs  of  Washington. 
Here,  in  his  fine  library,  much  of  his  time  was  passed  in 
his  last  eighteen  years,  though  he  freely  went  forth  to 
give  aid  to  the  great  associated  movements  of  benevolence 
and  reform.  Mr.  Douglass,  in  1884,  eigihteen  months 
after  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  married  a  white  woman 
of  good  family  and  of  fine  culture.  Miss  Helen  M.  Pitts, 
formerly  one  of  the  clerks  in  the  United  States  marshals 
office  at  Washington.  This  marriage  occasioned  some 
temporary  loss  of  his  popularity  among  the  people  of 
color,  who  felt  that  his  new  preference  involved  a  slight 
of  his  own  race.  The  marriage,  however,  proved  a  happy 
one  in  the  judgment  of  all  who  knew  the  home  life  at 
Cedar  Hill.  His  children  living  at  the  time  of  his  second 
marriage  were  four:  Lewis  H.  Douglass,  Frederick  Doug- 
lass, Jr.,  Charles  R.  Douglass,  and  a  married  daughter, 
Mrs.  Sprague.  Mr.  Douglass  was  a  diligent  contributor 
to  newspapers  and  magazines,  and  published  several  books, 
among  which  are:  Narrative  of  My  Eocperience  in  Slavery 
(1844),  My  Bondage  and  My  Freedom  (1855),  Life  and 
Times  of  Frederick  Douglass  (1881;  with  continuation  to 
1893). 

On  the  evening  of  his  sudden  death  (February  20)  he 
was  under  engagement  to  deliver  a  lecture  in  Hillsdale 
African  church  near  his  home.  One  of  his  favorite  reforms, 
from  his  early  days  of  abolitionist  effort,  was  the  endu- 
ing of  women  with  suffrage:  he  was  an  enrolled  member 
of  the  National  Woman's  Suffrage  association  and  an  un- 
failing attendant  at  its  conventions.  He  was  an  intimate, 
life-long  friend  of  Miss  Susan  B.  Anthony,  and  an  ardent 
helper  of  her  work.  On  the  evening  of  his  death  he  had 
returned  from  attendance  at  a  meeting  of  the  Woman's 
Council  in  Washington,  and,  after  dining,  was  reporting 
and  explaining  to  his  wife  with  much  enthusiasm  an  in- 
cident of  the  day,  when  he  suddenly  dropped  to  the  floor 
with  an  attack  of  heart-trouble,  which  ended  after  a  few 
minutes  in  his  death  at  about  seven  o'clock. 

The  funeral  services  were  held  on  February  25  in  the 
Metropolitan   African    Methodist    Episcopal    church    in 


12  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  1st  Qr.,  1805. 

Washington.  A  throng  of  thousands  was  in  attendance 
in  the  surrounding  streets,  besides  the  crowd  of  two 
thousand  persons  within  the  buikling.  Many  white  men 
of  eminence,  friends  of  Mr.  Douglass,  were  present,  and 
there  was  a  vast  outpouring  of  the  colored  population  of 
the  region  round.  Delegations  were  in  attendance  from 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  other  cities. 
The  press.  Northern  and  Southern,  took  occasion  to  recall 
to  the  public  mind  Mr.  Douglass's  remarkable  character 
and  history,  and  to  draw  from  his  career  lessons,  which, 
though  almost  universally  kind  and  appreciative  of  the 
man  personally,  were  naturally  colored  to  some  extent  by 
the  diverse  social  usages  of  the  two  different  sections  and 
by  those  political  and  partisan  prejudices  which,  though 
gradually  lessening  and  fading,  still  linger  on  our  national 
horizon  as  distant  fragments  of  that  mighty  cloud  of 
war  that  only  a  generation  ago  darkened  all  our  heavens. 
Most  noticeable  of  all  the  expressions  called  forth  by  this 
colored  man's  death  was  the  adjournment  of  the  North 
Carolina  house  of  representatives  in  honor  of  him,  when 
the  tidings  reached  Raleigh.  The  adjournment  was  by  a 
vote  on  party  lines  after  debate — the  democrats,  this  year 
in  a  minority,  voting  in  the  negative.  The  act  gains  em- 
phasis from  the  refusal  two  days  previously,  also  by  a  vote 
on  party  lines  after  debate  in  the  same  house,  of  an  ad- 
journment on  the  anniversary  of  General  Lee's  birth, 
though  this  anniversary  was  a  legal  holiday.  The  in- 
cident is  highly  impressive — perhaps  more  impressive 
than  profoundly  important — indicating  an  eddy  in  public 
opinion  rather  than  the  main  flow.  A  man's  inherited 
prejudices  are  difficult  to  deal  with,  a  nation's  far  more 
difficult.  Being  prejudices  and  not  reasoned  judgments, 
they  are  not  amenable  to  reason,  and  being  inherited 
they  are  both  deeply  rooted  and  sacred  through  ancestral 
associations.  And  of  all  such  inherited  national  preju- 
dices the  racial  prejudice  is  perhaps  the  most  stubborn. 
With  few  exceptions,  though  indeed  with  very  great 
diversity  in  degree,  we  who  have  white  skins  in  this  na- 
tion, North  and  South,  have  an  inherited  racial  prejudice 
— largely  a  bequeathal  from  slavery — slavery  in  which 
nearly  all  our  ancestors  alike  believed  as  either  a  desirable 
or  a  quite  tolerable  social  system.  This  prejudice,  with 
some  other  remainders  of  a  remote  barbarism,  must  grad- 
ually dissolve  like  the  iceberg  drifting  on  vast  world- 
circling  currents  into  summer  seas.  That  the  mighty 
moral  current  is  bearing  us,  and  that  its  drift  is  toward  a 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  13 

civilization  not  merely  refined  and  dainty  and  brilliant, 
but  solidly  based  on  the  rock  of  right,  we  may  rejoice  to 
see  as  it  appears  in  impressive  illustration  in  the  charac- 
ter, the  influence,  and  the  honored  career  of  Frederick 
Douglass. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 

■jV/fODERN  war  chronicles  furnish  no  parallel  to  the  rec- 
ord of  successes  achieved  by  the  Japanese  arms  on 
both  land  and  sea  in  the  present  struggle  with  China.  It 
has  been  a  record  unbroken  by  a  single  serious  reverse, 
and  abounding  in  instructive  lessons  to  comparative  stu- 
dents of  military,  and  especially  of  naval,  methods  and, 
tactics.  It  is  safe  to  say,  that  whatever  may  be  the  outcome  of 
the  peace  negotiations  now  pending  at  Simonoseki,  the  tri- 
umph of  Japan  as  naval  mistress  of  Eastern  waters  seems 
permanently  assured.  The  power  of  the  Chinese  navy  was 
shattered  at  the  battle  of  the  Yalu;  all  hope  of  restor- 
ing it  perished  in  the  fall  of  Port  Arthur;  and  its  last 
remnants  were  captured  or  destroyed  at  Wei-Hai-Wei, 
February  12.  Thus,  as  our  record  closes  (March  31),  the 
Japanese  are  undisputed  masters  of  the  gulf  of  Pe-Chi- 
Li  and  the  Yellow  sea.  The  coast  cities  of  China  are  at 
their  mercy,  and  they  are  free  to  transport  their  armies 
wliither  they  please.  It  is  true  that  their  land  operations 
in  Manchuria  and  the  provinces  around  the  gulf  of  Leao- 
Tong,  Avhile  marked  by  some  brilliant  successes,  have 
been  less  rapid  in  their  advance,  if  not  also  less  important 
in  their  results,  than  the  movements  of  their  men-of-war. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  unusual  rigors  of  the  present 
winter  and  the  persistent  thougli  ineffective  opposition 
offered  by  the  Chinese  troops.  However,  with  the  ad- 
vent of  warmer  weather  and  better  roads,  we  may  look  for 
a  concerted  movement  in  the  direction  of  Pekin — a  move- 
ment which  only  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  or  the 
intervention  of  interested  European  powers  will  avert. 
Complete,  however,  as  the  collapse  of  China  now  appears 
to  be,  it  would  be  injudicious  to  conclude  therefrom  that 
the  defensive  resources  of  that  great  empire  are  exhausted. 
With  tlie  commencement  of  bona  fide  negotiations  for 
peace  on  March  21,  the  public  interest  has  to  a  great  ex- 


14 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.      1st  Qr.,  1895. 


tent  been,  transferred  from  the  theatre  of  war,  and  is  now 
immediately  centred  upon  the  question  of  the  terms  of  peace 
and  the  problems  raised  by  the  prospective  early  ending  of 
the  war.  We  have  now,  and  shall  have  for  some  time  to 
come,  opportunities  of  judging  whether  the  statesmanship 
of  the  Japanese  is  of  the  same  brilliant  quality  as  their 
military  genius.     In  war  they  have  had  only  the  Chinese 

to  contend  with.  In 
the  present  diplomatic 
negotiations  and  the 
probable  subsequent 
period  of  peace,  they 
have  and  will  have 
other  and  far  more 
powerful  interests  to 
consider.  They  can- 
not be  charged  with  ig- 
norance of  the  recent 
political  history  of  Eu- 
rope; and  the  example 
of  the  treaty  of  San 
"  Stefano  (1878),  which 
ended  the  Russo-Turk- 
ish  war,  but  which  led 
to  a  readjustment  of 
European  relations  by 
a  great  conference   of 

COMMANDING    ONE     DIVISION     OF     THE   JAPANESE   tllC    pOWCrS    at      Bcrlln, 

ARMY  IN  MANCHURIA.  may   Icad  them   to  be 

moderate  in  their  demands.  Up  to  the  commencement 
of  the  present  struggle,  the  people  of  the  Sunrise  Land 
had  shown  themselves  too  assimilative,  too  mercurial,  in 
fact  too  revolutionary,  to  enjoy  the  full  confidence  of  the 
West.  Until  they  have  proved  that  in  peace  they  have 
the  same  '^staying  qualities"  with  which  in  war  they  have 
surprised  the  world,  the  Western  powers  will  scarcely  con- 
sent to  commit  to  their  keeping  the  stability  of  Eastern 
Asia. 

It  will  also  remain  for  China,  after  the  war  is  over,  to 
show  that  her  traditional  conservatism  is  not  so  devoid  of 
inner  vitality  as  to  fail  entirely  to  be  quickened  into  a  new 
and  progressive  life  by  the  tremendous  shock  to  which  it 
has  been  subjected. 

The  Campaign  in  Manchuria. — The  most  obstinate 
engagement  fought  up  to  the  end  of  1894,  of  which  de- 
tails were  received  early  in  January  of  the  present  year. 


LIEUTENANT-GENERAL  KATSURA, 


16  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895 

appears  to  have  occurred  at  Kungwasai,  near  Ilai-tcheng. 
The  Chinese  had  intrenched  themselves  in  a  position 
where,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground,  it  was  impossible 
to  outflank  them.  Twice  they  repelled  the  direct  on- 
slaught of  General  Osaka's  brigade:  and  it  was  only  when 
General  Katsura  brought  up  reinforcements  from  Hai- 
tcheng,  that  the  first  line  of  defenses  was  carried.  Even 
then  the  Chinese  stuck  to  their  second  line,  from  which  it 
required  a  fourth  charge  to  dislodge  them.  The  Japanese 
losses  in  killed  and  wounded  are  put  at  450,  the  Chinese  at 
300  killed  and  over  600  wounded.  Heavy  snow  prevented 
successful  pursuit  of  the  fugitives. 

The  remaining  days  of  the  year  witnessed  few  military 
operations  of  importance.  As  the  Japanese  advanced  fur- 
ther into  Manchuria  the  difficulties  of  the  campaign  in- 
creased. With  the  main  bodies  so  far  from  their  base 
either  on  the  Yalu  or  at  Port  Arthur,  it  became  a  serious 
matter  to  keep  the  long  line  of  communication  safe  and 
intact.  Moreover,  the  unusual  severity  of  the  present 
Manchurian  winter  sorely  tested  the  endurance  of  men 
accustomed  to  a  milder  climate.  The  troops,  however, 
have  been  amply  provided  with  comforts,  and  have  borne 
the  winter  better  than  anticipated.  Further,  they  have 
been  well  received  by  the  inhabitants,  who  find  the  in- 
vaders preferable  to  their  own  troops,  the  Chinese  gener- 
ally turning  into  mere  banditti  when  freed  from  discipline. 

Though  the  progress  of  the  Japanese  in  the  north  has 
been  slow,  their  efforts  have  been  rewarded  with  impor- 
tant victories.  On  January  10,  by  the  brilliant  capture  of 
Kai-Phing,  they  made  themselves  complete  masters  of  the 
great  Leao-Tong  promontory,  their  forces  stretching  across 
from  sea  to  sea.  Kai-Phing  lies  near  the  coast  on  the  gulf  of 
Leao-Tong,  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Ying-Chow,  the 
port  of  the  valuable  city  of  Niu-Chwang.  General  Nieh  had 
spread  his  forces  of  over  4,000  Chinese  along  the  river  Kai- 
chon-ho,  protecting  Kai-Phing,  when  the  Japanese  infan- 
try of  the  second  army,  under  General  Nogi,  fell  upon  both 
wings.  These,  being  driven  from  their  positions,  threw 
the  Chinese  centre  into  confusion;  and  after  about  four 
hours'  stubborn  fighting  the  town  fell,  the  Chinese  fleeing 
in  disorder  toward  Niu-Chwang.  General  Nieh  himself 
narrowly  escaped  capture.  The  Japanese  report  their  loss 
as  fifty  killed.  The  Chinese  loss  is  known  to  be  over  200 
killed,  and  is  put  as  high  as  2,000  in  killed  and  wounded. 

The  strategical  position  of  the  Chinese  in  the  province 
of  Shun-King  was  now  extremely  perilous.     When  Hai- 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 


17 


tcheng,  which  commands  the  direct  route  to  the  coast,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  in  December,  1894,  the 
troops  of  General  Sung  were  cut  off  from  their  chief  base 
of  supplies  at  Niu-Chwang.  It  was  in  order  to  recover 
their  strategical  position  that  the  Chinese  fought  the  bat- 
tle of  Kungwasai  on  December  19.  A  second  attempt  was 
made  to  recover  Hai-tcheng  on  January  17, 1895,  by  some 
of  the  troops  operating 
north  of  that  point.  To 
the  number  of  14,000 
they  set  out  on  January 
12  from  Leao- Yang,  forty 
miles  from  Hai-tcheng. 
After  five  days*  marching 
they  converged  upon  the 
latter  place  from  three 
directions,  but  ventured 
no  closer  to  the  Japanese 
outposts  than  1,500  me- ft 
tres.  At  8.30  A.  m.  theyvj 
began  firing  with  cannon  .3" 
and  musketry.  The  Jap- ' 
anese  refrained  from  fir- 
ing and  kept  under  cover 
until  2  P.  M.,  hoping  to 
draw  the  Chinese  into 
closer  range.  At  3  p.  m.  , 
however,  they  charged  and  routed  the  Chinese  right  wing, 
when  the  whole  force  retreated,  being  pursued  until  sunset'. 
The  Chinese  left  from  200  to  300  dead  upon  the  field;  the 
Japanese  lost  only  one  killed  and  forty  wounded.  A  similar 
but  equally  futile  attempt  to  recover  Hai-tcheng  was  made 
from  Leao- Yang  on  January  22  by  the  combined  forces  of 
Generals  Chang  and  Yih,  numbering  20,000  men.  The  casu- 
alties to  the  Japanese  were  even  fewer  than  on  the  17th,  be- 
ing one  killed  and  twenty-six  wounded,  while  the  Chinese 
lost  over  100  dead.  On  both  occasions  most  of  the  retreat- 
ing troops  fled  northward,  but  some  took  the  westward  road 
toward  Niu-Chwang.  Still  further  attempts  to  dislodge 
the  Japanese  from  their  intrenchments  at  Hai-tcheng 
were  made  on  February  16  and  21,  but  in  vain. 

In  the  meantime  the  latter  continued  to  add  to  their 
record  of  victories  at  other  points.  On  February  12  Ning- 
Hai-Chu  was  occupied  without  opposition.  On  February 
24  the  first  division  of  the  Japanese  army  about  Kai-Phing 
defeated  with  heavy  loss  an  army  of  13,000  Chinese,  driv- 

VoL  6.— », 


MAJOR-GENERAL    08HIMA, 
JAPANESE  MILITARY    OFFICER   IN  MANCHURIA. 


18  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

ing  them  toward  Ying-Chow.  February  28  was  marked 
bv  victorious  skirmishes  with  the  various  sections  of  Gen- 
eral Yili's  army  of  15,000  men  between  the  Leao-Yang  and 
Niu-Chwang  roads.  On  March  1  the  third  division  ad- 
vanced from  Ilai-tcheng  and  captured  the  important  post 
of  Konshino. 

A  still  more  serious  reverse  to  the  Chinese  arms  was  the 

capture,  on  March  4,  of 
the  old  city  of  Niu- 
Chwang  by  two  divi- 
sions of  the  first  Jap- 
anese army  under  Gen- 
eral Nodzu.  Theattack 
was  made  at  10  a.  m., 
and,  after  a  two  hours' 
bombardment,  the  for- 
tifications were  carried. 
Part  of  the  garrison  at 
once  fled  to  Ying- 
Chovv,  the  modern  pari 
of  the  city ;  but  the 
main  body  still  fought 
doggedly  in  the  streets, 
and  it  was  only  after 
eleven  hours'  hard 
fighting  that  they  were 
eventually  driven  out. 
The  official  Japanese 
report  states  the  loss  of  the  Chinese  at  1,880  killed  and 
wounded,  and  500  made  prisoners;  and  that  of  the  Jap- 
anese at  206  killed  and  wounded.  Two  days  later  (March 
6)  Ying-Chow,  the  port  of  Niu-Chwang,  was  taken,  after 
some  severe  fighting,  by  a  division  of  the  second  Japanese 
army. 

The  first  and  second  armies  having  now  effected  a 
junction  at  Ying-Chow,  a  division  of  the  first  army  at- 
tacked the  forces  of  General  Sung  on  March  9  at  Thien- 
chvvang-thai,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  Leao,  gaining  a 
decided  victory  after  three  and  a-half  hours'  desperate 
fighting.  The  Chinese  repeatedly  charged  the  Japanese 
troops  in  the  streets,  and  fought  with  great  valor,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  they  gave  up  the  struggle  only 
when  about  2,000  of  their  number  had  been  placed  hors 
de  combat.  The  Japanese  report  only  100  killed.  The 
latter  captured  600  prisoners,  eighteen  guns,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  arms  and  stores.  This  was  followed,  a  few  days 


GENiRAL   NODZU, 
COMMANDER  OP  FIRST  JAPANESE  ARMY. 


I 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  19 

later,  by  the  capture,  near  Niu-Chwang,  of  the  entire  sup- 
ply of  provisions  for  three  mouths,  intended  for  the  Chinese 
troops  in  Manchuria. 

As  a  result  of  these  crushing  blows  to  the  cause  of 
China,  the  way  is,  at  the  end  of  March,  almost  cleared  of 
obstructions  for  a  combined  advance  in  the  direction  of 
Pekin,  either  overland  around  the  gulf  of  Leao-Tong,  or  by 
naval  transport  to  some 
point  on  tlie  gulf  of  Pe- 
Chi-Li.  On  March  24  a 
Japanese  force  was  landed 
at  Hai-Chow,  on  the  coast 
of  the  province  of  Kiang- 
Su,  about  170  miles  north- 
west of  Nanking,  pre- 
sumably with  the  object 
of  checking  the  trans- 
portation of  supplies  along 
the  Grand  canal  to  the 
Chinese  capital. 

Naval  Operations — 
Unbroken  though  the 
record  has  been  of  Jap- 
anese successes  in  the 
north,  it  has  attracted  less 
attention  than  the  bril- 
liant combined  operations 
of  fleet  and  army  in  the  "••'''"''^''^^"^^''^^«^™^"'^^^^="=''^^• 
south.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  primary  object  of 
the  campaign  in  Manchuria,  it  served  the  purpose  of  divert- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  available  forces  of  China  in  that 
direction,  practically  denuded  the  Shan-Tung  promontory 
of  troops,  and  greatly  facilitated  the  operations  of  the 
Japanese  which  culminated  in  the  capture  of  the  strong- 
hold of  Wei-Hai-Wei. 

The  Capture  of  Wei-Hai-Wei. — On  January  19  a  fleet 
of  Japanese  war-ships,  carrying  troops,  bombarded  and 
silenced  the  forts  of  Teng-Chow,  on  the  Shan-Tung 
promontory,  about  fifty  miles  northwest  of  Che-Foo. 
Shortly  afterward,  troops  which  had  been  successfully 
landed  advanced  toward  Yung-Chuen,  the  fortress  of 
which  they  seized.  A  second  fleet  of  transports  arrived 
January  21,  and  a  third  on  the  morning  of  January  23. 
Field-Marshal  Oyama  established  his  headquarters  at 
Yung-Chuen,  and  immediately  made  ready  to  march  over- 
land to  co-operate  with  the  navy  against  Che-Foo  and 


ADMIRAL  COUNT  SAIGO; 


20 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr..  1895. 


Wei-IIai-Wei.  The  latter  place  was  invested  (January  27) 
by  a  fleet  of  twenty  men-of-war,  nineteen  transports,  and 
twenty  torpedo  boats.  On  January  30  all  the  southern  or 
land  defenses  of  Wei-Hai-Wei  were  carried.  Considerihg 
the  strength  of  the  place,  the  resistance  was  feeble,  though 
some  of  the  forts  were  stubbornly  defended,  and  the  loss 
on  both  sides-  was  heavy.      The  Japanese  troops  of  the 

sixth  division  were  en- 
gaged from  daylight  until 
9  A.  M.,  by  which  time 
almost  all  the  outlying 
inlrenchments  were  in 
their  hands.  Meanwhile, 
under  cover  of  a  furious 
bombardment  from  the 
men-of-war,  the  second 
division  made  a  direct  as- 
sault from  the  southwest 
ui)on  the  main  point  of 
Chinese  resistance,  the 
P.iicliihyaiso  line  of  forts, 
a  position  of  great  strength 
with  precipitous  sides  100 
feet  in  height.  After  some 
hours'  fighting  they  were 
joined  in  the  attack  by 
the  troops  of  the  sixth 
division,  who,  having 
driven  the  enemy  before  them,  had,  without  being  ob- 
served, made  a  detour  around  Mount  Ku  and  thrown 
themselves  against  the  Paichihyaiso  forts  from  the  op- 
posite side.  The  combined  assault  could  not  be  with- 
stood, and  shortly  after  noon  the  forts  surrendered.  The 
fleet  then  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  the  eastern  en- 
trance of  the  harbor,  and  by  3  p.  m.  the  Chinese  were  in 
full  retreat  toward  Fung-lin-chu.  Their  fleet,  however, 
was  still  intact,  and  they  still  held  the  fortress  island  of 
Ling-kung-tau,  upon  which  were  government  workshops 
and  stores.  The  Japanese  turned  the  guns  of  the  captured 
forts  against  the  Chinese  ships,  compelling  the  latter  to 
change  their  position.  Severe  snowstorms  setting  in  pre- 
vented an  immediate  naval  engagement. 

On  February  3,  however,  the  Japanese  returned  to  the 
assault,  and,  after  some  desperate  and  sanguinary  fighting, 
captured  the  main  forts  on  the  island  of  Ling-kung-tau. 
Nearly  the  entire  Japanese  fleet  kept  up  a  terrific  fire  upon 


VICE-ADMIKM     \l-(     UNI     K\I,\\AA1A, 
JAPANESE    NAVAL  COMMANDER. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  21 

the  forts  for  several  hours,  to  which  the  Chinese  replied 
with  unusual  spirit.  Finally,  under  cover  of  the  guns  of 
the  heavier  ships,  six  of  the  Japanese  vessels  landed 
marines,  who  carried  the  Chinese  batteries  after  fierce  hand- 
to-hand  fighting.  During  the  attack  on  Wei-Hai-Wei, 
the  Japanese  losses  are  said  to  have  been  as  follows: — 
Second  division,  120  killed  and  wounded;  sixth  division. 
General  Otera  and  twenty-two  others  killed,  and  ninety- 
three  wounded. 

It  remained  now  only  to  silence  the  few  remaining  forts 
in  which  the  Chinese  still  held  out,  and  to  capture  or  de- 
stroy the  remnants  of  the  northern  squadron  of  the  Chinese 
navy,  which  was  shut  up  in  the  harbor  of  Wei-Hai-Wei, 
in  order  to  make  the  Japanese  undisputed*  masters  of  the 
gulf  of  Pe-Chi-Li  and  the  Yellow  sea.  On  the  night  of 
February  4  the  Ming-Ling  and  fifteen  other  Japanese  tor- 
pedo boats,  having  previously  made  three  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts, effected  an  entrance  into  the  harbor.  The  Ming- 
Ling  succeeded  in  launching  two  torpedoes  at  and  sinking 
the  battle-ship  Ting-Yuen,  (7,430  tons^  displacement,  6,200 
horse-power),  one  of  the  two  vessels  constituting  the  flower 
of  the  Chinese  navy  and  the  most  powerful  ships  belong- 
ing to  any  Asiatic  power.  On  the  following  night,  the 
5th,  one  Japanese  torpedo  boat  approached  the  Chinese 
fleet,  launched  seven  torpedoes,  and  sank  the  battle-ship 
Lai- Yuen  (2,850  tons)  and  two  other  war  vessels.  Febru- 
ary 8  witnessed  a  severe  engagement.  Several  Japanese 
war-ships  entered  the  harbor  from  the  east.  The  Chinese 
war-ships,  13  in  number,  took  up  a  position  at  the  south- 
east island,  on  which  were  four  forts,  which  kept  up  an 
incessant  fire  upon  the  Japanese  flotilla.  Three  Chinese 
torpedo  boats,  attempting  to  escape  by  the  western  en- 
trance, were  sunk. 

So  hopeless  was  now  the  position  of  the  Chinese  squad- 
ron, that  Admiral  Ting  decided  to  capitulate.  On  Feb- 
ruary 12  he  sent  to  Admiral  Ito  a  proposal  to  surrender 
all  the  Chinese  ships,  arms,  forts,  etc.,  provided  the  lives 
of  the  crews,  soldiers,  and  foreigners  were  spared.  This 
condition  being  granted,  he  wrote  a  letter  from  his  flag- 
ship, accepting  the  Japanese  terms.  He  then,  we  are  told, 
with  three  other  prominent  Chinese  officers  concerned  in 
the  defense  of  Wei-Hai-Wei,  committed  suicide,  partly 
from  chagrin  at  his  defeat,  partly  to  escape  the  disgrace- 
ful punishment  which  in  China  is  invariably  meted  out  to 
responsible  officials  who  fail  to  do  what  is  expected  of 


22  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER,     ist  Qr.,  1895. 

them.*  Admiral  McClure,  the  next  in  command  of  the 
Chinese  squadron,  continued  the  negotiations,  and  com- 
pleted the  surrender  of  the  forts  on  February  13.  The 
Chinese  troops  and  sailors,  on  landing,  were  received 
with  the  honors  of  war,  and  were  then  escorted  beyond 
the  Japanese  lines  and  liberated.  On  February  17  the 
entire  Japanese  fleet  entered  the  harbor.  Their  crews 
were  set  to  prepare  the  Chinese  ships  for  sailing.  The 
Kuang-Ki  was  disarmed  and  given  up  as  a  conveyance  for 
the  body  of  Admiral  Ting;  the  great  battle-ship  Ghen- 
Fwe?i  was  sent  temporarily  to  Port  Arthur  for  repairs;  and 
the  other  prizes  it  was  the  announced  intention  of  the  vic- 
tors to  send  home  to  Japan. 

No  other  battle  of  the  war  equals  that  of  Wei-Hai- 
Wei  in  the  pluck  and  dogged  determination  shown  on  both 
sides.  Taken  in  conjunction  with  the  capture  of  Port 
Arthur,  it  rendered  Japan,  as  already  stated,  completely 
mistress  of  the  gulf  of  Pe-Ohi-Li  and  the  northern  waters 
of  the  Yellow  sea.  It  had  the  further  effect  of  opening 
to  the  Japanese  a  second  road  to  Pekin,  from  the  south- 
east, through  the  province  of   Shan-Tung. 

From  the  point  of  view,  also,  of  naval  tactics  and  con- 
struction, the  battle  of  Wei-Hai-Wei  is  of  commanding 
interest,  as  it  emphasizes  the  lesson  demonstrated  at  the 
Yalu — the  superiority  of  light,  swift,  but  strongly  armed 
cruisers  over  gigantic,  heavily  armored,  and  immensely 
expensive  battle-ships.  It  taught,  besides,  a  lesson  for  the 
enforcement  of  which  the  earlier  engagement  afforded  no 
opportunity — the  great  value  of  an  efficient  torpedo  ser- 
vice. 

The  most  important  naval  operation  since  the  fall  of 
Wei-Hai-Wei  has  been  the  descent  made  in  the  latter  part 
of  March  in  the  direction  of  Formosa,  an  island  9,000 
square  miles  in  area,  with  a  population  of  about  3,000,000, 
and  of  great  commercial  and  strategic  importance.  Pre- 
sumably as  a  first  step  to  further  operations  against  For- 
mosa, the  Japanese  fleet,  on  March  21,  took  possession  of 
Fisher  island,  the  second  largest  of  the  Pescadore  group. 
This  group  comprises  twenty-one  inhabited  islets  lying 
about  twenty-five  miles  off  the  western  coast  of  Formosa, 
between  the  latter  and  the  Chinese  mainland.  On  the  23d 
the  Japanese  ships  made  a  concerted  attack  upon  Makong, 
the  chief  port  of  Panghu,  the  largest  of  the  Pescadore 
group.     Troops  were  landed,  and  assaulted  the  principal 

*NoTE.— Itwas  subsequently  (March  18)  reported,  but  not  confirmed,  that 
Admiral  Ting  did  not  commit  suicide  but  was  smuggled  away  in  safety. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 


23 


fort.  During  the  night  the  Chinese  evacuated  the  posi- 
tion, which  was  occupied  by  the  Japanese  on  March  24. 
The  next  day  Yen-Tung  was  attacked  and  captured. 

Between  Panghu  and  Fisher  islands  there  is  an  excel- 
lent harbor  which  now  provides  the  Japanese  with  an  ad- 
vantageous base  for  their  contemplated  operations  against 
Formosa.  The  ports  of  Tamsui  and  Keelung  in  the 
northern  part  of  the 
island  are  strongly 
defended. 

Negotiations 
for  Peace. — The 
preliminary  negotia- 
tions for  peace  were 
made  through  the 
United  States  min- 
isters to  China  and 
Japan,  Mr.  Denby 
and  Mr.  Dun  re- 
spectively. Japan 
announced  at  the 
outset  her  willing- 
ness to  receive  peace 
envoys,  provided 
they  were  clothed 
with  full  power  to 
accept  and  to  bind 
their  country  to 
such  conditions  as 
tliey  might  be  able 
to  obtain  for  China. 
As  long  as  doubt 
hung  over  the  cre- 
dentials or  powers  of  the  Chinese  envoys,  Japan  refused  even 
todiscuss  the  matter  of  peace.  In  the  East  a  far  greater  im- 
portance attaches  to  formalities  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe;  and  Japan  was  not  slow  to  realize  that  unless  the  nice- 
ties of  Oriental  ceremonial  were  rigidly  insisted  upon,  the 
ingenuity  of  the  Chinese  court  officials  might  discover  means 
for  concealing  the  significance  of  diplomatic  defeats  in  the 
eyes  of  the  people,  or  even  for  representing  such  defeats  as 
virtual  acts  of  homage  to  the  Son  of  Heaven.  As  a  first 
step  to  the  salutary  chastisement  of  the  inveterate  inso- 
lence of  China,  it  was  necessary  to  make  it  ch^ar  to  all  the 
world  that  it  was  the  Lord  of  the  Dragon  Throne  himself, 
and  not  any  of  his  deputies  or  subordinates,  who  appeared 
as  a  suppliant  before  the  victorious  Mikado. 


HON.  CHARLES  DENBY  OF  INDIANA, 
UNITED  STATES    MINISTER  TO   CHINA. 


M  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

China  made  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  gain  a  hear- 
ing. Shortly  after  the  great  reverse  which  befell  her  at 
Port  Arthur  in  November,  1894,  she  sent  to  Japan  as 
peace  envoy  one  Mr.  Detring,  a  foreigner,  who  had  been 
connected  with  her  customs  service.  He  proved  to  be  not 
properly  accredited,  and  Japan  refused  to  receive  him, 
whereupon  China  disclaimed  responsibility  for  his  mission. 

Her  next  attempt 
was  made  late  in 
January,  1895,  her 
envoys  this  time  be- 
ing Chang-yen-huan 
and  Shao-yu-lien, 
with  the  United 
States  ex-secretary 
of  state,  General 
John  \V.  Foster,  as 
their  counsel.  But 
thougli  these  envoys 
were  men  of  high 
rank,  Chang  being 
a  member  of  the 
T  s  u  n  g  -  Li- Yamen, 
or  bureau  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  Shao  be- 
ing governor  of  the 
province  of  Hunan, 
their  credentials, 
as  in  the  case  of  Mr. 
Detring,  proved  un- 
satisfactory to  Prime 
Minister  Count  Ito 
and  Viscount  Mutsu, 
whom  Japan  had  named  as  her  plenipotentiaries  in  the  nego- 
tiations for  peace.  The  first  meeting  of  the  envoys  was  held 
February  1  at  Hiroshima.  A  second  meeting  was  held 
next  day,  and  credentials  were  exchanged;  but,  as  it  was 
found  that  the  latter  were  very  defective,  it  being  incum- 
bent upon  the  Chinese  envoys  to  telegraph  the  conclusions 
of  the  conference  to  Pekin  for  ratification  by  the  emperor, 
all  negotiations  were  at  once  again  cut  off,  and  the  Chinese 
envoys  wero  asked  to  leave  the  country  as  soon  as  possible. 
In  addressing  them  on  the  matter.  Count  Ito  said  in  part: 

"  Instances  are  not  wanting  in  whicli  Chinese  commissions,  after 
having  formally  agreed  to  international  compacts,  have  refused  to 
affix  their  seals,  and  cases  might  be  cited  in  which  treaties  solemnly 


BX-SECRETART  OF  STATE  .JOHN  W.  FOSTER  OF  INDIANA, 
COUNSEL  TO  CHINESE  PEACE  PLENIPOTENTIARIES. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  25 

concluded  have  been  unceremoniously  and  without  apparent  reason 
repudiated. 

' '  It  has  from  the  first  been  the  wish  of  Japan  to  avoid  results 
which  history  teaches  her  are  liable  to  be  the  outcome  of  negotiations 
with  Chinese  officials  who  are  not  clothed  with  full  power,  in  the 
sense  in  which  that  term  is  usually  understood.      ***** 

' '  Criticism  is  nearly  exhausted  by  a  simple  comparison  of  the 
two  instruments  which  were  reciprocally  exchanged  at  this  board  yes- 
terday; but  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  point  out  that  one  fulfils  the  defi- 
nition which  is  usually  given  among  civilized  states  to  the  term  'full 
powers,'  while  the  other  is  destitute  of  nearly  all  those  qualities  which 
are  regarded  as  essential  to  such  powers.  It  even  fails  to  indicate  the 
subject  upon  which  Your  Excellencies  are  to  negotiate;  it  does  not 
authorize  Your  Excellencies  to  conclude  or  sign  anything;  it  is  silent 
on  the  subject  of  the  subsequent  imperial  ratification  of  Your  Excel- 
lencies' acts.  In  short,  it  would  seem  that  the  authority  which  has 
been  conferred  upon  Your  Excellencies  would  be  completely  fulfilled 
by  your  reporting  to  your  government  what  my  colleague  and  myself 
might  have  to  say.  In  this  situation  it  would  be  impossible  for  us 
to  continue  negotiations." 

At  the  same  time  Count  Ito  added  that  whenever 
China  proved  herself  sincerely  desirous  of  peace  and 
would  confide  full  powers  to  officials  of  such  rank  as  to 
make  it  certain  that  what  they  agreed  to  would  be  carried 
out  in  good  faith,  Japan  would  enter  anew  upon  negotia- 
tions. 

As  a  result  China  finally  resolved  in  the  latter  part  of 
February  to  make  overtures  in  a  form  consonant  with  the 
traditions  of  diplomacy.  She  appointed  her  greatest 
statesman,  Li  Hung  Chang,  who  still  remained  practically 
her  prime  minister  in  spite  of  the  machinations  of  his 
enemies,  to  visit  Japan  and  treat  for  peace,  giving  him 
full  powers  to  negotiate  upon  four  points: 

(1).  The  independence  of  Korea.  (2).  A  money  indemnity.  (3). 
Cession  of  territory.  (4).  The  readjustment  of  treaty  relations  be- 
tween the  two  countries  in  regard  to  C(jmmercial  relations,  extra-terri- 
torial jurisdiction,  and  other  matters  previously  covered  by  treaties 
which  have  been  terminated  by  the  war. 

He  started  from  Pekin  March  .4;  sailed  from  Shanghai, 
with  a  retinue  of  130  persons,  March  15;  and  arrived  at 
Simonoseki,  Japan,  March  19.  There  the  negotiations 
are  being  conducted,  the  credentials  of  all  parties  having 
been  found  perfectly  satisfactory. 

At  the  outset  China  proposed  that  both  sides  should 
agree  to  an  armistice  during  the  negotiations.  Japan  de- 
manded as  a  condition  of  the  armistice  that  the  approaches 
to  Pekin  should  be  delivered  up.  To  this  Li  Hung  Chang 
refused  to  agree.  Just  at  this  point  occurred  the  untoward 
event  which  rudely  put  an  end  for  the  time  being  to  the 
conferences  of  the  envoys,  and  which,  through  the  gener- 


26  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

osity  of  Japan,  led  her  to  grant  the  desired  armistice, 
which  at  the  end  of  March  is  still  in  force. 

On  March  24,  while  Li  Hung  Chang  was  returning  to 
his  hotel  after  one  oi  the  conferences,  accompanied  by 
several  members  of  his  suite,  a  young  Japanese,  named 
Koyama,  ran  up  and  fired  a  pistol  at  him,  inflicting  a  seri- 
ous wound.  The  bullet  entered  the  cheek  below  the  eye, 
and  the  physicians  were  unable  to  extract  it.  The  news 
of  this  fanatic  attempt  was  received  with  profound  indigna- 
tion and  grief  by  all  classes  in  Japan,  and  with  universal  sor- 
row elsewhere.  It  aroused  even  a  deeper  and  more  wide- 
spread feeling  than  the  attempted  assassination  of  the 
Russian  czarowitz  (now  the  Czar  Nicholas  II.)  at  Otsu, 
Japan,  in  May,  1891  (Vol.  1.,  p.  269).  The  emperor,  on  hear- 
ing of  the  attack,  at  once  sent  two  of  his  principal  surgeons 
to  attend  Li  Hung  Chang  and  his  aide-de-camp  with 
messages  of  sympathy  from  the  empress  and  himself. 
Official  expressions  of  regret  were  published  in  the  Gazette, 
and  the  imperial  diet  passed  resolutions  deploring  the 
assault.  The  prefect  and  the  chief  of  police  of  the  district 
in  which  the  outrage  occurred  were  summarily  dismissed. 
Koyama,  the  would-be  assassin,  was  immediately  arrested, 
and  has  since  been  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  life. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  actuated  by  desire  to  avenge  the 
death  of  his  two  brothers,  who  were  executed  at  Tien-Tsin 
early  in  the  war.  Fortunately,  no  dangerous  symptoms 
have  developed  in  the  aged  patient,  and  his  progress 
toward  recovery  has  been  rapid. 

The  immediate  result  of  the  incident  was,  of  course, 
the  temporary  suspension  of  the  peace  conferences.  A 
further  result  was  to  give  China  the  one  success  which 
has  fallen  to  her  lot  since  the  war  began.  The  Japanese 
emperor  commanded  his  plenipotentiaries  to  grant  an  un- 
conditional three  weeks'  armistice  covering  the  scene  of 
operations  in  the  north,  though  not  the  waters  in  the 
direction  of  Formosa.  The  armistice  will  expire  without 
notice  at  midnight  on  April  20,  unless  the  result  of  nego- 
tiations shall  sooner  change  the  situation. 

So  favorable  is  now  the  outlook  for  an  early  ending  of 
the  war  that  the  interest  of  the  world  is  almost  wholly 
concentrated  in  speculation  as  to  the  probable  terms  of 
peace.  At  this  writing  (April  1)  it  does  not  seem  proba- 
ble that  England  and  Russia,  the  powers  most  concerned 
next  to  the  combatants,  will  be  drawn  into  the  imbroglio. 
If  their  policy,  as  revealed  in  the  recent  political  history 
of  Europe,  may  be  taken  as  an  indication,  they  will  un- 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  27 

doubtedly  resist  any  such  acquisition  by  Japan  of  territory 
on  the  mainland  as  would  threaten  a  disruption  of  the 
great  Chinese  empire,  or  would  constitute  even  a  serious 
alteration  of  the  status  quo.  Admiral  Fremantle,  com- 
manding the  British  squadron,  was  instructed  early  in 
January  to  prevent,  by  force  if  necessary,  the  Japanese 
war-ships  from  ascending  the  Yang-tse-kiang.  It  does 
not  seem  likely  that  the  demands  of  Japan  will  include 
much  more  than  the  following  points: — The  payment  (in 
gold)  of  a  war  indemnity  proportionate  to  the  expense  to 
which  she  has  been  put  in  the  war  and  to  the  wealth  of 
her  opponent,  the  estimates  running  from  250  million  to 
400  million  yen  (one  yen  equals  about  100  cents);  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  independence  of  Korea;  the  posses- 
sion of  Formosa  and  the  islands  in  that  vicinity;  and 
possibly  the  possession  of  Port  Arthur  and  enough  sur- 
rounding territory  for  military  and  strategic  purposes, 
at  least  until  the  indemnity  shall  have  been  paid.  Even 
were  Japan  allowed  to  take  extensive  holdings  on  the 
mainland,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  it  would  be  to 
her  advantage  to  do  so.  It  would  necessitate  the  main- 
tenance there  of  a  large  standing  army,  fortresses,  and 
naval  stations.  All  students  of  history  know  that  it  was  a 
fortunate  thing  for  England  when  she  was  compelled  to  re- 
linquish the  last  of  her  European  continental  possessions, 
and  to  concentrate  her  power  within  her  island  kingdom. 

ProbaWe  Results  of  the  War. — What  will  be  the 
ultimate  results  of  the  war  now  thought  to  be  hastening 
to  its  end,  it  is  too  soon  to  estimate  in  detail.  Some  results, 
however,  are  already  established,  and  others  are  unmis- 
takably indicated.  It  will  inevitably  effect  a  change, 
perhaps  startling,  in  the  political  and  social  condition  of 
the  Far  East. 

In  the  first  place,  Japan  has  now  secured  for  the  first 
time  the  full  recognition  of  foreign  nations.  To  this  end 
her  success  in  a  six  months'  campaign  has  done  more  for 
her  than  twenty  years  of  effort  to  promote  commerce,  in- 
dustry, education,  and  justice. 

Further,  Japan  has  scored  another  point  in  establish- 
ing in  Korea,  if  not  her  direct  sway,  at  least  the  preva- 
lence of  those  modern  ideas  of  government  and  civilization 
which  she  has  borrowed  from  the  West. 

More  dubious,  however,  will  be  the  effect  of  the  war 
upon  the  temper  of  the  Japanese  people  themselves  and 
the  policy  of  their  government.  We  may  hope,  however, 
in  spite  of  the  tendency  to  brag  and  bluster  observable  in 


28  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  TIlE  QUARTER.     1st  Qr..  1895. 

some  quarters,  that  the  critical  possibilities  of  foreign  com- 
plication will  impress  upon  the  people  at  large  the  great 
necessity  of  prudence,  moderation,  and  foresight. 

And  as  to  China,  we  may  indulge  some  faint  hope, 
based  on  the  restoration  of  Li  Hung  Chang  to  favor  under 
the  auspices  of  a  young  and  impressionable  monarch,  and 
with  the  confidence  and  support  of  the  dowager  empress, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  women  of  our  time,  that  the 
dawn  of  a  triumph  for  Western  ideas  is  already  breaking 
through  the  centuries-old  mists  of  Celestial  tradition. 
The  necessities  of  the  empire  created  by  the  treaty  of 
peace  and  the  natural  desire  of  the  people  to  recover  their 
prestige,  will  only  tend  to  consolidate  this  triumph. 
Under  her  old  conditions  it  will  be  almost  impossible  for 
China  to  raise  the  immense  war  indemnity  that  will  be  re- 
quired, or  to  reorganize  her  defenses  on  a  level  commen- 
surate with  her  dignity  and  ambition.  With  a  great 
national  debt  she  can  hardly  afford  to  continue  her  re- 
strictions on  trade,  so  that  we  may  look  ere  long  for  the 
beginning  of  the  long-wished-for  opening  up  of  her  domin- 
ions to  the  world. 

Present  Status  of  Korea. — On  January  7,  in  the 
ancestral  temple  in  Seoul,  the  king  of  Korea  announced 
with  formal  ceremony  the  independence  of  his  kingdom. 
In  spite  of  grave  difficulties  due  to  the  whole  social  and 
political  condition  of  the  country,  Japan  is  trying  to  carry 
out  in  the  Hermit  Kingdom  the  reforms  which  she  pro- 
posed at  the  outset  of  the  dispute  with  China.  The  ma- 
terial she  has  to  work  with  is,  however,  most  unpromising. 
The  populace  show  their  disposition  by  repeated  instances 
of  turbulence,  and  it  looks  as  if  they  were  not  yet  fitted 
for  the  civilization  which  Japan  would  impose  upon  them. 

After  the  first  suppression  of  anarchy,  into  which  Korea 
had  fallen  for  a  time.  Count  Inouye,  the  Japanese  adviser 
of  the  king,  who  succeeded  M.  Otori,  recommended  the 
king  to  appoint  a  commission  to  advise  with  him  in  affairs 
of  state.  This  commission  is  now  assisting  in  the  difficult 
task  of  administering  Korean  affairs  in  accordance  with  the 
enlightened  direction  of  Japan.  It  is  composed  of  18  Ko- 
reans, and  is  advised  by  a  number  of  foreigners,  its  legal 
adviser  being  an  American,  Mr.  Greathouse,  late  United 
States  consul-general  at  Yokohama. 

The  Port  Arthur  Atrocities.— Much  has  been 
written — and  the  reports  are  very  conflicting — regarding 
the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  Japanese  troops  after  their 
capture  of  Port  Arthur  on  November  21,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  29 

747).  Perhaps  the  utmost  that  can  be  said  is,  in  a  word,  that 
the  Chinese  had  committed  nameless  atrocities,  for  which 
they  were  paid  back  a  hundredfold.  It  seems  that  some 
time  before  the  approach  of  the  Japanese,  most  of  the 
civilians  had  left  the  town;  and,  with  the  collapse  of  the 
defense,  the  Chinese  soldiers  threw  away  their  arms  and 
uniforms,  seeking  to  pass  themselves  off  as  private  citizens. 
As  the  victors  entered  the  town  they  saw  on  all  sides  evi- 
dences of  the  horrible  torture  and  mutilation  to  which 
their  comrades  had  been  subjected.  They  were  frenzied 
with  passion  at  the  sight,  and,  not  unnaturally,  an  indis- 
criminate slaughter  followed.  The  fact,  however,  still 
remains,  that  for  three  or  four  days  after  the  surrender 
the  slaughter  was  continued.  It  is  the  single  blot  upon 
the  fair  page  of  Japan^s  glory.  It  does  not  prove,  how- 
ever, that  the  Japanese  army  has  degenerated  into  savagery, 
nor  that  Japanese  civilization  is  a  sham.  On  the  wliole, 
the  conquerors  have  been  notably  humane;  and  the  fact 
is,  that  in  all  men  there  is  more  or  less  of  the  savage  in- 
stinct, which,  on  occasion,  will  lead  to  atrocities  that  leave 
little  to  choose  between  them  and  the  horrors  of  Cawnpore 
or  the  boulevards  of  Paris. 

Japanese-American  Treaty  Ratified.— Formal  rati- 
fications of  the  new  treaty  between  Japan  and  the  United 
States  (Vol.  4,  p.  753)  were  exchanged  in  Washington 
March  21.  In  February  an  amendment  was  made  giving 
power  to  the  contracting  parties  to  abrogate  the  conven- 
tion by  giving  twelve  months'  notice,  but  only  after  it 
shall  have  gone  into  operation.  The  full  treaty,  with  the 
long-sought  Japanese  judicial  control  over  foreigners,  will 
not  take  effect  until  July,  1899;  but  the  great  principle 
of  recognizing  Japan's  supreme  right  as  a  modern  power 
to  control  her  domestic  affairs  relating  to  imports,  is  to 
be  immediately  operative.  One  month  from  the  date  of 
exchange  of  ratifications  (March  21),  the  import  tariff 
now  affecting  American  goods  imported  into  Japan  will 
cease  to  be  binding,  and  Japan's  autonomy  in  customs 
matters  will  be  complete.  The  United  States  is  the  first 
nation  to  recognize,  by  thus  granting  full  autonomy,  the 
remarkable  progress  toward  civilization  made  by  the  Land 
of  the  Rising  Sun. 


80  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM. 

TN  our  national  system  there  are  nine  different  kinds  of 
money, — two  kinds  of  gold  money,  four  of  silver,  and 
three  of  paper.  Of  these  nine  varieties  no  one  questions 
the  value  and  soundness  of  the  gold  coin  and  of  gold  cer- 
tificates, which  in  round  numbers  represent  about  thirty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  four  kinds  of  silver  money, 
representing  about  thirty-five  per  cent  also,  have  an  in- 
trinsic value  of  less  than  fifty  per  cent  as  compared  with 
gold,  and  are  dependent  upon  legislation  for  their  circulat- 
ing values,  the  government  having  in  its  various  acts,  es- 
pecially that  of  July  14,  1890,  declared  its  policy  to  main- 
tain the  parity  of  the  standard  silver  dollar  with  the  gold 
dollar.  Of  the  three  kinds  of  paper  money,  the  legal  ten- 
der treasury  notes,  or  so-called  greenbacks,  amounting  to 
over  $346,000,000,  are  a  fixed  amount  incapable  of  expan- 
sion or  contraction;  they  were  not  intended  originally  as 
a  permanent  part  of  our  currency.  Secretary  McCullough's 
plan  for  withdrawing  them  was  approved  by  a  resolution 
of  congress  December  18,  1865,  but  was  not  acted  upon; 
and,  at  the  time  specie  payment  was  resumed  in  January, 
1879,  this  amount  was  left  outstanding.  Our  national 
bank  notes  more  nearly  conform  to  the  true  principle  of 
paper  money;  but,  as  one  writer  puts  it,  "the  national 
bank  note  system,  tied  down  to  a  government  bond  deposit, 
is  in  a  strait-jacket.^'  The  inelasticity  of  this  system 
was  plainly  manifested  during  the  so-called  "currency 
famine,^'  a  feature  of  the  panic  of  1893,  for  which  the 
government  was  powerless  to  afford  relief.  Some  banks 
weathered  the  storm  by  borrowing  United  States  bonds 
from  savings  banks  and  taking  out  circulation;  but  to  iuy 
bonds  and  take  out  circulation  would  only  have  aggravated 
the  money  stringency;  and  the  majority  of  banks  resorted 
to  the  expedient  of  issuing  clearing-house  certificates, 
cashiers'  checks,  pay-roll  checks,  due  bills,  etc.,  all  de- 
signed to  perform  the  functions  of  money,  issued  against 
credit  and  circulated  as  money  upon  the  credit  of  the  party 
issuing  the  same.  Fully  $100,000,000  of  this  temporary 
currency  was  issued,  and  altliough  the  legality  of  the  opera- 
tion was  questioned,  the  total  lack  of  elasticity  in  the 
national  currency  system  made  it  a  case  of  necessitas  non 
hdbet  legem. 

It  was  perhaps  this  "  currency  famine,"  more  than  any 
other  thing,  that  aroused  the  representative  financial  men  of 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM.  81 

the  nation  to  a  discussion  of  our  currency  system  and  the 
formulation  of  plans  for  remedying  its  defects.  The  treas- 
ury gold  reserve  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  financial 
barometer  of  the  country.  The  continued  depletion  of  the 
treasury,  making  necessary  the  issue  during  1894  of  $100,- 
000,000  in  bonds  and  $65,000,000  in  February  of  this 
year,  to  maintain  the  $100,000,000  gold  reserve  consid- 
ered necessary  to  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  billion  dollars, 
more  or  less,  of  credit  mon*ey  outstanding,  has  aroused  the 
public  to  a  belief  that  something  must  be  done  to  change 
our  system  of  finance. 

The  importance  of  the  subject,  and  the  wide  interest  it 
has  attained,  will  warrant  a  few  quotations  from  articles 
which  have  recently  appeared  relative  to  the  subject.  In 
an  address  before  the  Commercial  Club  of  Chicago,  111., 
Professor  J.  Laurence  Laughlin  said: 

"The  haphazard,  incoherent  character  of  the  American  currency 
system  is  regarded  to-day  not  only  as  a  puzzle  by  intelligent  foreign- 
ers, but  as  a  necessary  evil  by  thoughtful  citizens  at  home.  We 
know  it  is  bad  and  disgraceful,  but  to«  often,  in  a  cowardly  way,  we 
are  inclined  to  suppose  it  is  irremediable.  But  should  we  suppose 
this?  Indeed,  there  is  something  in  the  air  which  makes  us  suppose 
otherwise." 

On  the  same  occasion  Lyman  J.  Gage  said: 

"Our  whole  monetary  system  is  the  resultant  of  make-shift  legis- 
lation and  unscientific  compromises.    It  is  time  that  reform  began." 

Hon.  Joseph  C.  Hendrix,  speaking  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Commercial  Club  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  said: 

"  The  reform  of  our  currency  system  upon  a  basis  of  uniformity, 
stability,  certain  and  swift  redemption,  and  elasticity,  is  clearly  in- 
dicated to  be  the  most  pressing  public  question.  *  *  *  Our  cur- 
rency system  is  confusing,  imprudent,  and  self-destructive.  *  *  * 
No  government  can  furnish  an  elastic  currency  to  its  people.  Its 
credit  currency  is  a  forced  loan,  which  must  be  paid  some  day;  and, 
its  maturity  being  indefinite,  it  is  either  an  inert  mass  in  the  body  of 
the  circulation,  or  a  restless  soul  seeking  its  redeemer." 

From  an  article  by  Alfred  L.  Ripley  in  the  Yale  Re- 
vieiv,  we  quote: 

"One  is  tempted  oftentimes  to  despair  of  our  soon  recovering  our 
financial  credit  already  shaken  so  much  by  foolish  legislation  in  the 
past,  and  still  more  weakened  by  the  apparent  spread  of  false  doc- 
trines in  the  present.  But  there  is  all  the  more  urgent  need  of  press- 
ing home  the  lesson  of  our  past  experience;  and  the  public  mind  is 
at  least  ready  to  listen." 

On  the  same  subject  in  his  report  to  congress,  the  sec- 
retary of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Carlisle,  stated: 

"The  unsatisfactory  condition  of  our  currency  legislation  has 


33  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

been  for  many  years  the  cause  of  much  discussion  and  disquietude 
among  the  people;  and,  although  one  great  disturbing  element  (the 
'  Sherman '  law  of  1890)  has  been  removed,  there  still  remain  such 
inconsistencies  in  the  laws,  and  such  differences  between  the  forms 
and  the  qualities  of  the  various  kinds  of  currency  in  use,  that  private 
bilsiness  is  sometimes  obstructed,  and  the  treasury  department  is  con- 
stantly embarrassed  in  conducting  the  fiscal  operations  of  the  govern 
ment.  *****  While  the  laws  have  imposed  upon  the 
treasury  department  all  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  a  bank  of 
issue,  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  functions  of  a  bank  of  deposit,  they 
have  not  conferred  upon  the  secretary  any  part  of  the  discretionary 
powers  usually  possessed  by  the  executive  head  of  institutions  en- 
gaged in  conducting  this  character  of  financial  business.  He  can 
neither  negotiate  temporary  loans  to  meet  casual  deficiencies,  nor  re- 
tire and  cancel  notes  of  the  government  without  substituting  other 
currency  for  them,  when  the  revenues  are  redundant  or  the  circula- 
tion excessive;  nor  can  he  resort,  except  to  a  very  limited  extent,  to 
any  of  the  expedients  which  in  his  judgment  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  to  prevent  injurious  disturbances  in  the  financial  situation." 

And  in  comment  upon  the  above,  Hon.  James  H. 
Eckels,  comptroller  of  the  currency,  in  an  article  which 
appeared  in  the  North  Americcm  Review,  writes: 

"It  seems  incredible  that  such  an  indictment  could  be  presented 
and  justified  by  the  absolute  facts,  against  that  which  we  term  the  cur- 
rency system  of  this  country.  In  the  light  of  it  the  wonder  is  not 
that  we  have  suffered  so  much  financial  disaster  during  the  years  of 
its  construction,  but  that  we  have  suffered  so  little." 

Attempted  Currency  Legislation. — To  meet  this 
demand  for  currency  reform  a  number  of  plans  were  pro- 
posed, the  more  important  of  which  were  outlined  in  the 
last  number  of  this  review  (Vol.  4,  p.  762). 

Such,  then,  was  the  situation  when  congress  reas- 
sembled December  3,  1894,  and  listened  to  the  message 
of  President  Cleveland,  bringing  squarely  before  them  the 
subject  of  such  paramount  importance  to  the  country^s 
welfare.  In  his  message  the  president  discussed  at  some 
length  the  currency  question,  calling  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  government  currency  obligations,  when  received 
and  redeemed  in  gold,  are  not  cancelled,  but  re-issued, 
and  thus  may  do  duty  many  times  by  way  of  drawing 
gold  from  the  treasury;  and  he  argued  that  the  country 
needed  a  more  elastic  currency,  and  that  the  control  of  the 
currency  should  be  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  also  gave  his  unqualified  indorsement  to  the 
plan  of  banking-law  revision  proposed  by  Secretary  Car- 
lisle, which  plan,  he  stated,  he  was  satisfied  ^^ furnishes  a 
basis  for  a  very  great  improvement  in  our  present  banking 
and  currency  system."  It  was  certainly  not  for  lack  of 
opportunity  that   the   53d   congress   failed   to   pass   any 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM.  33 

measures  for  financial  relief  during  its  last  session.  Under 
the  caption  ''A  Financial  Burying  Ground/'  a  writer  in  a 
recent  number  of  the  Journal  of  Banking  says: 

"During  the  last  session  of  congress  there  were  referred  to  the 
senate  committee  on  finance,  a  total  of  178  measures  and  documents 
of  various  kinds  pertaining  to  the  financial  affairs  of  the  government. 
Action  of  some  kind  was  taken  with  regard  to  47,  leaving  131  still  on 
the  calendar." 

In  the  house  the  matter  was  taken  up  almost  at  once, 
and  its  discussion  occupied  the 
main  part  of  the  session,  yet  with- 
out definite  result,  owing  to  the 
confusing  divisions  within  the  va- 
rious political  parties  on  the  money 
question.  The  trouble  was  mainly 
sectional,  the  North  and  East  being 
arrayed  against  the  West  and  South. 
The  free  silver  advocates  comprise 
the  populists  and  republicans  of 
the  Far  West,  and  many  democrats 
from  the  South.  The  state  bank- 
note advocates  were  mainly  Sou  thern 
democrats;  while  the  friends  of  the  ^^^^  ^^  ^,  springer, 
greenback  system  included  the  democratic  representative 
populists  and  a  fair  number  of  re-  from  Illinois. 

publicans  and  democrats.  With  such  a  conglomeration  of 
sectional  and  political  views  of  the  monetary  situation  and 
its  remedy,  agreement  on  party  Ihies  was  impossible;  results 
could  not  be  expected;  and  the  adjournment  of  congress 
on  March  4,  without  it  having  accomplished  anything,  was 
very  generally  predicted  from  the  beginning. 

On  December  10,  1894,  the  house  committee  on  bank- 
ing and  currency  began  a  series  of  hearings  upon  the  cur- 
rency question.  Secretary  Carlisle  presented  his  plan 
first,  followed  by  Comptroller  Eckels,  and  during  the  week 
a  number  of  bankers  and  others  prominent  in  financial 
circles  appeared  before  the  committee,  which,  when  the 
draft  of  the  bill  embodying  his  ideas  was  submitted  by 
Secretary  Carlisle,  by  a  vote  of  9  to  8  decided  to  report 
the  bill  to  the  house  without  change,  with  a  recommenda- 
tion that  it  be  considered  in  the  house  from  Tuesday  to 
Friday  and  be  then  brought  to  a  vote.  The  Carlisle  bill 
was  introduced  in  the  house  by  Mr.  Springer  of  Illinois, 
chairman  of  the  committee,  on  December  17.  In  their  re- 
port the  majority  said; 

"Your  committee  are  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  proposed  bill 
Vol.  5.-3. 


34  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     1st  Qr.,  1895. 

should  become  a  law,  it  will  provide  for  a  safe,  sufficient,  and  flexible 
currency.  *  *  *  The  extraordinary  conditions  which  confront 
the  treasury  department  have  constrained  the  members  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  committee,  while  not  agreeing  to  all  the  provisions  of 
the  bill,  nor  to  all  the  reasoning  employed  in  this  report,  to  concur 
in  reporting  the  measure  to  the  house  for  its  consideration,  each 
reserving  to  himself  the  right  to  offer  such  amendments  as  he  may 
deem  proper,  and  to  vote  on  the  bill  finally  as  he  may  determine," 

The  minority  report  says: 

"The  passage  of  the  Carlisle  bill  may  meet  some  political  ex- 
igency of  which  we  do 
not  know;  but  we  do 
know  that  its  passage 
will  aggravate  rather 
than  relieve  the  per- 
plexities of  the  financial 
situation,  and  especially 
that  of  the  United  States 
treasury.  The  United 
States  legal  tender  notes 
withdrawn  from  circula- 
tion, did  all  existing  na- 
tional banks  take  out  all 
the  circulation  permitted 
under  the  bill,  would  only 
be  $151,000,000,  still 
leaving  $350,000,000  to 
vex  the  treasury.  This 
would  not  afford  any  sub- 
stantial relief  to  the 
constant  drain  of  gold. 
It  would  make  still  more 
conspicuous,  and  thus 
more  urgent,  the  demand 
made  for  gold  upon  the 
treasury;  and  the  notes 
issued  under  the  bill 
would  make  confusion 
worse  confounded  in  the 
currency  by  adding  from 
one  to  forty-five  more 
kinds  of  money  to  those 
already  existing.  Finally,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  not  safe 
for  the  house  to  enter  upon  the  line  of  legislation  proposed  until 
some  bill  is  brought  before  it  that  has  received  far  more  attention 
than  the  Carlisle  bill;  and  we  recommend  that  it  be  indefinitely  post- 
poned. " 

In  the  debate  on  the  bill  December  17,  Mr.  Springer 
spoke  in  its  favor,  and  Mr.  Walker  (Mass.)  opposed  it. 
On  December  19,  Mr.  Johnson  (Ind.)  and  Mr.  Ellis  (Ky.) 
spoke  against  the  Carlisle  bill,  and  Mr.  Warner  (N.  Y.) 
in  its  favor.  The  same  day  Mr.  Bland  of  Missouri  pro- 
posed to  substitute  a  bill  providing  for  the  free  coinage 


HON.   JOHN  DE   WITT  WARNER, 
DEMOCRATIC   REPRESENTATIVE  FROM  NEW  YORK. 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM.  35 

of  silver.  On  December  20  Mr.  Grow  (Penn.)  introduced 
a  bill  to  amend  the  National  Bank  act,  providing  for 
the  substitution  of  legal  tender  and  treasury  notes  as  a 
basis  of  circulation  instead  of  bonds,  allowing  $110  of  bank 
notes  for  every  $100  deposited  as  security,  and  providing 
for  the  cancellation  of  the  legal  tenders. 

On  December  20  Mr.  Springer  presented  a  substitute 
for  the  Carlisle  bill,  which  was  approved  by  Secretary 
Carlisle,  and  which  more  nearly  followed  the  Baltimore 
plan,  but  with  the  provision  for  a  thirty  per  cent  guaranty 
fund  and  for  state  bank  notes.  It  eliminated  from  the 
Carlisle  bill  the  feature  making  the  adoption  of  the  new 
system  compulsory  on  the  part  of  all  national  banks,  and 
substituted  the  resumption  of  the  safety  fund  tax  instead 
of  assessments  upon  the  banks  in  case  of  the  impairment 
of  the  fund  by  the  redemption  of  the  notes  of  failed  banks. 
The  day  following,  congress  adjourned  for  the  holiday 
recess,  to  reassemble  January  3,  1895. 

On  January  9,  1895,  Mr.  Outhwaite  (dem.,  Ohio)  re- 
ported a  resolution  from  the  committee  on  rules  to  govern 
the  further  consideration  of  the  currency  bill.  Mr.  Outh- 
waite stated  that  the  object  of  the  resolution  was  to  bring 
to  a  conclusion  within  a  reasonable  time  the  considera- 
tion of  the  bill.  It  provided  for  the  substitution  of  the 
amended  bill  proposed  by  Mr.  Springer  December  20, 
1894,  for  the  pending  bill;  that  it  be  considered  under  the 
five-minute  rule,  unless  disposed  of,  until  4:30  o'clock  on 
Friday  (January  11);  and  that  immediately  after  the  ex- 
piration of  the  morning  hour  on  Saturday,  the  vote  on 
pending  amendments  and  the  passage  of  the  bill  be  taken. 
In  the  discussion  that  followed,  Mr.  Reed  (rep.,  Maine) 
said  that  the  situation  seemed  to  him  to  be  an  unfortunate 
one  in  that  probably  nothing  would  save  the  bill,  and  the 
house  was  discussing  the  best  method  of  getting  rid  of  it. 
That  would  prevent  the  house  from  passing  any  remedial 
legislation  whatever.  The  resolution  before  the  house 
tended  further  to  complicate  the  question  and  make  any 
righteous  conclusion  impossible.  But  he  would  suggest 
to  the  gentleman  from  Ohio,  before  bringing  the  resolution 
to  a  vote  of  the  house,  that  he  consent  to  a  modification 
of  its  terms  so  as  to  permit  a  discussion  first  upon  the 
most  important  part  of  the  bill,  the  state  bank  sections. 
Mr.  Outhwaite  demanded  the  previous  question  on  the 
passage  of  the  resolution. 


86  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

Mr,  Bland  (dem.,  Mo.) — If  the  demand  for  the  previous  question 
is  voted  down,  will  the  resolution  be  open  to  amendment? 
Speaker  Crisp — If  the  previous  question  is  refused. 

The  vote  upon  Mr.  Outhwaite's  demand  was  then 
taken:  Yeas  92;  nays  101.  A  vote  by  yeas  and  nays  upon 
the  resolution  was  taken,  and  resulted:  Yeas  124,  nays 
130.  This  result,  which  was  regarded  as  being  the  prac- 
tical defeat  of  the  bill,  was  received  in  silence.  Immedi- 
ately after  the  announcement  of  the  vote,  Mr.  Outhwaite 
withdrew  the  resolution.  On  January  21  Mr.  Warner 
(dem.,  IS".  Y.)  introduced  in  the  house  two  financial  bills. 
One  gives  power  to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  borrow 
in  anticipation  of  revenues;  the  second  provides  for  the 
cancellation  and  retirement  of  legal  tender  notes.  On 
January  23  Mr.  Coombs  (dem.,  N.  Y.)  introduced  a  bill 
proposing  that  from  and  after  July  1,  1895,  gold  certifi- 
cates shall  not  be  receivable  for  customs,  taxes,  or  other 
dues  to  the  United  States.  The  bill  was  referred  to  the 
banking  and  currency  committee. 

On  January  28  President  Cleveland  submitted  to  con- 
gress a  special  message,  appealing  to  congress  to  legislate 
for  the  interests  of  all  the  people,  without  respect  to  party 
advantage;  to  thrust  aside  currency  plans  and  all  other 
side  issues,  and  centre  their  attention  on  that  which  is  of 
paramount  importance — the  maintenance  of  the  public 
faith  and  credit.  The  important  recommendations  of  the 
message  are  that  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  be  given  the 
power  to  issue  fifty-year  three  per  cent  bonds  of  small  de- 
nomination made  payable  in  gold  instead  of  *^coin"  as 
under  the  present  law;  that  the  secretary  be  allowed  at  his 
discretion  to  receive  legal  tender  and  treasury  notes  in 
exchange  for  the  bonds,  these  notes  to  be  retired  and  can- 
celled. It  is  also  proposed  to  permit  national  banks  to 
issue  circulation  to  the  par  value  of  all  bonds  deposited, 
except  such  as  bear  two  per  cent  interest. 

On  the  same  day  Chairman  Springer  of  the  banking 
and  currency  committee  introduced  a  bill  to  carry  into 
effect  the  recommendations  of  the  president's  message. 
This  bill  was  considered  in  committee;  and  on  January  30, 
by  a  vote  of  9  to  4,  it  was  agreed  to  report  the  administra- 
tion bill  with  amendments,  which  was  done  February  1. 
During  the  consideration  of  the  measure,  Mr.  Bland 
(dem.,  Mo.)  offered  as  a  substitute  a  provision  that  the 
treasury  notes  issued  under  the  act  of  July  14,  1890,  be  re- 
deemed in  accordance  with  that  act,  and  that  the  seignior- 
age in  the  treasury  be  coined  into  standard  dollars — which 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM. 


37 


substitute  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  104  to  114.  Another 
substitute  was  proposed  by  Mr.  Reed,  which  provided  for 
two-year  three  per  cent  certificates  of  indebtedness  for 
current  deficiencies  in  the  revenue,  and  bonds  to  cover  the 
deficiency  in  the  gold  reserve,  which  was  voted  down  by 
109  yeas  to  107  nays.  Vigorous  speeches  in  opposition  to 
the  bill  were  made  by  Messrs.  Cox  of  Tennessee,  Hall  of 
Missouri,  and  Swan- 
son  of  Virginia,  and 
in  its  favor  by  Chair- 
man Springer;  but, 
after  three  days  of 
discussion,  this, 
known  as  *' Adminis- 
tration Currency  Bill 
No.  3,"  was  on'  Feb- 
ruary 7  rejected  by  a 
vote  of  135  to  162. 

Further  action  of 
the  house  on  finan- 
cial matters  is  noted 
below,  under  the 
title  of  *'The  Third 
Issue  of  Bonds." 

The  senate, 
throughout  the  ses- 
sion, was  unfavorably 
disposed  to  the  finan- 
cial bills  which  were 
brought  before  the 
house,  the  free-coin- 
age sentiment  being 
the  chief  source  of 
opposition.  Senator  Vest,  in  particular,  was  disposed 
to  obstruct  all  currency  legislation  which  did  not  pro- 
vide for  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  introduced  a 
measure  embodying  this  requirement,  as  did  also  Senator 
James  K.  Jones  (dem.)  of  Arkansas.  On  January  17 
Senator  Sherman  introduced  a  bill  for  the  relief  of  the 
treasury,  the  prominent  features  of  which  were  to  enable 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  issue,  in  lien  of  proposed 
bonds,  interest-bearing  certificates  of  indebtedness  in  de- 
nominations of  125,  150,  and  $100,  and  also  according  na- 
tional banks  the  privilege  of  issuing  notes  to  the  par  value 
of  the  securities  deposited  for  circulation,  conditional, 
however,  to  the  amount  of  the  bank's  paid-up  capital.    On 


HON.  JAMES  K.  JONES  OF  ARKANSAS, 
DEMOCRATIC   UNITED   STATES   SENATOR 


38  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUAHTEH.    1st  Qr.,  1^95. 

January  23  Mr.  Smith  (dem.)  of  New  Jersey  introduced 
a  bill  to  provide  for  the  appointment  of  a  monetary  com- 
mission, which  was  opposed  by  Mr.  Stewart  (silver)  of 
Nevada,  who  claimed  that  the  president  would  naturally 
appoint  men  who  sympathized  with  his  own  financial 
ideas.  On  the  same  day  Senator  Jones  of  Arkansas  in- 
troduced a  bill  providing  for  the  issue  of  $500,000,000 

gold  bonds  redeem- 
able in  twenty  and 
payable  in  thirty 
years;  permitting  na- 
tional banks  to  issue 
bills  to  the  par  value 
of  their  United  States 
bonds  and  reducing 
the  tax  on  circulation 
to  one-quarter  of  one 
per  cent;  also  propos- 
ing to  retire  green- 
backs and  Sherman 
notes  below  denomi- 
nations of  $20,  and 
issue  low  denomina- 
tions of  silver  certifi- 
cates instead;  and, 
lastly,  providing  for 
the  coinage  of  all 
American  silver  of- 
fered at  the  mints 
into  standard  silver 
dollars,  the  owner  of 
the  silver  to  receive 
in  these  dollars  the 
London  market  value  of  the  bullion  on  the.  day  of  deposit, 
and  the  remainder  to  be  retained  by  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States.  In  his  explanatory  remarks,  Mr.  Jones 
declared  that  he  would  under  no  conditions  vote  for  any 
issue  of  bonds  unless  the  bill  was  coupled  with  "a  sensible, 
manly,  and  substantial  recognition  of  silver."  The  bond- 
issue  part  of  this  bill  was  opposed  by  Senator  Stewart  be- 
cause, as  he  claimed,  the  bonds  would  be  used  by  the  na- 
tional banks  for  the  purpose  of  getting  out  circulation  on 
them,  and  the  bill  would  thus  give  them  a  gratuity  of  $13,- 
000,000  a  year. 

On  January  30  Mr.  Cullom  of  Illinois  presented  tele- 
grams from  Chicago  bankers,  asking  him  and  his  colleagues 


HON.  JOHN  SHERMAN  OF  OHIO, 
REPUBLICAN  UNITED  STATES  SENATOR. 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM.  89 

to  urge  immediate  passage  of  the  house  bill  prepared  in 
conformity  with  the  president's  message.  Resolutions 
adopted  by  the  St.  Louis  (Mo.)  Merchants'  Exchange  were 
presented  by  Senator  Vest  at  the  same  time,  who,  in  his 
speech  accompanying  their  introduction,  declared  he  would 
not  vote  to  issue  one  bond  by  the  government  in  time  of 
profound  peace  ''for  the  purpose  of  securing  gold  in  order 
that  the  country  may  remain  on  a  single  gold  standard." 
Senator  Sherman  (rep.)  of  Ohio,  in  a  short  speech  made 
the  same  day,  declared  that  the  contest  whether  this  coun- 
try should  be  on  a  standard  of  silver  or  on  a  standard  of 
gold  money  could  not  longer  be  avoided.  Every  man  in 
the  country  who  was  familiar  with  the  financial  conditions, 
felt  that  it  was  necessary  to  extend  to  the  government  some 
relief  under  the  present  circumstances.  But  the  adoption 
of  the  system  of  free  coinage  of  silver  would  degrade  the  na- 
tion among  the  financial  people  of  the  world,  among  the 
business  men  of  the  world,  and  among  the  laboring  men 
of  the  world.  It  would  do  so  more  than  any  measure  that 
could  be  devised.  Emphasizing  his  personal  views,  Mr. 
Sherman  said: 

"  I  have  always  believed,  and  I  still  believe,  that  both  silver  and 
gold  ought  to  be  maintained  as  the  circulation  of  this  country — gold 
as  the  highest  measure  of  value  in  all  our  commercial  relations  abroad, 
and  as  a  basis  of  our  commercial  and  business  relations  at  home;  and 
silver  to  be  used  to  the  largest  extent  possible,  so  long  as  it  does  not 
demonetize  gold.  I  am  of  that  belief  now,  but  I  am  bound  to  say  that 
the  committee  on  finance  is  utterly  helpless  to  deal  with  this  vast 
question.  We  are  quite  divided  upon  if.  We  are  not  allowed  to 
propose  a  measure  to  this  senate  which  all  can  approve  of,  unless  there 
is  attached  to  it  a  provision  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver." 

Senator  Stewart  (Nev.)  maintained  that  the  whole 
trouble  grew  out  of  a  failure  to  execute  the  laws,  and 
charged  that  the  president  had  set  himself  up  against  the 
law  and  violated  it  so  that  he  might  force  the  gold  stand- 
ard on  the  country. 

On  February  12  the  Jones  free-silver  bill  was  reported 
to  the  senate  from  the  finance  committee,  the  vote  in  com- 
mittee being  five  democrats  and  one  silver  senator  for,  to 
four  republicans  and  one  democrat  against.  On  February 
18  the  senate  voted — yeas  thirty  (sixteen  democrats,  ten 
republicans,  and  four  populists),  nays  twenty-seven  (fif- 
teen republicans  and  twelve  democrats) — to  take  up  the 
bill;  but  on  February  20  it  was  postponed,  after  a  state- 
ment by  its  author,  in  which  he  said: 

"  Developments  have  shown  that,  while  the  friends  of  the  meas- 
ure have  a  majority  in  this  body,  it  is  impossible  to  pass  the  bill  at 


40  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUAETER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

the  present  late  day  of  the  session  without  incurring  a  very  grave 
danger  to  the  appropriation  bills,  and  an  extra  session.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  friends  of  the  silver  measure  have  authorized  me 
to  say  that  they  will  not  further  proceed  at  this  session  of  congress." 

The  Third  Issue  of  Bonds.— On  February  8,  1895, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Carlisle  signed  a  contract  with 
August  Belmont  &  Co.  on  behalf  of  Messrs.  N.  M.  Koths- 
child  &  Sons  of  London,  England,  and  themselves,  and 
Messrs.  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.  on  behalf  of  Messrs.  J.  S. 
Morgan  &  Co.  of  London,  England,  and  themselves,  for 
supplying  the  United  States  government  with  3,500,000 
ounces  of  standard  gold  coin  of  the  United  States,  at  the 
rate  of  $17.80441  per  ounce  payable  in  United  States  thirty- 
year  coupon  or  registered  bonds,  bearing  interest  at  the 
rate  of  four  per  cent  per  annum,  payable  quarterly.  One 
of  the  conditions  of  purchase  was  that  at  least  one-half  of 
all  coin  delivered  under  the  contract  should  be  obtained  in 
and  shipped  from  Europe;  but  the  shipment  was  not  re- 
quired to  exceed  300,000  ounces  per  month  unless  the  par- 
ties of  the  second  part  should  consent  thereto.  By  terms 
of  the  contract  the  bond  syndicate  bound  themselves  to 
exert  all  financial  influence  and  make  all  legitimate  efforts 
to  protect  the  treasury  of  the  United  States  against  the 
withdrawal  of  gold,  pending  the  complete  performance  of 
this  contract.  The  result  of  this  agreement  was  to  turn 
at  once  the  tide  of  gold  into  the  treasury  and  assure  for 
some  time  to  come  a  steady  increase  in  the  reserve. 

To  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  conditions  which  made  this 
third  issue  of  bonds  imperative,  we  have  deduced  the  fol- 
lowing from  statistical  tables  accompanying  a  statement 
prepared  by  the  treasury  department  at  Washington,  show- 
ing the  conditions  which  led  to  the  contract.  The  with- 
drawals of  gold  from  the  United  States  treasury  from  De- 
cember 1,  1894,  to  January  22,  1895,  averaged  about 
$1,150,000  per  day.  For  the  next  ten  days  ending  Febru- 
ary 1,  the  daily  average  withdrawals  was  in  round  num- 
bers $3,000,000,  while  for  the  succeeding  ten  days  the 
daily  average  fell  to  the  remarkably  low  figure,  by  com- 
parison, of  $236,000.  The  question  naturally  arises  as  to 
what  caused  this  high  daily  average  during  the  last  ten 
days  of  January.  Taking  figures  as  given,  we  find  that 
the  total  withdrawals  of  gold  from  December  1,  1894,  to 
February  13,  1895,  amounted  to  $80,786,302,  of  which 
but  $36,852,389,  or  less  than  half,  was  exported,  showing 
that  nearly  $43,000,000  remained  in  this  country.  Fig- 
ures go  to  prove  that  this   $43,000,000   did  not  go  into 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM.  41 

the  banks,  for  the  total  amount  held  by  the  banks  on  Feb- 
ruary 1,  1895,  was  $83,000,000,  or  $13,000,000  less  than 
was  held  by  them  on  December  1,  1894.  There  is  then 
but  one  way  of  accounting  for  this  $43,000,000,  namely, 
that  the  hoarding  of  gold  was  really  going  on  at  home, 
and  that  the  people  of  the  United  States  had  lost  faith  in 
the  ability  of  the  government  to  pay  gold  for  its  notes. 
The  first  indication  of  a  general  withdrawal  of  gold  for 
hoarding  was  noticed  on  January  18,  when  $3,622,415  was 
withdrawn;  on  January  24  the  figures  reached  $3,303,552; 
and  the  following  day,  January  25,  the  drain  culminated  in 
the  withdrawal  of  $7,156,046.  The  amount  taken  out  on 
January  28,  the  day  President  Cleveland  presented  his 
first  message  to  congress  on  the  urgency  of  the  situation, 
was  $4,116,067;  the  day  following,  $3,217,065;  and  Jan- 
uary 30,  $3,999,575. 

The  story  of  the  week  following  is  thus  told  in  the 
special  statement  from  the  treasury  department  already 
alluded  to: 

"The  first  publication  in  the  newspapers  that  the  government  was 
about  to  undertake  somethinsr,  appeared  on  the  evening  of  January  30, 
and  on  the  morning  of  the  31st  of  January  the  withdrawals  dropped 
to  $2,359,928.  Further  publication  on  the  1st  of  February  af- 
fected the  situation  so  that  only  $1,454,865  was  withdrawn;  and,  on 
the  announcement  by  the  newspapers  (which,  however,  was  not  true) 
that  the  negotiations  had  been  satisfactorily  completed,  the  with- 
drawals practically  ceased,  while  about  $1,800,000  was  returned  to 
the  treasury.  The  total  withdrawals  on  February  2  were  only  $67,- 
389.  The  delay,  however,  in  making  public  the  announcement  had 
created  some  uneasiness;  and  on  the  5th  the  withdrawals  rose  to 
$380,302.  On  the  report  of  a  hitch  in  the  negotiations,  the  with- 
drawals rose  on  the  following  day  to  over  $729,000.  Messrs.  Bel- 
mont and  Morgan,  however,  came  to  Washington;  and  the  papers  on 
the  morning  of  February  7  announced  that  the  negotiations  had  not 
been  broken  off.  The  withdrawals  fell  to  $357,000;  and  on  the  day 
following,  the  8th  of  February,  the  contract  was  signed,  and  the  sec- 
ond message  of  the  president  sent  to  congress,  the  withdrawals  on 
that  day  amounting  to  $273,101.  On  the  four  succeeding  days  the 
withdrawals  were  as  follows:  February  9,  $232,300;  February  11, 
$119,330;  February  12,  $27,008;   February  13,  $36,540." 

Were  it  not  for  the  timely  relief  which  the  bond  con- 
tract afforded,  the  sub-treasury  at  New  York  would  have 
been  forced  to  suspend  specie  payments,  for  on  February 
2  there  remained,  aside  from  the  bullion,  only  $9,700,334 
in  gold  coin,  and  the  only  possible  way  of  adding  to  that 
was  from  the  mints  at  San  Francisco,  New  Orleans,  and 
Philadelphia,  whose  total  coinage  was  only  about  $200,000 
per  diem. 

Besides  the  conditions  of  the  bond  contract  already 


42  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     1st  Qr.,  1895. 

.  mentioned,  there  was  another,  by  which  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  reserved  the  right,  within  ten  days  from  the  date  of 
the  contract,  in  case  he  should  receive  authority  from  con- 
gress therefor,  to  substitute  any  bonds  of  the  United  States 
bearing  three  per  cent  interest,  of  which  the  principal  and 
interest  should  be  specifically  payable  in  United  States  gold 
coin  of  the  present  weight  and  fineness,  for  the  bonds  al- 
luded to  in  the  contract,  such  three  per  cent  bonds  to  be 
accepted  by  the  parties  of  the  second  part  at  par,  i.e.,  at 
$18. 60465  per  ounce  of  standard  gold.  On  February  8  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  sent  a  message  to  congress,  setting  forth 
the  fact  that  if  three  per  cent  gold  bonds  were  substituted 
for  the  $62,315,000  four  per  cent  coin  bonds  under  the 
privilege  reserved,  the  saving  in  interest  to  the  govern- 
ment would  be  $539,159  annually,  amounting  in  thirty 
years  to  $16,174,770.  The  action  of  congress  on  this 
question  of  saving  to  the  country  sixteen  million  dollars  in 
interest  was  in  keeping  with  previous  financial  legislation. 
On  February  13  Mr.  Wilson  of  West  Virginia,  from  the 
committee  on  ways  and  means,  submitted  to  the  house  a 
joint  resolution  authorizing  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to 

"  issue,  sell,  and  dispose  of  bonds  of  the  United  States  to  an 
amount  not  exceeding  $65,116,275,  bearing  interest  at  a  rate  not  ex- 
ceeding three  per  cent  per  annum,  principal  and  interest  payable  in 
gold  coin  of  the  present  standard  of  weight  and  fineness,  said  bonds 
to  be  made  payable  not  more  than  thirty  years  after  date." 

In  the  senate,  on  February  13,  Senator  Sherman  intro- 
duced a  bill  providing  for  the  sale  of 'gold  bonds  to  main- 
tain the  reserve,  and  also  providing  for  the  issue  of  short- 
time  certificates  of  indebtedness  to  meet  deficiencies  in  the 
revenue.  The  joint  resolution  was  the  subject  of  debate 
in  the  house  February  13  and  14.  Representative  Hopkins 
(111.),  in  opposing  it,  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  bonds 
were  sold  to  the  syndicate  at  104-|-,  when  four  per  cent 
bonds  with  only  twelve  years  to  run  were  selling  in  open 
market  at  110^.  Representative  Hendrix  of  New  York 
said  that  if  there  was  anything  bad  in  the  contract  made 
by  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  the  representatives  who 
opposed  the  passage  of  the  joint  resolution  were  responsi- 
ble for  it.  Every  business  man  would  say  that  a  contract 
to  get  gold  at  three  per  cent  was  a  good  one.  Mr.  Reed 
(Me.)  closed  the  debate  by  saying  that  it  had  been  asserted 
that  we  are  at  liberty  to  pay  these  bonds  in  something 
else  besides  the  equivalent  of  gold. 

"Whether  we  are  or  not,"  said  he,  "the  fact  remains,  that, 
urged  on  by  an  inexorable  law,  we  have  thus  far  paid  in  gold  or  its 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM. 


43 


equivalent,  and  every  man  in  this  house  believes  that  we  shall  do  so 
in  the  future." 

A  vote  on  the  resolution  was  then  taken,  and  the 
house  refused  to  order  it  to  a  third  reading  by  a  vote  of 
120  to  167.  The  following  table,  showing  by  states  the 
house  vote  on  the  joint  resolution,  is  of  interest: 

HOUSE  VOTE  ON  BOND  RESOLUTION,  FEBRUARY  14,  1895. 


Alabama 

Arkansas — 
California... 
Colorado  — 
Connecticut , 
Delaware — 

Florida 

Georgia ...    . 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

K  entucky . . . 
Louisiana 


V, 

s 

o 

u 

h 

< 

3 

7 

fi 

2 

4 

2 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

HI 

0 

0 

6 

n| 

4 

« 

2 

7 

H 

7 

'•J| 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1^ 
c 

a 

1 
2 

8 
5 
6 
10 
1 
6 
0 
2 
1 

5 

1 

Maine 

2 
2 
9 
2 

2 

1 
4 

0 

5 
24 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  . . 

Michigan 

Minnesota  

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. 
North  Dakota... 

': 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. .. 
Rhode  Island... 
South  Carolina. 
South  Dakota.. 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia.. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


Totals 120   16' 


The  ^^gold  bond"  condition  of  the  Morgan-Belmont 
syndicate  contract  having  been  thus  disposed  of,  the  con- 
tract was  completed,  and  the  four  per  cent  bonds  sold  to 
them  at  104-|^,  or  at  the  rate  of  3f  per  cent  per  annum.  On 
February  20  the  syndicate  offered  half  of  the  $62,315,000 
bonds  for  sale  in  New  York  at  112|  and  half  in  London 
at  the  rate  of  £227  per  11,000  bonds.  The  reported  sub- 
scriptions in  London  were  $590,000,000,  and  in  New  York 
$200,000,000,  and  the  price  advanced  in  New  York  to  120 
and  remained  at  about  this  figure  during  the  quarter. 
The  treasury  gold  reserve  on  April  1  was  $90,643,307. 

The  Silver  Question.— On  Tuesday,  March  5,  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  a  ten-days'  conference  of  the  advocates 
of  free  coinage  of  silver  came  to  a  close.  The  organiza- 
tion of  a  new  party  based  on  a  free-silver  platform  was  dis- 
cussed, and  a  statement  and  address  to  the  American  peo- 
ple was  adopted  and  published.  In  substance  the  address, 
after  asserting  that  those  in  favor  of  the  gold  standard  are 
and  have  been  united  in  purpose  and  action,  pleads  that 
the  free-silver  advocates  must  in  some  way  come  together 
on  this  issue,  or  the  cause  is  lost,  and  with  it  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  people.  There  has  not  been  a  congress 
for  twenty  years,  it  is  declared,  which,  except  for  the  in- 
fluence of  executive  patronage  or  the  fear  of  an  executive 


44  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUAETER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

veto,  would  not  have  voted  to  open  the  mints  again  to  sil- 
ver on  the  same  terms  as  to  gold.  It  is  as  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  have  a  president  in  sympathy  with  the  cause,  as  to 
have  a  congress  in  favor  of  it;  and  the  address  concludes 
with  the  statement: 

"If  the  conference  had  authority  from  the  people  to  name  a  can- 
didate for  president,  it  would  name  Joseph  C.  Sibley  of  Pennsylvania; 
but,  not  having  such  authority,  it  can  only  suggest  the  name,  and  in- 
vite expression  from  the  people,  by  petition,  resolution,  or  otherwise, 
believing  that  nominations  when  made  should  reflect  in  the  most  di- 
rect manner  the  will  of  the  people,  uncontrolled  by  caucus  machin- 
ery or  by  professional  politicians." 

The  name  suggested  for  the  new  party  is  "The  Amer- 
ican Bimetallic  Party."  Its  platform  and  the  political 
significance  of  its  organization  are  fully  treated  elsewhere 
in  this  review.  (See  article  "United  States  Politics.")  Its 
main  object,  in  a  word,  is  to  secure  the  unrestricted  coin- 
age of  both  gold  and  silver  upon  terms  of  exact  equalitv. 
at  a  ratio  of  16  to  1,  "the  silver  coin  to  be  a  full  legal  ten- 
der equally  with  gold  for  all  debts  and  dues,  public  and 
private." 

The  rallying  of  the  free-silver  element,  which  has  for 
twenty  years  permeated  and  harassed  both  of  the  great  po- 
litical parties,  around  this  standard  would  seem  to  be  a 
consummation  devoutly  to  be  desired,  but  what  will  be 
the  ultimate  outcome  of  the  movement  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine as  yet.  The  attitude  of  the  public  press  toward 
the  new  party  of  course  varies.  The  populist  party  press 
would  welcome  it. 

"Let  it  be  born,  we  say,  and  so  permanently  separate  a  large  ele- 
ment from  both  the  democratic  and  republican  parties,  whom  we  have 
thus  far  been  unable  to  reach.  A  fourth  free-silver  party  would  in- 
sure us  victory  in  the  South  at  the  next  election." 

The  republican  and  democratic  anti  free-silver  press 
refer  to  its  advent  with  unsparing  condemnation;  while 
the  middle  ground  is  held  by  the  free-silver  press  of  both 
democratic  and  republican  faith,  who  hold  the  new  party 
as  a  club  over  the  old,  hoping  to  compel  them  to  declare 
for  free  silver  in  their  national  conventions  in  1896. 

About  the  first  of  April  the  Central  Alabama  Silver 
Club  was  organized  in  Athens,  Alabama,  and  about  400 
men  pledged  themselves  "to  support,  and  in  1896  vote 
only  for  the  party,  platform,  and  candidates,  national, 
state,  and  county,  in  favor  of  the  free  and  unlimited  coin- 
age of  legal  tender  silver  and  gold  on  equal  terms  at  a 
ratio  of  16  to  1;  "and  committees  were  appointed  to  organ- 


THE  MONETARY  PROBLEM.  45 

ize  similar  clubs  throughout  the  state.  Free-silver  reso- 
lutions, passed  by  political  and  business  organizations  in 
the  Western  and  Southern  states,  were  numerous  during 
March.  On  March  14  the  Nevada  legislature  passed  reso- 
lutions indorsing  Mr.  Sibley  and  the  new  silver  party; 
and  Governor  Richards  of  Montana  has  called  a  confer- 
ence, to  which  the  governors  of  all  the  silver-producing 
states  are  asked  to  send  delegates,  to  meet  at  Salt  Lake 
City  in  May,  to  inaugurate  an  *^  educational  campaign  on 
the  silver  question,  the  intention  being  to  place  bimetallic 
literature  in  the  hands  of  voters  throughout  the  Union." 
A  good  start  has  already  been  made  in  this  direction  in 
the  flooding  of  the  West  with  copies  of  Coin's  Financial 
School. 

A  notable  feature  in  March  was  the  advance  in  price  of 
silver  bullion.  From  604-  at  the  opening  of  the  month, 
quotations  steadily  rose  to  61f  on  March  15,  on  which  day 
silver  bullion  reappeared  as  a  speculative  feature  of  the 
New  York  stock  exchange.  Quotations  on  March  25  were 
63|;  and  on  Saturday,  March  30,  the  price  rose  rapidly  to 
65f.  The  quotation  Monday,  April  1,  was  67^  cents;  and 
on  that  day  about  300,000  ounces  changed  hands  in  the 
New  York  market.  It  is  generally  believed  that  this  ad- 
vance was  due  principally  to  speculation  which  had  its 
rise  in  the  talk  of  an  international  bimetallic  conference, 
the  prospect  of  peace  between  Japan  and  China,  and  the 
possible  demand  for  a  large  amount  of  silver  to  pay  the 
indemnity,  and  more  substantially  in  an  increased  demand 
for  silver  in  India  and  the  Eastern  markets,  which  was  in 
itself  speculative.  Noteworthy  shipments  abroad  during 
the  month  were:  March  6,  385,000  ounces;  March  13,  175,- 
000  ounces;  March  16,  400,000  ounces;  March  20,  205,000 
ounces;  and  March  27,  135,000  ounces. 

International  Bimetallism. — While  the  free-silver 
coinage  plan  in  the  United  States  has  made,  on  the  whole, 
comparatively  but  little  progress,  there  are  many  who  hold 
to  the  opinion  that  it  would  be  possible,  with  an  interna- 
tional agreement,  to  have  silver  replaced  in  its  former  po- 
sition of  parity  with  gold  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1,  or  any 
other  approximate  basis  which  might  be  agreed  upon  be- 
tween the  great  commercial  nations;  and  yet,  when  we  con- 
sider the  enormous  production  of  silver  during  the  twenty 
years  following  1873,  97,000,000  ounces,  as  compared  with 
the  production  for  the  108  years  preceding  that  date, 
52,000,000,  the  possibility  of  maintaining  its  parity  by  any 


46  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

form  of  legislation,  on  any  ratio,  even  by  an  agreement 
which  includes  all  the  great  commercial  nations,  is  open 
to  serious  question. 

The  low  price  of  wheat  and  in  fact  of  almost  all  agri- 
cultural products,  the  action  of  India  in  suppressing  the 
coinage  of  silver  in  June,  1893,  and  of  the  United  States 
in  repealing  the  Sherman  law,  have  greatly  increased  the 

agitation  in  favor  of 
bimetallism  in  Eu- 
rope, and  especially 
in  Germany,  where, 
on  February  16,  the 
Reichstag, after  a  stir- 
ring debate  on  a  reso- 
lution introduced  by 
Count  Mirbach,  a 
conservative  Agra- 
rian leader,  favored 
the  issuing  by  the 
government  of  invi- 
tations for  an  inter- 
national monetary 
conference.  The  im- 
perial  chancellor, 
finding  that  the  con- 
servatives, centrists, 
and  liberals  were  in 
favor  of  the  resolu- 
tion, gave  it  his  sup- 
port. The  French 
premier  had  already 
given  public  expres- 
sion to  views  favor- 
able to  bimetallism;  and  on  February  26,  the  bimetallists  of 
England  scored  a  victory  in  the  house  of  commons  by  secur- 
ing, after  a  debate  which  lasted  until  midnight,  the  passage 
of  a  resolution,  introduced  by  Robert  L.  Everett,  as  follows: 
' '  Resolved,  That  the  house  regards  with  increasing  apprehension 
the  growing  divergence  between  the  value  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
heartily  concurs  in  the  recent  expression  of  the  opinion  of  the  gov- 
ernments of  France  and  Germany  in  regard  to  the  serious  evils  aris- 
ing therefrom.  The  house  therefore  urges  the  government  to  co-op- 
erate with  the  powers  in  the  calling  of  an  international  conference." 
At  the  close  of  a  speech  made  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  Sir  William  Harcourt,  he  announced  that  he 
would  not  oppose  the  resolution;  and  immediately  after 
this  announcement  the  Parliamentary  Bimetallist  Commit- 


HON.  JOHN  W.   DANIEL  OF  VIRGINIA, 

DEMOCRATIC    UNITED    STATES    SENATOR. 


WORKING  OF  THE  NEW  TARIFF.  47 

tee  telegraphed  to  the  Berlin  Bimetallist  League,  asking  it 
to  urge  upon  Prince  von  Hohenlohe,  the  German  chan- 
cellor, the  expediency  of  opening  negotiations  for  a  mon- 
etary conference  at  Berlin. 

In  our  own  country,  on  February  23,  a  resolution  was 
offered  in  the  senate  by  Mr.  AVolcott  of  Colorado,  which 
passed  both  houses,  directing  that 

"  Whenever  the  president  of  the  United  States,  upon  invitation 
of  the  governments  of  Germany  or  Great  Britain  or  any  of  the  gov- 
ernments of  Europe  or  otherwise,  shall  determine  that  this  govern- 
ment should  be  represented  at  any  international  or  other  conference 
to  be  held  with  a  view  to  secure  internationally  a  fixity  of  relative 
value  between  gold  and  silver  as  money,  by  means  of  a  common  ratio 
between  those  metals,  with  free  mintage  with  such  ratio,  he  shall  be 
authorized  to  request  the  attendance  of  the  commissioners  to  be  ap- 
pointed as  hereinafter  provided,  to  attend  such  conference  on  behalf 
of  the  United  States." 

The  resolution  provides  for  nine  commissioners,  three 
to  be  appointed  by  the  president,  by  and  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  senate,  and  a  joint  committee  of  six  from 
congress.  The  delegates  named  from  the  senate  are  Sen- 
ators Jones  of  Arkansas,  Teller  of  Colorado,  and  Daniel 
of  Virginia;  and  from  the  house,  Messrs.  Crisp  of  Georgia, 
Culberson  of  Texas,  and  Hitt  of  Illinois. 


WORKING  OF  THE  NEW  TARIFF. 

SUFFICIENT  time  has  elapsed  since  the  Wilson-Gorman 
tariff  law  went  into  operation,  to  afford  some  data  from 
which  to  form  an  estimate  of  its  efficiency  as  a  producer 
of  revenue  and  to  judge  of  its  effects  upon  our  foreign 
commerce.  The  bill  became  a  law,  it  will  be  remembered, 
at  midnight  on  August  27,  1894,  without  receiving  the 
president's  signature  (Vol.  4,  p.  535).  It  has  now,  there- 
fore, been  in  operation  seven  months,  and  has  developed 
several  noteworthy  results. 

The  Treasury  Deficiency. — As  regards  the  question 
of  revenue  production,  the  most  noticeable  feature  of  the 
working  of  the  new  law  is  the  deficiency  which  it  has 
created  in  spite  of  the  large  increase  over  last  year  in  duti- 
able imports.  During  the  seven  months  which  have  now 
(March  31)  elapsed  since  the  law  went  into  force,  the  de- 
ficiency has  aggregated  in  round  numbers  $43,000,000,  or 
an  average  of  $6,000,000  per  month.  On  the  other  hand, 
during  the  first  seven  months  of  the  operation  of  the  Mc-^ 


48 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 


Kinley  law  there  was  an  average  surplus  of  $3,000,000  per 
month;  and  even  during  the  last  seven  months  of  the 
operation  of  that  law,  when  trade  and  industry  were  still 
suffering  from  the  prostrating  effects  of  the  panic  which 
fell  upon  the  country  in  1893,  the  average  deficiency 
amounted  to  only  $2,000,000  per  month. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  we  present  the  following 
table,  which  shows  for  each  month  since  the  new  tariff  be- 
came operative  the  receipts  from  both  customs  and  inter- 
nal revenue;  also  figures  for  the  corresponding  months  of 
1893-94,  when  the  late  business  depression  was,  perhaps,  at 
its  greatest;  and  for  the  same  period  of  1892-93,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  a  time  of  fair  prosperity.  The  amounts 
are  stated  in  millions  and  decimals,  $17.21,  for  example, 
indicating  $17,210,000. 

PUBLIC  REVENUE,  SEPTEMBER,  1894,  TO  MARCH,  1895. 


Month. 

Customs  Receipts. 

Internal  Revenue 
Receipts. 

1892-3 

1893-4 
$  12.57 
11.00 
10.22 
9.15 
11.45 
10.39 
11.35 

1894-5 

1892-3 
$  13.73 
14.15 
13.05 
14.84 
12.05 
11.31 
12.93 

$92.06 

1893-4 

1894-5 

September             

$  17.21 
16.37 
14.27 
16.31 
21.10 
16.94 
15.42 

$  15.56 
11.96 
10.26 
11.20 
17.36 
13.33 
14.92 

$  11.47 
12.73 
12.15 
12.06 
10.71 
11.05 
12.81 

$82.98 

$  6.18 

6.49 

November 

7.77 

9.37 

9.03 

8.86 

March 

9.85 

Totals 

$117.62 

$76.13 

$94.59 

$57.55 

For  the  first  six  months  under  the  Wilson-Gorman  law 
(namely,  from  September,  1894,  to  February,  1895,  inclu- 
sive), receipts  were  $134,854,969,  while  expenditures  were 
$178,370,043.  During  the  corresponding  six  months  of 
1893-94,  while  the  McKinley  law  was  still  in  force,  but 
while  importations  were  at  a  much  lower  figure  than  they 
have  been  recently,  the  receipts  of  the  treasury  were 
$141,779,604.  During  the  first  six  months  of  the  opera- 
tion of  the  McKinley  law,  they  reached  as  high  as  $199,- 
120,977.  In  fact,  there  has  not  been  a  six  months^  period 
in  the  last  ten  years,  in  which  receipts  have  fallen  as  low 
as  during  the  first  half  year  following  the  enactment  of 
the  tariff  law  now  in  force.  The  following  are  the  figures 
for  each  period  of  six  months  from  September  1  to  Feb- 
ruary 28  during  the  last  decade: 

TREA.SURY  RECEIPTS.  SEPTEMBER  1  TO  FEBRUARY  28. 

Year  Amount 


Year  Amount 

1885-86 $160,000,000 

1886-87 175,000,000 

1887-88 185,000,000 

1888-89 186,000,000 

1889-90 189,000,000 


1890-91 $201,000,000 

1891-92 171,000,000 

1892-93 189,000,000 

1893-94 141,000,000 

1894-95 134,000,000 


On  March  31,  three-quarters  of  the  current  fiscal  year 
expired.  The  receipts  of  the  government  from  all  sources 
for  that  period  aggregated  $236,346,766,  or  about  $13,- 


WORKING  OF  THE  NEW  TARIFF.  40 

000,000  more  than  during  the  first  three-quarters  of  the 
preceding  fiscal  year,  1893-94.  The  last  year,  however, 
was  one  of  severe  prostration,  resulting  from  the  panic, 
and  moreover  there  were  practically  no  sugar  duties  col- 
lected. During  the  nine  months  of  the  current  fiscal 
year,  the  total  revenue  from  the  new  sugar  duties  has 
amounted  to  about  $9,000,000. 

The  total  expenditures  of  the  government  have 
amounted  to  $272,888,919  for  the  last  nine  months, 
which  therefore  show  a  deficiency  of  $36,542,153,  with 
indications  that  this  will  probably  be  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year. 

Foreign  Commerce. — During  the  six  months  be- 
tween September  1,  1894,  and  March  1,  1895 — the  first 
half  year  of  the  operation  of  the  Wilson  law— some  note- 
worthy features  have  developed  in  relation  to  the  foreign 
commerce  of  the  United  States.  Perhaps  the  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  increased  amount  of  foreign 
goods  brought  here  to  be  sold,  and  the  falling  off  in  the 
amount  of  goods  sent  abroad.  Imports  have  largely  in- 
creased, exports  declined.  Imports  have  aggregated  in 
round  numbers  $350,000,000  against  $293,000,000  brought 
in  during  the  corresponding  six  months  a  year  ago  under 
the  McKinley  law — an  increase  of  about  20  per  cent. 

On  looking  at  details  we  find  that  imports  of  agricultural 
products  have  nearly  doubled  as  compared  with  the  previous 
period,  woolen  goods  have  more  than  doubled,  cotton  goods 
have  nearly  doubled,  being  about  $15,000,000  during  the  first 
six  months  of  the  new  law,  as  against  $8,000,000  in  the 
corresponding  months  a  year  earlier.  Importations  of 
manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  have  increased  nearly  50 
per  cent,  of  manufactured  silk  about  100  per  cent. 

Curiously  enough,  while  total  importations  have  been 
increased,  and  the  rate  of  duty  has  been  slightly  reduced, 
the  average  rate  of  duty  collected  on  the  entire  mass  of 
importations  has  been  higher  than  under  the  McKinley 
law.  While  the  rate  of  duty  collected  on  dutiable  goods 
alone  averages  about  45  per  cent,  against  52  per  cent 
under  the  McKinley  law  in  the  corresponding  months  of 
last  year,  the  total  collections  of  duty  under  the  new  law 
have  been  a  larger  percentage  of  the  value  of  all  goods 
brought  in  than  under  the  old  law.  The  duty  collected 
during  the  first  six  months  of  the  new  law  amounted  to 
nearly  23  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  goods  imported, 
while  the  duties  collected  under  the  McKinley  law  in  the 
corresponding  months  of  last  year  amounted  to  about  22-^ 
per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  goods  imported. 


50 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     1st  Qr.,  1895. 


With  regard  to  goods  free  of  duty,  the  importations 
have  increased  but  little.  The  total  free  importations  for 
the  first  half  year  of  the  new  law  were  only  about  13,000,- 
000  in  excess  of  those  of  the  corresponding  months  under 
the  McKinlejr  law  last  year.  In  dutiable  goods,  however, 
there  was  an  increase  of  40  per  cent  in  importations,  the 
total  importations  of  dutiable  goods  for  the  half  year 
being  more  than  $50,000,000  greater  in  value  than  in  the 
corresponding  months  of  last  year.  An  examination  of 
the  details  of  the  imports  shows  that  there  was  an  increase 
in  free  importations,  mostly  in  articles  for  use  in  manufac- 
turing. For  instance,  the  articles  for  use  in  the  mechanic 
arts,  or  "raw  material"  as  it  is  termed  by  the  tariff-re- 
formers, nearly  doubled  in  the  first  half  year  of  the  new 
tariff  as  compared  with  the  same  months  of  last  year 
under  the  old  tariff.  The  same  may  be  said  of  manufac- 
tured articles  intended  for  use  in  the  mechanic  arts,  while 
there  was  an  enormous  falling  off  in  free  importations  of 
articles  of  food  and  live  animals,  the  amount  being  only 
about  one-half  as  much  in  the  last  six  months  as  in  the 
corresponding  months  of  last  year.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  was  a  marked  increase  in  this  class  of  articles  under 
the  dutiable  list. 

Another  remarkable  feature  of  the  working  of  the  new 
tariff  is  the  enormous  falling  off  of  exports  since  the  new 
law  went  into  effect,  as  compared  with  the  corresponding 
period  of  last  year.  The  excess  of  exports  over  imports 
during  the  first  six  months  of  the  Wilson  law  was  less 
than  half  as  much  as  during  the  same  period  a  year  ago 
under  the  McKinley  law. 

The  following  table  shows  the  general  operations  of 
the  new  law  during  its  first  half  year  as  compared  with 
the  operations  of  the  McKinley  law  for  a  similar  period  a 
year  previously: 

OPERATIONS  OF  TARIFF  LAW. 


McKinley  law. 

Sep.  1  to  Mch. 

1, 1893-94, 


Wilson  law. 

Sep.  1  to  Mch. 

1, 1894-95. 


Imports— Dutiable. 
Free 


$125,300,316 
168,276,701 


$177,884,271 
171,376,325 


Total 

Duty  collected 

Percentage  on  dutiable  importations. 
Percentage  on  total  importations  — 

Exports 

Excess  of  exports  over  imports 


$293,577,017 

65,828,878 

52.06 

22.46 

$495,277,844 

202,700,827 


$349,260,596 

80,281,921 

45  03 

23  01 

$447,052,410 

97,791,814 


Official  figures  giving  details  of  exports  from  various 
countries  to  the  United  States  during  the  last  quarter  of 
1894  as  compared  with  the  three  months  ended  December 


WORKING  OF  THE  NEW  TARIFF.  51 

31,  1893,  have  been  received.  The  following  is  a  tabulated 
statement  showing  the  total  imports  received  from  each 
country  in  the  two  periods  compared,  and  the  increase 
under  the  Wilson  law: 

FOREIGN  IMPORTS  (U.  S.).  OCTOBER  1  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1893  AND  1894. 


From 


Canada  (not  including  Manitoba  and  British 
Columbia) 

France 

Germany  (including  the  17  consulates  in  the 
Frankfort  district) 

Italy. 


Mexico  (including   thirteen  consulates   in 

the  Nuevo  Laredo  district) 

Netherlands 

Russia 

Norway  and  Sweden 

Switzerland 


4th  quarter,  4th  quarter, 
ltf93. 


$  6,288,000 
10,836,945 

5,251,000 
3,548,922 

3,760  658 

2,657,073 

931,147 

732,945 

3,373,025 


$  7,339,000 
16,310,263 

8,774,000 
5,335,260 

6,197,343 
4,716,565 
1,373,644 
884,120 
4,431,000 


Increase. 


$1,051,000 
5,473,318 

3,523,000 
1,786,338 

2,436.685 

2,059,492 

442,497 

151,175 

1  057,975 


Keturns  for  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Greece,  and 
Turkey,  on  the  other  hand,  show  a  total  decrease  amount- 
ing to  11,158,000.  The  aggregate  value  of  the  exports 
from  the  above-mentioned  countries  (including  those  in 
the  table)  besides  Denmark,  Spain,  and  Ceylon,  for  the 
quarter  ended  December  31,  1894,  was  in  round  figures 
$63,275,000,  an  increase  of  116,881,000,  or  about  36  percent 
over  the  aggregate  for  the  corresponding  quarter  of  1893. 

The  total  imports  of  merchandise  from  all  countries 
during  the  quarter  ended  December  31,  1894,  amounted 
to  $172,317,887,  which  was  an  increase  of  $21,394,335,  or 
a  fraction  less  than  15  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the 
total  of  the  corresponding  quarter  of  1893.  And  it  should  be 
noted  that  there  is  likely  to  be  a  heavy  decrease  in  the  exports 
from  some  countries,  especially  the  Spanish  West  Indies. 

As  to  domestic  exports  from  the  United  States,  it  is 
significant  that  the  total  for  the  last  quarter  of  1894  was 
$22,623,993  less  than  for  the  same  period  of  1893;  and  the 
balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  the  Lnited  States  was  $72,- 
703,714  for  the  last  three  months  of  1894,  showing  a  de- 
crease of  $44,018,328  as  compared  with  the  corresponding 
quarter  of  1893. 

Similar  results  in  increased  imports  into  the  United 
States  are  seen  in  the  official  figures  of  British  trade  for 
January  and  February  of  the  present  year  as  compared 
with  the  same  months  a  year  ago.  The  total  importations 
increased  from  $9,417,640  to  $19,724,775— more  than  100 
per  cent.  Shipments  of  woolens  in  these  two  months  of 
1895  were  in  value  four  times  and  in  quantity  five 
times  as  large  as  in  the  same  months  a  year  ago.  The 
value  was  $6,106,455  against  $1,425,210  last  year^  and  the 


52  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

quantity  of  fabrics  14,574,800  yards  against  2,725,100  last 
year,  besides  253,000  pounds  of  yarn  against  15,300  a  year 
ago.  Prices  have  been  considerably  lowered  in  order  to 
secure  this  larger  trade.  Imports  of  linens  have  increased 
from  12,760,500  yards  in  January  and  February,  1894,  to 
27,099,900  in  these  two  months  this  year,  and  the  average 
price  has  been  reduced  10  per  cent.  The  increase  in  cot- 
ton goods  is  about  60  per  cent  in  quantity,  from  11,104,- 
000  yards  to  17,815,100  this  year,  but  the  average  price  is 
a  little  higher  than  a  year  ago.  Jute  manufactures  have 
increased  about  a  fifth,  from  15,212,000  yards  to  18,461,- 
900,  with  prices  substantially  unchanged.*^  British  exports 
of  iron  and  manufactures  thereof  to  this  country  have,  on 
the  other  hand,  increased  less  than  a  third  in  quantity, 
from  38,191  tons  to  50,119,  but  much  less  in  value — only 
23  per  cent.  This  is  because  the  increase  is  nearly  all  in 
tinplates,  from  31,709  tons  to  41,827  this  year,  but  at  the 
expense  of  a  reduction  of  $4  per  ton  in  average  price. 
The  value  outside  of  tinplates  is  only  $540,550  this  year, 
against  $432,275  last  year. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  imports  of  machinery 
have  increased  quite  largely,  though  mostly  in  machinery 
for  textile  works,  which  was  in  value  $404,450,  against 
$219,950  last  year,  though  less  than  in  1893  under  the  old 
tariff.  Paper  increased  55  per  cent,  clothing  33  per  cent, 
millinery  43  per  cent,  spirits  about  80  per  cent,  and  beer 
nearly  40  per  cent.  Imports  of  bags  from  Great  Britain 
increased  from  5,995  dozen  to  34,800  dozen,  and  imports 
of  earthenware  from  $353,580  to  $630,905  in  value. 

European  Retaliations. — For  some  time  before  the 
beginning  of  the  present  year,  as  stated  in  the  last  num- 
ber of  this  review  (Vol.  4,  p.  779),  there  were  indications 
of  a  widespread  disposition  among  the  powers  of  con- 
tinental Europe  to  retaliate  against  the  United  States  on 
account  of  the  clauses  in  the  tariff  law  of  1894  abrogating 
the  existing  reciprocity  treaties  and  imposing  a  differen- 
tial duty  of  one- tenth  of  a  cent  a  pound  on  all  sugar  com- 
ing from  countries  which  paid  an  export  bounty  thereon. 
Before  the  close  of  last  year,  as  already  recorded,  Ger- 
many made  strong  protest  against  this  discrimination,  as 
being  inconsistent  with  existing  treaty  obligations  of  the 
United  States.  Early  in  January  of  the  present  year, 
Austria  also  made  formal  protest.  In  the  meantime  Ger- 
many had  begun  to  place  restrictions  on  various  com- 
modities of  American  production;  and  presently,  on  the 
ground  of  the  discovery  of  pleuro-pneumonia  (though  the 


WORKING  OF  THE  NEW  TARIFF. 


53 


idea  of  retaliation  is  also  thought  to  have  influenced  her 
decision),  Belgium  proclaimed  an  embargo  upon  the  entry 
into  her  ports  of  live  cattle  from  the  United  States.  This 
action,  following  the  establishment  of  a  similar  quaran- 
tine at  German  ports  on  the  ground  of  the  discovery  of 
Texas  fever,  was  a  most  serious  blow  to  the  American  ex- 
port trade  in  cattle  and  beef — a  trade  which  in  recent  years 
has  been  valued  at 
from  175,000,000  to 
1125,000,000  annu- 
ally. It  was  mainly 
through  Antwerp 
that  Switzerland  and 
the  northern  prov- 
inces of  Austria 
were  supplied.  The 
example  of  Belgium 
was  followed  by 
France,  the  prohib- 
itory decree  being 
published  on  Febru- 
ary 25.  Mr.  Eustis, 
the  United  States  am- 
bassador at  Paris,  im- 
mediately lodged  a 
protest  against  the 
decree;  but  it  still 
continues  in  force. 

So  serious,  indeed, 
was  likely  to  be  the 
disturbance  of  the 
friendly  commercial 
relations  of  the 
United  States  and  European  countries,  as  a  result  of  the  dif- 
ferential duty  on  sugar,  that  a  strong  effort  to  repeal  that 
clause  of  the  tariff  law  was  made.  A  bill  repealing  the  dif- 
ferential duty  of  one-tenth  of  a  cent  a  pound  on  all  im- 
ported sugars  on  which  an  export  bounty  had  been  paid,  was 
favorably  reported  January  15  by  the  ways  and  means 
committee  of  the  house  of  representatives.  One  amend- 
ment, offered  by  Mr.  Hopkins  of  Illinois,  providing  for  a 
continuance  of  the  duty  in  the  case  of  any  foreign  country 
discriminating  against  any  product  of  the  United  States, 
was  allowed;  but,  with  this  exception,  all  proposed  amend- 
ments were  rejected,  and  the  bill  passed  the  house  Janu- 


HON.  JAMES  B.  EUSTIS  OF  LOUISIANA. 
UNITED    STATES    AMBASSADOR   TO  FRANCE. 


54  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

ary  29  by  a  majority  of  239  to  31,  many  republicans  sup- 
porting it. 

The  bill  was  favorably  reported  from  the  senate  com- 
mittee on  finance,  February  18,  but  was  not  taken  up, 
and  died  with  the  congress. 

Just  before  the  close  of  the  session,  a  bill  was  enacted 
appropriating  over  $5,000,000  to  be  paid  as  a  compensa- 
tion to  planters  for  work  done  and  expense  incurred  in 
expectation  of  receiving  the  bounty  of  two  cents  a  pound 
under  the  McKinley  law,  which  bounty  was  suddenly 
withdrawn  by  the  tariff  law  of  1894. 

Reciprocity  Arrangements. — The  trade  relations  of 
the  United  States  with  the  Spanish  West  Indies  have  been 
the  subject  of  diplomatic  negotiations  almost  continuously 
since  the  abrogation  of  the  reciprocity  treaties  was  known 
to  be  the  policy  of  the  Cleveland  administration.  Im- 
mediately following  the  enactment  of  the  Wilson  tariff  law, 
a  Spanish  royal  decree  was  published,  abrogating  the  reci- 
procity agreement  of  1891,  and  ordering  customs  officers 
in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  to  apply  to  imports  of  American 
goods  the  rates  fixed  in  the  maximum  schedule.  Under 
the  reciprocity  treaty  the  United  States  had  enjoyed  the 
benefit  of  an  entire  remission,  or  of  large  reduction  below 
the  minimum  rates,  of  duties  on  a  great  variety  of  arti- 
cles, as  well  as  the  remission  of  all  unloading  and  other 
special  charges,  national  and  provincial.  Now,  however, 
the  maximum  rates  were  to  be  levied,  together  with  the 
'^special  imposts. '' 

Through  Hon.  Hannis  Taylor,  United  States  minister 
at  Madrid,  strong  diplomatic  pressure  was  at  once  brought 
to  bear  to  secure  a  reversal  of  the  Spanish  policy.  The 
United  States  contended  that  so  long  as  it  did  not  dis- 
criminate against  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  it  was  entitled 
under  the  most-favored-nation  clause  to  the  mifiimum 
tariff.  lu  this  contention  it  was  finally  successful;  and 
on  January  10,  1895,  it  was  announced  that  a  modus 
Vivendi  had  been  agreed  upon.  This  was  approved  by 
the  senate  at  Madrid,  January  30,  and  the  text  of  the  bill 
published  as  follows: 

The  government  is  authorized  to  apply  to  the  products  and 
manufactures  of  the  United  States— which,  coming  from  the  ports 
of  the  United  States,  are  admitted  into  the  ports  of  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico — the  second  {minimum)  column  of  the  customs  duties  in  force  in 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  in  return  for  the  United  States  applying  their 
lowest  duties  to  the  products  of  the  soil  and  industry  of  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico.  This  modus  mvendi  will  remain  in  force  until  a  defin- 
itive  treaty  is  concluded  between  the  two  countries  interested,  or 


WORKING  OF  THE  NEW  TARIFF. 


55 


until  one  of  them  announces,  three  months  in  advance,  the  day  on 
which  it  wishes  to  put  an  end  to  it. 

In  a  word,  the  United  States  is  placed  on  the  same 
footing  with  Canada  and  other  competing  countries  which 
do  not  discriminate  against  the  Spanish  islands.  The 
average  difference  between  the  maximum  and  minimiim 
rates  is  about  10  per  cent. 

Under  the  reciprocity  policy  a  large  list  of  articles  were 
admitted  free,  or  at  reduced  rates,  into  West  Indian  ports. 
Returns  for  the  months  of  September,  October,  November, 
and  December,  1894,  show  that  there  was,  following  the 
abrogation  of  reciprocity,  an  enormous  decline  in  the  ex- 
ports of  the  same  articles  from  the  United  States,  as  com- 
pared with  the  corresponding  months  of  1893.  The  fol- 
lowing figures  show  the  falling  off  in  exports  of  provisions 
and  breadstuffs  during  the  period  referred  to — a  decline 
of  over  65  per  cent: 

EXPORTS  TO  SPANISH  WEST  INDIES. 


Articles. 

4  months, 
1893. 

4  months, 
1894. 

Decrease. 

Com       .         

$    206,000 
1,005,000 
2,012,000 

$      2,000 
271,000 
846,000 

$    204,000 

Wheat  flour 

734,000 

Provisions 

1,166,000 

Totals 

$3,223,000 

$1,119,000 

$2,104,000 

With  the  securing  of  the  minimum  schedule,  the 
American  export  trade  may  expect  to  recover  some  of  its 
lost  ground. 

The  Income  Tax. — The  income-tax  test  case,  in 
which  John  G.  Moore  of  Kew  York  city  sought  an  injunc- 
tion against  Joseph  S.  Miller,  commissioner  of  internal 
revenue,  to  prevent  the  enforcement  of  the  income-tax 
provisions  of  the  tariff  law  of  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  804),  was 
decided  by  Judge  Hagner  in  Circuit  court  No.  2  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  January  23,  in  favor  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  decision  was  to  the  effect  that  there  was  practically  no  du- 
plication of  tax  on  dividends  of  corporations;  but  even  if  there  was  it 
was  a  settled  law  that,  vexatious  as  duplicate  taxation  was,  it  was  not 
possible  to  avoid  it  in  every  case.  It  was  also  held  that  the  conten- 
tion that  the  tax  was  unjust  because  it  taxed  only  incomes  over  a 
certain  amount  fell  within  the  discretion  given  to  congress  by  the 
constitution,  and  was  beyond  the  control  of  the  judicial  authority. 
The  point  that  the  tax  was  unconstitutional  because  aliens  were  in- 
cluded in  it,  the  court  said,  was  of  benefit  rather  than  detriment  to 
the  complainant,  and  did  not  supply  a  grievance  calling  for  an  injunc- 
tion. 

As  to  the  fifth  and  last  specification,  that  assessments  were  to  be 
made  upon  incomes  that  had  been  earned  and  received  prior  to  the 


56 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  I8d5. 


date  of  the  act  taking  effect,  Judge  Hagner  decided  against  the  con- 
tention. Judge  Hagner  also  held  that  a  claimant  had  the  right  to  re- 
cover taxes  illegally  collected.  It  was  also  held  that  the  courts  were 
without  authority  to  grant  an  injunction  in  such  a  case  as  this,  be- 
cause of  a  provision  in  the  revised  statutes,  that"  no  suit  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restraining  the  assessment  or  collection  of  any  tax  shall  be 
maintained  in  any  court." 

The  constitutionality  of  the  law  is,,  at  the  end  of  March, 

under   consideration 

by  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States 
on  appeal  from  sev- 
eral decisions  of 
lower  courts  uphold- 
ing the  law.  The  ul- 
timate ruling  was 
looked  for  early  in 
April. 

The  authorship 
of  the  income-tax 
provision  of  the 
tariff  law  of  1894  is 
variously  credited  to 
Eepresentative  M  c  - 
Millin  of  Tennessee 
and  Representati  ve 
Bryan  of  Nebraska. 
The  former  was 
chairman  of  the  sub- 
committee of  ways 
and  means,  to  which 
was  referred  the  in- 
ternal revenue  provi- 
sions  of  the  new 
tariff  law  then  in  course  of  preparation.  It  was  not  un- 
til January  16  of  the  present  year  that  the  hotly  disputed 
appropriation  providing  for  the  collection  of  the  tax,  and 
embodied  in  the  Urgent  Deficiency  Appropriation  bill, 
passed  the  senate. 


HON.  BENTON  MCMILLIN, 
DEMOCRATIC  REPRESENTATIVE   FROM  TENNESSEE. 


THE  "ALLlANgA"  INCIDENT.  57 

THE  ^^ALLIAN^A"  INCIDENT. 

'pHE  following  instructions,  cabled  by  Secretary  of  State 
Gresham  to  Hon.  Hannis  Taylor,  United  States  min- 
ister at  Madrid,  on  March  14,  will  serve  to  explain  an  in- 
cident of  considerable  interest  at  the  present  time  in  con- 
nection with  Cuban  and  Spanish  affairs: 

This  department  is  informed  that  on  the  8th  inst,  the  United 
States  mail  steamship  Allian^a,  on  her  homeward  voyage  from  Colon 
to  New  York,  when  six  miles  from  the  coast  of  Cuba,  off  Cape  Maysi, 
was  repeatedly  fired  upon  by  a  Spanish  gunboat,  with  solid  shot, 
which  fortunately  fell  short.  The  Windward  Passage,  where  this 
occurred,  is  the  natural  and  usual  highway  for  vessels  plying  between 
ports  of  the  United  States  and  the  Caribbean  sea.  Through  it  sev- 
eral regular  lines  of  American  mail  and  commercial  steamers  pass 
weekly  within  sight  of  Cape  Maysi.  They  are  well  known,  and  their 
voyage  embraces  no  Cuban  port  of  call.  Forcible  interference  with 
them  cannot  be  claimed  as  a  belligerent  act,  whether  they  pass  with- 
in three  miles  of  the  Cuban  coast  or  not,  and  can  under  no  circum- 
stances be  tolerated  when  no  state  of  war  exists. 

This  government  will  expect  prompt  disavowal  of  the  unauthor- 
ized act,  and  due  expression  of  regret  on  the  part  of  Spain,  and  it 
must  insist  that  immediate  and  positive  orders  be  given  to  Spanish 
naval  commanders  not  to  interfere  with  legitimate  American  com- 
merce passing  through  that  channel,  and  prohibiting  all  acts  wan- 
tonly imperilling  life  and  property  lawfully  under  the  flag  of  the 
United  States.  You  will  communicate  this  to  the  minister  for  for 
eign  affairs,  and  urge  importance  of  prompt  and  satisfactory  response. 

GRESHAM. 

This  action  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment was  taken  after  receiving  a  statement  from  Captain 
James  A.  Crossman,  the  commander  of  the  Allian^a,  in 
which  he  sets  forth  the  facts  as  alleged  above.  Captain 
Crossman  states  also  that  he  knew  of  the  Cuban  insurrec- 
tion, and  that  a  Spanish  man-of-war  had  been  stationed 
off  Cape  Maysi  to  look  out  for  filibusters.  For  this  reason 
he  says  that  he  took  special  care  to  keep  well  off  shore 
when  he  sighted  the  Cuban  coast,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  being  called  upon  to  ^Hay  to^'  should  he  get 
within  the  three-mile  limit.  According  to  the  captain's 
story,  he  had  no  thought  of  being  molested  even  after 
sighting  the  Spanish  gunboat  and  after  salutes  had  been 
exchanged,  until  the  Spaniard  opened  fire,  at  first  with 
blank  cartridges  but  afterward  with  solid  shot.  Not  rec- 
ognizing the  right  of  any  vessel  to  stop  him  on  the  high 
seas.  Captain  Crossman  paid  no  attention  to  the  shots  ex- 
cept to  put  on  full  steam  for  the  purpose  of  distancing  the 
gunboat,  which  he  succeeded  in  doing  after  a  chase  of 
twenty-five  miles. 

Considerable  surprise  was  occasioned  soon  after  the  an- 


58  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr,  1895. 

nouncement  of  this  incident,  by  the  somewhat  intemperate 
utterances  of  the  Spanish  minister  at  Washington,  Seflor 
Muruaga,  who  talked  freely  for  newspaper  publication, 
characterizing  Captain  Crossman^s  story  as  a  *^ fabrica- 
tion," and  even  saying,  "It  looks  very  much  as  though  he 
had  had  a  dream  as  to  seeing  a  Spanish  gunboat." 

In  the  meantime  an  answer  was  received  from  the 
Spanish  government,  saying  that  the  foreign  office  at  Ma- 
drid had  received  no  notice  of  the  alleged  firing  upon  the 
American  ship  AlUan^a  by  a  Spanish  gunboat.  The  gov- 
ernment promised  to  make  urgent  inquiry  for  an  official 
report  of  the  incident,  and  intimated  its  disavowal  of  the 
act. 

The  first  corroboration  (in  part)  of  Captain  Crossman's 
story  outside  of  the  testimony  of  his  own  crew  and  the 
four  passengers  on  board  at  the  time,  came  in  a  report 
from  the  commander  of  the  Spanish  gunboat  Co7ide  de 
VenadUo,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  the  merchantman  fired 
upon  was  only  one  mile  and  a  half  from  the  coast  when 
the  incident  occurred;  that  in  response  to  a  salute  she 
hoisted  the  English  flag;  and  that  the  Spanish  vessel  fired 
only  two  shots  instead  of  the  three  alleged.  As  this  re- 
port, if  true,  would  not  materially  alter  the  diplomatic  sit- 
uation, except  to  transfer  the  controversy  from  one  country 
to  another,  and  as  no  firing  on  an  English  ship  has  been 
reported,  its  principal  effect  is  to  cast  discredit  upon  the 
Spanish  commander^s  statement. 

The  general  position  taken  by  the  United  States  in  re- 
gard to  foreign  interference  with  American  vessels  on  the 
high  seas,  is  clearly  expressed  in  the  following  resolution, 
which  was  passed  by  the  senate  on  June  16,  1858: 

**  That  American  vessels  on  tlie  his:li  seas,  in  time  of  pep,ce,  bear- 
ing the  American  flag,  remain  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  country 
to  which  they  belong;  and  therefore  any  visitation,  molestation,  or 
detention  by  force,  or  by  the  exhibition  of  force,  on  the  part  of  a  for- 
eign power,  is  in  derogation  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States. " 

On  the  passage  of  this  resolution  Great  Britain  for- 
mally recognized  the  principle  thus  announced,  and  other 
maritime  powers  afterward  acquiesced  in  it,  so  that  it 
is  now  a  part  of  the  generally  recognized  law  of  nations. 
The  principle  was  strongly  asserted  by  Secretary  Fish 
in  the  negotiations  which  followed  the  well-known  inci- 
dent of  the  execution  of  the  crew  of  the  American  steamer 
Virginius  in  November,  1873.  On  the  ground  that  she 
intended  to  land  arms  and  ammunition  for  the  Cuban  in- 
surgents, the  Virgifiius  was  seized  on  the  high  seas  off  the 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  69 

coast  of  Jamaica  by  the  Spanish  cruiser  Tornado;  and  her 
captain  (Fry)  and  thirty-six  of  her  crew  were  summarily 
shot  at  Santiago  de  Cuba.  For  this  outrage  the  Spanish 
government  had  to  pay  large  indemnities. 

There  seems  to  be  little  occasion  to  fear  that  Spain 
will  permit  this  incident  to  bring  about  any  serious  dis- 
turbance of  her  peaceful  relations  with  the  United  States 
at  the  present  time;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  whole  mat- 
ter will  be  ended  in  the  due  course  of  time  required  for  the 
inquiries  which  have  been  instituted  into  the  facts,  and  for 
the  subsequent  exchange  of  correspondence  in  accordance 
with  the  usual  methods  of  diplomacy. 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT. 

WHILE  the  bill  for  Cuban  home  rule  (Vol.  4,  p.  867) 
was  still  pending  in  the  Spanish  cortes,  mutterings 
of  discontent  and  revolt  grew  even  louder  in  the  Ever 
Faithful  Isle;  and  toward  the  end  of  February  the  situ- 
ation became  so  menacing  that,  by  authority  of  the  home 
government,  the  governor-general  proclaimed  martial  law, 
ostensibly  for  the  suppression  of  brigandage.  But  cipher 
dispatches  received  in  New  York  from  Cuba  on  the  same 
day  which  brought  the  intelligence  of  the  proclamation 
of  martial  law,  told  of  the  arrival  in  the  island  of  Jose 
Marti,  nominated  by  the  revolutionary  junta  to  be  head  of 
a  provisional  government,  and  General  Maximo  Gomez,  who 
was  to  take  chief  command  of  the  insurgent  forces.  There 
were  at  that  time  two  rallying  points  for  the  insurgents, 
one  in  the  province  of  Matanzas,  in  the  western  end  of 
the  island,  and  the  other  in  the  province  of  Santiago,  in 
the  eastern  end.  On  March  1  official  dispatches  from 
Havana  announced  the  capture  of  the  principal  rebel  force 
in  Matanzas,  and  the  governor  of  the  province  declared 
the  seditious  movement  there  ended.  The  governor  of 
the  eastern  province  at  the  same  time  reported  that  the 
*' rioters"  in  his  jurisdiction  were  in  treaty  with  him  for  a 
surrender.  The  government  force  in  the  island  numbered 
18,000  regulars;  of  these  about  12,000  were  stationed  in 
the  western  military  district  (Havana),  and  the  remainder 
in  the  eastern  military  district  (Santiago).  A  reinforce- 
ment of  6,000  troops  was,  from  the  beginning  of  the  re- 


60  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

volt,  held  in  readiness  to  embark  from  Cadiz  for  Havana 
at  a  moment's  notice,  and  the  troops  in  Porto  Rico  were 
under  similar  orders.  But  though  the  civil  and  military 
authorities  had  reported  the  troubles  at  an  end,  the  troops 
in  both  military  districts  wore  continually  in  motion,  at- 
tacking and  dispersing  bands  of  insurgents.  Nor  were 
the  insurgents  routed  without  fighting.  At  Vequita, 
province  of  Santiago,  the  regulars  attacked  a  strong  force 
of  insurgents  intrenched.  The  insurgents  "kept  up  a 
steady  fire  on  the  government  troops,'"  says  the  report  of 
the  Spanish  commander,  "and  hold  the  ditch  for  two 
hours.''  On  March  6  a  telegram  was  received  at  Madrid 
from  the  governor-general,  asking  that  reinforcements 
(additional  to  those  already  sent  from  Cadiz  and  Porto 
Rico)  might  be  sent  direct  to  Santiago,  ready  to  take  the 
field  forthwith.  Detachments  from  all  the  garrisons  in 
Spain  were  ordered  to  repair  with  all  dispatch  to  Santan- 
der,  Cadiz,  Corunna^  and  Barcelona,  where  transport  ships 
awaited  them.  Two  million  rifle  cartridges  were  shipped 
on  the  cruiser  Queen  Mercedes.  On  March  8  the  Spanish 
chamber  of  deputies  passed  a  bill  granting  to  the  govern- 
ment unlimited  credit  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  the 
campaign  against  the  insurgents.  In  the  senate  Marshal 
Martinez  de  Campos  heartily  approved  the  decision  of  the 
ministry  in  hurrying  reinforcements  to  Cuba.  All  danger 
was  now  past,  he  said,  but  a  large  force  would  be  needed 
to  maintain  order  and  to  prevent  future  outbreaks.  He 
urged  that  the  leaders  of  the  revolt  should  be  treated  with 
the  utmost  severity. 

Meanwhile  the  military  commanders,  especially  in  the 
eastern  district,  were  having  daily  encounters  with  insur- 
gent bands.  March  9  General  Garrich  reports  an  attack 
made  by  him  on  the  rebels  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Los  Negros;  and  March  12  a  dispatch  from  Guantanamo 
tells  of  a  band  of  revolutionists  led,  by  Pedro  Perez,  dis- 
persed by  the  troops  after  a  sharp  engagement.  A  day  or 
two  afterward  Colonel  Santocilde  overtook  and  attacked  400 
rebels  near  Bayamo;  and,  after  a  two-hours'  fight,  the  rebels 
were  routed  with  the  loss  of  50  killed  and  wounded;  loss 
of  the  government  troops,  six  men  wounded.  These  ac- 
counts of  petty  victories  all  come  from  Spanish  military 
officers  and  loyalist  officials,  as  do  also  the  daily  repeated 
accounts  of  mortal  dissensions  in  the  camps  of  the  rebels, 
and  of  leaders  of  the  revolt  humbly  begging  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  amnesty.  They  are  therefore  to  be  received 
with  due  allowance;  and  even  a  larger  allowance  for  pas- 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  61 

sion  and  partisanship  has  to  be  made  in  reports  coming 
from  the  rebel  camps. 

About  the  middle  of  March  was  published  the  first  piece 
of  intelligence  received  direct  from  the  insurgents.  On 
that  day  a  letter  was  received  at  Port  Tampa,  Fla.,  from 
the  insurgent  General  Masso,  stating  that,  on  a  date  not 
mentioned,  he,  with  2,000  troops,  had  attacked  2,500  gov- 
ernment troops  under  command  of  General  Saldo.  The  Span- 
ish force  was  marching  from  Manzanillo  to  Bayamo,  and  the 
engagement  took  place  near  the  latter  town.  It  lasted 
two  hours,  and  the  Spaniards  were  compelled  to  retreat 
into  Bayamo,  with  a  loss  of  300  killed  and  wounded;  loss 
of  the  insurgents,  less  than  70  killed  and  wounded.  Sim- 
ilar reports  of  advantages  won  by  the  insurgents  followed. 
No  American  newspaper  appears  to  have  a  correspondent 
with  either  of  the  opposing  armies  in  Cuba;  hence  we 
must  be  contented  with  the  manifestly  biased  stories  of 
partisans,  often  anonymous.  A  passenger  on  the  steamer 
Mascotte,  who  arrived  at  Key  West  March  16,  had  been 
^Hravelling  through  the  mountainous  districts'^  of  the 
easterly  end  of  the  island  ^^  constantly  since  the  trouble 
began;"  and  he  reports  that  *' matters  are  now  in  a  much 
worse  condition"  for  the  Spanish  interest  *^than  at  the 
beginning."  He  estimates  the  number  of  men  in  arms 
against  the  government  at  fully  6,000.  These  are  in  a 
dozen  or  more  detachments,  which  give  the  government 
"no  end  of  trouble:"  in  many  cases  the  Spanish  troops 
have  been  beaten  back  with  heavy  loss.  This  traveller 
notes  as  "the  most  deplorable  feature  of  the  warfare,  the 
pillaging  and  burning  done  by  the  insurgents."  Quite 
unexpectedly  these  reports  are  confirmed  in  all  essential 
particulars  by  a  letter  published  March  12  in  La  Union 
Constitucional,  a  jingo  organ  of  the  Spanish  party,  which 
has,  from  the  first,  clamored  for  the  most  rigorous  meas- 
ures against  the  insurgents.  The  letter  is  so  important 
that  it  must  be  given  in  its  entirety,  as  translated  and  pub- 
lished in  the  New  York  Herald. 

"  In  Baire  there  are  1,300  men,  well  fortified  and  armed.  Seven 
hundred  of  these  are  armed  with  different  rifles,  and  600  with  ma- 
chetes. The  chief  of  this  large  force  is  Jesu  Rabi.  Bartolome 
Masso  has  in  his  immediate  command  700 men,  all  armed  with  rifles  and 
machetes.  There  are  eleven  other  parties,  some  with  100  men  and 
others  with  different  numbers,  which  are  commanded  by  Amador 
Guerra,  Amador  Lien,  Esteban  Tomayo  y  Soco,  Juan  Masso,  Ismael 
Estrada,  Joaquin  Estrado,  Saturnio  Lora,  Manuel  del  Man,  Francisco 
Ballo,  and  Pedro  Popa. 

"It  is  supposed  that  there  are  four  thousand  insurgents,  well 


62  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

armed.  These  do  not  include  the  large  bands  of  Guillermon,  Mon- 
cado,  Enrique  Brooks,  and  Quintin  Banderas,  and  more  yet,  of  which 
there  has  been  no  notice.  Neither  does  it  include  those  that  are 
ready  to  go,  with  arms  now  in  their  homes,  ready  to  defend  or  attack 
with  energetic  force. 

"Masso  has  issued  a  manifesto  to  the  Spaniards,  in  which  he 
promises  to  save  the  lives  of  their  families,  provided  they  are  not  hos- 
tile. 

"Editorially  the  same  paper  accuses  Captain-General  Callejas 
of  deceiving  his  government,  and  warns  him  that  he  will  be  respon- 
sible for  the  consequences.  It  prods  him  with  the  query:  'Why 
don't  you  tell  them  Rabi  has  1,500  men  at  Jiguani?  Why  don't  you 
tell  them  Masso  has  1,000  men  at  Manzanillo,  besides  the  4,000  men 
commanded  by  Brooks,  Moncado,  and  Banderas?  and  also  the  bands 
in  Holguin?' " 

General  Lachambre,  commander  of  the  loyalist  forces  in 
the  eastern  or  Santiago  district,  reports,  March  19,  an  en- 
gagement between  the  command  of  Colonel  Santocilde  and  a 
band  of  rebels  at  Guantanamo,  in  which  the  Spanish  loss 
was  five  seriously  wounded;  of  the  rebels  he  reports  seven 
killed  and  fifteen  wounded.  (Guantanamo  was  the  first  rally- 
ing point  of  the  insurgents  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island; 
but  the  reports  from  loyal  sources  were  unanimous  in  de- 
claring the  revolt  definitely  put  down  in  that  quarter.) 
Another  brush  between  the  Spanish  troops  and  the  rebels 
is  reported  in  General  Lachambre's  dispatch.  In  this  affair 
a  rebel  force  was  attacked  and  dispersed  by  Major  Vaquero^s 
column.  Again  at  Guantanamo,  March  16,  a  force  of  gov- 
ernment troops  attacked  a  party  of  rebels  and  completely 
routed  them.  And  on  the  17th  the  same  government  force 
overtook  Perezes  band,  and  after  a  "sharp"  engagement  (in 
which  two  rebels  were  wounded)  the  insurgents  fled,  throw- 
ing their  arms  away.  On  March  18  General  Garrich,  with  a 
force  of  220  men,  overtook  the  rebels  at  Solis  and  killed  five 
of  them;  among  the  dead  were  two  rebel  leaders,  Manuel  and 
Pacheco;  the  rebels  lost  all  their  arms  and  ammunition. 

But  again  victory  inclined  toward  the  rebels.  Captain 
Sampson  of  the  British  steamship  Earnwell,  which  ar- 
rived at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  from  Santiago  de  Cuba 
March  24,  reports  that  a  few  days  previous  to  his  depar- 
ture, the  insurgents  had  won  a  signal  victory  in  the  moun- 
tains back  of  El  Cobre,  a  place  fifteen  miles  from  Santiago. 
The  arrival  of  10,000  troops  from  Spain,  daily  expected 
to  arrive  at  Santiago,  was  regarded  without  apprehension 
by  the  insurgents,  who  counted  on  effective  aid  from  yel- 
low fever  in  thinning  the  ranks  of  the  unacclimated 
Spanish  soldiers  during  the  summer  months. 

Toward  the  end  of  March,  after  the  insurgents  had 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  63 

been  in  the  field  one  month,  it  became  apparent  to  the 
home  government  that  the  revolt  had  gone  beyond  the 
control  of  the  local  military  commanders.  It  was  there- 
fore decided  at  a  cabinet  meeting  March  26  that  Marshal 
Martinez  de  Campos  should  be  sent  with  strong  rein- 
forcements to  Cuba,  commissioned  to  put  down  the  ris- 
ing at  any  cost.  About  12,000  additional  troops  were  to 
embark  with  him  April  2.  The  torpedo  gunboats  Filipina 
and  Martm  Alonso  Finzon,  and  the  cruiser  Castilla,  were 
ordered  to  proceed  to  Cuban  waters  with  all  possible  dis- 
patch. Private  advices  received  at  Madrid  from  Cuba  put 
the  number  of  rebels  in  the  field  at  7,000.  Premier  Can- 
ovas  del  Castillo  in  the  senate  stated  the  cost  of  the  war 
for  the  first  month  to  be  5,000,000  pesetas,  but  said  that 
Spain  would  be  ready  for  any  sacrifice  that  might  be  de- 
manded. Marshal  de  Campos  would  take  out  10,000,000 
pesetas  in  his  military  chest.  The  immediate  occasion  for 
those  effective  measures  was  given  by  a  dispatch  from  Cap- 
tain-General Callejas,  telling  of  the  defeat  of  a  detach- 
ment of  Spanish  troops  by  insurgents  at  Campochulos.  Fur- 
ther, the  dispatch  announced  the  arrival  of  several  noted 
rebel  leaders  in  the  province  of  Santiago.  The  government 
received  the  resignation  of  Captain-General  Callejas 
March  28. 

Campos,  de,  Martinez,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  forces 
in  Cuba,  is  about  55  years  of  age,  and  is,  by  far,  the  most  eminent  of 
living  Spanish  soldiers.  He  was  Marshal  Concha's  trusty  lieutenant 
in  the  Carlist  war,  during  which  he  successfully  besieged  the  almost 
impregnable  fortress  of  Seo  d'Orgel  in  Catalonia.  He  saw  service  also 
in  Cuba  in  1877-78,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  that  put  down 
a  formidable  rebellion.  In  1893  he  commanded  the  expedition 
against  Morocco;  and  after  the  Moors  were  chastised  was  Spanish 
commissioner  in  the  negotiating  of  a  treaty  of  peace  and  indemnity. 
In  his  wars  he  has  never  been  confronted  by  an  army  of  trained  and 
disciplined  soldiers,  only  by  the  tumultuary  levies  of  insurgents  or 
barbarians.  His  strategy  is  simple,  but,  with  such  foes,  effective. 
He  surrounds  his  enemies  with  an  imposing  force;  then  he  demon- 
strates to  their  commander,  in  a  parley,  the  hopelessness  of  resist- 
ance; and  in  most  instances  the  argument  has  been  convincing. 

On  the  last  day  of  the  (quarter  (March  31)  the  reports 
from  the  scene  of  hostilities  continued  to  be  favorable  to 
the  cause  of  the  rebellion.  Passengers  from  Cuba  who  on 
that  day  arrived  at  Tampa,  Fla.,  reported  the  revolution 
as  spreading  rapidly.  There  were  in  camp  at  Puerto 
Principe  ''1,000  insurgents,  under  command  of  Malques  de 
Santa  Lucia.  ^'  This  force  was  raised  in  the  vicinity  of 
Guanaja  and  was  under  orders  to  march  to  Yara,  where  a 
grand  muster  was  to  be  held  by  command  of   Generals 


64  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Maceo  and  Masso.  Among  successes  of  the  rebel  cause  re- 
ported, was  a  repulse  to  Colonel  Santocilde  March  19,  as  he 
was  marching  to  Holguin  with  a  reinforcement  of  300  in- 
fantry and  20  horse.  On  the  way  he  met  a  force  of  600 
insurgents  under  the  two  brothers  Vegas,  and  in  the  battle 
that  followed  lost  two  lieutenants,  and  thereupon  turned 
back.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Holguin  was  an  insurgent 
force  numbering  1,500  men,  under  Rafael  Reitor. 

A  few  days  after  the  outbreak  of  the  insurrection  two 
men,  American  citizens  by  adoption,  August  Bilton  and 
Gustave  Richahin,  having  put  into  the  port  of  Santiago 
de  Cuba  in  a  small  boat,  were  at  once  arrested  and  thrown 
into  prison.  The  United  States  consul,  Mr.  Hyatt,  hav- 
ing been  appealed  to  by  the  men,  referred  the  case  to  the 
department  of  state  at  Washington,  and  was  instructed  to 
demand  their  release.  The  Spanish  authorities  complied, 
and  the  men  were  freed,  but  were  immediately  rearrested 
and  held  in  jail,  despite  the  consuFs  protest.  Mr.  Hyatt 
reported  the  facts  to  Washington;  and  on  the  last  day  of 
March  instructions  of  the  most  explicit  character  were 
forwarded  to  him,  directing  him  to  use  every  effort  to  ob- 
tain release  of  the  men,  unless  it  shall  be  proved  that  they 
were  engaged  in  an  unlawful  enterprise,  as  charged  by  the 
local  authorities,  namely,  landing  a  revolutionist  party.  If 
the  prisoners  suffer  any  injury  from  their  confinement,  the 
department  of  state  will  require  of  Spain  reparation. 


THE  HAWAIIAN  INSURRECTION. 

T^IIE  arrest  and  commitment  for  trial  of  the  leaders  of 
the  abortive  royalist  revolt  of  December  8  (Vol.  4,  p. 
916)  did  not  extinguish  the  hopes  of  the  enemies  of  the 
republic.  Honolulu  was  alarmed  on  the  night  of  Decem- 
ber 31  by  a  report  that  the  ex-queen^s  native  partisans 
Avere  about  to  fire  the  city  and  seize  the  government. 
Again,  in  the  night  of  January  3,  there  was  an  alarm,  nor 
was  this  without  foundation:  considerable  numbers  of  na- 
tives came  into  the  town  after  nightfall,  and  gathered  in 
groups  on  the  streets.  But  the  vigilance  of  the  police 
frustrated  their  plans.  On  Sunday,  January  6,  toward 
night,  intelligence  was  received  by  the  government  that 
arms  were  landing  at  Diamond  Head,  which  were  taken 
to  the  house  of  George  Bertelmann,  a  half-white  royalist 
leader.  A  squad  of  mounted  police  was  immediately  ordered 


THE  HAWAIIAN  INSURRECTION.  65 

from  the  city  to  search  the  house,  while  the  citizens' 
guard  and  the  volunteer  military  companies  were  sum- 
moned to  patrol  the  streets.  Martial  law  was  proclaimed. 
Captain  Parker,  with  the  mounted  police,  reached  Bertel- 
mann's  place  after  dark;  and,  just  as  Deputy-Marshal 
Brown  was  about  to  read  the  warrant  of  search,  the  police, 
who  were  outside,  were  fired  at  by  a  force  of  rebels,  who 
had  gathered  in  the  neighborhood,  designing  to  enter  and 
take  the  city  by  surprise.  With  the  police  were  three 
volunteers,  Charles  L.  Carter,  the  collector-general,  J.  B. 
Castle,  and  Alfred  Carter.  Charles  Carter,  seeing  that  the 
shots  came  from  a  canoe  shed  on  the  beach,  leU  the  police  in 
a  rush  on  the  shed  to  drive  the  rebels  out.  Coming  to  close 
quarters,  Carter  fell,  mortally  wounded.  At  the  same  mo- 
ment a  police  lieutenant  was  wounded  by  a  pistol-shot 
fired  by  Bertelmann  from  the  verandah  of  the  house.  But 
the  rebels  in  the  shed  were  driven  out  and  retreated  to 
the  bush,  whence  they  kept  up  a  sharp  fire  on  the  police. 
All  efforts  of  Captain  Parker  and  the  police  to  dislodge 
the  enemy  having  failed,  aid  was  summoned  from  the 
city  by  telephone.  Lieutenant  King,  with  thirty  soldiers, 
was  quickly  on  the  ground,  and  the  enemy  were  forced  to 
retire,  taking  position  on  the  heights  at  the  base  of  Dia- 
mond Head.  From  that  situation  they  commanded  the 
Bertelmann  house,  which  became  untenable,  and  the  gov- 
ernment force  retired  a  half  mile  to  the  Sans  Souci  hotel. 
In  the  morning  Lieutenant  King,  reinforced  by  twenty- 
five  more  soldiers  under  Lieutenant  Coyne,  formed  a  line 
from  Sa7is  Souci  to  the  west  slope  of  the  Head,  to  prevent 
the  rebels  advancing.  Thus  checked,  the  rebels  left  the 
shore  and  ascended  to  the  rim  of  the  crater.  There  they 
had  the  government  force  within  range  of  their  rifles,  and 
it  became  necessary  to  dislodge  them  from  so  advantageous 
a  position.  A  rifled  gun  having  been  sent  out  from  the 
city,  shells  were  dropped  upon  the  summit  of  the  Head, 
and  the  rebels  were  forced  to  retire. 

While  this  conflict  was  going  on.  Lieutenant  T.  B. 
Murray,  with  thirty-five  men,  was  advancing  on  the 
Waialae  road,  to  attack  the  rebels  on  the  ridge  back  of 
Diamond  Head.  The  rebels  had  a  fieldpiece,  handled 
by  Robert  Wilcox,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection, 
and  their  position  was  naturally  impregnable,  in  a  small 
volcanic  cone  called  Mauumae.  The  possession  of  the 
fieldpiece  by  the  rebels  was  a  surprise  to  Captain  Mur- 
ray, and  he  was  compelled  to  fall  back  and  await  rein- 
forcements.    In  the  afternoon  arrived    Captain   Ziegler, 

Vol.  5.-5. 


66  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

with  a  force  of  volunteers  and  sharpshooters  and  a 
rifled  gun.  The  cone  was  shelled  for  several  hours,  the 
enemy  making  spirited  response  with  their  fieldpiece,  but 
with  no  decisive  result  to  either  side  and  few  casualties; 
but  at  last  Wilcox  was  forced  to  abandon  his  position, 
carrying  away  his  gun.  About  thirty  rebels  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  next  day  Wilcox,  with  forty  men,  was  dis- 
covered crossing  the  head  of  the  Manoa  valley,  five  miles 
inland.  A  government  force  overtook  him  in  the  north 
angle  of  the  valley,  and  for  two  hours  had  a  sharp  engage- 
ment with  him  in  the  chaparral:  then  the  rebels  made 
their  escape  among  the  mountains.  Wilcox  and  Nowlein, 
another  of  the  insurgent  chiefs,  with  three  of  their  lieu- 
tenants, were  taken  prisoners  January  14;  and  soon  all  the 
leaders  were  in  custody.  The  volunteer  militia  were  re- 
lieved from  duty,  and  public  tranquillity  was  restored. 

Liliuokalaiii's  Renunciation. — A  military  commis- 
sion for  trial  of  those  concerned  in  the  rebellion  opened  its 
sessions  January  17.  Wilcox,  Nowlein,  and  six  other 
leaders  were  first  put  on  trial.  The  ex-queen  was  arrested 
on  the  16th.  She  was  removed  from  her  residence 
and  placed  in  the  south  chamber  of  the  executive  build- 
ing, formerly  the  royal  palace.  A  search  of  her  private 
residence  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  great  number  of 
rifles,  pistols,  and  swords:  twenty-one  dynamite  bombs 
were  also  found.  While  thus  under  arrest  the  ex-queen, 
on  January  22,  presented  to  the  president  of  the  republic  a 
document  in  which  she  renounced  all  pretensions  to  the 
throne  of  Hawaii,  and  promised  allegiance  to  the  repub- 
lican government.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  letter  to  Presi- 
dent Dole,  and  its  essential  parts  are  as  follows: 

"  In  order  to  avoid  any  possibility  of  trouble  or  misunderstanding 
on  the  subject,  although  I  do  not  think  that  any  doubt  or  misunder- 
standing is  either  proper  or  possible,  I  hereby  do  fully  and  unequivo- 
cally admit  and  declare  that  the  government  of  the  republic  of  Ha- 
waii is  the  only  lawful  government  of  the  Hawaiian  islands,  and  that 
the  late  Hawaiian  monarchy  is  finally  and  forever  ended,  and  no 
longer  of  any  legal  or  actual  validity,  force,  or  effect  whatsoever;  and 
I  do  hereby  forever  absolve  all  persons  whomsoever,  whether  in  the 
Hawaiian  islands  or  elsewhere,  from  all  and  every  manner  of  alle- 
giance or  official  obligation  or  duty  to  me  and  my  heirs  and  successors 
forever;  and  I  hereby  declare  to  all  such  persons  in  the  Hawaiian 
islands  that  I  consider  them  as  bound  in  duty  and  honor  henceforth 
to  support  and  sustain  the  government  of  the  republic  of  Hawaii. 

"  For  myself,  my  heirs,  and  successors,  I  do  hereby,  without  any 
mental  reservation  or  modification,  fully,  finally,  unequivocally,  irrev- 
ocably, and  forever  abdicate,  renounce,  and  release  unto  the  govern- 
ment of  the  republic  of  Hawaii  and  its  legitimate  successors  forever, 
all  claims  or  pretensions  whatsoever  to  the  late  throne  of  Hawaii,  or 


THE  HAWAIIAN  INSURRECTION. 


67 


to  the  late  monarchy  of  Hawaii,  or  to  any  past,  or  to  any  existing,  or 
to  any  future  government  of  Hawaii,  or  under,  or  by  reason  of  any 
present  or  formally  existing  constitution,  statute,  law,  position,  right, 
or  claim  of  any  and  every  kind,  name,  or  nature  whatsoever,  and 
whether  the  same  consist  of  pecuniary  or  property  consideration  or 
of  personal  status,  hereby  forever  renouncing,  disowning,  and  dis- 
claiming all  rights,  claims,  demands,  privileges,  honors,  emoluments, 
titles,  and  prerogatives  whatsoever  under  or  by  virtue  of  any  former 
or  the  existing  government,  constitution,  statute,  law,  or  custom  of 
the  Hawaiian  islands  whatsoever,  save 
and  excepting  only  such  rights  and 
privileges  as  belong  to  me  in  common 
with  all  private  citizens  of  or  residents 
in  the  republic  of  Hawaii. 

"  I  do  hereby  respectfully  implore 
for  such  misguided  Hawaiians  and 
others  as  have  been  concerned  in  the 
late  rebellion  against  the  republic  of 
Hawaii  such  degree  of  executive  clem- 
ency as  the  government  may  deem  to 
be  consistent  with  its  duty  to  the  com- 
munity and  such  as  a  due  regard  for 
its  violated  laws  may  permit. 

"It  is   my  sincere   desire   hence--: 
forth  to  live  in  absolute  privacy  and; 
retirement  from  all  publicity,  or  even 
appearance  of  being  concerned  in  the 
public  affairs  of  the  Hawaiian  islands, 
further  than  to  express,  as  I  now  do 
and   shall  always  continue  to  do,  my 
most  siijcere  hope  for  the  welfare  and 
prosperity  of  Hawaii  and  its  people,  subject  to  the  government  of  the 
republic  of  Hawaii. 

"  I  hereby  offer  and  present  my  duly  certified  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  republic  of  Hawaii. 

"I  have  caused  the  foregoing  statement  to  be  prepared  and 
drawn,  and  have  signed  the  same  without  having  received  the  slight- 
est suggestion  from  the  president  of  Hawaii,  concerning  the  same  or 
any  part  thereof,  or  concerning  any  action  or  course  of  my  own  in  the 
premises.  Relying  upon  the  magnanimity  of  the  government  of  the 
republic  and  upon  its  protection,  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Mr.  Presi- 
dent, very  respectfully,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

[Duly  Attested.]  "LILIUOKALANI  DOMINIS." 

The  reply  of  the  government  was  as  follows: 

Executive  Building, 
Honolulu,  January  29,  1895. 

Madam:  A  document  executed  by  you.  purporting  to  contain 
an  abdication  and  renunciation  of  all  sovereign  rights  heretofore 
claimed  by  you,  has  been  delivered  on  your  behalf  to  the  president. 
As  you  were  under  arrest  at  the  time  the  instrument  was  signed,  it  is 
desired,  before  accepting  and  placing  the  same  on  file,  to  make  clear 
to  you,  in  order  that  no  misunderstanding  may  hereafter  arise,  the 
views  of  the  government  in  the  matter. 

First — The  execution  of  this  document  cannot  be  taken  to  exempt 
you  in  the  slightest  degree  from  personal  and  individual  liability  for 


LILIUOKALANI,   EX-QUEEN 
OF    THE   HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS. 


68  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER,    ist  Qr.,  1805. 

such  complicity  as  due  investigation  and  trial  may  show  that  you  had 
in  the  late  conspiracy  against  the  government  and  the  consequent  loss 
of  life,  which  position  is  recognized  by  you  in  your  letter. 

Second — It  cannot  be  conceded  that  such  rights  and  claims  as  you 
now  voluntarily  relinquish  have  had  any  legal  existence  since  Janu- 
ary 14,  1893,  when  by  your  public  announcement  that  you  had  no 
longer  considered  yourself  bound  by  the  fundamental  law  of  the  land 
under  which  you  took  office,  and  by  your  action  in  attempting,  by  the 
mere  exercise  of  your  own  will,  to  establish  a  new  system  of  govern- 
ment, the  contract  existing  between  you  and  the  people  was  dis- 
solved, and  all  sovereign  rights  therein  invested  in  you  were  lost. 
The  statement  by  members  of  your  then  cabinet  that  they  could  not 
control  your  action,  and  their  appeal  to  the  citizens  of  Honolulu  for* 
assistance,  was  the  next  step  which  led  to  a  resumption  by  the  people 
of  the  rights  of  the  government. 

Third — So  far  as  your  communication  may  be  taken  as  a  notice 
to  the  disaffected,  that  it  is  your  desire  that  the  republic  shall  be  rec- 
ognized by  them  as  the  sole  and  lawful  government  of  the  country, 
it  is  fully  appreciated.  In  this  connection  your  unselfish  appeal  for 
clemency  for  those  who  took  part  in  the  late  insurrection  will  receive 
full  consideration. 

By  order  of  the  executive  council, 

WILLIAM  O.  SMITH, 
Attorney -General. 

Trial  of  the  Conspirators. — The  court-martial  in- 
stituted for  trial  of  the  captured  insurgents  found  most  of 
the  accused  guilty,  and  passed  on  the  principal  leaders — 
Wilcox,  Nowlein,  Bertelmann,  Gulick,  Rickard,  and  Sew- 
ard— sentence  of  death,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
president  of  the  republic.  President  Dole  afterward  com- 
muted the  death  penalty  to  fines  and  imprisonment — 
namely,  in  each  case,  a  fine  of  $10,000  and  35  years'  im- 
prisonment. Other  prisoners  were  condemned  to  impris- 
onment or  to  banishment.  Nowlein  and  Bertelmann  were 
afterward  released,  and  their  sentences  suspended,  in  con- 
sideration of  their  having  given  evidence  for  the  prosecu- 
tion in  the  trial  of  the  ex-queen.  That  trial  was  com- 
menced February  5,  and  continued  during  four  days. 
Several  of  her  former  servants  and  agents  testified  against 
her.  Charles  Clark,  the  ex-queen's  "  chief  household  re- 
tainer," testified  that  on  the  night  of  January  3,  guards 
stationed  by  Nowlein  at  Washington  Place,  the  private 
residence  of  Liliuokalani,  were  patrolling  on  all  sides  of 
the  house  till  after  midnight.  These  guards  were  armed 
with  rifles  and  ammunition  which  had  been  concealed  on 
the  premises.  The  rising  intended  for  January  3  having 
been  deferred  at  the  last  moment,  the  arms,  ammunition, 
and  bombs  were  again  hid  away  under  rubbish,  whence 
they  were  again  taken  on  Sunday,  January  6.  Guards 
were  again  set  to  protect  Washington  Place  and  the  ex- 


THE  HAWAIIAN  INSURRECTION.  6d 

queen  against  attack  by  any  government  force.  Liliuoka- 
lani's  private  secretary,  William  Kaae,  testified  that  he 
had  copied  eleven  commissions  for  high  officials,  to  which 
the  accused  attached  her  signature,  also  three  proclama- 
tions and  a  new  constitution.  Samuel  Nowlein,  the  chief 
rebel  leader,  testified  that  on  the  night  of  January  3,  after 
giving  Charles  Clark  orders  about  arming  the  guard  at  the 
ex-queen's  residence,  he  had  talked  with  her  about  the  in- 
tended uprising.  The  following  day  he  had  acquainted 
her  with  the  landing  of  arms  for  the  rebels.  On  Sunday, 
the  6th,  he  told  the  ex-queen  that  he  was  going  to  Dia- 
mond Head,  where  "  he  could  do  best  for  her,"  and  that 
he  left  Clark  to  protect  her.  Experts  established  the  sim- 
ilarity of  the  bombs  found  at  Washington  Place  with  those 
seized  in  rebel  camps.  The  ex-queen  was  found  guilty. 
She  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment,  or  rather  to  be  re- 
strained of  her  liberty,  for  five  years. 

Among  the  spoils  found  in  the  ex-queen's  residence 
were  two  diaries  (not  yet  made  public)  for  the  years  1893 
and  1894.  From  these  it  is  seen  that  she  was  meditating  a 
restoration  to  the  throne  from  the  day  of  her  deposition.  In 
June,  1893,  and  for  some  months  after,  she  was  confident 
of  her  eventual  restoration  by  the  president  of  the  United 
States,  and  she  notes  the  receipt  of  semi-official  advices 
from  President  Cleveland  and  Minister  Willis.  She  re- 
ceived many  encouraging  communications  from  persons 
in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Central  America,  and  Eu- 
rope, and  offers  of  aid  should  it  be  needed. 

Important  Legislation. — While  the  military  com- 
mission was  still  sitting,  a  proclamation  by  President  Dole 
declared  martial  law  to  be  at  an  end.  The  legislative 
councils,  in  anticipation  of  this  step,  had  passed  various 
acts  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  government  after  the 
cessation  of  martial  law.  First,  an  act  was  passed  declar- 
ing lawful  all  acts  of  officers  of  the  government  done 
under  martial  law  for  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection. 
This  act  legalizes  the  establishment  of  the  military  tribu- 
nal and  the  arrest,  detention,  deportation,  trial,  convic- 
tion, and  sentencing  of  any  person  charged  with  sedition 
or  insurrection.  Another  act  prohibits  the  landing  in 
Hawaii  of  refugees  from  justice,  or  criminals,  or  persons 
who  have  fled  from  the  islands  to  avoid  trial,  and  in  par- 
ticular forbids  the  return  of  persons  deported  under  mar- 
tial law,  or  banished  by  sentence  of  any  court.  Heavy 
penalties  attach  to  violations  of  this  act.  For  the  sup- 
pression of  seditious  newspapers,  it  is  provided  that — 


10 


LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 


"  If  any  person  is  convicted  of  the  offense  of  publication  of  a  sedi- 
tious libel  with  reference  to  the  publication  of  words  in  a  newspaper 
of  which  he  is  editor,  publisher,  owner,  or  proprietor,  the  judge  or 
magistrate  trying  the  case  may,  in  addition  to  the  sentence  awarded 
against  such  person,  suspend  the  further  publication  of  such  news- 
paper for  any  period  not  exceeding  four  years.  Every  such  suspen- 
sion of  a  newspaper  shall  extend  to  and  include  any  newspaper  that 
may  be  started  in  place  of  such  suspended  newspaper,  having  the 

person  so  convicted  of 
seditious  libel  as  editor, 
publisher,  owner,  or 
proprieter  thereof." 

Finally,  another 
act  provides  that  any 
person  having  "law- 
less intentions  hos- 
tile to  public  order" 
may  be  brought  be- 
fore a  circuit  judge 
and  summarily  ex- 
amined. On  proof 
of  such  hostile  in- 
tentions, the  person 
may  be  adjudged 
"dangerous"  and 
sentenced  to  expul- 
sion from  the  islands; 
in  case  of  doubt  a  sus- 
pected person  may 
be  put  under  bond. 
An  expelled  person 
returning  to  Hawaii 
before  tlie  term  of 
his  expulsion  (six 
years)  is  guilty  of  misdemeanor  and  is  imprisonable  for  the 
remainder  of  the  term. 

Immigration. — The  question  of  reinforcing  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  islands  and  increasing  the  supply  of  labor  is 
receiving  earnest  attention  on  the  part  of  the  government. 
At  the  end  of  March  a  German  steamer  was  daily  expected 
to  arrive  from  the  Azores,  carrying  600  able-bodied  Portu- 
guese laborers  and  300  women  and  children.  A  recent 
visit  to  Lisbon,  of  Mr.  Thurston,  the  American  minister 
at  Washington,  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
the  immigration  of  Portuguese  laborers.  On  March  14, 
900  Japanese  laborers,  of  whom  700  were  under  contract, 
arrived  at  Honolulu. 


HON.  L.  A.   THURSTON, 
I.ATELT  HAWAIIAN  MINISTER  AT  WASHINGTON. 


THE  HAWAIIAN  INSURRECTION.  71 

Minister  Thurston's  Departure.— Toward  the  end 

of  February  the  secretary  of  state  at  Washington  for- 
warded to  the  Hawaiian  government  a  demand  for  the  re- 
call of  Hon.  Lorin  A.  Thurston,  Hawaiian  envoy  to  the 
United  States.  The  ground  of  this  action  of  the  state  de- 
partment was,  it  is  said,  that  Mr.  Thurston  had  given 
copies  of  official  correspondence  between  the  two  govern- 
ments to  the  press  before  the  documents  were  delivered  to  the 
secretary  of  state.  The  Hawaiian  minister  gave  as  an  excuse 
for  his  action  the  great  eagerness  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  to  learn  the  status  of  affairs  in  Hawaii;  he  acknowl- 
edged that  his  proceeding  was  undiplomatic,  and  apolo- 
gized for  it  verbally.  But  Mr.  Gresham  requested  an 
apology  in  writing,  which,  as  the  request  had  not  been 
made  in  writing,  Mr.  Thurston  refused.  The  text  of  Sec- 
retary Gresham's  dispatch  to  the  Hawaiian  government 
was  not  made  public;  but,  besides  the  points  mentioned, 
it  is  believed  that  Minister  Thurston's  criticisms  of  cer- 
tain acts  of  Mr.  Willis,  American  minister  at  Honolulu, 
were  assigned  as  a  reason  for  requesting  Mr.  Thurston's 
recall.  The  information  given  by  Mr.  Thurston  to  the 
newspapers  had  regard  to  the  trial  of  the  conspirators  at 
Honolulu  and  the  nature  of  the  sentences  passed  upon 
them.  What  Mr.  Thurston  gave  to  the  press  was  matter 
of  news  simply,  and  in  no  sense  official  correspondence. 
The  story  as  told  by  the  Washington  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Tribune,  is  that  Mr.  Thurston  imparted  to  the 
newspaper  reporters  only  the  intelligence  he  had  himself 
gleaned  from  Honolulu  newspapers  and  from  letters  of  his 
own  friends  and  correspondents. 

"  Several  newspaper  men  called  on  Mr.  Thurston  for  informa- 
tion as  to  the  progress  of  affairs  in  Hawaii,  and  he  told  them  the  re- 
sult of  the  trials  of  the  conspirators  as  disclosed  in  his  mail  from 
Honolulu,  at  the  same  time  making  pertinent  comments  on  each  case, 
and  giving  his  personal  views  as  to  the  general  effect  of  the  proceed- 
ings on  the  people  of  Hawaii.  He  simply  gave  a  brief  narrative  of 
recent  occurrences  in  Hawaii  as  obtained  from  Hawaiian  sources,  and 
took  special  care  to  avoid  any  reference  to  the  United  States  or  the 
course  of  its  representatives  either  in  Washington  or  Honolulu." 

The  Cable  to  Hawaii. — On  February  9  the  United 
States  senate,  after  several  days'  discussion,  voted  to  at- 
tach to  the  diplomatic  and  consular  appropriation  bill  a 
*' rider"  appropriating  the  sum  of  $500,000  toward  the 
laying  of  a  submarine  cable  to  Hawaii.  When  the  report 
of  the  conference  of  committees  of  house  and  senate  upon 
this  appropriation  came  before  the  house  of  representatives 
February  20,  it  provoked  a  warm  debate.     On  the  part  of 


n  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    1st  Qr.,  1895. 

the  opposition  to  the  appropriation  Mr.  McCreary  of  Ken- 
tucky argued  that  if  the  government  of  the  United  States 
were  to  lay  this  cable,  then  in  consistency  it  must  lay 
cables  to  Samoa,  Japan,  China,  and  other  countries;  and 
if  this  government  lay  cables,  so  must  it  also  construct 
land  lines  of  telegraph  and  railroads.  Mr.  Hitt  of  Illi- 
nois, favoring  the  appropriation,  said  that  a  cable  to  Ha- 
waii would  yield  no  profit,  and  yet  was  a  necessity:  it 
would  therefore  have  to  be  laid  at  the  public  expense. 
And  if  the  United  States  did  not  act,  Hawaii  would  be 
compelled  to  invoke  British  aid.  And  in  both  the  house 
and  the  senate  the  advocates  of  the  appropriation  called  at- 
tention to  certain  fasts  which  show  a  purpose  on  the  part  of 
England  to  win  a  footing  in  the  Hawaiian  islands,  intend- 
ing to  lay  a  cable  from  British  Columbia  to  Australia.  In 
the  senate  Mr.  Morgan  of  Alabama  quoted  from  an  agree- 
ment between  Great  Britain  and  Hawaii  for  the  cession  to 
Great  Britain  by  the  republic  of  a  landing  for  a  cable, 
subject  to  the  consent  of  the  United  States. 

"Subject  to  the  conditions  and  stipulations  hereinafter  set  out, 
the  Hawaiian  government  agrees  *  *  *  to  leave  to  the  British 
government  and  its  assignees  *  *  *  either  Necker  island  or  French 
Frigate  shoal,  or  Bird  island,  or  other  uninhabited  island,  w^hichever 
of  them  the  British  government  may  select." 

But  because  Hawaii  is  debarred  by  her  reciprocity 
treaty  with  the  United  States  from  leasing  or  otherwise 
disposing  of  lands  or  islands  to  any  foreign  government, 
the  consent  of  the  United  States  must  first  be  had. 

The  advocates  of  the  appropriation  laid  great  stress  on 
this  evidence  of  England's  readiness  to  lay  the  cable  and 
her  purpose  to  win  for  herself  all  the  resulting  commercial 
and  military  advantages.  But  when  the  question  came 
up  for  decision  in  the  house  on  February  21,  the  project 
was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  152  nays  to  114  yeas.  Of  the 
affirmative  votes  ninety  were  cast  by  republicans,  the  rest 
by  democrats  and  populists. 


THE  BERING  SEA  QUESTION.  7^ 

THE  BERING  SEA  QUESTION. 

Tj^XPERTS  are  agreed  that  the  regulations  recommended 
by  the  Paris  tribunal  of  arbitration  in  August,  1893, 
for  the  protection  of  the  seal  herds  in  Bering  sea  and  the 
North  Pacific  ocean,  and  subsequently  put  into  force  by 
legislative  enactment  in  both  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  are,  even  when  most  carefully  executed,  entirely 
insufficient  for  their  avowed  purpose.  Under  those  regu- 
lations sealing  is  forbidden  at  any  time  within  a  zone  of 
sixty  miles  around  the  Pribilof  islands,  and  between  May 
1  and  July  31  every  year  in  that  part  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
(including  Bering  sea)  defined  by  the  arbitrators  (Vol.  3, 
p.  460).  After  July  31  poaching  may  be  carried  on  any- 
where outside  the  sixty-mile  line.  The  returns  of  last 
season's  operations  make  it  clear  that  under  these  limita- 
tions dangerous  inroads  upon  the  herds  can  still  be  made; 
so  that  unless  either  an  absolute  prohibition  be  placed 
upon  pelagic  sealing  for  a  number  of  years  in  order  to 
enable  the  herds  to  recover,  or  both  the  close  season  and 
the  protected  zone  be  extended,  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time 
(possibly  five  years)  when  the  herds  at  the  rookeries  will 
be  reduced  to  a  remnant  not  worth  considering. 

These  conclusions  are  born  out  by  the  personal  in- 
vestigations in  Bering  sea  of  Charles  S.  Hamlin,  assistant 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  by  an  official  report  made 
to  the  navy  department  by  Commander  C.  E.  Clark.  The 
following  is  a  pertinent  passage  from  Commander  Clark's 
report: 

"  Upward  of  30,000  seals  were  captured  this  year  (1894)  in  Bering 
sea  after  the  31st  of  July,  and  of  these  nearly  25,000  were  females.  A 
careful  estimate  made  early  in  September,  showed  that  9,300  pups  had 
already  died  of  starvation  on  the  rookeries,  and  that  about  an  equal 
number  would  later  perish  in  the  same  miserable  manner,  half  of  them 
being  females.  About  33,000  were  lost,  and  the  reproductive  power 
of  the  herd  has  been  lowered  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  The  success 
that  has  attended  pelagic  sealing  this  year,  and  the  knowledge  that 
has  been  obtained  of  methods  that  can  be  followed  and  of  grounds 
that  may  be  resorted  to  advantageously,  will  probably  double  the 
number  of  vessels  engaged,  and  increase  the  catch  proportionately 
the  coming  season.  The  loss  as  before  will  fall  where  it  is  most  to 
be  dreaded,  i.  e. ,  upon  the  females.  While  the  disparity  in  the  num- 
ber of  each  sex  taken  has  been  determined,  the  reasons  for  it  are  not 
known.  In  my  opinion,  the  male  seals  who  are  not  able  to  fight 
their  way  on  the  rookeries,  retire  as  far  as  they  are  compelled  to  by  the 
bulls  in  possession,  and  no  farther;  while  the  females,  who  have  young 
to  suckle,  leave,  when  impregnated,  for  the  feeding  grounds,  which 
seem,  most  unfortunately,  to  be  well  outside  of  the  prohibited  zone. " 

In  spite  of  the  large  patrol  maintained  last  season,  it 


74  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

is  estimated  that  the  pelagic  catch  in  the  North  Pacific 
ocean,  including  Bering  sea,  reached  the  unprecedented 
number  of  from  130,000  to  142,000  seals.  Of  this  number 
only  16,000  were  killed  on  the  Pribilof  islands  by  the 
North  American  Commercial  Company,  their  lessees. 
The  catch  on  the  Commander  islands  was  about  28,000. 
About  39,000  were  believed  to  have  been  taken  off  the 
Japan  and  Russian  coasts.  The  remainder,  between  50,- 
000  and  60,000  in  round  numbers,  were  taken  either  in 
Bering  sea  or  on  the  American  side  of  the  North  Pacific. 
It  is  stated  that  only  thirty-seven  pelagic  sealing  vessels 
entered  Bering  sea;  but  that  in  the  short  period  of  four  or 
five  weeks  they  took  over  7,000  more  seals  than  were  taken 
by  the  total  fleet  of  pelagic  sealers  (95  in  number)  on  the 
American  side  of  the  North  Pacific  during  the  period 
from  January  to  April  inclusive. 

For  the  season  of  1895  the  United  States  has  decided  to 
intrust  the  work  of  patrol  to  vessels  of  the  revenue-cutter 
service  exclusively,  four  of  which  have  already  been  se- 
lected— the  Corwi/Hy  Rushy  Bear,  and  Perry.  The  follow- 
ing are  in  substance  the  regulations  for  the  coming  season 
as  agreed  upon  by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
and  made  public  January  19: 

Article  1. — Every  vessel  employed  in  fur  seal  fishing  shall  have, 
in  addition  to  the  papers  now  required  by  law,  a  special  license  for 
fur  seal  fishing. 

Article  2. — Before  the  issuance  of  the  special  license,  the  master 
of  any  sailing  vessel  proposing  to  engage  in  the  fur  seal  fishery  shall 
produce  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  hunters  employed  by  him  are 
competent  to  use  with  sufficient  skill  the  weapons  by  means  of  which 
this  fishing  may  be  carried  on. 

Article  3. — Every  sealing  vessel  provided  with  special  license 
shall  show,  under  her  national  ensign,  a  flag  not  less  than  four  feet 
square,  composed  of  two  pieces,  yellow  and  black,  joined  from  the 
right-hand  upper  corner  of  the  fly  to  the  left-hand  lower  corner  of 
the  luff,  the  part  above  and  to  the  left  to  be  black,  and  the  part  to 
the  right  and  below  to  be  yellow. 

Article  4. — In  order  to  protect  from  unnecessary  interference 
sealing  vessels  within  the  area  of  the  award  during  the  close  season 
(that  is  to  say,  between  April  30  and  August  1),  but  which  have  not 
violated  the  law,  any  sealing  vessel  lawfully  traversing,  or  intending 
to  traverse,  the  area  of  the  award  during  the  close  season,  on  the 
way  to  her  home  port,  or  any  other  port,  or  to  or  from  the  sealing 
grounds,  or  for  any  other  legitimate  purpose,  may,  on  the  application 
of  the  master,  have  her  sealing  outfit  secured  under  seal,  and  an  en- 
try thereof  made  on  her  clearance  and  log-book;  and  such  sealing  up 
and  entry  shall  be  a  protection  to  the  vessel  against  interference  or 
detention  during  the  close  season  by  any  cruiser,  so  long  as  the  seals 
so  affixed  shall  remain  unbroken,  unless  there  shall  be  evidence  of 
any  violation  of  the  fishery  articles  of  the  award  notwithstanding. 

Article  5. — Such  sealing  up  and  entry  may  be  effected  in  port  or 


THE  BERING  SEA  QUESTION.  75 

at  sea  by  any  naval,  consular,  or  customs  officer  of  the  nation  to 
which  the  vessel  belongs.  It  may  also  be  effected  in  the  case  of 
British  sealing  vessels  at  the  island  of  Attou,  by  any  naval  or  customs 
officer  of  the  United  States  in  the  absence  of  any  British  naval  or 
consular  officer.  It  may  also  be  effected  at  sea  as  regards  British 
vessels  by  the  commander  of  a  United  States  cruiser,  and  as  regards 
United  States  vessels  by  the  commander  of  a  British  cruiser.  If  the 
master  shall  so  desire,  the  officer  effecting  the  sealing  up  and  entry 
shall  deliver  to  him  a  certificate  of  the  number  of  seals  and  sealskins 
on  board  at  that  date,  keeping  a  copy  of  the  same. 

Article  6. — And  whereas,  by  the  sixth  fishery  article  of  the  award, 
the  use  of  nets,  firearms,  and  explosives  is  forbidden  in  the  fur  seal 
fishery — but  that  restriction  does  not  apply  to  shotguns,  when  such 
fishing  takes  place  outside  the  Bering  sea,  during  the  season  when  it 
may  be  lawfully  carried  on — any  sealing  vessel,  having  shotguns  and 
ammunition  on  board,  may,  before  entering  Bering  sea,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  the  master,  have  the  same  secured  under  seal,  and  an  entry 
thereof  made  on  her  clearance  or  log-book;  and  such  sealing  up  and 
entry  may  be  effected  in  the  same  manner  and  shall  afford  the  same 
protection  against  improper  seizure  or  detention  in  Bering  sea  during 
the  season  when  the  fishery  may  be  lawfully  carried  on  there,  as  the 
securing  of  sealing  outfits  under  the  last  preceding  regulation. 

Article  7. — Any  vessel  of  the  United  States  may  obtain  special 
license  for  fur  seal  fishing  upon  application  to  the  chief  officer  of  the 
customs  in  any  port  of  the  United  States,  or  to  the  United  States 
consular  office  of  any  port  in  Japan,  and  complying  with  the  require- 
ments of  these  regulations. 

Canadian  sealers  are  loud  in  their  protest  against  these 
regulations,  especially  the  "  sealing  up  "  rule,  the  grant- 
ing to  United  States  officers  of  the  right  of  visit  and  search, 
and  the  required  flying  of  a  flag  composed  of  colors  which 
are  ordinarily  regarded  as  significant  of  pestilence  and 
piracy. 

On  March  3  the  house  of  representatives  passed  a  bill 
to  prevent  the  extermination  of  the  fur-bearing  seals  of 
Alaska. 

It  authorizes  the  president  to  conclude  and  proclaim  a  modus 
mvendi  with  the  governments  of  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  Japan, 
providing  for  new  regulations  for  the  preservation  of  the  seal  herd. 
It  also  provides  that  if  the  modus  mvendi  authorized  shall  not  be 
arranged,  and  effective  regulations  for  the  preservation  of  the  seal 
herd  put  into  operation  for  this  year's  sealing  season,  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury  shall  be  authorized,  with  the  approval  of  the  president, 
"to  take  and  kill  each  and  every  fur  seal,  male  and  female,  as  it  may 
be  found  on  the  Pribilof  islands."  That  is,  the  United  States  must 
destroy  its  seal  herd  in  order  to  prevent  Canadian  poachers  from  steal- 
ing it. 

The  Question  of  Damages. — Up  to  the  present 
time,  through  the  refusal  of  congress  to  take  positive  action, 
the  efforts  of  the  British  ambassador.  Sir  Julian  Paunce- 
fote,  and  the  American  secretary  of  state,  Mr.  Gresham, 
to  reach  a  final  settlement  of  the  question  of  damages  to 


•76  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIR^.  ist  Qr.,  1895. 

be  paid  for  illegal  seizures  of  British  vessels  in  Bering  sea 
prior  to  the  conclusion  of  a  modus  vivendi,  have  been  un- 
availing. 

On  June  1,  1894,  Sir  Julian  Pauncefote  transmitted  to 
Secretary  Gresham  what  he  described  as  a  ^^  complete  list 
and  summary  ^^  of  the  British  claims,  amounting  to  $542,- 
169,  suggesting  at  the  same  time  that  each  country  should 
appoint  a  "duly  qualified  commissioner^^  to  examine  into 
the  same  with  a  view  to  negotiating  for  final  adjustment. 
On  August  21,  1894,  the  secretary  of  state  wrote  to  the 
British  ambassador  that  the  president  had  concluded  that 
it  might  be  '^practicable  as  well  as  advantageous  to  effect 
a  direct  settlement  of  the  claims  by  the  payment  of  a  lump 
sum  in  full  satisfaction  of  all  demands;""  and  he  proposed 
the  sum  of  $425,000,  subject,  of  course,  to  the  action  of 
congress  in  the  matter  of  appropriating  that  amount.  Sir 
Julian  Pauncefote  replied  at  once,  accepting  the  compro- 
mise suggested.  President  Cleveland,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, in  his  last  annual  message  to  congress,  recom- 
mended the  payment  of  the  above  sum  of  $425,000;  and 
on  February  22,  1895,  an  amendment  providing  for  the 
same  was  offered  to  the  General  Deficiency  Appropriation 
bill  by  the  committee  on  appropriations.  On  February 
25  this  amendment  passed  in  committee  of  the  whole 
house  by  a  vote  of  94  to  86.  The  opponents  of  the  amend- 
ment, however,  led  by  Messrs.  Cannon  &  Hitt  of  Illinois, 
immediately  brought  it  up  in  the  house,  when  it  was  re- 
jected by  143  nays  to  112  yeas. 

The  objections  were  based  mainly  upon  the  doubtful 
nationality  of  the  claimants,  a  majority  being  alleged  to 
be  American  subjects,  and  upon  the  large  proportion  of 
estimated  or  '^ consequential""  damages  in  the  total  amount 
claimed.  That  total,  $542,169,  consisted  of  various  items 
on  account  of  the  value  of  vessels  seized  and  condemned 
from  1886  to  1890  inclusive — value  of  outfit,  insurance, 
legal  expenses,  etc.  But  in  addition  there  was  in  every 
case  a  claim  on  account  of  the  *' estimated  catch  of  seals,"" 
that  is,  the  number  which  it  was  estimated  might  have 
been  caught  during  the  season  if  it  had  not  been  for  the 
capture  of  the  sealing  vessel.  The  total  of  these  **  esti- 
mated ""  claims  is  variously  put  at  from  $320,000  to  $375,- 
000.  It  is,  however,  an  established  fact  that  during  the 
course  of  argument  before  the  Paris  tribunal,  both  sides 
agreed  to  withdraw  all  claims  on  account  of  prospective 
earnings  or  consequential  damages  under  Article  5  of  the 
modus  Vivendi  of  1892  (Vol.  2,  p.  122). 


THB  BERING  SEA  QUESTION.  77 

After  the  defeat  of  the  above  amendment  in  the  house, 
an  effort  was  made  to  engraft  it  upon  the  General  Deficiency 
bill  in  the  senate;  but  it  was  defeated  through  the  objec- 
tions of  Senator  Morgan  of  Alabama,  chairman  of  the 
senate  committee  on  foreign  relations.  After  indicating 
the  reasons  for  believing  that  ten  of  the  eighteen  vessels 
concerned  in  the  claims  submitted  by  Great  Britain  were 
owned  by  United  States  citizens,  Mr.  Morgan  summed  up 
the  general  situation  as  follows; 

Total  amount  claimed  by  Great  Britain  $542,169.42;  total  amount 
of  claims  of  United  States  citizens  presented,  $359,853.89;  balance 
resulting,  being  amount  claimed  by  British  owners,  $182,315.53. 
But  of  this  amount  claimed  by  British  subjects,  speculative  damages 
are  included  to  the  amount  of  $111,391,  thus  leaving  the  amount 
claimed  by  British  subjects,  less  speculative  damages,  $70,924.53, 
the  total  amount,  which  could  possibly  be  recovered.  But  even  this 
sum,  which  is  $471,244  less  than  the  British  claim  presented,  and 
$354,075  less  than  the  amount  the  secretary  of  state  proposes  to  give 
in  settlement,  is  undoubtedly  excessive.  Of  that  amount  $34,636  is 
for  "  personal  claims,"  and  in  all  probability  some  of  these  claimants 
are  citizens  of  the  United  States  or  some  other  country,  which  fact 
could  be  established  by  investigation.  Deducting  the  "personal 
claims"  from  $70,924,  there  is  left,  as  Mr.  Morgan  says,  $36,289.  Of 
this  sum  $16,560  appears  as  the  claim  of  the  Henrietta  (less  specula- 
tive damages).  The  Henrietta  was  seized  in  Bering  sea  in  September, 
1892,  under  the  provisions  of  the  modus  Vivendi,  and  therefore  no 
claim  is  allowable. 

Senator  Morgan  therefore  concludes  that  Great  Britain  claims  the 
sum  of  $542,169,  and  that  the  amount  due  with  interest  is  only  $96,- 
102,  making  an  excess  in  the  claims  without  interest  over  the  amount 
due  with  interest  of  $446,066.  The  secretary  of  state  proposed  to 
allow  $425,000,  which  is  by  this  account,  according  to  Senator 
Morgan's  figures,  $328,897  in  excess  of  the  total  amount  due  British 
subjects  with  the  interest  computed. 

On  March  1  Senator  Morgan  offered  a  resolution  au- 
thorizing the  committee  of  which  he  is  chairman  to  in- 
vestigate the  whole  question  of  the  alleged  damages.  Mr. 
Cockrell  of  Missouri  sought  to  secure  an  appropriation  of 
$50,000  for  an  international  commission  of  arbitration  to 
sit  during  the  interval  between  the  outgoing  and  the  in- 
coming session  of  congress;  and  Mr.  Sherman  of  Ohio 
offered  a  substitute  appropriating  $425,000,  the  full 
amount  suggested  as  a  satisfaction  of  the  British  claims. 

All  proposals,  however,  fell  through,  and  congress 
adjourned  without  recording  any  positive  enactment  in 
the  matter.  This  leaves  the  question  of  damages  to  be 
settled  by  further  diplomatic  negotiation,  and  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  British  claims  will  be  augmented  by  an 
additional  bill  of  damages  for  the  wrongful  imprisonment 
ot  persons  on  board  the  seized  vessels.      At  the  end  of 


78  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

March  preliminaries  are  being  arranged  for  the  negotiation 
of  a  new  treaty,  the  purpose  of  which  will  be  to  create  a 
commission  to  hear  evidence  in  support  of  claims  and  ad- 
judicate the  indemnity  to  be  paid.  This  convention, 
when  signed,  will  have  to  be  submitted  to  the  United 
States  senate  for  ratification  at  a  future  session. 

THE  BLUEFIELDS  INCIDENT. 

President  Cleveland  in  the  middle  of  January  sub- 
mitted to  the  senate  the  correspondence  of  the  state  de- 
partment with  the  British  foreign  office  regarding  the 
occurrences  at  Bluefields.  In  a  letter  accompanying  the 
documents,  Secretary  of  State  Gresham  conveyed  the  im- 
portant intelligence  that  Great  Britain  had  given  the 
United  States  government  *^most  positive  assurances" 
that  she  asserted  *^no  right  of  sovereignty  or  protection 
over  the  Mosquito  territory,"  but  on  the  contrary  re- 
spected the  *^full  and  paramount  sovereignty  of  Nica- 
ragua." On  March  19  a  peremptory  demand  was  made  on 
Nicaragua  through  her  minister  to  England,  by  the 
British  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  the  Earl  of  Kimber- 
ley,  for  reparation  for  the  insult  offered  to  Great  Britain 
in  August,  1894,  when  her  consular  agent,  Mr.  Hatch, 
was  expelled  from  Bluefields  (Vol.  4,  p.  554).  A  copy  of 
the  ultimatum  was  received  in  Washington  March  26,  and 
was  published  in  the  newspapers.  It  is  a  lengthy  docu- 
ment, but  its  substance  and  intent  may  be  stated  briefly,  as 
follows: 

Lord  Kimberley  acknowledges  receipt  from  the  Nica- 
raguan  envoy,  Seflor  Barrios,  of  voluminous  documents  pre- 
sented in  justification  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Nicaraguan 
government  at  Bluefields — arrest,  imprisonment,  and  expul- 
sion of  Vice-Consul  Hatch  and  other  British  subjects. 
That  Mr.  Hatch  was  not  "strictly  speaking"  an  officer  in 
the  British  consular  service  is  admitted;  but  the  Nica- 
raguan authorities  in  the  Mosquito  territory  had  corre- 
sponded with  him  and  made  use  of  his  services  *'in  a  con- 
sular capacity."  Ordinary  courtesy  demanded  that  they 
should  have  communicated  with  the  British  government 
before  resorting  to  the  arrest  of  that  gentleman.  The 
Nicaraguan  government  having  submitted  proofs  of  the 
agency  of  Mr.  Hatch  and  other  British  subjects  in  bring- 
ing about  the  race  troubles  at  Bluefields,  Lord  Kimberley 
cites  counter-testimony  to  acquit  them  of  that  charge, 
and  to  show  that,  on  the  contrary,  they  had  always  studied 


THE  BLUEFIELDS  INCIDENT.  79 

to  maintain  peace.  Lord  Kimberley  defends  the  action  of 
British  subjects  in  upholding  for  a  "short  time  the  govern- 
ment of  Chief  Clarence: 

••  After  the  police  riots  of  the  5th  of  July  *  *  *  the  town  of 
Bluefields  was  without  organized  government  until  the  Mosquito 
chief,  at  the  request  of  merchants  and  others,  issued  a  proclamation 
that  he  had  reassumed  his  former  position.  The  Nicaraguan  com- 
missioner was  without  power  to  maintain  order  or  the  authority  of 
Nicaragua,  and  took  the  first  opportunity  to  withdraw  his  soldiers  to 
a  place  of  safety.  In  these  circumstances  certain  British  subjects,  at 
the  request  of  the  Mosquito  chief,  reassumed  the  functions  which 
they  had  formerly  exercised.  *  *  *  If  a  government  of  some 
sort  had  not  been  constituted,  a  state  of  anarchy  would  undoubtedly 
have  ensued." 

With  regard  to  the  conduct  of  Mr.  Hatch,  while  Gen- 
eral Cabezas,  in  his  report  to  the  Nicaraguan  government, 
declares  it  to  have  been  "  the  grossest  mockery  of  truth 
and  Nicaragua,^'  the  British  foreign  secretary  holds  it  to 
have  been  "perfectly  correct  during  the  time  that  he 
acted  as  British  pro-consul.''  The  whole  series  of  Nica- 
ragua's complaints  against  Hatch  and  the  other  British 
subjects  is  reviewed  with  a  like  result — what  Nicaragua 
condemns  the  minister  heartily  approves.  Having  thus 
disposed  of  the  charges  against  Mr.  Hatch  and  his  fellow 
sufferers.  Lord  Kimberley  judges  it  not  necessary  specially 
to  notice  the  rest  of  the  documents.  He  will  only  re- 
quest of  General  Barrios  that  he  will  without  delay  inform 
the  Nicaraguan  government  that  the  government  of  Her 
Britannic  Majesty 

"cannot  admit  that  any  adequate  or  reliable  evidence  has  been  pro- 
duced to  justify  the  arbitrary  and  violent  action  taken  against  those 
British  subjects." 

British  Ultimatum  to  Nicaragua. — The  case  for 
Nicaragua  thus  put  out  of  the  way,  Lord  Kimberley 
straightway  told  the  envoy  that  the  Nicaraguan  govern- 
ment must  "pay  the  sum  of  £15,000  on  account  of  their 
action  in  arresting,  imprisoning,  and  expelling  those 
British  subjects;  further,  must  cancel  unconditionally  the 
decrees  of  exile  issued  against  them;  and  agree  to  the  con- 
stitution of  a  commission  to  assess  the  losses  sustained  by 
them  in  their  property  or  goods."  The  commission  is  to 
be  composed  of  a  British  representative,  a  Nicaraguan 
representative,  and  a  jurist,  not  a  citizen  of  any  American 
state,  to  be  selected  by  agreement  between  the  Nicaraguan 
and  British  governments,  and  failing  that,  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Swiss  republic.  The  findings  of  the  commis- 
sion are  to  be  by  a  majority,  and  the  award  is  to  be  final 


80  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  Ist  Qr.,  1805. 

and  ''to  be  paid  within  three  months  of  the  conclusion 
of  their  labors." 

And  as  the  day  of  settlement  with  Nicaragua  was 
come.  Lord  Kimberley  pressed  for  satisfaction  of  the 
claims  of  other  British  subjects  for  damages.  Besides  the 
British  subjects  so  ill-used  at  Bluefields,  there  are  other 
British  subjects  who  have  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Nicaragua,  to  wit,  Arthur  E.  Sykes  of  Sheftield, 
England,  who,  while  serving  as  engineer  of  a  steamboat, ''was 
forced  at  the  pgint  of  the  bayonet  by  Nicaraguan  soldiers  to 
get  up  steam  and  take  a  party  of  them  down  the  river  to  Blue- 
fields  Bluff,"  where,  however,  the  engineer  was  rescued  out 
of  the  hands  of  his  taskmasters  by  the  captain  of  the 
United  States  ship  Marblehead.  Then  there  is  Joshua  E. 
Gale,  a  Jamaican  and  a  British  subject,  who  was  beaten 
with  the  flat  of  a  sword  for  refusing  to  perform  military 
service,  and  was  then  made  to  serve.  Likewise,  there  is 
the  further  instance  of  the  unwarrantable  seizure  of  the 
British  schooner  Angella  by  the  governor  of  Corn  Island, 
and  the  detention  of  her  owner  and  crew.  "For  these 
outrages  Her  Majesty's  government  must  also  have  satis- 
faction, and  they  require  that  the  sum  of  £600  be  paid  as 
indemnity." 

On  the  publication  of  the  ultimatum  in  fragmentary 
form  in  this  country,  the  exclusion  of  citizens  of  "any 
American  state"  from  the  commission  was  so  worded  as  to 
exclude  specifically  "any  citizen  of  the  United  States." 
But  the  government  at  Washington,  on  receipt  of  the 
complete  text,  still  resented  the  exclusion  of  American 
citizens,  even  though  they  shared  the  disability  with  citi- 
zens of  the  rest  of  the  American  repu  blics.  The  phrase 
"not  a  citizen  of  any  American  state"  was  interpreted  to 
be  a  declaration  by  England  that  she  was  indisposed  to 
recognize  any  force  in  the  Monroe  doctrine.  On  this  view 
of  the  matter  being  brought  to  the  notice  of  Lord 
Kimberley,  he,  through  one  of  his  under-secretaries,  dis- 
avowed any  intention  of  casting  a  reflection  on  the  United 
States;  and  over-sensitive  Americans  are  requested  to  read 
into  the  phrase  "any  American  state"  the  meaning  "any 
of  the  smaller  republics  of  Central  and  South  America." 
This  explanation  is  put  forward  in  all  seriousness,  and, 
while  it  is  admitted  that  "technically  and  literally"  the 
United  States  is  one  of  the  "American  states,"  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  the  British  foreign  office  never  classifies  the 
government  and  people  of  the  United  States  with  those 
other    governments  and   peoples.      When   the  phrase   is 


THE  EUROPEAN  SITUATION'.  81 

viewed  in  this  light,  ''a  clearer  understanding/'  we  are 
asked  to  believe,  ''is  given  to  the  denial  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain  that  any  reflection  upon  the  United  States 
was  intended." 

Many  persons  who  are  not  diplomats  continue  to 
understand  the  phrase  in  its  '* literal  and  technical 
sense/'  A  leading  official  (unnamed)  at  Washington  re- 
gards Great  Britain's  exclusion  of  the  United  States — for 
that  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the  phrase — from  participa- 
tion in  the  proposed  arbitration  as  ^'a  distinct  and  ex- 
plicit recognition  of  the  identity  of  interests  of  the  United 
States  and  Nicaragua,  and  of  the  influence  of  the  United 
States  on  this  continent,  as  well  as  a  confession  of  Great 
Britain's  weakness  among  American  republics.'"  He  con- 
tinues: 

It  is  a  statement  in  black  and  white  tbat  England  fears  the  in- 
fluence of  the  United  States  over  Central  and  South  American  gov- 
ernments and  their  inhabitants.  It  shows  that  England  knows  that 
the  citizens  of  the  American  continent,  regardless  of  mere  political 
boundaries,  would  not  be  apt  to  recognize  any  claim  England  might 
make  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and  particularly  at  the  entrance  of 
a  possible  waterway  which  is  relied  upon  more  closely  to  connect  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  of  this  country.  The  refusal  to  permit  any 
man  in  America  to  have  the  casting  vote  of  a  j  udicial  tribunal  in- 
volving only  the  small  question  of  damages  to  a  few  mischief-mak- 
ing advisers  of  a  miserable  tribe  of  half-breed  Indians,  long  used  to 
support  an  obscure  British  pretension  to  protectorate  rights,  but 
whose  tribal  relations  have  now  been  irrevocably  dissolved,  is  too 
transparent.  It  is  a  clear  statement  that  Great  Britain  considers 
that  our  national  relations  with  Nicaragua  differ  only  constructively 
and  in  degree  alone  from  our  relations  with  one  of  our  states,  and 
that  in  her  dealings  with  the  little  republic  she  could  no  more  than 
expect  us  to  feel  the  deepest  concern. 

I  may  be  wrong  in  my  anticipations,  but  I  believe  if  the  United 
States  should  demand  an  explanation  from  Great  Britain  of  those 
seven  words  in  its  ultimatum  excluding  American  citizens,  the  reply 
would  be  that  Great  Britain  desired  to  have  a  thoroughly  impartial 
tribunal,  and  that  the  question  at  issue  was  one  distinctly  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  American  republics. 

THE  EUROPEAN  SITUATION. 

There  have  been  but  few  incidents  during  the  opening 
months  of  1895  which  have  aroused  anxious  speculation 
as  to  the  political  future  on  the  continent.  But  in  spite 
of  the  outwardly  tranquil  aspect  of  affairs,  it  has  long  been 
pretty  well  understood  that  beneath  the  surface  there  lurk 
volcanic  fires  which  will  inevitably  some  day  find  a  vent, 
involving  possibly  the  whole  of  Europe  in  their  destruc- 
tive outburst.  Notwithstanding  the  enormity  of  the  bur- 
dens imposed  upon  the  continental  powers  by  their  vast 

Vol.  5.-6. 


82 


INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


and  expensive  military  systems,  the  preparation  for  war 
is  to-day,  as  much  as  at  any  time  since  the  close  of  the 
late  war  between  France  and  Germany,  the  first  preoccu- 
pation of  statesmen.  In  this  connection  unusual  interest 
attaches  to  the  statements  recently  made  by  M.  Jules 
Roche  in  a  speech  delivered  in  the  French  chamber.  He 
declared  that  after  all  her  sacrifices — which  none  but  a 
power  as  wealthy  as  she  could  have  borne — France  was 
still  unprepared  for  war.  Her  perennial  enemy,  Germany, 
was  far  stronger  than  she;  and  at  the  very  outset  of  the 
war — a  period  when  ultimate  issues  are  often,  if  not 
usually,  decided — France,  with  enemies  on  at  least  two 
frontiers,  would  find  herself  fully  150,000  men  short,  and 
might  sustain  terrible,  even  fatal,  calamities  before  her 
generals  could  avail  themselves  of  her  full  resources. 

European  Military  Systems.— As  bearing  upon 
this  problem  of  the  preservation  of  peace  through  elab- 
orate preparations  for  war,  the  following  figures,  recently 
compiled  by  Lieutenant- Colonel  Wm,  Ludlow,  United 
States  military  attache  at  London,  Eng.,  are  worthy  of 
preservation.  They  show  the  area,  population,  and  mili- 
tary strength  of  the  six  leading  European  states,  with  cor- 
responding data  for  the  United  States,  for  comparison: 

EUROPEAN  MILITARY  SYSTEMS. 

Military    Strength. 


Germany 

France 

Austria-Hungary 

Italy  

Russia  in  Europe  

Great  Britain 

United  States  of  America 


Area,  sq.  m. 

Population. 

Peace. 

208,738 

50,000,000 

584,.548 

204,092 

39,000,000 

523.755 

261,649 

43.500,000 

299,150 

110,623 

31.500,000 

247,228 

2,095,000 

110.000,000 

977,500 

120,973 

40,000,000 

*220,509 

3,581,000 

65,000,000 

j       25,000 
1     112,000l 

War. 


2,700,000 
2,715,570 
1.590,820 
1.909,000 
2,722,400 
700,000 
Regulars. 
Militia. 


Germany  lays  out  about  $160,000,000  annually  on  the 
army  and  navy — considerably  over  one-third  of  her  rev- 
enue. France,  a  much  richer  country,  but  burdened  with 
an  unprecedentedly  huge  load  of  debt,  pays  1180,000,000; 
and  Italy,  already  over-burdened  with  public  obligations, 
pays  $80,000,000,  Austria-Hungary  doing  about  the  same. 
Great  Britain  has  larger  resources  than  any  of  these,  and 
is  relatively  independent  of  territorial  complications;  yet 
the  necessity  of  maintaining  her  hold  on  the  route  to  In- 
dia and  the  command  of  the  sea  for  the  protection  of  her 
commerce,  compels  her  to  expend  annually  upon  her  army 
and  navy  $160,000,000 — about  one-third  of  her  gross  rev- 

*The  British  peace  strength  includes  76,721  in  India. 


I 


THE  EUROPEAN  SITUATION.  83 

enne.  In  the  British  service,  however,  there  is  no  univer- 
sal drafting  or  enforced  service.  The  English  regiments 
are  maintained  by  voluntary  enlistments,  and  the  English 
army  is  practically  the  training  school  and  recruiting 
depot  for  the  British  army  in  India,  to  which  drafts  are 
sent  each  year,  and  where  about  77,000  men  are  kept  in 
active  service,  besides  the  native  contingents  numbering 
140,000. 

In  estimating  the  total  cost  of  European  armaments, 
there  should  be  considered  the  incidental  cost  represented 
by  the  withdrawal  from  economic  productive  occupation 
of  these  vast  armies  of  200,000  to  1,000,000  men  during 
the  period  of  their  greatest  activity  and  productive  power, 
which  element,  when  added,  would  probably  bring  the 
ultimate  cost  up  to  three  times  the  annual  expenditure. 
But  this  is  partially  offset  by  the  cost  of  such  additional 
police  organization  as  would  otherwise  be  necessary  for  the 
proper  maintenance  of  internal  order  and  stability  in  the 
respective  states. 

Alsace-Lorraine. — An  incident  significant  of  the 
peaceful  intentions  of  the  German  people  in  spite  of  their 
continued  increase  of  military  strength,  is  seen  in  the 
adoption,  in  February,  by  the  Reichstag,  of  a  resolution 
abolishing  the  dictatorship  over  Alsace-Lorraine,  which 
has  lasted  twenty-four  years.  Since  the  close  of  the  war 
with  France,  Germany  had  ruled  the  conquered  provinces 
regardless  of  the  wishes  of  their  inhabitants.  The  schools, 
the  courts,  and  even  the  churches,  were  under  the  control 
of  the  Germans,  and  their  exercise  of  authority  was  cal- 
culated to  crush  out  all  French  sentiment  among  the 
people.  Now,  however,  the  Eeichstag  has  voted  to  give 
the  Alsatians  the  right  to  a  certain  degree  of  self-govern- 
ment. The  imperial  government  opposed  the  resolution; 
but  it  was  carried  by  a  coalition  of  the  socialists,  ultra- 
montanes,  and  radicals.  The  Bundesrath  has  still  to  act 
upon  the  proposal,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  upper 
house  will  reject  it. 

The  Eastern  Question. — The  most  serious  feature 
of  the  European  situation  just  at  present  is  found  in  the 
agitation  in  Macedonia,  which  is  said  to  portend  an  upris- 
ing of  the  Christians  there  against  the  domination  of 
Turkey,  and  is  closely  connected  with  the  attitude  of  the 
Sublime  Porte  toward  the  Christians  in  Armenia,  and  its 
failure  to  institute  in  Macedonia  the  administrative  re- 
forms promised  at  the  Berlin  conference.  The  agitation 
is  fostered  by  the  Pan-Slavist  element  in  Servia,  Bulgaria, 


84  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Eou mania,  Montenegro,  and  Greece,  each  of  these  states 
countinjD^  upon  receiving  a  portion  of  the  Ottoman  domin- 
ions in  Europe  in  the  event  of  a  general  imbroglio. 

THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA. 

Franco-Belgian  Kongo  Treaty.— On  February  2  a 
convention  between  Belgium  and  France  was  signed  at 
Paris,  defining  the  right  of  pre-emption  with  regard  to  the 
Kongo  Free  State,  which  France  has  claimed  since  1884. 
Of  this  convention  Savorgnan  de  Brazza,  the  distinguished 
African  explorer,  now  commissary-general  of  the  French 
Kongo  territory,  says: 

"  The  importance  of  the  agreement  depends  principally  on  the 
use  we  make  of  it  in  the  future.  The  agreement  assures  to  France 
access  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  It  is  for  us  now  only  to  follow  per- 
sistently the  road  which  is  open  to  us,  and  to  surmount  the  obstacles 
which  the  powers  interested  may  place  in  our  way." 

Of  the  relation  between  this  convention  and  the  de- 
signs of  France  upon  the  Bahr-el-Ghazel  territory,  M.  de 
Brazza  remarks: 

•'  Access  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile  from  the  south  is  the  only  way 
in  which  we  may  be  enabled  one  day  to  settle  the  Egyptian  question 
in  a  manner  consistent  with,  our  interests.  By  that  means  also  we 
shall  be  able  one  day  successfully  to  oppose  the  progress  of  our  rivals 
in  regard  to  colonization." 

Of  the  possibility  of  joining  the  Kongo  territory  to  the 
Soudan,  he  says: 

"It  is  easy  for  us  to  go  up  as  far  as  Lake  Tchad  and  to  draw 
around  us  the  population  of  Darf  ur,  which  is  at  present  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Mohammedan  proselytism.  All  we  have  to  do  is  to  learn 
how  to  attract  the  sympathies  of  this  Mohammedan  population,  and 
it  is  this  work  that  I  set  myself  to  do." 

The  Upper  Nile  Region. — The  Royal  Niger  Com- 
pany having  made  complaint  to  the  British  government 
that  two  French  exploring  expeditions,  so-called,  had  in- 
vaded territory  in  the  upper  Nile  valley,  which  is  under 
British  protection,  the  subject  was  first  duly  considered  in 
cabinet  meeting;  and  on  March  28  Sir  Edward  Grey,  par- 
liamentary secretary  of  the  foreign  office,  explained  the 
situation  in  a  carefully  prepared  speech  to  the  house  of 
commons. 

Great  Britain,  he  said,  stood  in  such  a  position  of  trust  in  Egypt 
as  to  make  the  British  and  Egyptian  "  spheres  of  influence"  cover  the 
entire  Nile  waterway.  It  was  a  thing  incredible  that  a  French  expe- 
dition should  have  been  sent  by  official  authority  to  the  Nile  country 
to  occupy  the  valley  of  the  river.  The  foreign  office  did  not  suppose 
that  a  French  expedition  had  ever  received  such  orders. 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA.  85 

So  far  Sir  Edward  Grey  used  the  language  of  diplo- 
macy. But  then  he  spoke  words  which  on  all  sides  were 
understood  to  menace  war,  should  it  appear  that  France 
had  done  the  thing  which  the  foreign  office  could  not  be- 
lieve that  she  had  done. 

"The  advance  of  a  French  expedition  under  secret  orders  from 
the  west  side  of  Africa  into  territory  subject  to  British  claims  whose 
rightfulness  had  been  so  long  known,  would  be  not  only  an  incon- 
sistent and  unexpected  act,  but  also  an  unfriendly  one,  and  would  be 
regarded  as  such  by  the  (British)  government." 

Mr.  Labouchere,  radical  leader,  having  declared  the 
speech  to  be  a  menace  to  France,  Sir  Edward  Grey  denied 
that  his  words  ^'implied  in  any  way  a  menace  to  France.^' 

A  "  leading  French  statesman  "  is  quoted  in  the  Lon- 
don Times  as  expressing  the  French  view  of  the  situation 
in  these  words: 

"We  are  not  in  a  position,  so  long  as  our  present  condition  in 
Eur(  p  ^  lasts,  to  quarrel  with  England;  but  she  must  not  make  it  too 
unpleasant  for  us,  nor  must  she  wound  our  self-love,  or  we  shall 
cease  to  be  prudent." 

Says  the  Paris  Temj)s: 

"  France  will  endeavor  to  preserve  her  equanimity,  though  rec- 
ognizing the  moment  as  grave  and  the  problem  as  difficult  in  the 
matter  of  the  points  of  difference  regarding  Great  Britain's  declara- 
tion that  the  upper  Nile  is  Egyptian  territory  and  therefore  within 
the  British  sphere  " 

According  to  the  Figaro,  Sir  Edward  Grey's  statement 
was  *'  imprudent,"  and  "it  was  simply  raving  on  his  part 
to  accuse  France  of  bad  faith,  while  his  menace  is  merely 
tomfoolery.'' 

The  contention  between  the  two  governments  is  the  re- 
sult of  their  conflicting  interests  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazel  re- 
gion on  the  west  bank  of  the  upper  Nile.  The  region  is  a 
part  of  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  lost  to  Egypt  in  the  Mahdi 
rebellion.  The  territory  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile  is 
claimed  by  England  as  part  of  her  East  Africa  province; 
north  of  latitude  10°  north,  England  claims  both  sides  of 
the  Nile.  Hence  the  territory  in  dispute  lies  between  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Kongo  state  and  latitude  10° 
north,  and  between  the  Nile  and  longitude  25°  east,  there 
touching  the  French  Kongo  territory.  France  has  never 
recognized  the  validity  of  the  British  claims. 

Swaziland.— The  formal  transfer  to  the  Transvaal 
republic  of  the  government  of  Swaziland  (Vol.  4,  p.  796) 
was  proclaimed  February  19.  From  that  date  the  repub- 
lic assumes  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  Swaziland. 
For  the  present  the  existing  laws,  customs,  and  courts  are 


86  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

not  to  be  altered.  Mr.  T.  Krogh,  who  was  the  Transvaal 
representative  on  the  joint  committee  of  administration 
while  the  country  was  under  the  dual  control  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  republic,  becomes  administrator  or  gov- 
ernor. On  the  part  of  the  Swazis,  their  two  queens  have 
resigned  their  claims  and  pretensions  in  favor  of  the  young 
king.  By  the  terms  of  the  convention  between  the  Trans- 
vaal and  the  British  government,  the  king  remains  para- 
mount chief  of  the  Swazis  in  Swaziland.  Under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  convention,  all  white  men  in  the  country  are 
entitled  to  all  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  citizens  of  the 
South  African  republic,  including  the  electoral  franchise. 
Equal  rights  are  accorded  to  the  Dutch  and  English  lan- 
guages; and  it  is  provided  that  no  customs  duties  higher 
than  those  of  the  present  tariff  in  the  Transvaal  or  in  the 
South  African  Customs  Union  shall  be  imposed  on  im- 
ported articles.  The  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  to  na- 
tives is  prohibited. 

The  Italian  Sphere. — On  January  13  an  "over- 
whelming force ''  of  dervishes  surrounded  Kassala,  where 
the  Italian  garrison  numbered  1,500  men.  The  Itali- 
ans made  a  sortie,  but  were  repulsed  and  driven  to  seek 
shelter  behind  their  works.  The  commander-in-chief. 
General  Baratieri,  having  been  advised  of  the  situation, 
collected  all  available  troops  and  started  immediately  from 
Keren  to  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered  garrison.  On  the 
15th  he  telegraphed  to  Rome  that  on  the  preceding  day  he 
had  made  an  attack  on  the  Abyssinians  under  Ras  Man- 
gascia,  and  after  severe  fighting  had  routed  the  besieging 
army.  The  numerical  strength  of  the  Abyssinians  he  gives 
as  10,000  men,  while  the  Italians,  with  their  native  allies, 
numbered  4,000.  The  next  day  Ras  Mangascia  returned  to 
the  attack,  concentrating  his  efforts  on  the  Italian  flank.  A 
reinforcement  of  3,000  men  under  General  Arimonde  com- 
ing in  sight  at  the  same  moment,  the  Abyssinians  fled  in 
disorder.  The  Italians  pursued  the  fleeing  enemy,  inflict- 
ing on  them  a  loss  of  hundreds  of  men  killed  and  wounded, 
among  them  seven  chiefs  and  several  sub-chiefs. 

A  dispatch  from  Massowah,  received  at  Rome  February 
25,  states  that  an  expedition  sent  by  King  Menelek  against 
the  Galla  tribes  in  south  Abyssinia  killed  7,000  Gallas 
and  took  15,000  prisoners. 

Madagascar. — The  French  expeditionary  force  of  15,- 
000  men  under  command  of  General  Duchesne  for  opera- 
tions in  Madagascar,  was  nearly  ready  at  the  end  of  March 
to  take  passage  at  Toulon  and  Marseilles  for  Majunga,  the 


THE  VENEZUELAN  IMBROGLIO.  87 

northwestern  port  of  the  island.  The  force  consists  of  in- 
fantry, artillery,  cavalry,  and  especially  marine  infantry. 
It  was  expected  to  reach  Majunga  before  the  end  of  April. 

In  the  meantime  there  were  a  few  collisions  between  the 
Hovas  and  the  French  in  Madagascar.  A  correspondent 
of  the  Berlin  Tageblatt  at  the  end  of  March  reported  that 
the  Hovas  had  driven  the  French  merchants  from  Maron- 
dava,  and  that  the  French  squadron,  co-operating  with  the 
troops,  had  captured  Marovoay,  Lispisca,  Mahambo,  and 
Betaiboca;  also  that  a  rumor  was  current  of  the  capture  of 
Fort  Dauphin  by  the  French. 

A  telegram  of  March  20  from  Tamatave  via  Port  Louis 
reported  the  conviction  of  John  L.  Waller,  formerly  United 
States  consul,  by  a  French  court-martial,  on  charge  of  con- 
spiracy with  the  Hovas  against  the  French  authorities,  and 
his  being  condemned  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment.  As 
late  as  March  27  the  department  of  state  at  Washington 
was  without  official  information  of  Mr.  Waller^s  case.  The 
ex-consul  may  have  relinquished  his  American  citizenship 
when  he  entered  the  service  of  the  native  government. 

THE  VENEZUELAN  IMBROGLIO. 

It  is  rarely  that  international  complications  involving 
the  interests  of  the  United  States  and  at  first  glance  hav- 
ing the  appearance  of  conflict  with  the  long-accepted  prin- 
ciples of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  have  been  so  numerous  as 
they  are  at  the  close  of  the  present  quarter.  The  affair 
with  Spain,  due  to  the  firing  of  a  Spanish  gunboat  upon 
the  American  steamer  AUianQa,  has  already  been  described 
(p.  57),  as  has  also  the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  the 
demand  made  by  Great  Britain  upon  Nicaragua  for  indem- 
nity for  injuries  to  her  consular  representative  and  to 
British  citizens  and  property  (See  article  ''The  Bluefields 
Incident,'^  p.  78).  Grave  enough,  also,  are  the  rumors 
that  England  contemplates  taking  vigorous  steps  against 
Guatemala  to  enforce  the  payment  of  interest  on  Guate- 
malan bonds,  which  are  largely  held  in  England,  and  on 
which  the  government  of  the  republic  has  stopped  pay- 
ment, and  that  Germany  contemplates  similar  action 
against  Venezuela  to  exact  payment  of  the  seven  per  cent 
unpaid  guarantee  on  the  construction  of  the  Central 
Venezuelan  railway. 

British  Guiana  Boundary  Dispute.— But  far  graver 
than  any  of  the  above  are  the  issues  arising  out  of  the  long- 
standing dispute  between  Venezuela  and  Great  Britain  over 


88  INTERN ATIOJCaL  affairs.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

their  respective  boundaries  in  the  region  of  the  Orinoco 
delta.  The  territory  in  dispute  includes  the  Yuruary  val- 
ley, in  which  gold  mines  of  great  richness  have  recently 
been  discovered,  and  the  possession  of  which  would  go  far 
to  put  Great  Britain  in  control  of  the  navigable  outlet  of 
the  Orinoco,  the  key  to  the  commerce  of  one-quarter  of 
the  entire  South  American  continent,  and  would  tend  to 
introduce  radical  changes  in  the  commercial  and  political 
relations  of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  Brazil. 

Along  the  northeast  coast  of  South  America,  between 
the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon,  lies  the  ter- 
ritory known  prior  to  1810  as  the  Guayanas.  In  that  year 
a  large  portion  of  the  territory  became  the  possession  of 
Venezuela,  as  the  successor  in  title  of  Spain.  Another 
portion  of  the  Guayanas  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by 
Holland  in  1814.  No  treaty  had  ever  definitely  fixed  the 
boundary  between  the  Spanish  and  Dutch  possessions,  and 
it  was  not  long  before  a  boundary  dispute  arose,  which  all 
efforts  to  settle  have,  up  to  the  present  time,  proved  un- 
availing. In  1887  the  dispute  reached  such  a  point  that 
diplomatic  relations  between  England  and  Venezuela  were 
broken  off. 

The  claims  of  Venezuela  include  all  territory  west  of 
the  Essequibo  river  and  southward  to  the  border  of  Brazil. 
They  are  supported  by  a  long  array  of  historical  facts, 
summarized  as  follows  by  the  Hon.  William  L.  Scruggs,  ex- 
United  States  minister  to  Venezuela: 

By  the  treaty  of  Milnster,  between  Spain  and  Holland,  of  1648; 
by  official  notes  of  the  Spanish  colonial  government  of  Cumana,  of 
1742;  by  the  Spaoish- Portuguese  treaty  of  1750;  by  the  correspond- 
ence passed  between  the  Spanish  colonial  government  and  the  au- 
thorities of  the  adjacent  Dutch  colony  east  of  the  Essequibo,  in 
1758;  by  the  royal  Spanish  schedules  of  1768;  by  official  records  of 
the  Spanish  cabinet,  1769;  by  official  instructions  from  the  cabinet  at 
Madrid  to  the  Spanish  colonial  authorities  in  Guayana,  1779;  by  the 
order- in-council  issued  by  the  Spanish  cabinet  in  1780;  by  the  official 
reports  of  the  royal  Spanish  colonial  commission  of  1788;  by  the 
treaty  of  Aranjuez,  of  1791,  between  Spain  and  Holland;  by  the  of- 
ficial correspondence  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  of  1794;  by 
the  official  correspondence  of  the  British  diplomatic  agent  in  Caracas, 
in  1836,  acknowledging  Venezuela's  right  of  domain  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  east  of  the  Orinoco  delta;  by  the  formal  acknowledgment,  in 
1841,  by  a  British  law  court  in  Demerara,  of  Venezuela's  undisputed 
jurisdiction  over  the  Moroco  river;  and  by  a  similar  formal  acknowl- 
edgment by  the  authorities  of  British  Guayana  (Guiana)  as  late  as 
1874. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  English  counter- 
claims, also  supported  by  historical  facts: 

That  two  forts  at  a  temporary  character,  called  "New  Zealand" 


THE  VENEZUELAN  IiMBRO(n.lO.  8d 

and  "New  Middleburgh,"  were  erected  by  the  Dutch  on  the  Poma- 
ron  river  (some  leagues  west  of  the  Essequibo)  in  1657,  thereby  show- 
ing that  the  Dutch  laid  claim  to  that  territory;  by  concessions  alleged 
to  have  been  made  to  a  Dutch  company  in  that  vicinity  in  1674;  by 
the  armed  conflict  between  some  Dutch  and  Spanish  colonists  on  the 
Pomaron  river  in  1797,  in  which,  it  is  claimed,  the  Spaniards  were 
defeated  and  driven  away;  and,  finally,  by  some  pretended  treaty  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  Indians  (names  and  dates  not  given), 
whereby  England  engaged  to 
' '  protect"  the  Indians  against 
white  encroachments. 

Prior  to  1840  Great 
Britain  had  not  advanced 
westward  beyond  the 
Pomaron  river.  Late  in 
that  year,  however,  she 
extended  her  occupancy 
in  the  direction  men- 
tioned, and  setupaclaim 
to  the  entire  Atlantic 
coast  as  far  as  the  Ori- 
noco delta;  and  in  1841 
Sir  Robert  Schomburgk, 
her  commissioner,  erect- 
ed the  boundary  now 
known  as  the  Schom- 
burgk line.  Venezuela 
protested  at  once;  and  presently  the  frontier  marks  placed 
by  Schomburgk  at  Barima,  in  the  Orinoco  region,  were  or- 
dered to  be  destroyed.  In  1844  Great  Britain  proposed  a 
boundary  line  beginning  a  little  west  of  the  Pomaron  river. 
In  1881,  we  are  told,  she  again  extended  her  claims  westward 
to  a  line  beginning  twenty-nine  miles  west  of  the  Moroco 
river,  thus  claiming  the  valleys  of  both  the  Pomaron  and  the 
Moroco.  In  1886  she  claimed  territory  to  the  bank  of  the 
Guiana  river.  Again,  in  1890,  she  proposed  a  divisional 
line  beginning  at  the  junction  of  the  Amacuro  and  Orinoco 
rivers,  thus  claiming  practical  control  of  the  Orinoco  delta. 
Finally,  in  1893,  she  proposed  a  conventional  boundary 
line  beginning  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amacuro  and  running 
so  as  to  include  the  upper  waters  of  the  Cumana,  and 
thence  to  the  sierra  of  the  Usupamo. 

The  United  States  has  viewed  the  progress  of  this  dis- 
pute with  some  anxiety,  and  has  frequently  tried  to  effect 
a  settlement  by  arbitration,  tendering  her  good  offices  to 
that  end.  On  February  20,  1895,  the  following  joint  reso- 
lution of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives  was  ap- 
proved: 


GENERAL  JOAQUIN  CRESPO, 
PRESIDENT  OF  VENEZUELA. 


90  INTERNATIONAL  Al  I'AIRS.  1st  Qr.,  1S05. 

Resolved,  Tha*  tlic  president'^  sug^jestion,  made  in  his  last  an- 
nual message  to  this  body^  namelyj  that  Grc::t  Britain  and  Venezuela 
refer  their  dispute  ac  to  boundaries io  friendly  :iybitration,  be  earnestly 
recommended  to  the  i:avcrr.blc  concldorr.tion  of  both  the  parties  in 
interest. 

'x'hc  desire  ezTibodiecl  in  Ghis  resolution  wac  conveyed  to 
Great  Lritaiu  by  Ambassador  Bayard;  but  the  authorities 
at  London  ctil!  refuse^  as  they  have  porsi.':tently  done,  to 
submit  to  the  decision  of  cny  board  of  arbitration  which 
may  call  in  question  the  britirjh  claims  east  of  tho  Schom- 
burgk  line.  Englisli  continent  is  iLiidoubtedly  aroused  by 
various  r^nnoyances  caused  by  the  Venezuelan  forces  to 
British  Guiana  ofiicirJs  in  tho  border  clictricts. 

There  ic:  thus  created  a  cituation  which  has  given  rise, 
in  the  United  States^  to  much  discussion  of  the  Monroe 
doctrine,  and^  in  certain  quarters^  to  not  z  little  jingoism 
— a  spirit^  which,  unless  curbed  by  the  calm  judgment  of 
a  sensible  people,  would  be  almost  constantly  creating  ten- 
sion in  the  foreign  rclcitions  of  thi^  country. 

The  Monroe  doctrine,  long  an  accepted  part  of  the 
public  policy  oi  i^he  United  States^  though  never  formally 
sanctioned  by  congress,  is  based  upon  a  passage  in  Presi- 
dent Monroe's  message  to  congress  of  December  2,  1823. 
Its  limitations  have  been  greatly  misunderstood.  At  that 
time  the  Holy  Alliance,  formed  in  1815  after  Napoleon's 
downfall,  and  based  on  personal  compact  of  tho  sovereigns 
of  Austria^  Russiap  and  Prussia,  was  threatening  to  aid 
Spain  in  recovering  her  revolted  possessions  in  America. 
It  is  recorded  that  the  J^ritish  secretary  for  foreign  affairs, 
Mr.  Canning,  suggested  to  Mr^  Rush,  then  United  States 
minister  to  Englanc!,  that  the  United  States  should  "  take 
decided  ground  against  the  intervention  of  the  Holy  Alli- 
ance in  South  Americao"'  Tho  suggestion  was  approved 
by  President  Monroe  and  Secretary  of  State  J.  Q.  Adams, 
also  by  Mro  Jefferson,  who  was  consultedo  The  ultimate  re- 
sult was  the  incorporation  in  the  president's  message  of  the 
following  passage; 

' '  That  we  should  consider  any  attempt  on  the  part  [of  the  allied 
powers]  to  extend  their  system  to  any  poition  of  this  hemisphere  as 
dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety,"  and  "  that  we  could  not  view  any 
interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppressing  [governments  on  this  side 
of  the  water,  whose  independence  we  had  acknowledged],  or  control- 
ling in  any  manner  their  destiny  by  any  European  power,  in  any  other 
light  than  as  a  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the 
United  States." 

It  shouicl  bo  noted  thr.u  the  kind  of  interference  declared 
against  in  the  above  '-doctrine'^  is  such  as  may  be  made 


THE  VENEZUELAN  IMBROGLIO.  91 

for  controlling   the  political  affairs  of  American  states. 
Said  Mr.  Clay  in  1825: 

"Whilst  we  do  not  desire  to  interfere  in  Europe  with  the  political 
system  of  the  allied  powers,  we  should  regard  as  dangerous  to  our 
peace  and  safety  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system  to 
any  portion  of  this  hemisphere." 

Congress  has  always  refused  to  limits  by  any  formal 
declaration,  its  absolute  freedom  to  act  in  emcrjjcacicr:  as 
it  may  think  best.  The  house  of  representatives  in  1826 
refused  to  agree  to  a  proposed  formal  alliance  with  the  re- 
publics of  South  America,  even  ^'for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  interference  of  any  of  the  European  powers 
with  their  independence  or  form  of  government/''  To  in- 
terpret the  Monroe  doctrine,  as  is  done  in  somo  quarters, 
as  making  it  incumbent  upon  the  United  States  to  engage 
in  a  crusade  against  every  European  government  making 
its  appearance  on  the  western  hemisphere  with  intent  hos- 
tile to  any  one  or  more  of  the  American  republics,  would 
be,  as  Mr.  Calhoun  said  in  the  debatj  on  Polkas  Yucatan 
proposition  of  1848,  to  put  the  United  States  "in  the 
power  of  other  countries  on  this  continent  to  make  us  a 
party  to  all  their  wars,^^  The  dangers  of  foreign  compli- 
cation would  be  indefinitely  multiplied. 

European  Ministers  Expelled. — On  March  7  the 
Marquis  de  Ripert  Monclar  and  M.  H.  Ledvigank,  the 
French  minister  and  Belgian  consul-general  respectively 
at  Caracas,  wore  handed  their  passports,  owing  to  their  at- 
titude on  the  question  of  the  claims  made  by  subjects  of 
their  respective  governments  for  damages  in  the  civil  war 
of  1892,  which  resulted  in  placing  General  Crespo  at  the 
head  of  affairs.  The  document  which  led  to  the  rupture 
was  published  in  an  Italian  green  book  early  in  the  present 
year.  It  dealt  with  the  difficulty  experienced  in  obtaining 
payment  to  foreign  subjects  for  losses  sustained  in  the  war, 
contained  a  number  of  caustic  comments  on  the  adminis- 
trative and  legal  system  prevailing  at  Caracas,  and  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  a  mixed  international  com- 
mission to  sit  at  Caracas  with  power  to  hear  and  determine 
all  claims  brought  by  non-VenezuelanSo  It  was  drawn  up 
by  the  representatives  of  France,  Germany,  Spain,  and 
Belgium.  These  governments  are  said  to  have  treated 
the  reports  without  consideration,  as  being  not  in  accord 
with  diplomatic  usage;  and  the  German  anl  Spanish 
ministers  arc  reported  to  have  taken  their  departure  before 
the  action  of  the  Venezuelan  authorities. 

The  incident,  so  far  as  known,  involves  no  serious  rup- 


dS  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  1st  Qr..  1895. 

ture  between  the  various  governments,  the  action  of  Vene- 
zuela toward  the  expelled  representatives  being  almost  al- 
together of  a  personal  character.  The  Venezuelan  repre- 
sentative at  Paris,  however,  has  in  turn  received  his  pass- 
ports, and  a  French  cruiser  has  been  sent  to  look  after 
French  interests  in  the  republic.  The  Italian  government 
has  proffered  its  services  to  secure  an  amicable  settlement. 

MEXICAN-GUATEMALAN  DISPUTE. 

Among  the  numerous  international  complications  en- 
gaging the  attention  of  diplomatic  and  official  circles  dur- 
ing the  early  months  of  1895,  not  the  least  serious  in  its 
aspects  has  been  that  between  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  a 
brief  reference  to  which  was  made  in  our  last  number 
(Vol.  4,  p.  800).  The  history  of  the  dispute  dates  back 
many  years;  in  fact,  the  question  of  boundary  lines  has 
been  a  cause  of  difficulty  between  the  two  countries  al- 
most ever  since  1824,  when  Guatemala,  which  had  for- 
merly been  for  a  time  the  property  of  Mexico,  became  a 
republic  on  the  fall  of  the  Emperor  Iturbide.  Numerous 
treaties  have  at  different  times  been  negotiated,  aiming  at 
a  settlement  of  the  troubles— in  1832,  1852,  1858,  1873, 
1877,  and  1883. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  present  difficulty  is  found 
in  the  differing  interpretations  which  Mexico  and  Guate- 
mala place  upon  the  treaty  promulgated  in  1883,  the  pre- 
liminaries for  which  were  signed  in  New  York  August 
12,  1882,  by  plenipotentiaries  from  both  countries. 

The  first  article  reads:  "  The  republic  of  Guatemala  renounces 
forever  the  rights  which  it  claims  to  possess  to  the  territory  of  the 
state  of  Chiapas  and  its  department  of  Soconusco,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, regards  such  territory  as  an  integral  part  of  the  united  Mex- 
ican states." 

It  was  also  agreed  that  a  boundary  line  between  the  two  coun- 
tries should  be  fixed  in  a  final  treaty  to  be  signed  at  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico, and  that  the  boundary  between  Chiapas  and  Soconusco  should 
be  the  line  recognized  by  the  inhabitants  of  both  countries.  With  a 
view  to  prevent  one  country  from  occupying  portions  of  the  territory 
belonging  to  the  other,  it  was  stipulated  in  the  preliminaries  that 
actual  possession  should  be  respected  until  the  line  was  agreed  upon. 

Guatemala  contends  that  the  above  stipulations  meant 
that  each  country  should  remain  in  possession  of  the  ter- 
ritory which  she  held  before.  Mexico,  however,  points 
out  that  Article  6  of  the  treaty  expressly  declared  that 
each  country' should  enter  into  possession  of  the  newly  ac- 
quired territory  within  six  months  from  the  first  meeting 


MEXICAN-GUATEMALAN  DISPUTE.  93 

of  the  boundary  commission,  which  each  was  to  appoint 
to  make  a  survey;  and  that  meeting  took  place  on  Novem- 
ber 1,  1883.  In  accordance  with  Mexico's  understanding 
of  this  stipulation,  that  government  long  ago  transferred 
to  Guatemala  Ayutla  and  towns,  farms,  and  settlements 
which  were  within  her  territorial  limits  before  the  line 
was  agreed  upon  in  the  treaty  and  which  passed  to  Guate- 
mala under  the  same.  These  are  now  in  possession  of 
Guatemala.  A  protocol  was  signed  in  September,  1883, 
regulating  the  work  of  the  commissioners,  and  extend- 
ing the  time  for  completion  of  their  work  to  November  1, 
1886.  This  period  was  further  extended  from  time  to  time 
until  October  31,  1892. 

It  appears  that  the  lines  which  have  been  established 
by  the  Mexican  and  Guatemalan  engineers  do  not  agree, 
and  that  within  the  past  year  or  so  the  two  governments 
have  come  into  conflict  over  the  matter  of  lumber  camps 
located  on  the  disputed  ground.  An  armed  Guatemalan 
force  destroyed  the  camps  of  men  who  were  cutting  logs 
under  a  concession  from  the  Mexican  government,  seized 
the  logs,  and  arrested  the  men.  Both  countries  assembled 
troops  on  the  border,  and  it  looked  as  if  there  might  be 
war.  Mexico  demanded  that  Guatemala  evacuate  the  dis- 
trict, and  pay  an  indemnity  to  cover  damages  to  the  lum- 
bermen and  reimburse  her  for  the  expense  to  which  she 
had  been  put.  In  the  latter  part  of  January,  1895,  she 
held  18,000  troops  on  the  frontier,  with  several  brigades 
in  readiness  to  push  to  the  front  at  a  moment's  notice. 

Aware  of  the  threatening  aspect  of  affairs,  President 
Cleveland,  through  the  state  department,  intimated  to  both 
disputants  his  hope  that  they  would  reach  a  peaceful  set- 
tlement between  themselves  or  through  friendly  arbitra- 
tion. Guatemala  declined  to  accede  to  the  full  demands 
of  the  Mexican  ultimatum,  but  sent  a  special  commission 
to  the  City  of  Mexico  to  negotiate  the  matter. 

It  is  announced  that  an  agreement  has  been  reached 
(signed  April  1),  which  will  be  at  once  submitted  to  the 
Mexican  senate  for  revision.  Its  details  are  not  made 
public,  but  are  believed  to  include  an  apology  and  a  money 
indemnity  from  Guatemala,  and  the  reference  of  the  con- 
troversy as  well  as  the  amount  of  the  indemnity  to  arbi- 
tration. 


94  INTERNATIOlSrAL  AFFAIRS.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS. 

France  and  San  Domingo. — A  serious  diplomatic 
dispute  between  France  and  San  Domingo,  which  latterly 
threatened  to  involve  also  the  United  States,  has  recently 
been  settled.  The  newspapers  throw  but  little  light  on 
the  origin  of  the  dispute,  which  seems  to  date  back  about 
two  years,  and  to  be  connected  with  the  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties and  dictatorial  methods  of  President  Heureaux. 
According  to  a  Dominican  version.  President  Heureaux, 
in  order  to  raise  money  for  the  payment  of  officials, 
negotiated  for  an  advance  of  200,000  francs  from  La 
Baiique  Dominicaine,  with  headquarters  in  Paris.  The 
bank  agreed  to  advance  the  sum  on  the  security  of  treas- 
ury bonds  at  50  per  cent  of  their  nominal  value  and  15 
per  cent  interest,  stamp  duties  also  forming  part  of  the 
security.  The  bonds  were  deposited,  but  it  is  said  that 
the  bank  refused  to  advance  tho  200,000  francs  until  it 
had  received  that  sum  in  stamp  duties.  The  president 
thereupon  demanded  restitution  of  the  bonds,  which  de- 
mand was  sustained  by  the  courts.  The  bank,  however, 
refused  to  submit  to  the  judgment;  whereupon  President 
Heureaux  officially  attached  the  coffers  of  the  bank. 

Another  version  of  the  trouble,  based  on  the  statements 
of  an  American  citizen  in  San  Domingo  two  years  ago,  is 
as  follows:  President  Heureaux  had  negotiated  with  the 
French  bank  $300,000  of  his  accounts  against  the  govern- 
ment for  half  that  sum,  payable  in  three  instalments. 
Tho  first  of  these,  $50,000,  was  paid.  The  other  two  ac- 
ceptances were  discounted  by  a  private  banker,  one  De 
Lemos,  a  friend  of  the  president,  whom  the  bank,  becom- 
ing suspicious,  refused  to  acknowledge  as  a  party  in  the 
matter.  The  president  thereupon  instituted  a  suit  for 
$75,000  damages  against  the  French  bank,  and  secured  a 
verdict  from  the  court,  which  was  composed  of  his  tools. 
Government  officials  forcibly  entered  the  bank,  and  took 
away  $75,000.  During  the  excitement  several  serious  out- 
rages were  committed,  including  the  murder  of  one  Caca- 
velli,  a  French  subject.  No  satisfaction  being  obtainable 
from  President  Heureaux,  the  matter  was  laid  before  the 
French  government,  and  in  the  early  months  of  this  year 
French  men-of-war  appeared  off  San  Domingo  city  to  en- 
force the  demands  of  their  government,  including  the 
restoration  of  the  money  taken  from  the  French  bank. 

At  this  point  the  United  States  interfered,  instructing 
her  charge  d'affaires  at  Paris  to  say  that  the  United 
States  "could  not  view  with  indifference  the  attitude  of 


MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  95 

France  toward  the  Dominican  republic/^  and  intimating 
that  in  no  circumstances  would  the  United  States  allow 
France  to  seize  the  customs  receipts  of  San  Domingo, 
which  were  handed  over  to  the  control  of  an  American 
syndicate  in  1892  (Vol.  2,  p.  418). 

The  result  was  that  France  moderated  her  demands  in 
regard  to  the  bank,  but  still  insisted  on  indemnity  for  the 
outrages  on  her  subjects.  In  the  early  part  of  March  it 
was  announced  that  the  trouble  was  settled.  San  Do- 
mingo promises  compensation  for  injuries  to  French  sub- 
jects, agrees  to  submit  to  the  arbitration  of  Spain  in  the 
matter  of  the  claims  of  the  French  bank  and  several  other 
issues,  and  undertakes  to  receive  with  proper  honors  the 
French  minister  to  Hayti  and  to  express  to  him  regrets 
for  what  has  occurred. 

Missiones  Boundary  Award.— On  February  6  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  made  public  his  award  as  arbitrator  in  tho 
long-standing  territorial  dispute  between  Brazil  and  tho 
Argentine  Republic,  tho  facts  and  arguments  in  regard 
to  which  were  submitted  to  him  February  10, 1894  (Vol, 
4,  p.  113).  The  award  favors  the  contentions  of  Brazil  at 
every  point. 

The  dispute  concerned  the  ownership  of  the  strip  of 
territory  (now  and  for  some  time  past  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Brazil)  situated  between  Iguassu  to  the  north,  and 
the  Uruguay  river  to  the  south;  San  Antonio  and  the 
Pepiri-Guazu  to  the  west;  and  the  Jangada  or  San  An- 
tonio Guazu,  and  the  Chapeco  or  Pequiri-Guazu,  to  the 
east.  The  territory  forms  the  judicial  division  of  the 
Brazilian  state  of  Parana.  Its  area  is  stated  as  about 
11,823  square  miles;  its  population  about  7,000,  including 
a  very  few  foreigners. 

President  Cleveland's  award  reads  as  follows: 

"That  the  boundary  line  between  the  Argentine  Republic  and 
the  United  States  of  Brazil,  in  that  part  submitted  to  me  for  arbitra- 
tion and  decision,  is  constituted  and  shall  be  established  by  and  upon 
the  rivers  Pepiri,  also  called  Pepiri-Guazu,  and  San  Antonio,  to  wit, 
the  rivers  which  Brazil  has  designated  in  the  argument  and  docu- 
ments submitted  to  me  as  constituting  the  boundary,  and  hereinbe- 
fore denominated  the  westerly  system." 

The  final  cession  of '  this  territory  to  Brazil  is  impor- 
tant for  both  commercial  and  strategic  reasons.  Had  it 
been  given  to  Argentina,  the  cause  of  the  rebels  in  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  would  have  been  helped,  for  that  state 
would  have  been  almost  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  re- 
public to  which  it  belongs.  Moreover,  the  facility  of 
Argentine  encroachment  upon  Brazilian     intersts  would 


96  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

have  been  increased.       The  Argentine  Republic  has  ac- 
quiesced in  the  decision  with  good  grace. 

Brazil  and  Portugal. — The  diplomatic  rupture  be- 
tween Brazil  and  Portugal,  caused  in  May,  1894,  by  the 
action  of  Portuguese  naval  commanders  in  carrying  Ad- 
miral da  Gama  and  other  insurgents  in  the  late  naval  re- 
bellion beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Brazilian  govern- 
ment (Vol.  4,  p.  397),  has  at  length  been  healed.  The 
reconciliation  was  effected  through  the  mediation  of  the 
British  minister  at  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  Walsenburg  Affair.— On  March  12,  at  Walsen- 
burg,  Huerfano  county,  in  the  coal-mining  district  of 
Colorado,  occurred  a  most  unfortunate  incident,  which  re- 
calls to  mind  the  attack  of  the  mob  upon  the  Italians  in 
the  Parish  prison,  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  March,  1891  (Vol. 
1,  p.  153),  but  which  fortunately,  unlike  the  earlier  inci- 
dent, has  not  been  followed  by  a  diplomatic  rupture. 

It  appears  that  on  March  10  one  A.  J.  Hixon,  an 
American,  living  at  Rouse,  a  mining  camp  six  miles  from 
Walsenburg,  was  murdered  on  the  road,  from  motives 
that  are  not  clearly  known.  Bloodhounds  were  put  upon 
the  scent  of  the  murderers,  and  several  Italians  were  ar- 
rested. They  were  committed  by  a  coroner's  jury  for 
trial,  and,  on  March  12,  while  being  conveyed  in  a  wagon 
to  jail  at  Walsenburg,  were  shot  at  from  ambush,  three  or 
four  of  them  (the  press  accounts  differ)  being  killed.  The 
following  morning,  a  mob  gained  entrance  to  the  jail  at 
Walsenburg,  where  other  Italian  suspects  were  confined, 
and  murdered  two  of  the  latter  in  cold  blood. 

Governor  Mclntyre  at  once  took  measures  to  insure 
protection  to  the  other  Italians  in  the  region,  holding  the 
militia  in  readiness  to  act  if  necessary.  Baron  Fava,  the 
Italian  ambassador  at  Washington,  requested  him  to  pro- 
ceed at  once  against  the  murderers  of  Italian  subjects,  in- 
timating his  desire  to  that  effect  at  the  same  time  to  the 
state  department.  An  inquiry  is  being  made  into  the  na- 
tionality of  the  victims  and  other  facts  in  the  case.  The 
jury  rendered  a  verdict  to  the  effect  that  they  were  killed 
by  persons  unknown;  and  March  16  the  governor  issued  a 
proclamation  offering  a  reward -of  11,000  for  the  arrest 
lit  and  conviction  of  those  implicated  in  the  crime. 
"■'  The  Pamir  Dispute. — It  was  announced  early  in 
January  that  Russia  and  England  had  arrived  at  an  ami- 
cable settlement  of  the  long-standing  Pamir  boundary 
dispute.  Under  the  arrangement  England  gains  posses- 
sion of  the  Chitral  road,  the  only  practicable  route  from 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS.  97 

the  Russian  sphere  of  influence  in  the  highlands  down 
into  India.  It  is  not  yet  announced  what  concessions  the 
British  foreign  office  has  granted  in  return.  It  is  signi- 
ficant, however,  that  on  several  points  of  foreign  policy — 
for  example,  the  Armenian  question  and  the  possible  con- 
tinental aspirations  of  Japan  in  regard  to  a  division  of 
the  Chinese  empire — the  Lion  and  the  Bear  are  now 
working  in  harmony. 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS. 

XpREE-SILVER  coinage  seems,  from  present  indications, 
to  be  destined  to  be  the  leading  issue  in  the  presiden- 
tial campaign  of  1896.  Tariff  legislation  has,  for  the  time 
being,  sunk  into  the  background;  and  it  seems  to  be  the 
prevalent  opinion  that  the  coming  session  of  the  54th  con- 
gress— owing  to  populist  control  of  the  balance  of  power  in 
the  senate — will  not  witness  any  legislative  enactments  of 
sufficient  importance  to  affect  seriously  one  way  or  another 
the  interests  of  either  of  the  old  parties,  or  to  divert  pub- 
lic attention  from  the  all-absorbing  money  question.  A 
movement  is  already  on  foot  to  rally  around  a  new  party 
standard  all  men — republicans,  democrats,  populists,  so- 
cialists, or  independents — who  may  be  willing  to  hold 
every  other  issue  in  abeyance  until  the  all-important  ques- 
tion of  the  standard  of  our  currency  has  been  settled.  Its 
advocates  call  themselves  '^bimetallists;"  but  it  should  be 
noted  that  under  the  term  "  bimetallism  "  they  include  the 
free  coinage  of  silver  at  a  ratio  of  16  to  1  by  the  United 
States,  irrespective  of  whether  other  countries  luill  or  will 
not  co-operate  to  maintain  that  ratio. 

It  is  too  early,  of  course,  to  estimate  th*  "ength  which 
the  free-silver  movement  will  assume.  It  will  be  felt  to 
some  extent  everywhere,  but  will  be  most  formidable  from 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin  west,  and  in  the  South.  Of  late 
years  the  silver  question  has  come  to  lay  down  dividing  lines 
between  dift'erent  sections  of  this  country— lines  which, 
though  not  so  clearly  defined  as  those  which  a  generation 
ago  separated  our  people  into  two  hostile  camps,  yet  are  daily 
growing  more  pronounced.  If  there  is  any  one  issue  which 
may  be  said  to  distinguish  in  their  opinions  the  people  who 
live  in  the  Northeast  from  those  living  in  the  South  and  West, 

Vol.  5.-7. 


C3  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

it  is  that  of  silvero  It  affects  almost  every  other  question  of 
any  imjoortanco.  The  Northeastern  states,  on  the  whole, 
believe  in  a  single  gold  standard — the  South  and  West  in 
bimetallism  in  the  above  sense  of  unconditional  free  coin- 
SLf^e  of  both  motalso 

A  Now  Party.— These  considerations  add  special  in- 
terest to  the  new  bimetallic  party  movement  inaugurated 
as  the  result  of  the  recent  conference  of  free-coinage  advo- 
cates at  Washington^  D.  0=  Among  those  who  took  part 
in  the  conference  were  leading  members  of  the  American 
Bimetallic  League^  together  with  prominent  democrats, 
like  Representatives  Bryan  (Nob.),  Bland  (Mo.),  Hatch 
(Mo.)^cind  Sibloy  (Pcnn„);  Senator  Teller  (Col.),  repub- 
lican; and  Senators  Jones  and  Stewart  of  Nevada,  who 
some  time  ago  withdrew  from  the  republican  party  on  the 
silver  question.  On  March  6,  the  day  following  the  close 
of  the  conference,  an  address  to  the  American  people  was 
published^  outlining  the  platform  of  the  proposed  new 
partyp  and  reviewing  the  issues  upon  which  it  is  to  be  or- 
rjanized,  in  substance  as  follows: 

The  American  Bimetallic  Party — A  Statement  of  the  Issue  on 
Which  the  New  Party  Will  Organize. 

The  money  question  is  now  indisputably  the  dominant  issue  in 
the  United  States,  and  will  remain  so  until  settled,  and  settled  rightly. 
Other  questions,  however  important,  must  wait  for  this,  which,  to  a 
jjreater  or  less  extent,  involves  all  others.  The  issue  is  between  the 
gold  standard,  gold  bonds,  and  bank  currency,  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  bimetallic  standard,  no  bonds,  and  government  currency,  on  the 
other. 

First — On  this  issue  wo  declare  ourselves  to  be  unalterably  op- 
posed to  the  single  gold  standard,  and  demand  the  immediate  return 
to  the  constitutional  standard  of  gold  and  silver  by  the  restoration  by 
this  government  independently  of  any  foreign  power,  of  the  unre- 
stricted coinage  of  both  silver  and  gold  into  standard  money,  at  the 
ratio  of  16  to  1,  and  upon  terms  of  exact  equality,  the  silver  coin  to 
be  a  full  legal  tender  equally  with  gold  for  all  debts  and  dues,  public 
and  private. 

Second — We  hold  that  the  power  to  control  and  regulate  a  paper 
currency  is  inseparable  from  the  power  to  coin  money;  hence,  that  all 
currency  intended  to  circulate  as  money  should  be  issued,  and  its  vol- 
ume controlled,  by  the  government  only,  and  should  be  legal  tender. 

Third — Wo  are  unalterably  opposed  to  the  issue  by  the  United 
States  of  interest-bearing  bonds  in  time  of  peace,  and  demand  the  pay- 
ment of  all  coin  obligations  of  the  United  States,  as  provided  by  ex- 
isting laws,  in  either  gold  or  silver  coin,  at  the  option  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  not  at  the  option  of  the  creditor. 

There  is  no  hope  whatever  that  the  republican  party,  as  a  party, 
will  change  its  policy,  give  up  the  gold  standard,  and  restore  the  bi- 
metallic standard.  The  republican  party  is  committed  by  its  leaders, 
by  its  record,  and  by  the  press  behind  it,  to  the  gold  standard,  sup- 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS.  99 

ported  by  gold  bonds,  and  to  the  retirement  of  the  greenbacks  and  the 
surrender  of  the  issue  and  control  of  paper  currency  to  the  banks. 

No  less  persistent  and  effective  is  the  control  of  the  money  power 
over  the  organization  of  the  democratic  party.  While  undoubtedly 
a  large  majority  of  the  members  of  that  party  arc  opposed  to  the  gold 
standard,  they  have  been  powerless  to  control  the  party  organization 
against  it,  and  much  less  to  secure  through  it  the  restoration  of  the 
bimetallic  standard. 

Those  in  favor  of  the  gold  standard  are  and  have  been  united  in 
purpose  and  action.  Party  lines  do  not  divide  them  when  this  issue 
is  raised.  Differences  on  other  questions  arc  then  laid  aside.  It  can- 
not be  expected  that  republicans  will  abandon  convictions  of  a  life- 
time on  other  questions  and  go  into  the  democratic  party  in  a  body, 
or  into  a  wing  of  that  party.  Nor  will  democrats  give  up  convictions 
they  believe  to  be  essential  in  government  and  go  over  to  the  repub- 
lican party,  or  to  a  division  of  that  party.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  in- 
duce republicans  and  democrats  together  to  go  into  the  populist  party, 
for  the  reason,  if  for  no  others,  that  the  platform  of  that  party  con- 
tains declarations,  and  the  party  advocates  theories,  to  which  they 
cannot  give  assent.  But  wq  must,  in  some  way,  come  together  on 
this  issue,  or  the  cause  is  lost,  and  with  it  the  independence  of  the 
people.  *  *  '••  There  has  not  been  a  congress  for  twenty  years 
which,  except  for  the  influence  of  executive  patronage  or  the  fear  of 
an  executive  veto,  would  not  have  voted  to  open  the  mints  again  to 
silver  on  the  same  terms  as  to  gold.  Indeed,  each  house  of  congress 
has  at  different  times  separately  passed  free  coinage  bills,  but  this 
action  has  as  often  been  frustrated  by  party  manipulation.  It  is  as 
necessary,  therefore,  to  have  a  president  in  sympathy  with  the 
cause  as  to  have  a  congress  in  favor  of  it.     *    *    * 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  moreover,  that  a  return  to  the  standard  of 
gold  and  silver  will  promote  in  the  highest  degree  the  business  inter- 
ests of  the  entire  country,  while  the  continuance  of  the  present  policy 
must  necessarily  be  attended  by  a  further  fall  of  prices,  imperilling 
business  enterprise  still  more,  and  prolonging  indefinitely  the  present 
stagnant  condition  of  trade  and  industry.  It  is  believed  that  the 
United  States  has  power  enough  in  the  commercial  world  to  restore 
alone  the  link  between  gold  and  silver  broken  in  1873;  but,  should 
gold  for  any  reason  temporarily  go  to  a  premium,  it  will  none  the  less 
operate  on  prices  generally;  and  certainly  a  premium  on  gold  here 
would,  like  a  fall  in  the  gold  price  of  silver  to  silver  countries,  inure 
on  every  side  to  the  advantage  of  the  United  States.     *    *     * 

The  address  is  signed  by  twelve  delegates,  including 
the  following  executive  committee  appointed  to  meet  at 
Washington  February  22,  1896:  A.  J.  Warner,  president 
of  the  American  Bimetallic  League,  chairman;  Senators 
John  P.  Jones  and  William  M.  Stewart  of  Nevada;  and 
Representative  J.  L.  McLaurin  of  South  Carolina.  The 
name  of  Representative  Joseph  C.  Sibley  of  Pennsylvania 
was  suggested  by  the  conference  as  that  of  a  proper  candi- 
date of  the  new  party  for  president  at  the  next  election. 

From  the  above  declaration  of  principles  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  bimetallic  party  is  working  along  its  owi> 


100  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

lines,  independently  of  all  the  old  party  organizations. 
Its  purpose  is  to  promote  in  every  way  opposition  to  the 
gold  standard  and  to  assist  the  cause  of  free  coinage  of 
silver  by  the  United  States.  Its  independence  is  also  seen 
in  the  fact  that  among  the  signers  of  the  address  adopted 
by  the  conference  there  does  not  appear  the  name  of  Mr. 
Bland  (dem.)  of  Missouri,  the  most  conspicuous  advocate 
of  free  coinage  in  all  the  congresses  since  1876,  nor  the 
name  of  Mr.  Bryan  of  Nebraska,  nor  that  of  any  democrat 
of  national  prominence  from  any  state.  The  free-silver 
democrats  will  for  a  time  at  least  make  their  fight  without 
breaking  away  from  their  party  affiliations.  Nor  does  the 
list  of  signers  include  any  name  prominently  identified 
with  the  populist  party.  The  leaders  of  that  persuasion 
will  still  fight  for  free  silver  in  connection  with  the  other 
demands  of  their  unique  platform.  Nor,  again,  is  the  ad- 
dress signed  by  Senators  Teller  (Ool.),  Wolcott  (Col.),  Du- 
bois (Id.)^  o^  other  republican  advocates  of  free  coinage. 

The  silver  element  in  the  country  is  thus  divided  along 
four  distinct  lines  of  policy.  There  are  republican,  dem- 
ocratic, populist,  and  American  bimetallic  silver  party 
men.  The  first  three  classes,  too,  are  divided  among 
themselves  on  the  question  of  the  necessity  or  advisability 
of  securing  an  international  agreement  in  order  to  a  proper 
adjustment  of  the  whole  question.  There  are  some  with- 
in each  party  who  consider  an  agreement  of  various  coun- 
tries necessary,  while  others  regard  any  international  con- 
ference as  a  mere  scheme  of  the  gold  men. 

Simultaneously  with  the  publication  of  the  address  of 
the  bimetallic  conference,  another  address  was  issued, 
signed  by  Kepresentatives  Bland  and  Bryan  and  twenty- 
nine  other  democratic  members  of  the  53d  congress  who 
failed  of  re-election.  It  urges  all  democrats  to  make  the 
money  question  the  paramount  issue,  and  to  endeavor  to 
place  the  democratic  party  on  record  in  favor  of  the  '*  im- 
mediate restoration  of  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of 
gold  and  silver  at  the  present  legal  ratio  of  16  to  1,  with- 
out waiting  for  the  aid  or  consent  of  any  other  nation,  as 
it  existed  prior  to  1873,  such  coin  to  be  a  full  legal  tender 
for  all  debts,  public  and  private. " 


END  OF  THE  FIFTY-THIRD  CONGRESS.  101 

END  OF  THE  FIFTY-THIRD  CONGRESS. 

The  work  of  the  53d  congress  from  January  1  to  March 
4,  1895,  when  it  expired  by  limit  of  law,  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts:  First,-  legislation  actually  accomplished; 
and,  second,  legislation  which  failed  to  pass  through  its 
final  stages.  The  latter  is  by  far  the  larger  of  the  two 
portions,  and  it  embraces  most  of  the  important  questions 
which  engaged  the  attention  of  the  country.  Some  of 
these  measures,  such  as  the  "pooling"  bill,  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  bill,  and  the  bankruptcy  bill  (Vol.  4,  p.  805)  passed 
in  one  house  only  to  die  of  inaction  in  the  other  branch 
of  congress.  Other  measures,  such  as  the  Hawaiian  cable 
amendment,  passed  in  one  house,  and  then  met  their  fate  by 
an  actual  positive  defeat  in  the  other  house.  This  record 
of  failed  legislation  is  exceptionally  large.  First,  how- 
ever, it  is  desirable  to  summarize  the  legislation  actually 
accomplished,  and  now  existing  as  law. 

New  Laws  Enacted. — The  Income  Tax  Amendment. 
— The  only  tariff  legislation  passed  was  that  amending 
the  income  tax  feature  of  the  last  tariff  law.  It  had  been 
found  impossible  to  put  the  new  income  tax  in  operation 
by  March  1,  as  the  original  act  contemplated,  so  that  the 
amendment  extended  the  date  within  which  returns  of 
incomes  might  be  made,  to  April  15.  This  extension  ap- 
plies only  to  the  present  year,  and  hereafter  the  returns 
must  be  made  by  March  1. 

The  law  was  also  amended  as  follows: 

*' Resolved,  That  in  computinpf  incomes  under  said  act,  the 
amounts  necessarily  paid  for  fire-insurance  premiums  and  for  ordinary- 
repairs  shall  be  deducted. 

''Resolved,  That  in  computing  incomes  under  said  act,  the 
amounts  received  as  dividends  upon  the  stock  of  any  corporation, 
company,  or  association  shall  not  be  included  in  case  such  dividends 
are  also  liable  to  the  tax  of  two  per  centum  upon  the  net  profits  of 
said  corporation,  company,  or  association,  although  such  tax  may  not 
have  been  actually  paid  by  said  corporation,  company,  or  association 
at  the  time  of  making  returns  by  the  person,  corporation,  or  associa- 
tion receiving  such  dividends.  And  returns,  or  reports,  of  the  names 
and  salaries  of  employees  shall  not  be  required  from  employers,  un- 
less called  for  by  the  collector  in  order  to  verify  the  returns  of  em- 
ployees." 

Commercial  Travellers'  Tickets. — A  measure  particu- 
larly designed  to  serve  commercial  travellers  in  receiving 
reduced  rates  and  special  privileges  on  transportation 
lines,  was  passed.  It  amends  the  interstate  commerce 
act,  as  follows: 

"Provided,  That  nothing  in  said  act  shall  prevent  the  issuance 


102  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

of  joint  interchangeable  5,000-mile  tickets,  with  special  privileges  as 
to  the  amount  of  free  baggage  that  may  be  carried  under  mileage 
tickets  of  1,000  or  more  miles.  But  before  any  common  carrier,  sub- 
ject to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  issue  any  such  joint  inter- 
changeable mileage  tickets  with  special  privileges,  as  aforesaid,  it 
shall  file  with  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  copies  of  the 
joint  tariffs  of  rates,  fares,  or  charges  on  which  such  joint  inter- 
changeable mileage  tickets  are  to  be  based,  together  with  specifica- 
tions of  the  amount  of  free  baggage  permitted  to  be  carried  under 
I  such  tickets." 

Suppression  of  Lottery  Traffic. — The  lottery  law  al- 
ready passed  had  been  found  inadequate  to  cope  against 
the  traffic  of  lottery  companies  which  operated  outside 
the  borders  of  the  United  States,  but  shipped  their  tickets 
within  the  country,  through  the  mails,  or  on  railroads 
crossing  state  lines.  A  stringent  supplemental  act  was 
therefore  enacted.     It  provides: 

"That  any  person  who  shall  cause  to  be  brought  within  the 
United  States  from  abroad,  for  the  purpose  of  disposing  of  the  same, 
or  deposited  in  or  carried  by  the  mails  of  the  United  States,  or  carried 
from  one  state  to  another  in  the  United  States,  any  paper,  certificate, 
or  instrument  purporting  to  be  or  represent  a  ticket,  chance,  share, 
or  interest  in  or  dependent  upon  the  event  of  a  lottery,  so-called  gift 
concert,  or  similar  enterprise,  offering  prizes  dependent  upon  lot  or 
chance,  or  shall  cause  any  advertisement  of  such  lottery,  so-called 
gift  concert,  or  similar  enterprise  offering  prizes  dependent  upon  lot  or 
chance  to  be  brought  into  the  United  States,  or  deposited  in  or  car- 
ried by  the  mails  of  the  United  States,  or  transferred  from  one  state 
to  another  in  the  same,  shall  be  punishable  in  the  first  offense  by 
imprisonment  for  not  more  than  two  years,  or  by  a  fine  of  not  more 
than  one  thousand  dollars,  or  both,  and  in  the  second  and  after  offenses 
by  such  imprisonment  only." 

Section  2  of  the  new  law  makes  applicable  the  law 
against  obscene  books  in  support  of  the  enforcement  of 
the  law  against  lotteries. 

Copyright  Law. — An  important  amendment  to  the 
copyright  laws  was  made;  and,  as  it  will  be  of  interest  to 
all  seeking  copyright,  it  is  given  in  full,  as  follows: 

"  If  any  person,  after  the  recording  of  the  title  of  any  map,  chart, 
dramatic  or  musical  composition,  print,  cut,  engraving,  or  photo- 
graph, or  chromo,  or  of  the  description  of  any  painting,  drawing, 
statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design  intended  to  be  perfected  and 
executed  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  as  provided  by  this  act,  shall,  within 
the  term  limited,  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  without 
the  consent  of  the  proprietor  of  the  copyright  first  obtained  in  writ- 
ing, signed  in  presence  of  two  or  more  witnesses,  engrave,  etch,  work, 
copy,  print,  publish,  dramatize,  translate,  or  import,  either  in  whole 
or  in  part,  or  by  varying  the  main  design,  with  intent  to  evade  the 
law,  or  knowing  the  same  to  be  so  printed,  published,  dramatized, 
translated,  or  imported,  shall  sell  or  expose  to  sale  any  copy  of  such 
map  or  other  article,  as  aforesaid,  he  shall  forfeit  to  the  proprietor 
all  the  plates  on  which  the  same  shall  be  copied,  and  every  sheet 


END  OF  THE  FIFTY-THIRD  CONGRESS.  103 

thereof,  either  copied  or  printed,  and  shall  further  forfeit  one  dollar 
for  every  sheet  of  the  same  found  in  his  possession,  either  printing, 
printed,  copied,  published,  imported,  or  exposed  for  sale;  and  in  case 
of  a  painting,  statue,  or  statuary,  he  shall  forfeit  ten  dollars  for  every 
copy  of  the  same  in  his  possession,  or  by  him  Bold  or  exposed  for  sale: 
Provided,  however.  That  in  case  of  any  such  infringement  of  the  copy- 
right of  a  photograph  made  from  any  object  not  a  work  of  fine  arts,  the 
sum  to  be  recovered  in  any  action  brought  under  the  provisions  of  this 
section  shall  be  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars,  nor  more  than 
five  thousand  dollars;  and:  Provided,  further.  That  in  case  of  any 
such  infringement  of  the  copyright  of  a  painting,  drawing,  statue, 
engraving,  etching,  print,  or  model  or  design  for  a  work  of  the  fine 
arts  or  of  a  photograph  of  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  the  sum  to  be  re- 
covered in  any  action  brought  through  the  provisions  of  this  section 
shall  be  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  not  more 
than  ten  thousand  dollars.  One- half  of  all  the  foregoing  penalties 
shall  go  to  the  proprietors  of  the  copyright,  and  the  other  half  to  the 
use  of  the  United  States." 

British  Guiana- Venezuela  Boundary. — In  accordance 
with  a  suggestion  in  the  president's  annual  message,  a 
Joint  resolution  was  passed,  urging  Great  Britain  and 
Venezuela  to  adjust  their  long-pending  contest  over  the 
British  Guiana  boundary  by  arbitration.  The  resolution, 
as  passed,  is  as  follows: 

"Resolved,  That  the  president's  suggestion,  made  in  bis  last  annual 
message  to  this  body,  namely,  that  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  refer 
their  dispute  as  to  boundaries  to  friendly  arbitration,  be  earnestly 
recommended  to  the  favorable  consideration  of  both  parties  in 
interest." 

In  accordance  with  this  resolution,  Great  Britain  and 
Venezuela  have  been  urged  by  the  executive  branch  of 
the  government  to  adjust  their  differences  by  arbitration. 
This  act  has  been  given  a  broad  significance  in  some  quar- 
ters, it  being  asserted  that  it  indicated  a  purpose  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  to  extend  the  application  of  the  Mon- 
roe doctrine  to  South  America.  The  passage  of  the  resolu- 
tion awakened  great  enthusiasm  in  Venezuela,  and  was  con- 
strued as  a  declaration  by  the  United  States,  of  support  of 
Venezuela's  claims. 

Gettysburg  National  Parh. — The  bill  was  finally  passed 
establishing  a  national  military  park  at  Gettysburg,  Penn., 
on  the  historic  battlefield  of  the  rebellion.  Much  of  the 
work  of  preserving  the  battlefield  has  already  been  begun 
by  the  Gettysburg  Battlefield  Memorial  Association,  but 
the  entire  work  now  passes  into  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  secretary  of  war  is  directed  to  receive  deeds 
from  the  Memorial  association  of  the  various  tracts,  em- 
bracing about  800  acres.  The  national  park  is  placed  in 
charge  of  commissioners,  who  are  to  lay  out  roads,  etc., 
and  mark  the  lines  of  battle  for  all  troops  engaged  in  the 


104  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr-,  1895. 

fight.  It  is  also  provided  that  adjacent  lands,  occupied 
by  the  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery  on  July  1,  2,  and  3, 
1863,  shall  be  secured  by  purchase  or  condemnation. 
Careful  regulations  are  made  against  depredations  to  the 
monuments,  breastworks,  etc.,  in  the  park.  Section  8 
makes  the  following  interesting  provision: 

•'  The  secretary  of  war  is  hereby  directed  to  cause  to  be  made  a 
suitable  bronze  tablet,  containing  on  it  the  historic  address  delivered 
by  Abraham  Lincoln,  president  of  the  United  States,  at  Gettysburg 
on  the  19th  day  of  November,  1863,  on  the  occasion  of  the  dedication 
of  the  national  cemetery  at  that  place,  and  such  tablet,  having  on  it 
besides  the  address  a  medallion  likeness  of  President  Lincoln,  shall 
be  erected  on  the  most  suitable  site  within  the  limits  of  said  park, 
which  said  address  was  in  the  following  words,  to  wit: 

"  'Four  score  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth  on  this  conti- 
nent a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that 
all  men  are  created  equal. 

'"Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or 
any  nation  so  conceived  and  sodedicated,  can  long  endure.    We  are  met  on  a 

'3dic 


great  battlefield  of  that  war.    We  are  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field 
as  a  final  resting  place  for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  th 
might  live.    It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 


as  a  final  resting  place  for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation 
It  is  altogether  fitting  and  propf 
'  But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  can  not  dedirate,  we  can  not  consecrate,  we  can 


not  hallow  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here, 
have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world 
will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here;  but  it  can  never  forget 
what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the 
unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advancea. 
It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us; 
that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for 
which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion;  that  we  here  highly  resolve 
that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain;  that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall 
have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people, 
for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth.'  " 

The  act  appropriates  $5,000  for  the  Lincoln  tablet, 
and  $75,000  for  general  purposes  of  improvement. 

Judicial  System  for  Indian  Territory. — The  lawless- 
ness, express-car  robberies,  etc.,  occurring  in  the  Indian 
Territory,  led  to  the  enactment  of  a  law  perfecting  and  in- 
creasing the  judicial  system  of  that  locality.  The  terri- 
tory was  divided  into  three  districts,  and  two  additional 
judges  were  created.  President  Cleveland  has  since  ap- 
pointed ex-Representative  William  M.  Springer  of  Illinois, 
and  ex-Representative  Buckley  Kilgore  of  Texas,  as  the 
new  judges.  Provision  is  also  made  for  additional  dis- 
trict-attorneys, marshals,  etc.  The  act  contains  a  provi- 
sion absolutely  prohibiting  the  sale,  manufacture,  gift,  etc., 
of  intoxicating  drinks,  or  malt  or  fermented  liquor,  within 
the  territory. 

Accrued  Pensions. — The  pension  laws  were  amended 
as  follows: 

"  That  from  and  after  the  28th  day  of  September,  1892,  the  ac- 
crued pension  to  the  date  of  the  death  of  any  pensioner,  or  of  any 
person  entitled  to  a  pension  having  an  application  therefor  pending, 
and  whether  a  certificate  therefor  shall  issue  prior  or  subsequent  to 


END  OF  THE  FIFTY-THIRD  CONGRESS.  105 

the  death  of  such  person,  shall,  in  the  case  of  a  person  pensioned,  or 
applying  for  pension,  on  account  of  his  disabilities  or  service,  be  paid, 
first,  to  his  widow;  second,  if  there  is  no  widow,  to  his  child  or  chil- 
dren under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  at  his  death;  third,  in  case  of  a 
widow,  to  her  minor  children  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  at  her 
death.  Such  accrued  pension  shall  not  be  considered  a  part  of  the 
assets  of  the  estate  of  such  deceased  person,  nor  be  liable  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  debts  of  said  estate  in  any  case  whatsoever,  but  shall 
inure  to  the  sole  and  exclusive  benefit  of  the  widow  or  children.  And 
if  no  widow  or  child  survive  such  pensioner,  and  in  the  case  of  his 
last  surviving  child  who  was  such  minor  at  his  death,  and  in  case  of 
a  dependent  mother,  father,  sister,  or  brother,  no  payment  whatsoever 
of  their  accrued  pension  shall  be  made  or  allowed  except  so  much  as 
may  be  necessary  to  reimburse  the  person  who  bore  the  expense  of 
their  last  sickness  and  burial,  if  they  did  not  leave  sufficient  assets  to 
meet  such  expense.  And  the  mailing  of  a  pension  check,  drawn  by 
a  pension  agent  in  payment  of  a  pension  due,  to  the  address  of  a  pen- 
sioner, shall  constitute  payment  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  a  pen- 
sioner subsequent  to  the  execution  of  the  voucher  therefor.  And  all 
prior  laws  relating  to  the  payment  of  accrued  pensions  are  hereby  re- 
pealed." 

Pension  Changes. — Two  important  general  provisions 
of  law  were  added  to  the  pension  appropriation  bill.  One 
repeals  the  law  of  1893,  which  provided  that: 

"  No  pension  shall  be  paid  to  a  non-resident  who  is  not  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  except  for  actual  disabilities  incurred  in  the  ser- 
vice." 

Another  far-reaching  change  is  one  raising  all  pensions 
below  $6  up  to  that  rate,  as  follows: 

"  And  it  is  further  provided,  That  from  and  after  the  passage  of 
this  act,  all  pensioners  now  on  the  rolls,  who  are  pensioned  at  less 
than  $6  per  month,  for  any  degree  of  pensionable  disability,  shall 
have  their  pensions  increased  to  $6  per  month;  and  that  hereafter, 
whenever  any  applicant  for  pension  would,  under  existing  rates,  be 
entitled  to  less  than  $6  for  any  single  disability,  or  several  combined 
disabilities,  such  pensioner  shall  be  rated  not  less  than  $6  per  month; 
Provided  also.  That  the  provisions  hereof  shall  not  be  held  to  cover 
any  pensionable  period  prior  to  the  passage  of  this  act,  nor  authorize 
a  re-Vating  of  any  claims  for  any  part  of  such  period,  nor  prevent  the 
allowance  of  lower  rates  than  $6  per  month,  according  to  the  exist- 
ing practice  in  the  pension  office  in  pending  cases  covering  any  pen- 
sionable period  prior  to  the  passage  of  this  act." 

Southern  Ute  Indians. — A  law  was  enacted  disapprov- 
ing the  treaty  heretofore  made  with  the  Southern  Ute  In- 
dians for  their  removal  to  the  territory  of  Utah,  and  pro- 
viding for  settling  them  down  in  severalty  where  they  may 
so  elect  and  are  qualified,  for  settling  all  those  not  elect- 
ing to  take  lands  in  severalty  on  the  west  forty  miles  of 
present  reservation  and  in  portions  of  New  Mexico,  and 
for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  with  said  In- 
dians of  June  15,  1880. 


106  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Mexican  Free  Zone. — The  Mexican  free  zone  is  a  strip 
of  land  along  the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico,  adjacent 
to  the  United  States,  which  has  enjoyed  freedom  of  duties 
to  and  from  the  United  States.  A  law  was  enacted  for  the 
suspension  of  the  privilege  of  shipping  goods  in  bond  into 
the  territory.  The  treasury  department  has  since  decided, 
however,  that  the  law  is  defective  and  inoperative. 

Navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes. — A  measure  of  impor- 
tance to  the  navigation  of  the  great  lakes  was  enacted.  It 
provides  an  elaborate  code  for  preventing  collisions,  and 
designates  all  the  rules  as  to  lights,  vessels  towing,  fog 
signals,  steering,  and  sailing. 

Miscellaneous  Enactmerits. — Among  the  lesser  laws  of 
general  application  enacted  by  congress  are  the  following: 

Removing  the  time  limit  within  which  applications  for  relief  can 
be  made  by  survivors  of  the  Mexican  war  or  the  late  civil  war. 

Establishing  a  branch  mint,  for  coinage  purposes,  at  Denver, 
Col. 

Providing  for  a  $4,000,000  federal  building  at  Chicago,  111. 

For  regulating  the  appointment  of  cadets  to  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy. 

For  abolishing  the  name  of- Georgetown  as  a  part  of  Washington, 
D.  C. 

For  the  erection  of  a  statue  of  the  late  Professor  Samuel  D. 
Gross,  distinguished  surgeon  and  author,  in  Washington,  D.  C. 

Reviving  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  army,  in  order 
that  the  honor  may  be  conferred  on  Major-General  John  M.  Schofield. 

An  important  law  was  enacted  by  congress,  for  the  prevention  of 
collisions  at  sea,  providing  for  the  destruction  of  dangerous  derelicts; 
but,  as  Great  Britain  refused  to  enact  a  similar  law,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  repeal  the  one  previously  passed. 

Aside  from  the  foregoing  acts,  many  measures  were 
added  to  appropriation  bills  as  "riders."  These  included 
the  resolution  for  the  appointment  of  nine  United  States 
delegates  to  the  forthcoming  international  monetary  con- 
ference— three  from  the  senate,  three  from  the  house,  and 
three  to  be  designated  by  the  president  (See  in  article  on 
'^  The  Monetary  Problem,"  p.  45). 

Another  "rider"  to  an  appropriation  bill  provided  for 
a  commission  of  three  members  to  survey  the  route  of  the 
Nicaragua  canal  and  report  on  its  feasibility. 

The  foregoing  comprise  all  the  measures  of  general  ap- 
plication, except  appropriation  bills,  enacted  after  Janu- 
ary 1, 1895,  and  up  to  the  close  of  the  congress. 

Appropriation  Bills. — The  appropriation  bills  passed 
at  the  last  session  amounted  to  $498,108,006;  those  of  the 
preceding  session  of  the  same  congress  amounted  to 
$492,230,685;  making  a  total  for  the  two  regular  sessions 


END  OF  THE  FIFTY-THIRD  CONGRESS.  107 

of  the  63d  congress  of  1990,338,691.   These  appropriations 
in  detail;,  for  the  two  sessions,  are  as  follows: 

APPROPRIATION  BILLS,  53D  CONGRESS. 


Title. 


Law,  1895-96. 


Law,  1884-95. 


Agriculture 

Army 

Diplomatic  and  consular. 

District  of  Columbia 

Fortification 

Indians 

Legislative,  etc 

Military  Academy 

Nav^ , 

Pension 

PostoflSce 

River  and  harbor 

Sundry  civil 


$3,303,750.00 

23,252.608.09 
1,575,073.94 
5,745,643.25 
1,904,557.50 
8,973,948.01 

21,893,222.48 
464,261.66 

29,716,077.31 
141,381,570.00 

89,545,997.86 

47,138,360.40 


$3,223,623.00 

23,592,884.68 

1,563,918.76 

5,545,678.57 

2,427,004.00 

10,659,565.10 

21,305,583.29 

406.535.08 

25,327,126.7s 

151,581,570.00 

87,236,599.55 

11,643.180.00 

34,253,775.55 


Total 

Urgent  deficiency,  1895  and  prior  years. . 
Deficiency,  public  printing  and  binding. 

Deficiency,  Eleventh  census,  etc 

Deficiency,  1895  and  prior  years 


Total. . . . 
Miscellaneous. 


$374,895,070.50 

1,857,321.00 

100,000.00 

400,000.00 

7,381,658.19 


$378,767,044.42 


11,811,004.06 


$384,634,049.69 
400,000.00 


$390,578,048.48 
577,956.55 


Total  regular  annual  appropriations. 
Permanent  annual  appropriations 


$385,034,049.69 
113,073,956  32 


$391,156.00.5.03 
101,074,680.00 


Grand  total  reguiar  and  permanent  an- 
nual  appropriations 


$498,108,006.01 


$492.230,685.a3 


Two  views  of  these  appropriations  are  taken,  Chair- 
man Sayers,  representing  the  democratic  majority  of  the 
committee  on  appropriations,  claiming  that  they  show  a 
reduction  below  previous  congresses;  while  Representative 
Cannon,  in  behalf  of  the  republican  minority  of  the  ap- 
propriation committee,  claims  that  they  show  heavy  in- 
creases over  previous  congresses.  Both  views  are  here 
presented  from  the  official  statements. 

Chairman  Sayers  compares  the  totals  of  the  last  three 
congresses,  as  follows: 

Total  appropriated  by  51st  congress $1,035,680,109 

Total  appropriated  by  52d  congress 1,027,104,547 

Total  appropriated  by  53d  congress 990,338,691 

Mr.  Sayers  sums  up  his  comparison  as  follows: 

"The  appropriations  made  by  the  53d  congress,  including  per- 
manent appropriations,  show  a  reduction  of  $36,765,856.88  under 
the  appropriations  made  by  the  52d  congress,  and  $45,341,418.90 
under  those  made  by  the  51st  congress. 

' '  Considering  the  growth  of  the  country  in  millions  of  popula- 
tion since  the  close  of  the  51st  congress  four  years  ago,  and  the 
enormous  obligations  entailed  by  the  legislation  of  that  body,  I  con- 
fidently assume  that  the  reduction  of  expenditures,  amounting  to 
more  than  $45,000,000,  made  by  this  congress  under  those  authorized 
by  the  51st  congress,  will  meet  the  expectations  of  the  people,  and 
will  elicit  their  cordial  approval. 

' '  To  have  checked  the  biennial  billion-dollar  pace  set  by  the 


108  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

51st  congress  is  an  achievement  in  itself.  To  have  done  not  only  that, 
but  to  have  reduced  the  appropriations  of  the  congress  below  the 
billion  mark,  is  a  triumph  vast  in  its  proportions  and  significant  of  a 
return  to  economical  and  honest  government." 

Mr.  Cannon  presents  the  other  view  of  the  subject. 
His  totals  for  the  last  two  congresses  are  the  same  as  those 
given  by  Mr.  Sayers,  but  his  total  for  the  51st  congress 
is  1988,417,183.     His  official  statement  continues: 

"From  this  statement  it  appears  that  the  appropriations  of  the 
51st  congress,  when  Mr.  Reed  was  speaker  of  the  house,  and  the 
president,  house,  and  senate  were  republican,  were  in  round  num- 
bers $988,000,000;  while  the  appropriations  of  the  52d  congress, 
when  the  liouse  was  democratic  and  Mr.  Crisp  was  speaker,  were  in 
round  numbers  $1,027,000,000;  and  the  appropriations  of  this  con- 
gress, with  president,  house,  and  senate  all  democratic,  are  in  round 
numbers  $990,000,000.  Moreover,  the  late  sale  of  thirty-year  four  per 
cent  United  States  bonds,  the  payment  of  interest  upon  which  is  per- 
manent, swells  the  total  of  appropriations  for  this  and  the  next  fiscal 
year  by  $2,900,000,  making  the  grand  total  actually  appropriated  by 
this  congress  in  round  numbers  $993,000,000.  This  exceeds  the  ap- 
propriations made  by  the  51st  congress — called  by  our  democratic 
friends,  the  '  billion -dollar  congress' — in  round  numbers,  by  $5,000,000. 

' '  This  congress,  furthermore,  in  addition  to  the  actual  increase  of 
appropriations,  has  authorized  public  works  t')  be  done  under  con- 
tract, leaving  the  next  congress  to  make  appropriations  therefor,  as 
follows: 

By  fortification  act: 

Fifty  IS-inch  mortars $325,000 

By  sundry  civil  act: 

Public  buildings $5,260,000 

Lighthouses 210,000 

Revenue  cutter.  Pacific  coast 125,000 

Denver  mint  building 400,000 

Rock  Island  bridge 390,000 

$6,385,000 

By  District  of  Columbia  appropriation  act: 

Sewers $261,764 

By  naval  appropriation  act: 

Two  new  battle-ships,  six  gunboats,  and  three  torpedo- 
boats $9,90.5,000 

Armament  therefor,  which  will  probably  cost 4,810,000 

$14,715,000 

$21,686,764 
"Thus  the  appropriations  and  authorizations  of  this  congress  are 
seen  to  be,  in  round  numbers,  $1,015,000,000." 

The  foregoing  gives  the  actual  appropriations  as  in- 
cluded in  the  bills,  and  the  two  comparative  views. 

Legislation  that  Failed. — Much  of  the  time  of 
congress  was  taken  up  with  discussing  measures  which 
ultimately  failed.  Among  the  most  important  of  these 
were  the  Nicaragua  canal  bill,  which,  after  passing  the 
senate,  died  through  inaction  of  the  house;  the  pooling 
bill;  the  Hawaiian  cable  resolution;  the  bankruptcy  bill; 
and  the  Reilly  bill,  so  called,  for  refunding  the  Pacific 
railroads'  debt. 


END  OF  THE  FIFTY-THIRD  CONGRESS.  109 

Pooling  Bill. — The  pooling  bill  passed  the  house  prior 
to  January  1,  and  its  features  were  fully  explained  in  the 
last  number  of  this  review  (Vol.  4,  p.  805).  After  the 
opening  of  the  new  year  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to 
have  it  considered  by  the  senate,  as  the  railroad  interests 
of  the  country  regarded  it  as  of  grave  importance  that 
they  should  secure  the  right  to  pool,  as  now  prohibited  by 
the  Interstate  Commerce  law.  Senator  Butler  of  South 
Carolina  was  in  charge  of  the  measure,  and  made  repeated 
efforts  to  secure  consideration.  It  aroused  a  bitter  per- 
sonal contest  shortly  before  the  session  closed.  Many 
senators  declared  their  intention  of  "talking  the  bill  to 
death "  if  Mr.  Butler  succeeded  in  getting  it  up.  The 
efforts  to  pass  it  proved  fruitless,  and  it  was  finally  aban- 
doned. 

The  Hawaiian  Cable, — The  Hawaiian  cable  resolution 
was  attached  to  the  diplomatic  and  consular  appropriation 
bill,  by  the  senate.  It  directed  the  president  to  at  once 
expend  ^500,000  in  beginning  the  laying  of  a  cable  from 
California  to  Hawaii,  and  to  contract  for  a  total  expendi- 
ture not  exceeding  $3,000,000.  This  naturally  involved  a 
renewal  of  discussion  of  the  Hawaiian  question,  although 
the  advocates  of  the  resolution  insisted  that  the  cable  is 
essential  on  its  merits.  The  resolution  was  passed  in  the 
senate,  but  the  house  refused  to  accede  to  it.  There  was 
a  long  and  stubborn  conference  between  the  houses;  but 
the  senate  eventually,  yielded,  and  the  cable  item  was 
dropped  from  the  appropriation  bill. 

The  Bankruptcy  Bill.—  The  bankruptcy  bill  was  passed 
by  the  house,  and  discussed  at  much  length  in  the  senate. 
It  was  impossible,  however,  to  bring  the  measure  to  a  vote 
in  the  senate,  owing  to  obstructive  tactics  by  those  oppos- 
sing  it,  and  it  was  finally  necessary  to  abandon  it,  in  order 
to  let  other  pressing  business  secure  a  hearing. 

The  Pacific  Railroads. — The  Pacific  railroads'  refund- 
ing bill  did  not  have  the  prestige  of  passing  either  branch  of 
congress,  being  defeated  in  the  house,  where  it  originated. 
But  it  was  the  subject  of  a  long  and  acrimonious  debate 
in  the  lower  branch  of  congress.  It  was  framed  by  Rep- 
resentative Reilly  of  Pennsylvania,  chairman  of  the  house 
committee  on  Pacific  railroads,  after  committee  hearings 
covering  the  last  year.  It  had,  moreover,  the  approval  of 
Attorney-General  Olney  and  the  government  authorities 
charged  with  collecting  the  vast  debt  due  from  the  sub- 
sidized Pacific  roads.  The  essential  features  of  the  bill 
were  an  extension  of  the  debt  at  a  low  rate  of  interest, 
and  an  increase  of  the  security  to  the  government. 


110 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


The  bill  was  bitterly  assailed,  on  the  ground  that  it 
favored  the  railroads.  In  this  connection  the  cry  of  cor- 
ruption was  raised,  and  it  was  alleged  that  the  Pacific 
roads  were  spending  large  sums  of  money  to  secure  the 
passage  of  the  bill.  This  cry  was  effective  in  surrounding 
the  measure  with  popular  disfavor,  although  the  charges 
were  denied  and  the  parties  responsible  therefor  denounced 
on  the  floor  of  the  house.  The  bill  was  overwhelmingly 
defeated,  and  the  Pacific  railroad  debt  question  was  left 
unsettled  with  the  close  of  congress. 

Aside  from  the  foregoing  important  measures  which 
died  in  various  stages  of  advancement,  there  were  a  number, 
coming  over  from  former  sessions,  which  expired  without 
any  effort  to  pass  them.  Among  these  were  the  four  tariff 
bills,  for  free  iron-ore,  free  sugar,  free  coal,  and  free 
barbed  wire,  known  derisively  as  ''the  pop-gun"  bills 
(Vol.  4,  p.  533).  They  were  passed  by  the  house  at  the 
preceding  session,  and  were  pending  in  the  senate.  It  was 
well  known,  however,  that  the  senate  would  not  pass  them, 
so  they  were  not  taken  up,  and  expired  with  the  end  of  the 
congress. 

PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS. 

The  Public  Debt.— On  April  1  the  balances  of  the 
several  classes  of  the  public  debt  were  as  follows: 

PUBLIC  DEBT,  MARCH  31,  1895. 

Interest-bearing  debt $713,851,960.00 

Debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased  since  maturity 1,770,250.26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest 381,025,096.92 


Total $1,096,647,307.18 

Circulation. — The  amounts  and  kinds  of  money  in 
circulation  and  in  the  treasury  on  April  1,  are  shown  as 
follows : 

MONEY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  APRIL  1,  1895. 


Gold  coin 

Silver  dollars 

Subsidiary  silver 

Gold  certificates 

Silver  certificates 

Treasury  notes 

United  States  notes. . 

Currency  certificates. 

National  bank  notes . , 

Total....; 


In  circula- 
tion. 


$479,493,899 
53,917,857 
59,873,046 
48,843,189 
323,746,756 
121,457,600 
256,935,759 
36,825,000 
203,091,318 


$1,584,184,424 


In  treas- 
ury. 


$88,098,517 

369,009,182 

16.577,511 

84,660 

7,374,748 

28,872,489 

89,745,257 

740,000 

4,449.893 


$604,952,257 


Total. 


$.567,592,416 
422,927,039 
76,450,577 
48,927,849 
331,121,504 
150,330,089 
346,681,016 
37,565,000 
207,541,211 


$2,189,136,681 


The  amount  in  circulation  gives  an  allowance  of  $22.79 
per  capita. 

The  gold  reserve  on  April  1  stood  at  $90,643,307.     On 


BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY.  Ill 

Febrnary  1  the  reserve  had  been  reduced  to  $44,705,967, 
the  lowest  point  reached  since  the  resumption  of  specie 
payments.  This  was  due  to  the  large  exports  abroad  of 
the  yellow  metal,  and  to  the  accumulations  made  by  banks 
in  anticipation  of  another  bond  sale,  and  by  individuals  in 
the  hope  of  selling  it  at  a  premium.  During  February, 
however,  as  the  result  of  a  new  federal  issue  of  bonds,  there 
was  an  increase  of  $42,380,544  in  the  gold  reserve. 

Receipts  and  Expenditures. — The  receipts  and  dis- 
bursements of  the  government  for  the  now-expired  three 
quarters  of  the  current  fiscal  year,  are  shown  as  follows: 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES. 

RECEIPTS. 

Nine  months  end- 
ed March  31,  1895. 

Customs $115,531,962 

Internal  revenue 109,992,656 

Miscellaneous 10,819,148 

Total  receipts $286,346,766 

EXPENDITURES. 

Civil  and  miscellaneous $73,364,733 

War  department 39,545,616 

Navy  department 22,508,006 

Indian  expenses 7,801,429 

Pensions 106.297,455 

Interest 23,359,505 

Total  expenditures $272,876,744 

Excess  of  expenditures  over  receipts $36,529,978 

BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY. 

A  table  is  given  at  the  close  of  this  article  similar  to 
the  one  found  in  the  last  number  of  this  review  (Vol.  4, 
p.  768),  showing  the  prices  of  leading  articles  on  the  1st 
of  February,  March,  and  April,  1895.  A  careful  com- 
parison of  these  tables  and  other  quotations  not  included, 
together  with  the  fact  of  increasing  wages  in  various  in- 
dustries, made  without  agitation  on  the  part  of  workmen, 
justify  the  statement  that  a  steady  industrial  revival  has 
set  in.  The  number  of  business  failures  in  the  United 
States  during  the  quarter  were  3,812,  with  liabilities 
amounting  to  $26,571,132,  as  against  3,969  with  $26,748,- 
770  liabilities  for  the  same  period  in  1894.  The  apparent 
decrease  is  small  (only  about  four  per  cent),  owing  to  the 
heavy  rate  of  commercial  failures  in  January,  while  in 
fact  there  were  greatly  reduced  totals  each  week  after 
February  1.  Connecticut  alone,  of  the  Eastern  states,  re- 
ports a  larger  number  of  failures  than  for  the  correspond- 
ing quarter  of  last  year.  In  New  York,  owing  to  bank 
failures  in  Binghamton,  a  heavy  failure  in  the  malt  busi- 


112  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  ist  Qr-,  1896. 

ness  in  Buffalo,  and  other  causes  not  attributable  to  gen- 
eral business,  the  aggregate  of  debts  was  60  per  cent 
greater  than  last  year,  with  only  five  more  failures.  Tak- 
ing the  states  in  groups,  failures  for  the  quarter,  compared 
with  a  year  ago,  decreased  in  the  Northeastern,  Middle, 
Western,  and  Pacific  states  and  the  territories,  increased 
in  the  Southern  states,  and  in  the  Northwestern  states 
were  almost  exactly  the  same  in  number.  The  bank  clear- 
ings for  the  quarter  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

BANK  CLEARINGS,  FIRST  QUARTER,  1895. 


January  . , 
February. 
March 


Totals. 


4,407,134.364 


New  York 
City. 


2,394,672,414 


3,384,615,518  l,8(yl,441,227 
4,038,235,073,2,240,741,015 


78  other  cities 
reporting. 


2,012.481,950 
1,520,174,291 
1,797,494,058 


January  showed  the  lowest  average  of  prices  for  all 
commodities  ever  known,  and  the  lowest  monthly  average 
ever  known  for  cotton,  wool,  iron,  and  silver.  Prices  of 
wheat,  corn,  and  flour  were  well  held  during  the  first  half  of 
the  month;  but  upon  foreign  advices  and  favorable  news 
regarding  the  growing  crop,  trade  was  heavy  during  the 
last  half  of  the  month.  Cotton  averaged  for  January, 
5. 70^  against  5.74  in  December  and  8.07  in  January,  1894. 
Large  sales  of  wool  for  possible  future  use  continued  dur- 
ing the  month,  the  total  at  three  chief  markets  being  23,- 
157,065  pounds  against  25,727,150  in  1893.  Shipments  of 
boots  and  shoes  from  Boston  were  for  the  month  328,646 
cases  against  304,197  in  1893;  but  future  orders  were  not 
heavy,  owing  to  advance  in  prices  made  to  meet  higher 
prices  on  hides.  Bar  and  structural  iron  were  in  good  de- 
mand, but  lower  rather  than  higher  prices  prevailed. 
Prices  of  coal  were  well  maintained  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  month.  The  market  for  stocks  and  bonds 
during  January  was  irregular  and  generally  lower.  Gran- 
gers were  well  supported  in  anticipation  of  the  passage  of 
the  railroad  pooling  bill.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
month  the  market  was  generally  active. 

During  February  there  was  some  speculation  in  cotton, 
caused  partly  by  reports  from  the  South,  of  a  probable  de- 
crease in  acreage.  Wheat  was  generally  dull  throughout 
the  month,  but  improved  toward  its  close  under  the  influ- 
ence of  unfavorable  prospects  for  the  crop  in  France  and 
an  estimated  decrease  in  the  Avorld's  visible  supply,  of 
about  10,700,000  bushels.  A  more  hopeful  feeling  was  re- 
ported among  Eastern  manufacturers  of  iron  and  steel, 
and  the  Iron  Age  reported  that  the  largest  steel  company 


BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY.  113 

in  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  had  bought  during  the  month  over 
50,000  tons  of  Bessemer  pig  iron  at  $9.95  to  110.05  per  ton, 
which  seemed  to  indicate  that  prices  had  touched  bottom. 
Speculation  in  stocks  and  bonds  was  chiefly  confined  to  in- 
dustrials during  the  early  part  of  February.  Railroad 
stocks  having  an  international  market  were  fairly  firm 
until  the  middle  of  the  month,  when  there  was  free  selling 
of  the  grangers  on  reports  that  the  pooling  bill  would  be 
defeated. 

Improvement  began  in  the  cotton  market  soon  after 
the  adjournment  of  congress  on  March  4,  on  reports  of 
the  intended  reduction  of  acreage  in  the  South,  and  to  the 
effect  that  foreign  operators  were  apprehensive  of  reduced 
plantings.  The  market  gradually  grew  active  and  strong, 
stimulated  by  the  general  improvement  in  business;  and, 
at  the  close  of  March,  middling  uplands  sold  at  BtV  against 
5t^  at  the  opening  of  the  month.  The  decrease  in  the 
world^s  visible  supply  during  the  month  was  about  250,000 
bales.  It  is  also  worth  noting  that  the  weight  of  cotton  bales 
this  year  averages  504.27  pounds  against  496.28  in  1894,  and 
499.09  in  1893.  The  wheat  market  fluctuated  during  the 
month,  strengthened  on  the  one  hand  by  government  crop  re- 
ports, the  condition  of  the  French  crop,  and  reports  of  severe 
drought  in  the  winter  wheat  belt,  and  weakened  by  for- 
eign advices.  The  market  closed  strong.  At  the  close  of 
March  it  was  reported  that  the  weekly  production  of  coal 
was  in  excess  of  the  requirements,  and  that  coal  was  accumu- 
lating at  the  shipping  ports.  An  agreement  looking  to 
more  harmonious  action  was  arrived  at  by  the  bituminous 
coal  producers,  and  the  anthracite  companies  met  to  con- 
sider plans  for  the  equitable  distribution  of  business  and 
a  revision  of  the  percentage.  There  was  an  advance  of 
from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  above  prices  of  last  year  on 
Lake  Superior  Bessemer  ore;  and  some  large  sales,  aggre- 
gating 3,000,000  tons,  were  closed  during  the  last  week  of 
March.  Coke  advanced  to  $1.35;  and  this,  together  with 
the  advance  in  ore,  means  nearly  seventy-five  cents  added 
cost  per  ton  to  manufacturers  of  Bessemer  pig  iron.  A 
very  decided  advance  in  stocks  and  bonds  during  the  third 
week  of  March  followed  an  irregular  though  generally 
strong  market,  which  advance  was  easily  accounted  for  by 
the  change  in  the  financial  situation,  brought  about  by  the 
bond  issue.  The  "boom"  in  petroleum,  which  shot  the 
price  up  to  $2.80  about  the  middle  of  April,  had  only  just 
begun  at  the  close  of  the  quarter.  Aside  from  this  specu- 
lative boom,  prices  advanced  very  slowly. 

Vol.  5.-8. 


114  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

Forecasting  the  future,  a  writer  in  the  New  York 
Herald  says: 

"It  is  probable  that  in  some  lines  of  trade  the  rates  of  profit  in 
years  past  to  manufacturers  and  merchants  were  higher  than  those 
having  capital  invested  had  a  right  to  expect.  It  is  difficult  for  the 
manufacturer  and  merchant  to  realize  that,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
creased amount  of  capital  we  have  at  our  command,  and  the  compe- 
tition in  business  that  is  going  on,  the  old  rates  of  profit  are  hardly 
likely  to  be  again  realized.  The  investor  in  the  shares  of  the  Boston 
&  Albany  railroad  considers  that  he  is  getting  all  that  he  has  a  right 
to  expect  if  he  obtains  four  per  cent  per  annum  on  the  price  that  he 
has  to  pay  for  his  stock;  but  twenty-five  years  ago  he  expected  about 
twice  this  amount  of  interest,  and  the  stock  sold  approximately  on 
that  basis.  In  the  same  way,  our  manufacturing  corporations  will 
have  to  consider  that  four  and  five  rather  than  eight  or  ten  per  cent 
net  returns  is  the  basis  of  a  fair  return;  and  so,  in  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness of  buying  and  selling,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  day  is  gone  by 
when  in  a  safe  line  of  trade  large  returns  can  be  secured  upon  the  in- 
vestment of  relatively  small  capital." 

GENERAL  PRICES  FOR  MERCHANDISE  ON  DATES  NAMED. 


Feb.  1, 1895.  Mar.  1, 1895.  Apr.  1, 1895. 


Cotton,  middling  uplands,  lb 
Wool,  Ohio  fleece  XX,  lb. . . . 
Wheat,  No.  2  red  winter,  bu. 

^rn.  No.  2  mixed,  bu 

Oats,  No.  2  mixed,  bu 

Pork,  mess,  100  lbs 

Lard,  prime  western,  lb 

Iron,  pig.  No.  1  Am.,  ton 

Petroleum,  crude,  bbl 


5fc 

18c 

56fc 

461c 

33-34ic 

$11.25-11.75 

$6.65 

$11.50-12.50 

$1.0U 


5  9-160 

18c 

59c 

49fc 

334c 

|$11. 25-12.00 

$6.75 

$11.50-12.50 

$1,051 


6  7-16C 

18c 

60  jc 

56o 

334-33}.J 

$13.50-13.75 

$7.30 

$11.50-12.50 

$1.14 


THE  ARMY. 

Grade  of  Lieutenant-General.— On  February  2 
the  house  passed  the  senate  bill  reviving  the  grade  of 
lieutenant-general,  for  the  benefit  of  Major-General  John 
M.  Schofield,  who,  as  senior  major-general,  has  been  in 
command  of  the  army  of  the  United  States  since  the 
death  of  General  Sheridan  in  1888.  The  senate  bill 
originally  provided  that  the  revived  grade  should  "expire 
and  be  of  no  effect  after  the  grade  shall  have  once  been 
filled  and  become  vacant."  The  house,  however,  amended 
the  bill,  making  it  permanent  in  the  case  of  the  senior 
major-general  of  the  army,  in  the  discretion  of  the  presi- 
dent. 

The  high  rank  of  this  grade,  and  the  limited  number 
of  men  who  have  been  honored  with  its  bestowal,  seem 
at  this  time  to  call  special  attention  to  those  who  have  here- 
tofore filled  the  office.  The  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
was  first  authorized  by  congress  on  May  28,  1798,  and 
conferred  on  General  Washington.     It  was  not  conferred 


THE  ARMY.  115 

again  till  1855 — by  brevet — on  General  Winfield  Scott,  in 
acknowledgment  of  "eminent  services"  as  major-general 
in  the  war  with  Mexico.  General  Grant  next  received  the 
honor  in  1864,  in  which  position  he  continued  to  serve  till 
July  25,  1866,  when  the  highest  grade,  general,  was 
created  for  him,  and  General  William  T.  Sherman  suc- 
ceeded to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  General  Philip 
Sheridan,  the  last  on  the  list,  was  promoted  to  the  grade 
March  4,  1869,  following  General  Sherman,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded again  as  general  in  1884.  Finally  in  May,  1888, 
congress  passed  a  bill  to  discontinue  the  grade  of  lieuten- 
ant-general and  to  merge  it  into  the  highest  grade  of 
*^  General  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States,''  with  the 
provision  that  the  grade  should  continue  only  during  the 
lifetime  of  General  Sheridan.  With  his  death,  in  1888,  the 
grade  expired.  The  present  act  providing  for  its  revival 
and  the  promotion  of  Major-General  Schofield,  has  met 
with  universal  approval.  Senior  Brigadier-General  Thomas 
H.  Ruger  will  now  be  promoted  to  the  grade  of  major-gen- 
eral. 

RuGER,  Thomas  Howard,  major-general  United  States  army, 
was  born  at  Lima,  N.  Y.,  April  3,  1833,  and  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1854.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he  was  prompt  to 
oifer  his  services,  entering  as  lieutenant-colonel,  but  through  "gal- 
lant and  meritorious  service "  securing  promotions  until  he  reached 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  before  the  close  of  the  war.  He  has 
been  in  continuous  service  since,  and  has  always  shown  sound  judg- 
ment and  soldierly  capacity. 

Inspector-General's  Report.  —  General  Breckin- 
ridge submitted  his  annual  report  on  February  11,  from 
which  we  glean  as  follows:  The  general  condition  of  all 
garrisoned  posts  is  good,  but  many  important  points  on 
our  seacoast  are  practically  defenseless.  In  this  connec- 
tion, special  reference  is  made  to  the  present  use  of  Fort 
Jefferson  as  a  quarantine  station,  which  he  characterizes 
as  being  no  better  than  a  national  pest-house;  and  he  rec- 
ommends that  no  time  be  lost  in  removing  every  obstacle 
to  its  proper  occupation,  whether  a  garrison  be  ordered  to 
it  or  not.  Fort  Jefferson  is  situated  on  one  of  the  Florida 
keys,  and  is  generally  recognized  as  a  valuable  military 
and  naval  base,  but  has  been  practically  abandoned  to  its 
fate  for  many  years. 

The  inspector-general  specially  commends  the  courage^ 
intelligence,  and  discipline  of  the  army,  as  shown  in  con- 
nection with  the  labor  troubles  of  1894,  and  particularly 
of  the  15th  infantry,  who  were  actively  engaged  through  the 
Chicago  riot  at  the  time  of  the  great  railroad  strike.   Con- 


116  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

cerning  the  subjects  of  organization  and  drill  regulations, 
which  have  been  very  prominently  before  the  war  depart- 
ment during  the  last  year,  complaint  is  made  that  they 
have  not  been  brought  into  accord,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
all  bills  introduced  into  congress  for  this  purpose  either 
expired  or  remained  in  committee.     He  says: 

**  The  organization  of  the  infantry  and  their  drill  regulations  are 
by  no  means  in  harmony.  In  anticipation,  no  doubt,  of  early  and 
favorable  action  by  congress  on  the  organization,  the  present  drill 
regulations  were  compiled.  They  are  based  on  the  theory  of  three 
battalions  and  large  companies.  They  have  now  had  nearly  two 
years  of  trial,  and  for  some  purposes,  even  of  war,  are  believed  by 
some  to  b^  ill  adapted  to  the  present  organization,  if  not  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  our  soldiers." 

Recommendation  is  made  that  more  captains  be  de- 
tailed for  college  duty.  The  administration  of  the  Mili- 
tary Academy  is  highly  praised,  and  the  report  adds: 

"Some  of  the  congressional  districts  have  had  no  representatives 
at  West  Point  for  several  years.  In  the  state  of  Illinois  the  record 
shows  that  nine  of  the  twenty-two  authorized  appointments  have  not 
been  filled.  The  ninth  district  of  Tennessee  appears  to  have  had  no 
representative  at  West  Point  for  over  five  years.  When  we  consider 
the  large  expense  of  maintaining  the  necessary  instructors  and  garri- 
son of  this  school,  it  is  most  important  that  the  corps  of  cadets  should 
be  kept  as  nearly  complete  as  possible. " 

Among  the  general  recommendations  affecting  the 
army.  General  Breckinridge  makes  the  following: 

"Veterinary  hospitals  at  the  larger  cavalry  posts  would  prolong 
the  lives  of  animals;  target  practice  should  embrace  firing  at  movable 
targets;  occasional  hot  food  and  sleeping-cars  are  suggested  for  long 
travels;  the  smallest  sum  received  by  the  pay  department  from  en- 
listed men  for  deposit  is  still  too  high,  and  should  be  reduced  to 
$1 ;  suitable  books  and  a  better  system  are  sadly  needed  by  the  army 
schools,  for  '  no  civilized  army  probably  has  a  less  effective  school 
system  for  enlisted  men  than  ours;'  barracks  should  be  bright,  cheer- 
ful, and  inviting." 

Regarding  manoeuvres,  the  report  has  the  following: 

"Troops  may  be  brought  to  an  admirable  state  of  perfection  in 
marching  and  drilling;  but  if  they  lack  the  experience  and  mobility 
that  can  only  be  had  in  camp  under  warlike  conditions,  they  may  be 
far  from  ready  to  meet  the  foe  effectively.  The  distinctive  quality 
of  soldiers  is  their  ability  to  act  effectively  en  masse  under  all  circum- 
stances, according  to  the  will  of  one  man.  A  camp  of  the  consoli- 
dated troops  of  several  states  is  suggested.  With  the  present  rate 
of  shrinkage  in  the  ranks  of  our  veteran  oflacers  who  are  able  to 
handle  large  bodies  of  troops,  there  will  soon  be  no  one  left  possessed 
of  experience  gained  in  the  late  war.  Our  standing  army  is  too  scat- 
tered to  permit  the  concentration  of  a  corps  into  one  camp  without 
great  expense,  but  never  too  much  so  as  to  be  able  to  attend  in  lim- 
ited numbers  a  consolidated  encampment  of  several  states.  Money 
could  not  be  expended  for  a  better  and  wiser  military  purpose." 


THE  NAVY.  117 

The  New  Judge- Advocate-  General. — The  promotion  of 
Giiido  Norman  Lieber  to  the  highest  grade  in  the  judge- 
advocate-generaFs  department  of  the  army  makes  no 
change  in  his  duties,  as  he  has  been  at  the  head  of  his 
corps  since  the  suspension  of  General  Swaim.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  recognition  of  the  ability  with  which  he  has  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  the  office,  in  which  he  bore  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  a  department  chief  without  being  granted 
the  rank  and  privileges  which  belong  with  them.  To  the 
place  of  colonel  and  assistant  judge-advocate-general,  ren- 
dered vacant  by  the  promotion  of  General  Lieber,  has  been 
advanced  William  Winthrop,  brother  of  Theodore  Win- 
throp,  the  soldier-author. 

THE  NAVY. 

Armor  Tests. — A  most  interesting  test  of  Carnegie 
armor  plate  was  made  at  the  Indian  Head  proving  ground 
February  21.  The  managers  of  the  Carnegie  company 
had  conceived  the  idea  that  the  resistance  of  a  Harveyized 
plate  might  be  increased  by  reheating  and  rolling  so  as  to 
toughen  its  texture  and  minimize  its  internal  strains,  be- 
fore spraying  with  ice  water,  as  is  done  in  the  surface- 
hardening  process.  The  experiment  was  tried  on  a  17- 
inch  plate  which  had  been  reduced  to  14  inches  by  the 
"  new  process."  This  plate,  with  the  usual  wood  backing, 
was  subjected  to  the  test  ordinarily  given  to  a  14-inch 
plate.  In  the  first  shot  the  projectile,  fired  from  a  10-inch 
gun,  with  a  striking  velocity  of  1,859  feet  a  second,  pene- 
trated to  a  depth  of  about  seven  inches,  and  was  shattered. 
The  plate,  although  struck  point-bl^nk  by  a  shell  having  the 
highest  penetrating  velocity  required  under  service  con- 
ditions, was  practically  uninjured,  no  cracks  of  any  sort 
being  developed. 

In  the  second  shot,  a  500-pound  Carpenter  projectile 
was  used,  with  enough  additional  explosive  behind  it  to  give 
a  velocity  of  1,940  feet  a  second;  but  again  no  crack  ap- 
peared, and  the  projectile  crumbled  to  pieces. 

A  third  shot  from  a  12-inch  gun,  with  420  pounds  of 
powder,  which  gave  a  velocity  of  1,858  feet  a  second,  and 
a  striking  energy  of  20,370  foot  tons,  bored  a  hole  through 
the  plate,  but  failed  to  develop  even  a  radial  fracture. 

No  further  tests  were  made  as  it  had  been  satisfactorily 
demonstrated  that  this  14-inch  plate  was  better  than  the 
17-inch  plates  used  on  the  Indiana,  Oregon,  and  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Some  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether  the  pro- 


118  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

cess  used  in  the  manufacture  of  this  plate  is  really  new  as 
was  at  first  claimed  for  it,  attention  being  called  to  an 
order  of  the  department  given  to  Carnegie,  Phipps  &  Co. 
in  1891,  calling  for  two  nickel-steel  plates,  both  of  which 
were  to  be  treated  by  the  Harvey  process  at  a  thickness  of 
twelve  and  one-half  inches,  and  then  reduced  to  ten  and 
one-half  inches  and  hardened.  Whether  or  not  this  latest 
test  means  a  return  to  the  first  ideas  advanced  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Harvey  process,  it  has  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, and  seems  to  mark  an  important  step  in  the  making 
of  armor  plates.  A  saving  of  two  inches  on  the  exposed 
parts  of  a  modern  war-ship  means  hundreds  of  tons  at  least, 
to  be  replaced  with  additional  guns,  coal,  etc.,  thus  greatly 
increasing  the  efficiency  and  endurance  of  the  l3attle-ship  in 
active  service.  Further  developments  in  this  line  will  be 
looked  for  with  interest,  for,  as  stated  by  John  G.  A.  Leish- 
man,  president  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company: 

"The  making  of  armor  plate  is  in  its  infancy;  and  it  now  seems 
to  have  been  reduced  to  a  race  between  the  steel  manufacturers  in  the 
countries  building  war- ships,  as  to  who  will  soonest  attain  the  highest 
perfection  in  the  art  of  producing  these  plates." 

On  March  11  a  plate  representing  a  315-ton  group  of 
18-inch  Carnegie  Harveyized  armor,  designed  for  the 
Oregon,  was  subjected  to  the  required  tests  at  Indian  Head, 
with  most  satisfactory  results.  The  first  projectile  fired 
was  broken  up  without  causing  any  injury  to  the  plates, 
while  the  second  or  ^^penetration  shot"  penetrated  only 
about  seven  inches;  and,  although  a  crack  was  developed 
under  this  shot,  the  result  was  declared  to  be  satisfactory, 
since  the  projectile  had  failed  to  pierce  the  plate. 

An  experimental  plate  manufactured  by  the  Mid  vale 
Steel  Company  under  what  is  known  as  the  Chase-Gannet 
process,  was  tested  also  with  a  six-inch  gun  and  a  100- 
pound  projectile.  The  shell  was  stopped  and  broken  up, 
but  the  plate  was  so  badly  cracked  that  only  one  shot  was 
fired.  Another  test,  upon  which  depended  the  accept- 
ance of  650  tons  of  armor  for  the  Oregon  and  Iowa  from 
the  Bethlehem  Iron  Company,  was  made  at  Bethlehem, 
Penn.,  on  March  30.  After  two  shots  had  been  fired,  the 
first  for  the  cracking  test,  the  second  for  penetration,  the 
ordnance  board  declared  themselves  highly  pleased  with 
the  result,  and  accepted  the  plates. 

Naval  Changes. — James  A.  Greer,  president  of  the 
Naval  Examining  and  Retiring  Board,  and  senior  rear-ad- 
miral of  the  navy,  was  placed  on  the  retired  list,  February 
2S,  he  having  reached  the  age  limit. 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  119 

Greer,  James  A.,  rear-admiral  United  States  navy,  was  a  lieu- 
tenant on  the  8an  Jacinto  when  Captain  Wilkes,  in  command  of  that 
vessel,  fired  on  the  British  steamer  Trent  on  November  8,  1861;  and 
it  was  he  who  was  selected  to  head  a  force  and  remove  from  the 
Trent,  after  she  hove  to,  the  confederate  commissioners  James  Murray 
Mason  and  John  Slidell.  Soon  after  this  affair,  Lieutenant  Greer  was 
commissioned  lieutenant-commander  and  was  assigned  to  the  sloop 
of  war  St.  Louis.  He  was  later  in  charge  of  the  Bejiton  at  the  time 
of  the  passage  of  the  Vicksburg  batteries. 

Rear-Admiral  Greer's  retirement  promotes  Commo- 
dore William  A.  Kirkland,  who  has  been  acting  rear-ad- 
miral in  command  of  the  European  station,  and  places 
Rear-Admiral  George  Brown  at  the  head  of  the  list. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

The  Brooklyn  Trolley  Strike.— The  great  strike  of 
the  street  railway  employes  in  Brooklyn  made  the  latter 
half  of  January  memorable  in  that  city  for  tumult,  blood- 
shed, destruction  of  property,  and  injury  to  business. 
While  in  considerable  portions  of  the  town  there  were 
no  signs  of  the  conflict,  other  and  large  portions  were 
swept  by  successive  waves  of  riot  and  of  military  force. 
The  strike,  ordered  by  the  Knights  of  Labor,  began  on 
Monday,  January  14,  and  continued  as  an  active  disturb- 
ance for  sixteen  days,  lingering  weakly  for  days  there- 
after. It  involved  the  forty-eight  trolley  lines  that  radiate 
from  the  Brooklyn  bridge,  with  their  5,500  men  employed 
on  the  cars  and  at  the  electric-power  stations. 

Probably  no  other  great  city  presents  so  fully  as 
Brooklyn  the  conditions  for  success  in  a  street-railway 
strike.  A  very  large  proportion  of  its  residents  journey 
to  and  fro  daily  between  their  homes  and  their  business 
in  New  York,  availing  themselves  of  the  quiet,  the  fresh 
air,  and  the  cheaper  rents  of  Brooklyn — the  rents  decreas- 
ing as  distance  from  the  bridge  increases.  The  long,  nar- 
row Manhattan  island,  with  its  chief  business  interests 
largely  localized  at  its  southern  end  opposite  Brooklyn, 
makes  that  city,  with  its  broad  area,  the  most  accessible 
region  for  the  necessary  overflow  of  population.  This 
ever-increasing  multitude  of  residents  depends  chiefly  on 
the  trolley  railways  for  its  daily  transit.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  companies  in  this  great  system  will  be  shown 
later  in  this  article. 

Early  in  January  the  men  demanded  that  a  working- 
day  should  consist  of  ten  hours'  work  during  twelve  suc- 
cessive hours  of  time;  that  the  five  minutes  of  waiting  for 
passengers  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  every  trip  should 


120  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  isor,. 

be  reckoned  as  part  of  the  ten  liours'  work;  and  tliat  tlie 
pay  for  each  working-day  shouhl  be  raised  (according  to 
promise)  from  12  to  $2.25.  Moreover,  lest  the  companies 
should  attempt  an  unfair  saving  by  putting  on  an  unduly 
large  number  of  extra  men  at  ^1.50  per  day  to  take  the 
place  of  the  men  regularly  employed,  they  demanded  that 
the  extra  men,  who  on  occasion  are  called  in  to  run  the 
** trippers^*  (or  one- trip  cars),  should  be  limited  in  num- 
ber. They  demanded  also  that  the  time-tables  should 
under  no  circumstances  require  a  speed  exceeding  ten 
miles  an  hour.  These  demands  they  maintained  by  the 
assertion  that  the  companies  were  receiving  more  and 
expending  less  than  under  the  former  system  when  horses 
were  used,  and  that  the  work  of  managing  a  heavy  and 
swift  electric  car  is  much  more  exacting  than  that  of  driv- 
ing a  horse  car.  To  these  demands  the  companies  replied, 
asserting  their  heavy  indebtedness  and  the  unfavorable 
condition  of  their  business,  and  refusing  the  advance  in 
wages;  claiming  their  right  to  hire  as  many  extra  men  as 
they  saw  fit;  denying  the  propriety  of  paying  full  wages 
for  the  running  of  *' trippers; '' throwing  on  the  men  all 
responsibility  for  speed  exceeding  ten  miles  an  hour;  and 
declaring  it  unjustifiable  to  reckon  as  working  time  the 
five  minutes  of  waiting  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  every 
one  of  many  hundred  daily  trips. 

It  was  early  expected  that  this  strike,  however  just  in 
its  original  basis,  and  however  well  intended  on  the  part  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  men  engaged  in  it,  would 
rapidly  follow  the  usual  course  of  great  strikes  and  de- 
generate into  riot.  The  companies  notified  the  mayor 
that  their  property  might  need  special  protection,  and  he 
issued  orders  to  the  police,  calling  for  vigilance  and  vigor 
as  against  all  disturbance  of  the  peace.  The  strikers  who 
gathered  around  the  various  starting-places  of  the  cars 
were  mingled  with  crowds  of  idle  and  rough  men  who  ap- 
peared as  sympathizers.  The  cars  were  obstructed  by 
dense  masses  thronging  on  the  tracks;  stones  and  other 
missiles  were  hurled  through  car  windows;  the  police 
seemed  powerless  to  open  the  way  for  the  cars  to  proceed. 
Men  who,  to  keep  their  families  from  starving,  consented 
to  take  the  places  of  the  strikers,  were  assaulted,  merci- 
lessly bruised  and  beaten,  and  in  several  cases  nearly 
killed.  On  Tuesday,  January  15,  the  second  day,  a  mob 
of  5,000  attacked  the  police  at  the  Atlantic  avenue  depot; 
but  here  the  mounted  police  succeeded  in  clearing  the 
way.     The  tumult  spread  daily,  the  mobs  grew  larger,  and 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  1^1 

the  violence  more  threatening;  and  on  the  fifth  day  the 
mayor,  declaring  the  inability  of  the  police  force — which 
indeed  had  not  gained  great  credit  for  efficiency — to  sup- 
press the  riot  and  keep  the  tracks  clear  for  traffic,  made 
requisition  for  the  militia.  The  Second  brigade  of  the 
national  guard  was  immediately  ordered  out,  and  several 
lines  of  railway  were  reopened.  On  Saturday  night,  the 
19th,  the  mob  at  the  East  New  York  stables  was  so  per- 
sistent in  violence  that  the  soldiers  were  compelled  to 
charge  five  times  upon  them,  wounding  a  dozen  persons. 
The  mayor,  having  vainly  attempted  to  bring  the  strike 
to  an  end  by  arbitration,  and  the  aspect  of  affairs  becom- 
ing more  threatening,  requisition  was  made  on  Governor 
Morton  for  more  troops,  and  the  First  brigade  crossed  the 
river  from  New  York  Sunday  night,  adding  4,000  soldiers 
to  the  2,500  already  out.  Portions  of  the  city  presented 
war  scenes — barricades  on  the  streets,  cavalrv  dashes  (for 
the  splendid  Troop  A  was  among  the  force  from  New 
York),  nightly  camp-fires  on  the  highways,  large  march- 
ing bodies  of  soldiery.  At  last  the  soldiers  found  it  neces- 
sary to  fire  their  first  volley,  when  two  policemen  had 
been  shot  by  a  furious  mob  on  the  Gates  avenue  line. 
That  mob  dispersed.  From  this  time  the  riot  began  to 
decrease,  and  the  authority  of  law  was  by  degrees  reas- 
serted. On  Wednesday  twenty-two  of  the  forty-eight 
lines  were  reopened  for  travel.  Various  minor  conflicts 
occurred  thereafter,  with  a  few  fatal  results;  but  the  strike 
was  waning  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  railways  were 
rapidly  procuring  new  men  to  fill  the  strikers'  places. 

On  January  29  the  strikers,  virtually  though  not  in 
terms  acknowledging  defeat,  made  conditional  proposals 
to  return  to  work.  On  the  previous  day  the  New  York 
troops  had  received  orders  to  break  camp  and  return  to 
their  homes.  These,  and  the  Brooklyn  soldiers,  had 
shown  under  trying  circumstances  every  desirable  military^ 
quality, — discipline,  endurance,  dashing  courage,  kindly' 
forbearance.  The  leaders  of  the  strike  delayed  till  five 
weeks  from  its  beginning  to  recognize  by  their  formal 
declaration  its  actual  ending;  but  many  of  the  men  were 
quietly  seeking  to  regain  their  former  places  before  others 
should  apply  for  and  obtain  them.  Many  who  were  less 
prompt  in  their  return  had  occasion  to  mourn  the  loss  of 
all  their  means  of  livelihood.  It  is  computed  that  the 
strikers  lost  1225,000  in  wages,  and  that  the  companies 
lost  1750,000  in  business,  besides  the  great  damage 
through  destruction  of  their  property.     More  than  1,000 


122  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

cars  were  damaged.  There  were  more  than  500  arrests. 
The  total  loss  to  Kina^s  county  will  probably  amount  to 
$1,500,000. 

A  curious  episode  was  the  alternative  writ  of  7timi- 
damus,  allowing  twenty  days  for  an  answer,  given  by 
Judge  Gaynor  of  the  Kings  county  supreme  court,  com- 
pelling one  of  the  companies  to  put  its  lines  into  opera- 
tion, or  to  show  cause  wherefore  its  charter  should  not  be 
declared  forfeited.  This  was  warmly  commended  by 
many;  but  was  criticized  by  others,  as  merely  announcing 
a  sound  principle — that  the  company  was  bound  to  pro- 
vide the  public  with  efficient  transit,  while  ignoring  the 
fact  that  the  principle  was  inapplicable  in  this  case,  inas- 
much as  the  company  was  entitled  to  protection  under  law 
from  violence  which  would  make  its  traffic  impossible. 
In  the  final  decision,  tliis  writ  left  the  case  virtually  un- 
changed. 

The  victory  in  this  strike  rested  with  the  companies, 
aiid,  according  to  the  general  decision,  it  rested  where  it 
belonged.  Yet,  undeniably,  public  sentiment  was,  and  is, 
far  from  justifying  the  companies  in  their  action.  The 
public  had  reason  to  believe  that  the  companies  were  de- 
termined to  wring  from  their  5,500  hard-working  em- 
ployes a  sum  sufficient  to  pay  interest  on  a  great  fictitious 
capital.  The  general  understanding  was  tliat  nearly  all 
the  companies,  having  grouped  themselves  under  the  title 
Brooklyn  City  Railroad  Company,  whose  bonded  indebted- 
ness was  $3,000,000  and  its  paper  capital  $3,000,000,  had 
increased  this  $6,000,000  indebtedness  to  $18,000,000,  of 
which  $6,000,000  was  bonded  and  $12,000,000  was  paper 
capital.  This  increase  was  asserted  to  be  caused  by  the  ex- 
pensive change  from  horse  to  electric  power.  Then,  as  it 
is  understood,  this  great  railway  system  was  leased  for  999 
years  to  a  company  (with  paper  capital  of  $200,000)  that 
owned  less  than  a  mile  of  track  running  to  Wall  street 
ferry,  known  as  the  Brooklyn  Heights  Railroad  Company 
— this  little  company  agreeing  to  pay  the  interest  on  the 
$18,000,000  above  noted,  and  to  pass  all  the  surplus  to  its 
stockholders.  Then,  as  it  is  understood,  those  in  control 
of  this  company  procured  in  West  Virginia  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  Long  Island  Traction  Company  with  a  capital 
of  $30,000,000;  and,  by  turning  over  to  this  new  corpora- 
tion the  stock  certificates  ($200,000)  of  the  little  Brooklyn 
Heights  Company,  poured  into  it,  through  that  company, 
all  surplus  earnings  of  the  Brooklyn  City  Company.  The 
whole  procedure  was  unquestionably  legal.     But  it  was 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  123 

felt,  whether  justly  or  not,  that  the  struggle  to  pay  the 
interest  on  such  a  capital,  supposedly  in  part  fictitious, 
would  necessarily  tend  to  the  reducing  of  all  wages  to 
their  lowest  and  meanest  terms.  Thus  the  public  sym- 
pathy was  with  the  strikers  before  they  struck,  and  in  the 
earliest  stages  of  the  strike. 

But  scarcely  a  day  had  passed  before  the  strike  was  lost 
in  a  riot,  wrecking  the  peace  of  the  city,  defying  law,  and 
involving  wild  outrage  and  murder.  If  there  is  any  one 
sentiment  more  American  than  any  other,  it  is  that  law 
must  be  upheld.  Every  other  issue  is  adjourned  till  this 
supreme  issue,  involving  the  very  life  of  the  civil  state,  is 
settled.  The  strikers  suffered  themselves  to  drift  into 
violent  lawlessness,  and  lost  their  cause.  Whatever  meth- 
ods may  be  open  for  underpaid  workmen  to  use  to  gain  jus- 
ter  treatment,  it  is  evident  that  the  method  of  a  great 
general  strike,  with  its  idleness,  its  confusion,  its  excite- 
ment of  fierce  passions,  its  rallying  of  the  roughest  and 
most  dangerous  elements  of  the  population  in  a  pretended 
sympathy  with  the  strikers,  is  almost  inevitably  a  failure. 

New  York  Building-Trades  Strike.— This  move- 
ment began  on  February  18,  with  about  900  electrical 
workers  in  New  York,  on  denial  of  their  demand  that  the 
eight-hour  rule  should  immediately  be  given  effect.  They 
claimed  to  have  sent  to  the  contractors  the  ninety  days' 
notice  requisite  for  a  change  in  the  working-rules;  but  the 
contractors  asserted  that  the  notice  was  never  received, 
and  offered  to  make  the  desired  change  on  May  15.  The 
emphasis  of  the  workers'  complaint  was  not  on  the  low- 
ness  of  their  wages — 13  per  day,  while  men  in  other  trades 
get  13.50  and  more,  although  the  electrical  workers  rank 
as  skilled  mechanics — but  on  the  fact  that  only  they  among 
workmen  in  the  building  trades  are  compelled  to  work 
more  than  eight  hours  daily.  On  February  21,  the  Master 
Builders'  Association  and  other  building-trades  unions,  act- 
ing through  the  board  of  walking  delegates,  made  the 
strike  a  sympathetic  one  by  calling  out  the  men  employed 
in  various  departments  on  a  number  of  the  largest  build- 
ings under  construction  in  the  city.  On  February  26, 
about  4,000  men,  employed  on  about  ten  great  buildings, 
were  on  strike;  and  there  was  a  menace  that  all  organized 
labor  in  New  Y^ork,  Brooklyn,  and  Jersey  City  would  be 
brought  into  the  movement.  An  offer  of  arbitration 
through  Mrs.  Josephine  Shaw  Lowell  of  the  New  York 
council  of  conciliation  and  mediation,  was  not  accepted. 

On  March  1  the  Master  Masons'  Association,  the  chief 


124 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


1st  Qr.,  189!). 


contractors  on  all  great  buildings,  whose  support  had  been 
sought  by  both  parties,  took  sides  definitely  with  the  elec- 
trical contractors,  censuring  the  walking  delegates  for  call- 
ing a  '^  sympathetic  strike  of  all  trades  because  of  difficul- 
ties existing  in  one,"  and  urging  their  sub-contractors  to 
employ  non-union  labor  if  necessary  to  their  work.  From 
this  time  the  strike,  with  local  successes  and  local  de- 
feats, gradually  extend- 
ed, till  on  March  20  be- 
tween 7,000  and  8,000 
men  were  idle.  On  several 
great  constructions  the 
contractors — needing  to 
expedite  their  work  — 
made  special  temporary 
compromises  with  their 
workmen.  On  March  19, 
on  invitation  from  the 
council  of  conciliation  and 
mediation,  a  committee  of 
the  walking  delegates, 
with  two  master  builders, 
met  members  of  the  coun- 
cil in  a  conference  at 
Bishop  Potter's  house. 
An  agreement  was 
reached,  and  the  strike  was  declared  off  on  March  20. 

The  agreement  thus  happily  secured  involved  some 
concession  on  both  sides:  it  provided  that  on  the  build- 
ings where  strikes  had  occurred  only  union  men  should  be 
employed  on  and  after  March  25,  and  that  the  electrical 
contractors  should  grant  the  eight-hour  day  on  and  after 
May  1.  Thus,  the  only  gain  to  the  workmen  for  all  their 
losses  by  the  strike  was  but  two  weeks  out  of  the  thirteen 
weeks'  delay  in  bringing  the  eight-hour  rule  into  effect. 
Several  small  strikes  outstanding  in  the  building  trades 
were  settled  successively.  Nearly  1,000  marble  cutters 
resumed  work  on  March  29. 

The  New  Orleans  Outrage.— The  antagonism  of 
race,  long  fostered  by  slavery,  added  its  bitterness  to  a  labor 
quarrel  in  New  Orleans  which  has  been  taking  form  and 
force  for  half  a  year.  A  Series  of  outrages  culminated  in 
a  most  brutal  and  murderous  riot  on  the  levee  on  March 
12.  In  recent  years  the  complaint  has  been  frequent  that 
the  heavy  charges  at  that  port  for  loading  cotton  on  ships 
were  driving  commerce  away.     The  excessive  charges,  due 


BISHOP  HENRY  C.  POTTER  OB"  NEW  YORK. 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  125 

largely  to  the  employment  of  stevedores  as  middlemen, 
were  upheld  by  many  of  the  ship  agents  because  of  a  rebate 
paid  them  by  the  stevedores;  and  this  combination  stub- 
bornly resisted  all  proposals  from  a  number  of  the  ^'  screw- 
men"  to  reduce  charges  by  loading  the  vessels  directly. 
The  labor  unions  became  involved  in  the  quarrel,  which 
developed  into  a  strike  so  extensive  that  a  large  number  of 
shipowners  were  employing  negroes,  who  were  fully  capa- 
ble and  anxious  to  work,  as  substitutes  for  the  striking 
longshoremen.  The  evident  elements  of  peril  in  the  situ- 
ation should  have  put  the  authorities  on  their  guard  in 
protection  of  any  citizens  in  their  legal  right  to  work  for 
a  living.  In  the  early  morning  a  mob  of  about  300  men, 
with  pistols  and  Winchester  rifles,  suddenly  descended 
upon  the  helpless  negroes  on  the  levee,  and  fired  volley  after 
volley  (about  200  shots  in  all,  it  is  said),  killing  or  seri- 
ously wounding  about  twenty  men.  Five  deaths  resulted. 
A  white  man,  James  A.  Bain,  purser  of  the  British  ship 
Engineer,  which  the  negroes  were  about  to  load,  was 
wounded,  perhaps  fatally — an  unfortunate  incident  which 
was  made  the  subject  of  an  inquiry  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. The  movements  of  the  murderous  party  showed 
organization  and  leadership.  The  police  being  powerless  to 
cope  with  the  disturbance,  the  governor  of  Louisiana,  act- 
ing with  commendable  promptness,  called  out  the  troops  to 
the  number  of  1,000,  put  the  levee  under  guard,  and  de- 
clared his  purpose  to  maintain  order  and  to  protect  the 
rights  of  all  citizens.  The  New  Orleans  council  of  com- 
mercial bodies  immediately  met  and  issued  a  most  vig- 
orous and  unsparing  condemnation  of  the  outrage  and  of 
all  who  sympathized  with  it,  and  a  stern  expression  of 
their  purpose  at  every  hazard  and  at  whatever  cost  to  pro- 
tect all  law-abiding  workingmen  of  whatever  color.  The 
labor  unions,  though  now  restrained  by  military  power, 
adhere  to  their  protest  against  non-union  labor. 

Coal-mining  Strikes.— At  Massillon,  Ohio,  a  strike 
of  coal  miners  was  ended  by  resolutions  adopted  in  a  mi- 
ners' convention  on  January  16,  conditional  on  the  rein- 
statement of  all  the  strikers.  The  action  was  rendered 
imperative  by  the  prevailing  destitution.  From  various 
points  in  Ohio,  miners  called  for  relief  for  themselves  and 
their  families.  The  city  of  Akron  responded  in  aid  of 
towns  in  its  county  by  starting,  in  a  few  hours,  several 
wagon-loads  of  ])rovisions.  The  miners  are  willing  to 
work  at  the   wages  offered,  but  the  drivers  refuse. 

In  Pennsylvania,  on  March  6,  the  strike  of  10,000  or 


126  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

more  miners  in  the  Pittsburg  railroad  coal  region  had 
fully  begun.  A  proposition  by  the  operators  for  a  joint 
convention  at  Pittsburg  of  miners  and  operators  was  voted 
down  in  the  miners'  convention.  At  the  middle  of  March 
the  strike  had  spread  rapidly,  the  men  demanding  an  ad- 
vance from  55  cents  to  69  cents  a  ton.  Most  of  the  mine 
owners  had  yielded,  and  out  of  22,000  miners  17,000  had 
secured  the  advance. 

Eight-hour  Law  for  Women. — From  the  highest 
appellate  court  in  Illinois  there  issued,  in  the  latter  part  of 
March,  a  remarkable  decision  concerning  legislative  re- 
striction of  work  by  women.  The  decision — affecting,  it  is 
said,  about  40,000  women — was  rendered  in  a  friendly  test 
case  arising  under  the  law  passed  about  two  years  ago 
against  sweat-shops.  In  that  law  the  chief  provision  was 
the  establishing  of  eight  hours  as  the  legal  workday  for 
women  in  factories.  The  supreme  court  declares  the  law 
void,  because  of  its  depriving  women  of  their  constitu- 
tional right  to  make  contracts  for  themselves,  and  because 
of  its  conflict  with  the  prohibition  by  the  state  constitu- 
tion of  the  taking  the  life,  liberty,  or  property  of  any  citi- 
zen, without  due  process  of  law.  The  discrimination  made 
by  this  law  on  account  of  sex  the  court  decides  to  be  with- 
out authority,  inasmuch  as  in  Illinois  the  woman's  consti- 
tutional right  to  make  contract  and  to  dispose  of  property 
is  equal  to  the  constitutional  right  of  the  man.  The  argu- 
ment of  the  attorney-general,  that  the  law  is  a  proper  ex- 
ercise of  the  undeniable  police  power  of  the  state  in  the 
interest  of  public  health,  so  vitally  affected  by  woman 
through  motherhood,  is  met  by  the  court's  declaration 
that  this  power  can  be  applied  in  the  interest  only  of  the 
general  health  of  the  community,  not  in  the  interest  of 
the  health  of  a  selected  class.  Jurists  have  not  yet  been 
largely  heard  from  on  this  remarkable  decision;  but  the 
practical  lay  mind  will  probably  require  some  instruction 
in  order  to  see  either  its  constitutional  basis  or  the  logical 
force  of  its  argument.  One  Chicago  journal  ironically 
suggests  that  this  decision  will  gratify  the  *'new  woman," 
by  its  upholding  of  the  right  of  her  sex  to  work,  and  by  its 
treating  women  exactly  as  if  they  were  men,  sweeping  away 
all  safeguards  against  the  destruction  of  their  health  and 
that  of  their  children.  Of  various  questions  that  suggest 
themselves  is  the  question,  why,  if  it  be  unconstitutional  in  a 
law  to  treat  women  as  a  class,  it  should  be  constitutional  in  a 
law  to  exempt  or  prevent  women  from  joining  the  army  as 
common  soldiers?     Moreover,  how  far  is  to  be  carried  the 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  127 

restriction  of  the  right  of  employer  and  employed  to  con- 
tract for  what  hours  of  labor  they  may  agree  upon,  on  the 
alleged  ground  that  such  a  restriction  conflicts  with  the 
constitutional  right  of  every  man  to  make  his  contract  for 
himself  and  to  sell  his  time  and  other  property  at  his  own 
discretion  ?  Are  all  protective  laws  regarding  hours,  places, 
conditions  of  labor,  to  be  declared  unconstitutional  inva- 
sions of  the  citizen's  liberty?  It  has  been  asked  whether 
the  supreme  court  of  Illinois,  upholding  the  great  constitu- 
tional principle  of  a  man's  right  to  sell  his  time,  would  up- 
hold his  action  in  selling  himself  into  slavery  for  the  rest 
of  his  life?  Questions  of  this  sort  will  be  asked  by  lay- 
men; the  answers  may  come  from  jurists. 

Strikes,  Arbitration,  Etc. — The  multiplicity  of 
strikes,  with  the  great  public  detriment  which  they  in- 
volve and  the  public  dangers  which  they  reveal,  have 
evoked  general  discussion.  Plans  of  various  kinds  are 
proposed  for  their  prevention,  or  for  composing  them  or 
assuaging  their  violence.  Of  these  plans,  two  have  an  of- 
ficial origin.  The  New  York  State  Board  of  Mediation  and 
Arbitration,  pursuant  to  an  order  of  the  legislature,  re- 
ported to  that  body  on  February  8  its  investigation  of  the 
Brooklyn  trolley  strike.  The  report,  presenting  no  dis- 
covery of  any  specific  cause  for  the  trouble  beyond  what  is 
publicly  known,  finds  the  primary  cause  of  this  strike,  as 
of  all  strikes  of  its  type,  to  be  in  the  fact  that  the  legislature, 
in  creating  railway  corporations  with  their  public  func- 
tion of  transporting  persons  and  property,  has  neglected 
to  provide  for  a  stable  and  efficient  service  of  operating 
forces  on  the  principles  essential  to  the  purpose  for  which 
the  corporations  were  created.  The  state  board — claim- 
ing for  the  state  the  right  to  use  every  power  requisite  to 
a  satisfactory  public  transport  service — proceeds  to  report 
a  plan,  not  for  arbitrating  but  for  preventing  railway 
strikes — a  plan  to  bind  alike  in  mutual  obligations  both 
employer  and  employe,  in  outline  as  follows: 

"1.  Declare  the  service  of  railroad  corporations  created  by  the 
state  a  public  service, 

"  2.  Entrance  into  sucli  service  to  be  with  agreement  for  a  defi- 
nite period,  upon  satisfactory  examination  as  to  mental  and  physical 
qualifications. 

' '  3.  Resignation  or  dismissal  from  such  service  for  ordinary  cause 
to  be  permitted,  to  be  stated  in  writing,  and  filed  with  some  desig- 
nated authority,  and  to  take  effect  after  the  lapse  of  a  reasonable  and 
fixed  period,  with  proviso  for  summary  resignation  or  dismissal  for 
extraordinary  cause,  to  be  stated  and  filed  in  like  manner. 

' '  4.  Wages  to  be  established  at  the  time  of  entry,  and  changed  only 
by  mutual  agreement,  or  decision  by  arbitration  of  a  board  chosen  by 


128  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  189& 

the  company  and  employes,  or  by  a  state  board,  or  through  the  ac- 
tion of  both,  the  latter  serving  as  an  appellate  body.  Other  differ 
ences  that  may  arise  to  be  settled  in  like  manner. 

"5.  Promotions  to  be  made  upon  a  system  that  may  be  devised 
and  agreed  upon  by  both  parties,  with  the  aid  of  a  state  board  if  ne 
cessary. 

"6.  Any  combination  of  two  or  more  persons  to  embarrass  or 
prevent  the  operation  of  a  railroad  in  the  service  of  the  people,  a  mis 
demeanor;  and  any  obstruction  of ,  or  violence  toward,  a  railroad  serv 
ing  the  public,  endangering  the  safety  of  life  and  property,  a  felony, 
with  punishment  of  adequate  severity. 

"7.  Establishment  of  a  beneficiary  fund  for  the  relief  of  em- 
ployes disabled  by  sickness  or  accident,  and  for  the  relief  of  their 
families  in  case  of  death,  as  is  done  upon  the  lines  of  a  number  of 
railroad  corporations  in  other  states. 

"8.  Membership  in  a  labor  union  shall  not  be  used  as  a  bar  against 
the  employment  of  competent  workmen  by  a  railroad  corporation 
created  by  the  state." 

The  report  also  suggests  a  law  requiring  applicants  foi 
motormen's  positions  to  pass  an  examination  testing  their 
sight  and  hearing. 

Noticeable  in  the  plans  above  outlined  is  the  full  recog- 
nition of  the  right  of  workmen  to  act  collectively  through 
labor  unions,  together  with  the  clear  declaration  that  any 
act  of  violence,  of  forcible  obstruction,  or  of  intimida- 
tion, whether  done  collectively  or  by  an  individual,  is  a 
crime.  Noticeable,  further,  is  the  growing  tendency  to 
place  railways  in  a  category  apart  from  ordinary  manufac- 
turing concerns,  and  to  assert  some  degree  of  governmental 
supervision  over  them  as  involving  wide  and  momentous 
public  interests.  Indeed,  in  regard  to  strikes  in  whatever 
business,  when  they  threaten  to  swell  into  great  public 
disturbance,  their  settlement  begins  to  be  viewed  as  de- 
volving not  merely  on  the  two  parties  originally  involved 
— the  employed  and  the  employer — but  on  these  in  con- 
junction with  society  itself  as  represented  in  the  civil 
state,  the  government  having  the  function  of  fully  hearing 
both  parties,  and  then  of  taking  some  part  whose  nature 
is  not  yet  definitely  prescribed,  in  the  decision  of  a  settle- 
ment. 

The  American  Federation  of  Labor,  in  convention  at 
Denver,  Col.,  December  10-18,  adopted  a  platform  whose 
planks  in  their  final  amended  form  are  as  follows: 

1.  Compulsory  education. 

2.  Direct  legislation,  through  the  initiative  and  the  referendunu. 

3.  A  legal  eight -hour  workday. 

4.  Sanitary  inspection  of  workshop,  mine,  and  home. 

5.  Liability  of  employers  for  injury  to  health,  body,  or  life. 

6.  The  abolition  of  the  contract  system  in  all  ])ublic  work. 

7.  The  abolition  of  the  sweating  system. 


SPORTING.  129 

8.  The  nuinicipal  ownership  of  street  cars  and  gas  and  electric 
plants  for  public  distribution  of  light,  heat,  and  power. 

9.  The  nationalization  of  telegraphs,  telephones,  railroads,  and 
mines. 

10.  The  abolition  of  the  monopoly  system  of  land-holding,  and 
substituting  therefor  a  title  of  occupancy  and  use  only. 

11.  Repeal  all  conspiracy  and  penal  laws  affecting  seamen  and 
other  workmen,  incorporated  in  the  federal  and  state  laws  of  the 
United  States. 

12.  The  abolition  of  the  monopoly  privilege  of  issuing  money, 
and  substituting  therefor  a  system  of  direct  issuance  to  and  by  the 
people. 

This  platform  may  be  compareil  with  tlie  program  of 
the  independent  labor  party  of  England.  (See  article 
'*  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  in  this  number.) 

SPORTING. 

Football  is  par  excellence  the  game  of  American  college 
students;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  when  played  without 
the  unseemly  disorders  which  have  marked  some  recent 
contests,  it  is  productive  of  much  good,  morally  as  well  as 
physically.  Its  advocates  do  not  venture  to  deny  that  as 
actually  played  of  late  in  intercollegiate  meetings  the 
game  has  had  objectionable  features  which  require  elim- 
ination. It  has  encroached  perhaps  too  much  upon  the 
time  which  young  men  in  college  are  supposed  to  devote 
to  study,  and  has  certainly  been  accompanied  with  dis- 
plays of  unmanly  and  brutal  conduct,  neither  uplifting  to 
participants  nor  edifying  to  spectators.  The  central  ques- 
tion, therefore,  for  all  interested  in  the  game,  is  how  to 
eliminate  the  offensive  features.  In  order  to  avoid  the 
evils,  is  it  necessary  or  advisable  for  the  older  and  perhaps 
wiser  heads  in  the  colleges  to  prohibit  the  sport  entirely? 

The  faculty  of  Harvard  College  on  March  19  placed 
themselves  on  record  as  in  favor  of  prohibiting  intercol- 
legiate football  games.  It  appears  that  at  a  previous  meet- 
ing certain  recommendations  for  the  restriction  of  the 
game  had  been  made  by  the  Athletic  Committee — a  body 
instituted  in  1888  by  the  corporation  of  the  university  to 
have  control  over  all  athletic  matters,  subject  to  the 
corporation,  and  influenced,  but  not  directed,  by  the  fac- 
ulty of  arts  and  sciences.  The  committee  suggested  re- 
forms along  three  lines: 

1.  Reduction  of  excessive  training. 

3.  Reduction  of  notoriety,  publicity,  and  expenditure. 

o.  Elimination  of  the  objectionable  features  of  the  game  itself. 

By  limiting  the  playing  season  to  ten  weeks  in  the  fall, 

Vol.  5.-9. 


130  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr..  1895. 

restricting  contests  to  home  grounds,  limiting  the  sale  of 
tickets  to  undergraduates  and  ahwini,  and  revising  the 
rules  of  play,  the  committee  thought  that  the  desired  re- 
forms could  be  accomplished;  and  they  requested  the  fac- 
ulty to  give  the  game  another  year's  trial  under  these  re- 
strictions. The  request,  however,  was  refused,  the  fol- 
lowing being  the  resolution  adopted  on  March  19: 

"The  faculty,  having  received  and  considered  a  communication 
from  the  Committee  on  the  Regulation  of  Athletic  Sports,  dated  Feb- 
ruary 25,  1895,  remain  of  the  opinion  that  no  student  under  their 
charge  should  be  permitted  to  take  part  in  intercollegiate  football 
contests. " 

NOTABLE  CRIMES. 

Financial  Defalcations. — Defalcations  by  trusted 
financial  employes  were  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of 
the  criminal  record  of  the  quarter.  Most  notable  was 
that  connected  with  the  name  of  W.  W.  Taylor,  state 
treasurer  of  South  Dakota,  discovered  in  the  early  part 
of  January.  It  seems  that  during  the  panic  of  1893 
Taylor  used  state  funds  to  bolster  up  the  now  defunct 
bank  at  Gettysburg,  in  which  he  was  interested,  and  to 
aid  several  other  institutions.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
loaned  public  money  to  various  state  officials.  Investiga- 
tion showed  that  when  it  became  evident  that  he  could 
not  square  his  accounts,  there  were  several  others  who, 
cognizant  of  his  shortage,  conspired  with  him  to  seize  all 
the  money  and  property  in  the  state  treasury  and  banks, 
and  to  place  it  where  the  state  could  not  find  it.  From 
evidence  gathered,  Attorney-General  Crawford,  on  Febru- 
ary 27,  swore  out  a  complaint  charging  D.  K.  Tenny,lawyer, 
of  Chicago,  John  T.  McChesney  of  New  York,  Charles  H. 
Wells,  and  Charles  T.  McCoy,  a  leading  politician  of 
South  Dakota,  with  conspiracy  with  Taylor  to  rob  the 
state  of  $367,000.  Taylor  was  reported  arrested  at  Vera 
Cruz,  Mexico,  March  13. 

About  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  above  crime,  it 
was  also  found  that  Isaac  F.  Abbott,  cashier  of  the  Dover 
(N.  H.)  National  bank,  was  a  defaulter  to  the  amount 
(estimated)  of  $80,000.  He  committed  suicide. — A  few  days 
later,  about  January  18,  it  was  discovered  that  the  Mercan- 
tile National  bank,  New  York,  had  been  swindled  out  of 
$144,000  by  one  E.  0.  Quigley,  a  bond  broker  of  that  city. 
— Charles  M.  Hughes,  Jr.,  ex-cashier  of  the  First  National 
bank  of  Lima,  0.,  was  arrested  January  28  on  a  charge  of 
misappropriating  $140,000  of  the  funds  of  the  bank. — On 


NOTABLE  CRIMES.  131 

February  12  it  was  made  public  that  there  was  a  shortage 
of  about  $360,000  in  the  accounts  of  Rufus  Ramsey,  late 
treasurer  of  the  state  of  Illinois,  at  the  time  of  his  death 
in  November,  1894,  when  the  office  was  transferred  to  his 
son  for  the  remainder  of  the  term  by  Governor  Altgeld. 

Traill  Robberies. — An  express  car  on  a  ''Cotton 
Belt''  train  near  McNeill,  Ark.,  was  plundered  of  about 
125,000  by  two  masked  men  on  the  night  of  January  25. 
— On  the  night  of  January  30  several  masked  men  held  up 
a  west-bound  overland  train  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  Com- 
pany, and  rifled  the  safe  in  the  express  car  of  about  110,- 
000. — On  March  30  the  north-bound  Oregon  express  train 
was  held  up  near  Marysville,  Cal.,  by  two  men.  They  had 
secured  the  valuables  of  the  passengers  in  one  car,  when 
they  were  attacked  by  Sheriff  J.  J.  Bogard  of  Tehama 
county,  who  was  a  passenger  in  one  of  the  sleepers.  In 
the  fight  Bogard  and  one  of  the  robbers  were  fatally  shot, 
and  the  fireman  seriously  wounded. 

Murders. — On  February  2  Dr.  Horace  Elliot  Pope, 
dentist,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  was  murdered  by  William  Brus- 
seau,  a  barber  and  nurse.  The  wife  of  the  victim  is 
charged  with  implication  in  the  crime,  the  motive  of 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  the  desire  to  secure  the 
large  insurance  which  the  deceased  carried. 

The  murder  of  Miss  Catharine  Ging  at  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  on  December  3,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  832),  was  followed 
by  the  arrest  of  Harry  T.  Hayward,  charged  with  being 
the  prime  mover  in  the  crime.  The  trial  excited  great 
interest,  and  ended  March  8  in  a  verdict  of  guilty.  On 
March  11  Hayward  was  sentenced  to  death.  It  was  shown 
that  he  was  a  professional  gambler;  that  he  laid  the  plot 
to  murder  Miss  Ging  in  order  to  procure  the  life  insur- 
ance which  she  carried  payable  to  him;  and  that  the 
actual  shooting  was  done  at  Hayward's  instigation,  by 
Claus  A.  Blixt,  janitor  of  the  flats  in  which  Hayward  had 
rooms. 

The  noted  case  of  the  murder  of  Montgomery  Gibbs,  the 
young  lawyer  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  who  was  shot  on  the  night 
of  April  28,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  362),  was  revived  early  in  the 
present  year  by  the  arrest  of  Clarence  Robinson  and  his 
wife  Sadie,  charged  with  the  crime.  It  appears  that  these 
two  started  out  on  the  night  in  question  with  the  inten- 
tion of  committing  highway  robbery;  that  they  attempted 
to  rob  Gibbs,  and  that  he  resisted  and  was  shot.  Most 
damaging  statements  were  made  by  the  accused  both  be- 
fore and  after  their  arrest,  but  there  was  no  evidence  posi- 


132  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

tively  and  directly  connecting  them  with  the  crime.  The 
circumstantial  links  of  evidence  were,  however,  so  strong 
that  on  March  21  the  jury  found  Clarence  Robinson 
guilty  of  murder  in  the  second  degree,  and  his  wife  guilty 
of  manslaughter  in  the  first  degree.  Clarence  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  his  wife  to  imprison- 
ment for  twenty  years,  both  at  hard  labor. 

The  notorious  desperado  "Bill"  Cook  was  captured  in 
Lincoln  county,  New  Mexico,  January  11,  by  Sheriff 
Perry  of  Chavez  county.  On  February  12  he  was  sen- 
tenced, for  numerous  crimes,  to  fifty  years'  imprisonment. 
On  February  8  two  of  his  confederates,  said  to  be  the  last 
of  the  ''gang,''  were  killed  while  attempting  a  robbery  at 
Catoosa,  I.  T. 

According  to  trustworthy  statistics,  the  number  of 
lynchings  last  year  averaged  about  four  a  week.  The 
states  in  which  these  crimes  have  been  committed  are  Ne- 
braska, Louisiana,  Georgia,  Kansas,  North  Carolina,  West 
Virginia,  and  Mississippi.  One  of  the  most  notable  things 
in  connection  with  this  species  of  lawlessness  has  been  the 
refusal  of  Judge  Buckwalter  of  Ohio  to  honor  a  requisi- 
tion for  a  colored  man  from  the  governor  of  Kentucky 
unless  he  received  some  guarantee  that  the  man  should 
have  a  fair  trial.  The  judge  based  his  action  on  the  fact 
that  a  few  months  ago,  when  he  returned  a  fugitive  to 
that  state,  the  man  was  lynched  immediately  after  his  ar- 
rival in  Kentucky. 

AFFAIRS  IN  TARIOUS  STATES. 

New  York. — Manicijjal  Reform. — Municipal  reform 
in  New  York  city  has  commanded  public  attention 
throughout  the  state,  eclipsing  all  the  ordinary  political 
questions.  Through  the  first  three  months  of  1895  the 
city  has  been  a  political  storm  centre.  The  frightful 
abuses  which  had  first  been  dragged  out  of  hiding  by  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Crime  under  the  leadership 
of  Rev.  Dr.  Parkhurst,  and  had  then  under  the  Lexow 
committee's  investigation  been  traced  as  woven  through 
the  whole  fibre  of  great  municipal  departments,  had  been 
felt  as  a  shame  and  a  shock  by  the  whole  community. 
Partisanship  had  been  set  aside,  and  the  fierce  public  virtue, 
newly  aroused,  had  demanded  and  made  possible  in  last 
November  the  first  real  election  in  the  city  for  years.  Men 
that  were  voters  actually  troubled  themselves  to  go  to  the 
polls  and  vote,  being  encouraged  by  the  assurance  that 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES. 


183 


their  votes  would  not  be  officially  questioned  as  fraudulent, 
iior  hindered  by  a  violent  and  drunken  throng  with  police 
collusion,  nor  rendered  nugatory  by  false  returns.  With 
the  sunset  of  that  day,  it  was  felt  that  a  tidal  wave  from 
the  great  deep  of  justice  had  come  in,  and  that  every 
lurking-place  of  organized  crime,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  was  to  be  washed  clean  with  the  beginning  of  the 
new  year.  So  much 
of  recent  history,  al- 
ready beginning  to 
seem  ancient,  must 
be  recalled  for  a  pro- 
per  estimate  of  the 
intenseness  of  the 
past  quarter's  dis- 
pute. 

Reformers  are  al- 
ways in  haste,  as  they 
need  to  be  and  should 
be  if  worthy  of  the 
name;  but  it  is  his- 
toric that  a  grand 
reform  of  a  long- 
standing abuse  is 
never  in  haste,  but 
is  provokingly  delib- 
erate— one  of  the 
slowest  of  all  things 
registered  by  scien- 
tific observers.  In 
this  case  the  abuse 
had  been  throu gh 
many  years  sending  its  ramifying  roots  deep  and  wide 
through  the  whole  field  of  city  and  state  political  life. 
Mayor  Strong  had  been  elected  by  a  combination  of 
various  parties  on  the  distinct  pledge  of  a  non-partisan 
administration  which  should  exclude  national  politics 
from  municipal  government.  Yet,  as  he  was  an  ear- 
nest republican,  and  republican  votes  had  been  far  the 
largest  factor  in  his  election,  and  as  that  party  had 
swept  the  state  with  a  bewildering  victory,  ending  the 
democratic  control  of  many  years  with  the  election  of 
Governor  Morton  by  an  unprecedented  majority,  the  old 
republican  state  leaders  with  their  party  organization  as- 
serted their  claim  to  a  decisive  influence  as  of  old,  not 
only  in  the  state,  but  also  in  the  city  politics.     It  was 


MAYOR   STRONG  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


134  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qi-.,  1895. 

early  seen  that  this  claim  was  not  entirely  lacking  in 
power  of  enforcement,  for,  without  acts  passed  by  the 
state  legislature  undoing  the  mischievous  bonds  of  law  by 
aid  of  which  the  city  had  long  been  held  in  corrupt  hands, 
the  mayor  of  New  York  would  have  had  little  practical 
power  for  wide  and  deep  reform.  Thus  the  old  state 
leaders  may  naturally  have  believed  themselves  able  to 
bring  the  usual  party  influence  to  bear  on  the  mayor,  whose 
non-partisan  pledges  in  the  city  campaign  they  had  never 
joined  in.  Another  element  of  trouble  was  in  the  fact 
that  the  republican  party  in  tlie  state  of  New  York  was, 
and  had  long  been,  in  two  factions,  divided  not  on  princi- 
ples but  on  personal  leadership;  and  the  faction  which 
had  possession  of  the  regular  party  organization  were  in  a 
mood  to  demand  that  the  rival  faction  should  have  small 
recognition  in  municipal  appointments  to  be  made  by  the 
mayor.  Enough  has  now  been  said  to  show  how — with- 
out at  this  point  making  any  charge  of  dishonest  intention 
— the  strong-willed  and  astute  republican  leaders,  accus- 
tomed to  manage  political  machinery,  to  control  men, 
and  to  decide  important  affairs,  might  be  tempted  to  per- 
suade themselves  that  they  were  doing  a  necessary  public 
service  by  saving  for  their  party  the  results  of  its  splendid 
victory;  and  that  for  this  great  end  they  were  ready  to 
attach  men  to  their  policy  by  appealing  to  so  petty  a  mo- 
tive as  the  spirit  of  faction  within  their  party,  and  to  so 
sordid  a  motive  as  the  desire  for  the  honors  and  emolu- 
ments of  office.  It  is  not  strange,  then,  that  they  should 
be  openly  charged  (as  they  are)  with  holding  back  in  the 
legislature  the  enactments  which  would  make  possible  the 
various  reforms  for  which  the  city  of  New  York  is  pleading 
as  a  captive  for  the  striking  off  of  his  chains.  The  pleading 
indeed  has  passed  into  denunciation.  This  quick  denuncia- 
tion of  all  legislators  who  have  not  been  ready  instantly  to 
vote  for  all  bills  sent  up  from  the  reform  leaders  in  the  city, 
may  be  an  instance  of  that  haste  which  often  hinders  re- 
form, inasmuch  as  on  one  or  two  points — for  instance  a  bi- 
partisan police  board — there  is  undeniably  an  honest  differ- 
ence of  opinion  among  men  who,  for  a  noble  cause,  are 
ready  to  throw  faction  and  party  to  the  winds. 

An  additional  element  of  great  difficulty  in  the  legisla- 
tive situation  is  the  striking  fact  that  the  bills  to  end  the 
sway  of  Tammany  in  New  York  and  to  bring  in  a  fully 
non-partisan  administration  must  be  passed,  if  at  all,  by 
a  partisan  vote.  The  democratic  legislators,  especially  in 
the  senate,  are  almost  solidly  against  all  such  laws.     In 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  135 

the  assembly,  with  its  great  republican  majority,  their 
opposition  may  be  of  little  moment;  but  in  the  senate 
the  republican  majority  is  very  small,  while  the  demo- 
cratic minority  is  large,  alert,  and  full  of  resources.  At 
any  time  the  absence  through  illness  of  two  or  three 
republicans,  with  the  defection  of  one  or  two  others, 
might  leave  the  senate  without  a  majority  to  enact  any 
non-partisan  reform  bills.  It  is  evident  what  an  oppor- 
tunity is  thus  given  to  any  hidden  agency  for  those  polit- 
ical "deals"  which  have  been  so  much  feared  and  sus- 
pected. 

Among  numerous  reforms  demanded  by  the  movement 
in  New  York  city  which  overthrew  Tammany  and  elected 
Mayor  Strong,  the  four  following  were  the  most  important: 

(1).  The  vesting  in  the  mayor  the  power  of  removal  of  incumbents 
of  the  prominent  municipal  offices. 

(2).  The  reorganization  of  the  department  of  police. 
(3).  The  reform  of  the  police-courts. 
(4).  The  reform  of  the  public  schools. 

Bills  for  the  requisite  legislation  in  beginning  and  per- 
fecting these  and  some  other  reforms,  were  carefully  pre- 
pared by  persons  appointed  by  and  acting  for  the  various 
organizations  of  citizens  that  had  introduced  and  guided 
the  new  movement.  These  bills  were  intrusted  to  capa- 
ble men  for  presentation,  advocacy,  and  explanation  before 
the  proper  committees  of  the  legislature.  The  Committee 
of  Seventy,  which  had  been  prominent  in  the  campaign  of 
last  autumn,  intrusted  to  its  sub-committee  of  ten  much 
of  this  preparation  to  gather  the  practical  fruits  of  the 
victory  at  the  polls;  but  several  other  reform  organizations 
contributed  willing  and  ardent  help.  All  this  required 
through  several  months  a  great  amount  of  time  and  labor, 
which  was  freely  given. 

The  bill  giving  the  mayor  of  New  York  city  the  power 
of  removal  of  various  administrative  and  other  officials, 
which  was  introduced  into  both  legislative  houses  on  Jan- 
uary 2,  passed  the  assembly  with  little  delay.  After  some 
hindrance  in  the  senate,  it  was  finally  passed,  and  was 
signed  by  the  governor  on  February  11.  The  mayor 
promptly'  used  his  new  powers.  Within  a  few  days  he 
announced  appointments  on  the  civil  service  commission 
and  for  public  parks'  commissioners,  calling  to  these  of- 
fices eminent  citizens  evenly  divided  in  number  between  the 
two  parties.  He  made  also  two  notable  appointments  to 
places  having  most  lucrative  patronage,  which  excited 
sharp  discussion — William  Brookfield  for  commissioner  of 


136 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


public  works,  and  Francis  M.  Scott  for  corporation  counsel. 
Mr.  Brookfield,  recently  nominated  for  chairman  of  the  re- 
publican county  committee,  had  been  defeated  by  Mr.  Lau- 
terbach,  a  republican  of  the  other  and  so-styled  ''  regular" 
faction  representing  the  old  party  leaders.  Mr.  Scott  was 
a  well-known  democrat  who,  in  both  the  regular  and  the 
independent  factions  of  that  party,  had  been  an  intense 

opponent  of  repub- 
licanism. These  two 
appointments,  prais- 
ed by  the  reform  ele- 
ment  in  the  city, 
roused  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  old  repub- 
lican leaders;  and  un- 
doubtedly the  eleva- 
tion of  Mr.  Scott  to 
an  office  of  such  polit- 
ical  influence  was 
coldly  submitted  to, 
rather  than  wel- 
comed, by  earnest  re- 
publicans through- 
out the  state.  From 
this  time  the  opposi- 
tion on  the  part  of 
some  republicans  in 
the  legislature,  re- 
sulting in  the  delay 
of  enactments  for 
non-partisan  reform, 
may  be  considered  to 
have  become  more 
bitter  and  more  defi- 
nite. Ex-Senator  Thomas  C.  Piatt,  long  credited  with 
the  control  of  this  faction,  went  so  far  as  to  charge  pub- 
licly that  Mayor  Strong,  in  appointing  Mr.  Brookfield, 
had  broken  faith,  having  promised  to  consult  Mr.  Piatt 
before  appointing  to  that  office.  Mayor  Strong  calmly 
but  emphatically  denied  making  any  such  promise,  and 
asserted  that  he  had  merely  consented  to  consider  sug- 
gestions from  Mr.  Piatt  as  from  several  other  persons 
of  wide  political  experience.  Mr.  Piatt  and  his  follow- 
ers were  displeased  also  by  the  mayor's  appointment  of 
Mr.  A.  D.  Andrews  to  the  important  office  of  police  com- 
missioner in  place  of  John  C.  Sheehan.     The  new  com- 


HON.  THOMAS  C.   PLATT, 

LEADER  OF  THE  REPUBLICAN  PARTY 

IN    NEW  YORK    STATE. 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  137 

missioner,  a  West  Point  graduate,  but  of  late  a  practic- 
ing lawyer  in  the  city,  was  warmly  commended  by  some 
of  the  highest  officials  in  the  army;  he  was  a  democrat, 
but  never  active  in  politics.  About  this  time  the  echoes 
of  what  might  be  called  a  public  secrecy  began  to  be 
heard,  to  the  effect  that  all  further  reform  enactments  at 
Albany  would  be  held  waiting  till  the  mayor  had  seen  the 
error  of  his  ways.  It  is  true  that  they  have  been  waiting; 
the  mayor  probably  sees  that  it  is  true,  also,  that  there  is 
time  to  come. 

Report  of  Lexoic  Police  Investigatmg  Committee. — The 
reorganization  of  the  police  department  has  made  no  prog- 
ress other  than  such  as  is  involved  in  what  may  be  called 
the  preliminary  survey  developing  the  obstacles  that  it 
must  meet.  The  Lexow  Police  Investigating  Committee 
presented  to  the  public  its  report  on  January  17. 

This  report,  from  the  republican  majority  (the  democratic  minor- 
ity refusing  to  sign  it),  after  outlining  the  scandalous  facts  elicited  in 
the  investigation,  and  denouncing  Tammany  Hall,  proceeds  to  sub 
mit  to  the  senate  enactments  for  reform  comprised  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Lexow  police  bill.  This  bill  is  technically  three  bills.  Of  these, 
one  creates  a  commission  to  reorganize  the  department,  prescribing  the 
method  for  appointing  the  members  of  the  commission,  and  defining 
its  powers  and  duties;  the  other  two  amending  previous  laws  relative 
to  the  police.  The  principal  features  of  the  proposed  law  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Concentration  of  all  executive  powers  for  discipline  and  control  of 
the  uniformed  force  in  a  chief  of  police,  whose  office  is  thus  made  far 
more  important  and  responsible  than  that  of  the  present  superintend- 
ent; 

Vesting  all  authority  over  the  administrative  and  judicial  func- 
tions of  the  department,  as  well  as  over  the  functions  which  affect  the 
elective  franchise,  in  a  board  of  police  commissioners  whose  member- 
ship shall,  by  law,  be  made  bi  partisan  by  an  equal  representation  of 
the  two  leading  political  parties; 

Applying  civil  service  rules  and  methods  in  passing  on  the  eligi- 
bility of  candidates  for  appointment  or  for  promotion  in  the  police 
force; 

Providing  that  retirement  on  pension  shall  be  mandatory  only 
after  thirty  years  of  service  and  on  application  of  an  officer  who  has 
reached  the  age  of  sixty.  The  reorganization  of  the  department  was 
assigned  to  commissioners  appointed  for  that  purpose,  in  whom  was 
to  be  vested  the  power  of  removal  of  the  present  officers,  subject  to 
the  mayor's  approval. 

Those  of  the  reformers  who  had  had  occasion  to  trace 
the  deep  ramifications  of  the  long  dominant  municipal  cor- 
ruption, and  who  had  become  suspicious  of  politicians  gen- 
erally, balanced  their  praise  of  large  portions  of  the  report 
with  their  denunciations  of  some  of  its  structural  princi- 
ples as  possibly  showing  an  alliance  of  some  republican 
leaders  with  Tammany,  and  certainly  as  leaving  an  open- 


138  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

ing  for  a  '*  deal ''  with  that  arch-seducer  of  political  virtue. 
That  certain  points  in  the  bill  showed  manipulation  by  a 
'^  boss/'  and  must  be  purged  from  it  under  penalty  of  the 
utter  final  failure  of  the  reform  movement,  was  the  cry  of 
Dr.  Parkhurst  and  the  Committee  of  Seventy.  They  would 
have  none  of  such  pretended  reformation;  they  would  spurn 
a  spurious  reform  as  more  dangerous  than  an  open  villainy. 
What  proportion  of  the  citizens  in  New  York  agree  with 
this  uncompromising  view  of  the  Lexow  bill  is  not  as  yet 
made  evident;  but  it  is  known  to  be  widely  prevalent,  and 
many  citizens  high  in  intellectual  and  moral  repute  give  it 
their  public  assent.  The  features  evoking  the  sharpest 
criticism  as  rendering  possible  the  continuance  of  the  sys- 
tematized corruption  recently  brought  to  lights  are  three: 

1.  Control  given  to  the  bi-partisan  board  of  four  members,  offer- 
ing constant  opportunity  for  those  bargains  between  the  two  political 
parties  through  which  abuses  in  disguise  make  easy  entrance,  where- 
as a  single-headed  commission  could  be  held  directly  responsible; 

2.  Vesting  in  the  governor  the  appointment  of  the  three  commis- 
sioners, who  are  first  to  institute  a  thorough  reorganization  by  dismis- 
sals of  all  unfit  officers,  whereas  the  city's  mayor  might  be  less  open 
to  be  influenced  by  general  political  expediency,  and  more  responsive 
to  the  local  needs; 

3.  Continuing  in  the  police  board  the  control  of  all  police  func- 
tions relative  to  the  elective  franchise — an  unnatural  combination  of 
two  departments  so  diverse  in  their  nature,  yet  so  interlacing  in  their 
spheres,  as  to  require  a  carefully  defined  separateness  to  avoid  damage 
by  collision  or  disgrace  by  collusion. 

As  to  the  first  of  these  three  points  of  criticism — the 
question  between  a  bi-partisan  commission  or  a  single- 
headed  non-partisan  commission — there  is  not  entire  agree- 
ment among  even  sincere  reformers,  and  there  seems  small 
prospect  that  any  police  bill  rejecting  the  bi-partisan  con- 
trol will  pass  the  legislature.  As  to  the  second  point — 
the  question  between  the  governor  or  the  mayor  as  the 
appointing  power — it  has  practically  been  withdrawn  from 
dispute  by  the  change  in  the  bill  due  to  the  action  of  Gov- 
ernor Morton  early  in  February,  in  announcing  to  Senator 
Lexow  that  the  bill  would  not  be  signed  by  him  unless  it 
vested  the  appointment  of  the  three  reorganization  com- 
missioners in  the  mayor  of  New  York.  At  first  the  Lex- 
ow bill  seemed  likely  to  be  crowded  through  the  legisla- 
ture without  due  consideration  of  the  desired  amend- 
ments; and  protests  were  sent  from  New  York  against 
such  precipitancy.  An  immense  mass  meeting  in  support 
of  non-partisan  reform  was  held  in  Cooper  Union,  Feb- 
ruary 4,  where  speakers  of  great  eminence  in  both  parties 
gave  stirring  utterance  to  the  demand  that  the  legislature 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  139 

should  grant  what  the  city  demanded,  as  that  demand  was 
soon  to  be  expressed  in  a  bill  drawn  up  by  the  Committee 
of  Seventy. 

Amid  all  the  excitement  Mayor  Strong  showed  a  calm 
and  even  temper,  refusing  to  seek  to  control  the  action  of 
the  legislature  or  to  deal  in  excited  speech,  but  repeatedly 
giving  firm  expression  of  his  purpose  to  fulfil  his  pledge 
of  a  non-partisan  municipal  administration  for  reform. 
To  a  senator  asking  for  his  opinion  on  proposed  action 
concerning  some  points  in  the  Lexow  bills,  he  replied  re- 
fusing to  give  his  personal  opinion,  but  saying,  that  in  his 
view  they  were  not  in  accord  with  the  wishes  of  the  people 
of  his  city.  By  the  middle  of  March  it  was  growing  evi- 
dent that  Mayor  Strong  was  not  open  to  a  bargain  of  any 
kind  in  order  to  secure  legislative  action;  and  that  the  gov- 
ernor, the  lieutenant-governor,  and  many  other  prominent 
republicans,  without  necessarily  agreeing  in  every  item  of 
his  action,  were  standing  with  him  as  to  his  principles 
and  main  lines  of  procedure.  He  proceeded  in  his  ap- 
pointments of  honest  and  capable  officials  in  various  city 
departments. 

In  the  latter  part  of  March  opinions  were  given  by, 
prominent  members  of  the  New  York  bar,  that  certain 
provisions  in  the  Lexow  bills  were  unconstitutional.  On 
March  27  a  second  great  mass  meeting  was  held  in  Cooper 
Union,  called  by  the  Committee  of  Seventy,  where  force- 
ful and  eloquent  speeches  against  further  delay  at  Albany 
in  granting  the  reform  measures  demanded  for  the  city, 
aroused  tremendous  enthusiasm  and  applause.  On  March 
25  Governor  Morton  sent  to  the  legislature  a  message  con- 
veying a  strong  rebuke  of  its  dilatoriness  in  passing  the 
act  for  reform  in  the  police  magistracy  of  New  York, 
which  had  been  introduced  ten  weeks  before.  He  declared 
that  it  was  widely  believed  that  in  the  police  courts  there 
existed  a  practical  denial  of  justice,  and  he  called  for. 
their  speedy  purification.  The  assembly  responded  the 
same  night,  by  passing  the  police  magistrates  bill,  giving 
Mayor  Strong  the  power  to  remove  all  the  Tammany  Hall 
police  justices.  The  bill  then  went  to  the  senate,  where 
it  was  immediately  referred  to  the  judiciary  committee, 
in  whose  custody  it  has  slumbered  ever  since,  even  to  the 
present  writing,  April  12.  As  to  the  police  reorganiza- 
tion, the  bill  prepared  by  the  Committee  of  Ten,  making, 
the  police  department  single-headed,  and  separating  the . 
bureau  of  elections  from  the  board  of  police,  it  was  re- 
jected by  a  caucus  of  republican  senators  on  March  20, 


140  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

which  adopted  in  its  stead  as  a  party  measure  the  Lexow 
bill  calling  for  a  bi-joartisan  police  board.  This  bill  is 
still  delayed  from  passing;  and,  as  the  time  before  ad- 
journment lessens,  fears  are  generally  expressed  that  no 
police  reform  bill  will  be  enacted  at  this  session;  while  it 
is  now  fully  expected  that  if  such  a  bill  passes  both  houses, 
it  will  provide  for  bi-partisanship  in  the  police  board.  On 
March  28  the  Lexow  bill  was  amended  in  the  senate  by 
the  introduction  into  it  of  a  formal  recognition  of  the  bi- 
partisan principle.  The  reform  of  the  public  school  sys- 
tem in  New  York  has  not  yet  been  made  a  subject  of  defi- 
nite .action. 

Indictments  by  the  grand  jury  were  brought  in  on 
March  18  against  several  corrupt  police  officials,  includ- 
ing Inspector  William  McLaughlin  and  Captains  Devery, 
Price,  Murphy,  Siebert,  and  Donahue,  with  several  ex- 
captains  and  minor  officers.  This  terminates  the  grand 
inquest  of  the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer,  begun  in  Jan- 
uary as  a  sequel  of  the  revelations  made  before  the  Lex- 
ow committee.  The  set  of  indictments  against  the  police 
captains,  officers,  and  ward  men,  charged  them  with  bri- 
bery and  extortion.  The  omission  of  the  names  of  certain 
officials  from  the  indictment  occasioned  much  surprise. 

In  another  set  of  indictments  a  large  number  of  men 
were  charged  with  violation  of  the  election  laws.  Accom- 
panying the  indictments  was  a  very  significant  present- 
ment, in  which  the  grand  jury  censured  Superintendent 
Byrnes  for  the  demoralizing  example  which  he  had  set  be- 
fore his  thousands  of  subordinates  in  his  mode  of  accu- 
mulating a  fortune,  though  the  legality  of  his  action  was 
not  at  all  questioned.  The  presentment  included  also  a 
severe  condemnation  of  the  police  department  by  its  dec- 
laration that  the  officials,  though  invited,  had  declined  to 
aid  the  grand  jury  in  investigation,  and  that  the  general 
influence  of  the  police  had  been  against  it  throughout. 

Tenement- House  Districts. — A  valuable  report  has  been 
issued  as  the  result  of  a  singularly  faithful  and  thorough 
investigation  by  the  tenement-house  commission  in  New 
York  city  under  the  chairmanship  of  Richard  Watson 
Gilder.  The  conditions  of  the  population  in  the  con- 
gested districts  of  the  city  are  drawn  from  the  life,  aiul 
cannot  fail  to  touch  thoughtful  readers  to  the  quick.  The 
report  is  a  scientific  survey,  the  preliminary  step  in  that 
constructive  activity  which  is  indispensable  to  any  com- 
plete and  permanent  reform. 

Canal  Improvement. — In  the  latter  part  of  February  a 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  141 

very  important  measure  was  enacted,  providing  for  sub- 
mission to  popular  vote  at  the  November  election  of  this 
year,  of  a  proposition  to  issue  state  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
i<9,000,000  for  improvement  of  the  canals.  The  improve- 
ments contemplated  are  the  deepening  of  the  Erie  canal 
and  the  Oswego  canal  to  nine  feet  of  water  through  nearly 
all  their  length,  and  of  the  Champlain  canal  to  eight  feet. 
All  locks  not  yet  lengthened  are  to  be  brought  to  the  pre- 
scribed length,  and  supplied  with  improved  machinery  and 
appliances  for  the  passing  of  boats  through  them. 

Library  Consolidation. — The  most  important  biblio- 
logical  event  which  has  ever  occurred  in  New  York  city 
was  inaugurated  on  Washington's  birthday  (February  22), 
when  a  joint  committee  representing  the  Tilden  Trust 
Fund,  the  Astor  library,  and  the  Lenox  library,  agreed 
upon  a  plan  for  the  consolidation  of  those  three  libraries 
in  one  great  public  institution,  devoted  to  the  free  use  of 
the  people.  Legal  sanction  for  the  proposal  was  granted 
at  Albany  March  20,  in  the  passage  of  an  act  altering  the 
existing  Library  Consolidation  act  at  several  points.  The 
board  of  trustees,  previously  limited  to  twelve  in  number, 
is  increased  to  twenty-one,  each  library  contributing  seven 
members.  Although  based  on  liberal  foundations,  neither 
the  Astor  nor  the  Lenox  libraries  had  attracted  readers  to 
any  great  extent — owing,  possibly,  to  distance  from  the 
centre  of  population,  or  the  tradition  of  earlier  seclusion; 
and  the  history  of  Mr.  Tilden's  trust  is  well  known  to  all. 
Two  millions  of  money  belonging  to  it  await  expenditure 
in  accordance  with  his  wishes;  but  no  plan  for  turning  the 
sum  to  the  best  account  had,  in  spite  of  much  deliberation 
on  the  part  of  the  trustees,  ever  been  agreed  upon. 

The  new  library  is  to  be  known  as  *'The  New  York 
Public  Library,  Astor,  Lenox,  and  Tilden  Foundations." 

South  Carolina. — The  Liquor  Dispensary  Laio. — 
Tiie  dispensary  authorities  recently  made  an  effort  to  place 
regularly  prepared  "cocktails"  on  the  market.  The  ob- 
ject was  to  increase  the  revenue  of  the  system;  but,  as 
public  sentiment  did  not  seem  to  favor  the  innovation,  the 
authorities  abandoned  it. 

Several  legal  cases  are  pending  against  the  dispensary 
system.  The  most  noteworthy  are  the  appeals  from  judg- 
ments delivered  in  the  case  of  the  seizures  at  Charleston 
of  sliipments  of  beers  and  liquors  from  Baltimore,  Md., 
Savannah,  Ga.,  and  other  places. 

The  state  authorities  are  of  the  opinion  that  even  if  the 
interstate  clause  of  the  dispensary  law  be  null  and  void, 


142  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

as  has  been  held,  it  will  not  materially  affect  the  opera- 
tions of  the  law.  Briefly,  the  present  case  and  findings 
of  the  court  are  set  forth  in  the  following  from  Judge 
Simon  ton's  decision: 

"The  petitioners  are  in  custody  because  tbey,  master  and  crew 
of  the  schooner  Carolina,  transported  in  the  schooner  for  freight 
money,  these  barrels  of  whisky  from  the  port  of  Savannah  in  the 
state  of  Georgia,  to  the  port  of  Charleston,  in  this  state.  It  is  charged 
that  in  so  doing  they  violated  Section  33  of  the  dispensary  act  of  this 
state,  in  these  words:  '  No  person  except  as  provided  in  this  act 
shall  bring  into  this  state,  or  transport  from  place  to  place  within  this 
state,  by  wagon,  cart,  or  other  vehicle,  or  by  any  other  means  or  mode 
of  carriage,  any  liquor  or  liquids  containing  alcohol,  under  a  penalty 
of  $100  or  imprisonment  for  thirty  days  for  each  offense  upon  convic- 
tion thereof  as  for  a  misdemeanor. ' 

"The  petitioners  allege  that  this  section  of  the  dispensary  law, 
so  far  as  it  is  sought  to  apply  it  to  them,  is  an  attempt  to  regulate 
commerce  between  the  states,  and  is  in  conflict  with  the  constitution 
and  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  therefore  null  and  void." 

This  was  in  a  suit  for  the  release  of  the  parties.  In 
the  suit  for  the  recovery  of  the  vessel,  which  was  confis- 
cated under  the  state  law,  Judge  Brawley  decided: 

' '  In  this  case  there  was  no  process  in  the  state  court,  no  warrant. 
The  constable  seized  with  a  strong  hand,  dispossessed  the  owner,  and 
was  proceeding  summarily  to  confiscate.  There  is,  therefore,  no  con 
flict  of  jurisdiction  between  the  judicial  tribunals  of  the  state  and  of 
the  United  States." 

Tennessee. — The  Gulematorial  Contest. — The  dis- 
pute over  the  office  of  governor  of  Tennessee  is  still  un- 
settled. At  the  time  of  the  election,  in  November,  1894, 
Peter  Turney,  a  democrat,  was  governor,  and  a  candidate 
for  re-election.  On  the  face  of  the  returns  his  republican 
opponent,  Henry  Clay  Evans,  received  a  majority  of  748 
votes.  It  is  expressly  declared  in  the  constitution  of  the 
state,  that: 

"The  returns  of  every  election  for  governor  shall  be  sealed  up 
and  transmitted  to  the  seat  of  government  by  the  returning  officers, 
directed  to  the  speaker  of  the  senate,  who  shall  open  and  publish 
them  in  the  presence  of  a  majority  of  the  members  of  each  house  of 
the  general  assembly.  The  person  having  the  highest  number  of 
votes  shall  be  governor;  but  if  two  or  more  shall  be  equal,  and  high- 
est in  votes,  one  of  them  shall  be  chosen  governor  by  joint  votes  of 
both  houses  of  the  general  assembly." 

However,  the  state  legislature,  which  is  largely  demo- 
cratic, decided  to  go  behind  the  returns,  and  to  appoint  a 
committee  to  investigate  the  charges  of  fraud  at  the  elec- 
tion, and  in  fact  decide  the  governorship  contest. 

A  bill  was  signed  January  29,  providing  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  committee  of  twelve  members — three  democrats 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS.  143 

and  two  republicans  from  the  senate,  and  four  democrats 
and  three  republicans  from  the  house. 

In  the  meantime  Mr.  Turney  has  retained  the  office. 
On  February  6  Mr.  Evans  took  the  oath  of  office  as  gov- 
ernor at  the  hands  of  Justice  T.  0.  Morris  of  Davidson 
county,  in  order  to  test  in  the  courts  the  validity  of  his 
claims.  Secretary  of  State  W.  S.  Morgan  refused  to  file  the 
oath  in  his  office,  alleging  that  the  proper  authorities  had  not 
yet  determined  that  Mr.  Evans  had  been  elected,  and  that 
he  had  not  been  duly  inaugurated.  Mr.  Evans,  accord- 
ingly, instituted  mandamus  proceedings  to  compel  the  sec- 
retary of  stare  to  file  his  oath,  and  for  possession  of  the 
office  in  dispute. 

PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 

Political  Appointments.— On  February  27  occurred 
the  first  break  in  President  Cleveland's  cabinet,  through 
the  resignation  of  Hon.  Wilson  S.  Bissell,  who  had  held 
the  portfolio  of  postmaster-general  since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  administration.  Mr.  Bissell's  withdrawal  was 
due  entirely  to  the  demands  of  his  private  legal  practice 
in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  President  Cleveland  immediately  nom- 
inated to  the  vacancy  Hon.  William  L.  Wilson  of  W^est 
Virginia,  chairman  of  the  ways  and  means  committee  of 
the  house  of  representatives,  whose  name  is  identified 
with  the  tariff  law  of  1894.  The  nomination  was  con- 
firmed March  1,  without  opposition.  (For  biographical 
sketches  of  Mr.  Bissell  and  Mr.  Wilson,  see  Vol.  3,  pp.  04 
and  501.) 

The  vacancy  in  the  post  of  minister  to  Mexico,  caused 
by  the  death  of  Hon.  Isaac  Pusey  Gray  (see  Necrology), 
was  filled  on  February  23,  by  the  appointment  of  Senator 
Matt  W.  Ransom  of  North  Carolina. 

Ransom,  Matt  W.,new  United  States  minister  to  Mexico,  was 
born  in  Warren  county,  N.  C,  in  1826.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  was  graduated  from  tbe  University  of  North  Carolina  in 
1847,  and  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  the  same  year.  He 
was  elected  attorney-general  of  North  Carolina  in  1852,  and  resigned 
in  1855;  was  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina  legislature  in  1858, 
1859,  and  1860,  and  was  a  peace  commissioner  from  the  state  of 
Nortli  Carolina  to  the  congress  of  Southern  states  at  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  in  1861.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  entered  the  Confederate 
army,  serving  as  lieutenant-colonel,  colonel,  brigadier-general,  and 
majorgenerat,  and  surrendered  at  Appomattox.  After  the  war  he 
resumed  the  practice  of  law,  and  was  also  a  planter  in  Northampton 
county.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  as  a  democrat  in 
January,  1872,  took  his  seat  April  24,  1872,  and  was  re-elected  in 
187G,  1883,  and  1889.  His  latest  term  would  have  expired  on  March 
3,  1895. 


144 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


On  March  21  was  announced  the  appointment  by  Pres- 
ident Cleveland  of  Hon.  William  M.  Springer  of  Illinois, 
and  Hon.  C.  B.  Kilgore  of  Texas,  to  be  United  States 
judges  for  the  northern  and  southern  judicial  districts  of 
the  Indian  Territory  respectively.  Both  appointees  were 
representatives  in  the  53d  congress,  who  failed  of  re-elec- 
tion.    Mr.  Springer  was  chairman  of  the  house  committee 

on  banking  and  cur- 
rency, and  Mr.  Kil- 
gore served  on  the 
committee  on  coin- 
age, weights,  and 
measures  (Vol.  3,  pp. 
501  and  502). 

On  March  25  Hon. 
Joseph  H.  Outhwaite 
of  Columbus,  0.,  re- 
ceived from  the  presi- 
dent appointment  as 
civilian  member  of 
the  board  of  foreign 
relations  to  succeed 
General  Byron  M. 
Cutcheon  of  Michi- 
gan. Mr.  Outhwaite 
was  chairman  of  the 
house  committee  on 
military  affairs  in  the 
53d  congress  (Vol.  3, 
p.  503),  and  was  an 
unsuccessful  candi- 
date for  re-election. 
Miscellaneous.— 
The  severe  cold  of  the  past  winter  caused  much  distress 
in  all  parts  of  the  country;  but  nowhere  were  its  effects 
more  disastrous  than  in  Florida.  The  frost  which  set 
in  on  December  29,  1894,  ruined  the  orange  crop,  and 
wrought  incalculable  loss  to  fruit  growers,  merchants, 
packers,  transportation  companies,  and  all  those  in  any 
way  connected  with  what  promised  to  be  a  most  profitable 
season's  business.  In  disastrous  effects  it  surpassed  the 
visitation  of  March,  1886,  and  even  the  great  freeze  of 
1835.  Ice  formed  an  inch  thick  as  far  south  as  Lake 
Worth;  and  in  many  other  sheltered  places  where  orange 
groves  had  heretofore  been  safe,  the  fruit  was  frozen  solid 
on  the  trees.     Most  of  the  young  orange  trees  were  killed. 


HON.  WILSON  8.  BISSELL  OP  NEW  YORK, 
EX-POSTMASTER-GENERAL. 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 


145 


as  well  as  the  young  shoots  on  the  old  trees.  Immense 
damage  was  also  done  to  plantations  of  pineapples,  lemons, 
grape  fruit,  bananas,  mangoes,  and  other  tropical  varieties, 
which  after  years  of  experimenting  were  just  beginning 
to  be  cultivated  in  south  Florida.  The  price  of  oranges 
doubled  in  Northern  markets.  It  is  estimated  that  about 
2,500,000  boxes  were  ruined  by  the  frost. 

A  social  event  of 
unusual  interest  oc- 
curred on  March  4,  at 
the  home  of  Mr. 
George  J.  Gould  in 
New  York  city — the 
marriage  of  his  sister, 
Miss  Anna  Gould, 
youngest  daughter  of 
the  late  Jay  Gould, 
to  the  Count  Boni- 
face de  Castellane  of 
France.  The  cere- 
mony was  performed 
by  Archbishop  Cor- 
rigan.  The  bride- 
groom is  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Marquis 
de  Castellane,  head 
of  one  of  the  oldest 
families  of  the 
French  nobility. 

On  March  15  the 
conviction  of  Eras- 
tus  Wiman  of  New 
York,  on  the  charge 
of  forgery,  which  at- 
tracted great  attention  last  year  (Vol.  4,  pp.  159,  361,  and 
019),  was  set  aside  by  the  general  term  of  the  state  supreme 
court,  and  a  new  trial  was  granted.  The  opinion  reversing  the 
conviction  of  the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer  of  last  summer, 
was  written  by  Presiding  Justice  Van  Brunt  and  Justice 
O'Brien,  Justice  Follett  dissenting.  The  majority  held 
that  Mr.  Wiman  had  a  right  to  sign  the  alleged  forged 
checks,  and  that  criminal  intent  was  not  proved. 

The  announcement  was  made  March  5  that  the  wife  of 
William  K.  Vanderbilt,  the  wealthy  capitalist  of  New 
York,  had  secured  from  Judge  Barrett  of  the  state 
supreme  court,  on  the  usual  statutory  grounds,  a  decree 

Vol.  5.-10. 


HON.  WILLIAM  L.  WILSON  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA, 
NEW  I'OSTMASTER-GENERAL. 


146 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


of  absolute  divorce  from  her  husband,  she  being  given  sole 
charge  of  the  three  children,  although  the  father  is 
allowed  access  to  them  at  all  reasonable  times,  and  there 
is  a  condition  that  the  boys  shall  be  educated  in  the 
United  States. 

On  January  5  the  lake  passenger  steamer  North  Land, 
a  sister  ship  to  the  North  West,  belonging  to  the  Great 

Northern  Steam- 
ship Company,  was 
launched  from  the 
yards  of  the  Globe 
Ship-building  Com- 
pany in  Cleveland,  0. 
The  North  West,  it 
will  be  remembered, 
was  launched  a  year 
ago,  and  attracted 
much  attention.  On 
June  10,  1894,  she 
began  her  trips  be- 
tween Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
and  Duluth,  Minn. 
She  made  sixteen 
trips  each  way,  car- 
ried nearly  10,000 
passengers,  and  de- 
veloped a  speed  of  14^- 
iniles  per  hour  in  the 
shallowest  parts  of 
the  rivers,  and  H'd 
miles  on  the  deeper 
lakes.  The  North 
Land  vf'iW  traverse 
the  same  route. 
Mrs.  Eugenia  13.  Farmer  has  organized  an  Equal 
Rights  Association  among  the  colored  people  in  Coving- 
ton, Ky.,  the  first  in  the  state.  One  object  is  to  train  the 
colored  women  so  that  they  can  exercise  intelligently  the 
new  rights  they  will  have  this  year  in  voting  for  school 
boards  in  cities  of  the  second  class — Covington,  Newport, 
and  Lexington. 

In  regard  to  the  much-discussed  question  of  the  utility 
of  Greek  in  secondary  school  courses,  the  following  resolu- 
tions adopted  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  in  the  latter  part  of 
March,  at  a  conference  of  classical  teachers,  including 
nearly  every  teacher  of  reputation  west  of  the  Alleghenies, 
are  noteworthy. 


HON.  .JOSEPH  H.  OUTHWAITE, 
DEMOCRATIC    KEPKESENTATIVE  FROM  OHIO. 


CANADA.  147 

Resolved,  That  this  conference  strongly  favors  a  six-year  course 
in  Latin  in  our  schools. 

Resolved,  That  this  conference  disapproves  of  the  proposals  em- 
bodied in  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  reducing  the  amount  of 
Greek  preparatory  to  college,  and  joins  with  the  American  Philologi- 
cal Association  in  declaring  that  at  least  three  years  of  Greek  ought 
to  be  provided  in  the  classical  courses  of  our  secondary  schools. 

California  is  the  only  state  of  the  Union  which  has  had 
a  monument  erected  to  commemorate  its  history,  growth, 
and  progress.  The  Lick  monument,  representing  *'by 
appropriate  designs  and  figures  the  history  of  California/' 
and  provided  for  by  the  bequest  of  $100,000  from  the  late 
James  Lick,  was  unveiled  in  front  of  the  new  city  hall, 
San  Francisco,  with  ceremonies  conducted  by  the  vener- 
able body  of  California  Pioneers,  on  November  29,  1894. 

CANADA. 

A  general  election  in  the  Dominion  cannot  be  much 
longer  delayed.  The  leading  point  at  issue  has  already 
been  determined.  It  will  be  upon  its  attitude  in  regard  to 
the  long-standing  Manitoba  school  question,  that  the  pres- 
ent government  of  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell  will,  in  all  prob- 
ability, be  judged.  Jealousies  of  race  and  creed  have  often 
been  injected  into  the  arena  of  both  federal  and  pro- 
vincial politics,  but  it  may  be  doubted  if  they  have  ever 
before  been  roused  so  deeply  as  now  over  this  critical  is- 
sue. The  traditional  tariff  question  has,  for  the  time  be- 
ing, sunk  quite  out  of  sight. 

Manitoba  School  Question.— It  is  a  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Canadian  constitution  as  embodied  in  the 
British  North  America  act  of  18G7,  that  every  power  of 
government  not  specifically  reserved  to  the  provinces  is 
vested  in  the  federal  administration.  Any  question,  there- 
fore, involving  alleged  conflict  of  federal  and  provincial 
rights,  is  to  be  argued  on  the  basis  of  what  appears  in  the 
written  constitutions  of  the  provinces  and  the  Dominion. 
Now,  the  British  North  America  act  specifically  con- 
cedes to  the  provinces  the  right  to  legislate  on  educational 
matters,  subject,  however,  to  certain  provisions  whose  evi- 
dent intention  is  to  safeguard  the  rights  of  minorities, 
Roman  Catholic  or  Protestant.  Among  these  safeguards 
it  is  provided  that: 

"Where  in  any  province  a  sjstem  of  separate  or  dissentient 
schools  exists  by  law  at  the  Union,  or  is  thereafter  established  by  the 
legislature  of  the  province,  an  appeal  shall  lie  to  the  governor-gen- 
eral-in-council  from  any  act  or  decision  of  any  provincial  authority 
affecting  any  right  or  privilege  of  the  Protestant  or  Roman  Catholic 
minority  of  the  queen's  subjects  in  relation  to  education." 


148  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Manitoba  did  not  become  a  province  until  1870.  At 
the  time  of  confederation  (18G7)  it  formed  part  of  tlie 
territory  subject  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company;  but,  three 
years  subsequently,  was  ceded  to  the  imijerial  government 
and  allowed  to  enter  the  Dominion.  Its  constitution  is 
the  Manitoba  act  of  1870,  the  second  clause  of  which  ac- 
cepts the  provisions  of  the  British  North  America  act  in 
.all  particulars  not  specifically  varied  by  its  own  jDrovisions. 
I  Any  difference  between  it  and  the  other  provinces  in  re- 
spect of  provincial  rights  over  local  education  must  be 
looked  for  in  the  educational  provisions  of  the  Manitoba 
act  (Section  22);  but  these  are  practically  identical  with 
those  of  the  British  North  America  act,  and  renew  in 
words  which  only  strengthen  the  provisions  of  the  earlier 
act  the  safeguard  quoted  above. 

It  is  clearly  established  that,  in  the  event  of  any  prej- 
udice being  done  to  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  religious 
minority  by  an  act  or  decision  of  the  provincial  legisla- 
ture, appeal  does  lie  to  the  governor-general-in-council. 
This  was  the  tenor  of  the  judgment  delivered  by  the  im- 
perial privy  council  on  January  29,  1895.  The  question, 
in  a  word,  was  whether  any  right  or  privilege  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  minority  in  Manitoba  had  been  affected  by 
the  action  of  the  local  legislature;  and  the  privy  council 
decided  the  question  in  the  atfirmative. 

It  is  not  disputed  that  between  1871,  when  the  first 
Manitoba  school  act  was  passed,  and  1890,  the  intention 
of  the  local  legislature  was  to  maintain  equality  as  be- 
tween the  rights  of  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics. 

In  1871,  when  the  numbers  of  the  two  religious  divi- 
sions of  the  population  were  equal,  it  was  provided  that 
the  school  board  should  be  composed  half  of  Catholics  and 
half  of  Protestants,  and  that  each  section  should  choose  a 
chairman  and  have  under  its  own  control  the  management 
|and  discipline  of  the  schools  of  its  section  and  the  choice  of 
jtext-books  having  reference  to  religion  or  morals  which 
should  be  used  in  its  section.  Later,  as  the  number  of 
Protestants  increased  in  the  province,  similar  regulations 
were  issued  with  modifications  to  suit  the  requirements  of 
the  case;  and  in  1881  an  even  greater  power  was  given  to 
the  two  religious  sections  of  the  board  to  prescribe  all  the 
text-books  to  be  used  in  their  separate  schools. 

In  1890,  however,  the  Protestant  population  of  Mani- 
toba had  increased  to  about  132,000,  while  Roman  Cath- 
olics numbered  only  about  20,000.  A  law  was  enacted  by 
the  provincial  legislature  the  effect  of  which  was  to  abol- 


CANADA. 


149 


ish  the  sejoarate  Catholic  and  Protestant  sections  of  the 
school  board,  and  to  bring  all  the  school  districts,  whether 
Catholic  or  Protestant,  under  one  system,  using  one  set  of 
text-books.  Public  schools  were  to  be  free  and  non-sec- 
tarian; and  power  was  given  to  the  municipal  authorities 
of  every  city,  town,  or  village  to  levy  a  school  rate  upon 
taxable  property.  It  was  specially  provided  that  schools 
not  conducted  in  ac- 
cordance with  all  the 
provisions  of  the  law 
should  be  excluded 
from  participation  in 
the  public  grant.  The 
Catholic  ratepay- 
ers then  found  them- 
selves in  the  position 
of  having  to  pay  for 
the  maintenance  of 
schools  of  which  they 
disapproved,  while 
they  were  unable  to 
obtain  any  portion  of 
the  education  grant 
for  schools  conducted 
upon  Catholic  prin- 
ciples. 

As  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  Mani- 
toba had  for  nearly 
twenty  years  partici- 
pated in  the  advan- 
tages of  the  school 
grant,  the  provisions 
of  the  law  of  1890 
were  held  by  them  to  constitute  an  infringement  of  their 
rights  and  privileges  as  a  religious  minority,  and  to  justify 
an  appeal  under  the  constitution  act  to  the  governor-general- 
in-council  for  a  remedial  order.  The  local  courts  disputed 
their  right  of  appeal,  and  the  case  was  finally  sent  for  deci- 
sion to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council  On  Jan- 
uary 29, 1895,  the  decision  of  the  privy  council  was  given  in 
favor  of  their  right  of  appeal.  It  therefore  became  incumbent 
upon  the  Dominion  government  to  decide,  first,  whether 
in  the  circumstances  it  was  the  duty  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  issue  a  remedial  order;  secondly,  what  the  terms 
of  the  remedial  order  should  be. 


SIR  CHARLES  HIBBERT  TUPPER.  K. 

CANAUIA.N  MINISTER  OF  JUSTICE. 


150  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Thougli  presided  over  by  a  past  grand  master  of  the 
Orange  order,  the  Dominion  government  decided  to  grant 
a  remedial  order,  declaring  that  the  Manitoba  law  of  1890 
deprived  the  religious  minority  in  the  province  of  certain 
rights  and  privileges,  and  that  it  seemed  reqisite  that  the 
present  provincial  system  of  education  should  be  supple- 
mented by  an  act  which  should  restore  to  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  the  province  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
which  they  had  been  deprived.  It  is  for  the  provincial 
government  first  to  reply  to  this  suggestion  of  the  federal 
authorities.  The  Manitoba  legislature  has,  in  the  mean- 
time, adjourned  to  May  9,  without  taking  action  in  the 
matter. 

The  litigation  over  this  matter  has  been  lengthy.  The 
Manitoba  superior  court  declared  the  school  law  of  1890 
to  be  constitutional.  The  supreme  court  of  the  Dominion 
unanimously  reversed  this  decision  in  October,  1891  (Vol. 
1,  p.  557).  An  appeal,  taken  to  the  privy  council  of  the 
empire,  was  sustained  in  July,  1892  (Vol.  2,  p.  303),  and 
the  law  again  declared  intra  vires  of  the  provincial  legis- 
lature. The  judgment  explicitly  declared  that  no  right 
or  privilege  existing  at  the  Union  had  been  prejudicially 
affected.  The  Roman  Catholic  minority  now  laid  all  their 
stress  upon  the  educational  clauses  of  the  British  North 
America  act  and  the  provincial  constitution,  especially 
the  act  of  1870,  granting  appeal  in  case  of  infringement 
of  rights  established  a,fter  the  Union.  They  appealed  to 
the  Dominion  government  to  disallow  the  act;  but,  in  vir- 
tue of  the  doubt  raised  by  the  privy  council's  judgment  as 
to  the  right  of  the  minority  to  be  heard  by  the  governor- 
general-in-council.  Sir  John  Thompson  decided  to  submit 
to  the  Dominion  supreme  court  a  series  of  questions  to  de- 
termine the  point  (Vol.  3,  p.  102).  On  February  20,  1894 
(Vol.  4,  p.  171),  the  supreme  court  decided  that  no  appeal 
to  the  governor-general-in-council  for  remedial  legislation 
was  admissible.  The  matter  was  then  carried  to  the  im- 
perial privy  council,  which,  on  January  29  of  this  year, 
reversed  the  decision  of  the  Canadian  supreme  court,  de- 
claring that  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  federal  authorities 
did  exist.  The  judgment  was  read  by  the  lord  chancellor. 
Baron  Herschell,  and  it  includes  an  exhaustive  discussion 
of  the  scope  and  meaning  of  the  educational  clauses  in  the 
Manitoba  act  of  1870,  the  provincial  constitution.  It 
then  goes  on  to  discuss  how  far  the  minority  were  affected 
by  the  school  law  of  1890.  It  calls  special  attention  to 
the  view  of  Mr.  Justice  Taschereau,  one  of  the  majority 


CANADA.  161 

judges  of  the  Canadian  supreme  court  who  denied  the 
right  of  appeal,  that  the  rights  of  the  minority  had  not 
been  illegally  affected  because  the  privy  council  had  held 
the  law  of  1890  to  be  iyitra  vires.  The  privy  council,  how- 
ever, decides  that  under  the  educational  subsections  of  the 
Manitoba  act  of  1870,  appeal  is  allowable  if  rights  or 
privileges  have  been  affected  i7i  fact,  whether  illegally  or 
not.  That  the  privy  council  does  think  rights  have  been 
prejudicially  affected,  and  that  the  decision  contemplates 
action  of  some  kind  being  taken  as  the  result  of  an  appeal, 
is  clear  from  Lord  Herschell's  concluding  words: 

"It  is  certainly  not  essential  tliat  the  statutes  repealed  by  tlie  act 
of  1890  should  be  re-enacted,  or  that  the  precise  provisions  of  these 
statutes  should  again  be  made  law.  The  system  of  education  em- 
bodied in  the  acts  of  1890  no  doubt  commends  itself  to,  and  adequately 
supplies  the  wants  of,  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
province.  All  legitimate  ground  for  complaint  would  be  removed  if 
the  system  was  supplemented  by  provisions  which  would  remove  the 
grievance  upon  which  the  appeal  is  founded,  if  it  were  modified  so 
far  as  might  be  necessary  to  give  effect  to  those  provisions." 

On  receipt  of  this  judgment  by  the  Ottawa  authorities, 
the  parties  interested  were  summoned  to  argue  their  ap- 
peal before  the  Dominion  privy  council;  and  on  March  21 
it  was  announced  that  the  government  had  decided  to 
make  a  recommendation  in  favor  of  remedial  legislation. 
The  following  is,  in  substance,  the  message  transmitted 
to  Lieutenant-Governor  Schultz  of  Manitoba: 

Whereas,  on  the  26th  day  oi  November.  1892,  a  petition  by 
way  of  appeal  under  the  provision  of  Section  22  of  Chapter  3  of  the 
act  of  the  parliament  of  Canada,  passed  in  the  33d  year  of  her  maj- 
esty's reign,  1870  (commonly  called  "the  Manitoba  act"),  and  con- 
tinued by  "the  British  North  America  act  of  1871,"  was  presented 
to  his  excellency  the  governor-general  of  Canada  in-council  on  behalf 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  minority  in  Manitoba,  which  petition,  among 
other  things,  alleged  that  by  certain  acts  of  the  legislature  of  the 
province  of  Manitoba  passed  after  the  Union,  the  Roman  Catholic 
minority  in  Manitoba  acquired  rights  and  privileges  in  relation  to 
education,  including  the  right  to  build,  maintain,  equip,  manage,  con- 
duct, and  support  Roman  Catholic  schools,  the  right  to  a  proportion- 
ate share  of  any  grant  made  out  of  the  public  lunds  for  the  purpose 
of  education,  and  the  right  of  exemption  of  such  members  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  as  contribute  to  such  Roman  Catholic  schools 
from  all  payments  or  contributions  to  the  support  of  any  other 
schools.  Tlmt  subsequently,  in  the  53d  year  of  her  majesty's  reign 
(1890),  two  statutes  were  passed  by  the  legislature  of  the  province  re- 
lating to  education,  which  repealed  the  previous  acts  of  the  province 
of  Manitoba  in  relation  to  education,  and  deprived  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic minority  of  the  rights  and  privileges  which  it  had  acquired 
under  such  previous  statutes.  And  by  the  said  petition  the  said  Ro- 
man Catholic  minority  prayed  among  other  things  that  it  might  be 
declared  that  the  said  last-mentioned  acts  did  affect  the  rights  and 


152 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


Ist  Qr.,  1895. 


privileges  of  the  said  Roman  Catholic  minority  in  relation  to  educa- 
tion. That  it  might  be  declared  that  to  his  excellency  the  governor- 
general-in-council  it  seems  requisite  that  the  provisions  of  the  statutes 
in  force  in  the  province  of  Manitoba  prior  to  the  passage  of  the  said 
acts  should  be  re-enacted  in  so  far  at  least  as  may  be  necessary  to  se- 
cure to  the  Roman  Catholics  in  the  said  province  the  rights  above  de- 
scribed; or  that  the  said  acts  of  1890  should  be  so  modified  or  amended 
as  to  effect  such  purposes.  And  that  such  further  or  other  declara- 
tion or  order  might  be  made  as  to  his  excellency  the  governor-general- 

in-council  should  under 
the  circumstances  seem 
proper.     And 

Whereas  the  26th 
day  of  February,  1895, 
having  been  appointed 
for  the  hearing  of  the 
said  appeal,  and  the  same 
coming  on  to  be  heard, 
upon  reading  the  said  pe- 
tition and  the  statutes 
therein  referred  to,  and 
upon  hearing  what  was 
alleged  by  council  on  both 
sides,  his  excellency  the 
governor-general-in- 
council  was  pleased  to  or- 
der and  adjudge,  and  it 
is  hereby  ordered  and 
adjudged,  that  the  said 
appeal  be  and  the  same 
is  hereby  allowed  in  so 
far  as  it  relates  to  rights 
acquired  by  the  said 
Roman  Catholic  minority 
under  legislation  of  the 
province  of  Manitoba 
passed  subsequent  to  the 
union  of  that  province 
with  the  Dominion  of 
Canada;  and  his  excel- 
lency the  governor-gen- 
eral-in-council  was 
pleased  to  adjudge  and  declare,  and  it  is  hereby  adjudged  and  de- 
clared, that  by  the  two  acts  passed  by  the  legislature  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Manitoba  on  the  first  day  of  May,  1890,  intituled  respectively, 
"An  Act  Respecting  the  Department  of  Education"  and  "An  Act  Re- 
specting Public  Schools,"  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  minority  of  the  said  province  in  relation  to  education  prior 
to  the  1st  day  of  May,  1890,  have  been  affected  by  depriving  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  minority  of  the  following  rights  and  privileges  which 
previous  to  and  until  the  1st  day  of  May,  1890,  such  minority  had, 
viz. : 

(a)  The  riprht  to  build,  maintain,  equip,  manage,  conduct,  and  support  Ro 
man  Catholic  schools  in  the  manner  provided  for  by  the  statutes  which  were  re- 
pealed by  the  two  acts  of  1890  aforesaid. 

(b)  The  right  to  share  proportionately  in  any  grant  made  out  of  the  public 
funds  for  the  purpose  of  education. 


HON.  .T.  C.  PATTERSON, 

LATELY     CANADIAN     MINISTER     OF    MILITIA    AND 

DEFENSE. 


CANADA.  153 

(c)  The  right  of  exemption  of  such  members  of  the  Roman  CathoHc  Church 
as  contribute  to  such  Roman  Catholic  schools  from  all  payment  or  contribution 
to  the  support  of  any  other  schools. 

And  his  excellency  the  governor-general-in-council  was  further 
pleased  to  declare  and  decide,  and  it  is  hereby  declared,  that  it  seems 
requisite  that  the  system  of  education  embodied  in  the  two  acts  of  1890 
aforesaid  shall  be  supplemented  by  a  provincial  act  or  acts  which  will 
restore  to  the  Roman  Catholic  minority  the  said  rights  and  privileges 
of  which  such  minority  has  been  so  deprived  as  aforesaid,  and  which 
will  modify  the  said  acts  of  1890  so  far,  and  so  far  only,  as  may  be 
necessary  to  give  effect  to  the  provisions  restoring  the  rights  and 
privileges  in  paragraphs  (a),  (b),  and  (c)  hereinbefore  mentioned. 

Whereof  the  lieutenant-governor  of  the  province  of  Manitoba  for 
the  time  being,  and  the  legislature  of  the  said  province,  and  all  per- 
sons whom  it  may  concern,  are  to  take  notice  and  govern  themselves 
accordingly. 

Should  the  Manitoba  legislature  fail  to  pass  the  sug- 
gested remedial  legislation,  the  constitution  confers  upon 
the  Dominion  government  the  authority  to  deal  with  the 
subject.  They  would,  however,  scarcely  venture  to  inter- 
fere without  first  securing  the  sanction  of  the  electorate  in 
a  general  election. 

The  publication  of  the  above  remedial  suggestion 
fanned  partisan  feeling  throughout  the  country  into  pas- 
sionate fiame.  The  Orange  lodges  passed  resolutions  pro- 
testing against  federal  interference,  and  both  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  clergy  appealed  to  their  respec- 
tive flocks.  The  determination  of  the  Manitoba  govern- 
ment of  Premier  Greenway  to  resist  the  restoration  of 
separate  schools  was  apparently  unalterable,  and  the  wild 
rumors  of  the  press  went  to  the  length  even  of  impending 
revolution.  So  strong,  indeed,  was  the  feeling  aroused, 
that  the  evident  calculations  of  the  federal  ministry  as  to 
the  most  opportune  moment  for  a  dissolution  of  parlia- 
ment were  upset.  Recent  parliaments  had  seen  no  more 
than  four  sessions;  the  voters'  lists  were  all  made  out; 
the  ministers  had  completed  an  extensive  electioneering 
tour — everything,  in  fact,  pointed  to  a  general  election  in 
the  near  future.  It  was  therefore  a  surprise  to  learn  on 
March  21  that  parliament  had  been  summoned  to  meet  on 
April  18.  There  appears  to  have  been  some  misunder- 
standing between  Sir  Charles  Hibbert  Tupper,  the  minis- 
ter of  justice,  and  his  colleagues,  on  the  matter  of  hold- 
ing a  session.  The  minister  contended  that  the  govern- 
ment could  not  formulate  a  new  policy  on  so  important  a 
question  as  that  of  the  Manitoba  schools  without  first  con- 
sulting the  electorate.  However,  his  objections  were 
overruled.  Supplies  run  out  by  the  end  of  June;  they 
should  be  voted  only  after  ample  time  for  consideration; 


154  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

and  to  have  tield  an  election  would  have  left  insufficient 
time.  Besides,  the  Manitoba  legislature  had  first  to  act 
before  the  Dominion  government  could  take  up  the  school 
question.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  "ample  time  to 
give  the  matter  that  consideration  which  its  importance 
demands/^  the  provincial  legislature  adjourned  March  28 
to  May  9. 

In  the  event  of  a  general  election  prior  to  a  final  set- 
tlement of  this  question,  it  will  remain  to  be  seen  in  what 
light  the  electorate  in  the  Dominion  will  view  the  as- 
sumption by  the  federal  government  of  a  power  which, 
though  always  inherent  in  the  federal  constitution,  has 
hitherto  lain  dormant.  The  religious  aspects  of  the  ques- 
tion are  very  prominent,  and  the  struggle,  if  it  come,  will 
not  unlikely  be  fought  rather  on  a  Catholic  versus  Prot- 
estant than  on  a  federal  versus  provincial  ground.  The  key 
to  the  situation  lies,  just  at  present,  in  the  action  of  the 
Manitoba  legislature,  which  we  may  trust  will  be  in  the 
light  of  justice  to  all  interests. 

Ontario. — The  Legislature. — On  February  21  the  first 
session  of  the  eighth  legislature  of  Ontario  was  opened. 
Mr.  W.  D.  Balfour,  member  for  South  Essex,  was  elected 
speaker.  The  budget  showed  actual  receipts  during  1894 
of  $3,453,162,  an  excess  of  $306,290  over  estimates. 
From  the  crown  lands  department  receipts  were  $1,057,- 
532,  of  which  $980,497  was  from  woods  and  forests.  The 
second  item  in  importance  was  the  revenue  from  licenses, 
though  this  had  been  declining  in  recent  years.  Total  re- 
ceipts during  the  last  four  years  had  exceeded  expenditures 
by  $373,389,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  heavy  special  expendi- 
tures had  been  necessary,  such  as  $160,000  to  assist  in  re- 
building Toronto  University,  $703,301  to  retire  railway  aid 
certificates,  and  $981,464  on  the  new  parliament  buildings 
and  the  Brockville  asylum.  The  total  income  for  the  four 
years  had.  been  $15,973,199,  and  the  total  receipts  $16,- 
346,588.  Assets  and  liabilities  all  told,  the  balance  sheet 
of  the  province  at  the  end  of  1894,  showed  a  surplus  of 
$5,269,840. 

Toronto  University. — Much  discussion  and  not  a  little 
strong  feeling  has  been  aroused  in  Ontario  as  a  result  of 
the  troubles  which  have  arisen  between  the  students  of 
the  University  of  Toronto  and  the  authorities  who  control 
its  administration.  The  troubles  are  connected  with  the 
maladministration  (as  charged)  of  university  affairs,  as 
seen  in  matters  of  discipline  and  in  the  alleged  unsatis- 
factorj-  results  of  the  present  method  of  making  appoint- 


CANADA. 


155 


riients  on  the  staff.  The  recommending  power  is  not  in- 
dependent of  a  political,  partisan  head.  The  following 
official  statement  throws  some  light  on  the  origin  of  the 
trouble.  It  appears  that,  as  a  matter  of  discipline,  the 
council  of  the  university  refused  to  sanction  a  program  of 
meetings  of  the  Political  Science  Club. 

1.  On  November  19,  1894,  Professor  Mavor,  then  the  honorary 
president  of  the  club,  sub- 
mitted to  the  council  for  ap- 
proval a  program  of  meetings 
in  which  Professors  Mavor, 
Mills,  and  Wrong,  and  a  num- 
ber of  the  students  were  to 
take  part.  The  desired  sanc- 
tion was  given,  and  the  officers 
of  the  club  were  informed  of 
the  fact  by  Professor  Mavor. 

2.  On  November  28,  at 
the  first  meeting  held  under 
the  program  as  approved  by 
the  council,  the  club  dis- 
tributed a  printed  program 
differing  from  the  one  already 
sanctioned  by  the  council,  in 
that  it  contained,  in  addition 
to  the  names  already  men- 
tioned, those  of  Messrs.  Alfred 
Jury  and  Phillips  Thompson 
(prominently  connected  with 
the  cause  of  organized  labor). 

3.  After  such  publication, 
on  December  1,  a  new  application  was  made  by  the  club  to  the  coun- 
cil, for  approval  of  this  second  j)rogram;  and  the  matter  was  con- 
sidered on  December  4. 

4.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  their  previous  action  had  been 
ignored,  and  that  the  program  had  been  published  in  disregard  of 
their  authority,  the  council  withdrew  their  sanction  of  the  first  pro- 
gram, and  deferred  further  action  with  regard  to  the  second  applica- 
tion until  January.  The  immediate  effect  of  this  decision  was  to 
prevent  the  club  from  holding  the  meeting  of  December  9,  at  which 
Professor  Mills  was  to  deliver  an  address. 

5.  When,  on  January  7,  1895,  the  second  application  came  be- 
fore the  council,  the  previous  attitude  of  the  club  was  emphasized  by 
a  further  communication,  in  which  the  claim  was  made  that  the 
members  of  the  club  had  the  right,  independently  of  the  council,  to 
invite  whom  they  pleased  to  address  them  within  the  university.  In 
answer  to  this  claim  the  council  explained  to  the  club  that  the  re- 
sponsibility for  all  instruction,  both  regular  and  occasional,  rested 
with  them,  and  that  hence  any  arrangements  proposed  to  be  made  by 
societies  must  have,  as  a  preliminary  step,  the  indorsation  of  the 
head  of  the  department  concerned,  and  the  sanction  of  the  council; 
and  that  in  view  of  the  irregular  manner  in  which  the  new  program 
had  been  published,  the  council  had  decided  to  withdraw  their  sanc- 
tion. 


JAMES  LOUDON,  M.  A., 
PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO. 


156  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  ist  Qr.,  1895. 

6.  The  above  recital  of  facts  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  mat- 
ter, as  dealt  with  by  the  council,  was  one  of  discipline,  and  that,  in 
giving  their  two  decisions,  the  council  were  not  called  on  to  consider, 
and  did  not  consider,  the  question  of  the  merits  or  otherwise  of  the 
names  appearing  on  the  programs.  When  the  whole  case  is  reviewed 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  action  of  the  council  no  more  reflected  on 
Messrs.  Jury  and  Thompson  than  on  Professors  Mills  and  Wrong,  in- 
asmuch as  these  latter,  equally  with  the  former,  have  been  inciden- 
tally prevented,  by  the  council's  decision  in  this  matter  of  discipline, 
from  addressing  the  club.  It  is  therefore  obviously  untrue  that,  as 
has  been  alleged,  the  council,  in  cancelling  the  programs  in  ques- 
tion, have  cast  "a  designed  reflection  on  the  working  element  of 
Toronto." 

Naturally,  the  matter  was  taken  up  by  the  college  and 
city  press.  A  condemnatory  article  appeared  in  The 
Varsity,  the  college  paper,  whose  editor-in-chief,  Mr.  J. 
A.  Tucker,  refused  to  publish  the  apology  demanded  by 
the  council.  The  dispute  was  presently  aggravated  by  the 
appearance  in  the  Toronto  Olohe  of  February  16,  of  a  let- 
ter from  Mr.  William  Dale,  associate  professor  of  Latin, 
alleging  that  the  question  was  not  one  of  discipline  only, 
but  that  the  true  cause  of  the  trouble  was  the  existing 
system  of  appointment  and  the  basis  upon  which  the  con- 
stitution of  the  university  was  founded.  To  allow  family 
and  political  influences  to  be  considered  in  the  matter  of 
educational  appointments  is  a  policy  which  will  soon 
destroy  all  the  respect  accorded  any  institution — even  the 
highest. 

As  a  result  of  this  communication  to  the  press,  Mr. 
Dale  was  dismissed  by  the  government  from  his  position 
in  the  university,  he  having  refused  to  resign  when  offered 
the  opportunity  of  so  doing.  Then  followed  a  brief  boy- 
cott of  lectures  by  the  great  body  of  the  students.  Large 
indignation  meetings"  were  held,  and  resolutions  adopted 
protesting  against  the  dismissal  of  Professor  Dale,  and  de- 
manding that  a  thorough  investigation  of  university 
affairs  be  granted  by  the  provincial  government. 

On  March  19  it  was  announced  that  the  government 
had  consented  to  appoint  a  royal  commission,  with  Chief 
Justice  Taylor  of  Manitoba  as  chairman,  to  meet  early  in 
April  to  examine  into  the  whole  matter. 

The  Prohibition  Question. — Two  important  judgments 
affecting  the  temperance  question  were  delivered  by  the 
supreme  court  on  January  15.  One  was  in  the  case  of 
Huson  versus  the  township  of  Norwich,  and  involved  the 
validity  of  the  Ontario  local  option  law,  giving  to  munici- 
palities the  right  to  prohibit  within  their  limits.  Mr. 
'Huson's  appeal  (in  behalf  of  the  liquor  dealers)  against 


CANADA.  167 

the  by-law  of  the  township,  which  he  wantea  quashed  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  ultra  vires,  was  dismissed.  The 
effect  of  this  decision  is  to  declare  constitutional  the  pro- 
vincial act  authorizing  the  by-law — or,  in  other  words,  to 
declare  that  the  provincial  legislature  has  the  right  to  pass 
a  local  option  law.  Justices  Gwynne  and  Sedgwick  dis- 
sented. 

In  seeming  conflict  with  this  judgment  was  that  de- 
livered in  what  is  known  as  the  "prohibition  test  case," 
originated  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  juris- 
diction in  the  matter  of  prohibition  rests  with  the  Domin- 
ion or  with  the  provinces.  It  was  submitted  by  consent  of  the 
Dominion  government  and  the  provinces  of  Ontario,  Man- 
itoba, New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  Nova 
Scotia,  all  of  which,  either  by  plebiscite  or  by  memorial  to 
the  Dominion  government  praying  for  prohibition,  had 
arrayed  themselves  against  the  liquor  traffic.  Quebec 
was  also  a  party  to  the  case,  but  against  provincial  pro- 
hibition. The  decision  of  the  judges  was  three  to  two 
against  the  right  of  a  province  to  prohibit.  Chief  Justice 
Strong  and  Justice  Fournier  dissenting.  In  behalf  of 
Ontario  it  was  argued  that  prohibition  was  a  provincial  sub- 
ject, as  licensing  was;  the  Dominion  held,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  federal  parliament  alone  could  prohibit 
wholesale  selling,  while  the  provinces  could  prohibit 
retailing;  but  the  contention  of  Quebec,  that  the  power  to 
prohibit  belonged  exclusively  and  in  all  its  branches  to  the 
Dominion,  was  sustained.  The  following  are  in  substance 
the  seven  questions  submitted,  with  the  answers  of  the 
judges: 

1.  Has  a  provincial  legislature  power  to  prohibit  the  sale, 
within  the  province,  of  intoxicating  liquors?  Chief  Justice  Strong 
and  Judge  Fournier,  yes;  three  judges,  no. 

2.  Has  it  such  jurisdiction  where  the  Canada  temperance  act  is 
not  in  operation?     Yes,  two;  no,  three. 

3.  Has  it  jurisdiction  to  prohibit  the  manufacture  of  such 
liquors  within  the  province?     No,  unanimous. 

4.  To  prohibit  importation  ?     No,  unanimous. 

5.  If  not  jurisdiction  to  prohibit  sale  irrespective  of  quantities, 
has  it  power  to  prohibit  retail  sale?  No,  Chief  Justice  Strong  and 
Judge  Fournier  dissenting. 

6.  If  limited  jurisdiction  only  as  regards  prohibition  of  sale,  has 
it  jurisdiction  to  prohibit  sales  subject  to  limits  provided  by  the 
Scott  act?    No,  Chief  Justice  Strong  and  Judge  Fournier  dissenting. 

7.  Has  the  Ontario  legislature  jurisdiction  to  enact  the  local 
option  act?    No,  Chief  Justice  Strong  and  Judge  Fournier  dissenting. 

There  seems,  as  stated,  to  be  a  conflict  of  judgments 
regarding  the  validity  of    the   local  option    law.     It  is 


158  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

possible,  however,  that  the  case  of  Huson  ifersus  the 
township  of  Norwich  did  not  rest  entirely  on  the  local 
option  clause;  and  the  general  public  will  be  interested  to 
learn  all  the  facts  in  the  case. 

The  judgment  in  the  test  case  removes  the  prohibition 
question,  for  a  time  at  least,  from  the  provincial  arena. 
It  would,  however,  be  thrown  back  there  should  the  Domin- 
ion government  avail 
itself  of  its  power  to 
delegate  to  the  prov- 
inces the  authority 
to  prohibit,  as  it  has 
already  delegated  to 
municipalities  that 
power  through  the 
Scott  act. 

The  test  case  is 
to  be  appealed  to  the 
imperial  privy  coun- 
cil. 

A  movement  is  on 
foot  in  both  Ontario 
and  Quebec  to  incor- 
porate prohibition 
in  the  political  plat- 
form of  the  patrons 
of  industry. 

71ie  Toronto 
Fires. — Within  the 
last  three  months  the 
city  of  Toronto  has 
suffered  by  fire  to 
the  extent  of  about 
$2,000,000,  the  dis- 
asters being  aggravated  by  the  inefficiency  of  the  water- 
works system  and  the  inadequate  equipment  of  the  fire 
brigade. 

The  first  great  fire  occurred  January  6,  involving  the 
total  destruction  of  the  Globe  building  (where  it  origi- 
nated) and  several  others;  loss,  about  $730,000.  One  fire- 
man was  killed  and  several  injured  by  falling  walls;  and 
Chief  Ardagh  of  the  fire  department  died  subsequently 
from  injuries  received  in  leaping  from  a  third-story  window 
of  the  Globe  building. 

On  January  10  fire  started  in  the  Osgoodby  building 
adjoining   the   scene   of   the    Globe   conflagration.      The 


HON.    J.  J.    CURRAN. 
SOLICITOR-GENERAL  OF  CANADA. 


CANADA.  159 

Osgood  by  building  and  the  premises  of  a  large  number  of 
business  firms  in  the  vicinity  were  destroyed;  loss,  about 
$550,000. 

The  third  visitation  occurred  on  March  3,  when  the 
large  retail  store  of  Robert  Simpson  was  destroyed,  and 
other  business  houses  within  almost  a  hundred  yards  from 
the  intersection  of  Yonge  and  Queen  streets  were  also 
burned  or  more  or  less  damaged;  loss,  about  1750,000. 
The  steeple  of  Knox  church  (Presbyterian)  took  fire  and 
was  totally  burned,  the  main  part  of  the  building  being  | 
also  badly  damaged. 

Other  Canadian  Affairs. — In  the  customary  distri- 
bution of  New  Yearns  honors  by  the  queen,  that  of  being 
made  a  K.  C.  M.  G.  fell  this  year  to  the  lot  of  Hon. 
Mackenzie  Bovvell,  premier  of  the  Dominion. 

Changes  occurred  in  the  Dominion  cabinet  on  March 
20.  On  account  of  ill-health  the  minister  of  militia,  Hon. 
J.  C.  Patterson,  resigned.  He  is  succeeded  by  Hon.  A.  R. 
Dickey,  whose  portfolio  as  secretary  of  state  has  been 
transferred  to  Hon.  Dr.  W.  H.  Montague. 

In  connection  with  the  copyright  question,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  English  Society  of  Authors  on 
February  25  unanimously  resolved, 

"That  the  Canadian  copyright  act  is  unjust  and  impracticable, 
and  is  calculated  to  affect  injuriously  the  interests  of  all  authors." 

A  petition  to  the  colonial  secretary  was  drawn  up, 
praying  that  the  imperial  assent  be  withheld  from  the 
Canadian  law  in  its  present  form.  It  has  been  signed  by 
1,500  authors,  publishers,  and  others,  including  Mr.  Alma- 
Tadema,  R.  A.;  Sir  Robert  Ball,  F.  R.  S. ;  Walter  Besant, 
Hall  Caine,  Archdeacon  Farrar,  Thomas  Hardy,  Professor 
Huxley,  Henry  Irving,  Mr.  Lecky,  George  Du  Maurier, 
Justin  McCarthy,  John  Murray,  Professor  Max  Miiller, 
Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  Herbert  Spencer,  Sir  Arthur  Sulli- 
van, Lord  Tennyson,  and  Stanley  J.  Weyman. 

About  February   1  was  effected  an  amalgamation   of 
The  Mail  (independent)  and   Tlie  Empire  (conservative),  * 
two  of  the  leading  Toronto  daily  papers.       The  united 
publication  is  known  as  The  Mail  and  Empire. 

On  February  8  a  Grand  Trunk  express  train  from 
Chicago  was  run  into  from  behind,  near  Weston,  Ont.,  by 
a  local  passenger  train  from  London.  Five  cars  were 
destroyed,  and  one  life  lost,  that  of  Mr.  Frank  Joseph,  a 
lawyer,  of  Toronto,  who  was  a  passenger.  A  coroner's 
jury  decided  that  the  accident  was  due  to  ineffectiveness 
of  tne  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway. 


160  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

On  the  night  of  February  9,  Trinity  College  School, 
Port  Hope,  Ont.,  a  Church  of  England  institution, 
established  about  thirty  years  ago  and  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  the  "Eton  of  Canada/^  was  destroyed  by  fire;  esti- 
mated loss,  $80,000,  partly  covered  by  insurance. 

A  fire  involving  the  loss  of  about  $1,000,000  occurred 
in  Halifax,  N.  S.,  February  27,  the  Dominion  government 
being  chief  loser,  through  destruction  of  its  large  immigra- 
tion shed  and  other  structures. 

An  event  of  great  interest  was  the  successful  winter 
carnival  opened  at  Ottawa  on  January  21. 

At  the  criminal  assizes  in  Toronto  on  January  19,  the 
grand  jury  brought  in  a  true  bill  against  Clara  Ford 
charged  with  the  murder  of  Frank  Westwood  on  October 
7,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  864). 

Almeda  Chattelle,  convicted  of  the  murder,  on  Octo- 
ber 19,  1894,  of  Jessie  Keith,  near  Listowel,  Ont.,  was 
sentenced  March  28  to  be  hanged  on  May  31. 

THE  NEWFOUNDLAND  CRISIS. 

The  disastrous  effects  of  the  financial  crisis  which 
burst  upon  the  island  on  December  10,  1894,  still  con- 
tinue. The  colony  has  ceased  to  be  self-supporting,  and 
cannot  therefore  long  continue  to  enjoy  its  present  status 
of  self-government,  so  that,  aside  from  the  immediate  alle- 
viation of  distress,  the  political  future  of  the  island  is  the 
question  now  absorbing  attention. 

The  precipitating  cause  of  the  crisis  was  the  failure  of 
a  large  London  firm — Prowse,  Hall  &  Morris — who  acted 
as  agents  for  many  Newfoundland  houses.  The  subse- 
quent failure  of  another  firm  in  Bristol  increased  the 
panic.  The  fundamental  cause  of  the  trouble,  however, 
is  traced  in  the  credit  system,  upon  which  the  fisheries 
had  long  been  carried  on.  At  the  beginning  of  each 
season  merchants  would  advance  supplies  to  fishermen, 
taking  the  products  of  the  year's  labor  at  the  end  of  the 
season,  and  adjusting  the  accounts.  Bad  seasons  left 
many  fishermen  hopelessly  in  debt.  In  fact,  the  tendency 
of  the  whole  system  was  to  undermine  honesty,  industry, 
and  thrift.  Moreover,  in  recent  years,  the  price  of  cod- 
fish had  fallen  greatly,  owing  largely  to  the  competition 
of  the  bounty-supported  fisheries  from  the  French  islands 
of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon.  Newfoundland  houses  lost 
heavily  on  exports,  and,  to  keep  afloat,  had  recourse  to 
advances  made  by  the  local  banks.  The  directors  be- 
ing almost  all  merchants,  had  largely  overdrawn  accounts, 


THE  NEWFOUNDLAND  CRISIS.  161 

and  others  were  allowed  similar  license.  For  years  large 
mercantile  firms  had  been  carrying  on  a  losing  business  on 
the  money  obtained  from  the  banks.  Four  of  the  directors 
of  the  Union  bank  had  overdrawn  accounts  without  giv- 
ing security,  to  the  aggregate  amount  of  $1,189,000;  and 
the  affairs  of  the  Commercial  bank  were  in  even  a  worse 
condition.  The  latter  expects  to  pay  48  cents  in  the  dol- 
lar, if  its  assets  are  carefully  realized.  The  assets  of  the 
Union  bank,  nominally  $3,174,778,  show  a  deficit,  when 
compared  with  liabilities,  of  $290,1*^2,  which  is  expected 
to  be  increased  on  realization. 

These  too  banks  were  the  only  ones  doing  business  in 
the  colony.  Their  notes  were  the  common  currency. 
Their  collapse  compelled  every  one,  for  the  time,  to  live 
without  money.  Thousands  were  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment; wages,  where  paid  at  all,  were  paid  in  kind;  and 
the  sufferings  of  the  poor,  who  could  get  neither  coin  nor 
credit,  became  intolerable.  On  January  8  serious  bread 
riots  occurred  in  St.  John^s,  the  mob  bursting  into  the 
legislative  buildings,  and  leaving  only  on  promise  from 
the  premier  that  work  would  be  provided  them  within 
three  days,  but  immediately  thereafter  proceeding  to  loot 
several  provision  stores  in  the  city,  and  finally  dispersing 
only  after  a  sharp  conflict  with  the  police,  and  when  their 
ringleaders  had  been  arrested.  Extensive  relief  work  was 
organized,  and  large  contributions  were  shipped  from 
Boston  and  Halifax.  But  in  spite  of  all,  there  has  been 
untold  suffering.  Early  in  March  it  was  reported  that  in 
St.  John^s  alone  2,000  families  were  in  dire  distress,  and 
5,000  persons  were  being  fed  daily  from  soup  kitchens. 
To  further  mitigate  the  misery,  the  expedient  was  adopted 
by  the  legislature,  on  December  31,  1894,  of  guaranteeing 
a  percentage  of  the  face  value  of  the  notes  of  the  two 
banks. 

Naturally,  in  their  distress,  the  colonists  turned  to  the 
mother  country  for  assistance.  Before  quitting  office  in 
December,  the  Goodridge  government  appealed  to  the 
home  authorities  in  England  for  an  advance  of  $1,000,000, 
frankly  stating  that  the  colony  could  not  meet  its  obliga- 
tions. Eealizing  that  the  interests  of  the  British  tax- 
payers made  it  impossible  for  the  home  government  to  grant 
financial  aid  without  first  looking  into  the  whole  political 
and  commercial  position  of  the  colony,  the  Goodridge 
government  urged  that  a  royal  commission  be  appointed 
to  make  the  investigation.  However,  before  the  requisite 
sanction  of  the  colonial  legislature  could  be  secured,  Mr. 

Vol.  5.-11. 


162  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Goodridge's  ministry  gave  way  to  one  under  Mr.  Greene. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Greene  ministry  was  to  in- 
quire whether^  in  the  event  of  the  legislature  agreeing  to 
the  appointment  of  a  royal  commission,  the  home  govern- 
ment would  be  prepared  to  give  immediate  assistance. 
The  reply  to  this  was  that  her  majesty^s  government 
could  in  no  way  pledge  themselves  beforehand. 

In  the  meantime  (December  31)  the  assembly  passed 
a  bill  removing  the  political  disabilities  of  Sir  William 
Whiteway  and  his  colleagues,  who  were  disqualified  for 
alleged  corrupt  practices  at  the  elections  in  November, 
1893  (Vol.  4,  pp.  389  and  630).  The  governor.  Sir 
Terence  O'Brien,  refused  to  assent  to  the  bill  directly, 
but  was  instructed  so  to  do  by  the  imperial  government  on 
January  21,  the  action  of  the  home  authorities  being  based 
on  the  fact  that  the  results  of  recent  by-elections  had 
shown  that  the  Whiteway  government  had  a  majority  of 
the  people  at  its  back. 

The  ministry  of  Mr.  Greene  resigned,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded on  February  8  by  one  under  Sir  William  Whiteway, 
composed  as  follows: 

Sir  W.  V.  Whiteway,  premier  and  attorney-general;  Robert  Bond, 
colonial  secretary;  Henry  Woods,  surveyor-general;  A.  W.  Harvey, 
Edward  Morris,  George  Emerson,  members  without  portfolio. 

AVith  one  exception  (Mr.  Emerson)  this  cabinet  is  the 
same  as  that  dissolved  in  April,  1894. 

Negotiations  for  financial  relief  were  resumed.  The 
British  government  was  asked,  without  further  question 
of  a  royal  commission,  to  guarantee  $1,000,000  a  year  for 
twenty-five  years  as  interest  on  bonds  which  the  colony 
would  issue.  Lord  Kipon,  the  colonial  secretary,  replied 
that  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  self-government  en- 
joyed by  the  colonies  was  independence  in  financial 
matters,  and  that  the  granting  of  imperial  aid  would 
require  a  constant  supervision  and  control  inconsistent 
with  self-government.  The  request  was  therefore  declined. 
However,  as  a  temporary  remedy  for  suffering,  the  home 
government  decided  to  send  out  a  commissioner  empowered 
to  use  funds  to  be  placed  at  his  disposal  by  the  exchequer 
for  the  purposes  of  a  compassionate  grant  to  be  used  only 
to  supplement  local  and  private  charity. 

It  being  pretty  well  understood  that  any  plan  of  im- 
perial assistance  to  the  public  finances  of  the  island  must 
involve  a  renunciation  by  the  colony  of  its  responsible 
government,  and  its  reversion  to  the  condition  of  a  crown 
colony — a  condition  obnoxious  to  the  majority  of  its  people 


THE  NEWFOUNDLAND  CRISIS.  163 

— the  eyes  of  all  have  turned  to  Canada;  and,  for  the  pres- 
ent at  least,  a  solution  of  the  difficulties  is  looked  for  in 
the  possible  entrance  of  Newfoundland,  as  a  new  prov- 
vince,  into  the  Canadian  confederation.  The  alternative 
policy  of  annexation  to  the  United  States,  zealously  pro- 
moted by  propagandists  at  Boston,  Mass.,  and  other 
American  centres,  has  not  yet  taken  any  wide  hold  upon 
the  people. 

A  delegation  appointed  by  the  government  of  New- 
foundland to  discuss  terms  of  union  with  the  Dominion, 
was  expected  to  reach  Ottawa  early  in  April.  Four  mem- 
bers of  the  Dominion  cabinet  were  designated  to  confer 
with  the  visiting  delegation,  namely,  Premier  Sir  Mac- 
kenzie Bowell,  Sir  A.  Caron,  Hon.  G.  E.  Foster,  and  Hon. 
John  Haggart. 

The  main  difficulties  in  the  way  of  union  outside  of 
the  conditions  which  the  Newfoundland  delegates  may 
demand,  are  two:  1st,  the  present  large  debt  of  Newfound- 
land and  the  unsettled  state  of  its  finances;  2d,  the  long- 
standing dispute  with  France  over  treaty  rights  regarding 
the  west  shore  of  the  island. 

The  first  of  these  difficulties  is  not  insuperable.  Pub- 
lic opinion  in  Canada  has  long  been  strongly  in  favor  of  a 
complete  federation  of  the  British  possessions  in  North 
America.  The  present  conservative  government  of  the 
Dominion  has  already  spent  large  sums  upon  the  attain- 
ment of  political  objects,  and  may  be  willing  to  undertake 
some  financial  responsibility  in  order  to  set  the  seal  upon 
the  federation  policy.  Moreover,  an  advantage  woukl 
accrue  to  Canada  in  the  increase  of  exports  which  would 
follow  a  lowering  of  the  customs  barriers  between  the  two 
countries.  And  it  is  also  possible,  when  we  consider  the 
resources  of  the  island,  that,  with  care  and  economy, 
coupled  with  a  simpler  and  less  expensive  form  of  admin- 
istration, and  the  adoption  of  sound  business  methods, 
much  may  be  done  by  the  colonists  themselves  to  redeem 
the  present  situation. 

The  French  shore  difficulty,  on  the  other  hand,  is  far 
more  formidable  than  that  connected  with  the  financial 
problem.  So  long  as  the  recognized  treaty  rights  of 
France  on  the  west  shore  are  upheld,  and  she  also  contin- 
ues in  possession  of  the  outlying  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and 
Miquelon  (long  a  rendezvous  for  smugglers),  a  final  ad- 
justment of  the  relations  between  Newfoundland  and  the 
Dominion  will  be  a  responsibility  which  all  Canadian 
cabinets  may  well  hesitate  to  assume.     Besides,  the  ques- 


164  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

tion  is,  in  one  sense,  a  question  of  European  polities. 
The  Dominion  parliament  can  in  no  case  decide  it;  that 
falls  to  the  imperial  government;  and  the  knowledge  of 
this  limitation  upon  its  powers  will  necessarily  embarrass 
the  Dominion  cabinet  in  its  negotiations. 

THE  WEST  INDIES. 

The  chief  interest  in  this  quarter  of  the  globe  during 
the  early  months  of  1895  centres  in  the  formidable  revo- 
lution now  in  progress  in  Cuba,  for  a  full  treatment  of 
which,  up  to  the  end  of  March,  see  page  59. 

Not  without  considerable  interest,  in  view  of  the  dis- 
turbed state  of  affairs  which  has  prevailed  in  Hayti  for 
some  time  past,  is  the  announcement,  made  about  January 
1,  of  the  formation  of  an  entirely  new  ministry  for  the  re- 
public. The  nomination  of  M.  Fonchard  as  minister  of 
finance  is  generally  regarded  as  a  pledge  for  the  rehabili- 
tation of  the  treasury  on  a  better  basis.  In  fact,  the  new 
cabinet  as  a  whole  is  considered  especially  strong  and  pro- 
gressive. The  quarter's  budget  of  news  has  been  free 
from  those  revolutionary  rumors  which  have  of  late  ema- 
nated so  frequently  from  the  dominions  of  President  Hyp- 
polite. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

Salvador. — Ever  since  the  revolution  of  last  year 
(Vol.  4,  p.  392),  which  placed  General  Rafael  Gutierrez 
in  control  of  affairs  in  Salvador,  the  friends  of  General 
Antonio  Ezeta  have  been  contemplating  a  coujJ  d'etat  in 
his  favor.  Early  in  February  of  this  year,  however,  their 
conspiracy  to  proclaim  Ezeta  president  was  discovered. 
President  Gutierrez  wrought  summary  vengeance  on  the 
principal  leaders,  ordering  them  to  be  shot.  On  the  dis- 
covery of  the  conspiracy,  followers  of  Gutierrez  rushed  to 
the  office  of  Colonel  Angel  Vasquez,  chief  of  police  of  San 
Salvador,  the  capital,  and  shot  him.  The  conspiracy  was 
widespread,  and  included  employes  of  Gutierrez,  who  had 
turned  traitor  to  him.  Many  arrests  have  been  made;  and 
the  political  situation  in  the  republic  is  said  to  be  one  of 
great  tension. 

THE  NICARAGUA  CANAL. 

The  Nicaragua  canal  bill,  the  main  provisions  of  which 
were  outlined  in  the  last  number  of  this  quarterly  (Vol.  4, 
p.  870),  passed  the  senate  on  January  25  by  a  decisive 


COLOMBIA.  165 

majority  31  to  21,  after  being  debated  for  many  weeks.  It 
was  the  most  far-reacliing  measure  ever  passed  by  either 
branch  of  congress.  The  debate  was  marked  for  the  ability 
with  which  Senator  Morgan  of  Alabama  sustained  the 
merits  of  the  project,  and  the  bitterness  with  which  Senator 
Turpie  of  Indiana  assailed  it  as  visionary  and  unwarranted. 
On  the  passage  of  the  bill  by  the  senate,  it  went  to  the  house. 
There,  however,  it  was  never  even  taken  up,  and  it  died 
with  the  end  of  congress. 

The  matter,  however,  is  still  kept  alive  by  the  sundry 
civil  bill  which  made  immediately  available  the  sum  of 
$20,000  to  cover  the  expenses  of  a  government  commission 
to  examine  the  canal  route.  Colonel  W.  P.  Craighill,  of 
the  army,  last  president  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  has  been  nominated  by  Secretary  Lament  as 
chairman  of  the  commission.  AVith  him  will  be  associated 
Lieutenant-Commander  M.  T.  Endicott,  second  officer  on 
the  civil  engineers'  list  of  the  navy,  nominated  by  Secre- 
tary Herbert,  and  also  a  civilian  to  be  nominated  by  the 
president. 

This  commission  is  to  be  charged  with  "  ascertaining  the  feasi- 
bility, permanence,  and  cost  of  construction  and  completion  "  of  the 
Nicaragua  canal,  and  "shall  visit  and  personally  inspect  the  route 
of  said  canal,  examine  and  consider  the  plans,  profiles,  sections, 
prisms,  and  specifications  for  its  various  parts,  and  report  thereon  to 
the  president  on  or  before  November  1  next. " 

COLOMBIA. 

For  two  months  beginning  in  the  latter  part  of  January, 
Colombia  has  been  in  a  turmoil,  resulting  from  a  serious 
revolutionary  outbreak.  The  trouble  was  the  outcome  of 
long-standing  differences  between  the  liberals  (the  revolu- 
tionary party)  and  the  conservatives,  who  have  controlled 
the  administration  for  about  twenty  years.  The  following 
are  said  to  be  the  demands  of  the  liberal  party: 

1.  That  church  and  state,  united  by  the  constitution  of  1886,  be 
separated. 

2.  That  the  financial  administration  be  refoo-med  so  as  to  restore 
the  value  of  the  currency  and  the  credit  of  the  country. 

3.  That  capital  punishment  be  abolished. 

4.  That  equitable  taxation  and  import  duties  be  established. 

It  is  claimed  that  while  Carolus  Holguin  was  acting 
president  for  a  time  during  the  term  of  the  late  Dr.  Ra- 
fael Nunez,  he  clandestinely  issued  paper  money  to  the 
amount  of  over  $6,000,000  beyond  what  had  been  author- 
ized by  congress.  This  led  to  an  attempted  outbreak  at 
Bogota  last  year,  which  was,  however,  promptly  suppressed. 
The  dissatisfaction  has  been  aggravated  by  the  depleted 


166  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

condition  of  the  treasury  and  the  large  discount  at  which 
Colombian  money  passes  current,  it  taking  three  Colom- 
bian dollars  to  make  the  value  of  one  American  dollar. 
The  liberals  are  dissatisfied  also  with  the  action  of  the 
government  in  issuing  12,550,000  worth  of  bonds  against 
the  revenue  to  the  Carthagena-Magdaiena  railroad. 

From  the  conflicting  press  reports,  it  appears  that  the 
first  outbreak  occurred  on  January  23;  and  the  trouble 
was  confined  to  the  states  of  Cundinamarca  (in  which 
Bogota,  the  capital,  is  situated),  Tolima,  Santander,  Boy- 
aca,  and  Cauca.  The  entire  nation  was  placed  under 
martial  law,  the  commander  of  the  government  troops  be- 
ing General  Rafael  Reyes,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  suppression  of  the  revolt  of  1886,  at  which  time  Ad- 
miral Jouett  of  the  United  States  navy  landed  forces  and 
took  the  isthmus  of  Panama  from  the  insurgents,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  terms  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  to 
protect  the  isthmus  against  foreign  invasion  or  the  stop- 
page of  transit. 

Toward  the  end  of  January  the  rebels  suffered  a  seri- 
ous defeat  at  Pradera  in  the  state  of  Cauca,  and  also  in 
the  streets  of  the  capital  itself,  where  their  commander- 
in-chief.  General  Acosta,  with  large  supplies  of  ammuni- 
tion, was  captured.  In  the  fight  in  Bogota  President  Caro 
in  person  led  two  battalions  of  loyal  artillery.  Early  in 
February  word  was  received  that  similar  disaster  had  be- 
fallen the  revolutionists  in  Tolima.  The  latter,  however, 
had  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  the  Girardot  rail- 
way and  in  seizing  and  arming  two  Magdalena  river 
steamers. 

The  cause  of  the  rebellion,  however,  made  but  little 
progress,  though  the  insurgents  held  out  for  some  time  at 
scattered  points.  About  February  23  they  were  defeated 
near  Cali  after  a  stubborn  fight. 

Some  anxiety  was  felt  in  the  United  States  for  the 
safety  of  American  interests.  The  Atlanta  was  at  Colon 
when  the  outbreak  occurred.  The  Ranger  and  the  Alert 
were  promptly  ordered  to  Colombian  waters,  and,  early  in 
March,  the  Raleigh  also,  from  Admiral  Meade's  fleet  at 
Trinidad,  it  being  at  that  time  reported  that  the  rebels 
were  gaining  strength  at  Buena  Ventura  and  Bocas  del 
Toro.  At  the  latter  place,  about  100  miles  north  of 
Colon,  a  battle  occurred  resulting  in  the  defeat  of  the 
rebels  and  the  death  of  their  leader,  said  to  be  the  famous 
bandit  of  the  Rio  Grande,  Catarina  Garza,  who,  in  1891 
and  1892,  gave  the  Mexican  and  American  border  troops 


BRAZIL.  167 

considerable  trouble.  The  outlaw  was  killed  by  Lieuten- 
ant Lopez,  commander  of  the  garrison,  who  lost  his  own 
life.  Toward  the  middle  of  March,  the  insurgents  under 
Colonel  Castillo  attacked  Puerto,  taking  the  customs  offi- 
cers prisoners;  but,  afterward  retreating  to  Baraona,  they 
were  defeated  there  after  a  stubborn  fight  in  which  both 
sides  lost  heavily. 

On  March  16  President  Caro  cabled  to  the  Panama 
Star  and  Herald  that  the  revolution  had  ended  in  the  de- 
feat of  the  rebels  near  Malaga,  and  the  surrender  of  their 
whole  army  at  Capitanejo.  On  receipt  of  the  news  a  riot 
occurred  at  Panama,  but  it  was  readily  suppressed  by  gov- 
ernment troops. 

TENEZUELA. 

The  foreign  relations  of  Venezuela  have  been  much 
complicated  of  late,  and  are  treated  fully  in  our  depart- 
ment of  "International  Affairs ^^  (p.  73). 

Revolutionary  plots  against  President  Crespo  are  said 
to  be  culminating,  the  leading  spirits  being  disaffected 
political  exiles  in  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Paris,  and 
on  the  islands  of  Trinidad  and  Curagoa.  At  the  latter 
place  is  the  ex-dictator,  Rojas  Paul,  the  choice  of  the  dis- 
satisfied party  for  next  president.  He  has  issued  a  mani- 
festo denouncing  President  Crespo.  The  latter  is  watch- 
ful, and  actively  taking  means,  such  as  the  purchase  of 
war  vessels  and  munitions,  to  guard  the  important  sea- 
ports, protect  the  customs  houses,  and  strengthen  the  ad- 
ministration. 

With  a  view  to  harmonize  political  interests  in  the  re- 
public, the  president,  on  March  30,  dissolved  the  cabinet 
which  he  formed  on  his  accession  to  power  about  two 
years  ago,  and  appointed  a  new  ministry  representing  all 
shades  of  political  opinion,  and  including  only  one  mem- 
ber of  the  old  cabinet,  General  Ramon  Guerra,  minister 
of  war.  ^ 

BRAZIL. 

In  the  middle  of  January  the  government  of  President 
De  Moraes  withdrew  its  proposal  to  submit  to  arbitration 
the  claims  arising  out  of  the  recent  naval  rebellion.  The 
foreign  diplomatic  corps  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  were  notified 
that  these  war  claims  would  be  presented  to  the  supreme 
court,  by  the  decision  of  which  the  government  would 
finally  abide.     It  is  not  yet  known  what  action  the  Brit- 


168  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

ish,  French,  and  Italian  governments   will   take   in  the 
premises. 

Admiral  Da  Gama  is  said  to  be  still  actively  foment- 
ing trouble  near  the  border-line  between  Uruguay  and  the 
disaffected  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 

THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

Almost  continuously  since  his  elevation  to  the  presi- 
dency in  October,  1892,  Dr.  Luis  Saenz-Pena  has  had  dif- 
ferences with  the  congress  of  the  republic,  and  in  some 
instances  with  his  ministers.  These  finally  culminated, 
on  January  22  of  the  present  year,  in  his  resignation  of 
office. 

The  most  recent  difference  concerned  the  demands  of 
congress  for  a  general  amnesty,  to  grant  which,  the  presi- 
dent claimed,  would  be  a  direct  Incentive  to  anarchy  and 
calculated  to  destroy  all  loyalty  in  both  army  and  navy. 
On  January  16  the  cabinet,  being  unable  to  induce  the 
president  to  sign  the  decree  of  amnesty,  resigned.  The 
latter  for  several  days  tried  in  vain  to  induce  different 
politicians  to  accept  portfolios.  By  a  vote  of  38  to  6  the 
deputies  resolved  to  suspend  their  sittings  until  the  usual 
relations  with  the  executive  should  be  resumed.  Finally, 
with  difficulties  confronting  him  on  all  sides,  and  some- 
what broken  in  health  and  spirits,  the  president  concluded 
that  the  interests  of  the  country  would  be  best  served  by 
his  resignation.  This  he  sent  to  congress  on  January  22, 
in  a  message  vindicating  at  length  his  policy.  The  resig- 
nation was  accepted  with  only  one  dissenting  vote;  and 
the  following  day  Vice-President  Senor  Jose  IJriburu  was 
sworu  in  as  president;  and  a  new  cabinet  was  formed, 
composed  of  adherents  of  generals  Roca  and  Mitre. 

A  new  tariff  law  was  enacted  in  the  latter  part  of  Feb- 
ruary, of  which  the  chief  point  of  interest  for  Americans 
is  a  reduction  of  the  duties  on  many  imports  emanating 
from  the  United  States.  The  following  indicates  the 
chief  items  affected  by  the  new  law: 

Farm  wagons  are  to  pay  10  per  cent  ad  valorem,  a  reduction  of 
60  per  cent;  binding  twine,  5  per  cent,  a  reduction  of  50  per  cent; 
sewing  machines,  5  per  cent;  binders,  Leaders,  threshing  machines, 
with  or  without  motors,  free;  ploughs  and  mowers,  5  percent;  spruce, 
white  and  yellow  pine  lumber,  reduction  in  duties  that  afford  their 
importation  at  gain  of  $7.50  per  1,000  feet;  asphalt,  10  per  cent  ad 
valorem;  resin,  5  per  cent  ad  valorem;  wood  pulp  for  paper  making, 
2^  per  cent  ad  valorem;  vegetables,  preserved  in  tins  or  glass,  15  cents 
(gold)  per  kilo;  fruits  in  syrup,  preserved,  27  cents  (gold)  per  kilo; 
fruits  in  water  or  natural  in  tins  and  bottles,  15  cents  (gold)  per  kilo; 


PERU.  169 

lard,  8  cents  (gold)  per  kilo;  kerosene,  1^  cents  per  litre;  coal  and 
coke,  free;  locomotives,  free. 

The  low  prices  prevalent  in  Europe  for  wheat  and  wool 
have  disastrously  affected  the  export  trade  in  those  com- 
modities. 

ECUADOR. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1894  the  Chilean  cruiser  Esmer- 
alda was  sold  to  the  Japanese  government,  and  it  is  stated 
that  the  flag  of  Ecuador  was  hoisted  over  the  vessel  before 
it  was  transferred  to  Japan.  The  representatives  of  Ecua- 
dor at  Valparaiso,  in  collusion  with  the  former  gover- 
nor of  Guayaquil  and  other  officials  of  the  republic,  were 
accused  of  having  conducted  the  negotiations  for  the  pur- 
chase of  the  vessel.  In  spite  of  their  denial  of  the  charge, 
it  was  generally  believed  in  Ecuador,  with  the  result  of 
violent  and  widespread  political  agitation.  At  various 
places  the  national  flag  was  hung  at  half-mast  as  a  sign  of 
regret  for  the  dishonor  and  disgrace  to  the  country;  dis- 
orders occurred  at  Quito,  the  capital,  which  led  to  the  ar- 
rest of  the  president  of  the  municipal  council;  and  the 
agitation  was  so  persistent  in  Guayas,  that  the  new  gov- 
ernor, on  February  13,  proclaimed  a  state  of  siege  in  that 
province. 

In  the  latter  part  of  February  an  epidemic  of  yellow 
fever  was  raging  at  Guayaquil,  and  a  partial  quarantine 
was  established  against  that  port. 

PERU. 

The  hopes  entertained  by  the  government  party  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1894,  that  the  backbone  of  the  revolution 
in  Peru  had  been  broken,  were  not  sustained  by  later  de- 
velopments; and  the  country  has  exhibited  to  the  world 
another  of  those  instances — so  common  in  the  republics 
of  Latin  America — of  a  violent  change  of  regime. 

The  revolutionists  have  all  along  had  with  them  the 
weight  of  popular  favor.  The  revolution,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, was  started  shortly  after  the  death  of  President 
Bermudez  in  March,  1894  (Vol.  4,  pp.  184,  398,  637,  and 
875).  In  contravention  of  the  constitutional  rights  of 
the  first  vice-president,  Senor  Pedro  A.  del  Solar,  a  pro- 
visional government  was  set  up  by  Sefior  Borgoflo,  acting 
in  the  interests  of  General  Caceres.  Borgoflo  dissolved 
congress  and  ordered  a  new  election,  which  finally  re- 
sulted in  the  elevation  of  General  Caceres  to  the  presi- 
dency in  August  last.     In  the  meantime  Sefior  del  Solar 


170  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

had  gone  South,  met  the  ex-dictator,  Nicohis  Pierohi,  and 
with  him  perfected  arrangements  for  the  revolution,  the 
details  of  which,  up  to  the  end  of  1894,  have  been  traced 
in  previous  issues  of  this  review. 

The  operations  of  the  revolutionists  were  conducted 
in  three  divisions,  in  the  north,  the  centre,  and  the  south. 
In  the  centre,  by  the  middle  of  February,  the  government 
held  only  Lima  and  Callao;  in  the  north  they  divided 
honors  more  evenly  with  the  insurgents;  but  in  the  south, 
the  important  posts  of  Arequipa,  Puno,  Cuzco,  and  Mo- 
quequa  were  all  in  the  hands  of  the  revolutionists. 

The  capital  too,  by  this  time,  had  been  for  several 
weeks  in  a  virtual  state  of  siege,  being  surrounded  by 
revolutionary  forces.  Early  on  the  morning  of  Sunday, 
March  17,  after  a  two  days'  battle,  the  insurgents,  led  by 
Pierola,  succeeded  in  effecting  an  entrance  into  the  city. 
They  were  aided  by  a  heavy  mist  which  concealed  their 
movements.  Desperate  efforts  were  made  by  the  govern- 
ment troops  to  drive  them  out,  and  for  three  days  and 
nights  the  streets  of  the  capital  almost  literally  **ran 
with  blood.'''  On  Tuesday,  the  19th,  the  government 
forces  resorted  to  depredations,  sacking  the  clubs  and 
many  of  the  shops.  During  the  three  days'  fighting  the 
foreign  legations  were  much  exposed,  and  the  wife  of  the 
United  States  minister,  Hon.  James  A.  McKenzie,  nar- 
rowly escaped  being  shot.  More  than  1,500  were  killed 
and  wounded  on  both  sides,  and  by  Tuesday  night  as 
many  as  1,000  dead  bodies  were  lying  about  the  streets 
with  imminent  danger  to  the  public  health.  That  evening 
(March  19)  the  foreign  diplomats  and  the  papal  nuncio 
intervened,  and  both  sides  agreed  to  a  twenty-four  hours' 
armistice  to  remove  the  dead.  Through  the  intervention 
of  the  diplomats  an  agreement  was  also  reached  which  put 
an  end  to  the  rebellion.  A  provisional  government  was  or- 
ganized, with  Senor  Candamo  as  president  and  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.  Under  the  terms  of  the  agreement. 
President  Caceres  surrendered  the  reins  of  power,  and 
Pierola  was  to  go  to  Chorillos.  The  Cacerist  troops  in 
Lima  professed  allegiance  to  the  new  regime,  and  were 
soon  followed  by  their  comrades  in  Callao. 

At  the  close  of  the  quarter,  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, which  has  been  generally  recognized,  appears  to 
be  gaining  a  sure  footing  in  the  country.  Pierola  has 
promised  to  co-operate  with  it  in  his  capacity  as  a  private 
citizen;  and  important  reforms  have  been  promised. 


OtlEAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  171 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

Parliamentary  Proceedings. — Parliament  reassem- 
bled for  its  fourth  session  on  February  5,  and  listened  to 
the  speech  from  the  throne.  The  speech  declared  the 
government's  purpose  to  bring  in  a  new  land  bill  relative 
to  Irish  evicted  tenants,  also  bills  dealing  with  Welsh 
Church  disestablishment,  liquor  traffic,  abolition  of  plural 
voting,  the  factory  acts,  London  government,  and  Scotch 
local  government.  Mr.  Balfour  expressed  surprise  at  the 
neglect  of  reference  to  the  navy;  and  in  the  house  of 
lords,  Lord  Salisbury  criticised  the  government's  omission 
to  refer  to  their  portentous  threatened  movement  against 
the  upper  house.  At  a  meeting  of  the  anti-Parnellite 
members,  Justin  McCarthy  was  re-elected  as  their  chair- 
man. The  government's  former  nominal  majority  of 
thirty-two  had  been  reduced  during  the  recess,  by  defec- 
tion of  the  Parnellites,  to  fourteen.  In  the  first  days  of  the 
session  the  liberal  victory  at  Colchester,  where  the  former 
conservative  majority  of  sixty-one  was  changed  to  a  liberal 
majority  of  263,  raised  the  liberal  majority  in  the  com- 
mons to  sixteen — perilously  small  for  the  work  proposed. 
The  conservatives  have  taken  hope  from  the  election  in 
Evesham,  Worcestershire,  in  January,  at  which  their  ma- 
jority (1,175)  was  about  double  that  of  1892. 

The  gradual  modification  in  English  parties  grows 
more  evident.  The  liberal-unionists  have  slowly  lost  in 
numbers  but  have  gained  in  force.  There  is  no  sign  of 
their  return  to  the  liberal  fold;  instead,  they  have  seemed 
till  very  recently  to  be  gradually  merging  indistinguish- 
ably  into  the  conservative  ranks.  But  in  those  formerly 
somewhat  torpid  ranks  they  have  the  force  of  a  leaven, 
liberalizing  the  old  toryism.  Their  views  ofi'er  an  open 
ground  on  which  theoretical  tories,  without  denying  their 
theories,  can  yet  confer  and  act  for  practical  ends  with 
men  who  know  and  who  sympathize  with  the  wants  of  the 
people.  English  political  conservatism  may  have  a  future, 
but  for  this  generation  it  is  a  mere  vapor.  Politicians 
begin  to  see  that  the  people  have  become  the  real  source 
of  power,  and  that  the  attempt  to  uphold  ancient  privi- 
lege merely  as  privilege  is  an  attempt  at  the  impossible. 
Hence  the  conservative  leaders  are  now  turning  their  at- 
tention to  measures  of  social  reform  and  for  improving 
the  material  condition  of  the  people,  and  are  publicly 
criticising  the  liberal  government  for  wasting  the  nation's 
time  and  effort  on  what  they  deem  impracticable  issues, 
such  as  Irish  home  rule.  Church  disestablishment,  and  re- 


172  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

duction  of  the  power  of  the  house  of  lords,  while  almost 
no  official  attention  has  been  given  to  the  causes  and 
remedies  of  the  frightful  distress  prevalent  among  the 
agricultural  and  manufacturing  population. 

An  amendment  to  the  address,  calling  for  govern- 
mental relief  of  the  unemployed,  which  was  to  be  offered 
by  Mr.  Keir-Hardie,  socialist,  was  precluded  by  an  amend- 
ment from  a  Hampshire  conservative  calling  for  relief  of 
agricultural  depression.  After  three  days'  debate  the  two 
amendments  as  combined  (Mr.  Keir-Hardie  having  with- 
drawn his)  were  defeated  by  a  vote  which  showed  a  gov- 
ernment majority  of  twelve. — John  Redmond,  Parnellite, 
moved  an  amendment  calling  for  immediate  dissolution, 
and  an  appeal  to  the  country  on  the  question  of  Irish  home 
rule.  This  extreme  amendment,  supported  by  the  official 
opposition  led  by  Mr.  Balfour,  was  defeated  by  a  ministerial 
majority  of  twenty.  It  was  an  instance  of  most  embarrass- 
ing partnership. — The  chief  attack  of  the  opposition  was 
Mr.  Chamberlain's  offer  of  an  amendment  to  the  effect 
that  the  government  were  bound  to  bring  forward  their 
promised  bill  relating  to  the  house  of  lords  instead  of  bills 
which  they  knew  could  not  be  passed.  After  ten  days  of 
debate  the  amendment  was  defeated  on  February  18  by  a 
majority  of  fourteen.  The  majority  for  closure  of  the  de- 
bate, however,  moved  by  Sir  William  Harcourt  after  a 
sparkling  speech,  was  only  eight.  The  strongest  and 
most  brilliant  speech  in  the  debate  was  universally  con- 
ceded to  be  that  of  the  home  secretary,  Mr.  Asquith. 

As  to  the  ministerial  program  for  parliamentary  ac- 
tion, it  starts  with  the  expectation  that  this  will  neces- 
sarily be  the  closing  session  of  this  parliament,  inasmuch 
as  the  final  action  on  the  anti-lords  resolution  must  bring 
an  immediate  appeal  to  the  constituencies.  This  ses- 
sion is  therefore  to  be  prolonged  by  delay  of  the  momen- 
tous resolution  till  the  government  shall  have  fulfilled  its 
election  promises.  The  ministers  are  aware  that  when 
these  measures  shall  have  been  passed  by  the  commons 
they  will  be  thrown  out  by  the  lords;  but  they  are  also  ex- 
pectant of  a  startling  effect  on  the  popular  mind  from 
such  an  object-lesson  showing  superannuated  and  moss- 
grown  privilege  in  the  very  act  of  chaining  and  stifling 
the  people  as  represented  in  their  delegated  government. 
The  familiar  characterization  of  this  policy  is  that  it  is  to 
let  the  house  of  lords  fill  up  the  cup  of  its  iniquities  till  it 
overflows — a  phrase  which  illustrates  the  mutations  of 
politics,   having  been  used  first  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  in 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  173 

1885,  in  a  speech  against  the  lords,  and  then  in  their 
defense  in  1895,  quoted  by  him  in  derision  as  from  the 
radicals. 

On  February  25  in  the  commons,  the  home  secretary 
moved  the  bill  for  disestablishment  of  the  Church  in 
Wales,  nearly  the  same  as  that  introduced  at  the  last  ses- 
sion. A  fierce  speech  in  opposition  was  made  by  Sir 
Michael  Hicks-Beach.  The  bill  passed  its  first  reading  on 
the  28tli  without  a  division  (see  below). 

Indian  Cotton  Duties.— Kt  about  this  time  Sir  Henr}'^ 
James's  motion  for  adjournment  to  discuss  the  new  cotton 
duties  was  expected  to  bring  the  overthrow  of  the  govern- 
ment through  the  defection  of  about  forty  Lancashire 
liberals  whose  interests  in  cotton  manufacture  were  deemed 
to  be  injured  by  those  duties.  The  motion  was  really  a 
flank  attack  on  the  ministers — a  motion  for  a  vote  of 
censure  for  their  placing  an  import  duty  of  five  per  cent 
on  yarns  of  a  certain  quality  imported  into  India.  The 
gravity  of  the  crisis  was  felt  in  the  stock  exchange.  But 
the  opposition  was  far  from  united  and  hearty  in  approv- 
ing this  method  of  warfare  against  the  government;  even 
Mr.  Chamberlain  deemed  it  wise  to  dodge  the  vote  on  the 
motion,  after  hearing  the  whole  case  expounded  in  a  strong 
and  lurid  speech  by  Mr.  Fowler,  secretary  for  India;  and 
the  ministers  gained  a  majority  of  195. 

Irish  Land  Bill. — On  March  4  John  Morley,  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland,  introduced  the  Irish  land  bill  in  the 
commons,  urging  its  adoption  not  as  the  ultimate  solu- 
tion, but  as  an  immediately  practicable  and  beneficent 
adjustment,  of  a  most  difficult  question.  The  foundation 
of  the  bill,  he  declared,  was  protection  of  the  tenant  in  the 
ownership  of  improvements.  It  passed  its  first  reading 
without  a  division.  This  is  probably  the  only  liberal  party 
measure  which  is  thought  to  have  any  chance  of  passing, 
with  large  modification,  in  the  house  of  lords.  The  Lon- 
don Times,  however,  of  March  5,  sounded  a  note  of  con- 
servative alarm,  declaring  that  the  bill  decreed  changes  so 
wide  and  so  deep  as  to  be  revolutionary.  The  Standard 
echoed  this  cry.  In  the  commons  the  fight  against  it  will 
come  in  the  committee  stage,  where  attempts  will  doubt- 
less be  made  to  eliminate  some  of  its  vigorous  and  drastic 
provisions  (see  below). 

Labor  Legislation. — Home  Secretary  Asquith  intro- 
duced the  factories  and  workshop  bill,  allotting  250 
cubic  feet  of  space  to  every  person  employed,  requiring 
protection  of  work  people  from  dangerous  machinery,  for- 


174  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

bidding  exaction  of  overtime  from  young  persons,  and  re- 
ducing and  limiting  the  overtime  for  women. — The  concili- 
ation (trades-disputes)  bill,  introduced  by  Mr.  Bryce,  passed 
its  first  reading  without  division. 

Toward  the  end  of  March,  the  bill  for  payment  of 
salaries  of  members  of  parliament  was  passed  by  a  major- 
ity of  eighteen. 

Returning  for  a  moment  to  the  two  bills  mentioned  in 
tlie  foregoing  hasty  resiime  of  parliamentary  proceedings, 
most  likely  to  evoke  hot  discussion — the  Irish  land  bill 
and  the  Welsh  Church  disestablishment  bill — we  note 
some  elements  in  the  cases  which  they  respectively  pre- 
sent. The  opponents  of  the  Irish  land  bill  allege  that  it 
gives  the  tenant  more  advantages  than  the  landlord — the 
tenant's  rights  rising  to  surpass  the  landlord's  interest 
in  the  estate.  Moreover,  the  concessions  already  made, 
with  those  now  proposed,  will,  it  is  predicted,  surely  lead 
to  further  demands.  The  operation  of  the  bill,  substitut- 
ing the  compulsory  for  the  voluntary  principle  in  agree- 
ments between  landlords  and  tenants  who  had  formerly 
been  evicted,  places  the  landlord  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  land  commission  as  regards  the  purchase  price.  In  re- 
gard to  the  popular  consideration  of  the  bill,  two  facts  are 
to  be  noted.  One  fact  is  that  the  Irish  factions  are,  as  usual, 
divided  on  it.  The  anti-Parnellites  welcome  it  enthusias- 
tically: this  suffices  to  throw  the  Parnellites  into  an  op- 
position to  it,  or  at  least  into  a  cynical  criticism  of  it  as 
''a  mere  demonstration"  for  political  effect.  The  other 
fact  is  that  the  English  and  Scotch  farmers  who  have  suf- 
fered for  more  than  a  year  under  an  increasing  agricul- 
tural depression,  are  discontented  with  the  consideration 
given  and  the  concessions  made  and  to  be  made  to  the 
Irish  farmers,  whose  condition  has  of  late  greatly  im- 
proved. Ireland,  holding  the  balance  of  power  between 
the  two  great  parties,  is  able  to  endue  its  farmers  with 
advantages  wliicii  those  in  other  2)ortions  of  the  British 
islands  cannot   possess. 

The  Welsh  Church  disestablishment  question  brings 
up  historical  memories  of  antiquity  which  appeal  to  na- 
tional sentiment  in  its  favor,  as  against  the  cold,  bald  de- 
mand for  present  justice.  These  are  set  forth  by  the 
Rev.  E.  J.  Newell,  M.  A.,  in  his  book,  A  History  of  the 
Welsh  Church  to  the  Dissolution  of  the  Monasteries.  His 
position,  for  which  he  summons  some  impressive  evidence, 
is  that  the  Welsh  Church  is  the  most  ancient  modern 
representative  of  the  original  national  Church  in  Britain, 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


175 


dating  between  the  years  A.  D.  176  and  208.  It  was  of 
Greek,  not  Roman,  origin.  The  Roman  mission  began 
with  St.  Augustine's  hinding  in  Kent,  A.  D.  597.  Thus 
the  Welsh  Church  is  not  to  be  dealt  with  by  rough  hands 
and  despoiled  as  an  alien  organization,  but  is  to  be  main- 
tained and  guarded  as  the  original  national  Church.  In 
strong  contrast  with  this  argument  from  sentiment  is  Lord 
Rosebery's  address  in 
January  to  an  assem- 
bly of  10,000  people 
at  Cardiff,  Wales,  de- 
claring the  Church 
''alien"  to  the  im- 
mensely preponderat- 
ing mass  of  the  Welsh 
people,  and  therefore 
oppressive  in  its  uni- 
versal exaction  of 
tithes  and  in  its  claim 
of  power.  The  lead- 
ing facts  on  this  side 
have  been  presented 
in  a  preceding  num- 
ber of  this  quarterly. 
In  parliament,  the 
home  secretary  de- 
clared that  the  Welsh 
Church  had  ceased 
to  be  indigenous  in 
any  sense.  The  lords 
will  of  course  reject 
the  disestablishment 
bill,  if  it  reaches 
them,  as  it  possibly  may,  by  a  majority  of  twenty  or  less. 
Resignation  of  Speaker  Peel. — The  month  of  March 
brought  a  political  event  of  unusual  impressiveness,  the 
resignation  by  Mr.  Arthur  Wellesley  Peel  of  the  speaker- 
ship of  the  house  of  commons.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  the  great  prime  minister.  Sir  Robert  Peel;  and,  though 
lacking  his  father's  genius,  earned  soon  after  his  appoint- 
ment in  1884,  when  he  was  of  the  age  of  fifty-four  years, 
the  repute  of  being  the  most  forcible,  stately,  and  dig- 
nified speaker  of  recent  years,  and  on  the  whole  one  of 
the  most  successful.  His  control  of  the  turbulent  mem- 
bers was  complete.  It  is  an  exalted  post  which  he  vacates. 
Since  the  revolution  the  speaker  has  ranked  as  the  first 


RT.  HON.  H.  CAMPBELI,-BANNKRMAN, 
BRITISH   SECRETARY  OF  STATE  FOR  WAR. 


176  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

commoner  of  the  realm.  He  is  provided  with  a  splendid 
residence,  draws  an  annual  salary  of  about  $30,000,  and 
retires  on  a  pension  of  $25,000  annually  for  life.  The 
persons  most  prominently  mentioned  by  the  liberals  to 
succeed  to  the  vacancy,  were  Mr.  H.  Campbell-Banner- 
man,  (the  present  war  secretary),  Mr.  Lockwood,  and  Mr. 
William  Court  Gully.  Mr.  Campbell-Bannerman  with- 
drew his  name  from  candidacy  on  March  19. 

Health  of  the  Premier. — The  month  of  March  brought 
also  a  startling  rumor  of  the  approaching  resignation  of 
Lord  Rosebery.  Its  earliest  publicity  seems  to  have  been 
through  the  columns  of  a  New  York  paper,  as  a  tele- 
graphic item  from  London.  Then  it  found  its  way  into 
the  London  papers,  and  immediately  aroused  a  general  ex- 
pectancy of  cabinet  changes.  Details  were  given  as  to  the 
cause  of  the  premier's  retirement,  and  an  early  date  was 
assigned.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  much  of  truth,  if 
any,  is  in  the  rumor.  It  is  known,  however,  that  Lord 
Rosebery's  recovery  from  his  long  and  severe  attack  of 
the  prevalent  influenza,  has  left  him  much  reduced  in 
strength  and  in  need  of  rest — his  great  trouble  being  from 
his  old  enemy,  insomnia.  If  his  absence  from  official 
duty  must  be  greatly  prolonged,  there  is  reason  to  fear 
that  the  rumor  may   have  merely  anticipated  the  event. 

Socialist  Political  Movements. — Mr.  Keir-Hardie, 
English  labor  leader,  a  member  of  parliament,  presents 
in  the  Nineteenth  Centiirij  for  January  the  attitude  and 
the  program  of  the  "Independent  Labor  Party. '^  To 
this  new  party  only  about  50,000  voters  are  assigned  in  all 
Great  Britain;  yet,  because  of  the  closeness  of  the  vote  in 
many  constituencies — eighteen  parliamentary  seats  being 
held  by  majorities  of  less  than  100,  and  thirty-five  others 
by  majorities  between  100  and  250 — this  writer  claims  for 
his  party  the  power  of  turning  out  the  liberal  ministry. 
He  shows  a  hatred  of  the  liberals  to  be  one  of  his  own 
controlling  principles,  due,  as  he  says,  to  "disgust  at  the 
way  in  which  the  liberal  party  has  broken  faith  with  its 
supporters.^'  His  party,  sharing  this  feeling,  but  unable 
to  support  toryism,  will  (he  predicts)  largely  abstain  from 
voting  at  the  next  election,  with  the  result  that  the  con- 
servatives will  return  to  power.  The  new  party  is  declared 
to  be  "in  favor  of  every  proposal  for  extending  electoral 
rights  and  democratizing  the  system  of  government.'' 
This  broad  general  declaration  is  set  forth  instead  of 
specific  demands  for  political  reforms,  such  as  aboli- 
tion of  the   house   of  lords,   adult   suffrage,   payment  of 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  177 

members,  etc.,  in  order  that  the  attention  of  men  may  not 
be  divided  by  this  or  that  political  issue,  but  concen- 
trated on  questions  affecting  social  and  economic  well- 
being.  The  candidates  of  this  party  are  required  to  sit  in 
opposition  in  the  commons,  acting  with  the  majority  of 
the  independent  labor  party  there,  irrespective  of  the  con- 
venience of  all  other  political  parties. 

A  glance  at  the  program  shows  the  party  to  be 
thoroughly  socialist.  This  fact  is  further  developed  by 
Mr.  Keir-Hardie's  statement  that  its 

"  sole  concern  is  the  reorganization  of  our  industrial  system  on  the 
basis  of  an  industrial  commonwealth,  in  which  the  whole  of  the 
wealth  produced  by  labor  shall  belong  to  the  workers,  and  in  which 
it  will  not  be  possible  to  have  over-abundance  on  the  one  hand  and 
death-dealing  poverty  on  the  other  " 

Its  program  reads  thus: 

1.  Restriction,  by  law,  of  the  working-day  to  eight  hours. 

2.  Abolition  of  overtime,  piece-work,  and  the  prohibition  of  the 
employment  of  children  under  the  age  of  fourteen  years. 

3.  Provision  for  the  sick,  disabled,  aged,  widows,  and  orphans, 
the  necessary  funds  to  be  obtained  by  a  tax  upon  unearned  incomes. 

4.  Free,  unsectarian,  primary,  secondary,  and  university  educa- 
tion. 

5.  Remunerative  work  for  the  unemployed. 

6.  Taxation  to  extinction  of  unearned  incomes. 

7.  The  substitution  of  arbitration  for  war,  and  the  consequent 
disarmament  of  the  nations. 

Miscellaneous. — The  final  returns  from  the  elections 
to  the  London  county  council  early  in  March,  were  a  sur- 
prise, revealing  a  tie  instead  of  the  expected  progressist 
victory.  The  moderates  gained  (over  the  last  election) 
twenty-six  seats  and  lost  one — a  net  gain  of  twenty-five. 
The  new  council  elects  nine  aldermen;  for  this  the  tie 
made  requisite  some  sort  of  compromise;  and  on  March  12 
Arthur  Arnold,  progressist,  was  chosen  by  the  council  for 
its  chairman  by  a  majority  of  nine  over  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk. The  result  of  the  popular  vote  is  taken  to  indicate 
a  reaction  against  radicalism. 

A  noteworthy  incident  was  the  visit  to  America,  in 
January,  of  Mr.  \V.  R.  Cremer,  M.  P.,  who  presented  to 
President  Cleveland  an  address,  signed  by  354  members  of 
parliament,  in  favor  of  international  arbitration. 

The  British  government  declines  to  aid  the  United 
States  in  the  philanthropic  effort  to  rid  the  ocean  high- 
ways of  those  derelict  hulks  which  endanger  navigation, 
although  the  maritime  international  conference  of  1889 
recommended  agreement  by  all  powers  to  remove  the 
hulks  floating  in  the  North  Atlantic. 

Vol.  5.— 13. 


178  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

The  rules  of  the  road  at  sea,  recently  promulgated  by 
the  British  board  of  trade,  have  called  forth  strong  ob- 
jections from  the  great  majority  of  practical  navigators. 

The  Baring  liquidation  was  declared  ended  by  a  con- 
gratulatory circular  issued  by  the  Bank  of  England  on 
March  11. 

The  recent  scandals  in  the  Bank  of  England  have 
aroused  discussion  of  an  amendment  to  its  charter,  which 
shall  give  the  government  director  more  effective  control. 

In  the  case  of  Jabez  Spencer  Balfour,  telegrams  dated 
at  Buenos  Ayres,  March  15,  bring  somewhat  conflicting  re- 
ports as  to  the  action  of  the  Salta  court  and  the  Argen- 
tine government;  but  it  seems  to  be  regarded  as  practi- 
cally certain  that  the  absconder  will  soon  be  handed  over 
to  the  British  authorities. 

The  financial  condition  of  the  new  Manchester  ship 
canal  is  not  encouraging.  At  the  semi-annual  meeting  of 
the  corporation  on  February  28,  the  chairman  reported 
the  near  prospect  of  difficulty  in  paying  the  interest 
on  the  loan  capital.  Much  disappointment  is  expressed 
at  the  small  share  of  the  cotton  traffic,  the  canal  having 
carried  during  the  last  half-year  only  13,600  tons,  against 
800,000  tons  arriving  at  Liverpool. 

The  colossal  battle-ship  Majestic  was  launched  at 
Portsmouth  on  January  31. 

The  new  torpedo-boat  destroyer.  Boxer,  at  its  official 
trial  at  about  the  same  date,  developed  in  six  runs  on  the 
measured  mile  a  speed  never  before  obtained  on  an  official 
trial.  The  mean  speed  was  29.17  knots  an  hour.  This 
vessel,  and  the  three  others  of  its  class,  the  Daring,  Decoy, 
and  Ardent,  all  built  by  Messrs.  Thornycroft,  are  now  said 
to  be  the  four  fastest  ships  in  the  world. 

The  fifty-second  inter-university  boat  race  was  rowed  on 
the  Thames  on  March  30,  over  the  usual  course  between 
Putney  and  Mortlake.  Oxford  finally  won  by  two  and  a- 
quarter  lengths  in  20  minutes  and  50  seconds.  This  is  the 
sixth  successive  victory  for  Oxford,  which  has  won  twenty- 
nine  races  against  twenty-two  gained  by  Cambridge,  and 
the  fourth  consecutive  win  for  the  Oxford  stroke  and 
bow. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

Arbitration  as  a  method  of  settling  strikes  has  made 
considerable  progress  in  France.  In  1892  the  chambers 
enacted  a  law  providing  for  "conciliation  and  arbitration." 
The  issue  in  dispute  is  submitted,  first,  to  a  committee  of 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  179 

conciliation,  consisting  of  delegates  chosen  by  both  sides; 
second,  in  case  this  committee  should  fail  to  agree,  to  a 
council  of  arbitration.  Proceedings  may  be  started  by 
either  part^,  or,  in  case  of  a  strike,  upon  the  invitation 
of  the  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  district.  The  following 
report  for  the  year  1893  shows  to  what  extent  the  law  has 
been  availed  of,  which  record,  it  is  said,  has  been  sur- 
passed in  1894. 

During  1893  there  occurred  634  strikes,  and  proceedings  under  the 
provisions  of  the  act  were  initiated  in  109  instances — in  all  but  seven 
of  these  instances  a  strike  having  been  previously  declared.  In  56 
cases  the  application  came  from  the  workmen,  in  5  from  the  employ- 
ers, in  2  from  the  employers  and  workmen  together,  while  the 
justice  of  the  peace  intervened  in  the  remaining  46.  The  result  of 
these  109  invocations  of  the  law  of  arbitration  was  as  follows:  In 
13  cases  work  was  resumed  before  the  law  could  be  applied.  In  8  of 
these  13  cases  the  justice  had  intervened,  and  in  5  the  application  had 
come  from  the  workmen.  In  45  other  cases  the  resort  of  conciliation 
was  justified  by  refusals  to  submit,  37  of  these  refusals  coming  from 
the  employers,  6  from  the  workmen,  and  two  from  both  sides.  In 
the  37  instances  of  refusal  by  employers,  the  application  had  been 
made  by  the  workmen  in  28  cases,  and  the  justice  had  intervened  in 
9.  In  the  6  instances  of  refusal  by  workmen  the  application  had 
been  made  by  the  employers,  3  times,  the  justice  intervening  in  the 
other  3. 

In  the  51  renjaining  cases  committees  of  conciliation  were  consti- 
tuted, and  in  30  instances  a  satisfactory  solution  was  obtained,  a  con- 
clusion being  reached  by  the  committee  in  25  cases  and  by  a  subse- 
quent arbitration  in  5.  In  9  of  these  proceedings  the  demands  of  the 
workmen  were  granted,  in  3  refused,  and  a  compromise  decision  was 
reached  in  18.  The  21  other  submissions  failed  of  any  practical  re- 
sult, one  because  two  successive  referees  appointed  by  the  president 
of  the  civil  court  declined  to  serve,  2  because  the  workmen  refused 
to  ratify  the  decisions,  and  the  others  by  reason  of  a  refusal  by  one 
side  or  both  to  consent  to  a  council  of  arbitration,  or  the  appointment 
of  a  referee. 

The  last  two  weeks  in  March  have  witnessed  the  prog- 
ress of  a  great  struggle  in  the  boot  and  shoe  manufactur- 
ing business  in  England,  between  masters  and  men,  over 
the  employment  of  non-union  labor.  On  March  15  work 
ceased  in  a  number  of  manufacturing  centres,  and  about 
200,000  operatives  were  out  of  employment.  In  North- 
ampton alone  80  factories  were  closed.  Strong  efforts  are 
being  made  to   effect  a  settlement  through   arbitration. 

Another  miners'  strike,  partaking  somewhat  of  a  po- 
litical character,  was  started  by  the  socialists  in  Liege, 
Belgium,  late  in  March.  Its  alleged  object  at  the  outset 
was  to  obtain  a  rise  of  15  to  20  per  cent  in  the  day's 
wages,  but  its  manifestations  were  directed  more  particu- 
larly toward  overthrowing  the  communal  electoral  law 
proposed  by  the   government,  and   the   establishment  of 


180  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

universal  suffrage  for  all  adult  citizens.  The  militia  re- 
serves were  called  out  as  a  precaution  against  the  threat 
to  make  the  strike  general  in  order  to  frighten  the  cham- 
bers and  thus  secure  universal  suffrage  for  communal 
elections. 

GERMANY. 

The  Reichstag. — The  leading  features  of  the  session 
which  began  January  8,  and  was  adjourned  March  30  for 
the  Easter  recess^  were  the  debates  on  the  anti-revolu- 
tionary bill  and  the  fanatical  refusal  of  the  deputies  to  ex- 
tend as  a  body  their  congratulations  to  Prince  Bismarck  on 
completing  his  eightieth  year  of  life. 

The  Anti- Revolutionary  Bill. — This  government  meas- 
ure, which  the  emperor  proposed  to  force  upon  the  legis- 
lature, was  nominally  directed  against  anarchy  and  social- 
ism, but  was  really  so  drastic  in  its  repressive  features  and 
so  elastic  in  its  clauses  committing  power  to  the  executive, 
as  to  involve  a  positive  and  considerable  encroachment 
upon  the  already  limited  rights  and  civil  liberties  of  Ger- 
man citizens  (Vol.  4,  p.  888).  No  bill  ever  before  pro- 
posed called  forth  more  universal  condemnation  both  in 
and  out  of  parliament. 

On  January  12  the  bill  was  referred  to  a  committee 
of  twenty-eight  members.  Important  changes  were  in- 
sisted upon.  The  clause  making  the  incitement  to  crim- 
inal acts,  whether  the  acts  took  place  or  not,  a  penal 
offense,  was  rejected;  it  would  have  enabled  the  govern- 
ment to  discipline  all  newspapers  opposed  to  the  emperor's 
policy.  The  clause  concerning  the  glorification  of  crime 
and  its  penalties  met  a  similar  fate.  Other  changes  were 
made,  of  a  nature  implying  to  some  extent  a  defeat  of  the 
policy  of  the  emperor;  and  the  bill,  including  the  clerical 
amendments,  was  finally  approved  by  the  committee  on 
March  29  by  a  vote  of  17  to  8. 

Bismarck's  Birthday  Celebrations. — The  eight- 
ieth anniversary  of  Prince  Bismarck's  birthday  (April  1) 
was  celebrated  with  great  enthusiasm  throughout  Germany, 
and  was  also  commemorated  by  his  countrymen  through- 
out the  world.  The  preliminary  ceremonies  began  on 
March  25,  and  it  will  probably  be  some  time  in  May  be- 
fore the  last  of  the  deputations  to  do  him.  honor  has  visited 
Friedrichsruhe.  On  Monday,  March  25,  those  members  of 
the  Reichstag  who  had  voted  to  congratulate  the  prince, 
went  in  a  body  to  his  home.  The  next  day  the  emperor 
himself  repaired  thither.    The  following  day  (Wednesday) 


GERMANY.  181 

the  chancellor,  Prince  Hohenlolie,  and  a  large  retinue  of 
officials,  presented  themselves.  On  April  1  a  deputation  of 
7,000  students  visited  the  ex-chancellor's  home;  and  Bis- 
marck replied  to  them  at  some  length,  closing  by  pointing 
out  that  however  German  parties  might  differ  they  must 
have  a  rallying  point — the  empire. 

Unfortunately,  the  festivities  were  not  unmarred  by  dis- 
cord and  strife.  On  March  23,  in  the  Reichstag,  the  pro- 
posal of  the  president,  Herr  von  Levetzow,  that  he  be 
commissioned  to  convey  the  congratulations  of  the  chamber 
to  Prince  Bismarck,  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  163  to  146. 
This  was  due  to  a  combination  of  parties — the  Poles,  who 
have  no  love  for  an  empire  and  wish  to  be  independent; 
the  representatives  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  who  wish  to  be  re- 
united with  France;  the  Guelphs,  who  are  angry  that  Han- 
over was  ever  incorporated  with  Prussia;  the  socialists, 
who  cannot  forget  the  repressive  laws  of  the  iron  chan- 
cellor; the  centrists,  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  who 
cannot  forget  the  Kulturlcampf;  and  the  radicals  of  the 
Richter  type,  who,  remembering  Bismarck's  dictatorial 
methods  and  his  alliance  with  the  aristocracy,  forget  that 
it  was  he  who  gave  them  suffrage. 

The  announcement  of  the  vote  agitated  the  chamber 
beyond  measure,  and  excited  partisan  feeling  to  the  highest 
pitch  throughout  the  empire.  Herr  von  Levetzow  at  once 
resigned,  as  did  also  the  vice-president  of  the  chamber, 
Dr.  Biirklin,  a  national  liberal.  The  emperor  was  much 
incensed,  and  contemplated  dissolving  the  Reichstag,  but 
was  unable  to  get  the  necessary  support  from  the  federal 
council.  Even  a  majority  of  the  Prussian  ministers  opposed 
the  idea. 

New  presiding  officers  of  the  Reichstag  were  chosen 
March  27,  as  follows:  President  Baron  von  Buol-Beren- 
berg,  formerly  first  vice-president;  first  vice-president, 
Herr  Schmidt,  progressist;  second  vice-president,  Herr 
Spahn,  centrist.  The  conservatives  and  national  liberals 
refrained  from  voting. 

Various  Resolutions. — On  February  13  a  resolution, 
offered  by  a  socialist  member,  abolishing  the  dictatorial 
powers  of  the  governor  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  was  passed  by 
the  Reichstag  over  the  opposition  of  conservatives  and  na- 
tional liberals.  The  centre  and  free-thought  (Ft'cisinnige) 
parties  supported  the  resolution. 

On  February  20  the  revived  bill  to  repeal  the  anti- 
Jesuit  laws  was  passed  to  a  third  reading,  the  conserva- 
tives, imperialists,  and  national  liberals  opposing  it. 


182  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

On  March  30,  the  last  day  before  adjournment,  the 
famous  proposal  of  Count  von  Kanitz-Podanp^en,  to  keep 
up  agricultural  prices  by  giving  the  government  a  monop- 
oly of  the  grain  trade,  was  referred  to  a  special  committee 
of  twenty-eight. 

About  the  first  of  the  year  a  compromise  was  effected 
between  the  Berlin  brewers  and  the  social  democrats,  end- 
ing the  long-standing  boycott  of  the  breweries. 

FRANCE. 

The  history  of  the  third  French  republic  has  abounded 
in  political  surprises,  but  none  have  been  more  startling 
than  those  of  January,  1895 — the  downfall  of  the  cabinet 
of  M.  Dupuy,  followed  by  the  resignation  of  President 
Casimir-Perier.  On  the  whole,  these  incidents  signify 
the  strength  of  socialism.  While  still  unable  to  establish 
a  radical  socialist  administration,  this  element  in  the 
chamber  has  succeeded  in  overturning  the  moderate  re- 
publican government,  of  which  M.  Casimir-Perier  had 
been  supposed  to  be  the  standard-bearer.  No  single  party 
in  the  French  chamber  is  just  now  more  numerous  than 
the  socialists.  No  coalition  of  parties  can  be  relied  on 
against  them.  There  can  be  no  government  in  France 
which  does  not  compromise  with  them. 

Fall  of  the  Dupuy  Ministry. — On  January  14,  be- 
cause the  chamber  refused  to  approve  of  the  course  of  the 
government  regarding  the  railway  conventions  of  1883, 
which  were  negotiated  by  the  ministry  of  that  day  to  the 
injury  of  the  laboring  classes  and  the  small  bourgeoisie, 
the  cabinet  of  M.  Dupuy  resigned.  Rightly  or  wrongly 
the  premier  had  been  credited  with  a  temporizing  desire 
to  shield  the  chief  offenders  in  numerous  scandalous  jobs. 

A  dispute  between  M.  Barthou,  minister  of  public 
works,  and  the  Midi  and  Orleans  Railway  companies,  as 
to  the  duration  of  the  state  guarantee  of  interest  under 
the  agreements  of  1883,  had  been  referred  to  the  council 
of  state  and  decided  by  that  body  in  favor  of  the  com- 
panies. M.  Barthou  accordingly  resigned.  On  January 
14  M.  Millerand  brought  forward  an  interpellation,  con- 
tending that  the  whole  cabinet  ought  also  to  have  resigned. 
He  condemned  them  for  having  referred  to  a  court  a 
question  properly  belonging  to  the  decision  of  the  cham- 
ber, and  proposed  that  an  inquiry  be  instituted  into  the 
conduct  of  M.  Raynal,  who  was  minister  of  public  works 
when  the  conventions  were  concluded.  The  inquiry  was 
voted  by  253  to  225 — the  ministry  not  objecting.     Subse- 


FRANCE.  183 

quently  a  resolution  offered  by  M.  Trelat,  approving  the 
government's  conduct  throughout  in  dealing  with  the 
railway  conventions,  was  rejected.  M.  Dupuy  and  his 
colleagues  thereupon  withdrew,  and  tendered  their  resig- 
nations. 

Resignation  of  M.  Casimir-Perier.— The  fall  of 
the  Dupuy  ministry  was  the  climax  of  a  long  series  of  in- 
cidents which  had  rendered  the  president's  tenure  of  of- 
fice obnoxious  to  him  and  finally  resulted  in  his  resigna- 
tion. No  sooner  had  the  country  begun  to  recover  from 
the  shock  of  the  assassination  of  President  Carnot  on 
June  24  last,  and  the  frenzy  of  terror  which  that  tragic 
event  at  first  aroused,  than  the  enemies  of  M.  Casimir- 
Perier  (elected  president  June  27,  1894)  began  a  series  of 
bitter  personal  attacks  upon  him.  Notwithstanding  the 
civic  courage  he  displayed  and  the  promise  he  at  first  gave  of 
strong-handed  dealing  with  the  foes  of  social  order,  those 
of  radical  tendencies  looked  upon  his  policy  as  reaction- 
ary, and  himself  as  representing  the  aristocracy  and  the 
hated  capitalist.  The  most  violent  of  these  attacks  ap- 
peared in  Ulntransigeant,  the  Paris  daily  under  direction 
of  Henri  Rochefort,  whose  La  Lanterne  had  much  to  do 
with  the  fall  of  the  empire  of  Napoleon  III.  They  were 
echoed,  however,  by  the  radical  and  socialist  press;  and 
many  insulting  epithets  were  used.  Because,  for  example, 
the  ancestors  of  M.  Casimir-Perier  had  made  profitable 
speculations  at  the  time  of  the  first  revolution,  had  or- 
ganized the  Bank  of  France,  and  amassed  a  fortune  in  the 
coal  mines  of  Anzin,  the  president  was  spoken  of  as  the 
*'King  of  Anzin,"  and  called  a  "usurer's  grandson."  His 
beautiful  residence  at  Pont-sur- Seine  caused  him  to  be 
known  as  the  '^ King  of  Pont."  He  was  called  "a  pro- 
tector of  thieves,"  a  ''defender  of  blackmailers  and  bri- 
bers," even ''murderer"  and  "assassin,"  because  he  had 
failed  to  commute  the  death  sentence  of  a  private  who  had 
insulted  his  officers.  Finally  Le  Chamhard,  a  socialist 
sheet,  became  so  virulent  that  its  editor,  M.  Gerault- 
Richard,  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
a  year;  but  while  in  prison,  the  offender  was  elected  a 
deputy  from  one  of  the  electoral  districts  of  the  capital, 
though  the  chamber  refused  to  allow  him  to  take  his  seat. 
Moreover,  the  president's  own  party,  the  moderate  repub- 
lican, had  displayed  a  strange  indifference,  if  not  a  con- 
cealed hostility,  toward  the  conservative,  anti-radical,  and 
anti-socialist  program  which  the  president  was  supposed 
to  represent;  while  the  constitutional  limitations  upon  the 


184 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


1st  Qr ,  1895; 


power  of  the  chief  executive — he  being  practically  the 
slave  of  his  ministers,  who  are  themselves  the  only  ones 
responsible  before  parliament — left  him  defenseless  against 
the  venomous  and  persistent  radical  and  socialist  attacks. 
There  were  even  moderate  republicans  who  accused  him 
of  aiming  to  secure  a  dictatorship.  The  election  of  M. 
Brisson,  a  radical,  to  fill  temporarily  the  presidency  of 

the  chamber  on  the 
death  of  M.  Burdeau 
in  December,  1894 
(Vol.  4,  p.  895),  and 
his  permanent  re- 
election to  the  post 
on  January  8  of  this 
year,  were  in  reality 
affronts  to  M.  Casi- 
mir-Perier.  Finally, 
when  the  debates 
over  the  railway  con- 
ventions of  1883  arose 
ill  the  chamber,  the 
personality  of  the 
president  was  dragged 
into  the  discussion. 
In  1883  he  was  only 
an  under-secretary  of 
state,  and  could  have 
had  no  responsibility 
in  the  matter.  The 
radicals,  however, 
claimed  that  the 
conventions  of  1883 
compromised  the 
honesty  of  the  cabinet  which  had  signed  them;  and  when 
the  chamber  voted,  as  already  stated,  to  investigate  the 
matter  of  the  conventions,  and  refused  to  approve  of  the 
course  of  the  government  in  regard  to  them,  the  presi- 
dent, feeling  himself  unable  to  stand  any  further  attacks, 
direct  or  indirect,  resigned  his  office,  January  15.  The 
following  day  he  sent  a  message  to  the  senate  and  cham- 
ber in  substance  as  follows: 

He  stated  that  a  president  of  the  republic,  without  means  of  ac- 
tion and  without  control,  could  derive  from  the  confidence  of  the  na- 
tion alone  the  moral  force  without  which  he  was  nothing.  He 
doubted  neither  the  good  sense  nor  the  justice  of  France,  but  public 
opinion  had  been  led  astray.  For  six  months  a  campaign  of  slander 
and  insult  had  been  going  on  against  the  army,  the  magistracy,  par- 


M.  CASIMIR-pfiRIEB, 
EX-PRESIDENT  OF  THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC. 


FiRAl^CE. 


186 


liament,  and  the  chief  of  the  state.  He  could  not  acknowledge  that 
the  best  servants  of  the  country  and  its  representative  in  the  pres- 
ence of  foreign  nations,  should  be  thus  insulted;  and  he  was  not  con- 
tent to  bear  the  weight  of  the  moral  responsibilities  placed  upon  him 
in  the  condition  of  powerlessness  to  which  he  was  condemned.  He 
was  persuaded  that  reforms  would  only  be  carried  out  with  the  as- 
sistance of  a  government  determined  to  insure  respect  for  the  laws 
and  to  make  itself  obeyed  by  its  subordinates. 

.The  resignation 
of  M.  Casimir-Perier 
caused  a  great  sensa- 
tion the  world  over, 
A  few  were  found  to 
justify  the  act,  but  it 
was  generally  con- 
demned at  home  and 
abroad  as  an  evidence 
of  personal  temper 
and  even  political 
cowardice  unbecom- 
ing the  head  of  a 
great  state — a  deser- 
tion of  the  republic 
at  a  crisis.  The  Lon- 
don Graphic  speaks 
of  it  as  "■  perhaps  the 
most  pitiable  display 
of  personal  weakness 
and  political  incom- 
petency which  can  be 
found  in  the  historv 
of  the  Third  Repub- 
lic/' It  left  France 
without  a  chief,  still 
confronted  by  all  the  dangers  which  the  political  situa- 
tion involved;  it  left  an  administration  without  a  minis- 
try, a  chamber  in  conflict  over  a  judicial  decision,  an  un- 
restricted press,  a  group  of  socialists  and  extreme  radicals 
dictating  to  the  disorganized  moderates,  and  lastly  an  un- 
passed  budget. 

Election  of  M.  Faure. — Pursuant  to  a  call  issued 
by  M.  Challemel-Lacour,  president  of  the  senate,  the  na- 
tional assembly  met  at  Versailles  January  17  to  elect  a  new 
president.  Two  ballots  were  required.  On  the  first  the 
vote  stood:  M.  Brisson,  338;  M.  Faure,  244;  M.  Waldeck- 
Rousseau,  184;  scattering,  28;  total  of  votes  cast,  794;  ne- 
cessary to  elect,  398.     M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  then  with- 


M.  F^LIX   FRANCOIS  FAURE, 
NEW  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC. 


186 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


1st  Qr.,  18Q5. 


drew  in  favor  of  M.  Faure;  and  on  the  second  ballot  M. 
Faure  was  declared  elected  by  430  votes  to  361  cast  for  M. 
Brisson.  The  result  was  announced  amid  indescribable 
uproar  on  the  part  of  the  socialists  and  radicals. 

Faure,  Francois  Felix,  the  new  president  of  the  French  re- 
public, was  born  in  Paris,  January  30,  1841.  Throughout  his  political 
life  he  has  been  a  member  of  that  moderate  republican  party  whose 
principles  were  impressed  upon  France  by  Gambetta  and  were  made 

triumphant  by  Sadi  Carnot. 
It  was  this  party  who  elected 
M.  Casimir-Perier.  However, 
unlike  his  predecessor  in  office, 
M.  Faure  has  the  advantage  of 
being  considered,  not  as  a 
champion  of  capitalists,  but 
a  representative  of  the  com- 
mon people,  the  small  hour- 
\geoisie,  whose  ancestors  made 
I  the  revolution  of  the  last  cen- 
Itury;  and  he  is  not  suspected 
[of  ambition  to  impose  upon  the 
people  his  own  idea  of  govern- 
ment. A  wealthy  man,  his 
wealth  has  been  the  creation 
of  his  own  industry,  thrift, 
and  intelligence.  He  has  spent 
most  of  his  life  at  Havre, 
where  he  was  commission  and 
shipping  merchant,  and  at  one 
time  president  of  the  cham- 
ber of  commerce.  During  the 
Franco-German  war  of  1870- 
71  he  organized  a  battalion  of  mobile  guards,  and  went  afterwards 
to  Paris  with  the  Havre  firemen  to  assist  in  stopping  the  incendiary 
fires  started  by  the  communists.  In  1881  he  was  elected  deputy  from 
Havre  to  the  chamber,  and  entered  as  under-secretary  of  commerce  and 
colonies  in  the  short-lived  cabinet  formed  the  same  year  by  Gambetta. 
He  occupied  the  same  position  in  the  Ferry  cabinet  of  1883-85,  and 
the  Tirard  cabinet  (January  5  to  February  16,  1888),  and  since  then  he 
has  been  elected  deputy,  in  1889  and  1893.  The  chamber  chose  him  for 
one  of  its  vice-presidents,  until  May,  1894,  when  he  was  made  minister 
of  the  navy  in  the  Dupuy  cabinet,  which  was  overthrown  by  the  cham- 
ber, and  dragged  in  its  fallM.  Casimir-Perier.  The  new  French  presi- 
dent is  a  thorough  English  scholar,  and  well  versed  also  in  the  study 
of  economical  questions.  He  has  published  important  works  and  re- 
ports on  the  colonial,  the  shipping,  and  the  commercial  interests  of 
France  at  home  and  abroad,  as  well  as  remarkable  essays  upon  the 
budgets  of  the  different  nations. 

The  election  of  M.  Faure  is  a  triumph  of  the  moderate  republi- 
cans. The  socialists  -and  radicals  were  strong  enough  to  make  M. 
Brisson  president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  to  defeat  the  Dupuy 
cabinet,  and  frighten  the  president  from  office;  but  they  could  not 
overcome  the  moderate  strength  in  the  senate.  M.  Faure  holds  the 
same  relation  to  the  parties  and  the  legislature  as  did  his  predecessor, 
but  with  the  relative  advantages  mentioned  above. 


M.  RIBOT, 
FRENCH    PRIME  MINISTER. 


FRANCE.  187 

The  crisis  involving  this  change  of  presidents  has 
strengthened  the  cause  of  those  who  are  agitating  for  a 
revision  of  the  French  constitution — particularly  in  the 
clauses  defining  the  relationship  between  the  executive 
and  the  legislature.  The  present  system  is  partly  English, 
partly  American.  Like  England,  France  has  a  remov- 
able parliamentary  ministry;  but  like  the  United  States, 
she  has  a  chief  executive  not  responsible  to  parliament. 
The  absence  of  co-ordination  between  executive  and  legis- 
lative is  a  source  of  frequent  trouble  and  of  great  danger. 

Ribot  Cabinet  Formed.— In  the  hope  of  conciliating 
the  radicals,  at  least  in  part.  President  Faure  twice  sum- 
moned M.  Bourgeois  (radical)  to  form  a  cabinet.  The 
latter,  however,  was  unable  to  do  so,  owing  to  his  failure 
to  rally  to  his  side  a  sufficient  number  of  republicans  will- 
ing to  face  the  demands  of  the  budget  and  the  equally  im- 
perative demands  of  the  socialists.  M.  Kibot  was  accord- 
ingly sent  for,  and,  on  January  26,  succeeded  in  forming 
a  cabinet  composed  partly  of  moderate  republicans  like 
himself,  partly  of  radicals  of  the  opportunist,  not  the  so- 
cialist, persuasion.  M.  Ribot,  it  will  be  remembered,  was 
prime  minister  at  the  time  the  Panama  agitation  reached 
its  climax  in  1892.  The  present  is  his  third  tenure  of  the 
office,  and  his  accession  to  power  makes  the  thirty-fourth 
change  of  cabinets  since  the  foundation  of  the  Third  Re- 
public in  1871. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  ministry  was  to  pass 
the  much-talked-of  amnesty  bill  on  January  28.  The  vote 
in  the  chamber  stood  517  to  7.  Under  the  terms  of  the 
bill,  M.  Henri  Rochefort  returned  to  France  February  2. 
Together  with  General  Boulanger  and  M.  Dillon,  he  had 
been  sentenced  to  deportation  and  life  imprisonment  for 
implication  in  the  Boulangist  conspiracy  against  the  re- 
public. He  had  since  lived  in  England,  but  continued  to 
direct  the  editorial  policy  of  V Intransigeanty  one  of  the 
most  widely  circulated  of  political  papers  in  France. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  in  March  elected  M.  Adolphe 
Carnot,  a  brother  of  the  late  president,  to  the  seat  left 
vacant  by  the  death  of  M.  de  Lesseps.  M.  Carnot  is  in- 
spector and  professor  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines,  and  is  widely 
known  for  his  works  upon  chemistry  as  applied  to  min- 
eralogy. 

The  degradation  of  Captain  Dreyfus,  convicted  of  be- 
traying military  secrets  to  Germany  (Vol.  4,  p.  894),  took 
place  at  the  Ecole  MilUaire,  Paris,  January  5. 


188  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  18d5. 

ITALY. 

The  committee  of  five  appointed  in  December  last  to 
investigate  the  authenticity  of  the  documents  submitted 
by  ex-Premier  Giolitti,  which  contained  grave  charges 
against  Premier  Crispi  in  connection  with  the  Banca 
Romana  scandals  (Vol.  4,  p.  896),  came  unanimously  to 
the  conclusion  that  they  furnished  not  a  particle  of  evi- 
dence implicating  Signer  Crispi  in  corrupt  practices.  The 
scandal,  however,  gave  rise  to  a  political  crisis,  there  be- 
ing much  dissatisfaction  at  the  delay  in  having  the  char- 
acter of  the  documents,  whether  fraudulent  or  otherwise, 
finally  established  by  a  judicial  decision.  The  prorogation 
of  parliament  in  December  left  Italy,  for  the  time  being, 
without  a  parliament;  and  the  king  was  distracted  between 
two  alternative  courses — either  to  reconvoke  the  present 
parliament,  or  to  dissolve  it  and  hold  a  general  election.  It 
was,  however,  finally  decided  to  hold  an  election,  which 
was  set  for  April  28. 

Signer  Giolitti,  who  disappeared  on  the  outburst  of  the 
storm  which  his  documents  raised,  returned  to  Rome  Feb- 
ruary 27  to  answer  the  summons  brought  by  the  prime 
minister's  wife  for  the  possession  of  her  letters  submitted 
by  him  to  the  chamber,  and  also  to  stand  his  trial  for  sub- 
tracting documents  relating  to  the  Banca  Romana  case. 
The  letters  of  Signora  Crispi  came  into  his  possession  dur- 
ing his  tenure  of  the  premiership.  Signer  Giolitti  bases 
his  defense  mainly  on  the  lack  of  jurisdiction  of  the  ordi- 
nary courts,  alleging  that,  as  a  member  of  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  he  may  be  tried  only  by  the  senate,  and  only  after 
an  accusation  presented  to  the  upper  house  by  the  chamber. 

King  Humbert  on  March  14,  the  fifty-first  anniversary 
of  his  birthday,  granted  an  amnesty  for  certain  classes  of 
offenses,  including  that  of  the  French  captain  Romani, 
imprisoned  as  a  spy.  The  decree  pardons  press  and  elec- 
toral offenses,  and  remits  all  penalties  not  exceeding  three 
years'  imprisonment  pronounced  by  the  military  courts  in 
Sicily  and  in  the  province  of  Massa- Carrara,  reducing  also 
by  one-third  all  heavier  sentences  pronounced  by  those 
tribunals. 

The  attorney-general  of  the  province  of  Milan,  Signer 
Celli,  who  had  been  active  in  measures  against  the  anar- 
chists, was  assassinated  on  January  7  by  one  of  their  num- 
ber.    The  murderer  was  captured. 


SPAIN. 

SPAIN. 


189 


A  conflict  between  press  and  military  has  resulted  in  a 
grave  political  crisis  in  Spain  in  the  resignation  of  the 
liberal  ministry  of  Seflor  Sagasta,  formed  in  December, 
1892  (Vol.  2,  p.  374),  and  the  return  to  power  of  a  con- 
servative ministry  under  Senor  Canovas  del  Castillo. 

Certain  newspapers  in  Madrid — the  Resumen,  Globo, 
Ideal,  and  Justicia — 
had  accused  the  ju- 
nior  officers  of  the 
Spanish  army  of  gen- 
eral lukewarmness  in 
the  royal  cause,  and 
a  suspicious  lack  of 
zeal  for  fighting  the 
rebels  in  Cuba.  Ir- 
ritated at  these  criti- 
cisms, some  of  the 
officers,  on  the  even- 
ings of  March  14  and 
15,  attacked  and 
wrecked  the  offices 
of  the  Resu'me7i  and 
Globo.  The  matter 
was  brought  up  in  the 
chamber  the  next 
day;  but  the  minister 
of  war.  General  Lopez 
Dominguez,  spoke  as 
if  backing  up  the 
army  officers,  where- 
upon the  press  repre- 
sentatives  left  the 
house  in  a  body.  A  committee  of  officers  demanded  of  the 
premier  that  he  should  suppress  the  Resumen  and  propose 
to  parliament  severely  repressive  laws  against  the  press. 
This  demand  was  flatly  refused.  At  a  cabinet  meeting  a 
diiference  arose  as  to  the  proper  method  of  proceeding 
against  the  newspapers.  The  minister  of  war  insisted  that 
the  offending  editors  should  be  tried  by  court-martial. 
This  was  opposed  by  all  the  civil  ministers.  In  the  face  of 
the  difficulty,  the  cabinet  resigned  on  March  17. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  riots,  General  Martinez  de  Cam- 
pos was  apj^ointed  captain-general  of  Madrid,  and  under 
him  further  outbreaks  were  prevented.  He  announced  his 
determination  to  enforce  observance  of  the  law  on  military 


ALPHONSO  Xlir., 
THE  BOY  KING  OF  SPAIN. 


190  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

and  civilians  alike.     He  decided  to  apply  the  military  code 
to  papers  which  insulted  the  army. 

On  March  23  the  queen  regent  approved  of  the  names 
of  a  new  cabinet  submitted  by  Sefior  Canovas  del  Castillo, 
the  leader  of  the  conservative  party  in  the  cortes.  The 
conservatives  are  high  protectionists;  the  liberals  a  low 
tariff  party.  With  one  exception — Senor  Castellanos,  min- 
ister for  the  colonies 
— the  new  ministry 
is  the  same  as  that 
which  resigned  in 
1892. 

Castillo,  SeS^or 
Canovas  del,  Spanish 
prime  minister,  was  born 
at  Malaga  in  1828,  took 
a  brilliant  university 
course,  and  entered  the 
field  of  literature.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  llie 
Decadence  of  Hpain  from 
Philip  HI.  to  the  Death 
of  Charles  II.  His 
political  career  began 
with  his  election  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies  in 
1852.  He  was  active  in 
preparing  the  restoration 
of  the  monarchv  under 
Alfonso  XII.  in  1874,  and 
soon  after  received  his  re- 
ward in  his  appointment 
as  prime  minister.  At 
that  time  Canovas  and 
Martinez  de  Campos 
worked  together  in  har- 
mony, but  differences 
finally  occurred  between 
them,  and  the  former  had  to  leave  the  ministry.  He  was  again 
elected  deputy  to  the  cortes,  where  he  made  several  campaigns 
against  the  proposed  establishment  of  universal  suffrage  and  other 
liberal  measures.  From  that  time  up  to  the  present  Canovas  and 
Sagasta,  the  conservative  and  the  liberal,  succeeded  each  other  in  the 
premiership,  according  to  the  many  political  changes  brought  about 
in  the  government  of  Spain. 

On  receipt  of  news  of  the  formation  of  a  conservative 
ministry  at  Madrid,  Sefior  Muruaga,  Spanish  minister  at 
Washington,  at  once  resigned  his  post.  He  had  been 
somewhat  indiscreet  in  utterances  regarding  the  AlUanQa 
incident  (p.  57);  but  there  was  no  request,  direct  or  implied, 
made  for  his  recall  by  Secretary  of  State  Gresham,  as  was 
reported.     His  successor  is  to  be  Senor  Don  Enrique  Du- 


MARIA  CHRISTINA, 
QUEEN  REGENT  OF   SPAIN. 


r 


^ 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  191 

uy  de  Lome,  who  was  for  several  years  a  resident  of  the 
nited  States,  first  as  secretary  of  the  Spanish  legation  at 
Washington,  then  as  charge  d'affaires,  and  finally  as  minis- 
ter plenipotentiary.  He  was  also  chief  of  the  Spanish 
royal  commission  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago 
in  1893. 

At  the  close  of  the  quarter  the  ministry  are  said  to  be 
in  sympathy  with  the  movement  to  suspend  the  constitu- 
tion and  try  the  offending  Madrid  editors  by  court-martial, 
but  they  find  a  majority  in  the  chambers  opposed  to  this 
policy.  A  dissolution  is  considered  a  possibility  of  the 
near  future. 

Seiior  Ruiz  Zorilla  has  formally  resigned  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Spanish  republican  party,  owing  mainly  to  ill- 
health. 

PORTUGAL. 

About  the  end  of  March  a  royal  decree  was  issued  dis- 
solving the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  introducing  some 
remarkable  reforms  in  the  electoral  system.  The  number 
of  deputies  is  reduced  from  170  to  120.  The  7naximum 
number  of  representatives  of  the  legal  and  medical  pro- 
fessions in  the  chamber  is  fixed  at  20.  Naturalized  for- 
eigners, also  administrators  and  directors  of  companies 
working  the  state  concessions,  and  many  classes  of  public 
functionaries,  will  be  ineligible.  A  sum  to  be  fixed  here- 
after will  be  paid  to  the  deputies.  The  new  law  does 
away  with  the  representation  of  minorities,  and  intro- 
duces the  system  of  voting  by  scrutin  de  Uste. 

It  is  announced  that  reorganization  of  the  house  of 
peers  is  also  soon  to  be  effected. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Notwithstanding  the  resignation  of  the  Hungarian 
cabinet  of  Dr.  Wekerle  in  December  last  (Vol.  4,  p.  899), 
the  policy  of  the  liberal  party  still  continues  dominant. 
Count  Khuen-Hedervary,  ban  of  Croatia,  tried  in  vain  to 
form  a  ministry;  and  on  January  11  Baron  Banffy,  presi- 
dent of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  who  is  quite  as  pro- 
nounced a  liberal  as  Dr.  Wekerle,  was  summoned.  He 
succeeded  in  the  task,  and  the  names  of  the  new  ministry 
were  announced  January  14.  It  is  said  that  before  ac- 
cepting the  mission  Baron  Banffy  obtained  the  promise  of 
the  royal  support  in  passing  the  two  remaining  ecclesias- 
tical bills — for  absolute  freedom  of  thought  and  official 


192  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

recognition  of  Judaism — through  the  chamber  of  mag- 
nates. He  declared  that  the  ministry  woukl  continue  to 
work  within  the  lines  pursued  by  their  predecessors.  The 
strength  of  the  liberal  policy  was  evidenced  on  January 
21  in  the  election,  as  president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
of  M.  Szilagyi,  minister  of  justice  in  Dr.  Wekerle's  cabi- 
net. 

On  March  22  the  house  of  magnates  passed  to  a  second 
reading  the  religious  freedom  bill.  The  vote  was  at  first 
a  tie,  but  was  decided  by  the  castiilg  vote  of  the  president, 
Szlavy  d'OKany.  Subsequently  the  magnates,  by  a  vote 
of  126  to  118,  struck  out  the  clause  giving  the  benefits  of 
the  bill  to  persons  professing  no  religious  belief.  The 
lower  house  may  yet  restore  the  stricken  clause  and  send 
the  bill  back. 

RUSSIA. 

At  the  time  of  the  accession  of  the  young  Czar  Nich- 
olas II.,  hopes  were  entertained  in  many  quarters,  that  the 
new  reign  would  witness  the  inauguration  of  large  admin- 
istrative reforms  of  a  liberal  tendency.  These  hopes  were 
crushed  on  January  29  by  a  particularly  clear  and  une- 
quivocal announcement  from  the  czar's  own  lips.  On  the 
date  mentioned  the  czar  received  a  large  number  of  dep- 
utations representing  the  nobility,  the  military  classes, 
and  the  zemsfvos,  or  local  representative  councils,  who 
had  come  to  congratulate  him  on  his  marriage.  The  fol- 
lowing was  his  reply: 

' '  I  am  pleased  to  see  here  tlie  representatives  of  all  classes  as- 
sembled to  express  their  feelings  of  loyalty.  I  believe  in  the  sin- 
cerity of  these  sentiments,  which  have  always  been  characteristic  of 
every  Russian.  But  I  am  aware  that  in  certain  meetings  of  thezefust- 
vos  voices  have  lately  been  raised  by  persons  carried  away  by  absurd 
illusions  about  the  participation  of  the  zemstvo  representatives  in 
matters  of  internal  government. 

"Let  all  know  that,  in  devoting  all  my  strength  to  the  welfare 
of  the  people,  I  intend  to  protect  the  principle  of  autocracy  as  firmly 
and  unswervingly  as  did  my  late  and  never-to-be-forgotten  father." 

This  declaration  annihilates  for  the  present  all  hope  of 
parliamentary  development.  The  "  Party  of  Popular 
Right,"  a  reform  organization  less  radical  than  the  nihil- 
ists,— the  latter  being  virtually  anarchists, — has  issued  a 
manifesto,  the  authorship  of  which  is  by  some  attributed 
to  Count  Tolstoi,  censuring  the  czar  for  his  assertion  of 
absolutism. 

Following  the  death,  on  January  26,  of  M.  de  Giers,  the 
vacant  post  of  foreign  minister  was  oifered  to  Baron  de 
Staal,   for  the  last  ten  years  the  Kussian  ambassador  to 


» 


RUSSIA. 


193 


England.  From  the  first,  however,  M.  de  Staal  showed 
reluctance  to  change  his  residence,  owing  to  the  rigors  of 
the  St.  Petersburg  climate;  and  on  February  28  it  was  an- 
nounced that  Prince  Lobanof  Rostovski  had  been  chosen 
foreign  minister. 

Lobanof  Rostovski,  Prince,  Russian  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
was  born  a  little  over  sixty  years  ago.  H3  entered  the  diplomatic 
service  at  an  early  age, 
and  was  a  special  pro- 
tege of  the  celebrated 
Prince  Gortchakof .  Be- 
fore the  last  Russo- 
Turkish  war  he  was 
charge  d'affaires  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  after 
the  war  returned  thither 
as  ambassador.  He  was 
subsequently  for  a  time 
attached  to  the  ministry 
of  the  interior  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  later  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  the 
Court  of  St.  James.  For 
the  last  eleven  years  he 
has  been  Russia's  rep- 
resentative at  Vienna. 
His  appointment  is  taken 
as  an  indication  of  the 
moderate  views  and 
pacific  intentions  of 
Nicholas  II.  Prince  Lo- 
banof is  a  skilled  diplo- 
mat, moderate  in  views, 
cautious  in  action,  con- 
ciliatory in  manner,  and 
opposed  to  all  mere  polit- 
ical adventure  and  in- 
trigue. His  liberalism 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
he  is  an  avowed  partisan  of  a  moderate  but  steady  evolution  in  Rus- 
sian institutions.     He  is  friendly  toward  the  Vatican. 

Early  in  March  an  imperial  edict  was  issued  depriving 
the  local  judges  of  power  to  punish  the  peasants  with  the 
knout,  the  effects  of  which  have  in  thousands  of  cases 
been  fatal  while  the  crime  committed  was  no  worse  than 
petty  theft. 

From  a  letter  written  from  Odessa  to  the  London 
Times  in  March,  it  appears  that  the  prevalent  idea  as  to 
the  port  of  Vladivostock  being  ice-bound  during  the  win- 
ter, will  have  to  be  somewhat  modified.     Says  the  writer: 

"Up  to  the  present  time  Russia's  Asiatic  outlet  at  Vladivostock 
has  always  been  regarded  as  closed  during  the  winter  months;  but 
Vol.  5.-13. 


K'.  DE  GIERS, 
LATE  RUSSIAN   MINISTER  OF  FOREIGN   AFFAIRS. 


194  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

this  fact  no  longer  exists,  because  the  cruiser  Kostroma,  which  was 
sent  out  as  a  trial,  was  not  only  able  to  land  the  reinforcement  of 
soldiers  she  carried  out,  but,  with  the  aid  of  the  ice-breaker  which 
was  recently  sent  there,  the  cruiser  got  alongside  the  government 
quay,  and  discharged  the  heavy  guns  and  other  war  material  she 
took  out  from  here.  This  was  done  in  the  depth  of  winter,  with  the 
cold  at  such  a  point  that  the  opening  she  made  was  fast  frozen  half 
an  hour  afterward.  It  is  well  known  that  Vladivostock  is  the  port 
from  which  Russia  would  attack  England's  Asiatic  possessions  in 
the  event  of  hostilities;  but,  as  it  was  thought  to  be  icebound  several 
months  of  the  year,  its  importance  was  considerably  lessened.  Now 
this  supposition  no  longer  exists;  and  it  is  known  for  the  first  time 
since  Russia  has  become  an  Asiatic  power,  that  she  has  a  marine  out- 
let for  offensive  and  defensive  purposes  that  can  be  termed  open  all 
the  year  round." 

BELGIUM. 

The  celebrated  case  of  Mme.  Henri  Joniaux — arrested  in 
April,  1894,  on  a  charge  of  having  murdered  her  sister, 
her  uncle,  and  her  brother,  by  poison,  in  order  to  procure 
the  insurance  on  their  lives  and  her  interest  in  their  prop- 
erty (Vol.  4,  pp.  430  and  667) — was  tried  at  Antwerp,  be- 
ginning January  7.  Notwithstanding  the  early  press  re- 
ports that  the  official  inquiry  last  year  had  failed  to  estab- 
lish a  case,  Mme.  Joniaux  was  convicted  by  the  court  on 
all  counts,  and  sentenced  to  death,  which  was  subsequently 
changed  to  solitary  confinement  for  life. 

The  prolonged  trial  of  the  anarchists  charged  with 
complicity  in  the  dynamite  outrages  at  Liege  in  April  last 
year  (Vol.  4,  p.  315)  came  to  an  end  February  9.  Two  of 
the  thirteen  arrested  were  sentenced  to  penal  servitude 
for  life;  five  were  acquitted;  the  rest  received  various 
terms  of  imprisonment. 

NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

The  ultimate  outcome  of  the  elections  held  in  the 
latter  part  of  1894  for  members  of  the  Norwegian  stor- 
thing, was  a  slight  reduction  of  the  old  radical  majority. 
That  party,  nevertheless,  was  still  in  the  majority  in  the 
chamber;  and  on  January  31  the  conservative  cabinet  of 
M.  Emil  Stang  tendered  their  resignation  to  the  king. 
The  latter  found  himself  unable  to  secure  a  ministry  from 
the  party  of  the  left,  and  finally,  about  April  1,  wrote  to 
M.  Stang,  proposing  that  he  continue  in  office  with  a  min- 
istry from  the  party  of  the  right,  to  carry  on  public  busi- 
ness. 

In  the  meantime  (February  19)  the  storthing  was 
opened.     The  speech  from  the  throne  announced  that  the 


GREECE.  195 

intended  increase  in  military  defenses  and  erection  of 
public  works  would  make  it  necessary  to  impose  stamp 
duties  on  bills  of  exchange,  receipts  for  moneys  paid,  and 
debt  acknowledgments. 

With  regard  to  the  political  differences  of  the  two 
countries  of  the  union,  there  seems  to  have  been  some 
progress  of  late  in  the  spirit  of  mutual  concession.  The 
radicals  have  retreated  from  the  extreme  position  assumed 
in  the  last  storthing  regarding  a  separate  consular  service 
for  Norway,  and  are  now  willing  to  concede  the  right  of 
Sweden  to  discuss  the  question  and  offer  suggestions,  pro- 
viding negotiations  are  conducted  through  a  Norwegian 
ministry  chosen  from  the  left.  A  manifesto  from  the  king 
in  the  shape  of  an  open  letter  to  the  president  of  the 
storthing,  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  mutual  concessions. 

BULGARIA. 

By  virtue  of  an  amnesty  granted  by  the  government, 
M.  Zankoff,  the  notorious  agitator  and  leader  of  the  Russo- 
phile  emigrants,  returned  to  Sofia  on  January  4.  He  was 
subsequently  received  in  audience  by  Prince  Ferdinand,  to 
whom  he  expressed  sentiments  of  devotion  to  the  national 
dynasty.  Just  what  political  significance  attaches  to  his 
return  is  not  yet  apparent. 

GREECE. 

On  January  19  a  demonstration  was  held  at  Athens  to 
protest  against  the  proposed  new  taxes.  The  government 
refused  to  allow  the  meeting  to  take  place  in  the  city,  and 
appointed  the  Field  of  Mars  as  a  suitable  place.  There 
the  persons  who  assembled  found  a  strong  force  of  cavalry 
drawn  up.  The  crown  prince,  who  commands  the  Athens 
army  corps,  resented  not  being  consulted  as  to  the  move- 
ments of  his  troops,  and,  riding  out  to  the  Field  of  Mars, 
ordered  the  prefect  of  police  to  cease  preventing  the  people 
from  freely  expressing  their  sentiments.  The  prefect  re- 
fused to  obey  any  orders  but  those  of  the  minister  of  the 
interior.  M.  Tricoupis  complained  to  the  king  about  the 
prince's  interference,  but  the  king  sustained  the  latter. 
Thereupon,  M.  Tricoupis  and  his  cabinet  resigned. 

An  interim  cabinet  was  formed  under  M.  Nickolaos 
Delyannis,  for  many  years  Greek  minister  at  Belgrade  and 
sometime  minister  at  Paris.  The  main  task  of  the  min- 
istry will  be  the  holding  of  a  new  election,  in  which  the 
present  outlook  for  a  majority  in  favor  of  M.  Theodor 
Delyannis  is  most  favorable. 


196  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  ARMENIAN  ATROCITIES. 

nPHE  report  of  atrocities  wrought  on  the  Christian  Ar- 
menians by  the  Kurds  and  Moslem  Turks  grows  in 
horror.  Accounts  have  until  recently  been  so  conflicting, 
and  so  open  to  suspicion  as  the  product  of  mere  invention 
or  of  enormous  exaggeration  by  either  side,  that  it  has  not 
been  possible  to  decide  as  to  the  facts.  Even  after  the 
lapse  of  months  few  details  have  been  distinctly  ascertained. 
The  region  is  remote  from  the  usual  lines  of  travel;  much 
of  it  is  mountainous  and  difficult  of  access;  communica- 
tion between  its  scattered  villages  and  hamlets  is  slow  and 
uncertain;  a  postal  service  scarcely  exists  as  a  system,  and 
letters  unacceptable  to  the  government  are  stopped  in 
transit;  the  population  concerned  is  a  series  of  huddles  of 
two  or  three  tumultuous  nationalities  with  diverse  customs 
and  languages  and  opposing  religions,  dotted  sparsely  over 
an  area  of  200  square  miles,  and  all  encircled  by  the  com- 
pact and  dominant  Turks;  while  the  government,  doubt- 
less well-intentioned  and  comporting  itself  with  decency 
in  the  metropolis  and  adjacent  provinces,  is  scarcely  known 
or  seen  among  the  people  of  this  outlying  district  except 
as  an  organized  system  of  bribery,  extortion,  and  oppres- 
sion in  the  hands  of  subordinates.  In  such  conditions  it 
is  not  strange  that  accounts  conflict.  It  is  difficult  to  get 
credible  testimony,  also,  because  the  population  has  largely 
been  driven  out  from  the  district;  the  soldiers  concerned 
have  been  dispersed  to  distant  posts;  and  the  whole  scene 
of  the  trouble  was,  in  the  succeeding  winter,  covered  with 
several  feet  of  snow. 

It  is  the  misfortune  of  the  Sublime  Porte  that  its  re- 
pute among  civilized  nations  is  not  high  for  success  in  ad- 
ministering justice  throughout  its  dominions.  It  is  a  pleas- 
ure to  attribute  to  the  sultan  motives  of  justice  in  his  per- 
sonal rule.  But  the  personal  rule  of  an  absolute  monarch 
can  reach  but  a  little  way;  and  the  world^s  thought  of  his 
empire  is  haunted  by  the  memory  of  the  vast  Bulgarian 
horrors  of  nineteen  years  ago.  Hence,  while  it  is  con- 
ceded that  the  accumulating  tidings  of  frightful  outrage 
and  massacre  in  Armenia  may  possibly  be  fabrications,  and 
probably  are  exaggerations,  they  are  far  from  being  counter- 
vailed as  to  their  substance  by  such  official  reports  as  are 
made  by  Turkish  governors  of  provinces  and  military  com- 
manders. The  demand  for  investigation  by  the  govern- 
ments of  leading  Christian  nations  was  felt  to  be  impera- 
tive, especially  as  Article  61  of  the  Berlin  treaty  of  1878 
stipulates  that  the  great  powers  shall  have  the  right  to 


I 


THE  ARMENIAN  ATROCITIES.  197 

watch  over  and  see  that  the  reforms  promised  in  that 
treaty  shall  be  faithfully  executed.  It  remains  to  give 
here  only  a  general  review  of  developments  since  the  last 
issue  of  this  quarterly,  in  which  was  recorded  the  appoint- 
ment, near  the  end  of  1894,  of  a  commission  of  inquiry  by 
the  Turkish  government  (Vol.  4,  p.  771). 

Through  January  of  the  present  year  the  customary 
conflict  of  rumors  continued,  but  with  a  general  tendency 
to  make  light  of  the  original  charges,  to  accuse  the  Ar- 
menians of  insubordination  and  outright  rebellion,  fo- 
mented by  conspirators  in  London  (or,  as  some  say,  in 
Athens),  and  to  declare  the  reports  of  atrocities  published 
in  New  York  and  other  papers  pure  fabrications — the  only 
foundation  for  them  being  the  fact  that  the  Armenians 
and  the  Kurds  had  disturbed  the  peace  with  their  renewed 
fights,  which  the  Turkish  troops  had  been  compelled  to 
end  with  a  strong  hand.  Most  important  was  the  denial 
by  the  rector  of  the  Armenian  Catholic  College  at  Rome, 
of  any  knowledge  of  or  belief  in  the  *'' atrocities/^  Dis- 
patches from  Constantinople  to  London,  January  18,  stated 
that  General  Zekki  Pasha^'s  reports  on  the  Sassoun  affair, 
announcing  the  killing  of  1,720  persons,  had  been  removed 
by  superior  order  from  the  office  of  the  war  ministry. 

During  the  last  week  in  January,  in  lack  of  authentic 
information  as  to  facts,  the  press  in  Austria,  Holland,  and 
elsewhere  dealt  with  wise  speculations  as  to  the  bearing 
of  the  Eastern  question  in  its  most  recent  phase  on  the 
general  politics  of  Europe.  The  Independance  Beige,  Brus- 
sels, saw  in  the  proceedings  of  the  British  government  a 
purpose  to  use  the  Armenian  trouble  for  the  purposes  of  a 
clever  "deaP'  to  bring  about  a  new  grouping  of  the  pow- 
ers, in  which  Russia,  being  allowed  her  own  way  with  Tur- 
key, would  in  exchange  allow  England  free  scope  in  the 
Far  East.  A  New  York  paper  predicted  a  strong  British 
pressure  for  reform  in  Turkey,  and,  if  reform  be  not  soon 
obtained,  a  partition  (to  be  not  long  delayed)  of  the  em- 
pire between  Greece,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria.  At  the  end 
of  January  rumors  thickened  again,  as  before,  of  the 
frightful  butchery  by  the  Turkish  soldiers  of  men,  women, 
and  children  by  thousands  in  the  summer  of  1894.  Some 
anxiety  was  felt  for  the  American  missionaries  in  Turkey. 

In  the  middle  of  February,  reports  from  Constantinople 
stated  that  the  local  authorities  at  Mush  were  throwing 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  foreign  delegates  there  in  at- 
tendance on  the  sessions  of  the  Turkish  commission  of  in- 
quiry.    The  commission  had,  to  that  time,  examined  only 


198  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Mohammedan  witnesses  favorable  to  the  Turkish  authori- 
ties. It  refused  testimony  in  the  Armenian  language,  the 
only  language  spoken  by  the  peasants;  and  would  not  al- 
low any  person  in  attendance  on  the  sessions,  who  under- 
stood Armenian,  to  visit  the  villages.  Russia  was  then 
thought  to  be  holding  somewhat  ostentatiously  aloof  from 
the  whole  question,  thus  somewhat  prejudicing  free  action 
by  Great  Britain.  At  the  beginning  of  March  appeared 
a  message  from  Renter's  special  correspondent,  dated  Jan- 
uary 18,  travelling  on  the  Russo- Armenian  frontier  to  gain 
information  as  to  the  outrages.  This  correspondent  stated 
that  every  effort  was  being  made  by  the  Turkish  authori- 
ties to  prevent  information  being  gained  by  independent 
investigators;  and  that  whatever  might  be  thought  in  the 
Western  world,  no  person  in  that  region,  friendly  or  un- 
friendly to  the  Armenian  people,  had  any  doubt  of  the 
main  facts  of  the  dreadful  massacre  at  Sassoun.  Later 
in  March  it  was  stated  that  the  government  had  seen  the 
ill-effect  of  its  restrictions  on  the  gathering  of  testimony, 
and  had  relaxed  them.  This,  however,  was  not  done  till 
the  three  foreign  ambassadors  had  decided  to  act  inde- 
pendently of  the  Porte,  and  to  send,  under  an  escort  from 
their  own  consulates,  an  Armenian  interpreter  to  assist 
the  foreign  delegates  at  Mush  in  following  the  depositions 
of  Armenian  witnesses.  On  March  22  more  than  2,500 
Armenians  were  reported  as  prisoners  for  political  reasons, 
some  of  these  being  subjected  to  most  inhuman  treatment. 
Arrests  were  still  in  progress.  Macedonia  was  demanding 
the  autonomy  provided  for  in  Article  23  of  the  Berlin 
treaty.  The  Porte  showed  fear  of  a  spreading  revolution, 
which  it  might  seek  to  avert  by  granting  some  measures 
of  minor  reform  in  Armenia  and  other  Christian  districts. 
The  situation  of  the  Turkish  empire  was  critical.  It  is  to 
be  noted,  however,  that  though  the  difference  in  religion 
embitters  the  difficulty,  the  difficulty  itself  is  political, 
caused  by  the  fact  that  the  government  of  the  whole  coun- 
try is  one  of  the  worst  now  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

By  the  end  of  March,  special  correspondents,  detailed 
by  two  London  papers.  The  Daily  Telegraph  and  The 
Daily  News,  had  succeeded — against  the  interdict  by  the 
government — in  penetrating  to  the  devastated  district  in 
eastern  Turkey.  They  corroborate  the  most  dreadful  ac- 
counts of  the  massacres  and  atrocities,  giving  detailed  con- 
firmation of  the  worst  reports.  The  Vienna  correspond- 
ent of  the  London  Times  adds  corroboration.  It  is  con- 
sidered that  the  overwhelming  official  and  private  evidence 


THE  ARMENIAN  ATROCITIES.  199 

mnst  soon  cause  the  Christian  nations,  Russia  not  excepted, 
to  bestir  themselves  to  make  continuance  of  such  whole- 
sale crime  and  horror  impossible.  The  London  Standard, 
however,  remains  unconvinced.  It  declares  that  all  the 
stories  are  merely  variations  of  one  story,  and  that  there  is 
no  proof  of  their  independent  origin.  The  Times  oi  March 
29  published  a  report  from  a  correspondent  whom  it  de- 
clares "competent  and  trustworthy,^^  who  knows  the  peo- 
ple and  their  language,  and  who  had  personally  traversed 
the  devastated  district.  His  statement,  written  in  January, 
was  delayed  in  transmission,  by  obstacles  which  can  easily 
be  conceived.  His  testimony  is  a  horror.  He  pictures 
the  Armenians  as  living  in  the  mountains  among  the 
Kurds,  some  of  whose  chiefs  exact  tribute  from  certain 
Armenian  villages  after  the  custom  of  feudal  lords.  Dal- 
vorig  and  some  other  villages  for  a  few  years  past  have 
felt  unable  to  pay  the  government  taxes,  on  account  of  the 
heavy  exactions  enforced  by  the  Kurds.  The  Turkish 
government  gave  these  villages  no  protection  from  Kurd- 
ish extortion,  and  some  Armenian  agitators  found  there  a 
favorable  ground.  The  government,  denying  protection  and 
justice,  but  quick  for  vengeance,  in  the  winter  of  1892-93, 
called  the  neighboring  Kurdish  chieftains  to  Bitlis,  and 
practically  turned  them  loose  on  the  Armenian  villages, 
with  the  promise  of  all  the  booty  they  could  get,  assuring 
them  of  immunity.  In  June  of  1893  the  Kurdish  robber- 
bands  began  to  gather  around  Dalvorig  and  its  adjacent 
hamlets,  including  300  or  400  houses;  and  as  the  enemy's 
numbers  were  increasing  daily,  the  villagers,  holding  a 
very  strong  position,  precipitated  the  unavoidable  conflict 
— about  60  armed  men  of  them  against  about  4,000  Kurds. 
The  Kurdish  loss  was  between  100  and  200,  the  Armenian 
only  six.  The  government  instantly  sent  several  battalions 
of  regular  troops  with  mountain  pieces  to  the  scene,  but  no 
attack  was  then  made,  and  after  some  months  the  troops 
went  into  winter  quarters  at  some  distance.  This  corre- 
spondent states  that  some  of  the  Kurdish  chiefs,  after  the 
fight,  showed  their  written  orders  from  the  government  to 
attack  the  villages.  Some  of  the  tribes  were  not  at  all 
earnest  in  the  attack,  either  at  this  time  or  afterward,  and 
gave  their  efforts  chiefly  to  plunder. 

Toward  the  end  of  May,  1894,  as  the  snow  disappeared, 
the  troops  again  drew  near  the  Armenian  villages,  where 
the  Kurds  also  began  to  gather,  and  to  perpetrate  robber- 
ies on  the  Armenian  shepherds  keeping  their  flocks  in 
lonely  places.     This  brought  on  a  ten  days'  conflict,  re- 


200  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

suiting  in  several  deaths.  Meanwhile,  the  government  was 
concentrating  troops  from  various  quarters,  ultimately 
bringing  into  the  district  nearly  the  whole  Fourth  army 
corps,  almost  30,000  men,  with  many  cannon.  Their  be- 
lief at  first  seems  to  have  been  that  the  Armenians  had 
raised  and  equipped  a  large  army;  but  it  was  soon  discov- 
ered that  the  villagers  had  but  few  fighting  men,  and  that 
their  ammunition  had  been  nearly  exhausted  in  conflict 
with  the  Kurds.  It  is  said  that  they  had  never  knowingly 
fired  a  shot  against  the  troops.  The  Turks  called  them  to 
surrender,  and  promised  amnesty.  A  young  priest  with 
forty  leading  men  from  Senal,  trusting  to  the  promise,  sur- 
rendered; and  on  the  third  day  these  men  were  brought 
bound  to  the  edge  of  a  deep  pit  or  trench,  where  the  sol- 
diers charged  on  them  with  bayonets,  cast  them  all  into 
the  pit,  and  buried  them,  some  of  them  not  yet  dead. 
Shortly  after  this  a  firman  of  the  sultan  was  read  to  the 
troops  on  parade,  ordering  all  the  disaffected  villages  to  be 
destroyed.  The  governor  of  Bitlis  province  followed  with 
a  harangue,  ordering  the  troops  and  the  Kurds  to  spare  no 
one  and  no  thing. 

The  era  of  general  massacre  now  set  in.  Firing  houses, 
killing  all  persons  of  whatever  age  or  sex,  burning  alive, 
hacking  to  pieces,  ripping  up  pregnant  women — all  these 
and  like  horrors  became  general.  Hundreds  of  people 
were  driven  together  in  a  mass,  fired  on  with  volley  after 
volley;  and  then  their  dead  and  dying  bodies  saturated 
with  oil  were  set  on  fire.  This  active  work  of  the  Turkish 
troops  was  during  August  and  September  of  1894.  The 
KuMs  were  more  ready  for  plunder  than  massacre,  and  in 
many  cases  showed  pity  for  the  miserable  victims,  and  aided 
their  escape.  This  correspondent  estimates  the  Armenians 
massacred  as  not  less  than  6,000,  probably  10,000,  possibly 
16,000;  the  villages  utterly  destroyed,  32;  the  number  killed 
or  made  utterly  homeless  and  helpless,  30,000.  A  Berlin 
paper  states  that  1,357  dwellings,  16  churches,  and  8  schools 
were  burned.  The  whole  history  shows  such  fiendishness 
of  cruelty  as  compels,  for  the  sake  of  our  common  human- 
ity, the  hope,  which  seems  increasingly  to  be  proved  a  hope 
beyond  hope,  that  the  accounts  may  even  yet  be  found  to 
be,  in  some  sort,  unreal — like  a  horrible  dream. 

INDIA. 

Disturbances  necessitating  a  strong  military  expedition 
have  again  broken  out  in  Chitral,  on  the  extreme  north- 
west frontier  of  India.     Late  in  1892,  our  readers  will  re- 


INDIA.  201 

member,  the  mehtar  or  rajah  of  Chitral,  Afzul-ul-Mulk, 
was  murdered  by  his  uncle,  Sher  Afzul  Khan,  who  was  in 
turn  driven  out  by  the  rightful  heir,  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  the 
last  named  being  confirmed  as  mehtar  by  the  recognition 
of  the  British  Indian  government  (Vol.  3,  pp.  48  and  257). 
Again  in  May,  1894,  there  was  fighting  resulting  from  the 
invasion  of  Chitral  by  Umra  Khan,  ruler  of  the  neighbor- 
ing country  of  Jandol,  who  had  favored  Sher  Afzul  Khan 
(Vol.  4,  p.  437). 

A  still  more  serious  trouble  is  now  engaging  the  atten- 
tion of  the  British.  About  January  10  it  was  announced  that 
Nizam-ul-Mulk  had  been  murdered  by  a  younger  brother. 
Amir-ul-Mulk,  who  had  proclaimed  himself  mehtar.  Fol- 
lowing this  came  another  invasion  of  Chitral  by  Umra 
Khan,  and  a  joining  of  his  forces  with  those  of  Sher  Af- 
zul, who  had  in  the  meantime  penetrated  the  country  and 
succeeded  in  occupying  the  town  of  Chitral. 

A  British  ultimatum  demanded  of  Umra  Khan  that  he 
evacuate  the  country,  granting  until  April  1  for  compli- 
ance, failing  which  an  expedition  of  about  14,000  men, 
including  six  British  regiments,  under  command  of  Major- 
General  Sir  R.  Low,  in  readiness  at  Peshawur,  was  to  be 
sent  north  to  compel  obedience.  In  the  meantime  anxiety 
is  felt  as  to  the  position  of  Dr.  Robertson,  who,  with  300 
British  troops,  is  hemmed  in  at  Chitral  fort,  whom  a  re- 
lief expedition  could  not  possibly  reach  until  the  latter 
part  of  April.  On  March  22  news  was  received  to  the  ef- 
fect that  a  force  of  sixty  Sikhs  under  Captain  C.  R.  Ross 
and  Lieutenant  Jones,  while  marching  from  Mastuj  toward 
Chitral,  sixty  or  seventy  miles  distant,  was  attacked  in  a 
defile  by  a  body  of  tribesmen  about  1,000  strong.  The 
British  force  had  no  alternative  but  to  fight  its  way 
through.  Captain  Ross  and  forty-six  of  his  troops  were 
killed,  besides  eight  camp  followers.  Lieutenant  Jones, 
badly  wounded,  escaped  with  the  remnant  of  the  force. 

The  country  between  Peshawur  and  Chitral  is  quite  un- 
known, very  hilly,  and  almost  barren.  The  difficulties  of 
Sir  R.  Low's  expedition  are  therefore  likely  to  be  consid- 
erable. 

The  punitive  expedition  under  Sir  William  Lockhart, 
sent  against  the  troublesome  Waziris  (Vol.  4,  p.  908), 
has  been  completely  successful,  it  being  reported  early  in 
March  that  the  tribesmen  had  fully  complied  with  the 
general's  terms. 


202  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

PERSIA. 

Tlie  town  of  Kuclian,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake on  November  17,  1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  831),  was  again 
severely  visited  on  January  17,  1895.  The  calamity  was 
of  appalling  magnitude  and  suddenness.  Fully  600  per- 
sons were  entombed  in  a  mosque  while  engaged  in  prayer, 
and  600  more  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  various 
baths.  Shocks  continued  at  intervals  during  the  remain- 
der of  the  month. 

ARABIA. 

On  the  night  of  February  13  a  Bedouin  uprising,  under 
the  lead  of  the  Sheikh  Abdallah  Bin  Saleh,  occurred  at 
Muscat,  the  capital  city  of  Oman,  in  southeastern  Arabia. 
The  object  of  the  attempt  was,  presumably,  to  replace  the 
present  sultan  of  Oman  by  another  ruler.  The  insurgents 
succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
town;  but  the  sultan  continued  to  hold  two  forts,  with  the 
assistance  of  which  he  was  able  to  retake  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  city.  About  the  middle  of  March  word  was 
received  that  peace  had  finally  been  restored,  the  rebels 
agreeing  to  accept  $16,000,  which  the  sultan  offered  them 
on  condition  that  they  should  abandon  their  positions. 

Oman,  though  nominally  independent  and  ruled  by  a 
native  sultan,  is  essentially  under  British  protection.  For 
years  its  government  has  stood  in  the  closest  relations  to 
the  government  of  India,  and  a  British  political  agent  re- 
sides at  Muscat.  The  city  is  a  seaport  of  much  commer- 
cial importance  and  a  position  of  great  natural  strength. 

CHINA. 

Naturally,  the  war  with  Japan  (p.  13)  is  the  all-absorb- 
ing topic  at  present,  at  least  in  the  provinces  that  consti- 
tute the  outer  fringe  of  the  Chinese  empire.  So  great, 
however,  is  the  lack  of  means  of  communication  with  the 
interior  parts,  that  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there 
are  millions  of  the  vast  population  who  for  months  to 
come  will  not  so  much  as  even  liear  that  there  has  been  a 
war  in  progress.  This  lack  of  means  of  communication 
is  one  of  the  reasons  why  China  has  shown  herself  so  weak 
for  all  purposes  of  national  defense.  Her  total  railway 
mileage  up  to  date  is  only  about  100  miles;  whereas  Japan, 
an  empire  one-tenth  the  size  of  China,  had  in  1893  fully 
1,864  miles  of  railroad. 

Progressive   ideas,    however,   are    gradually  breaking 


AUSTRALASIA.  203 

through  the  crust  of  Chinese  official  conservatism.  The 
empress  dowager,  it  is  said,  has  been  won  over  to  favor  an 
extension  of  the  railway  system;  and  her  influence  is  very 
great.  On  the  occasion  of  the  recent  celebration  of  the 
sixtieth  anniversary  of  her  birthday,  the  ceremonies  ended 
with  an  imperial  audience  at  which  all  the  foreign  minis- 
ters and  legations  were  present.  It  was  an  important 
event,  marking  another  step  toward  breaking  down  the 
barrier  of  seclusion  surrounding  the  emperor,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  audience  was  held  within  the  precincts  of  the 
"Forbidden  City,"  otherwise  the  imperial  grounds  where 
the  palace  is  situated.  It  was  the  first  time  that  foreign 
ministers  had  been  accorded  this  act  of  grace,  and  per- 
mitted to  defile  the  sacred  precincts  within  the  yellow- 
tiled  wall  with  their  barbarian  boots. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

The  Federation  Question.— The  question  of  a  fed- 
eration of  the  Australasian  colonies  has  reached  a  new  and 
important  stage  in  its  development.  It  has  been  definitely 
removed  from  the  parliamentary  to  the  popular  plane  of 
action  as  a  result  of  resolutions  adopted  at  a  conference  of 
all  the  colonial  premiers,  summoned  to  meet  at  Hobart 
Town,  Tasmania,  in  the  latter  part  of  January,  to  discuss 
federation,  intercolonial  free  trade,  colonial  defense,  the 
coinage  of  silver,  and  the  question  of  the  colonies  joining 
in  the  new  commercial  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
Japan. 

Premiers  Turner  of  Victoria  and  Kingston  of  South 
Australia  were  appointed  to  draw  up  a  bill  in  accordance 
with  the  resolutions  of  the  conference,  and  submitted  a 
draft,  which  was  approved,  to  the  following  effect: 

The  bill  is  entitled  "  The  Australasian  Federation  Enabling  Act." 
It  provides  that  a  convention  to  frame  the  federal  constitution 
shall  be  formed  of  ten  delegates  from  each  colony,  elected  on  the  leg- 
islative assembly  franchise;  that  when  three  or  more  colonies  shall 
have  chosen  their  delegates,  the  convention  shall  be  called;  that 
when  the  constitution  has  been  framed,  the  convention  shall  adjourn 
for  not  more  than  two  months  to  permit  of  its  being  criticised;  and 
that,  after  final  amendment  and  adoption  by  the  convention,  the  con- 
stitution shall  be  referred  to  the  direct  vote  of  the  electorate  for  ac- 
ceptance or  rejection. 

Sir  John  Forrest,  premier  of  Western  Australia,  alone 
declined  to  concur  in  the  view  taken  by  his  colleagues, 
and  declared  his  adherence  to  the  parliamentary  program 
accepted  at  the  Sydney  convention  of  1891  (Vol.  1,  pp. 
125  and  271). 


204 


AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


This  '^  enabling  act"  has  been  approved  in  its  main 
principles  by  the  legislature  of  New  South  Wales,  to  which 
it  was  submitted  by  the  premier,  Hon.  George  H.  Reid. 

The  Victorian  legislature  on  January  25  passed  an  in- 
come-tax bill,  and  reduced  the  salaries  of  the  governor 
(from  £10,000  to  £7,000)  and  some  other  officials. 

The  Australasian  colonies  decided  to  adopt  the  stand- 
ard zone  time  from  mid- 
night, January  31.  By 
the  new  mode  of  reckon- 
ing, Victorian  time  will 
be  advanced  twenty  min- 
utes, thus  making  Mel- 
bourne, Sydney,  and 
Brisbane  time  alike  ten 
hours  ahead  of  Green- 
wich, while  Adelaide  will 
be  nine  hours  ahead, 
Perth  eight,  and  Well- 
ington eleven. 

MALAYSIA. 

On  March  10  General 
Parrado,  in  command  of 
the  Spanish  troops, 
gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  rebellious  Malay 
Mohammedan  natives  in  the  island  of  Mindanao.  The 
Malays  had  108  killed,  including  their  sultan  and  his  son; 
the  Spanish  loss  was  two  officers  and  15  men  killed,  21  of- 
ficers and  172  men  wounded. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1894  there  was  an  outbreak  of 
cannibalism  among  the  natives  of  Seqaqa,  on  the  island  of 
Vanua-Levu,  in  the  Fiji  group,  caused  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  native  chief  of  the  west  side  of  the  island  to 
control  of  the  east  side.  Quiet  was  promptly  restored  on  the 
arrival  at  the  scene  of  the  governor,  Mr.  Thurston,  with 
an  armed  native  force. 

SAMOA. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  reporrs  were  received  from 
Samoa  of  extensive  ravages  there  of  a  new  species  of  ma- 
larial fever.  The  disease  was  said  to  be  highly  infectious 
and  of  great  fatality,  attacking  Europeans  as  well  as  na- 
tives. 

The  Somoan  land  commission,  provided  for  by  agree- 


HON.   GEORGE  H.    REID, 
PREMIER  OF  NEW   SOUTH  WALES. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  205 

ment  of  the  three  treaty  powers,  has  recently  completed 
its  labors.  The  claims  of  the  Germans  are  almost  com- 
pletely recognized,  it  is  said;  those  of  British  and  Ameri- 
can subjects,  only  to  a  limited  extent. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA. 

Geographical  Exploration. — In  December  last  Lieu- 
tenant Count  von  Gotzen,  a  German,  completed  the 
thirteenth  crossing  of  tropical  Africa,  traversing  regions 
never  before  visited  by  whites,  and  making  important 
discoveries.  He  stood  on  the  crater  wall  of  the  only  ac- 
tive volcano  in  Africa,  Mt.  Kirunga  in  Ruanda,  found  un- 
heard-of large  lakes,  and  traced  the  course  of  one  large 
river  from  source  to  mouth.  The  expedition  was  fitted 
out  at  its  leader^s  cost,  and  started  inland  from  Pangani, 
on  the  east  coast  a  little  north  of  Zanzibar,  in  October, 
1893,  with  518  persons,  including  400  black  porters  and 
thirty-three  soldiers.  His  first  important  discovery,  after 
travelling  about  300  miles  toward  Victoria  Nyanza,  was  of 
the  salt  Lake  Umburre.  Von  Gotzen  was  the  first  Euro- 
pean to  cross  the  populous  region  of  Ruanda,  lying  over 
100  miles  directly  west  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  partly  in  the 
Kongo  Free  State  and  partly  in  German  East  Africa. 
Here  he  saw  what  is  probably  the  only  active  volcano  in 
Africa,  Mt.  Kirunga,  the  existence  of  which  had  been  told 
by  natives  to  Emin  Pasha  and  Dr.  Stuhlmann  in  1891. 
It  is  the  most  southerly  of  a  chain  of  six  volcanic  moun- 
tains extending  northwest  and  terminating  in  Mt.  Mfum- 
biro.  Its  height  is  put  at  11,120  feet.  At  the  southern 
foot  of  the  mountain,  about  half-way  between  lakes 
Tanganyika  and  Albert  Edward,  and  nearly  as  large  as 
the  latter.  Von  Gotzen  found  Lake  Kivu,  which  Stanley, 
from  native  reports,  placed  on  his  map  as  Rivo.  It  prob- 
ably empties  into  Tanganyika  through  the  Rusisi  river. 
Stanley's  ^*Lake  Ozo,''  lying  west  of  Lake  Kivu,  accord- 
ing to  Von  Gotzen,  is  no  lake,  but  a  river:  he  thinks  it 
must  have  been  temporarily  widened  by  floods  when  seen 
by  Stanley.  A  similar  discovery  with  regard  to  *^Lake 
Alexandra"  has  been  made  by  another  traveller.  Nor  is 
the  list  of  cancelled  lakes,  or  lakes  that  are  rivers,  yet 
complete.  United  States  Consul  Mohun  puts  in  that  same 


206  AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

category  Dr.  Livingstone's  Lake  Urenge  in  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Kongo.  The  valley  of  the  upper  Kongo  is 
"extremely  fertile,"  Mr.  Mohun  reports;  but  the  river  has 
little  breadth,  and  is  barred  with  rapids. 

After  spending  several  months  among  the  mountains 
that  form  the  watershed  between  the  basins  of  the  Kongo 
and  the  Nile,  Von  Gotzen  descended  the  Lowa  river  from 
its  source  to  the  Kongo,  whose  mouth  he  reached  safely 
on  December  8  last. 

French  travellers  have  explored  the  entire  course  of  the 
Ubangi,  chief  tributary  of  the  Kongo,  and  the  country 
north  of  the  Kongo  eastward  to  the  Nile.  Somaliland 
has  been  explored  by  as  many  as  three  expeditions.  The 
French  have  sent  several  expeditions  southward  from 
Algeria  to  determine  the  best  route  to  the  Soudan. 

The  only  independent  states  now  existing  in  Africa 
are:  Morocco,  Abyssinia,  the  Mahdist  country,  the  South 
African  republic,  and  the  Orange  Free  State;  the  remain- 
der of  the  continent  is  really  English,  French,  German, 
Italian,  or  Portuguese  territory,  or  belongs  to  Turkey. 

EgJHPt. — The  fiscal  situation  in  Egypt  is  a  singular 
one.  The  budget  of  January,  as  also  that  of  a  year  ago, 
showed  a  surplus  of  revenue  over  expenditure  amounting 
to  several  million  dollars,  which  is  steadily  growing,  but 
which  the  khedive's  government  is  fordidden  to  touch. 
The  European  powers  whose  subjects  are  Egypt's  creditors, 
insist  that  the  surplus  shall  be  banked  and  snail  accumu- 
late on  behalf  of  the  public  debt  commission  representing 
the  foreign  bondholders.  Already  the  commission  has  a 
sum  of  $25,000,000  from  the  surplus  revenues  of  several 
years;  and  this  money,  instead  of  being  applied  directly 
to  the  construction  of  public  works  and  the  reduction  of 
taxes,  is  kept  lying  idle  for  the  eventual  amortization  of 
the  public  debt.  In  the  meantime,  in  Egypt  as  in  Europe, 
agricultural  depression  reigns,  and  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil  are  in  straits.  If  the  tax  rate  were  lowered  they 
would  suffer  loss  from  the  depreciation  of  the  products 
they  send  to  market.  The  khedive  and  the  British  govern- 
ment have  in  vain  asked  of  the  other  powers  some  meas- 
ure of  concession  to  the  needs  of  Egypt;  but  the  powers, 
France  in  particular,  insist  on  their  treaty  rights.  Plans 
have  been  drawn  for  the  creation  of  a  practically  inex- 
haustible reservoir  of  water  in  upper  Egypt.  But  because 
the  estimated  cost  is  greater  than  the  ordinary  available 
revenue  of  Egypt,  work  cannot  be  commenced:  the  sur- 
plus revenue  cannot  be  used  for  this  purpose. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  207 

"France,"  says  the  London  Times,  "stops  the  way,  so  that  the 
crowning  scheme  which  will  finally  solve  the  problem  of  Egyptian 
irrigation  must  stand  over  until  this  obstacle  has  been  removed,  or 
until  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the  country  is  better  able  to  bear  the 
cost. " 

Slatin  Bey,  one  of  the  Europeans  held  in  captivity  since 
the  fall  of  Khartoum  twelve  years  ago,  arrived  in  Cairo  in 
March,  having  escaped  from  a  not  very  rigorous  confinement 
at  the  headquarters  of  the  khalifa  (as  the  Mahdi^s  successor 
is  now  styled).  Of  the  present  situation  in  the  Egyptian 
Soudan,  Slatin  reports  that  the  prestige  and  power  of  the 
khalifa  are  waning,  yet  that  only  a  decisive  blow  from 
outside  can  finally  crush  Mahdism.  Personally,  the  khalifa 
is  given  up  to  a  life  of  luxury  and  sensuous  indulgence, 
and  leaves  the  government  largely  in  the  hands  of  his 
brother  Yakub.  Yakub's  rule  presses  even  more  heavily 
on  the  unfortunate  Soudanese  than  the  khalifa's  ever  did; 
but,  groan  as  they  may  under  the  increasing  weight  of  his 
exactions  and  cruelties,  they  are  helpless  in  the  face  of  the 
still  almost  unbroken  military  organization.  Slatin  repre- 
sents the  khalifa's  court  as  being  keenly  anxious  regard- 
ing the  movements  of  the  Italians  in  the  east  and  of 
the  other  European  forces  on  the  southern  frontier.  The 
khalifa  has  an  army  of  15,000  men  on  the  bank  of  the 
Atbara  river  opposite  the  Italian  positions,  and  professes 
an  eagerness  to  try  conclusions  with  the  Italians;  but 
Slatin  doubts  the  sincerity  of  his  desire  for  battle. 

It  has  been  decided  to  build  the  projected  dam  across 
the  Nile,  at  a  point  just  a  little  south  of  Assouan,  where 
the  river  forms  its  first  cataract.  The  ruins  of  the  temple 
on  the  island  of  Philae  will  not  be  covered  at  high  water, 
and  the  demands  of  archaeologists  will  thus  be  satisfied. 
The  supply  of  water  will  not  be  sufficient  to  give  to  upper 
Egypt  the  full  benefits  now  enjoyed  by  lower  Egypt;  but 
it  will  undoubtedly  prove  a  great  boon  to  the  former  from 
the  point  of  view  of  development  of  agricultural  resources. 

Morocco. — Advices  of  February  23  from  Tangier  re- 
port that  rebel  tribesmen  had  entered  and  looted  the  city 
of  Morocco.  Later  accounts  tell  of  bloody  encounters  be- 
tween the  bandits  and  the  inhabitants  on  the  streets.  It 
was  stated  that  the  bandits  had  spared  the  Jewish  quarter 
of  the  town. 

Abyssinia. — A  Russian  scientific  mission  set  out  for 
Abyssinia  in  January:  its  object  was  declared  to  be  scien- 
tific exploration  and  study  of  the  ways  and  means  of 
counteracting  the  Roman  religious  propaganda  among  the 
Abyssinians.     The  chief  or  "commander"  of  the  mission 


208  AFFAIRS  TN  AFRICA.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

is  Lieutenant  Nicolas  Leontieff  of  the  Russian  imperial 
guard;  and  the  second  in  command  is  Captain  Zuriagin  of 
the  artillery.  Other  members  of  the  mission  are  Dr. 
Elizeff,  military  surgeon,  one  priest,  and  several  servants 
^^ having  a  decidedly  military  appearance.^'  The  French 
government  has  given  orders  to  its  agents,  wherever  the 
mission  may  tarry  en  route,  to  afford  every  assistance  for 
the  furtherance  of  its  objects.  But  in  official  and  court 
circles  at  Rome  some  jealousy  is  manifested,  both  Russia 
and  France  being  suspected  of  having  aims  unfriendly  to 
Italian  interests.  Two  Frenchmen  are  believed  to  have 
for  some  time  been  supplying  arms  to  the  Abyssinian 
king,  to  be  used  against  Italians. 

East  Africa. — At  Mariqueen  in  the  Portuguese  colony 
of  Delagoa  bay,  the  Portuguese  camp  was  surprised  early 
in  the  morning  of  February  ::J  by  a  number  of  Kafirs  who 
obtained  entry  by  the  treacherous  use  of  a  flag  of  truce 
and  the  password.  Most  of  the  troops  were  sleeping  in 
their  quarters,  many  of  them  being  prostrated  by  fever. 
The  Kafirs  began  killing  the  men  with  their  assegais;  and, 
before  the  Portuguese  could  be  rallied,  more  Kafirs,  to  the 
number  of  700,  had  crowded  into  the  camp.  The  garrison 
at  length  was  got  together,  and,  forming  in  a  hollow 
square,  with  the  aid  of  Maxim  guns  repulsed  the  natives, 
killing  500  of  them.  The  Portuguese  loss  was  200  killed 
and  sixty  wounded. 

West  Africa. — The  Brass  tribe  in  the  Niger  delta  re- 
volted against  the  rule  of  the  Niger  company  in  Febru- 
ary, the  occasion  being  a  demand  made  on  them  by  Sir 
Claude  Macdonald,  British  consul-general,  to  surrender 
their  arms.  The  Brass  men  attacked  the  Niger  com- 
pany's station  at  Akassa,  and  sacked  the  place,  taking 
several  of  the  company's  servants  prisoners.  February  20 
gunboats  manned  by  marines  and  the  company's  troops 
anchored  off  Nimbi  creek,  the  approach  to  Nimbi,  the 
Brass  capital.  The  place  was  completely  burned  by  the 
troops.     Another  place,  Fish  town,  was  also  destroyed. 


SCIENCE.  209 

SCIENCE. 

Chemistry  and  Physics. — Discovery  of  Argon. — The 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  of  England,  held  on  January 
31, 1895,  is  of  unrivalled  historical  importance,  for  at  it 
the  results  of  the  investigations  of  Lord  Rayleigh  and 
Professor  Ramsay  as  to  the  existence  and  properties  of 
argon — the  alleged  new  elementary,  but  hitherto  undis- 
covered, constituent  of  the  atmosphere — were  definitely 
given  to  the  world.  In  the  history  of  science,  this  dis- 
covery alone  is  sufficient  to  make  famous  the  closing 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  success  of  the  ex- 
periments of  Lord  Rayleigh — to  whom  the  chief  credit  for 
the  discovery  seems  to  be  due,  for  it  was  only  after  it  had 
been  hinted  at  about  a  year  ago  that  Professor  Ramsay 
joined  in  the  investigation — was  due  to  the  extreme  re- 
finement and  exactitude  with  which  the  investigations  of 
Regnault  on  the  density  of  atmospheric  gases  were  re- 
peated, which  would  have  been  impossible  without  the 
perfected  modern  means  of  measurement.  The  delicacy 
of  the  experiments  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  the 
weight  of  a  certain  globular  vessel  filled  with  "chemical 
nitrogen"  obtained  from  five  different  sources,  ranged 
from  2.2985  to  2.3001  units,  while  "atmospheric  nitro- 
gen" obtained  in  a  variety  of  ways  gave  results  ranging 
from  2.3100  to  2.3103.  The  discovery  is  therefore  fit- 
tingly described  as  a  "triumph  of  the  last  place  of 
decimals."  In  1785  the  Hon.  Henry  Cavendish  stood 
upon  the  threshold  of  the  same  discovery.  The  Chemical 
Society  of  England  has  conferred  its  Faraday  medal  upon 
Lord  Rayleigh  in  recognition  of  his  brilliant  investiga- 
tion. 

The  existence  and  probable  elementary  character  of 
argon  were  announced  verbally  last  August  at  a  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
(Vol.  4,  pp.  687  and  922),  but  were  accepted  with  many 
reservations  by  the  scientific  world.  Later  experiments 
have  furnished  data,  which,  while  leaving  many  problems 
still  unsolved,  are  generally  accepted  as  entitling  the  new 
substance  to  rank  among  those  commonly  called  "ele- 
ments." 

Experiments  upon  the  density  of  nitrogen  obtained 
from  various  sources  had  shown  that  that  gas,  from  what- 
ever chemical  source  it  may  be  derived,  has  a  constant 
density  differing  from  the  density  of  atmospheric  nitrogen 
by  a  constant  quantity.     It  was  the  attempt  to  solve  the 

Tol.  6.-14.  ^ 


210  SCIENCE.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

problem  thus  presented  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
new  constituent  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  gas  has  been  obtained  by  two  processes,  which  are 
described  as  follows: 

In  the  first  common  air  was  passed  over  red-liot  copper,  which  ab- 
sorbed much  of  the  oxygen,  the  product  of  that  combination  being 
oxide  of  copper.  The  remaining  gas,  largely  nitrogen,  was  then  sent 
through  a  combustion  tube  over  more  copper,  heated  by  a  gas  furnace, 
a  small  U-shaped  tube  containing  sulphuric  acid,  to  indicate  the  rate 
of  flow;  a  larger,  straight  tube  containing  soda-lime  and  pentoxide 
of  phosphorus,  to  absorb  any  moisture  or  other  impurity,  and  then 
another  combustion  tube,  filled  with  turnings  of  the  metal  magnesium, 
also  raised  to  intense  heat  by  a  second  gas  furnace.  Magnesium  has 
an  affinity  for  nitrogen,  and  heat  favors  their  union.  The  gaseous 
residue  passing  thence  into  the  small  receptacle  at  the  extreme 
right  was  crude  argon,  the  principal  constituents  of  air  having  been 
almost  entirely  absorbed  on  the  way  through  the  apparatus. 

The  second  method,  which  was  found  a  little  more  expeditious, 
was  to  put  ordinary  air  into  a  closed  glass  vessel  over  an  alkaline 
liquid,  add  a  certain  amount  of  free  oxygen,  and  then  send  powerful 
electric  sparks  between  the  platinum  terminals  of  suitable  wires  led 
into  the  vessel.  By  means  of  the  intense  heat  of  the  electric  arc  the 
two  gases  were  made  to  unite  chemically,  in  a  new  proportion,  and 
form  nitrous  acid,  which  was  absorbed  by  the  alkali.  Finally,  the 
crude  argon  was  carefully  refined  by  the  use  of  the  same  substances 
(heated  copper,  soda- lime,  phosphorus  pentoxide,  and  magnesium;  as 
were  employed  in  the  first  process. 

The  principal  constituents  of  air  exist  therein  in  the 
proportion  of  about  77  parts  of  nitrogen  to  21  of  oxygen 
by  weight,  and  argon  is  believed  to  form  about  1  per  cent 
of  *' atmospheric  nitrogen/'  Hence  eight  one-thousandths 
of  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  or  about  two  ounces  of 
the  fifteen  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch,  is  charge- 
able to  the  newly  discovered  element. 

Argon  is  a  colorless  gas,  of  density  about  19.90  com- 
pared with  hydrogen  as  the  unit.  It  is  about  two  and 
a-half  times  as  soluble  in  water  as  nitrogen,  100  volumes 
of  water  dissolving  4.05  volumes  of  argon  at  13.9°.  The 
behavior  of  the  gas  at  low  temperatures  and  under  high 
pressure  was  investigated  by  Professor  K.  Olszewski  of 
the  University  of  Cracow.  It  has  been  both  liquefied  and 
solidified.  The  following  table  shows  the  results.  By 
the  terms  ''critical  pressure"  and  "critical  temperature" 
are  meant  the  pressure  and  temperature  requisite  to  change 
the  element  from  the  gaseous  to  the  liquid  form.  Simi- 
lar results  in  the  case  of  other  substances  are  included  for 
comparison. 


SCIENCE 

211 

P-^ 

£ 

2  . 

fe  '^ 

=3  a 

11 

i 

=i 

Name  of  sub- 

s-B 

Boiling 

Freezing 

oS 

Color  of 

stance. 

§ 

o 

point. 

point. 

liquid. 

3v 

.S^  «s 

'm 

•K.O 

'C  3 

•C  a 

<a 

i?"S 

O^ 

o- 

Q 

Q 

Hydrogen 

—220.0° 

20.0 

? 

? 

1.0 

9 

Colorless 

Nitrogen 

—146.0 

a5.o 

-194.4° 

-214.0° 

14.0 

0.885 

Carbonic  oxide. 

-139..5 

.35.5 

-190.0 

-207.0 

14.0 

? 

" 

Oxygen 

-118  8 

50.8 

-182.7 

V 

16  0 

1,124 

Bluish 

Argon  

—121.0 

50.6 

-187.0 

-189.6 

19.9 

About  1.5 

Colorless 

The  spectroscopic  properties  of  argon  were  investi- 
gated by  Professor  William  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  who 
found  that  in  a  vacuum  tube  argon  gives  two  distinct 
spectra  according  to  the  nature  of  the  induction  current 
employed;  but,  while  the  two  spectra  of  nitrogen  are  of 
different  types,  one  being  a  line  and  the  other  a  band 
spectrum,  those  of  argon  are  both  line  spectra. 

The  discovery  of  argon  has  opened  up  several  puzzling 
questions. 

Nearly  thirty  years  ago  it  was  discovered  by  the  Russian  Men- 
deljeff,  that  if  elements  were  classified  according  to  a  certain  prin- 
ciple, a  conspicuous  mathematical  relation  that  existed  between  their 
"atomic  weights,"  they  would  be  found  in  groups,  of  any  one  of 
which  the  members  had  similar  properties.  Lord  Rayleigh  and 
others  are  disposed  to  put  the  atomic  weight  of  argon  at  about  40,  or 
twice  the  density,  19.9,  on  the  theory  that  it  is  monatomic.  But 
there  is  no  place  for  it  in  Mendeljeff's  tables,  the  experts  say;  hence 
the  question  arises  whether  it  is  not  "diatomic;"  that  is,  conformable 
to  the  practice  of  combining  in  a  ratio  that  takes  two  atoms  of  it  at  a 
time,  instead  of  one.  On  the  other  hand,  here  is  a  fresh  difficulty. 
Every  element  has  its  own  distinctive  specific  heat.  If  placed  side  by 
side  with  water  over  a  burning  lamp,  one  will  acquire  a  higher  tem- 
perature in  a  given  time  than  the  other.  The  investigators  put  the 
"  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  "  for  argon  at  1.66.  But  the  correspond- 
ing figures  for  the  best  known  diatomic  gases  range  from  1.29  to 
1.42;  and  there  are  reasons  which  are  weighty  with  learned  men  for 
thinking  that  argon  is  thus  excluded  from  the  diatomic  cla.ss,  and 
thrown  back  among  the  monatomic  gases.  In  that  case  its  atomic 
weight  becomes  40,  not  20  (approximately  its  density).  The  substance 
is  thus  removed  from  among  electro-negative  bodies  like  fluorine, 
where  its  density  would  seem  to  locate  it,  to  a  place  among 
such  metallic  bodies  as  potassium  and  calcium.  This  gets  rid 
of  a  serious  difficulty,  but  involves  the  hardly  less  formidable  one 
of  grouping  it  with  such  apparently  dissimilar  bodies  as  those  just 
mentioned.  In  this  dilemma  the  discoverers  are  almost  disposed  to 
regard  argon  as  a  mixture  of  two  unknown  elements,  which  the 
duality  of  its  spectra  would  seem  to  favor.  However,  balancing 
arguments  for  and  against,  they  seem,  on  the  whole,  to  incline  to  the 
belief  that  argon  is  a  single  element. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  properties  of  argon  is  its 


212  SCIENCE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

inertness.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  announcement  (Janu- 
ary 31),  all  attempts  to  induce  it  to  combine  with  other 
substances  or  to  discover  evidences  of  its  willingness  to  do 
so,  were  abortive.  It  remained  for  a  French  chemist,  M. 
Berthelot,  to  make  the  first  discovery  along  this  line.  He 
has  found  not  only  that  argon  is  not  absolutely  inert,  but 
that  it  is  capable  of  forming  a  variety  of  combinations 
under  conditions  which  always  exist  in  the  atmosphere. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  silent  electric  discharge  it 
combines  with  various  organic  compounds,  notably  with 
benzene. 

The  discovery  by  M.  Berthelot  of  the  activity  of 
argon,  has  since  been  confirmed  by  Lord  Rayleigh,  whose 
experiments  have  incidentally  placed  to  his  credit  another 
most  remarkable  discovery, — namely,  that  helium,  a  sub- 
stance hitherto  supposed  to  exist  only  in  the  sun  and  a 
few  of  the  stars,  is  really  also  a  constituent  of  the  earth's 
crust. 

In  order  to  find  if  there  was  not  something  in  the  world  with 
which  argon  would  combine,  Lord  Rayleigh  was  experimenting  with 
some  rare  earths,  among  them  one  known  as  clevite,  found  in  Nor- 
way, containing  yttrium,  erbium,  and  other  rare  elements.  When 
this  mineral  is  treated  with  weak  sulphuric  acid  it  gives  off  a  gas 
hitherto  regarded  as  nitrogen.  Professor  Ramsay  found  that  it  was 
not  nitrogen  but  argon.  This  proved  that  argon  will  unite  with 
something  else,  for  in  this  mineral  it  is  already  in  combination. 

But  another  very  much  more  remarkable  fact  was  here  dis- 
covered. With  the  argon  in  this  mineral  there  was  another  un- 
known gas.  For  many  years  it  has  been  known  that  there  is  a  gas 
existing  in  the  sun  which  has  not  been  discovered  on  the  earth.  Its 
presence  there  is  indicated  by  a  peculiar  and  very  simple  yellow 
spectrum  line.  It  has  even  been  suggested  that  it  may  be  identical 
with  the  ether  which  carries  the  waves  of  light;  but  what  it  is  has 
been  entirely  uncertain;  only  its  existence  was  known.  This  new  gas 
found  with  argon  in  the  Norwegian  earth  was  submitted  to  Profes- 
sor Crookes,  and  he  declares  that  its  spectrum  is  that  of  this  enig- 
matic element  in  the  sun  which  had  received  the  provisional  name  of 
helium.  It  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  lightest  of  known  sub- 
stances. 

In  connection  with  this  there  has  been  another  very  interesting 
discovery  by  M.  Berthelot,  the  French  chemist  who,  with  the  use  of 
argon,  has  developed  at  an  ordinary  pressure  a  magnificent,  greenish 
yellow  fluorescence  which  shows  the  same  spectrum  as  the  aurora 
horealis.  From  this  he  deduced  the  conclusion  that  the  northern 
lights  are  caused  by  argon  made  fluorescent  by  the  electrical  currents 
in  the  upper  atmosphere. 

Astronomy. — The  following  conclusions  are  drawn 
from  the  observations  of  the  transit  of  Mercury  last 
November,  which  were  not  fully  satisfactory,  owing  to  bad 
weather  prevailing  in  western  Europe  and  the  United 
States  at  the  time. 


SCIENCE.  213 

The  observations  were  quite  suflBcient  to  confirm  Professor  New- 
comb's  conclusion,  that  Leverrier's  tables  no  longer  accurately  repre- 
sent the  planet's  motion,  owing  to  an  unexplained  disturbance  of  the 
planet's  node  and  perihelion,  which  is  now  under  investigation.  The 
planet  was  very  nearly  a  minute  behindhand.  Backlund,  the  Russian 
astronomer,  who  has  had  Encke's  comet  in  hand  so  many  years,  has 
recently  published,  as  a  sort  of  "  by-product  "  of  his  researches,  a  new 
determination  of  the  mass  of  Mercury,  depending  upon  the  effect  the 
planet  has  produced  upon  the  motion  of  the  comet.  He  finds  the 
planet  to  be  only  about  one-thirtieth  of  the  mass  of  the  earth,  and 
this  result  agrees  fairly  well  with  that  obtained  by  Professor  Hark- 
ness  of  Washington,  a  few  years  ago.  If  this  is  correct,  and  the 
balance  of  evidence  is  now  strongly  in  its  favor.  Mercury  can  no 
longer  be  regarded  as  the  ' '  densest "  of  the  planets,  but  in  this 
respect  must  take  rank  below  both  Venus  and  the  earth.  But  it  is 
not  easy  to  be  sure  that  other  forces  than  gravitational  attractions 
may  not  have  something  to  do  with  the  comet's  behavior,  and  this 
casts  a  shade  of  doubt  on  Backlund's  result. 

Transparency  of  Metallic  Films. — Among  the  most  re- 
markable results  of  original  work  last  year  was  Mr.  Philipp 
Lenard's  application  of  the  discovery  of  Hertz,  that  metal- 
lic films  are  transparent  to  the  dark  rays  issuing  from  the 
negative  pole  in  the  case  of  electric  discharge  in  a  high 
vacuum. 

The  experimenter  closes  one  end  of  a  vacuum  tube  with  an 
aluminium  film  sufficiently  thick  to  resist  atmospheric  pressure  over 
a  small  area,  and  studies  the  cathode  rays  after  passage  through  the 
metal.  These  cathode  rays  do  not  affect  the  eye,  and  produce  no 
sensation  in  the  skin,  yet  they  are  photographically  active,  and  when 
they  impinge  upon  the  tongue  or  nostrils  produce  the  taste  and  smell 
of  ozone.  They  are  sharply  discriminated  from  ordinary  light  by  the 
fact  that  they  cannot  pass  through  quartz  plates  which  are  transparent  to 
light.  In  Ebert's  luminescent  lamp  an  attempt  is  made  to  apply  the 
cathode  rays  to  the  purposes  of  practical  illumination.  The  inventor 
states  that  a  serviceable  light  can  be  obtained  from  his  apparatus 
with  an  expenditure  of  one  two-thousandth  part  of  the  energy  con- 
sumed in  the  acetate  unit  lamp.  Should  even  a  fraction  of  the 
economy  of  power  here  indicated  be  realized  in  practice,  a  wholly 
new  start  will  be  given  to  electric  lighting. 

Artificial  Cotton. — A  process  has  been  discovered  of 
making  artificial  cotton,  the  product  being  much  clieaper 
than  natural  cotton,  and  possessing  most  of  its  qualities, 
though  lacking  its  full  strength.  The  basis  is  wood  pulp, 
which,  by  a  course  of  chemical  treatment,  is  changed  into 
pure  cellulose,  and  is  then  spun  into  thread  and  woven. 

Anti-Toxin. —  Treatment  of  Diphtheria. — Though 
occasionally  attacked  by  skeptics,  the  value  of  the  Behring 
anti-toxin  treatment  of  diphtheria  is  now  very  generally 
admitted.  The  following  review  of  the  subject  is  con- 
densed from  an  article  by  Dr.  L.  E.  Holt,  appearing  in  a 
recent  number  of  the  Forum. 


214  SCIENCE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

The  present  plan  of  producing  anti-toxin  is  as  follows.  Large 
animals,  such  as  the  horse  or  cow,  are  usually  employed  for  purposes 
of  injection.  In  the  beginning  as  large  a  quantity  of  the  toxin  of 
diphtheria  is  injected  as  the  animal  will  bear  without  danger  to  life. 
This  toxin  is  obtained  by  cultivating  the  germs  of  diphtheria  under 
favorable  conditions,  and  separating  the  living  bacteria  from  their 
poisonous  products  by  filtration  or  by  destroying  them  by  heat.  Fol- 
lowing the  injections  there  are  decided  symptoms  produced.  A 
large  swelling  appears  at  the  point  where  the  injection  is  made, 
which  may  cover  the  whole  side  of  the  animal.  The  temperature 
rises,  and  there  may  be  considerable  prostration,  with  marked  loss  in 
weight.  The  reactionary  symptoms  usually  last  from  one  to  three 
days.  After  these  have  passed  off  a  second  injection  is  made,  and 
subsequently^  others,  at  intervals  of  a  few  days.  It  is  found  that  the 
dose  of  the  toxin  can  gradually  be  increased  with  each  injection  un- 
til enormous  quantities  can  be  tolerated.  When  this  point  is  reached 
at  which  the  injection  of  large  amounts  of  the  toxin  produces  no  re- 
action, the  animal  is  said  to  possess  a  high  degree  of  immunity.  A 
long  time  is  required  for  the  production  of  this  condition,  the  period 
being  from  three  to  twelve  months,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
its  susceptibility,  and  many  other  conditioi;s. 

The  anti-toxin  is  obtained  from  the  blood  of  the  animal,  generally 
by  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein.  The  vein  is  opened,  and  from  one 
to  four  quarts  of  blood  is  drawn  into  a  sterilized  vessel.  After  stand- 
ing for  a  few  hours,  this  blood  separates  into  a  clot  and  a  clear  portion 
above  which  is  known  as  the  serum.  The  anti-toxin  is  contained  in 
the  blood-serum. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  symptoms  produced  by  the  injection  of 
the  toxin  are  those  resulting  from  the  anti-toxin.  With  the  latter 
there  is,  as  a  rule,  no  pain,  inflammation,  swelling,  rise  of  temperature, 
constitutional  weakness,  or  depression.  In  most  of  the  cases  but 
one  injection,  when  given  early,  is  required.  The  effect  upon  the 
local  and  general  symptoms  of  diphtheria  is  in  most  cases  striking. 
The  temperature  often  falls  two  or  three  degrees  in  twenty-four  hours. 
In  the  throat  it  is  noticed  first  that  the  membrane  ceases  to  spread; 
then  that  it  is  smaller,  and  finally  that  it  loosens  and  conies  away. 
Often  in  two  or  three  days  it  has  entirely  disappeared.  Regarding 
injurious  effects  attributed  to  the  remedy,  such  as  an  increase  in  the 
disposition  of  the  disease  to  affect  the  kidneys,  the  testimony  is  as 
yet  conflicting.  The  danger  has  not  been  shown  to  be  of  much  im- 
portance, and  the  great  majority  of  observers  agree  in  the  opinion 
that  the  injections  are  harmless.  The  mortality  of  diphtheria  in 
Paris  in  3,900  hospital  cases  treated  during  the  four  years  preceding 
the  introduction  of  anti-toxin,  was  fifty-two  per  cent.  Of  the  first  300 
hospital  cases  of  true  diphtheria  treated  with  anti-toxin  the  mortality 
was  but  26  per  cent.  There  are  included  in  these  300,  only  cases  in 
which  the  diphtheria  bacillus  was  found.  The  later  reports  from 
Paris  are  even  more  encouraging.  In  231  additional  cases  the  mor- 
tality was  but  14|  per  cent;  showing  that  with  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  use  of  anti-toxin  and  greater  skill  in  preparing  it,  the 
results  have  been  steadily  improving. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  the  published  reports  it  should  be 
known  that  the  majority  of  these  have  been  made  by  men  who  have 
seen  much  of  diphtheria  and  who  know  well  what  its  natural  course 
is.  Also,  that  care  has  been  taken  to  exclude  all  cases  of  "false" 
diphtheria,  or  those  in  which  the  diphtheria  bacillus  was  absent,  and 
that  these  make  up  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  mild  cases  once  iu- 


SCIENCE.  215 

eluded  as  diphtheria.  The  striking  and  immediate  fall  in  the  mortality 
in  hospitals  for  diphtheria  from  40  or  50  per  cent  to  from  10  to  26  per 
cent,  as  in  the  reports  given,  is  too  marked  to  be  accidental,  especially 
when  it  has  been  noted  in  all  parts  of  the  world  where  the  treatment 
has  been  tried.  The  evidence  seems  sufficient  to  establish  the  fact  that 
in  a  child  previously  healthy,  uncomplicated  diphtheria  may  be  cured 
in  nearly  every  instance  when  injections  are  made  up)on  the  first  or 
second  day  of  the  disease,  excepting  only  those  cases  in  which  the 
disease  begins  in  the  larynx  (membranous  croup).  In  these  latter  the 
present  mortality  (about  70  per  cent)  is  likely  to  be  very  much  re- 
duced. There  are  many  cases  of  diphtheria  in  which  a  fatal  result 
is  not  so  much  due  to  the  infection  of  the  diphtheria  bacillus  as  to 
the  associated  infection  with  other  germs.  The  products  of  the  lat- 
ter are  in  no  way  neutralized  by  anti-toxin  treatment.  These  germs 
are  the  most  common  cause  of  the  broncho-pneumonia  which  is  so 
frequent  and  so  fatal  a  complication  of  diphtheria.  In  these  cases 
of  "  mixed  infection  "  so  good  results  are  not  to  be  expected  as  in  the 
simple  cases. 

When  the  injections  are  made  late  in  the  disease,  the  benefit 
which  results  will  depend  upon  the  degree  of  general  poisoning 
which  has  already  taken  place,  for  the  patient  may  have  already  ab- 
sorbed a  sufficient  amount  of  poison  to  cause  death. 

There  are  eminent  critics,  such  as  Professors  Berg- 
mann,  Virchow,  and  Hausemann,  who  are  inclined  to 
think  that  it  will  take  a  long  time  yet  to  demonstrate  the 
precise  value  of  the  anti-toxin  serum.  At  a  recent  meet- 
ing of  the  Berlin  Medical  Society,  Dr.  Hausemann  denied 
that  Loffler's  bacillus,  against  which  the  anti-toxin  treat- 
ment is  directed,  was  the  originator  of  diphtheria,  there 
being  instances  of  the  disease  where  it  was  not  present, 
and  cases  where  its  presence  was  not  accompanied  with 
the  disease.  The  critics  of  the  treatment  contend  that  it 
has  not  yet  been  positively  demonstrated  to  be  a  cure,  and 
that  it  has  been  shown  to  produce  noxious  effects. 

Aerial  Navigation. — On  December  4,  1894,  a  most 
important  aeronautic  voyage  was  made  from  Stassfurt, 
Saxony,  by  Dr.  A.  Berson,  in  the  balloon  Phoenix.  He 
ascended  to  a  height  of  9,150  metres,  where  the  ther- 
mometer stood  at  47.9°  below  zero.  The  following  were 
the  most  noteworthy  results  of  the  voyage: 

1,  the  arrival  at  a  greater  height  than  was  ever  reached  before; 
2,  the  ascertaining  of  an  unusually  low  temperature  at  that  height,  and 
a  much  greater  lowering  of  the  temperature  between  1,500  metres 
and  9,200  metres  than  was  ever  before  accepted  for  the  winter;  3,  a 
change  of  temperature  mornings  and  evenings  till  the  height  of  1,500 
metres;  4,  relatively  very  weak  insulation  even  at  the  greatest  height; 
5,  humidity  in  the  highest  regions,  and  fine  mist  in  the  sky  to 
the  enormous  height  of  more  than  10,000  metres;  6,  snowflake  struc- 
ture of  the  cirnis  clouds  at  9,000  metres;  7,  tremendous  increase  of 
the  swiftness  of  the  wind  upward,  for,  with  almost  perfect  calm  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  more  than  310  kilometres  were  made  in  5 
hours  17  minutes  which  gives  a  medium  swiftness  of  16^  metres  per 
second. 


216  SCIENCE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Causes  of  Earthquakes. — The  following  account  (in 
substance)  of  the  conclusions  of  modern  science  on  this 
subject  appeared  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  from  the  pen  of  Prince  Krapotkin: 

"The  theory  of  earthquake  origin  which  has  till  lately  prevailed 
in  science,  and  which  had  for  it  the  authority  of  Humboldt  and 
Leopold  Buch,  is  well  known.  Earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions 
were  considered  as  effects  of  a  common  cause,  the  never-ceasing  re- 
action of  the  hot  and  molten  interior  of  the  earth  upon  its  thin  solid 
crust.  When  water,  percolating  the  rocks  or  running  down  their 
fissures,  reaches  the  depths  at  which  the  temperature  is  so  high  that 
rocks  and  metals  are  maintained  in  a  liquid  state,  steam  is  evolved 
under  a  formidable  pressure,  and,  together  with  the  gases  originated 
from  the  molten  mass  itself,  it  accumulates  in  the  subterranean  cavi- 
ties. Rows  of  volcanoes  rise  along  gigantic  trends  which  are  opened 
in  the  earth's  crust,  and  they  act  as  so  many  safety-valves  for  the 
escape  of  the  gases  and  steam;  but  if  one  of  these  valves  be  obstructed 
for  some  reason,  the  pressure  of  the  gases  grows,  until  they  open 
a  passage  through  the  solid  crust,  bringing  the  rocks  into  a  formid- 
able commotion." 

However,  the  cause  above  indicated  appeared  too  powerful  in  com- 
parison with  the  results,  and  another  theory  has  come  to  be  looked 
upon  as  more  plausible.  "  Research  was  directed  toward  study  of 
the  local  causes  which  might  have  given  origin  to  each  separate 
earthquake.  There  is,  of  course,  a  number  of  earthquakes  directly 
due  to  volcanic  causes;  but  these,  as  already  indicated  by  Humboldt, 
are  always  limited  in  their  areas,  and  are  the  minority.  As  to  the 
greater  number,  their  causes  must  be  sought  for  in  local  disturbances 
of  the  rocky  strata.  Everywhere  there  are  softer  strata  which  are 
disintegrated  by  water  between  the  rocky  layers  above  and  beneath 
them.  One  day  or  the  other  they  must  yield;  and  when  they  do  yield, 
•  their  subsidence,  or  the  gliding  of  the  upper  strata  upon  a  softened 
intermediate  layer,  must  result  in  an  earthquake.  *  *  *  Starting 
from  the  idea  that  the  cooling  of  the  globe  results  in  a  steady  decrease 
of  its  diameter,  and  consequently  in  a  continuous  shrinking  and  shriv- 
elling of  its  outer  strata,  Suess  endeavored  to  show  how  this  process 
would  work  in  producing  the  leading  features  of  the  earth's  surface. 
*  *  *  The  earthquakes  under  this  broad  conception  of  '  geo-tectonics ' 
appear  as  simple  trepidations  of  the  soil  by  which  the  shrinking  of  the 
crust  and  mountain- building  processes  are  necessarily  accompanied. 

"Kant  had  already  remarked  that  most  earthquakes  take  place 
on  the  seaboard.  Modern  research  fully  confirms  this  view,  and  goes 
a  step  farther.  It  maintains  that  by  far  the  greatest  number  of 
earthquakes — perhaps  90  per  cent,  as  Professor  Milne  says — originate 
beneath  the  sea,  where  the  rocks,  under  the  superincumbent  hydro- 
static pressure,  are  continuously  saturated  with  moisture,  and  can 
the  more  easily  be  displaced.  *  *  *  In  short,  it  may  be  taken  as 
a  fact  that  a  great  number  of  earthquakes  originate  at  the  sea- bottom, 
near  the  sea-coast." 

Other  Scientific  Notes. — Considerable  discussion  was 
recently  aroused  by  the  discovery,  made  by  Dr.  Dubois 
in  Java,  of  a  fossil  of  the  extinct  pithecanthropus  erectus, 
supposed  by  some  to  be  the  "  missing  link  "  filling  up  the 
gap  between  man  and  the  anthropoid  apes.     The  remains 


ART.  217 

included  a  skull,  a  molar  tooth,  and  a  left  femur.  The 
last  is,  however,  certainly  human,*^and  the  skull,  of  which 
only  the  upper  and  hinder  portion  is  preserved,  is  de- 
scribed as  dolichocephalic,  its  dimensions  indicating  a 
cranium  about  two-thirds  the  average  human  size.  In 
regard  to  the  discovery.  Dr.  D.  J.  Cunningham,  professor 
of  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  writes: 

"  The  skull  and  tooth,  even  granting  that  they  are  from  the  same 
individual,  present  no  such  characters  as  would  warrant  the  formation 
of  a  new  family.  The  cranium  at  least  is  undoubtedly  human.  Most 
certainly  they  are  not  derived  from  a  transition  form  between  any  of 
the  existing  anthropoid  apes  and  man;  such  a  form  does  not  and  can- 
not exist,  seeing  that  the  divarication  of  the  ape  and  man  has  taken 
place  low  down  in  the  genealogical  tree,  and  each  has  followed,  for 
good  or  bad,  its  own  path.  Tlie  so-called  pithecanthropus  is  in  the 
direct  human  line,  although  it  occupies  a  place  on  this  considerably 
lower  than  any  human  form  at  present  known." 

A  French  Canadian  blacksmith,  F.  Allard,  of  Levis, 
Quebec,  is  said  to  have  succeeded  in  tempering  aluminium 
so  as  to  give  it  the  consistency  of  iron. 


ART. 

A  SALE  of  pictures  by  the  late  George  Inness  was  held 
in  New  York  city,  beginning  February  12.  When  the 
artist  died  in  August,  1894,  he  left  240  unsold  canvases 
ranging  in  date  from  1860  to  the  year  of  his  death.  On 
the  first  night  of  the  sale,  eighty  pictures  were  disposed 
of  for  a  total  of  $35,755.  The  highest  price,  $2,100,  was 
paid  for  the  large  work  entitled  Sundown.  Two  others 
brought  over  $1,500,  and  four  over  $1,000  each. 

An  exhibition  of  portraits  of  women — recalling  to 
mind  similar  exhibitions  in  New  York  city  and  London, 
Eng., — was  begun  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  11.  Like  the 
recent  Academy  Loan  Exhibition  in  New  York  (Vol.  4, 
p.  925),  the  object  of  the  Boston  event  was  a  charitable  one, 
its  proceeds  going  to  the  Children's  Aid  Society  and  the 
Sunnyside  Day  Nursery.  A  remarkable  feature  of  the 
display  was  the  large  number  of  old  family  portraits,  works 
of  the  masters  of  colonial  and  last  century  times,  notably 
Copley  and  Stuart,  most  of  them  distinctly  New  England. 
There  was,  however,  a  showing  of  old  European  masters 
— Paul  Veronese,  Titian,  Van  Dyck,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
Gainsborough,  and  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence.  Great,  how- 
ever, as  was  the  display  of  the  older  masters,  interest  in  con- 


218  ART.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

temporary  work  was  not  overshadowed;  and  here  the  same 
distinctively  New  England  characteristics  were  maintained, 
the  modern  American  works  including  paintings  by  De 
Forrest,  Brush,  Dennis  Bunker,  F.  P.  Vinton,  John  S. 
Sargent,  William  M.  Chase,  James  Whistler,  and  others. 
Modern  European  artists  were  represented  by  Cabanel, 
Benjamin  Constant,  Carolus-Duran,  and  Dagnan-Bouveret. 

About  the  close  of  the  quarter  the  annual  exhibitions 
of  the  Academy  of  Design  and  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  in  New  York  city,  were  opened.  At  the  Academy 
a  wide  range  of  subjects  and  a  generally  high  standard  was 
maintained.  Among  noteworthy  works  were  Mr.  TarbelFs 
Girl  with  Ring;  Mr.  Isham^s  portrait  of  a  lady;  Mr.  H. 
0.  Walker's  Morning  Vision;  Mr.  Benson's  Mother  and 
Children;  Miss  Macomber's  Faith,  Hope,  and  Love,  a  relig- 
ious subject;  Mr.  Frederic  Eemington's  Mexican  Cowboys; 
and  paintings  by  Mr.  Frank  Fowler,  Mr.  E.  A.  Bell,  Mr. 
Chase,  Mr.  Twachtman,  and  many  others. 

At  the  exhibition  of  the  society,  the  Shaw  prize  of 
$1,500  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Chase's  A  Friendly  Call,  repre- 
senting one  woman  calling  on  another  in  a  prettily  deco- 
rated room.  The  Webb  prize  was  given  to  Mr.  Childe 
Hassam,  for  an  impressionistic  Cuban  landscape.  Among 
other  noteworthy  pictures  exhibited  were  Mr.  C.  A.  Piatt's 
Hill-side  Pasture;  Mr.  Bell's  Color,  Form,  and  Music;  Mr. 
Walker's  Enchanted  Wood;  Mr.  Church's  Flowers  of  the 
Air;  and  Mr.  Cox's  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony,  a  IsLYge  and 
ambitious  work,  but  lacking  in  imagination. 

An  incident  of  interest  to  artists  was  the  suit  brought 
in  Paris,  France,  by  Sir  William  Eden,  against  James 
Whistler,  the  artist,  to  compel  the  latter  to  deliver  a  por- 
trait of  Lady  Eden  painted  by  him,  and  to  pay  damages 
for  having  delayed  the  delivery.  It  appears  that,  owing 
to  pique  at  the  smallness  of  the  price  offered  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam (100  guineas),  Mr.  Whistler  effaced  the  head  in  the 
portrait,  afterward  painting  in  the  face  of  another  lady. 
On  March  20  the  court  ordered  him  to  restore  the  picture, 
to  refund  Sir  William's  check  with  interest,  and  to  pay 
1,000  francs  damages  and  the  costs  in  the  case. 


MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA.  219 

MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA. 

AT  Daly's  theatre.  New  York  city,  January  15,  an  Eng- 
lish  adaptation  of  the  French  play  La  Marchand  de 
Sourires,  by  Judith  Gautier,  had  its  first  representation. 
The  English  title  of  the  play  is  Heart  of  Ruby.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  Japan,  and  the  story  is  the  old  one  of  love 
severely  tried  but  finally  happily  consecrated. 

On  January  28  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Beerbohm  Tree  of  Lon- 
don, Eng.,  made  their  first  appearance  before  an  American 
audience  at  Abbey's  theatre,  New  York  city,  in  a  four-act 
drama,  entitled  The  Red  Lamp,  by  Outram  Tristram.  They 
carried  the  audience  by  storm.  The  story  of  the  play  is 
one  of  nihilistic  conspiracy  in  Russia,  and  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  sentiments  of  loyalty  and  sisterly  affection  in  a 
woman's  heart. 

Verdi's  Falstaff  was  very  successfully  presented  for  the 
first  time  in  America  at  the  Metropolitan  opera  house, 
New  York  city,  February  4,  with  M.  Victor  Maurel  in  the 
title  role,  which  he  created. 

An  interesting  dramatic  event  occurred  in  the  theatre 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier's  College,  New  York  city,  on  Feb- 
ruary 25 — the  presentation  by  the  Xavier  Deaf-Mute 
Union,  of  a  five-act  drama  depicting  the  deeds  of  the 
Maccabees  under  the  leadership  of  Mattathias  and  Judas. 
The  players  were  all  deaf-mutes;  but  it  is  said  that  their 
gestures  and  pantomime  were  so  expressive  that  the  spec- 
tators found  it  an  easy  and  an  entertaining  task  to  follow 
the  story. 

Mme.  Rejane,  the  noted  French  actress,  made  her  first 
appearance  on  the  American  stage  at  Abbey's  theatre. 
New  York  city,  February  27,  in  the  title  role  of  Madame 
Sans-Geiie,  and  instantly  scored  a  great  popular  success. 

In  view  of  the  great  sensation  in  the  literary  world 
caused  by  George  Du  Maurier's  novel,  Trilby,  much  in- 
terest attached  to  the  first  stage  presentation  of  the  dram- 
atized work  at  the  Park  theatre,  Boston,  Mass.,  on  March 
11,  by  A.  M.  Palmer's  company.  The  part  of  ** Trilby" 
was  taken  by  Miss  Virginia  Harned.  There  is  much  in 
the  story  that  was  omitted  from  the  play,  and  critics  are 
divided  in  opinion.  The  dramatization  was  done  by  Mr. 
Paul  M.  Potter. 

On  March  11,  at  Palmer's  theatre,  New  York  city, 
Mrs.  Langtry  appeared  in  the  first  presentation  of  Gossip, 
a  new  play  by  Clyde  Fitch  and  Leo  Dietrichstein. 

A7i  Ideal  Husband,  a  play  by  Oscar  Wilde,  was  pre- 


^20  Music  AND  THE  DRAMA.  1st  Qr.,  18d5. 

sented  for  the  first  time  in  America  on  March  12,  at  the 
Lyceum  theatre,  New  York  city. 

Another  first  presentation  in  this  country  was  that  of 
John-a- Dreams,  a  four-act  play  by  C.  Haddon  Chambers,  at 
the  Empire  theatre,  New  York  city,  March  18.  The  hero 
is  an  opium  fiend. 

The  last  performance  on  the  stage  of  the  historic  Nib- 
lo^s  Garden  in  New  York  city,  was  that  of  My  Aunt  Bridget, 
given  by  George  W.  Munroe  and  company  on  March  23. 
This  theatre,  the  oldest  but  one  in  the  city,  is  to  be  re- 
placed by  a  new  office  building.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
at  Niblo's  that  Adelina  Patti  made  her  first  public  appear- 
ance on  December  3,  1851,  being  then  eight  years  old. 

The  season  of  Wagnerian  grand  opera  conducted  by 
Mr.  Walter  Damrosch  at  the  Metropolitan  opera  house. 
New  York  city,  February  25  to  March  23,  was  wonder- 
fully successful,  financially  as  well  as  artistically — a  success 
all  the  more  remarkable  since  the  season  followed  so 
closely  the  Italian  and  French  season  of  Messrs.  Abbey 
and  Grau. 

M.  Eugene  Ysaye,  the  Belgian  violinist,  has  won  a  sen- 
sational success  in  the  United  States. 

Ysaye,  Eugene,  violinist,  was  born  over  thirty  years  ago  in 
Liege,  Belgium,  the  son  of  a  musical  teacher  and  composer.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Liege  Conservatory,  afterward,  in  1874,  becoming  a 
pupil  of  Wieniawski  at  Brussels.  Through  Vieuxtemps  he  secured 
a  subvention  from  the  government  which  enabled  him  to  pursue  his 
studies  in  Paris,  where  he  remained  under  the  eyes  of  Vieuxtemps 
until  the  death  of  that  great  artist.  He  has  been  for  eight  years  a 
teacher  in  the  conservatory  at  Brussels. 

In  Europe  the  most  notable  dramatic  incidents  of  the 
quarter  have  been  Mr.  Henry  Irving's  production  of  KiJig 
Arthur  at  the  Lyceum  theatre,  London,  Eng.,  January  12, 
and  the  presentation  of  two  new  operas  by  Mascagni.  In 
the  libretto  of  King  Arthur,  M.  Comyns  Carr  has  made 
no  effort  to  dramatize  the  Idylls  of  Tennyson,  but  has  fol- 
lowed more  closely  Malory,  who  was  also  the  late  laureate's 
guide.  Mr.  Carr's  verse,  however,  suggests  careful  study 
of  Tennyson's  work.  The  music,  by  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan, 
contributed  greatly  to  the  effect  of  the  drama. 

In  February  a  new  opera,  Ratcliffe,  by  the  Italian 
composer  Mascagni,  was  given  with  considerable  success 
at  La  Scala,  Milan.  It  is  based  upon  Heine's  weird  story 
of  the  unfortunate  Scottish  lover,  William  Ratcliffe,  who 
challenged  and  killed  one  by  one  all  the  fiances  of  his 
cousin  Maria. — Great  success  attended  the  first  presenta- 
tion on  March  23,  also  at  Milan,  of  Sylvano,  an  opera  by 
the  same  composer. 


RELIGION.  221 

RELIGION. 

The  Pope's  American  Encyclical.— The  text  of  a 
lengthy  encyclical  letter  from  His  Holiness  Pope  Leo  XIIL 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  America  was  made 
public  January  28. 

The  encyclical  begins  with  a  eulogy  of  the  American  republic, 
and  the  prosperous  condition  of  the  church  therein,  due  in  large  part 
to  "the  equity  of  the  laws  which  obtain  in  America  and  to  the  cus- 
toms of  the  well-ordered  republic."  It  recognizes  that  the  church  is 
here  "fettered  by  no  hostile  legislation,  protected  against  violence  by 
the  common  laws  and  the  impartiality  of  the  tribunals."  However, 
it  goes  on  to  say  that  we  "cannot  draw  the  conclusion  that  in  Amer- 
ica is  to  be  sought  the  type  of  the  most  desirable  status  of  the  church; 
or  that  it  would  be  universally  lawful  or  expedient  for  state  and 
church  to  be,  as  in  America,  dissevered  and  divorced;"  and  that  it 
would  be  better  if  "in  addition  to  liberty  she  (the  church)  enjoyed 
the  favor  of  the  laws  and  the  patronage  of  the  public  authority." 

Regarding  the  establishment  of  the  Apostolic  legation  at  Wash- 
ington and  the  appointment  of  Mgr.  Satolli,  His  Holiness  plainly  in- 
dicates that  none  of  the  bishops  need  seek  the  withdrawal  of  the  le- 
gation; and  he  impresses  upon  them  that  the  office  of  the  legate  will 
in  no  wise  interfere  with  their  rights.     Says  he: 

"  Since  it  is  the  office  and  function  of  an  Apostolic  legrate,  with  whatsoever 
powers  he  may  be  vested,  to  execute  the  mandates  and  interpret  the  will  of 
the  Pontiff  who  sends  him,  far  from  his  being  of  any  detriment  to  the  ordinary 
power  of  the  bishops,  he  will  rather  bring  an  accession  of  stability  and  strength. 
His  authority  will  possess  no  slight  weight  for  preserving  in  the  multitude  a 
submissive  spirit;  in  the  clergy,  discipline  and  due  reverence  for  the  bishops; 
and  in  the  bishops,  mutual  charity  and  an  intimate  union  of  souls.  And.  since 
this  union,  so  salutary  and  desirable,  consists  mainly  in  harmony  of  thought 
and  action,  he  will  no  doubt  bring  it  to  pass  that  each  one  of  you  shall  perse- 
vere in  the  diligent  administration  of  his  diocesan  affairs;  that  one  shall  not 
impede  another  in  matters  of  government;  that  one  shall  not  pry  into  the  coun- 
sels and  conduct  of  another;  finally,  that  with  disagreements  eradicated  and 
mutual  esteem  maintained,  you  may  all  work  together  with  combined  energies, 
to  promote  the  glory  of  the  American  churches  and  the  general  welfare." 

The  Pope  inculcates  great  caution  about  joining  labor  organiza- 
tions, saying  that  while  "it  is  proper  and  desirable  to  assert  and  se- 
cure the  rights  of  many,"  yet  this  must  not  be  so  done  as  to  violate 
duty;  for  one  must  "not  touch  what  belongs  to  another;"  he  must 
allow  "every  one  to  be  free  in  the  management  of  his  own  affairs;" 
he  is  "  not  to  hinder  any  one  to  dispose  of  his  services  when  he  pleases 
and  where  he  pleases." 


229  SOCIOLOGY.  Ist  Qr.,  1895. 

SOCIOLOGY.* 

Women's  National  Council. — The  second  triennial 
session  of  the  Women's  National  Council  was  held  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  during  the  two  weeks  ended  March  2.  Im- 
portant constitutional  amendments  were  adopted,  so  that 
the  council  will  hereafter  be  organized  on  the  model  fur- 
nished by  the  United  States  government,  with  a  president, 
vice-president,  cabinet  (discretionary  with  the  president), 
and  an  upper  and  a  lower  house.  Mrs.  Mary  Lowe  Dick- 
inson of  New  York,  head  of  the  order  of  King's  Daughters, 
was  chosen  president,  with  Rev.  Anna  Howard  Shaw  as 
vice-president. 

The  resolutions  adopted  by  the  conference  cover  a  wide  field.  Vol- 
untary arbitration  of  disputes  between  employers  and  employed  is 
urged;  co-operation  is  declared  to  be  the  standard  to  which  industrial 
relations  should  be  brought;  a  rational  divorce  law  is  favored;  dress- 
reform  is  commended;  representation  of  women  on  school-boards  is 
demanded;  the  establishment  of  a  national  university  for  both  sexes 
is  advocated;  and  equal  pay  for  equal  work  is  demanded.  Other  res- 
olutions declare  for  scientific  temperance  work  in  the  public  schools, 
for  restriction  of  immigration,  for  an  educational  suffrage-qualifica- 
tion, and  for  manual  training  and  patriotic  teaching  in  public  schools. 

Temperance  Legislation. — The  working  of  the  fa- 
mous Gothenburg  (Sweden)  system  of  regulating  the  liquor 
traffic  has  not  proved  entirely  successful.  An  investiga- 
tion recently  instituted  by  the  London  (Eng.)  Times  has 
shown  an  increase  of  drunkenness  under  the  law,  with  no 
material  abatement  of  the  admitted  evils  of  the  licensed 
saloon.  In  the  city  of  its  origin,  Gothenburg,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  150,000,  there  are  about  900  drinking-places,  or 
9  to  every  1,500  people  (the  proportion  in  New  York  city 
is  9  to  2,000).  Only  74,  however,  are  under  the  operation 
of  the  Gothenburg  system.  The  others  sell  only  beer  and 
wine.  Bottled  beer  may  be  sold  anywhere,  and  is  sold  ex- 
tensively. 

In  Norway  a  new  law  has  been  enacted,  to  take  effect 
at  the  beginning  of  1896. 

The  law  is  described  as  being  in  the  direction  of  giving  the  mo- 
nopoly of  the  sale  of  spirits  to  the  sarnlags,  or  associations  for  the 
sale  of  spirits;  while  its  main  object  is  to  place  ultimately  in  the 
hands  of  the  government  65  per  cent  of  the  profits  of  the  traffic,  15 

♦Note.— Questions  of  a  sociolofjical  character  are  treated  at  various  points 
in  this  review,  according  as  they  rise  into  importance  sufficient  to  give  them 
precedence  over  other  topics,  or  as  they  seem  to  be  intimately  connected  with 
the  development  of  events,  political  or  otherwise,  in  the  various  countries. 
Thus  labor  m  terests,  strikes,  and  boycotts,  some  phases  of  legislation,  temperance, 
female  suffrage,  etc.,  are  topics  of  a  sociological  nature  whose  treatment  is  duly 
provided  for  in  the  scheme  of  this  work.  The  present  department  of  "  Sociol- 
ogy "  is  reserved  merely  for  such  topics  as  may  hereafter  arise  calling  for  special 
and  extended  treatment,  and  for  such  minor  topics  (statistics,  etc.)  as  may  be 
worthy  of  record.— Ed. 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS.  223 

per  cent  going  to  the  communes,  and  20  per  cent  being  retained  by 
the  mmlags  for  distribution  among  temperance  societies  and  institu- 
tions of  public  utility.  This  is  effected  by  providing  that  the  surplus 
retained  by  the  samlags  is  to  decrease  10  per  cent  each  successive  year, 
beginning  with  1896,  until  it  is  reduced  to  10  per  cent.  The  law  also 
increases  the  minimum  quantity  of  spirits  to  be  sold  to  the  public 
from  eight  to  about  55  gallons  which  "shall  not  be  consumed  to  any 
extent  whatsoever  on  the  place,  and  must  be  delivered  at  one  time, 
in  one  vessel,  to  one  buyer."  In  towns  with  communal  organizations, 
the  sale  of  spirits  in  less  quantities  than  55  gallons  can  be  carried  on 
by  only  the  samlags,  whose  shareholders  are  not  to  be  paid  more  than 
5  per  cent  on  the  paid-up  capital.  The  communal  organizations  are 
to  determine  the  number  of  places  at  which  spirits  shall  be  retailed, 
and  the  choice  of  a  manager  for  each  of  such  places  is  to  be  approved 
by  the  local  municipality.  Each  locality  has  to  decide  by  a  general 
vote  of  all  men  and  women  over  25  years  of  age  whether  the  establish- 
ment or  the  continued  working  of  a  samlag  for  the  retailing  of  spirits 
is  to  be  permitted.  The  majority,  apparently  is  not  a  majority  of 
those  voting,  but  of  those  entitled  to  vote,  and  the  voting  is  to  be 
secret.  Spirits  are  not  allowed  to  be  retailed  before  8  A.  m.  nor  after  1 
p.  M.  on  Sundays  and  holidays  and  on  the  days  preceding  them.  It  is 
also  declared  penal  to  supply  spirits  to  a  person  under  15,  or  to  any  one 
already  intoxicated;  or  to  supply  for  payment  so  much  spirits  to  a 
person  that  he  or  she  becomes  intoxicated,  or  to  turn  such  intoxicated 
person  out  of  the  house  in  which  he  or  she  has  become  intoxicated. 

A  very  important  enactment  of  the  last  session  of  the 
53d  United  States  congress  provides  for  an  investigation 
of  the  liquor  traffic.     It  says: 

"The  commissioner  of  labor  is  hereby  authorized  to  make  an  in- 
vestigation relating  to  the  economic  aspects  of  the  liquor  problem 
and  to  report  the  results  thereof  to  congress;  provided,  however,  that 
such  investigation  shall  be  carried  on  under  the  regular  appropria- 
tions made  for  the  department  of  labor." 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS. 

Bounties  Unconstitutional. — A  serious  check  to  so- 
cialistic tendencies  in  legislation  was  given  by  the  decision 
of  the  court  of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Columbia  early  in 
January,  to  the  effect  that  the  sugar-bounty  provision  of 
the  McKinley  law,  which  was  repealed  by  the  tariff  law  of 
1894,  was  unconstitutional.  The  court  points  out  that 
the  right  to  give  such  a  bounty  to  a  class  of  people  in- 
volves the  right  to  tax  all  for  the  benefit  of  this  class,  and 
that  the  power  of  taxation  is  "  limited  to  public  objects 
and  purposes  governmental  in  their  nature."  As  for  the 
claim  that  ''  the  general  welfare  "  clause  of  the  constitu- 
tion may  be  stretched  to  encourage  the  production  of 
sugar  by  a  bounty,  the  court  says: 


224  IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS.         1st  Qr.,  1895. 

"  If  congress  be  conceded  tbe  power  to  grant  subsidies  from  the 
public  revenues  to  all  objects  it  may  deem  to  be  for  tbe  general  wel- 
fare, then  it  follows  that  this  discretion  renders  superfluous  all  the 
special  delegations  of  power  contained  in  the  constitution,  and  opens  a 
way  for  a  flood  of  socialistic  legislation,  the  specious  plea  for  all  of 
which  has  ever  been  the  'general  welfare.'" 

The  fundamental  question  involved  in  this  sugar-bounty 
matter  has  never  been  passed  upon  directly  by  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  but  the  decision  of  the  district 
court  points  out  that  the  principle  which  underlies  it  has 
been  ruled  upon  by  the  court  of  last  resort,  particularly 
in  the  celebrated  opinion  of  Justice  Miller,  holding  that 
the  government  cannot  take  property  from  citizens  to  be- 
stow it  on  favored  individuals. 

Patent  Rights. — A  very  important  decision  regard- 
ing patent  rights  was  handed  down  early  in  March  by  the 
United  States  supreme  court,  in  the  case  of  the  Bates  Re- 
frigerator Company  against  certain  alleged  infringers  of 
their  patent — to  the  effect  that  patents  in  this  country  ex- 
pire with  the  expiration  of  the  same  patent  in  any  foreign 
country.  The  above-named  company  had  a  17-year  patent 
in  the  United  States,  a  14-year  patent  in  England,  and  a 
5-year  patent  in  Canada.  The  supreme  court  held  that 
the  American  patent  expired  with  the  life  of  the  Canadian 
5-year  patent.  The  decision  turns  on  the  construction  of 
a  clause  in  the  statute  covering  the  subject,  and  not  on 
any  equitable  consideration.  The  whole  sentence  reads 
as  follows: 

* '  But  every  patent  granted  for  an  invention  which  has  been 
previously  patented  in  a  foreign  country,  shall  be  so  limited  as  to  ex- 
pire at  the  same  time  with  the  foreign  patent,  or,  if  there  be  more  than 
one,  at  the  same  time  with  the  one  having  the  shortest  term,  and  in 
no  case  shall  it  be  for  more  than  seventeen  years." 

The  decision  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the 
fact  that  it  terminates  the  lives  of  a  number  of  other  im- 
portant patents,  including  the  patent  on  the  Blake  trans- 
mitter, owned  by  the  Bell  Telephone  Company,  and  the 
patent  on  incandescent  lamps.  A  large  number  of  con- 
venient electrical  appliances  and  other  useful  articles  are 
said  to  be  affected  by  the  decision. 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  225 

IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 

Gold  Production. — In  the  United  States. — The  total 
gold  production  of  the  United  States  for  1894  is  estimated 
at  $45,892,668,  as  against  $33,948,723  in  1893 — an  increase 
of  nearly  twelve  millions.  The  output  of  silver,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  $28,721,014,  as  against  $38,491,521  in 
1893 — a  decrease  of  nearly  ten  millions. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  year  was  the  sud- 
den change  of  Colorado  from  a  silver  to  a  gold-mining 
camp.  This  was  due  to  the  discovery,  first  made  at  Lead- 
ville  and  Cripple  Creek,  that  below  the  silver  and  the  sil- 
ver-and-gold  level  there  are  rich  deposits  of  the  yellow 
metal.  The  paralysis  of  mining  which  resulted  from  the 
decline  in  the  price  of  silver  and  legislation  adverse  to  that 
metal,  has  given  way  to  an  activity  which  has  put  almost 
every  smeltery  in  operation,  and  not  only  the  old  mines 
but  numberless  new  ones  in  working.  The  output  of  Col- 
orado for  1894  was:  Gold,  $10,616,463;  silver  (estimated 
at  63  cents  an  ounce,  the  average  price  in  1894),  $14,961,- 
525;  lead,  $3,199,175;  copper,  $761,575.  The  gold  output 
of  the  state  in  1890  was  only  $4,016,229;  in  1891  it  was 
$4,764,880;  in  1892  it  had  risen  to  $5,539,021;  in  1893  it 
stood  at  $7,487,071.  During  the  past  year  the  increase 
was  $3,129,392. 

Thus  about  one-third  of  the  total  increase  for  the  whole 
country  was  contributed  by  Colorado.  The  increase,  how- 
ever, was  general  and  widespread.  California  still  remains 
the  greatest  producer  of  gold,  its  output  having  leaped 
from  about  twelve  and  a-half  millions  in  1893  to  over  four- 
teen millions  in  1894,  owing  to  the  new  working  of  old 
mines,  and  also  to  the  operation  of  placer  mines,  which, 
after  lying  idle  for  years,  are  being  worked  again  uuder  the 
new  hydraulic-mining  law.  It  is  quartz-mining,  however, 
in  California  as  everywhere  else,  which  is  said  to  yield  the 
largest  returns. 

In  South  Africa. — Though  hardly  known  five  years 
ago.  South  Africa  now  ranks  second  among  the  gold  pro- 
ducers of  the  world.  Nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  produc- 
tion is  drawn  from  the  Witwatersrand  district  in  the  Trans- 
vaal; but  new  fields  are  being  opened  up  in  Matabeleland 
and  Mashonaland.  The  rapid  growth  in  gold  production 
is  shown  by  the  figures  for  the  past  four  years:  in  1891, 
729,238  ounces;  1892,  1,210,868  ounces;  1893,  1,478,477 
ounces;  and  1894,  2,035,970  ounces,  or  nearly  three  times 
the  output  of  1891.  A  noteworthy  point  is  that  in  the 
South  African  fields  there  has  been  a  gradual  and  appar- 

Vol.  5.1-15. 


226 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 


Ist  Qr.,  1895. 


ently  steady  decrease  in  the  average  returns  per  ton  of  ore 
worked. 

Illiteracy  in  the  United  States.— The  proportion  of 
illiteracy  among  the  population  of  the  United  States  far 
exceeds  that  found  in  England,  Scotland,  Germany,  Switz- 
erland, and  Scandinavia;  but  is  much  less  than  that  in 
Austria,  Italy,  Spain,  Russia,  and  some  other  countries. 
However,  in  the  decade  ended  1890,  the  percentage  de- 
creased from  17  to  13.3,  owing  largely  to  development  of 
the  public  school  system,  religious  enterprise,  and  increased 
facilities.  In  this  respect,  the  South  has  made  the  great- 
est relative  progress.  The  following  table  gives  the  figures 
for  1880  and  1890  in  the  case  of  those  states  (all  Southern) 
whose  illiteracy  is  25  per  cent  and  more  of  their  popula- 
tion of  ten  years  of  age  and  over: 

ILLITERACY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


States. 

Percentage. 

No.  Of  illiterate. 

Al8.bd.ni£i 

1880. 
50.9 
38 
43.4 
49.9 
29.9 
49.1 
49.5 
65 
48.3 
55.4 
38  7 
29.7 
40.6 

1890. 
41 
26.6 
27.8 
39.8 
21.6 
45.8 
40 
44.5 
35.7 
45 
26.6 
19.7 
30.2 

1880. 
433,447 
202,015 

80,183 
520,416 
348,892 
318,380 
373,201 

57,156 
463,975 
369.848 
410,722 
316,432 
430,352 
4,324,519 

1890. 
438,535 

209,745 

78,720 

518,706 

Kentucky                         

294,381 

Louisiana/ 

364.184 

Mississippi ....                 

360,613 

50,070 

409,703 

South.  Carolina                                

360,705 

Tennessee 

340,140 

Texas 

308,873 

Virginia 

365,736 

4,100,111 

The  gratifying  progress  shown  by  the  above  figures  is 
enhanced  when  we  consider  that  in  some  sections  of  the 
South,  especially  in  Texas,  there  has  been  a  large  increase 
in  population. 

In  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana  there  are 
more  than  three  colored  illiterates  to  one  white;  in  Missis- 
sippi it  is  nearly  seven  to  one;  in  South  Carolina  it  is  more 
than  five  to  one;  and  in  Virginia  more  than  two  to  one. 
In  Kentucky,  New  Mexico,  and  Tennessee  the  actual  num- 
ber of  white  illiterates  is  greater  than  that  of  colored;  but 
the  percentage  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  whites.  Every- 
where, however,  a  most  encouraging  reduction  in  the  per- 
centage of  illiterates  among  the  colored  population  is  indi- 
cated. 

The  states  which  show  an  increased  percentage  of  il- 
literacy— the  increase  is  very  slight — are  in  the  North  and 
West.  They  are  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Mich- 
igan, Montana,  Nevada,  New  Jersey,  and  Wisconsin.    The 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  227 

influx  of  French  Canadians  and  others  helps  to  explain 
this  increase. 

We  have  in  all  6,324,702  illiterates  in  the  United  States 
against  6,239,958  in  1880.  This  is  an  actual  increase;  but 
the  percentages  for  1880  and  1890  show  a  substantial  de- 
crease. 

The  Phosphate  Industry.— The  United  States  is 
fast  becoming  the  principal  phosphate-producing  country 
in  the  Avorld.  Phosphate  beds  were  discovered  in  South 
Carolina  as  far  back  as  1837,  but  they  were  not  worked  to 
any  extent  until  1868,  when  their  output  amounted  to 
about  11,862  tons.  Rich  deposits  were  found  in  Florida  iu 
1881.  The  growth  of  the  industry  in  these  two  states  du- 
ring the  past  few  years  has  been  very  remarkable.  In 
South  Carolina  last  year  about  thirty  phosphate  mines 
produced  294,000  tons  of  phosphate,  and  in  Florida  106 
mines  yielded  during  the  year  500,000  tons.  The  total 
output  of  the  entire  country  for  the  year  was  1,550,000 
tons;  and  this  exceeded  the  output  of  Germany,  which  was 
the  largest  European  phosphate-producing  country,  by  50,- 
000  tons. 

The  production  of  our  enormous  cereal  crops  results  in 
a  constant  exhaustion  of  the  soil.  It  is  estimated  that  a 
single  crop  of  cereals  in  the  United  States  takes  from  the 
soil  upward  of  17,650,270,800  pounds  of  mineral  matter 
and  over  2,000,000,000  pounds  of  ash  and  phosphoric  acid. 
An  acre  of  land  must  supply  about  nineteen  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  to  produce  one  cereal  crop. 

Growth  of  Trolley  Systems.— While  the  annual 
average  in  the  past  in  the  United  States  of  ncAv  electric- 
car  mileage  has  been  about  880,  in  1894  there  were  1,441 
miles  put  in  operation.  The  total  capitalization  of  trolley 
roads  is  put  at  between  fifty  and  sixty  million  dollars.  The 
total  number  of  street-cars  of  all  descriptions  now  in  use 
is  41,009,  of  which  22,477  are  electric.  The  introduction 
of  the  trolley  system  has  caused  the  value  of  horses  for 
this  purpose  to  drop  from  1125  to  from  $25  to  ^40  each. 

Miscellaneous. — There  are  thirty-four  tin-plate  works 
in  the  United  States  now  completed  or  in  construction, 
which  will  have  a  capacity  per  year  of  260,000  tons  of  fin- 
ished product,  and  will  employ  from  11,000  to  12,000 
hands.  They  represent  an  invested  capital  of  about  $8,- 
500,000. 

During  1894  there  were  20,803  patents  granted  in  tlie 
United  States.     Applications  numbered  36,987. 

Telegraph  lines  throughout  the  world  aggregate  1,069,- 


228  DISASTERS.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

123  miles.  Of  these  America  has  more  than  half,  548,- 
832;  Europe,  382,937;  Asia,  67,875;  Australasia,  47,812; 
and  Africa,  21,687  miles. 


DISASTERS. 

American. — On  the  night  of  January  15,  in  Butte 
City,  Mont.,  a  series  of  three  explosions  occurred  during 
a  fire  in  the  Kenyon-Connell  Company's  warehouse,  caus- 
ing the  death  of  about  sixty  persons,  and  the  serious  in- 
jury of  thirty  or  forty  others.  Nitro-glycerine  and  giant 
powder  had  been  stored  in  the  warehouses,  in  violation  of 
the  city  ordinances. 

On  January  19  the  passenger  steamer  State  of  Missouri 
struck  a  rock  in  the  Ohio  river  near  Alton,  Ind*.,  and  sank 
with  a  loss  of  about  thirty-seven  lives. 

On  February  11  the  anxiety  caused  by  the  non-ap- 
pearance of  the  long-overdue  French  line  steamer  La  Gas- 
cogne,  was  relieved  by  the  report  of  her  safe  arrival  off  the 
bar  at  New  York  harbor.  The  vessel  had  left  Havre, 
France,  on  January  26,  and  was  due  at  New  York  Feb- 
ruary 3.  The  delay  in  her  passage  was  caused  by  a  break 
in  her  machinery  and  by  heavy  weather. 

On  February  28  a  train  on  the  Interoceanic  railroad, 
while  rounding  a  curve  at  high  speed,  near  the  City  of 
Mexico,  was  wrecked;  sixty-five  were  killed  and  forty  in- 
jured. 

On  March  8  the  packet  steamer  Longfellow,  in  a  fog, 
struck  a  pier  of  the  Chesapeake  bridge  over  the  Ohio  river 
at  Cincinnati,  and  sank  within  three  minutes,  causing  the 
loss  of  six  lives. 

On  March  13  the  noted  electrician,  Nikola  Tesla,  suf- 
fered the  loss,  by  fire,  of  his  laboratory  in  New  York  city. 
Several  nearly  completed  inventions,  which  gave  promise  of 
important  results  in  the  field  of  electric  lighting,  were 
destroyed. 

On  March  20  sixty  men  perished  through  an  explosion 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Coal  &  Iron  Company's  Red  Canon 
mine  near  Evanston,  Wyo. 

On  March  27  another  disastrous  fire  visited  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  destroying  11,000,000  worth  of  property,  including 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  the  stocks  and  buildings  of 
about  twenty  business  firms. 


DISASTERS.  229 

On  March  28,  fifty-six  buildings  were  destroyed  and 
thirty-four  families  rendered  homeless  by  a  fire  at  Cana- 
seraga,  N.  Y.;  loss,  about  $135,000,  partly  covered  by  in- 
surance. 

On  March  28  a  large  part  of  the  historic  portion  of  the 
city  of  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  which 
started  in  a  blacksmith  shop;  loss,  about  $200,000;  insur- 
ance, about  $50,000. 

Foreign. — Loss  of  the  Elbe. — One  of  the  most  appall- 
ing of  recent  disasters  at  sea  occurred  early  on  the  morn- 
ing of  January  30,  in  the  North  sea,  about  forty-five  miles 
off  Lowestoft,  coast  of  Suffolk,  England.  The  North  Ger- 
man Lloyd  steamer  Elbe  (Captain  Von  Goessel),  bound 
from  Bremen  to  New  York  via  Southampton,  was  run  into 
by  the  British  steamer  Cratlde  (Captain  Gordon),  plying 
between  Rotterdam  and  Aberdeen.  The  Elbe  was  struck 
amidships,  abaft  the  engine-room,  and  sank  in  twenty 
minutes,  with  the  loss  of  335  lives.  The  crew  seem  to  have 
been  fairly  disciplined;  but  the  passengers  were  panic 
stricken.  Only  three  of  the  lifeboats  could  be  got  out: 
one  of  these  was  immediately  swamped;  another  was  lost 
in  the  heavy  sea  then  running;  the  third,  with  twenty 
persons  (the  sole  survivors  of  the  355  aboard  the  vessel), 
was  picked  up  by  a  British  fishing  smack,  the  Wildflower. 
Official  figures  state  that  335  lives  were  lost.  Of  the  crew, 
numbering  155,  fifteen  were  saved;  of  forty-nine  saloon 
passengers,  four  were  rescued;  but  only  one  of  the  151 
steerage  passengers  escaped.  Miss  Anna  Boecker  was  the 
only  woman  survivor. 

The  Elbe  was  a  vessel  of  4,510  tons'  displacement;  length  over  all, 
418  feet;  beam,  forty-foui-  feet;  depth,  thirty-five  feet.  She  had  two 
funnels  and  four  masts,  schooner  rigged.  Her  speed  was  sixteen  and 
one-half  knots,  and  horse-power  5,600.  The  Crathie  was  a  small 
vessel  of  about  475  tons. 

The  Crathie  reached  Rotterdam  the  same  day  with  her 
stem  stove  in.  A  thorough  investigation  into  the  disaster 
was  instituted,  and  the  owners  of  the  Elbe  are  taking  ac- 
tion to  recover  damages. 

Among  the  lessons  derivable  from  this  disaster,  we  may 
note  the  inadequacy  of  the  present  means  of  saving  life. 
The  Elbe  was  provided  with  ten  lifeboats,  besides  life- 
rafts,  and  collapsible  boats.  In  consequence  of  the  careening 
to  port,  the  five  starboard  lifeboats  could  not  be  launched. 
The  life  rafts  and  other  boats  appear  to  have  been  of  no  ac- 
count. 

Another  dreadful  disaster  was  the  loss  of  the  Spanish 


230  LITERATURE.  1st  (^r.,  im. 

man-of-war  Reina  Regcnte,  which  occurred  in  the  Atlantic 
off  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  during  the  storm  of 
March  10-11.  She  had  landed  at  Tangier  the  Moorish 
embassy  sent  to  negotiate  on  matters  arising  out  of  the 
late  troubles  at  Melilla,  and  was  returning  to  Cadiz.  She 
had  on  board  420  persons,  all  of  whom  were  lost. 

The  Reina  Regente  was  the  finest  battle  ship  of  the  Spanish  navy. 
It  was  this  vessel  which  towed  the  caravel  Santa  Maria  across  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  subsequently  took  part  in  the  Columbian  naval  review  in  New 
York  harbor  in  April,  1893,  in  company  with  the  Infanta  Isabel  and 
the  Nueva  Espaila  (Vol.  8,  p.  296).  She  was  a  twin-screw,  steel-pro- 
tected cruiser  of  4,800  tons'  displacement  and  12,000  horse-power. 
Her  dimensions  were:  Length  on  water  line,  320  ft.;  beam,  50  ft.  7 
in.;  mean  draught,  30  ft.  4  in.  Her  battery  consisted  of  four  9.45- 
inch,  six  4.72-inch,  and  14  rapid-fire  and  machine  guns.  She  had 
five  torpedo  tubes. 

It  was  reported  (but  not  confirmed)  late  in  March,  that 
the  sunken  cruiser  had  been  found  37  miles  northwest  of 
Tarifa  by  the  cruiser  Alphonso  XLL. 


LITERATURE. 

Science:— 

Meteorology,  Weather,  and  Methods  of  Forecasting.  De- 
scription of  meteorological  instruments  and  river  flood  pre- 
dictions in  the  United  States.  By  Thomas  Russell.  Illus- 
trated.    8vo.     $4.00.     New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

A  new  treatise  giving  a  general  account  of  meteorological  instru- 
ments, and  of  the  distribution  of  temperature,  the  movement  of  the 
winds,  the  occurrence  of  storms,  and  other  meteorological  phenomena, 
but  in  an  expository  rather  than  an  explanatory  style.  The  more 
notable  features  of  the  book  are  its  chapters  on  weather  and  flood  pre- 
diction. Professor  Russell  gives  the  fullest  account  of  the  methods 
employed  that  is  to  be  found  in  our  language.  While  the  prediction 
of  the  weather  is  based  on  simple  principles,  the  application  of  these 
principles  to  the  endless  variety  of  weather-forms  presented  on  th^e 
daily  maps  is  shown  to  be  a  matter  of  great  diflBculty. 

The  story  of  the  Stars  Simply  Told  for  General  Read- 
ers. By  George  F.  Chambers,  F.  R.  A.  S. ,  author  of  A  Hand- 
hook  of  Descriptive  and  Practical  Astronomy,  etc.  Illus- 
trated. The  Library  of  Useful  Stories.  160  pp.  Indexed. 
16mo.    Boards,  30  cents.    New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

By  means  of  it  even  the  uninitiated  will  be  readily  enabled  to  grasp 
the  ftbcts  relative  to  the  principal  stars  and  oonsteliations  which  can 


V 


LITERATURE.  231 

be  seen  by  the  eye  on  a  cloudless  night,  together  with  a  list  of  the 
celestial  objects  which  can  be  observed  through  small  telescopes. 

Infection  and  Immunity.  With  special  reference  to  the 
new  diphtheria  anti-toxin.  By  Charles  Russell  Bardeen, 
B.  A.,  assistant  in  histology,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.:  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

An  able  and  timely  review  of  the  history  and  the  most  recent  re- 
sults of  investigation  in  the  field  of  bacteriology.  Reprinted  from  the 
School  Bulletin. 

Philosophy;— 

The  Foundations  of  Belief,  Notes  introductory  to  the 
study  of  theology.  By  tlie  Right  Hon.  Arthur  James  Bal- 
four, author  of  A  Defense  of  Philosophic  Doubt,  etc.  366 
pp.     12mo.     12.00.     New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

"Mr.  Balfour's  work  contains  no  theories  that  are  both  new  and 
true;  such  theories,  indeed,  seem  no  longer  possible  in  the  realm  of 
philosophy.  *  *  *  Its  chief  claim  to  distinction  is  that  it  marks 
the  growth  of  the  revolt  against  that  application  of  the  methods  of 
natural  science  to  philosophy  and  theology  which  has  been  the  salient 
feature  of  contemporary  thought.  The  public  position  of  the  author 
would  of  itself  be  sufficient  to  secure  a  large  hearing  for  any  reasoned 
utterance  that  he  might  make  on  a  question  of  broad  human  interest. 
In  this  case  the  attention  which  the  work  will  command  is  enhanced 
by  the  fascinating  lucidity  of  its  style,  by  its  wit,  its  graceful  irony, 
its  dignity,  and,  at  times,  its  great  eloquence;  and,  what  is  even  still 
more  exceptional  and  agreeable  in  a  book  professedly  dealing  with  ab- 
struse prol)lems,  it  displays  an  almost  entire  freedom  from  barbarous 
and  perplexing  terminology.     *    *    * 

' '  Mr.  Balfour  declares  in  his  preliminary  observations  that  the 
work  is  intended  for  the  general  reader  rather  than  for  the  specialist 
in  philosophy,  and  that  his  object  is  to  recommend  a  particular  atti 
tude  towards  the  problems  of  the  world. 

"Mr.  Balfour  is  not,  in  fact,  a  believer  himself,  but  radically  and 
thoroughly  a  skeptic;  he  finds  a  certain  scheme  of  thought  in  posses- 
sion of  the  field,  and  he  says:  '  Why  disturb  it?  It  will  not  stand  the 
test  of  skeptical  inquiry?  I  will  show  you  that  agnosticism,  positiv- 
ism, and  every  other  variety  of  naturalism,  are  in  just  as  bad  a  case. 
So  let  us  have  peace,  and  say  that  we  believe  in  the  established  doc- 
trine.' This  is  the  actual  thesis  which  he  expounds  with  wonderful 
keenness  and  lucidity." 

Principal  Fairbairn  of  Mansfield  College,  Oxford,  says  in  refer- 
ence to  the  work: 

"The  way  of  faith  is  i.i  these  days  hard  enough;  it  need  not  be  made  more 
difficult;  and  it  becomes  those  who  believe  that  the  highest  truth  of  reason  is 
one  with  the  highest  object  of  faith,  to  make  it  clear  that  in  their  view  at  least 
a  true  theology  can  never  be  built  on  a  skeptical  philosophy,  and  that  only  the 
thought  which  trusts  the  reason  can  truly  vindicate  faith  in  the  God  who  gave 
it." 

Comte,  Mill,  and  Spencer.  An  outline  of  philosophy. 
By  John  Watson,  LL.  D. ,  professor  of  philosophy  in  Queens's 
College,  Kingston,  Ont.     New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

Price,  11.75. 


232  LITERATURE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

An  able  exposition  and  criticism  of  the  present-day  pliilosopby  of 
empiricism,  characterized  by  the  perspicuity  and  at  the  same  time 
profundity  which  are  well-known  qualities  of  the  writer. 

Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race.  Meth- 
ods and  processes.  By  James  Mark  Baldwin,  Ph.D.,  au- 
thor of  Handbook  of  Psychology,  etc.  With  seventeen  fig- 
ures and  ten  tables.  496  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $2.60. 
New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

"This  volume  sums  five  years'  work  in  the  study  of  the  child  and 
of  mental  development.  Five  chapters  are  devoted  to  child  study  and 
its  results.  These  facts  and  conclusions  are  then  applied  to  a  synthe- 
sis of  psychological  development  and  an  analysis  of  the  origin  of  con- 
sciousness, development,  and  character.  The  book  summarizes  a  field 
which  in  the  last  ten  years  has  been  most  fruitful." 

Political  Economy  and  Sociology:— 

Our  Fight  ivith  Tammany.  By  Rev.  Charles  H.  Park- 
hurst,  D.D.  296  pp.  12mo.  $1.25.  New  York:  Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons. 

"The  steps  which  led  up  to  the  overthrow  of  Tammany  Hall  in 
New  York  city  on  November  6,  1894,  are  traced  with  that  fearless 
directness  and  unreserve  of  statement  for  which  the  utterances  of  the 
author  have  become  notable.  It  is  not  claimed  that  in  this  work  there 
is  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  matter;  indeed,  the  writer  has 
wisely  limited  himself  to  those  features  in  the  case  upon  which  he  can 
speak  with  the  authority  of  an  actor  or  a  witness.  Two  motives  have 
impelled  him  to  the  recital  of  the  story  of  the  struggle:  First,  that,  in- 
asmuch as  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  desultory  warfare  waged  du- 
ring the  past  three  years,  he  is  concerned  that  the  public  should  ap- 
preciate the  thread  of  identity  of  purpose  that  runs  through  it;  and, 
secondly,  the  desire  to  be  of  service  to  other  municipalities  which 
may  be  suffering  the  same  kind  of  tyranny  which  the  city  of  New  York 
has  just  renounced." 

Wealth  and  Waste.  The  principles  of  political  economy 
in  their  application  to  the  present  problems  of  labor,  law, 
and  the  liquor  traffic.  By  Alphonso  A.  Hopkins,  Ph.D. 
Cloth.  12mo.  286  pp.  $1.00.  New  York,  London,  and 
Toronto:  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

A  notable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  reform,  in  which  the 
writer  seeks  to  apply  accepted  principles  of  political  economy,  and 
meet  the  arguments  of  economists  and  politicians  with  the  logic  of  ir- 
refutable facts.  A  few  among  the  numerous  topics  considered  are: 
Economy  and  Labor,  Wealth  and  its  Distribution,  Consumption  and 
Waste,  Relation  of  Economy  and  Prohibition,  Cause  of  Hard  Times, 
Labor  and  Capital,  Labor's  Loss  from  Liquor,  the  Genesis  and  Logic 
of  License,  the  Inspiration  of  Strikes,  Law  and  Popular  Morality, 
Politics  and  Moral  Questions,  Parties  and  Issues,  Suffrage  and  the 
Frauds  Upon  It,  etc.  The  propositions  of  the  ablest  economists  are 
projected,  along  their  own  logical  lines,  against  the  liquor  traffic  as 
a  foe  to  labor  and  a  parasite  upon  legitimate  industries.  The  work 
appeals  to  reason  rather  than  to  sentiment,  and  urges  economic  princi- 
ples rather  than  moral  obligation. 


LITERATURE.     .  233 

The  Currency  and  the  Banking  Law  of  the  Dominio^i 
of  Canada.  Considered  with  reference  to  currency  reform 
in  the  United  States.  By  William  C.  Cornwell.  86  pp. 
12mo.  Paper,  75  cents.  New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam^s  Sons. 
The  first  part  of  this  pamphlet,  entitled  "  Canadian  Banking  Sys- 
tem— Its  Growth  and  Present  Operation,"  embraces  the  substance  of  an 
address  delivered  at  the  American  Bankers'  convention,  New  Orleans, 
La.,  November  12,  1891.  It  caused  American  bankers  to  examine 
the  Canadian  currency  system;  and  so  favorably  were  they  impressed 
with  it,  that  at  their  convention  at  Baltimore  in  September,  1894,  its 
main  features  were  reproduced  in  what  is  called  the  "Baltimore  plan  " 
of  currency  reform.  The  banking  act  of  Canada  is  given  entire  in  the 
second  part  of  the  book. 

Publications  of  the  American  Academy  of  Politi- 
cal AND  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 
Break-up  of  the  English  Party  System.     By  Edward 
Porritt.     8vo.     Paper.     Pp.  24.     Price,  25  cents. 

"Mr.  Porritt  discusses  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  significant 
of  the  features  which  have  developed  in  English  politics  since  1885. 
He  shows  how  the  present  house  does  not  contain,  as  formerly,  only 
two  distinct  parties,  but  is  made  up  of  no  less  than  eight  groups,  six 
of  which,  if  taken  together,  constitute  what  was  formerly  the  liberal 
party,  and  the  remaining  two  the  opposition.  He  then  explains  how 
this  system  developed,  and  what  a  great  influence  it  has  upon  legis- 
lation. One  of  the  results  of  this  development,  according  to  Mr.  Por- 
ritt, will  be  that  what  is  known  as  the  liberal  party  will  cease  to  be  a 
legislative  power." 

Money  and  BankCredits  in  the  United  States.  By  Henry 
W.  Williams.     Paper,  8vo.     Pp.  26.     Price,  25  cents. 

A  criticism  of  what  is  known  as  the  "Baltimore  plan "  of  cur- 
rency reform,  which  was  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  bankers  (Vol. 
4,  p.  768).  The  writer  first  outlines  a  development  of  the  system  now 
in  use,  which,  if  carried  out,  he  thinks,  would  give  us  a  "safe  and 
elastic  "  currency.  He  then  concludes  with  a  review  of  the  Baltimore 
plan,  and  a  criticism  of  the  "fourth  suggestion  of  the  Baltimore 
bankers,  that  no  security  be  deposited  by  the  banks  to  protect  their 
note  issues."  He  shows  what  he  considers  "the  danger  inherent  in 
this  suggestion,  and  the  safer  plan  to  follow." 

Wieser's  Natural  Value.  By  Dr.  D.  I.  Green.  Paper, 
8vo.     Pp.  20.     Price,  25  cents. 

A  careful  review  of  Professor  Wieser's  work.  Natural  Value, 
which  work  is  perhaps  the  only  one  presenting  clearly  and  fully  the 
fundamental  ideas  held  in  common  by  members  of  the  Austrian  school 
of  political  economy.  The  ideas  of  this  school  have  had  an  important 
influence  on  the  rising  generation  of  American  economists. 

Holo  to  Save  Bimetallism.  By  the  Due  de  Xoailles. 
Paper,  8vo.     Pp.  12.     Price,  15  cents. 

"  The  remedy  suggested  by  the  author  is  to  adopt  a  parallel  and 
independent  bimetallism.  .  Let  each  metal  have  its  own  value  based 
on  the  weight  of  the  coins  either  in  gold  or  in  silver  without  any  pro- 


234  LITERATURE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

portion  or  ratio.  One  result  of  the  suppression  of  the  existing  ratio 
would  be  to  reduce  by  one-half  the  value  of  the  stock  of  silver,  and 
would  therefore,  most  probably,  be  opposed  by  silver-mine  owners, 
etc.  But  as  silver  is  now  occupying  a  fictitious  position,  to  which  it 
is  not  entitled,  sooner  or  later  it  must  fall  to  its  natural  place,  and  the 
sooner  it  is  put  there,  the  sooner  we  will  arrive  at  a  solution  of  the 
problem." 

Elected  or  Appointed  Officials.  By  Hon.  J.  G.  Bouri- 
not,  clerk  of  the  Canadian  house  of  commons.  Paper,  8vo. 
Pp.  31.     Price,  25  cents. 

"In  Canada  the  custom  has  been  to  appoint  all  oflBcials  having 
executive  or  ministerial  functions  to  perform — apart,  of  course,  from 
the  political  heads.  The  only  officers  elected  by  the  people  are  those 
who  are  to  legislate  for  them.  There  has  started,  however,  a  move* 
ment  to  change  this  system  by  adopting  the  system  in  vogue  in  the 
United  States,  of  electing  all  officers,  no  matter  whether  they  be 
legislative,  executive,  or  judicial. 

' '  Dr.  Bourinot's  paper  is  a  strong  argument  against  making  such 
a  change." 

The  Pacific  Raihuay  Debts.  By  R.  T.  Colburn.  Paper, 
8vo.     Pp.  22.     Price,  25  cents. 

"The  question  as  to  the  settlement  of  these  debts  is  one  which 
must  be  decided  by  congress  at  an  early  date,  since  the  thirty-years' 
term  of  the  original  loan  of  the  United  States  to  the  Pacific  railroads 
has  rolled  around.  The  first  instalment  of  bonds  issued  to  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  railroad  matured  on  January  16  last;  and  during  the  next 
four  years,  but  chiefly  in  1898,  the  remaining  instalments  fall  due. 
Not  only  have  the  companies  failed  to  collect  enough  to  pay  off  the 
principal,  but  they  have  even  failed  to  pay  a  great  part  of  the  annual 
interest,  so  that  now  the  Central  and  Union  companies  owe  the  gov- 
ernment about  $125,000,000,  or  twice  the  original  loan  of  $64,000,000. 
Several  modes  of  solving  this  problem  have  been  advanced  in  con- 
gress. Mr.  Colburn  takes  them  up  in  turn,  showing  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  each." 

Religion:— 

Old  and  New  Unitarian  Belief.  By  John  White  Chad- 
wick,  author  of  The  Bible  of  To-Day,  The  Faith  of  Reason , 
etc.  With  a  portrait.  246  pp.  i2mo.  $1.50.  Boston: 
G.  H.  Ellis. 

' '  The  initial  chapter  traces  the  rise  and  development  of  Unitarian 
belief.  The  body  of  the  work,  however,  is  devoted  to  a  clear  expo- 
sition of  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  that  faith.  The  doctrinal  posi- 
tion held  by  the  Unitarian  Church  concerning  God  and  man,  the  Bible, 
Jesus  Christ,  the  future  life,  salvation,  reward  and  punishment,  here 
find  true  and  felicitous  statement." 

The  Parchments  of  the  Faith.  By  Rev.  George  E.  Mer- 
rill, author  of  The  Story  of  the  Manuscripts,  etc.  Illus- 
trated. 288  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.25.  Philadelphia: 
Amer.  Baptist  Pub.  Soc. 

An  account  for  popular  information  of  the  Biblical  manuscripts. 


LITERATURE.  235 

First  Jewish  manuscripts  are  described,  next  the  leading  Greek  codices, 
and  third  their  derivatives,  while  closing  chapters  deal  with  the  mon- 
uments. The  methods  of  writing,  criteria  by  which  the  age  of  a  man- 
uscript is  known,  and  other  details  are  illustrated  by  fac-similes. 

The  Supremacy  of  the  Spiritual.  By  Edward  Randall 
Knowles,   LL.D.  61   pp.  12mo.   Boston:  Arena  Pub.  Co. 

"  The  conclusion  reached  by  the  author  is  that  spirit  is  the  uni- 
versal, omnipresent,  substantial  medium  of  all  the  phenomena  of  the 
universe  and  the  underlying  substance  of  all  matter,  constantly  sus- 
tained in  its  accidents  for  the  contemplation  of  created  spirits  by  the 
Divine  Will,  in  accordance  with  fixed  and  permanent  laws." 

Modern  Missions  in  the  East.  Their  methods,  sucecsses, 
and  limitations.  By  Edward  A.  Lawrence,  D.  D.  With 
an  introduction  by  Edward  T.  Eaton,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  329 
pp.     12mo.     $1.75.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

"The  volume  is  notable  because  it  is  really  the  author's  journal 
of  a  twenty  months'  tour  of  the  world,  undertaken  with  the  express 
purpose  of  studying  the  mission  work  of  various  denominations.  The 
substance  of  the  volume  before  us  was  first  presented  in  the  fonn  of 
lectures  in  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary  and  subsequently  in 
Yale  Divinity  School  and  Beloit  College.  We  believe  that  the  relig- 
ious world  has  few  books  to  offer  upon  the  subject  of  missionary  en- 
terprise as  admirably  adapted  as  this  to  attract,  impress,  and  convince 
the  indifferent." 

History: — 

History  of  the  United  States.  By  E.  Benjamin  Andrews. 
With  maps.  Two  vols.  Pp.  390,  341.  Indexed.  12mo. 
$4.00.     New  York:     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

In  tracing  the  political  evolution  of  our  country,  the  author  has 
utilized  the  many  valuable  results  of  recent  research.  The  work  is 
too  large  to  be  considered  a  school  book  or  manual,  but  its  really  mod- 
erate compass  adapts  it  admirably  to  the  use  of  the  general  reader,  for 
whom  it  was  primarily  designed." 

Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.  The  Hero  of  Portugal 
and  of  Modern  Discovery,  1394-1460  A.  D.  By  C.  Ray- 
mond Beazley.  Heroes  of  the  Nations  series.  336  pp.  In- 
dexed. 12mo.     $1.50.    New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

"  This  volume  gives  an  account  of  geographical  progress  through- 
out the  early  ages.  It  was  Prince  Henry  who  first  directed  the 
movement  which  culminated  with  Columbus  and  the  discovery  of 
America.  The  work  is  of  decided  interest,  because  it  contains  copies 
of  all  the  best -known  maps  of  the  early  cartographers.  The  illustra- 
tions are  numerous. 

A  History  of  Egypt.  From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
XVIth  Dynasty.  By  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  D.  C.  L. 
With  numerous  illustrations.  Vol.  I.  262  pp.  Indexed. 
12  mo. 

"  Mr.  Petrie's  qualifications  for  the  task  he  has  set  himself  are 


336  LITERATURE.  1st  Qr..  1895. 

undoubted.  Roughly  speaking,  he  spends  half  the  year  exploring, 
and  the  other  half  lecturing  at  University  College,  London,  Eng., 
where  he  holds  the  professorship  of  Egyptology,  founded  by  the  pro- 
visions of  the  will  of  the  late  Miss  Amelia  B.  Edwards.  The  present 
volume  is  an  instalment  only  of  a  work  in  six  volumes.  Three  of 
them  are  to  be  written  by  Mr.  Petrie,  and  others  by  Mr.  Milne  and 
Mr.  Stanley  Lane  Poole.  In  the  present  book  the  narrative  is  carried 
from  prehistoric  times  to  the  almost  equally  obscure  period  of  the  16th 
dynasty.  The  early  part  is  particularly  interesting  because  it  is  prac- 
tically new.  A  certain  amount  is  guesswork,  and  can  only  be  de- 
scribed as  probable,  but  this  element  gradually  diminishes  as  we  get 
on.  Mr.  Petrie's  account  of  the  pyramids  is  the  fullest  but  most  suc- 
cinct that  has  yet  appeared." 

Biography:— 

General  Hancock.  By  General  Francis  A.  Walker. 
With  a  portrait  and  illustrations.  Great  Commanders. 
Edited  by  James  Grant  Wilson.  332  pp.  Indexed.  12mo. 
$1.50.     New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

As  a  staff  officer  of  the  2d  corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  Gen- 
eral Walker  saw  much  of  General  Hancock.  His  genuine  admiration 
for  this  "  great  commander  "  who  "  never  had  a  separate  command," 
appears  in  the  present  work.  General  Grant,  too,  held  Hancock, 
among  corps  commanders,  to  be  superior  even  to  the  immortal  Sedg- 
wick. 

Life  and  Letters  of  John  Greenleaf  Whittier.  By  Sam- 
uel T.  Pickard.  In  two  volumes.  With  seven  portraits 
and  views.  402-802  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $4.00.  Boston: 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Mr.  Whittier  never  kept  a  diary;  but,  ten  years  before  his  death, 
knowing  that  a  biography  would  be  inevitable,  confided  to  Mr.  Pick- 
ard, who  had  married  the  poet's  niece,  the  task  of  preparing  it,  mainly 
on  the  basis  of  his  correspondence.  Many  letters  and  verses  here 
printed  were  never  before  made  public. 

A  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Rev.  Joseph  Hardy  Neesima, 
LL.D.  By  Rev.  J.  D.'  Davis,  D.D.  With  many  illustra- 
tions.    156  pp.  12mo.     $1.00.   Chicago:  F.  H.  Eevell  Co. 

Dr.  Neesima  was  a  runaway  Japanese  boy  who  happened  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  an  American  who  educated  him  and  sent  him  back 
to  Japan  to  preach  Christianity.  His  success  was  remarkable;  and  as 
president  of  the  Doshisha  University  at  Kyoto,  the  first  Christian  col- 
lege in  Japan,  his  intiuence  in  moulding  the  new  Japan  was  very 
great. 

Literature: — 

The  Literature  of  the  Georgian  Era.  By  the  late  Wil- 
liam Minto,  LL.D.  Edited  with  a  Biographical  Introduc- 
tion, by  William  Knight,  LL.D.  336  pp.  Indexed.  12mo. 
$1.50.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

The  criticism  in  this  work  is  based  on  a  previous  historical  study 
of  the  original  sources,  and  has,  partly  as  a  result  of  this,  a  striking 


LITERATURE.  237 

and  refreshing  originality.  It  tends  to  correct  many  unfounded  cur- 
rent conceptions — for  example,  regarding  the  supposed  tyranny  of 
Pope,  the  revolutionizing  of  poetry  attributed  to  Cowper,  and  the  al- 
leged lack  of  artistic  education  on  the  part  of  Burns. 

Education: — 

German  Universities:  Their  Character  and  Historical  ■ 
Development.  By  Professor  F.  Paulsen.  Translated  by- 
Edward  Delavan  Perry,  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  Columbia 
College.  With  an  introduction  by  Nicholas  Murray  But- 
ler, professor  of  philosophy  in  Columbia  College.  12mo. 
12.00.     New  York:     Macmillan  &  Co. 

"This  is  a  work  of  large  interest  to  those  concerned  with  the 
history  of  higher  education  and  with  its  present  problems,  general 
and  national.  The  author  is  professor  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy  in 
the  University  of  Berlin,  and  the  work  was  prepared  in  connection 
with  the  German  educational  exhibit  at  the  World's  Fair.  Appen- 
dices contain  a  list  of  German  universities  with  the  dates  of  founda- 
tion, and  a  bibliography  of  several  pages." 

The  Aims  of  Literary  Study.  By  Hiram  Corson, 
LL.D.,  author  of  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Robert 
Browning's  Poetry,  etc.  153  pp.  16mo.  75  cents.  New 
York:     Macmillan  &  Co.. 

"  Stripped  of  its  phraseology,  the  author's  position  is  simply  that 
the  only  way  to  know  literature  is  by  reading  it.  This  is  practically 
what  we  learn  from  Mr.  Saintsbury,  though  he  gives  us  the  lesson  in 
the  concrete,  Professor  Corson  in  the  abstract.  The  latter  also  dwells 
upon  the  'subject-matter,'  of  a  poem,  for  example,  in  a  way  quite  differ- 
ent from  the  other's,  and  yet  we  find,  after  all,  that  what  he  wants  us 
to  appreciate  is  the  '  spiritual  element '  of  the  poem  as  distinguished 
from  the  intellectual — that  is,  it  appeals  through  the  artistic  sense. 
And  this  appreciation  can  never  be  reached  through  verbal  analysis 
and  examinations.  It  can  be  reached  only  by  reading  and  through 
the  art  of  artistic  expression." 

The  Schoolmaster  in  Comedy  and  Satire.  Arranged 
and  edited  for  the  special  use  of  teachers'  reading  circles 
and  round  tables.  A  companion  volume  to  The  School- 
master in  Literat%ire.  592  pp.  12mo.  $1.40.  New  York: 
American  Book  Co. 

"  Those  who  follow  the  profession  (of  teaching)  now  will  be  inter- 
ested to  read  how  their  predecessors  have  been  regarded  by  the  great 
humorists  from  Rabelais  to  our  own  time.  We  have  here  an  excel- 
lent selection  of  passages  more  or  less  directly  relating  to  the  school- 
master— the  account  of  the  education  of  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel; 
some  extracts  from  Roger  Ascham;  the  comedy  of  King  Ferdinand's 
Academy  in  Love's  Labor's  Lost,  and  so  on  down;  through  character- 
istic passages  of  Fenelon,  Swift,  and  Pope  to  Dickens  and  later 
writers.  It  is  really  an  interesting  compilation,  not  only  for  school- 
masters and  mistresses,  but  for  every  reader." 

How  to  Teach  Natural  Science  in  Public  Schools.     By 


238  LITERATURE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

Wm,  T.  Harris,  LL.D.     46  pp.     Leatherette.     50  cents. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. :     C.  W.  Bardeeii. 

A  reprint  in  a  form  accessible  to  all,  of  a  plan  of  study  first 
issued  by  Dr.  Harris,  the  commissioner  of  education,  in  1871.  Its 
practical  utility  and  value  have  been  recognized  for  many  years. 

State  Education  for  the  People.  In  America,  Europe, 
India,  and  Australia.  With  Papers  on  the  Education  of 
AVomen,  Technical  Instruction,  and  Payment  by  Results. 
With  a  bibliography  and  index.  176  pp.  Cloth.  $1.25. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. :     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

A  series  of  papers  by  different  writers  constituting  a  most  valua- 
ble contribution  to  the  study  of  "comparative  education."  Certain 
representative  methods  of  education  as  they  are  practiced  in  different 
civilized  countries  are  sketched,  and  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to 
press  home  the  truth  that  popular  education  is  indispensable  to  prog- 
ress, and  to  show  the  advantage  enjoyed  by  those  nations  amongst 
whom  it  is  most  carefully  fostered. 

Art:— 

A  Text-Booh  of  the  History  of  Pai7iting.  By  John  C. 
Van  Dyke,  L.  H.  D.,  author  of  Principles  of  Art,  etc. 
Illustrated.  College  Histories  of  Art.  289  pp.  Indexed. 
12mo.    11.50.    New  York:     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

"The  object  of  this  series  of  text-books  is  to  provide  concise, 
teachable  histories  of  art  for  class-room  use  in  schools  and  colleges. 
The  main  facts  of  history  as  settled  by  the  best  authorities  are  given. 
The  bibliography  cited  at  the  head  of  each  chapter  will  be  found  help- 
ful to  the  reader  who  wishes  to  enter  into  particulars.  At  the  end  of 
each  chapter  are  enumerated  the  principal  extant  works  of  an  artist, 
school,  or  period,  and  where  they  may  be  found." 

Reference  Works:— 

A  Standard  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.  Upon 
original  plans,  designed  to  give  the  meaning,  orthog- 
raphy, pronunciation,  and  etymology  of  all  the  words  and 
the  idiomatic  phrases  in  the  speech  and  literature  of  the 
English-speaking  peoples.  Prepared  by  more  than  two 
hundred  specialists  and  other  scholars.  Under  the  super- 
vision of  Isaac  K.  Funk,  D.  D.,  Frank  A.  March,  LL.  D., 
Daniel  S.  Gregory,  D.  D.,  Arthur  E.  Bostwick,  Ph.  D., 
John  Denison  Champlin,  M.  A.,  Rossiter  Johnson,  Ph.  D, 
Volume  II.  M.  to  Z.  Illustrated,  2,338  pp.  Folio,  single 
volume  edition,  half  russia,  $12.00;  full  russia,  $14.00; 
full  morocco,  $18.00;  two  volume  edition,  per  set,  half 
russia,  $15.00;  full  russia,  $17.00;  full  morocco,  $22.00. 
Full  russia  and  full  morocco  lindings  include  Denison's 
patent  reference  index.  New  York,  N.  Y. :  Funk  k 
Wagnalls  Co.     Sold  only  by  subscription. 

This  volume  completes  the  colossal  work  of  which  the  first  instal- 


il 


LITERATURE.  239 

ment  appeared  a  year  ago  (Vol.  4,  p.  236).  The  continuous  services 
of  247  editors  and  specialists  during  five  years,  and  the  expenditure 
of  over  $960,000,  have  been  required  for  the  task.  With  the  Century, 
Webster^s,  Worcester's,  and  others  in  the  field,  the  uninformed  observer 
might  think  that  little  room  remained  for  such  a  publication;  but  the 
Standard,  taking  Advantage  of  the  work  done  by  its  predecessors, 
has  many  new  and '  .lUatle  features,  which  amply  justify  its  existence. 
Already  the  sure  tv.  ^t  of  practical  use  has  commended  it  to  the  high- 
est authorities  at  home  and  abroad.  Perhaps  the  first  question  that 
most  persons  will  ask  is.  What  standard  of  spelling  does  it  adopt — the 
"Americanized"  or  the  English?  In  this  respect  the  work  can  offend 
no  one,  because  disputed  spellings  and  pronunciations  have  been  re- 
ferred to  an  advisory  committee  of  50  philologists  in  American,  Eng- 
lish, Canadian,  Australian,  and  East  Indian  universities,  and  repre- 
sentative professional  writers  and  speakers  of  English. 

Following  the  vocabulary  of  301,865  terms — which  is  nearly  two 
and  a-half  times  the  number  in  any  single- volume  dictionary,  an<l 
about  75,000  more  than  in  any  other  dictionary  of  the  language — 
there  is  a  language  key,  the  scientific  alphabet,  an  exhaustive  appen  - 
dix  of  proper  names,  foreign  words  and  phrases,  faulty  diction,  dis- 
puted spellings,  abbreviations,  arbitrary  signs,  and  the  meaning  of 
flowers  and  gems. 

The  errors — unavoidable  in  any  production — are  few  in  number 
and  trifling,  in  view- of  the  magnitude  and  utility  of  the  work.  It 
gives  every  promise  of  being  for  many  years  to  come  what  its  name 
signifies. 

The  Cyclopedia  of  Names.  A  pronouncing  and  ety- 
mological dictionary,  of  names  in  geography,  biography, 
mythology,  history,  ethnology,  art,  archaeology,  fiction, 
etc.  Edited  by  Benjamin  E.  Smith,  A.  M.  $10.00  to 
$15.00.     New  York:  The  Century  Co. 

A  massive  volume  of  nearly  1,100  pages,  by  the  managing  editor 
of  The  Century  Dictionary.  The  volume,  as  the  title  implies,  is  both 
a  cyclopedia  and  a  dictionary,  and  comprises  not  only  names  in  biog- 
raphy and  geography,  but  also  names  of  races  and  tribes,  mythologi- 
cal and  legendary  persons,  places,  characters  and  objects  in  fiction, 
works  of  art,  institutions,  orders,  clubs,  historical  events,  sects, 
parties,  books,  plays,  vessels,  horses,  etc. ,  etc. 

Travel  and  Adventure:— 

On  India's  Frontier;  or,  Nepal,  the  Gtirkhas'  Mys- 
terious Land.  By  Henry  Ballantine.  Illustrated.  192  pp. 
Indexed.   12mo.  $2.50.  New  York:  J.  Selwin  Tait  &  Sons. 

Mr.  Ballantine,  late  American  consul  to  Bombay,  describes  with 
much  directness  and  force  a  visit,  full  of  the  most  momentous  and 
tragic  events,  made  by  himself  to  the  warlike  race  inhabiting  this 
almost  unknown  country. 

Corea,  or  Cho-sen,  The  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm. 
By  A.  Henry  Savage-Landor.  With  numerous  illustrations 
from  drawings  made  by  the  author.  304  pp.  Indexed.  8vo. 
$4.50.    New  York:    Macmillan  &  Co. 

The  book  makes  no  attempt  to  throw  light  upon  the  present 
political  crisis  in  the  Far  East;  the  two  powers  striving  for  supremacy 


240  LITERATURE.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

are  scarcely  mentioned.  Almost  the  entire  work  is  devoted  to  an 
amusing  and  instructive  account  of  the  social  life  of  the  people,  which 
the  author  agrees  with  other  writers  in  describing  as  deplorable. 

Fiction  :— 

Beyond  the  Dreams  of  Avarice.  A  novel.  By  Walter 
Besant,  author  of  Tlie  Rebel  Queen,  All  Sorts  and  Condi- 
tions of  Men,  etc.  Illustrated.  12mo.  $1.50.  New 
York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

This  is  "a  romance  of  intestacy,  and  possesses  the  great  merit 
that  there  is  nothing  intrinsically  improbable  in  any  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  Nothing  is  better  in  the  book  than  the  skill 
with  which  the  author  traces  the  gradual  inroads  of  the  auri  sacra 
i'ames  on  the  character  of  his  hero.  The  heroine  is  certainly  one  of 
the  most  attractive  types  of  womanhood  that  Mr.  Besant  has  ever 
conceived,  tlie  various  claimants  are  happily  contrasted  and  cleverly 
drawn,  and  the  attitude  of  the  press  in  the  matter  is  described  with 
not  a  little  quiet  humor  and  good-natured  satire.  ' 

A  Woniafi  of  Impulse.  By  Justin  Huntly  McCarthy. 
The  Hudson  library.  314  pp.  12mo.  Paper,  50  cents; 
cloth,  11.00.     New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

"  The  striking  up  of  an  acquaintanceship  between  the  lovely  girl 
student  and  the  scholarly  and  athletic  young  fellow  in  tweeds;  the 
incident  of  the  lost  violets  and  brooch,  with  its  exciting  pugilistic  ac- 
companiment; the  stop-thief  incident,  with  its  vivid  description  of 
the  hero's  foot-race  through  the  streets  of  London;  the  Hindu  snake 
charmer  and  his  mission  of  vengeance;  the  desperate  encounter  be- 
tween the  murderous  Hindu  and  the  man  in  tweeds;  the  revelation  of 
a  famous  heiress  in  the  person  of  the  fair  girl  student;  the  proper 
growth  and  desirable  conclusion  of  true  love  in  the  tale — these  are 
some  of  the  matters  that  characterize  Mr.  McCarthy's  story  and  give 
to  it  its  readable  quality.  It  will  be  liked  because  it  is  improbable, 
romantic,  and  lively." 

A  Son  of  Hagar.  By  Hall  Caine,  author  of  The  Manx- 
man. Illustrated  by  Albert  Hencke.  354  pp.  12mo. 
Paper,  50  cents;  cloth,  $1.00.  New  York:  R.  F.  Fenno  & 
Co. 

"Mr.  Caine  explains  that  in  his  first  novel  he  tried  to  penetrate  in- 
to the  soul  of  a  brave,  unselfish,  long-suffering  man,  and  to  lay  bare 
the  processes  by  which  he  raised  himself  to  the  great  height  of  self- 
sacrifice.  In  this  novel  the  aim  has  been  to  penetrate  into  the  soul 
of  a  bad  man,  and  to  lay  bare  the  processes  by  which  he  is  tempted  to 
his  fall. 

"The  attention  is  held  closely,  sometimes  painfully.  The  limp- 
ing intellectual  villain  is  one  of  the  very  worst  persons  in  recent 
English  fiction.  The  story  of  his  relations  with  Mercy  Fisher  and 
his  treatment  of  her  is  so  unutterably  sad  that  one  almost  wishes  it 
had  been  omitted,  especially  as  the  girl  has  no  effect  at  all  in  bringing 
about  the  inevitalDle  downfall  of  the  rascal.  Vice  and  its  results  are 
painted  in  strong  colors." 

The   Ralstons,     By   F.  Marion   Crawford,  author  of 


NECROLOGY.  241 

Katharine  Lauderdale,  etc.    2  vols.,  pp.  340,  336.    12mo. 
12.00.  Xew  York:     Macmillan  &  Co. 

"  It  is  not  an  agreeable  story — the  bickerings  of  the  Lauderdale 
family  being  frequent  and  exceedingly  irritating.  But  it  is  some- 
thing of  an  achievement  to  show  the  strange  results  of  an  inherited 
family  temper  working  in  different  personalities.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  truth  in  this  presentation  of  a  strong  family  trait — one  of  the 
kind  which  makes  the  members  of  the  family  charming  people  to 
outsiders,  but  very  annoying  to  each  other.  *  *  *  One  of  the 
best  characters  that  the  author  has  ever  drawn  is  the  old  millionaire, 
Robert  Lauderdale — a  portrait  of  great  strength,  and  unusual 
pathos  of  a  virile  kind.  The  chapters  describing  his  illness  and 
death  are  the  best  in  the  book — full  of  dignity  and  dramatic  force." 

Not  Yet.  A  theosophical  romance.  By  Mary  Weller 
Robbins.  Library  of  Choice  Fiction.  319  pp.  Illustrated. 
Paper,  50  cents.     Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

A  rather  gloomy  but  interesting  story,  which  centres  in  the 
thought  that  the  dead  have  an  interest  in  and  influence  over  the  liv- 
ing. A  book  with  which  to  while  away  one  of  those  idle  hours  that 
come  to  all  of  us,  when  neither  physical  nor  mental  toil  are  inviting. 

Miscellaneous: — 

Campaigns  of  Curiosity.  Journalistic  Adventures  of 
an  American  Girl  in  London.  By  Elizabeth  L.  Banks. 
Illustrated.  Neely's  Library  of  Choice  Literature.  208 
pp.     12mo.    Paper,  50  cents.     Chicago:  F.  T.  Neely. 

The  record  of  the  experiences  of  a  young  American  in  London, 
who,  moved  by  journalistic  instinct,  served  as  housemaid,  flower-girl, 
laundry-girl,  and  crossing  sweeper.  She  also,  in  the  guise  of  an 
American  heiress,  advertised  for  a  chaperon,  and  reaped  a  harvest  of 
replies,  amusing  as  well  as  surprising. 

The  Broivnie  Song  Booh.  A  book  of  Brownie  songs 
for  children  (young  and  old).  Words  and  music  by  S.  G. 
Pratt.     Board  covers,  50  cents.     Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

There  are  nine  songs  in  this  attractive  little  work — all  of  a  range 
suited  to  children's  voices,  and  of  a  bright  and  "catchy"  character, 
amusing  and  attractive  to  young  and  old. 


NECROLOGY. 

American: — 

Badeau,  Adam,  brigadier-general  United  States  volunteers;  born 
in  New  York  city,  Dec.  29,  1831;  died  in  Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  Mar.  19. 
In  early  life  he  did  newspaper  work.  Volunteering  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war,  he  served  on  the  staffs  of  Generals  Sherman  and  Gil- 
more;  was  severely  wounded  at  Port  Hudson;  on  recovery  became 
military  secretary  to  General  Grant,  remaining  with  him  until  retired 
with  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  regular  army.     For  services  duriner 

Vol.  5,-16.  ^ 


242  NECROLOGY.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

the  campaign  that  ended  at  Appomattox  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  After  the  war  he  was  secretary  of  legation 
and  subsequently  consul-general  at  London;  consul-general  at  Havana 
under  President  Arthur;  accompanied  General  Grant  on  his  tour  around 
the  world,  of  which  he  became  the  historian.  He  wrote  TJie  Military 
History  of  U.  S.  Grant  {S  vols.),  Vagabond,  Conspiracy,  Arvitocracy  in 
England,  A  Cuban  Romance,  and  Grant  in  Peace. 

Broadus,  John  Albert,  D.D.,  LL.D.  ,  theologian  and  author;  born 
in  Culpeper  county,  Va.,  Jan.  24,  1827;  died  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Mar. 

16.  He  was  of  Welsh  ex- 
traction, the  name  being 
originally  spelled  Brod- 
hurst,  and  was  the  son  of 
a  leading  Virginia  poli- 
tician. He  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia with  the  degree  of 
A.  M.  in  1850,  and  the 
following  year  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  profes- 
sor of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  his  alma  mater.  This 
position  he  held  for  two 
years,  during  which  he 
was  pastor  of  the  Bap- 
tist church  at  Charlottes- 
ville, Va.  He  was  chap- 
lain  of  the  university 
during  1855  and  1856, 
and  then  resumed  his 
pastorate  at  Charlottes- 
ville. In  1859  he  joined 
with  Rev.  James  P.  Boyce 
in  organizing  the  South- 
ern Baptist  Theological 
Seminary  at  Greenville, 
Lg  S.  C,  which  opened  with 

^—  twenty-six  students  and 

four  professors, —  Dr. 
James  P.  Boyce,  Basil 
Manly,  William  Williamson,  and  Dr.  Broadus, — the  lastof  whom  filled 
the  chair  of  homiletics  and  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament.  Du- 
ring the  civil  war  he  served  as  missionary  chaplain  in  Lee's  army, 
and  in  1863  was  made  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Southern  Bap- 
tist Sunday  School  Board.  In  1865  the  seminary  reopened  with  seven 
students.  From  Greenville  the  seminary  was  removed  to  Louisville, 
Ky.,  whither  Dr.  Broadus  moved  with  his  family  in  1877.  In  1889, 
after  the  death  of  Dr.  Boyce,  he  was  elected  to  its  presidency.  Among 
the  numerous  published  writings  of  Dr.  Broadus  are:  Preparation 
and  Delivery  of  Sermons,  which  is  used  as  a  text-book  in  the  major 
ity  of  theological  seminaries  of  all  denominations  in  America  and  Eu- 
rope; Memoir  of  James  P.  Boyce,  D.D.,  LL.D.;  Commentary  on  Mat- 
thew, and  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  He  also  wrote  for  periodicals,  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  tracts.  As  a  teacher  and  lecturer  he  was  singu- 
larly successful;  and  as  a  preacher  he  was  as  easily  understood  by 


KEY.   JOHN   A.    BROADUS,  D.  D.,  LL.  U. 


.    NECROLOGY.  243 

children  as  adults,  and  ranked  among  the  ablest  preachers  of  his 
generation. 

Carr,  Joseph  B.,  brevet  major-general  United  States  volunteers; 
born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1828;  died  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  his  home,  Feb. 
24.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  was  elected  commander  of  the  2d 
regiment  New  York  volunteers — the  first  regiment  to  encamp  on  Vir- 
ginia soil.  Took  part  in  (leneral  McClelland's  peninsular  campaign, 
and  fought  at  Bristow  station,  Second  Bull  Run,  Chantilly,  Fred- 
ericksburg, and  Gettysburg.  In  1879,  1881,  and  1883  he  was  elected 
secretary  of  state  as  a  republican. 

Clendenin,  Colonel  David  R.,  military  officer;  born  in  Lancas- 
ter county,  Penn.,  June  24,  1830;  died  in  Oneida,  111.,  Mar.  5.  He 
served  with  the  8th  Illinois  cavalry  throughout  the  war,  and  rendered 
great  service  to  General  Grant  at  the  time  General  Early  threatened 
to  take  Washington.  He  was  one  of  the  commission  that  tried  the 
conspirators  who  planned  the  assassination  of  President  Lincoln. 

Cooke,  General  Philip  St.  George,  military  officer;  born  near 
Leesburg,  Va. ;  died  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Mar.  20,  aged  86.  Was  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1827 ;  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  war  and  the  war 
with  Mexico.  In  the  civil  war  he  commanded  the  regular  cavalry  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  through  the  peninsular  campaign.  His 
son.  General  John  R.  Cooke,  was  fighting  at  the  same  time  on  the  Con- 
federate side.  In  1866  he  was  made  commander  of  the  department  of 
the  Platte;  was  retired  in  1874.  He  prepared  a  system  of  cavalry  tac- 
tics which  was  adopted  by  the  regular  army. 

CoPELAND,  Charles  W.,  noted  marine  and  mechanical  engineer; 
born  in  Coventry,  Conn.,  in  1815;  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  5. 
He  is  said  to  have  built  the  first  iron  hull  in  the  United  States;  he 
also  built  the  engines  and  boilers  for  the  Michigan,  for  Lake  Erie, 
said  to  have  been  the  first  iron  steamer  ever  used  in  naval  service. 

COPPEE,  Dr.  Henry,  acting  president  of  Lehigh  University;  born 
in  Savannah,  Ga,,  Oct.  13,  1821;  died  in  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  Mar.  22. 
He  was  of  French  West  Indian  ancestry;  for  a  time  studied  at  Yale; 
but  entered  West  Point  Military  Academy,  where  he  was  graduated 
in  1845.  Served  gallantly  in  the  Mexican  war;  afterward  was  pro- 
fessor at  West  Point,  and  from  1855  to  1866  held  the  chair  of  English 
literature  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Was  then  elected  presi- 
dent of  Lehigh,  but  resigned  for  the  sake  of  his  health  in  1875;  but 
still  retained  connection  with  the  staff;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death 
held  the  chair  of  English  literature,  international  and  constitutional 
law,  and  philosophy  of  history.  On  the  death  of  President  Lam- 
berton  a  year  ago,  he  assumed  the  duties  of  president. 

Corse,  General  MontgomeryD.,  noted  Confederate  officer;  born 
in  Alexandria,  Va.,  in  Mar.,  1816;  died  there  Feb.  11,  He  fought  at 
the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  Boonesboro,  and  Antietam,  and  was 
captured  at  Sailor's  Creek  in  Apr.,  1865. 

Darr,  General  Francis,  military  officer;  born  in  Cincinnati,  O., 
in  1833;  died  in  Wayne,  Penn..  Jan.  26.  In  the  civil  war  he  served 
on  the  staffs  of  Generals  Rosecrans,  Buell,  and  Foster,  attaining  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general;  fought  in  all  the  battles  of  the  West  Vir- 
ginia campaign,  Murfreesboro,  Shiloh,  and  the  occupation  of  North 
Carolina. 

Davies,  Rev.  H.  W.,  D.D.,  ex  principal  of  the  provincial  Normal 
School  in  Toronto,  Ont. ;  born  in  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y. ;  died  in  Toronto, 
Mar.  19.     He  was  a  graduate  of  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  1866.     He 


244  NECROLOGY.  .  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

was  the  author  of  the  well-known  text-book,  Davies'  Grammar,  and 
other  educational  works. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  colored  reformer,  journalist,  diplomat, 
and  orator;  born  in  Tuckahoe,  Md.,  in  Feb.,  1817;  died  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Feb.  20.  For  biographical  sketch  see  page  1,  opposite 
portrait. 

Dubois,  Frank  L.,  medical  inspector  United  States  navy;  died 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Feb.  24,  aged  57. 

Eaton,  Dr.  Darwin  G.,  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  Packer 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  born  in  Portland,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  6,  1822; 
died  in  Brooklyn  Mar.  18.  Was  graduated  at  the  Albany  State  Nor- 
mal School  in  1846.  Ill-health  compelled  resignation  of  his  post  in 
1883.  He  did  some  important  work  in  astronomy.  Received  the  de- 
grees of  A.M.  (1850)  and  Ph.D.  (1870)  from  Hamilton  College.     • 

Edgerly,  Marvin  V.  B.,  president  Massachusetts  Mutual  Life 
Insurance  Company;  born  at  Barnstead,  N.  H.,  Sept.  26,  1833;  died 
in  New  York  city  Mar.  18. 

Field,  Dr.  Matthew  Dickinson,  expert  in  lunacy  and  medico- 
legal jurisprudence;  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  July  19,  1853;  died  in 
New  York  city  Mar.  8. 

Fuller,  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel,  professor  emm^i/« of  Latin  and  inter- 
pretation of  Holy  Scripture  at  Berkeley  Divinity  School;  born  in 
Rensselaerville,  N.  Y.,  in  1802;  died  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  Mar. 
8.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1822,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  1827;  became  professor  in  1859,  and  pro- 
fessor efneritus  in  1883. 

Gayarre,  Charles  E.  A.,  politician,  judge,  historian,  and  au- 
thor; born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  Jan.  9,  1805;  died  there  Feb.  11. 
Entered  political  life  at  the  age  of  25,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  publi- 
cation of  his  work,  An  Historical  Essay  on  Louisiana;  and  at  30  was 
nominated  by  the  legislature  to  the  United  States  senate,  but  declined 
on  the  ground  of  ill-health.  Travelled  in  Europe  gathering  literary 
material  for  eight  years,  and  on  return  W^as  elected  state  senator.  His 
most  famous  work  was  his  History  of  Louisiana,  showing  deep  re 
search.  Wrote  also  The  Lnfluence  of  the  Mechanic  Arts  on  the  Destinies 
of  the  Human  Race;  School  for  Politics;  Doctor  Bluff;  Philip  LL; 
Fernando  de  Lemos  and  its  sequel  Avbert  Dubayet,  and  Quevedo. 

Gordon,  Rev.  Dr.  A.  J.,  for  twenty-five  years  pastor  of  the  Clar 
endon  street  Baptist  church,  Boston,  Mass. ;  born  in  New  Hampton 
N.  H.,  Apr.  19,  1836;  died  in  Boston  Feb.  2.  Was  graduated  at 
Brown  University  (1860)  and  Newton  Theological  Seminary  (1863) 
He  was  the  author  of  In  Christ  (1872);  Sermons  (1881);  The  Ministry 
of  Healing  (1882);  The  Twofold  Life  (1884);  and  The  Life  That  Now 
Is  and  That  to  Come  (1888). 

Gray,  Isaac  Pusey,  United  States  minister  to  Mexico;  bom  in 
Downingtown,  Chester  co.,  Penn.,  Oct.  28,  1828;  died  at  the  American 
hospital  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  Feb.  14.  He  was  the  son  of  Quaker 
parents,  who  moved  to  New  Madison,  0.,  when  he  was  eight  years 
old.  Here  he  lived  until  1855,  rising  from  the  position  of  clerk  in  a 
dry-goods  store  to  proprietor.  In  that  year  he  removed  to  Union  City, 
Ind.,  where  he  opened  a  store,  conducted  a  banking  business,  studied 
law,  and  married  Miss  Eliza  Joquia.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  republican  party  he  was  a  whig;  and,  when  the  new  party 
was  organized,  cast  in  his  lot  with  them.  He  saw  no  active  service 
during  the  civil  war,  owing  to  physical  weakness,  though  he  held  the 


NECROLOGY.  245 

position  of  colonel  of  tlie  4tb  Indiana  cavalry,  and  was  at  the  bead  of 
the  147tli  Indiana  infantry.  Mr.  Gray  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
on  the  republican  ticket  for  congress  in  1864,  but,  in  1866,  was  elected 
to  the  state  senate.  In  1872  be  became  a  liberal  republican;  but,  being 
a  partisan  by  nature,  he  was  not  long  content  to  be  an  independent, 
and  in  1876  was  elected  lieutenant-governor  of  Indiana  on  the  demo- 
cratic ticket.  He  succeeded  to  the  governorship  upon  the  death  of 
Governor  James  D.Williams  (best  known  as  "  Blue  Jeans"  Williams) 
three  months  before  the  expiration  of  his  term.  In  1880  he  ran  again 
for  lieutenant-governor, 
but  was  defeated.  In 
1884  he  ran  for  gover- 
nor, and  was  elected;  and 
it  is  believed  that  his 
popularity,  and  the  bril- 
liancy with  which  he  con- 
ducted his  campaign  on 
the  lines  of  tariff  reiorni, 
saved  the  state  to  Cleve- 
land and  Hendricks.  At 
the  Chicago  convention 
in  1892,  Mr.  Gray  was 
enthusiastically  urged  as 
pre>idential  candidate  by 
the  Indiana  delegation; 
but,  seeing  that  ex-Presi- 
dent Cleveland  was  to 
win  the  nomination,  he 
gave  way  with  the  expec- 
tation of  a  nomination  for 
the  second  place,  in 
which  he  was  disap- 
pointed. On  Mar.  9, 1893, 
lie  was  nominated  by 
President  Cleveland  to  be 
United  States  minister  to 
Mexico,  at  a  salary  of 
$17,500  per  year,  the  mis- 
sion having  been  raised 
to  the  first  rank;  and  it 
was  on  his  return  to  his 
post  from  a  visit  to  his  son  in  Chicago,  that  he  contracted  a  cold 
which  developed  into  pneumonia  and  proved  fatal  the  day  he  reached 
the  City  of  Mexico. 

Greenland,  Walter  W.,  ex-adjutant-general  of  the  national 
guard  of  Pennsylvania;  born  in  Coatesville,  Penn.,  Jan.  6,  1846;  died 
in  Clarion,  Penn.,  Mar.  23.  Enlisting  at  the  age  of  16,  he  served 
gallantly  through  the  civil  war,  distinguishing  himself  particularly 
at  Antietam. 

Hoar,  E.  Rockwood,  jurist  and  diplomat;  born  in  Concord, 
Mass.,  Feb.  21,  1816;  died  there  Jan.  31.  Was  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1835;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839;  became  state  senator  in  1846; 
was  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  1849-55,  and  of  the  supreme 
judicial  court  1859-69.  In  1869  he  became  United  States  attorney- 
general  in  President  (Grant's  cabinet.  He  was  made  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  joint  high  commission  which  negotiated  the  treaty  be- 


HON.   ISAAC  PUSET  GRAY   OF   INDIANA, 
LATE   UNITED   STATES   MINISTER   TO   MEXICO. 


S46  NECROLOGY.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

tween  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  1871.  The 
settlement  of  this  treaty  of  Washington  was  one  of  the  most  notable 
events  of  the  19th  century,  disposing  as  it  did  of  five  different  sub- 
jects of  controversy  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
some  of  which  dated  from  the  very  proclamation  of  American  inde- 
pendence, and  were  perpetually  rising  to  the  surface  of  discussion  to 
vex  and  disturb  the  good  understanding  between  the  kindred  nations. 
The  treaty  has  already  attained  the  dignity  of  a  monumental  act  in 
the  estimation  of  mankind.      Judge  Hoar  was  presidential  elector-at- 

large  in  1872,  and  was  a 
republican  representa- 
tive in  the  43d  congress. 

LoOMis,  Dr.  a.  L,, 
noted  specialist  in  pul- 
monary diseases;  born  in 
Bennington,  Vt.,  in  1831; 
died  in  New  York  city 
Jan.  23. 

McAllister,  Wakd, 
prominent  society  leader 
in  New  York  city,  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  "the 
leader  of  the  400; "  born 
in  Savannah,  Ga. ;  died  in 
New  York  city  Jan.  31, 
aged  about  60.  From  early 
manhood  his  life  wasgiv- 
en  up  to  social  functions. 
In  1872  he  organized  in 
New  York  the  series  of 
dances  known  as  "The 
Patriarchs;"  and  in  New- 
port he  introduced  what 
are  known  as  "Dutch 
treats,"  or  subscription 
picnics.  At  an  interview 
he  once  said,  "There  are 
only  about  400  people  in 
New  York  society, "  and  it 
was  this  remark  which 
made  him  a  public  character.  He  wrote  Society  as  I  Have  Found  It. 
May,  MonsignorMichael,  senior  vicar-general  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic diocese  of  Long  Island,  pastor  of  Holy  Trinity  church  in  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.,  since  1861;  born  in  Bavaria  June  2, 1826;  died  in  Brooklyn  Feb.  11. 
Merriam,  Augustus  C,  senior  professor  of  Greek  archaeology 
and  epigraphy  in  Columbia  College,  New  York  city;  born  in  Locust 
Grove,  Lewis  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1843;  died  in  Athens,  Greece,  Jan.  20. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Columbia  (1866),  and  became  a  member  of  its 
staff  in  1868.  In  1887-88  he  was  director  of  the  American  School 
of  Classical  Studies  in  Athens.  Among  his  numerous  publications 
were:  The  Oreek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  of  the  Obelisk  Crab  in  Cen- 
tral Park;  The  Law  Code  of  Gortyna  in  Crete;  Telegraphy  Among  the 
Ancieiits,  and  various  papers  on  inscriptions  in  The  American  Journal 
of  Philology  and  The  American  Journal  of  Arcluvology ,  besides 
editions  of  Books  6,  7,  and  8  of  the  Odyssey,  and  Books  6  and  7  of 
Herodotus.     At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  one  of  the  senior  in- 


WARD   MCALLISTER, 
SOCIETY   LEADER  IN    NEW   YORK   CITY. 


NECROLOGY.  247 

structors  in  the  School  of  Arts  of  Columbia  College,  and  the  senior 
active  professor  in  the  School  of  Philosophy. 

Nason,  Henry  B.,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,LL.  D.,  professor  of  chemistry 
and  natural  science  at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y. ; 
died  in  Troy  Jan.  18.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1855; 
in  1858  filled  the  chair  of  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  science 
at  Beloit  College,  Wisconsin;  in  1877  was  appointed  by  President 
Hayes  juror  for  the  United  States  government  at  the  Paris  Exposition, 
and  was  assigned  to  the  department  of  mineralogy  and  metallurgy. 
He  published  several  scientific  works. 

Oliver,  James  Edward,  A.  M.,  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  July  27, 
1829;  died  in  Ithaca  Mar.  27.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  with 
mathematical  honors  in  1841,  and  was  at  once  appointed  assistant  in 
the  oflfice  of  The  American  Nautical  Almanac.  In  1871  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cornell  University,  and  two 
years  later  full  professor.  He  was  one  of  the  oldest  members  of  the 
Cornell  faculty,  a  scholar  of  international  reputation,  and  stood  in 
the  front  rank  of  American  mathematicians.  In  1886  he  published 
a  treatise  on  trigonometry;  and  later,  in  conjunction  with  Professors 
Wait  and  Jones,  a  treatise  on  algebra  (known  as  0.  W.  J.),  which 
is  used  as  a  text- book  in  the  university.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the  American  Philosophi- 
cal Society,  and  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Poole,  Reginald,  professor  of  archaeology  at  University  College, 
London,  Eng. ;  born  in  London  in  1832;  died  Feb.  8. 

Post,  Philip  Sidney,  republican  representative  in  congress  of 
the  10th  Illinois  district;  born  in  Florida,  N.  Y.,  March  19,  1833; 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,Jan.  6.  He  was  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1855,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1856.  He  served  through- 
out the  war,  attaining  to  the  brevet  rank  of  brigadier-general  at  its  close. 
He  was  appointed  consul-general  to  Austria-Hungary  in  1874;  serving 
in  the  latter  capacity  until  1879.  He  was  a  member  of  the  50th,  51st, 
52d,  and  53d  congresses,  and  was  re-elected  to  the  54th. 

Prescott,  Benjamin  F.,  ex- governor  of  New  Hampshire;  born 
in  Epping,  N.  H.,  Feb.  26, 1833;  died  there  Feb.  21.  He  was  elected 
governor  as  a  republican  in  1877,  and  re-elected  in  1878.  He  had 
been  vice-president  of  the  New  Hampshire  Historical  Society,  and 
was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Historical  Society  of  Great  Britain. 

RiDGAWAY,  Rev.  Henry  Bascom,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  president  of  the 
Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  Evanston,  111.;  born  in  Talbot  co.,  Md., 
Sep.  7,  1830;  died  Mar.  30.  Was  graduated  at  Dickinson  College, 
Carlisle,  Penn.,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  where  his  eloquence  secured  him  rapid  promotion.  He  filled 
pulpits  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Portland,  Me.,  New  York  city,  Kingston, 
N.  Y.,  and  Cincinnati,  O.  In  1882  he  became  professor  of  historical 
theology  in  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  and  in  1884  was  transferred  to 
the  chair  of  practical  theology  and  made  president.  He  wrote  The 
Life  of  Alfred  Cookman  (1871),  The  Lord's  iMnd:  A  Narrative  of 
Travels  in  Sinai  and  Palestine  in  1873-74  (1876),  and  The  Life  of 
Bishop  Edward  8.  Janes  (1882). 

Ryder,  Dr.  John  Adams,  professor  of  comparative  embryology 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  born  in  Franklin  co.,  Penn.,  in 
1852;  died  in  Philadelphia  Mar.  26.  He  was  at  one  time  embryologist 
to  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  and  in  1886  was  called  to  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.     He  was  a  prolific  writer,  a  complete 


248 


NECROLOGY. 


1st  Qr., 


list  of  his  writings  comprising  over  250  titles;  was  a  member  of  many 
learned  societies.  His  achievement  of  greatest  practical  value  was 
in  respect  to  the  artificial  propagation  of  the  oyster.  Professor  Ryder 
invented  various  instruments,  which  have  been  widely  used.  Not 
least  serviceable  of  these  has  been  the  Ryder  microtome,  designed  to 
unravel  the  structure  of  animal  tissues  in  serial  form. 

Smithers,  Enoch  J.,  United  States  consul  at  Osaka  and  Hiogo, 

Japan;  died  about  Mar.  25.     He  was  one  of  the  oldest  consuls  in  point 

of  length  of  service;  was  first  appointed  by  President  Lincoln  in  1863. 

Stevens,  John  L.,  LL.  D.,  ex-United  States  minister  to  Hawaii; 

born  in  Mount  Vernon, 
Me.,  Aug.  1,1820;  died  in 
Augusta,  Me. ,  Feb.  8.  He 
taught  in  early  life,  and 
afterward,  in  1845,  be- 
came a  Universalist  min- 
ister. In  1856  he  became 
editor  of  The  Kennebec 
Journal  jointly  with  the 
late  James  G.  Blaine,  and 
retained  connection  with 
the  paper  until  1869;  was 
elected  a  representative 
to  the  legislatures  of  1866 
and  1867,  and  was  a  state 
senator  in  1868  and  1869. 
He  was  appointed  by 
President  Grant  to  be 
United  States  minister 
to  Uruguay.  He  resigned 
that  post  in  1874.  In  1881 
he  was  appointed  minis- 
ter to  Sweden  and  Nor 
way.  He  resigned  that 
office  and  returned  home 
after  about  three  years. 
In  1889  Mr.  Stevens 
was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  to  be 
United  States  minister 
to  Honolulu,  Hawaii. 
There  he  remained  until 
after  the  revolution  of  January,  1893.  The  prominent  part  he  played 
in  the  stirring  incidents  of  that  time  is  well  known  to  readers  of  this 
quarterly. 

Stiles,  General  I.  N.,  lawyer;  born  in  Connecticut  in  1833; 
died  in  Chicago,  111.,  Jan.  17.  He  served  through  the  war  and  was 
for  a  time  in  Libby  prison. 

Tasse,  Joseph,  senator,  prominent  French  Canadian  politician; 
born  in  Montreal,  Que.,  Oct.  23, 1848;  died  there  Jan.  17.  He  was  the 
editor  of  La  Minerve;  represented  Ottawa  city  in  the  commons  from 
1878  to  1887;  and  was  called  to  the  senate  in  1891.  He  was  a  volu- 
minous writer  on  Canadian  topics. 

Taylor,  William  Mackergo,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  clergyman;  born 
in  Kilmarnoch,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  Oct.  23,  1829;  died  in  New  York 
city  Feb,  8.    He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1849, 


HON.  JOHN   L.  STEVENS   OP   MAINE. 
LATE   UNITED   STATES   MINISTER   TO    HAWAII. 


NECROLOGY.  24d 

and  from  the  Theological  School  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Edinburgh  in  1852.  On  Dec.  14  of  the  latter  year  he  received  his 
license  to  preach  from  the  presbytery  of  Kilmarnoch,  and  the  follow- 
ing June  was  settled  as  pastor  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  at 
the  little  village  of  Kilmaurs.  In  1855  he  became  pastor  of  a  newly 
formed  mission  church  numbering  30  or  40  members,  principally 
skilled  operators  and  people  from  the  middle  classes,  at  Derby  road, 
Liverpool;  and  during  his  seventeen  years'  pastorate  he  saw  the 
church  grow  to  a  membership  of  600,  with  a  regular  attendance  of  800 
to  900.  Dr.  Taylor  came  to  America  as  delegate  to  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1871;  and  on  his  return  home 
he  received  a  call  from  the  Broadway  Tabernacle,  one  of  the  largest 
Congregational  churches  in  New  York  city,  which  he  accepted,  and 
was  installed  its  pastor  on  April  18,  1872.  In  March,  1893,  he  suf- 
fered a  slight  stroke  of  paralysis,  the  effects  of  which  compelled  him 
to  retire  from  active  pastoral  work;  but  he  continued  his  relations 
with  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  as  its  pastor  emeritus  until  his  death. 
He  was  an  active  pastor,  yet  found  time  for  a  large  amount  of  liter- 
ary work.  For  four  years  he  was  editor  of  the  C'hj'istinn  at  Work, 
lectured  at  regular  intervals  at  Yale  from  1876  to  1886,  and  at 
Princeton  in  1880,  and  wrote  a  number  of  books  on  religious  sub- 
jects, his  first  American  book  being  Prayer  and  Business.  This  was 
followed  by  separate  volumes,  each  devoted  to  a  biblical  character, 
which  were  widely  read  and  extremely  successful.  The  characters 
treated  were:  Ruth,  David,  Elijah,  Peter,  Daniel,  Moses,  Paul,  and 
Joseph.  He  was  also  the  author  of  Life  Trnths;  The  Miracles — 
Helps  to  Faith,  not  Hindrances;  The  Lost  Found  and  the  Wanderer 
Welcomed,  a  memoir  of  Rev.  Matthew  Dickie;  and  a  history  of  the 
Scottish  pulpit  from  the  Reformation  to  the  prfsent  day. 

Thomas,  Eltsha  Smith,  D.  D.,  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of 
Kansas;  born  in  Wickham,  Mass.,  in  1834;  died  in  Salina,  Kan.,  Mar. 
9.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1858  and  at  Berkeley  Divinity 
School,  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1861.  For  three  years  he  was  in 
charge  of  St.  Paul's  church,  New  Haven.  In  1864  he  was  elected 
rector  of  Seabury  Hall,  Faribault,  Minn.,  and  professor  of  Old  and 
New  Testament  Exegesis  there.  In  1870  he  was  elected  rector  of  St. 
Mark's  church,  Minneapolis.  In  1876  he  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's 
church,  St.  Paul,  Minn.  He  was  consecrated  assistant  bishop  of 
Kansas  in  this  church  on  May  4,  1887,  and  received  the  degree  of 
D.  D.  from  Yale  the  same  year. 

TiiOMES,  William  H.,  author  and  publisher;  born  in  Portland, 
Me.,  May  5,  1824;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  7.  x\fter  a  life  of  ad- 
venture in  various  parts  of  the  world,  he  became  editor  of  Bcdlou's 
Monthly. 

Thompson,  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander  Ramsey,  chaplain  of  Roosevelt 
hospital.  New  York  city;  born  in  New  York  in  1822;  died  in  Summit, 
N.  J.,  Feb.  7.  He  was  chaplain  of  the  17th  Connecticut  regiment  during 
the  war,  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Christian  Commission,  and 
was  for  two  years  in  charge  of  the  New  England  soldiers'  relief 
bureau. 

Vaux,  Richard,  ex-congressman  from  Pennsylvania;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Dec.  19,  1816;  died  there  Mar.  22.  In  1836  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  and  became  secretary  of  the  United  States  lega- 
tion in  London,  Eng.  In  1840  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  national  con- 
vention which  nominated  Martin  Van  Buren.     He  was  elected  mayor 


250  NECROLOGY.  1st  Qr.,  1895 

of  Philadelpliia  in  1855;  was  elected  to  the  52d  congress  to  fill  the 
unexpired  term  of  Samuel  J.  Randall.  He  was  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  prison  reform,  and  was  a  man  of  striking  and  eccen- 
tric personality.  He  never  rode  in  a  street  car  until  recently,  never 
attended  the  theatre,  never  wore  an  overcoat  or  carried  an  umbrella 
in  any  weather. 

Waudell,  Dr.  John  Newton,  eminent  Southern  educator  and 
classical  scholar,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Mississippi  1865-74, 
and  of  the  Southwestern  Presbyterian  University  in  Clarksville, 
Ten Q.,  1879-88;  born  in  Willington,  S.  C.,inl812;  died  in  Birming- 
ham, Ala.,  Jan.  9. 

Ward,  Langdon  G.,  treasurer  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions;  born  in  Saco,  Me.,  May  25,  1828; 
died  in  Newton  Centre,  near  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  28. 

Forei^n:^ 

Albrecht,  archduke,  field-marshal  and  inspector-general  of  the 
army  of  Austria;  died  at  Arco  Feb.  18.  He  inherited  the  bravery  and 
military  genius  of  his  father,  who  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
against  Napoleon  I.,  and  who  is  known  as  the  "  hero  of  the  battle  of 
Aspern."  In  1866,  against  overwhelming  odds,  he  drove  back  the 
Italian  army  under  King  Victor  Emmanuel  at  Custozza.  He  was  an 
uncle  of  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph,  and  grandfather  of  the  present 
heir  to  the  throne  of  Wiirtemberg. 

BiDA,  Alexander,  artist;  born  in  Toulouse  in  1813;  died  in  Paris 
Jan.  2.     In  1870  was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Blackie,  John  Stuart,  Greek  scholar,  author,  and  teacher;  born 
at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  July,  1809;  died  in  Edinburgh,  Mar,  2.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  Mareschal  College,  Aberdeen,  at  Got- 
tingen,  Berlin,  and  Rome,  making  a  special  study  of  Greek,  German, 
Italian,  and  classic  philology.  He  returned  home  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  the  same  year  published  a  metrical  translation 
of  Faust,  which  became  very  popular.  Originally  intended  for  the 
ministry,  he  gave  that  idea  up  for  law;  and,  after  seven  years  of  suc- 
cessful practice,  entered,  in  1841,  upon  the  more  congenial  calling  of 
letters  and  teaching,  being  appointed  professor  of  humanity  (Latin) 
in  Mareschal  College,  Aberdeen,  which  chair  he  held  for  eleven 
years.  His  metrical  translation  of  the  works  of  ^schylus,  published 
in  1850,  led  to  his  being  called  to  the  chair  of  Greek  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  in  1852,  which  position  he  resigned  thirty  years  later, 
not  because  he  could  no  longer  do  the  work,  but  because  he  saw 
more  important  literary  work  before  him.  Of  his  best-known  works 
at  least  eight  were  published  after  he  had  passed  his  seventieth  year, 
among  them.  Lay  Sermons  (1881),  Wisdom  of  Goethe  (1883),  Life  of 
Burns  (1887),  Scottish  Songs  (1888),  and  Essays  on  subjects  of  moral 
and  social  interest  (1890).  Self-Culture,  which  appeared  in  1874,  has 
proved  the  most  popular  of  all  his  writings.  It  has  run  through 
thirty  editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  fifteen  foreign  languages. 
Dr.  Blackie  was  a  voluminous  writer  of  prose  and  poetry,  a  frequent 
contributor  to  reviews  and  magazines,  and  a  popular  lecturer  on  a 
varied  range  of  subjects  including  Scotch  nationality,  Scottish  song, 
Scottish  home  rule,  Scottish  land  laws,  univ^ersity  reform,  poetry,  and 
the  Gaelic  language.  One  of  his  greatest  achievements  was  the 
founding  of  the  chair  of  Celtic  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  for 
the  endowment  of  which  he  personally  raised  a  fund  of  $60,000.    He 


NECROLOGY.  251 

married,  in  1842,  Elizabeth  Helen  Wyld  of  Gilston,  Fife,  and  in  1892 
they  celebrated  their  golden  wedding.  He  is  buried  in  the  Dean 
cemetery,  Edinburgh. 

Canrobert,  Francois  Certain,  soldier;  born  at  St.  Cere,  in  the 
department  of  the  Lot,  France,  June  7,  1809;  died  at  Paris  Jan.  28. 
His  military  education  was  received  at  St.  Cyr.  On  graduation  he 
joined  the  army  as  a  private  soldier,  was  promoted  to  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant in  1832,  received  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  for 
gallantry  at  the  storming  of  Constantina  in  1837,  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1846,  colonel  in  1847, 
and  general  of  brigade  about 
1849.  When  Louis  Napoleon 
became  president  he  appointed 
hira  one  of  his  aides-de-camp; 
and,  upon  the  formation  of  the 
Army  of  the  East  in  1854,  he 
was  made  commander  of  the 
firstdivisionintheCrimea.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  battles  of 
Alma  and  Inkerman,  in  both 
of  which  he  was  wounded:  at 
Inkerman  he  had  his  horse 
killed  under  him.  After  the 
death  of  Marshal  St.  Arnaud 
he  was  for  a  short  time  com- 
mander-in-chief, but  resigned 
in  1855  to  General  Pelissier. 
Returning  to  France  he  re- 
ceived his  marshal's  baton. 
Three  years  later  he  was  again 
in  the  field,  and  took  active 
part  in  the  battles  of  Magenta 
andSolferinoin June,  1859.  In 
1860  he  married  Miss  Macdon- 
ald,  a  Scotch  lady.  In  June,  1862,  he  commanded  at  the  camp  of  Chalons; 
succeeded  the  Marshal  de  Castellane  at  Lyons  in  October.  1862;  and 
was  subsequently  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
Paris.  He  engaged  in  the  Franco- Prussian  war  in  1870,  was  shut  up 
in  Metz  with  Marshal  Bazaine;  and,  on  the  capitulation  of  that 
fortress,  was  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Germany.  When  peace  was  de- 
clared he  returned  to  France,  and  in  1876  was  elected  senator  for  the 
department  of  the  Lot,  and  in  1879  senator  for  Charente.  Marshal 
Canrobert  was  the  last  of  the  marshals  of  France;  the  324th  on  the 
long  and  illustrious  roll  running  back  to  the  time  of  the  Third 
Crusade,  and  abolished  by  the  Third  Republic  after  the  creation  of 
Marshal  Le  Boeuf  in  1870. 

Cantu,  Cesare,  Italian  historian;  born  at  Brivio  near  Milan, 
Dec.  1804;  died  Mar.  11.  He  belonged  lo  the  "  romantic  "  school 
of  Italian  historians  founded  by  Manzoni  and  Silvio  Pellico.  His 
greatest  work  was  his  Universal  History,  which  has  been  translated 
into  several  languages. 

Cayley,  Arthur,  Sadlerian  professor  of  pure  mathematics  in 
Cambridge  University,  England,  born  in  Richmond,  Surrey;  died  Jan. 
26,  aged  74.  He  was  graduated  at  Cambridge  as  senior  wrangler 
in  1842,  and  afterward  successfully  practiced   law.     His  fame  rests 


THE   ARCHDUKK   ALBRECHT   OF   AUSTRIA. 


S5S  NECROLOGY.  1st  Qr.,  I8d5. 

chiefly  on  three  great  discoveries.  He  first  elucidated  the  theory  of 
variants.  His  other  discoveries  were  the  theory  of  the  absolute,  an 
infinite  geometrical  quantity  upon  w^hich  all  measurements  are  based, 
and  the  theory  of  matrices,  which  is  a  further  advance  on  that  of 
invariants.  Professor  Cayley  wrote  an  immense  number  of  mathe- 
mathical  treatises,  of  which  the  best  known  is  probably  that  on 
Elliptic  Functions. 

Chesney,  Lieutenant-General  Sir  George  T.,  K.  C.  B., 
M.  P.  for  Oxford,  Eng.;  died  in  London  Mar.  31.     He  fought  in  the 

Indian  Mutiny,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  siege  of 
Delhi;  in  1887  became  a 
member  of  the  Indian 
council. 

Churchill,  Lord 
Randolph  Henry  Spen. 
cer,  statesman;  born  at 
Blenheim  Palace,  Wood- 
stock, England,  Feb.  18, 
1849;  died  Jan.  24.  He 
was  the  third  son  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  his  mother 
was  a  daughter  of  the 
third  Marquis  of  Lon- 
donderry. He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford, graduating  at  Mer- 
ton  College  in  1871.  In 
1874  he  married  Jennie, 
daughter  of  Mr.  Leonard 
Jerome,  of  New  York  ci- 
ty ;  and  the  same  year  eii  ■ 
tered  parliament  as  a 
member  for  Woodstock, 
which  he  represented  for 
ten  years.  For  his  ani- 
mosity to  the  old  tory 
personnel,  and  for  taking 
issue  against  the  policy 
of  some  of  the  leaders 
of  his  own  party  in  1878,  he  became  known  as  the  "Rebel  Ran- 
dolph." When  the  Gladstone  ministry  came  in,  in  1880,  he  headed 
the  famous  "Fourth  Party,"  which  might  be  said  to  have  had  its 
origin  in  the  memorable  Bradlaugh  case;  and  its  four  leaders — 
Lord  Randolph,  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Balfour,  Mr  Gorst,  and  Sir  H. 
D.  Wolff — bent  their  energies  to  obstructing  everything  persist- 
ently and  systematically,  and  mingled  denunciations  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone with  unsparing  expressions  of  contempt  for  Sir  Stafford  North- 
cote.  Upon  the  fall  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  government  in  1885,  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill  claimed  to  be  the  organizer  of  victory,  and  he  was 
chosen  secretary  of  state  for  India  in  Lord  Salisbury's  cabinet.  In 
1886  he  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  house 
of  commons.  In  this  position  he  attempted  wholesale  retrenchment 
and  civil  service  reform;  and,  in  December  of  the  same  year,  resigned 
on  the  avowed  grounds  that  he  could  not  assent  to  the  demands  which 


PROF.  JOHN   STUART   BLACKIE, 
DISTINGUISHED   GREEK   SCHOLAR. 


NECROLOGY.  258 

the  ministers  responsible  for  the  war  department  and  the  admiralty  be- 
lieved to  be  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  administration.  In  1891 
he  visited  South  Africa,  principally  for  his  health,  and  on  his  return, 
at  the  general  election  in  1892,  his  seat  in  South  Paddington  was  not 
contested;  his  differences  with  the  main  body  of  conservatives  seemed 
forgotten,  and  he  occasionally  appeared  in  the  house  and  spoke,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  debate  on  the  home  rule  bill,  but  his 
speeches  showed  plainly  failure  of  his  powers,  though  he  was  reluc- 
tant to  admit  it.  His  health,  however,  compelled  him  to  seek  rest  and 
seclusion,  and  a  journey  around 
the  world  was  planned  in  the 
hopes  of  warding  off  what  his 
physicians  suspected  to  be  in- 
cipient paralysis.  He  visited 
America  and  India,  but,  failing 
rapidly,  returned  home,  reach- 
ing London  in  a  semi-conscious 
state,  from  which  he  never 
rallied. 

Dale,  Rev.  Dr.  Robert 
William,  Congregational 
preacher,  author,  and  lecturer; 
born  in  London,  Eng.,  Dec.  1, 
1829;  died  there  xMar.  13. 

Duff,  Sir  Robert  Will- 
iam, G.  C.  M.  G.,  governor  of 
New  South  Wales;  born  in 
Scotland  in  1835;  died  in  Syd- 
ney, N.  S.  W.,  Mar.  15.     Be- 
tween the  ages  of  13  and  30  he 
served  in  the  royal  navy,  re- 
tiring with  the  rank  of  com- 
mander.    From  1861   until  his  ^^rd  Randolph  churchill. 
appointment  to  New  South  Wales  in  February,  1893,  he  was  liberal 
M.  P.  for  Banffshire.     He  was  a  junior  lord  of  the  treasury  1882-85, 
and  was  made  a  civil  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1886. 

GiERS,  DE,  Nikolai  Karlovitch,  Russian  minister  of  foreign 
affairs;  born  of  Swedish  parentage  at  Radzivilow  on  the  Austrian 
frontier.  May  21,  1820;  died  in  St.  Petersburg  Jan.  26.  He  entered 
the  diplomatic  service  at  eighteen;  and,  from  1875  until  he  died,  was 
virtually  at  the  head  of  the  foreign  affairs  department,  though  he  did 
not  have  the  title  of  minister  until  Prince  Gortchakof's  final  retire- 
ment in  1882.  During  the  Crimean  war  he  was  attached  to  the  for- 
eign office.  Later  he  served  as  consul-general  in  Egypt,  and  then  in 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  He  was  then  sent  as  minister  to  the  Shah's 
court  in  Teheran.  During  his  residence  of  several  years  in  Persia  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  more  friendly  relations  between  that  country 
and  Russia,  and  for  this  he  was  made  a  privy  councilor.  He  was  next 
minister  to  Switzerland,  and  then  to  Sweden. 

Meantime,  M.  de  Giers  had  married  the  Princess  Cantacuzene,  a 
favorite  niece  of  Prince  Gortchakof.  In  1875  the  prince  made  him 
adjunct  to  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  In  the  Asiatic  department 
of  the  ministry,  specially  confided  to  him  even  when  Gortchakof  was 
personally  on  duty,  he  conducted  Russia's  side  in  the  frequent  con- 
troversies that  arose  with  England  as  to  affairs  in  Central  Asia,  show- 
ing astuteness,  skill,  persistence,  and  Sagacity.     After  1876  Gortcha- 


254 


NECROLOGY. 


1st  Qr.,  1895. 


kof  was  frequently  absent  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  during  those 
times  De  Giers  was  the  chief.  Indeed,  from  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  Berlin,  De  Giers  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  sole 
guardian  of  the  foreign  affairs  of  Russia.  His  policy  almost  univer- 
sally was  in  favor  of  peace.  He  was  friendly  with  Germany,  though 
after  the  fall  of  Bismarck  he  encouraged  French  hopes.  But  he  was 
always  careful  not  to  entangle  his  country  in  any  positive  alliance. 

Grant,  Sir  Patrick,  K.  G.,  G.  C.  B.,  field-marshal  of  the  Brit- 
ish army,  governor  of  Chelsea  hospital,  London,  Eng. ;  born  in  Scot- 
land in  1804;  died  Mar, 
28.  He  rendered  most 
distinguished  service  in 
the  Indian  Mutiny. 

GUERIN,  AlPHONSE, 

famous  French  surgeon 
and  medical  author;  died 
in  Paris  Feb.  21,  aged  78. 
He  was  a  commander  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Hawkins,  Lieut.- 
Gen.  Sir  John  S.,  K.  C. 
M.  G.,  British  military 
officer;  born  in  1816; 
died  in  London,  Eng., 
Jan.  10.  Between  1858 
and  1863  he  was  a  com- 
missioner for  marking 
the  boundary  between 
British  and  United  States 
territory  west  of  the 
Rockies. 

Hornby,  Sir  Geof- 
frey Thomas  Phipps, 
English  naval  officer; 
born  Feb.  20,  1825;  died 
Mar.  3.  He  was  one  of 
eight  children  of  Admiral 
Sir  Phipps  Hornby,  one 
of  the  heroes  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Lissa.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1837,  became  flag  lieutenant  to  his  father  in  1847, 
captain  of  the  line-of-battle-ship  Neptune  in  the  Mediterranean  in 
1861,  and  later,  flag  captain  to  Rear-Admiral  S.  C.  Dacres  in  the 
channel,  commanding  the  Edgar.  He  became  commander  of  the  first 
class,  and  commander-in-chief  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  in  1865, 
was  appointed  to  command  of  the  Detached  Squadron  1869,  and  be- 
came commander-in-chief  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1877.  Having  been 
made  a  K.  C.  B.  in  1878,  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Royal 
Naval  College  at  Greenwich  in  1881;  and  from  1882  was  commander- 
in-chief  at  Portsmouth  until  1885,  when  he  was  created  a  G.  C.  B. 
In  January,  1886,  he  was  appointed  first  and  principal  naval  A.  D.  C. 
to  the  queen.  In  May,  1888,  he  was  promoted  to  be  admiral  of  the 
fleet.  In  that  year  he  was  prominent  in  the  agitation  which  resulted 
in  the  passing  of  the  naval  defense  act  of  1889.  He  was  the  author 
of  Squadrons  of  Exercise  in  the  British  Navy,  a  valuable  tactical 


ISMAIL  PASHA, 
BX-KHEDIVE   OP   EGYPT. 


NECROLOGY.  255 

work;  contributed  numerous  short  papers  on  naval  subjects  to  the  re- 
views and  magazines;  and  wrote  works  on  steam  tactics,  of  which  he 
was  an  acknowledged  master. 

Ismail  Pasiia,  ex-khedive  of  Egypt;  born  at  Cairo  Dec.  31,  1830; 
died  near  Constantinople  Mar.  2.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  the  victor  of  Konish  and  Nezib,  who  was  the  adopted  son  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  the  creator  of  modern  Egypt.  Ismail  was  educated  at 
Paris;  returned  to  Egypt  in  1849;  and  succeeded  his  uncle  Said  Pasha 
as  viceroy  Jan.  18,  1863.  He  obtained  from  the  sultan  the  semi-in- 
dependent title  of  khedive  in  1867;  and,  on  Aug.  4,  1868,  secured  a 
firman  which  set  aside  the  Mohammedan  order  of  succession  (the  old- 
est male  member  of  the  family),  and  secured  hereditary  succession  in 
direct  line  from  father  to  son.  By  his  brilliant  victory  over  the  sul- 
tan of  Darfur  in  1874,  and  the  conquests  in  Central  Africa  made  dur- 
ing his  reign,  Egypt  rose  in  territorial  extent  to  the  seventh  rank 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  He  accumulated  vast  wealth  during 
the  civil  war  in  America  through  rise  in  price  of  cotton;  and,  with  his 
wealth,  came  credit  to  the  nation,  upon  which  he  based  magnificent 
schemes  for  the  "  Europeanization  "  of  Egypt,  which  schemes  he 
pushed  forward  until  the  public  debt  of  Egypt  rose  to  about  |400,- 
000,000,  and  Egypt's  credit  fell.  At  Ismail's  request  in  1875,  Mr. 
Stephen  Cave,  M.  P.,  accompanied  by  Colonel  Stokes,  R.  E.,  was 
sent  out  from  England  to  efPect  a  reform  in  Egyptian  finances;  but  it 
was  too  late,  and  in  1876  the  khedive  suspended  payment  for  a  time. 
In  August,  1878,  Mr.  Rivers  Wilson  was  appointed  Egyptian  minis- 
ter of  finance,  and  later  a  new  ministry  was  formed  by  Nubar  Pasha, 
Mr.  Wilson  and  M.  de  Blignieres  being  admitted  as  representing  the 
interests  of  the  Western  powers.  Ismail  opposed  and  overthrew 
this  ministry;  and  finally,  prompted  by  France  and  England,  the  sul- 
tan issued  a  firman  deposing  Ismail,  and  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
son,  the  late  Tewfik  Pasha,  June  26,  and  left  Egypt  July  1,  1879. 
He  secured  an  annual  allowance  of  $200,000.  The  sultan  had  latterly 
allowed  him  to  live  under  surveillance  in  a  palace  on  the  Bosphorus. 

Leinster,  Duchess  of,  the  noted  English  beauty,  daughter  of 
Lord  Feversham;  died  Mar.  19. 

LoRiNG,  Sir  William,  K.  C.  B.,  admiral  of  the  British  fleet; 
died  Jan.  4,  aged  82. 

Mantz,  Paul,  noted  French  art  critic;  died  in  Paris  Jan.  31.  He 
was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1881. 

Metternich,  Prince,  full  name  Richard  Clement  Joseph  Lo- 
thaire  Hermann,  Prince  of  Metternich- Winneburg,  son  of  the  famous 
statesman.  Prince  Metternich,  and  himself  a  noted  diplomat;  born  in 
Vienna,  Austria,  Jan.  7,  1829;  died  there  Mar.  1. 

Rawlinson,  Sir  Henry  Creswicke,  Bart.,  G.  C.  B.,  F.  R.  S., 
LL.D.,  soldier  and  archaeologist;  born  at  Chadlington,  Oxfordshire, 
Eng.,  Apr.  11,  1810;  died  in  London  Mar.  5.  He  was  educated  at 
Ealing  School,  and  in  1826  entered  the  military  service  of  the  East 
India  Company,  in  Bombay.  In  Nov. ,  1833,  he  was  sent  to  Persia,  where 
he  made  himself  especially  useful  to  the  Shah  in  reorganizing  the  army, 
for  which  he  received  the  insignia  of  the  Order  of  the  Lion  and  the 
Sun.  His  researches  on  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  during  the  six 
years  he  spent  in  Persia  gained  him  the  title  of  "Father  of  Assyr- 
lology."  In  1837  he  succeeded  in  copying  the  first  column  of  the 
great  Behistun  inscription,  which  he  sent  to  the  Asiatic  Society  in 
London  Jan.  1,  1838.     He  completed  the  work  in  1843  and  1844.     In 


256  NECROLOGY.  1st  Qr.,  1895. 

1840  he  was  made  British  political  agent  at  Kandahar,  Afghanistan, 
and  consul  at  Bagdad  in  1844.  In  1851  he  was  coiTimissioned  by  the 
British  Museum  to  superintend  the  excavations  at  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon, the  results  of  which  work  he  published  in  book  form.  In  1856 
he  retired  from  the  East  India  service,  and  returned  to  England, 
where  he  was  made  a  K.  C.  B.  In  Apr. ,  1859,  he  was  sent  as  envoy 
to  the  court  of  Teheran  with  local  rank  of  major-general;  on  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  represented  Frome  in  parliament;  and  in  1868 
was  made  life  member  of  the  India  council.  In  1875  he  published 
England  and  Russia  in  the  East.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  a  trustee 
of  the  British  museum,  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  Bath  in  1889, 
and  was  created  a  baronet  in  1891.  Sir  Henry  was  a  chevalier  of 
the  Order  of  Merit  in  Prussia,  Associe  etranger  of  the  French  Insti- 
tute, and  an  honorary  member  of  the  Vienna  Imperial  Academy  of 
Science,  and  received  many  other  honorary  titles  from  Oriental  and 
antiquarian  societies  in  Europe  and  America. 

Secretan,  Charles,  the  Swiss  philosopher;  born  in  1813;  died 
in  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  Jan.  28. 

Seeley,  Sir  John  Robert,  M.  A.,  K.  C.  M.  G,,  regius  professor 
of  modern  history  in  Cambridge  University,  England;  born  in  London 
in  1834;  died  Jan.  13.  Was  a  graduate  and  fellow  of  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  became  in  1863  professor  of  Latin  in  University  Col- 
lege, London.  Inl869,  on  recommendation  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge.  In  1865  he  pub- 
lished Ecce  Homo  anonymously,  a  book  which  looked  at  the  founda- 
tion of  Christianity  purely  from  an  historical  and  philosophical  point 
of  view,  and  caused  a  great  sensation  in  the  English-speaking  world. 
In  1870  he  published  Lectures  and  Essays,  and  in  1879  his  masterly 
vfork  on  the  Life  and  I'lmes  of  Stein;  or,  Germany  and  Prussia  in  the 
Napoleonic  Age.  The  Expansion  of  England  followed  in  1883,  a  book 
which  shows  how  England's  great  colonial  empire  was  built  up;  and 
then  in  1885  the  Short  Life  of  Napoleon,  in  which  the  Napoleonic 
legend  is  vigorously  combated,  and  the  emperor  judged  by  the  cen- 
tral and  most  important  part  of  his  career,  and  not  by  the  latter 
part  alone. 

TuKE,  D.  Hack,  M.  D.,  LL.D.,  eminent  specialist  and  writer  on 
the  subject  of  nervous  diseases;  born  in  York,  Eng.,  in  1827;  died  in 
London  Mar.  5. 

Worth,  Charles  Frederick,  fashionable  dressmaker;  born  in 
Bourne,  Lincolnshire,  Eng.,  in  1825;  died  in  Paris,  France,  Mar.  11. 
For  nearly  fifty  years  he  ranked  among  the  foremost  leaders  of  fash- 
ion, and  numbered  among  his  customers  members  of  every  royal  fam 
ily  in  Europe,  besides  many  wealthy  Americans. 


•0. 


LORD  RAYLEIGH, 

One  of  the  Discoverers  of  Argon, 


THE   CYCLOPEDIC    REVIEW 
OF 

CURRENT     HISTORY 

VOL.  5.  APRIL  1— JUNE  30.  1895.  NO.  2 

ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS. 

jyrORE  or  less  of  uncertiiinty  attaches  to  every  generali- 
zation of  inductive  science.  In  experimentation  the 
possibility  of  error  may  be  largely  eliminated,  but  can 
never  be  completely  removed.  The  range  of  factors  which 
may  possibly  affect  an  experiment  can  usually  be  deter- 
mined with  a  thoroughness  sufficient  for  practical  pur- 
poses; but  can  never  be  entirely  exhausted.  Thus  it  some- 
times happens  that  conclusions  which  have  passed  current 
for  generations,  having  apparently  had  the  sanction  of  ex-- 
perimental  demonstration  in  innumerable  instances,  are 
upset  by  the  revelation  of  factors  whose  influence,  and 
even  whose  existence,  have  never  previously  been  suspected. 
The  sum  total  of  our  scientific  knowledge  is  an  unstable 
mass,  in  constant  evolution,  either  being  added  to  by  dis- 
coveries in  hitherto  unexplored  regions,  or  being  modified 
internally  so  as  to  conform  to  facts  newly  ascertained 
within  familiar  fields. 

From  the  time  of  Scheele  and  Cavendish  about  a 
hundred  years  ago,  it  had  been  taught  that  the  atmosphere 
consisted  essentially  of  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen 
i*i  the  proportion  of  about  four  volumes  (70.00  per  cent)  of 
nitrogen  to  one  volume  (20.96  per  cent)  of  oxygen,  with 
a  slight  admixture  of  impurities,  chielly  carbon  dioxide 
(CO2).  As  the  result  of  numberless  analyses,  chemists 
had  come  to  think  that  their  knowledge  of  the  constitution 
of  the  air  was  satisfactory  and  complete;  and  the  rest  of 
the  world  had  agreed  with  them.  Last  year,  however, 
this  tradition  was  rudely  dispelled;  and,  as  a  result  of  the 
joint  discovery  of  argon  by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Professor 
Ramsay,  it  is  now  evident  that  a  long  time  must  elapse,  and 
immense  labor  be  expended  in  investigation,  before  the 
properties  of  air,  and  the  important  part  it  plays  in  the  econ- 
omy of  both  inorganic  and  organic  nature,  can  be  fully  and 

Vol.  5.— 17.        ^  Copyright,  1895.  by  Garretson,  Cox  &  Co. 


258  ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS  2d  Qr.  1895 

accurately  determined.  The  discovery  furnishes  a  signifi- 
cant illustration  of  the  fallibility  of  human  judgment  even 
when  aided  by  the  refined  and  delicate  means  of  investiga- 
tion with  which  the  modern  scientist  is  familiar.  So  well 
had  Nature  kept  her  secret  from  prying  inquisitiveness,  that, 
although  argon  had  from  time  immemorial  been  literally 
on  the  tip  of  everybody's  tongue,  no  whisper  hinting  of 
its  existence  liad  ever  consciously  been  uttered. 

Tiie  achievement  of  its  discovery  ranks  facile  princeps 
among  those  of  a  somewhat  remarkable  year.  The  de- 
tection of  a  new  element,  while  always  noteworthy,  is  not 
necessarily  in  itself  an  event  of  more  than  academic  in- 
terest. Within  the  last  fifty  years  numerous  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  list  of  elementary  bodies,  though 
they  have  been  much  less  frequent  of  late  years  than  in 
the  middle  of  tlie  century.  Most  of  these  newly  discovered 
elements  have  been  objects  of  extreme  rarity,  occurring 
only  in  minute  quantities  in  rare  minerals;  and  all  of  them 
have  been  metallic  substances.  It  is  nearly  seventy  years 
since  the  list  of  non-metals  was  augmented  through  the 
discovery,  by  Balard,  of  bromine  (1820);  and  the  existence 
of  an  undiscovered  element  belonging  to  that  group  did 
not  appear  probable.  Still  less  likely  did  it  seem  that  such 
an  element,  if  it  existed,  should  be  a  gas;  for,  since  the  rise 
of  the  science  of  modern  chemistry,  no  new  gaseous  element 
had  been  detected  —  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
chlorine  being  the  only  elementary  gases  known  to  exist. 
The  skepticism  with  whicli  the  announcement  of  the  dis- 
covery of  a  fifth  elementary  gas  was  at  first  received,  and 
the  amazement  with  which  scientists  Avitnessed  the  demon- 
stration of  its  existence  in  considerable  quantities  in  the 
atmosphere,  can  therefore  readily  be  understood.  That  the 
new  substance  should  so  long  haveescaped  detection  vvas due 
to  the  characteristic  property  of  inertness  which  gave  it  its 
name,  the  term  "argon"  being  derived  from  the  Greek 
prefix  ^-privative,  meaning  without,  and  i'pyov,  work. 
In  its  reluctance  to  enter  into  combination  with  other 
substances,  the  \\ii\w  element  surpasses  even  nitrogen,  with 
which  in  some  respects  it  seems  to  be  closely  allied. 

It  may  be  doubted  whether  any  addition  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  constitution  of  natural  objects,  which  has 
been  made  during  this  century,  surpasses  in  importance 
that  which  has  immortalized  the  names  of  Lord  Kayleigh 
and  Professor  Ramsay.  The  discovery  began  with  a  pre- 
diction followed  by  a  demonstration,  and  is  equalled  in 
brilliancy,  if  at  all,   only  by   the   few   discoveries    made 


1 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  259 

[h rough  the  careful  study  of  the  periodic  law,  and  by  the 
illustrious  achievement  of  Adams  and  Le  Verrier  in  184G, 
whose  simultaneous  but  independent  calculations  led  to 
the  predicted  existence  in  a  certain  position,  and  to  the 
subsequent  discovery,  of  the  then  unknown  planet  Nep- 
tune. The  discoverers  of  argon  triumphed  over  most 
formidable  and  aggravating  obstacles,  due  chieiiy  to  the 
length  of  time  re- 
quired to  perfect  each 
experiment,  the  diffi- 
culty of  securing  posi- 
tive data  in  the  ab- 
sence of  any  known 
affinities  of  the  new 
element,  and  the  ex- 
treme delicacy  of  the 
necessary  measure- 
ments. To  take  one 
example,  a  certain 
volume  of  ^'chemical 
nitrogen, "  obtained 
from  five  different 
sources,  weighed 
from  2.2985  to  2.3001 
units,  while  the  same 
volume  of  ''atmos- 
pheric nitrogen" 
ranged  from  2.3100 
to  2.3103  units.  This 
illustrates  the  aptness 
of  the  ph  rase  em 
ployed  when  the  final 
vindication  of  the 
discoverers'  claim  is 
spoken  of  as  *^a  triumph  of  the  last  place  of  decimals." 

Similar  experiments  were  conducted  a  hundred  years 
ago  by  the  Hon.  Henry  Cavendish.  In  1785,  while  study- 
ing the  properties  of  atmospheric  nitrogen,  this  investiga^ 
tor  seems  to  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  argon.  Attempt- 
ing to  cause  a  complete  union  of  atmospheric  nitrogen 
with  oxygen  by  means  of  the  electric  spark,  he  found  in 
all  cases  a  small  rcsidmim  which  could  not  be  made  to 
enter  into  combination.     Speaking  of  the  fact,  he  says: 

"  If  there  is  auy  part  of  the  phlogisticated  air  (nitrogen)  of  our  ai 
mosphere  which  differs  from  the  rest  and  cannot  be  reduced  to 
nitrous  acid,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  it  is  not  more  than  1  Vi(ii\x 
part  of  the  whole  " 


rnoFEssoK  william  ramsay,  rn  d  ,  p  r  s  b. 

ONE  op  THE   DISCOVEREUS  OP  ARGON 


260  AKGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  2d  Qr,  1895. 

Caveiulisli,  liowever,  paid  no  attention  to  tliis  rcsidmnn, 
except  to  regard  it  as  sliowing,  by  its  minuteness,  the 
great  purity  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.  He  thus  stood  still 
upon  the  threshold  of  a  great  discovery.  Modern  science 
does  not  thus  neglect  residual  phenomena. 

The  discovery  of  argon  came  about  in  the  following 
way.  Lord  Kayleigh,  while  pursuing  investigations  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  French  chemist  Kegnault,  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  density  of  atmospheric  gases,  noticed  a  strange 
thing — namely,  that  nitrogen,  when  extracted  from  the 
air,  weighed  perceptibly  heavier  than  when  manufactured 
chemically.  The  difference  was  very  slight,  the  weights 
of  equal  volumes  standing  in  about  the  ratio  2:31:  230.  It 
was  a  positive  difference,  however;  and  repeated  experiment 
demonstrated  the  fact,  not  only  of  its  existence,  but  of  its 
constancy.  The  problem  Avas  then  to  account  for  the  ob- 
served discrepancy.  Various  explanations  suggested  them- 
selves, but  were  all  in  turn  rejected  as  inadequate,  until  it 
becameevidentthat  the  supposed  pure  nitrogen  fromatmos- 
pheric  air  was  not  pure  nitrogen,  but  contained  an  ad- 
mixture of  another  and  heavier  gas.  Lord  Kayleigh  dis- 
cussed the  matter  with  Professor  Kamsay  of  University 
College,  London;  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  latter, 
gave  him  permission  to  join  in  investigating  the  discrep- 
ancy. This  was  in  April,  1894.  In  July  following. 
Professor  Ramsay  sent  Lord  Rayleigh  three  ounces  of  the 
newly  discovered  gas.  As  it  turned  out,  however,  Lord 
Kayleigh  had  himself,  in  the  meantime,  extracted  some 
from  the  atmosphere.  Thus  the  actual  discovery,  like 
several  other  revolutiojiary  achievements  in  the  history  of 
science,  was  made  by  two  men  simultaneously. 

The  first  disclosure  to  the  public  regarding  the  discov- 
was  made  in  a  verbal   announcement  at  a  meeting  of 


erv 


the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
August  13,  181)-i  (Vol.  4,  p.  087).  Not  unnaturally,  in 
the  absence  of  formal  and  detailed  statement,  it  was  re- 
ceived with  wide  reservation  of  judgment,  and  even  with 
positive  distrust.  Some  considered  that  the  alleged  ele- 
ment was  simply  an  impurity;  others,  that  the  observa- 
tions thought  to  establish  its  existence  were  defective; 
others,  that  an  allotropic  form  of  nitrogen  might  have 
been  found,  but  not  a  new  gas;  others,  as  Professor 
Wanklyn,  that  the  gas  which  had  given  rise  to  so  much 
speculation,  was  merely  nitrous  oxide;  while  still  others, 
as  Professor  Dewar,  the  eminent  investigator  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  exceedingly  low  temperatures,  were  inclined  to 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  261 

consider  argon  not  as  something  separated  from  air, 
but  as  some  j^roduct  manufactured  in  the  course  of  the 
experiments  (Vol.  4,  j).  922).  Further  declarations  on  the 
part  of  the  discovered  were  confidently  looked  for  at  the 
meeting  of  the  London  Chemical  Society  held  on  Decem- 
ber 13,  1894;  but  the  year  expired  without  the  hopes  of 
scientists  being  realized.  It  was  not  until  January  31, 
1895,  that  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Professor  Ramsay  felt  that 


Preparation   of   Argon. 


-Absorption    of 
La  ROE  Scale. 


Oxygen   and   Nitrogen   on 


Air  is  freed  from  oxygen  by  means  of  red-hot  ropper.  Tlie  residue  is  col- 
lected in  the  lar>?e  pas-holder  on  the  left  t>f  Hiriire,  foiced  thence  through 
a  combustion  tube  heated  in  a  gas  furnace  containing  copper,  in  order  to  re- 
move all  traces  of  oxygen,  then  dried  in  its  passage  over  soda-lime  and  phos- 
phorus pentoxide  after  passage  through  a  small  U  tube  containing  sulphuric 
acid  to  indicate  rate  of  flow,  then  passed  through  a  second  combustion  tube 
packed  tightly  with  magnesium  turnings  and  heated  to  redness  in  a  second  gas 
furnace.  From  this  tube  it  passes  through  a  second  index  tube,  and  is  collected 
in  a  small  ga.s-holder,  with  a  capacity  of  about  three  or  four  litres. 


their  laborious  experiments  had  reached  such  a  stage  as  to 
warrant  definite  and  formal  publication.  The  first  paper 
dealing  with  the  subject  was  read  on  that  date  before  the 
Royal  Society  of  England  (p.  209). 

Two  processes  of  separating  the  gas  are  employed.  In  one,  air 
is  deprived  of  most  of  its  oxygen  by  being  made  to  flow  over  red-hot 
copper  filings,  the  latter  having  an  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  combining 
with  it  to  form  oxide  of  copper.  The  remaining  gas,  chiefly  nitrogen, 
is  then  forced  through  a  combustion  tube  over  more  copper  heated  to 
a  high  temperature  by  a  gas  furnace;  a  small  U-shaped  tube  contain- 
ing sulphuric  acid,  to  indicate  the  rate  of  flow;  a  larger,  straight  tube 
containing  soda-lime  and  phosphorus  pentoxide,  to  absorb  moisture 
or  other  impurity;  and  then  through  a  second  combustion  tube  filled 
Avith  turnings  of  magnesium,  also  intensely  heated.  The  magnesium 
unites  with  the  nitrogen,  heat  promoting  the  union.  One  of  the  re- 
sultant products  of  the  experiment  is  a  small  residue,  which  on  ex- 
amination proves  to  be  crude  argon.  The  accompanying  diagram  (1) 
serves  to  illustrate  the  process. 

In  order  to  obtain  argon  chemically  pure,  ft  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  last  traces  of  nitrogen;  and  for  this  purpose  an  ingenious  self- 
acting  circulating  apparatus  has  been  devised,  of  which  some  idea  i*^ 


262 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS. 


2d  Qr.,  1895. 


given  by  the  accompanying  diagram  (2).  By  its  means  the  gas  can 
be  kept  in  circulation  over  the  various  purifying  agents  for  any  length 
of  time. 

In  the  second  method  of  preparation — which  proves  to  be  slightly 
more  expeditious — air,  mixed  with  a  small  amount  of  free  oxygen,  is 
inclosed  in  a  glass  vessel  over  an  alkaline  liquid.  Wires  with  plat- 
inum terminals  are  led  into  the  vessel,  and  powerful  electric  sparks 
are  sent  between  the  terminals.  An  intense  heat  is  generated,  the 
effect  of  which  is  a  union  of  the  oxygen  and  the  nitrogen,  the  result- 


To  To  Spi-enjel-p  «  nij3 

<  9' 


_  ^    ,  Ch-  Cu-0.     i^t^Os 


2.    Preparation   op  Argon —Circulating  Apparatus  for  Absorbing    Last 
Traces  of  Nitrogen. 

After  collecting  the  residue  from  100  or  150  litres  of  atmospheric  nitrogen, 
it  is  placed  in  a  small  gas-holder  (a);  and  by  means  of  a  self-acting  Sprengel's 
pump  (fe)  the  gas  is  caused  to  circulate  through  a  tube  half  filled  with  copper 
and  half  with  copper  oxide,  then  through  a  tube  half  filled  with  soda-lime  and 
half  with  phosphorus  pentoxide;  passing  through  a  reservoir  (c)  of  about  300 
c.c.  capacity,  it  is  by  means  of  a  mercury  reservoir  expelled  into  a  small  gas- 
holder (ri).  "  Next  it  passes  through  a  tube  containing  magnesium  turnings 
heated  to  bright  redness.  As  the  amount  of  gas  in  the  tubes  and  reservoirs 
diminishes  in  volume,  it  draws  fresh  supplies  from  the  gas-holder  till  at  last  the 
circulating  system  is  full  of  argon  in  a  pure  state.  Before  ceasing  to  heat  the 
magnesium  tube  the  system  is  pumped  empty  and  the  collected  gas  restored  to 
gas-holder.  Finally,  all  the  argon  is  transferred  from  the  mercury  reservoir  to 
the  second  small  gas-holder,  which  should  preferably  be  filled  with  water 
saturated  with  argon.  The  complete  removal  of  nitrogen  from  argon  is  very 
slow  toward  the  end. 

ing  compound  being  absorbed  by  the  alkali.  A  residuum  of  crude 
argon  is  left,  which  may  be  refined  in  the  way  described  in  the  first 
process. 

In  the  hitherto  unexplored  fields  opened  up  by  the  dis- 
covery of  this  new  constituent  of  the  atmosphere,  the  search 
for  knowledge  is  now  being  vigorously  prosecuted.  What 
are  the  properties  of  argon,  its  uses  and  propensities?  Is 
it  not  possible  that  certain  effects  hitherto  attributed  to  the 
nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere,  or  even  to  the  oxygen  in 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS. 


263 


mixture  therewith,  are  in  reality  attributable  to  argon? 
Has  it  any  bearing  on  respiration  or  other  processes  of  or- 
ganic life?  What  functions  are  assigned  to  it  in  the  econ- 
omy of  nature?  These  and  many  other  questions  call  for 
answer;  and,  although  considerable  is  already  known  regard- 
ing the  new  element,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  *' unsettled 
questions"  opened  up  by  its  discovery  constitute  a  field  of 
study  which  years  of  patient  research  will  not  exhaust. 

The  physical  properties  of  argon  are  in  some  respects 
peculiar.  At  normal  temperature  and  pressure  it  is  a 
colorless,  tasteless,  odorless  gas,  having  a  density  of  19.90 
compared  with  hydrogen  as  the  unit.  It  forms  about  1- 
125th  of  the  atmosphere  in  volume,  and  l-120th  in  weight; 
or,  in  other  words,  about  two  ounces  of  the  15-pounds' 
pressure  of  the  air  is  due  to  argon.  It  is  much  more 
soluble  in  water  than  nitrogen,  standing  to  the  latter  in 
this  respect  in  the  ratio  2^:  1,  100  volumes  of  water  bein^ 
found  to  dissolve  4.05  volumes  of  argon  at  13.9°  c.  Pro- 
fessor K.  Olszewski  of  the  University  of  Cracow,  to  whom 
some  of  the  new  gas  was  sent  for  examination,  discovered 
that  at  low  temperatures  and  under  high  pressure  it  could 
be  both  liquefied  and  solidified.  In  the  following  table 
he  summarizes  the.  results  of  his  experiments,  giving  also, 
for  the  sake  of  comparison,  similar  data  regarding  other 
substances.  The  terms  "critical  temperature"  and  "crit- 
ical pressure"  signify  the  temperature  and  pressure  which 
must  be  reached  in  order  to  condense  the  gas  into  a 
liquid. 


Name  of  substance 

Critical 
tempe- 
rature. 

Critical 
press- 
ure. 

Boiling 
point  at 
atmos- 
pheric 
pressure. 

Freez- 
ing 
pomt. 

Freez- 
ing 

press- 
ure. 

Density 
of  gas. 

Density 
of  liquid 
at  boil- 
ing 
poiat. 

Hydrogen  (Hg).... 

Nitrogen  (Ng) 

Carbonic  oxide(CO) 

Argon  (Ai) 

Oxygen  (Og) 

Nitric  oxide  (NO).. 
Methane  (CH4).... 

Below. 

-220.0' 
—146.0 
-139.5 

-121.0 

-118  8 
-93.5 

-81.8 

Atmos. 
20.0 
35.0 
35.5 

50.6 
50.8 
71.2 
54.9 

? 
-194.4^ 
—190.0 

—187.0 
-182.7 
-1.53.6 
-164.0 

9 
-2l'4.0^ 
-207.0 

-189.6 

? 
-167  0 

-185.8 

mm. 

? 

60 
100 

? 
? 

138 
80 

1.0 
14.0 
14.0 

19.9 
16.0 
15.0 
8.0 

? 
0.885 

? 
About 
1.5 
1.124 
? 
0.415 

The  results  tabulated  above. show  argon  to  be  one  of 
the  so-called  "permanent"  gases,  and  to  occupy  fourth 
place  (between  carbon  monoxide  and  oxygen)  in  degree 
of  difficulty  of  liquefaction.  Its  behavior  on  liquefaction 
places  it  nearest  oxygen;  but  it  differs  from  the  latter  in 
being  readily  solidified,  which  result  no  one  has  yet  been 
able  to  effect  in  the  case  of  oxygen.     Owing  to  the  high 


264  ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

density  of  argon,  it  was  thought  that  its  liquefaction 
would  not  require  as  low  a  temj^erature  as  oxygen.  That 
it  takes  a  lower  temperature  and  has  a  lower  boiling  point, 

is  thought  to  indicate  great 
simplicity  in  its  molecular  con- 
stitution. 

Spectroscopy  has  added  data 
confirmatory  of  the  conclusions 
of  the  discoverers  as  to  the  detec- 
tion of  a  new  substance.  Pro- 
fessor William  Crookes,  F.  11. 
S.  E.,  who  was  the  first  to  in- 
vestigate the  spectra  of  argon, 
^  has  found  that  it  gives  two  dis- 
M  tinct  spectra  (in  the  red  and  the 
2  blue)  according  to  the  strength 
'^  of  the  induction  current  used. 
I  Both  spectra  consist  of  sharp 
^^  lines;  and  in  this  respect  differ 
§  ^  from  the  two  spectra  of  nitrogen, 
<^  one  of  which  consists  of  fluted 
accompanying  il- 
serve  to  show  the 
1^  difference  between  the  two  types 
I  of  spectra.  It  is  very  difficult 
o  to  procure  argon  absolutely  free 
M^  from  nitrogen;  but,  although 
a  nitrogen  bands  at  first  appear 
^  superposed  on  the  argon  spec- 
trum, they  will  be  found  to  dis- 
appear if  the  induction  spark  be 
passed  through  tlie  tube  for  some 
time,  varying  from  a  few  min- 
utes to  a  few  hours.  The  pres- 
sure of  argon  giving  the  great- 
est luminosity  and  most  brilliant 
spectrum  is  3  mm.  (nitrogen, 
on  the  other  hand,  taking  75 
or  80  mm.).  At  this  point  the 
color  of  the  discharge  is  orange 
red,  and  the  spectrum  is  rich  in  red  rays,  two  being  es- 
pecially prominent  at  wavelengths  696.56  and  705.64.  If 
the  pressure  be  further  reduced,  and  a  Leyden  jar  inter- 
calated in  the  circuit,  the  color  of  the  discharge  changes  to 
a  rich  blue,  and  the  spectrum  shows  an  almost  entirely  dif- 
ferent set  of  lines.  An  electromotive  force  of  about  27,600 


S I  bands.     The 
^3  lustrations 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  265 

volts  is  required  to  bring  out  the  red:  a  higher  force  and  a 
very  hot  spark  for  the  bhie.  The  red  glow  is  produced  by 
the  positive  spark;  the  blue  by  the  negative.  Professor 
Crookes  counted  119  lines  in  the 
blue  spectrum,  and  80  in  the  red,  I 
26  appearing  to  be  common  to 
both.     Says  he  further: 

"I  Lave  prepared  tubes  containing 
other  gases  as  well  as  nitrogen  at  differ- 
ent pressures,  and  have  examined  their 
spectra  both  by  eye  observations  and 
by  photography.  The  sharp  line  spec- 
trum of  nitrogen  is  not  nearly  so  strik- 
ing in  brilliancy,  number,  or  sharpness 
of  lines  as  are  those  of  argon,  and  the 
most  careful  scrutiny  fails  to  show  any 
connection  between  the  spectra.  I  can 
detect  no  lines  in  common.  Between 
the  spectra  of  argon  and  the  band 
spectrum  of  nitrogen  there  are  two  or 
three  close  approximations  of  lines;  but 
a  projection  on  the  screen  of  a  magni- 
fied image  of  the  two  spectra  partly 
superposed  will  show  that  two  at  least 
of  these  are  not  really  coincidences. 

"  I  have  found  no  other  spectrum- 
giving  gas  or  vapor  yield  spectra  at  all 
like  those  of  argon;  and  the  apparent 
coincidences  in  some  of  the  lines,  which 
on  one  or  two  occasions  are  noticed, 
have  been  very  few,  and  would  prob- 
ably disappear  on  using  a  higher  dis- 
persion. Having  once  obtained  a  tube 
of  argon  giving  the  pure  spectra,  I  can 
make  no  alteration  in  it,  other  than  Avhat 
I  have  explained  takes  place  on  varying 
the  spark  or  increasing  the  exhaustion, 
when  the  two  spectra  change  from  one 
to  the  other.  As  far,  therefore,  as  spec- 
trum work  can  decide,  the  verdict  must, 
I  think,  be  that  Lord  Rayleigh  and 
Professor  Ramsay  have  added  one,  if 
not  two,  members  to  the  family  of 
elementary  bodies." 

As  regards  the  chemical  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  argon,  our  field  of  vision 
has  just  begun  to  be  cleared.  At 
the  time  of  the  formal  announce- 
ment (January  31),  no  chemical  properties  of  the  element 
had  been  discovered.  No  compound  of  argon  Jiad  been 
found,  nor  had  the  discoverers  been  able  to  induce  it  to 
enter   into   combination    with  any   other  substance.      It 


266  ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

seemed  most  thoronglily  to  deserve  its  name.  However, 
the  researches  of  M.  Berthelot,  a  French  chemist,  have 
shown  that  the  term  *^  argon  ^'  is  really  a  misnomer.  The 
inertness  of  the  element  is  not  absolute.  In  fact,  it  becomes 
very  active  under  conditions  easily  produced.  By  means 
of  the  silent  and  relatively  dark  (or  invisible)  electric  dis- 
charge, as  distinguished  from  the  audible  discharge  of  the 
spark,  M.  Berthelot  has  succeeded  in  making  argon  com- 
bine with  benzene,  producing  a  yellow,  resinous,  and  odor- 
ous substance,  which  forms, 
under  the  influence  of  heat, 
a  volatile  product  and  a  car- 
bonaceous residue.  A  high- 
tension  current  was  used, 
regulated  by  a  Ruhmkorlf 
coil  having  a  vibrating  in- 
terrupter. The  gas  and  the 
substance  with  which  it  was 
to  be  combined  were  held 
in  a  gauge  enlarged  at  the 
lower  end  and  surrounded 
by  a  thin  ribbon  of  plati- 
DUQRAM  ILLUSTRATING  M.  bbrthelot's  uum  arraugcd  Spirally  and 
APPARATUS.  communicating    with    the 

negative  pole  of  the  coil  (see  accompanying  diagram). 
Into  this  tube  the  arm  of  another  was  inserted,  bent 
to  a  V-shape,  closed  at  its  upper  end  and  filled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Another  Avire,  immersed  in  the 
acidulated  water,  communicated  with  the  positive  pole  of 
the  coil.  The  advantage  of  the  silent  discharge  lies  in  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  permanently  raise  the  interior  temp- 
erature, and  so  does  not  disintegrate  more  or  less  unstable 
compounds,  as  the  spark  might  do.  It  was  by  means  of 
this  same  device  that  M.  Berthelot,  some  years  ago,  was 
able  to  show  that  nitrogen  combines  Avitli  hydrocarbons, 
like  benzene;  with  carbohydrates,  such  as  go  to  build  up 
the  tissues  of  plants;  and  even  with  tertiary  products,  such 
as  ether.  A  bit  of  moist  filter-paper,  for  example,  exposed 
to  the  silent  discharge  in  presence  of  nitrogen,  whether 
alone  or  mixed  with  oxygen,  absorbs  a  considerable 
amount,  producing  a  nitrogenized  compound,  which,  on 
heating  with  soda-lime,  gives  off  abundance  of  ammonia. 
Indications  of  another  remarkable  discovery,  Avhich, 
however,  still  awaits  confirmation,  occurred  during  the 
progress  of  M.  Berthelot's  experiment.  While  the  current 
lasted,  a  faint  violet  glow,  visible  in  darkness,  could  be 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  267 

observed  iu  the  tube  containing  argon  and  benzene;  and 
once  there  was  perceptible  the  formation  of  a  fluorescent 
substance  which  developed  a  brilliant  greenish-yellow  light 
and  a  special  spectrum,  the  latter  exhibiting  great  simi- 
larity to  the  spectrum  of  the  aurora  borealis.  From  which 
the  possible  conclusion  is  drawn,  that  the  rays  belonging 
to  the  aurora  are  attributable  to  a  form  or  special  combi- 
nation of  argon,  or  of  elements  as  yet  unknown  which  ac- 
company it,  engendered  through  the  influence  of  elec- 
trical emanations  developed  in  the  atmosphere. 

A  most  interesting  corollary  to  the  discovery  of  argon, 
confirming  the  fact  of  its  possession  of  marked  affinities, 
has  been  the  (probable)  demonstration  that  helium,  a 
hypothetical  element  hitherto  supposed  to  exist  only  in 
the  atmospheres  of  the  sun  and  some  of  the  stars,  is  in 
reality  also  a  constituent  of  the  earth.  This  announce- 
ment was  made  by  Professor  Ramsay  on  March  27,  before 
the  London  Chemical  Society.  When  the  spectrum  of 
the  solar  chromosphere  and  prominences  was  first  observed 
in  1868,  a  conspicuous  bright  yellow  line,  since  generally 
known  as  D3,  was  invariably  found  accompanying  the 
bright  lines  of  hydrogen.  It  corresponded  with  no  dark 
line  in  the  ordinary  solar  spectrum,  nor  could  it  be  identi- 
fied with  any  line  in  the  spectrum  of  any  known  element. 
Its  presence  was  taken  to  indicate  an  unknown  element, 
for  which  Professor  Frankland  suggested  the  appropriate 
name  "  helium."  AVithin  the  past  few  years  the  same  line 
has  been  observed  in  the  spectra  of  temporary  stars,  vari- 
ables, and  nebulae.  From  the  associations  of  helium  and 
the  particular  region  of  the  sun  where  it  is  found,  it  is 
presumably  one  of  the  lightest  of  known  substances.  It 
has  now,  however,  been  extracted  by  a  simple  process  from 
the  rare  Norwegian  mineral  cleveite,  which  is  a  variety  of 
uraninite  or  pitchblende,  chiefly  a  uranate  of  uranyle, 
lead,  and  the  rare  earths. 

"  In  seeking  a  clue  to  compounds  of  argon,"  says  Professor  Ram- 
say, "I  was  led  to  repeat  experiments  of  Hillebrand  on  cleveite, 
which,  as  is  known,  when  boiled  with  weak  sulphuric  acid,  gives  off 
a  gas  hitherto  supposed  to  be  nitrogen.  This  gas  proved  to  be  almost 
free  from  nitrogen;  its  spectrum  in  a  Pflucker's  tube  showed  all  the 
prominent  argon  lines,  and,  in  addition,  a  brilliant  line  close  to,  but 
not  coinciding  with,  the  D  lines  of  sodium.  There  are,  moreover,  a 
number  of  other  lines,  of  which  one  in  the  green-blue  is  especially 
prominent.  Atmospheric  argon  shows,  besides,  three  lines  in  the 
violet  which  are  not  to  be  seen,  or,  if  present,  are  excessively  feeble, 
in  the  spectrum  of  the  gas  from  cleveite.     *     *     * 

"  Not  having  a  spectroscope  with  which  accurate  measurements 
can  be  made,  I  sent  a  tube  of  the  gas  to  Mr.  Crookes,  who  has  identi- 


268  ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

lied  the  yellow  line  with  that  of  the  solar  element  to  which  the  name 
'  helium  '  has  been  given." 

Professor  Crookes's  statement  on  the  subject  is  us  fol- 
lows: 

"  On  looking  at  the  spectrum,  by  far  the  most  prominent  line 
was  seen  to  be  a  brilliant  yellow  one  apparently  occupying  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sodium  lines.  Examination  with  high  powers  showed, 
however,  that  the  line  remained  rigorously  single  when  the  sodium 
lines  would  be  widely  separated.  On  throwing  sodium  light  into  the 
spectroscope  simultaneously  with  that  from  the  new  gas,  the  spec- 
trum of  the  latter  was  seen  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  a  bright  yel- 
low line,  a  little  to  the  more  refrangible  side  of  the  sodium  lines,  and 
separated  from  them  by  a  space  a  little  wider  than  twice  that  sepa- 
rating the  two  sodium  components  from  each  other.  It  appeared 
as  bright  and  as  sharp  as  Dj  and  Dj.  Careful  measurements  gave  its 
wave  length  587.45,  the  wave  lengths  of  the  sodium  lines  being  D, 
589.51  and  Da  588.91.  *  *  *  The  spectrum  of  the  gas  is,  there- 
fore, that  of  tlie  hypothetical  element  helium,  or  D3,  the  wave  length 
of  which  is  given  by  Angstrom  as  587.49,  and  by  Cornu  as  587.46. 
Besides  the  helium  line,  traces  of  the  more  prominent  lines  of  argon 
were  seen." 

The  discovery  of  helium  in  combination  with  argon  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  probably  disposes  of  the  theory  of 
Gruenewald  to  the  effect  that  helium  and  coronium 
(another  hypothetical  element,  found  in  the  sun's  corona) 
might  possibly  be  components  of  hydrogen  partially  disas- 
sociated by  the  intense  heat. 

The  question  of  the  atomicity  of  argon  has  proved  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  of  determination.  So  far  as  known,  it 
is  probably  monatomic,  though  the  difficulties  raised  on 
this  theory  are  so  great  as  to  necessitate  a  modification  of 
cliemical  theory.  In  its  numerical  relations  with  other 
elements,  argon  occupies  a  quite  anomalous  position. 

About  thirty  years  ago  the  Russian  chemist  Mendeleeff 
discovered  what  is  known  as  the  '^  periodic "  law,  long 
accepted  as  a  basis  for  the  classification  of  the  elements. 
He  pointed  out  that  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements 
can  be  arranged  in  such  order  as  to  exhibit  a  marked 
mathematical  relation  between  the  several  groups,  the 
members  of  any  one  of  which  have  many  points  of  resem- 
blance in  properties.  All  the  hitherto  known  elements 
have  fitted  into  this  scheme  of  classification. 

Now,  there  are  several  facts  which  seem  to  indicate  not 
only  that  argon  is  an  element,  but  that  it  is  monatomic,  i.e., 
that  its  molecules  are  composed  of  a  single  atom  each,  in- 
stead of  two  atoms,  as  in  the  case  of  most  elementary  gases. 
The  possession  of  a  definite  melting  point,  a  definite  boil- 
ing point,  and  a  definite  critical  temperature  and  pressure, 
is    usually    considered    a   criterion    of  a  pure    substance. 


ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS.  269 

Moreover,  the  ratio  of  tlie  specific  lieat  of  argon  at  con- 
stant volume  to  that  at  constant  pressure,  as  deduced 
from  the  velocity  of  sound  in  argon,  points  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  new  element,  if  it  be  such,  is  monatomic. 
The  "ratio  of  the  specific  heats'*  for  argon  is  put  at  1.G6. 
Corresponding  figures  for  the  familiar  diatomic  gases,  on 
the  other  hand,  range  from  1.29  to  1.42.  The  new  ele- 
ment would  therefore  seem  to  be  thrown  back  among  the 
monatomic  gases.  On  this  theory  the  atomic  weight  of 
argon  is  40  (approximately),  or  twice  the  density   (19.9). 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  facts  which  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  argon  is  at  least  diatomic  (with  molecules 
of  two  atoms),  and  that  it  is  possibly  not  an  element  at  all, 
but  a  mixture  or  a  compound  of  unknown  elements.  The 
duality  of  its  spectra  under  different  conditions  points  to 
the  absence  of  simplicity.  But  even  more  significant  is 
the  fact  that  if  argon  be  a  monatomic  element,  with  atomic 
weight  of  40,  there  is  no  place  for  it  in  the  classification 
of  the  elements  under  the  periodic  law.  Its  density  would 
seem  to  place  it  among  electro-negative  bodies  like  fluo- 
rine; but,  on  the  theory  that  it  is  monatomic,  it  would 
have  to  be  placed  among  bodies  so  dissimilar  to  it  as  the 
metals  potassium  and  calcium,  where  the  periodic  law 
would  seem  to  have  no  place  for  an  additional  element. 
Thus  there  seems  to  be  a  conflict  of  authority  between  the 
periodic  law  and  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  deter- 
mination of  specific-heat  ratios.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
noted  that  the  law  of  Mendeleeff  is  merely  empirical, 
based  on  an  observed  but  unexplained  uniformity;  and,  al- 
though it  has  been  of  great  value  in  the  development  of 
the  science  of  chemistry,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  it 
expresses  the  ultimate  truth  regarding  the  relations  of  the 
elements. 

Professor  Mendel eeff  himself  thinks  that  argon  may 
possibly  be  condensed  nitrogen,  with  formula  Ng.  In  that 
case  its  density  would  naturally  be  21,  whereas  it  appears 
to  fall  below  20;  but  the  theory  would  explain  the  concur- 
rent existence  of  nitrogen  and  argon,  and  the  fact  that 
many  of  their  bright  lines  are  very  near  to  each  other,  as 
also  the  inactivity  of  argon,  and  would  allow  it  a  proper 
place  in  the  periodic  system. 

On  the  whole,  however,  investigators  incline  at  present 
to  the  opinion  that  argon  is  a  monatomic  element;  but 
further  research  into  its  properties  bids  fair  to  work  ex- 
tensive changes  in  chemical  theory,  more  especially  as  re- 
gards the  various  hypotheses  of  molecular  constitution. 


270  ARGON  AND  ITS  DISCOVERERS  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Rayleigh,  Lord  John  William  Strutt,  D,  C.  L.,  LL.  D.,F.  R. 
S.  E.,  joint  discoverer,  with  Professor  William  Rauasay,  of  argon,  cor- 
responding member  of  the  French  Institute,  lord  lieutenant  of  Essex, 
third  baron,  was  born  November  13,  1842,  and  succeeded  to  the  title 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1873.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge  (B.  A,,  senior  wrangler,  and  first  Smith's  prize-man, 
1865;  fellow  of  his  college,  1866;  M.  A.,  1868;  honorary  D.  C.  L.,  Ox- 
ford, 1883;  honorary  LL.  D.,  McGill  University,  Montreal.  Que.,  1884, 
and  Dublin  University,  1885);  is  a  D.  L.  and  J.  P.  for  Essex,  and  a 
Cambridge  commissioner  under  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Universi- 
ties act  (1877);  and  was  professor  of  experimental  physics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  from  1879  to  1884;  professor  of  natural  philoso- 
phy in  the  Royal  Institution,  1887.  He  is  the  author  of  two  volumes 
on  The  Theory  of  Sound  (1877-8;  2d  edition,  1894),  and  of  many 
memoirs  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
other  scientific  publications.  He  has  also  edited  Clerk  Maxwell's 
Heat  (1891  and  1894).  He  married,  in  1871,  Evelyn  Georgina  Mary, 
daughter  of  the  late  James  Maitland  Balfour,  Esq. ,  of  Whittinghame, 
Prestonkirk;  and  has  three  sons. 

Ramsay,  William,  Ph.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
University  College,  London,  Eng.;  joint  discoverer,  with  Lord  Ray- 
leigh, of  argon,  was  born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Oct.  2,  1852,  His 
father,  of  the  same  name,  was  a  civil  engineer,  and  subsequently 
secretary  to  the  Scottish  Union  and  National  Insurance  office;  he  was 
brother  to  Sir  Andrew  Ramsay,  the  geologist;  his  mother,  Catherine 
Robertson,  was  the  daughter  of  Archibald  Robertson,  M.  D.,  who 
practiced  in  Edinburgh.  William  Ramsay  was  educated  at  the  Glas- 
gow Academy  until  his  fifteenth  year,  and  subsequently  at  Glasgow 
University.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  went  to  Tiibingen  to  study 
chemistry  under  Professor  Fittig,  now  at  Strassburg,  and  was  gradu- 
ated Ph.  D.  in  1872.  From  1872  to  1874  he  acted  as  chief  assistant 
to  the  "  Young"  chair  of  technical  chemistry  in  Anderson's  College, 
Glasgow;  and  from  1874  to  1880  as  "  tutorial "  assistant  to  the  chem- 
ical professor  in  Glasgow  University.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  in  University  College,  Bristol,  in  1880,  becoming  princi- 
pal of  that  college  the  following  year;  was  president  of  the  Bristol. 
Naturalists'  Society  from  1884  to  1887;  was  appointed  to  the  chemical 
chair  at  University  College,  London,  in  1887,  which  appointment  he 
still  holds.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  German  Chemical  Society 
in  1872,  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London  in  1874;  and  is  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  and  of  the  Society  of 
Chemical  Industry.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Physical  Society 
in  1886,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1888;  and  has  served  on  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Physical  and  Chemical  societies.  He  is  the  author  of  nu- 
merous papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  the  Chemical  So- 
ciety's Transactions,  and  in  other  British  and  foreign  journals;  also 
of  several  text-books  of  chemistry. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Literature  may  claim  some 
share  in  the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  argon,  inasmuch 
as  University  College,  London,  may  be  said  to  owe  its  ex- 
istence to  a  movement  started  by  the  poet  and  literary 
genius  Thomas  Campbell,  author  of  *^  Ye  Mariners  of 
England,"  "  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic,"  and  other  stirring 
poems.     \n  1825  he  succeeded  in  interesting  Mr.  (after- 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION.  271 

ward  Lord)  Brougham,  Sir  Isaac  Goldsmid,  and  others,  in 
the  project  based  upon  the  existing  need  in  London  for  a 
university  open  alike  to  all  creeds  and  in  which  no  relig- 
ious teaching  should  find  a  place.  In  1828  the  ^'Univer- 
sity of  London  "  was  founded,  with  a  capital  of  £153,000, 
Mr.  Brougham  being  its  first  president.  Owing  to  oppo- 
sition of  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  a 
petition  for  a  charter  of  incorporation,  approved  by  the 
law  officers  of  the  crown,  was  refused  in  1831;  so  that  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  has  never  had  the  power  of  con- 
ferring degrees.  It  is,  however,  a  most  useful  and  popular 
institution. 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION. 

T'HE  second  quarter  of  the  year  1895  was  made  memor- 
able by  two  of  the  most  remarkable  decisions  ever 
rendered  in  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States — de- 
cisions, two  as  to  their  form  and  date,  but  one  as  to  their 
final  effect.  They  annulled,  as  being  unconstitutional, 
all  the  income-tax  sections  (Nos.  27-37)  of  the  Revenue 
act  of  congress  passed  August  15,  1894,  which  had  be- 
come law  by  the  tacit  permission  of  the  president.  The 
opponents  of  the  income-tax  law  had  brought  the  question 
of  its  constitutionality  before  the  court,  as  that  question 
was  involved  in  the  two  cases  brought  on  appeal  from 
lower  courts — *' Charles  Pollock,  appellant,  vs.  the  Farm- 
ers' Loan  and  Trust  Company  et  ah;  Lewis  H.  Hyde,  ap- 
pellant, vs.  the  Continental  Trust  Company  of  the  city 
of  New  York  et  al."  The  two  appellants  sought  an  in- 
junction by  the  court  preventing  the  two  companies  from 
paying  the  tax  on  the  dividends  declared  on  the  stock  of 
those  two  corporations.  So  far  as  these  two  cases  had  the 
same  object  and  presented  the  same  legal  aspects^  each  of 
the  two  decisions  of  the  court  applied  to  both  cases  alike; 
and,  by  the  way,  in  dealing  with  the  law  in  reference  to 
them,  the  court  declared  the  law  unconstitutional  and 
therefore  void  throughout  the  land.  A  third  case  had 
been  appealed,  that  of  John  G.  Moore  vs.  the  commissioner 
of  internal  revenue;  but  it  presented  different  legal  aspects 
from  the  other  two. 

The  first  decision  was  rendered  on  April  8;  the  second. 


272  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

after  a  rehearing  before  the  full  court,  on  May  20. 
The  preliminary  petition  for  this  rehearing  was  CQj^^ei.dered 
and  decided  by  the  full  bench. 

The  public  interest  on  this  question  was  deep'and  uni- 
versal, and  arose  from  a  quite  unusual  variety  o^  consid- 
erations. To  the  English  and  still  more  to  the  ^i.merican 
mind,  an  income  tax  is  naturally  odious  as  a  survival  from 
despotism,  unless  in  some  great  national  emergency  it  can 
be  idealized  as  an  offering  on  the  altar  of  patriotism. 
This  particular  tax,  levied  or  seeming  to  be  levied  in  order 
to  the  removal  of  portions  of  the  tax  laid  by  the  tariff  on 
imports,  necessarily  evoked  strong  opposition  from  the  ad- 
vocates of  a  protective  tariff,  and  equally  strong  advocacy 
from  the  opponents  of  protection.  The  great  diminution 
in  the  public  revenues  made  any  measure  which  promised 
their  enlargement  important  in  the  eyes  of  all  students  of 
national  finance.  The  fact  that  the  law,  in  creating  this 
new  assessment,  had  distinctly  created  two  classes  among 
American  citizens — one  class  of  those  with  annual  income 
less  than  $4,000,  and  the  other  class  of  those  with  annual 
income  of  $4,000  or  more;  and  the  fact  that  the  first  class, 
comprising  the  households  of  probably  nine-tenths  of  the 
whole  population,  were  declared  exempt  from  the  tax,  in- 
stantly caused  a  battle  to  be  set  in  array  concerning  it. 
The  lines  of  this  battle,  while  composed  to  some  extent 
according  to  greater  or  less  income,  were  composed  far 
more  according  to  the  theories  which  men  hold,  or  rather 
according  to  the  sympathies  by  which  men  are  uncon- 
sciously swayed,  on  the  question  of  property  and  its  rights. 
Naturally,  all  believers  in  anarchistic  and  extreme  social- 
istic theories  hailed  the  law  as  a  first  step — real,  though 
utterly  insufficient — in  the  direction  of  compelling  those 
who  have  the  larger  income  to  bear  the  whole  public  bur- 
den, in  order  that  those  of  smaller  income  might  be  free  of 
all  pecuniary  contribution.  The  populists,  though  hold- 
ing different  theories,  sought  a  similar  end.  But,  in  com- 
pany with  these,  though  with  strong  refusal  of  all  their 
theories,  were  a  multitude — some  of  them  being  men  of 
wealth — burdened  with  a  sense  of  the  tremendous  in- 
equalities of  possession  that  mark  the  social  state,  and  led 
by  their  sympathies  to  uphold  the  new  law. 

The  foregoing  rapid  glance  at  the  variety  of  the  inter- 
ests involved  in  the  debate — interests  governmental,  finan- 
cial, political,  and  partisan,  personal,  social,  moral — shows 
how  unusually  important,  significant,  and  pregnant  was 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION. 


273 


the  question  which  was  finally  brought  to  its  issue  before 
the  supreme  judicial  bench. 

C  "used  as  was  the  question  as  presented  to  the  pub- 
lic mind,  it  was  reduced  to  a  single  issue  before  the  court. 
The  only  point  on  which  the  court  had  either  duty  or 
power  t^  ^ive  judgment  was  as  to  whether  this  law  of  the 
United  States  was  or  was  not  in  accord  with  the  constitu- 
tion. If  they  found  and  declared  it  not  in  accord,  the  so- 
called  law  was  not  then,  and  never  had  been,  a  law  at  all, 
and  never  could  be  until  either  the  decision  of  the  court 
had  been  reversed  or  the  constitution  had  been  changed. 
The  court  has  no  function  whatever  to  decide  for  the  finan- 
cial interests  or  necessities  of  the  government,  nor  for  up- 
holding theories  old  or  new  of  social  order,  nor  in  behalf 
of  the  poor  or  of  the  rich,  nor  for  the  benefit  of  any  politi- 
cal party.  It  can  only  interpret  and  declare  what  the 
constitution  requires  in  the  case  as  submitted,  and  this 
whether  the  constitution  requires  wisely  or  unwisely.  Any 
passing  beyond  the  strict  limits  of  this  judicial  function 
would  be  subversive  of  public  liberty.  It  would  in  effect 
be  a  making  of  laws,  thus  a  usurpation  of  the  power  of 
congress,  a  monstrous  combination  of  the  legislative  and 
the  judicial  powers  in  one  small  knot  of  men. 

It  should  be  observed,  however,  that,  single  as  was 
the  question,  it  was  not  simple.  At  least  its  answer  could 
not  be  simple.  The  one  point  of  constitutionality  was  the 
focal  point  of  some  complex  lines.  One  of  these  lines  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  the  constitution  was  framed  more 
than  a  century  ago.  Not  all  of  its  terms  relating  to  taxa- 
tion are  quite  definite  to-day;  for  instance,  its  term  ^*  di- 
rect tax,"  on  which  the  decision  largely  hinges,  stands 
without  definition;  and  what  its  precise  meaning  was  a 
hundred  years  ago,  is  a  point  for  large  and  close  historical 
considerations. 

Another  of  the  complex  lines  is  seen  in  the  considera- 
tion of  the  proper  bearing  of  "  precedents,"  or,  in  other 
words,  of  the  decisions  which  the  records  of  the  court 
show  it  to  have  pronounced  in  previous  cases  more  or  less 
cognate  to  the  case  in  hand.  To  the  minds  of  some  judges, 
precedents  (except  indeed  in  cases  precisely  the  same  in 
point)  appear  as  little  more  than  weighty  advice  from  a 
wise  and  venerable  source,  worthy  of  careful  considera- 
tion for  the  light  which  they  may  cast  on  the  (question  of 
constitutionality,  to  be  followed  as  far  as  practicable,  but 
to  be  calmly  disregarded  in  the  presence  of  new  and  clearer 
light.     To  another  class  of  minds,  a  precedent  of  the  su- 

Vol.  5.— 18. 


274  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    2d  Qr.,  1895. 

preme  court  seems  almost  as  sacred  as  a  clause  of  the  con- 
stitution itself,  since  it  has  stood  as  the  authoritative  in- 
terpretation of  that  instrument;  though  it  is  not  at  all  to 
be  presumed  that  any  of  the  justices  would  in  all  cases 
follow  precedent  in  the  face  of  all  adverse  considerations. 
The  difficulty  would  be  found  in  classifying  the  prece- 
dent cases  as  being  the  same  or  not  the  same  in  principle 
as  the  case  in  hand. 

A  third  of  the  complex  lines  is  seen  in  the  relation  be- 
tween the  congress  and  the  supreme  court.  The  constitu- 
tion vests  the  congress  with  the  law-making  power;  and 
the  court,  always  cautious  in  regard  to  transcending  its 
sphere,  and  sensible  of  its  vast  responsibility  witliin  that 
august  sphere,  naturally  feels  that  it  is  exercising  its  func- 
tions to  their  extreme  when  it  declares  null  and  void  an  act 
which  has  come  from  the  hands  of  the  two  co-ordinate  de- 
partments of  the  government — the  congress  and  the  presi- 
dent— stamped  by  their  authority  as  the  law  of  the  land. 
The  delicacy  of  such  a  situation  is  instantly  seen:  the 
complexity  of  it  for  the  court  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the 
action  of  the  two  other  high  governmental  powers  in  es- 
tablishing a  law  must  be  taken  into  consideration  as  very 
strongly  evidencing  the  constitutionality  of  the  law. 

The  first  decision  was  announced  on  April  8.  Each 
side  had  been  represented  by  legal  advocates  of  the  highest 
standing.  Of  the  nine  justices,  one,  Justice  Jackson,  was 
absent  through  sickness:  this  left  the  court  open  to  an 
equal  division,  which  in  fact  occurred;  and  by  preventing 
a  final  settlement  of  some  points,  left  the  law  somewhat 
confused,  and  occasioned  a  general  disappointment  in  the 
public  mind.  The  questions  which  were  left  in  doubt  are 
stated  in  legal  form  in  the  last  paragraph  of  the  conclu- 
sions of  the  court,  which  are  here  quoted  from  the  opinion 
as  read  by  Chief  Justice  Fuller: 

"1.  That,  by  the  constitution,  federal  taxation  is  divided  into 
two  great  classes — direct  taxes,  and  duties,  imposts,  and  excises. 

"  2.  That  the  imposition  of  direct  taxes  is  governed  by  the  rule 
of  apportionment  among  the  several  states,  according  to  numbers; 
and  the  imposition  of  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  by  the  rule  of 
uniformity  throughout  the  United  States. 

"3.  That  the  principle  that  taxation  and  representation  go  to- 
gether was  intended  to  be  and  was  preserved  in  the  constitution  by 
the  establishment  of  the  rule  of  apportionment  among  the  several 
states,  so  that  such  apportionment  should  be  according  to  numbers 
in  each  state. 

"4.  That  the  states  surrendered  their  power  to  levy  imposts 
and  to  regulate  commerce  to  the  general  government,  and  gave  it  the 
concurrent  power  to  levy  direct  taxes  in  reliance  on  the  protection 


276  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    2d  Qr.,  1895. 

afforded  by  tlie  rules  prescribed,  and  tliat  the  compromises  of  the 
constitution  cannot  be  disturbed  by  legislative  action. 

"5.  That  these  conclusions  result  from  the  text  of  the  constitu- 
tion, and  are  supported  by  the  historical  evidence  furnished  by  the 
circumstances  surrounding  the  framing  and  adoption  of  that  instru- 
ment, and  the  views  of  those  who  framed  and  adopted  it. 

"6.  Tbat  the  understanding  and  expectation  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  the  constitution  was  that  direct  taxes  would  not  be  levied 
by  the  general  government,  except  under  the  pressure  of  extraordi- 
nary exigency;  and  such  has  been  the  practice  down  to  August  lo, 
1894.  If  the  power  to  do  so  is  to  be  exercised  as  an  ordinary  and 
usual  means  of  supply,  that  fact  furnishes  an  additional  reason  for 
circumspection  in  disposing  of  the  present  case. 

"7.  That  taxes  on  real  estate  belong  to  the  class  of  direct  taxes, 
and  that  the  taxes  on  the  rent  or  income  of  real  estate,  which  is  the 
incident  of  its  ownership,  belong  to  the  same  class. 

"  8.  That  by  no  previous  decision  of  this  court  has  this  question 
been  adjudicated  to  the  contrary  of  the  conclusions  now  announced. 

"9.  That  so  much  of  the  act  of  August  15,  1894,  as  attempts  to 
impose  a  tax  upon  the  rent  or  income  of  .real  estate  icithout  apportion- 
ment is  invalid. 

"  The  court  is  further  of  opinion  that  the  act  of  August  15,  1894, 
is  invalid  so  far  as  it  attempts  to  levy  a  tax  vpon  the  income  derived 
from  municipal  bonds.  As  a  municipal  corporation  is  the  representa- 
tive of  the  state  and  one  of  the  instrumentalities  of  the  state  govern- 
ment, the  property  and  revenues  of  municipal  corporations  are  not 
the  subjects  of  federal  taxation;  nor  is  the  income  derived  from  state, 
county,  and  municipal  securities,  since  taxation  on  the  interest  there- 
from operates  on  the  power  to  borrow  before  it  is  exercised,  and  has 
a  sensible  influence  on  the  contract,  and,  therefore,  such  a  tax  is  a  tax 
on  the  power  of  the  states  and  their  instrumentalities  to  borrow 
money,  and  consequently  repugnant  to  the  constitution. 

"  Upon  each  of  the  other  questions  argued  at  the  bar,  to  wit: 
(1)  whether  the  void  provisions  as  to  rents  and  income  from  real 
estate  invalidate  the  whole  act;  (2)  whether  as  to  the  income  from 
personal  property,  as  such,  the  act  is  unconstitutional  as  laying  di- 
rect taxes;  (3)  whether  any  part  of  the  tax,  if  not  considered  as  a  di- 
rect tax,  is  invalid  for  want  of  uniformity  on  either  of  the  grounds 
suggested — the  justices  who  heard  the  argument  are  equally  divided; 
and,  therefore,  no  opinion  is  expressed." 

On  tlie  various  questions  above  indicated,  the  vote  is 
reported  as  follows: 

On  the  constitutionality  of  taxation  of  incomes  from 
state,  county,  and  municipal  bonds — unanimously  nega- 
tive. 

On  the  constitutionality  of  taxation  of  rents — affirma- 
tive two,  negative  six. 

On  the  constitutional  validity  of  the  law  in  its  other 
portions — affirmative  four,  negative  four — thus  failing  of 
a  decision. 

In  the  opinion  at  large,  the  chief  justice  presented  two 
main  points: 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION.  277 

1.  That  a  tax  on  income  from  rents  of  real  estate  is  practically  a 
tax  on  the  real  estate  as  being  the  basis  of  the  rents;  and  that  such  a 
tax  (one  of  the  class  known  as  "direct  taxes")  is,  by  the  constitution, 
expressly  forbidden  to  the  general  government  and  reserved  to  the 
several  states,  except  the  tax  be  made  proportionate  to  the  population 
in  all  the  states  severally. 

2.  That  a  tax  on  incomes  from  investments  in  state,  county,  and 
municipal  bonds  is  a  tax  on  contracts,  and  as  such  is  prejudicial  to 
the  public  interest  as  being  a  tax  on  the  power  of  the  states  and  of 
their  instrumentalities  to  borrow  money;  and  as  such  it  is  repugnant  to 
the  constitution. 

The  opinion  also  set  forth  the  fundamental  importance 
of  the  compromises  in  the  constitution,  which  were  in- 
sisted on  by  the  states  before  they  would  consent  to  a  close 
union  under  one  government.  Having  Just  emerged  from 
the  desperate  struggle  of  the  revolution,  whose  primary 
object  was  to  establish  the  principle  that  there  should  be 
no  taxation  of  the  people  without  their  representation  in 
the  government,  the  states  consented  to  surrender  to  the 
national  government  in  the  congress  the  power  to  lay  in- 
direct taxes  (defined  usually,  though  not  by  the  chief  jus- 
tice distinctly  in  this  decision,  as  taxes  on  articles  or  on 
consumption — duties,  imposts,  excise)  only  on  the  condi- 
tion that  the  congress  should  impose  no  direct  tax  (defined 
usually  as  tax  on  persons  and  their  estates,  real  estate,  etc.) 
unless  that  tax  would  fall  with  even  force  on  all  the  citi- 
zenship as  the  constituents  whose  representatives  in  the 
congress  voted  for  it.  The  constitution  intended  to  pre- 
vent the  laying  of  a  tax  on  any  state  by  the  representatives 
of  another  state. 

Section  6  of  the  conclusions  above  quoted  perhaps  in- 
timates that  the  income  tax  during  the  war  of  the  rebel- 
lion, like  the  war  itself — like  all  wars  in  their  process — is 
not  to  be  regarded  as  amenable  to  all  the  strictly  legal  con- 
siderations necessary  in  ordinary  times.  This  subject  had 
of  course  no  place  whatever  in  the  conclusions  pronounced 
by  the  court;  yet  those  who  are  asking  how  the  present 
decision  accords  with  laws  on  the  same  subject  which 
passed  unchallenged  by  this  tribunal  a  generation  ago, 
may  take  liberty  to  imagine  that  all  the  agreement  neces- 
sary is  intimated.  In  a  supreme  exigency,  when  the  con- 
stitution itself  is  in  peril  of  final  destruction  and  must  be 
saved,  if  at  all,  by  military  power  with  awful  '*  direct  tax" 
of  half  a  million  human  lives  and  of  thousands  of  millions 
of  treasure,  the  truly  constitutional  measures  are  those 
whose  high  intent  is  to  save  the  constitution.  If  it  is  worth 
our  arguing  about  to-day,  it  was  worth  saving  for  us  ic  a 
former  day.     Men  that  dare  to  take  such  extra-constitu- 


278  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

tional  measures  do  so  at  their  own  risk  indeed;  but  if  they 
have  judged  so  wisely  as  to  achieve  their  noble  and  peril- 
ous task,  not  only  do  they  stand  justified  before  the  tri- 
bunal of  the  general  judgment  of  mankind;  but  also  the 
venerable  instrument  conserved  by  their  hands  is  trans- 
mitted to  happier  days  with  a  new  sacredness  in  its  appeal 
to  the  nation's  heart,  and  with  a  more  august  command 
over  the  national  life.  It  is  more  precious  to  us  since 
once  we  feared  lest  we  might  suddenly  lose  it  altogether 
with  all  our  incomputable  treasures  of  civil  liberty,  happi- 
ness, and  power,  of  which  it  is  the  citadel. 

Probably  no  decision  occasioning  so  much  public  dis- 
appointment and  dissatisfaction  has  ever  before  issued 
from  the  supreme  bench.  This,  however,  was  due  in  only 
small  degree  to  the  decision  which  the  court  had  reached: 
the  public  discontent  arose  from  the  failure  to  reach  a  de- 
cision on  the  law  as  a  whole.  The  American  citizen, 
knowing  from  of  old  that  law  and  order  are  the  vital  air  in 
which  liberty  lives,  is  schooled  in  gracefully  subordinating 
his  private  opinions  to  the  public  sovereignty  uttering  its 
voice  through  legislatures  and  courts.  But  the  American 
citizen  expects  his  judges  to  give  judgment.  In  this  par- 
ticular business  it  was  felt  by  multitudes  as  an  almost  per- 
sonal grievance  that  men  and  women  should  be  compelled 
by  a  law  to  take  their  places  in  one  or  two  classes  showing 
an  income,  one  of  less,  the  other  of  more  than  a  certain 
sum;  that  this  inquisitorial  law  should  be  enforced  under 
heavy  penalties;  that  a  host  of  its  examiners  and  collectors 
should  be  turned  loose  on  the  public  to  exact  the  needful  re- 
search and  figuring — a  heavy  *' direct  tax ''on  time  and  en- 
ergy; that  about  $75,000  had  already  been  paid  to  the  gov- 
ernment according  to  the  law,  while  efforts  were  in  progress 
to  provide  and  pour  in  great  sums  during  the  few  remaining 
days  allowed  for  gathering  the  tribute;  that  the  national 
revenue,  deprived  of  previous  sources,  and  now  about  $40,- 
000,000  in  arrears  for  the  current  year,  should  be  trusting 
in  part  to  this  law  for  relief;  and  that  at  this  stage  the 
court  of  last  resort  should  not  only  cripple  the  law  by  cut- 
ting off  two  of  its  most  important  members,  but  should  also, 
by  an  equal  division  as  to  its  constitutionality  as  a  whole, 
leave  the  validity  of  the  entire  statute  suspended  in  doubt 
and  liable  to  be  denied  on  any  day  when  the  full  bench  of 
nine  justices  might  be  able  again  to  meet.  To  vexation, 
which  many  persons  deem  almost  a  synonym  for  taxation 
of  income,  the  element  of  confusion  was  added.  More- 
over, a  variety  of  new  and  unexpected  complications  had 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION.  279 

come  into  view  since  the  decision  had  been  given.  Also,  the 
decision  had  so  mutilated  the  law  as  actuall}^  to  reverse 
its  great  purpose  to  relieve  the  possessors  of  small  income 
and  to  place  the  burden  of  taxation  on  the  rich.  The 
exemption  of  all  income  from  investments  in  houses  and 
lands  and  in  government  bonds  of  every  kind,  allowed 
the  wealthy  capitalist  to  go  free,  while  taxing  the  men 
whose  energy  and  capital  were  embarked  in  business  or 
were  building  up  great  industries.  The  press  resounded 
with  criticism;  neither  the  moderates  nor  the  extremists 
of  any  party  were  satisfied ;  the  situation  was  one  of  un- 
stable equilibrium:  a  settlement  one  way  or  the  other  must 
soon  be  had. 

The  supreme  court  had  done  what  it  could,  and  with 
proper  dignity  gave  no  immediate  sign  as  to  its  future 
course  of  action.  Would  it  grant  a  rehearing  on  the 
points  concerning  which  it  had  been  equally  divided?  If 
it  should  grant  this — the  need  of  which  was  instantly 
pressing — could  it  reach  a  decision  without  a  grievous  de- 
lay for  the  recovery  of  its  sick  member?  If  the  member 
absent  for  half  a  year  returned,  on  which  side  would  he 
take  his  place?  There  was  no  answer.  But  the  logic  of 
the  situation  pointed  so  plainly  to  a  rehearing,  of  which 
also  some  words  in  the  opinion  were  thought  to  be  slightly 
suggestive,  that  a  speedy  reopening  of  the  case  was  widely 
expected.  This  expectation  was  strengthened  by  the  con- 
viction to  which  all  the  proceedings  thus  far  had  gradually 
brought  the  public  mind,  that,  whether  the  principle  of  an 
income  tax  was  right  or  wrong,  this  statute  was  absurd 
nearly  to  the  point  of  criminality. 

On  April  23  the  chief  justice  announced  that  petitions 
and  a  motion  for  a  rehearing  would  be  heard  and  con- 
sidered on  May  6.  One  of  the  justices  who  at  the  first 
hearing  had  voted  in  favor  of  the  constitutionality  of  the 
law  (except  on  the  two  points  before  indicated),  expressed 
a  wish  to  have  the  case  reargued;  and,  the  rehearing 
having  been  granted,  the  case  was  reopened  before  the  full 
bench,  Justice  Jackson  having  recovered  strength  sufficient 
to  enable  him  to  attend.  The  opposing  counsel  agreed  on 
an  argument  of  ten  hours^  length  divided  equally  between 
the  two  sides.  Mr.  W.  D.  Guthrie  of  New  York  made 
the  first  speech,  presenting  the  argument  against  the  con- 
stitutionality of  the  entire  law.  His  aim  was  to  show  that 
no  precedents  nor  any  considerations  of  expediency  could 
rightfully  divert  the  court  from  the  one  question  whether 
the  income  tax  as  it  is  enacted  in  the  law  is  not  one  of 


280  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr..  1895. 

that  class  of  taxes  which  the  constitution  forbids  to  the 
national  government,  except  as  apportioned  among  all  the 
states  in  proportion  to  their  population.  He  maintained 
that  the  parts  of  the  law  which  had  been  declared  uncon- 
stitutional were  an  integral  and  inseparable  portion  of  its 
whole  scheme,  and  that  their  invalidity  necessarily  made 
the  entire  law  void.  The  second  argument  was  by  Assist- 
ant Attorney-General  Whitney,  advocating  the  law  as  con- 
stitutional. He  sought  to  show  historically  that  the  only 
proper  classification  of  taxes  as  indirect  is  to  include  in 
that  class  all  taxes  not  obviously  direct;  and  he  asserted 
that  the  income  tax  was,  to  say  the  least,  of  this  sort.  In 
the  historical  line  also  was  his  argument  that  the  supreme 
court,  having  formerly  upheld  the  essential  principle  of 
this  law,  should  now  give  decision  consistent  with  its  own 
action.  Attorney-General  Olney  followed  in  behalf  of  the 
law,  with  an  argument  whose  main  drift  was  toward  a  re- 
versal of  the  decision  by  which  the  court  at  the  first  hear- 
ing had  exempted  rents  from  the  operation  of  the  law. 
His  contention  was  that  rent,  when  received  by  the  land- 
lord, ceased  to  be  connected  with  its  source  in  real  estate, 
and  came  into  the  class  of  personal  property.  Mr.  Olney, 
in  a  prior  argument  on  the  question  of  rehearing,  had 
gone  so  far  as  to  say  that  if  the  decision  of  the  court  was 
to  make  an  income  tax  invalid,  there  would  be  ground  to 
set  up  a  claim  for  refunding  the  many  millions  of  dollars 
of  income  tax  paid  to  the  United  States  during  the  rebel- 
lion. The  last  argument  was  by  Mr.  Joseph  Choate  of 
New  York,  denying  the  validity  of  the  law.  Turning 
from  the  whole  region  of  minute  and  often  obscure  his- 
torical details  and  of  elaborate  definitions,  he  demanded 
attention  to  the  broad  question  whether  the  congress  had 
power  to  enact  laws  violative  of  a  fundamental  compro- 
mise of  the  constitution.  The  distinction  in  the  minds  of 
the  framers  of  the  constitution  between  the  two  classes  of 
taxes  was,  he  averred,  the  distinction  between  the  taxation 
of  property  and  the  taxation  of  consumption — the  latter 
being  surrendered  to  the  general  government,  while  the 
former  was  reserved  to  the  states  except  as  it  was  allowed 
to  the  congress  under  certain  specified  conditions  and  in 
great  emergencies.  He  brushed  away  the  whole  labored 
distinction  between  real  and  personal  property  as  far  as 
taxation  is  concerned.  He  demanded  that  the  whole 
law,  rendered  hopelessly  unequal  and  unjust  in  its  bear- 
ings by  the  prior  decision,  be  now  annulled  in  its  entirety. 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION. 


281 


The  hearing  was  ended.  The  court  took  the  briefs  of 
counsel,  and  resvsrved  its  decision. 

The  opinion  of  the  court  was  announced  on  May  20  by 
Chief  Justice  Fuller,  declaring  all  the  income-tax  sections 
of  the  Revenue  act  of  August,  1894,  unconstitutional,  null, 
and  void.  In  this  judgment  five  of  the  nine  members  of 
the  court  concurred — Chief  Justice  Fuller  (dem.,  of  111.), 
with  Justices  Field  (dem.,  of  Cal.),  Gray  (rep.,  of  Mass.), 
Brewer  (rep.,  of  Kan.),  and  Shiras  (rep.,  of  Penn.).  The 
dissenting  minority  of  four  consisted  of  Justices  Harlan, 
rep.,  of  Ky.),  Brown  (rep.,  of  Mich.),  Jackson  (dem.,  of 
Tenn.),  and  White  (dem.,  of  La.).  Considered  politically 
the  vote  stood — against  the  constitutionality,  republicans 
three,  democrats  two;  for  the  constitutionality,  republicans 
two,  democrats  two.  Considered  sectionally  the  vote 
stood — against  the  constitutionality,  Northern  five;  forthe 
constitutionality,  Northern  one.  Southern  three.  Justice 
Shiras,  having  changed  his  views  since  the  prior  hearing, 
voted  against  the  law. 

A  reference  to  the  abstract  of  the  conclusions  of  the 
court  on  the  first  hearing,  as  already  given  (p.  274),  will 
show  the  relations  of  the  two  decisions,  and  the  principles 
which  stand  affirmed  by  them.  The  first  decision  had  de- 
clared a  tax  on  rents  to  be  practically  a  tax  on  real  estate, 
and  therefore  to  be  a  direct  tax,  which  is  unconstitutional 
when  laid  by  the  national  government,  unless  made  propor- 
tionate to  population  in  all  the  states  severally;  and  that 
the  law,  so  far  as  concerned  the  levying  of  this  tax,  is  vio- 
lative of  the  required  condition,  and  therefore  not  valid. 
The  first  decision  had  declared  also  that  a  tax  on  incomes 
from  investments  in  state,  county,  and  municipal  bonds 
(aside  from  the  question  whether  it  should  be  classed  as 
direct  or  indirect)  is  contrary  to  public  policy  as  being  a 
tax  on  contracts;  that  the  revenues  from  such  bonds  are 
not  subjects  of  federal  taxation;  and  that  the  law  so  far 
as  it  levied  such  tax,  is  contrary  to  the  constitution,  and 
therefore  not  valid.  The  second  decision  reaffirmed  the 
first  decision  on  the  two  points  above  noted;  but,  on  the 
second  point,  it  added  the  important  declaration  that  not 
only  taxation  on  municipal  bonds,  but  any  taxation  on  in- 
comes from  rents  or  products  of  real  estate,  or  from  bonds, 
stocks,  or  other  formsof  personal  property,  must  be  classed 
as  direct  taxation  in  the  meaning  of  the  constitution;  and 
that  the  law  so  far  as  it  levies  such  direct  tax  without 
making  it  proportionate  to  population  in  all  the  states 
severally,  is  contrary  to  the  constitution,  and  therefore  not 
valid. 


282  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895 

The  last  decision  proceeded  to  pronounce  on  a  third 
point  on  which  at  the  first  hearing  the  cpurt  had  been 
equally  divided ;  and  this  was  the  part  of  its  conclusion 
which,  by  its  definiteness  and  thoroughness,  averted  the 
threatening  multitude  of  legal  complications  and  relieved 
the  widespread  confusion  of  the  public  mind.  The  court 
declared  the  entire  law  dealing  with  the  income  tax  null 
and  void.  It  grounded  this  decision  on  the  fact  that  the 
income  from  real  estate,  with  that  from  invested  personal 
property,  evidently  formed  a  vital  part  of  the  whole  scheme 
of  the  income-tax  law,  so  that  the  annulment  of  the  parts 
referred  to  changed  the  bearing  and  the  intention  through- 
out, and  involved  the  annulment  of  the  whole. 

Chief  Justice  Fuller  delivered  the  conclusions  of  the 
court,  as  follows: 

"  1.  We  adhere  to  the  opinion,  already  announced,  that  taxes  on 
real  estate  being  undisputably  direct  taxes,  taxes  on  the  rents  or  in- 
come of  real  estate  are  equally  direct  taxes. 

"2.  We  are  of  the  opinion  that  taxes  on  personal  property  or 
on  the  income  of  personal  property  are  likewise  direct  taxes. 

"3.  The  tax  imposed  by  sections  twenty-seven  to  thirty-seven 
inclusive  [all  the  income  tax  sections],  of  the  act  of  1894,  so  far  as  it 
falls  on  the  income  of  real  estate  and  on  personal  property,  being  a 
direct  tax  within  the  meaning  of  the  constitution,  and  therefore  un- 
constitutional and  void,  because  not  apportioned  according  to  repre- 
sentation, all  those  sections,  constituting  one  entire  scheme  of  taxa- 
tion, are  necessarily  invalid. 

"  The  decrees  hereinbefore  entered  in  this  court  will  be  vacated. 
The  decrees  below  will  be  reversed  and  the  cases  remanded,  with  in- 
structions to  grant  the  relief  prayed." 

The  opinion  of  the  court,  about  7,000  words  in  length, 
pronounced  by  the  chief  justice,  develops  the  main  points 
of  the  conclusions.    We  quote  on  the  classification  of  taxes: 

"As  heretofore  stated,  the  constitution  divided  federal  taxation 
into  two  great  classes,  the  class  of  direct  taxes  and  the  class  of  duties, 
imposts,  and  excises,  and  prescribed  two  rules  which  qualified  the 
grant  of  power  as  to  each  class.  The  power  to  lay  direct  taxes,  ap- 
portioned among  the  several  states  in  proportion  to  their  representa- 
tion in  the  popular  branch  of  congress,  a  representation  based  on 
population  as  ascertained  by  the  census,  was  plenary  and  absolute; 
but  to  lay  direct  taxes  without  apportionment  was  forbidden.  The 
power  to  lay  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  was  subject  to  the  qualifi 
cation  that  the  imposition  must  be  unifonn  throughout  the  United 
States. 

•'  Our  previous  decision  was  confined  to  the  consideration  of  the 
validity  of  the  tax  on  the  income  from  real  estate  and  on  the  income 
from  municipal  bonds.  The  question  thus  limited  was  whether  such 
taxation  was  direct  or  not,  in  the  meaning  of  the  constitution;  and 
the  court  went  no  further,  as  to  the  tax  on  the  income  from  real 
estate,  than  to  hold  that  it  fell  within  the  same  class  as  the  source 
whence  the  income  was  derived — that  is,  that  a  tax  upon  the  realty 


THE  INCOME-TAX  DECISION. 


283 


and  a  tax  upon  tbe  receipts  therefrom  were  alike  direct;  while  as  to 
the  income  from  municipal  bonds,  that  could  not  be  taxed  because  of 
want  of  power  to  tax  the  source,  and  no  reference  was  made  to  the 
nature  of  the  tax  as  being  direct  or  indirect. 

"  We  are  now  permitted  to  broaden  the  field  of  inquiry  and  to  de- 
termine to  which  of  the  great  classes  a  tax  upon  a  person's  entire  in- 
come, whether  derived  from  rents  or  products,  or  otherwise,  of  real 
estate,  or  from  bonds,  stocks,  or  other  forms  of  personal  property,  be- 
longs; and  we  are  unable  to  conclude  that  the  enforced  subtraction 
from  the  yield  of  the  owner's  real  or  personal  property,  in  the 
manner  prescribed,  is  so  different  from  a  tax  upon  the  property  itself 
that  it  is  not  a  direct  tax,  but  an  indirect  tax,  in  the  meaning  of  the 
constitution." 

The  court  declares  that  in  England,  as  far  as  it  is  aware,  the  in- 
come tax  has  always  been  classed  among  direct  taxes.  Refepence  is 
made  to  the  unquestioned  power  of  congress  to  lay  direct  taxes  on  appor- 
tionment  among  all  the  states  according  to  their  population;  and.  in 
default  of  the  tax  being  raised  by  a  state,  to  proceed  to  collect  them 
through  assessment  on  the  property  or  incomes  of  all  citizens  of  the 
state.  The  court  declined  to  deal  with  the  desirableness  or  the  ex- 
pediency of  an  income  tax. 

"We  are  not  here  concerned,"  reads  the  opinion,  "with  the 
question  whether  an  income  tax  be  or  be  not  desirable,  nor  whether 
such  a  tax  would  enable  the  government  to  diminish  taxes  on  con- 
sumption and  duties  on  imports  and  to  enter  upon  what  may  be  be- 
lieved to  be  a  reform  of  its  fiscal  and  commercial  system.  Questions 
of  that  character  belong  to  the  controversies  of  political  parties  and 
cannot  be  settled  by  judicial  decision.  In  these  cases  our  province  is 
to  determine  whether  this  income  tax  on  the  revenue  from  property 
does  or  does  not  belong  to  the  class  of  direct  taxes.  If  it  does  it  is, 
being  unapportioned,  in  violation  of  the  constitution,  and  we  must 
so  declare.  *  *  *  If  it  be  true  that  the  constitution  should  have 
been  so  framed  that  a  tax  of  this  kind  could  be  laid,  the  instrument 
defines  the  way  for  its  amendment." 

As  to  a  tax  on  the  profits  from  business  or  from  privileges,  the 
opinion  recognizes  that  this  tax  has  been  assessed  and  collected  un- 
der the  guise  of  an  excise,  and  has  been  allowed  to  pass  as  such. 
But  it  declares  that  in  the  law  now  under  consideration,  when  it  is 
viewed  as  a  whole,  "it  is  evident  that  the  income  from  realty  formed 
a  vital  part  of  the  scheme  for  taxation  embodied  therein.  If  that  be 
stricken  out  and  also  the  income  from  all  invested  personal  property, 
bonds,  stocks,  and  investments  of  all  kinds,  it  is  obvious  that  by  far 
the  largest  part  of  the  anticipated  revenue  would  be  eliminated,  and 
this  Mould  leave  the  burden  of  the  tax  to  be  borne  by  professions, 
trades,  employments,  or  vocations,  and  in  that  way  what  was  intended 
as  a  tax  on  capital  would  remain  in  substance  a  tax  on  occupations 
and  labor.  We  cannot  believe  that  such  was  the  intention  of  con 
gress." 

Opinions  in  dissent  were  read  by  the  four  justices  in 
the  minority,  Justices  Harlan,  Brown,  Jackson,  and 
White.  These  all  were  earnest  in  terms  and  emphatic  in 
combating  the  majority  opinion.  Such  vigor  of  language 
and  such  warmth,  almost  passionateness,  of  feeling  as 
characterized  Justice  Harlan's  opinion  would  probably  be 


284  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

sought  in  vain  among  all  previous  utterances  of  the  same 
official  character  from  members  of  this  bench.  Justice 
White  was  not  far  behind  him  in  intensity  of  expression. 
He  maintained  in  nineteen  different  points  of  argument 
the  validity  of  the  law  throughout.  Justice  Harlan  as- 
sented to  the  declaration  of  the  unconstitutionality  of  the 
law  in  its  taxation  of  rents  and  municipal  bonds,  but  de- 
clared that  the  annulling  of  these  provisions  in  the  law  in 
no  wise  annulled  the  law  as  a  whole.  He  declared  that 
the  court's  decision  *' strikes  at  the  very  foundation  of 
national  authority.''     He  prophesied  dire  results: 

"Tlie  practical,  if  not  the  direct,  effect  of  the  decision  today," 
said  be,  "  is  to  give  to  certain  kinds  of  property  a  position  of  favor- 
itism and  advantage  that  is  inconsistent  with  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  our  social  organization,  and  to  invest  them  with  power  and 
influence  that  may  be  perilous  to  that  portion  of  the  American  people 
upon  whom  rests  the  larger  part  of  the  burdens  of  the  government, 
and  who  ought  not  to  be  subjected  to  the  dominion  of  aggregated 
wealth  any  more  than  the  property  of  the  country  should  be  at  tbe 
mercy  of  the  lawless." 

He  expressed  the  opinion  that  if  '^  this  new  departure" 
is  to  stand,  '^  the  American  people  cannot  too  soon  amend 
their  constitution."  Justice  Brown  regarded  the  tax  on 
rents  as  indirect.  He  feared  that  through  the  denial  to 
congress  of  the  power  to  levy  such  tax  as  is  proposed,  the 
national  power  will  be  so  weakened  that  *'  in  some  moment 
of  national  peril  this  decision  will  rise  up  to  frustrate  its 
purpose  and  paralyze  its  arm."  The  decision,  he  said, 
•*  approaches  the  proportions  of  a  national  calamity."  He 
*'  hopes  that  it  may  not  prove  the  first  step  toward  the  sub- 
mergence of  the  liberties  of  the  people  in  a  sordid  despot- 
ism of  wealth."  Justice  Jackson,  with  Justice  White, 
deems  the  income-tax  law  valid;  but  that  even  if  some  of 
its  sections  were  not  valid,  the  validity  of  the  law  as  a  whole 
would  not  thereby  be  destroyed.  He  deems  the  court's 
decision  an  improper  interference  with  the  law-making 
power — '^  the  most  disastrous  blow  ever  struck  at  the  con- 
stitutional power  of  congress." 

The  result  has  been  received  with  widely  varying  senti- 
ments. The  supreme  court  has  been  brought  into  new 
prominence  before  the  people.  A  few  have  expressed  a 
fear  lest  the  court  should  develop  into  a  law-making  body. 
Ardent  advocates  of  the  income  tax  as  a  means  for  bring- 
ing upon  the  wealthier  classes  the  chief  burden  of  sup- 
plying the  public  revenues,  are  urging  a  change  of  the 
constitution  so  as  to  remove  the  present  restrictions  on  con- 
gress concerning  the  levying  of  direct  taxes. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  285 

THE  SILVER  QUESTION. 

"V'OW  that  the  noise  of  conflict  over  the  tariff  has  died 
away  into  silence,  the  old  question  of  the  free  coinage 
of  silver  has  forged  again  to  the  front.  It  is  fraught  with 
issues  of  even  graver  importance  than  those  upon  which 
the  last  congress  put  forth  so  stupendous  an  amount  of 
labor  with  so  comparatively  meagre  results.  The  question 
is  somewhat  confused  in  the  popular  mind  by  a  new  and 
unsteady  application  of  economic  terms— notably  the  term 
'*  bimetallism/'  which  the  silver  forces  have  arrogated  to 
their  own  use  as  synonymous  with  the  movement  for  the 
establishment  of  free  and  unlimited  silver  coinage  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  merely  necessary  to  remind  the 
reader  that  this  is  something  different  from  the  historic 
use  of  the  term.  Bimetallism  in  the  sense  of  unlimited 
free  coinage  is  not  the  bimetallism  which  adherents  of 
both  the  old  parties,  who  fear  the  evils  of  a  depreciated 
and  fluctuating  currency,  hope  some  day  to  see  realized,  or 
at  least  attempted,  through  an  international  agreement  of 
the  leading  commercial  nations  of  the  world;  it  is  not  the 
establishedmeaningof  the  word  either  here  or  in  European 
countries.  There,  '^  bimetallism  "  signifies  the  provision  of 
means  for  a  more  extended  coinage  use  of  silver  in  the 
monetary  systems  of  the  world,  but  with  the  adoption  at 
the  same  time  of  safeguards  against  the  dangers  resulting 
from  fluctuations  (which  are  inevitable)  in  the  relative  com- 
mercial values  of  gold  and  silver.  Here,  on  the  other  hand, 
*•  bimetallism,'' in  its  new  sense,  means  the  unrestricted 
privilege  to  have  coined  into  standard,  legal-tender  money 
all  such  quantities  of  the  two  precious  metals  as  may  be 
presented  at  the  mints,  or,  in  lieu  thereof,  to  issue  paper 
representing  such  portion  of  said  coinage  as  may  not  be 
desired  for  actual  circulation,  and  this  without  the  adop- 
tion of  any  special  means  to  guard  against  loss  of  parity 
between  the  different  forms  of  currency — safeguards  or  no 
safeguards.  The  danger  is  exaggerated,  says  the  silver 
man:  there  is  no  danger;  on  the  contrary,  not  only  the 
United  States,  but  the  world  at  large,  would  reap  incalcu- 
lable benefit  from  the  removal  of  those  causes,  mainly  leg- 
islative, which  he  thinks  have  made  of  silver  a  commodity, 
depressed  its  value,  and  put  the  ban  upon  it  as  a  medium  of 
exchange.  To  the  gold  monometallist,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  well  as  to  the  bimetallist  in  the  hitherto  accepted  mean- 
ing of  that  term,  unlimited  free  coinage  of  silver  means 
simply  silver  monometallism,  or  paper  inflation.  The  ina- 
bility of  our  government,  at  least  while  other  nations  still 


286  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

adhere  to  the  gold  standard,  to  continue  for  more  than  a 
limited  time  to  guarantee  the  parity  of  its  silver  currency 
with  gold,  he  claims,  would  quickly  drive  the  latter  metal  out 
of  circulation;  would  reduce  the  purchasing  power  of  our 
money  to  the  bullion  value  of  the  silver  it  contains;  would 
put  us,  in  foreign  trade,  at  the  mercy  of  foreign  countries, 
and  would  inflict  upon  our  land  all  those  evils  which  the  ex- 
perience of  the  past  in  various  parts  of  the  world  has  shown 
to  be  the  inevitable  accompaniment  of  a  capricious  and 
unstable  medium  of  exchange. 

It  is  not  within  our  functions  to  argue  the  matter  one 
way  or  the  other.  Those  who  have  followed  the  discus- 
sions of  this  topic  in  recent  years,  or  are  intelligent  readers 
of  the  periodical  press,  should  be  fairly  well  informed  re- 
garding it.  We  aim  merely  to  summarize,  in  a  form  con- 
venient for  reference,  the  latest  developments  in  this  con- 
nection, presenting  also  merely  such  statistics  and  record 
of  opinion  thereon  as  may  serve  to  throw  light  upon  this 
vital  issue. 

There  are  those  who  hold  that  prices  vary  with  the  vol- 
ume of  money  in  circulation,  and  who  base  their  argument 
for  a  large  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  circulating  me- 
dium upon  the  better  prices  and  better  times  which  would 
follow  as  a  result.  Undoubtedly  a  scarcity  of  money  hin- 
ders the  development  of  trade;  but  a  careful  review  of  our 
economic  history  shows  that  when  the  ratio  of  the  volume 
of  currency  to'  the  volume  of  business  has  risen  to  a  cer- 
tain point  (which  point  may  be  incapable  of  exact  deter- 
mination for  all  times  and  places),  the  further  increase  of 
the  currency  seems  to  have  but  little  to  do  with  variations 
in  prices  or  increase  of  prosperity.  The  following  table 
shows  the  principal  variations  in  the  volume  of  our  cur- 
rency during  30  years,  and  the  accompanying  variations 
in  prices,  the  figures  for  1860  being  the  basis  of  comparison: 

VOLUME  OF  CURRENCY  AND  PRICES. 


Year. 

Amount 
in  dollars. 

Per  cent. 

Index  No.  of 
prices  per  cent. 

I860          

$435,407,252 

595,394,0:38 

714,702,995 

680,103,661 

675,212.794 

751,881,809 

754,101,947 

818,631,793 

1,174,290,419 

1,292,568,615 

1,372,170,870 

1,497,440,707 

100 

136.7 

164.1 

156.1 

155 

172.6 

173.1 

188 

269.6 

296.8 

315.1 

343.9 

100 

1863 

148  6 

1865 

216.8 

1868 

160.5 

1870 

142.3 

1873                      .' 

137  5 

1875 

127.6 

1879 

96.6 

1883 

108.5 

1885 

93 

1888 

94  2 

1891 

92.2 

I 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  287 

With  the  exception  of  the  period  1862-65,  the  vol- 
ume of  currency  and  prices  have  moved  in  opposite  di- 
rections. Since  1882,  when  prices  were  highest  after  the 
resumption  of  specie  payments,  their  decline  has  been 
steady  in  spite  of  enormous  additions,  made  through 
silver  legislation,  to  the  circulating  medium;  and  with- 
in the  past  two  years  we  have  witnessed  an  almost  un- 
precedented depression  in  trade  and  industry,  while  at 
the  same  time  banks  and  money  centres  have  been  over- 
stocked with  idle  funds.  Inflation  of  the  currency  is  not 
necessarily  followed  either  by  better  prices  or  by  better 
times;  and  still  less  is  it  likely  to  be  if  that  currency  be  of 
uncertain  stability. 

The  Sound-Money  Campaign.— The  strength  of  the 
silver  sentiment  in  the  United  States  has  already  precipi- 
tated a  series  of  preliminary  skirmishes,  the  result  of 
which  will  do  much  to  determine  exactly  the  still  rather 
indefinite  lines  upon  which  the  presidential  campaign  of 
1896  will  be  fought  out.  Chaos  still  reigns  in  the  party 
divisions  regarding  silver;  but  there  is  just  at  present  an 
active  marshalling  of  sound-money  sentiment  in  array 
against  the  free-silver  propaganda.  One  of  the  most  im- 
13ortant  factors  in  the  development  of  this  campaign  of 
education  has  been  the  flooding  of  the  West  and  South 
with  copies  of  Coin's  Financial  School,  a  very  clever  and 
specious  presentation  in  popular  form  of  the  leading  argu- 
ments for  free  silver.  This  pamphlet,  which  was  written 
by  Mr.  W.  H.  Harvey  of  Chicago,  111.,  chairman  of  the 
Bimetallic  Executive  Committee,  has  called  forth  a  great 
number  of  replies  from  various  sources,  aiming  at  refuta- 
tion of  its  arguments  (see  Literature). 

President  Cleveland's  Letter. — The  first  noteworthy  in- 
stance of  recognition,  by  a  party  leader,  of  the  now  su- 
preme importance  of  the  coinage  question,  is  found  in 
President  Cleveland's  letter  of  April  13,  in  reply  to  an  in- 
vitation from  the  business  men  of  Chicago  that  he  should 
visit  that  city  and  address  a  meeting  to  be  held  in  the  in- 
terest of  sound  money.  While  declining  the  invitation 
on  the  ground  of  the  proprieties  of  his  office,  he  goes  on 
to  say: 

"The  situation  confronting  us  demands  tbat  those  who  appreci- 
ate the  importance  of  this  subject,  and  those  who  ought  to  be  the  first 
to  see  impending  danger,  should  no  longer  remain  indifferent  or  over- 
confident. If  the  sound-money  sentiment  abroad  in  the  land  is  to 
save  us  from  mischief  and  disaster,  it  must  be  crystallized  and  com- 
bined and  made  immediately  active.  It  is  dangerous  to  overlook  the 
fact  that  a  vast  number  of  our  people,  with  scant  opportunity  thus 


288  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

far  to  examine  the  question  in  all  its  aspects,  Lave  nevertheless  been 
ingeniously  pre.ssed  with  specious  suggestions  which  in  this  time  of 
misfortune  and  depression  find  willing  listeners  prepared  to  give  cre- 
dence to  any  scheme  which  is  plausibly  presented  as  a  remedy  for 
their  unfortunate  condition. 

"What  is  now  needed  more  than  anything  else  is  a  plain  and 
simple  presentation  of  the  argument  in  favor  of  sound  money.  In 
other  words,  it  is  time  for  the  American  people  to  reason  together  as 
members  of  a  great  nation  which  can  promise  them  a  continuance  of 
protection  and  safety  only  so  long  as  its  solvency  is  unsuspected,  its 
honor  unsullied,  and  the  soundness  of  its  money  unquestioned.  These 
things  are  ill-exchanged  for  the  illusions  of  a  debased  currency  and 
groundless  hope  of  advantages  to  be  gained  by  a  disregard  of  our  fi- 
nancial credit  and  commercial  standing  among  the  nations  of  the 
world.  If  our  people  were  isolated  from  all  others,  and  if  the  ques- 
tion of  our  currency  could  be  treated  without  regard  to  our  relations 
to  other  countries,  its  character  would  be  a  matter  of  comparatively 
little  importance.  If  the  American  people  were  only  concerned  in 
the  maintenance  of  their  physical  life  among  themselves,  they  might 
return  to  the  old  days  of  barter,  and  in  this  primitive  manner  acquire 
from  each  other  the  materials  to  supply  the  wants  of  their  existence. 

"  But  if  American  civilization  were  satisfied  with  this,  it  would 
abjectly  fail  in  its  high  and  noble  mission.  In  these  restless  days  the 
farmer  is  tempted  by  the  assurance  that  though  our  currency  may  be 
debased,  redundant,  and  uncertain,  such  a  situation  will  improve  the 
price  of  his  products.  Let  us  remind  him  that  he  must  buy  as  well 
as  sell;  that  his  dreams  of  plenty  are  shaded  by  the  certainty  that  if 
the  price  of  the  things  he  has  to  sell  are  nominally  enhanced,  the  cost 
of  the  things  he  must  buy  will  not  remain  stationary;  that  the  better 
prices  which  cheap  money  proclaims  are  unsubstantial  and  elusive; 
and  that  even  if  they  were  real  and  palpable,  he  must  necessarily  be 
left  far  behind  in  the  race  for  their  enjoyment.  It  ought  not  to  be  dif- 
ficult to  convince  the  wage-earner  that  if  there  were  benefits  arising 
from  a  degenerated  currency  they  would  reach  him  least  of  all  and 
last  of  all.  In  an  unhealthy  stimulation  of  prices  an  increased  cost 
of  all  the  needs  of  his  home  must  long  be  his  portion,  while  he  is  at 
the  same  time  vexed  with  vanishing  visions  of  increased  wages  and 
easier  lot.  The  pages  of  history  and  experience  are  full  of  this  lesson. 

"An  insidious  attempt  is  made  to  create  a  prejudice  against  the 
advocates  of  a  safe  and  sound  currency  by  the  insinuation,  more  or 
less  directly  made,  that  they  belong  to  financial  and  business  classes 
and  are,  therefore,  not  only  out  of  sympathy  with  the  common  people 
of  the  land,  but  for  selfish  and  wicked  purposes  are  willing  to  sacri- 
fice the  interests  of  those  outside  their  circle.  I  believe  that  capital 
and  wealth,  through  combination  and  other  means,  sometimes  gain 
an  undue  advantage;  and  it  may  be  conceded  that  the  maintenance  of 
a  sound  currency  may,  in  a  sense,  be  invested  with  a  greater  or  less 
importance  to  individuals,  according  to  their  condition  and  circum- 
stances. It  is,  however,  only  a  difference  in  degree,  since  it  is  utterly 
impossible  that  any  one  in  our  broad  land,  rich  or  poor,  whatever 
may  be  his  occupation  and  whether  dwelling  in  a  centre  of  finance 
and  commerce  or  in  a  remote  corner  of  our  domain,  can  be  really  ben- 
efited by  a  financial  scheme  not  alike  beneficial  to  all  our  people,  or 
that  any  one  should  be  excluded  from  a  common  and  universal  in- 
terest in  the  safe  character  and  staple  value  of  the  currency  of  the 
country. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  289 

"  In  our  relation  to  this  question  we  are  all  in  business,  for  wo 
all  buy  and  sell;  so  we  all  Lave  to  do  with  financial  operations,  for 
we  all  earn  money  and  spend  it.  We  cannot  escape  our  interdepen- 
dence. Merchants  and  dealers  are  in  every  neighborhood,  and  each 
has  its  shops  and  manufactories.  Wherever  the  wants  of  man  exist, 
business  and  finance  in  some  degree  are  found,  related  in  one  direc- 
tion to  those  whose  wants  they  supply,  and  in  another  to  the  more  ex- 
tensive business  and  linance  to  which  they  are  tributary.  A  fluctua- 
tion in  prices  at  the  seaboard  is  known  the  same  day  or  hour  in  the 
remotest  hamlet.  The  discredit  or  depreciation  in  the  financial  cen- 
tres of  any  form  of  money  in  the  hands  of  the  people  is  a  signal  of 
immediate  loss  everywhere.  If  reckless  discontent  and  wild  experi- 
ment should  sweep  our  currency  from  its  safe  support,  the  most  de- 
fenseless of  all  who  sufPer  in  that  time  of  distress  and  national  dis- 
credit will  be  the  poor  as  they  reckon  the  loss  to  their  scanty  support, 
and  the  laborer  or  workingman  as  he  sees  the  money  he  has  received 
for  his  toil  shrink  and  shrivel  in  his  hand  when  he  tenders  it  for  the 
necessaries  to  supply  his  humble  home.  Disguise  it  as  we  may,  the 
line  of  battle  is  drawn  between  the  forces  of  safe  currency  and  those 
of  silver  monometallism.  I  will  not  believe  that,  if  our  people  are 
afforded  an  intelligent  opportunity  for  sober  second  thought,  they 
will  sanction  schemes  that,  however  cloaked,  mean  disaster  and  con- 
fusion, nor  that  they  will  consent,  by  undermining  the  foundation  of 
a  safe  currency,  to  endanger  the  beneficent  character  and  purposes  of 
their  government." 

This  letter  evoked  wide  attention  and  discussion,  call- 
ing forth  open  letters  in  reply  from  Senator  Stewart  of 
Nevada.  ex-Congressman  Bland  of  Missouri,  ex-Congress- 
man Bryan  of  Nebraska,  W.  H.  Harvey,  author  of  Coin's 
Financial  School,  and  others.  One  of  its  effects  has  been 
to  reveal  the  discord  within  the  political  camps.  Senator 
Voorhecs  (dem.)  and  ex-Speaker  Crisp  (dem.)  declared 
themselves  in  favor  of  free  coinage  without  international 
action,  while  Senator  Jones  of  Nevada  expressed  the  opin- 
ion that  the  next  national  democratic  platform  would  con- 
tain a  frank  and  radical  silver  plank.  Eastern  democratic 
papers  claim  that  their  party  as  a  whole  favors  sound 
money;  the  Western  organs,  on  the  other  hand,  are  striv- 
ing to  commit  the  party  to  free  silver.  And  the  divisions 
in  the  republican  ranks  are  hardly  less  pronounced. 

The  Memphis  Conventions. — Under  stimulus  from  the 
attitude  of  the  administration,  the  struggle  between  the 
silver  men  and  their  antagonists  has  been  forced  into  spe- 
cial prominence,  notably  in  the  South,  Avhere  the  speeches 
of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Carlisle,  have  done 
much  to  rally  and  reinforce  the  sound-money  element. 
He  began  the  campaign  at  Covington,  Ky.,  May  20;  but 
his  most  widely  noticed  address  was  that  given  at  the 
sound-money  convention  held  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  May  23. 
The   convention    comprised    about   700   delegates   repre- 

Vol.  5.— 19. 


m  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    2d  Qr.,  1895. 

senting  commercial,  manufacturing,  and  agricultural  or- 
ganizations in  all  the  Southern  states,  and  was  called  as 
the  result  of  a  conference  of  business  men  of  Memphis,  to 
protest  against  the  free-silver  movement.  The  following 
is  the  platform  adopted  by  the  convention: 

"1.  Believing?  a  uuifoim  and  certain  standard  of  value  necessary 
to  the  agricultural,  commercial,  and  industrial  development  and  pros- 
perity of  our  common 
country,  we  favor  the 
maintenance  of  all  our 
money,  whether  gold,  sil- 
ver, or  paper,  on  a  parity, 
to  the  end  that  each  dol- 
lar, whatever  may  be  its 
composition,  shall  have 
equal  purchasing  and 
debt-paying  power  with 
every  other  dollar. 

"  2.  Profiting  by  the 
experience  of  Washing- 
ton, Jefferson,  and  Ham- 
ilton, and  the  teachings 
of  the  great  students  of 
monetary  science  from 
the  time  when  John 
Ijocke  wrote  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  present 
(lay,  we  accept  the  truth 
of  the  principle,  now 
universally  recognized 
and  applied  in  the  com- 
mercial world,  that  the 
bimetallic  standard  can- 
not be  maintained  where 
the  ratio  fixed  by  law  for 
the  free  coinage  of  gold 
and  silver  does  not  cor- 
sENATOR  DAVID  TURPiE  (dem.)  OF  INDIANA,       respoud  with  the  market 

CHAIRMAN    MEMPHIS    FREE  SILVER     CONVENTION,      ^j^^j^    ^f   j^^g    ^WO    UietalS; 

and  that  whenever  and  wherever  the  legal  or  coinage  ratio  varies 
from  the  market  or  commercial  ratio  to  any  appreciable  extent, 
the  dollar,  whether  of  gold  or  silver,  which  thereby  becomes  more 
valuable  as  bullion  than  as  money,  will  go  to  a  premium  and  re- 
tire from  circulation.  We  saw  this  principle  applied  in  our  own 
national  experience  when,  under  the  act  of  1792,  which  fixed  the 
coinage  ratio  at  15  to  1,  gold  retired  from  circulation  because  of  a  slight 
decline  in  the  price  of  silver  in  the  open  market,  whereby  the  bullion 
in  a  gold  dollar  became  worth  a  few  cents  more  than  the  bullion  in  a 
silver  dollar,  and  was  therefore  sold  as  a  commodity  because  it  was 
worth  more  as  bullion  than  as  money;  and  again  under  the  act  of 
1834,  which  fixed  the  ratio  of  16  to  1,  when  the  silver  coin  retired  for 
a  like  reason.  We  are  therefore  opposed  to  the  free,  unlimited,  and 
independent  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1  when  the  market 
or  commercial  ratio  is  more  than  30  to  1,  and  the  difference  between 
the  bullion  value  of  a  gold  and  a  silver  dollar  is  about  50  cents,  on 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION. 


291 


the  ground  that  such  action,  instead  of  restoring  the  bimetallic  stand- 
ard, would  inevitably  result  in  silver  monometallism. 

"3.  At  this  time  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  which  main- 
tains a  bimetallic  standard;  and  neither  is  there  any  country  where 
the  free  coinage  of  silver  obtains,  which  is  not  on  a  silver  basis.  Each 
country,  on  account  of  its  inability  to  adopt  independently  any  bi- 
metallic standard,  must  elect  for  itself  whicli  it  prefers,  the  gold  or 
the  silver  standard. 

"  We  therefore  favor,  in  the  absence  of  international  co-operation, 
the  retention  and  main- 
tenance of  the  existing 
gold  standard,  because 
a  change  from  the  gold 
to  the  silver  standard 
would  have  the  effect  to 
repudiate  all  public  and 
private  obligations  to  the 
extent  of  the  difference 
between  the  bullion 
value  of  the  gold  and 
silver  dollars;  because 
whenever  such  change 
should  be  seriously 
threatened  it  would  cause 
an  immediate  attempt  at 
a  collection  and  liquida- 
tion of  all  debt,  in  antici- 
pation of  the  result  it 
would  produce;  because 
such  transition  from  the 
gold  to  the  silver  ba«is 
would  destroy  public 
and  private  confidence, 
and  would  involve  the 
country  in  such  panic, 
confusion,  and  distress 
that  the  products  of  agri- 
culture and  the  wages 
of  labor  would  be  un- 
remunerative,  the  busi- 
ness of  commerce  would 
become  unprofitable,  and  our  people  engaged  in  industrial  occupations 
would  be  thrown  out  of  employment;  because  there  is  not  a  progressive 
and  enlightening  country  in  the  world  which  has  not  elected  gold  as  the 
preferable  standard;  because  gold-standard  countries  retain  silver  in 
their  circulation  on  a  parity  with  gold,  whereas  there  is  no  silver- 
standard  country  which  does  or  can  utilize  gold  as  money;  because 
there  is  not  a  silver  country  on  the  globe  where  the  wages  of  labor 
are  sufficient  to  sustain  the  working  classes  in  comfort  and  indepen- 
dence; and,  finally,  because  the  high  duty  of  the  United  States  de- 
mands for  the  use  of  the  American  people  that  money  which  experi- 
ence has  taught  mankind  to  be  the  best  suited  for  the  promotion  of 
commerce,  the  development  of  manufactories,  the  encouragement  of 
labor,  and  the  advancement  of  civilization. 

"4.  We  would  rejoice  over  the  adoption  of  real  bimetallism; but 
in  view  of  the  continued  fluctuations  of  the  price  of  silver  in  the  open 


HON.    WILLIAM   B.   BATE   OF  TENNKSSKE. 
DEMOCUATIC     UNITED     STATES     SENATOli. 


}^' 


292  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr,  1895. 

market,  we  realize  tliat  it  is  iuipossil)le  for  the  United  States  inde- 
pendently to  adopt  a  bimetallic  standard,  and  we  deem  it  unwise  and 
hazardous  to  the  best  interests  of  the  people  for  this  country  to  at- 
tempt its  establishment.  We  favor  the  policy  of  this  country  stand- 
ing in  the  attitude  of  readiness  at  all  times  to  co-operate  with  the 
other  powers  in  any  effort  they  may  inaugurate  looking  to  the  adop- 
tion of  true  bimetallism;  but  in  the  meantime,  and  until  success- 
ful co-operation  is  insured,  to  maintain  inviolate  its  existing  standard 
of  value. 

"  5.   We  favor  the  retention  as  part  of  our  money  of  the  silver  now 

coined;  and  in  order  to 
give  a  wider  field  for 
the  use  of  silver,  we 
favor  the  funding  of  all 
^^^^^^^  money  other  than  silver 

^^^bBBHBJII^^  and  silver  certificates  be- 

^■^^^^^H^^^HK^  the  denomination  of 

^^^^^^HB^^VmUl  ten   dollars   into   higher 

^^^^^^^^1  denominations,  so   as  to 

^^^^K/KK  make  our  entire  circula- 

«K^^^^  -.»<i^i^^  tion  below  the  denomina- 

^^  HL  ■  ""^'HIf  tion  of  ten  dollars  either 

^      ■'  silver  or    silver  certifi- 

cates; and  to  this  end  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury 
should  be  authorized  by 
law  to  coin  from  time 
to  time,  as  the  people 
may  require  them,  silver 
dollars  until  the  demand 
of  commerce  for  money 
below  the  denomination 
of  ten  dollars  is  at  all 
times  satisfied. 

"  6.  We  realize  that 
our  national  banking  sys- 
tem was  adopted  during  a 
time  of  war,  and  that  it 
is  not  adapted  to  existing 
conditions.  We  therefore 
favor  such  legislation  as 
will  secure  to  the  ])eople 
a  system  of  banking  surrounded  by  such  safeguards  as  will  at  all  times 
furnish  them  a  safe,  elastic,  sufficient  currency  for  the  transaction  of 
their  business. 

"  7.  We  cannot  too  highly  commend  the  unfiagging  courage  and 
sturdy  patriotism  of  President  Cleveland  in  his  efforts  to  protect  the 
national  honor  and  to  maintain  the  public  credit  during  a  period  of 
great  financial  distress  and  under  conditions  which  threatened  danger 
to  both;  v/e  congratulate  him  and  the  entire  country  on  the  evidences 
of  returning  prosperity." 

Representative  T.  C.  Catchings  (dem.)  of  Mississippi 
was  permanent  chairman  of  the  convention. 

That  so  representative  a  gathering  sliould  assemble  in 
a  Southern  city  is  proof  that  in  that  section  of  the  coun- 


EX  GOVERNOn  r.EN.TAlWIN   R.    TILI-MAN    OP    SOUTH 
CAROLINA. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  293 

try  the  silver  sentiment  is  not  all-prevailing.  Further 
proof  is  found  in  the  fact  that  immediately  after  the  sound- 
money  convention,  a  call  was  issued  for  a  free-silver  or  so- 
called  national  bimetallic  convention,  to  meet  also  in  Mem- 
phis June  12  and  VI.  About  1,000  delegates  were  present 
representing  20  states  and  territories,  including  every 
Southern  state,  a  number  of  Western  states,  and  a  Middle 
state  (Pennsylvania),  although  it  is  said  that  a  great 
majority  of  the  delegates  came  from  west  Tennessee,  Ar- 
kansas, and  Mississippi.  A  few  populists  were  present, 
and  some  republicans,  including  Senator  Wolcott  of  Col- 
orado; but  most  of  the  delegates  were  democrats.  Senator 
Turpie  (dem.)  of  Indiana  was  chairman;  and  prominent 
among  the  leaders  were  Senators  Bate  and  Ilairis  of  Ten- 
nessee, Jones  and  Berry  of  Arkansas;  George  and  Wal- 
thall of  Mississippi;  Marion  Butler  of  North  Carolina; 
Tillman  of  South  Carolina;  Governor  Evans  of  South  Car- 
olina; ex-Governor  Prince  of  New  Mexico;  ex-Congress- 
men W.  J.  Bryan  of  Nebraska,  and  Sibley  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; General  A.  J.  Warner  of  Ohio.  During  the  course 
of  his  remarks  ex-Governor  Prince  of  New  Mexico  made 
the  following  remarkable  utterances: 

"When  the  Fasbioner  of  this  universe  made  it  He  put  in  the 
fastness  of  the  mountains  silver  and  gold  in  the  proportion  of  sixteen 
tons  of  silver  to  one  of  gold,  that  they  should  be  the  blood  of  our 
commercial  life.  Shall  we  set  ourselves  up  as  knowing  better  than 
the  God  who  made  us?  What  God  has  joined  together,  let  no  man 
put  asunder." 

The  following  is  tlie  platform  adopted  by  the  conven- 
tion. 

"Silver  and  gold  coin  have  in  all  ages  constituted  the  money  of 
the  world,  were  the  money  of  the  fathers  of  the  republic,  the  money 
of  history  and  of  the  constitution. 

"  The  universal  experience  of  mankind  has  demonstrated  that  the 
joint  use  of  both  gold  and  silver  coin  as  money  constitutes  the  most 
stable  standard  of  value,  and  that  the  full  amount  of  both  metals  is 
necessary  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 

"The  demonetization  of  either  of  these  historic  metals  means  an 
appreciation  in  the  value  of  money,  a  fall  in  the  prices  of  commodities; 
a  diminution  of  profits  of  legitimate  business;  a  continuing  increase 
in  the  burden  of  debts;  a  withdrawal  of  money  from  the  channels  of 
trade  and  industry,  where  it  no  longer  yields  a  safe  and  sure  return; 
and  its  idle  accumulation  in  the  banJ^s  and  the  great  money  centres 
of  the  country. 

"  There  is  no  health  or  soundness  in  a  financial  system  under 
which  a  hoarded  dollar  is  productive  of  increase  to  its  possessor, 
while  an  invested  dollar  yields  a  constantly  diminishing  return,  and 
under  which  fortunes  are  made  by  the  accretions  of  idle  capital  or 
destroyed  by  a  persistent  fall  in  the  price  of  commodities  and  a  per- 
sistent dwindling  in  the  margin  of  profits  in  almost  every  branch  of 


294  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2cl  Qr..  1895. 

useful  industry.  Such  a  system  is  a  premium  on  sloth  and  a  penalty 
upon  industry;  and  such  a  system  is  that  which  the  criminal  legisla- 
tion of  1873  has  imposed  upon  this  country. 

"  The  bimetallic  standard  of  silver  and  gold  has  behind  it  the  ex- 
perience of  ages,  and  has  been  lested  and  proved  by  tbe  enlightened  and 
deliberate  judgment  of  mankind.  The  gold  standard  is  a  departure 
from  the  established  policy  of  the  civilized  world,  with  nothing  to  com- 
mend it  but  twenty  two  years  of  depression  and  disaster  to  the  people, 
and  extraordinary  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the  bands  of  a  few. 

"  There  are  some  facts  bearing  upon  this  question  recognized  and 
admitted  by  all  candid  men,  whether  advocates  of  bimetallism  or  of 
the  single  gold  standard.  Among  these  is  the  fact  that  the  very  year 
that  marked  the  change  from  the  bimetallic  to  the  single  gold  stand- 
ard is  the  very  year  that  marked  the  change  from  a  condition  of 
rising  prices,  large  profits,  general  contentment,  and  great  prosperity, 
to  a  condition  of  falling  prices,  diminishing  profits,  insecurity  of 
investment,  unemployed  labor,  and  a  heavy  depression  in  all  branches 
of  trade  and  industry.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  dispute,  even  among  the 
honest  advocates  of  the  gold  standard,  that  general  prosperity  came 
to  an  end  with  the  destruction  of  the  bimetallic  system,  and  that, 
hard  times,  falling  ]>rices,  idle  workingmen,  and  widespread  depres- 
sion came  in  with  the  gold  standard  and  prevail  to- day  wherever  the 
gold  standard  has  been  adopted. 

"Every  international  monetary  conference  that  has  been  called, 
every  demand  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  for  an  international 
agreement  to  re-establish  the  bimetallic  standard,  is  a  confession  that 
the  demonetization  of  silver  was  a  blunder,  if  not  a  crime;  that 
its  consequences  have  been  disastrous,  and  the  conditions  it  has 
wrought  are  full  of  menace  and  of  peril. 

"  The  logic  of  facts  establishes  beyond  intelligent  question  that 
the  destruction  of  silver  as  primary  money  by  a  conspiracy  of  selfish 
interests  is  the  cause  of  the  Avidespread  depression  and  suffering  that 
began  with  the  gold  standard.  There  can  be  no  restoration  of  pros- 
perity, no  permanent  relief  from  prevailing  conditions,  until  the  great 
cause  has  been  removed  by  a  complete  restoration  of  silver  to  its 
proper  place  as  a  money  metal,  equal  with  gold. 

"We  believe  in  money  of  stable  value;  we  believe  least  of  all 
in  an  appreciating  standard;  it  is  only  through  the  practical  operation 
of  bimetallism  that  a  stable  standard  of  value  can  be  secured.  A 
standard  constituted  of  money  constantly  increasing  in  value  is  not  a 
.sound,  a  single,  nor  a  stable  standard,  but  a  constantly  changing 
standard. 

"The  effect  of  gold  monometallism  is  to  establish  one  standard 
for  the  creditor  and  another  for  the  debtor;  and  there  can  be  no  more 
dishonest  monetary  system  than  that  which  gives  short  measure  to 
the  borrower  and  long  measure  to  the  lender.  Under  the  policy 
prevailing  prior  to  1873  there  can  be  no  violent  change  in  the  relative 
value  of  the  two  metals,  for  a  rise  in  value  for  one  metal  is  coun- 
teracted by  a  decreased  demand,  and  a  fall  in  value  by  an  increased 
demand.  Under  the  operation  of  this  beneficent  law  a  stable  rela- 
tion was  maintained  between  them  in  spite  of  the  most  extreme 
changes  in  relative  productions.  From  the  first  period  of  our  history 
up  to  1873  the  right  of  the  debtor  to  choose  whether  he  should  pay 
his  debts  in  silver  or  gold  coin  was  always  recognized.  The  subse- 
quent policy  has  been  to  transfer  this  right  to  the  creditor,  thus  tend- 
ing to  constantly  increase  the  value  of  the  dearer  metal  and  destroy 
t.he  parity  between  them. 


_  THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  295 

"  Believing  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  reverse  tbis  in- 
iquitous and  ruinous  policy,  we  tlierefore  resolve: 

"That  we  favor  the  immediate  restoration  of  silver  to  its  former 
place  as  a  full  legal-tender,  standard  money  equal  with  gold,  and  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  both  silver  and  gold  at  the  ratio  of  IG 
to  1,  and  upon  terms  of  exact  equality. 

"  That  while  we  should  welcome  the  co-operation  of  other  nations, 
we  believe  that  the  United  States  should  not  wait  upon  the  pleasure 
of  foreign  governments,  or  the  consent  of  foreign  creditors,  but 
should  themselves  pro- 
ceed to  reverse  the 
'grinding  process'  that 
is  destroying  the  pros- 
perity of  the  people,  and 
should  lead  by  their  ex- 
ample the  nations  of  the 
earth. 

"That  the  rights  of 
the  American  people,  the 
interests  of  American 
labor,  and  the  prosperity 
of  American  industry 
have  a  higher  claim  to 
the  consideration  of  the 
people's  lawmakers  than 
the  greed  of  foreign  cred- 
itors, or  the  avaricious 
demands  made  by  '  idle 
holders  of  idle  capital.' 
The  right  to  regulate  its 
own  monetary  system  in 
the  interests  of  its  own 
people  is  a  right  which 
no  free  government  can 
barter,  sell,  or  surrender. 
This  reserved  right  is  a 
part  of  every  bond,  of 
every  contract,  and  of 
every  obligation.  No 
creditor  or  claimant  can 
set  up  a  right  that  can 
take  precedence  over  a  nation's  obligations  to  promote  the  welfare  of 
themassesof  its  own  people.  This  is  a  debt  higher  and  more  binding 
than  all  other  debts,  and  one  which  it  is  not  only  dishonest,  but 
treasonable,  to  ignore. 

"  Under  the  financial  policy  which  now  prevails,  we  see  the  land 
filled  with  idle  and  discontented  workingmen  and  an  ever-growing 
army  of  tramps — men  whom  lack  of  work  and  opportunity  has  made 
outcasts  and  beggars.  At  the  other  end  we  find  that  a  few  thousand 
families  own  one-half  of  the  wealth  of  the  country.  The  centralization 
of  wealth  has  gone  hand  in  hand  with  the  spread  of  poverty.  The  pau- 
per and  the  plutocrat  are  twin  children  of  the  same  vicious  and  unholy 
system.  The  situation  is  full  of  menace  to  the  liberties  of  the  people 
and  the  life  of  the  republic.  The  issue  is  enfranchisement  or  hope- 
less servitude.  Whatever  the  power  of  money  can  do  by  debauchery 
and  corruption  to  maintain  its  grasp  on  the  law-making  power,  will 


HON.  .TOHN  M.  PAT-MKR   OF    ILLINOIS, 
DEMOCRATIC    UNITED   STATES    SENATOR. 


296  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    2d  Qr.,  1895. 

be  done.  We  tberefore  appeal  to  the  plain  people  of  the  land  with 
perfect  confidence  in  their  patriotism  and  intelligence,  to  arouse 
themselves  to  a  full  sense  of  the  peril  that  confronts  them  and  de- 
fend the  citadel  of  their  liberties  with  a  vigilance  that  shall  neither 
slumber  nor  sleep." 

It  will  be  noted  in  reading  the  above  platform,  that 
personal  and  party  issues  are  not  dwelt  upon.  There  were, 
however,  delegates  who  wished  the  convention  to  declare 
for  a  particular  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  to  unite 
populists,  republicans,  and  democrats  in  support  of  that 
ticket.  The  cooler  heads  prevailed,  showing  themselves 
unwilling  to  break  from  their  party  just  yet,  until  the 
hope  of  carrying  a  free-silver  plank  in  the  national  plat- 
form next  year  has  been  shown  to»be  in  vain. 

The  Sjn'ingfiehl  Convention. — Pursuant  to  a  call  from 
the  chairman  of  the  democratic  State  Central  Committee 
of  Illinois,  a  free-silver  convention  was  held  at  Springfield, 
111.,  June  4.  Among  the  prominent  participants  Avere 
Governor  Altgeld,  ex-Congressmen  Fithian  and  A.  J. 
Hunter  of  Illinois,  and  ex-Congressman  W.  J.  Bryan  of 
Nebraska.  In  the  platform,  which  called  for  free  and  unlim- 
ited coinage  of  both  metals  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1  by  the 
United  States,  without  waiting  for  the  action  of  any  other  na- 
tion, a  request  was  made  of  the  Democratic  National  Com- 
mittee to  call  a  convention  of  the  party  to  define  its  attitude 
toward  the  coinage  question,  not  later  than  August,  1895. 
Chairman  Harrity  of  the  National  Committee,  however, 
does  not  intend  to  convoke  the  committee  until  next  win- 
ter, when  it  will  convene  to  fix  the  time  and  place  for  hold- 
ing the  national  convention.  There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  regarding  the  representative  character  of  the  Spring- 
field convention.  Governor  Altgeld  and  ex-Congressman 
Springer,  are  reported  as  saying  that  it  represented  the 
majority  of  democrats  in  the  state.  It  was,  however, 
utterly  repudiated  by  Senator  John  M.  Palmer  and  other 
democratic  leaders,  as  also  by  the  Chicago  Chronicle,  a 
leading  democratic  newspaper. 

As  the  result  of  the  silver  convention  held  at  Salt 
Lake  City  in  May  (p.  45),  steps  were  taken  to  form  a  bi- 
metallic union;  and  an  executive  committee  was  appointed, 
composed  of  one  representative  from  each  of  eleven  silver 
states. 

The  Republican  Leagiie  Convention. — Much  curiosity 
was  felt  as  to  the  attitude  to  be  taken  by  the  National 
League  of  Republican  Clubs  toward  the  silver  question. 
The  league  assembled  at  Cleveland,  0.,  June  19,  and 
was  attended  by  over  2,800  delegates  representing  every 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  297 

state  of  the  Union  except  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and 
North  Carolina.  It  was  the  only  national  gathering  of 
repiiblicfin  representatives  to  occur  before  the  presidential 
convention  of  1890.  Contrary  to  the  expectations  of 
many,  the  league  adjourned  without  making  any  declara- 
tion on  the  silver  problem  whicli  might  be  taken  to  fore- 
stall the  action  of  the  national  convention.  Tliere  were 
a  few  delegates — from  Colorado,  Montana,  and  the  newer 
states  of  the  West — who  favored  a  declaration  in  favor 
of  free  silver;  but  this  was  almost  solidly  opposed  by  the 
delegates  from  the  South  and  the  other  states  of  the  Union. 
It  was  pointed  out  that  the  constitution  of  the  league  for- 
bade it  to  prejudice  in  any  manner  the  freedom  of  the  na- 
tional convention  to  determine  the  platform  of  the  party. 
On  this  ground  it  was  decided  to  leave  everything  to  the 
convention  of  189G,  and  the  following  resolution  to  that 
effect  was  adopted: 

"Whereas,  Section  13  of  the  constitution  of  the  Republican 
League  of  tbe  United  States  says,  *  This  league  shall  not  in  any  man- 
ner endeavor  to  influence  the  action  of  any  national,  state,  county,  or 
municipal  convention,'  the  delegates  of  the  Republican  League  of  the 
United  States  in  convention  assembled  do  hereby  renew  their  allegi- 
ance to  the  principles  of  the  republican  party,  and  pledge  their  best 
efforts  for  the  success  of  the  candidates  of  that  party.  Believing  that 
this  convention  has  no  instructions  from  the  republicans  of  the 
United  States  under  our  constitution  to  frame  or  enunciate  party  plat- 
forms, we  hereby  refer  all  resolutions  in  relation  to  public  questions 
to  the  republican  national  convention  of  1896,  with  entire  confidence 
that  its  action  will  redound  to  the  prosperity  of  the  people  and  the 
continued  glory  and  advancement  of  the  country." 

Not  even  a  remote  reference  was  made  to  either  the 
money  or  the  tariff'  question.  Adjutant-General  E.  A. 
McAlpin  of  New  York  was  elected  president  of  the  league. 

The  Kentucky  State  Democratic  Convention. — Another 
incident  significant  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  relations  of 
the  two  great  parties  toward  the  silver  question,  is  found 
in  the  action  of  the  Kentucky  state  democratic  convention 
at  Louisville  June  25,  20,  and  27.  It  was  the  first  regular 
state  democratic  convention  to  pass  upon  the  silver  ques- 
tion. Senator  Blackburn  and  ex-Congressman  Stone  led 
the  silver  forces,  their  antagonists  being  headed  by  Sena- 
tor Lindsay  and  Representative  McCreary.  A  brisk  fight 
took  place,  resulting  in  the  adoption,  by  a  vote  of  044  to 
233,  of  the  following  resolution,  submitted  by  a  majority 
(eight  members)  of  the  committee  of  thirteen  on  resolu- 
tions: 

"First — The  democracy  of  Kentucky  in  convention  assembled 
congratulates  the  country  upon  the  repeal  of  the  McKinley  tariff  law, 


298  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2cl  Qr.,  1895. 

and  upon  the  evidences  we  have  on  every  band  of  returning  prosperity 
under  the  operation  of  reduced  and  equalized  tariff  taxation;  and  we 
denounce  as  fraught  with  danger  and  disaster  the  threat  of  our  repub- 
lican adversaries  to  re  establish  a  protective  tariff  and  to  reinaugurate 
a  policy  of  unequal  taxation,  which,  in  connection  with  general  mis- 
government  by  the  republican  party,  culminated  in  the  business 
panic  of  1893. 

"  Second — The  democratic  party,  which  has  always  stood  for  the 
separation  of  church  and  state,  for  the  sake  alike  of  civil  and  re- 
ligious freedom,  does  not  hesitate  to  condemn  all  efforts  to  create  dis- 
tinction among  citizens  because  of  differences  in  faith  as  repugnant 
to  an  enlightened  age,  and  abhorrent  to  the  instincts  of  American 
freemen. 

"Third — We  affirm  without  qualification  the  principles  and  poli- 
cies declared  by  the  national  democratic  platform  of  1892,  and  declare 
that  our  present  national  democratic  administration  is  entitled  to  the 
thanks  of  the  party  for  its  honest,  courageous,  and  statesmanlike 
management  of  public  affairs;  and  we  express  our  undiminished  con- 
fidence in  the  democracy  and  patriotism  of  President  (trover  Cleve- 
land and  his  distinguished  co-adviser  and  secretary,  John  G.  Carlisle 
of  Kentucky." 

A  minority  report,  in  effect  declaring  in  favor  of  free 
coinage,  and  refusing  to  indorse  the  present  national  ad- 
ministration, was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  598  to  Ji70. 

The  currency  plank  of  1892,  it  will  be  remembered 
(Vol.  2,  p.  177),  was  a  declaration  for  bimetallism  "  through 
international  agreement,  or  by  such  safeguards  of  legisla- 
tion as  shall  insure  the  p^irity  of  the  two  metals."  Tiie 
main  significance  of  its  reaffirmation  by  the  Kentucky 
convention  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  minority  report 
involved  an  express  demand  for  free  silver  and  a  condem- 
nation of  the  monetary  policy  of  tlie  Cleveland  administra- 
tion. The  result  of  the  vote  was  an  important  victory  for 
the  sound-money  element.  Six  months  ago  the  free-silver 
advocates  claimed  Kentucky  as  a  silver  stronghold;  but 
the  state  convention  declared  out  and  out  against  the  free- 
silver  agitation  by  a  vote  of  nearly  three  to  one. 

Notwithstanding  this  declaration  of  policy,  the  conven- 
tion nominated  for  governor  the  free-silver  candidate,  P. 
Watt  Hardin,  by  408  votes,  to  330  cast  for  0.  M.  Clay, 
the  sound-money  candidate,  'i'his  is  attributed  largely  to 
Mr.  Hardin's  personal  popularity. 

International  BimetaUisni. — It  cannot  be  said  that 
the  prospects  of  another  international  monetary  confer- 
ence have  brightened  during  the  last  three  months.  So  far 
as  the  United  States  is  concerned,  the  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  well  known.  The  last  conference — held  in 
lirussels  in  1892  (Vol.  2,  pp.  129  and  338)— failed  of  tangi- 
ble results;  and,  while  the  United  States  has  since  that 
time  stood  ready  to  participate  in  another  conference,  it 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  299 

will  not  take  the  initiative  in  the  matter,  as  it  did  in  the 
earlier  instance,  but  awaits  the  invitation  of  one  or  more 
of  the  leading  powers  of  Europe. 

In  Germany  the  prospects  of  a  conference  being  called 
are  very  doubtful.  It  is  true  that  the  resolution  of  Count 
von  Mirbach  looking  to  such  a  gathering  passed  the  Keiclis- 
tag  in  February  last,  receiving  the  guarded  approval  of 
Chancellor  von  Hohenlohe  (p.  40),  and  was  subsequently 
(May  16)  carried  through  the  Prussian  diet  by  a  decisive 
vote  of  72  to  38;  yet  the  German  government  is  left  free 
to  do  as  it  pleases  in  the  matter.  The  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment, as  announced  by  the  chancellor,  is  to  summon  a 
conference  in  deference  to  the  wishes  of  the  bimetallists 
as  soon  as  the  approval  of  all  the  federal  states  is  se- 
cured. Wiirtemberg,  Bava.ria,  and  Baden  have  already 
declared  against  it.  The  emperor  and  his  ministers  are 
firmly  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the  gold 
standard;  and,  in  the  event  of  any  step  in  the  direction  of 
bimetallism  being  advisable,  the  co-operation  of  England 
is  regarded  as  absolutely  necessary.  The  free-silver  sen- 
timent is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  agrarian  ele- 
ment. A  strong  anti-bimetallist  agitation  is  being  carried 
on.  A  "union  for  defense  of  the  gold  standard  of  Ger- 
many" has  been  formed,  and  on  that  side  are  eidisted  al- 
most all  of  the  industrial  and  commercial  interests  of  the 
country.  Even  the  laboring  classes,  so  far  as  infiuenced 
by  the  socialists,  defend  the  gold  standard  as  a  safeguard 
against  great  evils  to  themselves. 

In  England,  also,  the  outlook  for  bimetallism  is  still 
dubious.  The  late  liberal  government  was  unalterably 
opposed  to  any  change  in  the  monetary  system,  its  atti- 
tude being  well  expressed  in  the  following  words  of  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  Sir  William  Vernon-Harcourt, 
addressed  to  a  meeting  of  bankers  and  financiers  in  London 
in  the  latter  part  of  May: 

"  The  experience  of  well  nigli  a  century  lias  proved  that  our  pres- 
ent system  of  currency  is  suited  to  the  wants  of  this  great  commer- 
cial country,  and  that  to  depart  from  it  would  be  disastrous  to  the 
trade  credit  of  the  United  Kingdom,  The  continuity  of  the  national 
policy  is  more  necessary  in  this  than,  perhaps,  any  other  question. 
You  may  rely  upon  it  that  Her  Majesty's  government  will  not  depart 
from  the  course  pursued  by  all  the  governments  that  have  preceded 
it,  and  will  not  give  countenance  to  any  change  in  the  fundamental 
principles  of  our  monetary  system;  nor  in  any  discussion  in  which 
they  may  be  called  upon  to  take  part  will  they  admit  any  doubt  as  to 
their  intention  to  adhere  to  the  single  gold  standard,  which  you  justly 
regard  as  essential  to  our  well-being  as  a  commercial  nation." 

The  overthrow  of  the  liberal  government  toward  thq. 


300  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

end  of  June  has  encouraged  the  friends  of  bimetallism, 
for  it  is  well  known  that  several  members  of  the  new  coali- 
tion ministry, — Mr.  Balfour,  Mr.  Chaplin,  8ir  Henry 
James, — besides  many  leading  conservative  members  of 
the  house,  are  pronounced  bimetallists  in  the  sense  of  fa- 
voring a  policy  of  international  action.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  the  liberal-unionists  will  probably  refuse  to  assent 
to  anything  savoring  of  a  change;  and  Mr.  Goschen,  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  in  the  preceding  Salisbury  minis- 
try, and  now  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  a  man  of  great 
influence  on  the  financial  side,  has  steadfastly  opposed  the 
entrance  of  England  into  any  international  agreement, 
though  favoring  such  an  agreement  for  other  countries. 
The  conservatives  and  unionists  of  the  Gold  Standard 
Committee  have  urged  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mr.  Balfour 
to  pursue  a  non-committal  currency  policy  in  the  coming 
electoral  campaign. 

The  English  Bimetallic  League  is,  however,  trying  to 
force  this  issue  into  prominence  by  scattering  broadcast 
its  literature.  The  last  week  in  June  it  addressed  a  me- 
morial to  the  new  chancellor.  Sir  Michael  Ilicks-Beach, 
signed  by  sixty  M.  P.^  sixty  bankers,  seventy-eight 
merchants  and  manufacturers,  forty-two  landowners,  and 
fifteen  labor  organizations.  To  counteract  its  influence  a 
Monometallist  Union  has  been  formed,  recruited  mainly 
from  banking  and  financial  circles. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 

^HE  quarter  opened  with  the  plenipotentiaries  of  China 
and  Japan  in  hopeful  conference  at  Simonoseki  con- 
cerning terms  of  peace.  Their  sessions,  however,  had  been 
suddenly  suspended  by  the  attempt  of  a  Japanese  fanatic 
to  take  the  life  of  the  Chinese  chief  commissioner,  Li 
Hung  Chang,  in  view  of  which  the  Japanese  emperor  had 
magnanimously  commanded  his  plenipotentiaries  to  grant 
a  three-weeks' armistice  ending  April  20.  Meanwhile,  the 
probable  terms  of  peace  were  the  theme  of  anxious  specu- 
lation by  several  great  powers  of  Europe,  with  much  offer- 
ing of  advice,  some  assertion  of  claims,  and  an  active 
plying  of  open  or  covert  influences  to  secure  decisions  ac- 
cording to  the  various  interests. 

Though  fighting  had  thus  suddenly  been  suspended 
and  the  prospect  of  peace  was  brightening,  the  victorious 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  301 

Japanese  permitted  themselves  not  the  slightest  pause  in 
military  preparations.  Supplies  of  all  kinds  were  pushed 
to  the  front  of  their  northern  armies  in  the  field,  while  the 
depots  at  the  rear  were  replenished;  reinforcements  were 
made  ready  to  move;  southward,  their  war-ships  blockad- 
ing the  chief  port  in  the  great  island  of  Formosa,  were 
the  convoy  of  transports  to  the  number,  it  was  said,  of 
forty,  crowded  with  troops,  threatening,  at  least  making 
possible,  a  sudden  attack  on  Canton.  AH  these  signals  of 
war  helped  the  negotiators  to  end  the  war.  This  may 
have  been  in  part  their  intent:  if  so,  it  was  wise.  But  be- 
yond question  it  expressed  the  heart  and  purpose  of  the 
new  Japan:  the  blood  and  spirit  of  the  people  were  up 
from  end  to  end  of  the  islancl  emjoire,  to  show  the  world 
that  an  unrecognized  power  had,  within  the  period  of  one 
generation,  awakened  from  a  sleep  of  a  thousand  years,  and 
had  sprung  fully  armed  to  the  front  of  affairs  on  the  vast 
and  dreamy  Asiatic  field.  China  had  at  last  been  made 
aware  of  the  new  day  which  had  begun  in  the  Far  East, 
and  was  slowly  yielding  to  the  conviction,  now  general 
through  the  civilized  world,  that  the  brief  armistice  must 
be  availed  of  for  purposes  of  peace,  if  its  dynasty  were  not 
to  be  overthrown  and  the  empire  dismembered. 

The  War  Ended.— The  news  that  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  being  considered  and  that  China  was  yielding  by 
inches  to  the  Japanese  demands,  brought  down  on"  the 
two  nations  an  avalanche  of  advice.  'J'he  air  of  Europe 
grew  thick  with  rumors,  which  naturally  soon  began  to 
consist  largely  of  contradictions  of  rumors  preceding.  On 
April  17  the  war  was  ended  by  the  formal  signing  of  a 
treaty  of  peace,  whose  text  was  reserved  from  publicity 
till  its  final  ratification.  Within  a  few  days,  however,  its 
main  points  were  gathered  by  indefatigable  agents  of  the 
European  and  American  press,  with  more  successful  ap- 
proximation to  truth  than  might  have  been  expected. 
The  chief  error,  and  one  that  aroused  fears  of  grave  inter- 
national complications,  was  the  report  that  the  treaty  had 
secured  exclusively  for  Japan  a  two  per  cent  ad  valorem 
duty  on  imports  instead  of  a  special  duty,  and  had  formed 
a  close  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  between  Japan 
and  China.  Such  an  alliance  could  amount  to  nothing 
less  than  the  Japanization  of  China,  whose  army  had  al- 
most ceased  to  exist,  and  whose  navy  had  been  either  de- 
stroyed or  captured;  while  its  vast  and  productive  territory, 
with  its  immense  agricultural  and  industrial  resources, 
might  b«  so  organized  and  administered  under  Japanese 


802  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    2d  Qr..  i8flS. 

leadership  as  to  consolidate  a  power  which  should  domi- 
nate the  destinies  of  Asia,  and  turn  into  new  channels  the 
trade  and  commerce  of  the  world.  The  false  report  of 
the  alliance  was  soon  authoritatively  contradicted  by  the 
Japanese  government,  which  also  announced  that  it  had 
secured,  and  had  purposed  to  secure  equally  for  other  na- 
tions as  for  itself,  the  new  and  great  commercial  advan- 
tages long  desired  in 
China.  These  advan- 
tages, g  ranted  by 
China  to  Japan,  are 
thereby  granted  to 
the  other  powers  also 
in  virtue  of  what  is 
known  as  ''  the  most 
favored  nation 
clause,"  which  is  a 
part  of  all  their  trea- 
ties. On  May  8  the 
final  ratifications 
were  exchanged. 

The  proclama- 
tion of  the  emperor 
of  Japan  to  his  people 
in  view  of  tlie  treaty 
has  been  greatly  ad- 
mired. He  rejoices 
with  them  in  the  vic- 
tories gained,  but  re- 
minds them  that  the 
empire  has  still  a 
long  road  before  it 
"  in  the  march  of 
civilization.''  He  expresses  the  hope  tliat  rulers  and 
people  will  *' always  guard  against  self-contentedness, 
and  "ever  in  a  spirit  of  modesty  and  humility"  pro- 
ceed to  perfect  the  national  defense.  He  sternly  con- 
demns any  who  ''through  conceit  at  the  recent  victories, 
may  offer  insult  to  other  states;"  and  urges  that  with  res- 
toration of  peace  with  China,  "friendship  should  be  re- 
stored," with  endeavors  "to  increase  more  than  ever  be- 
fore the  relations  of  good  neigliborliood." 

Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace.— The  following  is 
a  summary  of  the  main  terms  of  the  treaty: 

I.  China  recognizes  Korea  as  a  perfectly  independent  and  auto- 
nomic state. 


THE   EMPEROR   OF  JAPAN. 


THE  YELLOW  WaU.  303 

It.  China  concedes  to  Japan  permanent  sovereignty  over  the  Leao- 
Tong  peninsula  from  its  southern  point  (near  and  including  the  great 
fortress  of  Port  Arthur)  northward  to  about  the  40th  parallel  of  lati- 
tude, with  the  islands  appertaining  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  gulf  of 
Leao-Tong  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Yellow  sea.  China  con- 
cedes likewise  the  whole  island  of  Formosa  and  its  dependent  islands; 
also  the  Pescadore  group  (islands  between  119'  and  120°  east  longi- 
tude and  23'  and  24'  nortli  latitude). 

III.  The  boundaries  of  the  above  ceded  territories  are  to  be  care- 
fully verified  and  defined 

by   a   joint    commission 
within  one  year. 

IV.  China  engages  to 
pay  to  Japan  as  indem- 
nity for  war  expenses, 
two  hundred  million 
Kai  Phing  taels  (about 
$266,000,000  in  silver,  or 
about  $142,000,000  in 
gold):  the  payment  is  to 
be  in  eight  instalments, 
of  which  the  first  two 
are  to  be  of  fifty  million 
taels  each — the  first  to  be 
paid  within  six  monlhs, 
the  second  within  one 
year,  and  the  remaining 
six  annually  thereafter. 
After  the  first  ])ayment, 
the  interest  charge  is  to 
be  five  per  cent:  tlie 
whole  indemnity  may  be 
paid  at  any  earlier  date, 
and  if  paid  within  three 
years  all  interest  is  to  be 
waived. 

V.  Inhabitantsof the 
ceded  districts  desiring, 
to  reside  outside  such 
districts,  shall  have  lib- 
erty to  sell  their  real  estate  and  retire  within  two  years.  Those 
remaining  shall,  at  the  option  of  the  Japanese  government,  be  deemed 
Japanese  citizens.  The  delivery  of  Formosa  to  Japan  is  to  be 
finished  through  a  joint  commission  within  two  months. 

VI.  China  engages  to  appoint  a  plenipotentiary  to  conclude,  with 
one  from  Japan,  treaties  of  commerce  and  navigation  and  of  overland 
commerce,  based  on  the  articles  exi.sting  between  China  and  Euro- 
pean po<vers:  meanwhile,  China  is  to  extend  to  Japan  in  all  these  re- 
spects the  treatment  of  the  most  favored  nation.  Besides,  China  at 
the  end  of  six  months  is  to  open  to  the  Japanese  various  ports  and 
markets  (named)  for  residence,  commerce,  industry,  and  manufacture; 
and  is  to  extend  certain  routes  for  Japanese  steamers  up  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang,  and  from  Shanghai  tim  the  river  W^u-sung  and  its  canal: 
also,  the  Likin  tax,  so  obnoxious  to  foreigners,  is  to  be  modified;  and 
Japanese  subjects  purchasing  manufactures  or  products  in  the  in- 
terior of  China,  or  conveying  imported  merchandise,  are  to  be  free  of 


THE   EMPRESS   OP  .TAPAN. 


304  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

warehousing  charges  for  the  same.  Japanese  are  also  to  be  free  to 
engage  in  any  manufacture  in  the  open  ports  and  markets,  and  to  im- 
port any  machines  without  paying  extra  charges.  Any  necessary 
provisions  regarding  transit  duties,  inland  taxes,  imports  and  charges, 
and  warehousing  in  the  interior,  as  concerns  the  above  concessions, 
are  to  be  made  in  the  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation  which  this 
treaty  provides  for. 

VII.  Japanese  troops  now  in  China  are  to  be  withdrawn  in  three 
months — subject,  however,  to  the  prorrsions  following. 

VIII.  China  consents  to  the  temporary  occupation  of  Wei-Hai- 
Wei  by  Japanese  troops  as  guarantee  for  faithful  observance  of  this 
treaty.  The  force  is  to  consist  of  not  more  than  one  brigade,  and 
China  is  to  pay  one  fourth  of  the  expense.  The  territory  occupied 
is  to  include  the  island  of  Ling-Kung  and  a  strip  of  land  along  the 
whole  coast  line  of  the  bay.  The  civil  administration  is  to  be  in  the 
bands  of  (Chinese  officials,  though  these  must  conform  to  any  orders  of 
the  Japanese  commander  in  his  management  of  the  troops.  The 
troops  are  to  be  withdrawn  when,  after  the  payment  of  the  second  instal- 
ment of  the  indemnity,  and  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the  treaty 
of  commerce  and  navigation,  China  shall  have  consented  to  the  mort- 
gaging of  the  (.'hinese  customs  in  order  to  make  full  and  proper  ar- 
rangements for  payment  of  all  dues  remaining  on  the  indemnity. 
In  default  of  such  arrangements  the  troops  shall  not  be  withdrawn 
until  the  full  payment  of  the  indemnity;  and  in  no  ca.se  shall  they  be 
withdrawn  before  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce and  navigation. 

The  concessions  in  this  treaty  as  to  ports,  markets,  taxes,  com- 
mercial privileges,  access  to  the  interior,  residence,  etc.,  are  practi- 
cally concessions  to  all  the  other  treaty  powers  likewise. 

In  the  international  complications  (to  be  noticed  later 
in  this  article)  which  accompanied  and  followed  the  adop- 
tion of  this  treaty,  the  United  States  kept  carefully  aloof, 
but  lost  no  opportunity  to  manifest  its  friendly  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  both  countries,  and  its  desire  that  a  just  and 
honorable  peace  might  speedily  ensue.  Its  only  approach 
toward  intervention  was  in  maintenance  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Korean  kingdom,  shown  in  Secretary  Gresham's 
early  expression  to  Japan  of  the  hope  that  that  country 
would  not  adopt  any  oppressive  measure  in  Korea.  This 
step,  taken  at  the  request  of  the  king  of  Korea,  was 
deemed  to  be  called  for  by  the  peculiar  engagements  into 
which  this  country  had  entered  by  its  treaty  with  that 
kingdom  at  its  first  opening  to  foreign  relations.  Beyond 
fulfilling  a  formal  obligation  this  step,  as  events  showed, 
was  of  small  moment.  But  of  great  moment  as  opening 
the  way  for  peace,  was  the  action  of  the  United  States 
ministers  to  China  and  to  Japan,  Mr.  Denby  at  Pekin 
and  Mr.  Dun  at  Tokio.  Representing  a  great  nation 
which  had  no  selfish  interest  in  the  case,  and  avoiding  all 
attempt  to  act  as  arbitrators,  they  were  enabled  to  bring 
delicacy  and  skill  into  the  initiative  of  negotiations  whose 


1 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  305 

natural  end — when  once  the  combatants  had  been  per- 
suaded to  come  into  negotiations — was  peace.  In  the  act- 
ual negotiations,  a  notably  effective  and  perhaps  ulti- 
mately decisive  aid  was  rendered  by  a  private  citizen  of 
this  country,  John  W.  Foster,  ex-secretary  of  state,  whom 
the  Chinese  imperial  government  invited  to  be  the  adviser 
of  Li  Hung  Chang  in  all  proposals,  discussions,  and  ar- 
rangements of  terms  of  peace.  Ilis  thorough  knowledge 
of  affairs  in  the  Far  East,  with  his  friendship  of  long 
standing  with  statesmen  of  both  the  countries  involved, 
especially  Japan,  commended  him  to  China  in  her  dire  ex- 
tremity. His  advice  justified  the  confidence  reposed  in 
him.  At  the  outset  he  urged  that  China  should  discard 
the  usual  devious  diplomacy  of  the  Orient,  and  act  in  the 
whole  business  witli  entire  good  faith.  It  is  understood 
that  he  made  his  influence  felt  strongly  in  impressing  on 
Li  Hung  Chang  the  absolute  necessity  for  China  of  com- 
ing speedily  to  terms  with  Japan,  whose  armies  would 
otherwise  within  a  short  time  enable  that  government  to 
dictate  terms  of  peace  from  within  the  gates  of  Pekin 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  imperial  dynasty.  Meanwhile,  his 
old  friendship  for  Japan  gave  him  opportunity,  which  he 
is  understood  to  have  used  with  great  effect,  to  persuade 
the  Japanese  plenipotentiaries  to  consent  to  large  reduc- 
tions from  their  first  demands  on  China.  As  a  fact,  the 
indemnity  was  abated  by  one-third,  and  the  payment  by 
China  of  the  whole  cost  of  the  Japanese  army  of  occupa- 
tion was  abated  by  three-fourths:  some  minor  demands 
also  were  modified.  He  returned  home  early  in  July  from 
his  seven  months  of  arduous  and  delicate  labor,  with  the 
warm  thanks  of  the  Chinese  emperor  and  a  fee  whose 
amount,  variously  stated,  is  known  to  be  very  large. 

The  War  in  Review.— Turning  for  a  backward 
glance  over  the  war,  before  considering  the  events  that 
closely  followed  the  treaty  of  Simonoseki,  we  see  one  of 
the  strangest  wars  in  history — one  of  the  briefest,  and 
fortunately  one  of  the  least  bloody,  yet  one  of  the  most 
impressive  and  momentous  in  its  revelations  and  its  pos- 
sible results.  Military  critics  point  out  now  that  China's 
only  chance  for  success  lay  in  her  navy,  which  was  modern, 
well-built,  and  well  equipped;  while  her  army  bore  no 
proportion  in  numbers  to  her  vast  territory  and  popula- 
tion, was  wretchedly  drilled  or  not  drilled  at  all,  scarcely 
disciplined,  poorly  armed  and  equipped  as  the  result  of 
the  peculation  said  to  be  general  among  officials  of  the 
government,  and  fatally  deficient  in  the  enthusiasm  which 


Vol.  5.— 30. 


806  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

either  is  or  takes  the  place  of  courage.  Some  of  the  offi- 
cers—conspicuously General  Tsao  at  Ping- Yang,  and  Ad- 
miral Ting  at  Wei-Hai-Wei— showed  much  bravery;  but 
in  general  the  troops,  like  the  people,  lack  the  national 
spirit.  In  China  the  nation  is  not  idealized  as  a  figure  radi- 
ant, grand,  and  enduring.  What  soldiership  is  possible 
in  such  material?  In  battle  their  behavior  was  often  like 

that  of  cowards;  but 
perhaps  it  is  not 
necessary  to  call  them 
cowards  merely  for 
their  running  away 
after  they  had  fired 
long  and  vigorously 
at  the  approaching 
enemy  not  yet  within 
range.  A  Chinaman 
of  the  lower  orders 
usually  attaches  no 
great  value  to  life, 
since  he  finds  very 
little  in  it  for  him, 
and  kneels  peacefully 
and  uncomplaining- 
ly, taking  his  place  in 
a  long  line  to  be  be- 
headed, when  the 
customs  of  the  coun- 
try, just  or  unjust, 
make  that  the  proper 
thing  for  him  to  do. 
It  is  not  certain  that 
he  has  enough  fear 
of  death  to  enable  him  to  be  a  genuine  coward.  When  two 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  out  of  three  hundred  millions 
in  a  land  have  no  ideal  of  a  country  worth  dying  for  or  worth 
living  for,  and  can  easily  run  away,  and  have  no  leader- 
ship for  a  successful  fight,  why  shoukl  they  stand  and  wait 
to  be  shot?  But  even  aside  from  this  reason  of  defeat,  a 
sufficient  reason  would  be  found  in  the  amazing  lack  of  or- 
derly preparation  for  warfare  on  the  part  of  the  military  au- 
thorities of  China.  Supplies  indeed  were  gathered  in  enor- 
mous amount,  but,  it  is  said,  with  no  adequate  plan  or  ar- 
rangement to  have  them  at  the  place  and  time  needed.  In 
striking  contrast  was  the  Japanese  army,  in  individual 
bravery,  in  preparatory  discipline,  in  scientific  tactic  and 


HON.    EDWIN   Dl'N  OF  OHIO, 
UNITED   STATES   MINISTER  TO  JAPAN. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  307 

strategy  of  commanders,  in  thorough  foresiglit  and  prepara- 
tion, in  swift  massing  at  critical  points.  Two  things  gave 
them  tlieir  victory — two  things  besides  the  hopeless  in- 
feriority of  their  opponents — individual  bravery,  no  new 
thing  with  them;  and  organization,  quite  new  and  con- 
fessedly newly  learned  from  German  and  other  European 
military  models.  The  case  was  the  same  with  the  two 
navies  as  with  the  armies:  the  Chinese  had  admirable 
ships,  but  these  did  not  move  and  fight,  like  the  Japanese, 
as  one  organic  whole. 

A  report,  believed  to  be  official,  states  the  actual  fight- 
ing strength  of  the  Japanese  forces  which  took  part  in  the 
campaigning,  as  G0,979.  This  evidently  does  not  include 
large  reserves  held  at  different  points.  According  to  this 
report,  the  total  deaths  (of  Japanese)  were  4,113;  of  which 
734  were  killed  in  battle,  231  died  of  wounds,  3,148  died 
of  disease.  Chinese  losses  are  not  accurately  reported, 
but  their  reports  may  indicate  losses  six  to  twelve  times 
as  great  as  those  of  the  Japanese.  These  numbers  seem  in- 
credibly small  for  a  contest  in  which  a  nation  of  250,000,- 
000  or  more  of  people  confessed  utter  defeat  and  begged  for 
peace.  No  such  immense  results  are  on  record  as  having 
been  gained  in  war  Avith  such  small  expenditure  of  human 
life.  The  total  cost  to  Japan  for  the  war  and  all  items 
connected  with  it,  is  reckoned  at  about  one-half  the  in- 
demnity to  be  paid  by  China. 

Lessons  in  Naval  Warfare. — The  war  has  been  an 
important  object-lesson  to  naval  constructors  and  com- 
manders, having  supplied  the  first  test  of  the  recent  style 
of  Avar-ships  in  actual  warfare.  The  test,  though  not  as 
thorough  as  might  have  been  supplied  by  two  European 
combatants,  and  far  from  complete  by  reason  of  the  in- 
efficient management  on  one  of  the  sides  engaged,  is  never- 
theless accepted  by  naval  experts  as  giving  practical  sug- 
gestions new  and  valuable,  among  which  are  the  following, 
as  noted  by  a  critic  of  the  great  battle  of  the  Yalu  river: 

1.  The  thick  armor  of  the  great  battleships  is  practically  a  de 
fense:  the  armor  of  the  Chinese  battleships  was  not  pierced. 

2.  The  war  vessels  now  in  use  can  maintain  a  fight  as  long  as  their 
ammunition  lasts,  unless  they  take  fire:  four  of  the  best  Japanese 
cruisers  fought  two  ])owerful  Chinese  battle-ships  till  lack  of  ammu- 
nition compelled  withdrawal. 

3.  The  protective  deck  fulfils  its  purpose:  no  marine  engine  on 
either  side  was  damaged. 

4.  Woodwork  in  a  war  vessel  is  very  dangerous:  three  of  the  five 
Chinese  vessels  lost  were  lost  by  being  burned  out;  and  frequent  fires 
on  the  Japanese  vessels  compelled  them  to  withdraw  till  the  fires 
were  extinguished. 


308  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr..  1895. 

5.  Conning  towers  are  likely  to  be  little  used  in  manoeuvring  a 
fleet:  the  admirals  on  both  sides  report  that  they  could  not  have  man- 
aged their  fleets  from  the  conning  towers,  and  even  the  captains  used 
them  only  when  at  very  close  range. 

6.  Small  boats  on  deck  are  not  only  useless  in  action,  but  also  ex- 
ceedingly dangerous — great  numbers  of  men  being  injured  by  splinters 
flying  from  them  when  struck  by  shot:  if  not  sent  ashore  previous  to 
action,  they  should  be  lowered  far  down  the  ship's  side. 

7.  Torpedoes  are  very  liable  to  damage  the  ordinary  war  vessel 
that  carries  them  more  than  they  damage  the  enemy;  their  preferable 
vehicle  is  a  torpedo  boat:  the  Chinese  were  damaged  by  their  explo- 
sion under  the  fire  of  the  Japanese  rapid-fire  guns. 

8.  The  fighting-tops  are  much  exposed  places:  the  tops  and  the 
rigging  were  struck  by  a  shower  of  shots,  most  of  which  were  dis- 
covered to  be  ricochet  shots — probably  from  rapid-fire  guns. 

9.  Some  new  method  must  be  devised  for  signalling:  early  in  the 
fight  all  the  signal  halyards  were  shot  away,  leaving  the  admirals 
without  means  of  communicating  orders  to  their  fleets. 

10.  Combined  fleet  action,  made  possible  only  by  thorough  fleet- 
drill,  is  absolutely  essential:  the  Chinese  strategy  was  rendered  worth- 
less by  lack  of  this — four  of  their  vessels  being  practically  cut  off  by 
the  first  Japanese  fleet-movement. 

Formosa  and  the  Pescadores. — Formosa,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  productive  of  the  large  islands  of 
the  world  (about  250  miles  long,  GO  miles  wide),  con- 
stitutes a  part  of  the  territoral  cession  by  China  to  Japan. 
It  is  nearly  700  miles  southwest  of  Japan,  and  about  90 
miles  from  the  nearest  point  of  China.  It  had  long  been 
coveted  by  Japan,  which  had  a  small  colony  there  centu- 
ries ago;  and  nnder  a  firm  and  enterprising  government 
will  doubtless  be  rapidly  developed  in  its  agricultural  and 
industrial  resources,  which  are  very  great.  From  the 
generally  unhealthful  coast  region  the  land  rises  to  a  cen- 
tral mountain  range,  whose  liighest  peak.  Mount  Morrison, 
is  12,850  feet  above  sea-level.  The  population,  estimated 
at  about  3,000,000,  is  of  various  races;  but  its  great  pro- 
portion, especially  in  the  interior,  is  of  Malay  type,  and 
is  ignorant,  wild,  even  savage.  From  1G30  to  1G51  the 
Dutch  had  at  Formosa  a  flourishing  settlement  with  a 
great  fortress,  Avhich  met  destruction  at  the  hands  of 
pirates.  The  Spanish  and  the  French  have  turned  many 
covetous  glances  toward  the  island  on  account  of  its  prox- 
imity to  the  Spanish  Philippine  islands,  and  to  the  French 
Annam  and  Tonkin.  The  cession  of  Formosa  to  Japan 
included  an  important  archipelago  comprising  about  300 
islands  and  islets  of  mixed  coral  formation  and  glacial  de- 
posit, known  as  the  Pescadore  or  Fishermen's  islands, 
between  Formosa  and  the  mainland  of  China,  about 
twenty-five  miles  west  of  Formosa.  Twenty-one  of  these 
islands  are  inhabited  by  a  population  chiefly  fishermen. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 


309 


estimated  at  6,000  to  12,000.  The  two  largest  islands, 
Panghu  (22  miles  long)  and  Fisher,  inclose  an  excellent 
harbor,  protected  by  five  forts.  Here  also  the  Dutch  had 
a  commercial  settlement  in  the  17tli  century.  The  Pes- 
cadores form  a  strong  military  base  for  the  capture  and 
holding  of  Formosa.  Shortly  after  the  middle  of  March, 
Japanese  war-ships  and  troops  took  possession  of  this  im- 
portant group.  Early  in  June  a  heavy  Japanese  force  was 
landed  on  the  northern  end  of  Formosa,  and,  after  several 
hours'  fighting,  captured  the  city  of  Keelung,  thus  begin- 
ning the  actual  possession  of  the  island,  over  the  most  of 
whose  great  southward  and  westward  area  China  had  held, 
and  could  transfer,  only  a  nominal  sovereignty.  The  pos- 
session of  the  whole  will  yet  be  contested  by  warlike  and 
savage  foes.  For  weeks  previous  to  the  strong  Japanese 
occupation,  the  more  civilized  region  had  been  the  scene 
of  continual  disorder,  with  outbreaks  of  fierce  fighting  by 
various  factions,  attributed  to  Chinese  intrigue,  with  per- 
haps some  foreign  collusion  through  envy  of  Japan  in  her 
new  acquisition.  About  the  middle  of  May  an  absurd  re- 
public even  had  been  proclaimed,  under  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernor as  president,  and  had  sent  to  various  nations  notifica- 
tions demanding  recognition.  The  people  are  too  ignorant 
to  know  the  meaning  of  the  name  republic;  and  the  whole 
pretense  vanished  in  an  hour,  soon  after  the  Japanese 
force  entered  on  the  scene.  Late  reports  announce  that 
order  is  established  around  Keelung,  and  trade  is  pro- 
ceeding on  normal  lines.  The  ''Black  Flags,'' Chinese 
brigands  numbering  about  10,000,  having  some  loose  and 
undefined  standing  as  Chinese  troops,  but  conveniently 
unrecognized  as  such,  being  ready  for  pillage  and  murder, 
were  threatening  outrage  at  Makung,  the  capital  of  the 
Pescadores,  in  the  last  of  June.  A  British  force  was 
landed  to  protect  the  foreign  residents.  The  Chinese  gen- 
eral demanded  their  withdrawal,  and  trained  his  guns  on 
the  foreign  settlement;  but  when  the  British  war-ships  in 
the  harbor  raised  steam  and  cleared  for  action,  he  saw 
reason  to  recede  from  his  demand.  It  is  announced  that 
Japan  intends  to  govern  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores  as  an 
autonomous  colony,  under  a  viceroy,  and  without  repre- 
sentation in  the  parliament  at  Tokio.  It  is  strange  to 
hear  of  such  liberal  terms  from  a  conqueror  in  the  far 
Orient,  a  quarter  where  the  world  would  have  expected 
rather  a  military  dictatorship  or  at  best  a  crown  colony. 
Korea. — In  Korea,  Avhich  gave  the  main  occasion  for 
the  war,  the  events  of  the  quarter  and  the  present  situa- 


310  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895 

tion  alike  present  an  inextricable  confusion.  Upon  a  lit- 
tle land  which  is  the  hot-bed  of  intrigue  for  two  great  na- 
tions, between  which  it  is  kept  as  a  buffer;  a  hermit  land 
so  shut  in  for  generations  that  the  civilized  world  has  left 
its  people  more  than  a  thousand  years  behind,  so  that 
their  very  light  is  darkness  in  this  modern  day;  a  land 
where  public  justice  is  unknown,  and  government  is  an 
organized  corruption  and  oppression,  occasionally  modi- 
fied by  assassination — upon  such  a  field  modern  Russian 
diplomacy,  with  doubtless  some  show  of  reason  in  its 
special  aim,  meets  the  ancient  Asiatic  intrigue,  and  seeks 
either  by  baffling  it  or  by  consorting  with  it  to  achieve 
certain  ends  important  to  its  own  political  and  commer- 
cial interests.  Meanwhile,  Japan,  venerable  for  ages  be- 
fore Russia  began  to  be,  yet  miraculously  awakened  into 
youthful  vigor  and  newness  of  life,  seeks  now  to  arouse 
the  dormant,  stolid  little  nation  into  sufficient  strength  to 
stand  as  its  independent  ally,  a  protected  outpost  of  its 
own  national  future.  Count  Inouye,  one  of  the  ablest 
statesmen  of  Japan,  accepted  the  undesirable  mission  to 
Korea,  hoping  to  aid  and  guide  its  government  in  the  re- 
form of  frightful  abuses,  to  establish  order  and  sound 
finance,  and,  by  giving  force  and  direction  to  its  manage- 
ment of  internal  affairs,  to  awaken  the  people  into  a  true 
national  life.  It  is  reported  that  he  is  becoming  dis- 
couraged by  the  magnitude  of  his  task  and  by  the  multi- 
plicity of  plots  and  counter-plots  unearthed  from  time  to 
time — such  as  a  conspiracy  of  high  officials  in  Seoul,  dat- 
ing from  last  November  but  not  fully  discovered  till 
April,  for  the  murder  of  various  officers  and  of  the  whole 
royal  family.  In  May  it  was  widely  reported  and  believed 
in  Europe,  and  was  averred  by  the  press  in  Russia,  that 
the  Korean  prime  minister  had  been  induced  to  negotiate 
with  Russia  a  secret  treaty  putting  the  country  under  a 
Russian  protectorate,  and  that  a  strong  protest  was  entered 
by  Japan  against  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  by  the  king 
of  Korea.  The  facts  have  not  been  officially  made  public; 
possibly  Count  Inouye  may  have  been  able  to  prevent  the 
consummation  so  grievous  to  Japan.  On  June  20  the 
count  landed  in  his  own  country:  it  is  not  known  whether 
he  will  return  to  Korea. 

Japanese  influence,  however,  has  accomplished  some- 
thing in  Korea,  at  least  so  far  as  the  making  of  laws  can 
reach.  A  multitude  of  parasites  have  been  discharged 
from  government  employ;  punishment  of  the  families  of 
criminals  has  been  abolished;  cruelty  to  women  has  beec 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 


311 


greatly  mitigated;  taxes  are  to  be  equalized,  and  publica- 
tion of  an  annual  budget  is  ordered;  criminal  laws  have 
beea  or  are  to  be  codified;  all  departments  of  government 
are  to  be  reorganized  in  the  interest  of  justice,  of  public 
improvements,  and  of  the  development  of  industry,  agri- 
culture, commerce,  etc.;  education  is  to  be  advanced,  and 
young  students  are  to  be  selected  and  sent  abroad.  It  is 
announced  that  the  opening  of  Korean  ports  has  begun. 
Japan  would  have  had  more  prospect  of  success  in  her 
great  Korean  work  if  she  had  had  the  proper  result  of  her 
great  victory  in  bringing  the  kingdom  of  Korea  under  her 
protectorate.  This  result  may  yet  be,  though  the  jealousy 
of  European  powers  makes  it  doubtful. 

European  Intervention. — The  diplomacy  of  Europe 
is  a  system  of  international  nerves,  affected  by  the  winds 
from  every  quarter  of  the  world.  It  thrills  with  peculiar 
apprehension  in  response  to  even  a  rumor  from  the  nearer 
or  the  farther  East,  not  only  by  reason  of  its  national  inter- 
ests or  ambitions,  but  by  reason  also  of  the  instability  of  its 
international  relations.  All  the  great  powers  heard  with 
solicitude  the  terms  of  the  Chino-Japanese  treaty:  in  the 
case  of  three  of  them — Britain,  France,  Germany — im- 
mense commercial  interests  were  involved — especially  for 
Britain.  The  treaty  opened  unknown  commercial  possi- 
bilities; but  these  in  the  main  could  be  welcomed  as  hope- 
ful, and  Britain  neither  interposed  any  obstacle  in  Japan's 
path,  nor  lodged  any  counterclaim.  To  France  and 
Spain  the  growing  preponderance  of  Japan  in  the  Orient 
was  far  from  welcome:  the  new  member  in  the  family  of 
great  civilized  powers  was  in  undesirably  close  neighbor- 
hood with  their  colonies,  and  they  both  were  envious  of 
Japan's  new  estate  in  Formosa.  Still,  the  new  member 
seemed  well-behaved,  and  moreover  would  evidently  be 
more  convenient  as  a  friend  than  as  an  enemy.  Germany 
had  no  interests  colonial  or  commercial  that  were  threat- 
ened by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  ceding  to  Japan  large 
slices  of  Chinese  territory.  As  for  sympathy  with  China 
in  her  national  humiliation  and  loss,  it  was  such  sympa- 
thy as  is  given  to  a  childish  silliness  and  conceit  when 
they  have  brought  misfortune:  a  sort  of  regretful  satisfac- 
tion at  the  fitness  of  the  misfortune  ends  in  a  kindly  hope 
that  the  subject  of  it  may  see  the  fitness  and  profit  by 
the  lesson.  The  power  of  all  Europe  would  have  been 
massed  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the  Chinese 
empire,  as  being  at  this  time  a  disastrous  shock  to  the  po- 
litical balance  of  the  world;  but  probably  no  nation  on 


312  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

earth  would  have  been  moved  by  sympathy  to  more  than 
a  formal  protest  against  Japan \s  claim  to  the  Leao-Tong 
peninsula,  with  possibly  even  Korea  added,  Avhich  she  did 
not  claim. 

Yet  this  treaty — which  the  victor  nation  magnani- 
mously negotiated  on  its  own  territory,  when,  as  did  the 
conquering  Germans  at  Versailles,  it  could  as  easily  have 
humiliated  China  by  dictating  terms  of  peace  from  within 
the  imperial  palace  at  Pekin  a  fortnight  later — instantly 
was  echoed  through  nearly  all  continental  Europe  by 
threats  of  war.  Vague  threats,  indeed,  had  been  in  the  air 
for  weeks.  Suddenly  there  seemed  at  hand  an  embroilment 
of  at  least  three  nations — Russia,  France,  Germany — over 
the  settlement  of  the  Asiatic  dispute.  At  the  demand  of 
Russia,  in  which  the  two  other  powers  joined,  the  settle- 
ment was  modified  by  the  retrocession  by  Japan  to  China 
of  Port  Arthur  and  the  whole  Leao-Tong  peninsula.  The 
treaty  was  ratified  in  its  original  form  on  May  8,  but  with 
the  engagement  by  Japan  not  to  make  its  occupation  of 
the  peninsula  permanent,  yet  with  the  important  proviso 
that  the  details  of  the  retrocession  were  to  be  left  to  ar- 
rangement between  Japan  and  China.  It  was  credibly 
though  not  officially  reported  that  for  this  surrender  of 
one  of  the  chief  fruits  of  victory,  Japan  claimed  and  is 
to  receive  an  addition  of  $50,000,000  to  the  indemnity: 
the  fact  remains  in  doubt.  It  is  stated  on  high  authority 
that  the  Japanese  government  was  meditating  resistance 
to  the  Russian  demand,  even  at  the  risk  of  war  (in  which 
war  Russia's  military  and  naval  situation  would  have  been 
one  of  disadvantage);  but  that  when  France  and  Germany 
declared  themselves  fully  in  agreement  with  Russia  in  the 
determination  to  prevent  the  permanejit  cession  to  Japan 
of  any  territory  on  the  Asiatic  continent,  the  government 
saw  the  necessity  of  yielding.  Against  such  an  alliance 
the  island  empire  could  not  hope  for  success  in  war;  the 
unwelcome  concession  therefore  was  made,  in  manner  and 
terms  as  graceful  as  the  case  allowed.  The  Japanese 
officials  of  the  higlier  grades,  civil,  military,  and  naval, 
are  said  to  have  fully  recognized  the  necessity  of  yielding; 
but  the  people  at  large  were  and  are  enraged.  The  govern- 
ment was  compelled  to  suppress  several  newspapers  for 
violent  utterances  in  condemnation  of  its  action  and  in 
vilifying  Russia;  and  a  political  party,  whose  numerical 
strength  is  not  known,  but  whose  bitter  antagonism  to 
the  statesmen  now  in  power  is  its  breath  of  life,  is  vigor- 
ously organizing  to  gain  a  majority  in  the  parliament. 


THE  YELLOW  WAR. 


313 


The  check  to  Japan  was  due  to  Russia.  The  reason 
for  her  action  is  evident.  She  is  spending  two  hundred 
millions  of  dollars  in  a  transcontinental  railway  across 
Siberia  to  the  fortified  port  and  naval  station  of  Vladivos- 
tock,  Avliose  fine  harbor,  far  north  on  the  sea  of  Japan,  is 
closed  by  ice  several  months  in  every  year.  Russia  nat- 
urally seeks  a  more  southern  outlet  on  the  Pacific  for  her 
overland  trade  by  railway,  and  a  harbor  always  open  to 
the  seas  of  the  world  for  her  naval  force.  The  Korean 
coasts,  east  and  west,  offer  several  eligible  harbors.  There- 
fore she  is  believed  to  be  tempted  now  to  declare  a  pro- 
tectorate over  Korea,  and  it  was  rumored  that  she  had 
done  so.  But  on  the  Yellow  sea,  nearly  400  miles  south 
of  Vladivostock,  is  one  of  the  ideal  harbors  and  fortresses 
of  the  Eastern  world,  Port  Arthur,  on  the  Leao-Tong 
peninsula.  If  China's  weak  hand  holds  it,  Russia  has 
hopes  of  obtaining  it  with  the  concession  of  a  route  for 
her  railway  to  it  through  Chinese  territory.  Japan's  pos- 
session of  it  with  the  consent  of  Europe  would  despoil  her 
of  her  hope.  Russia  is  not  one  of  the  nations  that  sur- 
render self-interest  for  the  sake  of  an  ideal  justice;  in- 
deed, that  class  of  nations  is  small  as  yet.  Moreover, 
Russia,  mighty  dreamer,  cherishes  strange  and  far-reach- 
ing Asiatic  designs.  Therefore  she  proceeds  to  work  on 
the  fears  of  Europe.  France  and  Germany  ally  them- 
selves with  her — France  through  an  interest  of  her  own 
in  the  Asiatic  situation,  but,  as  may  be  supposed,  mainly 
because  of  her  insane  longing  for  an  alliance  with  the 
mighty  power  of  the  north  in  the  day  when  France  shall 
at  last  go  forth  to  wreak  revenge  on  Germany  and  retake 
fair  Alsace-Lorraine.  Germany,  linked  indeed  to  China 
by  important  commercial  connections,  but  with  little 
appreciable  political  interest  against  Japan,  makes  haste 
to  range  herself  in  strange  alliance  with  Russia,  her  heredi- 
tary foe,  doubtless  in  order  to  base  a  claim  equal  to  that 
of  her  foe  on  Russia's  cool,  uncertain  gratitude  in  the  un- 
known future.  It  is  thought  that  since  Russia's  desire  for  a 
protectorate  over  Korea  has  come  to  light,  Germany  gives 
signs  of  regret  for  having  been  so  ready  with  her  alliance. 
As  for  Japan,  if  it  enters  the  group  of  great  powers,  it  must 
take  its  chance  with  the  nervous  and  anxious  diplomacy  of 
central  Europe,  fretted  as  it  is  by  the  unstable  European 
situation,  and  open  to  be  played  upon  by  the  enigmatic 
and  ambitious  power  that  bestrides  the  north  from  Norway 
to  Korea.  However,  Japan  is  probably  happier  and  safer 
without  territory  on  the  continent  than  with  it. 


814  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Russo-French  Loan  to  China. — If  reports  that 
seem  authoritative  in  regard  to  the  loan  procured  by  China 
for  paying  her  indemnity,  are  correct,  Russia  has  added 
to  her  bold  move  a  shrewd  one — rewarding  and  encourag- 
ing France,  and  revenging  herself  on  England  for  holding 
back  from  her  alliance — by  inducing  China  to  arrange  in 
Paris  with  French  and  Russian  capitalists  for  a  loan  of 
$80,000,000,  secured  by  Russians  absolute  guarantee  of  pay- 
ment from  the  customs  revenue  at  the  treaty  ports.  By 
this  move,  Russia  uses  funds,  suj^plied  partly  by  Russian 
but  mainly  by  French  bankers,  to  establish  herself  as 
China^s  patron,  adviser,  and  director — a  position  which 
Japan  had  earned,  and  Avhicli  now  in  Russia's  hands  may 
serve  to  procure  a  route  through  Manchuria  for  her  great 
railway.  The  loan  is  stated  to  be  with  interest  at  four  per 
cent,  redeemable  in  thirty-six  years,  inconvertible  for  fifteen 
years,  and  to  be  issued  at  98  or  98^  per  cent.  It  is  the 
general  opinion  in  Europe  that  China  has  chosen  a  hard 
creditor.  Russia  is  probably  not  guaranteeing  loans  for 
nothing.  Germany,  being  left  out  of  the  whole  matter 
by  her  ally  Russia,  is  much  displeased  thereat,  and  the 
German  press  begins  to  chafe  at  the  alliance. 

The  Outlook  in  the  Orient.— Predictions  are  of 
small  value  in  a  case  so  peculiar  as  the  present.  Some  of 
the  elements  in  the  situation  are  unique  in  history,  and 
many  are  unusual.  The  prominent  question  is  that  of 
peace  or  war  as  the  result  of  Russia's  intervention  to  pre- 
vent the  cession  of  Chinese  continental  territory  to  Japan. 
Though  the  Japanese  government  has  shown  wise  self-re- 
straint both  in  words  and  in  actions,  it  is  known  that  the 
interference  of  Russia  to  prevent  Japan  from  harvesting 
the  fruits  of  her  victories,  has  caused  a  deep  indignation 
throughout  the  country,  which  the  people  have  freely 
showed.  There  is  a  great  clamor  for  immediate  war.  It 
is  reported  that  Japan  has  contracted  to  buy  or  build 
about  a  score  of  naval  vessels  of  various  sizes,  and  that 
military  preparations  are  going  forward  on  an  extensive 
scale.  If  this  is  true,  the  intent  may  be  to  divert  the  pub- 
lic mind  until  the  present  storm  of  anger  shall  have  passed 

The  Russian  loan  to  China  is  by  man;^  considered  as 
liable  to  be  an  added  incentive  to  war,  not  only  as  a  dis- 
agreeable interference  with  the  protectoral  relations 
which  Japan  had  thought  herself  in  a  position  to  hold 
toward  China,  but  still  more  as  giving  Russia  a  position 
in  which  she  can  command  from  China  a  return  for  a 


THE  YELLOW  WAR.  315 

great  favor.  This  return  may  be  speedy,  and  it  may  nat- 
urally prove  to  be  the  right  of  way  through  northeastern 
China  to  the  sea,  or  the  possession  of  Port  Arthur;  in 
which  case  the  peace  between  Russia  and  Japan  would 
probably  come  to  a  sudden  end.  Some  speculations  as  to 
tho  European  complications  that  might  supervene,  include 
an  alliance  of  Great  Britain  with  Japan,  against  Russia 
and  France — Germany^s  permanent  attitude  being  doubt- 
ful. It  is  thought  that  Britain,  as  the  greatest  of  Asiatic 
powers,  cannot  afford  to  allow  her  rival,  Russia,  a  free 
hand  on  that  continent  beyond  certain  fixed  limits. 

The  commercial  and  industrial  forecast  for  the  farther 
East  draws  much  attention.  Great  changes  are  certainly 
near  at  hand  accordant  with  the  recent  prospective  awak- 
ening of  ancient  nations  to  a  new  life.  These  changes 
may  introduce  new  rivalry  in  various  lines  of  production; 
they  may,  by  opening  new  avenues  of  communication,  so 
broaden  the  markets  of  the  world  that  the  consumption 
of  products  will  be  vastly  increased.  As  we  are  but  turn- 
ing the  first  leaf  in  the  new  volume  of  Asiatic  record, 
prophecy  may  wisely  be  deferred  for  a  time. 

Miscellaneous. — A  new  commercial  treaty  between 
Japan  and  Russia  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  on  June 
11.  It  is  practically  the  same  as  the  new  treaties  with 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Italy;  though  there  is 
report  of  one  paragraph  whose  effect  may  be  to  discrimi- 
nate against  American  petroleum — being  an  oil  of  lighter 
weight — by  levying  the  duty  on  volume  instead  of  on 
weight. 

On  June  20  a  convention  between  the  French  and 
Chinese  governments  was  concluded  at  Pekin,  settling 
the  French  frontier  in  Annam  and  Tonkin,  regulating 
the  commercial  relations  of  China  and  the  French  colo- 
nies, and  granting  unlimited  extension  of  the  Tonkin 
railways  into  China.  It  is  suggested  that  this  may  be 
part  of  the  reward  for  French  friendliness  in  the  recent 
alliance. 

Early  in  June  large  destruction  of  missionary  property 
by  rioters  was  reported  from  the  province  of  Se-Chuen  or 
Sezuchen  in  west  China.  The  missions  were  those  of  the 
French  Roman  Catholics,  the  American  Methodists,  and 
JSe  China  Inland  Mission  from  England.  The  mission- 
aries took  refuge  with  the  native  officials,  and  were  pro- 
tected. 


316  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  OCCUPATION  OF  CORINTO. 

A  REPLY  of  the  Nicaraguan  government  to  the  British 
ultimatum  (p.  79)  was  received  in  London  April  13. 
Its  tenor  was  not  divulged  at  the  time;  unofficially  it  was 
announced  that  its  terms  were  satisfactory  to  the  British 
foreign  office.  But  April  18  an  official  statement  was 
given  out  that  Nicaragua's  proposal  could  not  be  enter- 
tained and  that  the  republic  must  comjDly  with  the  con- 
ditions specified  in  the  ultimatum,  else  Great  Britain 
would  resort  to  force  to  obtain  satisfaction  for  the  insult 
to  her  representative  in  Nicaragua  and  the  property  losses 
sustained  by  her  subjects.  The  reply  of  Nicaragua  to  the 
ultimatum  was  declared  to  be  evasive  of  the  points  at  issue 
between  the  two  governments.  It  pleaded  that  the  de- 
crees of  exile  against  British  subjects  (including  the  con- 
sular agent,  Mr.  Hatch),  the  unconditional  cancellation  of 
which  the  ultimatum  demanded,  had  already  been  annulled 
by  the  government  of  Nicaragua  before  Great  Britain's 
formal  demand  regarding  the  matter  had  been  received. 
The  reply  protested  to  Great  Britain  the  cordial  desire  of 
Nicaragua  to  give  complete  satisfaction  for  the  insult  and 
the  damage  to  property;  but  it  contained  no  definite  prom- 
ise to  pay  the  $75,000  nor  the  other  sums  demanded  for 
injuries  inflicted  on  British  subjects  as  stipulated  by 
Lord  Kimberley.  Nicaragua  was  ready  to  make  "a  fair 
and  just  settlement"  of.  claims  (including  the  claim  of 
$75,000)  that  should  be  adjudged  valid  by  an  ''impartial 
arbitration."  The  commission  for  this  "impartial  arbi- 
tration "  was  left  indefinite  as  to  its  make-up,  though  the 
ultimatum  distinctly  stipulated  that  no  ''citizen  of  any 
American  state  "  should  be  the  neutral  arbitrator. 

While  the  controversy  was  in  this  stage  of  suspense  an 
understanding  was  reached  between  the  five  Central  Amer- 
ican states  that  each  should  give  to  each  its  moral,  and  if 
necessary  its  material,  support  in  case  of  conflict  with 
outside  nations.  In  the  existing  controversy  between 
Great  Britain  and  Nicaragua,  if  England  should  take 
forcible  possession  of  the  custom-house  at  Corinto,  with  a 
view  to  secure  the  indemnity  moneys  demanded,  Nicara- 
gua would  be  aided  in  her  resistance  by  her  sister  repub- 
lics. The  speedy  settlement  of  the  dispute,  or  the  pros- 
pect of  a  speedy  settlement,  prevented  active  measures 
being  taken  toward  joint  resistance  to  the  British  de- 
mands. 

About  April  22  three  British  war  vessels,  including  the 
flagship  Royal  Arthur,  under  command  of  Rear-Admiral 


THE  OCCUPATION  OF  CORINTO.  ^11 

Henry  F.  Stephenson,  arrived  in  the  harbor  of  Corinto. 
The  admiral  served  notice  on  President  Zelaya  that  three 
(lays  would  be  given  to  Nicaragua  in  which  to  comply 
with  the  terms  of  the  ultimatum;  in  default  of  compliance 
the  Corinto  custom-house  would  be  seized,  and  the  public 
revenues  collected  by  British  officials. 

Corinto  is  the  chief  port  of  Nicaragua,  juul  is  tlie  western  ter- 
minus of  the  railway  and  in- 
land water  system  of  trans- 
portation. In  1893  the  im- 
ports into  Nicaragua  via  Co- 
rinto amounted  in  value  to 
$6,006,805,  of  which  Great 
Britain  contributed  $2,132,- 
601,  and  the  United  States 
$1,497,650. 

A  confident  expecta- 
tion was  entertained  by 
the  people  and  govern- 
ment of  Nicaragua  that 
the  government  of  the 
United  States,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Monroe 
doctrine  as  popularly  un- 
derstood, would  inter- 
vene diplomatically,  or, 
if  need  were,  with  naval 
force,  to  prevent  England 
from  carrying  out  the 
threat  of  seizing  Corinto  and  administering  its  custom- 
house. But,  the  state  department  at  Washington  having 
received  from  the  British  foreign  office  explicit  assur- 
ance that  "Great  Britain  would  not  seek  in  her  present 
controversy  with  Nicaragua  to  acquire  any  part  of  the 
latter's  territory,'^  no  protest  was  made  by  the  United 
States  government  against  the  proceedings  of  the  British 
government.  Semi-officially,  the  attitude  of  the  cabinet 
at  AVashington  toward  this  controversy  was  defined  as 
follows  by  an  intimate  friend  of  President  Cleveland: 

This  government,  while  fully  alive  to  the  necessity  of  maintain- 
ing the  autonomy  of  American  states  against  foreign  encroachments, 
can  find  no  warrant  for  interfering  to  prevent  Great  Britain  or  any 
other  country  from  securing  reparation  for  an  offense  similar  to  that 
charged  against  Nicaragua.  In  the  Mosquito  affair  of  a  year  ago  the 
United  States  fully  demonstrated  its  determination  not  to  permit  the 
sovereignty  and  integrity  of  Nicaragua  to  be  assailed  when  American 
war-ships  were  stationed  at  Bluefields,  and  when  Mr.  Bayard,  under 
instructions  from  this  government,  succeeded  in  deterring  England 


GENERAL  J.    SANTOS   ZEI.AVA, 
PRESIDENT  OF   NICARAGUA. 


318  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    2d  Qr.,  1895. 

from  exerting  her  long-claimed  right  to  exercise  a  protectorate  over 
an^y  natives  of  this  continent.  The  attitude  of  the  United  States  on 
this  question  is  now  as  firm  as  ever  it  was;  but  this  government  can- 
not undertake  to  shoulder  every  quarrel  of  the  Spanish-American  re- 
publics, whose  faculty  for  getting  into  hot  water  seems  in  some 
measure  attributable  to  their  excessive  reliance  on  this  country's 
help,  as  well  as  to  their  impetuous  temperaments  and  their  frequently 
irresponsible  and  autocratic  rulers.  If  the  United  States  were  com- 
pelled to  take  up  all  such  quarrels  as  the  present  one,  it  would  have 
no  time  to  devote  to  the  greater  questions  arising,  such  as  the  Ven- 
ezuelan boundary  dispute.     *    *    ♦ 

The  determination  of  the  government  to  preserve  Nicaragua's  in- 
dependence and  her  undisturbed  control  over  her  territory,  is  un- 
changed; and  the  United  States  will  forcibly,  if  necessary,  resent  any 
attempt  on  the  part  of  any  European  government  to  establish  itself 
on  this  continent. 

The  three  days  of  grace  accorded  by  Admiral  Stephen- 
son having  elapsed,  a  force  of  about  400  marines  and  sea- 
men was  landed  at  Corinto  April  26.  The  custom-house 
was  seized,  and  a  provisional  governor  put  in  control  of 
the  town.  British  officials  were  appointed  to  administer 
the  affairs  of  the  custom-house. 

Upon  receipt  of  intelligence  of  these  doings  at  Man- 
agua, the  capital,  intense  excitement  was  aroused  in  all 
classes  of  the  population,  which  spread  quickly  through- 
out the  country.  At  the  capital  the  populace  held  a  mass 
meeting  at  which  resolutions  were  adopted  urging  the 
government  to  reject  Great  Britain^s  ultimatum.  A  mob 
paraded  the  streets  and  attempted  to  attack  the  British 
consulate,  but  was  prevented  by  the  police.  A  military 
force  was  then  posted  at  the  consulate  for  its  protection. 
The  feeling  of  hostility  toward  England  was  profound. 
Commercial  business  was  practically  suspended.  On  the 
occupation  of  Corinto  by  Admiral  Stephenson  a  decree  of 
the  government  was  issued  declaring  the  port  closed,  and 
prohibiting  the  introduction  into  the  republic  of  goods 
entering  via  Corinto.  A  like  policy  was  threatened  with 
regard  to  any  other  ports  whicli  might  be  seized  by  the 
English.  Meanwhile  President  Zelaya  was  in  constant 
telegraphic  communication  with  the  representative  of 
Nicaragua  at  Washington,  and  indirectly  with  the  United 
States  government,  treating  of  a  settlement  in  some  way 
of  the  controversy  with  Great  Britain.  This  gave  occasion 
to  his  political  opponents  to  accuse  him  of  want  of  patri- 
otic spirit,  and  they  plotted  to  overthrow  his  administra- 
tion by  force  of  arms.  In  anticipation  of  a  revolt  against 
his  government.  President  Zelaya  issued  a  proclamation 
declaring  the  republic  in  a  state  of   siege  and   ordering 


THE  OCCUPATION  OF  CORINTO.  319 

the  enlistment  of  recruits  for  immediate  service  in  the 
army. 

Fearing  injury  to  American  interests  in  Nicaragua, 
orders  were  issued  by  the  secretary  of  the  navy  at  AVash- 
ington  to  the  commanders  of  several  vessels  of  war  to  pro- 
ceed to  Nicaragua.  The  Kaleigh,  lying  at  Key  West, 
was  ordered  to  Grey  town;  the  Alert,  at  Panama,  to  San 
Juan  del  Sur;  the  Ranger,  at  Buena  Ventura  (Colombia), 
the  Monterey,  at  Acapulco,  and  other  vessels,  were  to  be 
in  readiness  to  sail  for  Nicaraguan  porta. 

As  a  result  of  communication  between  AVashington, 
London,  and  Managua,  a  proposition  of  compromise  was 
offered  to  Great  Britain  and  Nicaragua  April  29.  Its 
terms  were: 

1.  That  Nicaragua  sliould  pay  $77,500  at  London  within  two 
weeks. 

2.  That  the  British  squadron  and  forces  should  be  withdrawn 
from  Corinto  immediately  without  waiting  for  the  two  weeks  to 
elapse. 

3.  That  a  mixed  commission  of  arbitration  should  be  appointed 
to  pass  on  the  demands  of  Great  Britain  in  excess  of  $77,500,  this 
commission  to  be  constituted  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  United 
States  and  Nicaragua. 

To  this  proposition  the  government  of  Nicaragua 
promptly  acceded.  The  British  government  was  less 
prompt  in  accepting  the  terms  of  compromise.  Lord 
Kimberley  seems  not  to  have  made  any  objection  either  to 
the  provision  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  British  squadron 
from  Corinto  or  to  the  appointment  of  a  mixed  commis- 
sion of  arbitration  "  constituted  in  a  manner  satisfactory 
to  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua;^'  what  he  insisted 
on  was  that  a  guarantee  should  be  given  for  the  faithful 
performance  on  the  part  of  Nicaragua  of  its  promise  to 
pay,  fifteen  days  after  the  evacuation  of  Corinto,  the  sum 
of  $77,500.  This  guarantee  was  finally  given  by  the  re- 
public of  Salvador;  and  thereupon  Lord  Kimberley  con- 
sented to  the  immediate  evacuation  of  Corinto,  and  the 
withdrawal  of  the  British  squadron  from  the  harbor.  The 
withdrawal  of  the  fleet  prior  to  the  payment  of  the  indem- 
nity was  insisted  on  by  President  Zelaya  on  grounds  of  do- 
mestic policy — namely,  as  a  means  of  checking  popular 
agitation  and  of  maintaining  the  dignity  of  the  little 
republic. 

Orders  to  retire  from  Corinto  were  received  by  Admiral 
Stephenson  May  4;  and  the  next  day  the  British  flag  flying 
over  the  government  buihlings  was  hauled  down;  the  force 
of  marines  returned  to  their  ships;  and  the  squadron  put 


320  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

out  to  sea.  Twelve  days  afterward.  May  16,  the  $77,500 
smart  money  was  conveyed  into  the  treasury  of  Great 
Britain  on  behalf  of  Nicaragua  by  Sefior  Medina,  Salva- 
dorean minister  to  the  Court  of  St.  James. 

As  regards  the  claim  for  money  reparation  for  injury 
done  to  Great  Britain  in  the  persons  of  her  representative 
and  others  of  her  subjects,  the  controversy  with  Nicaragua 
is  settled.  But  there  still  remain  several  other  points  of 
dispute — namely,  the  interpretation  of  the  treaty  of  Man- 
agua, the  absolute  sovereignty  of  Nicaragua  in  the  Mos- 
quito reservation,  and  indemnification  of  British  subjects 
for  property  losses.  These  points  are  to  come  before  the 
commission  of  arbitration.  It  is  not  certain  that  Great 
Britain  has  receded  from  the  stipulation  that  the  commis- 
sion shall  *'be  composed  of  a  British  representative,  a 
Nicaraguan  representative,  and  a  jurist  not  a  citizen  of  any 
American  state."  The  ultimatum  had  this  paragraph 
touching  the  treaty  of  Managua  and  the  aifairs  of  the 
Mosquito  reserve: 

' '  In  previous  letters  whicb  I  have  addressed  to  you  I  have  ex- 
plained that  Her  Majesty's  government  are  not  prepared  to  discuss 
any  question  with  regard  to  the  treaty  of  Managua  and  the  recent 
proceedings  in  the  Mosquito  reserve  until  this  matter  of  the  arrest 
and  imprisonment  of  British  subjects  has  been  disposed  of.  In  order 
to  avoid  any  misunderstanding  on  the  subject,  I  think  it  right  to  in- 
form you  that  to  this  determination  Her  Majesty's  government  in- 
tend to  adhere;  but,  so  soon  as  the  demands  which  1  have  made  in 
my  present  note  have  been  satisfied,  I  shall  be  prepared  to  receive 
and  consider  in  a  friendly  spirit  any  representations  on  those  ques- 
tions which  the  Nicaraguan  government  may  desire  to  make  to  Her 
Majesty's  government." 


A 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT. 

TELEGRAM  from  Havana,  April  4,  reported  the 
landing,  at  Duaba,  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
island,  of  22  filibusters,  among  them  the  insurgent  leaders 
Jose  Maceo,  Crombet,  and  Valdes;  and  that  while  the 
party  were  on  the  road  to  Cuchillas  they  were  attacked 
and  routed  by  General  Lachambre.  The  successful  land- 
ing of  rebel  leaders  and  their  followers  was  a  matter  of 
frequent  occurrence.  The  government  finds  great  diffi- 
culty in  policing  the  coast,  the  eastern  shore  of  the  island 
being  500  miles  in  length,  and  the  number  of  gunboats 
quite  insufficient.  Three  additional  gunboats  were  in  the 
beginning  of  April  on  the  way  to  Cuba,  and  others  were 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  321 

to  follow  as  speedily  as  possible.  On  April  10  General 
Lachainbre  bad  an  encounter  witb  a  band  of  insurgents 
at  Palmarito,  and  dispersed  them  with  serious  loss  in  rebel 
leaders  after  a  hot  fight;  among  the  killed  were  Flor 
Crombet  (one  of  the  party  that  landed  with  Maceo), 
Cobrero,  and  Borona.  Maceo,  who  commanded  the  rebel 
band,  fled  alone  into  the  woods.  On  April  13  Captain 
x\guilar,  with  a  detachment  of  troops  from  Holguin,  at- 
tacked at  Palma  Miros  a  force  of  160  rebels,  who,  after 
suffering  a  loss  of  six  killed  and  a  considerable  number 
wounded,  fled  from  the  field,  pursued  by  the  troops. 

Marshal  Martinez  de  Campos,  governor-general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Cuba,  landed  at 
Guantanamo  April  16,  and  the  next  day  appointed  General 
Garrich  civil  and  military  governor  of  the  province  of 
Santiago,  succeeding  General  Lachambre,  who  took  the 
subordinate  station  of  commander  of  the  second  division 
with  headquarters  at  Bayamo.  General  Salcedo  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  first  division. 

Petty  encounters  of  the  regular  troops  with  rebel  bands 
were  reported  almost  daily.  On  April  16  Colonel  Bosch's 
command,  coming  upon  a  force  of  insurgents  on  the  road 
between  Palenque  and  Guayabal,  attacked  them,  killing 
ten,  wounding  many  more,  and  capturing  arms,  ammuni- 
tion, provisions,  etc.  Two  dispatches,  one  from  Santi- 
ago, dated  April  24,  and  the  other  from  Guantanamo. 
dated  April  30,  report  ''battles"  at  Ramon  de  las  Yaguas. 
The  Santiago  dispatch  gives  no  details,  but  states  that  the 
insurgents  were  repulsed,  and  Captain  Julian  Miranda 
killed.  But  in  the  battle  reported  from  Guantanamo  the 
rebels  were  routed  and  lost  seventy-two  killed  and  a  large 
number  wounded. 

These  alleged  victories  of  the  Spanish  troops  are  stoutly 
denied  by  insurgents  and  their  sympathizers.  But  the 
loss  at  Palmarito  of  several  of  the  men  who  accompanied 
General  Jose  Maceo  in  his  landing  at  Duaba  and  in  his 
skirmishes  with  the  royalist  troops,  was  at  last  grudgingly 
admitted.  To  repair  that  loss  to  the  rebel  cause,  General 
Maximo  Gomez,  with  three  other  insurgent  leaders, 
effected  a  landing  on  Cuban  soil  in  the  middle  of  April: 
he  had  with  him  fully  $50,000  in  American  gold  coin. 
An  apparently  impartial  observer  at  Santiago  describes 
the  fight  at  Ramon  de  las  Yaguas  as  a  defeat  for  the 
Spaniards,  who  lost  many  officers  and  men  and  a  large 
quantity  of  ammunition.  The  official  bulletin  of  the 
Spanish    military    authorities,   published    April    14,   an- 

Vol.  5.— 81. 


322  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  1HE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr.,  1895. 

nounced  the  death  of  General  Jose  Maceo  by  wounds  re- 
ceived in  the  fight  at  Palmarito.  A  correspondent,  writ- 
ing twelve  days  later,  asserts  tliat  Maceo  was  then  in  the 
field  at  the  head  of  1,000  to  2,000  insurgents;  and  later 
the  official  telegrams  confirmed  this  report.  General 
Salcedo,  with  1,900  troops,  who  had  just  arrived  from 
Spain,  was  ordered  to  go  in  pursuit  of  this  rebel  force.  Re- 
inforcements of  men 
and  material  of  war 
were  arriving  at  short 
intervals  from  Spain. 
The  men  thus  sent 
out  are  ill-fitted  to 
bear  the  hardships  of 
guerilla  warfare  in 
,^^  such  a  climate  as  that 

pFtSl^       .  of  Cuba:    their  aver- 

J^^^^      ^  age    age   is    under 

twenty  years,  and 
they  are  required  to 
march  in  the  heat 
of  the  tropical  sun, 
through  a  rough 
country,  with  practi- 
cally no  commissa- 
riat. 

The  rebels,  their 
original  plan  of  a 
simultaneous  rising 
throughout  the  island 
having  failed,  seemed 
to  have  decided  in  the 
beginning  of  May  to 
spread  the  fire  of  re- 
volt westward  from  the  Santiago  province  as  a  base.  The 
first  step  in  the  execution  of  this  plan  was  taken  by  Gen- 
eral Gomez,  aided  by  Jose  Marti,  who  at  the  beginning  of 
the  uprising  had  been  chosen  as  provisional  civil  chief. 
Gomez  and  Marti  had  hardly  entered  the  province  of 
Puerto  Principe,  lying  west  of  that  of  Santiago,  when 
news  was  received  of  numerous  encounters  there  between 
government  troops  and  rebel  bands.  The  rebels  had  been 
for  some  time  making  preparations  for  action  when  the  lead- 
ers should  arrive;  and  on  May  7  they  were  reported  to 
have  more  men,  more  arms,  and  more  supplies  of  every 
kind,  than  they  had  at  any  time  during  the  ten  years'  war. 


SESfOR  CAN0VA8  DEL  CASTILLO, 
SPANISH  PRIME   MINISTER. 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  323 

"Within  ten  days,"  writes  from  Santiago  a  correspondent  whose 
sympathy  with  the  insurgents'  cause  is  evident,  "the  situation  has 
completely  changed.  The  two  Maceos,  Antonio  and  Jose,  have  reached 
the  place  from  which  insurgent  operations  are  to  be  conducted,  and 
have  been  joined  by  Maximo  Gomez  and  Jose  Marti.  Maceo  has  now 
3,000  men  with  him,  and  there  are  nearly  2,000  others  under  arms  in 
other  parts  of  the  province,  besides  800  near  Guantanamo,  500  un- 
der Masso  intheManzanillo  district,  and  numerous  detached  bands." 

Meanwhile,  conflicting  reports  were  given  out  by  both 
sides,  of  victories  and  defeats.  The  loyalist  General 
Suarez  Valdes,  May  13,  reported  two  engagements,  in  both 
of  which  the  rebels  were  dispersed.  About  the  same  date 
dispatches  came  from  the  rebel  leaders  telling  of  a  battle 
fought  near  Camaguey,  in  which  General  Gomez  defeated 
a  Spanish  force,  taking  prisoner  General  Ecliague.  An 
authorized  telegram  from  Havana  reported  a  battle  at 
Jovito  near  Guantanamo  May  12.  The  fighting  lasted 
twelve  hours.  The  loyal  troops  numbered  400  men,  com- 
manded by  Colonel  Bosch;  Jose  Maceo  commanded  the 
rebel  force,  2,000  men.  The  Spanish  loss  in  killed  was 
seventeen,  among  them  Colonel  Bosch:  the  rebels  lost  300 
men  killed  and  wounded. 

On  May  20  occurred  a  severe  engagement  near  Dos 
Rios  on  the  Contramaestre  river.  The  rebels,  according 
to  the  official  government  report,  were  commanded  by 
General  Gomez,  aided  by  Masso  and  Borrero;  Jose  Marti 
took  part  in  the  action.  The  fighting  lasted  an  hour, 
when  the  insurgents  were  put  to  flight.  Jose  Marti  was 
among  the  slain,  and  General  Gomez  was  wounded. 

The  loyalist  troops  sent  from  Spain  from  the  beginning 
of  the  revolt  till  the  month  of  June  must  have  numbered 
more  than  20,000;  but  on  June  12  a  telegram  from  Madrid 
stated  that 'in  addition  to  10,000  men  that  were  under 
orders  to  start  for  Cuba  in  July,  preparations  were  under 
way  to  have  40,000  troops  ready  to  sail  in  August.  A 
bill  was  passed  in  the  senate  authorizing  the  government 
to  raise  a  loan  of  600,000,000  pesetas,  should  that  amount 
be  necessary  to  put  down  the  insurrection. 

In  the  middle  of  June  the  insurgent  leaders^  plan  of 
campaign,  namely,  spreading  the  revolt  westward,  seemed 
to  be  making  good  progress.  The  province  of  Santiago, 
from  the  first  the  principle  theatre  of  the  rebellion, 
seemed  to  be  completely  under  the  control  of  the  insur- 
gents. At  Caimanera,  near  the  entrance  to  Guantanamo 
bay,  General  Jose  Maceo  was  issuing  clearance  papers  to 
merchant  vessels.  Central  Cuba  was  infested  by  roving 
bands  of  insurgents.     West  of  Havana,  in  the  district  of 


324  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     2d  Qr,  1895. 

Pinar  del  Rio,  the  inhabitants  were  reported  to  be  eager  to 
join  in  the  revolt,  and  to  be  chafing  at  the  tardiness  of  the 
leaders  who  had  promised  to  come  and  liead  the  movement 
there.  The  town  of  Canasi,  near  Matanzas,  was  fired  by 
rebels  about  June  10;  and  the  loyalist  guerilla  bands  of  Ma- 
tanzas and  Santo  Spiritu,  formed  by  the  Spanish  general 
Pratt,  went  over  to  the  rebel  side.  The  strength  of  the 
rebel  forces  throughout  the  island  was  estimated  by  the 
Spanish  officials  at  20,000  men.  A  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Herald  in  Santa  Clara  reported,  June  21,  that 
Captain-General  Campos  had  ordered  a  new  conscription 
of  guerillas  to  defend  that  province  from  possible  invasion 
from  Puerto  Principe.  General  Antonio  Maceo's  force 
of  3,000  men  was  operating  in  the  vicinity  of  Holguin 
and  gradually  moving  in  the  direction  of  Bayamo  and 
Manzanillo;  in  an  attack  on  the  Spanish  garrison  in 
Jiguani,  June  10,  he  was  repulsed.  According  to  a  tele- 
gram from  Havana,  the  authenticity  of  which  is  unques- 
tionable, as  the  dispatch  must  have  undergone  inspection 
by  the  government  officials,  the  town  of  Soledad  in  the 
province  of  Puerto  Principe,  and,  what  is  still  more  signi- 
ficant, the  city  of  Cienfuegos  in  the  administrative  district 
of  Santa  Clara,  were  in  a  state  of  revolt  June  22.  From 
rebel  sources  via  Tampa,  Fla.,  on  the  same  date,  came 
the  intelligence  that  "  all  the  artillery  possessed  by  the 
Spanish  forces  in  the  eastern  department "  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  General  Antonio  Maceo.  The  story  was  that 
during  several  recent  engagements,  when  the  Spaniards 
opened  fire  on  the  insurgents,  the  latter  were  ordered  to 
direct  the  discharge  of  their  rifles  at  the  mules  hauling 
the  artillery  and  ammunition,  and  after  killing  the  ani- 
mals to  charge  with  machetes.  The  heavy  ordnance  was 
left  on  the  field,  and,  with  the  ammunition,  was  taken  by 
the  rebels.  In  Madrid,  at  a  meeting  of  the  cabinet  held 
on  June  27,  Seilor  Canovas  del  Castillo,  prime  minister, 
read  a  dispatch  from  Captain-General  Martinez  de  Campos, 
declaring  that  14,000  fresh  troops  would  be  necessary  to 
prosecute  an  offensive  campaign  against  the  insurgents 
after  the  close  of  the  rainy  season. 

The  Spanish  minister  at  Washington  having  made 
complaint  at  the  department  of  state  that  expeditions 
were  fitting  out  in  the  United  States  to  convey  to  Cuba 
men,  arms,  and  munitions  of  war  in  aid  of  the  insurrec- 
tion, the  secretary  of  state,  June  11,  issued  instructions 
to  customs  officials,  enjoining  on  them  the  obligation  to 
prevent  the  departure  from  United  States  ports  of  such 


THE  ARMENIAN  PROBI.EM.  325 

expeditions.  On  June  12  was  published  a  proclamation 
by  the  president  of  the  United  States,  admonishing  all 
persons  to  abstain  from  violations  of  the  laws  which  for- 
bid such  acts  of  hostility  directed  against  a  friendly  na- 
tion. 

Makti,  Jose,  civil  bead  of  the  provisional  government  wliicli  was 
proclaimed  by  tbe  insurgents  in  February,  and  wbo  lost  bis  life  at 
Dos  Rios,  was  about  forty  years  of  age,  a  native  of  Havana.  He 
was  from  boybood  an  active  revolutionist;  and,  at  tbe  age  of  15 
years,  was  sent  to  Spain  and  tbere  imprisoned.  He  was  paroled 
after  a  time,  and  pursued  tbe  study  of  law  at  Saragossa.  On  tbe 
proclamation  of  tbe  republic  in  Spain,  be  escaped  to  France.  Re- 
turning to  Cuba  in  1878,  be  was  again  banisbed  and  taken  to  Spain. 
Escaping  from  bis  prison  be  came  to  New  York,  wbere  be  edited  a 
newspaper  devoted  to  tbe  cause  of  Cuban  independence. 


THE  ARMENIAN  PROBLEM. 

Proposed  Reforms. — The  ambassadors  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, Kussia,  and  France  presented  to  the  sultan  May  11a 
scheme  of  reforms  for  Armenia  that  had  received  the  ap- 
proval of  their  several  governments,  and  requested  a  reply 
with  the  least  possible  delay. 

Tbescbeme  of  proposed  reforms  is  in  tbe  main  based  on  laws  and 
regulations  already  existing  in  Turkey.  Tbe  ambassadors  recom- 
mend tbat  one-tbird  of  tbe  officials  in  tbe  Armenian  provinces  sball 
be  of  tbe  Christian  faitb;  tbat  tbe  tbree  powers  sball  bave  tbe  right 
to  veto  tbe  nomination  of  governor;  and  tbat  a  high  commissioner 
(not  a  European)  sball  supervise  tbe  carrying  out  of  tbe  reforms,  re- 
maining in  office  until  they  are  effected:  tbe  appointment  of  this  high 
commissioner  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  tbree  powers. 
Another  reform  advised  by  the  ambassadors  is  tbe  appointment  of  a 
mixed  commission,  composed  of  Mohammedans  and  Christians,  to 
watch  over  tbe  administration  of  the  Armenian  vilayets.  Tbe  gendar- 
merie or  military  police  force,  it  is  proposed,  sball  be  recruited  as  well 
from  the  Christian  as  from  tbe  Mohammedan  population.  In  tbe 
way  of  judicial  reform  the  scheme  contemplates  the  establishment  of 
assize  courts  and  a  system  of  prison  inspection. 

The  scheme  includes  important  ])rovisions  for  tbe  financial  ad- 
ministration of  the  vilayets:  for  example,  it  proposes  to  intrust  tbe  ad- 
ministration of  the  taxes  to  the  mudirs  or  heads  of  the  communes, 
and  to  forbid  the  employment  of  the  gendarmerie  in  that  duty.  Tbe 
disarming  of  the  Kurds  is  demanded.  Conversion  to  Islam  by  force 
is  to  be  forbidden,  and  general  freedom  of  religious  confession  to  be 
allowed. 

Not  until  June  4  was  the  reply  of  the  Porte  to  these 
demands  received:  it  was  unsatisfactory,  Turkey  objecting 
particularly  to  the  proposed  foreign  control  of  Armenia. 
It  was  expected  that  pressure  would  be  brought  to  bear  on 


3S6  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER,     ad  Qr.,  I89!i. 

the  Porte,  by  a  naval  demonstration  or  otherwise,  to  force 
compliance  with  the  demands  of  the  powers. 

Simultaneously  a  new  cause  of  complaint  against  Tur- 
key arose,  in  the  murderous  attack  of  Bedouins  on  the 
European  consulates  at  Jiddah;  and  for  a  while  public 
opinion  in  England  inclined  strongly  toward  presenting 
the  demands  to  the  sultan  once  more  as  an  ultimatum. 
In  the  event  of  rejection  of  the  demands,  the  three  powers, 
it  was  confidently  believed,  would  send  their  fleets  to  Con- 
stantinople. An  influential  journal,  the  Speaker,  declared 
that  the  three  powers,  as  far  as  diplomatic  pressure  was 
concerned,  were  in  complete  harmony.  But  Russia  and 
France  might  not  care  to  go  farther:  in  that  case  "public 
opinion,^'  said  the  Si^eaher,  "  will  compel  the  government  to 
go  on  alone."  And  on  June  20  a  telegram  from  St.  Peters- 
burg affirmed  that  the  czar's  government  had  received  a 
communication  from  the  government  of  Great  Britain, 
giving  notice  of  the  intention  of  England  to  make  a  naval 
demonstration  at  Constantinople.  At  that  time  the  Twen- 
tieth division  of  the  Russian  army,  stationed  in  the  south 
of  Russia,  was  under  orders  to  march  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Kars,  and  troops  were  moving  to  Batoum  from  Odessa. 
At  St.  Petersburg  it  was  believed  that  the  British  ambas- 
sador at  the  Porte,  Sir  Philip  Currie,  was  secretly  intrigu- 
ing with  the  heads  of  the  Armenian  Church;  and  that  the 
Armenian  committee  in  London  was  shipping  into  Arme- 
nia great  quantities  of  arms.  One  correspondent,  writing 
from  London,  represents  the  state  of  public  sentiment  in 
England  regarding  the  situation  in  Armenia  as  exceedingly 
tense,  and  likely  at  any  moment  to  find  expression  in  an 
irresistible  demand  upon  Lord  Rosebery's  government  to 
make  an  end  of  Turkish  rule  over  Christian  populations. 

"Thousands  of  England's  politicians,  pulpit  orators,  and  public- 
spirited  men,"  lie  writes,  "stand  ready  and  eager,  waiting  to  rush 
forth,  fiery  cross  in  hand,  to  preach  a  new  crusade  against  the  infidel, 
and  to  commit  England  to  an  armed  solitary  intervention  in  the  East. 
It  would  be  hard  to  say  just  how  far  the  ministry  itself  is  responsible 
for  this  highly  inflamed  and  perfectly*organized  public  opinion,  un- 
der the  pressure  of  which  it  conveniently  finds  itself  now  pushed 
along  towarc^the  gravest  possible  crisis:  but  these  are  the  facts,  and 
they  are  serious  enough." 

These  plain  indications  of  a  determination  to  employ 
force  were  not  unheeded  at  Constantinople;  and  June  20 
the  Turkish  government  handed  to  the  British,  French, 
and  Russian  ambassadors  a  new  and  more  satisfactory  re- 
ply to  their  demands.  The  Porte  acceded  to  the  principle 
of  control  by  the  three  powers,  but  asked  that  the  period 


THE  ARMENIAN  PROBLEM. 


S27 


of  active  intervention  miglit  be  limited  to  three  years. 
The  answer,  however,  denies  that  Article  61  of  the  treaty 
of  Berlin  confers  on  tlie  powers  the  right  to  demand  the 
guarantees  formulated  in  the  ambassadors'  scheme,  and 
expresses  the  hope  that  the  sultan's  sovereign  rights  may 
not  in  any  wise  be  prejudiced.  Upon  receipt  of  this  com- 
munication, the  three  ambassadors  came  together  to  study 
the  situation.  On 
June  26,  in  a  con- 
ference with  the 
Turkish  minister 
of  foreign  affairs, 
they  insisted 
that  the  Porte 
should  indicate 
what  particular 
points  in  the  pro- 
posals for  the  ad- 
mini  st  ration 
of  affairs  in  Ar- 
menia the  sul- 
tan's govern- 
ment desired  to 
have  discussed. 
The  end  of  June 
arrived,  and  still 
no  unequivocal 
answer  had  been 
received  from 
the  minister.  It 
was  expected 
that  the  three  powers  would  present  a  note  to  the  Porte, 
asking  for  a  specific  reply  within  a  fixed  period. 

From  the  commission  of  inquiry  appointed  in  the  latter 
part  of  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  776)  to  investigate  the  reports 
of  the  atrocities  committed  by  Kurds  and  by  Turkish 
soldiers  on  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  no  statement  had 
gone  forth  to  the  public  down  to  the  end  of  June;  but 
from  the  character  of  the  demands  for  reform  made  upon 
the  Porte  by  the  ambassadors,  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  the 
truth  of  the  reports  had  been  established  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  representatives  of  European  governments  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  investigation.  According  to  the 
special  correspondents  of  London  newspapers,  nearly  13,000 
persons  were  slaughtered  under  circumstances  of  "  the 
most  bestial  bloodthirstiness  and  obscenity."     The  corre- 


DJEVAD   PASHA, 
EX-GRAND  VIZIEB  OP  TL'RKEY. 


328  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUAHTEH.     2d  Qr.,  1805. 

spondent  of  the  London  Daily  Graphic  gives  it  as  liis  delib- 
erate conclusion  that  the  massacres  "  were  not  the  acci- 
dents of  a  hotly  contested  campaign — the  work  of  a  rough 
soldiery  inflamed  by  fighting  and  excited  by  resistance — 
but  that  they  were  planned  beforehand  by  the  Turkish 
government  at  Stamboul."  And  all  the  correspondents 
of  British  journals  who  made  inquiry  at  the  scenes  of  the 
massacres,  tell  a  like  story  of  wanton  slaughter  and  outrage. 
On  the  other  hand,  Rear-Admiral  Kirkland,  commanding 
the  European  squadron  of  the  United  States  navy,  in  a 
report  to  Secretary  Herbert,  declares  the  stories  of  atrocities 
to  be  baseless.  His  report,  as  summed  up  in  the  New  York 
Herald,  tells  of  the  marked  courtesy  everywhere  shown  to 
himself  and  his  officers  by  the  sultan's  subjects. 

Rumors  of  atrocities  in  the  Armenian  country  had  reached  the 
ports,  he  says,  but  they  lacked  verification.  Some  of  the  most  im- 
probable stories  of  cruelties  were  told,  but  when  they  were  traced  to 
their  origin  it  was  found  that  there  was  nothing  in  them.  He  ex- 
amined a  number  of  people  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  some  substantia- 
tion of  the  "  atrocity  "  reports,  but  his  examination  invariably  failed, 
and  he  gave  it  as  his  o])inion  that  the  reports  had  been  very  much  ex- 
aggerated. The  admiral  exonerates  the  sultan  from  all  blame  in 
connection  with  the  trouble  between  the  Kurds  and  the  Armenians. 
"Thesultan  hadasmuch  todo  with  this  trouble,"  he  says,  "as  had  the 
governor  of  Massachusetts."  His  conclusion  that  there  were  no 
atrocities  is  concurred  in  by  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the 
United  States  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  during  his  cruise. 

But  Admiral  Kirkland's  judgment  is  a  judgment  at 
long  range — at  the  distance  of  at  least  300  miles  from  the 
scene  of  the  outrages. 

The  Outbreak  at  Jiddah. — In  addition  to  the  per- 
plexities arising  out  of  the  Armenian  problem,  the  foreign 
complications  of  the  Porte  have  been  increased  by  a  threat- 
ening incident  which  occurred  toward  the  end  of  May  at 
Jiddah  on  the  Red  sea,  the  port  of  the  holy  city  of  Mecca. 
The  British  consul  and  vice-consul,  the  Russian  acting 
consul,  and  the  secretary  of  the  French  consulate,  while 
in  the  country  outside  the  town,  were  attacked  by  a  party 
of  men,  and  the  British  vice-consul  was  shot  dead.  The 
British  consul  Richards  was  badly  wounded  in  the  arm 
and  back;  and  the  Russian  consul  Brandt  and  the  French 
consular  secretary  received  serious  injuries.  Panic  pre- 
vailed in  the  town  through  apprehension  of  an  attack  by 
the  Bedouins;  the  European  residents  took  refuge  in  tlie 
vessels  in  port.  The  Bedouins  are  incensed  against  the 
Turkish  government  because  of  the  enforcement  of  quaran- 
tine measures  for  the  Mecca  pilgrimage.  French  and  Eng- 
lish gunboats  were  summoned,  and  promptly  came  to  pro- 


THE  BERIXG  SEA  QUESTrON.  329 

tect  Europeans.  At  Constantinople  the  British,  Frencli, 
and  Russian  ambassadors  demanded  of  the  Porte  the  disarm- 
ing of  the  Bedouins  at  Jiddah,  and  payment  of  an  indem- 
nity for  the  attack  on  the  consuls.  The  Porte,  in  reply, 
urged  the  extreme  difficulty  that  would  be  encountered 
in  an  attempt  to  disarm  that  people.  The  region  around 
Jiddah  is  only  nominally  under  the  rule  of  the  sultan:  it 
is  ever  in  open  or  latent  revolt  against  his  authority.  It 
is  inhabited  by  the  fiercest  and  most  fanatic  tribes  piofess- 
ing  the  Mohammedan  religion;  and  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  attack  on  the  representatives  of  European 
governments  was  due  to  a  report  that  a  French  traveller 
had  lately  succeeded  in  entering  the  holy  city  in  disguise — 
a  profanation  and  a  sacrilege  that  in  the  estimation  of 
strict  believers  is  inexpiable. 

Jiddah,  the  scene  of  the  outrage,  is  situated  in  Arabia 
Petrea,  half  way  between  Suez  and  Aden.  At  this  time  of 
year,  the  beginning  of  summer,  it  is  crowded  with  pil- 
grims, being  the  landing  place  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
100,000  or  so  of  pious  visitants  to  the  famous  sanctuary  at 
Mecca.  The  place  has  a  strong  claim  of  its  own  upon  the 
reverence  of  the  faithful,  for  within  its  walls  is  the  alleged 
tomb  of  Eve. 

On  June  8  the  Turkish  ministry  resigned,  the  grand 
vizier,  Djevad  Pasha,  being  succeeded  by  Said  Pasha. 
The  other  members  of  the  new  cabinet  are:  Sheik-ul-Ts- 
1am,  Djemaleddin  Effendi;  minister  of  the  interior,  lli- 
faat  Pasha;  minister  of  war.  General  Riza  Pasha;  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  U'urkhan  Pasha.  The  last  named  was 
president  of  the  commission  that  investigated  the  reports 
of  Armenian  outrages. 


THE  BERING  SEA  QUESTION. 

TN  the  season  of  1894 — the  first  following  the  decision 
of  the  Paris  tribunal  of  arbitration — the  number  of  seals 
taken  by  pelagic  hunters  in  Bering  sea  and  the  North  Pa- 
cific ocean  was  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  industry. 
This  fact  is  significant  of  the  inefficiency  of  the  protective 
regulations  recommended  by  the  arbitrators  and  subse- 
quently legally  enforced;  and  this  conclusion  is  borne  out 
by  the  preliminary  reports  for  the  season  of  1895,  received 
from  government  agents  in  leering  sea,  stating  tiiat  the 


330  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

seals  are  less  numerous  this  season  than  ever  before.  The 
estimated  proportion  of  sealskins  secured  to  seals  slaugh- 
tered by  pelagic  hunters  is  less  than  one  in  ten.  In 
view  of  this  inefficiency  of  the  regulations,  the  United 
States,  early  in  the  present  year,  suggested  joint  action  on 
the  part  of  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Russia,  and 
Japan  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  herds  from  de- 
struction. Pending  inquiries  by  a  commission  to  be  ap- 
pointed, it  was  proposed  that  sealing  in  Bering  sea  should 
be  prohibited  entirely,  except  by  the  North  American 
Commercial  Company  on  the  Pribilof  islands,  and  that 
the  Paris  regulations  as  to  close  season  and  the  inhibition 
of  firearms  should  be  extended  over  the  entire  waters 
north  of  the  25th  parallel  of  latitude.  The  assent  of 
Great- Britain  to  this  proposal  has  not  yet  been  obtained. 

Early  in  May  it  was  announced  that  the  British  gov- 
ernment had  decided  not  to  re-enact  for  1895  the  agree- 
ment reached  last  season  regarding  the  sealing  up  of  arms 
on  sealing  vessels  in  Bering  sea  north  of  the  35th  parallel 
during  the  close  season.  This  regulation  (Art.  4,  see  p. 
74)  had  evoked  much  opposition  from  the  Canadian  au- 
thorities. 

It  seems  that  last  year  Great  Britain  gave  a  very  flexi- 
ble interpretation  to  the  regulations  growing  out  of  the 
Paris  decision.  She  agreed  that  American  naval  officers 
might  board  British  sealing  vessels,  and  seize  the  same  if 
they  discovered  evidence  that  the  firearms  aboard  had  been 
used  in  hunting  within  the  prescribed  limits.  It  was 
even  finally  agreed  that  the  captain  of  a  sealer  might  ask 
a  naval  officer  to  seal  up  his  firearms  and  to  present  him  with 
a  certificate  to  that  effect.  This  certificate,  on  future 
occasions,  would  prevent  detention  and  embarrassment. 
Notwithstanding  this  arrangement,  it  is  claimed  that 
two  Canadian  sealers,  the  Wanderer  and  the  Favorite, 
were  seized  last  season  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  their 
captains  that  they  had  not  used  their  firearms  improperly. 

Another  factor  probably  affecting  the  decision  of  the 
British  government  in  the  matter  of  renewing  the  sealing- 
up  regulation,  is  found  in  the  refusal  of  the  late  congress 
to  ratify  Secretary  Gresham^s  proposal  to  pay  to  Great 
Britain  1425,000  in  discharge  of  all  claims  for  damages  re- 
sulting from  illegal  seizures  of  British  vessels  in  Bering 
sea  prior  to  the  modus  vivendi  of  1891. 

Great  Britain's  action  practically  leaves  the  patrol  of 
Bering  sea  for  the  season  of  1895  to  American  vessels. 
These  may  seize  American  sealers  under  American  regula- 


K 


THE  "ALLIANgA"  INCIDENT.  331 

tions;  but,  while  killing  by  firearms  remains  illegal  for 
the  subjects  of  both  countries,  British  vessels  may  not  be 
seized  by  American  cruisers  unless,  after  being  boarded, 
"indubitable  evidence"  be  found  that  the  firearms  on 
board  have  been  unlawfully  used.  The  effect,  in  the 
opinion  of  United  States  officials,  is  to  remove  almost  the 
last  restriction  operating  to  prevent  unlimited  slaughter 
of  the  herds.  If  arms  may  be  freely  carried,  killing  will 
be  freely  done  except  under  the  very  eye  of  a  revenue  cutter. 
On  June  27  a  bill  (introduced  in  the  British  house  of 
commons  June  10,  by  Sir  Edward  Grey,  under-secretary 
for  foreign  affairs)  became  a  law,  renewing  the  provision 
for  carrying  out  the  sealing  agreement  of  two  years  ago 
with  Russia.  The  law  ap'plies  to  waters  in  the  North  Pa- 
cific under  Russian  jurisdiction;  a  violation  of  the  law  en- 
tails entire  forfeiture  of  the  vessel;  and  the  right  of  Rus- 
sians to  search  English  sealing  vessels  is  acknowledged. 

THE  "ALLIANCA"  INCIDENT. 

» 

The  diplomatic  incident  due  to  the  insult  offered  to 
the  United  States  flag  by  the  commander  of  the  Spanish 
cruiser  Conde  de  Venadito,  who  fired  upon  the  American 
merchantman  AllianQU  in  the  Windward  passage  off  Cape 
Maysi,  Cuba,  on  March  8  (p.  57),  was  finally  closed  in 
the  latter  part  of  May  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  United 
States.  The  full  reply  of  the  Spanish  government  to  the 
demands  cabled  by  Secretary  Gresham  on  March  14,  was 
delivered  to  Mr.  Taylor,  United  States  minister  at  Ma- 
drid, May  IG,  and  by  him  transmitted  to  the  state  depart- 
ment at  Washington. 

While  the  contents  of  the  communication  have  not 
been  divulged,  the  statement  is  authorized,  that  after  full 
investigation,  Spain  disavows  the  act  of  the  commander  of 
the  Conde  de  Venadito,  expresses  regret  for  the  occurrence, 
and  assures  the  United  States  that  appropriate  instruc- 
tions have  been  issued  to  Spanish  naval  officers  in  Cuban 
waters  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  offense.  She  admits 
that  the  AlUan^a  was  outside  Cuban  waters  and  the  juris- 
diction of  Spain  when  fired  upon;  and  merely  mentions 
as  a  slightly  palliating  circumstance  the  fact  that  when 
the  incident  occurred  the  regular  commander  of  the  Conde 
de  Venadito,  Captain  Van  de  Fragata,  was  temporarily 
absent  at  a  distant  point  on  sick  leave,  the  cruiser  being 
in  charge  of  a  junior,  less  cautious  officer.  Lieutenant 
Harra.  The  latter  has  been  officially  reprimanded  for 
his  indiscretion. 


m  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d  Qr.,  I8d5. 

THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION. 

Tension  between  Venezuela  and  Great  Britain  over  the 
disputed  territory  in  the  region  of  the  Orinoco,  still  eon- 
tiuues.  The  recent  action  of  the  American  congress  in 
recommending  arbitration  as  a  means  of  settlement  (p.  89) 
is  highly  appreciated  by  Venezuelans,  who  still  cherish 
the  belief  that  their  interests  will  be  protected  by  the 
United  States.  Great  Britain,  however,  while  will- 
ing to  submit  to  arbitration  regarding  some  disputed 
points,  persists  in  refusing  her  consent  to  have  called  in 
question  her  control  of  territory  westward  to  the  Schom- 
burgk  line.  This  position  in  the  dispute,  she  took  as  long 
ago  as  1888  in  the  correspondence  which  then  passed  be- 
tween Mr.  Bayard,  secretary  of  state,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Lord  Salisbury. 

It  is  understood  that  in  declining  to  act  upon  the  recent 
suggestion  of  the  United  States  congress.  Great  Britain 
takes  the  following  ground: 

1.  That  Venezuela  once  proposed  arbitration,  to  which  proposal, 
after  careful  consideration.  Great  Britain  replied  signifying  her  will- 
ingness to  arbitrate  certain  definite  subjects  of  controversy;  but  that 
Venezuela  has  never  made  any  reply  to  this  proposition,  either  ac- 
cepting or  rejecting  the  suggested  basis  of  arbitration. 

2.  That  in  any  event  there  are  certain  portions  of  territory  to 
which  Venezuela  lays  claim,  which  under  no  circumstances  will  be 
made  the  subject  of  arbitration,  as  they  are  recognized  and  estab- 
lished portions  of  the  British  domain,  and  are  not,  therefore,  a  sub- 
ject on  which  the  judgment  of  arbitrators  could  be  invoked. 

3.  That  the  subject-matter  is  one  between  Great  Britain  and 
Venezuela,  so  that  the  good  offices  of  the  United  States  are  not  re- 
garded as  essential  to  a  settlement,  as  it  is  not  understood  that  the 
United  States  has  assumed  a  protectorate  over  Venezuela  or  has 
other  interests  than  those  of  a  friendly  power. 

The  relations  between  France  and  Venezuela  are  still 
somewhat  strained  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Count  Magli- 
ano,  the  Italian  envoy  commissioned  to  effect,  if  possible, 
an  amicable  settlement  of  the  difference  arising  out  of  the 
summary  expulsion  of  the  French  and  Belgian  ministers  at 
Caracas  in  March  (p.  91).  President  Crespo  assured  the 
Italian  commissioner  that  the  action  of  his  government  in 
the  case  was  not  intended  as  a  reflection  upon  France  and 
Belgium,  but  merely  to  emphasize  the  dissatisfaction  of 
Venezuela  with  the  conduct  of  the  ministers  in  drawing 
up  the  strictures  which  appeared  in  an  Italian  green  book 
in  January  of  the  present  year.  France,  however,  feels 
that  Venezuela,  instead  of  following  the  summary  course 
she  did,  should  have  adopted  the  more  usual  procedure  of 
first  requesting  the  recall  of  M.  Monclar.     To  have  done 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITtTATION.         •  333 

so — which  wonkl  have  necessitated  a  delay  of  several 
weeks  at  least — would,  President  Crespo  claims,  have 
been  a  dangerous  course  in  the  then  excited  state  of  public 
feeling.  It  is  possible  that  to  emphasize  her  displeasure 
France  may  delay  for  some  months  sending  a  diplomatic 
representative  to  the  Venezuelan  capital. 

GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION. 

Save  for  the  doubts  which  overhang  the  issue  of  Euro- 
pean intervention  in  Armenia,  and  the  clouds  of  dubious 
I^ortent  which  now  emanate  from  that  perennial  storm- 
centre  of  European  politics — the  region  of  the  Balkans — 
the  general  outlook  on  the  continent  continues  tranquil. 
The  relations  of  the  leading  powers  have  received  no  dis- 
turbing shock.  It  is  officially  declared  that  the  retire- 
ment of  Count  Kalnoky,  for  many  years  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  the  appointment  of 
Count  Goluchowsky  to  the  vacant  post,  involve  no  change 
in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  dual  empire  otherwise  than 
in  the  way  of  a  more  vigorous  development  of  her  com- 
mercial policy  and  an  extension  of  her  peaceful  relations 
in  the  Orient.  As  a  member  of  the  Triple  Alliance, 
Austria-Hungary  still  firmly  maintains  her  relations  with 
Germany  and  Italy. 

Nor  has  the  collapse  of  the  Rosebery  government  in 
England  introduced  any  disturbing  factor,  for  it  is  uni- 
versally known  that  under  both  parties — liberals  and  con- 
servatives— the  foreign  policy  of  the  British  emjjire  is  al- 
most identical,  lending  moral  support  to  the  peaceful 
maintenance  of  the  status  quo. 

Bearing  of  the  Kiel  Festivities.— Nor,  in  spite  of 
the  extensive  comment  aroused  over  the  international 
aspects  of  the  elaborate  festivities  in  connection  with  the 
final  opening  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  canal,  has  any  new 
factor  been  injected  thereby  into  European  politics,  with 
the  exception  of  the  resultant  increased  efficiency  of  the 
German  navy.  The  festivities  have  been  hailed  as  a  dem- 
onstration in  favor  of  peace,  of  a  closer  drawing  together 
of  the  nations,  and  have  certainly  impressed  upon  the  lat- 
ter a  sense  of  the  responsibilities  to  be  undertaken  in 
provoking  war.  Yet,  at  the  same  time,  no  one  can  wholly 
blind  himself  to  the  consideration  that  the  great  canal  en- 
terprise is  as  much  a  development  of  the  military  rivalries 
of  Europe  as  it  is  a  help  to  international  commerce.  Stra- 
tegically it  is  of  vastly  greater  importance  than  the  Suez 
canal.     It  is  in  fact  a  kind  of  northern  Bosphorus,  and,  as 


334  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d  Qr.  1895. 

such,  its  completion  has  not  been  a  source  of  great  popu- 
lar rejoicing  in  either  Russia  or  France.  The  harmonies 
which  prevailed  during  the  celebrations  at  Kiel  were 
mingled  with  some  rumbling  of  political  jealousies  heard 
in  the  background.  The  movements  of  the  French  and 
Russian  vessels,  which  entered  the  harbor  together,  were 
timed  so  as  to  convey  an  impressive  lesson  of  the  close 
entente  still  continuing  between  these  two  great  powers. 
M.  Ribot's  cabinet  had  been  overwhelmed  with  abuse  at 
Paris  for  its  alleged  lack  of  patriotism  and  dignity  in  ac- 
cepting the  German  emperor's  invitation  to  have  France 
represented  at  the  inauguration  of  the  canal.  Speaking 
of  the  matter  in  the  chamber,  M.  Hanotaux,  minister 
of  foreign  aifairs,  explained  that  the  acceptance  of  the 
invitation  was  no  evidence  of  a  change  in  French  pol- 
icy, but  merely  an  act  of  politeness.  M.  Ribot,  how- 
ever, went  further,  and  spoke  of  the  understanding  with 
Russia  as  an  *' alliance,"  a  term  which  no  responsible  min- 
ister up  to  that  time  had  used.  The  effect  was  to  rally 
immediately  to  the  support  of  the  government  the  confi- 
dence of  the  chamber.  The  incident  served  to  show  the 
deep-seated  character  of  the  French  popular  feeling  in  re- 
spect of  the  understanding  with  Russia  and  of  the  still 
cherished  spirit  of  revenge  against  Germany. 

Undoubtedly  the  recent  co-operation  of  France  and 
Russia  in  opposing  Japanese  acquisitions  of  territory  on 
the  mainland  of  Asia,  tended  to  confirm  the  entente  be- 
tween St.  Petersburg  and  Paris.  As  a  fresh  token  thereof, 
the  czar,  in  the  week  preceding  the  fetes  at  Kiel,  con- 
ferred upon  President  Faure  thegrandcollar  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Andrew,  M.  Carnot  having  been  the  only  previous 
French  president  to  receive  this  decoration.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  note,  however,  that  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that 
any  formal,  written  treaty  of  alliance  between  France  and 
Russia  exists.  The  instructions  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  to  the 
officers  and  men  of  his  squadron  at  Kiel,  were  calculated  to 
correct  any  impression  to  that  effect. 

For  a  detailed  account  of  the  fetes  at  Kiel,  see  under 
head  of  "  Germany  "  in  the  present  number  of  this  review. 

The  Eastern  Question. — Armenia. — International 
problems  have  crowded  thickly  of  late  upon  the  Sublime 
Porte.  The  present  outlook  is  unmistakably  in  the  direc- 
tion of  intervention  and  reform  of  abuses  in  Armenia, 
possibly  involving  a  material  modification  in  the  status  of 
the  Ottoman  dominions  in  both  Europe  and  Asia.  No 
longer  a  question  of  mere  humanity,  the  issue  has  become 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION.  335 

one  of  high  politics;  and,  while  no  intelligent  student  of 
affairs  will  anticipate  an  entire  removal  of  the  causes  of 
discontent  among  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  Porte, 
there  is  reason  to  expect  that  the  horrors  of  misrule  in 
Armenia  will  be  to  some  extent  abated.  The  chronic 
state  of  oppression  and  outrage  in  that  country  undoubt- 
edly gives  to  foreign  powers  the  moral  right  to  interfere; 
and  the  disposition  to  do  so  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Russia  has  been  stimulated  by  the  recent  out- 
rages perpetrated  upon  their  official  representatives  in 
Arabia  by  nominal  subjects  of  the  Porte.  Moreover,  a 
legal  right  has  existed  ever  since  185G.  In  that  year  the 
European  powers,  having  saved  the  Ottoman  empire  from 
destruction,  exacted  from  the  Porte  promises  of  reform  in 
its  government  of  Christian  subjects.  Those  promises 
were  subsequently  enforced  in  numerous  instances,  notably 
in  the  case  of  the  Greeks,  the  Cretans,  the  Bulgarians,  the 
Serbs,  the  Bosnians,  and  the  people  of  the  Lebanon. 
These  peoples  were  not  specifically  mentioned  in  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  so  that  an  equal  right  of  intervention  exists  in 
the  case  of  the  Armenians.  Moreover,  by  the  treaty  of 
Berlin,  in  1878,  specific  pledges  were  again  exacted  from 
Turkey;  and  the  right  and  obligation  to  enforce  them 
were  accorded  to  the  signatory  powers,  more  particularly 
Great  Britain^ 

It  is  not  yet,  however,  quite  clear  to  what  exteut  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Russia  will  interfere.  F'orcible  ac- 
tion would  mean  war,  and  that  would  comprise  an  inva- 
sion of  Armenia  by  Russia — a  result  which  would  hardly 
comport  with  the  traditional  views  of  England  on  the  East- 
ern question  or  with  her  interests  in  the  Levant.  Besides, 
similar  intervention  would  probably  be  necessary  in  behalf 
of  Macedonia  and  Syria.  Altogether,  the  problem  is  one 
of  serious  complications,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
Great  Britain  and  the  other  powers  concerned  will  be  con- 
servative rather  than  radical  in  the  future  steps  which  they 
may  deem  it  wise  to  take. 

Revolt  171  Macedonia. — An  additional  perplexity  was 
added  in  June  by  the  outbreak  of  a  revolt  in  Macedonia 
confirming  the  long-prevalent  rumors  of  nnrest  in  that 
region  .(p.  83),  whose  inhabitants  have  for  a  long  time  de- 
sired greater  freedom  than  the  sultan  has  been  inclined  to 
grant.  A  similar,  but  less  marked,  agitation  has  broken 
out  in  the  Turkish  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  placards 
being  posted  in  Philippopolis,  the  capital,  late  in  June, 
calling  upon  the  Bulgarian  government  to  aid  in  the  pro- 


336  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2H  Qr.  1895. 

posed  revolution  against  Turkisli  rule.  Popular  sentiment 
in  Bulgaria  is  said  to  be  strongly  in  favor  of  intervention 
in  both  Macedonia  and  Eastern  Houmelia;  but  the  powers 
have  warned  Prince  Ferdinand  against  raising  the  Mace- 
donian question.  It  is  impossible  to  learn  at  this  stage 
the  extent  of  the  uprising  in  Macedonia;  but  it  seems  to  be 
considered  serious  by  the  Porte,  which  is  hurrying  troops 
to  the  disturbed  districts.  Meanwhile,  developments  are 
closely  watched  by  Bulgaria,  Greece,  Austria,  and  Russia. 

THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA. 

French  and  English  Interests.— The  menacing 
utterance  of  Sir  Edward  Grey  in  the  British  house  of  com- 
mons (p.  85)  was  brought  up  in  the  French  senate  in 
April,  when  M.  Hanotaux,  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
was  questioned  as  to  the  relations  of  the  two  countries. 
The  debate  in  the  British  parliament  had  been  a  surprise 
to  M.  Hanotaux.  The  two  countries  had  for  some  time 
been  engaged  in  amicable  diplomatic  negotiations  upon 
African  affairs,  and  no  one  in  France  was  looking  for  a 
rupture  of  friendly  relations;  when  suddenly  the  exercise 
by  France  of  what  she  had  long  held  to  be  her  right,  is 
pronounced  to  be  an  act  unfriendly  to  Great  Britain,  and 
one  to  be  resented  as  such.  The  region  of  Africa  in  dis- 
pute, namely,  the  territory  on  the  upper  Nile  between  the 
lake  country  and  the  point  of  Wady  Haifa,  has  perhaps 
not  a  single  European  inhabitant,  he  said,  and  certainly 
is  not  in  any  way  dependent  on  any  European  authority. 
It  is  the  country  of  the  Mahdi — evacuated  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, evacuated  by  Emin  Pasha.  There  is  a  shadowy  right 
of  dominion  over  this  land,  residing  in  the  sultan  of  Turkey 
and  in  the  khedive  of  Egypt.  But  disregarding  any  rights 
the  sultan  or  the  khedive  might  possess  or  claim,  England, 
in  1890,  drew  a  line  around  it  on  the  map  of  Africa,  and  said : 
"  This  is  henceforth  mine.''^  The  rights  of  France  were 
infringed,  and  France  protested.  In  1894  England  con- 
cluded a  convention  with  the  Kongo  state,  whereby  the 
British  title  to  the  territory  was  supposed  to  be  strength- 
ened. But  France  again  protested,  and  the  Kongo  state 
cancelled  the  lease  of  territory  to  England.  The  posi- 
tion taken  by  France  with  regard  to  the  matter  is  thus  de- 
fined by  M.  "Hanotaux: 

"  The  regions  m  question  are  under  the  high  sovereignty  of  the 
sultan.  If  tbey  have  a  legitimate  master,  it  is  the  khedive.  This  be- 
ing laid  down,  we  said  to  the  English  government:  'You  declare 
that,  in  virtue  of  the  convention  of  1890,  England  placed  a  portion  of 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA.  337 

tliese  territories  in  Iierzone  of  intiuence.  Very  well;  let  us  know  at 
least  to  what  territories  your  claims  apply.  How  far  does  it  extend, 
this  sphere  of  intiuence,  which,  according  to  you,  opens  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile  and  is  prolonged  no  one  knows  whither  northward? 
In  a  word,  you  offer  us  a  vague,  uncertain  claim,  formulated  in  terms 
which  are  open  to  various  interpretations;  you  include  in  a  single 
phrase  the  sphere  of  Egyptian  influence  and  the  sphere  of  English  in- 
fluence. Tell  us,  then,  where  Egypt  stops  and  where  the  sphere  which 
you  claim  begins.  You  desire  at  present,  and,  as  we  think,  prematurely, 
that  we  should  settle  the  future  of  these  regions.  You  wish  to  have 
our  adhesion  without  even  explaining  to  us  to  what  we  should  adhere 
in  such  conditions.  Do  not  be  surprised  that  we  refuse  our  acquies- 
cence and  reserve  our  liberty.'  Now,  hitherto  the  French  government 
has  not  succeeded  in  obtaining  any  definite  replies  to  clear  and  legiti- 
mate questions  such  as  these.  When,  during  recent  negotiations, 
1  pressed  the  British  government  to  reply  to  me,  the  pourparlers 
were  interrupted.  I  can  affirm  here  that  it  was  not  the  fault  of  the 
French  government." 

His  report  to  the  British  foreign  office,  for  the  rather 
inenucing  language  used  in  parliament,  was  temperate  and 
dignified: 

"  When  the  time  comes  to  decide  the  ultimate  destinies  of  these 
distant  countries,  I  am  among  those  who  think  that  by  insuring  re- 
spect for  the  rights  of  the  sultan  and  the  khedive,  by  reserving  to 
each  that  which  belongs  to  him,  two  great  nations  will  know  how  to 
find  formuhe  fitted  to  reconcile  their  interests  and  to  satisfy  their 
common  aspirations  for  civilization  and  progress." 

It  is  understood  at  the  British  foreign  office  that  an 
understanding  exists  between  France  and  Belgium,  where- 
by King  Leopold  will  co-operate  with  France  in  establish- 
ing a  Franco-Belgian  position  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
upper  Nile  before  the  English  can  secure  a  similar  posi- 
tion and  accurately  define  their  claims.  The  sympathy 
of  the  German  foreign  office  is  also  with  France,  and  the 
German  newspapers  are  almost  unanimous  in  supporting 
France  against  the  claims  put  forth  by  Sir  Edward  Grey. 
The  press  of  the  colonial  party  in  Germany  calls  for  an 
understanding  with  France  and  against  England. 

Future  of  the  Kongo  State. — The  Kongo  Free 
State,  by  its  owner.  King  Leopold  IL,  is  offered  to  the 
kingdom  of  Belgium  as  a  gift — one  of  the  largest  of  the 
^'spheres  of  influence"  to  one  of  the  smallest  kingdoms 
on  earth.  The  king  cannot  any  longer  afford  the  expense 
of  maintaining  the  government  of  the  Kongo  state.  But 
the  democracy  of  Belgium  has  no  liking  for  colonial  pos- 
sessions, and  the  project  of  annexing  the  Kongo  state  to 
Belgium  is  abandoned.  France,  it  is  supposed,  will  be 
approached  and  requested  to  relieve  the  king  of  the  heavy 
burden.     But  Madagascar  and  foreign  colonies  are  taxing 

Vol.  5^ajj» 


B38  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

the  resources  of  France  severely,  and  it  is  not  certain  that 
the  republic  will  accept  the  offer.  A  Kongo  state  force 
recently  inflicted  a  disastrous  defeat  on  a  dervish  army  of 
4,000  in  the  district  between  the  Nile  and  the  upper  Quelle. 

In  the  Cameroons. — Early  in  June  advices  received 
at  Berlin  from  the  governor  of  the  Cameroons  colony  told 
of  four  forts  belonging  to  the  rebel  Bakoko  tribes  on  the 
lower  Sassage  river  being  stormed  by  a  German  force. 
Two  hundred  of  the  natives  were  killed,  many  wounded, 
and  a  large  number  taken  prisoners.  The  Germans  lost 
twelve  killed  and  forty-seven  wounded.        * 

British  East  Africa  Company. — At  the  end  of  June 
this  company  surrendered  to  the  British  government  the 
charter  in  virtue  of  which  it  exercised  sovereign  powers 
over  a  vast  territory  in  Africa.  A  quarter  of  a  million  of 
dollars  was  the  price  paid  for  the  surrender.  The  terri- 
tory which  thus  comes  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
British  crown  stretches  about  400  miles  along  the  coast 
northward  from  the  mouth  of  the  Umbe  river.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Kongo  state:  total  area,  esti- 
mated, 1,000,000  square  miles,  embracing  a  large  part  of 
Somaliland,  the  Equatorial  province,  Usoga,  Unyoro,  and 
other  little-known  districts.  In  the  British  house  of  com- 
mons June  13  Sir  Edward  Grey  announced  that  the  gov- 
ernment had  decided  to  establish  a  protectorate  over  the 
country  between  Uganda  and  the  coast,  and  to  construct  a 
railroad  to  Uganda. 

Annexations  to  Zululand. — Sir  Walter  Hely-Hutch- 
inson,  governor  of  Zululand,  by  proclamation  annexed  to 
that  territory,  toward  the  end  of  April,  certain  lands  lying 
between  the  borders  of  Zululand  and  the  Portuguese  do- 
minion. This  action,  combined  with  the  recent  declara- 
tion of  a  British  protectorate  over  that  part  of  Tongaland 
which  lies  outside  of  the  Portuguese  sphere  of  influence, 
closes  the  space  of  unattached  native  territory  which  be- 
fore existed  between  the  Portuguese  and  British  confines. 
The  South  African,  or  Transvaal,  republic  is  thus  cut  off 
from  access  to  the  sea,  save  through  British  territory.  The 
Boers  had  hoped  some  day  to  acquire  a  post  which  would 
afford  them  an  independent  means  of  communication  with 
the  outside  world;  but  now  they  are  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  British  colonies  and  British  protectorates.  The  Trans- 
vaal republic  protested,  but  in  vain.  Organs  of  British 
public  opinion  deride  the  pretensions  of  the  Boers  to  the 
right  of  foreign  commerce.  Says  the  St.  James'  Gazette: 
*'  The  whole  strip  is  but  fifty  miles  long  by  fifteen  broad — a 


I 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA.  339 

jnere  trifle  as  African  admeasurements  go,  in  fact  sucli  a  mere  trifle 
that  most  maps  do  not  show  it.  But  through  that  narrow  strip  of 
land  President  Kruger,  seated  on  the  hill-tops  of  Swaziland,  could 
have  felt  sweet  sea-breezes,  and  even  have  extended  a  metaphorical 
hand  to  that  sea  which  he  has  so  long  sought  to  be  'joined  '  unto.  We 
abandoned  the  Swazis  to  oblige  him;  but  we  have  'done'  him  all  the 
same.  *  *  *  As  far  as  we  are  concerned,  the  main  point  is  not  the 
shutting  of  President  Kruger  from  the  sea.  All  that  the  British 
'  shopkeepers '  are  anxious  about  is  that  President  Kruger  should  be 
debarred  from  shutting  us  out  of  the  Transvaal.  Give  him  but  a  port 
and  he  would  do  as  he  pleased,  playing  pranks  in  the  w^ay  of  fiscal 
policy  that  nobody  who  had  not  studied  Boer  history  would  believe 
possible.  Therefore  it  is  fortunate  that  even  in  the  Portuguese  cor- 
ner of  the  Transvaal's  entourage  we  are  protected  to  some  extent 
against  the  effects  of  Boer  encroachment.  For  the  only  port  there  is 
Delagoa  bay,  and  Portugal  cannot  sell  Delagoa  bay  to  the  Boers;  we 
have  the  right  to  pre-empt. " 

But  the  South  African  republic  has  a  powerful  friend 
— Germany.  A  telegram  from  Berlin,  dated  May  22,  states 
that  the  German  government  was  then  taking  active  steps 
to  resist  England's  designs  in  annexing  the  neutral  strip. 
In  this  action  Germany  hopes  to  have  the  assistance  of 
France.  Even  an  English  newspaper  published  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  gold-mining  industry  at  Johannesburg  in  the 
Transvaal,  strongly  condemns  the  act  of  annexation,  say- 
ing: 

"A  more  ignoble,  more  underhand  trick  has  never  been  played 
against  any  independent  state.  The  annexation  is  in  direct  opposition 
to  all  tacit  understanding,  if  not  to  existing  treaties.  British  governors 
declared  that  the  Tonga  country  was  independent,  and  that  the  Eng- 
lish government  would  keep  its  hands  off  it.  The  annexation  is  a 
low  trick  and  a  direct  insult  to  the  government  of  the  South  African 
republic." 

The  Volksstem,  organ  of  the  Afrikanders,  and  published 
at  Pretoria,  issues  a  call  to  arms: 

"  The  people  have  somehow  the  same  feeling  which  animated 
them  when  they  had  to  defend  their  rights  with  their  rifles.  The 
undeniable  injustice  which  has  been  committed  against  the  South 
African  republic  has  convinced  many  men  that  the  war  of  1880-1 
was  not  the  last,  and  that  the  men  of  the  Transvaal  will  again  be 
forced  to  defend  their  interests  with  their  bodies.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  eyes  of  every  one  turn  to  the  commander-in-chief,  and 
the  question  is  heard:  '  Are  we  ready  to  take  the  chances  of  war?'  " 

The  French  in  Madagascar.— The  Hova  works  near 
Tamatave  were  bombarded  by  French  cruisers  April  4, 
The  French  minister  of  war,  in  a  note  published  April  26, 
states  the  situation  of  affairs  at  that  date  as  follows: 

"The  Hovas  had  assembled  their  best  troops  in  somewhat  large 
numbers  at  the  points  which  seemed  to  them  to  be  the  most  threatened- 
near  Tamatave,  Diego,  and  Majunga.  Everywhere,  moreover,  posts 
of  some  hundreds  of  men,  with  small  detachments  thrown  out  from 


340  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

them,  served  to  maintain  their  influence.  In  the  Diego  region  we 
have  taken  from  them  the  fort  of  Ambohimarina,  whence  they  di- 
rected attacks  on  our  outposts.  At  Tamatave  the  situation  is  unal- 
tered. On  the  Majunga  side  the  Hovas  had  a  post  at  Mahabo,  by 
which  they  held  the  country  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Betsiboka.  To 
this  point  was  attached  a  small  battery  commanding  the  river.  The 
gunboat  Gnbes  succeeded  in  silencing  the  fire  of  this  battery;  and 
(.'aptain  Rabaud,  with  a  company  and  a  half,  and  two  sections  of 
artillery,  then  captured  the  post,  in  which  the  Ilovas,  numbering  200, 
lost  eight  men  and  two  guns.  The  villagers  had  assembled  round 
the  tombs  of  their  chiefs,  ready  to  defend  them;  but  seeing  that  we 
respected  these,  they  threw  down  their  arms  and  came  to  us  soliciting 
protection  against  the  Hovas.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Betsiboka 
the  Hovas,  with  3,000  men,  occupied  a  camp  at  Miadane,  in  order  to 
cover  Marovoay.  Fourof  our  companies  and  two  sections  of  artillery, 
under  the  command  of  (ieneral  Metzinger,  first  reached  Meveranana, 
and  then,  on  April  3,  stormed  the  intrenched  camp  of  Miadane.  The 
enemy  had  100  men  killed,  without  reckoning  the  wounded,  and  fled 
to  the  east  of  Marovoay.    We  had  only  three  sharpshooters  wounded. " 

111  a  telegnim  from  Mjijniigudated  May  3,  General  Metz- 
inger reports  that  on  tlie  precedingday  hestorniecl  Marovojiy 
and  Ampihaorania:  the  Ilovas,  in  their  precipitate  flight, 
abandoned  cannon,  mitrailleuses,  munitions, and  provisions. 
General  Duchesne,  appointed  to  the  chief  command,  arrived 
from  France  at  Majunga  May  G:  with  him  came  reinforce- 
ments of  men  to  the  number  of  15,000,  He  immediately 
joined  the  column  marching  on  Tananarivoo,  the  capital. 
At  latest  advices  in  June  it  was  half-way  toward  its  desti- 
nation, meeting  and  overcoming  some  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  native  levies. 

Erythrea. — General  Baratieri  in  June  notified  his  gov- 
ernment at  Uoine  that  war  with  Abyssinia  was  inevitable, 
and  made  a  requisition  for  several  thousand  rifles  to  arm 
the  native  allies  under  the  Sultan  Aussa.  The  Italian 
government  promised  to  send  him  the  arms.  When  two 
months  previously  General  Baratieri  announced  his  deci- 
sion not  to  occupy  and  hold  the  territory  of  Adua  in  Abys- 
sinia, though  the  chiefs  and  the  people  had  offered  to 
submit  to  him,  his  discretion  was  warmly  applauded:  to 
assume  larger  responsibilities  in  Africa  would  add  greatly 
to  Italy's  financial  burdens.  But  the  process  of  aggran- 
dizement cannot  be  stayed  at  pleasure.  To  defend  what 
she  already  has,  Italy  is  forced  to  extend  her  conquests 
both  in  Abyssinia  and  in  the  Mahdi's  land. 

MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS. 

The  Alaska  Boundary. — Widie  interest  has  been 
aroused  regarding  the  British  claims  in  the  matter  of 
the   boundary    between   Alaska  and   British    Columbia. 


MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  341 

Both  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  have  now  en- 
gineering parties  on  the  ground,  whose  reports  must  be 
submitted  by  tlie  end  of  1895,  unless  the  time  therefor  be 
extended.  Owing  to  the  importance  of  the  points  at  issue, 
it  will  be  of  service  to  trace  here  the  history  of  the  case. 
In  February,  1825,  (Jreat  Britain  and  Russia  signed  a 
treaty  whereby  the  latter  became  owner  of  what  is  now 
known  as  Alaska.  The  boundary  of  the  territory  was 
specifically  set  forth  as  follows  in  the  treaty: 

"Sections. — The  line  of  demarcation  between  the  possessions 
of  the  high  contracting  parties  upon  the  coast  of  the  continent  and 
the  islands  of  America  to  the  northwest,  shall  be  drawn  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Commencing  from  the  southernmost  point  of  the  island 
called  Prince  of  Wales  island,  which  point  lies  in  the  parallel  of  54 
degrees  40  minutes  north  latitude,  and  between  the  181st  degree  and 
the  133d  degree  of  west  longitude,  the  same  line  shall  ascend  to  the 
north  along  the  channel  called  Portland  channel  as  far  as  the  point 
of  the  continent  where  it  strikes  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude; 
from  this  last-mentioned  point  the  line  of  demarcation  shall  follow 
the  summit  of  the  mountains  situated  parallel  to  the  coast  as  far  as 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude  (of  the 
same  meridian),  and  finally  from  the  said  point  of  intersection,  the 
said  meridian  line  of  the  141st  degree,  in  its  prolongation  as  far  as 
the  frozen  ocean,  shall  form  the  limit  between  the  Russian  and  British 
possessions  on  the  continent  of  America  to  the  northwest. 

"  Section  4. — That  wherever  the  summit  of  the  mountains,  which 
extend  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  coast,  from  the  56th  degree  of 
north  latitude  to  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  141st  degree  of  west 
longitude,  shall  prove  to  be  at  the  distance  of  more  than  ten  marine 
leagues  from  the  ocean,  the  limit  between  the  British  possessions 
and  the  line  of  the  coast  which  is  to  belong  to  Russia,  as  above  men- 
tioned, shall  be  formed  by  a  line  parallel  to  the  windings  of  the  coast, 
and  which  shall  never  exceed  the  distance  of  ten  marine  leagues 
therefrom." 

In  18G7  Alaska  became  the  property  of  tlie  United 
States  by  purchase  from  Russia,  the  consideration  being 
$7,200,000.  From  1825  up  to  1880  the  boundary  was  not 
disputed.  Between  1825  and  18G7  the  Russians  had  ofti- 
cially  occupied  all  the  territory  west  of  Portland  channel, 
and  after  1867  the  United  States  did  the  same.  From 
1807  to  about  1887  American  troops  were  stationed  at 
Fort  Tongass,  at  the  mouth  of  Portland  channel;  and 
customs  officers  were  maintained  there  as  late  as  1889 — 
all,  it  is  said,  without  protest  from  Great  l^ritain  or  any 
other  power.  At  the  instigation  of  the  Canadian  author- 
ities, negotiations  were  opened  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  resulting,  in  July,  1892,  in  the 
signing  of  a  convention  requiring  the  appointment  of  a 
commission  for  the  purpose  as  set  forth  in  the  first  arti- 
cle, as  follows: 


342  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

"  Providing  for  the  delimitation  of  the  existing  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  Her  Majesty's  possessions  in  North  America, 
in  respect  to  such  portions  of  said  boundary  line  as  may  not  in  fact 
have  been  permanently  marked  in  virtue  of  treaties  heretofore  con- 
cluded." 

The  time  allowed  by  this  agreement  to  complete  sur- 
veys and  submit  final  reports  ended  November  28,  1894; 
but,  by  supplemental  convention,  ratified  by  President 
Cleveland  and  Secretary  Gresham  in  March,  1894,  the 
time  limit  was  extended  to  December  31,  1895. 

The  region  now  in  dispute  is  in  the  southeastern,  or 
''Panhandle,"  section  of  Alaska,  comprising.about  29,000 
square  miles  of  territory.  The  British  government  claims 
that  in  the  treaty  of  1825,  instead  of  Portland  channel, 
Behm  channel  was  meant  as  the  boundary — the  latter  being 
the  first  inlet  west  of  Portland  channel.  The  extension  of 
boundary  claimed  would  give  to  Great  Britain  control  of 
an  area  about  600  miles  long  and  of  varying  widths  up  to 
150  miles,  including  about  100  miles  of  seacoast  with  har- 
bors and  adjacent  islands.  One  of  the  famous  gold  mines 
of  the  world,  valued  in  San  Francisco  at  $13,000,000,  is 
located  in  the  region  in  question;  a  large  part  of  the  vast 
fish-cannery  business  of  Alaska  is  carried  on  in  this  section; 
and  the  coal  and  other  mineral  as  also  the  forest  resources 
of  the  region  are  said  to  be  of  inestimable  value.  Experts 
are  said  to  look  upon  it  as  the  key  to  the  gold  mines  of  the 
Yukon  and  the  interior. 

The  Mora  CLaim. — In  accordance  with  a  resolution 
passed  by  the  53d  congress,  Mr.  Olney,  shortly  after  as- 
suming office  as  secretary  of  state,  instructed  United  States 
Minister  Taylor  at  Madrid  to  press  for  a  settlement  of 
what  is  known  as  the  Mora  claim  against  Spain.  It  ap- 
pears that  during  an  insurrection  in  Cuba,  a  valuable 
sugar  plantation  owned  by  an  American  citizen,  Antonio 
Maximo  Mora,  was  confiscated.  Mora  appealed  to  the  au- 
thorities at  Washington  for  redress;  and  as  long  ago  as  1886 
the  Spanish  government  agreed  to  pay  11,500,000  in  set- 
tlement. The  claim  has  been  pressed  by  every  adminis- 
tration in  the  United  States  since  that  time,  but  opposi- 
tion in  the  Spanish  cortes  has  always  hitherto  prevented 
payment.  Public  opinion  in  Spain  still  strongly  opposes 
payment;  but  it  is  announced  at  the  end  of  June,  that  in 
view  of  the  pressure  from  Washington  and  the  good  will 
shown  by  the  United  States  in  respect  of  the  troubles  now 
besetting  the  Spanish  government  in  Cuba,  a  committee 
of  the  ministers  at  Madrid  will  arrange  to  settle  the 
claim. 


MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  343 

France  and  Brazil. — The  relations  between  France 
and  Brazil  are  now  strained  as  the  result  of  an  incident 
which  occurred  in  May  on  or  near  the  border  between  Bra- 
zil and  French  Guiana.  For  some  time  past,  it  appears, 
French  settlers  on  the  boundary  had  been  annoyed  by 
Brazilian  adventurers.  The  latest  instance  was  the  cap- 
ture and  robbery  of  a  Frenchman  named  Trajane  in  the 
Amapa  region.  The  governor  of  French  Guiana  sent  a 
force  of  marines  under  Captain  Lumier  to  demand  Tra- 
jane's  release.  This  force  was  fired  upon  by  the  Brazilian 
leader  Cabral  on  May  15,  and  a  general  engagement  fol- 
lowed, in  which  Cabral  and  sixty  of  his  followers  were 
killed,  the  French  loss  being  stated  as  five  killed  and 
twenty  wounded.  Advices  received  at  the  end  of  June 
are  to  the  effect  that  French  troops  have  occupied  the  ter- 
ritory of  Amapa,  and  the  local  authorities  there  have  asked 
for  reinforcements  to  resist  the  alleged  invasion  of  Bra- 
zilian territory. 

The  Brazilian  government  in  June  voted  $65,000  for 
the  expenses  of  a  commission  for  the  exploration  of  the 
Guiana  boundary,  with  a  view  to  settling  the  dispute  with 
France.  The  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  in  a  note  to  the 
French  legation  in  Washington,  has  requested  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  commission  of  that  nationality  to  act  in  con- 
junction with  the  Brazilian  commission,  in  order  to  have 
this  much  vexed  question  set  at  rest. 

Pamir  Dispute  Settled. — The  details  of  the  agree- 
ment between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  regarding  the 
delimitation  of  their  respective  spheres  of  influence  in  the 
long-disputed  Pamir  region  (p.  96)  were  made  public 
early  in  April.  They  do  not  bear  out  in  all  respects  the 
early  rumors  as  to  the  nature  of  the  respective  concessions. 
The  convention  was  signed  March  11. 

The  governing  clause  lays  it  down  that  the  British  and  Russian 
governments  shall  "abstain  from  exercising  any  political  influence 
or  control,  the  former  to  the  north  and  the  latter  to  the  south  "  of  a 
line  of  demarcation  which  is  broadly  defined,  but  which  is  to  be  de- 
termined in  detail  by  delegates  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  divid- 
ing line  is  to  start  from  a  point  on  Lake  Victoria  (Zor  Kul)  near  to  its 
eastern  extremity,  and  to  follow  the  crests  of  the  mountain  range  run- 
ning somewhat  to  the  south  of  the  latitude  of  the  lake  as  far  as  the 
Benderky  and  Orta-Bel  passes.  Thence  the  line  will  run  along  the 
same  range  while  it  remains  to  the  south  of  the  latitude  of  the  lake; 
but,  on  reaching  that  latitude,  it  will  descend  the  spur  of  the  range 
toward  Kizil  Rabat  on  the  Aksu  river — if  that  locality  is  found  not 
to  be  north  of  the  latitude  of  Lake  V^ictoria — and  will  afterwards  be 
prolonged  in  an  easterly  direction  so  as  to  meet  the  Chinese  frontier. 
If  it  should  be  found  that  Kizil  Rabat  is  situated  to  the  north  of  the 


344  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  2d Qr,  1895. 

latitude  of  Lake  Victoria,  the  line  of  demarcation  will  be  drawn  to 
the  nearest  point  on  tlie  Aksu  river  south  of  that  latitude,  and  thence 
prolonged  as  aforesaid. 

The  demarcation  and  precise  configuration  of  the  dividing  line  is 
to  be  settled  by  a  joint  commission  of  a  purely  technical  character, 
with  a  military  escort  not  exceeding  that  which  is  strictly  necessary 
for  its  proper  protection.  This  commission  will  be  composed  of  Brit- 
ish and  Russian  delegates,  with  the  necessary  technical  assistance,  it 
being  left  with  the  British  government  to  arrange  with  the  ameer  of 
Afghanistan  as  to  the  manner  in  which  His  Highness  shall  be  repre- 
sented on  the  commission.  The  commission  will  also  be  charged  to 
report  any  facts  which  can  be  ascertained  on  the  spot  bearing  on  the 
situation  of  the  Chinese  frontier,  with  a  view  to  enabling  the  two 
governments  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  the  Chinese  government 
as  to  the  limits  of  Chinese  territory  in  the  vicinity  of  the  line  in  such 
manner  as  may  be  found  convenient. 

The  British  government  engage  that  the  territory  lying  within 
the  British  sphere  of  influence  between  the  Hindoo  Koosh  and  the  line 
from  the  east  end  of  Lake  Victoria  to  the  Chinese  frontier,  shall  form 
part  of  the  territory  of  the  ameer  of  Afghanistan;  that  it  shall  not  be 
annexed  to  (^reat  Britain,  and  that  no  military  posts  or  forts  shall  be 
established  in  it.  The  execution  of  the  agreement  is  contingent  upon 
the  evacuation  by  the  ameer  of  Afghanistan  of  all  the  territories  now 
occupied  by  him  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Panjah,  and  upon  the  evac- 
uation by  the  ameer  of  Bokhara  of  the.portion  of  Darwaz  which  lies 
to  the  south  of  the  Oxus,  in  regard  to  which  the  British  and  Russian 
governments  have  agreed  to  use  their  influence  respectively  with  the 
two  ameers. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  by  this  agreement  Russia  secures 
control  of  Koshan  and  Shignan,  the  two  provinces  which 
up  to  the  18th  century  always  belonged  to  Badaklishan, 
whose  inhabitants  are  of  Aryan  stock  and  have  nothing  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  the  Pamirs.  It  is  over  this 
portion  of  the  Pamirs  that  the  way  lies,  going  in  a  south- 
erly direction,  towards  the  Baroghil  pass,  the  easiest  of  all 
the  passes  leadiug  over  the  Hindoo  Koosh  range  to  the  out- 
lying defenses  of  the  British  Indian  empire. 

Miscellaneous. — The  formal  apology  of  the  govern- 
ment of  San  Domingo  and  its  submission  to  the  demands 
of  France  for  compensation  on  account  of  the  ill-treat- 
ment of  French  subjects  (p.  04),  were  conveyed  to  tlie 
French  minister  to  Hayti  in  the  latter  part  of  April;  and 
diplomatic  intercourse  was  at  once  resumed. 

A  new  commercial  treaty  between  Greece  and  Russia 
has  been  concluded.  In  return  for  various  concessions  iu 
regard  to  the  duties  on  Russian  goods,  and  for  an  engage- 
ment to  permit  the  importation  of  Russian  ])etroleum  ex- 
clusively, Russia  agrees  to  admit  (Ireek  currants  free,  and 
to  reduce  the  duty  on  figs,  oil.  aiul  olives  by  50  per  cent. 

In  the  latter  part  of  June  France  and  Switzerland  signed 
a  commercial  treaty  granting  each  other  their  minimum 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS.  345 

tariff  rates,  France  also  extending  the  list  of  articles  from 
20  to  30,  on  whtich  in  1892  she  voted  to  give  special  re- 
ductions to  Switzerland.  Among  the  articles  which  are  to 
benefit  by  the  reduction  are  cheese,  watches,  musical 
boxes,  embroidery,  spun  silk,  etc.;  but,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  exasperation  of  protectionists  in  the  agricultural  or  in 
the  cotton  districts,  nothing  appertaining  to  agriculture 
or  cotton  has  been  reduced.  As  France  is  always  com- 
pelled to  bear  in  mind  Article  11  of  the  treaty  of  Frank- 
fort, which  concedes  to  Germany  the  benefit  of  every 
minimum  tariff  granted  to  other  nations,  there  has  evi- 
dently been  great  care  not  to  concede  to  Switzerland  any 
special  minimum  tariff  in  the  case  of  articles  made  by 
Germany  as  cheaply  as  by  Switzerland. 

Advices  from  Washington,  received  about  the  middle 
of  May,  confirmed  the  report  that  a  treaty  had  been  con- 
cluded and  ratified  by  both  Mexico  and  Guatemala  settling 
the  differences  which  early  in  the  year  threatened  to  em- 
broil the  two  republics  in  war  (p.  92). 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS. 

TT  is  impossible  at  present  to  disassociate  the  political 
problem  and  the  money  problem  in  the  United  States. 
The  leading  incidents  in  this  connection  up  to  the  end  of 
June  have  already  been  fully  presented  under  the  head  of 
"The  Silver  Question"  among  the  leading  topics  of  the  pres- 
ent quarter  (p.  285).  Merely  a  word  is  requisite  at  this 
point. 

About  a  year  will  still  elapse  before  the  national  con- 
ventions of  the  great  parties  will  select  their  candidates 
for  the  presidency  in  the  next  campaign.  That  period 
affords  ample  time  for  the  most  stupendous  changes  in  po- 
litical conditions;  and,  although  the  question  whether  the 
monetary  system  of  this  country  is  to  be  based  on  the  gold 
or  the  silver  standard  is  now  monopolizing  public  atten- 
tion, and  may  continue  to  do  so  until  finally  decided,  the 
uncertainties  of  the  situation  and  the  possibilities  of  new 
and  unforeseen  developments  are  causing  politicians  gen- 
erally, and  ''presidential  possibilities"  in  particular,  in 
both  republican  and  democratic  camps,  to  avoid  clear  and 
positive  declarations  of  policy  regarding  the  burning  issue 


346 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


2d  Qr.,  1895. 


of  tlie  (lay — that  of  free-silver  coinage.  This  reticence 
would  seem  to  indicate  a  chance  of  compromises  on  the 
matter  when  the  candidates  come  to  be  selected.  Certain 
it  is  that  formidable  dangers  now  confront  the  old  parties 
— and  perhaps  more  particularly  the  democratic  party — 
from  dissensions  within  their  ranks  on  this  vital  question. 
The  threads  of  the  political  situation  as  a  whole  are  tan- 
gled in  almost  inex- 
tricable confusion. 
To  illustrate:  Ex- 
Congressman  Bryan 
of  Nebraska,  in  a  re- 
cent speech  at  Jack- 
son, Miss.,  said: 

"I  am  as  certain  that 
the  democratic  conven- 
tion will  adopt  a  double- 
standard  platform  as  I  am 
that  I  am  standing  liere; 
but  if  it  does  not,  if  tbe 
single  gold  standard  is 
adopted,  I  would  die  in 
my  tracks  before  I  would 
vote  the  ticket." 

On  the  other 
hand,  the  ^'sound- 
money  "  men  of  Vir- 
ginia have  said  that 
they  will  not  support 
a  candidate  nomi- 
nated on  a  free-coin- 
age platform;  while 
the  '* sound-money" 
convention  at  Mem- 
phis and  the  defeat  of  the  silver  democrats  in  the  Ken- 
tucky state  convention  at  Louisville  have  added  to  the 
confusion. 

The  silver  advocates  throughout  the  country  are,  how- 
ever, making  an  aggressive  fight,  and  seem  disposed  to 
press  the  issue  to  a  final  decision.  They  have  an  element 
of  strength  in  the  fact  that  their  demands  are  definite  and 
simple,  and  they  are  not  trammelled  by  the  necessity  of  party 
fealty  on  other  issues.  But  if  we  are  to  believe  the  proph- 
ecies of  some  of  the  gold  men,  the  propaganda  of  silver 
inflation  is  doomed  to  speedy  collapse  (possibly  even  before 
the  campaign  of  1896  is  opened),  as  a  result  of  the  pros- 
perity  in  trade  and  industry  which  is  already  dawning 


HON.   JOSEPH  C.  SIBLEY   OF  TENNSYLVANIA, 
PROMINENT   FKEE-SII.VEK   POLITICIAN. 


BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY.  347 

again  upon  the  country.  One  of  the  cliief  raisons  cVefre 
of  the  silver  agitation  was  the  alleged  effect  Which  free  sil- 
ver would  have  in  dispelling  the  clouds  of  commercial  and 
industrial  depression  that  had  so  long  overhung  the  land. 
These  being  removed,  the  silver  cause  is  deprived  of  one 
of  its  chief  foundation  stones  and  one  of  its  most  specious 
arguments. 

The  formation  of  a  distinct  silver  party  would  be  an 
event  of  unknown  portent  for  the  democratic  and  populist 
parties;  but  would  likely  have  less  effect  upon  the  repub- 
lican party,  in  which  the  silver  element  is  not  so  marked. 

President  Cleveland's  ''sound-money"  letter  of  April 
13  (p.  287) — virtually  a  proclamation — and  Secretary  Car- 
lisle's speech-making  tour  in  the  South,  constitute  probably 
the  first  instances  of  such  action  by  the  executive  in  the 
history  of  the  nation.  Within  another  year  it  is  probable 
that  the  education  of  the  people  on  this  matter  will  have 
reached  such  a  point  that  their  ultimate  decision  thereon 
will  be  made  in  wisdom  and  with  due  consideration  for  the 
best  interests  of  all. 

BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY. 

A  Brighter  Outlook. — A  review  of  the  business  sit- 
uation in  the  first  half  of  1895  shows  a  small  reduction  in 
the  number  of  failures  and  a  slight  improvement  in  the 
ratio  of  assets  to  liabilities,  as  compared  with  1894,  but  a 
considerable  reduction  in  the  total  sum  of  liabilities. 
P'rom  January  1  to  July  1,  there  were,  in  1894,  7,039  fail- 
ures; in  1895  the  failures  were  0,900:  in  1894  the  liabilities 
amounted  to  1101,578,152;  in  1895,  to  about  $88,000,000. 
But  for  the  failure  of  the  combination  known  as  the  Cord- 
age trust,  the  aggregate  liabilities  in  1895  would  have  been 
nearly  23  per  cent  less  than  in  1894.  If  the  failures  of 
the  half-year  be  distributed  in  three  classes — manufacture, 
trade,  and  miscellaneous — the  liabilities  in  failures  of  the 
first  class  were  for  1895,  first  half,  about  $40,000,000, 
against  $41,370,102  for  1894,  first  half;  in  failures  belong- 
ing to  the  second  class  the  amounts  were  $45,000,000  for 
1895,  and  $52,345,978  for  1894;  in  the  class  "miscellane- 
ous" the  liabilities  were  $2,700,000  and  $7,850,072  re- 
spectively. Signs  of  the  improvement  in  business  are 
more  patent  if  we  compare  the  figures  for  the  second 
(juarter  of  1895  with  those  of  the  first  quarter.  In  the 
first  quarter  the  liabilities  in  all  classes  amounted  to  $47,- 
813,083,  but  in  the  second  quarter  to  $41,000,000. 

Advance  in  Prices.— A  notable  feature  of  business 


8i8  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

during  the  second  quarter  was  the  advance  in  prices 
of  meats,  cotton,  petroleum,  wheat,  leather,  and  iron 
and  steel.  Statistics  collected  by  the  department  of  agri- 
culture proved  that  the  advance  in  the  prices  of  meats 
was  not,  entirely  at  least,  due  to  combination  among  pack- 
ers, but  to  deiiciency  of  supply.  The  official  returns 
sliowed  a  decrease  of  522,600  head  of  cattle  in  January, 
1895,  compared  with  the  previous  year:  in  the  four  states, 
'J'exas,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  in  the  territory  of 
New  Mexico,  the  decrease  was  1,512,000  head.  Even  in 
1894  the  supply  was  short.  But  the  advance  in  prices  at 
Chicago  was  much  larger  than  the  shortage  in  supply. 
For  example,  with  a  decrease  of  only  8  per  cent  in  supply 
for  March,  went  an  advance  of  more  than  20  per  cent  in 
the  price  of  choice  cattle,  and  of  nearly  as  much  in  the 
price  of  inferior  stock. 

Cott)n  reached  6|  on  April  5;  and  on  May  24,  7  5-10 
cents;  at  the  end  of  June  it  was  7  cents.  A  combination 
of  causes  produced  the  rise  of  price,  namely,  an  increased 
activity  at  Liverpool  and  a  brisker  demand  from  Man- 
chester and  New  England,  finally  reports  of  an  exhaustion 
of  stocks  at  several  of  the  shipping  centres  of  the  South. 
A  little  later  the  rise  in  wheat  commenced.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  April  the  price  (highest)  of  No.  2  red  winter 
was  60  cents;  rising  steadily,  it  was  81g  on  May  23;  it  then 
declined  slowly  to  74f  cents  on  June  27. 

Crude  petroleum  was  11.14  per  barrel  at  Pittsburg  on 
April  3,  and  refined  7.7  cents  per  gallon  at  New  York. 
There  was  a  rapid  advance  in  crude,  which  on  April  17 
reached  $2. 70,  the  highest  price  recorded  since  December  20, 
1877,  when  |?1.81^  was  touched;  the  same  day  refined  was 
12  cents  a  gallon.  But  prices  then  declined  till  the  end 
of  the  month,  when  the  prices  were  $1.63  and  8.3  cents  re- 
spectively. 

This  rapid  advance  in  the  price  of  oil  was  a  natural  re- 
sult of  the  falling  off  in  supply  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  years,  but  was  also  stimulated  by  speculative 
activity,  in  which  the  Standard  Oil  Company  was  largely 
interested.  The  company  is  said  to  have  spent  $3,000,000 
in  purchasing  lands  from  individual  producers;  it  also 
paid  advanced  prices  for  oil  with  the  object  of  stimulating 
production.  The  result  was  an  almost  unprecedented 
"  boom  "  in  the  oil  regions  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  ex- 
tending also  into  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  The 
country  became  crowded  with  prospectors,  and  on  April  1 
the  number  of  new  wells  in  course  of  construction  was 


BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY.  349 

estimated  at  1,401 — almost  half  the  entire  iiinnber  drilled 
in  181)4.  While  partly  speculative  in  character,  the  oil 
"boom"  had  a  natural  basis  in  the  real  shrinkage  of  sup- 
ply as  compared  with  demand;  and  its  probable  ultimate 
effect  will  be  a  material  benefit  to  the  oil  regions,  and  a 
continued  fair  price  for  some  time  to  come,  unless  produ- 
cing wells  be  found  in  excessively  large  numbers. 

The  advance  in  leather  began  about  the  middle  of 
April:  the  price  of  ''hemlock  monacid"  on  April  13  was 
17^  cents  per  pound,  and  it  rose  gradually  till  at  the  end  of 
the  month  it  was  23  cents.  In  the  same  period  "oak" 
and  "union"  advanced  from  30  to  37  cents  and  36 
cents  respectively  per  pound.  The  advance  in  pig  iron 
was  also  considerable,  namely,  Bessemer  from  $10.25  per 
-ton  on  April  3  to  |>12.75  on  June  2G;  other  kinds  in  pro- 
portion. Steel  billets  rose  from  $15.00  per  ton  to  $20.00; 
steel  rails  from  $22.75  to  $24.00. 

Kice  was  throughout  the  quarter  about  |^  of  a  cent  less 
per  pound  than  in  1894.  Corn  (No.  2  mixed)  ranged 
from  56  cents  on  April  4  to  52^^  cents  on  June  27;  in  the 
meantime  it  reached  60^  cents.  May  23.  Oats  (No.  2)  de- 
clined from  33|  cents  per  bushel  on  April  4  to  29^  cents 
on  June  29.  Lard  (prime  contract)  fell  from  7.2  cents 
per  pound  to  G.S  cents  in  the  same  period.  It  is  remark- 
able, in  view  of  the  great  advance  in  the  price  of  fresh 
meats,  that  mess  pork — which  at  the  end  of  June,  1894, 
WHS  $14.25  per  barrel — was  quoted  at  the  same  price  on  the 
corresponding  date  in  1895:  mess  beef  also  showed  no 
change  in  price  at  those  two  dates. 

The  total  of  exports  of  products  of  all  kinds  during  the 
quarter  is  not  ascertainable  at  this  writing.  But  the  re- 
port of  exports  for  May  is  published:  it  shows  a  small  ad- 
vance beyond  the  total  for  the  same  month  of  the  preced- 
ing year,  viz>:  Agricultural  products  exported  May,  1894, 
$39,067,342,  same  month,  1895,  $39,685,843;  manufactures 
$15,213,204,  and  $18,144,611;  product  of  mines  $1,369,709, 
and  $1,475,193;  of  forests  $2,689,512,  and  $2,738,255;  of 
fisheries  $246,126,  and  $254,042;  miscellaneous  $358,259, 
and  $431,609:  total  $58,944,152  in  May,  1894;  $62,729,553 
in  May,  1895.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  nearly  all  this 
increase  in  exports  is  in  the  class  of  manufactiyes. 

At  the  close  of  the  quarter  an  improved  tone  was 
everywhere  perceptible.  Daily  were  published  statements 
of  mills  starting  and  wages  advancing.  This  gave  to  the 
artisans  and  laborers  employment;  and  their  earnings  be- 
ing spent  in  the  purchase  of  commodities,  every  branch  of 


350  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

business  felt  a  new  stimulus.  Toward  the  end  of  June 
the  clearings  of  the  banks  showed  in  one  week  an  increase 
of  30  per  cent  over  the  corresponding  week  of  1894.  An- 
other indication  of  returning  financial  confidence  was  seen 
in  the  national  bank  statistics.  There  were  in  the  second 
half  of  1894  only  21  applications  for  new  national  banks, 
with  a  total  capital  of  $1,760,000.  But  in  the  first  half  of, 
1895  there  were  41  applications,  with  15,760,000  capital. 

PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS. 

The  Public  Debt.— The  total  public  debt  of  the 
United  States  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1894-5, 
less  $195,240,153  cash  surplus  in  the  treasury,  was  $932,- 
830,667,  an  increase  of  $33,517,286  during  the  year.  This 
total  included  a  bonded  indebtedness  of  $716,203,060, 
against  $635,041,890  a  year  ago,  an  increase  of  $81,161,- 
170.  Should  we  add  to  this  the  still  undelivered  but  al- 
ready paid-for  half  of  the  last  issue  of  bonds  (to  the  Mor- 
gan-Belmont syndicate),  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  the 
government  would  show  a  further  increase  of  $31,157,700 
— an  increase  offset,  however,  by  a  very  substantial  in- 
crease in  the  treasury  gold  reserve. 

The  Gold  Reserve. — Owing  to  the  payments,  com- 
pleted in  the  latter  part  of  June,  by  the  Morgan- Belmont 
syndicate  for  the  issue  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $62,- 
315,435  contracted  for  in  February  last  (p.  40),  the  gold 
reserve,  which  for  some  time  had  been  at  an  unprecedent- 
edly  low  ebb,  increased  until  it  reached  and  passed  the 
$100,000,000  mark.  On  June  25  it  became  intact  again 
for  the  first  time  since  December,  1894.  At  the  close  of 
the  fiscal  year  it  stood  at  $107,511,362  against  $64,873,024 
a  year  ago,  an  increase  of  $42,638,338. 

During  the  year  two  issues  of  bonds  occurred,  one  for 
$50,000,000  in  November,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  764),  the  other 
the  last  syndicate  loan  of  $62,315,435,  making  a  total  in 
round  numbers  of  $112,000,000.  These  sales  of  bonds,  at 
the  premiums  paid,  netted  the  government  about  $123,- 
000,000  in  gold— $58,000,000  for  the  November  loan,  and 
$65,116,275  for  the  syndicate  loan.  As  the  total  increase 
in  the  gold  reserve  since  July  1,  1894,  has  been  about  $43,- 
000,000,  it  follows  that  the  net  outflow  of  gold  from  the 
treasury  during  the  fiscal  year  was  about  $80,000,000. 
Two  years  ago,  or  on  July  1,  1893,  the  net  gold  in  the 
treasury  amounted  to  $95,485,413.  A  year  later  this  re- 
serve had  dwindled  to  less  than  $65,000,000,  although 
$50,000,000   in   bonds  were  sold  in  February,  1894,  for 


I 


PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS.  351 

l>58,000,000  in  gold — a  loss  to  the  treasury  in  gold  that 
year  of  about  188,000,000. 

The  silver  reserve  on  July  1,  1895,  stands  at  $29,472,- 
841,  against  $18,971,557  a  year  ago,  and  $3,911,458  on  July 
1,  1893. 

Working  of  the  Tariff. — During  ten  months  of  the 
fiscal  year  1894-5  the  Wilson-Gorman  tariff  law,  which 
went  into  effect  August  28,  1894,  was  in  operation..  It 
has  proved  insufficient  to  keep  revenue  up  to  expenditure, 
by  $42,825,049.  Receipts  from  all  sources  for  the  year 
aggregated  $313,310,16(3,  or  about  $15,500,000  more  than 
in  1893-4.  In  1893-4  sugar,  however,  was  not  taxed; 
in  1894-5  the  revenue  from  that  source  was  about  $19,- 
000,000.  Customs  receipts  in  1894-5,  including  the 
$19,000,000  from  sugar,  were  about  $21,000,000  in  excess 
of  the  previous  year.  Internal  revenue  receipts,  notwith- 
standing the  increased  tax  on  whisky,  which  usually  fur- 
nishes more  than  half  of  this  item,  were  about  $4,000,000 
less  than  during  the  previous  year,  and  far  below  official 
estimates  and  expectations.  Receipts  from  miscellaneous 
sources  were  about  $2,000,000  less  that  during  the  pre- 
vious year. 

The  following  table  gives  details  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditures  for  the  year,  with  figures  for  1893-4  for 
comparison: 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES. 

RECEIPTS. 


Fiscal 
year  1894-5. 

Fiscal 
yearl89;i-4. 

Customs 

$152,749,405 
143,567,464 
16,993,297 

$131,818,530 

147,111,23:3 

18,792.256 

Totals 

8313,310,166 

$297,722,019 

EXPENDITURES. 

Fiscal 
year  1894-5. 

Fiscal 
.year  1893-1. 

$93,272,9!n 
51.820,304 
28,800,335 
9,934,441 

141.391.624 
30,915,920 

$101,943,884 
54,567,929 
31,701,294 
10,293,481 
141,177,285 
27,841,406 

War 

Pensions        .  .   . . 

Interest 

Totals 

$356,135,215 

$367,525,279 

The  following  figures  furnish  some  basis  for  judging  of 
the  revenue-producing  powers  of  the  tariff  law  of  1894. 
They  include  customs  and  internal  revenue  figures  for  the 
ten  months  of  the  operation  of  that  law,  as  compared  with 
the  corresponding  ten  months  of   1893-4,  following  the 


352 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


2d  Qr.,  1895. 

panic  of  1893,  5md  tlio  same  but  fairly  prosperous  period 
of  1892-3.  Amounts  are  given  in  millions  and  decimals, 
167.65,  for  example,  meaning  1107,050,000. 

CUSTOMS  RECEIPTS. 


September . 

October 

Novetnher. 
December.. 
January  — 
February,., 

March 

A  pril 

May 

June 


Totals . 


1892-3. 


M. 


12..57 

ii.oo! 

10.22' 
9.1.5 
11.45 
10.39 
11.35 
10.18, 
9.80' 
8.80 


15.56 
11.96 
10.26 
11.20 
17  36 

13.;^:^ 

14.92 
1245 
12.47 
11.74 


1G7.65I 


104.97i 


131.25 


INTERNAL  REVENUE  REf^EIPTS. 


September. 

October 

November. 
December., 

January 

February . . 

March 

.April 

May 

June 


Totals. 


1892-3. 

1893  4. 

13.73 

11.47 

11.15 

12.73 

13.a5 

12.15 

14.84 

12.06 

12  05 

10.71 

11  31 

11.05 

12.93 

12.81 

11.80 

11.36 

13.21 

12.04 

14.00 

15.18 

131.07 

121. .56 

1894-5. 

'  "  6.T8 
6.49 
7.77, 
9.37 
9.03 
8.86 
9.R5 
10.65 
10.75 
10.62 


Circulation. — The  monetary  operations  of  tlie  treas- 
ury for  the  fiscal  year  show  a  decrease  in  the  circulation 
of  all  kinds  of  money  in  the  United  States  amounting  to 
about  $60,000,000.  Population  increased  during  the  year 
by  1,482,000  (estimated).  The  figures  in  detail  are  as 
follows: 

MONEY  CIRCULATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Circulation  per  capi/a 

Population  United  States  (estimated). 

Total  circulation 

Gold  coin  in  circulation 

Gold  coin  in  treasury 

National  bank  notes  in  circulation. . . . 


July  1,  1895. 

July  1,  1894. 

$22.96 

$24.33 

69.879,000 

68.397,000 

$1,604,131,968 

$1,664,061,232 

480,275.0.57 

497,873.990 

99,147,914 

86.60.5,123 

207,047,546 

200.754,351 

THE  ARMY. 

Retirements  and  Promotions. — The  vacancy  in  the 
post  of  paymaster-general  of  the  army,  caused  by  the  re- 
tirement for  age,  on  March  26,  of  General  AVilliam  Smith, 
was  filled  by  the  appointment  of  Brigadier-General  Thad- 
deus  H.  Stanton. 

St.\nton,  Tit.vudedsII.,  brigadier-general  and  paymaster  United 
States  army,  was  born  in  Indiana,  Mar,  30,  1835;  removed  to  Iowa  in 


THE  ARMY. 


353 


)2;  received  liis  education  at  the  Howe  Academy;  but  before  gradua- 
tion allied  himself  with  John  Brown,  with  whom  and  with  General 
Lane  he  continued  until  1857.  taking  part  in  almost  every  struggle 
between  the  free  states  and  the  pro- slavery  states.  Going  to  Wash- 
ington in  1860  as  private  secretary  to  General  S.  R.  Curtis,  he  enlisted 
for  a  short  time  in  the  Columbia  volunteers;  but  returned  to  Iowa  in 
1861  and  was  elected  to  the  general  assembly,  serving  one  year.  Hav- 
ing raised  a  company  of  the  19th  infantry,  he  was  appointed  captain, 
and  went  to  the  front  in  1862.  He  was  present  at  the  surrender  of 
Vicksburg,  and  served  with  the  armies  of  the  Tennessee  and  the  Poto- 
mac, and  was  chief  paymaster  at  New  Orleans  in  1864.  From  the 
fall  of  Richmond  until  1870  he  was  on  duty  in  that  city,  most  of  the 
time  as  chief  paymaster  of  the  department. 

In  1872  he  was  ordered  to  the  department  of  the  Platte,  taking 
station  at  Cheyenne,  Wyo.  In  1875  he  took  part,  with  General  Crook, 
in  the  Black  Hills  expedition,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 
the  campaigns  against  the  Indians  in  Montana  in  1876,  and  subse- 
quently at  various  posts  of  danger  in  his  department.  He  is  the  only 
officer  of  his  corps  who  has  received  honorary  rank  for  gallantry  in 
action  since  the  war  of  the  rebellion.  Two  brevets  were  conferred 
upon  him  in  March  of  the  present  year. 

On  April  22  the  retirement  of  Major-General  Alexan- 
der McDowell  McCook  was  announced,  the  general  order 
to  that  effect  speaking  of  his  services  as  follows: 

"General  McCook  entered  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
from  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  was  graduated  and  appointed  lieutenant 
in  the  Third  infantry  in  1852.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  late  war  he 
became  the  colonel  of  the  First  Ohio  volunteers,  and  was  engaged 
with  his  regiment  in  the  action  of  Vienna  and  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  For  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in  this  battle  he  was  bre- 
vetted  major.  On  September  3,  1861,  he  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  From  the  command  of  a  brigade  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Cumberland  he  soon  passed  to  that  of  a  division  in 
the  army  of  the  Ohio,  and  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April 
7,  1862,  and  the  advance  upon  the  siege  of  Corinth,  April  9  to  May 
30,  1862.  He  was  commended  by  General  Sherman  to  General  Grant 
for  the  conduct  of  his  '  splendid  division.' 

"  For  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in  the  capture  of  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  he  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel  for  gallant 
and  meritorious  services  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  Tenn.     In  October,. 

1862,  he  came  into  command  of  the  First  corps,  army  of  the  Ohio, 
and  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Perryville  and  the  march  to  the  re- 
lief of  Nashville.  For  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in  the  battle 
of  Perryville  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general.  He  became  major- 
general  of  volunteers  July  17,  1862.  For  a  time  he  commanded  at 
Nashville,  and  later  the  right  wing  of  the  Fourteenth  corps,  and  was 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  Stone  River  December  31,  1862.    In  January, 

1863,  he  was  transferred  to  the  command  of  the  Twentieth  corps, 
army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Liberty 
Gap  June  24  to  25,  1863;  the  advance  to  Tuellohoma,  June  25  to  July 
14,  1863;  the  crossing  of  the  Cumberland  mountains  and  Tennessee 
river  August  15  to  September  4, 1863;  and  the  battle  of  Chickamauga, 
September  19  t«  20,  1863.  For  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in 
the  field  during  the  war  he  was  brevetted  major-general. 

"  On  the  5th  of  March,  1867,  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel 
Vol.  5.-33. 


354  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

of  the  Twenty-sixth  infantry,  and  on  tbe  loth  of  March,  1869,  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Tenth  infantry.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Sherman,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  promoted 
to  be  colonel  of  the  Sixth  infantry  December  15,  1880.  He  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  on  the  ilth  of  July,  1890,  and  assigned  to 
the  command  of  the  department  of  Arizona.  Promoted  to  be  major- 
general  on  the  9th  of  November,  1894,  he  continued  in  this  command 
until  now. 

"  He  is  the  last  survivor  but  one  of  a  gallant  family,  which  gave- 
a  father  and  every  son  (10  sons  altogether)  to  the  military  service  iii 
defense  of  the  country,  and  lost  four  (the  father  and  three  sons) — dead 
upon  the  battlefield." 

General  McCook  was  born  in  Columbia  co.,  O.,  April  22,  1831. 

As  a  result  of  the  retirement  of  Major-Geiieral  McCook, 
and  the  recent  elevation  of  Major-General  Schofield  to  the 
recreated  rank  of  lieutenant-general  (p.  114),  several  pro- 
motions have  occurred.  Brigadier-General  Wesley  Merritt 
has  been  made  a  major-general;  and  Colonels  Z.  R.  Bliss 
of  the  24th  infantry,  and  J.  J.  Coppinger  of  the  23d  in- 
fantry, brigadier-generals. 

Merritt,  Wesley,  major-general  United  States  army,  was  born 
in  New  York  in  1836;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1860,  and  was  com- 
missioned second  lieutenant  in  the  2d  dragoons,  which  became  the  2d 
cavalry  in  1861,  he  being  made  captain.  Later  he  accepted  a  com- 
mission in  the  volunteers,  and  by  1863  was  a  brigadier-general.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  was  a  major-general. 

When  the  army  was  reorganized  on  a  peace  footing  in  1867,  Gen- 
eral Merritt  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  9th  cavalry,  and  ten 
years  later  he  was  promoted  to  be  colonel  of  the  5th  cavalry.  He 
served  for  one  term  as  superintendent  of  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point.  In  1887  he  was  made  a  brigadier  general.  During' the 
war  General  Merritt  received  many  brevets  for  gallant  service  in  the 
field,  at  Gettysburg,  Yellow  Tavern,  Hawe's  Shop,  and  Five  Forks; 
and  for  his  services  in  the  final  campaign  in  A^irginia  he  was  made 
major-general  of  volunteers  and  brevet  major-general  in  the  regular 
army.  Since  the  war  he  has  done  many  kinds  of  frontier  service,  in- 
cluding much  Indian  fighting. 

Bliss,  Zenas  R.,  brigadier-general  United  States  army,  was  born 
in  Rhode  Island  in  1835;  graduated  at  West  Point  shortly  before  the 
war;  in  1862  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  lOth  Rhode  Island  in 
fantry;  later  was  transferred  to  the  7th  Rhode  Island  infantry;  and 
was  brevetted  for  gallant  services  at  Fredericksburg  and  the  Wilder- 
ness. 

Coppinger,  John  J.,  brigadier-general  United  States  army,  was 
born  in  Ireland,  and  for  a  time  served  in  the  Pope's  body-guard.  In 
1861  he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  14th  infantry;  was  brevetted 
for  services  at  Trevilian  and  Cedar  Creek;  and  after  the  war  was  bre- 
vetted colonel  "  for  zeal  and  energy  while  in  command  of  troops  op- 
erating against  hostile  Indians  in  1866,  1867,  and  1868."  He  is  a  son- 
in-law  of  the  late  Secret arv  James  G.  Blaine. 


THE  NAVY. 

THE  NAVY 


855 


Rear- Admiral  Meade  Retired.— At  his  own  request 
Rear-Admiral  Richard  W.  Meade  was,  on  May  9,  detached 
from  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron,  and  on 
May  20  was  retired  from  active  service.  The  exact  at- 
tendant circumstances  are  wrapped  in  official  obscurity, 
and  have  occasioned  wide  comment;  but  it  is  known  that 
for  some  time  the  re- 
lations between  the 
retiring  officer  and 
the  navy  department 
at  Washington  had 
been  strained  as  a 
result  of  differences 
connected  with  the 
service,  rumor  being 
that  Admiral  Meade 
personally  favored 
the  use  of  force,  if 
necessary,  to  prevent 
the  occupation  of 
Corinto  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  April — a  course 
of  which  the  adminis- 
tration did  not  ap- 
prove.. 

When  it  was  de- 
cided to  send  the 
Xetc  York  to  Kiel, 
to  take  part  in  the 
fetes  in  connection 
with  the  opening  of 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
canal,  it  appears  that  the  Cincinnati  was  selected  as  Ad- 
miral Meade's  flagship.  Repairs  being  necessary,  he  re- 
quested that  the  vessel  be  sent  to  tlie  Brooklyn  navy  yard. 
However,  on  recommendation  of  the  chief  constructor,  it 
was  decided  to  send  her  to  the  Norfolk  navy  yard;  but 
on  receipt  of  a  second  request  from  the  admiral,  the  de- 
partment decided  to  send  the  Cinci7ioiati  to  New  York. 
Before  the  necessary  formalities  could  be  completed,  the 
admiral's  request  for  detachment  from  his  command  and 
subsequent  retirement  was  received,  and  granted. 

On  May  10,  the  day  following  Admiral  Meade's  detach- 
ment from  command,  an  alleged  interview  with  him  was 


REAR-ADMIRAL  RICHARD   W.    MEADE, 
UNITED   STATES   NAVY. 


356  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2i  Qr.,  1895.. 

published  in  the  New  York  Trihuyie,  in  which  he  was  re- 
ported to  have  used  the  following  words: 

"My  ideas  are  not  in  accordance  with  those  of  this  administra- 
tion. I  am  just  as  much  disgusted  with  it  as  the  people  at  large  ii> 
this  country  are,  and  I  preferred  to  quit  rather  than  continue  my 
connection  with  it.  *  *  *  I  am  an  American  and  a  Union  man. 
Those  are  two  things  that  this  administration  cannot  stand.  *  *  * 
I  am  a  republican,  and  a  man  who  lives  on  the  ocean  is  apt  to  imbibe 
patriotism  and  loyalty.  I  find  these  articles  at  a  discount  with  the 
present  regime.''^ 

Tnis  alleged  interview  called  attention  to  Article  234 
of  the  navy  regulations,  which  reads: 

"AH  persons  belonging  to  the  navy  or  employed  under  the  navy^ 
department,  are  forbidden  to  publish,  or  cause  to  be  published,  directly 
or  indirectly,  or  to  communicate  by  interviews,  private  letters,  or 
otherwise,  except  as  required  by  their  otficial  duties,  any  information 
in  regard  to  the  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States  or  concerning  the 
acts  or  measures  of  any  department  of  the  government  or  of  any  offi- 
cer acting  thereunder,  or  any  comments  or  criticism  thereon,  or  any 
official  instructions,  reports,  or  letters  upon  any  subject  whatever,  or- 
to  furnish  copies  of  the  same  to  any  person,  without  permission  of 
the  navy  department.  No  person  belonging  to  the  navy  or  employed, 
under  the  navy  department  shall  act  as  correspondent  of  a  newspaper, 
without  express  authority  of  the  department,  or  discuss  matters  per- 
taining to  the  naval  service  in  the  public  prints,  or  attempt  to  influ- 
ence legislation  in  respect  to  the  navy,  otherwise  than  through  and; 
with  the  approval  of  the  depa'rtment." 

To  a  letter  from  the  department  asking  whether  he- 
was  willing  to  answer  whether  he  had  used  or  authorized 
the  publication  of  the  language  referred  to,  the  admiral  re- 
plied, declining  to  answer  the  question.  This  precluded 
the  possibility  of  his  trial  by  court-martial,  of  which  there 
had  been  some  rumor,  as  no  civilian  can  be  called  as  a 
witness  before  such  a  tribunal.  President  Cleveland,  there- 
fore, indorsed  the  papers  in  which  Secretary  Herbert 
recommended  the  admiral's  retirement,  with  the  following: 

Executive  Mansion,  May  20,  1895. 

The  within  recommendation  is  approved,  and  Rear- Admiral  Richard 
W.  Meade  is  hereby  retired  from  active  service  pursuant  to  Section, 
1,443  of  the  revised  statutes. 

The  president  regrets  exceedingly  that  the  long  active  service  of 
this  officer,  so  brilliant  in  its  early  stages  and  so  often  marked  by 
honorable  incidents,  should  at  its  close  be  tarnished  by  conduct  at 
variance  with  a  commendable  career  and  inconsistent  with  the  exam- 
ple which  an  officer  of  his  high  rank  should  furnish  of  subordination- 
and  submission  to  the  restraints  of  wholesome  discipline  and  mani- 
fest propriety.  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 

Meade,  Richard  Worsam,  rear-admiral  United   States  navy, 
retired,  was  born  in  New  York  city  Oct.  9,  1837,  and  appointed  a  • 
midshipman  from  California  October  3,  1850.     He  was  present  at  the- 
celebrated  "  Koszta"  affair  in  Smyrna  in  1858,  as  a  midshipman.    He^ 


THE  NAVY  357 

'became  master  in  1858,  and  lieutenant  later  in  the  same  year.  In 
1861  lie  was  prostrated  in  New  York  with  Mexican  fever.  In  the 
next  year  he  joined  the  North  Atlantic  blockading  squadron,  begin- 
aiing  his  war  service.  In  the  same  year  he  received  his  commission 
-as  lieutenant-commander,  and  his  first  command,  the  ironclad  Louis- 
mile  of  the  Western  flotilla,  employed  in  breaking  up  guerilla  war- 
fare on  the  upper  Mississippi,  for  which  he  was  commended  by  Ad- 
miral Porter.  He  commanded  the  naval  battalion  during  the  cele- 
brated July  riots  in  New  York,  being  stationed  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  city  from  Monday  to  Saturday. 

For  a  remarkable  engagement  while  in  command  of  the  Marble- 
Mad,  at  Stone  river,  North  Carolina,  he  was  publicly  thanked  in 
official  orders  by  Admiral  Dahlgren,  and  recommended  for  promo- 
tion by  the  board  of  admirals  for  "gallant  conduct  in  the  face  of  the 
enemy."  In  this  case,  with  the  seventy  men  of  the  Mnrhlehead" s 
crew,  he  repulsed  an  attack  by  a  vastly  superior  force  of  infantry 
and  artillery,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  drive  General  Gilmore's 
forces  out  of  Stone  inlet.  Although  the  Marhlehead  was  struck 
thirty  times  in  the  hull,  he  drove  off  the  enemy,  and  afterward  led  a 
landing  party  which  destroyed  their  batteries.  Commanding  the 
Chocnrn,  in  the  west  (Julf,  he  captured  and  destroyed  seven  block- 
ade runners  in  the  fall  of  1864,  and  a  few  months  later  earned  offi- 
cial thanks  by  cutting  out  of  the  Calcasieu  river  and  destroying  in 
the  face  of  a  greatly  superior  force  the  blockade  runner  Delphina. 

As  a  commander  in  1870  he  made  a  comprehensive  report  on  the 
gun  factories  of  the  country,  and  in  the  same  year  commanded  the 
schooner-yacht  America  in  the  famous  race  with  the  British  yacht 
Cambria.  From  1871  to  1873  he  commanded  the  Narraganseti,  and 
made  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cruises  on  record,  sailing  under 
canvas  about  60,000  miles,  visiting  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  ocean, 
surveying  harbors  and  islands,  for  which  he  was  officially  commended 
by  the  secretary  of  the  navy.  He  received  his  commission  as  captain  in 
1880,  and  on  relinquishing  the  command  of  the  Vandalia  his  admiral 
reported  to  the  department  "that  as  a  commanding  officer  he  has  no 
superior."  After  service  on  a  number  of  boards  he  took  command  of 
the  Washington  navy  yard  in  1887,  and  transformed  that  yard  into 
the  great  naval  ordnance  shop  it  is  at  present.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  government  board  at  the  World's  Fair;  and  that  novel  craft, 
"The  Brick  Ship,"  was  his  own  design.  He  became  a  commodore  in 
1892,  and  his  commission  as  rear-admiral  bears  date  of  September  7, 
1894.  His  principal  service  since  that  date  had  been  in  command  of 
the  North  Atlantic  squadron  in  its  cruise  of  evolution  through  West 
Indian  and  Gulf  waters. 

Commodore  Francis  M.  Bunce,  president  of  the  Naval 
Examining  Board,  has  been  selected  to  succeed  Rear-Ad- 
miral Meade  in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron. 
His  last  important  service  was  as  commandant  of  the 
station  at  Newport,  and  his  last  sea  duty  was  as  first  cap- 
tain of  the  Atlanta  in  1888. 

Ordnance  Tests. — Several  tests  have  recently  been 
made,  which  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  considered 
as  marking  a  turning  point  in  the  development  of  naval 
armor  and  ordnance.  On  May  1,  at  the  Indian  Head 
proving  grounds,  an  18-inch  Harveyized  steel  plate,  made 


358  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

by  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  successfully  withstood  at- 
tack from  12-incli  and  13-inch  rifled  guns.  The  first 
missile  was  an  850-pound  12-inch  Holtzer  shell,  driven  by 
249.8  pounds  of  brown  hexagonal  powder,  with  a  velocity  of 
1,465  feet  a  second,  and  striking  with  an  energy  of  12,662 
tons.  It  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  about  six  inches  and 
was  broken  to  pieces,  but  did  not  crack  the  plate.  In  the 
second  shot  a  similar  projectile  was  fired  with  443.4  pounds 
of  powder,  giving  a  velocity  of  1,926  feet  a  second  and 
a  striking  energy  of  21,885  tons.  The  penetration  was 
ten  inches,  but  the  shell  was  destroyed  by  the  complete 
fusion  of  its  own  metal  and  that  of  the  plate  for  six  inches 
surrounding  the  point  of  impact  and  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches,  as  a  result  of  the  heat  developed  by  the  sudden 
stoppage  of  the  mass  of  the  projectile  and  the  conversion 
of  its  enormous  energy  from  one  form  to  another.  A 
crack  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide  was  developed  in  the 
plate,  extending  from  top  to  bottom. 

In  the  third  shot  a  13-inch  Carpenter  shell,  weighing 
1,100  pounds,  was  used.  It  was  driven  by  489  pounds  of 
powder,  had  a  velocity  of  1,810  feet  a  second,  and  a  strik- 
ing energy  of  25,000  foot-tons.  A  crack  three  inches  wide 
was  developed,  extending  some  distance  from  the  top  of 
the  plate,  and  the  penetration  was  ten  inches;  but  the 
shell,  as  stated,  was  ''  almost  pulverized.^'  The  oak  back- 
ing of  the  plate  was  destroyed.  The  plate  demonstrated 
the  great  advance  made  in  development  of  resistance  to 
penetration,  and  was  supposed  to  show  that  the  long  fight 
between  guns  and  plates  had  reached  a  point  where 
neither  had  the  mastery. 

Another  test  of  the  18-inch  plate  was  made  on  May  17, 
with  13-inch  projectiles,  one  object  being  to  demonstrate 
that  the  new  battle-ships  should  be  armed  with  the  larger 
guns.  A  1,100-pound  Wheeler-Sterling  solid  steel  shot  was 
the  first  missile  tired.  It  had  a  velocity  of  1,942  feet  a  second, 
and  a  striking  energy  of  28,800  tons.  The  shot  struck  in 
the  right  half  of  the  plate,  breaking  it  in  four  pieces,  and 
buried  itself  in  the  sand  bank  behind  the  plate,  where,  upon 
recovery,  it  was  found  to  be  broken  to  pieces,  the  head 
whole  but  somewhat  fused  at  the  point.  The  heavy  oak 
backing  behind  the  plate  was  completely  demolished  by  the 
terrible  energy  of  the  blow.  This  clearly  demonstrated  the 
superiority  of  the  13-inch  gun  over  the  12-inch  weapon  for 
the  same  range,  and  the  ordnance  officers  present  "claimed 
it  showed  no  armor  in  existence  could  keep  out  the  13-inch 
projectile  at  1,300  yards,  the  range  whose  maximum  attain- 
able velocity  corresponded  to  that  employed. 


THE  NAVY.  359 

In  the  second  shot,  a  Wheeler-Sterling  shell,  hollowed 
out  to  contain  a  53-pound  charge  of  explosive,  was  used; 
and  again  the  plate  was  broken,  letting  the  shell  through 
after  penetrating  seven  inches,  the  shell  too  being  smashed. 

Further  tests  will  be  required  to  establish  definitely 
the  capacity  of  the  projectile  against  an  18-inch  armor 
plate.  The  armor  plate  used  in  this  trial  was  one  of  the 
acceptance  plates  for  the  side  armor  of  the  Oregon.  It 
had  already  stood  the  strain  of  two  acceptance  shots  from 
the  12-inch  rifle  and  one  from  the  13-inch  gun.  As  it  is,  the 
tests  are  of  incalculable  value.  They  seem  to  decide  the 
question  between  the  12-inch  and  13-inch  guns  on  the  new 
battle-ships.  They  certainly  settle  the  point  that  there  is  no 
war-ship  afloat  tliat  could  stand  thefire  of  al3-inchgnn  from 
one  of  our  battle-ships  or  from  one  of  our  land  batteries. 

The  Maxim  Bapid-jiring  Gun.  —  The  first  official 
test  in  the  United  States  of  the  Maxim  automatic  rapid- 
firing  gun  Avas  made  at  the  Sandy  Hook  proving  grounds 
June  8.  The  gun  has  been  in  general  use  in  European 
armies  for  years.  Its  weight  is  25  pounds,  or  45  pounds 
when  packed  ready  for  transportation.  It  is  mounted, 
when  in  use,  upon  a  tripod,  and  consists  of  a  single 
barrel  attached  to  a  boxlike  aifair,  which  contains  the 
machinery.  This  can  be  arranged  to  fire  either  one 
shot  a  Aveek  or  GOO  a  minute.  The  ammunition,  which 
is  .303  calibre,  is  fed  to  the  gun  by  belts  containing  100 
cartridges  each,  and  these  are  exploded  by  a  trigger  ar- 
ranged in  a  handle  similar  to  that  of  an  ordinary  revolver. 
As  long  as  the  trigger  is  pulled  back,  the  gun  will  send 
forth  a  steady  fire  of  death-dealing  missiles.  In  the 
heavier  guns  the  barrels  are  kept  cooled  by  water  jackets. 
Thirty-eight  grains  of  smokeless  pow^der  are  used  in  each 
cartridge.  From  being  dismantled  and  strapped  upon  a 
soldier's  back,  the  gun  can  be  set  up  and  in  operation  all 
within  one  minute.  In  case  it  be  damaged  in  action,  a 
change  of  mechanism  can  be  made  in  half  a  minute. 

The  Naval  Militia. — The  total  strength  of  the  naval 
militia  of  the  United  States  as  now  constituted  is  2,706 
men  and  226  officers,  distributed  as  follows: 

UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  MILITIA. 


State. 


Ma:-sacliusetts  — 
Rhode  Island.... 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Maryland 


Officers. 

Seamen,   j 

48 

409 

5 

100     i: 

5 

71 

24 

387 

3 

•.21(5 

14 

ir.7 

17 

178      i 

State. 


Officers.  ;  Seamen. 


North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Michigan , 

Illinois 

California 


250 
165 
52 
187 
211 
31.3 

2,700 


860  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

Brooklyn  Strike  Report. — Early  in  April  the  special 
committee  of  the  New  York  state  assembly,  appointed  to 
investigate  the  recent  trolley  strike  in  Brooklyn  (p.  119), 
submitted  its  report. 

According  to  the  computation  of  the  committee,  5,000  men  were 
thrown  out  of  employment,  of  whom  only  about  one-tenth  have  re- 
covered their  places.  The  strike  lasted  from  January  24  to  February 
24,  during  which  time  traffic  was  interrupted.  The  loss  in  wages  to 
the  men  was  about  $750,000,  besides  the  loss  after  the  close  of  the 
strike  to  those  still  unemployed.  The  suppression  of  disorder  cost 
$275,000;  and  the  cost  to  the  companies  and  the  business  community 
cannot  be  reckoned.  The  causes  of  the  strike  were  mainly  the  plans 
whereby  the  lines  strove  to  get  an  increased  profit  on  capital  without 
giving  labor  any  corresponding  benefit — plans  of  questionable  char- 
acter from  the  point  of  view  of  public  policy.  The  committee  says 
that  the  Long  Island  Traction  Company,  a  corporation  organized 
under  the  laws  of  another  state,  succeeded  in  evading  the  New  York 
law  and  got  control  of  the  property  of  three  surface  railroads  in 
Brooklyn  for  the  purpose  of  making  profits  on  all  its  greatly  watered 
stock.  The  committee  suggests  that  the  law  be  so  amended  as  to 
prevent  such  an  operation. 

Immediate  and  resolute  action  by  the  Brooklyn  authorities,  says 
the  report,  would  have  prevented  the  disorders  which  disgraced 
Brooklyn  for  a  month.  The  mayor  of  Brooklyn  and  the  police  com- 
missioner could  have  avoided  the  riots  had  they  acted  with  spirit, 
and  could  have  made  the  presence  of  troops  unnecessary.  The 
committee  does  not  seem  to  approve  "compulsory  arbitration;" 
declines  to  discuss  such  a  grave  subject  as  the  municipal  ownership 
of  railroads;  recommends  that  all  railroad  employes  be  licensed;  that 
no  licensed  employe  be  liable  to  discharge  from  his  position  without 
thirty  days'  notice,  and  that  no  licensed  employe  be  allowed  either  to 
leave  the  company  in  which  he  is  employed  or  to  refuse  to  do  his  work 
without  giving  fifteen  days'  notice.  The  most  significant  statement 
of  the  committee  is  this:  "Arbitration  had  not  been  resorted  to,  and 
not  even  been  suggested  by  either  party  previous  to  the  declaration 
of  the  strike.  Had  that  been  done  and  an  arbitration  had,  there  is  no 
doubt  in  the  minds  of  your  committee  that  the  entire  difficulty  might 
have  been  avoided."  Aside  from  this  failure  of  the  men  to  ask  for 
arbitration,  the  committee  report  places  the  blame  for  the  causes  which 
led  to  the  strike  wholly  upon  the  company. 

Arbitration  as  a  Remedy. — The  successful  interven- 
tion of  the  council  of  conciliation  and  mediation  in  the 
recent  building-trades  strike  in  New  York  city  (p.  124), 
resulting  in  an  amicable  agreement  between  masters  and 
men  being  reached,  furnishes  an  impressive  object-lesson 
on  the  possibilities  which  may  be  peacefully  accomplished 
in  the  settlement  of  labor  disputes  by  an  intelligent  resort 
to  arbitration. 

An  even  more  impressive  illustration  of  the  same  lesson 
is  found  in  the  successful  operation,  during  the  past  ten 
years,  of  an  arbitration  agreement  (reached  April  9,  1885) 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  361 

•between  the  bricklayers'  unions  and  the  Mason  Builders' 
Association  in  Xew  York  city.  Not  a  single  strike  or  lock- 
out of  the  bricklayers  has  occurred  since  the  agreement 
went  into  effect.  A  permanent  arbitration  committee  is 
appointed,  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  representa- 
tives of  the  mason  builders  and  of  the  eight  bricklayers' 
unions.  Weekly  meetings  are  held  for  the  adjustment  of 
such  differences  as  may  arise.  An  umpire  may  be  chosen 
in  case  of  failure  to  agree,  but  none  has  ever  been  needed. 
A  yearly  agreement,  to  which  the  various  organizations 
strictly  adhere,  regulates  the  matter  of  wages,  hours,  etc. 
The  respective  unions — of  the  builders  and  the  bricklayers 
— are  fully  recognized;  and  the  members  of  the  committee 
iict  as  representatives  of  their  respective  organizations, 
not  as  mere  individuals.  The  result  has  been  a  distinct 
gain  to  the  men  in  wages.  All  of  which  goes  to  show  that 
the  system  is,  to  some  degree  at  least,  capable  of  extension 
to  other  trades  and  employments. 

Labor  Orfi^aiiizatioiis.— The  leading  labor  organiza- 
tions of  the  United  States  are:  The  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  the  Knights  of  Labor,  the  Brotherhood  of  Lo- 
comotive Engineers,  the  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Fire- 
men, the  Brotlierhood  of  Railway  Trainmen,  the  Order  of 
Railway  Conductors,  the  Order  of  Railroad  Telegraphers, 
tlie  Farmers'  Alliance,  and  the  American  Railway  Union. 
The  status  of  the  last  named,  however,  is  somewhat  indef- 
inite since  the  collapse  of  the  great  railroad  strike  of  1894 
.and  the  subsequent  imprisonment  of  the  union's  president, 
Eugene  V.  Debs. 

"Of  the  above-named  organizations,  the  American  Fed- 
-eration  of  Labor  is  the  largest  and  most  important.  It  is 
really  a  confederacy  of  the  leading  trades-unions.  The 
election  of  John  McBride,  of  the  miners'  organization,  as 
president  of  the  Federation  in  December,  1894,  over  Sam- 
uel Gompers  (Vol.  4,  p.  828),  was  by  some  regarded  as  a 
victory  for  the  socialistic  element;  and  certainly  some  of 
the  planks  in  the  platform  of  the  Federation  are  purely 
socialistic.  L^nlike  the  Knights  of  Labor,  however,  who 
enroll  in  the  same  society  or  union  men  of  various  occupa- 
tions, the  Federation  is  based  on  homogeneous  unions.  In 
this  the  latter  has  found  one  means  of  avoiding  those  per- 
sonal antagonisms  and  factional  fights  which  of  late  have 
greatly  lessened  the  efficiency  of  the  Knights  as  a  national 
organization,  and  which  are  due  in  some  measure  to  the 
socialistic  and  even  revolutionary  tendencies  of  some  of 
their  leaders.     It  is  stated  that   the   membership  of  the 


362  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Knights  of  Labor  in  the  past  three  years  has  fallen  from 
about  225,000  to  less  than  75,000.  Of  this  number  about 
10,000  cling  to  the  old  organization,  while  the  remainder 
are  affiliated  with  the  Independent  Order  of  the  Knights 
of  Labor,  which  was  organized  at  Columbus,  0.,  February 
10,  1895. 

Conviction  of  Debs  Confirmed.— The  United  States 
supreme  court,  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  unanimously  de- 
nied the  appeal  of  Eugene  V.  Debs,*  president  of  the 
American  Hallway  Union,  against  the  decision  of  the 
United  States  circuit  court  convicting  him  of  contempt  in 
violating  the  injunction  of  Judges  Woods  and  Grosscup 
issued  at  the  time  of  the  railroad  strike  a  year  ago  (Vol. 
4,  pp.  545  and  827).  The  prisoner  has  therefore  to  serve 
out  his  time. 

The  result  of  this  decision  is  to  declare  officially  that 
the  railroads  and  other  means  of  transportation  engaged 
in  carrying  the  mails  and  in  carrying  on  interstate  com- 
merce, are  under  the  protection  of  the  federal  courts  and 
the  federal  executive  power.  The  judges  are  clothed  with 
a  tremendous  power;  and  the  right  of  the  lower  courts  to 
proceed  by  injunction  against  an  interruption  of  inter- 
state traffic — one  of  the  main  legal  points  at  issue — is 
affirmed. 

Strikes. — At  the  end  of  June,  Pocahontas,  a  mining 
town  in  the  '^flat-top '^region  of  Virginia,  is  the  centre  of 
great  excitement  in  connection  with  an  extensive  strike  of 
coal  miners,  which  has  been  in  operation  for  about  six 
weeks.  Troops  are  held  in  readiness  to  quell  a  riotous 
demonstration. 

An  extensive  strike  affecting  the  plumbers'  trade,  and 
concerned  mainly  with  the  granting  of  an  eight-hour  day, 
is  in  progress  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  at  the  close  of  the  quarter. 
Some  of  the  masters  have  already  agreed  to  the  demands 
of  the  men. 

RAILROAD  INTERESTS. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  gatherings  of  railway 
men  ever  assembled,  is  the  international  railway  congress 
of  1895,  which  was  formally  opened  in  the  Imperial  In- 
stitute, London,  Eng.,  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  on  June 
26.  About  800  delegates  from  fifty  different  countries  are 
in  attendance,  including  nearly  thirty  from  the  United 
States.  The  sessions  of  the  congress — still  in  progress  at 
the  end  of  June — are  devoted  to  discussion  of  various  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  construction,  operation,  organi- 
zation, and  maintenance  of  railroads. 


SPORTING. 

SPORTING. 

Intercollegiate  Athletics. — In  intercollegiate  ath- 
letics the  last  few  months  have  seen  some  rather  sur- 
prising developments.  The  Harvard  board  of  overseers, 
after  considering  the  recommendation  of  the  faculty  that 
football  should  be  prohibited,  decided  that  it  was  within 
the  scope  of  the  athletic  committee  to  forbid  or  to  sanc- 
tion a  continuance  of  the  sport.  The  athletic  commit- 
tee voted  to  permit  the  continuance  of  the  game  with  re- 
strictions which  limit  its  publicity  and  curtail  the  liability 
to  injury  from  unnecessarily  rough  playing. 

Early  in  May  Captain  Thorne  of  the  Yale  football  team 
stated  as  a  condition  of  a  renewal  of  football  relations  be- 
tween his  university  and  Harvard,  that  the  Harvard  cap- 
tain contradict  certain  charges  made  against  last  year's 
Yale  captain  by  Harvard's  chief  coach.  This  the  Harvard 
management  refused  to  do,  and  as  a  consequence  there  is 
little  probability  that  the  two  universities  will  play  each 
other  at  football  this  fall. 

The  agreement  between  Yale  and  Harvard  which  ended 
with  last  fall's  football  game  was  entered  into  in  1889,  and 
provided  for  an  annual  game  at  Plampden  Park,  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  for  five  years. 

On  June  10  the  captains  of  the  athletic  teams  of  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  universities  jointly  challenged  the 
athletic  teams  of  Y'ale  and  Harvard  to  a  contest  in  track 
athletics  to  be  held  this  fall.  Harvard  reluctantly  de- 
clined the  challenge,  on  the  ground  that  her  recent  ath- 
letic history  did  not  warrant  her  in  appearing  as  one  of 
the  two  American  universities  most  prominent  in  athletics. 
Yale,  however,  accepted  the  challenge,  suggesting  October 
5  as  the  date,  and  New  York  city  as  the  place,  for  the  con- 
test, and  asked  that  the  three-mile  run  be  dropped  from 
the  list  of  '-'events."  In  all  probability  Cambridge  will 
represent  the  English  in  case  Yale's  proposition  is  agreed 
to,  as  the  two  English  universities  would  hardly  think 
of  jointly  n^eting  Yale  alone,  and  as  Cambridge  has  earned 
the  right  to  be  the  representative  by  winning  in  the  track 
athletic  contest  with  Oxford  on  June  3. 

In  June  the  announcement  was  made  that  an  arrange- 
ment had  been  perfected  by  which  Harvard  and  Cornell 
should  compete  in  rowing,  baseball,  and  football.  This 
''dual  alliance,"  as  it  is  called,  is  formed  for  two  years,  and 
will  probably  put  an  end  for  that  time  to  Harvard- Yale 
contests.  Some  concern  is  felt  among  people  interested  in 
rowing,  over  the  probability  that  the  annual  New  London 


■364  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

(Conn.)  race  between  Yale  and  Harvard  will  not  occur 
next  year.  The  race  is  probably  regarded  by  a  very  large 
number  of  people  as  the  most  important  athletic  event  of 
the  year.  The  races  which  Harvard  and  Cornell  will  row 
under  their  present  agreement  will  be  the  centre  of  much 
interest.  Cornell  has  not  met  either  the  Yale  or  the  Har- 
vard crew  for  several  years;  but  her  long  list  of  victories 
gives  her  the  right  to  recognition  in  the  first  class  of 
American  college  crews. 

This  year  a  "triangular"  race  was  arranged  between 
Cornell,  Columbia,  and  Pennsylvania,  to  be  rowed  on  the 
Hudson  river  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  The  date  set  was 
June  21 ;  but  an  accident  occurred  to  the  Pennsylvania  boat^ 
which  prevented  a  race  that  day.  It  was  therefore  rowed 
on  the  24th.  Columbia  won,  Cornell  finished  second, 
while  the  Pennsylvania  crew  unfortunately  found  their 
boat  shipping  so  much  water  that  they  could  not  finish 
the  course.  The  experience  of  the  crews  in  this  race 
shows  that  the  Poughkeepsie  course  is  in  every  way  desir- 
able. 

The  annual  Harvard-Yale  boat  race  at  New  London  on 
June  28  resulted  in  a  victory  for  Yale.  The  rowing  of 
both  crews  was  in  slightly  better  form  than  usual,  and  the 
time,  21  minutes  30  seconds,  was  fair.  This  victory,  won 
as  it  was  under  circumstances  favorable  to  both  crews,  is 
generally  considered  by  experts  to  prove  the  superiority  of 
the  "Yale  stroke." 

In  the  "triangular"  race  at  N'ew  London  between  the 
freshmen  crews  of  Yale,  Harvard,  and  Columbia,  Yale 
won,  with  Harvard  second  and  Columbia  last. 

The  Henley  Regatta. — One  of  the  most  important 
of  recent  athletic  events  was  the  sending  of  a  Cornell  boat 
crew  to  England  to  enter  the  Henley  regatta.  This  crew 
sailed  May  29,  in  order  to  become  thoroughly  accustomed 
to  the  climate  and  the  course  before  the  time  for  the  races, 
July  9  and  10.  The  Cornell  crew  took  with  it  the  sincere 
well-wishing  of  all  Americans  interested  in  college  boating 
without  regard  to  college  rivalry.  That  Cornell  is  en- 
titled to  represent  American  boating  interests  abroad  is 
^acknowledged  by  all,  for  she  has  to  her  credit  twenty- 
four  victories,  while  she  has  experienced  defeat  but  six 
times. 

The  world's  record  for  covering  a  mile  on  the  bicycle 
was  broken  June  22  by  Arthur  A.  Zimmerman  at  Pitts- 
l)urg,  Penn.     His  time  was  2  minutes. 

Great  interest  now  centres  in  the  vachts  that  are  to 


NOTABLE  CRIMES.  365 

race  for  the  America's  cup  in  September.  The  race  is  to 
be  sailed  off  Sandy  Hook;  and  the  English  will  probably 
stake  their  hopes  on  Valkyrie  III.,  Lord  Dunraven's  new 
yacht,  while  the  honor  of  racing  for  America  lies  between 
the  new  Defender  and  the  Vigilant.  The  last  race  be- 
tween English  and  American  yachts  was  sailed  in  October, 
1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  764),  when  the  American  Vigilant  beat- 
Lord  Dunraven's  Valkyrie. 

NOTABLE  CRIMES. 

A  great  sensation  was  caused  April  13  by  the  discovery, 
in  the  pastor's  study  of  Emanuel  Baptist  church,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  of  the  mutilated  body  of  a  young  woman. 
Miss  Minnie  Williams.  The  following  day  the  nude  body 
of  her  friend,  Miss  Blanche  Lament,  who  had  been  miss- 
ing for  about  ten  days,  was  found  in  the  tower  of  the  same 
church.  Both  murders  are  charged  against  Theodore 
Durant,  a  dental  student,  librarian  of  the  church  and 
assistant  superintendent  of  the  Sunday  school,  who  has 
been  arrested  and  is  awaiting  trial  without  bail. 

About  the  middle  of  April  it  was  discovered  that  an- 
other criminal  inroad  had  been  made  upon  the  resources 
of  the  Shoe  and  Leather  National  bank  of  New  York  city. 
On  the  20th  of  the  month  Samuel  E.  Aymar,  a  brother-in- 
law  of  Samuel  C.  Seeley,  the  late  defaulting  bookkeeper 
(Vol.  4,  p.  832),  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of  embezzling 
$20,000  of  the  bank's  funds.     He  admitted  his  guilt. 

On  April  20  five  negroes  (three  men  and  two  women) 
were  forcibly  taken  from  the  officials  and  lynched  near 
Greenville,  Ala.,  the  charge  against  them  being  implica- 
tion in  the  murder  of  a  popular  young  white  man. 

On  May  17  three  negroes  were  lynched  near  Ellaville, 
Fla.,  after  being  subjected  to  frightful  tortures,  for  the 
murder  of  a  white  girl  whom  they  had  forcibly  dragged 
into  the  woods  and  repeatedly  assaulted. 

On  June  21  the  bank  of  Rainy  Lake  City,  Minn.,  on  the 
Canadian  border,  was  robbed  by  two  masked  men,  who, 
after  knocking  the  cashier  senseless  after  a  desperate  strug- 
gle, secured  about  $30,000  and  made  good  their  escape. 

On  January  27  there  died  at  a  lying-in  hospital  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  a  young  English  girl  named  Emily  Hall. 
She  had  been  sent  to  America  by  one  Rev.  Jonathan  Bell, 
pastor  of  a  Primitive  Methodist  church,  Blackheath,  Lon- 
don, Eng.,  to  hide  the  consequences  of  his  criminal  rela- 
tions with  her.  Early  in  May  Dr.  Seaman  and  Mrs.  Lane, 
connected  with  the  hospital  referred  to,  were  arrested  on 


366  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2cl  Qr.,  1895. 

a  charge  of  murder  in  causing  the  young  woman's  death 
by  a  criminal  operation. 

On  June  21  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Captain  H.  W. 
Howgate,  who  had  been  arrested  on  September  29,  1894, 
was  convicted  on  a  charge  of  forgery  and  falsification  of 
accounts.  Between  1868  and  1880  he  was  in  government 
employ  in  connection  with  the  signal  service,  and  his  em- 
bezzlements are  said  to  have  reached  the  enormous  total 
of  $380,000.  For  many  years  he  had  eluded  the  police, 
living  quietly  in  New  York  city  and  keeping  an  old  book- 
store under  the  name  of  Harvey  Williams. 

On  the  evening  of  June  8  two  Princeton  freshmen, 
Frederick  P.  Ohl  and  Garrett  Cochran,  were  shot  by  a 
drunken  negro  named  John  Collins.  Ohl  died  of  his 
wounds  four  days  later.  It  appears  that  tlie  students  had 
liad  some  words  on  the  street  with  Collins  and  another 
negro,  and  that  Collins  challenged  the  students  to  enter 
a  hallway  leading  to  a  barroom  in  the  rear,  near  the  scene 
of  their  first  encounter.  As  they  did  so  he  fired.  A  coro- 
ner's jury  found  Collins  guilty  of  the  deed,  and  he  was 
committed  for  trial. 

AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES. 

Delaware. — A  remarkable  contest,  indecisive  in  its 
results,  occurred  over  the  election  of  the  United  States  sen- 
ator for  Delaware  to  succeed  Hon.  Anthony  Higgins  (rep.). 
A  deadlock  occurred  in  the  joint  legislature,  which  lasted 
until  the  close  of  the  session  on  May  9.  At  the  last  a  bal- 
lot was  taken,  on  which  Colonel  Henry  A.  Dupont  (rep.) 
secured  fifteen  votes,  enough  to  elect  him  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  joint  session  consisted  of  twenty-nine  mem- 
bers. '  Governor  Watson,  however,  had  been  brought  in 
by  the  opposition,  to  take  his  senatorial  seat.  He  had 
been  president  of  the  senate,  but  became  governor  on  the 
death  of  Governor  Marvil.  This  made  the  number  of 
members  thirty,  which  divided  the  vote  evenly  between 
Colonel  Dupont  and  Mr,  J.  E.  Addicks.  It  will  probably 
be  left  to  the  United  States  senate  to  decide  whether  Gov- 
ernor Watson  could  at  the  same  time  be  governor  of  the 
state  and  a  member  of  the  senate. 

IlHnois. — That  the  tide  of  reform  which  has  recently 
swept  over  the  land  has  lost  but  little  of  its  strength,  is 
evident  from  the  returns  of  the  municipal  elections  held 
in  Chicago,  111.,  Denver,  Colo.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  other 
points,  in  the  beginning  of  April.  In  Chicago  the  republi- 
can and  civil  service  reform  candidate  for  mayor,  Georgre 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  367 

B.  Swift,  was  elected  by  a  plurality  of  40,913  votes,  the 
largest  plurality  ever  polled  by  a  municipal  candidate  in 
that  city.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  democratic  alder- 
men elected  in  scattered  parts  of  the  city,  the  republicans 
made  a  clean  sweep.  Similar  results  attended  tlie  elec- 
tions in  Denver  and  St.  Louis.  In  the  latter  place  all  but 
two  of  the  city  offices  were  carried  by  republicans. 

Iowa. — The  liquor  law  known  as  the  Iowa  '*  mulct  law  " 
was  declared  constitutional  by  the  supreme  court  of  the 
state  on  April  2.  The  five  republican  judges  concurred 
in  the  opinion;  the  one  democratic  member  of  the  court 
dissented.  The  law,  it  will  be  remembered  (Vol.  4,  p. 
155),  was  a  compromise  between  license  and  prohibition. 
The  latter  remains  the  law  of  the  state,  but  upon  petition 
of  over  50  per  cent  of  the  voters  in  cities  of  more  than  5,000 
population,  or  of  65  per  cent  of  the  voters  of  counties  in  which 
there  are  no  cities  of  that  size,  a  municipal  by-law  may  be 
passed  exempting  from  prosecution  under  the  prohibitory 
law  all  liquor  dealers  who  pay  a  mulct  tax  of  $600  a  year. 
The  constitutionality  of  the  law  was  attacked  immediately 
upon  its  enactment,  but  is  now  sustained  by  the  supreme 
court.  A  decision  of  similar  bearing  was  rendered  by  the 
Scott  county  district  conrt  at  Davenport,  June  5. 

New  Jersey. — The  committee  under  Chairman  Voor- 
hees,  appointed  by  the  New  Jersey  legislature  to  investi- 
gate charges  of  official  corruption  in  the  administration  of 
public  affairs,  submitted  its  report  on  June  4.  It  was 
signed  by  the  four  republican  members  of  the  committee, 
and  Avas  accepted  in  the  main  by  the  minority  member, 
a  democrat^  who  however  intimated  that  he  would  submit 
a  report  disagreeing  in  part  with  that  of  the  majority. 

The  report  finds  that  deliberate  swindling  has  been  conducted 
on  a  large  scale,  especially  in  the  way  of  purchase  of  supplies.  To 
take  example — pigeonholes  that  should  have  cost  not  more  than 
$7,500  were  purchased  for  $21,847;  ventilating  apparatus,  for  which 
the  state  paid  $25,896,  would  have  furnished  large  profit  at  $13,923. 
A  system  has  been  carried  on  of  publishing  the  laws  in  ninety  news- 
papers (45  rep.  and  45  dem.).  Tlie  editor  of  each  newspaper  is  sup- 
plied at  an  expense  of  about  $100  with  the  printed  sheet  of  laws, 
Avhich  he  folds  as  a  supplement  into  his  regular  edition,  and  then  re- 
ceives $1,300  from  the  state  for  the  job.  In  this  way  it  costs  New 
Jersey  this  year  $135,000  to  publish  her  laws,  while  the  cost  in  Massa- 
chusetts last  year  was  $3,000,  in  Ohio  $7,000,  in  Connecticut  $2,500, 
etc.  Henry  C.  Kelsey,  secretary  of  state,  it  is  found,  has  been  turn- 
ing into  the  state  treasury,  under  the  law,  about  $150,000  a  year  of 
fees;  but  he  has,  so  far  as  known,  never  kept  an  account  of  the  items, 
never  had  his  accounts  examined,  and  has  simply,  at  the  end  of  each 
year,  handed  in  a  personal  check,  saying  that  was  the  amount  of  hia 
"fees  for  the  vear. 


368  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Suggestions  of  ways  and  means  of  correcting  tlie  abuses — formu- 
lated measures  of  reform — are  submitted  for  action,  in  sufficient 
number  and  of  sufficient  importance  to  engage  tbe  attention  of  the 
legislature  for  a  long  time  to  come. 

New  York. — The  quarter  ending  with  June  is  mem- 
orable in  the  annals  of  the  state  for  vigorous  and  general 
discussion  of  measures  and  principles  of  reform.  The 
abuses  which  had  been  brought  to  light  in  several  great 
departments  in  New  York  city  made  municipal  reform 
the  nucleus  of  the  controversy,  which,  however,  involved 
inevitably  many  considerations  as  to  methods  of  legislative 
action  and  of  state  administration.  In  tracing  first  thfe 
more  important  lines  of  legislation,  we  reserve  for  a  sub- 
sequent head  those  which  had  special  relation  to  the  me- 
tropolis. 

Legislative  Proceedings. — Whatever  this  session  of  the 
legislature  lacked,  it  did  not  lack  industry  and  diligence 
in  lawmaking.  '  In  no  previous  session  in  the  history  of 
the  state  have  so  many  bills  been  introduced.  Nearly  200 
more  bills  were  sent  to  the  governor  than  were  sent  last 
year.  At  the  adjournment  on  May  15,  Governor  Morton 
had  approved  691  laws,  and  held  448  bills  for  consideration 
during  the  thirty  days  allowed  him.  The  total  number 
of  laws  enacted,  1,045,  has  never  been  equalled,  and  is 
more  than  one-third  larger  than  the  total  of  the  preced- 
ing year.  The  number  of  bills  vetoed  by  the  governor, 
less  than  20,  compares  remarkably  with  the  recent  annual 
average  of  about  200  vetoes.  Many  vetoes  were  saved  by 
withdrawal  of  the  bills.  After  the  adjournment,  66  of 
the  thirty-day  bills  failed  by  the  withholding  of  the  gov- 
ernor's signature,  and  33  failed  for  lack  of  the  requisite 
approval  of  the  mayors  of  the  cities  concerned  in  them. 
At  the  adjournment,  272  bills  had  been  sent  to  mayors  of 
cities  for  their  approval  or  refusal — of  which,  to  the  mavor 
of  New  York,  there  were  68,  of  Brooklyn  74,  of  Buffalo  11. 
Of  the  272  thus  sent  170  were  approved,  19  rejected,  and 
83  remained  under  consideration  (33  of  these  were  finally 
rejected).  The  laws  enacted  were  as  remarkable  for  their 
importance  and  for  the  breadth  of  their  application  as  for 
their  number.  An  unusually  large  class  of  them  were  of  the 
highest  moment.  The  flood  of  new  statutes  was  due 
partly  to  the  necessity  of  legal  provisions  to  give  effect  to 
the  new  constitution — the  judiciary  article  alone  requir- 
ing a  reconstruction  of  almost  the  entire  judicial  system 
of  the  state — and  partly  to  the  urgent,  almpst  fierce,  de- 
mand for  reform.     This  last  demand  added  to  the  great 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  369 

amount  of  lawmaking  an  unusual  amount  of  laborious 
investigating  and  unearthing  by  special  committees,  of 
which  a  portion  is  expected  to  bring  in  its  results  at  the 
next  session. 

A  few  of  the  laws  most  important  or  most  significant, 
whose  enactment  is  not  recorded  elsewhere  in  this  article, 
are  the  following:  The  power  of  removal  bill,  the  canal 
improvement  bill,  the  K^ew  York  city  tenement-house 
commission's  four  bills:  these  are  noticed  in  the  preceding 
number  of  this  quarterly.  The  tenement-house  law  is  one 
of  the  most  beneficent  that  has  passed  for  many  years, 
and  alone  would  have  far  more  than  repaid  all  the  expense 
of  the  session  in  time,  labor,  and  money.  Besides  scien- 
tific and  thorough  regulation  of  tenements  in  regard  to 
their  construction,  and  as  to  their  supervision  for  the 
health  and  comfort  of  tenants,  it  provided  for  the 
overcrowded  parts  of  the  city  numerous  municipal  baths, 
small  parks  and  playgrounds,  and  open  areas  for  air  and 
light  around  public  school-houses — thus  embarking  on  a 
work  of  great  painstaking  and  expenditure,  which  tax- 
payers would  have  had  small  encouragement  to  intrust  to 
city  officials  under  the  regime  recently  ended. 

Other  important  laws  enacted  are  the  following:  Revis- 
ing the  New  York  city  rapid-transit  law,  with  author- 
ization of  expenditure  of  155,000,000  by  the  city  for  an 
underground  road;  taxing  foreign  stock  corporations 
one-eighth  of  one  per  cent  on  the  amount  of  their  capital 
stock  employed  in  the  state,  except  banking,  fire,  marine, 
and  casualty  insurance  companies,  and  corporations  wholly 
engaged  in  manufactures  in  this  state,  co-opeTative  fra- 
ternal insurance  companies,  endowment  orders,  and  build- 
ing and  loan  associations;  dividing  the  state  into  four  ju- 
dicial districts,  with  appellate  courts  at  New  York,  Brooklyn, 
Albany,  and  Rochester;  ordering  a  biennial  school  census 
at  the  expense  of  the  town  in  all  towns  and  cities  having 
a  population  of  10,000  or  more;  compelling  transportation 
companies  to  issue  1,000-mile  tickets  at  two  cents  per  mile 
on  railways  charging  more  than  that  rate;  providing  for  a 
uniform  charter  in  all  cities  of  the  state  as  classified  by 
the  new  constitution;  preventing  corrupt  election  prac- 
tices by  punishing  bribery  at  primaries — making  the  buy- 
ing of  a  vote  at  a  caucus  a  felony;  forbidding  any  kind 
of  request  for  money  or  other  property  or  for  any  pur- 
chases— such  as  are  commonly  made  to  candidates  for  elect- 
ive office  on  account  of  such  candidacy — except  a  request 
for  money  for  necessary  election  expenses  addressed  by  the 

Vol.  5.-24. 


370  AFFAIRS  IX  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

regularly  authorized  representative  of  the  candidate's  party; 
requiring  personal  description  of  voters  at  time  of  regis- 
tration (to  prevent  votes  being  cast  on  fictitious  names); 
reforming  the  corrupt  and  fraudulent  practices  so  long 
unchecked  in  naturalizing  voters,  and  confining  the 
naturalization  of  voters  to  the  higher  courts  of  the  state; 
providing  for  examination  and  report  by  three  legal  ex- 
perts on  a  revision  of  the  code  of  civil  procedure;  provid- 
ing for  the  professional  training  of  teachers;  authorizing 
the  construction  of  a  second  bridge  across  the  East  river, 
from  Grand  street  in  New  York  to  Broadway  in  Brooklyn — 
estimated  cost  |;16,000,000,  one-half  to  be  paid  by  each  city. 

In  reference  to  taxation,  the  showing  of  this  legislature  is 
to  many  not  pleasing.  Public  money  has  not  been  wastef  ully 
misapplied;  the  objects  of  the  appropriations  are  good  and 
desirable;  there  were  some  extra  expenditures  which  at 
this  time  were  unavoidable.  Still,  the  general  verdict  will 
probably  be  that  the  people  have  been  made  to  carry  too 
large  a  burden  of  taxation.  The  rate  for  this  year  is  ex- 
pected to  be  about  3.15  mills;  and  the  taxes  are  computed 
at  about  113,000,000. 

In  conjunction  with  the  four  new  laws  concerning 
elections  (above  mentioned),  the  new  ballot  law  (the 
''Raines  ballot  bill")  constitutes  a  great  reform  at  the 
fountain  of  organized  government  by  the  people,  and  gives 
New  York  an  election  system  which,  though  not  ideally 
perfect,  is  equalto  the  very  best  in  any  of  the  states.  One 
of  its  least  merits  is  its  economy,  in  reducing  the  number 
of  ballots  printed  by  the  state  under  the  present  svstem 
from  about  35,000,000  to  about  2,000,000.  For  the"^ pres- 
ent multiple  ballot  system  it  substitutes  a  ''blanket  ballot" 
arranged  on  what  is  known  as  the  party-column  system 
— the  names  of  all  the  candidates  of  every  party  respec- 
tively being  printed  in  parallel  columns,  every  column  head- 
ed by  its  distinctive  party  symbol.  The  elector  designates 
his  choice  by  a  cross  (X)  against  his  candidate's  name. 
This  law  contains  strong  safeguards  against  buying  and 
selling  votes. 

The  bill  regulating  horse-racing  (the  "Gray-Percy 
racing  bill"),  after  sharp  debate,  passed  into  a  law  which 
has  been  severely  criticised  for  its  laxity  in  dealing  with 
gambling  and  other  well-known  abuses.  Its  aim  evidently 
is  to  restrict  evils  rather  than  to  uproot  them;  thus  it 
at  least  marks  one  step  in  advance,  and  as  such  it  was  ad- 
vocated by  some  as  a  compromise  and  as  the  best  attainable 
in  the  present  state  of  public  opinion. 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  371 

A  subject  of  wider  controversy  was  the  '^additional 
temperance  instruction"  bill,  strictly  requiring,  through- 
out the  schools  connected  with  the  state,  in  all  grades  be- 
low the  second  year  in  high  schools,  instruction  in  the 
nature  and  effects  of  "alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcot- 
ics" for  "not  less  than  four  lessons  a  week  for  ten  or  more 
weeks  in  each  year."  The  subject  is  to  be  taught  as  a 
branch  of  physiology  and  hygiene;  and  graded  text-books 
are  to  be  provided,  giving  to  this  branch  one-fifth  of  tlieir 
space  for  students  below  high-school  grade,  and  for  high- 
school  grade  not  less  than  twenty  pages.  All  regents'  ex- 
aminations are  to  include  this  subject;  and  all  normal 
schools,  teachers'  institutes,  etc.,  are  to  give  adequate  at- 
tention to  the  best  methods  of  teaching  it.  This  extraor- 
dinarily stringent  bill  having  been  passed  and  sent  to 
the  governor,  many  leading  educators  and  some  eminent 
clergymen  urged  him  to  withhold  his  signature,  on  the 
ground  of  the  disproportion  and  confusion  which  the  bill 
would  introduce  into  the  educational  system,  and  on  the 
ground  that  abundant  provision  for  the  study  of  this  sub- 
ject was  already  required  by  law;  also  on  other  grounds. 
In  favor  of  the  bill,  ardent  petitions  poured  in  upon  him 
from  thousands  of  women  and  from  a  multitude  of  minis- 
ters. As  the  bill  was  not  violative  of  the  constitution, 
the  governor  deemed  it  proper  to  decide  in  accord  with 
the  large  legislative  majority  and  with  the  most  numerous 
and  urgent  voices  from  the  people,  and  the  bill  became  a 
law. 

Much  comment  has  been  excited  by  the  law  for  the 
protection  of  colored  j^eople  (and,  though  little  has  been 
said  about  this,  of  Hebrews  also)  in  their  civil  and  legal 
rights.  It  provides  that  all  persons  under  the  laws  of  the 
state  shall  be  entitled  to  the  full  and  equal  accommoda- 
tions and  privileges  of  inns,  restaurants,  hotels,  bath  houses, 
barber  shops,  theatres,  public  conveyances,  and  all  other 
places  of  public  accommodation  or  amusement,  subject 
only  to  the  conditions  and  limitations  established  by  law 
and  applicable  to  all  citizens  alike.  While  the  theory  of 
equal  rights  which  the  law  aims  to  uphold  is  not  to  any 
great  degree  denied  directly,  the  general  expectation  is 
that  the  law  will  be  evaded  or  circumvented  in  ways  well 
known  to  hotel  proprietors  and  others;  that  it  will  be  found 
inoperative  so  far  as  it  seeks  to  create  a  social  relation  not 
desired  by  the  majority  of  either  the  wiiite  or  the  colored 
people;  that  very  few^  negroes  will  be  able  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense of  the  higher  class  of  resorts;  and  that  the  good  sense 


372  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

of  the  colored  people  themselves  will  largely  prevent  their 
attempt  to  avail  themselves  of  the  law. 

Two  proposed  amendments  to  the  constitution  passed 
the  legislature,  and  will  in  due  course  be  submitted  to  the 
vote  of  the  next  legislature — one  providing  for  woman 
suffrage;  the  other  for  employment  of  convicts  in  state 
prisons  and  penitentiaries. 

The  bill  transferring  the  indigent  insane  of  New  York 
city  and  Brooklyn  to  the  care  of  the  state,  passed  the  leg- 
islature, but  failed  to  become  law  through  the  non-action 
of  Mayor  Strong,  who  returned  the  bill  to  Governor  Mor- 
ton without  certificate  of  any  action  on  it  either  of  ap- 
proval or  disapproval. 

A  charge  of  bribery  set  forth  in  a  New  York  paper 
against  Senators  Coggeshall,  Robertson,  and  Raines,  in 
connection  with  bills  to  raise  the  salaries  in  the  New  York 
fire  department,  on  investigation  by  a  special  senate  com- 
mittee on  May  16,  was  conclusively  shown  to  be  without 
a  particle  of  evidence. 

Municqjal  Reform. — The  attention  of  the  state,  and  in- 
deed of  the  country,  has  been  drawn  to  the  legi^ation  at 
Albany  and  to  the  action  of  officials  in  New  York  city  on 
the  proposals  for  municipal  reform.  The  overwrought  ex- 
pectancy of  immediate  and  complete  reform,  which  awaited 
the  legislature  in  January  and  the  new  city  government, 
was  necessarily  disappointed:  it  had  taken  no  account  of 
the  lines  of  fortresses  to  be  reduced  one  by  one,  and  of  the 
subterranean  refuges  to  be  laid  open.  But  also  the  just; 
expectations  of  the  public  have  not  been  fully  met:  this  at 
least  is  the  general  verdict  of  the  press  of  both  parties, 
which  has  not  been  slow  to  accuse  the  senate  especially  as- 
either  corrupt  or  subservient  to  one  astute  wire-puller  out- 
side its  walls.  The  senate  certainly  was  not  enthusiastic 
for  reform  of  Tammany:  the  people  of  the  state  had  not 
elected  it  for  that  purpose;  they  had  sent  to  it  nearly  a 
Tammany  majority.  The  disappointing  defeat  of  the 
police  reorganization  bill  in  the  senate  was  by  a  tie  vote 
of  16  to  16; /or  the  bill  16  republicans;  against  the  bill  all 
the  democratic  senators  (13),  with  3  republicans.  The 
public  dissatisfaction  is  not  without  a  basis;  still,  the  pub- 
lic is  beginning  to  observe  that  the  session  has  resulted  in 
a  larger  and  deeper  reform  than  any  decade  of  sessions 
heretofore  has  brought. 

The  consolidation  bill  (a  re-forming  rather  than  a  re- 
form measure),  the  preliminary  step  toward  uniting  into 
a  "  Greater  New  York'^  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  state 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES. 


37' 
1 1 


I 


siround  and  near  New  York  harbor,  failed  in  tlie  senate. 
On  the  last  day  of  the  session  the  bill,  whose  purport  was 
not  to  decide  the  consolidation,  but  to  submit  the  charter 
ior  the  proposed  new  city  to  the  next  legislature,  Avas 
amended  (vote  16  to  14)  by  the  provision  of  a  referendum 
submitting  the  charter  to  popular  vote  in  the  two  cities 
separately.  On  the  closing  day,  the  adjournment  followed 
shortly  after  the  adoption  of  the  amendment,  without  a 
vote  being  had  on  the  bill  as  amended.  The  demand  for  a 
referendum  was  generally  considered  reasonable,  and  the 
delay  for  a  year  to  secure  it  probably  meets  public  ap- 
proval in  reference  to  an  action  of  such  singular  impor- 
tance. There  were,  however,  charges  and  countercharges 
of  factional  manoeuvre  and  political  deals. 

The  police  reorganization  bill,  though  formally  ad  opted 
^s  a  party  measure  by  the  republican  caucus  in  both  assem- 
bly and  senate,  failed  in  the  senate  on  April  24,  lacking 
one  vote  of  a  majority.  Having  been  afterward  passed  by 
the  assembly,  it  came  up  again  in  the  senate  on  May  14, 
the  second  day  before  the  adjournment,  commended  by  an 
urgent  appeal  from  the  new  board  of  police  of  Xew  York 
oity  to  the  legislature  to  pass  it  in  order  that  the  corrupt 
element  in  the  force  might  be  eliminated.  The  bill  was 
called  up  by  Senator  Lexow;  and  the  debate  between  him 
and  Senator  Coggeshall,  who  opposed  the  bill,  was  bitterly 
personal.  The  bill  failed  by  a  tie  vote  as  before.  A  mo- 
tion by  Senator  Lexow  for  reconsideration  was  carried  by 
17  to  16,  Lieutenant-Governor  Saxton  casting  the  deciding 
vote.  The  next  day,  the  last  day  but  one  of  the  session, 
the  bill  was  brought  up  again  by  Senator  Lexow,  who 
abandoned  his  own  measure  and  presented  the  bill  in  the 
form  in  which  it  had  been  sent  up  from  Xew  York  city  by 
the  Committee  of  Ten.  It  has  been  suggested  that  if  this 
had  been  done  a  few  weeks  earlier  the  bill  could  have  been 
passed.  Votes  were  taken  on  both  forms  of  the  bill,  and 
both  were  defeated  by  the  tie  vote  (16  to  16).  The  main 
argument  against  the  measure  was,  that  in  its  denial  of 
appeal  by  a  discharged  policeman  to  the  courts  for  a  re- 
hearing of  his  case,  it  would  deprive  him  of  his  essential 
rights.  The  defeat  was  followed  by  bitter  accusations  of 
treachery  aimed  at  some  of  the  professed  friends  of  the 
measure. 

Severe  criticism  was  called  forth  by  the  defeat  of  the 
assembly  bill  for  a  thorough  reconstruction  of  the  New 
York  city  school  system. 

A  law  altogether  admirable  in  the  interest  of  a  greatly 


374  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2(1  Qr.,  1895. 

needed  city  reform,  and  which  was  urged  by  the  State 
Charities  Aid  Association,  was  passed,  separating  the  de- 
partment of  charities  from  the  department  of  correction. 
The  legal  identification  of  the  poor  and  unfortunate  with 
the  criminal  and  vicious  has  long  been  a  disgrace,  besides 
providing  easy  channels  for  political  corruption. 

The  bi-partisan  police  bill,  requiring  two  commission- 
ers from  each  great  party,  was  passed  in  the  senate  April 
16,  and  in  the  assembly  April  23,  and  became  a  law  by  ap- 
proval of  the  mayor  of  New  York  after  delay  till  May  8 
for  consideration  and  public  hearing,  and  by  the  signature 
of  the  governor.  The  controversy  concerning  it  was  ani- 
mated and  unremitting.  The  uncompromising  reformers 
represented  by  the  Committee  of  Seventy,  Dr.  Parkhurst, 
Dr.  Seth  Low,  and  others,  denounced  it  as  exposing  all 
municipal  reform  to  fatal  hindrance  by  the  vantage 
ground  which  it  would  give  to  political  leaders  at  the  or- 
ganic centre  of  the  police  system;  and  declared  that,  as  a 
mere  pretense  at  reform,  it  was  less  desirable  than  even 
the  retaining  of  the  former  law.  They  vehemently  advo- 
cated the  bill  prepared  by  the  Committee  of  Ten,  for  a 
police  department  utterly  ignoring  all  political  parties  and 
having  a  single  head  with  an  undivided  responsibility. 
The  republican  leaders,  with  their  experience  of  the  enor- 
mous election  frauds  through  a  long  series  of  years,  which 
had  been  shown  to  have  protection  and  furtherance  by  the 
police  system  under  Tammany  headship,  feared  to  give  all 
control  of  the  police  into  the  hands  of  a  single  commis- 
sioner in  a  city  which  might  return  to  democratic  rule. 
The  majority  in  the  senate  was  by  only  one  vote,  the  divi- 
sion being  nearly  on  party  lines.  In  the  assembly,  after 
a  defeat  of  the  bill  from  the  Committee  of  Ten  by  a 
vote  of  79  to  32,  the  bi-partisan  bill  was  passed  by  96  to 
21,  only  5  republicans  voting  against  it,  and  only  4  demo- 
crats for  it.  Mayor  Strong,  though  not  satisfied  with  its 
defect  in  civil  service  provisions,  approved  it  in  the  inter- 
est of  honest  elections,  inasmuch  as  the  fact  that  tlie  police 
department  was  still  to  control  all  the  election  apparatus 
and  procedure,  made  indispensable  iu  the  interest  of  the 
state  as  well  as  of  the  city  an  equal  representation  in  it  of 
both  parties.  Both  the  mayor  and  the  governor  have  been 
severely  censured  as  having  been  false  to  the  principles  of 
reform  by  approving  a  bill  which  gave  continuance  to 
some  of  the  worst  features  of  Tammany  rule.  Republicans, 
however,  generally  approve  their  action  as  the. wisest  un- 
der present  conditions. 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES. 

AVhether  a  bi-partisan  police  board  be  or  be  net  the 
best,  it  is  evident  that,  at  least  nncler  the  present  commis- 
sioners, neither  partisanship  nor  any  other  corrupting  ele- 
ment will  find  any  official  allowance. 

In  April  Mayor  Strong  decided  on  the  removal  of  the 
two  republican  commissioners,  Charles  H.  Murray  and 
Michael  Kerwin,  not  on  any  charges  of  malfeasance,  but 
because  of  their  manifest  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  new 
energetic  policy  of  reform.  On  their  refusal  to  resign  at 
his  request  he  dismissed  them  on  May  6.  In  their  place 
he  appointed  as  the  two  republicans  on  the  board  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  and  Colonel  Frederick  D.  Grant;  and  in 
the  place  of  Commissioner  Martin  (dem.),  whose  term  had 
expired,  he  appointed  Andrew  D.  Parker.  The  new  offi- 
cials were  immediately  recognized  as  men  of  high  repute 
for  integrity,  diligence,  and  efficiency.  Mr.  Roosevelt 
especially,  who  was  made  president  of  the  board,  had  long 
been  eminent  as  a  most  earnest  and  unswerving  reformer. 
The  new  board  immediately  began  a  style  of  laborious, 
watchful,  and  vigorous  administration,  applying  clean-cut 
business  methods,  excluding  all  politics  and  all  favoritism, 
searching  out  corruptions,  purging  the  force  of  unworthy 
members,  toning  up  the  moral  health  of  those  who  were 
disposed  to  fidelity,  and  aiming  at  the  enforcement  of  laws 
with  an  equal  pressure  on  all  classes  of  citizens.  Within 
a  month  the  moral  and  social  atmosphere  of  the  city  Avas 
sensibly  refreshed. 

Cognate  with  this  reformation  was  one  not  so  pervasive, 
but  more  important  to  the  less-favoi;ed  portions  of  the  com- 
munity, and  even  more  fundamental  in  its  relations  to  civil 
society  itself — the  reformation  of  the  police  courts,  in  many 
of  which  for  years  justice  had  been,  not  dispensed,  but 
"dispensed  with."  Governor  Morton  had  been  very  solic- 
itous for  the  removal  of  this  foul  blot,  which  was  also  a 
hindrance  to  all  faithful  work  by  the  police;  and  he  had, 
by  special  message  on  March  25,  called  on  the  legislature 
to  pass  the  bill  giving  Mayor  Strong  authority  to  remove 
the  five  justices  of  special  sessions  and  nine  city  magis- 
trates, and  to  appoint  others  in  their  place.  The  assembly, 
with  its  large  republican  majority,  responded  the  same  day 
by  passing  the  police  justices  bill.  In  the  senate  the  bill 
slumbered  for  one  month,  till  under  continued  personal 
urgency  from  the  governor  and  the  lieutenant-governor  it 
was  passed  on  April  25  by  a  vote  of  20  to  12.  Some  of 
those  who  voted  for  it  expressed  themselves  as  not  heartily 
in  its  favor  on  political  grounds;  a  few  others  doubted  its 


376  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2dQr..lS95. 

constitutionality.  This  doubt  commended  itself  also  to 
the  minds  of  the  justices  to  be  removed;  and  they  entered 
a  protest  against  the  constitutionality  of  the  act,  with  no- 
tice of  their  resolve  to  carry  their  case  before  the  courts. 
The  justices  appointed  in  their  place,  taking  office  on  July 
1,  were  nearly  equally  divided  between  the  republican  and 
the  democratic  parties:  one  republican  and  one  democrat 
of  the  former  set  were  retained  on  the  bench  by  Mayor 
Strong. 

The  power  of  removal  given  to  Mayor  Strong  ceased 
by  law  on  July  1.  It  forms  a  unique  episode  in  modern 
municipal  government  in  this  land — a  beneficent  autoc- 
racy sternly  demanded  to  give  effect  to  the  will  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  people.  Out  of  about  16,000  munic- 
ipal servants,  the  power  of  removal  was  applicable  to  about 
5,000,  and  was  exercised  on  less  than  3,000.  Its  applica- 
tion, thus  moderate  in  extent,  was  equally  judicious  in  its 
deliberateness.  Its  exercise  by  a  hand  strong  and  discreet, 
coupled  with  the  good  fortune  of  the  city  in  securing  as 
members  of  the  police  board  men  of  unexpected  fitness  for 
the  crisis,  has  practically  done  much  to  compensate  for 
what,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  threatened  to  be  the  disas- 
trous defeat  of  the  police  reorganization  bill. 

The  famous  chief  of  police,  Thomas  Byrnes,  was,  on 
his  own  application,  retired  by  unanimous  vote  of  the  four 
commissioners  on  May  27,  from  his  long  service,  on  an 
annual  pension  of  $3,000.  His  retirement,  though  volun- 
tary, was  known  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the 
new  police  board.  The  loss  of  an  official  so  unusually  ca- 
pable in  some  important  respects  naturally  occasioned 
public  regret;  yet  it  was  felt  that  the  new  day  demands  an 
executive  in  police  affairs  less  closely  identified  with  a  re- 
gime now  passed  and,  it  is  hoped,  not  to  return.  To  fill 
his  place  for  the  present,  Inspector  Peter  Conlin  was  im- 
mediately detailed  acting  chief  of  police.  He  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1841;  was  in  many  battles  in  the  war  of  the 
rebellion,  and  was  severely  wounded;  joined  the  police  de- 
partment in  1869,  and  after  successive  promotions  became 
inspector  in  1889.  He  has  long  been  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  capable  and  courteous  men  in  the  department. 
He  is  a  strict  disciplinarian. 

The  dismissal  by  the  old  police  board  of  Police  Captain 
Devery  on  charges  of  collusion  with  criminals,  was  re- 
versed by  the  court  of  common  pleas  on  June  3,  on  the 
ground  that  in  the  captain's  absence  through  sickness  his 
trial  should  not  have  proceeded. — The  second  trial  of  In- 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  377 

spector  William  W.  McLaughlin  before  Judge  Barrett 
in  the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer,  ended  on  June  19,  with 
a  verdict  of  guilty  of  bribery  and  corruption,  and  a  sen- 
tence of  two  and  a-half  years  in  the  state  prison  at  Sing 
Sing.  The  infliction  of  this  penalty  remains  in  doubt,  ow- 
ing to  the  action  of  Judge  Gaynor  of  Brooklyn,  who,  on 
-application  by  McLaughlin's  attorneys,  granted  a  stay  in 
the  shape  of  an  order  to  show  cause  why  a  certificate  of 
reasonable  doubt  should  not  be  issued  in  the  case.  The 
two  trials  thus  far  have  cost  the  city  about  150,000;  and 
the  failure  of  the  jury  to  agree  in  the  first  trial,  together 
with  the  unreasonable  length  of  time  used  in  empanelling 
ii  jury  in  both  trials,  has  drawn  attention  to  the  need  of 
some  changes  in  our  jury  system. 

Committee  of  Seventy  Disbands. — The  Committee  of 
Seventy  held  its  final  meeting  and  disbanded  on  June  19. 
It  was  organized  in  September,  1894,  to  lead  the  assault 
on  Tammany  Hall  and  to  deliver  the  city  from  political 
misrule  (Vol.  4,  p.  611).  The  overthrow  of  Tammany 
^nd  the  inauguration  of  a  reform  government  mark  the 
accomplishment  of  the  committee's  purpose,  and  were 
•considered  by  it  to  indicate  the  propriety  of  its  dissolution. 
It  will  be  held  in  honorable  and  grateful  remembrance 
for  its  generous  and  arduous  labors  in  behalf  of  public  in- 
terest, for  its  courage  in  entering  on  what  seemed  an  al- 
most hopeless  struggle,  and  for  the  inspiring  leadership 
with  which  it  aroused,  united,  and  directed  those  who 
sought  the  good  of  the  people. 

Hudson  River  Bridge. — The  secretary  of  war  has  ap- 
proved the  plan  of  the  proposed  railway  bridge  across  the 
Hudson  river  between  Xew  York  and  Jersey  City.  Its 
cost  is  estimated  at  $25,000,000,  and  the  time  required  for 
construction  ten  years.  It  will  have  a  single  span  of  3,110 
feet  clear,  suspended  from  twelve  cables,  and  carrying  six 
railway  tracks.  The  centre  will  be  150  feet  above  high- 
water  mark.  The  main  towers  will  be  587  feet  high. 
This  gigantic  structure  is  to  be  built  by  the  Union  Bridge 
Company. 

Pennsylvania. — On  May  8  a  resolution  introduced  in 
the  state  senate  by  Senator  Penrose,  to  investigate  the 
nffairs  of  Philadelphia,  was  adopted,  with  one  opposing 
vote.  An  investigating  committee  of  six  senators  was 
appointed. 

Rhode  Island. — The  result  of  the  state  elections  in 
Khode  Island  on  April  2  was  a  great  republican  victory, 
that  party  carrying  every  city  and  i>early  every  town  in  the 


378  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

state.  In  Providence  the  entire  republican  assembly  ticket 
was  elected.  In  the  hopelessness  of  the  struggle,  many 
democrats  remained  away  from  the  polls,  so  that  the  vote 
was  light,  and  the  result  showed  exceptionally  large  plu- 
ralities for  the  republican  ticket.  Charles  Warren  Lippitt 
(rep.)  was  elected  governor  by  about  10,000  plurality. 
South    Carolina. —  Liquor    Dispensary   Law. — The 

quarter  has  witnessed 
a  remarkable  conflict 
between  federal  and 
state  authorities  in 
South  Carolina  over 
the  state  liquor  dis- 
pensary law  and  the 
state  law  governing 
registration  of  voters. 
On  May  7  Judge 
Simonton  of  the 
United  States  circuit 
court  at  Columbia 
declared  the  dispen- 
sary law  unconsti- 
tutional so  far  as  the 
interstate  commerce 
feature  was  con- 
cerned; and  granted 
an  injunction  re- 
straining dispensary 
officials  from  inter- 
fering with  the  im- 
portation, into  the 
state,  of  liquors  from 
other  states,  by  citi- 
zens, for  their  own  use  and  consumption.  Such  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  rights  of  citizens  was  held  to  be  a  restriction  of 
commerce  between  the  states  in  favor  of  the  products  of  the 
state  of  South  Carolina  against  the  products  of  other  states 
and  countries,  and  in  conflict  with  Article  I.,  Sections  8  and 
9,  of  the  federal  constitution.  In  giving  his  opinion,  Judge 
Simonton  said: 

"In  so  far  as  the  dispensary  law  forbids  a  citizen  to  purchase  in 
other  states  and  to  import  into  this  state  alcoholic  liquors  for  his  own 
use  and  consumption,  the  products  of  other  states,  it  discriminates 
against  the  product  of  other  states.  Such  discrimination  cannot  be 
made  under  the  guise  of  the  police  power.  And  further,  in  so  far  as 
this  act  permits  the  chief  dispenser  to  purchase  in  other  states  alco- 
holic liquors  and  to  import  them  into  this  state  for  the  purpose  of 


HON.  JOHN  GARY  EVANS, 
GOVERNOR  OP  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  379. 

selling  tbem,  for  use  and  consumption  at  retail  witliin  the  state,  and 
forbids  all  other  persons  from  so  purchasing'  and  importing  for  their 
individual  use  and  consumption,  it  discriminates  against  all  other  citi- 
zens of  the  state.  It  also  makes  a  discrimination  against  all  persons 
in  the  trade  in  other  states  who  are  not  patronized  by  the  state  dis- 
penser,forbidding  them  to  seek  customers  within  the  state  and  to  en- 
joy a  commercial  intercourse  assured  to  others  in  this  state. " 

There  is  a  very  strong  popular  sentiment  in  South 
Carolina,  outside  of  the  old  liquor  interests  and  certain 
political  circles,  in  favor  of  the  dispensary  law.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  a  corrective  of  the  abuses  of  drunkenness 
and  disorder,  opinion  is- almost  unanimous  as  to  its  effi- 
ciency. Governor  Evans,  therefore,  in  his  determination 
to  uphold  the  law,  is  backed  by  a  strong  element.  A  test 
case  has  already  been  made,  under  which  the  validity  of 
the  law  will  be  passed  upon  by  the  United  States  supreme 
court.  On  May  11  a  dispensary  constable,  who  had 
seized,  in  spite  of  the  injunction  of  the  court,  some  liquor 
which  an  individual  had  just  received  from  Savannah, 
Ga.,  was  arrested.  Being  fined  $300  by  Judge  Simonton, 
and  refusing  to  pay  the  fine,  he  Avas  committed  to  jail. 
Habeas  corpus  proceedings  were  instituted  before  the 
United  States  supreme  court;  and  the  state  authorities 
hope  that  the  injunction  Avill  be  dissolved. 

The  Franchise  Question. — An  even  more  serious  con- 
flict has  arisen  over  the  question  of  state  vs.  federal  rights 
in  the  matter  of  election  laws.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
about  three-fifths  of  the  population  of  the  state  is  colored, 
the  Avhites  have  exercised  absolute  dominion.  It  is  now 
proposed  to  alter  the  constitution  of  the  state  in  such  a 
way  as  to  perpetuate  for  all  time  the  supremacy  of  the 
whites.  The  last  legislature  provided  for  the  election  of 
delegates  to  a  constitutional  convention  with  this  avowed 
purpose.  The  Tillman  democrats  and  the  populists  ar- 
ranged a  compromise,  under  which  each  party  should  have 
half  of  the  delegates  to  the  convention;  but  they  met  with 
the  determined  opposition  of  the  conservative  democrats 
and  the  republicans,  who  suspected  that  the  disfranchise- 
ment, aimed  ostensibly  only  at  the  negroes,  might  in  time  be 
extended  to  them  also.  At  the  instance  of  parties  represent- 
ing the  conservative  democrats  and  republicans,  the  con- 
stitutionality of  the  registration  laws  and  the  proposed 
convention  was  tested  in  the  United  States  courts;  and  on 
April  22  Judge  Goff  issued  a  temporary  injunction  re- 
straining the  state  officials  from  all  action  looking  to  the 
proposed  election  of  delegates  to  the  convention.  It  was 
alleged  in  the  complaint  that  the  registration  system  was 


380  -  -    AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

unequal  and  fraudulent,  and  that  citizens  had  been  delib- 
erately deprived  of  the  right  of  registration  in  order  that 
the  avowed  purpose  to  secure  control  of  the  state  to  white 
citizens  might  be  carried  cut. 

On  May  8  Judge  Goff  made  the  injunction  permanent. 
His  opinion  held  that  the  registration  lawn's  requirement 
of  certificates  was  not  warranted  and  was  unconstitutional; 
that  the  proposed  convention  would  not  cure  these  defects; 
and  that  the  whole  registration  and  election  laws  were  un- 
constitutional. It  declared  that  the  rights  of  negroes  as 
citizens  could  not  be  abridged.  Although  the  state  con- 
stitution gave  the  right  to  vote  after  two  months'  residence, 
the  law  practically  compelled  a  residence  of  four  months. 
Certificates  were  required  in  the  case  of  new  applicants, 
showing  the  citizen's  occupation  and  residence  since  1883, 
or  since  his  coming  of  age,  supported  by  two  affidavits. 
Registration  papers  had  to  be  produced  at  the  polls,  and  a 
new  certificate  secured  in  case  one  w^ere  lost.  Altogether, 
the  regulations  were  so  complicated  as  to  give  the  election 
officers  great  power  in  the  way  of  preventing  a  vote  if 
they  desired  to  do  so. 

Under  the  agreement  reached  between  the  Tillman 
democrats  and  populists,  setting  forth  the  "  basic  condi- 
tions which  shall  govern  the  elections,"  the  revised  con- 
stitution was  not  to  be  submitted  to  the  people;  no  white 
man  was  to  be  disfranchised  by  the  new  constitution  ex- 
cept for  crime;  the  suffrage  qualification  *''such  as  will 
guarantee  white  supremacy  "  was  to  be  that  of  literacy; 
and  in  order  to  prevent  disfranchisement  of  whites,  it  was 
proposed  that  Confederate  veterans,  and  their  sons,  should 
be  exempt  from  the  literate  qualification. 

The  decision  of  Judge  Goff  was  hailed  by  the  negroes 
as  a  second  emancipation.  Governor  Evans  on  May  14 
issued  a  proclamation  denouncing  the  action  of  the  federal 
courts.  While  declaring  loyalty  to  the  United  States  con- 
stitution and  the  federal  authorities,  the  proclamation 
contained  the  following  significant  utterances: 

"When  file  judges  of  tliose  (United  States)  courts  wantonly  in- 
vade and  trample  under  foot  the  recognized  rights  of  our  people, 
guaranteed  by  the  federal  constitution,  they  have  a  right  to  assert 
themselves  and  maintain  their  sovereignty  and  independence.  This 
they  have  ever  done,  and  will  continue  to  do,  and  will  resist  with  all 
the  means  in  their  power  usurpation  and  tyranny  of  partisan  politi- 
cians in  high  places,  who  disgrace  the  judicial  ermine.  *  *  * 
The  black  pall  of  negro  domination  hovers  over  us;  we  must  meet 
the  issue  like  South  Carolinians.  There  are  only  two  flags,  the 
white  and  the  black.  Under  which  will  you  enlist?  The  one,  the 
white,  peaceful  flag  of  Anglo-Saxon  civilization  and  progress;  or  the 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  381 

other,  tlie  black  flag  of  the  debased  and  ignorant  African,  with  the 
white  traitors,  who  are  seeking  to  marshal  the  negroes  in  order  to 
gain  political  power? 

"It  is  fortunate  that  the  issues  come  at  this  time  when  a  consti- 
tution is  to  be  made  guaranteeing  white  supremacy  once  and  forever. 
The  constitutional  convention  must  be  controlled  by  white  men,  not 
white  men  with  black  hearts,  not  negroes.  The  world  must  be  shown 
that  we  are  capable  of  governing  ourselves,  and  that,  constitution  or 
no  constitution,  law  or  no  law,  court  or  no  court,  the  intelligent  white 
men  of  South  Carolina  intend  to  govern  her.  Let  the  man  who  under- 
takes to  lead  the  ignorant  blacks  against  you  suffer  as  he  did  in  1876,^ 
and  remember  that  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  liberty." 

And  at  a  meeting  of  the  democratic  state  organization 
on  May  16,  ex-Governor  (now  Senator)  Tillman  is  reported 
to  have  said  that  if  Judge  Goff  went  any  further  in  this 
matter,  he,  for  one,  would  advocate  open  rebellion.  At 
this  meeting  a  general  white  primary  was  ordered  for  July 
30,  to  nominate  delegates  to  the  constitutional  convention. 

On  June  11  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  Judge  Goff 
was  sustained  by  Chief  Justice  Fuller  and  Justices  Seymour 
and  Hughes,  constituting  a  United  States  circuit  court  of 
appeals;  and  the  injunction  was  dissolved.  The  grounds 
for  the  decision  are  purely  technical,  and  the  constitution- 
ality of  the  registration  law  is  neither  upheld  nor  denied. 
The  case  was  merely  one  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the- 
justices,  did  not  call  for  interference  by  a  federal  court. 
As  stated  by  Chief  Justice  Fuller,  the  bill  of  complaint 
which  led  to  the  issuance  of  the  injunction  ought  not  ta 
have  been  maintained,  because  it  failed  ^^o  set  forth  any 
threatened  infringement  of  rights  of  property  or  civil 
rights;  nor  had  it  been  shown  that  the  complainant  was- 
without  a  remedy  at  law.  However  unjust  the  registra- 
tion law  might  be,  or  however  unequally  it  might  operate, 
it  required  examination  to  show  that  it  disfranchised  any 
particular  individual;  and  it  was  not  for  the  court  to  make- 
such  examination.  Moreover,  it  has  not  as  yet  deprived 
any  man  of  his  rights.  The  court  refused  to  interfere  to 
correct  a  wrong  which  had  not  yet  been  committed,  and 
pointed  out  that  the  proper  course  for  any  disfranchised 
citizen  was  to  bring  his  suit  after  he  had  suffered  the  in- 
jury. 

Tennessee. — The  contest  over  the  governorship  of 
Tennessee  (p.  142)  ended  on  May  3,  when,  by  a  vote  of  71 
to  57  in  the  joint  convention  of  the  two  houses  of  the  leg- 
islature, Peter  Turney  (dem.)  was  declared  elected  by 
2,184  votes.  This  was  in  accord  with  the  majority  rej^ort. 
of  the  committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  returns, 
which  report  was  signed  by  the  seven  democratic  members.. 


382  AFFAIRS  IX  AMERICA,  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  minority  report,  signed  by  the  five  republican  mem- 
bers, recommended  the  seating  of  H.  Clay  Evans  (rep.), 
who  on  the  face  of  the  returns  had  had  a  plurality  of  748 
votes.     On  May  8  Mr.  Turney  was  inaugurated. 

Utah. — In  May  the  convention  called  to  draft  a  con- 
stitution for  the  proposed  new  state  of  Utah  completed  its 
labors,  which  will  be  submitted  for  popular  approval 
this  fall. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  proposed  constitution  is  its 
grant  to  women  of  complete  suffrage,  including  the  right  to  hold 
office  and  sit  on  juries.  It  was  this  feature  which  was  most  earnestly 
debated.  A  small  minority,  representing  the  Gentile  element,  op- 
posed the  concession,  endeavoring  to  have  it  submitted  to  popular 
vote  as  a  separate  proposition;  but  they  were  decisively  defeated. 
Their  contention  was  that  the  bestowal  of  the  franchise  on  women 
would  place  and  keep  the  state  under  Mormon  control. 

In  other  respects  the  constitution  is  conservative.  The  salaries  of 
all  state  officers  will  be  small,  that  of  the  governor  being  $2,000  a 
year.  The  fee  system  is  almost  entirely  abandoned.  The  limits  of 
state  and  municipal  indebtedness  are  rigidly  restricted,  the  state  be- 
ing forbidden  to  have  any  debt  beyond  the  limit  of  $100,000.  It  must 
work  on  a  cash  basis,  and  can  give  its  credit  to  no  railroads  or  irrigat- 
ing schemes.  It  is  also  made  unlawful  for  any  county  or  city  to  in- 
cur such  debts.  A  thorough,  liberal,  and  progressive  educational 
establishment  is  projected.  The  judicial  system  is  to  be  singularly 
simple.  Grand  juries  are  abolished  except  in  special  circumstances; 
information  takes  the  place  of  indictment;  and  the  trial  jury  is  to 
consist  of  eight  instead  of  twelve  persons,  three-fourths  of  whom 
may  render  a  verdict  in  civil  cases,  though  a  unanimous  vote  is  re- 
quired to  convict  of  crime.  The  Mormons  interposed  no  objection  to 
the  permanent  prohibition  of  plural  marriages,  which  feature  was  in- 
corporated in  the  draft. 

PERSONAL  AND   MISCELLANEOUS. 

Political  Appointments.  —  The  cabinet  vacancy 
caused  by  the  death  of  Secretary  of  State  Gresham  on  May 
28,  was  filled  on  June  10,  when  Attorney-General  Richard 
Olney  of  Massachusetts  was  inducted  into  the  office.  Dur- 
ing his  tenure  of  the  portfolio  of  justice,  to  which  he  was 
appointed  at  the  beginning  of  President  Cleveland's  second 
administration,  Mr.  Olney  won  the  admiration  not  only 
of  his  colleagues,  but  of  the  general  public,  irrespective  of 
party.  (For  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  new  secretary  of 
state  see  Vol.  3,  p.  64.) 

Mr.  Olney's  transfer  to  the  department  of  state  neces- 
sitated the  selection  of  a  new  incumbent  of  the  portfolio 
of  attorney-general.  Tlie  president's  choice,  which  has 
met  with  universal  approval,  fell  upon  Judge  Judson 
Harmon  of  Cincinnati,  0.,  who  took  tlie  oath  of  office  on 
June  11. 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS.  383 

Harmon,  Judson,  new  attorney-general  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  Anderson  township,  Hamilton  co.,  Ohio,  Feb.  3,  1846, 
son  of  the  Rev.  B.  F.  Harmon,  a  descendant  of  old  New  York  stock. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  and  at  Denison  University, 
Granville,  O.,  being  graduated  at  the  latter  institution  in  1866.  He 
subsequently  studied  at  the  Cincinnati  Law  School,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1869.  He  then  formed  a  partnership  with  R.  T.  Durrell, 
and  practiced  law  till  1876,  when  he  was  elected  judge  of  the  com- 
mon pleas  court.  He  served  on  the  bench  for  four  months,  when  he  was 
unseated  in  favor  of 
Judge  Cox  by  the  Ohio 
senate,  before  which  a 
contest  was  made.  He 
returned  to  his  practice, 
forming  a  partnership 
with  Judge  S.  N.  Max- 
well. In  1878  he  was 
elected  judge  of  the  su- 
perior court  of  Cincin- 
nati, and  in  1883  was  re- 
elected. In  March,  1887, 
he  resigned,  wlien  ex- 
Governor  Hoadly  and 
Judge  Edgar  M.  Johnson 
went  to  New  York,  and 
formed  the  firm  of  Har- 
mon, Colston,  Goldsmith, 
&  Hoadly,  as  successors 
to  Hoadly,  Johnson,  & 
Colston.  In  June,  1870, 
he  was  married  to  Miss 
Olive  Scobey,  daughter  of 
Dr.  W.  H.  Scobey,  of 
Hamilton  county.  He  has 
two  children.  He  is  tall 
and  athletic-looking,  his 
hair  slightly  tinged  with 
gray. 

A  vacancy  in  the 
diplomatic  corps 
caused  by  the  resignation  of  Hon.  Seneca  Haselton  of  Ver- 
mont on  May  17  as  United  States  minister  to  Venezuela, 
was  filled  June  13  by  the  promotion  to  the  post  of  Allen 
Thomas  of  Florida,  lately  consul  at  La  Guayra. 

The  Harlem  Ship  Canal. — This  improved  water- 
way through  the  northerly  part  of  New  York  city,  was 
thrown  open  for  navigation  on  June  17,  with  elaborate 
ceremonies,  including  a  land  and  marine  parade,  and  end- 
ing with  a  banquet  and  fireworks.  At  present  the  canal 
is  navigable  only  for  canal  boats  and  small  inland  water 
craft.  It  opens  up  navigation  from  the  Hudson  river  di- 
rect to  Long  Island  sound,  shortening  the  distance  ten  or 
twelve  miles;  adds  nearlv  fifteen  miles  to  the  water  front  of 


HON.    niCHARD   OLNET   OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 
HEW   SECRETARY    OF   STATE. 


384 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


ScrQr.,  1895, 


the  city;  and  gives  increased  business  advantages  to  the 
"  annexed  "  districts.  The  work  was  originally  planned 
by  the  late  General  John  Newton,  the  engineer  famous 
for  his  successful  clearing  of  Hell  Gate  channel;  but  was 
carried  out  by  the  federal  authorities  under  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  George  L.  Gillespie,  of  the  Engineers'  Corps,  U. 
S.  A.     It  was  provided  by  act  of  congress  in  June,  1884, 

that  the  sum  of 
$2,700,000  should  be 
expended  to  make  a 
navigable  waterway. 
Of  this  sum  $900,000 
has  already  been 
spent.  The  channel 
is  ultimately  to  be  350 
feet  wide  and  18  feet 
deep.  It  is  now  only 
150  feet  wide.  Sev- 
eral years  will  elapse 
before  the  work  is 
completed.  The  pres- 
ent minimum  depth 
of  water  in  the  river 
is  nine  feet.  At  pres- 
ent the  Harlem  river 
is  practically  limited 
for  navigation  to  the 
point  marked  by 
High  bridge.  When 
dredged  out  and 
completed  to  the 
Hudson  river,  a  clear 
waterway  will  be  pro- 
vided for  all  vessels  able  to  pass  through  the  draw  and 
under  the  High  bridge. 

The  canal  runs  a  curving  course  of  about  a  mile  from 
the  Hudson  to  the  Harlem.  Spuyten  Duyvil  creek  for- 
merly connected  the  two  rivers.  It  was  found  impracti- 
cable to  deepen  the  creek  for  its  entire  length,  because  oi 
its  winding  course  and  rocky  bottom;  and  so  a  cut  of  1,000 
feet  through  Marble  hill,  at  Kingsbridge,  was  made  to 
shorten  and  straighten  the  passageway.  A  canal  was  then 
dug  through  the  meadov/-land  from  the  cut  to  the  Har- 
lem. 

Union  College  Centenary. — The  centennial  anniver- 
sary  of   the   founding    of   Union    College,   Schenectady,. 


HON.    .TUDSON    HARMON   OF  OHIO, 
NEWATTOKNEY-UENERAL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 


885 


N.  Y.,  was  celebrated  during  the  week  beginning  June  23, 
and  was  an  event  of  unusual  interest.  Union  College  is 
identified  with  many  striking — almost  revolutionary — ad- 
vances made  in  the  development  of  higher  education  in 
America.  It  was  the  first  American  7ion-denomi7iational 
college;  has  the  oldest  school  of  civil  engineering;  and 
was  the  first  to  put  upon  its  curriculum  the  modern  lan- 
guages and  the  scien- 
tific course.  But 
even  more  striking 
than  this — it  was  the 
first  to  recognize  that 
in  the  matter  of  col- 
lege discipline,  while 
it  is  essential  to  in- 
sist on  gentlemanly 
conduct,  many  de- 
tails can  safely  be 
left  to  the  honor  of 
the  students  them- 
selves. 

Road  Improve- 
Tlient.  —  The  move- 
ment which  was  be- 
gun some  years  ago 
(Vol.  2,  p.  296), 
looking  toward  the 
development  of  an 
improved  road-sys- 
tem throughout  the 
country,  is  making 
good  progress.  Mass- 
achusetts has  taken 
the  lead  in  the  matter,  making  her  Highway  Commis- 
sion permanent,  and  appropriating  1300,000  for  road  im- 
provements. The  federal  congress  a  short  time  ago  ap- 
propriated 110,000  to  cover  the  expense  of  an  investiga- 
tion into  the  condition  of  roads  throughout  the  country, 
and  for  the  publication  of  information  thereon.  Over 
twenty  states  have  already  taken  definite  steps  in  adopt- 
ing new  road  laws. 

College  Benefactions. — A  noteworthy  instance  of  un- 
selfish devotion  to  the  cause  of  higher  education  and  thepub- 
lic  interests  of  the  municipality  of  which  he  is  a  citizen,  is 
found  in  the  recent  munificent  gift  to  Columbia  College, 
New  York  city  by  its  president,  Hon.  Seth  Low,  of  a  new 

Vol.  6.-83. 


HON.  8BTH   LOW, 
PRESIDENT  OF  COLUMBIA  COLLEGE. 


386  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

library  building  to  cost  $1,000,000.  The  library  will  be 
erected  in  memory  of  President  Low^s  father,  the  late  A. 
A.  Low. 

Another  noted  benefaction  has  been  the  gift  to  the 
New  York  University  of  a  new  central  building  to  be 
erected  on  University  Heights.  The  giver  withholds  his 
name  from  the  public.  No  definite  cost  is  prescribed; 
but  the  building  is  to  comprehend  library,  commencement 
hall,  museum,  and  administration  offices;  and  will  cost  at 
least  1250,000.  Miss  Helen  M.  Gould  has  also  given  ISO- 
GOO  toward  a  dormitory  for  the  same  institution. 

Miscellaneous. — Professor  E.  S.  Holden,  director  of 
the  Lick  Observatory,  has  been  made  a  commander  of  the 
Order  of  the  Ernestine  House  of  Saxony,  in  recognition  of 
his  services  to  science. 

Hoi.df:n,  Edward  S.,  LL.  D.,  astronomer,  was  born  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  in  1846.  and  was  graduated  in  science  at  Washington  University 
in  1866,  and  at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1870.  He  re- 
signed from  the  army  in  1873,  and  became  an  assistant  to  Professor 
Simon  Newcomb  in  the  Naval  Observatory.  In  1876  he  went  to  Lon- 
don to  examine  the  South  Kensington  loan  collection  of  scientific  in- 
struments. In  1881  he  became  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  and  director  of  the  new  Washburn  Observatory. 
In  1886  he  became  president  of  the  University  of  California,  and  di- 
rector of  the  Lick  Observatory,  on  Mount  Hamilton.  The  University 
of  Wisconsin  and  Columbia  College — one  in  1886  and  the  other  in  1887 
— conferred  on  Professor  Holden  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 

On  June  17  Professor  Simon  Newcomb,  of  the  Wash- 
ington Observatory,  the  noted  astronomer  and  scientist, 
was  elected  by  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  an  associ- 
ate academician  to  succeed  the  late  Professor  von  Helm- 
holtz. 

In  the  latter  part  of  May  Professor  E.  E.  Barnard,  the 
distinguished  astronomer  who  in  1892  discovered  the  fifth 
satellite  of  Jupiter,  resigned  from  the  staff  of  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory to  assume  charge  of  the  great  telescope  in  the  new 
Yerkes  Observatory  in  Chicago,  III. 

A  new  president  for  Lehigh  University,  South  Bethle- 
hem, Penn.,  was  elected  in  April  in  the  j)erson  of  Profess- 
or Thomas  M.  Drown,  M.  D.,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

Drown,  Thomas  M.,  new  president  of  Lehigh  University,  was 
graduated  at  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  and  subsequently  studied 
medicine  and  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. After  a  brief  period  of  practice  as  a  physician,  he  turned 
to  chemistry  as  his  life  work,  and  studied  in  Europe.  He  subse- 
quently established  himself  as  an  analytical  chemist  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  removed  in  1874  to  Easton,  Penn.,  to  become  profess- 
or of  chemistry  in  Lafayette  College.  '  In  1873  he  was  elected  sec- 


PERSONAL  AND  MlSCELLANEOrs.  387 

retary  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineer^,  and  retained 
that  position  by  unanimous  annual  re-election  until  he  resigned  it, 
in  1883,  to  the  universal  regret  of  his  associates.  In  1885  he  accepted 
the  professorship  of  chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology. 

The  suit  of  the  United  States  government  against  the 
estate  of  the  late  Senator  Leland  Stanford  of  California  for 
$15,000,000 — a  suit  seriously  affecting  the  interests  of 
Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University — was  decided  by  Judge 
Uoss  in  the  United  States  district  court  at  San  Francisco, 
on  June  29,  adversely  to  the  claim  of  the  government. 

On  April  10  the  transatlantic  liner  St.  Paul,  belong- 
ing to  the  International  Navigation  Company,  was 
launched  at  the  Cramps'  shipyard,  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
being  christened  by  Miss  Frances  C.  Griscom,  daughter 
of  the  president  of  the  company.  The  St.  Paul  is  a  sis- 
ter ship  of  the  St.  Louis  launched  in  November,  1894 
(Vol.  4,  p.  850),  and  both  are  of  American  model  and  de- 
sign, constructed  entirely  of  American  material  and  by 
American  labor. 

The  St.  Louis  started  on  lier  maiden  voyage  from  New 
York  city  June  5,  arriving  at  Southampton,  Eng.,  June 
13;  time  of  jiassage,  7  days  3  hours  53  minutes.  A  delay 
of  five  hours  was  caused  by  fog. 

On  May  16  a  bronze  statue  was  unveiled  at  Troy,  N.  Y., 
in  honor  of  the  memory  of  Mrs.  Emma  Hart  Willard, 
founder  of  Troy  Female  Seminary — ^'the  first  permanent 
seminary  in  America  for  the  advanced  education  of 
women;"  and  on  the  same  day  was  dedicated  the  Russell 
Sage  Memorial  Hall,  a  gift  to  the  seminary,  costing  $110,- 
000,  from  Russell  Sage,  a  former  resident  of  Troy.  The 
statue  of  Mrs.  Willard  is  the  work  of  Alexander  Doyle 
of  New  York,  and  cost  $6,000,  contributed  by  the  Emma 
Willard  Statue  Association  and  friends. 

On  Decoration  day  (May  30)  the  first  monument  erected 
in  the  North  to  Confederate  soldiers,  was  dedicated  at 
Chicago,  III.  Grand  army  men,  army  and  militia  officers, 
united  with  members  of  the  Confederate  posts  and  ex-offi- 
cers of  the  Confederate  army  in  an  imposing  procession. 
General  Wade  Hampton  delivered  an  oration,  and  among 
•those  present  were  Generals  Longstreet  and  Fitzhugh 
Lee. 

The  Washington  arch  in  Washington  square.  New 
York  city,  was  formally  dedicated  and  transferred  to  the 
city  authorities  May  4. 

A  census  taken  in  April  by  the  police  of  New  York, 
shows  the  total  population  of  that  city  to  be  1,849,860. 


388  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr..  1895. 

On  June  9  a  verdict  for  140,000  for  the  plaintiff  was 
found  by  the  jury  in  the  fourth  trial  of  the  suit  brought 
against  Russell  Sage  of  New  York  city  by  W.  R.  Laidlaw. 
Laid  law  charges  that  at  the  time  of  the  attempted  assassina- 
tion of  Mr.  Sage  by  Norcross  in  December,  1891  (Vol.  1,  p. 
546),  Mr.  Sage  forcibly  held  him  (Laidlaw)  as  a  shield  to 
protect  himself,  as  a  result  of  which  he  was  seriously  in- 
jured. 

A  society  event  which  attracted  much  attention  was 
the  marriage,  on  April  22,  of  Miss  Mary  Leiter,  eldest 
daughter  of  Levi  Z.  Leiter,  a  wealthy  capitalist  of  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  to  Hon.  George  Nathaniel  Curzon,  a  member 
of  the  British  house  of  commons,  famous  as  a  traveller  in 
tlie  Orient  and  a  writer  upon  political  and  other  problems 
centring  in  that  part  of  the  globe. 

The  Kickapoo  Indian  reservation,  adjoining  Okla- 
homa territory,  was  thrown  open  for  settlement  May  23. 

CANADA. 

The  record  of  accomplished  results  in  this  quarter's  de- 
velopment of  Canadian  affairs,  is  hardly  commensurate 
with  the  great  amount  of  time  and  space  which  has  been 
devoted  to  agitation  and  discussion.  The  question  of 
federal  intervention  for  relief  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
minority  in  Manitoba  in  respect  of  separate  schools,  is 
still  the  cardinal  question  of  Dominion  politics.  As  the 
matter  now  stands,  in  a  word,  it  is  left  to  the  provincial 
government  to  canvass  further  the  whole  question,  and 
reach  a  final  decision  thereon.  Failing  action  by  the 
province  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  remedial 
suggestion  of  March  25  (p.  151)  prior  to  next  winter's 
session  of  the  Dominion  parliament,  the  federal  govern- 
ment pledges  itself  to  submit  for  the  approval  of  parlia- 
ment such  measures  as  will  be  calculated  to  remedy  the 
existing  and  acknowledged  grievances  in  Manitoba. 

The  Dominion  Parliament. — The  present  session, 
the  fifth  of  the  seventh  parliament — in  its  issues  one  of 
the  most  important  sessions  since  confederation — began 
April  18. 

The  Manitoba  School  Qtiestion. — Almost  from  the  out- 
set of  the  session  the  ultimate  intention  of  the  Dominion 
government  in  this  matter  has  been  quite  unequivocal — 
namely,  to  give  the  province  every  opportunity  to  settle 
its  own  difficulties;  but,  failing  that,  to  stand  or  fall  by 
the  determination  to  uphold  the  constitutional  rights  of 
the  minority  in  Manitoba  as  interpreted  by  the  highest 


CANADA.  389 

tribunal  of  the  empire.  This  policy  is  intimated  in  the 
following  words  of  the  premier,  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell, 
uttered  April  22  in  the  senate  in  the  course  of  his  first 
parliamentary  address  as  conservative  leader: 

"  I  hope  sincerely  that  the  people  of  Manitoba  may  see  their  way 
clear  to  settle  this  question  among  themselves  and  to  relieve  the 
parliament  of  Canada  from  the  serious  obligation  which  will  devolve 
upon  them  otherwise.  It  is  a  very  serious  matter  for  the  government 
of  the  Dominion  to  undertake  to  deal  with  a  question  which  affects 
solely  any  one  section  of  the  country.  If  the  people  of  Manitoba  are 
patriots,  they  will  keep  this  question  out  of  the  arena  of  Dominion 
politics;  but  if  they  desire  to  continue  flinging  firebrands  among  the 
electorate  of  this  country  (who,  I  am  sure,  are  desirous  of  living  in 
peace  and  harmony),  they  will  reject  all  overtures  and  act  upon  the 
suggestions  of  those  who  are  leading  the  opposition  throughout  the 
country.  I  can  only  say  that  when  the  time  comes,  if  it  should 
come,  for  action  by  this  government,  the  people  of  Canada  will  find 
that  the  present  administration  are  quite  prepared  to  assume  the  re- 
sponsibility which  may  fall  upon  them,  no  matter  what  the  results 
may  be." 

It  was  late  in  June  when  the  Manitoba  legislature 
reached  a  decision  on  the  nature  of  the  reply  it  should 
make  to  the  remedial  suggestion  of  March  25;  and  it  was 
not  until  July  3  that  that  reply  was  received  by  the  secre- 
tary of  state  at  Ottawa.  On  assembling  May  9  pursuant 
to  a  six  weeks^  adjournment,  the  legislature  of  Manitoba, 
desiring  more  time  for  consideration,  took  immediately  a 
further  adjournment  to  June  13.  On  its  reassembling  on 
that  date,  Attorney-General  Sifton  submitted  for  approval 
the  reply  of  the  Green  way  government  in  the  school  mat- 
ter. It  was  in  the  form  of  a  memorial,  which  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor was  to  be  requested  to  transmit  to  the  gov- 
ernor-general-in-council  (the  federal  government).  In 
effect  the  provincial  government  declined  to  alter  the  ex- 
isting status  of  its  school  law  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
Dominion,  and  politely  asked  that  no  hasty  steps  be 
taken,  but  that  time  be  allowed  for  a  full  investigation  of 
the  working  of  the  various  school  systems,  offering  to 
share  in  the  expense  of,  and  to  facilitate  in  every  way,  such 
investigation.  The  following  passages  are  the  most  perti- 
nent: 

"  The  privileges  which  by  the  said  order  (the  remedial  order  of 
March  25)  we  are  recommejided  to  restore  to  our  Roman  Catholic 
fellow-citizens,  are  substantially  the  same  privileges  which  they  en- 
joyed previously  to  the  year  1890.  A  compliance  with  the  terms  of 
the  order  would  restore  the  Catholic  separate  schools  with  no  more 
satisfactory  guarantees  for  their  efficiency  than  existed  prior  to  the 
said  date.  *  *  *  Separate  Roman  Catholic  schools  now  sought  to 
be  restored,  had  existed  for  a  period  of  upward  of  nineteen  years. 
The  said  schools  were  found  to  be  inefficient  as  conducted  under  the 


390 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


tir.,  1895. 


Roman  Catholic  section  of  tlie  board  of  education,  and  did  not  possess 
the  attributes  of  efficient  modern  public  schools.  Their  conduct, 
management,  and  regulation  were  defective.  *  *  *  We  do  not 
know  any  ground  upon  which  an  expenditure  of  public  money  in  their 
support  could  be  justified.  We  are  therefore  compelled  respectfully 
to  state  to  Your  Excellency  in-Council,  that  we  cannot  accept  the  re- 
sponsibility of  carrying  into  effect  the  terms  of  the  remedial  order. 
*  *  *  Apart,  however,  from  the  objections  upon  principle,  there 
are  serious  objections  from  a  practical  educational  standpoint.     Some 

of  these  may  be  briefly 
n  indicated.  We  labor  un- 
der great  difficulties  in 
maintaining  an  efficient 
system  of  primary  edu- 
cation. School  taxes  bear 
heavily  on  our  people. 
A  large  amount  of  land 
is  free  from  school  taxes. 
The  great  extent  of  the 
country  over  which  our 
small  population  is  scat- 
tered presents  obstacles 
to  efficiency  and  progress. 
The  reforms  effected  in 
1890  have  given  a  strong 
impetus  to  educational 
work,  but  difficulties  in- 
herent in  our  circum- 
stances have  constantly 
to  be  met.  It  will  be  ob- 
vious that  the  establish- 
ment of  a  set  of  Roman 
Catholic  schools,  follow- 
ed by  a  set  of  Anglican 
schools,  and  possibly 
Mennonite,  Icelandic,  and 
others,  would  so  impair 
the  present  system  that 
any  approach  to  even  the 
present  general  stand- 
ard of  efficiency  would 
be  quite  impossible.     *     *     * 

"  We  believe  when  the  remedial  order  was  made  there  was  not 
then  available  to  Your  Excellency  full,  accurate  information  as  to  the 
working  of  the  former  system  of  schools.  We  also  believe  there  was 
lacking  the  means  of  forming  a  correct  judgment  as  to  the  effect 
upon  the  province  of  the  changes  in  direction  indicated  in  the  order. 
Being  impressed  with  this  view,  we  respectfully  submit  that  it  is  not 
yet  too  late  to  make  a  full,  deliberate  investigation  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject. Should  such  a  course  be  adopted,  we  shall  cheerfully  assist  in 
affording  the  most  complete  information  available.  *  *  *  We 
urge  most  strongly  that  upon  so  important  a  matter,  involving  the 
religious  feelings  and  convictions  of  different  classes  of  the  people  of 
Canada,  and  the  educational  interests  of  a  province  expected  to  be- 
come one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Dominion,  no  hasty  action  be 
taken;  on  the  contrary,  the  greatest  care  in  the  deliberations  should 
be  exercised,  and  a  full  and  thorough  investigation  made. 


HON.    THOMAS   GREENWAY, 
PREMIER   OF   THE    PROVINCE   OF    MANITOBA. 


CANADA. 


391 


"While  we  think  it  would  not  be  proper  to  enter  upon  a  legal 
argument  in  this  memorial,  we  deem  it  our  duty  to  briefly  call  your 
attention  to  some  legal  and  constitutional  difficulties  which  surround 
the  case.  It  is  held  by  some  authorities  that  any  action  taken  by  the 
parliament  of  Canada  upon  the  subject  would  be  irrevocable.  While 
this  may  or  may  not  be  held  sound,  it  is,  in  our  judgment,  only 
necessary  to  point  out  that  there  are  substantial  grounds  for  enter- 
taining such  an  opinion.  *  *  *  It  will  he  admitted  that  the  two 
essentials  of  any  effective  substantial  rebtoration  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  privileges  are: 
(1)  the  right  to  levy 
school  taxes;  (2)  the  right 
to  participate  in  the  leg- 
islative school  grant. 
Without  these,  separate 
wchools  cannot  be  prop- 
erly carried  on.  It  may 
I  e  held  that  the  power  to 
collect  taxes  for  school 
purposes  conferred  on 
school  boards  by  former 
educational  statutes  was 
by  virtue  of  the  provi 
sions  of  sub-section  2  of 
Section  92  of  the  British 
North  America  act,  and 
not  by  virt'ie  of  the  pro- 
visions of  Section  22, 
Manitoba  act.  If  this  be 
well  founded,  then  that 
portion  of  the  act  of  1890 
which  abolished  the  said 
right  to  collect  taxes,  is 
not  subject  to  appeal  to 
Your  Excellency;  and 
the  remedial  order,  and 
any  subsequent  legisla- 
tive act  of  the  parliament 
of  Canada,  in  so  far  as  it 
may  support  or  restore  attorney-gkneual  sifton  of  Manitoba. 
the   said  right,   will   be 

vlti'a  vires.  As  to  the  legislative  grant,  we  hold  it  is  entirely 
within  the  control  of  the  legislature  of  the  province,  that  no  part 
of  the  public  funds  of  the  province  could  be  made  available  for 
the  support  of  separate  schools  without  the  voluntary  act  of  the 
legislature.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  any  action  of  the  par- 
liament of  Canada  looking  to  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
l)rivileges  must,  to  be  of  real,  substantial  benefit,  be  supplemented 
by  the  voluntary  action  of  the  provincial  legislature.  If  this  be 
the  case,  nothing  could  be  more  unfortunate  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  people  themselves  than  a  hasty,  peremptory 
action  on  the  part  of  the  parliament  of  Canada,  because  such  probably 
would  produce  strained  relations,  and  in  the  end  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  restoring  harmony.  We  respectfully  suggest  that  all  of  the 
above  considerations  call  most  strongly  for  a  full  and  careful  deliber- 
ation and  for  such  a  course  of  action  as  will  avoid  irritating  complica- 
tions." 


392  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  above  memorial  was  the  subject  of  extended  and 
bitter  debate;  but  the  policy  of  the  Green  way  government 
was  finally  sustained  by  a  vote  of  25  to  15. 

The  Dominion  government  could,  of  course,  take  no 
action  until  the  deliverance  of  the  Manitoba  legislature 
was  laid  before  it.  This  took  place  July  3;  and  the  pub- 
lication of  the  reply  was  immediately  followed  by  widely 
scattered  rumors  to  the  effect  that  a  serious  crisis  was  im- 
pending in  the  cabinet  at  Ottawa,  involving  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  three  French  ministers.  Sir  A.  Caron,  Hon.  J. 
A.  Ouimet,  and  Hon.  A.  R.  Angers,  threatening  the  de- 
fection of  the  Roman  Catholic  supporters  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  possible  speedy  overthrow  of  the  latter. 
These  rumors  were  particularly  strong  immediately  after 
the  final  declaration  by  the  Dominion  government  of  its 
intentions  in  the  matter  of  remedial  legislation.  On  July 
8  the  Hon.  G.  E.  Foster  in  the  commons,  and  Sir  Macken- 
zie Bowell  in  the  senate,  declared  the  policy  of  the  ad- 
ministration to  be  one  of  non-interference  during  the 
present  session.  In  view  of  the  reply  of  Manitoba  to  the 
remedial  suggestion, obviously  intimating  that  the  province 
would  not  be  unwilling  to  settle  its  own  troubles,  though 
not  by  a  complete  return  to  the  system  prevailing  before 
1890,  it  was  decided  to  invite  the  government  of  Mr. 
Greenway  to  do  what  it  might  be  prepared  to  do  in  the 
way  of  settling  the  question.  Should  the  Manitoba  gov- 
ernment finally  decline  to  do  anything,  the  Dominion 
government  stood  prepared  to  propose  to  parliament  the 
measure  of  relief  which  it  thought  Manitoba  should 
afford  to  the  Roman  Catholic  minority. 

There  was  some  foundation  for  the  rumors  of  serious 
party  differences  above  referred  to.  Some  members  dis- 
approved of  the  threatened  proposal  of  remedial  legislation 
even  in  the  future.  Others,  particularly  the  French  sup- 
porters of  the  administration,  were  disappointed  that  a 
final  settlement  was  postponed,  holding  that  Manitoba,  by 
her  reply,  had  surrendered  her  right  to  legislate  in  the 
matter.  At  first  the  English-speaking  Catholics  were  no 
better  satisfied  than  their  French  co-religionists.  How- 
ever, it  was  realized  that  a  general  onslaught  upon  the 
government  would  involve  serious  consequences,  threaten- 
ing even  to  shake  the  foundations  of  confederation;  and 
the  course  of  the  administration  in  taking  every  possible 
means  to  induce  Manitoba  to  remove  the  question  from  the 
federal  arena,  was  generally  approved.  Even  within  the 
cabinet  the  differences  had  been  exaggerated.      As  ex- 


CANADA.  393 

plained  by  Mr.  Foster,  they  were  "rather  a  misunder- 
standing than  a  real  divergence  of  opinion — a  matter  of 
divergence  upon  details,  and  not  upon  principle/^ 

"  As  to  .the  question  of  principle,"  said  he,  "  that  remedial  legis- 
lation was  necessary,  and  that  it  would  be  introduced  by  this  govern- 
ment at  the  next  session  of  parliament,  to  be  called  before  the  3d  of 
January,  1896,  in  the  event  of  the  province  of  Manitoba  not  making 
a  reasonable  and  satisfactory  settlement  of  the  question" — on  this 
principle  "all  were  agreed." 

Sir  A.  Caron  and  M.  Ouimet  acquiesced  finally  in  the 
policy  of  their  colleagues.  M.  Angers,  minister  of  agricul- 
ture, however,  found  it  impossible  to  do  so,  holding  it  im- 
perative upon  the  government  to  undertake  remedial  legis- 
lation and  press  the  same  to  a  conclusion  at  once.  He  ac- 
cordingly tendered  his  resignation,  which  was  accepted. 

No  previous  instance  has  occurred  in  the  history  of 
Canada,  in  which  the  federal  administration  has  been  con- 
fronted with  the  problem  of  imposing  legislation  upon  a 
province.  Several  cases  of  disallowance  of  provincial 
legislation  have,  however,  occurred.  The  present  issue  is 
one  upon  which  opinion  among  both  liberals  and  conserva- 
tives is  divided,  the  divisions  ranging  all  the  way  from  ab- 
solute non-intervention  to  positive  federal  control  in  local 
educational  affairs.  M.  Laurier,  the  liberal  leader,  has  so 
far  maintained  an  attitude  of  reserve.  His  followers  in 
Ontario,  however,  if  the  liberal  press  may  be  taken  as  an 
indication,  object  to  the  interference  on  the  ground  that 
the  historic  liberal  doctrine  is  based  upon  a  profound  re- 
gard for  provincial  rights,  and  that  the  present  case  does 
not  justify  departure  from  the  rule.  In  Quebec,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  liberals  have  strongly  urged  drastic 
federal  action.  The  ultimate  attitude  of  the  party  will 
not  unlikely  be  determined  by  considerations  of  how  it 
will  affect  the  political  prospects  of  the  dominant  con- 
servative party. 

As  incidental  to  the  discussion,  we  note  that  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Grant,  principal  of  Queen^s  College,  Kingston,  Ont.,a 
leading  Presbyterian  divine,  has  made  a  declaration 
strongly  in  favor  of  appointing  a  commission  to  investi- 
gate the  condition  of  the  schools  of  Manitoba. 

A  somewhat  disturbing  factor  in  the  situation  has 
been  the  publication  of  a  letter  written  by  Mgr.  Gravel, 
bishop  of  Nicolet,  in  December  last,  to  Cardinal  Ledochow- 
ski,  prefect  of  the  Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide,  re- 
viewing the  history  of  the  school  question,  and  pointing 
out  a  way  in  which  the  sacred  congregation  might  aid  the 


394 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


2d  Qr„  1895. 

Said  Mgr. 


Catholics  of  Manitoba  to  secure  their  rights. 
Gravel: 

"It  might,  perhaps,  through  the  intervention  of  Cardinal 
Vaughan,  represent  among  other  things  to  the  coloniaj  minister  in 
London  that  his  predecessor,  Lord  Carnarvon,  had  given  in  his  own 
name  and  in  the  name  of  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  an  assurance  to 
the  Catliolics  of  Manitoba  that  they  would  have  their  separate  schools, 
and   that  consequently  the  crown  is  bound  in  honor  to  fulfil  these 

solemn  promises  if  it  does 
not  wish  to  alienate  the 
hearts  of  the  Catholics  of 
Canada.  An  intimation  of 
this  nature  might  have  a 
good  effect  in  reference 
to  the  judgment  which 
tlie  privy  council  will 
render  within  a  few 
months  upon  the  ques- 
tion which  the  Canadian 
government  has  sub- 
mitted to  it." 

The  intimation 
that  the  judgment  of 
the  privy  council  on 
January  ^9  last  might 
have  been  influenced 
by  representa- 
tions other  than 
those  appearing  in 
the  published  argu- 
ments, is  generally 
regarded  as  an  in- 
discretion. Its  effect 
has  been  to  strength- 

REV.  G.  M.  GRANT,  D.  D.,  I.L.  IJ.,  CU     thC     OppOSltiOU    Of 

PRINCIPAL  OP  queen's  COLLEGE,    KINGSTON,  ONT.      H    UUnibcr    Of    Outarlo 

members   to    the   enactment   of  remedial    legislation  for 
Manitoba. 

To  an  impartial  observer  the  whole  question  is  essen- 
tially a  legal  one.  It  is  not  necessarily  one  of  religion, 
nor  of  sectarian  or  non-sectarian  schools,  nor  even  of 
undue  interference  by  federal  authority  with  provincial 
rights.  In  the  framing  of  the  constitution  of  Mani- 
toba, no  remedy  for  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of 
a  minority  was  provided,  save  by  appeal  to  the  governor- 
general-in-council.  The  present  issue  is  merely  that  of 
carrying  out  the  legal  conditions  of  a  constitution  framed 
expressly  to  meet  such  circumstances  as  have  arisen  in 
connection  with  education  in  Manitoba.     Primarily,  and 


('ANADA.  395 

under  ordinary  conditions,  the  provincial  legislature  has 
exclusive  jurisdiction  over  education  within  the  province. 
.That  jurisdiction  still  remains  intact.  The  federal  re- 
medial order  need  not  be  considered  in  any  other  light  than 
as  a  mere  declaration  of  the  course  to  be  followed  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  constitution  as  interpreted  by  the  high- 
est tribunal  of  the  empire.  The  rights  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  minority  were  admittedly  infringed  by  the  school 
law  of  1890.  It  still  rests,  as  it  has  always  rested,  with 
the  legislature  which  passed  that  law,  to  provide  a  remedy. 
At  least,  that  is  the  position  taken  by  the  Dominion 
government;  and  it  will  be  only  as  a  last  resort,  when  all 
other  constitutional  methods  of  adjustment  have  failed, 
that  the  federal  authorities  may  be  expected  to  interfere 
with  what,  by  many  in  the  province,  have  been  lool<ed 
upon  as  their  cherished  rights.  The  consequences  of  an 
ultimate  refusal  of  remedy  on  the  part  of  the  province 
would,  it  seems,  be  either  a  removal  of  the  subject  of  edu- 
cation from  the  jurisdiction  under  which  it  has  remained, 
and  was  intended  to  remain,  and  its  transfer  to  federal 
control,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  a  serious  straining  of  the 
relations  which  Manitoba  bears  to  the  transcontinental 
arch  of  British  provinces,  of  which  it  has  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  keystone.* 

The  Budget.— On  May  3  Mr.  Foster  presented  the  an- 
nual budget.  For  the  current  year  a  deficit  of  14,500,000 
is  acknowledged,  accounted  for  by  the  shrinkage  in  values 
all  over  the  world  and  by  actual  reductions  in  taxation, 
rather  than  by  any  more  permanent  cause.  To  meet  the 
deficit  it  was  announced  that  a  duty  of  half  a  cent  a  pound 
would  be  placed  on  raw  sugar,  with  a  proportionate  in- 
crease in  the  duty  on  refined  sugar.  It  was  also  proposed 
to  add  20  cents  per  gallon  to  the  excise  duty  and  12^ 
cents  per  gallon  to  the  customs  duty  on  spirits.  Decided 
measures  of  retrenchment  in  public  expenditures  will  be 
carried  out,  the  reductions  being  spread  over  all  the  de- 
partments, though  the  militia  will  probably  feel  the  re- 
duction more  than  any  other  branch  of  the  public  service. 

The  budget  debate  lasted  about  thirteen  days,  the  final 
division  being  taken  May  30,  when  an  amendment  pro- 
posed by  Sir  Richard  Cartwright,  calling  for  a  tariff  for 
revenue  only,  was  rejected  by  a  strictly  party  vote  of  71  to 
117.  An  analysis  of  the  vote,  counting  pairs  and  absent 
members,  shows  the  present  composition  of  the  house  to  be 
136  conservatives  and  79  liberals. 

*  Note.— The  above  record  of  developments  in  connection  with  the  Mani- 
toba school  question  is  brought  up  to  July  12.— Ed. 


396  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Tlie  Senate  Divorce  Committee. — Considerable  excite- 
ment was  caused  June  18  by  the  announcement  that  the 
seven  members  of  the  divorce  committee  of  the  senate 
had  resigned,  declining  to  serve  further  in  that  connec- 
tion. Their  reasons,  in  substance,  were  to  the  effect  that 
it  was  impossible  to  deal  fairly  with  applicants  for  divorces, 
as  many  of  the  senators  voted  against  them  on  religious  or 
personal  grounds,  without  considering  evidence.  How- 
ever, it  being  pointed  out  that  committees  of  parliament 
cannot  resign  in  a  body,  the  members  withdrew  their  res- 
ignations. In  only  one  case  since  1868  has  the  senate  re- 
jected an  application  reported  upon  favorably  by  the  com- 
mittee. Since  confederation  only  eight  petitions  have 
been  rejected:  one  of  them,  the  Walker  case,  had  passed 
the  senate,  but  was  voted  down  in  the  commons.  In  the 
present  Odell  case,  over  which  the  difficulty  arose,  the 
senate  had  merely  postponed  the  hearing  of  the  case  pend- 
ing certain  action  of  the  Quebec  courts  which  bore  upon 
the  parties  concerned. 

Four  provinces — Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  and  British  Columbia — retain  divorce 
courts  as  possessed  by  them  before  confederation.  Par- 
liament has,  therefore,  jurisdiction  in  divorce  cases  from 
Ontario,  Quebec,  Manitoba,  and  the  Northwest  terri- 
tories. 

The  Public  Debt. — The  following  are  the  figures  of 
the  public  debt  statement  at  the  end  of  June: 

PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  CANADA. 


1       1894. 

1895. 

$305,071,802 

ft315.867.015 

Assets 

64,542,8961      69,046,142 

Total  net  debt 

$240,528,9061  $246,820,873 

Report  of  Commission  on  Prohibition. — After 
three  years  of  labor  and  an  expenditure  of  $69,376,  the 
royal  commission  on  prohibition  submitted  its  report 
April  24.  Four  of  the  commissioners.  Sir  J.  Hickson, 
Mr.  H.  S.  Macdonald,  Mr.  E.  F.  Clarke,  and  M.  N.  A. 
Gigault,  agree  on  a  judgment  in  the  main  unfavorable  to 
the  enactment  of  a  prohibitory  law.  The  remaining  com- 
missioner. Rev.  Dr.  McLeod  of  Fredericton,  N.  B.,  sub- 
mits a  minority  report  strongly  favoring  prohibition,  con- 
demning the  license  system  and  the  Gothenburg  plan,  and 
asserting  that  public  sentiment  in  Canada  is  ready  to  sup- 
port and  enforce  a  prohibitory  law.  The  following  are  the 
most  pertinent  passages  of  the  majority  report: 


CANADA.  397 

"  The  enactment  of  a  prohibitory  law  for  the  whole  Dominion 
would  prejudicially  affect  the  business,  industrial,  and  commercial 
interests  of  the  country.  The  effect  of  the  law  on  the  federal,  pro- 
vincial, and  municipal  revenues  from  the  traffic  would  be  to  practi- 
cally wipe  them  out.  In  Quebec  the  wiping  out  of  so  large  a  sum  as 
$600,000  would  prove  severely  embarrassing.     *    *    * 

"The  commissioners  cannot  agree  with  the  view  so  earnestly  put 
forward  by  some  church  organizations  and  many  witnesses,  that  the 
recognition  of  the  traffic  by  licensing  it  is  an  immoral  and  a  national 
sin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  undersigned  are  of  opinion  that  the 
combined  system  of  license  and  regulation,  which  for  centuries  has 
been  the  rule  of  civilized  nations,  with  such  amendments  as  experi- 
ence has  proved,  and  shall  from  time  to  time  prove,  to  be  needful,  in 
order  to  make  it  more  efficient,  should  not  be  departed  from.  *  *  * 
The  aim  of  any  system  of  regulating  or  prohibiting  liquor  traffic 
is  to  lessen  or  extinguish  the  evils  which  arise  from  intemperance. 
This  would  not  be  accomplished  by  the  enactment  of  a  law  prohibit- 
ing the  manufacture,  importation,  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
throughout  the  Dominion;  and  if  such  a  law  were  passed  it  could 
not  be  efficiently  enforced.  *  *  *  The  payment  of  compensa- 
tion could  not  justly  be  avoided  in  the  case  of  those  who  by  such 
legislation  would  have  their  business,  which  they  have  been  carrying 
on  under  the  sanction  of  the  state,  abruptly  put  an  end  to,  and  their 
capital  in  many  cases  almost  swept  away,  and  in  all  considerably 
diminished.     *    *    * 

"A  complete  register  of  all  manufacturers,  dealers  in,  or  vendors 
of  liquor,  of  every  description,  throughout  the  Dominion,  classified  in 
cities,  towns,  and  districts,  is  much  to  be  desired.  *  *  *  The 
relation,  if  any,  of  the  number  of  licensed  places  to  the  number  and 
character  of  crimes  and  offenses  committed  in  each  district,  could  be 
readily  traced.  The  officers  of  the  Dominion  government  charged 
with  the  collection  of  the  special  tax  would  be  able  to  render  efficient 
aid  to  the  provincial  and  municipal  officers  in  preventing  the  illicit 
sale  of  intoxicants. 

"The  treatment  of  habitual  drunkards  is  a  subject  requiring 
the  most  careful  attention.  *  *  *  The  methods  at  present  in 
vogue  are  not  only  inefficient,  but  as  a  general  rule  demoralizing. 

*  *  *  The  same  offenders  are  again  and  again  in  the  course  of  a 
year  brought  before  the  courts  to  be  subjected  to  the  same  penalties. 

*  *  *  The  associations  and  experiences  of  the  common  gaols  of 
the  country  cannot  be  considered  to  have  either  a  deterrent  or  elevat- 
ing influence  upon  such  persons.  The  young  return  from  their  en- 
forced retirement  on  each  occasion  with  blunted  moral  feelings,  and 
a  lessened  regard  for  law  and  order  in  general,  and  the  hardened  of- 
fender with  those  of  complete  indifference.  *  *  *  The  pres- 
ent plan  of  committing  drunkards  to  the  common  gaols  for  short 
periods  after  a  second  or  third  offense  has  been  committed  should  be 
abandoned.  Provision  should  be  made  for  the  establishment  of 
places  to  which  they  could  be  committed  for  such  time  as  might  be 
deemed  desirable  on  probation,  to  be  released  at  the  end  of  such 
terms  only  on  the  certificate  of  the  judge  or  magistrate  committing 
them;  whilst  under  this  restraint  they  should  be  subjected  to 
such  treatment  as  might  be  deemed  fitting  and  calculated  to  lead  to 
their  reformation,  being  in  the  meantime  made  to  work  so  as  to  earn 
as  much  toward  their  own  support  and  the  support  of  those  depend- 
ent upon  them  as  practicable. 


308  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d Qr..  1895. 

"Convictions  for  second  or  subsequent  offenses  as  such  against 
the  license  laws  by  the  holders  of  licenses  amount  in  njany  places  to 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the  cases  which  happen,  and  hence  what 
the  law  contemplated,  viz.,  heavier  penalties  for  repeated  offenses, 
are  not  inflicted  as  they  should  be.     *    *    * 

"The  licensing  of  saloons  should  be  put  an  end  to.  There  is  no 
justification  for  their  existence  founded  upon  necessity,  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  most  of  the  evils  which  arise  out  of  the  immoderate  use  of 
intoxicants  have  their  origin  in  or  are  encouraged  by  the  existence  of 
these  saloons.  The  commissioners  are  of  opinion  that  no  one  should 
be  granted  a  license  for  any  saloon  or  restaurant  in  which  meals  are 
not  regularly  supplied  to  all  who  may  require  them,  and  that  the  law 
should  not  be  evaded  by  such  practices  as  are  now  resorted  to;  that 
the  authority  to  sell  should  be  restricted  in  these  places  to  selling 
only  to  those  who  partake  of  and  pay  for  meals.  They  are  also  of 
opinion  that  no  one  should  be  given  a  license  for  an  inn  or  tavern 
which  has  not  the  necessary  accommodation  in  the  shape  of  rooms 
and  beds  and  facilities  for  supplying  meals  to  a  reasonable  number  of 
persons  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

"The  licensing  of  the  compounding  or  mixing  of  various  kinds 
of  liquors  so  as  to  produce  new  brands,  could  with  advantage  be  dis- 
continued. *  *  *  The  system  involves  much  risk  of  illicit  production. 
There  is  undoubtedly  much  adulteration  of  liquor  carried  on,  and  the 
commissioners  would  recommend  that  inspection  be  made  more  gen- 
eral and  more  frequent,  especially  amongst  the  retail  establish- 
ments.    *    *    * 

"Shop  licenses  should  be  very  materially  reduced,  and  the  sale 
of  intoxicants  should  in  every  case  be  wholly  separated  from  the  sale 
of  groceries  or  other  domestic  supplies. 

"The  undersigned  believe  that  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  to 
have  such  amendments  of  the  license  laws  enacted  as  would  provide 
that  in  case  of  a  second  conviction  of  a  breach  of  any  of  the  provisions 
thereof,  if  the  licensee  be  a  tenant,  the  lease  shall  become  void,  if  the 
lessor  so  desires,  and  that  in  case  of  a  third  or  subsequent  conviction, 
the  license  itself  shall  be  forfeited,  and  the  same  premises  shall  not 
be  licensed  for  a  term  of  years.  In  all  counties  and  cities  where  the 
Scott  act  is  now  in  force,  or  in  which  it  may  hereafter  be  put  in 
force,  the  undersigned  consider  it  would  be  an  advantage  to  have  a  vote 
taken  once  in  every  three  years  on  the  simple  question,  '  Shall  the  Scott 
act  be  continued  in  force  for  the  ensuing  three  years?'  the  vote  be- 
ing simply  yes  or  no.  The  law  might  be  so  amended  as  to  admit  of 
this  vote  being  taken  in  connection  with  the  municipal  elections.  In 
like  manner,  in  every  parish  or  municipality  where  a  local  option 
law  is  in  force,  a  vote  should  be  taken  every  three  years  on  the  sim- 
ple question,  'Shall  licenses  issue  in V  and  the  answer  to  this 

question  should  settle  the  matter  for  the  ensuing  three  years.    *   *  * 

"The  undersigned  believe  that  the  imposition  of  high  license  fees, 
a  more  strict  supervision  of  the  places  licensed,  a  thorough  inspec- 
tion of  liquors,  and  an  efficient  enforcement  of  the  law,  would  ma- 
terially improve  the  character  of  the  establishments  where  liquor  is 
sold,  and  put  an  end  to  many  of  the  evils  which  now  result  from  the 
traffic.  A  law  which  punishes  the  citizen  who  vends  liquors  contrarv 
to  its  provisions,  yet  permits  the  citizen  who  purchases  what  is  sold 
illegally  to  escape  punishment,  cannot  be  considered  other  than  an 
unequal  and  one-sided  law.  The  undersigned  are  of  opinion  that 
both  parties  to  what  is  an  illegal  transaction  should  be  made  equally 
guilty  in  the  eye  of  the  law.     *    *     * 


CANADA.  399 

"Discomfort,  badly  cooked  food,  and  ill-ventilated  dwellings, 
have  much  to  answer  for  in  connection  with  intemperance.  Attention 
to  these  matters,  and  more  especially  to  the  training  of  the  female 
portion  of  the  population  in  a  knowledge  of  domestic  economy  and 
household  duties,  the  undersigned  are  satisfied  would  have  an  elevat- 
ing and  most  beneficial  effect." 

On  June  17  the  house  of  commons  rejected  by  a  vote 
of  68  to  57  a  motion  introduced  by  Mr.  Flint  to  the  effect: 

"  That  in  the  opinion 
of  this  house,  the  manu- 
facture, importation,  and 
sale  of  intoxicating 
liquors  in  Canada,  except 
for  sacramental,  scien- 
tific, manufacturing,  and 
medicinal  purposes, 
should  be  prohibited 
by  law." 

Miscellaneous. — 

The  trial  of  Harry  P. 
and  Dallas  T.  Hyams 
on  the  charge  of  hav- 
ing, on  January  16, 
1893,  murdered  Will- 
iam C.  Wells  in  their 
warehouse,  No.  28 
Colborne  street,  To- 
ronto, to  secure  $34,- 
000  of  life  insurance 
held  by  him  in  the 
New  York  Sun  and 
Covenant  Mutual  In- 
su ranee  companies, 
began  May  9.  A  sis- 
ter of  Wells  married 
Harry  P.  Hyams  subsequently  to  the  alleged  murder;  and 
it  was  her  husband's  attempt  to  place  a  very  large  insur- 
ance on  her  life  which  led  to  investigation  of  the  death 
of  Wells,  and  the  arrest  of  the  twin  Hyams  brothers. 
The  trial  attracted  much  attention;  but  ended  abortively, 
owing  to  disagreement  of  the  jury.  The  accused,  it  is  ex- 
pected, will  be  tried  again  at  the  autumn  assizes. 

On  May  4  the  jury  in  the  trial  of  Clara  Ford,  charged 
with  the  murder  of  Frank  Westwood  (p.  160),  brought  in 
a  verdict  of  not  guilty. 

The  report  Of  the  commission  appointed  to  investigate 
the  affairs  of  the  University  of  Toronto  (p.  156),  was  sub- 


ilOS.  GEORGE  W.  ROSS,   M.  i'.  1'., 
MINISTER  OF  EDUCATION    FOR  ONTARIO. 


400  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

mitted  to  the  government  about  May  1.  The  finding  was 
in  favor  of  the  faculty  on  the  various  points  in  dispute, 
it  being  dechired  that  the  council  of  the  university  had 
acted  clearly  within  their  rights  in  the  matter  of  enforc- 
ing discipline. 

On  May  24  the  following  birthday  honors,  with  others, 
were  conferred  by  Queen  Victoria:  The  Earl  of  Aberdeen, 
governor-general,  had  his  title  raised  to  the  first  class  (G. 
C.  M.  G.);  Hon.  J.  C.  Schultz,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  late  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  Manitoba,  and  Hon.  H.  G.  Joly,  ex- 
premier  of  Quebec,  were  made  K.  C.  M.  G/s;  W.  H.  Hings- 
ton,  M.  D.,  a  prominent  physician,  of  Montreal,  Que., 
was  knighted;  and  the  title  of  C.  M.  G.  was  conferred  upon 
Mr.  A.  R.  Milne,  collector  of  customs  at  Victoria,  B.  C, 
for  his  services  in  connection  with  the  Bering  sea  negotia- 
tions. 

On  June  6  a  monument  in  memory  of  the  late  Sir  John 
A.  Macdonald  was  unveiled  in  Dominion  square,  Montreal, 
Que.,  by  the  governor-general,  Lord  Aberdeen.  The  fig- 
ure of  Sir  John,  in  bronze,  is  placed  under  a  canopy,  on 
the  top  of  which  is  a  female  figure  representing  Canada. 

Acting  under  instructions  from  Archbishop  Duhamel, 
the  two  Roman  Catholic  members  of  the  commission  of 
three  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  separate  schools  in  Ot- 
tawa, resigned  early  in  June.  It  is  stated  that  the  ground 
for  this  action  was  the  opinion  that  the  inquiry  was  a  state 
interference,  menacing  the  prerogatives  of  the  church,  and 
especially  affecting  the  Christian  Brothers,  many  of  whom 
teach  in  the  schools.  New  men,  it  is  announced,  will  be 
appointed  by  the  education  department  to  carry  on  the  in- 
vestigation. 

On  April  25  afire  involving  a  loss  of  $750,000,  occurred 
in  the  mammoth  tobacco  factory  of  AV.  C.  McDonald  in 
Hochelaga,  Montreal.  A  great  many  of  the  employes, 
chiefly  girls,  were  injured,  some  fatally,  by  jumping  from 
the  upper  floors. 

In  Tottenham,  Ont.,  June  18,  fire  destroyed  about 
eighty  houses;  loss,  about  $150,000;  insurance,  about  $75,- 
000. 

THE  NEWFOUNDLAND  CONFERENCE. 

Four  delegates  representing  the  government  of  New- 
foundland— Messrs.  Robert  Bond,  Edward  Morris,  George 
H.  Emerson,  and  William  H.  Harwood — arrived  in  Ottawa, 
Ont.,  April  3,  to  discuss  with  the  delegates  appointed  by 
the  government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  the  question 


THE  NEWPOUNDLANt)  CONPEkENOfi.  401 

of  the  eiitntnce  of  Newfoundland  into  confederation. 
The  sessions  began  April  4,  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell  being 
chosen  to  preside.  Details  of  the  discussion  were  kept 
officially  secret,  and  strong  hopes  were  entertained  in  Can- 
ada that  the  union  would  be  consummated.  However,  it  was 
announced  about  the  middle  of  May  that  the  conference 
had  failed  to  accomplish  any  practical  result,  and  that  ne- 
gotiations for  union  had  been  broken  off.  It  is  not  yet 
known  to  what  extent,  if  to  any,  the  French  shore  diffi- 
culty was  considered:  the  delegates  do  not  seem  to  have 
got  to  that  point  in  their  discussions.  The  disposal  of  the 
Newfoundland  debt  proved  to  be  the  insuperable  obstacle. 
Neither  Canada  nor  Newfoundland  was  able  to  offer  terms 
which  the  other  felt  itself  in  a  position  to  accept. 

The  debt  of  Newfoundland  at  the  end  of  June  is  com- 
posed in  round  numbers  as  follows: 

NEWFOUNDLAND   DEBT. 

Inscribed  stock $2,500,000 

Government  debentures 7,500.000 

Railway  liability 4,000,000 

Savings  bank  account,  exclusive  of  sums  invested  in  government 

bonds 1,000,000 

Total $15,000,000 

To  this  must  be  added  a  floating  debt  of  about  $3,000,- 
000,  besides  the  loan  negotiated  by  Colonial  Secretary 
Bond  since  the  close  of  the  conference — $2,500,000 — all  of 
which  brings  the  total  debt  of  the  colony  at  the  end  of 
June  up  to  the  neighborhood  of  $20,000,000.  The  last- 
mentioned  item,  of  course,  did  not  enter  into  the  delibera- 
tions. 

Of  the  funded  debt  of  Newfoundland  Canada  offered  to 
assume  an  amount  equivalent  to  $50  per  capita  of  the 
island's  population  of  207,000— namely,  $10,350,000.  Can- 
ada's own  debt  is  about  $50  2^er  capita.  The  total 
funded  debt  of  Newfoundland,  however,  including  obli- 
gations for  completion  of  the  remaining  half  of  the  rail- 
way to  Port-aux-Barques — a  public  work  of  great  impor- 
tance to  agricultural,  mining,  and  lumbering  interests — 
amounts  to  about  $75  jwr  capita.  The  Newfoundland 
delegates  insisted  that  the  Dominion  should  assume  all 
debts  and  liabilities  of  the  colony.  Thus  an  item  of  about 
$5,000,000,  on  which  Newfoundland  would  have  had  to 
provide  interest  out  of  the  subsidies  received  from  the 
Dominion  for  provincial  expenditure,  blocked  the  nego- 
tiations. Both  Canada  and  Newfoundland  appealed  to 
the  imperial  government  to  assume  this  item  of  debt;  but 
the  latter  refused  to  interfere  in  the  financial  affairs  of  the 

Vol.  5.— S6. 


402 


At'FAIRS  IN  AMfiRlOA. 


2d  Qr.,  1895 


colony  except  after  report  by  an  English  royal  commission, 
which,  it  was  intimated,  would  be  granted  when  requested. 
On  receipt  of  this  reply  from  the  Marquis  of  Kipon,  im- 
perial colonial  secretary,  all  hopes  of  union  at  present  were 
at  once  abandoned. 

The  following  were  in  detail  the  terms  which  Canada 
offered  to  Newfoundland: 

"Canada  will  as- 
sume of  the  present  debt 
of  Newfoundland  $8,350,- 
000.  Canada  will  assume 
an  excess  of  debt  over 
the  foregoing  amounting 
to  $2,000,000;  total  $10, - 
350,000.  On  the  excess 
of  $2,000,000  Canada  will 
pay  interest  at  five  per 
cent  pc?'  annum  half- 
yearly. 

"  Canada  will  pay  as 
yearly  allowance  to  New- 
foundland the  following 
sums:  Allowance  for 
legislation,  $50,000;  sub- 
sidy of  80  cents  per  head 
of  her  population  uj)  to 
400,000,  which  at  the 
present  population  of 
207,000  equals  $165,600. 
Payments  to  be  made  on 
the  population  of  each 
decennial  census  after 
the  union.  Allowance 
for  crown  lands  and  rights 
of  minerals  and  metals 
and  timber  therein  and 
thereon,  $150,000;  inter- 
est at  five  per  cent  on 
$2,000,000  excess  debt, 
$100,000;  total  $465,600. 
"Canada  will  maintain  all  that  class  of  services  in  Newfoundland 
which  fall  under  the  head  of  general  or  Dominion  services.  These 
comprise  governor's  salary,  customs,  excise,  savings  banks,  public 
works  (of  a  Dominion  character),  crown  lands,  administration  of  justice, 
postoflftce,  steamship  services,  marine  and  lighthouses,  fisheries,  pen- 
itentiaries, weights  and  measures,  and  gas  inspection,  arts,  agriculture, 
and  statistics,  quarantine  and  immigration,  insurance  inspection, 
geological  survey. 

"  Canada  is  to  maintain,  in  regard  to  steamship  services,  passen- 
ger and  mail  communication  in  at  least  as  efficient  a  manner  as  at 
present  as  follows:  Between  the  mainland  and  Newfoundland,  be- 
tween Newfoundland  and  Great  Britain,  the  coastal  steam  services 
east  and  west,  and  between  Labrador  and  Newfoundland. 

"In  lieu  of  expenditure  in  militia  in  Newfoundland,  until  such 
time  as  parliament  may  deem  it  necessary  to  introduce  a  more  gen- 


HON.  ROBERT  BOND, 
LEADER  OP  THE   NEWFOUNDLAND   DELEGATION. 


THE  NEWI^OUNDLAND  CONFERENCE. 


4m 


eral  militia  system,  Canada  will  grant  $40,000  annually  toward  the 

maintenance  of  a  police  constabulary  to  consist  of men,  and  to  be 

as  to  efficiency,  equipment,  and  discipline  up  to  tlie  standards  ap- 
proved by  the  minister  of  militia.  This  force  is  to  be  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Dominion  government  for  use  anywhere  in  Canada  in  cases  of 
general  and  serious  emergency. 

"  The  fishermen  of  Newfoundland  are  to  participate  equally  with 
those  of  Canada  in  any  bounties  to  fishermen  which  may  be  granted 
by  the  general  government  at  any  time. 

' '  Canada  will  take  at 
a  fair  valuation  the  SS. 
Feoria,  now  in  use  by  the 
government  of  New- 
foundland for  the  fishery 
service. 

"Newfoundland 
shall  be  represented  in 
the  senate  by  four  sena- 
tors, and  in  the  house  of 
commons  by  ten  repre- 
sentatives." 

To  sum  lip  the 
leading  points  on 
which  differences 
arose — Canada  offer- 
ed Newfoundland  in 
round  numbers  1500,- 
000  a  year  all  told, 
whereas  the  islanders 
asked  for  $650,000  a 
year.  Instead  of  the 
110,350,000  debt 
which  Canada  offered 
to  assume,  the  island- 
ers wished  the  Do- 
minion to  shoulder  a 
debt  of  about  $17,- 
000,000.  The  allowance  which  Canada  proposed  for  her  as- 
sumption of  the  crown  lands  of  Newfoundland  was  insuffi- 
cient by  about  $75,000  to  meet  the  islanders'  demands.  New- 
foundland  asked  that  $150,000  a  year  be  paid  in  bounties  to 
its  fishermen,  instead  of  their  sharing  equally  witli  Cana- 
dian fishermen,  as  proposed,  in  all  bounties  granted  by  the 
general  government.  The  island  colony  asked  for  an  al- 
lowance to  police  constabulary  in  lieu  of  a  battery  of  ar- 
tillery, and  in  reply  Canada  offered  $40,000  a  year  in  lieu  of 
militia. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  three  mtiin 
points  in  which  there  was  a  conflict  of  opinion  a\  ere  the 
debt  to  be  assumed,  the  allowance  for  crown  lands,  and 


HON.    EDWARD   MOKRIS, 
DELEGATE  TO  THE  NEWFOl'NDI.AND  CONFEIiKNCK. 


404  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  MQr.,  I8d5. 

the  fishery  bounties.  The  debt  proposed  by  Newfound- 
land to  be  assumed  by  Canada  included  the  construction  of 
the  island  railway.  Instead  of  agreeing  to  undertake  this, 
the  Canadian  delegates  offered  a  subsidy  of  16,500  a  mile, 
and  a  further  subsidy,  when  completed,  of  $35,000. 

The  considerations  which  convinced  the  Canadian  dele- 
gates that  it  would  be  impossible  to  assume  the  whole 
debt  of  Newfoundland,  were  the  following: — The  Domin- 
ion debt  is  already  large,  and  the  ministry  are  this  year 
confronted  with  a  deficit  of  $4,500,000.  Retrenchment, 
rather  than  increased  obligation,  is  therefore  the  order 
of  the  day.  Moreover,  by  just  as  much  as  the  new 
liabilities  would  have  exceeded  those  assumed  for  the 
other  provinces  at  confederation,  by  so  much  might  the 
Dominion  be  called  upon  to  compensate  the  other  prov- 
inces. As  the  assumption  of  ))rovincial  debts  by  the  fed- 
eral government  was  computed  on  a  basis  of  population, 
and  as  the  excess  in  the  case  of  Newfoundland  was  about 
$5,000,000  for  about  200,000  peoi)le,  the  Dominion  gov- 
ernment, by  assuming  this  excess,  might  have  rendered  it- 
self liable  to  provincial  claims  amounting  to  $5,000,000 
for  every  200,000  inhabitants  in  Canada.  It  would  have 
been  to  create  a  dangerous  precedent  affecting  the  rela- 
tion of  the  federal  government  to  the  debts  of  the  prov- 
inces. 

On  the  other  hand,  equally  grave  difficulties  stood  in 
the  way  of  Newfoundland's  acceptance  of  the  terms  pro- 
posed. She  would  have  had  to  continue  the  maintenance 
of  certain  local  services  (government  house,  attorney- 
general,  provincial  treasurer  and  secretary,  board  of  works, 
sheriffs,  courts,  road,  poor,  education,  agricultural  grants, 
etc.),  which  now  cost  $738,000,  to  cover  which  only  a  lit- 
tle over  $500,000  would  be  available.  Besides  this  short- 
age the  colony  would  have  had  to  grapple  with  the  inter- 
est on  the  7^  million  dollars  or  so  which  Canada  declined 
to  assume.  These  accumulated  shortages  would  probably 
have  to  be  raised  by  direct  taxation,  and  after  five  years 
would  be  augmented  by  another  $150,000,  when  the  col- 
ony would  have  to  work  its  transinsular  railway  system, 
which  the  contractor  is  now  doing. 

The  confederation  scheme  having  failed,  the  New- 
foundland government  has  been  forced  to  adopt  a  drastic 
policy  of  retrenchment,  including  the  curtailment  of  every 
branch  of  the  public  service.  This  has  evoked  severe  con- 
demnation from  many  quarters,  even  from  supporters  of 
the  government.     The  proposed  reductions  in  the  salaries 


THE  NEWFOUNDLAND  CONFERENCE.  405 

of  the  governor  and  the  judges  have  been  the  object  of 
special  attack. 

In  order  to  meet  obligations  maturing  June  30  and  in 
the  near  future,  recourse  was  had  to  a  foreign  loan.  Ef- 
forts to  float  one  in  the  United  States  failed,  owing,  it  is 
said,  to  the  refusal  of  the  imperial  authorities  to  give  the 
lenders  a  preferential  lien  on  the  customs  revenue  of  the 
colony,  on  the  ground  that  it  Would  endanger  the  interests 
of  British  subjects.  Mr.  Bond,  however,  finally  succeeded 
in  the  latter  part  of  May,  in  securing  through  a  Montreal 
house  a  4  per  cent  40-year  loan  from  a  London  (Eng.) 
syndicate,  of  ^2,076,000,  the  surplus  of  which,  it  is  hoped, 
will  meet  all  the  requirements  of  tlie  government  until  a 
revival  of  commerce  sets  in.  As  conditions  of  the  loan, 
the  ministry  promised  drastic  retrenchment  of  expendi- 
ture and  an  expert  inquiry  into  financial  affairs.  The  in- 
terest on  the  debt  and  the  sinking  fund  for  its  liquidation 
are  to  be  a  first  charge  on  the  revenue  of  the  colony. 
Had  the  effort  to  float  a  loan  failed,  the  colony  must  have 
defaulted,  which  would  probably  have  involved  a  loss  of 
its  charter  and  its  reversion  to  the  rank  of  a  crown  colony 
to  be  governed  by  a  British  agent  in  the  interest  of  the 
bondholders.  Not  a  few  of  the  business  people  and  prop- 
erty owners  in  the  island  would  prefer  that  method  of  ad- 
ministration. 

The  financial  difficulty  need  not  prove  a  permanent 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  union  with  Canada.  It  is  possible 
that  the  imperial  government  may  yet  be  induced  to  as- 
sume some  of  tlie  obligations  of  the  colony;  and,  even 
without  this,  an  improvement  in  the  finances  of  Canada 
or  of  Newfoundland  may  in  the  future  enable  them  to 
meet  upon  the  common  ground  of  smaller  mutual  de- 
mands. 

The  relief  work  carried  on  under  Sir  Herbert  H.  Mur- 
ray, imperial  commissioner  for  that  purpose,  has  done 
much  to  alleviate  distress  in  the  island.  It  has,  however, 
been  merely  supplementary  to  large  private  benefactions, 
and  has  been  confined  to  cases  of  actual  distress. 

Sir  Graham  Bower,  secretary  to  ex-Governor  Sir  Henry 
Loch  of  Cape  Colony,  late  high  commissioner  for  South 
Africa,  has  been  appointed  governor  of  Newfoundland,  to 
succeed  Sir  Terence  O'Brien. 

The  directors  and  managers  of  the  defunct  Commer- 
cial bank  of  St.  John's  are  to  be  tried  on  the  charge  of 
having  officially  made  false  statements  us  to  the  condition 
of  the  bank. 


406  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

The  present  trend  of  affairs  in  Central  America  points 
to  the  formation  of  another  Central  American  union  at  no 
distant  date.  The  five  republics  would  thus  acquire,  as 
against  the  outside  world,  an  added  strength  which  other- 
wise would  be  unattainable.  In  June  Presidents  Gutierrez 
of  Salvador,  Bonilla  of  Honduras,  and  Zelaya  of  Nicaragua, 
conferred,  and  are  said  to  have  reached  a  practical  under- 
standing, on  the  matter  of  preventing  exiles  from  any  one 
of  their  respective  countries  residing  in  any  other  from 
fomenting  revolutions.  Such  an  agreement  removes  one 
serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  federation  scheme. 

It  is  also  reported  that  Guatemala,  Costa  Rica,  and 
Salvador  have  negotiated  treaties  of  close  alliance. 

The  state  department  at  Washington  has  lately  taken 
up  the  case  of  the  American  Charles  W.  Renton,  who  was 
murdered  in  March,  1894,  at  Brewer's  Lagoon,  Honduras. 
The  motive  for  the  crime  was  robbery,  and  it  is  said  that 
it  was  committed  with  collusion  of  the  local  authorities. 
Renton  had  received  valuable  banana  concessions  from  the 
Honduras  government,  and  his  competitors  wished  to  get 
rid  of  him.  The  murderers,  it  is  said,  took  possession  of 
his  plantation  after  committing  the  deed.  Damages  to 
the  amount  of  about  $30,000  are  claimed  in  the  interest  of 
the  family  of  the  victim. 

COLOMBIA. 

At  the  beginning  of  April  scattered  bands  of  rebels 
were  reported  as  still  holding  important  vantage  ground 
between  the  government  troops  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
The  Caro  government  represents  the  church  party.  The 
demand  of  the  rebels,  with  whom  the  liberals  were  largely 
in  sympathy,  Avas  for  freedom  unmixed  with  clerical  dom- 
ination (p.  165).  However,  official  advices  received  April 
10  announced  that  the  rebellion  had  been  crushed,  and  a 
normal  condition  of  peace  restored. 

YENEZUELA. 

The  new  cabinet  formed  at  the  end  of  March  with  a 
view  to  harmonizing  the  discordant  political  interests  in 
the  republic  (p.  164),  is  said  to  be  giving  general  satisfac- 
tion, its  work  being  facilitated  by  favorable  harvest  re- 
ports and  the  spread  of  prosperity.  Many  expatriated  cit- 
izens, with  their  families,  who  have  been  living  in  the 
United  States  and  elsewhere  since  the  civil  war  of  1892, 


BRAZIL.  407 

are  now  returning  to  Venezuela  under  the  general  amnesty 
granted  in  tiie  latter  part  of  1894. 

A  new  baniiing  law  has  been  passed  by  the  Venezuelan 
congress,  the  primary  purpose  of  which  is  to  expand  the 
circulating  medium,  to  increase  the  privilege  of  borrowers, 
to  negotiate  long-time  loans,  and  to  throw  additional  safe- 
guards around  the  notes  issued  by  the  banks.  The  new 
law  permits  the  establishment  of  banks  of  three  characters 
— namely,  banks  of  issue;  banks  of  deposit,  with  authority 
to  issue  bills  of  exchange;  and  banks  designed  to  lend 
money  on  mortgages.  The  latter  are  established  in  the 
interest  of  the  agricultural  classes,  among  whom  money  is 
scarce;  and  are  permitted  to  make  loans  for  periods  of  not 
less  than  ten  nor  more  than  sixty  years. 

BRAZIL. 

Almost  continuously  since  the  inauguration  of  Presi- 
dent De  Moraes  in  November,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  873)  the 
friends  of  ex-President  Peixoto  have  caused  trouble  by 
their  efforts  to  restore  the  latter  to  power.  Even  as  late 
as  April  28  serious  street  fights  occurred  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  between  the  soldiers,  Avho  favored  Peixoto,  and 
the  police.  Toward  the  end  of  June,  however,  the  rather 
sudden  death  of  ex-President  Peixoto  removed  at  least  one 
occasion  for  continued  agitation.  Senator  Machado  has 
succeeded  to  the  leadership  of  the  extreme  republican 
party;  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  spirit  of  opposition  to  the 
present  regime  will  now  die  out. 

One  of  the  most  important  engagements  between  the 
government  troops  and  the  long-persistent  rebels  in  the 
state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  was  fought  near  Santa  Ana  in 
that  state  on  June  24.  The  insurgents,  under  Admiral 
Saldanha  da  Gama,  one  of  the  chief  leaders  in  the  naval 
revolt  of  1893-4,  held  out  most  bravely  for  five  hours 
against  a  superior  force,  but  were  finally  compelled  to  give 
up  the  struggle.  Admiral  Saldanha  da  Gama  was  left 
among  the  dead,  slain,  it  is  said,  by  his  own  hand  when 
he  saw  the  hopelessness  of  the  situation.  His  body,  and 
those  of  his  followers,  are  said  to  have  been  horribly  mu- 
tilated by  the  victors.  President  De  Moraes,  however, 
ordered  search  to  be  made  of  the  battlefield,  and  the  bodies 
to  be  given  honorable  burial;  and  congress  ordered  that 
special  services  be  held  in  memory  of  Da  Gama. 

Advices  at  the  end  of  June  are  to  the  effect  that,  in 
order  to  end  the  revolt  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  the  federal 
government  is  willing  to  make  concessions,  including  the 


408  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

retirement  of  Governor  Castilho  after  the  local  congress 
chooses  his  successor;  an  assimilation  of  the  constitution 
of  the  state  to  those  of  other  states;  and  the  restoration, 
with  free  pardon,  of  all  members  of  the  army  and  navy 
who  have  taken  part  in  past  revolts,  including  Admiral 
Mello. 

THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

The  general  condition  of  affairs  in  the  Argentine  Re- 
public during  the  present  quarter  has  been  tranquil,  though 
the  breaking  out  of  an  insurrection  in  the  province  of  Cor- 
rientes  about  June  1,  aiming  at  the  deposition  of  the  gov- 
ernor, may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  not  all  the  causes  of 
local  discontent  have  been  removed  as  a  result  of  the  elec- 
tion to  the  presidency  of  Senor  Uriburu  and  the  formation 
of  a  new  cabinet  of  Rocaists  and  Mitrists  (p.  168).  The 
disturbance,  however,  proved  of  little  moment.  Its  ring- 
leaders, it  is  said,  were  aided  by  adventurers  who  had  been 
engaged  in  the  rebellion  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil. 

ECUADOR. 

Another  in  the  long  list  of  revolutions  which  have  been 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  Ecuador,  has  ended  after  a  con- 
tinuance of  about  two  months.  This  uprising  has  been 
more  serious  and  general  than  most  of  the  revolts  to  which 
the  Latin-American  states  are  so  constantly  subject. 

Toward  the  end  of  April  the  government  of  Ecuador 
was  info-med  of  an  uprising  in  the  province  of  Carehi; 
and  General  Sarasti,  minister  of  war,  was  sent  to  restore 
peace.  His  efforts,  however,  availed  little,  as  he  found  the 
revolution  very  general  and  almost  the  whole  country 
seemed  to  be  opposed  to  the  government.  The  cause  of 
the  revolution  was  the  dissatisfaction  which  grew  out  of 
President  Oordero's  election.  The  political  parties  in  Ec- 
uador are  known  as  the  liberal  and  the  church  parties.  It 
was  as  candidate  of  the  church  party  that  Cordero  was 
elected  to  the  presidency.  Because,  however,  he  did  not 
give  to  members  of  his  own  party  the  recognition  that 
they  desired,  they  were  willing  to  join  their  liberal  oppo- 
nents in  revolting  against  the  government.  Thus  the  re- 
bellion was  not  the  revolt  of  any  single  party;  but  by  a 
union  of  the  two  existing  and  opposing  parties  it  became 
at  once  more  general  and  more  formidable.  Another  event 
which  added  to  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  government, 
was  the  sale  to  Japan  of  the  war-ship  Esmeralda,  which 


ECUADOR.  409 

Chile  effected  through  the  agency  of  tlie  government  of 
Ecuador. 

The  seat  of  rebellion  was  in  the  provinces  of  Canar 
and  Los  Rios,  which  are  situated  between  Quito,  the  cap- 
ital, and  Guayaquil,  the  chief  city.  The  objective  point 
of  the  rebels  was  Guayaquil.  Early  in  May  they  captured 
the  town  of  Esmeraldas,  situated  on  the  Esmeralda  river. 
All  attempts  of  the  government  to  recapture  it  were  un- 
availing. The  revolution  was  well  planned;  and  from  the 
beginning  its  success  seemed  assured.  The  rebels  had 
plenty  of  arms  and  ammunition  and  the  sympathy  of  a 
large  majority  of  the  people.  Soon  after  capturing  Es- 
meralda they  seized  Quarantea,  thus  interrupting  the  mail 
service  between  Quito  and  Guayaquil.  From  the  time  the 
rebellion  began  in  April  until  the  capture  of  Guayaquil  by 
the  rebels  on  June  6,  the  government  was  continually  being 
worsted.  The  commander  of  the  government  army,  Gen- 
eral Flores,  gained  great  unpopularity  by  his  stringent 
measures  in  flogging  some  of  his  political  prisoners  shortly 
before  the  downfall  of  Guayaquil.  Minister  of  War  Sar- 
asti,  being  dissatisfied  with  the. course  General  Flores  was 
pursuing,  sent  his  son  to  relieve  him  of  his  command. 
Flores  refused  to  resign,  but  soon  after  the  capture  of 
Guayaquil  escaped  by  flight. 

General  Ignacio,  although  in  nominal  command  of  the 
rebel  army,  really  gave  precedence  to  the  popularity  and 
inspiring  genius  of  Senor  Eloy  Alfaro,  a  gentleman  who 
was  exiled  from  Ecuador  six  years  ago  for  exciting  a  revo- 
lution, and  who  at  the  time  of  the  present  revolution  was 
living  in  Panama,  Colombia.  After  the  capture  of  Guay- 
aquil had  sealed  the  fate  of  the  government,  the  triumph- 
ant revolutionary  party  enthusiastically  proclaimed  Gen- 
eral Ignacio  civil  and  military  chief,  and  Alfaro  provisional 
president.  On  June  10  General  Alfaro  sailed  from  Leon, 
Nicaragua,  to  take  charge  of  the  provisional  government 
which  was  established  at  Guayaquil,  awaiting  the  capitu- 
lation of  President  Cordero,  who  was  at  Quito  and  who 
was  expected  to  give  up  the  struggle  upon  the  arrival  of 
the  leader  of  the  revolutionists. 

General  Alfaro  arrived  in  Guayaquil  on  June  16  and 
immediately  organized  a  government.  On  June  19  he 
sent  the  following  dispatch  to  a  Xew  York  paper: 

"This  noble  and  patriotic  people  is  deserving  of  everlasting  grat- 
itude. My  program  will  be  one  of  liberty,  tolerance,  and  justice. 
I  rely  upon  the  best  members  of  the  community  for  their  hearty  co- 
operation in  establishing  an  honorable  administration,  one  which  will 
respect  the  people's  liberties  and  all  legitimate  rights." 


410  AFFAIRS  IX  AMERICA.  2d  Qr.,  1805. 

Toward  the  end  of  June  the  entire  success  of  the  re- 
bellion seemed  assured,  and  the  capitulation  of  the  gov- 
ernment forces  at  Quito  only  a  matter  of  a  few  days.  A 
peace  commission  from  General  Alfaro  to  the  government 
leaders  returned  bringing  the  reply  that  the  government 
would  not  receive  them.  A  second  deputation,  however, 
Y/as  more  successful,  and  a  favorable  reply  was  returned 
to  Guayaquil.  But  the  government  still  stood  its  ground 
at  the  end  of  June,  though  apparently  without  hope  and 
constantly  in  danger  of  being  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
troops  of  Alfaro. 

Ecuador  is  the  only  country  to  which  the  United  States 
sends  a  minister,  which  does  not  have  a  diplomatic  repre- 
sentative at  Washington.  At  the  beginning  of  the  revolu- 
tion our  government,  fearful  that  harm  might  come  to  some 
silver-mining  interests  in  Ecuador,  in  which  Americans  are 
extensively  interested,  sent  the  war-ship  Ranger  to  Ecuador. 
The  Americans,  however,  were  found  to  be  well  protected. 

CHILE. 

Oold  Standard  Adopted. — A  dispatch  from  Santiago 
dated  June  3,  signed  by  the  Chilean  minister  of  finance, 
and  addressed  to  the  representative  of  that  country  in 
Washington,  contains  the  following  very  significant  an- 
nouncement: 

"After  seventeen  years  of  the  regime  of  paper  money,  Chile  has 
returned  with  satisfaction  and  confidence  to  the  gold  standard." 

By  Article  16  of  the  currency  bill  adopted  by  the  last 
Chilean  congress,  the  *^ monetary  unit"  is  declared  to  be 
the  gold  dollar.  While  the  coinage  of  silver  is  still  to  be 
carried  on,  money  of  that  metal  is  not  to  be  legal  tender 
for  sums  greater  than  $50;  and  the  ratio  is  fixed  at  33^  to 
1,  or  about  the  present  market  or  commercial  ratio.  Some 
light  may  be  thrown  upon  Chile's  action  by  the  considera- 
tion that  her  business  relations  with  Great  Britain,  a  single 
gold  standard  country,  are  very  close. 

On  May  18  the  congressional  buildings  in  Santiago 
were  destroyed  by  fire,  involving  loss  of  the  government 
archives  and  the  valuable  congressional  library.  The  total 
loss  is  estimated  at  2,000,000  pesos  (1  peso=75  cents  to 
$1.00).     The  cause  of  the  fire  is  unknown. 

The  population  of  Chile  is  now  authoritatively  stated 
as  3,413,776,  including  50,000  Indians. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

PERU. 

This  republic  is  once  more  moving  toward  a  state  of  re- 
stored tranquillity.  In  the  middle  of  April,  Dr.  del  Solar, 
the  legal  vice-president,  resigned,  thus  recognizing  the  pro- 
visional government  under  Seilor  Candamo,  set  up  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  revolution  which  in  March  overthrew  the  gov- 
ernment of  General  Caceres  (p.  170).  General  Nicolas 
Pierola,  who  led  the  revolutionary  forces,  issued  a  mani- 
festo July  1,  stating  that  in  the  coming  elections  he  only 
desired  that  men  should  be  chosen  who  should  maintain 
liberty  and  order,  reorganize  the  administration  on  a  basis 
of  honesty  and  economy,  and  reconstruct  the  army  and 
the  judiciary. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

'piIE  event  which  all  observers  of  British  politics  have 
for  months  been  either  foreseeing  as  near,  or  faithfully 
persuading  themselves  that  they  were  not  foreseeing,  has 
suddenly  come  to  pass  in  a  way  that  nobody  had  foreseen. 
The  Rosebery  ministry  has  resigned;  a  new  cabinet  has  been 
called  into  power;  parliament  has  been  dissolved;  and  the 
general  elections  in  progress  at  the  time  of  this  writing 
show  a  great  anti-liberal  majority  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons. 

The  Unionist  Alliance.— In  April,  a  trouble  that, 
had  long  been  fermenting  in  the  unionist  alliance,  gave  the 
liberals  much  cheer.  There  was  friction  between  the 
tliorough-going  tory  element  and  the  liberal-unionists  led 
by  Joseph  Chamberlain.  The  ultra-tories  were  shocked 
both  in  their  principles  and  in  their  taste  by  Chamberlain's 
radicalism,  not  without  a  tinge  of  socialism:  they  knew 
that  he  was  with  them  only  in  opposition  to  the  Gladston- 
ian  proposal  of  home  rule.  He  seemed  to  be  receiving 
more  than  his  share  of  the  honors  and  of  the  leadership  in 
tiie  unionist  party.  The  alliance  itself  was  disliked  by 
them.  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mr.  Balfour  met  the  crisis 
promptly,  the  first  with  a  public  letter,  the  second  with  a 
strong  speech.  Speaking  for  the  conservatives,  they  de- 
clared that  to  Mr.  Chamberlain  and  his  colleagues  had 
been  due  the  averting  of  home  rule  for  the  last  nine  years, 
and  that  it  would  be  "unutterably  mean"  for  the  conserv- 
atives now  to  desert  the  alliance.  The  breach  seems  closed 
by  authority,  at  least  for  the  present. 


412  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr..  1895. 

Parliaiueiitary  Proceedings.— During  the  first  two 
months  of  the  quarter,  in  the  parliament  which  has  now 
dissolved,  the  ministerial  program  had  been  vigorously 
pushed;  and  by  the  middle  of  May  the  work  laid  out  had 
been  advanced  under  Sir  William  Harcourt's  able  leader- 
ship beyond  general  expectations.  Before  the  end  of  April 
progress  had  been  made  on  three  important  measures:  the 
Welsh  Church  dises- 
tablishment bill  and 
the  Irish  land  bill 
each,  had  passed  its 
second  reading;  and 
the  local  con  trol  bill — 
corresponding  to  the 
American  law  for 
local  option  as  to  sale 
of  intoxicants — had 
passed  its  first  read- 
ing. The  factories 
and  workshops  bill 
had  had  its  second 
reading.  Tliese  bills 
awaited  their  final 
contest  in  the  com- 
mittee stage. 

TJie  Budget. — Sir 
William  Harcou rt 
had  succeeded  in  car- 
rying  the  budget 
through  before  the 
beginning  of  June 
— a  date  earlier  than 
usual.  It  was  a  thor- 
oughly business  like  budget  in  its  review  and  its  suggestion 
of  financial  provisions,  reporting  the  last  year's  revenue 
(which  had  been  estimated  at  £94,130,000)  as  amounting 
to  £94,684,000;  while  the  expenditures  had  been  £93,918,- 
000.  For  the  coming  year,  revenue  was  estimated  at  £95,- 
662,000;  expenditure  at  £95,981,000,  the  increase  being  due 
to  necessary  additions  to  the  navy.  The  deficit  thus  shown 
was  to  be  met  by  a  tax  on  spirits  or  on  beer;  of  these  two 
beer  was  chosen  to  bear  the  burden  at  the  rate  of  sixpence 
a  barrel,  a  continuation  of  the  tax  imposed  last  year.  Lit- 
tle protest  was  heard  in  the  house  from  the  conservatives 
against  the  budget  or  the  local  control  bill — two  measures 
bearing,   one  directly,  the  other  remotely,  on   the  drink 


RT.  HON.  ARTHUR  WELLESLEY  PEEL. 
EX-SPEAKER  OF  THE  BRITISH  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  41:) 

question;  though  one  section  of  the  opposition  press  grew 
mournful  over  the  beer  tax  in  the  budget  as  a  popular 
burden,  and  raised  great  outcry  against  local  control  as 
an  outrageous  invasion  of  the  ancient  and  inalienable  lib- 
erties of  the  English  people;  while  a  quite  different  sec- 
tion muttered  against  the  budget  for  its  *' brigandage*'  as 
shown  in  its  ^'death  duties/'  which  confiscated  portions  of 
inherited  estates  in  order  to  reduce  the  general  taxation. 
The  last  complaint  had  probably  little  popular  effect;  the 
liberal  party  has  for  half  a  generation  gained  rather  than 
lost  by  attacks  of  that  sort.  But  it  is  not  so  easy  to  dis- 
miss from  the  long  list  of  causes  of  the  government's 
sweeping  defeat  at  the  polls  a  few  weeks  later  its  beer-tax 
law  and  its  attempt  at  local  control. 

Local  Control  Bill. — To  this  liquor  bill,  the  most 
stringent  ever  brought  into  parliament,  Sir  William  Har- 
court  had  given  much  thought  and  labor. 

The  bill  proposes  that,  on  a  requisition  signed  by  one  tentli  of 
the  parochial  electors  in  any  ward  of  a  town  or  other  determined 
local  area,  a  poll  shall  be  taken  on  the  question  of  abolishing  all 
licenses  to  sell.  If  the  vote  be  two-thirds  in  the  affirmative,  the 
practical  result  is  prohibition,  inasmuch  as  all  licenses  in  the  district 
are  to  come  to  an  end  at  the  expiration  of  a  period  of  about  three 
years — giving  to  the  publicans  a  sort  of  time  compensation  to  be  used 
in  arranging  for  a  new  business.  But  the  wording  of  the  bill  gives 
only  about  one  year  if  the  vote  be  taken  three  years  or  more  after 
the  passing  of  the  bill;  and  this  was  inveighed  against  as  allowing 
the  population  of  to  day  to  decide  what  public  houses  should  be  per- 
mitted to  the  population  of  four  years  hence,  whereas  in  some  Lon- 
don districts  the  population  is  said  to  be  renewed  every  five  years. 
Limitation  in  the  number  of  licenses  can  be  carried  by  a  majority 
vote,  but  such  discretion  is  given  to  the  magistrates  that  the  limita- 
tion may  be  made  to  amount  to  prohibition.  No  pecuniary  compensa- 
tion is  provided  for  the  publicans. 

The  bill,  viewed  with  much  distrust  by  the  cabinet  as 
to  its  party  bearings,  was  strenuously  urged  by  Sir  William 
Harcourt. 

Plural  Voting. — The  bill  against  plural  voting  was  in- 
troduced April  30  by  Mr.  Shaw-Lefevre,  who  declared  its 
principle  of  '^one  man,  one  vote"  to  be  a  principle  essen- 
tial to  fairness.  Conservative  critics  point  out  that  not 
^'one  man,  one  vote,"  but  *^ one  vote,  one  value,"  would 
be  the  fair  principle.  In  a  constituency  which  comprises 
but  1,000  voters,  one  man  elects  the  one-thousandth  part  of 
a  member  in  parliament,  and  thus  has  twice  the  voting 
power  of  his  neighbor  in  another  constituency  whose  votes 
number  2,000.  By  such  arguments  one  of  the  great 
principles  of  the  liberal  party  is  considered  to  be  relegated 
to  a  class  of  theories  which  deal  with  words  rather  than 


414  AFFATHS  IN  EtTROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

facts,  and  which  spend  their  strength  in  warring  against 
one  anomaly  while  authorizing  another  equally  nnjust. 
Tills  argument  is  very  good  for  election  uses.  Plural  vot- 
ing, however,  has  in  England  some  abuses  besides  this 
anomaly. 

Election  of  a  Speaker. — The  resignation  of  Mr.  Peel, 
the  honored  speaker  of  the  house,  noticed  in  the  \i\>i 
quarter's  issue  (p.  175),  took  effect  on  April  9  amid  uni- 
versal laudations  and  expressions  of  regret.  The  queen  Iims 
elevated  him  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  viscount. 
The  choice  of  his  successor  became  unfortunately  a  party 
question.  On  April  10  William  Court  Gully,  liber.il 
member  for  Carlisle,  a  lawyer  of  good  standing  at  the  bar. 
but  little  known  iu  parliament,  was  chosen  by  a  vote  of 
285  to  274  over  the  conservative  candidate.  The  opposi- 
tion to  him  was  earnest  and  almost  bitter.  It  is  not  known 
whether  the  conservatives  intend  to  elect  a  new  speaker  at 
the  next  session. 

One  of  the  minor  proceedings  in  parliament  had  refer- 
ence to  the  right  of  peers  to  sit  as  members  of  the  house 
of  commons.  The  Earl  of  Selborne,  and  two  other  mem- 
bers of  the  house  who  have  recently  succeeded  to  the  peer- 
age, desired  to  retain  their  seats  in  the  lower  house  in- 
stead of  entering  the  house  of  lords,  and  sought  to  do  so 
on  a  technicality  by  refraining  from  applying  for  the  writ 
summoning  them  to  sit  with  the  peers.  The  question  w:is 
decided  by  the  action  of  the  house  in  the  case  of  the  Earl 
of  Selborne.  The  decision  was  that  the  mere  fact  of  suc- 
cession to  the  peerage  was  sufficient  to  make  membersliip 
in  the  commons  impossible  under  the  constitution. 

Fall  of  the  Bosehery  Ministry. — Early  in  the  session 
the  radicals  were  urging  the  government  to  hasten  legis- 
lation by  applying  the  closure  aiid  other  drastic  parlia- 
mentary procedures.  The  government  deemed  the  time 
not  yet  fit.  The  conservative  and  unionist  gains  in 
by-elections  during  x\pril  and  May — gains  either  in  mem- 
bers or  in  number  of  votes — together  with  symptoms  in 
Lord  Rosebery's  case  that  he  had  not  recovered  from  some 
of  the  effects  of  his  recent  illness,  gradually  spread  de- 
spondency in  the  liberal  ranks;  all  thought  of  closure  was 
given  up;'  after  the  early  days  of  June,  debate  grew  lan- 
guid; and  though  the  ministry  still  kept  a  brave  front  and 
claimed  that  on  an  appeal  the  country  would  stand  \>y 
them,  it  was  evident  that  proceedings  in  parliament  no 
longer  excited  interest  either  within  or  outside  its  halls.  'J'he 
legislature  was  merely  marking  time  till  action  could  be 


aREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


41.') 


taken  on  the  liquor  bill — the  stumbling-stone  of  the  party 
— and  on  the  bill  dealing  with  the  house  of  lords — two  bills 
whose  relations  were  such  that  they  must  be  the  closing 
acts  of  the  session.  The  ministry  were  in  no  haste  to  close 
the  session  before  the  Newcastle  program  had  been  acted  out 
and  their  appeal  to  the  people  thus  made  complete.  They 
hoped  indeed  to  prolong  the  session  till  autumn,  recogniz- 
ing in  regard  to  more  than  sixty 
of  the  constituencies  their  un- 
preparedness  to  make  the  usual 
contests.  The  opposition,  except 
Mr.  Chamberlain,  were  in  no 
haste,  as  they  now  saw  the  tide 
turning  in  their  favor  and  gain- 
ing with  every  week:  they  had  no 
desire  to  take  the  responsibilities 
of  office,  as  the  liberals  had  been 
forced  to  do,  with  a  majority  so 
small  as  to  make  a  modification 
of  policy  compulsory  at  the  threat 
of  the  secession  of  a  few  of  its 
members,  or  as  to  be  liable  t) 
overthrow  on  some  side  issue  on 
any  day  when  any  one  of  the  fac- 
tions that  might  be  its  compo- 
nent elements  should  choose  to  assert  its  power  or  wreak 
its  vindictiveness.     So  the  session  dragged  on. 

The  liberal  majority  stood  at  a  varying  figure  in  the 
early  days  of  the  session;  but,  after  the  defection  of  the 
Parnellites,  it  could  not  be  relied  on  to  exceed  sixteen. 
On  April  1  the  majority  for  Welsh  disestablishment  rose 
to  forty-four  (or  forty-five),  but  this  was  known  to  be 
specially  increased  by  various  causes.  In  the  last  week  of 
the  session  it  stood  practically  at  eight,  though  with  pos- 
sible occasional  increase  to  twenty-six  by  the  Parnellito 
vote;  but  on  account  of  absences  and  for  other  causes  it 
could  not  be  counted  on  beyond  five.  In  that  last  week 
the  liberals  were  defeated  in  one  of  their  strong  districts 
in  the  Scotch  Highlands.  Another  dismal  incident  of  the 
week  for  the  liberals  was  Mr.  Gladstone's  announcing  his 
disagreement  with  the  Welsh  disestablishment  bill  on  some 
of  its  proposed  dealings  with  the  property  of  the  church 
after  disestablishment,  and  his  "wishes  to  be  regarded  us 
having  an  open  mind  upon  the  bill."  The  opposition 
made  haste  to  proclaim  it  as  the  withdrawal  of  his  moral 
support  from  the  ministry:  this,  however,  is  not  proved j 


HON.    GEORGE  ./.    GOSPHEN,  M.  P. 

FIRST    LOKD    OF    THE    BRITISH 

ADMIRALTY. 


416 


AFPAlRt^  IN  fiCROl'E. 


Qr.,  1895. 


though  it  is  unquestionable  that  he  has  been  dissatisfied 
with  the  policy  of  the  cabinet  in  loading  the  party  with 
such  various  issues  instead  of  first  pressing  the  question  of 
Irish  home  rule  to  its  final  settlement.  Dispiriting  also 
was  Lord  Rosebery's  speech  at  Clerkenwell,  confessing 
his  wish  to  retire  from  the  premiership,  and  his  expecta- 
tion that  parliament  would  soon  be  dissolved.  His  atti- 
tude, however,  was 
that  of  trusting  to  an 
appeal  to  the  country 
in  a  general  election 
to  rehabilitate  the 
liberal  government. 
]\I  e  a  n  w  h  i  1  e ,  the 
unionists  were  al- 
ready discussing  the 
membership  of  the 
next  cabinet.  Evi- 
dently the  condition 
had  become  such  that 
a  touch  might  bring 
the  administration 
down  in  ruins. 

The  touch  came, 
not  a  threatening  nor 
a  violent  one.  It  has 
been  spoken  of  as  an 
accident,  and  it  has 
fully  that  appear- 
ance; but  as  some 
have  charged  that  it 
sm  MicHAEi.  iiicKs-BEACH.  was  dccply  plottcd,  it 

cHANCELT.oR  OF  THE  BRITISH  ExcHEyiER.  may  bc  calledaniu- 
cident.  On  the  night  of  June  21  Mr.  Brodrick,  a  con 
servative  member,  quietly  asked  of  the  war  secretary  an 
important  question  as  to  the  reserved  supply  of  ammu- 
nition and  small  arms.  Mr.  Campbell-Bannerman  re- 
plied that  the  estimate  was  ample  for  immediate  supply 
of  three  army  corps  of  110,000  men.  Mr.  Brodrick, 
deeming  the  answer  insufficient,  consulted  with  Mr.  Bal- 
four and  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  moved  the  reduction 
of  the  salary  of  the  war  secretary  by  £100  to  make  up 
for  the  deficiency  in  supply.  A  debate,  not  very  ani- 
mated, followed,  Mr.  Chamberlain  (with  perhaps  a  sud- 
den scent  of  victory)  showing  the  most  interest;  a  division 
was  had,  and  the  motion,  in  effect  a  vote  of  censure  on 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  417 

the  government,  passed  by  a  majority  of  seven.  By  this  vote 
(132  to  125),  though  on  a  petty  matter  of  mere  detail, 
the  ministers  were  shown  to  liave  lost  the  support  of 
parliament;  though  afterward  it  was  computed  that  if  all 
absentees  had  been  present,  the  majority  against  the 
motion  of  censure  would  have  been  sixteen.  Their  resig- 
nation, though  not  necessary,  was,  on  consultation,  judged 
tlie  only  proper  course.  Lord  Kosebery  on  June  22  com- 
municated their  decision  to  the  queen,  who  immediately 
summoned  Lord  Salisbury  and  requested  him  to  form  a 
cabinet.  At  first  reluctant,  he  accepted  the  premiership 
on  June  25,  and  it  was  arranged  that  on  July  8  the  call 
should  issue  for  the  election  of  a  fresh  parliament.  Thus 
ended  the  ministry  formed  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  August, 
1892,  and  Lord  Kosebery's  premiership  of  fourteen  months. 
The  outgoing  ministers  wore  an  aspect  of  cheerfulness  and 
even  of  gayety  at  their  relief  from  a  situation  in  which  they 
had  been  at  once  burdened  and  hampered.  Two  earldoms 
and  four  baronies,  besides  minor  honors,  were  conferred 
by  the  queen  on  members  of  the  retiring  government. 

The  New  Cabinet. — Lord  Salisbury  assumed  a  diffi- 
cult task  in  forming  a  coalition  cabinet.  There  was  an 
almost  embarrassing  surplus  of  available  material:  also  the 
claims  and  the  prejudices  of  conservatives  and  liberal  union- 
ists alike  were  to  be  regarded,  together  with  the  effect  of  the 
various  cabinet  appointments  on  the  general  elections  so 
soon  to  follow — the  extent  of  the  impending  political 
]-evolution  not  being  at  all  foreseen.  The  new  ministry, 
which  on  June  29  received  the  seals  of  office  from  the 
queen,  is  constituted  as  follows: 

Prime  Minister  and  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  Mar- 
quis of  Salisbury. 

Lord  President  of  tlie  Council,  Duke  of  Devonsbire. 

Lord  Chancellor,  Lord  Halsbury. 

Lord  Privy  Seal,  Viscount  Cross. 

Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  Sir  Henry  James. 

Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Sir  Michael  Hicks  Beach. 

Secretary  of  State,  Home  Department,  Sir  Matthew  White  Ridley. 

Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain. 

Secretary  of  State  for  War,  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 

Secretary  of  State  for  India,  Lord  George  Hamilton. 

First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  Mr.  G.  J.  Goschen. 

First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour. 

President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  Mr.  Ritchie. 

President  of  the  Local  Government  Board,  Mr.  Chaplic 

Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Earl  Cadogan. 

Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland,  Lord  Ashl)ourne. 

Secretary  for  Scotland,  Lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh. 

First  Commissioner  of  Works,  Mr.  Akers- Douglas. 

President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  Mr.  Walter  Long. 

Vol.  5.-37. 


418  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  following  are  important  appointments  (not  of  the 
cabinet) : 

Financial  Secretary  to  the  Treasury,  Mr.  Hanbury. 
Under-Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  Mr.  G.  N.  Curzon. 
Under-Secretary  for  War,  Mr.  St.  John  Brodrick. 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  Mr.  Gerald  Balfour. 
Postmaster-General,  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

Vice-President  of  the  Council  for  Education,  Sir  J.  E.  Gorst. 
Patronage  Secretary  to  the  Treasury,  Sir  W.  II.  Walrond. 
Secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  Mr.  W.  E.  Macartney. 
Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  Mr.  Austen  Chamberlain. 
Under-Secretary,  Home  Otiice,  Mr.  Jesse  Collings. 
Under-Secretary,  Colonial  Office,  Earl  of  Selborne. 
Parliamentary  Secretary,  Local  Government  Board,  Mr.  T.   W. 
Russell. 

Financial  Secretary,  War  Office,  Mr.  Powell  Williams. 

This  cabinet  is  undeniably  one  of  unusual  strength, 
comprising  a  number  of  men  of  signal  ability  and  of  long 
experience  in  public  aifairs.  It  has  unusual  size;  but 
facility  of  action  can  be  secured  by  committing  the  initi- 
ative on  important  questions  to  an  inner  circle  consisting 
of  the  premier,  with  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  and  Messrs. 
Balfour,  Goschen,  and  Chamberlain.  For  the  first  time 
liberal  unionists  appear  with  conservatives  on  a  cabinet 
list:  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  Sir 
Henry  James  were  Mr.  Gladstone's  colleagues  in  a  former 
ministry.  This  cannot  be  taken  as  a  consolidation,  but  as 
a  closer  partnership  for  the  present  purpose.  The  only 
uniting  element  that  pervades  the  body  is  tlie  purpose  to 
conserve  the  integrity  of  the  empire  against  all  schemes 
of  home  rule  in  the  British  islands.  It  may  however  be  ex- 
pected to  be  a  unit  also  in  a  vigorous  foreign  policy  of  the 
old-fashioned  English  style — a  policy  which,  as  taking  its 
spirit  and  form  from  Lord  Salisbury,  will  be  far  from  dra- 
matic or  intrusive,  but  will  be  watchful  and  strenuously 
persistent';  inspired  by  no  romantic  ideals  for  rectifying 
wrongs  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe;  standing  on  British 
rights  promptly  and  to  the  last  inch;  and  while  not  con- 
sciously intending  any  injustice,  little  likely  to  disturb  it- 
self regarding  national  interests  or  claims  other  than  its 
own. 

The  Marquis  of  Salisbury,  now  for  the  third  time 
premier,  is  an  embodiment  of  the  English  traditions  of 
ten  generations.  lie  has  an  experience  of  more  than 
forty  years  in  public  life.  His  knowledge  of  the  vast  dip- 
lomatic and  commercial  relations  of  the  British  empire  is 
scarcely  equalled;  he  has  wide  scholarship  and  greac  vari- 
ety of  resources;  an  intellect  gifted  rather  for  acquirement 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


419 


than  for  original  power;  an  energy  of  character  which 
makes  him  forcible  in  affairs  and  capable  of  being  over- 
bearing and  even  insolent  in  debate;  and  he  has  shown  a 
kind  of  conservatism  which  is  not  averse  to  making  use  of 
opportunism,  and  which,  for  a  special  purpose,  can  make 
temporary  use  even  of  radicalism.  His  nature  is  not  sen- 
sitive, nor  imaginative;  it  is  of  a  fibre  that  crowds  its  way 
where  it  wishes  to  go. 
As  a  speaker  he  is 
practical,  resource- 
ful, strong,  using  a 
biting  wit,  having  a 
precise  and  finished 
diction,  but  without 
the  lofty  eloquence 
of  John  Bright  or  of 
Gladstone.  Tlio 
Duke  of  Devonshire's 
thoughtful  and  meas- 
ured liberalism,  and 
Mr.  Chamberlain's 
aggressive  and  radi- 
cal liberalism,  are 
strange  elements  in  a 
conservative  cabinet; 
yet  so  changed  are  the 
parties  of  to-day  from 
what  they  were  even 
a  decade  since,  that 
no  definite  ground 
exists  for  predicting 
early  disharmony  in  the  makqths  op  lansdowne, 

the  present  coalition.  British  secretary  of  state  for  war. 

The  General  Election. — The  parliamentary  elec- 
tions are  in  progress  at  the  time  of  this  writing,  and 
their  full  report  pertains  to  the  subsequent  quarter.  Still, 
as  showing  the  state  of  public  opinion  and  the  position  of 
parties,  some  consideration  of  them  may  be  given  here. 

There  seems  to  have  been  of  late  scarcely  any  anticipa- 
tion of  liberal  success.  The  liberals  probably  expected, 
with  some  sense  of  relief,  to  hand  over  the  burden  of  gov- 
ernment by  a  precarious  majority  to  their  opponents 
under  a  similar  disadvantage:  a  powerful  opposition  was 
to  confront  the  new  ministry,  and  with  its  war  cries  of 
various  reform  was  gradually  to  arouse  the  nation  to  re- 
verse its  verdict.     A  sanguine  liberal  estimate  is  reported 


420  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

to  liave  conceded  a  unionist  majority  of  from  20  to  30. 
A  non-partisan  estimate  predicted  a  unionist  majority  of 
80.  A  sanguine  conservative  estimate  claimed  a  majority 
of  120.  From  the  first  the  returns  showed  a  strong  tide 
against  tlie  administration;  the  cities  and  boroughs  (284 
districts)  showed  surprising  opposition  gains.  The  liber- 
als comforted  themselves  with  hope  as  to  the  377  county 
districts  with  their  agricultural  vote.  But  as  the  elections 
proceeded,  day  after  day.  from  boroughs  and  counties  alike, 
tiie  tide  still  rose  against  them;  districts  were  lost  which 
had  been  counted  as  secure;  several  cabinet  members 
and  other  high  officials  were  defeated;  within  a  week  it 
was  evident  not  only  that  the  party  of  reforms  and  of  ad- 
vanced ideas  had  been  disapproved  by  the  people,  but  also 
that  the  most  decisive  political  revolution  of  the  century 
in  the  British  isles  had  occurred.  The  most  sanguine 
conservative  expectations  were  surpassed.  At  this  time  of 
writing  (July  25),  it  is  reported  that  of  670  members  of 
the  house  of  commons  624  have  been  chosen;  of  which  the 
unionists  (327  conservatives,  67  liberal  unionists)  number 
394;  while  the  opposition  (158  liberals,  62  nationalists,  10 
Parnellites)  number  230;  conservative-unionist  majority 
164.  The  majority  is  dangerously  large,  but  has  at  least 
one  element  of  safety  lacking  in  recent  years — it  is  far  too 
large  to  allow  the  slightest  weight  to  any  threat  from  the 
Irish  parliamentary  contingent. 

The  sweeping  character  of  this  liberal  defeat — for  it  is 
that  more  than  it  is  a  conservative  victory — can  be  plaus- 
ibly assigned  to  more  causes  at  once  than  can  any  other 
great  political  event  of  recent  times.  Some  of  these 
causes  were  contradictory  of  others  and  affected  opposite 
classes  of  voters;  some  were  petty,  others  of  much  mo- 
ment; some  influenced  small  sets  of  voters,  others  a  mul- 
titude. The  causes  now  referred  to  were  special  in  this 
defeat,  aside  from  the  general  fact  that  the  party  in  power 
is  always  held  responsible  for  any  widespread  tribulations 
or  misfortunes: 

1,  The  administration  presented  too  many  issues  at  once,  confusing 
the  average  voter  and  arousing  minor  antagonisms  from  various 
quarters;  an  overload  of  reforms  discourages  enthusiasm  for  any 
one  reform. 

2.  The  country  had  become  gradually  dissatisfied  with  the  waste 
of  time  in  prolonged  debates  ending  only  in  the  passing  of  bill  after 
bill  which  it  was  known  could  never  be  enacted  into  laws,  because  the 
house  of  lords  stood  like  a  wall  in  their  path;  if  the  proposed  laws 
were  not  of  high  importance  it  seemed  a  waste  of  time  to  pass  them 
fruitlessly;  if  they  were  judged  of  grand  importance,  then  the  house 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  421 

of  lords  should  Lave  been  dealt  with  courageously  at  the  outset.  This 
course,  understood  to  have  been  urged  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  might  in- 
deed have  brought  defeat  to  the  party,  but  not  a  demoralizing  over- 
throw. 

3.  The  English  and  Scotch  people  do  not  like  to  see  their  supreme 
legislature  remaining  year  after  year  under  the  control,  often  through 
political  threat,  of  eighty  or  ninety  Irishmen  who  are  themselves  un- 
able to  agree  as  to  what  they  want,  and  whose  factiousness  and  self- 
will  work  hindrance  and  discredit  to  legislation;  as  a  temporary  dis- 
turbance this  might  be  endured  for  the  sake  of  a  grand  end  in  view; 
but  if  the  liberal  party  can  govern  the  country  year  after  year  only 
on  the  permission  of  a  faction,  the  British  people  prefer  some  other 
party. 

4.  The  country,  months  ago,  grew  tired  of  hearing  about  home 
rule  and  holding  everything  in  waiting  for  home  rule;  the  Gladston- 
ian  enthusiasm  for  righting  the  wrongs  of  Ireland  had  cooled  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  consideration  of  other  possible  ways  for  doing  jus- 
tice, and  to  admit  the  question  whether  Ireland  was  now  showing 
enough  capacity  for  self-rule  to  make  it  desirable  to  abolish  or  trans- 
form the  house  of  lords  to  that  end. 

5.  The  bill  for  local  control  of  the  liquor  traffic,  and  the  beer  tax 
in  the  budget,  especially  the  former,  amounting  to  possible  prohibi- 
tion, were  a  huge  grievance  to  multitudes  of  the  liberal  T)arty  in 
England.  Many  hold  a  theory  that  such  bills  invade  personal  liberty; 
many  more,  not  troubled  about  theories,  object  to  the  effects.  The 
brewing  interest  has  enormous  pecuniary  strength  and  can  exert  in- 
fluence through  myriad  channels. 

6.  There  was  a  spirit  savoring  of  mutiny  in  the  liberal  ranks. 
Sir  William  Harcourt  always  stood  loyally  by  his  chief,  but  not  so 
did  all  his  friends,  who  felt  that  his  great  services  and  rare  abilities 
should  have  given  him  first  place  in  the  ministry,  and  deemed  it  an 
anomaly  and  a  weakness  that  a  peer  prohibited  from  membership  in 
the  commons  (Lord  Rosebery)  should  administer  the  government  as 
the  representative  of  the  party  of  the  people. 

7.  Mr.  Gladstone's  attitude  was  not  helpful  to  the  party;  his 
withdrawal  of  support  from  the  bill  for  Welsh  Church  disestablish- 
ment was  perhaps  misrepresented. 

8.  The  labor  leaders,  by  factious  desertion  of  the  liberals,  were 
expected  to  weaken  it  to  some  extent;  but  it  is  not  as  yet  made  evi- 
dent that  their  action  was  of  much  effect:  the  achievements  of  the 
labor  party  in  their  own  behalf  make  diminished  show  in  the  elec- 
tion. 

9.  The  time  had  evidently  come  for  a  generally  conservative  and 
reactionary  movement  of  the  British  public  mind  against  radicalism 
and  all  that  was  supposed  to  savor  of,  consort  with,  or  tend  to,  social- 
ism— not  that  the  six  millions  of  voters  have  any  particular  knowl- 
edge of  what  socialism  really  is;  what  they  knew  was,  that  whatever 
socialism  might  be,  they  wanted  to  vote  against  it.  Out  of  six  mil- 
lion voters  there  are  a  few  hundreds  of  thousands  with  whom  a  prej- 
udice answers  for  reason.  The  old  fast-anchored  conservative  party 
seemed  more  remote  than  the  reformatory  liberal  party  from  socialist 
tendencies;  meanwhile,  little  can  they,  or  any  of  us,  see  what  reform- 
atory expedients  may  be  developed  under  the  joint  action  of  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  radicalism  and  Lord  Salisbury's  opportunism. 

10.  The  non  conformist  element,  which  is  known  to  have  been 
one  of  Mr.  (iladstone's  chief  supports  and  a  large  part  of  the  liberal 
party's   inheritance   from  that  great   leader,  has  within  a  year  lost 


422  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

mucli  of  its  old  political  enthusiasm.  It  excused  Lord  Rosebery's 
first  winning  of  the  Derby.  When  the  premier  won  the  second  time, 
the  "non-conformist  conscience"  awol^e,  and  reflected  that  Mr.  Glad- 
stone gave  his  thought  and  time  to  governing  the  empire,  and  was  no 
associate  of  horse-jockeys  nor  in  any  way  an  auxiliary  to  betting 
rings.  It  is  said  that  this  was  merely  an  awaking  of  prejudice;  but 
if  so,  prejudice  costs  many  votes.  And  when  these  people  with  the 
inconvenient  conscience  further  saw  the  government  compelled  by 
the  Irish  members  to  withdraw  its  own  proposal  of  a  statue  at  West- 
minster to  the  greatest  ruler  of  England,  Oliver  Cromwell,  they,  with 
a  multitude  not  of  their  company,  saw  or  thought  that  they  saw 
either  a  blundering  government — bringing  forward  a  measure  that 
they  might  have  foreseen  could  not  be  passed,  or  a  weak  and  timid 
government  ready  to  yield  when  menaced  by  a  faction.  The  I'imcn, 
certainly  far  from  sympathetic  with  non-conformists,  makes  this  com- 
ment: 

"  Undoubtedly,  If  the  house  of  commons  as  a  whole  were  free  to  decide  the 
question,  tiie  proposal  to  do  honor  to  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  rulers,  a 
statesman  and  a  soldier  of  commanding  genius,  who  has  left  his  mark  on  the 
history  of  his  country,  the  very  embodiment  of  that  militant  Puritanism  which 
gave  its  character  to  a  large  part  of  our  polity,  our  literature,  and  our  morals, 
would  have  been  voted  by  a  great  majority.  But  the  government  were  com- 
pelled to  obey  their  Irish  masters." 

11.  The  foreign  policy  of  the  government  was  the  subject  of  cen- 
sure by  many  leading  men  versed  in  foreign  affairs.  It  is  not  at  all 
in  our  province  to  criticise  it:  for  aught  that  we  know,  or  have  a  right 
to  say,  Lord  Rosebery,  from  whom  in  this  department  especially  a 
brilliant  policy  was  expected,  may  have  done  surpassingly  well.  It 
is  not  known  here  what  effect  this  question  had  in  the  elections — prob- 
ably only  a  minor  effect.  But  it  was  urged  on  the  public  mind  that 
the  foreign  office  was  no  longer  acting  in  the  line  of  British  traditions; 
that  its  diplomacy  had  beeii  surpassed  by  that  of  Russia  and  France 
in  relation  to  Armenia  and  to  Japanese  affairs,  by  that  of  Russia  in 
the  Pamirs,  and  by  that  of  France  in  Slam;  that  it  had  failed  to  keep  in 
with  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  had  set  England  aloof  from  European 
interests.  These  charges,  whatever  may  have  been  the  facts,  arc; 
said  to  have  had  weight  in  the  canvass. 

In  regard  to  Lord  Rosebery,  however,  it  is  to  be  said  thathista.sk 
was  at  the  outset  impossible.  He  courageously  undertook  what  was 
put  in  his  hands  on  Mr.  Gladstone's  discouraging  withdrawal — to 
hold  together  a  ])arty  of  half-a-dozen  distrustful  factions.  Instead  of 
failing  in  a  few  weeks  as  was  generally  anticipated,  he  held  his  party 
in  power  fourteen  months.  This  is  even  more  surprising  than  his 
defeat  at  last. 

The  Political  Outlook. — It  is  too  early  for  any  fore- 
cast other  than  one  shadowy  and  indefinite.  The  situation 
has  no  exact  historical  precedent.  A  few  conjectures  as  to 
the  present  outlook  may  be  hazarded.  It  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  liberal  party  will  come  again  to  power  till 
after  several  years.  Not  even  its  long  continuance  as  a 
prominent  political  organization  is  assured.  Its  vital  force 
— its  main  tendencies — will  not  fail  to  find  assertion, 
though  they  may  be  re-embodied  in  some  new  alliance. 
In  this  event  its  history  may  in  some  degree  repeat  the  re- 
cent history  of  its  opponent,  the  old  tory  party,  whose 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  423 

process  of  change,  already  quite  noticeable,  seems  likely 
now  to  be  entering  on  a  new  and  more  startling  phase  as 
the  result  of  its  sweeping  victory.  As  to  the  present  con- 
servative-unionist coalition,  it  was  formed  only  for  an 
emergency,  to  fight  home  rule.  The  emergency  having 
passed,  it  might  now  dissolve.  Yet  it  may  easily  merge 
into  a  consolidation  if  its  liberal-unionist  element,  numeric- 
ally small  but  intellectually  active  and  quick-sighted,  can 
be  allowed  to  supply  the  general  spirit  and  aims  of  the 
composite  body.  There  are  careful  observers  who  for 
months  past  have  been  pointing  out  the  signs  of  this  lib- 
eralizing process  among  tlie  old  tory  elements,  and  who 
declare  that  the  leaders  of  the  alliance  are  meditating 
practicable  plans  of  relief  for  Ireland  which  will  substitute 
for  the  bauble  of  home  rule  some  generous  and  speedy  so- 
lution of  the  grievous  problem  that  has  held  British  poli- 
tics to  nine  fruitless  years  of  controversy.  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain's scheme  of  ten  years  ago,  for  Irish  local  home  govern- 
ment, is  remembered.  Moreover,  it  is  said — not  indeed 
by  authority,  yet  neither  in  whispers — that  hirge  groups 
in  the  victorious  coalition  are  now  2)repared  to  favor,  or 
at  least  toallow,  experiments  in  governmental  dealing  with 
social  reforms  on  principles  more  directly  practical,  and 
with  an  application  more  extended,  than  were  ever  pro- 
posed by  the  liberal  party  so  hampered  by  its  Irish  mem- 
bers and  its  "  labor  ^'  voters.  Perhaps  there  is  some  sig- 
nificance in  the  fact  that  the  alliance  went  into  the  present 
campaign  without  a  formal  platform  of  principles  and 
promises.  They  have  thus  a  free  hand  for  reforms,  and 
may  bid  for  the  artisan  and  farmer  vote.  All  the  cir- 
cumstances are  such,  however,  as  to  make  the  political 
outlook  little  else  than  a  glimpse  into  a  mist. 

The  Opium  Question. — The  relations  of  the  imperial 
government  to  the  opium  traffic  in  India  have  long  troubled 
many  conscientious  people.  In  April,  1891,  a  motion  was 
carried  in  the  house  of  commons  to  the  effect  "that  the 
system  by  which  the  Indian  opium  revenue  is  raised  is 
morally  indefensible."  The  net  opium  revenue  to  the  In- 
dia exchequer,  1892-3,  is  stated  at  £2,775,000  in  gold — 
about  one-seventh  of  the  total  revenues  of  the  country. 
On  motion  of  J\lr.  Gladstone,  for  the  government,  a  royal 
commission  of  nine  was  appointed  to  investigate  fully  and 
report  on  the  question.  Evidence  was  taken  in  London 
and  in  India,  and  the  final  voluminous  report,  which  has 
recently  appeared,  signed  by  eight  of  the  nine  commis- 
sioners, is  a  surprise  to  many  persons. 

The  substance  of  the  report  is: 


424  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

1.  That  tliemildlndia  opium,  used  in  moderation  as  it  generally  is, 
is  only  slightly,  if  at  all,  injurious  to  the  vegetarian  natives — certainly 
less  injurious  to  them  than  alcohol,  which  would  be  its  certain  sub- 
stitute. 

2.  That  public  opinion  strongly  favors  its  continued  use,  as  it  is 
the  "universal  household  remedy  "  in  aland  where  physicians  are 
very  rare. 

3.  That  prohibition  of  it  is  not  practicable.  Of  the  161  medical 
witnesses  examined,  nearly  all  opposed  its  prohibition;  and  the  com- 
mission saw  no  evidence  of  extensive  moral  or  physical  degeneration 
from  its  use  in  that  country. 

Of  course  this  report  has  no  reference  to  the  strong 
Turkish  opium  used  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States; 
and  the  smohinrj  of  opium,  as  in  China,  is  a  habit  undeni- 
ably destructive.  The  common  charge  that  the  British 
forced  the  import  of  opium  into  China,  and  introduced  its 
use  there,  is  now  authoritatively  declared  untrue.  Tlie 
British  conscience  generally  is  relieved  by  the  report,  but 
the  anti-opiumists  doubt  its  fairness. 

The  Shahzada's  Tisit. — Nasrulla  Khan, second  son  of 
Abdurrahman  Khan,*ameer  of  Afghanistan,  landed,  with 
his  large  suite  of  attendants,  at  Portsmouth,  May  23,  and 
was  welcomed  with  imposing  military  and  naval  demonstra- 
tions. He  was  received  by  the  queen  at  Windsor  castle.  His 
trip  was  entirely  provided  for  by  the  British  and  Indian  gov- 
ernments with  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  British 
alliance  with  Afghanistan,  a  martial  and  powerful  state 
which  remains  the  only  barrier  between  the  British  and 
the  Russian  dominions  in  Asia,  and  whose  imperial  master, 
the  ameer,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  astute 
of  the  world's  rulers.  The  visit  is  significant  of  a  purpose 
to  strengthen  the  British  position  in  India  against  Ilussiah 
rivalry. 

The  Temperance  Conventions. — The  organizations 
of  women  for  the  various  social  reforms  which  have  clus- 
tered around  the  original  nucleus  of  total  abstinence  from 
strong  drink,  have  been  astonishing  Great  Britain  with  an 
immense  international  convention.  The  National  British 
Women's  Temperance  Association  held  its  nineteenth  an- 
nual session  in  London  on  June  17;  and  immediately  fol- 
lowing it  was  the  third  biennial  convention  of  the  World's 
Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  an  international 
organization  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  women.  The  pur- 
pose of  these  societies  is  the  promotion  of  moral  and  social 
reform  through  the  systematic  co-operation  of  Avomen 
throughout  the  world;  and  to  the  international  association 
delegates  came  from  almost  all  nations  of  the  earth.  Its 
principal  meeting  was  on  June  20  in  the  Royal  Albert 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  425 

hall,  which  was  crowded  with  10,000  people  besides  a  choir 
of  900.  The  chief  orators  were  Lady  Henry  Somerset, 
president  of  the  British  society,  and  Miss  Frances  E.  Wil- 
lard,  president  of  the  World's  Union,  with  whom  were  a 
strong  corps  of  women  speakers.  Two  hundred  pulpits  and 
platforms  in  London  were  open  to  them  on  Sunday,  June  16. 
'I'he  enthusiasm  of  the  great  convention  was  unbounded, 
though  the  press  seems  to  have  been  singularly  restricted 
in  its  notice  of  the  meetings.  From  the  United  States 
came  the  greatest  number  of  delegates,  bringing  with  them 
the  wonderful  polyglot  petition,  miles  in  length,  with  2,- 
000,000  signatures  in  fifty  languages,  for  presentation  to 
all  national  governments,  urging  abolition  of  traffic  in 
strong  drinks  and  opium,  and  establishment  of  equal  legal 
rights  for  all  human  beings. 

The  Wilde-Qiieensherry  Scandal.— In  the  trial 
early  in  April  of  the  notorious  Marquis  of  Queensberry 
for  libel  of  Oscar  Wilde  in  charging  him  with  abomina- 
bly indecent  crime,  Wilde's  counsel  soon  saw  it  necessary 
to  accept  a  verdict  of  acquittal  for  Queensberry.  AVilde, 
thus  by  implication  pronounced  guilty,  was  soon  arrested; 
and  on  trial  was  found  guilty  on  May  25,  and  sentenced 
to  two  years'  imprisonment  at  hard  labor.  On  May  21, 
Queensberry  and  his  son  Lord  Alfred  Douglas  (upholderand 
companion  of  Wilde)  had  met  in  Piccadilly  and  fought  in 
the  street  with  fists  and  sticks.  W^ilde's  conviction  is  re- 
garded as  the  excision  of  a  putrid  cancer.  His  downfall, 
notwithstanding  its  unprecedentedly  demoralizing  revela- 
tions, is  the  downfall  of  the  vile  theory  of  art  for  art's  sake 
utterly  regardless  of  moral  considerations;  art  requiring  {es- 
thetics to  take  rank  above  ethics;  art  avoiding  truth  asneces- 
sarily  inartistic,  as  he  writes:  *'To  be  natural  is  to  be  obvi- 
ous, and  to  be  obvious  is  to  be  inartistic;"  '^  there  is  no  sin 
except  stupidity;"  "a  color  sense  is  more  important  in  the 
development  of  the  individual  than  a  sense  of  right  and 
wrong."  Some  recent  writers,  men  and  women  of  repute 
for  literary  polish,  who  are  playing  like  silly  children  with 
theories  that  carry  the  virus  of  this  loathsome  pestilence, 
may  take  heed  from  the  lamentable  fate  of  this  exquisite 
ctsthetic  outcast.  Even  if  charity,  which  ^*  never  faileth," 
might  be  strained  to  charge  his  course  to  folly  rather  than 
to  intended  wickedness,  yet  why  should  art  follow  a  fool? 

A  Gigantic  Crniser. — One  of  the  most  gigantic  and 
powerful  war-ships  in  the  world,  and  the  largest  of  the 
class  known  as  cruisers,  is  the  Terrible,  launched  at  Clyde- 
bank, Glasgow,  May  27. 


426  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Her  length  is  588  feet  over  all  (500  feet  between  perpendiculars); 
breadth  71  feet  6  inches;  displacement  tonnage  14,200;  load  draught 
27  feet;  horse-power  25.000;  propellers,  twin-screw;  speed  maximum 
24  knots  (with  natural  draught  22  knots).  The  corresponding  figures 
for  the  Coluinbia,  a  noted  United  States  cruiser  (though  not  quite  the 
largest  cruiser) are:  Length  412  feet;  breadth  58  feet  2  inches;  displace- 
ment tonnage  7,475;  load  draught  22  feet  6  inches;  horse-power  21,500; 
propellers,  triple-screw;  speed  maximum  22.8  knots.  The  2'erriMe 
has  48  water-tube  Belleville  boilers,  with  heating  surface  67,800 
square  feet,  working  pressure  260  lbs.  to  square  inch;  and  the  separ- 
ate  engines  on  board  for  various  uses  number  87.  The  vessel  has  no 
belt  of  side  armor,  but  the  machinery  and  all  vital  parts  are  protected 
by  an  arched  steel  protective  deck  whose  crown  is  3  feet  6  inches 
above  water  line,  and  w^hose  edges  are  7  feet  below  water  line;  also 
3,000  tons  of  coal  form  side  walls  19  feet  thick.  Her  armament  is  two 
9.2-inch  guns,  twelve  6-inch  quick-firing  and  twelve  12-pounder 
quick-firing,  19  small  and  Maxim  quick-firing  guns,  and  4  submerged 
torpedo  tubes. 

Personal  and  Miscellaneous. — The  Duke  of  Cam- 
bridge, long  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  is  announced 
to  have  resigned,  to  retire  October  1.  General  Lord  Rob- 
erts has  been  promoted  field  marshal. 

The  envoys  from  the  king  of  Ashantee  in  West  Africa, 
v^ho  reached  London  early  in  May,  were  not  officially  re- 
ceived by  the  queen — their  ruler's  title  being  dubious,  and 
the  country  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  accorded 
such  recognition;  and  moreover,  some  of  its  customs — as 
that  of  human  sacrifices — being  of  such  a  character  as  to 
preclude  the  thought  of  official  recognition.  Their  ob- 
ject was  to  secure  a  British  resident  at  Coomassie. 

The  young  Queen  Wilhelmina  of  Holland,  nearly  fif- 
teen years  of  age,  is  a  visitor  at  London,  where  she  was 
received  on  April  27.  She  is  a  charming,  unaffected  girl; 
has  worn  the  crown  of  the  Netherlands  five  years,  and  is 
finely  educated,  speaking  fluently  English,  French,  and 
German,  besides  her  native  Dutch. 

Jabez  S.  Balfour,  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
modern  defrauders,  who  absconded  from  England  in  1892, 
has  at  last  been  brought  to  London,  having  been  extra- 
dited from  the  Argentine  Eepublic.  On  May  16  he  was 
committed  for  trial.  It  is  charged  that  his  swindling 
operations  caused  losses  amounting  to  £7,000,000,  and 
that  his  victims  in  Great  Britain  were  more  that  a  hun- 
dred thousand.  His  accusers  say  that  having,  by  his  activ- 
ity in  religious  and  philanthropic  enterprises,  gained  uni- 
versal confidence,  he  formed  and  wrecked  building,  loan, 
and  savings  societies  successively,  passing  the  old  liabili- 
ties from  one  to  another  as  new  assets,  gaining  new  sub- 
scribers, and  paying  dividends  out  of  the  fresh  deposits. 


[ 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  427 

His  assertion  is  that  the  charges  are  all  based  on  erroneous 
assumptions. 

William  O'Brien  on  June  5  announced  his  retirement 
from  parliament  as  member  for  Cork,  the  retirement  to 
take  effect  June  12,  on  which  date  he  was  to  be  judicially 
declared  a  bankrupt  for  lack  of  payment  of  law  costs  in- 
curred in  contesting  Lord  Salisbury's  suit  against  him  for 
libel  a  few  years  ago — costs  which  he  declared  should  be 
paid  out  of  the  Irish  fund  deposited  in  Paris. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  board  of  the  Grand  Trunk  rail- 
way, on  May  10,  Sir  Charles  Rivers  Wilson  was  unani- 
mously elected  president,  and  Joseph  Price  was  made  vice- 
president. 

The  queen  completed  her  76th  year  on  May  24,  and 
her  birthday  was  celebrated  by  military  parades  and  nu- 
merous official  receptions  and  banquets  in  London  and  in 
the  chief  cities  throughout  the  empire. 

The  Princess  Helene  d'Orleans,  second  daughter  of 
the  late  Comte  de  Paris,  was  married  to  Prince  Emman- 
uel, Duke  of  Aosta,  in  St.  Raphael's  Roman  Catholic 
church,  Kingston-on-Thames,  June  25.  The  bride  is 
sister  of  the  Due  d'Orleans,  head  of  the  Bourbon  branch 
of  the  house  of  Orleans.  The  assemblage  of  members  of 
royal  families  at  the  wedding  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
of  recent  years. 

The  Dowager  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  formerly  Mrs. 
Hamersley  of  New  York,  was  married  to  Lord  William 
Beresford,  in  St.  George's  church,  Hanover  square,  Lon- 
don, April  30. 

A  statement  by  the  Tichborne  claimant,  confessing 
the  fraudulency  of  his  claims,  and  declaring  himself  to 
be  Arthur  Orton,  son  of  a  butcher  in  Wapping,  appeared 
in  a  London  paper,  The  People,  May  17.  It  is  attested  by 
the  claimant's  sworn  affidavit. 

The  Prince  of  Wales,  early  in  May,  accepted  the  chan- 
cellorship of  the  new  Welsh  University. 

The  Very  Rev.  Archibald  Farrar,  D.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E., 
archdeacon  of  Westminster,  was,  in  April,  appointed 
dean  of  Canterbury. 

A^arious  titles  and  decorations  were  conferred  by  the 
queen  on  her  birthday.  May  24,  pursuant  to  Lord  Rose- 
bery's  request.  The  list  includes  knighthoods  conferred 
upon  the  following:  Walter  Besant,  novelist;  Henry  Irving, 
actor;  Lewis  Morris,  poet;  and  Dr.  William  H.  Russell, 
war  correspondent.  The  honor  to  Mr.  Irving  is  warmly 
approved  by  his  host  of  admirers,  and  is  especially  wel- 


428  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

corned  by  them  as  the  first  honorable  public  recognition 
of  the  kind  that  has  ever  been  bestowed  on  an  actor  in 
Great  Britain. 

Emperor  William  of  Germany,  in  May,  conferred 
knighthood  on  Herbert  Spencer  and  on  two  scientists  on 
the  continent.  Mr.  Spencer  declined  the  honor,  on  the 
ground  that  by  his  opinions  repeatedly  published  in  his 
writings,  he  was  debarred  from  acceptance. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

May  Day  Demonstrations. — The  anniversary  of  May 
day  passed  this  year  with  little  disturbance  in  the  leading 
labor  centres  of  Europe.  The  recently  published  mani- 
festo of  the '* National  Federation"  of  French  working- 
men  undoubtedly  contributed  much  to  this  result.  Its 
concluding  paragraph  reads: 

"  Let  us  not  forget  that  it  is  only  through  the  conquest  of  the  po 
litical  power  by  the  working  class  that  our  demands  can  be  obtained." 

In  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  even  Austria-Hun- 
gary and  Italy,  the  tendency  among  socialists  seems  grow- 
ing, to  seek  results,  not  through  violence,  but  through  the 
more  peaceful  means  of  political  and  parliamentary  agita- 
tion. 

A  quite  serious  disturbance  occurred  at  Miskolcz  in 
Hungary,  where  about  1,000  workingmen  tried  to  organize 
a  May  day  procession  in  defiance  of  the  prohibition  of  the 
authorities.  A  stubborn  fight  took  place,  and  many  were 
hurt,  the  leaders  being  arrested.  There  was  some  sligiit 
disorder  also  in  Buda-Pesth  and  Vienna;  but  elsewhere 
throughout  Europe  the  day  passed  quietly.  The  custom- 
ary police  precautions  were  taken.  The  celebration  in 
London  (held  May  5)  took  the  form  of  a  trades-union  dem- 
onstration in  Hyde  Park  in  favor  of  an  eight-hour  day, 
at  which  Mr.  John  Burns,  M.  P.,  the  labor  leader,  was  the 
chief  speaker.  On  May  1  the  socialists  of  London  had 
held  an  unsuccessful  demonstration  in  the  same  place. 

International  Miners'  Congress. — The  sixth  an- 
nual international  congress  of  miners,  held  in  Paris, 
France,  June  3-7,  was  attended  by  about  fifty  delegates, 
about  half  of  whom  were  English,  representing  altogether 
nearly  1,000,000  miners.  A  resolution  declaring  over-pro- 
duction to  be  the  chief  cause  of  the  misery  among  miners, 
and  advocating  an  international  agreement  to  restrict  the 
output,  was  rejected  by  the  votes  of  the  British  and  Ger- 
man delegates,  representing  75G,300  men,  against  those  of 
the  French  and  Belgians,  representing  212,000. 


LABOR  INTERESTS. 


429 


The  congress  adopted  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that 
employers  in  any  industry  should  be  compelled  to  indem- 
nify workingmen  injured  in  their  employ,  whatever  the 
circumstances  of  the  accident,  except  where  it  could  be 
sliown  that  the  workman  had  committed  suicide. 

English  Shoe  Trade  Strike.— This  great  struggle, 
which  began  in  March  (p.  179),  came  to  an  end  April  19, 
as  the  result  of  con- 
ferences which  had 
for  some  time  been 
in  progress  between 
the  Manufacturers' 
Federation  and  the 
Operatives'  Union — 
conferences  begun 
April  4  on  the  invi- 
tation of  Sir  Courte- 
nay  Boyle  and  the 
Board  of  Trade.  The 
victory  rests  substan- 
tially with  the  mas- 
ters, as  they  obtained 
nearly  all  their  pro- 
posals Avhich  had 
been  foiTUierly  re- 
jected by  the  men. 

One  of  the  most 
serions  points  of  dif- 
ference concerned  the 
''statements''  pre- 
scribing the  rates  of 
pay  for  the  manual 
labor  which  supple- 
ments the  work  of 
machines.  The  rapid  introduction  of  new  machinery  had 
altered  the  existing  conditions;  but  the  unions  insisted 
on  maintaining  the  old  "statements."  The  employers 
claimed  that  the  union,  under  socialistic  influence,  had 
tried  to  control  the  whole  industry,  even  doing  all  that  it 
could  to  restrict  the  output  of  machinery. 

In  some  respects  the  agreement  reached  is  unique.  For 
the  first  time  in  the  history  of  labor,  unions  are  made  pecun- 
iarily responsible  for  the  fulfilment  of  conditions  imposed 
by  boards  of  arbitration,  and  the  latter  are  provided  with 
powerful  means  for  enforcing  their  decisions: 

A  joint  committee  is  to  arrange  financial  agreements,  under  which 


JOHN  BURNS,    M.  P., 
LABOR  MEMBER  OF  THE  BRITISH  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS 


430  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.  1895. 

tbe  federation  and  the  union  will  lodge  sums  of  money  in  the  hands 
of  trustees,  to  be  employed  for  the  enforcement  of  tbe  decisions  of 
tbe  boards  of  arbitration.  It  is  provided  that  no  strike  or  lockout 
shall  be  entered  into  on  the  part  of  any  body  of  workmen  or  masters 
represented  upon  any  local  board  of  arbitration,  so  that  its  authority 
shall  not  be  evaded  by  individual  or  collective  caprice.  Boards  of  ar- 
bitration which  are  to  be  appointed  are  to  settle  all  questions  of 
M-ages,  hours  of  labor,  and  conditions  of  employment,  but  they  shall 
not  require  an  employer  to  employ  any  particular  workman,  or  in- 
terfere with  the  right  of  an  employer  to  make  reasonable  regulations 
for  timekeeping  and  the  preservation  of  order  in  his  factory,  or  put 
restrictions  upon  the  introduction  of  machinery,  or  on  the  output 
therefrom.  The  men  gain  the  recognition  of  piecework;  but  the 
manufacturer  may  have  the  option  of  adopting  piecework  or  con- 
tinuing day  work,  the  system  not  to  be  -"hanged  oftener  than  once 
in  six  months.  Sums  of  money  are  to  be  deposited  in  the  hands  of 
trustees  by  both  sides  as  a  guarantee  of  good  faith.  Sir  Courtenay 
Boyle  is  to  be  the  final  arbiter  of  the  interpretation  of  the  terms  of 
this  settlement,  and  Sir  Henry  James  is  to  be  asked  to  act  as  umpire 
on  any  other  disputed  points  arising  out  of  this  agreement. 

Other  strikes. — A  strike  of  the  omnibus  drivers  in 
Ptiris,  involving  over  5,000  men,  began  April  22,  the  driv- 
ers demanding  higher  pay  and  shorter  hours.  A  settle- 
ment was  reached  April  25,  the  company  conceding  sev- 
eral of  the  points  at  issue,  and  taking  back  the  men. 
Some  disorders  attended  the  strike,  leading  to  numerous 
arrests  by  the  police. 

A  strike  of  the  brickmakers  in  Vienna  ended  about 
May  1  in  the  concession  of  an  all-round  increase  of  wages, 
ranging  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  and  tlie  abolition  of  a  sys- 
tem of  deductions  by  which  the  laborers  were  bound  to  re- 
main in  the  employment  of  the  same  company  during  the 
whole  season  on  pain  of  forfeiting  a  sum  of  money  equiva- 
lent to  $15  or  $20. 

GERMANY. 

The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal. — By  the  opening  of 
this  waterway  connecting  the  Baltic  and  North  seas,  Ger- 
many has  taken  a  great  step  toward  securing  a  foremost 
place  among  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world.  Ham- 
burg, her  greatest  trading  centre,  was  therefore  the  scene 
of  the  earliest  festivities  of  the  occasion.  On  June  19  the 
emperor  arrived  there.  A  grand  banquet  was  given  in 
the  evening  by  the  senate  of  Hamburg,  at  which  William 
II.  delivered  one  of  his  characteristic  speeches. 

The  emperor  referred  to  the  canal  as  a  great  work  of  peace. 
There  are,  he  said,  seas  that  divide  and  seas  that  unite.  This  canal 
unites  two  great  seas  for  'commercial  and  defensive  purposes.  He 
concluded  with  the  words:  "The  hearts  of  all  nations  uplift  them- 


GERMANY.  431 

selves  to  us  here  with  a  questioning  Icok.  They  need  and  desire 
peace.  In  peace  alone  can  the  world's  commerce  expand;  in  peace 
alone  thrive.  Peace  we  shall  uphold.  The  ironclad  power  of  united 
Europe  lying  in  Kiel  harbor  is  the  best  self-evident  proof  of  guaran- 
teed peace." 

On  the  following  day,  amid  indescribable  popular  en- 
tliusiasm,  the  passage  of  the  canal  was  accomplished  by 
twenty-three  vessels  following  the  emperor's  yacht  Hohen- 
zollern  from  Brunsbiittel  at  the  North  sea  end  to  the  har- 
bor of  Holtenau  at  the  Baltic  end.  The  utmost  good  feel- 
ing prevailed;  the  officers  of  the  different  squadrons  ex- 
changed visits  and  banquets;  and  in  the  evening  a  grand 
banquet  was  given  onboard  the  Hohenzollern.  Early  that 
morning  all  the  vessels  in  the  harbor  of  Kiel  had  been 
decked  with  flags  in  honor  of  the  anniversary  of  Queen 
Victoria's  coronation.  The  French  cruiser  Surcouf,  dur- 
ing her  passage  of  the  canal,  was  greeted  by  bands  on 
shore  playing  the  **  Marseillaise. '^  Nothing  occurred  to 
mar  the  festivities,  though  the  demeanor  of  the  French 
fleet  and  officers  is  said  to  have  been  rather  reserved. 

On  the  21st  the  emperor  laid  the  keystone  of  the 
canal  at  Kiel.  This  keystone  will  form  the  pedestal  of  a 
statue  of  the  Emperor  William  I.,  in  whose  reign  the  con- 
struction was  begun.  As  the  emperor  reached  the  cul- 
minating point  in  the  ceremony,  giving  the  stone  three 
strokes  with  a  mallet,  he  uttered  the  following  words: 

"  In  memory  of  Emperor  William  the  Great,  I  christen  this  canal 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  canal  in  the  name  of  God,  in  honor  of  the  Em- 
peror William  I.,  for  the  weal  of  Germany  and  the  welfare  of  na- 
tions." 

The  squadrons  in  the  harbor  thundered  out  a  salute  of 
thirty-three  guns.  In  the  afternoon  the  emperor,  on  board 
the  Hohenzollern,  steamed  slowly  through  the  lines  of  the 
assembled  war-ships,  each  of  which,  dressed  and  manned  for 
the  occasion,  saluted  as  he  passed.  This  done,  he  paid  a 
visit  to  the  Royal  Sovereign,  the  British  flagship.  In  the 
evening  a  banquet  was  given  at  Holtenau  in  a  remarkable 
hall  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  full-rigged  sailing  vessel 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  following  morning  (June 
22)  the  emperor  put  to  sea  to  witness  the  manoeuvres  of 
the  German  fleet  in  Kiel  bay. 

Over  eighty  war-ships  of  different  nations  took  part  in 
the  celebrations — the  assembled  squadrons  constituting  a 
gathering  about  three  times  as  large  as  that  which  partic- 
ipated in  the  Columbian  naval  review  in  New  York  har- 
bor in  April,  1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  296).     The  following  were 


432 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


2d.  Qr.,  1895. 


tlie  nations  represented,  the   number  of  vessels  sent  by 
each,  and  some  facts  concerning  the  equipments: 

Germany,  twenty  men-of-war,  eight  torpedo  boats,  two  imperial 
yachts,  the  larger  part  of  the  effective  German  navy,  with  a  total  ton- 
nage of  132,210  tons,  364  officers,  and  9,407  men; 

Great  Britain,  eleven  vessels,  including  the  royal  yacht  Osborne; 
total  80,510  tons,  about  175  officers  and  4,500  men; 

Italy,  nine  vessels;  38,317  tons,  180  officers,  3,309  men; 

The     United 


From  Harper's  Weekly.- CnpyrlfflU,  189.1,  by  H«'p«r  A  Brotliers. 
MAP  SHOWING  ROUTE  OF  THE  KAISER   WILHELM    CANAL. 


States,  four  vessels 
under  Rear- Admiral 
Kirliland,  the  ar- 
mored cruiser  New 
York  (flag),  the 
deck  -  protected 
cruisers  Columbia 
and  San  Francisco, 
and  the  cruiser  Mar- 
Uehead;  total  21,- 
747  tons;  seventy- 
five  officers;  1,479 
men; 

Russia,  three 
vessels;  20,872  tons, 
seventy  officers, 
1,305  men; 

France,  three 
vessels;  18,770  tons, 
sixty  officers,  1,800 
men; 

Spain, three  ves- 
sels; 17,866  tons, 
fifty -six  officers, 
1,232  men; 

Au  stria-Hun- 
garv,  four  vessels; 
13,894  tons,  fifty- 
two  officers,    1,312 


Sweden  and  Norway,  eleven  vessels,  including  six  torpedo  boats; 
8,594  tons,  fifty- five  officers,  675  men; 

The  Netherlands,  two  vessels;  4,575  tons,  twenty-five  officers, 
413  men; 

Denmark,  six  vessels,  including  four  torpedo  boats;  2,960  tons, 
thirty-two  officers,  370  men; 

Portugal,  one  cruiser;  2,420  tons; 

Turkey,  one  cruiser  corvette;  1,960  tons,  fifteen  officers,  300  men; 

Roumania,  two  vessels;  1,650  tons,  twenty-three  officers,  400 
men. 

Besides  these  the  harbor  was  crowded  with  steamers 
with  sightseers  from  different  countries,  among  which  was 
Sir  Donald  Currie's  Tantallon  Castle  with  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Gladstone  on  board.  The  American  vessels,  notably  the 
Columhia,  attracted  much  attention.     At  the  close  of  the 


GERMANY.  433 

festivities  the  Emperor  William  II.  was  entertained  at  a 
banquet  on  board  the  flagship  Ne2u  York,  the  incident 
giving  great  satisfaction  in  the  United  States. 

History  and  Description  of  the  Canal. — The  ideaof  a  sliort  cut  across 
the  peninsula  formed  by  Jutlandand  Schleswig-Holstein,  curtailingthe 
voyage  between  the  North  and  Baltic  seas  and  decreasing  the  dangers  of 
an  exceptionally  dangerous  passage,  has  been  cherished  since  the  four- 
teenth century.  In  1898  the  Stecknitz  canal  was  completed,  between 
Lubeck,  on  the  Trave,  and  the  Elbe.  Though  shallow  and  tortuous,  it 
was  a  great  thoroughfare  of  commerce  between  the  Baltic  and  the  North 
seas  in  the  time  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  from  the  twelfth  to  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  is  still  in  use.  Numerous  other  projects  at  vari- 
ous times  were  set  on  foot,  and  in  1784  the  Eider  canal  was  opened. 
Starting  from^  Holtenau,  three  miles  north  of  Kiel,  it  was  cut  as  far 
as  Rendsburg  (twenty-two  miles  distant),  joining  there  the  Eider 
river,  giving  passage,  for  vessels  of  small  dimensions,  to  Tfinning  on 
the  North  sea.  About  4,000  vessels  annually  used  this  passage;  but 
its  narrowness,  numerous  locks,  and  tortuous  windings  made  it 
wholly  inadequate  for  modern  requirements.  Moreover,  the  bar  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Eider  river  precluded  the  thought  of  enlarging  the 
canal  to  the  dimensions  requisite,  not  only  for  modern  ocean-going 
merchantmen,  but  for  men-of-war. 

It  was  mainly  the  interests  of  the  German  navy  which  led  to  the 
project  of  a  canal  along  the  Holtenau-Rendsburg-Brunsbiittel  route, 
strenuously  advocated  by  Herr  II.  Dahlstrom  of  Hamburg,  being  fi- 
nally accepted  in  1886  as  an  imperial  measure.  During  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  of  1870-1,  a  strong  French  fleet,  anchored  off  Heligo- 
land opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  was  able  to  prevent  a  union  of 
the  Baltic  and  North  sea  squadrons  of  the  German  navy,  with  the  re- 
sult that  during  the  war  the  victorious  Germans  added  nothing  at 
sea  to  the  triumphs  which  they  won  on  shore.  The  completion  of 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  canal,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  acquisition 
of  Heligoland  in  1890  (Vol.  1,  p.  26),  is  thus  of  sufficient  strategic  im- 
portance to  be  looked  upon  as  introducing  into  European  poUtics  a 
new  factor.  Without  entering  foreign  or  neutral  waters,  the  whole 
of  the  German  navy  can  now  be  brought  to  bear  at  any  point  along 
the  coast  of  the  empire,  its  efficiency  being  thereby  at  least  doubled. 
Such  considerations,  combined  with  the  further  prospects  of  greatly 
improving  Germany's  commercial  situation,  led  to  the  hearty  adop- 
tion of  the  proposal  that  the  work  should  be  carried  out  at  the  cost 
of  the  state  (previous  attempts  to  float  a  company  for  the  purpose 
having  proved  a  failure);  and  toward  the  total  cost — £7,800,000 
(about  $39,000,000)— Prussia  readily  agreed  to  contribute  £2,500,000 
(about  $12,500,000),  the  remainder  being  paid  out  of  the  imperial  ex- 
chequer. 

The  first  stone  of  the  canal  was  laid  with  great  ceremony  on  June 
3,  1887,  by  the  Emperor  William  I.*  The  new  canal  follows  the 
track  of  the  old  Eider  canal  from  Holtenau  as  far  as  Rendsburg. 
The  detours  of  the  old  channel,  however,  have  been  cut  through,  and 
the  distance  shortened  by  over  two  miles.  From  Rendsburg  to  the 
North  sea  terminus  at  Brunsbiittel  on  the  Elbe,  the  canal  curves 
round  to  the  southwest  through  a  country  singularly  level:  in  no 
place  was  a  cutting  of  over  ninety-five  feet  necessary. 

*NoTE.— There  is  a  conflict  of  authorities  as  to  the  date  of  laying  the  foun- 
dation stone;  but  the  preponderance  favors  the  one  here  given.— Ed. 
Vol.  5.— 28« 


434  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr ,  1895. 

The  canal  is  a  little  over  sixty-one  miles  in  length,  and  is  through- 
out on  the  same  level  as  the  Baltic,  where  tides  are  unknown.  Hence 
only  two  sets  of  locks  have  been  necessary,  one  at  each  enC.  The 
Holtenau  locks  will  have  to  be  closed  only  on  occasion  of  storms 
on  the  Baltic  affecting  the  height  of  the  waters  there — say  on  twenty 
or  twenty-fire  days  in  the  year.  Thus  for  vessels  proceeding  west- 
ward there  will  be  an  absolutely  clear  and  unobstructed  course  as  far 
as  Brunsbiittel;  and  here,  except  for  three  hours  each  day  at  ebb  tide, 
the  lock  gates  will  have  to  be  kept  closed  on  account  of  the  tidal 
changes  in  the  Elbe,  though  vessels  will  be  able  to  pass  through  at 
any  time,  subject  to  the  ordinary  delays.  The  breadth  of  the  canal  at 
the  water  level  is  197  feet,  and  at  the  bottom  72  feet  If  inches,  thus 
allowing  of  a  man-of-war  and  any  ordinary  merchantman  passing  each 
other  wherever  they  may  happen  to  meet;  while  at  six  different 
points  along  the  line  of  route  there  are  "  bays,"  where  the  increase  of 
superficial  breadth  from  bank  to  bank  to  328  feet  and  of  the  bottom 
breadth  to  197  feet  for  a  distance  of  820  feet,  will  allow  of  the  pass- 
ing of  two  men-of-war  without  fear  of  collision.  The  depth  of  the 
canal  is  29  feet  6  inches.  The  old  Eider  canal  had,  besides  its  series 
of  six  locks,  a  depth  of  only  10  feet  and  a  breadth  of  a  little  over  100 
feet.  The  number  of  workmen  employed  on  the  new  canal  ranged 
from  8,000  to  15,000  during  eight  years,  the  average  being  6,000,  a 
large  percentage  of  whom  were  Poles  and  Italians. 

The  bridges  have  formed  a  specially  interesting  feature  of  the 
work,  from  an  engineering  point  of  view.  The  canal  is  crossed  by 
four  lines  of  railwp.y;  and  for  two  of  these,  the  Neumiinster-Heide  line 
at  Grlinthal,  and  the  Kiel-Eckernforde  line  at  Levensau,  near  to  Kiel, 
fixed  bridges,  with  the  help  of  embankments,  have  been  constructed 
at  such  a  height  above  the  level  of  the  water  that  full-masted  vessels  can 
pass  underneath  without  obstruction  or  delay,  and  with  only  the 
lowering  of  the  royal  mast,  the  clear  space  between  canal  and  bridge 
being  137  feet  9f  inches.  These  two  bridges  have  the  widest  span  of 
any  in  Germany,  the  arch  being  511  feet  in  length.  The  two  other 
railways,  the  Neumiinster-Rendsburg  line  at  Rendsburg,  and  the 
Itzehoe-Heide  line,  near  to  Brunsbiittel,  are  carried  across  the  canal  by 
means  of  swing  bridges,  the  pivots  of  which  are  on  the  embankment 
of  the  canal,  while  each  line  has  two  separate  bridges,  carrying  a 
single  set  of  rails,  so  that  in  caseof  the  one  bridge  becoming  unworkable 
for  a  time  the  traflUc  could  still  be  carried  on  by  means  of  the  other. 
There  is,  too,  at  Rendsburg  still  a  third  swing  bridge  for  the  purposes 
of  ordinary  traffic. 

To  avoid  damage  to  the  stone  lining  of  the  bed  and  side- walls  of 
the  channel,  the  duration  of  the  passage  through  the  canal  has  been 
fixed  at  from  ten  to  twelve  hours,  corresponding  to  a  speed  of  about 
six  miles  an  hour.  By  this  route  steamers  from  Hamburg  will  save 
about  forty-five  hours,  from  London  about  twenty-two  hours,  in  the 
run  to  the  Baltic.  It  is  not  thought  that  the  canal  will  attract  much 
British  shipping  from  points  north  of  Hull,  England.  Moreover,  the 
gain  in  safety  is  another  important  commercial  consideration,  for  the 
dangers  of  the  old  voyage  around  the  Danish  peninsula  are  pro- 
verbial. The  number  of  marine  disasters  in  those  waters  rose  from 
160  in  1873  to  321  in  1887;  and,  taking  the  three  successive  periods  of 
five  years,  the  totals  were:  1873-77,  673  cases;  1878-82, 1,104  cases; 
1883-87,  1,339  cases.  The  traffic  between  the  North  sea  and  the 
Baltic  is  steadily  increasing.  Between  1871  and  1880  it  represented 
an  annual  registered  tonnage  of  12,240,000;   between  1887  and  1889, 


GERMANS 


435 


16,515,504  tons;  and,  for  the  present  year,  is  estimated  at  18,521,212 
tons.  The  saving  per  ton,  for  vessels  taking  the  new  route,  is  esti- 
mated at  an  average  of  twenty-frve  cents.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
total  traffic  between  the  two  seas  will,  in  time,  it  is  thought,  pass 
through  the  canal.  The  toll  rates  have  been  fixed  so  low  as  to  pay 
but  a  small  interest  on  the  money  expended  in  construction. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  finally,  that  the  great  strategist,  Count 
von  Moltke,  opposed  the  canal  project,  claiming  that  the  German  fleet 
could  be  attacked  in  both  seas  at  the  same  time:  an  alliance  of  Den- 
mark and  France  would 
compel  Germany  to  keep 
part  of  her  fleet  in  the 
Baltic.  And  so  Von 
Moltke  thought  that 
money  would  be  better 
spent  in  building  men- 
of-war.  Bismarck,  how- 
ever, favored  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal, 
and  for  many  years  is 
said  to  have  urged  its 
completion. 

The  Reichstag. 

— A  n  t  i- Revolution- 
ary Bill  Defeated. — 
The  session  of  tlic 
Reichstag  wliich  end- 
ed May  24  is  unique 
in  the  history  of 
modern  Germany. 
As  our  readers  know, 
the  government, 
backed  by  the  em- 
peror, had  entered 
npon  a  campaign  in 
alleged  defense  of 
*' religion,  morality, 
and  social  order, ^^  aimed  ostensibly  against  anarchy  and 
extreme  socialism.  The  principal  measure,  to  the  passage 
of  which  the  emperor  lent  all  his  energy,  was  the  anti- 
revolutionary  bill  (p.  180).  It  was  unpopular  with  all 
parties;  and  probably  nothing  but  the  prestige  of  the 
emperor  and  the  traditional  spirit  of  loyalty  and  conserva- 
tism which  has  heretofore  made  the  chancellery  and  the 
emperor^s  palace  th'^  main  centres  of  power,  enabled  the 
bitter  debate  over  i\.^  measure  to  be  kept  up  so  long.  The 
bill  was  felt  to  be  dangerous  in  the  prerogatives  it  con- 
ferred upon  the  executive — imperilling  freedom  of  speech 
and  public  criticism,  even  freedom  of  thought  and  scien- 
tific investigation.     That  public  feeling  throughout  the 


BARON  BUOL  VON  BERENBERO, 
PRESIDENT  OF  THE   REICHSTAG. 


436 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


2d  Qr.,  1895. 


empire  ran  dangerously  strong  against  the  bill,  is  seen  in 
the  fact  that  22,000  petitions. against  its  passage  were  pre- 
sented. Despotism  was  felt  to  be  more  dangerous  than 
socialism. 

On  May  10  clause  No.  Ill,  including  provisions  for  the 
punishment  of  resistance  to  state  officials  in  the  discharge 
of  their  duty,  was  finally  rejected.   Amendments  proposed 

by  Herren  Barth  and 
Von  Levetzow  had 
previously  been  voted 
down,  and  only  the 
conservatives  and  na- 
tional liberals  sup- 
ported the  govern- 
ment version.  On 
May  11  the  great 
division  occurred  on 
clause  No.  112, 
aimed  against  the 
propagation  of  sub- 
versive tendencies 
in  the  army.  Here 
again  the  original 
version  was  support- 
ed only  by  the  con- 
servatives and  na- 
tional liberals;  and 
the  amendments  of 
the  committee  only 
by  the  clericals. 
I''  h  e  s  e  essential 
clauses  having  been 
rejected,  the  house, 
onmotion  of  Eugene  Richter,  leaderof  theextreme  radicals, 
seconded  by  Von  Manteuffel,  conservative,  threw  out  eacii 
successive  paragraph,  and  ended  by  finally  rejecting  the 
bill  as  a  whole.  Two  days  later  the  tobacco  tax  bill,  an- 
other government  measure,  was  rejected  on  its  second  read- 
ing by  a  large  majority,  the  centrists,  socialists,  and 
freethinkers  opposing  it.  Some  of  the  ministers,  by  their 
lack  of  tact — notably  Minister  von  Roller — contributed  to 
tliis  summary  action  on  the  part  of  the  house.  Speaking 
a  few  days  previously,  Von  Koller  had  declared  the  office 
of  the  Reichstag  inferior  as  compared  with  that  of  the  ex- 
ecutive. 

The  defeat  of  these  bills  is  a  serious  blow  to  the  pres- 


HERU  VON  LEVETZOW, 
LATE   PRESIDENT   OP   THE    REICHSTAG. 


I 


FRANCE.  437 

tige  of  the  emperor,  and  a  proof  that  in  Germany  men  are 
having  the  courage  to  say,  as  they  have  long  known,  that 
the  people  themselves,  and  not  any  divinely  ordained  indi- 
vidual or  family,  are  the  ultimate  source  and  depository 
of  all  political  power  and  authority.  The  government 
took  its  defeat  calmly;  and  in  view  of  the  approaching  in- 
ternational/6'/es  at  Kiel,  all  parties  for  the  time  being  laid 
their  differences  aside. 

Voii  Kotze  Acquitted. — On  April  10  the  emperor 
confirmed  the  finding  of  the  court-martial  acquitting  Von 
Kotze,  the  court  chamberlain,  of  implication  in  the 
anonymous  letter  scandal  (Vol.  4,  pp.  417  and  661).  On 
April  13  Von  Kotze  was  wounded  in  a  duel  with  one  of  his 
accusers.  Baron  von  Eeischach,  court  marshal  to  the 
Empress  Frederick.   Other  duels  are  said  to  be  impending. 

FRANCE. 

Criiniiial  Law  Reform. — An  important  reform  has 
been  inaugurated  in  France  in  the  bill  brought  forward 
by  M.  Constans  in  the  senate,  in  May,  with  the  approval  of 
the  government,  providing  for  the  speedy  and  public  trial  of 
accused  persons.  Within  twenty-four  hours  after  arrest 
all  defendants  are  to  be  examined  by  the  magistrate  in 
open  court  and  in  the  presence  of  the  counsel  of  the  ac- 
cused, between  whom  and  their  clients  communication  is 
to  be  free  at  all  times.  In  this  way  arbitrary  arrests  and 
unjust  detentions  of  innocent  persons  on  charges  based  on 
mere  motives  of  revenge  or  hatred,  Avill  be  to  a  great  de- 
gree prevented. 

Population  and  the  Birtli  Rate. — The  exceptionally 
low  birth  rate  in  France  has  again  called  attention  to  the 
problem  of  dealing  with  the  foreign  element  of  the  popu- 
lation. There  are  said  to  be  over  1,300,000  foreigners  in 
the  republic,  chiefly  Italians  and  Belgians,  with  a  good 
many  Germans,  Spaniards,  and  Swiss,  of  whom  only 
about  175,000  are  naturalized.  In  many  lines  of  occupa- 
tion they  are  crowding  out  native-born  Frenchmen. 
Opinion  among  the  deputies  is  divided  on  the  question  of 
the  necessity  of  stringent  laws  taxing  or  even  excluding 
foreigners.  The  following  statistics  bearing  on  this  mat- 
ter are  interesting: 

In  1881  the  excess  of  births  over  deatlis  was  only  a  little  over 
108,000.  But  even  those  figures  were  pretty  steadily  diminished, 
year  by  year,  until  in  1888  the  excess  was  less  than  45,000.  In  1889 
it  rose  to  nearly  86,000;  but  in  1890  it  fell  to  the  vanishing  point  and 
below  it,  so  that  the  deaths  outnumbered  the  births  by  more  than 
38,000.     The  same  state  of  affairs  continued  in  1891,  when  the  excess 


438  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

of  deaths  was  more  than  10,000;  and  in  1892,  when  it  was  more  than 
20,000.  The  cause  is  found  in  the  abnormally  low  birth  rate  during 
the  period  referred  to.  The  number  of  marriages  declined  from  289,- 
000  in  1884  to  269,000  in  1890,  while  the  number  of  divorces  increased 
from  1,657  in  the  former,  the  first  year  of  the  divorce  law,  to  5,457 
in  the  latter.  The  number  of  births  was  937,000  in  1881,  but  sank, 
with  slight  fluctuations,  to  794,900  in  1889. 

Some  improvement  has  been  noticeable  since  1892.  In  1893  the  num- 
ber of  births  again  exceeded  that  of  deaths  by  7, 143,  and  the  showing  for 
1894  gives  promise  of  being  still  more  favorable — a  result  which  may 
be  attributed  in  part  to  recovery  from  the  disastrous  effects  upon  the 
population,  of  the  war  of  a  generation  ago  with  Germany. 

The  French  Academy.— On  June  13  M.  Paul  Bour- 
get,  the  noted  critic  and  novelist,  was  formally  received 
into  membership  among  the  forty  ^' immortals^' of  the 
French  Academy.  He  is  well  known  to  the  American 
public,  having  visited  the  United  States  during  the  Colum- 
bian Exposition  of  1893,  and  having  since  written  a 
work,  Outre  Mer,  recording  for  the  benefit  of  Europeans 
a  Frenchman's  impressions  of  America  and  Americans. 

On  June  20  M.  Jules  Lemaitre,  poet  and  literary  and 
dramatic  critic,  was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy,  to 
succeed  Victor  Duruy,  the  historian.  M.  Zola  received 
one  vote. 

The  Budget. — In  submitting  the  budget  to  the  cham- 
ber on  its  opening.  May  14,  M.  Ribot  estimated  the  rev- 
enue at  3,392,000,000  francs,  and  the  expenditures  at  3,- 
448,000,000— giving  a  deficit  of  56,000,000  francs.  This 
it  was  proposed  to  cover  by  a  reform  of  succession  duties; 
an  increase  of  stamp  duties  on  bonds  of  foreign  compan- 
ies; a  tax  on  servants,  except  on  farms  and  in  factories; 
an  assimilation  of  Algerian  customs  to  the  French;  a  new 
tax  on  playing  cards;  and  an  increased  horse  and  carriage 
tax.  These  taxes  have  met  with  much  opposition  from 
the  deputies,  many  of  whom  are  in  favor  of  retrenchment, 
especially  in  the  army  and  navy. 

ITALY. 

The  General  Election.— On  the  ground  of  the  rest- 
lessness displayed  by  the  chamber,  and  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  electoral  lists  had  just  been  revised.  King  Hum- 
bert on  May  8  dissolved  parliament,  and  ordered  a  new 
election  for  May  26.  The  result  of  the  polling  was  the 
triumphant  return  to  power  of  the  government  of  Signor 
Crispi,  who  was  himself  elected  at  nine  places,  six  of 
which  were  in  Sicily.  All  the  other  ministers  and  under- 
secretaries were  re-elected,  except  Signor  Serra,  under-sec- 
vetary  for  the  navy,   in  whose  constituency,  Viareggio, 


ITALY.  439 

there  was  a  riot,  during  which  the  urn  containing  the  vot- 
ing papers  was  broken.  In  many  districts  the  socialists 
sentenced  by  military  tribunals  in  Sicily  received  votes  by 
way  of  protest  against  their  condemnation.  A  number 
of  second  ballots  were  necessary;  final  results  showing  the 
total  return  of  about  300  supporters  of  the  Crispi  minis- 
try, against  an  opposition  of  about  200  members,  includ- 
ing constitutionalists,  radicals,  and  socialists.  The  repre- 
sentation of  the  radicals  was  reduced,  but  the  socialists 
increased  their  representation  so  as  to  rank  as  the  only 
group  of  the  opposition  which  was  not  practically  routed 
in  the  election. 

New  Parliament  Opened. — The  nineteenth  Italian 
parliament  was  opened  June  10  by  King  Humbert,  who, 
in  the  speech  from  the  throne,  told  the  senators  and  dep- 
uties that  the  reorganization  of  the  finances  would  once 
more  be  the  principal  matter  laid  before  them.  A  state- 
ment to  the  effect  that  social  peace  would  be  secured 
rather  by  benevolent  than  by  repressive  legislation,  was 
loudly  applauded. 

It  is  notewortliy  that  under  the  administration  of  Si- 
gner Sonnino,  a  distinct  amelioration  in  the  financial  sit- 
uation has  been  effected.  The  budget  has  been  reduced 
80,000,000  lire  (about  116,000,000) ;  receipts  have  increased 
over  100,000,000  lire;  emigration  has  decreased;  credit 
has  improved;  and  savings  banks  deposits  have  increased 
60,000,000  lire.  Receipts  for  the  new  year  are  estimated 
at  1,618,208,696  lire;  expenditures,  at  1,615,630,773  lire; 
leaving  a  surplus  of  2,577,923  lire.  The  proposals  of  the 
government  include  a  modification  of  the  customs  duties, 
a  tax  on  insurance  policies,  and  a  revision  of  the  probate 
duties. 

On  June  19  a  stormy  scene  occurred  in  the  chamber, 
necessitating  a  suspension  of  the  sitting.  It  was  precipi- 
tated by  the  radicals  on  the  declaration,  by  Signor  Crispi, 
that  executive  clemency  would  be  extended  to  peasants  and 
others  who  had  been  misled,  but  not  to  the  leaders  of  re- 
volt. The  premier's  chief  opponent  is  Signor  Cavalotti, 
who  has  made  repeated  charges  of  corruption  against  Si- 
gnor Crispi.  That  the  hitter's  hold,  however,  upon  the 
reins  of  power  has  not  been  weakened  thereby,  is  evident 
from  the  vote  of  June  25  on  a  radical  motion  declaring 
want  of  confidence  in  the  government.  The  motion  was 
rejected  by  a  majority  of  about  230. 

In  the  latter  part  of  April  the  court  of  cassation  at 
Rome  gave  its  decision  sustaining  tlie  appeals  lodged  by 


440  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

ex-Premier  Giolitti,  contesting  the  competence  of  the  or- 
dinary tribunals  to  try  the  cases  brought  against  him  in 
connection  with  the  Banca  Romana  scandals  (p.  188). 
The  court  quashed  the  previous  decision  of  the  chamber 
of  indictments  both  as  regards  the  alleged  abstriiction  of 
documents  and  as  regards  the  libel  actions  instituted 
against  the  ex-premier  by  members  of  Signor  Crispins  fam- 
ily and  others.  It 
ruled  that  a  minis- 
ter or  ex-minister 
could  be  tried  only 
by  his  peers  for  acts 
or  words  done  or 
spoken  in  the  exer- 
cise of  his  functions; 
hence  it  remains  for 
the  chamber  to  de- 
cide whether  Signor 
Giolitti  shall  be  tried 
by  the  high  court  of 
the  senate,  or  the 
whole  proceedings 
against  him  be 
dropped. 

SPAIN. 

On  June  3  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to 
assassinate  General 
Primo-Rivera,  c  a  p  - 
tain -general  of  Ma- 
drid. An  infantry 
officer,  Major  Cla- 
vijo,  entered  the  office  of  the  captain-general  and  fired  two 
shots  with  a  revolver,  seriously  wounding  him.  Clavijo  was 
promptly  arrested,  tried  by  court-martial,  and  sentenced 
to  be  shot,  which  sentence  was  carried  into  execution  June 
5.  He  pleaded  that  he  was  prompted  to  do  the  deed  by 
the  persecutions  of  the  captain -general,  which  were  insti- 
gated by  a  woman  who  bore  a  grudge  against  him. 

Late  in  April  the  Spanish  frigate  Isla  de  Luzon  discovered 
the  lost  cruiser  lieina  Eegente  lying  in  109  fathoms  of  water 
about  midway  between  Capes  Tarifa  and  Trafalgar  (p.  230). 
Although  in  a  minority  in  the  chamber,  the  govern- 
ment have  had  the  support  of  the  opposition  under  Seflor 
Sagasta  in  passing  the  budget. 


seSor  sagasta, 
ex-prime  minister  of  spaix. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  441 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Retirement  of  Count  Kalnoky.— A  series  of  most 
important  crises  has  occurred  in  Austria-Hungary,  the 
net  result  of  which  is  a  serious  blow  to  clerical  aspirations 
in  tlie  Magyar  portion  of  the  dual  empire.  For  some  time 
politics  in  Hungary  have  centred  in  the  agitation  for  the 
passage  of  a  series  of  bills  of  a  politico-ecclesiastical  nature. 
In  spite  of  clerical  opposition  the  bills  relating  to  mixed 
marriages,  the  baptism  of  children  born  from  them,  and 
the  keeping  by  magistrates  of  the  civil  registers,  had  been 
forced  through  the  diet.  Two  bills — one  giving  absolute 
freedom  of  thought,  the  other  providing  for  official  recog- 
nition of  Judaism — still  remained.  In  April  Archbishop 
Agliardi,  the  papal  nuncio  to  Austria,  took  an  active  part 
in  the  agitation  against  these  bills;  and  on  May  1  his  act 
of  interference  in  the  domestic  politics  of  Hungary  was 
denounced  in  the  lower  house  of  the  diet  by  Baron  Banffy, 
the  premier,  who  stated  that  a  protest  had  been  sent  to 
the  Vatican.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  protest  had  only 
been  sent  to  the  foreign  office  for  transmission  to  Rome, 
and  that  it  was  being  considered  by  Count  Kalnoky.  On 
May  2  a  semi-official  statement  appeared  in  a  Vienna  paper 
to  the  effect  that  "  Count  Kalnoky  does  not  sanction  Baron 
Banffy's  attack  on  Archbishop  Agliardi;"  and  at  the  same 
time  Count  Kalnoky  tendered  his  resignation.  The  em- 
peror, however,  declined  to  accept  it;  and  the  difference 
was  temporarily  arranged.  Baron  Banffy  subsequently 
reading  in  the  lower  house  the  correspondence  bearing  on 
the  incident,  including  a  letter  of  April  25  from  the  for- 
eign minister  expressing  his  willingness  to  make  com- 
plaints to  the  Vatican  regarding  the  conduct  of  the  papal 
nuncio. 

The  crisis,  however,  was  only  postponed.  At  a  private 
meeting  of  the  liberal  party  it  was  decided  to  oppose  all 
imperial  measures,  including  votes  for  the  foreign  office, 
unless  Count  Kalnoky  virtually  apologized  to  Baron  Banf- 
fy and  exacted  reparation  from  the  Vatican  for  the  action 
of  its  representative  in  Austria.  These  terms  Count  Kal- 
noky would  not  accept;  and  he  again  tendered  hisiesigna- 
tion,  which  was  accepted. 

Kalnoky,  Gustav  Sigmund,  Count,  ex-minister  of  foreign 
affairs  for  Austria-Hungary,  was  born  in  Lettowitz,  Moravia,  in  1832, 
a  descendant  of  an  old  Bolijmian  family.  Entering  the  diplomatic 
service  in  1850,  be  became  attache  first  at  the  Austrian  embassy  in 
Munich,  then  in  Berlin,  and  later  in  London,  Eng.,  where  he  re- 
jji&ined  from  1860  to  1870.     In  1874  he  was  minister  ?it  Copenhagen, 


442  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

and  iu  1880  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg.  In  November,  1881,  lie 
succeeded  Baron  Haymerle  as  Austro-Hungarian  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  in  which  post  for  nearly  fourteen  years  he  has  proved  himself 
a  diplomatist  of  the  first  order.  His  policy  included  strong  support  of 
the  Triple  Alliance  and  of  Austrian  influence  in  Bulgaria.  He  is  a 
devout  Roman  Catholic,  and  in  1891  caused  some  excitement  in  Italy 
by  declaring  that  the  "  Roman  question  "  of  the  Papacy  was  still  open. 
His  success  in  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs  was  unanimously  recog- 
nized in  both  halves  of  the  empire,  and  on  that  account  his  retirement 
was  regretted  in  most  of  the  European  capitals. 

Count  Golucliowski,  formerly  Austrian  envoy  at  Buch- 
arest, was  appointed,  May  16,  to  succeed  Count  Kalnoky 
as  foreign  minister. 

GoLUCHOWSKi,  Agenor,  Count,  Austro-Hungarian  foreign  min- 
ister, is  about  forty  years  of  age,  a  Pole — the  first  of  his  race  to  be- 
come foreign  minister  since  the  partition  of  Poland.  His  father,  for- 
merly governor  of  Austrian  Galicia,  was  a  trusted  counselor  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  being  called 
to  otfice  in  1860,  when  the  nationality  questions  were  acute,  and  tak- 
ing a  prominent  part  in  the  inauguration  of  a  new,  liberal  era.  The 
present  minister's,  first  appointment  was  in  1872,  as  attache  of  the 
Austrian  embassy  at  Berlin.  He  was  transferred  thence  to  Paris. 
His  wife  is  a  daughter  of  Prince  Joachim  Murat,  and  through  her  he 
became  very  wealthy.  From  Paris  he  was  sent  to  Bucharest;  but  was 
recalled  thence  and  retired,  it  is  said,  because  the  government  at 
Buda-Pesth  charged  him  with  lack  of  energy  in  dealing  with  the 
Roumanian  irridentists.  His  present  appointment  involves  no  imme- 
diate change  in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  empire,  his  announced  in- 
tention being  to  maintain  "unalterable  adherence  to  those  principles 
founded  by  the  league  of  peace  of  the  three  central  European  powers, 
which  not  only  do  not  exclude  the  cultivation  of  the  most  friendly 
relations  with  all  other  powers,  but  which  make  it  an  essential  con- 
dition." 

Archbishop  Agliardi,  papal  nuncio  at  Vienna,  whose 
utterances  precipitated  the  crisis,  has  been  recalled  by  the 
Vatican.  On  May  14  the  house  of  magnates  rejected  for 
the  third  time  the  section  of  the  ecclesiastical  bill  giving 
equal  rights  to  persons  who  do  not  profess  religion;  and  on 
May  16  they  passed  the  bill  removing  the  disabilities  at- 
taching to  persons  of  the  HebrcAv  faith. 

Charter  of  Vienna  Suspended. — Another  most  re- 
markable incident  was  the  suspension,  at  the  end  of  May, 
of  the  municipal  charter  granted  to  Vienna  in  1278  by 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  This  was  due  to  riotous  demon- 
strations, ostensibly  anti-Semitic  in  character,  but  largely 
based  upon  socialistic  aspirations  and  the  discontent  of 
the  lower  classes,  at  the  delay  of  the  government  to  grant 
them  the  long-looked-for  extension  of  the  franchise. 

It  appears  that  the  municipal  elections  in  May  had  re- 
sulted in  the  return  of  sixty-four  anti-Semites,  sixty-two 
liberals,  and  twelve  independents,  the  last  usually  voting 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  443 

with  the  liberals.  This  gave  the  anti-Semites  the  right  to 
the  vice-presidency  of  the  council,  which  carries  with  it 
the  office  of  deputy  mayor.  Dr.  Liiger,  the  anti-Semitic 
leader  in  the  Reichsrath,  was  chosen.  However,  the  mayor, 
or  burgomaster.  Dr.  Gruebl,  who  is  opposed  to  anti-Sem- 
itism, declined  to  be  associated  with  Dr.  Liiger  and  re- 
signed, whereupon  the  latter  was  elected  burgomaster. 
But  so  narrow  was  his  majority — not  a  working  one — that 
Dr.  Liiger  refused  to  accept  office;  whereupon  the  masses 
in  Vienna,  on  the  idea  that  he  was  hindered  from  assum- 
ing the  post  by  Jewish  machinations,  broke  out  into  riot. 
On  May  29  a  mob  attacked  and  took  possession  of  the  city 
hall,  and  fierce  fighting  ensued  between  them  and  the 
police.  Another  vote  for  burgomaster  was  taken;  but  no 
one  had  the  requisite  majority.  On  May  30  the  govern- 
ment decided  to  dissolve  the  Vienna  council,  and  to  ap- 
point an  imperial  commissary  to  administer  the  municipal 
affairs  of  the  city.  This  officer  is  assisted  by  fifteen  of  the 
councillors — seven  liberals,  seven  anti-Semites,  and  one 
neutral — Dr.  Liiger  being  excluded  from  taking  part  in 
the  administration. 

Austrian  Cabinet  Crisis. — On  June  17  the  govern- 
ment of  Prince  von  Windischgriitz,  formed  in  November, 
1893,  resigned.  It  had  lost  all  cohesion,  owing  to  dissen- 
sions over  the  numerous  problems  of  the  extremely  com- 
plicated political  situation.  The  Hungarian  ecclesiastical 
bills  had  already  caused  the  resignation  of  Count  Kalnoky; 
the  proposed  extension  of  the  suffrage  displeased  the  Ger- 
man liberals;  the  ministerial  policy  which  permitted  the 
anti-Semitic  successes  in  the  recent  Vienna  elections  dis- 
pleased the  Poles  and  conservatives;  and  some  members  of 
the  cabinet  did  not  approve  of  suspending  the  municipal 
charter  of  the  capital.  The  electoral  reform  proposals  of 
the  government  included  the  creation  of  two  more  elect- 
oral groups,  one  of  qualified  artisans,  the  other  of  all  males 
of  voting  age  paying  the  smallest  direct  tax.  These  dis- 
appointed the  working  classes,  who  on  May  30,  to  the 
number  of  20,000,  had  made  a  demonstration  in  Vienna 
in  favor  of  universal  suffrage.  By  the  new  scheme  agri- 
cultural laborers  and  the  lower  classes  of  artisans  would 
be  excluded  from  the  suffrage. 

Toward  the  end  of  June  a  new  cabinet  for  Austria, 
of  no  distinct  party  color,  was  formed  under  Count  Kiel- 
mansegg  as  president  of  the  council  and  minister  of  the 
interior.  Only  four  of  its  members  hold  the  rank  of  min- 
ister— the    president   already   mentioned;   the    Chevalier 


444  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Bohm  de  Bawerk,  finance  minister;  Count  Welsersheimb, 
minister  of  national  defense;  and  the  Chevalier  de  Jaw- 
orski,  minister  for  Polish  affairs.  The  others  are  officials 
appointed  ad  interim  to  take  charge  of  their  departments. 
KiELMANSEGG,  CouNT,  new  Austrian  premier,  is  in  liis49tb  year. 
He  is  of  Hanoverian  origin,  his  family  having  left  their  native  coun- 
try after  the  events  of  1866.  His  father  was  master  of  the  horse  to 
the  late  King  George.  As  stadtholder  of  lower  Austria,  which  prov- 
ince includes  the  capital,  Count  Kielmansegg  has  achieved  brilliant 
results.  The  scheme  known  as  "Greater  Vienna,"  consisting  of  the 
incorporation  of  the  suburbs  with  the  capital,  was  his  work.  The 
great  public  enterprises  now  being  carried  out,  such  as  the  Metropoli- 
tan railway  and  the  regulation  of  the  River  Wien,  were  begun  by 
him.  He  is  an  opponent  of  the  anti-Semitic  movement.  He  is  the 
first  Protestant  minister  of  the  interior  who  has  ever  held  office  in 
Austria.  Singularly  enough,  the  present  prime  minister  of  Hungary, 
Baron  Banffy,  is  also  a  Protestant. 

THE  ANTI-SEMITIC  MOVEMENT. 

The  anti-Semitic  movement  is  everywhere  an  anti- 
capitalist  movement,  and  is  based  largely  on  the  discon- 
tent of  small  tradespeople  or  officials  who  believe  that  the 
interests  of  their  class  will  be  furthered  by  certain  restrict- 
ive measures  directed  against  large  capitalists.  As  sig- 
nificant of  the  extreme  to  which  this  race  hatred  may  be 
carried,  we  may  cite  the  platform  adopted  in  June  by  the 
anti-Semitic  party  in  Germany  at  its  first  congress.  This 
party  was  formed  a  few  months  ago  by  Dr.  Bockel,  Herr 
Ahlwardt,  and  others;  and  it  opposes  not  only  the  Jews, 
but  the  German  reform  party  as  well.  The  congress  was 
attended  by  over  100  delegates  from  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. 

In  the  platform  a  Jew  is  defined  as  any  person  in  whose  family  dur- 
ing the  last  three  generations  there  has  been  one  person  of  Jewish 
blood.  Even  a  purely  Gentile  family,  one  of  whose  members  has 
married  a  Jew,  is  included  in  the  proscription.  All  such  persons  are 
to  be  excluded  from  the  legal,  medical,  and  educational  professions, 
from  the  army  and  the  press,  and  from  all  public  schools.  They  are 
to  be  forbidden  to  have  anything  to  do  with  public  contracts.  They 
are  not  to  be  suffered  to  acquire  landed  property  nor  to  carry  on  busi- 
ness under  German  names.  Finally,  no  more  Jews,  or  persons  re- 
lated to  Jews,  are  to  be  permitted  to  enter  Germany  from  other  coun- 
tries. For  the  rest,  the  platform  is  chiefly  socialistic,  demanding 
legislation  by  the  referendum,  nationalization  of  industry  and  trade, 
and  the  abolition  of  all  taxes  save  a  "progressive"  income  tax,  so 
graded  as  to  confiscate  all  incomes  above  a  certain  figure. 

DENMARK. 

The  general  elections  held  recently  for  members  of 
the  folksthing  or  lower  house  of  the  Danish  parliament, 
resulted  in  the  return  of  a  majority  of  radical  socialists, 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN.  445 

showing  the  sentiment  of  the  voters  to  be  one  of  disap- 
proval of  the  course  of  the  ministry  in  the  matter  of  the 
long-standing  constitutional  dispute  which  it  was  thought 
was  ended  last  year  (Vol.  4,  p.  669). 

NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

Early  in  April  a  report  gained  currency  in  Berlin  that 
the  German  emperor  had  given  to  King  Oscar  assurance 
of  military  aid,  if  that  should  become  necessary,  in  assert- 
ing the  rights  of  the  king  of  Sweden  in  Norway.  Tiie 
report  had  of  course  no  official  sanction,  but  it  afterward 
got  confirmation  when  it  transpired  that  Russia  was  in- 
clined to  favor  the  Norwegian  nationalists,  expecting  to 
obtain  from  independent  Norway  a  concession  of  a  small 
area  in  the  extreme  north  of  that  country — the  region  of 
the  Varanger  Fjord,  which  would  afford  to  Russia  a  port, 
open  the  year  around,  in  the  North  sea.  The  poet  and 
patriot  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson  publicly  expressed  his  ap- 
proval of  the  cession,  but  the  people  of  Norway  received 
the  proposal  with  indignation.  They  could  not  shut  their 
eyes  to  the  dangers  of  an  alliance  with  Russia. 

"An  entente cordiale  between  120,000,000  and  2,000,000  would  sure- 
ly lapse  by  degrees  into  a  protectorate,"  writes  an  eminent  Norwegian 
man  of  letters;  "and  it  would  depend  upon  a  complication  of  interna- 
tional relations,  wliicb  is  continually  sbifting,  wbetber  Norway  might 
not  some  day  find  herself  in  the  position  of  Finland,  absorbed  by  the 
vast  barbarous  empire  that,  like  Saturn,  remorselessly  devours  its 
own  children." 

In  the  meantime  the  Russian  press  manifested  a  warm 
interest  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 
A  St.  Petersburg  journal  declared  the  dissolution  of  the  tie 
between  Sweden  and  Norway  to  be  highly  probable. 
These  utterances  were  not  of  a  kind  to  give  pleasure  tc 
tiie  court  of  Prussia,  jealous  as  it  is  and  must  be  of  any 
aggrandizement  of  Russia;  westward  and  accordingly  the 
report  of  an  understanding  between  the  German  emperor 
and  the  Svvedisli  king  for  military  aia  in  certain  contin- 
gencies gained  credence. 

But  soon  the  sympathies  of  Germany  and  Russia  toward 
Norway  and  Sweden  respectively  were  plainly  confessed. 
The  Berlin  newspapers  were  in  the  beginning  of  May  dis- 
cussing the  possibility  of  Germany's  having  to  send  a 
squadron  into  the  bay  of  Christiania,  while  the  press  of  St. 
Petersburg  and  of  Moscow  was  meditating  on  contingen- 
cies that  might  necessitate  the  dispatch  of  a  Russian  fleet 
to  Stockholm.  The  semi-official  Moscow  News  held  that 
King  Oscar's  recently  manifested  indisposition  to  compro- 


446  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

mise  is  clue  ^^to  the  influence  of  Germany,  which  has  every 
interest  in  having  the  whole  of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula, as  well  as  the  Norwegian  frontier  of  Russia,  under 
the  firm  control  of  a  devoted  ally." 

The  Norwegian  storthing  having  refused  to  vote  the 
money  required  to  support  the  diplomatic  and  consular' 
system  of  the  kingdom,  there  was  a  deficit  on  that  account, 
and  the  machinery  of  tlie  department  of  foreign  affaii's 
was  threatened  with  stoppage  or  at  least  with  serious  em- 
barrassment. But  on  May  13  both  houses  of  the  Swedish 
parliament  almost  unanimously  voted  to  grant  to  tlie  gov- 
ernment funds  equal  to  the  sum  withheld  by  the  Norwe- 
gian legislature.  The  possibility  of  war  between  the  two 
countries  began  to  be  seriously  discussed  at  Stockholm; 
and  on  May  17  the  Swedish  chambers  voted  14,000,000 
to  the  government  to  supply  its  immediate  wants  in  the 
event  of  war.  Bjornson,  writing  in  the  Vienna  Neue 
Freie  Presse,  holds  that  tliere  will  be  no  war.  No  reason 
for  a  war  exists,  he  says,  except  that  Norway  refuses  to 
pay  her  share  of  the  expenses  of  diplomatic  and  consular 
representation. 

A  step  toward  compromise  and  conciliation  was  taken 
in  the  Norwegian  storthing  June  7.  By  a  vote  of  90  to  24 
a  resolution  was  adopted  declaring  that  tlie  existing  polit- 
ical situation  calls  for  the  removal  of  the  discord  in  the 
Union,  and  affirming  Norway's  right  to  equality  with 
Sweden,  including  a  separate  consular  service  and  a  sep- 
arate minister  of  foreign  affairs.  This  resolution  was 
drafted  by  five  members  of  the  left  (or  radical)  party, 
three  of  the  right,  and  two  of  the  moderate  party.  The 
king  thereupon  commissioned  ex-Minister  James  Bon- 
nevie  to  form  a  compromise  ministry  for  Norway.  But 
■after  two  days'  efforts  to  obtain  from  the  radicals  any 
terms  of  compromise,  Bonnevie  informed  the  king  that  he 
found  it  impossible  to  form  a  cabinet.  The  king  now  ap- 
pears to  have  abandoned  all  thought  of  compromising 
the  difficulty.  A  telegram  from  Berlin  on  the  last  day  of 
June,  reported,  on  the  authority  of  *^  a  high  official  person- 
age closely  and  intimately  associated  with  the  kmg,''  that 
^'  if  the  king,  through  the  obstinacy  of  the  radicals,  should 
be  unable  to  obtain  the  construction  of  a  ministry,  he  will 
refuse  to  recognize  any  ministry  the  storthing  may  ap- 
point, and  himself  seize  the  reins  of  government.  *  *  * 
Rather  than  surrender  the  union  between  Sweden  and 
Norway  he  will  fight  to  maintain  it,  even  if  he  should 
stand  alone." 


GREECE. 

SERVIA. 

A  general  election  was  held  in 
government  pressure  a  large  niajori 
returned.     On  May  6  a  pension  of 
000)   a  year    was   voted    by   the  sk 
Milan. 

After  an  absence  of  four  years, 
turned  to  Belgrade 
on  May  10.  It  was 
on  May  19,  1891,  that 
she  was  expelled  from 
Servia(Vol.l,p.'^5<»). 
She  was  received  vn 
her  return  by  Kinu 
Alexander!.,  her  sou, 
and  with  elaborate  de- 
monstrations of  po})- 
uhir  entliusiasm. 
The  exact  political 
significance  of  her  re- 
turn, if  it  had  any, 
is  not  known.  It 
has,  however,  been 
followed  by  the  resig- 
nation of  the  minis- 
try of  M.  Christitch, 
and  the  formation, 
early  in  July,  of  a 
new  progressist  cabi- 
net under  M.  Nova- 
kovitch. 


447 


April.  Under  strong 
ty  of  progressists  was 
£14,400  (about  $70,- 
upslitina  to    ex-King 

ex- Queen   Natalie  re- 


r 

i 
1 

Wl 

Q 

Mm 

EX  KING    MILAN    I     OF   SEIIVIA. 


GREECE. 

Elections  were  held  April  29  for  members  of  the  Greek 
chamber  of  deputies,  resulting  in  a  complete  victory  for 
the  party  of  M.  Tlieodor  Delyannis,  who  has  now  a  follow- 
ing of  about  IGO  members.  Only  ten  or  twelve  of  the 
supporters  of  ex-Premier  Tricoupis  were  elected.  The 
ad  interim  ministry  of  M.  Nickolaos  Delyannis  (p.  195) 
tendered  their  resignations  June  10,  at  the  first  sitting  of 
the  new  parliament;  and  M.  Theodor  Delyannis  was  sum- 
moned to  form  a  cabinet,  which  he  promptly  succeeded  in 
doing  as  follows: 

M.  Delyannis,  minister  of  finance;  M.  Skoiizes,  minister  for  for- 
eign affairs;  M.  Mavromicbalis,  minister  of  ibe  interior;  M.  Smolentz, 


448 


AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA. 


Qr.,  1895. 


minister  of  war;  M.  Levidis,  minister  of  marine;  M.  Varvoglis,  min- 
ister of  justice;  and  M.  Petridis,  minister  of  public  instruction. 

The  financial  proposals  of  the  new  government  include 
a  departure  from  the  loan  policy  of  its  predecessors,  a 
complete  separation  of  the  public  debt  from  the  ordinary 
financial  administration,  and  its  surrender  to  a  commis- 
sion with  absolute  right  of  supervision  over  collection  of. 

the  revenues  to  be  devoted 
to  the  service  of  the  public 
debt,  the  first  duty  of  the 
government  being  to  restore 
its  credit  abroad.  Other 
features  of  the  ministerial 
program  include  repair  and 
completion  of  railways,  and 
reform  of  the  police  and  of  the 
primary  school  system.  M. 
Tricoupis  has  announced  his 
retirement  from  public  life. 


MAJOR-GENERAL  SIR  R.  C.  LOW, 


INDIA. 

The  Relief  of  Chitral. 

— The  1st  of  April  arrived, 
but  no  word  of  surrender  had 
IN  COMMAND  OF  THE  CHITRAL  EXPEDITION,  comc  from  Shcr  Afzul,  aud 
at  the  town  of  Chitral  the  British  resident,  Dr.  Robertson, 
with  the  garrison  of  some  500  native  troops  (Sikhs  and 
Kashmiri)  commanded  by  British  officers,  was  still  be- 
sieged in  the  fort  by  a  strong  and  well-armed  force  of  the 
followers  of  Sher  Afzul  and  Umra  Khan.  The  besieged, 
while  awaiting  the  coming  of  the  relief  expedition  under 
Sir  Robert  Low  (p.  201),  had  to  exercise  the  utmost  vigi- 
lance day  and  night  to  counteract  the  stratagems  of  the 
enemy.  Three  times  the  towers  of  the  fort  were  on  fire; 
scaling  ladders  of  great  size  were  made  ready;  a  mine  was 
worked  up  to  within  ten  feet  of  the  fort;  no  defender 
of  the  fort  could  look  through  a  loophole  for  a  moment 
without  being  shot.  On  April  17  the  garrison  made  a  sortie 
and  surprised  a  party  of  the  enemy  at  work  on  a  mine. 

Meanwhile,  the  expedition  from  Peshawur  was  on  the 
march,  also  another  but  smaller  expedition  from  Gilgit, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Kelly.  On  April  3  the  army  com- 
manded by  Sir  R.  Low,  14,000  men  in  three  brigades, 
crossed  the  Indian  frontier  and  made  a  rapid  march  to  the 
Malakand  pass,  the  chief  route  across  the  mountains  into 


INDIA.  449 

the  Swat  valley.  A  feint  was  made  on  the  Shahkot  pass 
by  the  first  brigade,  while  the  main  force  advanced 
through  the  Malakand  pass.  But  the  Swatis  were  not  de- 
ceived by  the  ruse,  and  held  every  point  of  vantage  on  the 
mountain  sides,  sheltered  by  *^sangars^^  or  stone  breast- 
works which  they  had  erected  at  every  suitable  corner. 
But  the  British  worked  their  way  up  steadily,  the  moun- 


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MAP  OP  CHITBAL  AND  OTHER  FRONTIER  REGIONS   OP  BRITISH  INDIA. 

tain  and  machine  guns  shelling  the  Swatis  out  of  their  rude 
works.  The  crisis  of  the  struggle  was  reached  at  a  sharp 
bend  in  the  pass,  where  the  natives  had  constructed  their 
strongest  defenses.  The  first  brigade  had  by  this  time 
rejoined  the  main  army,  bringing  more  artillery;  but  the 
Swatis  were  not  to  be  dislodged  by  artillery.  "  Then  two 
British  regiments  and  one  regiment  of  Indian  troops 
charged  up  the  hill,  and  there  was  a  hand  to  hand  fight 
with  the  bayonet.  The  Swatis  after  a  Avhile  were  routed. 
Descending  into  the  valley,  the  first  brigade  had  a  sharp 
engagement  with  5,000  tribesmen.  The  crossing  of  the 
Swat  river  near  Alakand  was  impeded  by  a  heavy  fire;  but. 
a  bridge  was  thrown  across,  and  the  enemy's  force  quickly 
routed.  Chakrana  was  now  occupied,  and  Umra  Khan's; 
fort  at  Thana  seized. 

Vol.  6.-29. 


450  AFFAIRS   IN  JVSIA.  2d  Qr.,  189e. 

The  exploit  of  Colonel  Kelly^s  command  in  getting 
over  the  Shandur  pass  is  regarded  as  unexampled  in  the 
history  of  hill  campaigns.  The  pass  is  some  12,000  to 
14,000  feet  high — nearly  as  high  as  the  summit  of  Mont 
Blanc.  It  was  covered  "with  deep  snow  when  the  small 
force  of  pioneers  and  Kashmiri  and  Hunza  troops  set  out 
from  Gilgit  to  attempt  its  passage.  Heavy  snowstorms 
caused  the  little  army  to  retreat  at  first,  but  as  soon  as 
the  skies  cleared  they  were  ascending  the  pass  again;  and 
as  the  route  was  impracticable  for  mules,  the  men  them- 
selves carried  the  small  mountain  goods  up  the  ravines 
and  through  the  deep  snow.  Advancing  toward  Mastuj, 
for  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered  small  English  garrison 
there,  Colonel  Kelly  had  an  obstinate  fight  near  Gasht 
with  a  strongly  posted  force  of  the  enemy.  Arriving  at 
Mastuj,  he  relieved  the  garrison  there,  and  then  marched 
for  Chitral.  Once  more,  at  Nisagal,  he  found  a  strong 
force  of  the  enemy  advantageously  posted  on  the  precipit- 
ous sides  of  a  deep  gorge  through  which  his  route  lay. 
The  enemy  were  armed  with  Martini  and  Snider  rifles, 
and  offered  a  stout  resistance;  but  an  attack  in  flank  by  a 
small  party  drove  them  out  of  their  works.  The  way  to 
Chitral  was  now  open. 

While  Sir  Robert  Low^s  army  and  the  small  force  from 
Gilgit  were  pressing  Sher  Afzul  and  Umra  Khan  on  all 
sides,  the  khan  of  Dir  was  vigorously  co-operating  with 
the  British.  AVith  2,000  troops  the  khan  of  Dir  pushed 
forward  to  relieve  the  garrison  of  Chitral.  On  learning  of 
his  approach,  Sher  Afzul  bolted  with  a  following  of  only 
200  men.  The  khan  then  started  in  pursuit.  His  troops 
closed  all  the  passes  and  drove  the  fugitives  into  the  snow, 
where  they  were  compelled  to  surrender  or  starve.  When 
he  returned  to  Dir  he  brought  in  Sher  Afzul  and  400  of 
his  followers  as  prisoners,  among  them  many  notables. 
Umra  Khan  escaped  into  Afghan  territory,  and  there  was 
arrested  by  the  Afghan  commander-in-chief  and  held  to 
await  a  request  from  the  Indian  government  for  his  sur- 
render. 

Regarding  the  future  of  Chitral,  the  London   Times 


"Unless  we  retain  Chitral  and  retain  the  Dir  road  to  it  we  shall 
have  thrown  away  many  lives  and  spent  over  a  million  'of  money 
without  obtaining  any  commensurate  advatitage.  If  w^ 'do  retain 
Chitral  and,  the  Dir  road  we  shall  hare  added '/materially  to  the  de-^ 
fenses  of  our  Indian  empire."  •>;.,   ;;,:.:      .-,  j 

Reform  in  Kashmir. — To  put  astop  to  the'bppres- 


AUSTRALASIA.  451 

sion  of  the  Mussulman  population  of  Kashmir  by  the 
dominant  Hindoo  minority,  the  government  of  India  a 
lew  years  ago  introduced  a  system  of  land  reform  by 
which  the  customary  rights  of  each  cultivator  of  the  soil 
tare  definitely  ascertained,  and  he  acquires  an  authoritative 
title  to  his  fields  as  long  as  he  pays  a  moderate  tax.  The 
unlimited  extortions  of  the  past  being  now  impossible, 
villages  are  again  peopled,  lands  are  again  cultivated,  and 
the  peasantry  are  both  able  and  willing  to  pay  a  larger 
tiggregate  revenue  in  advance  than  could  formerly  be 
squeezed  out  of  them  in  driblets  of  arrears. 

The  report  of  the  commission  appointed  by  the  British 
government  to  investigate  the  uses  and  effects  of  opium  in 
India  is  treated  elsewhere  in  this  number  (p.  423). 

AUSTRALASIA. 

The  free-trade  idea  seems  to  be  making  progress  in 
Australia.  The  report  of  the  commission  appointed  in 
Victoria  to  consider  the  question  of  the  tariff,  declares 
that  evidence  shows  the  feeling  of  the  colony  to  be  in 
favor  of  moderate  protection,  but  to  be  opposed  to  high 
prohibitive  duties.  And  in  New  South  Wales  on  May  9, 
Premier  Reid  submitted  a  budget  announcing  a  return  to 
the  policy  of  free  trade.  The  specific  duties  imposed  by 
the  late  government  of  Sir  George  Dibbs  are  to  be  at  once 
repealed.  Others  will  be  retained  for  longer  or  shorter 
periods;  but  gradually  all  are  to  be  abolished  except  the 
permanent  duties  on  a  limited  list  of  articles,  including 
beer,  wine,  spirits,  tobacco,  and  opium.  It  is  estimated 
that  £500,000  of  specific  duties  will  be  remitted  during 
the  year,  which  amount  is  to  be  made  up  by  economies  in 
administration,  and  by  direct  taxation,  including  a  land 
tax  of  a  penny  in  the  pound,  with  an  additional  20  per 
cent  in  the  case  of  absentee  landlords,  and  an  income 
tax  of  sixpence  in  the  pound,  with  exemption  for  incomes 
-of  £300  or  under. 

Mr.  Reid's  proposals  also  include  sweeping  reforms  in 
the  civil  service,  which  has  been  far  from  standing  above 
the  suspicion  of  corrupt  mismanagement.  It  is  proposed 
to  vest  control  of  the  department, in  a iion-political  board 
outside  the  influence  of  party  votes. 

The  intercolonial  temperance  conference,  which  began 
its  sittings  at  llobart,  Tasmania,  on  January  31,  has  de- 
<3ided  to  petition  the  federal  council  of  the  Australian  col- 
onies for  equal  suffrage;  prohibition  of  the  export  of  alco- 
liol  or  opium  from  a  colony  into  prohibitory  colonies;  and 


453  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  2d  Qr..  1895, 

for  a  referendum  vote  of  the  whole  adult  population  of 
Australia  on  the  question  of  prohibiting  the  manufacture^ 
importation,  and  sale  of  alcohol  except  for  mechanical  and 
medicinal  purposes.  The  conference  refused  by  an  over- 
whelming vote  to  indorse  the  Gothenburg  system. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAWAII. 

Although  dated  February  21,  the  letter  of  Secretary 
of  State  Gresham  to  United  States  Minister  Willis  request- 
ing the  latter  to  intimate  to  the  Hawaiian  government 
that  Mr.  Thurston  was  'persona  nan  grata  as  Hawaiian 
minister  at  Washington,  did  not  reach  Honolulu  until 
April  30,  having  been  carried  to  Japan  in  the  mail  by 
mistake.  The  ground  was  taken  that  Mr.  Thurston  had 
allowed  a  press  representative  to  read  and  copy  at  his- 
legation  in  Washington  private  letters  from  Honolulu 
(not  official)  concerning  the  conditions  and  state  of  feel- 
ing there,  and  containing  criticisms  on  the  policy  of  the- 
Cleveland 'administration  toward  Hawaii,  parts  of  which 
letters  were  published.  It  was  reported  in  the  middle  of 
May  that  the  Hawaiian  foreign  office  had  replied  to  the- 
letter  of  Secretary  Gresham,  upholding  Mr.  Thurston's 
act. 

Mr.  AVilliam  R.  Castle  of  Honolulu  has  been  appointed; 
to  succeed  Mr.  Thurston  in  the  post  at  Washington.  He 
was  a  colleague  of  the  late  minister  on  the  commission 
which  in  February,  1893,  negotiated  the  abortive  treaty  of 
annexation  with  President  Harrison's  administration  (Vol. 
3,  p.  18). 

The  Hawaiian  legislature  assembled  in  special  session 
June  12.  It  is  mainly  concerned  with  the  enactment  of 
a  land  and  homestead  law,  with  especial  reference  to  the 
disposal  of  the  crown  lands.  Annexation  to  the  United 
States  is  still  the  avowed  policy  of  the  government  of 
President  Dole. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA. 

AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA 


453 


Russian  Mission  to  Abyssinia. — The  Russian  mis- 
■sion  to  xibyssiiiia,  which  set  out  in  January  (p.  207),  re- 
turned home  in  June.  Its  head,  Lieutenant  Leontieff, 
has  stated  that  the  object  of  the  mission  was  a  religious 
one — namely,  to  bring  the  Russian  and  Abyssinian  churches 
into  friendly  relations.  He  was  kindly  received  by  the 
Abyssinian  king,  Menelek.  The  latter  addressed  an  auto- 
graph letter  to  the  czar,  thanking  him  for  having  sent  the 
mission  to  Abyssinia,  and  soliciting  his  aid  against  the 
Italians.  It  is  stated  that  already  several  ex-officers  of  the 
Russian  army  have  gone  to  Abyssinia  to  enter  the  military 
service  there. 

The  Suez  Canal. — The  net  tonnage  passing  through 
the  canal  in  1894  showed  an  increase  of  nearly  400,000 
tons  as  compared  with  1893,  and  almost  as  large  com- 
pared with  1892.  The  dues  rose  from  70,667,361  francs 
m  1893  to  73,776,827  in  1894.  In  1870,  26,758  passen- 
gers were  carried  tlirougli  the  canal;  in  1880,  98,900;  in 
1890,  161,352;  in  1894,  166,603. 

Case  of  Ex-Consul  Waller.— Mr.  John  L.  Waller, 
formerly  United  States  consul  at  Tamatave,  Madagascar, 
who  was  convicted  by  a  French  court-martial  on  a  charge  of 
conspiracy  (p.  87),  reached  Marseilles  a  prisoner  April  21, 
and  was  confined  in  a  fortress.  On  May  21  the  French 
government,  on  the  demand  of  the  United  States  ambas- 
sador, transferred  the  case  of  Mr.  Waller  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  civil  courts.  This  action  was  interpreted  to 
mean  either  his  trial  by  the  civil  judiciary  or  his  ultimate 
release  from  prison.  The  correspondence  sent  to  the  de- 
partment of  state  at  Washington  shows  that  after  the 
French  authorities  had  refused  to  confirm  the  Malagasy 
government's  concession  of  rubber  forests  to  Mr.  Waller, 
great  quantities  of  the  product  were  shipped  to  the  islands 
of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon.  There  appears  to  be  ground 
for  a  claim  to  be  enforced  by  the  United  States  against 
the  French  government,  on  behalf  of  Mr.  Waller,  for  in- 
demnity on  account  of  his  property  losses  and  the  hard- 
ships and  indignities  which  he  has  suffered. 


454  SCIENCE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

SCIENCE. 

Photography  in  Colors.— In  a  previous  issue  of  this- 
review  (Vol.  3,  p.  843)  were  noted  the  advances  made  by 
Professor  Lippmann  and  the  Messrs.  Lumiere  of  Paris,  in 
the  direct  photographic  reproduction  of  colors.  Their  re- 
Gearches  have,  however,  up  to  the  present  time,  failed  to- 
make  their  discovery  applicable  to  ordinary  purposes  and 
of  commercial  value;  but  other  processes  effecting  a  repro- 
duction of  colors,  not  however  directly  on  the  photograph 
itself,  but  only  indirectly,  have  been  developed  almost  to- 
the  commercial  stage.  The  latest  of  these,  the  discovery 
of  Dr.  Joly,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  was  exhibited  before  the  RoyaL 
Society  of  England  in  June,  and  its  principles,  are  de- 
scribed as  follows: 

"The  metbod  adopted  by  Dr.  Joly  is  a  modification  of  tbat  knowik 
as  composite  beliocbromy,  and  is  briefly  as  follows:  To  tbe  sensitive- 
surface  of  a  specially  prepared  pbotograpbic  plate  a  glass  screen  is 
placed,  on  wbicb  bave  been  ruled  paraHel  lines  in  tints  orange,  green- 
yellow,  and  blue-violet;  tbese  tints  follow  in  regular  sequence,  and 
tbe  lines  meet  in  close  contact.  Tbe  ruled  surface  of  tbe  '  takings 
screen'  is  in  contact  witb  tbe  pbotograpbic  plate  during  exposure. 
Tbe  developed  negative  is  colorless,  but  sbows  a  ribbed  or  linear  ap- 
peal ance,  wbicb  is  due  to  tbe  fact  tbat  tbe  colored  lines  tbrougb. 
wbicb  tbe  sensitive  plate  bas  been  affected  bave  exercised  a  selective 
Influence  in  a  similar  way  as  tbe  nerve  ends  exercise  a  selective  in- 
fluence on  tbe  retina  in  producing  acolor  impression,  and  tbus  tbereis 
in  tbe  negative  a  perfect  and  permanent  record  of  tbe  colors  of  tbe  ob- 
ject pbotograpbed.  Tbe  negative  is  tben  printed  on  glass  and  a  '  trans- 
parency '  is  produced.  To  make  visible  tbe  invisible  color  record  in  tbe 
negative,  all  tbat  is  necessary  is  to  place  over  tbe  positive  a  glass- 
screen  called  tbe  'viewing  screen;'  on  tbis  are  ruled  parallel  lines  of 
tbe  same  dimensions  as  tbose  in  tbe  'taking  screen,'  but  wbicb  are- 
alternately  deep  red,  brigbt  green,  and  blue-violet.  On  accurate- 
juxtaposition,  line  over  line  of  tbe  positive  and  tbe  'viewing  screen, '^ 
tbe  colored  picture  flasbes  into  view,  Tbe  same  'taking  screen'  can 
be  used  to  take  pbotograpbs  repeatedly,  and  also  tbe  same  'viewing^ 
screen 'to  materialize  tlie  in  visiblecolor  record;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  keep 
a  permanent  color  pbotograpb, tbe  'viewing screen'  must  be  attacbed 
to  tbe  positive.  Tbe  expensive  nature  of  tbe  ruled  colored  screen 
must  be  an  insuperal)le  bar  to  Dr.  Joly's  metbod  of  color  pbotograpby 
becoming  popular;  but  if,  pursuing  tbe  same  line  of  researcb,  be  can; 
discover  bow  to  print  on  sensitive  paper  in  colors,  an  immense  ad- 
vance will  bave  been  made  in  tbe  art  of  pbotograpby,  and  not  only  a 
new  pleasure  given  to  life,  but  a  means  of  accurate  color  recordiv 
given  to  science." 

The  Electro-Artograph. — Last  year  we  noted  the  fact 
that  Mr.  N.  S.  Amstutz,  a  mechanical  and  electrical  engineer 
of  Cleveland, 0.,  had  succeeded  in  transmitting  photographs- 
to  distant  points  by  electricity  (Vol.  4,  p.  235).  The  details- 
of  his  discovery  are  now  more  fully  known.  The  instru- 
ment by  which  the  result  is  effected  is  called  the  ^^ electro- 


SCIENCE.  455 

artograph" — a  combination  of  the  phonograph  and  tele- 
phone. By  its  means  copies  of  photographs  may  be  trans- 
mitted to  any  distance  and  reproduced  at  the  other  end  of 
the  wire,  in  line  engraving,  ready  for  press  printing.  The 
nndulatory  or  wave  current  is  used,  as  in  the  telephone, 
while  the  reproduction  is  made  upon  a  synchronously  re- 
volving waxed  cylinder,  as  in  the  phonograph.  The  in- 
vention is  thus  described: 

"An  ordinary  pbotograplaic  negative  is  made  of  tlie  subject  to  be 
transmitted;  an  exposure  is  made  under  tbis  negative  of  a  film  of 
gelatine,  sensitized  witb  bicbromate  of  potasb,  by  wbicb  tbe  effect 
is  produced  of  rendering  insoluble  in  water  tbe  parts  exposed  to  tbe 
ligbt  passing  tbrougb  tbe  tbin  portions  of  tbe  negative,  wbile  tbose 
portions  protected  from  tbe  action  of  tbe  ligbt  can  be  dissolved 
away,  tbe  capabilities  of  dissolving  away  varying  witb  tbe  intensity 
of  sbade  or  ligbt  upon  tbe  negative.  After  dissolving  away  tbe  sol- 
uble portions  from  tbe  film,  tbere  will  remain  tbe  same  picture  as  ap- 
peared on  tbe  negative,  but  it  will  be  entirely  in  relief. 

"Tbis  film  is  now  attacbed  to  tbe  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and 
caused  to  revolve;  a  tracer  or  point,  adjustably  connected  to  a  lever, 
rests  upon  tbe  film,  and,  as  tbe  film  revolves,  rises  and  falls  witb  tbe 
undulating  surface  of  tbe  film  and  communicates  an  up-and-down 
movement  of  tbe  end  of  tbe  lever  in  a  multiplied  degree.  A  number 
of  tappets  or  levers  are  centrally  fulcrumed  at  a  certain  point,  ar- 
ranged so  tbat  one  end  presses  upward  on  tbe  lower  end  of  terminals; 
tbe  opposite  ends  of  tbe  tappets  varying  in  distance  from  aborizontal 
line  over  tbe  end  of  tbe  lever  attacbed  to  tbe  tracer.  Wben  tbe  lever 
is  at  its  lowest  point,  as  influenced  by  a  depression  in  tbe  gelatine 
film,  all  tbe  tappets  press  up  against  tbe  terminals;  witb  a  furtber 
revolution  of  tbe  cylinder,  and  an  elevation  in  tbe  film  forcing  tbe 
lever  upward,  all  of  tbe  tappets'  contact  witb  tbe  terminals,  except 
one,  is  broken.  Tbe  beigbt  of  tbe  bill  and  deptb  of  valley  of  tbe 
film's  surface  measure  tbe  number  of  tappets  in  contact  witb  tbe 
terminals. 

"One  terminal  of  a  battery  is  grounded  and  tbe  otber  is  connected 
to  tbe  fulcrum  of  tbe  tappets,  and  tbe  current  passes  tbrougb  tbe  tap- 
pets, terminals,  and  resistance,  to  tbe  main  line  wire,  and  tbence  on 
to  tbe  distant  solenoid  at  tbe  receiving  end,  and  to  tbe  ground. 
Wben  all  of  tbe  tappets  toucb  tbe  terminals,  all  tbe  resistances  are  in 
parallel,  and  tbe  total  resistance  is  least  and  tbe  current  greatest;  and 
vice  versa,  resistance  greatest  and  current  least  as  tbe  number  of  tap- 
pets' contacts  are  broken.  By  tbis  arrangement  of  tbe  resistances, 
tbere  are  bills  and  valleys  in  tbe  current  corresponding  to  tbose 
on  tbe  film's  surface.  Tbis  variable  current,  circulating  around 
tbe  solenoid,  produces  a  varying  pull  on  tbe  core  attacbed  to  tbe  end 
of  a  lever  corresponding  to  tbe  tracing  lever  in  tbe  transmitting  ma- 
cbine.  A  diamond  or  V-sbaped  cutter  is  attacbed  to  tbe  lever,  be- 
neatb  wbicb  is  a  plain  gelatine  or  wax  film  attacbed  to  the  cylinder. 

"Witb  tbis  arrangement  in  mind,  it  will  readily  be  seen  tbat 
witb  one  revolution  of  tbe  cylinder  in  tbe  transmitting  macbine,  as 
the  tracer  follows  the  elevations  and  depressions  upon  tbe  film,  the 
free  end  of  the  tracing  lever  is  made  to  contact  with  the  ends  of  one 
or  more  of  the  tj|,ppets,  permitting  more  or  less  of  a  current  to  pass 
through  the  Tesistance,  fnd  exerting  thereby  more  or  less  of  a  down- 


456  SCIENCE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

ward  pull  on  the  end  cf  tbe  lever  in  the  receiving  machine.  One  revo- 
lution would  cause  the  V  tool  to  cut  a  line  around  the  film,  irregular 
in  its  depths  and  widths,  caused  by  the  varying  pull  on  the  lever's  end 
by  the  core  of  the  solenoid.  A  picture  is  not  made,  however,  by  one 
line;  but  one  line  is,  however,  an  element  of  a  whole  picture;  so,  as 
the  cylinder  revolves,  the  tracer  and  the  V  tool  are  moved  along  and 
spirally,  another  line  is  produced  by  the  side  of  the  first  one,  with 
varying  depths  and  widths  of  cut,  corresponding  to  the  neighboring 
waves  of  surface  on  the  film.  The  lines  are  thus  continued  over  the 
film  from  end  to  end;  and  when  the  film  on  the  cylinder  is  electro- 
typed  it  is  ready  to  be  printed  from. 

"It  is  not  difficult  to  believe  that  in  the  future  events  which  may 
take  place  in  London  or  Paris  may  be  sent  from  photos  taken  in  Eu- 
rope, and  the  reproduction  of  the  same,  in  an  artistic  picture,  appear 
in  the  next  morning's  New  York  or  Chicago  papers;  and  this  without 
disturbing  the  existing  conditions  of  telegraphic  communication  fur- 
ther than  supplying  the  two  offices  each  with  machines  for  transmit- 
ting and  receiving." 

The  Telephoto. — Mr.  Elmeudorf,  head  instructor  at 
the  New  York  School  for  Deaf  Mutes,  has  recently  in- 
vented a  telescopic  attachment  for  a  camera,  by  means  of 
which  photographs  can  be  taken  which  give  accurate  de- 
tails of  distant  objects.  The  instrument  is  called  the 
*' telephoto."  It  seems  destined  to  have  important  prac- 
tical uses,  as,  for  example,  in  the  picturing  of  the  move- 
ments of  distant  armies  and  the  details  of  distant  fortifica- 
tions in  times  of  war,  etc.  The  chief  practical  use  to  which 
it  has  thus  far  been  put,  is  in  photographing  architectural 
details  which  are  too  high  up  to  be  reached  by  an  ordinary 
camera. 

Rapid  Printing  Telegraphy. — For  fifty  years  or  so 
the  system  known  as  the  Morse  alphabet  has  been  used  in 
direct  telegraphic  communication  between  various  parts 
of  the  world.  The  output  of  a  single  Morse  circuit  (com- 
mercial) averages  twenty  or  twenty-five  words  per  minute. 
Mr.  J.  H.  Rogers  of  Washington,  D.  C,  as  the  result  of 
fifteen  years^  experimentation,  claims  to  have  invented  a 
system  which  will  probably  supersede  or  outclass  the  Morse. 
By  its  means  messages  can  be  telegraphed  and  received, 
printed  in  Roman  letters,  in  page  form,  similar  to  type- 
writing, at  the  enormous  speed  of  200  words  per  minute. 
A  company  has  been  formed — the  United  States  Postal 
Printing  Telegraph  Company — to  put  the  system  on  a 
commercial  basis;  and  a  line  from  Washington  to  Boston, 
Mass.,  is  projected,  one  stage  of  which,  from  Washington 
to  Baltimore,  is  already  completed  and  in  operation.  The 
invention  is  described  as  follows: 

The  communication  is  first  dictated,  and  written  upon  an  ordi- 
nary typewriter.     By  a  device  attached  to  the  typewriter  a  paper  rib- 


SCIENCE.  457 

bon  about  an  inch  wide  is  perforated  by  a  series  of  holes  varying  in 
position  and  number  according  to  the  character  represented.  The 
operator  has  nothing  to  do  with  perforating  the  tape;  if  the  right 
letter  is  struck  on  the  keyboard  the  machine  automatically  does  the 
rest.  The  ribbon  is  then  fed  into  a  Rogers  machine.  It  passes  over 
a  small  metal  roller;  above  are  small  metallic  fingers  which  press  on 
the  ribbon;  as  different  holes  in  the  ribbon  come  under  the  fingers 
electrical  connection  is  made  with  the  roller,  which,  in  synchronism 
with  a  similar  machine  at  the  other  end,  produces  letters  for  which 
these  characters  stand. 

The  machine  the  message  is  received  on  is  exactly  like  the  one 
upon  which  it  is  sent.  It  comprises  a  disk  with  the  same  number  of 
divisions  in  its  rim  and  brush  sliding  against  it.  In  this  case  each  of 
tb"se  divisions  is  connected  with  a  separate  magnet,  eight  of  them 
being  placed  in  a  circle,  each  magnet  having  an  arm  pointing  toward 
the  centre  of  the  circle,  so  that  all  the  arms  end  within  the  space  of 
a  Roman  letter.  Upon  each  of  these  arms  is  a  character,  of  which  the 
letters  are  formed.  Thus,  if  you  desire  to  make  the  letter  I,  only  one 
hole  is  perforated,  only  one  electric  current  is  sent,  and  only  one  up- 
right mark  is  produced.  But  in  making  the  letter  T,  it  takes  two 
perforations,  they  being  the  one  with  which  you  make  a  letter  I  and 
a  horizontal  character  above.  Just  so  are  all  the  letters  formed.  The 
same  upright  character  used  in  making  an  I  is  used  in  making  all 
the  letters  requiring  an  upright  mark  in  their  construction.  All  the 
Roman  letters  can  be  made  by  means  of  the  eight  straight  characters, 
by  placing  them  in  different  positions. 

The  perforations  are  in  lines  across  the  ribbon,  but  at  different 
distances  from  the  centre.  The  centre  of  the  ribbon  is  marked  by  a 
series  of  holes  extending  from  one  end  of  the  ribbon  to  the  other. 
This  perforation  does  not  represent  any  character,  but  is  merely  to 
guide  the  ribbon  through  the  machine  at  a  rapid  rate.  The  perfora- 
tions are  on  either  side  of  the  centre  line  and  extend  across  the  rib- 
bon in  straight  lines.  Above  the  inner  ends  of  the  levers  is  an  ink- 
ing ribbon,  above  which  the  magnet  arms  are  so  fastened  that  they 
make  their  prescribed  marks  upon  the  paper  before  it  has  time  to 
move  out  of  place. 

The  new  system  operates  over  the  same  circuit  as  the  Morse,  re- 
quiring about  10  per  cent  more  battery. 

If  successful  commercially  the  invention  bids  fair  to 
usher  in  the  day  when  all  business  correspondence  will  be 
carried  on  by  wire. 

Mr.  Tesla's  Oscillator.— Mr.  Nikola  Tesla  right- 
fully ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  living  geniuses  in  the 
field  of  electrical  research.  Among  his  achievements  he 
has  shown  that  alternating  currents  of  very  high  poten- 
tials may  be  handled  with  practical  impunity  in  certain 
circumstances;  and  he  has  almost,  if  not  quite,  solved  the 
problem  of  producing  electric  light  without  heat.  His 
latest  achievement,  which  bids  fair  to  revolutionize  the 
art  of  generating  electricity,  is  a  simplification  of  the 
mechanism  required.  By  causing  what  is  called  the 
^'magnetic  field '^  to  revolve  and  drag  the  armature  along 
with  it,  he  has  introduced  an  entirely  new  system  into  the 


458  SCIENCE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

operation  of  dynamos  and  motors.  The  following  de- 
scription of  his  "oscillator"  recently  appeared  in  the 
Neic  York  Tribune: 

"  The  fundamental  idea  of  this  machine  is  that  the  coils  of  wire  in 
which  a  current  is  excited  are  moved  to  and  fro  horizontally  instead 
of  being  whirled  around  by  a  rotating  shaft.  What  electricians  call 
'  the  field '  is  the  area  in  front  of  the  poles  or  pole  pieces  of  a  mag- 
net. Out  into  that  space  there  extend  invisible  '  lines  of  force.'  If 
a  piece  of  soft  iron  be  moved  transversely  past  these  poles,  and  near 
them,  cutting  the  lines  of  force,  it  is  momentarily  magnetized  by  in- 
duction; and  in  any  coil  of  insulated  copper  wire  surrounding  it  there 
is  induced,  for  the  same  brief  instant,  an  electric  impulse.  In  the  or- 
dinary dynamo  a  ring  of  soft  iron  is  used  instead  of  a  bar,  a  number  of 
connected  coils  are  wound  on  it,  and  the  whole  armature  is  revolved  be- 
tween and  in  very  close  proximity  to  the  field  magnets;  but  Mr.  Tesla 
winds  his  coils  on  a  straight  bar,  and  oscillates  the  latter  between  his 
magnets.  By  this  change  of  method  he  is  able  to  accomplish  several 
things  not  secured  by  the  ordinary  dynamo.  He  reduces  the  size  of 
the  apparatus  greatly.  The  steam  engine  is  said  to  weigh  from  one- 
thirtieth  to  one-fortieth  as  much  as  any  standard  type  of  stationary 
engine  having  the  same  steam  pressure  and  piston  speed ;  he  gets  ricL 
of  governor,  fly  wheel,  eccentrics,  cut-offs,  packing,  etc. ;  and  with 
the  same  amount  of  steam  he  generates  about  twice  the  current  ob- 
tained from  the  old,  cumbrous,  complicated,  and  more  costly  ma- 
chinery.    *    *     * 

"One  of  the  most  exquisitely  beautiful,  as  well  as  essential,  fea- 
tures of  the  oscillator  is  yet  to  be  mentioned.  It  is  desirable  that  the 
frequency  of  the  alternations  in  a  current — its  '  period,'  as  theexperts^ 
call  it — shall  remain  constant  in  the  face  of  all  variations  of  '  load,'" 
or  work  demanded  of  it.  This  can  be  regulated  with  a  spring  of  the 
proper  stiffness  attached  to  the  oscillating  rod.  An  '  air  spring, '  consist  - 
ing  of  a  piston  inside  an  air-tight  cylinder,  may  be  made  to  perform 
this  office,  and  the  supplementary  cylinder  may  be  situated  either 
close  to  the  working  cylinder  or  at  some  distance  away,  both  pistons,, 
however,  being  secured  to  the  same  rod.  Again,  proper  air  cham- 
bers at  the  end  of  the  working  cylinder  may  be  made  to  serve  as 
springs.  By  proportioning  the  size  of  the  chamber  of  the  air  spring 
to  the  weight  of  the  moving  parts,  the  desired  period  is  produced. 
Greater  or  less  pressure  of  steam  and  any  fluctuation  in  load  may 
affect  the  length  of  the  stroke,  but  not  the  frequency.  There  is  still 
another  mode  of  regulating  the  vibrations.  It  has  been  shown  that 
electrical  currents  exhibit  certain  phenomena  resembling  those  of 
sound.  A  circuit  of  a  given  '  capacity '  and  *  potential '  is  more 
favorable  to  vibrations  of  one  frequency  than  any  other.  An  instru- 
ment known  as  the  '  condenser '  can  be  introduced  into  an  electrical  cir- 
cuit to  '  tune '  the  latter  to  the  desired  frequency  of  oscillation — thirty,, 
fifty,  eighty,  or  any  other  number  per  second.  Mr.  Tesla  has  applied 
this  principle  of  *  resonance  '  to  some  of  his  experimental  oscillators, 
and  thus  imparted  to  his  apparatus  a  selective  affinity  for  whatever 
rate  of  vibration  he  wants.  This  is  an  automatic  governor  which  cor- 
rects any  tendency  to  fall  below  or  exceed  the  required  speed.  Witk 
such  precision  will  this  period  be  maintained  that  a  clock  may  be 
driven  with  an  oscillator  and  keep  good  time." 

The  Rings  of  Saturn. — By  means  of  spectro-photog- 
raphy  Professor  James  E.  Keeler  of  the  Allegheny  Ob- 


SCIENCE.  459 

servatory,  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  has  recently  given  a  scien- 
tific demonstration  of  the  so-called  **  meteoric  "  theory  of 
the  constitution  of  the  rings  of  the  planet  Saturn.  This- 
theory  has  been  generally  held  since  the  investigations  by 
Bond,  Peirce,  and  Maxwell,  between  1850  and  1860.  It 
accords  with  accepted  hypotheses  regarding  the  origin  of 
planets,  and  has  been  supported  by  deductions  from  ob- 
served changes  in  the  brightness  of  the  rings  and  the- 
behavior  of  satellites  when  eclipsed  by  passing  through 
their  shadows.  Professor  Keeler's  photographs,  however, 
give  direct  confirmation  of  the  theory  that  the  rings  con- 
sist of  countless  satellites  revolving  about  the  planet  at 
different  rates  of  speed,  those  at  the  inner  edge  moving 
faster  than  those  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  rings,  and  all 
moving  in  the  same  or  parallel  planes  and  in  nearly  circu- 
lar orbits. 

Liquefaction  of  Hydrogen. — Professor  K.  Olszewski 
of  the  University  of  Cracow  has  recently  supplemented 
the  researches  of  Professor  James  Dewar,  who  last  year 
announced  that  he  had  succeeded  in  liquefying  hydrogen 
(Vol.  4,  p.  688),  by  obtaining  the  gas  in  liquid  form  in 
tolerably  large  quantities.  Careful  measurements  have 
determined  the  critical  point  of  hydrogen — the  tempera- 
ture at  which  it  passes  from  a  liquid  to  a  gas — as— 233°C., 
and  its  boiling  point  at  normal  pressure  as  — 243''C. 

New  Cure  for  Consumption.— The  discovery  of  still 
another  "  cure  "  for  consumption  and  cancer  is  announced. 
It  was  made  by  Dr.  Louis  Waldstein  of  New  York,  a. 
brother  of  Dr.  Charles  Waldstein,  the  eminent  archaeolo- 
gist; but  its  practical  value  awaits  the  tests  of  further  ex- 
perience. The  basis  of  the  cure  is  the  drug  pilocarpine, 
an  extract  from  a  Brazilian  plant  {Filocaiyiis  pennatifo- 
lius),  a  well-known  alkaloid,  which  acts  powerfully  on  the 
salivary  and  the  sweat  glands.  Its  use  is  indicated  as  of 
special  value  in  the. early  stages  of  consumption  and  in- 
deed in  all  diseases  where  the  lymphatic  system  is  involved, 
because  of  its  stimulating  action  upon  the  organs  in  that 
system  and  the  consequent  production  of  Avhite  corpuscles. 
Minute  doses  of  pilocarpine  are  injected  into  the  veins. 
The  lymphatic  system  is  stimulated,  and  the  white  cor- 
puscles increased.  These  corpuscles,  in  some  way  not 
generally  agreed  upon,  overcome  and  render  harmless- 
those  poisonous  i^articles  in  the  blood  which  produce 
disease. 

New  Process  of  Gold  Extraction.— A  new  method 
of  extracting  gold  from  its  ores  has  been  invented  in  Aus- 
tralia, and  is  described  as  follows: 


460  SCIENCE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

"  The  ore  is  passed  through  a  fine  crusher  and  conveyed  to  an 
iron  pan  having  a  capacity  of  one  ton  ore.  Beneath  the  pan  is  a  fur- 
nace. Water  is  mixed  with  the  ore  to  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of 
thick  pea  soup.  A  vertical  snaft,  having  revolving  arms  attached  to 
keep  the  contents  of  the  pan  constantly  stirred,  works  in  the  caldron. 
The  arms  are  fitted  with  carbon  shoes,  which  form  the  anode  through 
whicli  the  electric  current  passes  through  the  saline  liquor  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pan,  which,  with  a  dish  of  quicksilver  in  the  middle, 
forms  the  cathode.  *  *  *  a  small  percentage  of  common  salt  or 
other  chloride  is  added  to  the  water;  the  salt  being  decomposed  by 
the  electric  current,  the  sodium  passes  to  the  mercury,  and  the  chlo- 
rine rising  through  the  mass  of  pulp  dissolves  the  fine  gold  it  meets 
with  and  forms  a  chloride  of  gold.  x\s  the  pulp  circulates  in  the  pan 
this  chloride  comes  under  the  operation  of  the  electric  current  and  is 
decomposed  in  turn,  the  chlorine  being  liberated  to  seek  more  gold, 
while  the  gold  passes  to  the  mercury  cathode,  thus  producing  amalgam. 
In  the  meantime  any  coarser  particles  of  gold  that  are  too  large  to  be  dis- 
solved by  the  chlorine  gravitate  to  the  bottom  and  are  also  taken  hold 
•of  by  the  mercury.  After  the  contents  of  the  pan  have  been  kept  for 
an  hour  at  the  boiling  point,  they  are  drawn  to  an  iron  trough,  except 
the  mercury  amalgam.  From  this  they  are  washed  into  a  shallow 
trough  or  'shaking  table,'  having  a  horizontal  longitudinal  move- 
ment, its  object  being  to  recover  any  small  quantity  of  mercury  that 
may  be  mixed  with  the  pulp  and  any  pyrites  worth  subsequent  treat- 
ment. The  water  finally  flows  out  into  settling  pans,  and  can  be 
used  over  again.  *  *  *  It  is  estimated  that  the  first  trial  resulted 
in  saving  92  per  cent  of  the  gold  out  of  a  total  content  of  2  oz.  4  dwt. 
16  gr.  per  ton." 

New  Type  Metal. — After  eight  years  of  experiment- 
ing, John  West,  an  expert  mechanic  and  metaUurgist,  of 
Ohicago,  111.,  has,  it  is  announced,  succeeded  in  perfect- 
ing a  new  metal  for  type,  which  promises  to  revolutionize 
type-making  and  stereotyping.  Though  much  lighter 
than  type  of  the  ordinary  metal,  that  made  of  the  new 
composition  is  said  to  be  so  hard  that  it  can  be  driven 
through  the  ordinary  type  metal  without  injury  to  the  fine 
lines  on  the  face  of  the  type.  Its  melting  point  is  1,000' 
Fahrenheit,  Avhile  the  ordinary  metal  melts  at  600\  It  is 
claimed  the  type  can  be  manufactured  as  cheaply  as  the 
ordinary  type;  but  as  its  durability  is  estimated  as  100 
to  1,  it  will  command  a  higher  price.  A  claim  made  in  its 
favor  is  that  it  can  be  successfully  used  with  typesetting 
machines.  Tlie  trouble  with  these  machines  heretofore 
has  been  that  they  broke  the  types.  The  new  type  will 
be  of  special  value  in  bookbindery  printing,  where  brass 
type  is  now  used  at  great  expense  over  ordinary  type. 

The  Indestructible  Type  Company,  with  a  capital  stock 
of  $100,000,  has  been  formod  to  put  the  new  product  upon 
the  market. 

Synthesis  of  Caffeiii. — Messrs.  E.  Fischer  and  L. 
A.ch,  German  chemists,  have,  by  purely  chemical  means. 


ART. 


461 


succeeded  in  artificially  producing  caffein,  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  coifee,  tea,  kola,  and  other  natural  food-stuffs. 
At  present  the  artificial  product  costs  more  than  the  nat- 
ural; but  a  method  of  manufacturing  it  at  low  cost  may 
yet  be  discovered. 


ART. 

"pY  the  will  of  James  Renwick  of  New  York  city,  whO' 
died  June  23,  a  collection  of  eighty-eight  valuable  paint- 
ings— about  two-thirds  of  his  private  collection — was  be- 
queathed to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  to  be  placed  on 
permanent  public  exhibition  and  known  as  the  '^  James  Ren- 
wick Collection.""  It  includes  works  by  Rubens,  Murillo, 
Correggio,  Vandyck,  Paul  Veronese,  Titian,  Poussin, 
Velasquez,  Guido,  Snyders,  Wyatt,  Tintorello,  Lippi,  and 
otiier  masters.  Supposing  all  the  pictures  authentic,  the 
total  value  of  the  gift  would  be  at  least  1880,000.  Some 
of  the  pahitings  are  extremely  valuable.  For  instance, 
the  three  pictures,  the  Diihe  of  Parma  by  Velasquez,  the 
Virgin  and  Child  and  Tivo  Angels  by  Filippo  Lippi,  and 
the  Knight  of  Malta  by  Velasquez,  would  suffice  by  them- 
selves to  make  the  collection  a  notable  one. 

The  annual  salon  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  Paris,  was 
-opened  in  the  latter  part  of  April.  Many  notable  pictures 
are  exhibited  by  Americans,  among  them  R.  W.  Lock  wood 
of  Connecticut,  Alexander  Harrison  of  Philadelphia,  J. 
AY.  Alexander  of  Xew  York,  W.  T.  Dannat  of  New  York, 
A.  P.  Lucas  of  New  York,  Howard  Cushing  of  Boston,  Miss 
Lucy  Lee  Robbins  of  New  York,  Julius  Rolshoven  of  De^ 
troit,  Mich.,  Katherine  G.  Abbot  of  Zanesville,  0.,  Everett 
Bryant  of  Ohio,  Kate  Carl  of  Louisiana,  Eustace  Lee 
Florance  of  Philadelphia,  Florence  Kirke  Keller  of  St. 
Louis,  Mrs.  Mary  MacMonnies  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Miss 
Elizabeth  Nourse  of  Cincinnati,  0.,  Lilla  Cabot  Perry  of 
Boston,  Miss  Neville  Sprang  of  Reading,  Penn.,  Alden  Weir 
of  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  Julius  Stewart  of  Philadelphia. 
Other  New  York  artists  exhibiting  include  William 
Howard  Hart,  Frank  Hermann,  Albert  Herter,  Adele 
Herter,  Edward  Rook,  Princess  Polignac  (nee  Singer), 
Phoebe  Bunker,  Thomas  Dewing,  Mary  Franklin,  Charles. 
Hopkinson,  Hermann  Murphy,  Addison  Miller,  and  J.  J. 
Shannon. 


462  ARt.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  annual  industrial  art  exhibition  in  Berlin  was 
opened  May  1.  French  and  Dutch  art  are  fairly  repre- 
sented, the  former  including  fully  300  contributions  from 
leading  Gallic  painters  and  sculptors,  which  is  more  nota- 
ble from  tlie  fact  that  in  other  years  French  paintings 
have  been  almost  altogether  absent.  English  and  Ameri- 
can artists  are  well  represented,  and  tlie  exhibition  gives 
a  good  average  oversight  of  international  art.  The  list  of 
American  painters,  whose  works  are  enthusiastically  ap- 
plauded by  the  German  press,  includes  Melchers,  Walter 
McEwen,  C.  S.  Pearce,  C.  R.  Peters,  Alexander  Harrison, 
Bridgman,  Weeks,  Theriat,  A.  Humphreys,  Julius  Rol- 
shoven,  Humphreys  Johnston,  Elizabeth  Nourse.W.  Dodge, 
Oabot  Perry,  Henry  Bisbing,  Mac  Cameron,  Walter  Gay, 
Vail,  Julius  Stewart,  Wilton  Lockwood,  John  Alexander, 
l^^rank  Scott,  F.  W.  and  F.  H.  Richardson,  Julian  Story, 
W.  T.  Dannat,  Lucy  Lee  Robbins,  and  John  S.  Sargent. 

The  second  annual  exliibition  of  the  National  Sculp- 
ture Society  was  successfully  opened  in  New  York  city 
in  May. 

The  dissolution  sale  of  the  property  of  the  American 
Art  Association  was  held  in  New  York  city  beginning 
April  25.  The  collection  of  paintings  included  works  by 
Gerome,  Dupre,  Daubigny,  Corot,  Cazin,  Monet,  and 
others.  Gerome's  Before  the  Andience  was  sold  for  14,400; 
but  prices  paid  were  generally  low. 

A  sale  of  paintings  exhibited  by  the  Society  of  Polish 
Artists  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago,  was  held  in  New 
York  city  beginning  April  25.  Malczewski's  An  Exiled 
Polish  Woman's  Death  in  Siberia,  a  realistic  depiction  of 
the  horrors  of  the  great  Russian  penal  settlement,  was  sokl 
for  1700;  and  prices  in  general  were  low. 

A  noteworthy  event  abroad  was  the  sale  in  London, 
Eng.,  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  of  the  James  Price  col- 
lection of  "early  English'^  landscapes  and  portraits.  The 
"Collection  consisted  of  ninety-one  pictures,  including  two 
masterpieces  by  Gainsborough;  six  or  eight  works  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds;  three  good  examples  by  Turner,  the 
Mortlake,  the  Hclvoetslutjs,  and  VaQVaUVAosta;  also  works 
by  Romney,  Hoppner,  Beechey,  and  others.  The  sale 
realized  the  enormous  sum  of  £87,000,  or  nearly  $435,000, 
almost  equalling  that  brought  in  1892  by  the  sale  of  the  col- 
lection of  the  Earl  of  Dudley.  Turner's  Helcoetsluys, 
which  in  1863  brought  1,600  guineas,  was  sold  for  6,400 
guineas.  The  Mortlake  brought-  5,200,  and  the  Val 
d'Aosta  4,000   guineas.     The   Reynoldses  all  realized  30 


MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA  463 

to  40  per  cent  above  their  estimated  value:  Gainsborough's 
portrait  of  Lady  Mulgrave,  bought  in  1880  for  1,000 
guineas,  was  sold  for  10,000  guineas. 


MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA. 

A  NTONIN  DVORAK  has  composed  another  master- 
piece relating  to  American  themes — The  American 
Flag.  His  symphony,  From  the  Neio  World,  produced  in  De- 
cember, 1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  863),  reflected  his  impressions  of  na- 
tive American  folk  song.  It  was,  however,  purely  orchestral. 
The  present  work,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  cantata  form, 
and  expresses  the  composer's  sympathies  with  American 
liberty  and  patriotism.  The  words  selected  are  the  well- 
known  poem  in  eulogy  of  the  flag,  by  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake,  written  in  1815,  containing  the  lines — 

"When  Freedom,  from  her  mountain  height. 

Unfurled  the  standard  to  the  air. 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night 

And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 
She  mingled  with  its  gorgeous  dyes 
The  milky  baldric  of  the  skies, 
And  striped  its  pure  celestial  white 
With  streakings  of  the  morning  light." 

On  April  8  Mr.  Frank  Mayors  dramatization  of  Mark 
Twain's  novel  Fnddln'head  Wilson  was  publicly  presented 
ior  the  first  time  in  Proctor's  opera  house,  Hartford, 
Oonn.  The  story  is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  imprint 
of  the  ball  of  the  thumb  is  identical  throughout  life,  and 
that  as  no  two  imprints  are  quite  the  same  a  perfect  means 
-of  identification  is  afforded. 

The  Tzigane  (Russian  for  "Gypsy"),  a  new  operatic 
work  by  Reginald  de  Koven  and  Harry  B.  Smith,  was  pre- 
sented for  the  first  time  at  Abbey's  theatre,  New  York 
€ity.  May  16,  with  Miss  Lillian  Russell  in  the  title  role, 
that  of  a  gypsy  fortune  teller  who  becomes  a  great  singer. 

The  Bed  Queen,  a  melodrama  in  four  acts,  by  James 
R.  McGarey,  presenting,  as  the  author  claims,  a  solution  of 
the  labor  problem,  was  put  upon  the  stage  for  the  first 
time  on  May  27  in  Pittsburg,  Penn. 

For  Fair  Virginia,  a  romantic  play  in  four  acts,  by 
Russ  Whytal,  was  presented  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  theatre, 
New  York  city,  June  3. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  the  South.  The  action  hinges  around  a  Vir- 
:ginia  plantation.  There  is  a  contumacious  villain  (Loughlin),  a  pte- 
«ocious  child  (Julian),  an  absent  hero  (Edward  Esmond),  a  much  per- 


464  MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

secuted  heroine  (Mrs.  Esmond),  a  chivalrous  friend  of  the  family 
(Dunbar),  a  vivacious  and  heroic  ingenue  (Nell  Esmond),  and  the 
usual  personnel  of  a  romantic  war  drama.  Esmond  is  a  "Yankee," 
who  has  married  a  Southern  girl  and  invested  his  money  in  a  Vir- 
ginia plantation.  His  Northern  blood  is  fired  with  patriotic  zeal  at 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  He  goes  North  to  enlist  and  returns  a 
full-fledged  general.  His  sister  Nell,  with  strong  Yankee  proclivi- 
ties, remains  behind  and  falls  in  love  with  "Colonel"  Dunbar,  of  the 
Confederacy.  Loughlin,  who  is  a  "Southerner  by  adoption,"  joins 
the  Confederate  ranks  as  a  colonel,  and  occupies  his  time  in  loafing 
around  the  Esmond  mansion  and  persecuting  Esmond's  wife,  with 
whom  he  is  in  love.  He  is  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general  mean- 
while. He  has  a  hard  time  of  it.  Before  the  curtain  falls  virtue  has 
triumphed,  the  villain  is  shot,  and  the  heroic  Yankee  sister  is  clasped 
in  the  arms  of  her  Confederate  lover. 

Other  noteworthy  productions  have  been:  Aladdin,  Jr.y 
a  spectacular  extravaganza  by  J.  Cheever-Goodwin,  with 
music  by  Messrs.  W.  H.  Batchelor,  W.  F.  Glover,  and 
Jesse  Williams,  at  the  Broadway  theatre,  New  York  city, 
April  8;  A  Daughter  of  the  Revolution,  a  comic  opera  in 
three  acts  by  Ludwig  Englaender  (a  new  version  of  1776, 
which  was  presented  at  the  old  Thalia  theatre  in  New 
York  years  ago),  at  the  Broadway  theatre  May  27;  and 
Hamlet  11. ,  an  operatic  burlesque  in  three  acts,  upon 
Shakespeare^s  great  work,  by  H.  Grattan  Donnelly,  music 
by  Homer  Tourgee,  at  the  Herald  Square  theatre.  New 
York  city,  May  27. 

In  Europe,  musical  circles  have  been  deeply  interested 
in  the  production,  in  June,  at  the  Stadt  theatre,  Bremen, 
of  the  sacred  opera  Christus,  a  work  of  the  late  composer 
Rubinstein.  The  author  of  the  libretto  is  Dr.  Bulthaupt; 
and  it  was  owing  to  his  exertions  and  those  of  a  committee 
of  devoted  friends  of  Rubinstein,  that  what  the  composer 
longed  to  see  during  his  lifetime  was  finally  realized.  The 
part  of  Christus  was  taken  by  the  great  tenor,  Herr 
Raimund  von  Zur  Miihlen,  whose  performance  is  very 
highly  spoken  of.  The  opera  is  laid  out  in  a  prologue, 
epilogue,  and  seven  episodes;  and  the  setting  of  the  scene 
of  the  Last  Supper  is  spoken  of  as  the  most  beautiful 
passage  in  a  work  which  created  a  very  deep  impression 
on  the  audience. 

On  May  4  at  the  Lyceum  theatre,  London,  Eng.,  Mr. 
(now  Sir)  Henry  Irving  presented  a  dramatization,  by  W. 
G.  Wills,  of  Don  Quixote,  the  great  work  of  Cervantes,, 
himself  appearing  in  the  title  role. 

The  play  is  modest  in  its  proportions,  a  one-act  piece,  in  two 
scenes.  The  adventures  of  Don  Quixote  have  at  all  times  served  the 
purpose  of  the  caricaturist  and  the  pantomimist  better  than  that  of 
the  dramatist  proper.     The  most  famous  of  these  adventures,  the  tilt 


[ 


MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA.  465 

at  the  windmill,  Mr.  Irving  does  not  attempt.  Nor,  indeed,  is  tlie 
sketch  anything  but  an  attempt  to  crowd  into  as  brief  a  compass  as 
])Ossible  some  of  the  more  salient  characteristics  of  the  Knight  of  the 
Rueful  Countenance.  In  the  first  scene  we  are  shown  Don  Quixote 
poring  over  his  books  of  chivalry,  to  the  disgust  of  his  friend  Father 
Perez,  and  of  his  worthy  housekeeper  Maria;  and  then,  aided  by 
Sancho  Panza,  arming  himself  with  helm,  breastplate,  shield,  and 
lance  for  the  duties  of  knight-errantry.  The  second  scene  is  the 
courtyard  of  the  inn  which  Don  Quixote  mistakes  for  a  castle;  and 
hither  Father  Perez  and  Don  Quixote's  niece  Antonia  have  come  in 
anticipation,  so  that,  by  arrangement  with  the  innkeeper,  the  old 
gentleman  may  be  harmlessly  fooled  to  the  top  of  his  beat.  Much  to 
the  astonishment  of  the  rustics,  who  are  not  in  the  secret,  Don 
Quixote  arrives  on  his  steed  Rosinante;  mistakes  the  geese  in  the 
courtyard  for  swans  into  which  certain  fair  damsels  have  been  trans- 
formed by  enchantment,  and  then  proceeds  to  keep  his  vigil.  A 
practical  joker  hangs  his  armor  upon  the  pump,  at  the  foot  of  which, 
as  at  some  holy  shrine,  Don  Quixote  has  deposited  it;  and  the  pug- 
nacious knight,  mistaking  the  pump  for  an  enemy,  attacks  that  with 
his  broadsword,  thereby  arousing  the  whole  inn  and  bringing  the  ad- 
venture to  a  ludicrous  and  picturesque  termination. 

The  first  performance  of  the  opera  Fortunio,  composed 
by  Westerhout,  was  given  in  Milan,  Italy,  May  10,  scoring 
a  great  success. 

The  Notorious  Mrs.  Ebhsmitli,  Mr.  Pinero's  latest  play, 
first  produced  at  the  Garrick  theatre,  London,  Eng.,  in 
March,  has  caused  even  a  greater  sensation  than  his  Second 
Mrs.  Tanqiieray. 

The  heroine  is  a  socialist.  She  is  a  widow,  and  the  memory  of 
her  married  life  is  not  pleasant.  As  a  nurse  she  has  met  and  saved 
the  life  of  a  young  English  aristocrat.  With  him  she  has  formed  a 
"  compact,"  and  when  the  play  opens  they  are  living  together  in 
Venice.  His  family  soon  discover  his  whereabouts,  and  try  to  win 
him  back  to  his  wife — for  he  is  a  married  man.  Finding  her  hold 
slipping,  Mrs.  Ebbsmith  throws  Platonic  affection  to  the  winds  and 
strives,  as  a  woman,  to  retain  her  lover.  She  triumphs,  but  in  the 
end  decides  to  give  him  up  to  his  wife  and  family,  and  herself  seeks 
an  asylum  with  a  friendly  clergyman  and  his  sisters  in  a  distant 
part  of  the  country. 

At  Covent  Garden  theatre,  London,  Eng.,  June  8,  Sir 
Augustus  Harris  produced  Mr.  F.  H.  Cowen's  opera 
Harold,  libretto  by  Sir  Edward  Malet,  British  ambassador 
at  Berlin.  It  was  the  first  instance  of  the  use  of  English 
in  grand  opera  since  Italian  opera  became  fashionable  in 
London.  The  story  of  the  opera  is  that  of  Harold  and 
the  Norman  conquest. 

On  June  10  at  Daly^s  theatre,  London,  Madame  Sarah 
Bernhardt — followed  shortly  after  by  Signora  Duse  at 
Hrury  Lane  theatre — presented  to  an  English  audience 
Magda,  a  work  of  the  German  dramatist  Hermann  Sudcr- 
mann.     In  Germany  the  play  is  known  as  Heimath. 

Vol.  5.->30. 


466  MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Magda  is  the  daughter  of  an  old  soldier,  Colonel  Schwartz.  In 
the  exercise  of  his  paiental  authority,  he  had  turned  Magda  out  of  his 
house  twelve  years  before  the  opening  of  the  play,  because  she  re- 
fused to  marry  the  village  pastor  her  father  had  chosen  for  her  hus- 
band. The  peace  of  the  quiet  little  family  circle  is  disturbed  by  the  news 
that  Magda  has  returned;  but  it  is  as  the  honored  guest  of  the  town 
that  she  has  come  to  sing  for  a  local  charity,  for  in  the  years  that 
have  passed  Magda  has  become  a  famous  singer.  Her  father  is  in- 
duced to  relax  his  parental  authority  just  a  little;  and  in  the  second 
act  Magda,  in  all  her  finery,  enters  her  father's  house.  There  is  no 
trace  of  humility  in  her  demeanor;  and  when  her  father  peremptorily 
orders  her  to  leave  her  hotel  and  to  make  her  home  with  them,  the 
spirit  of  rebellion  asserts  itself  in  the  daughter,  who  is  ultimately 
persuaded  to  yield  to  the  humors  of  the  determined  old  gentleman. 
But  Schwartz  means  to  take  up  his  authority  where  he  had  aban- 
doned it  twelve  years  ago;  and  when  he  discovers  the  secret — to 
which  the  audience,  of  course,  is  already  admitted — that  she  is  the 
mother  of  a  child,  and  that  the  father  is  Councillor  von  Keller,  who 
has  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  family  many  years  after  he  has 
ended  his  relations  with  the  daughter,  then  Schwarta  insists  that  the 
wrong  shall  be  redressed  by  a  marriage  of  the  parents  of  the  child. 
To  this  arrangement  Von  Keller  assents,  even  anticipating  the  angry 
father's  request;  but  when  it  is  suggested  that  the  child  should  be 
sent  away  for  a  time,  Magda  refuses  to  have  her  heart  wrung  in  this 
fashion.  When  she  attempts  for  the  last  time  to  justify  herself  to 
her  father,  by  an  argument  which  not  unnaturally  incenses  him  the 
more,  as  it  leaves  his  daughter's  honor  beyond  retrieval,  he  raises  his 
pistol  to  shoot  her,  and  is  struck  down  at  that  instant  by  paralysis, 
from  which  he  dies  without  uttering  another  word. 

Another  noteworthy  dramatic  incident  abroad  has 
been  the  successful  production  in  Paris,  on  May  9,  of  a 
play  by  Mr.  Victor  Mapes  of  New  York.  It  is  called  La 
Comtesse  de  Lisne,  a  comedy  in  three  acts,  written  in 
French. 

A  young  countess,  divorced  from  her  husband,  is  betrothed  to 
Claude  Lejeune,  a  musician,  who,  as  soon  as  the  law  permits,  intends 
to  make  her  his  wife.  But  the  countess  makes  the  acquaintance  of 
Andre  Guillot,  a  friend  of  Claude,  and  invites  him  to  accompany  them 
to  Switzerland.  Andre  falls  in  love  with  the  countess;  and  she,  in  her 
desire  to  keep  the  matter  from  Claude,  entangles  herself  in  her  own 
web,  and  ends  by  losing  both  her  friend  and  her  lover. 

The  Triumph  of  the  Philistines,  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Jones,  a 
satire  upon  the  narrowmindedness  of  society  in  English 
country  towns,  especially  in  matters  of  art,  was  produced 
at  the  St.  James's  theatre,  London,  Eng.,  about  the  middle 
of  May. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 

ARCH^OLOOY. 


467 


PROFESSOR  FLINDERS  PETRIE,  the  Egyptologist, 
on  April  17,  announced  the  discovery  of  traces  of  a 
new  race  of  men  in  Egypt,  entirely  unrelated  to  anything 
previously  known  in  that  country.  In  the  highlands 
about  thirty  miles  north  of  Thebes,  between  Ballas  and 
Negadeh,  about  1,400  feet  above  the  Nile,  excavations  re- 
vealed a  large  town,  with  remains  of  bodies,  buildings, 
and  arts  all  complete,  dating  back  to  about  3,000  B.  C,  or 
the  very  obscure  period  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  dynas- 
ties. The  period  between  the  fourth  and  twelfth  dynas- 
ties is  one  of  the  Egyptian  **dark  ages;^'  and  it  was  toward 
the  close  of  this  period  that  Thebes  grew  up,  rapidly  ex- 
tending its  power  over  all  the  country.  From  the  old 
flint  implements  found,  Mr.  Petrie  regards  the  region  of 
the  discovery  as  "the  home  of  palaeolithic  man.^^  The 
following  is  in  substance  a  summary  of  Professor  Petrie's 
report  as  published  in  the  London  Times: 

Coming  down  to  historical  times,  Mr.  Petrie  first  found  a  small 
temple  and  a  town  which  he  had  no  difficulty  in  identifying  with  the 
Ombiof  Juvenal's  fifteenth  Satire,  thus  clearing  up  an  old  obscurity. 
Another  Ombi  was  known,  but  it  was  far  from  Tentyra,  whereas  this 
is  close  to  that  city;  and  the  fact  that  one  worshipped  Horus  and  the 
other  Set — brothers  and  rival  deities — is  quite  enough  to  account  for 
the  fierce  feud  which  the  Roman  satirist  describes  with  such  horrified 
amazement.  Juvenal  mentions  with  anger  and  disgust  that  the  com- 
batants ate  human  flesh.  Is  it  possible  that  this  cannibalism  was  a 
survival  of  that  "ceremonial  cannibalism  " of  which  Mr.  Petrie  found 
such  strong  traces  among  his  new  people,  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
from  Ombi?  This,  however,  is  a  detail.  What  is  important  is  to 
follow  Mr.  Petrie  and  his  friends,  Messrs.  Grenfell,  Price,  Duncan, 
and  Quibell,  in  their  actual  discoveries.  They  opened  and  thoroughly 
examined  nearly  2,000  tombs,  and  in  them,  strange  to  say,  "not  a 
single  Egyptian  object  was  found;  not  one  scarab  or  cartouche,  not 
one  hieroglyph,  not  one  piece  of  the  usual  funereal  furniture,  not 
one  Egyptian  bead,  not  one  god,  not  one  amulet,  not  one  single  piece 
of  Egyptian  pottery  such  as  was  found  abundantly  in  the  neighbor- 
ing Egyptian  town. "  Still  more  curious,  the  dead  were  not  mummified 
or  buried  at  full  length;  they  were  buried  with  their  knees  bent  up 
to  the  arms — "in  the  manner  of  primitive  man."  Moreover,  al- 
though this  town  and  sepulchre  appear  to  have  been  the  centre  of 
the  new  race,  traces  of  them  have  been  found  over  a  region  extend- 
ing to  a  distance  of  fully  a  hundred  miles.  From  all  the  data  Mr. 
Petrie  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  this  interesting  people  represent 
a  conquering  invasion;  and  that  they  resemble  "the  Libyan  and  Am- 
orite  type."  They  were  unquestionably  cannibalistic,  at  least  in  a 
ceremonial  sense;  but  they  were  not  without  some  highly- developed 
arts.  They  could  not  write  or  draw,  but  they  could  work  in  metals,  they 
evidently  carv«d  wood,  and  they  had  a  marvellous  skill  for  making 
flint  implements.  Their  beads,  of  hard  stone,  are  beautiful;  and  their 
red  pottery  is  all  the  more  wonderful  since  they  show  no  signs  of 
having  known  the  potter's  wheel.     From  this  faot  Mr.  Petrie  infers 


468  RELIGION.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

that  they  must  have  destroyed  the  neighboring  Egyptians  pretty  com- 
pletely; for  the  potter's  wheel  was  well  known  to  them  much  earlier, 
and  if  they  had  survived  even  as  slaves  they  must  have  taught  their  con- 
querors the  use  of  it. 

As  to  their  race,  he  inclines  to  think  it  Libyan — of  the  same  stock 
as  that  which  furnished  forth  the  "  Amorite  conquest  "of  Syria  at 
some  very  early  date.     But  even  this  is  not  certain. 

All  that  at  present  it  is  safe  to  say  is,  that  this  discovery  of  a  cem- 
etery of  unknown,  powerful,  and  evidently  Avarlike  people  affords 
striking  evidence  of  the  dangers  among  which  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion grew  up  and  existed,  in  perpetual  danger  of  extinction  at  the 
hand  of  barbarous  tribes.  Probably  enough,  it  was  practically  ex- 
tinguished in  the  Thebaid  for  a  few  centuries;  but,  if  so,  it  revived, 
and  came  on  to  its  perfection  with  strength  renewed  in  adversity. 
Egypt  fell  again  at  the  period  of  the  invasion  of  the  Hyksos,  or 
Shepherd  Kings,  in  the  time  of  the  thirteenth  dynasty;  and  Mr. 
Petrie's  people  may  claim  a  position  not  as  yet  given  to  any — that  of 
having  been  the  Shepherd  Kings'  definite  forerunners.  But  rnuch  more 
than  this  one  fact  will  be  in  the  end  established  out  of  this  most  in- 
teresting and  skilfully  developed  discovery.  It  will  transform  much 
of  what  passes  for  Egyptian  history.  And  it  will  encourage  the 
workers  in  other  regions — in  Egypt,  in  Cyprus,  in  Greece — to  re- 
double their  energies,  in  the  consciousness  of  the  great  rewards  that 
await  the  skilled  and  scientific  explorer.  We  trust  also  that  it  will 
incite  wealthy  people  who  care  for  knowledge  and  for  scholarship  to 
do  more  by  way  of  helping  the  struggling  societies  which  are  charged 
with  the  work,  not  only  in  Egypt,  but  throughout  the  Levant. 

RELIGION. 

Church  Unity. — The  Pope's  Encyclical  to  the  Emjlish 
People. — In  a  letter  addressed  'Ho  the  English  people," 
His  Holiness  Pope  Leo  XIIL  has  given  official  expression 
of  his  desire  for  a  reunion  of  the  now  divided  sects  of 
Christendom.  An  authorized  translation  appeared  in  the 
London  Times,  April  20;  and  the  document  at  once  at- 
tracted attention  as  the  most  significant  of  recent  contri- 
butions to  the  problem  of  church  unity.  The  Pope  refrains 
from  any  attempt  to  outline  the  conditions  upon  which  the 
desired  object  may  be  effected;  he  does  not  state  in  direct 
terms  that  any  concessions  in  doctrine,  or  even  in  disci- 
pline, would  be  granted  by  the  Eoman  Church;  he  goes 
into  no  argument  to  refute  the  views  of  those  who  regard 
church  unity  as  not  only  undesirable  but  impossible. 
The  letter,  which  breathes  a  spirit  of  true  and  deep  i3er- 
sonal  piety,  is  in  substance  an  exhortation  to  all  Christians 
in  England,  '^  to  whatever  community  or  institution  they 
may  belong,"  to  seek  for  guidance  and  enlightenment  in 
prayer;  and  it  is  an  earnest  expression  of  His  Holiness^s 


RELIGION.  469 

personal  desire  to  see  healed  the  schisms  which  have  so 
long  divided  the  common  children  of  the  one  Father  who 
is  over  all.  That  the  Pope  himself  takes  or  suggests  no 
practical  steps  to  the  desired  end,  is  perhaps  evidence  that 
in  his  opinion,  as  in  that  of  most  thinkers,  the  time  is  not 
yet  ripe. 

The  Pope  begins  by  stating  that  he  has  greatly  desired  to  give 
to  the  illustrious  English  race  a  token  of  his  sincere  affection.  Among 
the  causes  moving  him  to  address  them  in  a  special  letter,  have  been 
"  not  infrequent  conversations  "  with  Englishmen,  "  who  testified  to 
the  kindly  feeling  of  the  English  toward  him  personally,  and  above 
all  to  their  anxiety  for  peace  and  eternal  salvation  through  unity  of 
faith."  He  is  keenly  wishful  that  some  effort  of  his  might  tend  to 
further  the  great  work  of  obtaining  the  reunion  of  Christendom. 
After  citing  evidences  of  the  love  and  care  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  for 
England  from  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  alluding  to  the  ex- 
ertions made  in  that  country  for  the  solution  of  the  social  question, 
for  religious  education,  and  charitable  objects,  the  strict  observance 
of  Sunday,  the  general  spirit  of  respect  for  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
the  various  manifestations  of  the  power  and  resources  of  the  British 
nation,  His  Holiness  urges  that  the  labors  of  men,  whether  public  or 
private,  will  not  attain  to  their  full  efficacy  without  appeal  to  God  in 
])rayer,  and  without  the  Divine  blessing.  He  dwells  on  the  increas- 
ing need  for  unity  among  those  holding  the  Christian  faith  as  a  means 
of  defense  against  the  inroad  of  modern  errors,  and  greets  with  sat- 
isfaction the  increase  in  the  number  of  ' '  those  religious  and  discreet 
men  who  sincerely  labor  much  for  reunion  with  the  Catholic  Church. " 
With  loving  heart  he  turns  to  all  in  England,  to  whatever  community 
or  institution  they  may  belong,  desiring  to  recall  them  to  this  unity; 
and  in  this  cause  he  first  calls  to  his  assistance  the  Catholics  of  Eng- 
land, whose  faith  and  piety  he  knows  by  experience,  and  invokes  St. 
Gregory,  St.  Augustine,  his  disciple  and  messenger,  St,  Peter  and  St. 
(ieorge,  the  special  patrons  of  England,  and  above  all,  Mary,  the 
Mother  of  God,  to  be  his  pleaders  before  the  throne  of  God  that  He 
may  renew  the  glory  of  ancient  days.  His  Holiness  finally  grants  to 
all  who  piously  recite  a  prayer  to  the  Virgin  appended  to  his  letter  an 
indulgence  of  300  days. 

The  letter  *'to  the  English  people  "  was  supplemented 
shortly  afterward  by  an  encyclical  addressed  to  all  Catho- 
lics, also  on  the  subject  of  Christian  unity. 

Other  incidents  of  similar  bearing  have  since  occurred: 
a  pastoral  letter  from  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  re- 
questing prayers  on  AVhitsunday  foi  unity  of  faith;  a  cir- 
cular letter  from  the  Grindelwald  conference  making  a 
similar  request;  the  action  of  the  Presbyterian  general  as- 
sembly at  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  in  continuing  the  committee 
charged  with  the  duty  of  promoting  the  movement  for 
unity  among  the  evangelical  denominations;  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  ''League  of  Catholic  Unity,"  composed  of  promi- 
nent clergymen  representing  the  Congregational,  Metho- 
dist, Baptist,  Lutheran,  Presbyterian,  Episcopalian,  and 


470  RELIGION.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

(xerman  Reformed  denominations.  In  a  letter  to  the 
churches  the  members  of  this  league  propose  a  more  gen- 
eral consideration  of  the  four  principles  of  church  unity 
suggested  by  the  Episcopal  bishops  at  Chicago  in  1886, 
and  amended  by  the  Lambeth  conference  of  1888,  as 
follows: 

1.  The  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  as  "  con- 
taining all  things  necessary  to  salvation,"  and  as  being  the  rule  and 
ultimate  standard  of  faith. 

2.  The  Apostles'  creed,  as  the  baptismal  symbol,  and  the  Nicene 
creed,  as  the  suflScient  statement  of  the  Christian  faith. 

3.  The  two  sacraments  ordained  by  Christ  Himself, — baptism  and 
the  Supper  of  the  Lord,  ministered  with  unfailing  use  of  Christ's 
words  of  institution,  and  of  the  elements  ordained  by  him. 

4.  The  Historic  Episcopate,  locally  adapted  in  the  methods  of 
its  administration  to  the  varying  needs  of  the  nations  and  peoples 
called  of  God  into  the  Unity  of  His  Church. 

Altogether,  a  greater  stimulus  than  ever  before  has  been 
given  to  discussion  of  this  momentous  question. 

The  Presbyterian  Assemblies.— The  107th  general 
assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  (North)  met  in  Pitts- 
burg, Penn.,  May  16.  Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Russell  Booth, 
pastor  of  the  Rutgers  Riverside  church  of  New  York,  was 
elected  moderator,  to  succeed  Rev.  Dr.  S.  A.  Mutchmore. 
Dr.  Booth  was  born  in  New  York  in  1830;  graduated  from 
Williams  College  in  1849,  and  later  from  Auburn  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  of  which  hisbrother.  Dr.  Henry  M.  Booth, 
is  president. 

Interest  centred  chiefly  in  the  action  to  be  taken  by  the 
assembly  regarding  control  of  theological  seminaries — an 
issue  prominent  since  the  late  trials  of  Professors  Briggs 
and  Smith  gave  rise  to  the  question  as  to  how  the  teaching 
in  the  seminaries  could  be  insured  against  heresy.  The 
report  of  the  special  committee  on  this  subject  was  de- 
bated for  about  three  days,  and  was  finally  adopted  May 
20  by  a  vote  of  432  to  98.  The  avowed  purpose  of  the 
committee  was,  without  interfering  with  the  autonomy 
of  the  seminaries,  to  obtain  for  the  general  assembly  a  veto 
power  in  the  election  of  trustees  and  directors  and  of  pro- 
fessors. To  this  end  it  proposed  in  substance  that  the 
seminaries  should  declare  their  property  to  be  held  in  trust 
for  the  church  ^"^  against  perversion  or  misuse, ^^  thus  so 
tying  the  property  and  administration  of  the  seminaries  to 
the  assembly  that  in  case  of  heresy  the  latter  would  have 
legal  power  to  secure  the  dismissal  of  unsound  professors. 

In  regard  to  Union  Seminary,  whose  controlling  au- 
thorities have  stood  by  Dr.  Briggs,  the  assembly  decided 


I 


to  adopt  a  plan  partaking  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a 
boycott.  The  following  overture  was  received  from  the 
New  York  presbytery: 

"The  presbytery  of  New  York  overtures  the  general  assembly  to 
instruct  in  relation  to  its  duty  toward  students  applying  to  be  taken 
under  its  care  who  are  pursuing  or  purpose  to  pursue  their  studies  in 
theological  seminaries  respecting  whose  teaching  the  general  assem- 
bly disavows  responsibility." 

The  following  was  the  answer  given: 

"  We  recognize  the  general  principle  that  a  young  man  should 
stand  on  his  merits,  as  revealed  by  examination,  for  entrance  into 
the  Presbyterian  ministry,  yet: 

"1.  It  is  the  genius  of  the  whole  Presbyterian  system  to  educate 
its  ministers  through  careful  training  and  Presbyterial  supervision, 
and  to  make  effectual  provision  that  all  who  are  admitted  as  teachers 
be  sound  in  the  faith. 

"2.  Our  book  requires  that,  'except  in  extraordinary  cases'  before 
licensure,  the  candidate  'shall  have  studied  divinity'  at  least  two  years 
under  some  approved  divine  or  professor  of  theology. 

"3.  The  general  assembly  of  1806  recommended  every  presbytery 
under  their  care  'to  inspect  the  education  of  those  youth  (those  prepar- 
ing for  the  ministry)  during  the  course  of  both  their  academic  and 
theological  studies,  choosing  for  them  such  schools,  seminaries,  and 
teachers  as  they  may  judge  most  proper  and  advantageous,  so  as 
eventually  to  bring  them  into  the  ministry  well  furnished  for  their 
work.' 

"4.  The  general  assembly  of  1894  affirmed  that  it'is  the  privilege  of 
the  presbytery  to  direct '  the  education  of  their  students  within  reason- 
able limits  in  schools  approved  by  the  general  assembly  and  to  pro- 
hibit their  attendance  at  institutions  disapproved  by  the  same. ' 

"Therefore,  inasmuch  as  obedience  to  the  constitution  of  the 
church  is  obligatory  on  all  presbyteries,  we  recommend  that,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  the  form  of  government  above 
cited,  the  presbytery  of  New  York  be  instructed  and  enjoined  not  to 
receive  under  its  care  for  licensure  students  who  are  pursuing  or  pro- 
pose to  pursue  their  studies  in  theological  seminaries  respecting 
whose  teaching  the  general  assembly  disavows  responsibility." 

In  a  word,  no  student  of  Union  Seminary  is  to  be  al- 
lowed to  enter  the  Presbyterian  ministry.  It  is  not  yet 
known  what  action  Union  Seminary  will  take.  There  are 
rumors  of  its  becoming  an  undenominational  theological 
university. 

In  regard  to  temperance,  the  church  for  the  first  time 
on  record  committed  itself  as  a  body  to  the  cause  of  pro- 
hibition, the  resolutions  adopted  including  one  which 
reads: 

'*  The  time  has  come  to  make  our  influence  felt  directly  and  with 
power,  and  voters  are  urged  to  vote  against  the  granting  of  licenses." 

The  kind  of  wine  (fermented  or  unfermented)  to  be 
used  in  the  sacrament   of  the   Lord's   Supper,  was  left 


412  SOCIOLOGY.  2d  Qr.,  i89r,. 

optional  with  the  churches.  A  declaration  was  made 
against  the  use  of  individual  communion  cups.  On  May 
27  the  assembly  adjourned  to  meet  next  year  at  Saratoga 
Springs,  N.  Y. 

Simultaneously  with  the  assembly  of  the  Northern 
church,  the  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
(South)  held  its  sessions  in  Dallas,  Texas.  Rev.  Dr. 
Charles  R.  Hemphill,  professor  of  New  Testament  ex- 
egesis in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  was 
chosen  moderator  to  succeed  Rev.  Dr.  J.  R.  Graham  of 
Virginia.  In  the  field  of  colored  evangelization  tlie  assem- 
bly decided  to  take  practical  and  immediate  steps  for  the 
organization  of  an  independent  colored  synod.  Such  an 
organization  has  always  been  the  goal  toward  which  the 
efforts  of  the  church  have  been  directed;  and  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  assembly  the  time  has  come  to  carry  this  pol- 
icy into  practical  realization.  All  of  the  great  evangeli- 
cal denominations  in  the  South  have  found  tliis  policy  nec- 
essary. The  Northern  Presbyterian  Church  practically 
adopts  it.  The  colored  brethren  themselves  desire  it;  and  in 
all  likelihood  the  coming  year  will  see  an  independent 
colored  church  organized. 

The  21st  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Canada  met  in  St.  Andrew's  church,  London,  Ont. , 
June  12.  Rev.  Dr.  Robertson,  superintendent  of  home 
missions  in  the  Northwest,  was  unanimously  chosen  mod- 
erator to  succeed  Rev.  Dr.  Mackay,  formerly  missionary 
in  Formosa.  On  the  burning  question  of  schools  in  Man- 
itoba, a  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted  declaring  for 
state  schools,  public  education  based  upon  the  principles 
of  Christianity,  against  separate  schools,  and  in  favor  of 
freedom  to  Manitoba  to  regulate  its  educational  affairs, 
and  an  equitable  adjustment  of  the  differences  between  the 
Dominion  and  the  province. 


SOCIOLOOY. 

A  N  important  contribution  to  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem  of  the  unemployed  in  cities,  was  furnished  by  the 
experiment  tried  last  year  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  in  the  way  of 
allowing  the  poor  to  cultivate  vacant  city  property.  The 
example  is  followed  this  year  in  New  York  and  other  cities. 
The  following,  from  the  pen  of  Captain  C.  Gardener, 
U.  S.  A.,  chairman  of  the  Detroit  citizen's  committee  ap- 


SOCIOLOGY.  473 

pointed  to  conduct  the  experiment,  recently  appeared  in 
the  CUaritiea  Review,  and  is  of  permanent  interest: 

' '  I^nds  for  cultivation  were  offered,  free  of  cost,  by  charitable  per- 
sons, in  single  lots  or  blocks,  containing  in  some  cases  over  one  hun- 
dred acres.  The  committee  generally  accepted  the  larger  blocks  and 
those  lying  in  proximity  to  the  '  poor  quarters '  of  the  city;  in  all  about 
four  hundred  and  fifty  acres,  in  over  twenty-five  different  pieces. 
Subscriptions  of  money  and  donations  of  seed  for  the  project  were 
also  received. 

"The  committee  announced,  through  the  daily  papers,  that  ap- 
plications for  land  could  be  made  either  at  its  headquarters,  or  at  the 
office  of  the  city  poor  commission.  Some  three  thousand  applications 
were  received,  out  of  which  number  the  committee  was  able,  for 
want  of  funds,  to  provide  for  but  nine  hundred  and  seventy-five, 
these  being  deserving  persons  and  heads  of  families,  either  out  of 
work  or  very  poor;  among  them  thirty  widows,  who,  having  half- 
grown  boys,  were  able  to  properly  attend  to  the  cultivation  of  land. 

"As  it  was  late,  nearly  the  middle  of  June,  before  the  project 
was  begun,  prompt  action  was  required.  The  land  was  plowed,  har- 
rowed, rolled,  and  then  staked  oft"  into  portions  of  about  a  half  acre 
each.  Assignments  of  parcels  of  land  were  made  so  as  to  be  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  home  of  the  applicant.  The  applicant  Avas  given  a 
ticket  bearing  his  name  and  residence.  This  ticket,  when  presented 
to  the  committee's  foreman,  at  a  designated  time,  upon  the  ground, 
entitled  him  to  a  lot.  His  name  and  address  were  then  written  upon  a 
stake  and  he  was  told  to  be  there  at  a  certain  hour,  two  or  three  days 
thereafter,  in  order  to  plant,  under  direction  of  the  foreman,  such 
seed  potatoes,  beans,  and  other  seeds  as  the  committee  would  supply. 
As  fast  as  pieces  of  ground  were  plowed,  harrowed,  and  rolled,  they 
were  assigned  in  this  manner.  A  printed  sheet  in  three  languages, 
directing  how  each  seed  supplied  should  be  planted,  was  given  to 
each  applicant.  Several  acres,  plowed  but  unsuitable  for  potatoes 
and  hence  not  assigned,  were  afterward  seeded  with  turnips  at  the 
committee's  expense;  the  product,  some  2,000  bushels,  was  given  to 
the  poor  people  and  to  the  city  poor  commission. 

"  Nearly  all  the  land  was  unfenced,  and  at  first  there  was  some 
trouble  because  of  trespass  of  stock  running  at  large.  Two  persons, 
one  a  mounted  policeman,  kept  daily  watch  over  all  the  lands  dur- 
ing the  summer  months,  and,  after  impounding  a  few  cattle  and  mak- 
ing a  few  arrests  for  trespass,  no  further  difficulties  of  this  nature  oc- 
curred. These  persons  were  paid  by  the  city.  Later  in  the  season, 
when  the  potatoes  were  ready  to  dig,  the  occupants  themselves  and 
the  people  living  in  the  vicinity,  also  kept  watch  over  the  parcels. 

' '  The  pieces  of  land  yielded  from  8  to  35  bushels  of  potatoes  each 
during  the  season,  the  average  for  the  whole  being  15|  bushels. 
Large  quantities  of  green  corn,  squash,  tomatoes,  turnips,  and  other 
vegetables  were  raised  and  consumed.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  from  18, 
000  to  20,000  bushels  of  potatoes  alone  were  raised,  and  probably  no 
less  than  800  bushels  of  white  beans  were  harvested. 

"  A  conservative  estimate  of  the  value  of  articles  raised  is  about 
$14,000.  The  cost  of  the  entire  experiment  was  $3,600;  deducting 
from  this  the  cost  of  plows  and  harrows  purchased  and  now  on  hand, 
the  cost  per  piece  of  ground,  including  seeds,  was  $3.45.  Although 
this  experiment  was  of  the  nature  of  a  charity,  yet  each  person  ob- 
tained the  results  of  his  own  labor;  and  it  is  certain  that  no  expend! 


m  IMPORtANt  LEGAL  DECtSIONS.  2d  Qr.,  189S. 

ture  of  a  like  amount  of  relief  money  in  any  other  way  would  have 
accomplished  as  good  results." 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS. 

J]LSEWHERE  in  this  number  the  reader  will  find  fully 
reviewed  the  decision  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court  declaring  unconstitutional  the  income-tax  features  of 
the  revenue  law  of  1894  (p.  271),  and  the  decisions  re- 
garding the  liquor-dispensary  and  the  registration  and 
election  laws  of  South  Carolina  (p.  378).  Some  other  de- 
cisions rendered  during  the  quarter  are  also  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Freedom  of  the  Press. — Perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these,  as  it  involved  the  upholding  of  the  freedom 
of  the  press  and  the  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law, 
was  the  decision  rendered  in  the  United  States  district 
court  at  New  York,  June  24,  by  Judge  Addison  Brown, 
in  the  libel  suit  instituted  by  F.  B.  Noyes  of  the  Wash- 
ington Star,  against  Charles  A.  Dana,  editor  of  the  New 
York  Sun.  Under  an  indictment  found  by  the  grand 
jury  of  the  District  of  Columbia  on  March  7,  based  on  a 
published  statement  appearing  in  the  issue  of  the  Stm  for 
February  22,  application  was  made  to  have  Mr.  Dana  re- 
moved to  Washington  to  stand  trial  under  the  libel  law  in 
force  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  allegation  being 
that  Mr.  Noyes  had  been  libelled  in  Washington.  The 
court  denied  the  application,  deciding  in  favor  of  Mr. 
Dana  on  every  count.  Perhaps  the  most  important  point 
of  the  decision  was  that  there  are  no  statutes  in  existence 
(nor  any  evidence  of  the  intent  of  congress  in  that 
direction)  conferring  exceptional  privileges  upon  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  in  the  matter  of  removals  from  other 
jurisdictions.  In  this  respect  the  district  stands  upon 
precisely  the  same  footing  as  all  other  parts  of  the  Union, 
the  federal  constitution  requiring  the  trial  of  offenders  in 
the  state  and  district  where  the  offense  has  been  com- 
mitted. To  have  granted  Mr.  Dana's  removal  would 
have  been  to  subject  him  to  the  penalties  of  laws  such  as 
probably  exist  nowhere  else  in  the  English-speaking  world 
— for  the  libel  law  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  adopted 
February  27,  1801,  is   that  of  the  old   common   law  of 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS.  475 

Maryland,  adopted  bodily  from  the  common  law  of  Eng- 
land in  1776.  Moreover,  it  would  have  been  to  discrimi- 
nate against  the  press,  inasmuch  as  citizens  of  other  call- 
ings are  entitled  to  trial  where  the  act  complained  of  was 
committed. 

Are  Trusts  Illegal? — One  of  the  strongest  arraign- 
ments ever  judicially  delivered  against  trusts  and  other 
combinations  of  capital  designed  to  monopolize  traffic  and 
control  prices,  is  found  in  the  decision  of  the  Illinois  su- 
preme court  of  June  13  affirming  the  decision  of  the  Cook 
county  court,  declaring  the  Whisky  Trust  illegal.  The 
essence  of  the  decision  is  contained  in  the  following  para- 
graphs: 

"But  it  was  urged  that  the  defendant  by  its  charter  is  authorized 
to  purchase  and  own  distillery  property,  and  that  there  is  no  limit 
placed  upon  the  amount  of  property  which  it  may  thus  acquire.  By 
its  certificate  of  organization  it  is  authorized  to  engage  in  a  gen- 
eral distilling  business  in  Illinois  and  elsewhere,  and  to  own  the 
property  necessary  for  that  purpose.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
grants  of  powers  in  corporate  charters  are  to  be  construed  strictly, 
and  what  is  not  given  is  by  implication  denied.  The  defendant  is 
authorized  to  own  such  property  as  is  necessary  for  its  business,  and 
no  more.  Its  power  to  acquire  and  hold  property  is  limited  to  that 
purpose. 

"In  accumulating  distillery  properties  in  the  manner  and  for  the 
purpose  shown,  the  defendant  has  not  only  misused  and  abused  the 
powers  granted  by  its  charter,  but  has  usurped  and  exercised  powers 
not  conferred  by,  but  which  are  wholly  foreign  to,  that  instrument. 
It  has  thus  rendered  itself  liable  to  prosecution  by  the  state  by  quo 
warranto,  and  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  upon  the  facts  shown  by 
the  information  the  judgment  of  ouster  is  clearly  warranted." 

There  seems  to  be  inevitable  some  clashing  of  federal 
and  state  authorities  in  this  case.  Receivers  for  the  trust 
were  appointed  by  a  judge  of  the  federal  court  after  the 
decision  of  the  lower  court  (now  affirmed)  was  uttered; 
and  under  these  receivers,  with  the  sanction  of  the  federal 
courts,  the  business  of  the  trust  was  developed  along  its 
usual  lines. 

Other  Decisions. — By  the  United  States  circuit  court 
of  appeals,  sitting  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  18,  the  decision 
of  Judge  Carpenter,  uttered  in  December  last  (Vol.  4,  p. 
848),  regarding  the  Berliner  microphone  patent,  was  re- 
versed. The  patent  was  declared  valid,  the  decision  be- 
ing a  great  victory  for  the  American  Bell  Telephone  Com- 
pany, whose  monopoly  is  thus  extended  to  1908. 

On  May  27  the  Geary  Chinese  exclusion  law  was  again 
upheld  by  the  United  States  supreme  court,  on  appeal  by 


476  IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  2d  Qr.,  mi 

a  CMiituiuian  who  had  for  years  been  a  resident  in  Califor- 
nia, bnt  who  was  absent  in  China  on  a  visit  at  the  time  of 
tlie  passage  of  the  hiw.  Returning  to  this  country,  he 
was  treated  as  a  newcomer  and  arrested.  The  lower  court 
decided  for  his  deportation;  and  now  the  supreme  court 
Jias  affirmed  that  decision,  declaring  the  law  to  be  consti- 
tutional, and  thus  incidentally  affirming  the  right  of  the 
government  to  exclude  aliens  of  all  kinds. 

On  April  0,  by  a  decision  of  the  supreme  court  of  Kan- 
sas, hypnotism  was  recognized  both  as  a  defense  and  as  a 
grouiul  for  conviction  of  crime.  A  man  who  had  com- 
mitted murder,  pleaded  that  he  was  under  the  hypnotic  in- 
lluence  of  another,  and  was  acquitted.  The  other  man  was 
found  guilty  of  murder  in  the  first  degree,  though  absent 
when  the  crime  was  committed. 

In  the  pension  case  of  Judge  C.  D.  Long  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Michigan,  which  attracted  much  atten- 
tion last  year  (Vol.  4,  p.  131),  the  court  of  appeals  of  tlie 
District  of  Columbia  on  June  5  reversed  the  decision  of 
the  lower  court  which  denied  the  right  of  the  commis- 
sioner of  pensions  to  reduce  Judge  Long's  pension.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Courtis  decision,  the  executive  authorities  of 
the  pension  bureau  may  reverse,  suspend,  or  alter  in  any 
way  a  pension  granted  by  their  predecessors,  and  each 
commissioner  has  the  power  to  examine  and  change  a  pen- 
sion. The  decision  permits  the  commissioner  of  pensions 
to  pay  Judge  Long  only  at  the  rate  to  which  his  pension  was 
reduced.  An  appeal  will  probably  be  taken  to  the  United 
States  supreme  court. 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 

Gold  and  Silver  Production. — According  to  the  re- 
port of  R.  E.  Preston,  director  of  the  United  States  mint, 
the  total  gold  product  of  the  world  for  the  calendar  year 
1894  was  8,780,518  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $181,510,100,  as 
against  $158,836,000  for  1893,  an  increase  of  $22,074,100. 

The  estimate  for  the  silver  output  is  165,918,338  fine 
ounces,  with  a  coining  value  of  $214,481,000,  and  a  bullion 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  477 

value  of  $105,348,135,  the  average  price  during  1804 
being  (53^  cents.  The  increase  in  1894  amounted  to  722,- 
000  ounces.  The  following  is  a  detailed  statement  of  the 
coining  value  of  the  world's  output  of  gold  and  silver  for 
1894: 

WORLDS  GOLD  OUTPUT,  1894. 

United  States $39,500,000  Chile $464,400 

Australasia 41,760.800  Drazil 2,219,.'i00 

Mexico 4,500,000  Venezuela 80(),10o 

liussia 27,646,000  Guiana  (British) 2,310,100 

(iermanv 2,203,100  Guiana  (Dutch) 579,r)0(J 

Austria- Hungary 1,684,800  Guiana  (French)  1.329,200 

Sweden 62,500  Peru 74,400 

Italy 117,000  Urui^uay 141,(K)0 

Tui-key 8,000  Central  American  States 470..500 

France 185,300  Japan 489,800 

Great  Britain 65,800  China 6,014,000 

Canada 954,400  Africa 40,346,000 

Argentine  Itepublic 95,000  India  (British) 3,986,900 

Colombia 2,892,800  Korea 467,200 

Bolivia 67,0001  

Ecuador 68,4001        Total $181,510,100 

WORLD'S  SILVER  OUTPUT,  1894. 


United  States $64,000,000 

Australasia 2:^367,700 

Mexico 60,817,300 

Rus.sia 420,500 

(Jermany 8,027,300 

Austria-Hungary 2,548,400 

Sweden 119,200 

Norway 195,500 

Italy l,20O,.50O 

Spain 2,643,400 

Greece 1,472,700 

Turkey 6.3,000 

France 4,076,100 


Great  Brita'n $329,700 

Canada 321,400 

Argentine  Republic 1,551,600 

Colombia 2,182,400 

Bolivia 28,444,4«0 

Ecuador 10.000 

Chile 3,685,500 

Peru 4,474,800 

Central  American  States 2,000,000 

Japan 2,529,700 


Total $214,481,100 


The  greatest  increase  in  the  production  of  gold  in  the 
year  was: 

Africa $11,400,000( United  States $3,500,000 

Australia 6,073,000|  Mexico 3,195,000 

The  greatest  increase  in  the  production  of  silver 
was: 

Bolivia $10,800,000 1  Chile $1,400,000 

Mexico 3,500,000  Greece 1,400,000 

Peru 2,000,000! 

The  production  of  both  metals  was  greater  than  in  any 
previous  year. 

The  production  of  gold  by  states  and  territories  is  esti- 
mated as  follows: 


478 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 
GOLD  OUTPUT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1894. 


2d  Qr.,  1895. 


States  and  Territories. 

Fine 
ounces. 

Coining 
value. 

Alaska    

.53,888 

86,324 

656,468 

459,152 

4,726 

100,682 

2,150 

176,637 

55,042 

27,465 

2,254 

60,792 

4,735 

159,594 

41,991 

9,438 

1,495 

81,113,330 

1,784,475 

13,570,397 

9,491.514 

97,756 

2,081,281 

44  444 

Arizona 

Idaho  .  . . 

Michigan 

Montana 

Nevada 

3,651,410 

1,137.819 

567,751 

46„504 

1,422,056 

97,830 

3,290,100 

868,031 

195  100 

New  Mexico 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Utah 

Washington 

Alabama,  Maryland,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Vermont,  Wy- 
oming  

30  903 

Totals 

1,910,815 

$39,500,000 

The  estimate  of  silver  produced  by  the  same  states 
and  territories  during  the  calendar  year  is  as  follows: 

SILVER  OUTPUT  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1894 


States  and  Territories. 


Alaska  — 
Arizona... 
California. 
Colorado.. 
Georgia... 
Idaho 


Michigan 

Montana 

Nevada 

New  Mexico.... 
North  Carolina. 

Oregon 

South  Carolina. 
South  Dakota. . 

Texas 

Utah. 


Washington  

Alabama,  Maryland,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Vermont, 
Wyoming 


Totals. 


Kne 
ounces. 


Coining 

value.  (Meas- 
ured in  gold.) 


22,261 

$28,782 

1,147,204 

1,483,254 

717,368 

927,506 

23,281,399 

30,101,203 

325 

420 

3,288,548 

4,251,860 

35,122 

45,410 

12,820,081 

16,575,458 

1,035,151 

1,338,377 

632,183 

817,368 

352 

455 

26.171 

33,837 

305 

394 

58,973 

76,248 

429.314 

555,073 

5,891,901 

7,617,812 

113,160 

146,308 

182 

235 

49,500,000       $64.000,000 


Iron  and  Steel  Industry.— The  following  is  a  sum- 
mary of  the  annual  report  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel 
Association,  a  document  of  great  statistical  value. 

The  two  most  striking  features  of  the  industry  in  the  United 
States  have  been  a  fall  in  prices  which  is  almost  without  a  parallel, 
and  in  spite  of  it  a  production  exceeding  that  of  any  year  prior  to 
1889.  The  two  facts  go  together,  and  constitute  evidence  of  extraor 
dinary  progress.  A  growth  which  is  mainly  in  answer  to  temporary 
scarcity  and  extreme  high  prices  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  severe  and 
prolonged  depression.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  very  conditions  of  iron 
production  in  this  country  have  radically  changed  when,  after  a  de- 
cline since  1888  of  36  per  cent  in  the  price  of  Anthracite  No.  1  at 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  479 

Philadelphia,  43  per  cent  in  Bessemer  and  44  per  cent  in  Gray  Forge 
at  Pittsburg,  the  production  is  even  now  larger  than  in  1888  or  in  any 
previous  year  in  the  history  of  the  country. 

It  is  true  that  only  a  part  of  the  furnace  capacity  is  now  employed. 
The  association  states  that  the  production  was  9,202,703  tons  in 
1890,  and  the  capacity  of  completed  furnaces  became  in  that  year  about 
14,000,000  tons.  The  maximum  output  yet  attained  in  any  month 
was  193,902  tons  weekly,  March  1,  1892,  which  would  be  at  the 
rate  of  10,082,904  tons  if  maintained  a  full  year,  so  that  the  act- 
ual production  in  1894  was  about  two-thirds  of  the  maximum.  But 
the  output  now  depends  largely  upon  the  demand  for  consumption 
rather  than  the  price,  and  could  apparently  be  maintained  at  the  rate 
of  nearly  seven-eighths  of  the  maximum  without  much  rise  in  prices 
if  consumption  were  sufficient.  The  actual  consumption  last  year  is 
placed  at  6,718,960  tons  in  all  forms  of  the  manufacture,  against  9,- 
318,748  tons  in  1892;  and  it  is  well  known  that  since  this  year  began 
the  consumption  has  been  larger  than  in  1894,  although  production 
has  been  diminishing  to  meet  it  since  last  December. 

The  surprising  change  in  the  character  and  capacity  of  furnaces 
is  placed  in  a  strong  light  by  the  statement  in  the  report  that  ' '  the 
number  of  furnaces  in  blast  at  the  close  of  1894  was  the  smallest  at 
the  close  of  any  year  except  1893  during  the  whole  period  covered  by 
the  table,"  namely,  twenty-one  years.  The  substitution  of  powerful 
and  economical  furnaces  for  others  of  inferior  construction  was  the 
secret  of  the  enormous  increase  in  production  up  to  1893,  and  of  the 
surprising  decrease  in  cost  exhibited  since  the  depression  came. 
Great  improvements  have  also  been  made  in  the  methods  and  cost  of 
turning  pig  iron  into  forms  for  final  use,  so  that  prices  of  such  forms 
have  in  many  cases  been  reduced  more  than  prices  of  pig  iron,  and 
these  changes  were  to  a  great  extent  effected  before  the  depression 
came,  though  it  did  not  appear  until  after  that  depression  how  great 
were  the  economies  effected  by  the  use  of  new  and  improved  machin- 
ery. It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  extreme  low  prices  were  attained 
only  with  the  lowest  prices  for  fuel  and  ore,  which  could  not  long  be 
maintained,  and  with  the  lowest  possible  wages  for  labor,  which 
were  beginning  to  produce  strikes  in  many  quarters  when  the  recent 
advance  was  conceded.  But  it  is  something  to  know  that  the  in- 
dustry has  progressed  so  far  that  prices  higher  than  ruled  at  the  close 
of  1894  are  due,  not  to  other  elements  of  cost,  but  to  wages  paid  in 
mines,  coke  works,  and  furnaces. 

Exports  of  iron  and  steel  products  were  in  quantity  probably 
larger  last  year  than  in  any  previous  year.  Although  prices  have  re- 
markably declined,  the  value  of  such  exports  was  close  to  $30,000.- 
000,  and  has  remained  close  to  that  figure  each  year  since  1890.  It 
is  not  the  foreign  but  the  domestic  demand  upon  which  this  great  in- 
dustry must  always  depend;  and  the  most  important  development  of 
that  demand  in  recent  years  has  been  in  the  use  of  steel  in  buildings. 
Of  structural  forms  505,901  gross  tons  were  produced  last  year,  about 
nine-tenths  in  Pennsylvania,  which  goes  far  to  take  the  place  of  the 
decrease  of  863,000  tons  in  the  quantity  of  rails  produced  since  1890. 

Cotton  Manufacture. — The  South  is  rapidly  advanc- 
ing in  the  development  of  cotton  manufactures,  having 
nearly  doubled  the  interest  in  the  past  five  years.  The 
whole  number  of  mills  now  in  the  states  is  as  follows:  Ala- 
bama, twenty-one;  Arkansas,  two;  Florida,  one;  Georgia, 


480  IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  :.'d  Qr.,  1895. 

sixty-six;  Kentucky,  six;  Louisiana,  five;  Maryland,  eiglit- 
een;  Mississippi,  eight;  North  Carolina,  140;'^South  Caro- 
lina, sixty-two;  Tennessee,  twenty-four;  Texas,  nine;  V'ir- 
ginia,  nine;  and  West  Virginia,  one.  Total  completed 
mills  and  in  course  of  erection,  372.  Additional  mills  pro- 
jected number  thirty-six. 

Population  of  the  Earth.— According  to  the  most 
recent  estimates  as  compiled  by  J.  Holt  Schooling,  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society  of  England,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  earth  is  distributed  as  follows: 

POPULATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Continental  Division.  Population. 

Asia 8;>5,954,Oo6 

Europe a'57,3r9,000 

Africa 163,953.000 

America l:Jl.ri3.000 

Oceania  and  Polar  regions 7,500  400 

Australia 3,2.30,'ooo 


Total 1,479,729,400 

The  regular  increase  in  the  world's  population  is  esti- 
mated at  5  per  1,000  persons  ;;er  annum. 

Negro  Population. — Interesting  figures  have  recently 
been  compiled  by  Dr.  De  Sausine  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  re- 
lating to  the  death  rate  among  the  colored  people. 

The  figures  go  to  show  that  tUe  negro  population  cannot  be  main- 
tained in  the  cities.  The  statistician  shows  that  in  the  fourteen  years 
between  1880  and  1894,  in  Charleston,  deaths  among  the  negroes  ex- 
ceeded births  by  5,426.  The  Charleston  negroes  are  decreasing  at 
the  rate  of  388  a  year,  and  the  city  population  in  blacks  would  disap 
pear  altogether  if  they  did  not  draw  from  the  country,  where  the 
death  rate  of  the  negroes  is  only  20  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  the 
whites.  What  is  true  of  Charleston  is  also  true  of  New  Orleans,  and 
of  other  Southern  cities.  In  New  Orleans,  for  instance,  the  negro 
population  makes  a  draft  on  the  country  population  of  15,540  every 
decade.  Among  the  children  of  the  negroes  the  greatest  mortality  is 
found.  Out  of  every  1,000  white  children  born  in  Charleston  297'die 
before  they  are  one  year  old.  Out  of  every  1,000  negro  children  564 
die;  and  in  Savannah  the  mortality  among  the  negro  children  is  nearly 
three  times  as  great  as  among  the  whites.  From  this  it  may  be  seeli 
that  the  negro  urban  population  does  not  maintain  itself,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  doctor's  theory,  which  he  backs  up  by  a  very  convincing 
array  of  figures,  the  growth  of  our  Southern  cities  and  the  increasing 
inclination  of  the  negro  to  move  to  town  means  a  very  considerably 
decreased  population  in  the  next  decade. 

Navies  of  the  World.— Secretary  Herbert  has  re- 
cently compiled  statistics  regarding  the  number  and  types 
of  war  vessels  of  the  leading  navies  of  the  world. 

The  tables  show  that  England  has,  at  the  present  time,  some 
forty-three  battle-ships,  twelve  coast  defenders,  and  eighteen  armored 
cruisers,  and  ten  battleships  building.  The  French  navy  contains 
forty^three  armored  vessels  built  and  twenty  authorized  and  building. 


DISASTERS.  481 

Russia  has  forty  such  vessels,  Germany  tbirty-two,  and  Italy  eighteen. 
These  navies  have,  in  addition,  many  unarmored  vessels.  The 
number  of  war  vessels  in  tbe  service  of  England,  including  protected 
cruisers,  ordinary  cruisers,  gunboats,  and  torpedo  vessels,  exclusive 
of  torpedo  boats,  is  238,  and  some  forty -eight  additional  ones  author- 
ized and  building.  The  French  navy  contains  in  all  147  vess-els,  with 
twenty -four  building.  Germany  has  altogether  thirty-nine,  Russia 
thirty-two,  and  Italy  seventy -two.  Torpedo  boats  have  come  to  take 
a  very  important  part  in  naval  warfare.  France  has  217  torpedo 
boats  in  service,  and  forty-two  authorized  and  building;  England  has 
165  and  sixty -four  respectively;  Italy  178  and  eleven;  Russia  163  and 
fourteen;  and  Germany  119.  At  present  the  United  States  has  three 
torpedo  boats  and  three  building. 


DISASTERS. 

American: — 

Wreck  of  fhe  "  CoUma.''—On  May  27  the  Pacific  Mail 
Steamship  Company^s  steamer  Colima  (J.  F.  Taylor,  com- 
mander), bound  from  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  May  18,  for 
Panama  and  way  ports  in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
with  forty-one  cabin  and  eighty-two  steerage  passengers, 
nnd  a  crew  of  eiglity  persons,  and  1,950  tons  of  cargo, 
foundered  in  a  gale  about  forty  miles  south  of  Manzanillo, 
Mexico,  taking  down  with  her  all  on  board  excepting,  so 
far  as  known,  twenty-seven  passengers  and  twelve  of  the 
crew.  Some  of  tliese  were  picked  up  by  the  company's 
steamer  San  Juan;  others  drifted  to  land.  The  storm, 
which  began  on  the  evening  of  May  26,  increased  sud- 
denly to  a  hurricane  at  about  10:30  the  following  morn- 
ing, when  the  steamer  was  knocked  down  on  her  beam 
ends,  filled,  and  sank.  The  tliird  officer  was  the  only 
officer  saved.  The  official  report  of  the  local  inspectors 
at  San  Francisco  states  that  without  the  testimony  of  the 
captain,  the  first  officer,  and  the  chief  engineer,  the  true 
cause  of  the  disaster  cannot  be  determined.  The  Colima 
was  an  iron  vessel  built  in  Chester,  Penn.,  gross  tonnage 
2,905.64  tons,  valued  at  $225,000.  She  was  considered 
staunch  and  seaworthy.  Xo  danger  was  apprehended 
until  about  ten  minutes  before  the  vessel  went  down.  So 
far  as  ascertainable  at  the  end  of  June,  the  returns  of  the 
way  passengers  being  still  incomplete,  the  total  loss  of 
life  was  eighty-five  passengers  and  sixty-eight  of  the  crew. 
It  is  said  that  the  deck  was  heavily  loaded  with  lumber, 
and  that  the  cargo  and  deck-load  shifted.  Professor 
Harold  Whiting  of  the  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University, 

Vol.  5.— 31. 


482  DISASTERS.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

a  graduate  of  Harvard,  with  his  wife  and  four  children, 
was  among  the  lost. 

On  May  16  fire  destroyed  $300,000  worth  of  property 
at  Coney  Island,  N.  Y. 

On  May  19  a  large  portion  of  the  business  section  of 
St.  Alban's,  Vt.,  was  burned;  estimated  loss  $500,000, 
including  fifty  business  buildings  and  seventy-five  dwell- 
ings. The  fire  is  said  to  have  been  due  to  the  explosion 
of  a  kerosene  lamp,  over  which  a  woman  was  heating  a 
curling  iron. 

On  June  27  four  blocks  were  destroyed  in  the  heart  of 
the  manufacturing  district  of  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  loss 
about  $1,500,000,  and  one  life.  The  burned  area  is 
bounded  by  Townsend,  Bryant,  Third,  and  Fifth  streets. 
A  succession  of  wooden  buildings  fed  the  flames,  which 
raged  for  four  hours.  A  change  in  the  wind  finally  enabled 
the  firemen  to  check  the  spread  of  the  conflagration. 

On  April  9  the  collapse  of  two  five-story  business 
buildings  in  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  caused  the  loss  of  six 
lives.     Four  other  persons  were  injured. 

By  an  explosion  of  powder  in  a  grocery  store  in  New 
Orleans,  La.,  April  5,  fifteen  persons  were  killed,  and 
several  others  injured. 

On  May  3  a  tornado  wrought  great  destruction  to 
life  and  property  in  Sioux  county,  northwestern  Iowa. 
The  path  of  the  storm  was  about  a  mile  wide  and  thirty- 
five  miles  long.  Six  schoolhouses  near  Sioux  Centre  were 
demolished,  three  teachers  and  many  children  being  killed. 
The  following  fatalities  were  reported :  From  Sioux  Centre, 
fifty  dead;  Perkins,  forty  dead;  Doon,  ten  dead;  Sibley, 
five  dead. 

European: — 

On  April  14  violent  shocks  of  earthquake  were  ex- 
perienced throughout  southern  Austria,  the  disturbances 
extending  even  to  Vienna  and  to  Venice  and  Verona. 
Their  direction  was  from  southeast  to  northwest.  The 
greatest  damage  was  wrought  at  Laibach,  thirty-five  miles 
northeast  of  Trieste. 

On  April  27  a  dam  holding  in  check  an  immense 
reservoir  of  the  Eastern  canal  at  Bousey,  near  Epinal,  in 
the  Vosges  district  of  eastern  France,  broke  down  for  a 
distance  of  about  300  feet.  The  Epinal  region  is  hilly, 
and  the  water  tore  down  the  valley  carrying  away  build- 
ings, bridges,  etc.,  finally  emptying  into  the  Moselle  at 
Nomexy  and  Ohatel.     Several  villages  in  the  valley  of  the 


DISASTERS.  483 

Avi6re  were  destroyed,  the  total  number  of  victims  being 
aboiit  120,  and  the  damage  to  propert}'  being  roughly  esti- 
mated at  50,000,000  francs.  Relief  works  were  insti- 
tuted by  government  and  municipal  officials. 

On  May  18  a  violent  earthquake  damaged  3,000  houses 
in  Florence,  Italy,  fortunately  with  little  loss  of  life.  The 
shock  was  general  throughout  Tuscany,  but  the  centre  of 
the  disturbance  was  at  Florence.  About  the  same  time 
seven  villages  were  destroyed  and  fifty  persons  killed  by 
an  earthquake  in  southwest  Epirus. 

On  May  27  the  Spanish  steamer  Dom  Pedro,  bound 
from  Havre,  France,  for  South  America,  struck  a  rock  off 
the  northwest  coast  of  Spain,  and  went  down  with  the 
loss  of  eighty-seven  lives.  The  captain  and  thirty-eight 
of  the  passengers  and  crew  were  saved. 

On  June  6  at  least  seventy  persons  were  drowned  by  a 
flood  following  a  storm  in  the  Roberndorf  valley  in  western 
Hungary. 

On  June  17  the  chamber  of  deputies  at  Lisbon  was 
destroyed.  The  chamber  of  peers  and  other  adjoining 
structures  were  saved.  The  Portuguese  archives  were  con- 
sumed. The  fire  was  caused  by  a  burning  brazier  left  on 
the  roof  during  the  dinner  hour  by  a  plumber  who  was 
doing  some  soldering  for  the  repair  of  the  glass  dome  over 
the  chamber. 

The  inquest  held  at  Lowestoft,  England,  into  the  loss 
of  the  steamer  Elbe  (p.  229),  resulted  May  1  in  a  verdict 
to  the  following  effect: 

Thecollision  was  due  to  gross  negligence  on  the  partoftbe  mate  and 
lookout  of  the  Crntlde.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  evidence  from  any  of 
the  crew  of  the  Elbe  the  jurors  were  of  the  opinion  that  there  was 
not  sufficient  proof  that  the  CratJiie  was  solely  to  blame  for  the  dis- 
aster to  justify  a  verdict  to  that  effect.  The  captain  of  the  Crathie 
was  entirely  exonerated. 

The  Board  of  Trade,  the  court  of  final  judgment  in  the  matter, 
confirmed  the  finding  of  the  Lowestoft  jury.  The  Crat7iie,tlie  board 
found,  was  primarily  to  blame  in  not  keeping  a  proper  lookout;  but 
the  catastrophe  might  have  been  averted  if  the  officer  on  duty  on 
the  Mbe  had  stopped  his  vessel  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  collision  be- 
came imminent.  The  Crathie  was  not  navigated  with  care;  but  the 
board  found  that  her  captain  was  not  to  blame,  as  he  was  justified 
under  the  circumstances  in  being  in  the  cabin  instead  of  on  deck. 
The  mate's  commission  was  cancelled. 


484  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

LITERATURE. 

Science:— 

Health  and  Condition  in  the  Active  and  the  Sede7itary. 
By  Nathaniel  Yorke-Davies,  author  of  Foods  for  the  Fat, 
Medical  Maxims,  etc.  250  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $2.00. 
New  York:  F.  A.  Stokes  Co. 

"Long  life,"  Dr.  Yorke-Davies  insists,  "and,  still  more  so, 
healthy  life,  is  not  attained  by  constantly  taking  medicine,  but  it  is 
attained  by  regulating  the  daily  routine  so  as  not  to  require  medicine 
at  all;  and  this  can  certainly  be  done  by  proper  diet,  fresh  air,  and  ex- 
ercise, and  by  carrying  out  the  simple  laws  of  hygiene,  as  indicated 
in  these  pages." 

Manual  of  Home-Made  Apparatus.  With  reference  to 
chemistry,  physics,  and  physiology.  By  John  F.  Woodhnll, 
author  of  First  Course  in  Science,  etc.  Illustrated.  72 
pp.   12mo.     45c.  New  York:  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 

Directions  for  making  at  a  small  expense  apparatus  for  experi- 
ments in  chemistry,  physics,  and  physiology;  directions  are  also  given 
for  the  experiments. 

John  Dalton  and  the  Rise  of  Modern  Chemistry.  By 
Sir  Henry  E.  Roscoe,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E.  With 
a  portrait.  The  Century  Science  series.  216  pp.  In- 
dexed.    12rno.     $1.25.     New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

Dalton  was  the  founder  of  modern  chemistry  and  of  the  atomic 
theory,  and  the  discoverer  of  the  laws  of  chemical  combining  pro- 
portions. "Before  his  discovery  of  the  laws  of  chemical  combination 
and  without  his  atomic  theory  to  explain  those  laws,  chemistry  as  an 
exact  science  did  not  exist.  *  *  *  The  biographer  of  a  great 
scientist  very  often  has  little  more  to  do  than  to  chronicle  those 
quiet  researches  for  which  his  name  stands.  In  many  respects 
Dalton's  life  was  no  exception  to  this  rule.  The  greater  portion  of  his 
laborious  life  was  passed  in  working  and  teaching  in  a  more  or  less 
humble  way  in  a  provincial  town.  Yet  the  story  is  a  fascinating  one, 
for  Dalton's  character  was  an  unusually  interesting  one,  original, 
lovable,  and  pervaded  by  that  constant  earnestness  which  results  from 
the  consciousness  of  a  special  mission  to  mankind." 

Handhooh  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America.  With 
keys  to  the  species  and  description  of  their  plumage,  nests, 
and  eggs,  etc.  By  Frank  M.  Chapman.  With  full-page 
plates  in  colors  and  black  and  white,  and  upward  of  150 
cuts  in  the  text.  421  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  Flexible 
cloth,  $3.00;  flexible  morocco,  $3.50.  New  York:  D.  Ap- 
pleton  &  Co. 

"This  book  is  designed  to  furnish  the  encouragement  and  in- 
struction of  which  young  bird-lovers  stand  in  need.  It  is  an  admir- 
able book  to  take  into  the  field  for  reference  as  one  goes  about  study- 
ing the  birds  with  a  view  to  acquiring  scientific  knowledge  of  them." 

Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden.  Described  and 


I 


LITERATURE.  485 

illustrated  by  F.  Schuyler  Mathews.  With  over  200  draw- 
ings. 308  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.75.  New  York:  D. 
Appleton  &  Co. 

"The  author  has  adopted  a  chronological  arrangement;  that  is, 
she  has  begun  with  the  first  flowers  of  early  spring,  which  are  the 
trailing  arbutus  and  the  snowdrop,  and  then,  month  by  month,  car- 
ries forward  the  royal  procession.  To  almost  every  page  there  are  il- 
lustrations; and  while  these  are  without  colors,  they  are  much  more 
successful  than  such  representations  commonly  are." 

A  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects.  By  John  Henry 
Comstock,  professor  of  entomology  in  Cornell  University 
and  in  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  and  Anna 
Botsford  Comstock,  member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Wood-Engravers.  701pp.  8vo.  Illustrated.  $3.75.  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.:  Comstock  Publishing  Co. 

"The  publication  of  this  volume  is  the  completion  of  a  work 
which  has  been  in  preparation  for  at  least  a  decade  of  years — a  por- 
tion of  it  having  appeared  in  1888,  under  the  title  of  'An  Introduc- 
tion to  Entomology.'  *  *  *  There  has  long  been  a  demand  for 
an  elementary  work  that  should  present  the  study  of  insects  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner,  with  so  much  classification  as  would  permit  the  hab- 
its and  names  of  the  more  important  groups,  if  not  of  individual 
species,  to  be  readily  ascertained,  and  the  study  successfully  prosecu- 
ted, both  in  its  scientific  aspect  and  in  its  practical  application.  Such 
has  been  the  aim  in  the  preparation  of  the  present  manual." 

Philosophy: — 

^Esthetic  Principles.  By  Henry  Rutgers  Marshall, 
M.  A.,  author  of  Pain,  Pleasure,  and  Esthetics.  201  pp. 
Indexed.     12mo.    $1.25.  New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

Mr.  Marshall's  book,  it  may  be  said,  is  a  condensation  of  his  more 
voluminous  effort,  Pain,  Pleasure,  and  JEsthetics,  a  metaphysical 
work  of  a  high  order,  which  has  given  its  author  no  little  fame,  and 
which  of  its  kind  has  enjoyed  much  distinction.  The  present  volume, 
however,  will  serve  the  purpose  of  conveying  in  more  concise  form 
and  in  a  briefer  manner  many  of  the  deductions  that  the  author  has 
arrived  at  in  the  earlier  volume. 

Philosophy  of  Mind.  An  essay  in  the  metaphysics  of 
psychology.  By  George  Trumbull  Ladd,  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  Yale  University.  425  pp.  8vo.  $3.00.  New 
York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

"This book  is,  above  all,  a  defense  of  the  philosophical  method  in 
psychology  as  perfectly  consistent  with  experimental  investigation. 
It  insists  on  the  reality  of  that  with  which  psychology  is  supposed  to 
busy  itself,  namely,  the  mind — on  its  unity,  on  its  permanence,  and 
on  the  reality  of  its  acts  and  its  knowledge.  Prof.  Ladd  is  a  stren- 
uous opponent  of  those  who  seek  a  psychology  without  soul.  He  is 
equally  stern  with  those  who  pretend  to  abjure  metaphysics  in  the 
pursuit  of  science.  As  he  says,  they  only  turn  one  kind  of  meta- 
physics out  of  the  door,  while  they  let  another  kind,  usually  more 
licentious,  in  at  the  window  or  by  some  back  way.  This  is  true  of  all 


486  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

science  the  moment  it  abandons  tbe  narrow  field  of  experiment  and 
turns  to  conjecture  and  speculation.  But  it  is  especially  true  of 
psychology  because  tbe  experimental  processes  never  deal  with  the 
actual  object  of  investigation,  but  only  with  the  instrumentalities 
which  it  controls.  If  one  seeks  to  study  tbe  mental  acts  of  another, 
one  is  obliged  to  interpret  all  ob.servations  by  consulting  one's  own 
mental  acts.  All  the  results  of  modern  experiment  in  reaction,  time, 
association,  and  the  like,  as  soon  as  they  come  to  be  stated,  are  sub- 
ject first  to  the  mental  inspection  of  the  experimenter  and  then  to  a 
similar  scrutiny  by  others,  these  secondary  processes  being  beyond 
the  range  of  test  for  any  contrivances  yet  invented.  It  is  easy  to  say 
that  investigation  shall  be  confined  to  experiment  and  to  the  baldest 
statement  of  results,  but  it  is  not  confined  within  these  limits,  and  it 
cannot  be.  Introspection  steps  in  to  tell  what  the  results  imply;  and 
the  terms  that  it  uses,  however  they  may  be  disguised,  are  found  to 
be  metaphysical.  In  view  of  this  condition  of  things.  Prof.  Ladd 
urges  that  where  philosophical  methods  are  necessary  they  should 
be  used  frankly  and  not  surreptitiously.  But  he  does  not  demand 
that  the  particular  form  of  metaphysics  which  he  prefers  shall  be 
used  by  others.  He  does  not  ask  that  others  shall  agree  with  him  in 
saying  that  mind  is  known  in  its  acts  and  that  no  unknowable  mind- 
stuff  exists  behind  this  mind  in  action.  But  he  exhorts  those  who 
have  any  system  to  adhere  to  it;  and  those  who  deny  the  use  of  any 
system,  to  review  their  processes  and  to  see  if  they  are  not  mistaken. 
He  intimates  that  they  will  find  subtle  metaphysics  lurking  under 
their  pet  hypotheses  and  doing  all  the  guesswork  that  patches  their 
interpretation  of  facts  together." 

From  his  own  metaphysical  point  of  view  he  apparently  contem- 
plates a  multiplex  monism  in  which  "the  Being  of  the  World,  of 
which  all  particular  beings  are  parts,  must  be  so  conceived  of  as  that 
in  it  can  be  found  the  OneGroundjof  all  interrelated  existences  and  ac- 
tivities."    He  holds  thai  this  unifying  principle  is  an  Absolute  Mind. 

An  Production  to  Comparative  Psychology.  By  C. 
Lloyd  Morgan.  12mo.  $1.25.  New  York:  Chas.  Scribiier's 
Sons. 

The  chief  purpose  of  this  book  is  "to  discuss  the  relation  of  the 
p.sychology  of  man  to  that  of  the  higher  animals,  as  an  introduction 
to  comparative  psychology."  At  the  same  time  the  author  proposes 
to  state  the  theory  of  consciousness  upon  which  his  investigation  is 
conducted,  and  to  consider  the  relation  of  psychical  evolution  to 
physical  and  biological  evolution;  and  in  so  doing  outlines  a  meta- 
physical system  which,  while  professedly  "monistic,"  savors  much 
of  pure  materialism. 

Political  Economy,  Civics,  and  Sociology:— 

Trusts:  Or,  Industrial  Cornhinations  and  Coalitions  in 
the  United  States.  By  Ernst  von  Halle.  350  pp.  12mo. 
$1.25.      New  York:  Macmillan  «&  Co. 

"The  author  aims  to  furnish  a  complete  account  of  those  great 
combinations  and  to  set  forth  in  due  order  and  with  sufficient  detail 
their  nature,  their  evolution,  the  advantages  implied  in  them,  the 
liabilities  of  evil  in  them,  the  legislation  concerning  them,  and  the 
judicial  action  and  decisions  which  up  to  the  present  time  have  tran- 
spired. The  book  is  written  in  a  candid  and  scientific  spirit.  The 
author  takes  no  extreme  partisan  position." 


LITERATURE.  487 

A  Sound  Currency  arid  Banhing  System.  How  it  May- 
be Secured.  By  Allen  Eipley  Foote.  110  pp.  12mo.  75c. 
Kew  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

A  most  timely  contribution  to  the  literature  of  one  of  the  most 
momentous  issues  in  the  United  States.  "It  opens  with  a  plea  for  a 
monetary  commission,  taking  the  ground  that  the  currency  problem 
is  a  financial  and  patriotic  one — not  a  political  question  to  be  decided 
by  appeals  to  passion  and  prejudice.  The  sine  qua  non  of  a  sound 
currency,  Mr.  Foote  insists,  is  that  the  United  States  treasury  must 
cease  doing  a  banking  business;  and  his  claim  that  a  sufficient  gold 
reserve  cannot  be  maintained  by  the  sale  of  bonds  to  protect  the 
credit  of  the  government  under  the  existing  laws  is  worthy  of  careful 
examination." 

The  Saloon-keeper's  Ledger.  A  Series  of  Temperance  Re- 
vival Discourses.  By  Louis  Albert  Banks,  D.  D.,  pastor 
Hanson  Place  M.  E.  church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  129  pp. 
VZmo.  Cloth,  75c.  New  York,  London,  and  Toronto: 
Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company. 

"The  aim  is  to  help  educate  the  public  mind  and  conscience 
afresh  in  regard  to  the  drink  question.  In  the  ledger  of  those  parti- 
cipating in  the  drink  traffic  heavy  balances  are  proven  on  the  side  of 
disease,  private  and  social  immorality,  ruined  homes,  pauperized 
labor,  lawlessness  and  crime,  and  political  corruption.  The  conclusion 
is  that  the  way  to  stop  the  evil  is  to  stop  the  traffic.  The  book  bristles 
with  anecdotal  illustrations,  all  of  which  are  to  th-s  point,  concise,  and 
hard  to  forget,  a  feature  of  great  value.  Theodore  Cuyler,  D.  D.,  of 
Brooklyn,  writes  the  introduction." 

Degeneration.  By  Max  Nordau.  Translated  from  the 
second  edition  of  the  German  work.  560  pp.  8vo.  $3.50. 
New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"The  governing  thought  is,  that  this  generation  having  done 
much,  is  so  tired  that  it  needs  sleep,  and  has  lost  for  the  moment 
some  control  of  its  nerves  and  will."  Herr  Nordau  finds  the  causes 
for  this^n  de  Steele  movement,  this  mental  disease,  in  the  intellectual 
excitement  of  the  last  fifty  years.  "The  world,  he  says,  within 
that  time,  or  from  a  period  just  before  it,  has  become,  chiefly  through 
scientific  and  physical  progress,  a  more  exhausting  world;  and  though 
the  mass  of  the  people  have  borne  it  well  enough,  the  intellectual 
class  had  been  taken  by  surprise,  had  not  grown  up  to  it,  and  had  not 
sufficient  strength  to  perform  the  amazing  increase  of  work  required 
of  it  by  circumstances.  *  *  *  The  consequence  of  this  is  exhaus- 
tion, or,  to  use  language  which  is  not  strictly  scientific,  but  will  be 
fully  intelligible  to  our  readers,  a  form  of  insanity  described  by  spe- 
cialists as  'degeneration,'  in  which  the  control  of  the  will  is  partially 
lost,  and  the  patient  exhibits  erotomania  or  megalomania,  or  a  maud- 
lin and  usually  sterile  liability  to  emotion,  especially  the  emotion  of 
pity.  All  these  symptoms  Herr  Nordau  finds  in  the  cultivated  of  the 
present  generation  considered  as  a  whole;  and  he  proceeds  to  prove, 
by  a  savage  criticism  of  recent  art,  literature,  and  social  politics, 
that  they  exist  in  their  highest  degree  in  Russia,  Germany,  France, 
England,  and  America,  in  the  literary  class,  which  is  of  course  the 
most  prominent  of  all. 

••Few  readers  of  Degeneration  will  close  its  pages  without  a 


488  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

melanclioly  doubt  as  to  tbe  future  of  the  thinking  world,  a  doubt  not 
relieved  by  Herr  Nordau's conclusion  that  the  degenerates  must  perish, 
or  the  world,  sick  with  excitement,  must  extinguish  'the  steamship 
and  the  railway  and  the  thoughts  that  shake  mankind,'  and  fall  back 
in  self-defense  upon  the  older  and  healthier  life  of  the  peasant  and  the 
squire.  Those  few,  however,  will,  we  think,  detect  in  Herr  Nordau 
Limself  one  of  those  signs  of  disease  which  he  so  eloquently  depicts, 
— a  tendency  to  baseless  exaggeration.  We  do  not  mean  that  the 
evils  he  describes  are  not  there,  and  well  deserve  exposure,  but  that 
they  will  not  have  the  terrible  consequences  he  predicts.  *  *  * 
All  Europe  may  be  said  to  be  tainted  with  skepticism,  with  impurity, 
and  with  maudlin  sentiment;  but  all  Europe  at  the  same  indivisible 
point  of  time  is  recoiling  towards  deeper  religious  feeling,  a  loftier 
'Puritanism,'  and  a  social  mercifulness  which  is  not  yet  sufficiently 
strained  of  its  impetuosities,  but  which  will  certainly  not  be  sterile, 
and  we  think  not  maudlin.  We  will  not  speak  for  Germany,  or 
Russia,  where  the  child-like  nature  of  the  Slav,  so  evil  and  so  good, 
is  still  an  undeveloped  force;  but  in  England  Yellow-Bookness  is 
dying  already  from  the  contempt  of  the  fully  sane.  Experts  tell  us 
that  even  now  in  France  a  healthier  literature  is  arising;  that  there  is 
a  strong  reaction  against  salaciousness;  that  history  never  was  so 
studied;  that  there  never  was  a  time  when  there  was  more  genuine 
learning.  There  is  a  recoil  even  from  disbelief;  and  this  is  visible 
also  both  in  Germany  and  in  England." 

If  Jesus  Came  to  Boston.  By  Edward  E.  Hale.  45  pp. 
12mo.    50c.     Boston:  Lamson,  Wolfe  &  Co. 

"The  writer  thinks  that  Mr.  Stead's  book.  If  Ghriftt  Came  to  Chi- 
cago, gave  too  dark  a  picture  of  the  failure  of  the  religion  of  love  to 
one's  fellow-man.  He  describes  a  meeting  between  Dr.  Primrose  and 
a  stranger  arriving  in  Boston,  and  points  out  the  various  charities, 
kindnesses,  and  marks  of  good  will  among  neighbors,  by  which  the 
latter  was  surprised  in  the  city  of  Boston." 

The  Female  Offender.  By  Prof.  Caesar  Lombroso  and 
"William  Ferrero.  AVith  an  introduction  by  W.  Douglas 
Morrison.  Illustrated.  The  first  number  of  the  Crimin- 
ology series.  313  pp.  12mo.  $1.50.  New  York:  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

On  the  special  subject  of  the  Female  Offender  the  author's  con- 
clusions are  as  follows:  "The  woman,  as  distinguished  from  the 
man,  stands  at  one  or  other  extremity  of  the  pole,  being  either  per- 
fectly normal  or  excessively  anomalous.  And  when  the  anomaly  is 
excessive,  suicide  and  madness  are  one.  Consequently,  women  are 
very  rarely  criminal  when  compared  with  men;  but  when  criminal, 
they  are  infinitely  worse."  The  work  is  an  able  study  of  a  painful 
subject. 

Punislimcnt  and  Reformation.  An  Historical  Sketch  of 
the  Rise  of  the  Penitentiary  System.  By  Frederick  Howard 
Wines,  LL.  D.  Hlustrated.  Crowell's  Library  of  Eco- 
nomics and  Politics.  339  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.75. 
Boston:  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co. 

"Aims  to  give  to  the  ordinary  reader  a  clear  and  connected  view 
of  the  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  law  toward  crime  and  criminals 


LITERATURE.  489 

during  tlie  century  now  drawing  to  its  close,  and  of  the  honorable 
part  which  the  United  States  has  l)oru  in  the  movement  for  a  better 
recognition  of  the  rights  even  of  convicted  criminals." 

The  Condition  of  Women  in  tlie  United  State,^.  A 
Traveller's  Notes.  By  Mme.  Blanc  (Th.  Bentzon).  Trans- 
lated by  Abby  Langdon  Alger.  With  a  portrait.  285  pp. 
12mo.     $1.25.     Boston:  Roberts  Bros. 

"Mme.  Blanc,  on  an  extended  visit  to  the  United  States  during 
the  Chicago  exhibition  year,  occupied  her  attention  mostly  with 
what  American  women  were  doing,  their  plans,  their  aspirations. 
The  lady  indulges  in  little  speculation,  has  few  comments  to  make, 
but  describes  what  she  actually  saw,  and  keeps  her  eyes  wide  open." 

Hoiv  the  Republic  h  Governed.  By  Noah  Brooks. 
1G9  pp.  Indexed.  IGmo.  75c.  New  York:  Chas.  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons. 

"Mr.  Brooks  has  treated  of  the  various  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  and  has  given  them  sufficient  consider- 
ation to  enable  the  least  informed  reader  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of 
their  functions  and  duties." 

The  American  Congress.  A  History  of  National  Legis- 
lation and  Political  Events.  1774-1895.  By  Joseph  West 
Moore.     581  pp.     Indexed.     8vo. 

The  author  aims  to  give  a  concise  and  clear  account  of  the  legis- 
lative and  political  affairs  of  the  American  people  from  the  colonial 
period  to  the  present  time.  "All  of  the  most  important  occurrences 
in  national  political  affairs  are  described.  The  great  American  states- 
men, as  well  as  the  measures  advocated  by  them,  are  portrayed,  and 
the  causes  and  consequences  of  federal  legislation  are  treated  in  a 
resolutely  fair  manner.  *  *  *  There  are  many  bright  sketches 
of  character,  interesting  accounts  of  all  the  political  parties,  and 
pleasing  incidents,  anecdotes  and  personalities;  also  important  state 
papers,  famous  speeches  and  debates,  and  other  matter  valuable  for 
reference." 

The  Evolution  of  Industry.  By  Henry  Dyer.  307  pp. 
Cloth,  $1.50.     New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

"This  work  is  not  an  attempt  to  compound  a  panacea  for  indus- 
trial evils.  The  history,  the  present  status,  and  the  tendencies  of 
trade  unions  of  co-operative  systems  of  municipal  and  state  control, 
and  of  industrial  training,  are  examined  in  successive  chapters, 
with  a  view  to  discovering  the  elements  of  the  industrial  evolution  of 
the  future." 

Tlie  American  People's  Money.  By  Hon.  Ignatius 
Donnelly,  author  of  Ccesar's  Column,  etc.  186  pp.  Illus- 
trated.    Cloth,  50c.;  paper,  25c.     Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

An  able  pre.sentation  in  popular,  readable  style,  with  graphic 
illustrations,  of  the  leading  tenets  and  arguments  of  the  advocates  of 
free-silver  coinage.     The  work  is  timely  in  its  appearance. 

Municipal  Reform,  Movements  in  the  United  States. 
The  Text-book  of  the  New  Reformation.  By  William  Howe 


490  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Tolman,  Ph.  D.,  secretary  of  the  City  Vigilance  League, 
New  York.  AVith  an  introductory  chapter  by  the  Kev. 
Chas.  H.  Parkhurst,  D.D.,  president  of  the  City  Vigilance 
League,  New  York.  219  pp.  12mo.  $1.00.  Chicago: 
Fleming  H.  Revell  Co. 

The  object  of  tliis  book  is  "to  bring  together,  for  comparison  and 
selection,  the  salient  and  essential  points  in  all  the  leading  reform 
movements,  in  order  that  any  person  desirous  of  forming  a  new  or- 
ganization may  have  a  knowledge  of  those  methods  which  the  suc- 
cessful experience  of  other  communities  has  commended. 

"The  prime  cause  of  the  present  unwholesome  conditions  in  the 
cities  Dr.  Tolman  believes  to  be  'the  low  tone  of  the  municipal 
spirit.'  This  lack  of  healthy  and  active  civic  spirit  he  finds  exhibited 
in  the  press,  in  the  pulpit,  and  in  all  the  walks  of  life. 

"In  order  that  this  reform  movement  may  be  utilized  to  the  ut- 
most, the  material  and  commercial  spirit  in  our  civil  life  must  be 
subordinated  to  the  progressive  and  social  spirit  of  the  times,  because 
this  new  social  spirit  will  not  be  satisfied  with  a  municipal  policy 
that  will  content  itself  with  a  low  tax-rate  and  a  successful  policing 
of  the  city;  it  will  absolutely  condemn  the  heartless  and  commercial 
greed  of  a  sugar  or  of  any  other  great  trust  that  will  close  its  works, 
throwing  hundreds  of  its  employes  out  of  work.  Many  of  the  so-called 
reform  movements  have  yet  to  learn  this  lesson,  that  commercial  and 
material  prosperity  are  not  the  sole  foundations  of  the  true  welfare 
of  a  city." 

Dr.  Tolman  describes  briefly  more  than  seventy  movements  for 
municipal  reform  and  civic  betterment  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  including  eight  distinctively  women's  organizations. 

Socialisin.  By  Robert  Flint,  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh.  512  pp.  8vo.  Philadelphia:  J.  B. 
Lippincott  Company. 

Socialism,  according  to  Prof.  Flint's  definition,  is  any  theory  of 
social  organization  which  sacrifices  the  legitimate  liberties  of  indi- 
viduals to  the  will  or  interests  of  the  community.  "He  declares 
socialism  to  be  in  its  essence  antagonistic  to  Christianity  in  so  far — 
and  it  is  very  far — as  it  rests  upon  materialism;  inasmuch  as  it  assumes 
worldly  happiness  to  be  man's  chief  aim;  in  attaching  more  impor- 
tance to  man's  condition  than  to  his  character;  and  in  destroying  and 
denying  the  freedom  of  the  individual.  His  earnest  and  luminous 
words  are  to  be  commended  in  the  strongest  terms  to  all  clergymen — and 
their  name  is  legion — who  are  more  or  less  deeply  interested  in  social 
and  industrial  reform,  especially  those  who  have  fatuously  allied 
themselves  with  the  system  which  'utterly  despises  the  "other 
world,"'  and  which  recognizes  'no  master  and  no  God.'  This  book  is 
a  masterpiece  of  keen  analysis,  cogent  discussion,  wise  teaching,  and 
ennobling  exhortation;  and  the  widest  possible  circulation  and  most 
careful  reading  of  it  are  much  to  be  desired,  to  promote  a  popular  and 
beneficent  solution  of  what  is  probably  the  greatest  material  problem 
now  before  the  world." 

Coin's  Financial  School.  A  Plea  for  Free-silver  Coinage. 
By  W.  H,  Harvey,  chairman  of  the  bimetallic  executive 
committee.  175  pp.  12mo,  paper,  50c.;  cloth,  $1.00; 
popular  edition,  paper,  25c.     Chicago:  Coin  Pub.  Co. 


f 

^  LITERATURE.  491 

{  The  currency  question  is  complex,  and  few  writers  on  tbis  sub- 

ject have  succeeded  in  making  tbeir  arguments  clear  enough  or  at- 
tractive enough  to  engage  the  attention  or  sympathy  of  the  general 
public.  Coiu'k  Finandal  School  is  a  lucid  and  attractive  statement  of 
the  silver  question  from  the  free-silver  standpoint.  So  easy  of  com- 
prehension are  its  arguments  that  their  influence  will  probably  be 
much  more  widely  felt  than  that  of  the  more  technical  statements  of 
our  most  prominent  statesmen  and  financiers,  who  maintain  for  the 
greater  part  the  opposite  position. 

Large  numbers  of  bankers,  business  and  newspaper  men  of  Chi- 
cago are  represented  as  attracted  by  the  cogent  discussion  of  the  cur- 
rency question  which  "Coin,"  a  young  financier,  is  conducting  in 
their  city.  He  discusses  the  history  of  silver  legislation  in  the  United 
States,  the  commercial  values  of  gold  and  silver,  the  cause  of  busi- 
ness depression,  the  cost  of  producing  silver,  the  scheme  of  issuing 
currency  based  on  labor,  the  comparative  quantities  of  gold  and  silver 
in  the  world,  and  the  question  of  the  United  States  adopting  the  bi- 
metallic policy  independently  of  other  nations.  A  free  discussion  is 
permitted  and  every  question  put  to  Coin  is  answered  so  speciously 
that  one  is  apt  to  think  there  can  be  no  appeal  from  his  decision. 
There  are  misstatements  of  fact  and  numerous  instances  of  false 
reasoning,  but  it  would  be  both  unjust  and  impolitic  to  dismiss  the 
book  with  a  sneer  or  denounce  its  arguments  as  pure  delusion. 

The  argument  of  the  whole  treatise  is  in  reality  not  in  favor  of 
bimetallism  but  for  silver  monometallism.  Gold,  according  to  Coin, 
is  responsible  for  a  great  part  of  the  business  depression,  poverty,  and 
crime.  To  demonetize  gold,  if  need  be,  and  establish  silver  as  the 
unit  of  currency  would  be,  in  his  estimation,  an  invaluable  remedy 
for  existing  ills. 

The  book  is  serving  as  a  stimulus  to  honest  and  intelligent  dis- 
cussion of'  the  currency  question.  Whatever  opinion  the  reader  may 
hold  of  its  arguments  for  free  silver,  its  attempt  to  show  the  great 
need  and  advantage  of  a  more  elastic  currency  for  the  United  States 
must  be  regarded  as  both  forceful  and  adequate. 

The  publication  of  this  pamphlet,  and  its  broadcast  distribution 
through  the  South  and  West,  have  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most 
potent  influences  which  have  arrayed  against  each  other  the  "sound- 
money"  and  the  free-silver  elements  of  the  country  in  preparation  for 
the  coming  presidential  campaign  (p.  287).  The  flood  of  literature  on 
the  currency  question,  largely  owing  its  stimulus  to  Coin's  Financial 
School,  h&s  been  enormous.  It  may  prove  interesting  to  mention  a 
few  of  the  leading  replies  called  forth:  Coin's  Financial  School  An- 
sicered,  by  J.  G.  Floyd,  editor  Banker's  Magazine  (15  cents);  Coin's 
Financial  Fool,  by  Horace  White,  editor  New  York  Evening  Post 
(25  cents);  Ansicer  to  Coin's  Financial  School,  by  Stanley  Wood  (25 
cents);  A  Freak  in  Finance,  or,  the  Boy  Teacher  Taught,  by  J.  F.  Car- 
gill  (25  cents);  Cash  vs.  Coin,  by  Edward  Wisner  (25  cents).  Any  of 
the  foregoing  can  be  obtained  from  the  Scientific  Publishing  Com- 
pany, 253  Broadway,  New  York  city.  In  addition  have  appeared  Base 
"Coin"  Exposed,  by  Silas  Honest  Money  (Chicago:  E.  A.  Weeks  &  Co; 
25  cents);  S  orf,  i.e.,  Dollars  or  What?,  by  W.  B.  Mitchell,  Chatta- 
nooga, Tenn.;  and  a  methodical  criticism  of  "Coin's"  arguments  in 
the  columns  of  the  Chicago  Times  and  Herald  from  the  pen  of  Prof. 
Laughlin  of  the  University  of  Chicago. 


402  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr,  I8ft5. 

Publications  of  the  American  AcadExMY  of  Polite- 
CAL  AND  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 
The   Lid  list  rial   Services  .of  the   Railways.      By   Dr. 

Emory  R.  Jolinson  of  the  University   of    Pennsylvania. 

18  pp.  8vo,  paper,  25c. 

"Dr  Johnson  concisely  states  what  the  industrial  services  of  the 

railways  are,  refers  to  the  problems  that  confront  the  public  in  their 

connection,  and  gives  his   views  of   the   best   methods  of   solving 

them." 

Use  of  Silver  as  Money  in  the  United  States.  By  Prof. 
A.  B.  Woodford.     61  pp.     Svo,  paper,  35c. 

"This  essay  traces  the  history  of  American  coinage,  with  especial 
reference  to  silver  money  from  1783,  the  date  of  the  first  coin,  to  the 
passage  of  the  act  of  1890,  generally  called  the  Sherman  act.  A  num- 
ber of  charts  and  tables  are  appended.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
parts  is  the  account  of  the  passage  of  the  Mint  law  of  1873,  another 
is  where  Professor  Woodford  explains  the  origin  of  the  modern  bi- 
metallic controversy." 

A  Neglected  Socialist.  By  Dr.  F.  C.  Clark.  23  pp. 
Svo,  paper,  25c. 

"  It  is  an  attempt  to  give  William  Weitling  his  proper  position 
in  the  history  of  socialism.  Weitling,  says  Dr.  Clark,  'forms  the 
bridge  between  French  and  German  socialism.'  'He  is  the  only  Ger- 
man socialist  that  constructed  a  system  and  had  the  courage  to  carry  it 
out.  Judged  by  his  writings,  his  place  is  by  the  side  of  Fourier  and 
Engels;  judged  by  his  services  and  his  agitation,  Lassalle  alone  out- 
ranks him.' 

Terminology  and  the  Sociological  Conference.  By  Prof. 
H.  H.  Powers.     13  pp.   Svo,  paper,  15c. 

The  author  "explains  the  results  which  were  arrived  at  by  the 
recent  conference  of  sociologists  held  in  New  York  city.  One  of  the 
purposes  of  this  conference  was  to  obtain  a  general  definition  for  the 
term  'sociology,'  and  to  define  its  field." 

The  Units  of  Investigation  in  the  Social  Sciences.  By 
Dr.  A.  F.  Bentley.     28  pp.     Svo,  paper,  25c. 

"A  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  sociology.  It  is  an 
attempt  to  discover  what  facts  are  to  be  tal^en  as  the  units  of  investi- 
gation in  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  society." 

Religion:— 

The  Church  in  America.  By  Leighton  Coleman,  8. 
T.  D.,  LL.  D.  With  map.  The  National  Churches.  391 
pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $2.50.  New  York:  James  Pott  & 
Co. 

"This  is  a  history  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
United  States.  The  volume  covers  the  colonial  period,  Wesley's 
work,  the  early  consecration  of  bishops  in  the  past  century  of  church 
history,  including  the  organization  of  the  church  and  its  statistics." 

The  Messiah  of  the  Apostles.     By  Charles  Augustus 


LITERATURE.  493 

Briggs,  D.  D.,  author  of  Messianic  Prophecy,  Biblical 
Study,  etc.  562  pp.  12mo.  13.00.  New  York:  Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons. 

"  In  this  volume  Dr.  Briggs  appeals  to  those  readers  who  are  open 
to  the  presentment  of  truths  which  really  diverge  palpably  from  the 
well-worn  paths  of  tradition  and  historical  orthodoxy.  From  this 
new  position,  which  Dr.  Briggs  believes  to  be  the  only  enlightened 
one,  the  Christ  of  the  New  Testament  appears  to  him  in  fresh  lines 
of  grace,  beauty,  and  grandeur.  The  author  boldly  affirms  that  he 
has  labored  assiduously  to  see  the  Messiah  as  he  is  set  forth  in  the 
writings  of  the  Apostles;  that  consequently  he  has  turned  away  from 
the  Christ  of  the  theologians,  of  the  creeds,  and  the  church.  *  *  * 
The  work  is  a  birth  from  many  years  of  the  most  exacting  study,  ex- 
presses the  author's  mature  convictions,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  con- 
fession of  his  faith." 

A  Hundred  Years  of  Missions;  Or,  The  Story  of  Prog- 
ress Since  Carey's  Beyinning.  By  Delavan  L.  Leonard, 
D.  D.,  associate  editor  Missionary  Review. of  the  World. 
432  pp.  12mo.  Cloth,  $1.50.  New  York,  London,  and 
Toronto:     Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

"  There  will  be. found  here  a  review  of  the  century's  work  in  this 
and  other  lands,  which  will  both  instruct  and  invigorate  the  reader. 
It  is  packed  full  with  history  and  crowded  with  interest,  and  will 
prove  of  esi>ecial  value  to  the  Young  People's  Societies  of  America, 
all  of  which  are  taking  up  missions  for  study.  The  volume  clearly 
shows  that  while,  all  things  considered,  a  most  wonderful  achieve- 
ment has  been  made  in  the  single  century  begun  under  the  lead  of 
William  Carey,  among  the  host  that  remain  to  be  won  over  are  about 
800,000,000  heathen,  200,000,000  Mohammedans,  50,000.000  devil- 
worshipers,  etc. ;  also  that  the  main  battle,  which  shall  mark  the 
turning  point,  the  beginning  of  the  end,  belongs  in  the  unseen  fu- 
ture." The  introduction  is  written  by  Rev.  Dr.  A.  T.  Pierson,  editor  of 
Tlte  Missionary  Remew  of  the  World. 

Outlines  of  Social  Theology.  By  William  DeWitt 
Hyde,  D.  D.'  Cloth,  $1.50.  New  York:  Macmillan  & 
Co. 

"  This  book  is  likely  to  find  a  welcome  among  large  numbers  of 
intelligent  Christians,  and  is  so  free  from  technical  language  that  it 
is  adapted  for  laymen  as  well  as  clergymen.  It  is  an  attempt  to 
sketch,  in  outline,  the  type  of  theology  which  many  devout  men  at 
the  present  time  find  more  consistent  with  modern  thought  than  the 
older  ways  of  putting  things. 

"  As  the  author  points  out,  the  recent  developments  of  sociology 
and  social  philosophy  have  inevitably  had  their  influence  on  religious 
thought.  *  *  *  Such  gradual  changes  of  doctrine  are  not,  as  some 
would  have  us  believe,  evidences  of  decay,  but,  on  the  contrary,  proofs 
of  vigorous  life." 

Modern  Missions  in  the  East,  their  Methods,  Successes, 
and  Limitations.  By  Edward  A.  Lawrence,  I).  D.  335 
pp.     12mo.     $1.75.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

This  work  is  the  outcome  of  a  journey  around  the  world  taken 


494  LITERATURE.  M  Qr.,  1895. 

with  the  special  purpose  of  studying  missions.  In  it  we  have  "a  dis- 
cussion of  the  underlying  principles  upon  which  all  missionary  effort 
is  based,  a  description  of  the  work  as  it  is  being  actually  carried  on, 
and  a  consideration  of  the  forces  now  helping  or  hindering  its  prog- 
ress." 

Radical  Criticism.  By  Rev.  Francis  R.  Beattie,  with 
an  introduction  by  Prof.  W.  W.  Moore,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  of 
the  Union  Tlieological  Seminary,  Virginia.  323  pp.  12rno. 
$1.50.     Chicago:  F.  H.  Revell  Co. 

"This  volume  is  an  examination  from  a  conservative  point  of 
view  of  the  critical  theory  of  the  literature  and  religion  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  author  avoids  committing  himself  to  extreme  opin- 
ions on  his  side  of  the  question,  and  does  not  set  himself  in  antago- 
nism to  the  critical  study  of  the  Bible  or  to  the  exploration  of  the 
monuments  and  the  application  to  the  Bible  of  the  results  of  this  ex- 
ploration. *  *  *  The  author  begins  with  an  account  of  the  criti 
cal  movement,  what  it  is,  its  aims,  methods,  results,  and  present  ten- 
dencies. He  then  passes  to  array  against  it  the  arguments  which  it 
is  the  main  work  of  his  book  to  present. " 

History  :— 

The  Armenian  Crisis  in  Turkey.  The  Massacre  of  1894, 
its  Antecedents  and  Significance.  By  Frederick  Davis 
Greene,  for  several  years  a  resident  of  Armenia.  With 
introduction  by  Rev.  Josiah  Strong,  D.  D.  Illustrated. 
180  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  Paper,  60  cents;  cloth,  $1.00. 
New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

A  strong  plea,  from  the  point  of  view  of  humanity  and  civiliza- 
tion, for  foreign  intervention  to  compel  the  Sublime  Porte  to  carry 
out  its  treaty  obligations  concerning  the  protection  of  its  Christian 
subjects. 

The  Making  of  the  Nation.  1783-1817.  By  Francis  A. 
Walker,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.  With  maps  and  appendices. 
The  American  History  series.  314  pp.  Indexed.  12mo. 
$1.25.     New  York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

"The  nation,  as  now  existing,  was  not  thought  of  by  those  who, 
as  colonists,  resisted  what  they  rightfully  regarded  as  unconstitu- 
tional and  oppressive  taxation,  revolted,  succeeded,  and  formed  a  con- 
tinental congress.  The  most  providential  circumstance  in  connection 
with  the  making  of  the  nation,  was  that  at  the  outset  there  was  no 
one  who  questioned  the  propriety  of  placing  Washington  at  its  head 
and  continuing  him  there  until  the  infant  government  had  grown 
sufficiently  and  obtained  an  abundance  of  strength  to  indicate  the  im- 
mense advantage  that  it  was  ever  to  be  to  the  people  of  the  various 
states.  From  1783  to  1817  might  be  termed  the  romantic  period  in 
the  nation's  life;  and  Gen.  Walker's  description  of  its  perils  and  suc- 
cesses, free  from  the  discouraging,  petty  details  that  one  has  to 
labor  with  to  remember  in  reading  most  histories,  yet  complete  in  all 
that  is  necessary  to  give  a  conclusive  and  thorough  knowledge  of 
what  our  forefathers  performed  to  produce  that  which  has  grown  to 
such  vast  proportions,  retains  the  reader's  interest  until,  when  the 


LITERATURE.  495 

end  of  the  volume  is  reached,  he  lays  it  down  with  a  regret  that  its 
author  had  not  continued  it  for  at  least  two  or  three  decades  more." 

Adoption  and  Amendment  of  Constitutions  in  Europe  and 
America.  By  Charles  Borgeaud.  Translated  by  Charles 
D.  Hazen.  With  an  introduction  by  John  M.  Vincent.  353 
pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $2.00.    New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

"The  volume  before  us  is  not  a  mere  textual  codification  of  the 
most  recent  articles  of  amendment  in  the  constitutions  of  the  civilized 
world,  but  is  an  exhibit  of  the  historical  development  of  each;  a  work 
of  great  magnitude,  indeed,  as  it  demanded  not  only  the  examination 
of  nearly  two  hundred  constitutions,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  politics 
and  history  connected  with  each." 

A  History  of  Newfoundland.  From  the  English,  co- 
lonial, and  foreign  records.  By  D.  W.  Prowse,  Q.  C, 
judge  of  the  central  district  court  of  Newfoundland. 
With  a  prefatory  note  by  Edmund  Gosse.  With  thirty- 
four  collotypes,  over  300  text  illustrations,  and  numer- 
ous maps.  Pp.  xxiii.,  742.  $8.00.  New  York:  Mac- 
millan &  Co. 

This  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  complete  history  of  the  oldest  of 
the  British  colonies  in  North  America.  It  traces  the  development 
of  the  island  from  the  time  of  Cabot,  when  its  capes  were  the  first 
land  in  the  New  World  to  be  seen  by  Englishmen  (not  later  than  1497), 
down  to  the  negotiations  and  disallowance  of  the  Blaine-Bond  reciproc- 
ity treaty  of  1890. 

Memoirs  of  Barras.  Member  of  the  Directorate.  Ed- 
ited with  a  general  introduction,  prefaces,  and  appen- 
dices, by  George  Duruy.  With  seven  portraits  in  photo- 
gravure, two  facsimiles,  and  two  plans.  In  four  vol- 
umes. Vol.  I. — The  Ancient  Regime  and  the  Revolution. 
Vol.  II. — The  Directorate  up  to  the  18th  Fructidor. 
Translated  by  C.  E.  Roche.  424-610  pp.  8vo.  $3.75 
per  vol.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

"  Of  all  the  books  relating  to  the  Napoleonic  period  that  have  ap- 
peared in  recent_years,  none  is  superior  to,  and  few  compare  with, 
these  memoirs  in  throwing  light  upon  a  time  as  interesting  as  any 
with  which  history  has  to  deal.  They  reveal  a  strange  and  typical 
personality.  Barras  was  not  a  great  man  in  any  true  sense,  but  he 
lived  at  a  great  epoch.  He  did  comparatively  little  himself,  but  he 
undoubtedly  served  as  the  stepping-stone  by  the  mounting  of  which 
Napoleon  first  rose  out  of  insignificance  into  prominence.  This  makes 
Barras  and  his  character  worth  studying.  Never  before  have  men  had 
such  means  for  that  study  as  these  remarkable  memoirs  provide.  They 
will  be  read  with  an  indignation  that  often  turns  to  loathing,  but  none 
the  less  they  will  be  read  with  keenest  interest  and  closest  attention. 
They  light  up  many  a  dark  nook,  they  put  personality  into  scores  of 
names  that  have  hitherto  been  that  and  nothing  more.  Barras  lies  often, 
but  not  always;  and  it  is  easy  to  tell  when  he  is  lying  and  when  he  is 
telling  the  trutli." 

The  Decline  and  Fall  of  Napoleon.     By  Field-Marshal 


496  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr..  1895. 

Viscount  Wolseley,  K.  P.  With  plans  and  illustrations, 
and  with  introduction  by  Lord  Frederick  Hamilton  and 
Sir  Douglas  Straight.  The  Pall  Mall  Magazine  Library. 
203  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  11.25.  Boston:  Roberts  Bros. 
"Opening  with  an  account  of  the  campaign  of  1812,  the  invasion 
of  Russia,  which,  'worked  out  with  a  splendor  of  conception  and  a 
mastery  of  detail,'  was  yet  an  appalling  failure,  Viscount  Wolseley 
follows,  step  by  step,  the  career  of  his  subject  to  his  final  overthrow 
on  the  field  of  Waterloo.  To  be  remembered  as  he  desired,  as  the 
heroic  conqueror,  Napoleon  should  have  died  upon  the  field  of  battle. 
Lord  Wolseley  finds  him  to  have  been  'a  studied  and  finished  actor  in 
all  his  relations  with  men  and  women,' — 'his  whole  career,  from  child- 
hood to  the  day  of  his  death,  was  one  great  untruth,  and  was  made 
up  of  deceit,  treachery,  and  the  most  appalling  and  selfish  indiffer- 
ence to  the  feelings  and  wants  of  others — was,  in  fact,  one  great 
unholy  deception.'" 

Historic  Doubts  as  to  the  Execution  of  Marshal  Ney. 
With  numerous  illustrations.  By  James  A.  Weston.  310 
pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  $3.00.  New  York:  Thos.  Whit- 
taker. 

"  An  attempt  to  prove  that  Marshal  Ney  was  not  really  shot  in 
the  gardens  of  the  Luxembourg  palace,  as  we  have  always  understood, 
but  that  he  escaped  and  taught  school  in  the  United  States." 

The  Mississippi  Basin.  The  Struggle  in  America  Be- 
tween England  and  France — 1697-1763.  With  cartographi- 
cal illustrations  from  contemporary  sources.  By  Justin 
Winsor,  author  of  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America,  etc.  484  pp.  Indexed.  Svo.  $4.00.  Boston: 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

"This  work,  which  covers  the  struggle  in  America  between 
England  and  France  from  1697  to  1763,  is  a  sequel  to  the  earlier  work 
on  Cartier  to  Frontenac,  which  might  have  been  entitled  The  St. 
Lawrence  River  (Vol.  4,  p.  241).  *  *  *  Dr.  Winsor  treads  through 
New  France  in  the  footprints  of  the  late  Francis  Parkman,  but  it  is 
unnecessary  to  add  that  he  finds  many  new  things  to  say  revealing 
how  the  physiography  of  a  continent  influences  its  history,  how  it  opens 
avenues  of  discovery,  directs  lines  of  settlement,  and  gives  to  the 
natural  rulers  of  earth  their  coigns  of  vantage." 

History  for  Ready  Reference.  By  J.  N.  Larned,  li- 
brarian of  the  Public  Library,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  With  nu- 
merous historical  maps  from  original  studies  and  drawings 
by  Alan  C.  Eeiley.  Vol.  4,  Nicsea  to  Tunis,  770  pages. 
Vol.  5,  Tunnage  to  Zyp,  and  supplement  giving  impor- 
tant additions  from  new  German  and  French  sources, 
notes  of  events  occurring  since  the  compilation  was  begun, 
a  chronology  of  universal  history,  etc.  807  pages.  Spring- 
field, Mass.:  The  C.  A.  Nichols  Co. 

These  two  volumes  complete  the  valuable  and  colossal  work,  the 
first  instalments  of  which  appeared  last  year  (Vol.  4,  p.  704). 


LITERATURE.  497 

Biography:— 

Colin  Camj)bell,  Lord  Clyde.  By  Archibald  Forbes. 
With  a  portrait.  English  Men  of  Action.  222  pp. 
12mo.  Flexible  cloth,  60  cents;  boards,  75  cents.  New 
York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

"  The  author  has  sketched  his  hero's  career  and  character  with  a 
firm  and  sympathetic  hand,  and  we  follow  the  story  of  the  distin- 
guished soldier's  exploits  with  the  deepest  interest,  from  his  service 
in  Portugal  with  Sir  John  Moore  up  to  his  brilliant  service  in  India 
and  his  death.  *  *  *  Mr.  Forbes  makes  solid  history  as  absorb- 
ing as  romance,  and  more  instruct!  v^e  than  the  most  didactic  of  novels. " 

The  Life  of  SamuelJ.  Tilden.  By  John  Bigelow,  LL.D, 
author  of  Jyife  of  Benjamin  FranHin,  Life  of  William 
CuUen  Bryant,  etc.  In  two  volumes.  Volume  I. — 1814- 
1876.  Volume  II.— 1877-1887.  Illustrated.  416,  442  pp. 
Indexed.     8vo.     $6.00.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

In  preparation  of  this  biography,  the  author,  an  intimate  friend 
of  Mr.  Tilden,  had  access  not  only  to  the  public  papers  which  Mr. 
Tilden  placed  in  his  hands  on  being  compelled  by  ill- health  to  retire 
from  the  leadership  of  his  party,  but  also  to  his  private  correspond- 
ence. Much  light  is  thrown  upon  the  hitherto  comparatively  little 
known  early  life  of  Mr.  Tilden. 

Julian.  Philosopher  and  Emperor,  and  the  Last  Strug- 
gle of  Paganism  against  Christianity.  By  Alice  Gardner, 
author  of  Synesins  of  Cyrene.  With  illustrations  and  maps. 
Heroes  of  the  Nations.     364  pp.     Indexed. 

The  author  "  has  given  us  in  the  space  at  hei  command  a  distinct 
and  vivid  conception  of  the  complex  personality  of  the  imperial  re- 
actionist against  Christianity.  *  *  *  She  has,  moreover,  enabled 
the  reader  to  reconstruct,  in  imagination,  the  environment  in  which 
Julian  and  his  contemporaries  lived,  their  personal  appearance  and 
dress,  the  most  striking  places  where  they  dwelt,  and  the  scenes  in 
which  they  habitually  moved." 

General  Sheridan.  By  General  Henry  E.  Davies. 
AVith  portrait  and  maps.  Great  Commanders  series. 
332  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.50.  New  York:  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

The  author  served  under  Sheridan  as  colonel  and  brigadier  of 
cavalry,  and  writes  with  full  personal  knowledge  of  Sheridan's  later 
campaigns. 

The  Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone,  LL.  D., 
D.  C.  L.  Chiefly  from  his  Unpublished  Journals  and 
Correspondence  in  the  Possession  of  his  Family.  By  W.. 
Gorden  Blaikie,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  author  oi  Heroes  of  Israel, 
etc.  AVith  a  portrait.  508  pp.  12mo.  $1.50.  Chicago: 
F.  H.  Revell  Co. 

"The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  make  the  world  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  character  of  Livingstone.     His  discoveries  and  re- 


498  LITERATURE,  2d  Qr..  1895. 

searches  have  been  given  to  the  public  in  his  own  books,  but  his 
modesty  led  him  to  say  little  in  these  of  himself;  and  those  who  knew 
him  best  feel  that  little  is  known  of  the  strength  of  his  affections,  the 
depth  and  purity  of  his  devotion,  or  the  intensity  of  his  aspirations 
as  a  Christian  missionary." 

Life  of  Ernest  Henan.  By  Francis  Espinasse.  Great 
Writers.  '  242  pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  $1.00.  New  York: 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

A  clear,  sympathetic,  and  eminently  readable  account  of  the 
life  and  work  of  the  great  Frenchman. 

Reminiscences.  By  Tliomas  M.  Clark,  D.  J).,  LL.  D., 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  Khode  Island.  With  a 
portrait.  22G  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.20.  New  York: 
T.  Whittaker. 

"Bishop  Clark  sketches  the  influences  that  drew  him  from  the 
Presbyterian  faith,  which  was  his  birthright,  into  the  Anglican 
Church,  where  he  is  now  a  distinguished  prelate,  and  gives  an  ac- 
count ot  his  ministries  in  various  portions  of  the  United  States,  with 
anecdotes  and  recollections  of  all  the  great  lights  of  Episcopalianism 
tvith  whom  at  one  time  or  another  he  was  brought  in  contact.  *  *  * 
An  attempt  is  made  to  trace  philosophically  the  gradual  broadening 
of  the  English  Church  under  modern  influences." 

Sii'  Samuel  Baker.  A  Memoir.  By  T.  Douglas  Murray, 
F.  R.  G.  S.,  and  A.  Silva  White,  Hon.  F.  R.  S.  G.  S., 
author  of  The  Development  of  Africa,  etc.  Illustrated.  447 
pp.  Indexed.  Quarto.  Buckram.  IG.OO.  New  York:  Mac- 
millan  &  Co. 

"The  editors  of  this  memoir  of  Baker  have  taken  care  that  his 
reputation  as  an  explorer  and  administrator  should  not  suffer 
eclipse  by  his  fame  as  a  hunter  of  big  game;  for  they  have  given  but 
a  part  of  a  single  chapter,  out  of  thirty-three  which  compose  the 
book,  to  this  side  of  his  life  sd  prominent  and  important  as  a  matter 
of  fact." 

Life  of  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria.  By  Millicent  Gar- 
rett Fawcett.  With  a  portrait.  266  pp.  Indexed.  12nio. 
$1.25.     Boston:  Roberts  Bros. 

*' With  this  pleasant  little  biography  the  '  Eminent  Women  se- 
ries* starts  afresh  upon  its  course.  The  queen's  reign  has  extended 
to  close  upon  sixty  years,  and  to  crowd  all  the  events  of  that  period 
within  the  compass  of  a  small  popular  volume  would  be  to  give  little 
but  a  dry  record  of  facts  and  dates.  Mrs.  Fawcett  has  chosen  a  better 
way  of  telling  the  life-story  of  Her  Majesty,  by  dwelling  more  at 
large  upon  the  formative  influences  on  the  queen's  character  in  her 
early  life,  and  in  the  record  of  later  years  by  referring  only  to  politi- 
cal and  other  events  in  so  far  as  they  illustrate  her  character  and  her 
conception  of  her  political  functions  Queen  Victoria  has,  as  Mrs. 
Fawcett  points  out,  '  more  than  any  other  single  person,  made  Eng- 
land and  the  English  monarchy  what  they  now  are.' " 

Oliver  Cromivell.  By  George  H.  Clark,  D.  D.  With 
an  introduction  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  and  illustra- 


LITERATURE.  49& 

tions  from  old  paintings  and    prints.     203    pp.   Indexed. 
12mo.   $1.25.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

This  important  work — unique  not  only  in  enthusiastic  and  inspir- 
ing devotion  to  the  lofty  character  of  the  great  Protector,  but  also  in 
the  fact  that  it  was  the  first  "  life  "  of  Cromwell  written  by  an  Amer- 
ican— attracted  most  favorable  comment  on  its  first  appearance  in  1893 
(Vol.  3,  p.  174).  As  Mr.  Warner  says  of  it  in  his  introduction,  it 
'treats  Cromwell  with  understanding,  with  historic  insight,  and 
with  a  full  conception  of  his  noble  character  and  gigantic  intellect." 
As  against  the  distorted  picture  common  for  generations  in  English 
history — in  fact  until  Carlyle's  great  work  appeared,  and  thereafter — 
Dr.  Clark  vindicates  the  genius  and  character  of  Cromwell,  as  not 
only  a  great  but  a  good  man — which  is  the  highest  yjossible  praise. 
The  work  is  thoroughly  American  inspirit,  its  ideals  being  those  upon 
which  American  society  is  founded. 

Literature:— 

A  Literary  Hisiory  of  the  EngUsli  People,  from  the 
Origins  to  the  Renaissance.  By  J.  J.  Jiisserand.  With 
frontispiece.  545  pp.  Indexed  8vo.  $3.50.  New  York: 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

The  first  instalment  of  a  work  to  be  completed  in  three  volumes. 
The  author,  who  perhaps  ranks  next  to  M  Taine  in  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  English  literature,  has  aimed  to  devote  to  the  study  of  the 
English  nation  itself  a  much  larger  part  of  the  work  than  is'usual  in 
histories  of  literature,  and  to  consider  carefully  some  manifestations 
of  the  nation's  life  which  are  generally  overlooked  or  purposely  ne- 
glected. 

The  Artlnirian  Epic.  A  Comparative  Study  of  the 
Cambrian,  Breton,  and  Anglo-Norman  Versions  of  the 
Story,  and  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King.  By  S.  Humph- 
reys Gurteen,  M.  A.,  LL.B.,  author  of  The  Epic  of  the  Fall 
of  Man.  437  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  12.00.  ^(i\N  York:  G. 
P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

"  The  object  of  the  book  is  to  trace  the  mass  of  legends  associated 
with  the  name  of  Arthur  from  their  Cambrian  and  Breton  origin  to 
the  Anglo-Norman  versions  inadequately  represented  by  Tennyson. 
*  *  *  The  author  has  undertaken  to  prove  that  the  cycle  of  Ar- 
thurian romances,  built  up  on  a  tiny  germ  of  history,  on  the  bardic 
poems  of  Wales  and  Brittany,  on  local  traditions,  church  legends, 
and  Latin  chronicles,  was,  in  its  fully  developed  form,  the  outgrowth 
of  the  political,  ecclesiastical,  and  social  conditions  of  the  court  of 
Henry  II.  of  England,  Lord  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  and  of  Aquitaine. 
It  was  Walter  Map  who  must  be  recognized  as  the  originator  and 
author  of  nearly  all  that  is  imperishable  in  these  tales.  Archdeacon 
of  Oxford  and  chaplain  to  Henry  II.,  he  was  a  wit  and  courtier  as  well 
as  a  theologian.  His  aim  in  writing  these  tales  of  chivalry  was  not 
only  to  amuse  and  entertain  his  readers,  but  to  instruct  them  in  the 
current  theology  of  the  day." 

The  Art  of  Neiuspaper  Making.    Three  Lectures.     By 


500  LITERATURE.  8d  Qr.,  1895. 

Charles  A.  Dimn.     114  pp.     12mo.     $1.00.     New  York: 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Containing  the  lectures  delivered  by  Mr.  Dana,  tbe  veteran  edi- 
tor of  the  New  York  Sun,  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.  (1888);  at  Union  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  N,  Y.  (1893);  and  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.  (1894).  They  are  pregnant  with  wisdom,  wit,  and  sound  advice. 

Education;— 

The  Hamilton  Declamation  Quarterly.  Edited  by  Profs. 
Oren  Root  and  Brainard  G.  Smith  of  Hamilton  College, 
Clinton,  N.  Y.  Vol.  1,  No.  1.  April,  1895.  Pp.  95.  Pa- 
per.    Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

The  idea  of  this  little  work  is  excellent;  and  if  the  promise  of 
this,  the  first  number,  be  realized,  it  will  prove  of  great  value  to  all 
engaged  in  the  teaching  or  study  of  elocution.  Its  selections,  care- 
fully taken  from  the  latest  sources  issuing  from  the  standard  press  of 
the  day,  have  the  merit  of  a  fresh  and  almost  personal  interest  which 
at  once  attracts  and  holds  attention. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen.  By  W.  T.  Harris, 
LL.  D.,  A.'S.  Draper,  LL.  D.,  and  II.  S.  Tarbell.  Read 
at  the  Cleveland  meeting  of  the  department  of  superin- 
tendence, February  19-21,  1895,  with  the  debate.  148  pp. 
12mo. 

The  most  important  report  yet  made  in  this  country  on  the  course 
of  study  and  organization  of  school  systems  in  cities. 

Studies  in  American  Education.  By  Albert  Bushnell 
Hart,  Ph.  D.,  of  Harvard  University,  author  of  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Federal  Government,  etc.  150  pp. 
Indexed.  12mo.  11.25.  New  York:  Longmans,  Green 
&  Co. 

Six  essays:  Has  tlie  teacher  a  profession?  Reform  in  the  gram- 
mar schools;  University  participation — a  substitute  for  university  ex- 
tension; How  to  study  history;  How  to  teach  history  in  secondary 
schools;  The  status  of  athletics  in  American  colleges. 

Pitfalls  in  English.  A  Manual  of  Customary  Errors 
in  the  Use  of  Words.  By  Joseph  Fitzgerald,  M.  A.  Book- 
shelf series,  monthly.  No.  1.  Paper.  Pp.  121.  Indexed. 
New  York:  J.  Fitzgerald  &  Co.  Price,  25  cents;  13.00  a 
year. 

As  stated  in  the  preface,  "the  author's  purpose  in  preparing  this 
manual  will  not  be  attained  unless  after  perusing  it  the  reader  shall 
be  able  to  say  that  he  has  been  put  in  possession  of  principles  of  ety- 
mology that  safeguard  him  not  only  against  the  Pitfalls  in  English 
here  charted,  but  against  many  similar  perils  which  infest  the  whole 
field  of  our  language."  The  author's  experience  of  about  forty  years 
in  etymological  and  linguistic  study  and  translation  of  foreign  works, 
his  experience  of  about  twenty  years  in  editorial  work,  some  of  which 
were  spent  in  connection  with  the  Worth  American  Review  and  the 
Forum,  eminently  qualify  him  to  act  as  a  guide  to  others  in  solution 


LITERATURE.  501 

iany  of  the  problems  of  language  expression.  The  work  will 
prove  especially  valuable  to  writers  and  teachers. 

Travel,  Adventure,  and   Description;— 

Loto8-Time  in  Japan.  By  Henry  T.  Finck.  Illus- 
trated. 337  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.75.  New  York: 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

"This  volume,  by  a  well-known  traveller  and  musical  critic, 
is  designed  to  present  a  few  realistic  and  unbiased  sketches  from 
life  and  nature,  and  to  exhibit  to  the  reader  and  possible  tourist 
specimens  of  the  everyday  experiences  he  would  probably  have  in 
Japan.  The  volume  is  not  devoted  to  philosophical  reflections  and 
economic  and  ethical  comparisons.  The  greater  portion  of  it  is  de- 
scriptive of  those  characteristics  of  the  country  with  which  only  the 
patient  and  leisurely  traveller  comes  into  contact." 

Outre  Mer.  Impressions  of  America.  By  Paul  Bour- 
get.  425  pp.  12mo.  $1.75.  New  York.  Chas.  Scribner's 
Sons. 

"These  notes,  by  a  famous  Frenchman,  on  the  social  life  of 
America  to-day,  were  prepared  to  appear  first  of  all  in  an  enterpris- 
ing New  York  journal  (the  Herald).  The  result  is  a  book  which  is 
beautifully  written,  and  which,  above  all,  gives  the  impression  of  be- 
ing sincerely  written — a  book  which  contains  many  brilliant  flashes 
of  intuition,  many  just  and  liberal  opinions,  and  some  pictures  of 
high  merit,  but  which,  somehow,  fails  to  be  i)hilosophical,  and  is  apt 
to  slip  between  the  stools  of  vain  conjecture  and  mere  reporter's 
work."  The  question  of  woman  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  work. 
M.  Bourget  is  puzzled  and  baffled  by  the  American  girl,  though  on 
the  whole  delighted  with  her:  he  notes  many  of  her  peculiarities. 
He  shows  but  little  acquaintance  with  the  West,  but  is  particularly 
fresh  and  charming  in  hit:  treatment  of  the  South. 

On  the  whole,  M.  Bourget's  picture  of  the  United  States  is  flatter- 
ing and  attractive.  He  is  conscious  of  its  merits  and  its  noble  jDossi- 
bilities,  to  which  its  superabundant  activity  and  restlessness,  its  cor- 
ruption in  politics,  and  its  in  many  respects  artificial  cultivation, 
have  not  blinded  him. 

Actual  Africa;  or,  the  Coming  Continent.  A  Tour  of 
Exploration.  By  Frank  Vincent,  'dwilioY  oi  Around  and 
About  Sonf/t  Africa.  .With  map  and  102  full-page  illus- 
trations. 541  pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  15.00.  New  York:  D. 
iVppleton  &  Co. 

This  work  "gives  the  reader  an  idea  of  what  Africa  is  like.  Mr. 
Vincent  went  into  Africa  at  Morocco,  and  before  he  stopped  had  gone 
down  the  east  coast  and  up  the  west  coast  all  the  way  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  had  seen  everything  that  one  need  see  in  order  to  de- 
termine what  is  being  done  to  develop  the  wonderful  resources  of  the 
continent.  We  must  judge  his  book  by  the  impressions  it  leaves  in 
the  mind  as  to  the  grandeur  of  the  African  continent  and  as  to  its 
present  and  coming  relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world." 

Out  of  the  Ead.  Reveries  and  Studies  in  New  Japan. 
By  Lafcadio  Hearn,   author  of   Glimpses   of  TJnfamiliar 


503  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

Japan  J  etc.  341  pp.   12mo.      $1.25.     Boston:  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

A  work  of  powerful  insight  and  beautiful  expression  which  com- 
pares favorably  with  the  author's  earlier  attempt.  "This  volume 
was  not  finished  until  the  present  war  with  China  was  well  under 
way.  Kumamoto,  the  town  where  Mr.  Hearn  lived  and  taught  in  a 
government  school,  was  full  of  young  soldiers  making  ready  for  em- 
barkation.  He  describes  them  as  filled  with  the  very  ecstasy  of  patri- 
otic fervor.  To  fight  for  J-apan  and  to  die  for  it  in  case  of  slightest 
need  were  consuming  ambitions  in  every  mind.  No  thought  of  per- 
sonal glory  mingled  with  this  devotion  to  the  fatherland  and  the 
emperor.  Men  grew  desperate  and  killed  themselves  if  enrolment 
in  the  army  was  refused,  while  rich  and  poor  alike  offered  all  they 
had  in  the  world  to  supply  the  army's  needs.  Scenes  like  these  were 
repeated  all  over  the  kingdom." 

The  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East.  Travels  and 
Studies  in  the  British,  French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese 
Colonies,  Siberia,  China,  Japan,  Korea,  Siam,  Malaya. 
By  Henry  Norman,  author  of  The  RealJapan.  With  sixty 
illustrations  and  four  maps.  608  pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  $4.00. 
New  York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

"The  record  of  mere  travel  is  interwoven  with  that  of  investiga- 
tion, and  incidents  and  adventures  are  mingled  with  the  factors  and. 
statistics  of  the  permanent  problems.  It  is  altogether  an  important 
and  tiniely  book." 

Literary  Landmarks  of  Jerusalem.  By  Laurence  Hut- 
ton.  Hlustrated  by  F.  V.  DuMond.  12mo.  75c.  New 
York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

A  pocket  book  designed  to  give  in  convenient  form  just  such  in- 
formation as  travellers  to  Jerusalem  feel  the  need  of  in  going  about 
the  city.  Its  style  is  not  that  of  a  guide  book,  but  of  a  literary  pro- 
duction free  from  pedantry,  simple  yet  effective. 

My  Early  Travels  and  Adventures  in  America  arid 
Asia.  By  Henry  M.  Stanley,  D.  C.  L.,  author  or  In 
Darkest  Africa,  etc.  With  two  photogravure  portraits. 
In  two  volumes.  301,  425  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  13.00. 
New  York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

"  Mr.  Stanley  reveals  the  beginning  of  his  picturesque  and  world- 
roving  career  in  this,  his  latest  work.  *  *  *  Only  the  record  of 
Stanley's  Spanish  experiences  in  1860  and  his  Civil  War  scenes  are 
now  needed  to  complete  the  continuity  of  his  adventurous  career  from 
his  youthful  days  to  his  latest  return  from  'Darkest  Africa.'" 

Fiction: — 

Master  and  Man.  By  Count  Leo  Tolstoi.  Translated 
by  A.  Hulme  Beaman.  AVith  an  introduction  by  W.  D. 
liowells.  With  a  portrait.  1G5  pp.  ?5c.  New  York:  D. 
Appleton  &  Co. 

This   new   book  presents   merely  "another  aspect   of  the   Gos- 


LITERATURE.  503 

pel  which  the  author  never  wearies  of  preaching — the  miracle  of 
charity,  the  transforming  power  of  love." 

Heart  of  the  World.  By  II.  Rider  Haggard,  author  of 
Montezuma's  Daughter,  etc.  Illustrated.  347  pp.  12mo. 
11.25.  New  York:  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

A  story  of  strong  imaginative  power,  based  upon  Mr.  Haggard's 
travels  in  Central  America — the  land  of  the  Aztecs,  and  their  fabled 
City  of  Gold  hidden  in  the  heart  of  Yucatan. 

The  Judgment  Boohs.  A  story.  By  E.  F.  Benson,  2i\x- 
t\\OY  oi  Dodo.  Illustrated.  Harper's  Little  Novels.  176  pp. 
IGmo.  $1.00.     New  York:  Harper  «&  Bros. 

A  charming  "occult"  story.  The  only  two  characters  are  an 
artist  and  his  wife.  The  husband's  imagination  is  rendered  morbid 
through  brooding  over  the  sins  of  youth.  In  attempting  to  paint  a 
picture  of  himself  as  he  is,  he  paints  himself  as  he  was  before  mar- 
riage. It  is  a  tale  with  a  good  moral,  though  perhaps  overdrawn  in 
its  portrayal  of  the  sufferings  of  repentance. 

Doctor  Gray's  Quest.  By  Francis  H.  Underwood,  LL. 
D.,  author  of  Quabhin,  etc.  406  pp.   12mo. 

The  author  was  United  States  consul  at  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow, 
Scotland.  His  works,  of  which  this  is  perhaps  the  strongest,  are 
marked  by  vividness  of  description,  picturesqueness  in  portrayal  of 
certain  phases  of  life,  and  a  certain  peculiarity  of  style. 

The  Woman  Who  Did.  By  Grant  Allen.  225  pp. 
12mo.  $1.00.     Boston:  Roberts  Bros. 

To  say  of  this  book  that  it  is  startling  would  not  distinguish  it 
from  numerous  other  novels  which  during  the  last  few  years  have 
treated  of  the  marriage  question.  No  others,  however,  have  startled 
us  in  quite  the  same  way. 

Herminia  Barton,  a  pure  and  beautiful  young  English  woman, 
conceives  in  the  depths  of  her  thoughtful  mind  the  idea  that  absolute 
freedom  is  the  guerdon  of  woman,  and  that  without  this  freedom 
woman  cannot  attain  to  the  development  of  her  best  and  highest  na- 
ture. In  her  system  of  ethics  marriage  is  the  most  hateful  form  of 
.slavery,  because  it  compels  the  woman  to  depend  on  her  husband  for 
support  and  respectability.  She  meets  and  soon  comes  to  love  a 
young  man,  Alan  Merrick,  who  offers  himself  to  her  in  marriage. 
She  refuses  to  marry  him,  tells  him  her  ideal,  and  asks  him  to  help 
her  realize  this  ideal  by  living  with  her  in  the  perfect  freedom  that 
she  by  her  system  hopes  to  realize.  This  proposition  he  is  brave 
enough  to  accept,  though  not  without  serious  doubts  as  to  its  practic- 
ability. When  she  is  about  to  become  a  mother  they  go  to  Italy,  and 
at  Perugia  Alan  dies  before  their  child  is  born.  Herminia  is  left  alone 
in  the  world  with  this  child,  a  girl,  who,  she  hopes,  will  carry  for- 
ward her  system.  They  return  to  London  to  find  themselves  ostra- 
cized by  society.  The  daughter,  as  she  grows,  shows  the  effects  of 
atavism  by  her  love  of  conventionalism  and  the  pomp  of  wealth  and 
station.  She  accepts  a  proposal  of  marriage  from  a  young  squire; 
and  the  mother,  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  her  daughter  to 
marry,  commits  suicide. 

The  story  is  as  sad  as  it  is  unusual.  The  effect  can  hardly  be 
called  immoral,  for  the  woman  who  conceives  this  audacious  scheme 


504  LITERATURE.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

is  absolutely  honest  and  pure  in  laer  intentions.  Nor,  on  tbe  other 
hand,  can  it  be  said  to  contribute  much  to  the  elevation  of  the  social 
order.  As  long  as  the  economic  principles  and  the  legal  system  of  the 
l)resent  day  hold,  the  family  must  be  recognized  as  the  unit  of  the 
state.  Wherever  the  book  is  read  without  prejudice,  the  effect  will 
be  to  clear  the  ideas  regarding  the  relation  of  women  to  marriage, 
and  to  quicken  the  social  conscience  which  now  too  often  allows  a 
wife  to  be  dependent  on  her  husband  to  such  an  extent  that  she  lo.ses 
much  of  her  strength  of  character  and  individuality. 

The  Jewel  of  Ynis  Galon.  Being  a  hitherto  unprinted 
chapter  iu  the  History  of  the  Sea  Hovers.  By  Owen 
Rhoscomyl.  Illustrated.  329  pp.  12mo.  $1.25.  New  York: 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

"It  is  a  work  of  the  most  romantic-realistic  school.  The  story  is 
one  of  pirates  and  buried  treasure  in  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Wales, 
told  by  a  boy  of  seventeen,  who  is  the  hero  of  the  tale;  and  so  well  is 
it  done  that  it  fascinates  the  reader,  putting  him  under  an  hypnotic 
spell,  lasting  long  after  the  book  has  been  laid  aside.  It  is  dedicated 
to  '  every  one  whose  blood  rouses  at  a  tale  of  tall  fights  and  reckless 
adventure,'  to  men  and  boys  alike;  yet  there  will  be  keener  apprecia- 
tion by  the  boys  of  larger  growth,  whose  dreams  '  of  buried  treasure 
and  of  one  day  discovering  some  hoard  whereby  to  become  rich  be- 
yond imagination '  have  become  dim  and  blurred  in  the  '  toil  and 
struggle  for  subsistence.'  " 

The  Priiicess  Aline.  By  Richard  Harding  Davis,  au- 
thor of  The  West  from  a  Car  Window,  etc.  Illustrated 
by  C.  D.  Gibson.  103  pp.  12mo.  $1.25.  New  York: 
Harper  &  Bros. 

"  A  young  painter  setting  out  in  pursuit  of  the  Princess  whose 
photograph  has  charmed  him,  and  following  her  half  way  around 
the  world  without  coming  up  with  her,  only  to  find  at  the  end  of  the 
chase  that  it  is  the  American  girl  he  has  been  travelling  with  that  he 
really  loves,  this  is  the  whole  thread  of  the  story." 

Daughters  of  the  Revolution  and  their  Times.  17C0- 
1776.  An  Historical  Romance.  By  Charles  Carletoi 
Coffin.  Illustrated.  387  pp.  12mo.  $1.50.  Boston: 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  story  opens  in  the  fall  of  1769,  when  the  wives  of  the  Boston 
merchants  had  sworn  not  to  drink  a  drop  of  Stamp  Act  tea.  For 
the  first  time  an  account  is  given  of  the  tragic  fate  of  the  boy  Christo- 
pher Snider,  whose  murder  led  to  the  Boston  massacre  of  1776.  The 
venality  and  corruption  of  parliament  and  the  court  of  King  George 
are  also  set  forth. 

The  Master.  By  I.  Zangwill.  Illustrated.  523  pp. 
12mo.     $1.75.     New  York:     Harper  &  Bros. 

A  very  long  story,  the  first  novel  attempted  by  the  author  of 
llie  Children  oftJie  Ghetto  and  A  King  of  Schnorrers.  Its  ultimate 
place  in  literature  the  future  only  can  decide,  but  it  certainly  has 
many  points  of  great  vitality. 

Thb  Story  of  Sonny  Sahib.  By  IMrs.  Everard  Cotes 
(Sara  Jeannette  Duncan),  author  of  A  Social  Dejmrture, 


LITERATURE.  505 

An  American  Girlin  London,  otQ.     12mo.     ^1.00.    New 
York:  D.  Appletoii  &  Co. 

"A  curious  study  of  the  development  of  a  cliild's  nature  under 
extraordinary  influences.  He  is  born  in  a  liut  at  Cawnpore  during 
Nana  Saliib's  rebellion.  His  mother  dies.  All  the  other  white  folks 
are  slaughtered.  Tooni,  his  ayah,  and  her  husband  take  the  baby 
far  away  and  bring  him  up  as  their  own.  *  *  *  He  grows  to  be 
a  fine  manly  lad,  Avith  a  keen  sense  of  honor  and  a  quick  wit,  and  he 
lias  some  very  interesting  experiences  before  the  English  Captain 
Sahib,  his  father,  discovers  him." 

The  Boy  Soldiers  of  1812.  By  Everett  T.  Tomliiisoii, 
author  of  The  Search  for  Andreiv  Field,  etc.  Illustrated. 
Wtir  of .  1812  series.  SiO  pp.  12mo.  |il.50.  Boston:  Lee 
&  Sliepard. 

"The scene  is  laid  on  and  about  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St.  Law- 
rence river.  The  history  and  traditions  of  this  section  of  our  country 
furnish  abundant  material  which  has  never  been  used,  and  which  the 
author  works  into  the  story  with  great  effect.  The  juvenile  reader 
will  find  in  the  description  of  the  adventures  and  exploits  of  David 
Field  and  Elijah  Spicer  and  their  friends  plenty  of  wholesome  excite- 
ment and  much  of  historical  interest." 

A  Voice  in  the  Wilderness.  By  Maria  Weed.  Cloth,  gilt 
stamped.  225  pp.   50c.   Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

'•  A  story  of  warning  against  the  indiscriminate  use  of  morphine 
to  make  a  patient's  suffering  endurable.  A  highly  cultivated  woman, 
Avho  is  almost  an  artist  in  music,  has  become  the  slave  of  this  habit. 
She  is  cured  by  a  physician  whose  first  wife  had  succumbed  to  the 
same  morphine  disease." 

Miscellaneous: — 

Your  Will:  How  to  Mahe  It.  By  George  F.  Tucker, 
author  of  a  Manual  of  Wills,  etc.  113  pp.  Indexed.  12mo. 
$1.00.  Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

"  Not  only  gives  all  necessary  suggestions  to  those  intending  to 
make  their  wills;  but  also  shows  every  man  and  woman  who  believes 
in  the  fairness  of  the  laws  providing  for  the  distribution  of  property 
in  the  event  of  not  leaving  a  will,  that  the  very  best  reasons  may  ex- 
ist for  making  one." 

Boat  Sailing  in  Fair  Weather  and  Foul.  By  Captain 
A.  J.  Kenealy.  With  illustrations  and  diagrams.  Outing 
Library  of  Sport.  182  pp.  12mo.  Boards  50c;  cloth  $1.00. 
Now  York:  Outing  Publishing  Co. 

This  little  book  is  full  of  the  results  of  ripe  experience.  It  tells  the 
amateur  how  to  buy  a  boat,  how  to  sail  her,  how  to  fit  out  for  a  cruise, 
and  how  to  lay  up  for  the  winter.  It  gives  a  few  hints  on  buying  a 
marine  ghiss,  on  variation  and  deviation  of  the  compass,  on  marlin- 
spike  seamanship,  and  on  weather. 

Pleasure- Cycling.    By  Henry  Clyde.    Illustrated.    186 

pp.    Indexed.    12mo.  $1.00.    Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

It  is  especially  intended  to  aid  amateur  riders  of  the  safety  bicycle 


506  NECROLOGY.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

in  an  intelligent  use  of  tlieir  wheels,  having  been  written  solely  for 
the  instruction  and  benefit  of  persons  in  the  pursuit  of  health  and. 
pleasure. 

Holo  to  Make  Money  Altlioiujli  a  Woman.  By  Irene  AV. 
Hartt,  author  of  How  to  Get  Married  Although  a  Woman. 
The  Peerless  series.  142  pp.  12mo.  Paper,  25c.  New  York: 
J.  S.  Ogilvie. 

"  Its  special  object  is  to  point  out  the  methods  which  actual  expe- 
rience has  found  to  be  most  suitable  for  those  who  may  have  to  be- 
come breadwinners,  and,  without  preaching,  it  ofEers  very  valuable 
advice.  Its  practical  everyday  common  sense  is  written  in  the  most 
attractive  manner — so  attractive  that  it  will  often  be  heeded." 

A  Wheel  Within  a  Wheel.  IIow  I  Learned  to  Ride  the 
Bicycle.  With  some  reflections  by  the  way.  By  Frances 
E.  Willard.  Illustrated.  75  pp.  12mo.  50c.  Chicago: 
Fleming  11.  Ilevell  Co. 

An  amusing  account  of  the  experiences  of  one  who  at  "the  ripe 
age  of  fifty-three"  learned  to  ride  a  bicycle,  giving  excellent  reasons, 
based  on  considerations  of  health  and  economy,  why  this  health-giv- 
ing recreation  should  be  widely  adopted. 


NECROLOGY. 

American:— 

Almy,  John  J.,  rear-admiral,  United  States  navy;  born  in  Rhode 
Island  April  25,  1814;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  May  16.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1829,  became  commodore  in  1869,  and  rear-admiral  in 
1873,  and  was  retired  in  1877,  after  a  brief  term  in  command  of  the 
Brooklyn  navy  yard.  He  was  present  in  1860  at  the  surrender  of 
Walker  and  his  filibusters  on  the  Tinto,  and  commanded  the  Fulton 
in  the  Paraguay  expedition  of  1858-9.  He  was  at  the  siege  of  Vera 
Cruz  and  the  capture  of  Tuxpam  in  the  Mexican  war.  While  in  com- 
mand of  the  Connecticut  during  the  civil  war,  he  captured  four  noted 
blockade-runners  with  valuable  cargoes.  He  commanded  the  South 
Atlantic  squadron  until  1807.  In  1873,  while  his  flagship  was  at  Pan- 
ama, a  revolution  broke  out  there.  Admiral  Almy  landed  a  force  of 
seamen  and  marines,  and  afforded  protection  to  the  traffic  of  the  Pan- 
ama railroad. 

Bradford,  William  M.,  ex-chancellor  of  the  Fourth  circuit  of 
Tennessee;  born  in  1827;  died  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  June  11. 

Burnett,  Peter  H.,  first  governor  of  California;  born  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.;  died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  May  16,  aged  87.  He  went 
1o  Oregon  overland  in  1843;  took  a  prominent  part  there  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  territorial  government;  was  member  of  the  legislature 
in  1844  and  1848.  The  gold  excitement  in  California  in  1848  drew 
him  there.  He  took  an  active  part  in  promoting  a  state  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  was  elected  the  first  governor  in  1849.  He  resigned  in 
1851,  practiced  law,  and  was  a  supreme  court  judge  in  1857-1858.  He 
published  7'he  Path  Which  Led  a  Protestcmt  Lawyer  to  tlie  Catholic 


NECROLOGY.  507 

Ghu7'c7i,  (ISQO);  The  American  Theory  of  Government,  Considered  with 
Reference  to  the  Present  Crisis  (1861);  Recollections  of  an  Old  Pioneer 
1878);  and  Reasons  Why  We  Should  Believe  in  God,  Love  God,  and 
Obey  God{\^M). 

Byron,  James  M.,  M.  D.,  pliysiciau;  bora  in  Lima,  Peru,  July 
24,  1861;  died  in  New  York  city  from  consumption  contracted  while 
studying  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  in  tbe  Loomis  laboratory,  May  8. 
He  studied  medicine  in  Naples  and  Paris,  afterwai'ds  coming  to  New 
York.  During  tlie  cholera  scare  in  1891  and  1892  he  rendered  valu- 
able service  as  a  member  of  the  quarantine  staff,  being  physician  and 
bacteriologist  on  Swinburne  island. 

Campbell,  James  H.,  U.  S.  minister  to  Norway  and  Sweden 
under  President  Lincoln  1864-66;  born  in  Williamsport,  Penn,,  Feb. 
8,  1820;  died  in  Wayne,  Penn.,  April  12.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1841,  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a  republican  in  1844;  was  defeated 
in  1856;  but  re-elected  in  1858  and  1860. 

Cakt WRIGHT,  Rev.  Barton  H.,  a  pioneer  of  Methodist  Episco- 
pal work  in  the  West;  born  in  New  York  in  1810;  died  in  Oregon,  111., 
April  3. 

Colby,  C.  C,  president  of  the  Colby  Piano  Company,  Erie, 
Penn.;  died  April  8.  After  studying  piano  manufacturing  in  Europe, 
he  became  a  member  of  the  New  York  firm  of  Colby  &  Duncan.  He 
established  the  present  company  in  1888. 

CoLTON,  Joseph,  ex-Confederate  general;  born  in  West  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  in  1813,  of  old  Puritan  stock;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
May  9.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  General  Pemberton,  and  became  gen- 
eral after  the  siege  of  Vicksburg. 

Dana,  James  Dwigiit,  eminent  geologist,  professor  in  Yale  Uni- 
versity; born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  12,  1813;  died  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  April  14.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1833,  being  appointed 
instructor  in  mathematics. to  midshipmen  in  the  United  States  navy. 
In  1836  to  1838  he  acted  as  assistant  in  chemistry  to  Professor  Silli- 
man  at  Yale,  being  appointed  also  mineralogist  and  geologist  to  the 
exploring  expedition  sent  by  the  government  to  the  Southern  and 
Pacific  oceans  in  1838.  After  an  absence  of  three  years  and  ten  months 
he  returned  home,  living  in  Washington  first,  but  moving  to  New 
Haven  in  1844,  marrying  Henrietta  Frances,  daughter  of  Professor 
Silliman.  The  results  of  his  labors  were  given  in  his  Report  on  Zoo- 
<phytes  (1846),  in  which  he  proposed  a  new  classification  and  described 
230  new  species;  Re-port  on  the  Geology  of  the  Pacific  (1849)  and  Report 
on  Crustacea  (1852).  These  volumes  made  him  famous.  He  also  pub- 
lished Coral  Reefs  and  Islands  {X^hZ);  Manual  of  Geology  (iSm):  IWt- 
hook  of  Geology  (1864);  The  Geological  Story  Briefly  Told  (1875);'  and 
many  shorter  papers  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  ol  which  he 
had  been  the  editor  for  many  years. 

In  1872  the  Geological  Society  of  London  conferred  upon  him  the 
Woolaston  medal,  and  in  1877  he  was  presented  with  the  Copley  gold 
medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academies  of  Science  in  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  Rome,  Turin, 
Stockholm,  Vienna,  and  a  member  also  of  nearly  all  the  leading 
scientific  societies  in  this  country  and  abroad.  In  1855  on  Professor 
Silliman's  resignation,  he  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  natural  history 
and  geology  at  Yale.  In  1892  he  asked  the  Yale  corporation  to  ap- 
point a  successor  to  his  chair,  and  Professor  H.  S.  Williams  was 
elected;  but  the  corporation  requested  Professor  Dana  to  continue  his 


508  NECROLOGY.  2(1  Qr.,  1895. 

lectures,  and  this  he  did  until  January,  1894.  A  revision  of  Lis 
Manual  of  Geology  was  published  last  February.  One  of  the  boolis 
for  which  Professor  Dana  is  undoubtedly  best  known  is  Lis  System  of 
Mineralogy,  first  published  in  1837,  revised  in  1844,  again  in  1850, 
1854,  and  "in  1868,  and  still  again  in  1892.  This  worlc  has  become  an 
authority  ihe  world  over,  as  also  has  been  his  Manual  of  Geology. 

Demorest,  W.  Jennings,  founder  and  publisher  of  DemorefiVs 
Family  Magazine,  and  a  noted  prohibition  leader  and  pLilanthropist; 
born  in  New  Yorlc  city  June  10,  1823;  died  there  April  9.  After  an 
experi  nee  in  various  mechani;  al  pursuits  and  in  the  drygoods  trade, 
he  entered  journalism  in  1860  as  proprietor  of  Devioresfs  Illustrated 
News.  He  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of  J.  J.  Little  &l  Co.  He  was 
prominently  identified  with  the  Abolition  reform.  In  1885  he  organ- 
ized the  National  Prohibition  Bureau,  and  later  the  Constitutional 
League,  through  which  he  intended  to  press  to  the  United  States  su- 
preme court  a  case  attacking  the  constitutionality  of  liquor  license 
and  tax  laws.  In  1886  he  originated  the  "  Demorest  Medal  Contest" 
system,  giving  at  his  own  expense,  silver,  gold,  and  diamond  mounted 
medals  for  the  best  recitations  of  prohibition  selections.  These  con- 
tests are  no-w  held  all  over  the  world,  and  have  proved  an  effective 
agency  for  advancing  prohibition  sentiment.  In  1885  he  ran  for  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  New  York  state  on  the  prohibition  ticket.  On 
this  occasion  he  polled  more  votes  than  the  rest  of  the  ticket. 

Eaton,  Daniel.  Cady,  professor  of  botany  in  Yale  University 
since  1864;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  June  29,  aged  61.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1857.  His  work  was  almost  entirely  in  the 
ShefiBeld  Scientific  School,  although  he  generally  offered  one  or  two 
electives  for  academic  seniors.  Professor  Eaton  was  a  member  of  the 
government  expedition  to  the  Wahsatch  mountains  in  Utah,  several 
years  ago.  He  was  an  author  and  a  frequent  contributor  of  articles 
on  botanical  subjects,  his  best  known  work  being  The  Ferns  of 
North  America. 

Fairbanks,  Franklin,  president  of  the  great  firm  of  scale  man- 
ufacturers; born  in  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.,  June  28,  1828;  died  there 
April  24.  At  the  age  of  17  he  entered  the  employ  of  E.  and  T.  Fair- 
banks &  C'o.  He  was  prominently  connected  with  various  banking, 
railroad,  and  manufacturing  interests,  and  with  numerous  educa- 
tional institutions.  In  December,  1891,  he  gave  to  the  town  of  St. 
Johnsbury  the  costly  Fairbanks  Museum  of  Natural  Science.  He  Lad 
been  active  in  public  life;  Lad  been  speaker  of  tLe  Louse;  and  was  for 
more  than  twenty  years  a  member  of  the  republican  state  committee. 
In  church  work  Colonel  Fairbanks  was  especially  active. 

(tORMAN,  John  J  ,  ex-sheriff  of  New  York  city;  born  there  in 
1829;  died  May  21.  For  thirty  years  he  was  an  active  and  trusted 
leader  of  the  Tammany  Hall  organization. 

Green,  Robert  S.,  ex-governor  of  New  Jersey;  born  in  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J.,  Mar.  25,  1831;  diod  there  May  7.  He  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1850,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853;  elected  to  con- 
gress in  1884  and  1886;  in  1886  was  elected  governor  on  the  demo- 
cratic ticket;  in  1890  was  made  vice  chancellor;  and  in  1894  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals. 

Gresham,  Walter  Quinton,  United  States  secretary  of  state; 
born  in  Harrison  co.,  Ind.,  March  17,  1832;  died  in  Washington,  D. 
C,  May  28.  Like  many  of  our  most  vigorous  and  eflScient  soldiers 
and  statesmen,  Mr,  Gresham  was  born  in  circumstances  which  pre- 


I 


p 


I 


NECROLOGY.  509 

eluded  his  obtaining  a  college  education,  but  which  tended  to  develop 
strength  and  self-reliance  by  forcing  him  to  make  use  of  his  utler- 
most  intellectual  resources.  His  schooling  was  limited  to  attend- 
ance at  a  district  school  for  one  term  a  year,  a  few  years'  course  in 
Corydon  Academy,  and  one  year  in  Bloomington  University.  After 
this  short  course  of  study  he  returned  to  Corydon  to  study  law  in 
the  office  of  Judge  William  A.  Porter.  Three  years  of  legal  study 
fitted  him  for  entrance  to  the  bar,  and  at  the  age  of  22  he  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  partnership  with  Thomas  G.  Slaughter.  Two  years 
after  his  admission  to  the  ^ 

bar,  John  C.  Fremont 
was  nominated  for  the 
presidency  as  the  first 
candidate  of  the  recently 
formed  republican  party. 
Naturally,  Mr.  Gresham, 
an  enthusiastic  Henry 
Clay  whig  not  long  be- 
fore, now  entered  vigor- 
ously into  the  support  of 
Fremont.  In  1860,  at  the 
end  of  a  campaign  which 
he  had  conducted  with 
great  success,  and  in 
which  he  was  the  repub- 
lican candidate  in  a 
strongly  democratic  dis- 
trict, he  was  elected  to 
the  legislature.  In  the 
following  session  he  was 
chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  military  af- 
fairs. The  son  of  a  sol- 
dier, and  of  martial  spirit 
and  bearing  himself,  he 
had  been  the  captain  of 
a  company  before  his  en- 
trance into  the  legisla- 
ture. At  the  close  of 
his  legislative  term  he 
was  appointedby  Gov- 
ernor Morton  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  regiment  just  entering  the 
civil  war.  In  the  latter  part  of  1861  he  became  colonel.  Two 
years  later,  after  having  served  with  distinguished  credit  around 
Corinth  and  at  Vicksburg,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  on 
the  recommendation  of  Sherman  and  Grant.  In  the  summer  of 
1864  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the  leg  at  the  battle  of  Leggett's 
Hill,  and  was  compelled  to  return  to  his  home  in  Indiana.  The  war 
had  ended  before  be  recovered,  but  he  had  received  the  rank  of 
brevet  major-general.  After  having  returned  to  the  practice  of  law 
again  for  a  short  time,  in  partnership  with  Judge  Butler  and  Noble 
C.  Butler,  Mr.  Gresham  was  nominated  by  the  republicans  for  con- 
gress. Again  he  had  the  fortune  to  contest  the  office  in  a  district 
strongly  democratic,  and  this  time  with  a  notable  opponent,  Michael 
C.  Kerr,  who  afterwards  became  speaker  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives.    Gresham  was  defeated  this  year,  1866,  and  again  two  years 


HON.    WALTER   Q.    GRESHAM, 
LATE    UNITED   STATES   SECRETARY   OF   STATE. 


510  NECROLOGY.  2d  Qr.,  1805. 

later  as  a  candidate  for  the  same  office  against  the  same  opponent. 
During  this  time  his  excellent  war  record  was  remembered  by  his 
chief,  General  Grant,  who  upon  his  election  to  the  presidency  offered 
him  in  turn  the  post  of  collector  of  the  port  at  New  Orleans,  the 
United  States  district  attorneyship  for  Indiana,  and  the  office  of 
judge  of  the  United  States  district  court  of  Indiana.  The  first  two 
offices  he  declined,  the  Judgeship  he  accepted.  He  remained  upon 
the  bench  until  1883.  His  career  as  judge  was  in  the  highest  degree 
commendable,  and  rendered  memorable  because  of  the  notable  cases 
upon  which  he  f^ave  decisions.  The  whisky  ring  was  prominently 
.nvolved  in  theWitigation  which  came  before  Judge  Gresham,  and  re- 
(*^ived  from  him  the  most  relentless  handling  consistent  with  judicial 
.mpartiality.  In  1883  President  Arthur  appointed  him  to  the  office  of 
KJstmaster  general.  His  successful  fight  against  the  Louisiana  lot- 
,ery,  and  his  exclusion  of  their  business  from  the  mails,  made  his  ad- 
:ninistration  of  this  office  notable.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Folger,  Mr. 
liresham  was  transferred  to  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  treasury  left 
vacant  by  him.  In  October,  1884,  however,  he  resigned  this  office, 
and  in  December  of  that  year  was  appointed  United  States  circuit 
judge  in  Illinois.  Judge  Gresham's  name  was  presented  to  the  re- 
publican national  convention  in  1888;  but  his  candidacy  did  not  arouse 
sufficient  enthusiasm  to  make  him  a  formidable  rival  for  the  nomina- 
tion. Gradually  he  separated  from  the  traditions  and  principles  of 
the  republican  party.  In  1892  he  was  offered  the  nomination  for  the 
presidency  by  the  national  populist  convention.  This  he  declined, 
and  a  few  months  later  announced  his  intention  to  vote  for  Mr.  Cleve- 
land. The  office  of  secretary  of  state  was  offered  to  him  by  President 
Cleveland,  upon  his  entering  on  his  second  term. 

Harris,  General  T.  A.,  ex-Confederate  soldier;  died  in  Louis- 
ville. Ky.,  April  9.  At  the  age  of  16  he  raised  a  regiment  in  Mis- 
souri; fought  against  and  defeated  a  detachment  of  men  under  Jo- 
seph Smith,  the  Mormon  leader.  He  commanded  a  regiment  from 
Missouri  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  when  the  civil  war  broke  out  he 
took  command  of  another  regiment,  which  fought  with  the  South. 
He  was  sent  from  Missouri  as  a  member  of  the  Confederate  congress, 
in  which  he  distinguished  himself.  Just  after  the  war  he  was  editor 
of  the  New  Orleans  Times- Democrat,  and  did  much  to  build  up  the 
paper. 

Hayman,  General  S.  B.,  Union  veteran;  born  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1820;  died  in  Houstonia,  Mo.,  May  1.  Graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1842,  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  with  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  throughout  the  civil  war.  He  was  retired  in 
1872. 

Jordan,  General  Thomas  J.,  Union  veteran;  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.,  April  2,  aged  74.  Served  throughout  the  war,  and 
in  February,  1865,  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  "for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services." 

Knox,  Charles,  the  well-known  hatter  of  New  York  city;  born 
in  Ireland  in  1818;  died  in  New  York  city  April  19. 

Mansur,  Charles  H.,  deputy  comptroller  of  the  United  States 
treasury;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  March  6,  1835;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  April  16.  In  early  life  he  removed  to  Missouri,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1856;  was  a  democratic  member  of  the 
50th,  51st,  and  52d  congresses. 

Marvil,   Joshua   Perkins   Hopkins,   governor  of  Delaware; 


NECROLOGY. 


511 


born  in  Laurel,  Sussex  co.,  Del.,  Sep.  3,  1825;  died  there  April  8.  In 
early  life  lie  endured  the  hardships  of  poverty;  but  finally  won  suc- 
cess through  enterprise  and  mechanical  skill.  He  invented  a  machine 
for  making  peach  and  berry  baskets,  as  a  result  of  which  he  acquired 
a  fortune.  His  triumphant  election  to  the  governorship  in  November, 
1894,  as  a  republican,  was  his  first  entry  into  public  otfice. 

McCuLLOcn,  Hugh,  ex-secretary  of  the  United  States  treasury; 
born  in  Kennebunk,  Me.,  Dec.  7,  1808;  died  near  Washington,  D.  C., 
May  24.  In  early  life  he  entered  the  banking  business  in  Indiana, 
finally  becoming  president  of  the  state  bank.  In  1863  he  was  made 
comptroller  of  the  treasury,  and  in  1865  President  Lincoln  appointed 
him  secretary.  He  did  much  to  put  in  operation  the  national  bank- 
ing system,  and  to  relieve  the  finances  of  the  country  from  the  straits 
in  which  they  were  as  a  result  of  the  enormous  expenses  of  the  war. 
He  retired  from  office  March  4,  1869,  and  from  1871  to  1878  was  en- 
gaged in  banking  in  London.  Upon  the  resignation  of  Secretary 
(jiresham  1884,  he  was  again  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by 
President  Arthur.  He  was  the  only  man,  with  the  exception  of  Secre- 
tary Windom,  who  ever  held  this  cabinet  position  twice.  He  was  the 
last  survivor  of  the  thirteen  men  who  at  different  times  were  in 
President  Lincoln's  cabinet. 

MoKRis,  John  A.,  well  known  turf-man,  owner  of  Morris  Park 
in  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y.,  and  prominently  identified  with  the  Louisi- 
ana lottery  enterprise;  born  in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  July  29,  1836;  died 
on  his  ranch  near  Kerrville,  Tex.,  May  26. 

Newton,  Oeneual  John,  soldier  and  engineer,  president  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company;  born  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  Aug.  24,  1823;  died 
in  New  York  city  May  1.  Graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842,  he  was 
commissioned  in  the  engineers;  acted  for  a  time  as  assistant  professor 
at  West  Point;  and  took  part  in  the  construction  of  Forts  Warren, 
Trumbull,  Wayne,  Porter.  Niagara,  and  Ontario.  In  1858  he  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Utah  expedition. 

His  war  service  was  long  and  brilliant,  beginning  in  the  valley  of 
Virginia  in  1861,  and  extending  through  the  Peninsula,  Maryland, 
Rappahannock,  Chancellorsville,  Pennsylvania,  and  Georgia  cam- 
paigns. He  took  part  in  the  following  battles,  besides  others:  Gaines's 
Mill,  South  Mountain,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Gettysburg,  Rocky- 
faced  Ridge,  Resaca,  Adairsville,  New-Hope  Church,  Kenesaw  Moun- 
tain, Peach  Tree  Creek,  Atlanta,  Jonesboro,  and  Lovejoy  Station. 

His  most  important  work  as  engineer  was  the  removal  of  the  ob- 
structions to  navigation  in  the  East  river,  at  Hell  Gate,  near  New 
York  city.  He  also  planned  the  recently  completed  Harlem  ship 
canal  (p.'  383). 

Petxoto,  Fi.OKiANO  ViEiJiA,  ex-president  of  Brazil;  born  in  the 
jn-ovince  of  Alagoas  in  1842;  died  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  June  29.  He 
adopted  a  military  career.  In  the  war  with  Paraguay  (1865-70)  he 
did  not  display  any  extraordinary  talent,  and  afterward  retired  from 
the  service,  devoting  himself  to  the  management  of  his  landed  property. 
On  the  liberation  of  the  slaves  by  imperial  decree  in  1888,  he  found 
himself  on  the  brink  of  bankru]itcy.  He  re-entered  the  army,  and 
witnessed,  in  1889,  with  a  certain  inward  satisfaction,  the  downfall 
of  the  emi)eror  who  had  ruined  him  by  the  slave  emancipation.  He 
gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  republic,  and  was  appointed  a  senator.  In 
1891  he  was  elected  vice-president  of  the  republic,  and,  on  the  forced 
resignation  of  the  dictator,  Fonseca  (Vol.  1,  p.  564),  succeeded  to  the 


512  NECROLOGY.  Sd  Qr.,  1305. 

presidency  Nov.  23,  1891.  He  did  not  however  sLow  to  the  navy 
and  his  former  as.sociate,  Admiral  Mello,  as  niiich  favor  as  was  ex- 
pected, and  for  this  reason,  together  with  suspicions  as  to  the  dicta- 
torial designs  of  Peixoto,  the  admiral  bombarded  Rio  in  earnest.  A 
protracted  struggle  ended  in  March,  1894,  in  the  victory  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  spite  of  subsequent  desultory  fighting  in  the  southern 
provinces,  General  Peixoto  successfully  completed  his  term  of  office 
last  November.  He  quietly  made  room  for  his  legally  elected  suc- 
cessor, Prudente  de  Moraes,  and  had  since  taken  no  prominent  part 
in  politics.  He  was  a  statesman  of  the  South  American  type,  who 
displayed  energy  and  considerable  tenacity  of  purpose,  and  his  defects 
appear  to  have  been  neither  so  numerous  nor  so  heinous  as  they  are 
sometimes  depicted. 

Phillips,  Henry,  archaeologist,  philologist,  and  numismatist; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  Sep.  6,  1838;  died  there  June  6.  Since 
18(J3  he  had  been  secretary  of  the  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian  Society 
of  Philadelphia,  and  since  1880  secretary  of  the  American  Philosoph- 
ical Society.  He  wrote  Paj)er  Currency  of  the  American  Colonics 
and  American  Continental  Money. 

Renwick,  James,  well  known  architect  and  art  connoisseurs- 
horn  in  New  York  city  Nov.  1,  1818;  died  there  June  23.  He  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1836,  and  took  up  engineering  and 
architecture.  He  drew  the  plans  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
building  and  the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  Washington,  D.  C;  Calvary 
and  other  churches  in  New  York  city;  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie; 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  New  York  city;  several  of  the  public  build- 
ings on  Randall's  and  Blackwell's  islands;  the  restoration  of  the  old 
Spanish  cathedral,  St.  Augustine,  Fla. ;  and  other  structures.  Per- 
haps the  greatest  monument  to  his  architectural  genius  is  St.  Pat- 
rick's cathedral.  New  York  city.  His  munificent  bequest  to  the  Met- 
ropolitan Museum  of  Art  is  elsewhere  spoken  of  (p.  461). 

Robinson,  Uii.  George  Taylor,  pathologist  of  Cooper  hospital, 
Camden,  N.  J.;  born  in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1861;  died  in  Camden, 
N.  J.,  June  28.  He  was  said  to  be  the  discoverer  of  the  use  of  the 
spectroscope  in  medicine. 

Scott,  James  W.,  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Chicago  Times- 
Herald;  born  in  Walworth  co..  Wis.,  in  June,  1849;  died  suddenly  in 
New  York  city  April  14.  He  was  educated  at  Galena,  III.,  and  Beloit, 
Wis.,  and  served  for  a  time  in  the  government  printing  office  in 
Washington.  His  first  newspaper  venture  on  his  own  account  was  at 
Huntington,  Md.,  in  1872.  Within  two  years  he  sold  out  and  returned 
to  Galena,  where  he  joined  his  father  in  starting  a  paper  called  71ie 
Industrial  Press.  He  went  to  Chicago  in  1875,  and,  in  company  with 
F.  W.  Rice,  purchased  llie  Daily  National  Hotel  Iiej)orter,  which  is 
still  published  by  Mr.  Rice.  In  the  spring  of  1871  llie  Chicago  Her- 
ald was  founded  by  a  stock  company,  of  which  Mr.  Scott  was  the 
head,  and  from  that  time  to  his  death  he  continued  as  publisher  of 
that  paper.  In  1833  John  R.  Walsh  purchased  a  controlling  interest 
in  The  Herald.  Mr.  Scott  retaining  the  next  interest.  On  February 
10,  1895,  Mr.  Scott  purchased  Mr.  Walsh's  stock  and  the  control.  On 
March  4  last  The  Hercdd  was  consolidated  with  The  Times,  the  late 
Mayor  Carter  Harrison's  paper,  and  the  paper  has  since  been  known 
as  The  Times-  Herald. 

In  April,  1890,  Mr.  Scott,  with  Mr.  Walsh,  founded  the  Chicago 
Evening  Post.     At  the  time  Mr.  Scott  bought   the  interest  of  Mr. 


NECROLOGY. 


513 


Walsh  in  The  Herald,  Le  also  took  liis  stock  in  llie  Evening  Post. 
He  was  a  member  of  a  number  of  the  leading  clubs  of  Chicago,  He 
was  for  six  years  president  of  the  United  Press.  Mr.  Scott  was  one 
of  the  original  promoters  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  of 
which  he  afterward  became  a  director,  a  member  of  the  executive 
committee,  and  chairman  of  the  committee  on  printing'.  He  was 
married  in  1873  to  Miss  Carrie  R.  Green,  of  Naperville,  111. 

Seelye,  Julius  Hawley,  ex-president  of  Amherst  College,  Am- 
herst, Mass.;  born  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  Sep.  14,  1824;  died  May  12.  The 
son  of  a  tbrifty  Connec- 
ticut farmer,  lie  entered 
Amherst  College  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one  and 
graduated  four  years 
later.  After  a  theolog- 
ical course  begun  at  Au- 
burn and  continued  at 
Halle,  he  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Reformed 
Dutch  church  in  Scbe- 
nectady,  N.  Y.  In  1850 
he  left  his  pastorate  to 
become  professor  of  men- 
tal and  moral  philoso- 
phy at  Amherst.  In  1872 
he  went  to  India  to  lec- 
ture to  the  Hindoos  on 
Christianity.  In  1874 
Professor  Seelye  entered 
politics.  Governor  Wash- 
burn appointed  him 
one  of  a  commission  to 
revise  the  state  laws  on 
taxation,  and  soon  after 
an  indei^endent  ])olitical 
movement  resulted  in 
his  nomination  for  con- 
gress. His  candidacy 
was  successful.  His 
sympathies  in  his  con- 
gressional career  were 
usually  with  the  republicans,  but  he  refused  to  vote  for  seating 
Mr.  Hayes.  He  declined  a  renomination  at  the  close  of  his  term  in 
1877,  because  he  had  received  a  call  to  the  presidency  of  Amherst. 
As  college  president  he  was  unique  and  successful.  He  knew  all  bis 
students,  and  made  them  feel  that  he  was  the  personal  friend  of  each. 
He  introduced  the  "senate  system  "  of  college  discipline,  by  which 
representative  students  have  the  greatest  share  in  determining  the 
discipline  that  the  college  officers  shall  use.  As  teacher  of  philoso- 
phy he  was  highly  successful.  He  translated  Dr.  Albert  Schwegler's 
History  of  Philosophy,  revised  and  edited  Hickok's  Mental  Science, 
and  rewrote  Hickok's  Moral  Science.  A  more  popular  work  of  which 
he  is  the  author  is  J'he  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life — Lectures  to 
the  Hindoos. 

Smith,  Green  Clay,  preacher,  soldier,  and  politician;  born  in 
Richmond,  Ky.,  July  3,  1832;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  June  39. 
Vol.  5.-33. 


JIJUUS    n.    SEELYE,   I.L.   D., 
EX-PRESIDENT  OP   AMHERST   COIXEGB. 


514  N EC RO LOG  Y.  2d  Qr ,  ison. 

Served  in  the  Mexican  war.  Asamemberof  tlie  Kentucky  legislature 
be  opposed  secession;  and  lie  fought  for  tlie  Union,  being  brevetted 
major-general  at  the  close  of  the  war.  At  the  Baltimore  republican 
convention  in  1864  he  was  defeated  for  second  place  by  Andrew 
Johnson  by  only  half  a  vote.  He  was  governor  of  Montana  from  186G 
to  1869.  when  he  entered  the  Baptist  ministry.  In  1876  he  was  nom- 
inated for  president  as  a  prohibitionist.  lie  afterward  became  an 
evangelist ;^but  in  1890  was  called  to  a  Baptist  pastorate  in  Washing- 
ton. 

Stevens,  Mur.  Paiian,  prominent  society  leader  in  New  York 
city;  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.;  died  in  New  York  April  3,  aged  about  G.j. 

Stone,  David  M.,  journalist;  born  in  Oxford,  Conn.,  Dec.  2?>, 
1817;  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  April  2.  He  was  a  merchant  in  Phil- 
adelphia, Penn.,  1842-49.  In  1849  he  was  given  charge  of  The  Dry 
Goods  Reporter  in  New  York  city;  but  late  in  that  year  severed  con- 
nection with  that  paper  and  became  commercial  editor  of  llie 
Journal  of  Commerce.  In  1861,  with  W.  C.  Prime,  he  purchased  the 
paper,  and  in  1866  became  editor-in-chief.  In  1852  he  was  made 
president  of  the  New  York  Associated  Press,  and  held  that  oiiice 
over  twenty-five  years.  He  retired  from  active  work  on  The  Jonriud 
of  Commerce  in  June,  1893.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  incident 
in  Mr.  Stone's  career  was  the  temporary  suppression  of  his  paper  by 
the  United  States  government  in  1864  for  publishing  a  forged  draft 
proclamation  purporting  to  come  from  President  Lincoln. 

SuTiiERiiAND,  CiiAiiLES,  ex-surgeon-general  United  States  army; 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1831;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  May  10. 
He  served  throughout  the  war  in  the  medical  corps  of  the  army,  and 
in  1866  was  promoted  to  assistant  surgeon,  with  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colanel,  for  meritorious  services  during  the  war.  In  1876  he  was 
made  a  surgeon  and  in  1890  became  surgeon-general. 

SwAiN,  (lENEKAL  James  B.,  born  in  New  York;  died  at  his  home 
in  Sing  Sing  May  27,  aged  75.  For  many  years  he  was  associated 
with  Horace  Greeley  in  journalism.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he 
was  connected  with  the  New  York  Times  and  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  President  Lincoln.  Having  raised  a  comj)any  of  cavalry  in 
1861,  he  went  to  the  front  and  distinguished  himself,  in  1865  becom- 
ing aide-de-camp  to  general  Fenton,  with  the  title  of  general. 

Taft,  IjEvr  B.,  jurist;  born  in  Massachusetts;  died  in  Pontiac. 
Mich.,  April  29,  aged  73.  (graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1843;  .studied 
law,  and  entered  upon  its  practice  in  Chicago,  III.,  where  he  remained 
about  fifteen  years;  removed  to  Pontiac  in  1868;  and  was  made  judge 
of  the  sixth  judicial  circuit  in  1875. 

WiCKLTFFE,  llonERT  C,  ex-governor  of  Louisiana;  born  in 
Washington  county,  Ky.;  died  in  Shelbyville,  Ky.,  April  18,  aged  75. 
Removed  to  Louisiana  in  1846;  became  lieutenant-governor  in  1855, 
aud  governor  on  the  expiration  of  his  term;  in  1866  refused  to  take 
the  oath  under  the  reconstruction  laws,  required  to  qualify  him  for 
the  seat  in  congress  to  which  he  had  been  elected. 

Wilson,  Hon.  James  F.,  ex-United  States  senator  from  Iowa; 
born  in  Newark,  O.,  Oct.  19,  1828;  died  in  Fairfield.  Iowa,  April  24. 
Was  elected  to  the  convention  for  revising  the  constitution  of  Iowa 
in  1856;  sat  in  both  houses  of  the  legislature;  was  a  member  of  con- 
gress 1861-69,  serving  as  chairman  of  the  judiciary  committee;  was 
one  of  the  managers  on  the  part  of  the  house  for  the  impeachment  of 
Andrew  Johnson.     Was  elected  a   United  States  senator  in  1883. 


I 


NECROLOGY.  515 

Wlien  the  state  supreme  court  declared  the  Iowa  original  package 
law  unconstitutional,  Mr.  Wilson  secured  the  passage  of  the  federal 
original  package  law,  which  was  upheld  by  the  courts.  He  assisted 
in  framing  the  interstate  commerce  law. 

WiNCiiESTEK,  Locke  W.,  vice-president  of  the  National  Ex- 
press Company;  died  May  17.  He  was  quartermaster  and  commissary 
of  the  7th  regiment,  New  York  infantry,  during  the  early  years  of 
the  war. 

Foreign:— 

Bacon,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  James,  privy  councillor  of  England,  for- 
merly judge  of  the  chancery  division  of  Her  Majesty's  high  court  of 
justice;  born  in  1798;  died  June  2. 

Bakak,  Ai3U,  sultan  of  Johore;  born  in  1835;  died  in  London, 
Eng.,  June  5.  He  was  a  grandson  of  the  prince  who  ceded  Singa- 
])ore  to  the  British;  ascended  the  throne  in  1866.  He  was  an  enlight- 
ened ruler,  with  liberal  ideas,  and  was  popular  in  England,  where  he 
travelled  much.  He  first  came  into  notoriety  in  1893  through  a 
breach  of  promise  suit  brought  against  him  in  London  under  the 
name  of  "Mr.  Albert  Baker"  by  a  Miss  Jenny  Mighell.  The  sultan 
won  his  case  on  the  ground  that  he  was  a  reigning  sovereign,  and, 
therefore,  the  English  courts  had  no  jurisdiction  over  him.  Johore  is 
a  Malay  state  lying  two  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  and  is  now  un 
der  a  British  protectorate. 

Buchanan,  Sir  George,  eminent  specialist  In  infectious  dis- 
eases; died  in  London,  Eng.,  May  5,  aged  about  65.  From  187)  to 
1882  he  was  medical  officer  of  the  local  government  board.  Among 
his  published  works  are  many  official  reports,  and  his  Letlsonian  Lec- 
tares  on  the  Lung  Diseases  of  Children . 

Camprell,  Lord  Colin,  fifth  son  of  the  present  (the  eighth) 
Duke  of  Argyll;  died  in  Bombay,  India,  June  18,  aged  42.  He  was 
a  lawyer  by  profession  and  an  M.  P.,  and  figured  in  1884  in  a  divorce 
suit,  in  which  his  wife  obtained  a  judicial  separation. 

Ciienavard,  Paul,  French  painter;  born  in  Lyons  in  1807;  died 
in  Paris  April  12.  Most  of  his  subjects  were  taken  from  ancient  his- 
tory, as  The  Dehige,  Crossing  the  iiuhicon,  Birth  of  Christ,  etc.  He 
was  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Chesney,  Sir  George  T.  C,  K.  C.  B.,  M.  P.,  British  general; 
died  in  London,  Eng.,  March  31.  He  was  the  author  of  a  brochure. 
The  Battle  of  Dorking,  which  created  a  great  sensation  several  years 
ago  in  England,  by  pointing  out  under  cover  of  a  clever  story  the 
weak  points  in  the  home  defenses  of  Great  Britain.  He  was  educated 
at  Woolwich  and  joined  the  Bengal  engineers  in  1848.  He  was  made 
a  lieutenant  in  1854,  and  served  throughout  the  siege  of  Delhi,  where 
he  was  twice  wounded  severely.  He  rose  rapidly  in  rank,  and  in 
1855  became  a  general.  In  1868  he  published  his  Induin  Polity, 
which  was  followed  by  The  Dilemma  and  TJie  Private  Secretary  in 
1881.  In  1886  General  Chesney  became  a  member  of  the  council  of 
the  governor-general  of  India,  serving  until  1891.  He  was  made  a 
K.  C.  B.  in  1892,  and  elected  to  parliament  from  Oxford. 

DoucET,  Charles  Camille,  French  dramatic  author  and  critic, 
and  i)ermanent  secretary  of  the  French  Academy;  born  in  Paris  May 
16,  1812;  died  there  Ai)ril  1.  He  produced  many  plays  and  poems, 
collected  in  1858  in  two  volumes  entitled  Comedies  en  Vers,  among 
them  Un  Jeune  Homme  (1841),  Dernier  Banquet  (1847),  Le  Fruit 
Defendu  (1857),  and  athers.     In  1853  he  became  chief  of  the  division 


516 


NECROLOGY. 


2fl  Qr  ,  18a5. 


of  theatres  in  tlie  ministry  of  state,  having  full  charge  of  the  im- 
perial theatres  of  Paris  and  the  provinces.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy  in  1865,  taking  the  place  of  Alfred  de 
Vigny.  He  became  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1847,  and 
a  grand  officer  of  that  body  in  1891. 

Faithfull,  Miss  Emily,  noted  economist  and  philanthropist; 
born  in  Surrey,  England,  in  1835;  died  in  Ijondon  June -3.  She  early 
l)ecame  interested  in  improving  the  condition  of  women.  In  1860  she 
collected  a  band  of  female  compositors  and  established  a  printing 

office  in  London.  Queen 
Victoria  was  a  patroness 
of  the  enterprise.  In 
May,  1863.  Miss  Faith- 
full  started  a  monthly 
publication,  called  llie 
Victoria  Marjazine,  de- 
voted to  advocating  the 
claims  of  women  to  re- 
munerative employment. 
In  1868  she  published  a 
novel  entitled  ChdUfje 
Upon  Change,  and  about 
the  same  time  began  to 
appear  as  a  lecturer,  in 
which  capacity  she  soon 
achieved  a  high  degree 
of  p  o  p  u  1  a  r  i  t  y .  Later 
she  was  a  member  of  the 
editorial  staff  of  a  maga- 
zine entitled  The  Lady's 
Pictorial.  She  was  also 
an  active  member  of  the 
Ladies'  Sanitary  Associa 
tion,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  spread  of  the 
knowledge  of  sanitary 
laws  among  the  poorer 
classes  by  means  of  lec- 
tures, pamphlets,  etc. 
She  visited  the  United 
States  several  times, 
making  her  first  voyage  hither  in  1872.  After  her  third  trip,  in 
which  she  visited  the  Far  West,  she  published  a  book  entitled  Three 
Visits  to  America,  containing  descriptions  of  industrial  and  other 
pursuits  which  she  found  here  carried  on  by  women.  Miss  Faith- 
full  received  numerous  marks  of  Queen  Victoria's  interest  in  her 
work,  including  a  civil  service  pension. 

Hodgson,  John  Evans,  English  painter;  born  in  London,  Mar. 
1.  1831;  died  in  Buckinghamshire  June  19  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1879.  Of  late  years  he  had  confined  himself 
largely  to  subjects  of  Moorish  life. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henky,  English  biologist;  born  at  Ealing,  Mid- 
dlesex, Eng.,  May  4,  1825;  died  at  Eastbourne,  June  28.  After  at- 
tending for  a  few  years  a  semi-public  school  in  which  his  father  was 
one  of  the  masters,  he  entered  the  medical  school  at  Charing  Cross 
hospital  at  the  age  of  17.     Here  he  spent  three  years  in  hard  study, 


PROFESSOn  T.    n.    MUXI.EY, 
DISTINGUISHED   SCIENTIST. 


NECROLOGY,  517 

then  passed  tbe  first  Bachelor  of  Medicine  examination  at  the 
University  of  London,  receiving  honors  in  anatomy  and  physiology. 
He  appears  not  to  have  thought  highly  of  the  instruction  which  he 
received  in  his  early  school  days,  and  makes  scant  mention  of  his  fa- 
ther or  his  father's  teaching.  But  he  pays  a  tribute  to  his  mother 
in  saying  of  the  reuiarltable  keenness  of  perception  which  he  pos- 
sessed, that  it  resembled  the  quality  of  his  mother,  which  enabled 
her  to  see  things  "in  a  flash."  Although  he  had  in  his  earlier  youth 
a  great  liking  for  mechanical  engineering,  he  found  himself  at  the 
age  of  20  beginning  the  practice  of  medicine  among  the  poor  of  Lon- 
don. His  practice  here  was  of  short  duration,  for  in  his  21st  year 
he  joined  the  medical  service  of  the  royal  navy.  Sir  John  Richard- 
son soon  obtained  for  him  the  position  of  assistant  surgeon  on  Her 
Majesty's  ship  Rattlesnake,  which  was  about  to  start  on  a  voyage  to 
the  coasts  of  Australia  and  New  Guinea.  This  expedition  lasted  four 
years,  and  Huxley  took  advantage  of  his  opportunity  to  study  the 
fauna  of  the  waters  he  traversed.  The  results  of  his  researches  he 
wrote  out  and  sent  to  England.  Many  of  them  were  published  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society.  Upon  his  return  to 
England  in  1850  he  found  that  he  already  had  there  a  growing  repu- 
tation as  a  scientist  on  account  of  the  publication  of  these  papers.  He 
was  well  received  in  the  circle  of  scientists,  and  decided  that  his  life 
could  beist  be  spent  in  scientific  work.  From  then  until  his  death  he 
was  a  tireless  and  brilliant  expounderof  the  truths  of  nature.  He  saw 
them  with  unprejudiced  mind,  and  taught  them  with  boundless  en- 
thusiasm. The  year  after  his  return  to  England  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  year  later  he  received  one  of 
that  society's  medals.  Thirty  years  later  he  became  its  secretary,  and 
in  1883  its  president.  In  1853,  having  decided  to  leave  the  naval  serv- 
ice, he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  history  and  palaeontology 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  Part  of  his  duties  in  this  position  was 
thedelivering  of  a  lecture  every  second  year  before  workingmen.  Hux- 
ley's lectures  in  this  capacity  now  constitute  the  well-known  book. 
Mans  Place  in  Nature.  To  the  FuUerian  professorship  of  physiol- 
ogy in  the  Royal  Institution  and  the  position  of  examiner  in  physiol- 
ogy and  comparative  anatomy  for  the  University  of  London,  he  was 
appointed  in  1855.  He  held  the  latter  office  seven  years.  The  Hunterian 
professorship  in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  he  held  from  1863  to 

1869.  He  was  president  of  the  biological  section  of  the  British  asso- 
ciation in  the  meetings  held  at  Cambridge  in  1862,  and  Liverpool  in 

1870.  In  1869  and  1870  he  was  president  of  the  Geological  and  Eth- 
nological societies.  He  was  a  member  of  the  London  school  board  in 
1870.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  Ix)rd  Rector  of  Aberdeen  University 
for  three  years.  And  in  1881  he  was  apjwinted  inspector  of  fisheries. 
All  his  offices  he  resigned  in  1885,  and  removed  to  Eastbourne,  where 
he  lived  until  his  death. 

Professor  Huxley  is  known  among  scientists  as  a  great  zoologist, 
— Haeckel  placing  him  first  among  English  zoologists;  among  theo- 
logians, as  an  agnostic  of  masterful  resources  in  controversy;  and 
among  laymen,  as  a  scientist  of  marvellous  versatility  of  genius,  great 
powers  in  expounding  abstruse  statements,  and  unusual  perspicacity 
of  style.  His  more  purely  technical  work,  which  scientists  alone  can 
properly  appreciate,  is  included  in  the  treatises  published  by  tbe  Royal 
Society,  the  (Geological  Survey,  and  the  Geological  Society.  Of  these 
treatises  his  lecture  before  the  Royal  Society  on  llie  Theory  of  the 
Vertebrate  Skull,  and  his  Manual  of  the  Invertebrata,  are  especially 
important.     In  his  theological  controversies  with  the  Duke  of  Argyll, 


518  NECROLOGY.  2d  Qr.,  1605. 

Mr.  Gladstone,  Principal  Wace,  and  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  he 
made  clear  the  meaning  of  the  term  "agnostic,"  and  defended  the 
agnostic  position,  which  he  occupied,  with  no  little  controversial  skill. 
It  was  Huxley  who  gave  currency  to  the  term  "agnostic,"  meaning 
by  it  one  who  refuses  assent  to  any  statement  which  is  not  capable 
of  scientific  proof.  Thus  understood,  the  term  agnostic  cannot  be 
confounded  with  materialist,  positivist,  or  atheist.  For  Huxley  him- 
self repudiated  materialism  in  that  one  of  his  lay  sermons  known  as  The 
Physical  Basis  of  Life.  It  is  well  known  that  he  held  Comte's  posi- 
tivism almost  in  detestation;  while  the  absurdity  of  attributing  to 
so  pronouncedly  skeptical  a  mind  as  Huxley's  a  disbelief  so  radical  as 
atheism  is  apparent.  The  most  widely  known  of  his  works  are  those 
in  which  he  uses  his  unusual  clearness  of  style  and  acute  reasoning 
powers  to  make  recondite  scientific  truths  intelligible  to  laymen.  Of 
these  his  Lay  Sermons  are  most  popular,  while  his  Elementary  Phy- 
siology and  his  famous  Norwich  lectures  on  A  Piece  of  Chalk  de- 
servedly hold  a  very  high  place  among  attempts  to  make  science  clear 
to  others  than  scientists. 

Huxley's  life  was  lived  during  the  most  stormy  period  of  the 
struggles  of  modern  science  against  prejudice  of  all  sorts.  When  he 
was  thirty  30  years  old  the  Origin  of  Species  appeared;  and  in  the 
controversy  that  followed  Huxley  stood  as  the  foremost  of  the  cham- 
pions of  the  Darwinian  theory,  for  he  believed  most  thoroughly  and 
enthusiastically  in  the  theory  of  natural  selection.  He  outlived  the 
most  stormy  period,  and  endured  until  he  saw  evolution  recognized 
as  a  working  hypothesis  by  most  scientists.  The  most  marked  of  his 
characteristics  were  his  acute  powers  of  perception,  his  tenacity  of 
purpose,  his  love  of  truth,  and  his  firm  adherence  to  the  principle 
of  absolute  integrity  of  thought  and  action.  No  one  else  can  describe 
his  purpose  in  life  so  adequately  as  he  himself.  We  quote  from  his 
autobiography: 

"Tlie  objects  which  I  have  ever  had  more  or  less  definitely  in  view  have 
been  to  promote  the  increase  of  natural  knowledge,  and  to  forward  the  appli- 
cation of  scientitie  methods  of  investigation  to  all  the  problems  of  life  to  the 
best  of  my  ability,  in  the  conviction— which  has  prown  with  my  growth  and 
strenu'thened  with  my  strenj:th— that  there  is  no  alleviation  for  the  sufferings 
of  mankind  except  veracity  of  thonght  and  action,  and  the  resolute  facing  of 
the  world  as  it  is.  when  the  garment  of  make-believe,  by  which  pious  hands 
have  hidden  its  uglier  features,  is  stripped  off." 

In  another  place  he  .says  that  progressof  society  cannot  come  from 
imitating  the  cosmic  process,  still  less  by  running  away  from  it,  but 
by  combating  it.  And  according  to  his  principleii  he  wrought  care- 
fully, consistently,  and  with  a  social  instinct  that  was  perfectly 
healthful. 

Legk.\nd,  Pierkr,  member  of  the  French  chamber  of  deputies 
and  formerly  minister  of  commerce  in  the  cabinets  of  MM.  Duclerc, 
Brisson,  and  Floquet;  born  May  13,  1834;  died  in  Paris  June  1. 

M.\RTHA,  Benjamin  Constant,  French  litterateur;  born  in 
Strasburg,  June  4,  1820;  died  in  Paris  May  30.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  a  member  oip  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  of 
the  French  Institute,  and  in  1880  was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  Among  his  works  were:  The  Moralists  Under  the  Ro- 
man Empire  (1854),  The  Poem  of  Lucrece  (1869),  and  Delicacy  in  Art 
(1884). 

Pape,  Von,  Ale.vander  August  Wiliielm,  German  field-mar- 
shal; born  in  Berlin  in  1813;  died  there  May  7.  He  entered  the 
army  in    1830.      For   gallantry  at  Koniggratz  in  1866  he   was  pro- 


NECROLOGY.  519 

moted  to  major-general.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  and  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  at  the  coronation 
of  Emperor  William  I.  He  was  afterward  made  a  field-marshal  and 
was  military  governor  of  Berlin. 

Payne-Smith,  Very  Rev.  Robert,  dean  of  Canterbury;  died 
March  31.  He  was  a  great  Syriac  scholar,  and  had  been  engaged  a 
great  part  of  his  life  on,  and  had  nearly  finished,  a  Syriac  dictionary, 
lie  also  wrote  largely  on  theology,  and  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
luiltee  for  revision  of  the  New  Testament. 

Peel,  Sill  Roiieht,  3d  baronet,  son  of  the  illustrious  English 
prime  minister  of  the  same  name;  born  in  London,  May  4, 1822;  died 
there  May  9.  Educated  at  Harrow  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  at  Madrid  and  later  at  Berne.  In  1855 
he  was  made  a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  from  1861  to  1865  was 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  He  was  returned  one  of  the  members  in 
the  liberal  interest  for  Tamworth  soon  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  the  baronetcy  July  2,  1850,  and  retained  the 
seat  till  March,  1880.  He  was  sworn  a  privy  councillor  in  1861,  and 
made  a  G.  C.  B.  in  1866.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates  of 
the  house  of  commons,  especially  on  Irish  questions  and  subjects  af- 
fecting the  foreign  policy  of  the  country.  He  sat  as  a  conservative 
for  Huntingdon  in  1884-5.  and  for  Blackburn  from  1885-6.  At  the 
general  election  of  1886  he  stood  as  a  home  ruler  from  Inverness 
Burghs,  but  was  defeated.  He  was  a  brother  of  the  late  speaker  of 
the  house. 

Pouter,  Sir  George  Hornidge,  regius  professor  of  surgery  in 
the  University  of  Dublin;  born  in  1822;  died  June  16. 

Selrorne,  Earl  op  (Roundell  Palmer),  English  jurist;  born 
Nov.  27,  1812;  died  May  4.  He  was  solicitor-general  in  1861,  attorney 
general  in  1863,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1872  and  1880.  In  1871  he 
was  one  of  the  British  counsel  before  the  court  of  arbitration  at  Geneva. 
He  withdrew  from  the  liberals  in  1888,  becoming  a  liberal  unionist. 

SuPPE,  Von,  Franz,  musical  composer;  born  on  shipboard  near 
Spalato,  Dalmatia,  April  20,  1820;  died  near  Vienna,  Austria,  May 
21.  He  was  of  Belgian  descent,  and  known  as  the  *'  German  Offen- 
bach. "  He  achieved  success  with  The  Country  Girl  (1847),  and 
Paragraph  3  (1858);  was  known  in  America  chiefly  through  his 
Fatinitza,  Boccaccio,  and  Poet  and  Peasant. 

Visciinegradsky,  M.,  ex-finance  minister  of  Russia;  died  April 
6.  He  began  life  as  the  son  of  an  humble  and  impoverished  village 
priest,  and  became  mathematical  master  of  the  Russian  Pedagogues' 
Institute.  His  first  appearance  in  public  life  was  as  one  of  the  most 
energetic  organizers  of  the  Moscow  exhibition;  and  it  was  not  until 
after  he  had  amassed  a  fortune  of  several  million  rubles  by  specula- 
tion in  railroads  that  he  entered  the  public  service.  He  first  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  late  Czar  Alexander  III.  by  the  remarkable 
ability  which  he  displayed  in  certain  official  committees;  and  though 
he  had  never  been  trained  in  the  financial  administration  and  had 
never  been  known  as  a  political  economist,  he  was  at  once  appointed 
minister  of  finance.  M.  Vischnegradsky  did  not  certainly  reform  all 
existing  abuses  in  the  Russian  financial  administration;  but  he 
worked  hard  to  ameliorate  the  financial  situation,  and  his  efforts 
were  attended  with  considerable  success,  as  was  shown  by  the  de- 
cided improvement  in  the  national  credit  during  his  term  of  office. 
He  was  retired  in  the  latter  part  of  1892,  mainly  owing  to  ill-health. 


520  NECROLOGY.  2d  Qr.,  1895. 

His  name  will  remain  on  record  as  that  of  one  of  tbe  most  capable, 
Lard-working,  and,  above  all,  bonest,  of  all  tbe  ministers  wbo  Lave 
ever  bad  control  of  tbe  national  treasury  of  Russia. 

VoGT,  Ka]{l,  biologist;  born  in  Giessen,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Ger- 
many, July  5, 1817;  died  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  5.  He  first  came 
into  prominence  as  tbe  active  collaborator  of  Agassiz  and  Desor.  He 
was  appointed  to  a  cbair  at  Giessen  University,  In  1848  be  tbrevv 
\iimself  into  tbe  democratic  movement,  and  was  one  of  tbe  last  sup- 
porters of  tbe  national  party.  His  services  to  tbe  cause,  bowever, 
cost  bim  bis  cbair.  He  tben  retired  to  Berne,  and  afterward  to  Nice, 
wbere  be  resumed  bis  biological  researcbes.  In  tbe  following  year 
be  was  appointed  professor  at  Geneva,  and  from  tbat  time  identified 
bimself  wilb  tbe  civic  life  of  tbe  country  of  bis  adoption,  becoming  a 
member  of  botb  tbe  federal  and  national  coungls.  Of  bis  works,  per- 
baps  tbe  most  celebrated  was  entitled  Science  and  Superstition,  a 
fierce  polemic  against  tbe  intervention  of  religion  in  science.  Anotber 
book  wbicb  created  considerable  stir  was  bis  Investigations  into  Ani- 
mal Communities,  a  scatbing  criticism  of  tbe  vices  and  weaknesses  of 
buman  societies. 

Williamson,  Professor  William  C,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.  E..  well 
known  Englisb  biologist  and  geologist;  born  in  1817;  died  in  London 
J  une  23. 

Zorilla,  SeIJor  Manuel  Ruiz,  noted  republican  agitator  in 
Spain;  born  in  Castile  in  1834;  died  at  Burgos,  Old  Castile,  June  18. 
He  was  elected  to  tbe  cortes  at  tbe  age  of  22  as  a  progressive.  In 
186G  participated  in  a  rebellion,  and  fled  to  France.  During  tbe  in- 
surrection of  18G8  be  returned.  In  1869  be  became  mini.ster  of  jus- 
tice, and  soon  tbereafter  president  of  tbe  cortes.  He  favored  tbe 
candidacy  of  tbe  Duke  of  Aosta  for  tbe  Spanisb  tbrone.  After  tbe 
duke's  accession  as  Amadeo  I.,  Zorilla  became  president  of  tbe  coun- 
cil. After  Amadeo  was  forced  to  abdicate  by  Alfonso,  Zorilla  was 
sent  into  exile  again  on  account  of  bis  liberal  views,  wbicb  bad  led 
bim  to  institute  many  reforms  in  tbe  political  constitution  of  Spain. 
From  tbe  time  of  bis  banisbment,  in  1873,  Zorilla  did  not  return  to 
Spain  until  a  sbort  time  ago,  altbougb  tbe  exile  of  bis  later  years 
was  purely  voluntary.  His  political  activity  was  still  kept  up,  bow- 
ever,  and  be  instigated  many  of  tbe  conspiracies  tbat  bave  in  recent 
years  disturbed  tbe  security  of  tbe  Spanisb  government.  In  1893  be 
was  elected  as  a  republican  candidate  for  tbe  cortes  from  Madrid,  but 
retired  from  leadersbip  of  tbe  republican  party  early  in  tbe  present 
year  (p.  191). 


LOUIS  PASTEUR. 


^CLOPEDIC    REVIEW 
OF 

CURRENT     HISTORY 

VOL.  5.  JULY  1— SEPTEMBER  30,  1895.  NO.  3. 


LOUIS  PASTEUR. 

By  Herbert  U.  Williams,  M,  D., 
Professor  of  Pathology  in  the  University  of  Buffalo. 


W 


'ITHIjST  a  few  years  we  liave  heard  of  the  deaths  of 
Darwin  and  Tyndall  and  Ilelmholtz;  then,  but  four 
months  ago,  of  that  of  Huxley;  and  still  more  recently,  of 
that  of  Pasteur.  These  men,  with  others  like  Virchow  and 
Haeckel,  formed  a  group  belonging  to  the  generation  just 
passing  away.  All  of  them  possessed  great  and  wonderful 
minds,  and  accomplished  intellectual  feats  which  possibly 
may  not  be  repeated  in  any  similar  period  of  fifty  years. 
The  principles  laid  down  by  them  were  broad,  and  in- 
cluded a  great  part  of  all  the  facts  known  to  science.  The 
industry  stimulated  by  them  has  led  to  the  collection  of  a 
vastly  greater  number  of  facts  which  also  coincide  with  these 
principles.  The  immense  detail  of  this  accumulated  knowl- 
edge is  beyond  the  reach  of  any  man.  Some  small  part 
of  it  is  all  with  which  one  can  hope  to  become  acquainted. 
'J'he  scientist  of  tlie  present  day  is  therefore  confined 
to  a  comparatively  limited  field  of  specialism.  Generali- 
zalions  equally  far-reaching  and  having  the  same  wide 
philosophical  bearing,  are  not  likely  to  appear  except  at 
long  intervals  unless  the  generalizations  of  this  group  of 
men  prove  to  be  incorrect,  or  unless  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  proceeds  along  lines  now  undreamt  of.  The 
death  of  one  of  these  great  teachers  must  naturally  arrest 
the  attention  of  all  people,  and  we  are  eager  to  know  some- 
thing of  the  life  of  Louis  Pasteur,  who  died  on  September 
28  of  this  year. 

Pasteur  was  born  in  Dole,  a  small  city  of  eastern 
France,  not  far  from  Switzerland.  The  house  of  his  birth 
was  decorated  many  years  afterward  with  a  tablet  bearing 
in  French  the  inscription:  "Here  was  born  Louis  Pasteur, 
December  27,  1822."     Three  years  later  the  family  moved 

Vol.  5.-34.  Copyright,  1895,  by  Garretson,  Cox  &  Cq. 


522  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

to  the  neighboring  town  of  Arbois;  and  in  the  latter  place 
Pasteur's  childhood  was  passed.  His  father  had  been  a 
soldier  of  the  first  empire.  When  he  sought  a  quieter  life, 
it  was  to  become  a  tanner.  He  appears  to  have  been  of  a 
studious  habit,  and  looked  carefully  after  the  education  of 
his  son.  The  young  Pasteur,  while  still  a  boy,  gave  evi- 
dence of  the  genius  which  distinguished  him  later.  Very 
early  he  exhibited  a  decided  taste  for  chemistry.  Having 
gone  through  the  preliminary  schools  of  Arbois  and  the 
neighboring  town  of  Besan9on,^he  undertook  to  pass  the 
entrance  examinations  for  the  Ecole  Normale.  This  he  suc- 
ceeded in  doing;  but,  as  his  name  stood  fourteenth  on  the 
list,  he  withdrew  mortified.  He  took  himself  to  Paris, 
where  he  devoted  a  year  to  careful  preparation.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  he  again  tried  the  examination,  now 
attaining  fourth  place.  He  entered  this  £cole  Normale  in 
Paris  when  not  quite  twenty-one  years  of  age.  His  pas- 
sion for  chemistry  he  was  now  able  to  indulge.  His 
devotion  to  his  work  attracted  the  notice  of  his  teachers, 
Dumas  and  Balard.  They  encouraged  and  assisted  him, 
and  his  relations  with  them  became  most  intimate.  He 
undertook  original  researches,  and,  at  about  the  age  of 
twenty-five,  made  discoveries  relating  to  the  rotation  of 
polarized  light  by  the  tartrates  and  paratartrates  which  as- 
tonished the  wise  professors  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  obtained  his  doctor's  degree  in  1847.  In  the  meantime 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Biot  and  Mitscherlich,  who 
were  astonished  at  his  discoveries.  In  1848  he  was  made 
assistant  professor  of  chemistry  at  Strassburg.  Already 
he  had  more  than  fulfilled  the  dreams  of  his  father,  who 
had  declared  that  if  his  son  one  day  might  be  professor  in 
the  college  of  their  little  city  of  Arbois  he  should  be  per- 
fectly happy.  About  this  time  Pasteur  became  engaged 
to  Mile.  Marie  Laurent.  An  incident  is  told  of  his  wed- 
ding day  that  reminds  one  of  the  famous  story  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  and  the  ^gg.  It  seems  that  when  the  time  of  his 
marriage  arrived,  his  friends  had  to  summon  him  from  his 
beloved  laboratory,  whither  he  had  gone,  and  where,  among 
his  tubes  and  bottles,  he  had  forgotten  the  important  event 
and  his  own  part  in  it.  Notwithstanding  the  extraordi- 
nary preoccupation  shown  on  this  occasion,  his  wife  had 
no  reason  to  complain  of  him.  Throughout  his  residence 
in  Strassburg,  he  continued  his  experiments  on  the  rotation 
of  polarized  light.  Indeed  chemistry  and  physics  appear 
to  have  been  the  studies  of  his  choice  even  to  the  end.  But 
circumstances  directed  his  energies  in  a  different  direc- 
tion. 


LOUIS  PASTEUR.  523 

He  was  thirty-two  years  of  age  when  he  was  elected  dean 
of  the  faculty  of  sciences  at  Lille  in  1854.  In  the  neighbor- 
ing region,  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  from  beets  and  corn 
formed  an  important  industry.  Thus  his  attention  was 
turned  to  a  solution  of  the  causes  of  fermentation.  He 
was  presently  able  to  declare  that  the  growth  of  the  minute 
fungus  which  makes  up  the  bulk  of  all  yeast  was  the  agent 
that  transformed  sugar  into  alcohol.  Subsequently  the 
same  principle  was  extended  to  all  forms  of  fermentation. 
These  assertions  excited  violent  opposition;  alid  a  lengthy 
controversy  took  place,  in  which  the  famous  Liebig,  pro- 
fessor in  Munich,  was  prominent.  Pasteur  appears  to 
have  had  no  distaste  for  controversy,  and  defended  him- 
self vigorously  and  ably.  Later  on,  a  similar  line  of  re- 
search was  directed  to  show  that  the  deterioration  of  wine 
might  be  due  to  the  growth  of  living  ferments.  It  was 
found  possible  to  heat  the  wine  sufficiently  to  destroy  the 
fermenting  organism  without  injuring  the  wine.  These 
principles  have  been  employed  extensively  in  practice. 

In  1857  Pasteur  accepted  a  call  to  the  Ecole  Normale  in 
Paris.  He  began  directly  to  follow  a  line  of  research  sug- 
gested by  his  work  on  fermentation,  and  commenced  in- 
vestigating the  obscure  and  difficult  problem  of  sponta- 
neous generation.  A  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences in  1860  was  won  by  him.  He  met  with  determined 
opposition  from  M.  Pouchet  and  M.  Joly,  two  noted  sa- 
vants of  the  day.  A  commission  of  the  Academy  was  ap- 
pointed to  examine  into  the  relative  merits  of  the  views 
of  the  opponents;  but  Pouchet  and  Joly  withdrew  from 
the  contest,  practically  leaving  the  victory  with  Pasteur. 

His  success  in  dealing  with  minute  fungi  of  fermenta- 
tion induced  his  friends  to  persuade  him  to  seek  a  cause 
and  a  remedy  for  the  disease  of  the  silkworm,  known  as 
pehri7ie,  which  was  doing  incalculable  damage  in  the  south 
of  France,  and  in  Italy  and  Spain.  That  task  he  began 
in  1865,  and  his  labor  lasted  during  three  years.  The 
cause  he  found  in  a  minute  parasite  to  which  the  conta- 
gious nature  of  the  affection  was  owing.  Measures  were 
suggested  to  prevent  the  progress  of  the  epidemic,  which 
rescued  the  silk  industry  from  threatening  ruin. 

But  the  frame  of  this  tireless  worker  had  to  yield  at 
last  to  the  strain  put  upon  it  during  all  these  years.  In 
1868  one  side  of  Pasteur's  body 'became  paralyzed.  Al- 
though he  escaped  death  at  that  time,  he  was  permanently 
crippled.  Presently  the  fearful  times  of  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war  came  on.     Pasteur  himself,  although  physically 


534  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

unable  to  serve  in  the  army,  was  an  ardent  patriot,  and 
allowed  his  young  son  to  go  as  a  volunteer.  He  felt  his 
country's  humiliation  bitterly. 

Notwithstanding  his  infirmity,  Pasteur  did  not  inter- 
mit his  labors.  He  never  was  able  again  to  continue  the 
chemical  studies  which  would  have  been  his  first  choice. 
He  carried  his  investigations  on  the  silkworm  disease  still 
farther,  while  some  of  the  work  for  which  he  was  perhaps 
most  widely  known  was  performed  during  these  later 
years  of  his  life.  It  was  during  them  that  he  established 
the  foundations  on  which  have  been  erected  our  present  con- 
ceptions of  the  production  of  infectious  diseases  by  minute 
living  tilings.  Already  his  previous  labors  had  begun  to 
bear  fruit.  His  work  on  fermentation  had  suggested  to 
the  great  English  surgeon.  Lister,  the  possibility  that  sim- 
ilar processes  might  lie  at  the  root  of  the  complications 
most  dreaded  by  surgeons — chief  of  all,  suppuration.  The 
brilliant  success  of  Lister's  work,  how  it  has  saved  life, 
how  it  has  remodeled  surgical  technique,  how  with  its  aid 
the  most  secret  recesses  of  the  human  body  may  be  ex- 
plored, forms  a  chapter  by  itself.  Lister  freely  admitted 
his  obligation  to  Pasteur. 

The  first  of  the  diseases  of  man  to  be  shown  to  be 
caused  by  bacteria  was  anthrax.  The  proof  furnished  by 
Pasteur  was  logical  and  convincing.  His  achievements 
ill  bacteriology  by  no  means  ended  here,  although  he  was 
not  the  discoverer  of  the  parasites  of  any  of  the  commoner 
diseases  of  man.  Almost  as  important  were  the  principles 
established  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  these  maladies. 
With  the  help  of  his  two  assistants,  Chamberland  and 
Roux,  he  devised  means  for  making  a  kind  of  vaccine  of 
the  deadly  anthrax  microbes  themselves,  which  was  effect- 
ive in  protecting  healthy  animals  against  the  disease. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  were  directed  to  the  preparation 
of  a  vaccine  for  hydrophobia,  which  was  not  merely  to  in- 
sure safety  to  healthy  persons,  but  should  prevent  the  de- 
velopment of  the  disease  in  individuals  bitten  by  mad 
dogs.  He  had  in  the  meantime  enjoyed  an  annuity  from 
the  government;  and  his  last  work  was  carried  on  in  a 
great  laboratory,  known  as  the  Pasteur  Institute,  founded 
in  1888,  and  endowed  by  the  state.  Great  numbers  of 
patients  flocked  to  it  for  treatment,  often  from  remote 
parts.  A  monthly  journal  devoted  to  bacteriology,  known 
as  the  Annales  de  VInstitut  Pasteur,  emanated  from  it, 
which  has  contained  numerous  valuable  contributions  to 
this  branch  of  science. 


LOUI^  PASTEUR. 


6^5 


In  recognition  of  his  attainments,  degrees,  honors,  and 
memberships  in  learned  bodies  were  conferred  upon  Pas- 
teur from  all  the  great  countries  of  Europe,  including  his 
own.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  and  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor.  It  is  pleasant  to  know  of  the  Justly  ex- 
alted admiration  held  for  him  by  his  countrymen.  Many 
bacteriologists,  some  of  them,  like  Chamberland,  Roux, 
and  Metschnikoff,  now  themselves  famous,  have  been  con- 
nected with  his  laboratory. 

He  died  September  28,  1895,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two. 
An  immense  concourse  of  people  assembled  at  his  funeral 
to  manifest  their  respect  for  the  great  man.  President 
Faure,  leading  members  of  the  government,  the  military, 
men  distinguished  in  science  and  letters,  noblemen,  and 
representatives  of  foreign  powers,  were  present  at  the  im- 
pressive ceremonies  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame. 

It  will  not  be  inappropriate  to  consider  in  some  detail 
the  more  important  of  Pasteur's  achievements.  First  of 
these,  in  order  of  time,  were  his  discoveries  on  fermenta- 
tion, which  also  furnished  the  basis  for  his  subsequent 
work.  Fermentation,  he  showed,  takes  place  everywhere 
about  us.  Not  merely  is  it  seen  in  sweetened  liquids  that 
change  to  alcohol,  but  in  milk  that  becomes  sour,  in  butter 
that  is  rancid,  in  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  and  in  the  pu- 
trefaction of  meat.  AH  of  those  substances  which  have 
formed  parts  of  living  bodies  return  at  length  to  the  con- 
dition which  they  held  before  they  were  parts  of  living 
bodies.  They  are  dissipated  in  the  atmosphere,  or  enrich 
the  soil.  They  may  then  be  taken  again  by  plants  as  food, 
and  enter  into  the  cycle  once  more,  only  to  return  to  the 
inorganic  world  after  the  living  bodies  which  they  have 
entered  a  second  time  have  died.  It  is  clear  that  if  fer- 
mentation, or  putrefaction,  which  is  the  same  thing,  were 
to  cease,  living  things  would  soon  exhaust  all  possible 
sources  of  nourishment.  The  world  would  be  a  dead  world 
strewn  with  the  bodies  of  its  former  inhabitants. 

The  causes  of  fermentation  had  been  considered  ob- 
scure, but  the  weight  of  evidence  was  supposed  to  show 
that  it  was  effected  by  the  oxygen  and  moisture  of  the.  at- 
mosphere, unaided  by  living  influences.  Hints  had  been 
given  from  time  to  time  of  its  true  nature.  Anthony  van 
Leeuwenhoek,  the  earliest  of  microscopists,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  had  seen  the  cells  present  in  yeast.  Schwann 
had  stated  in  1839  the  relation  of  the  yeast  plant  to  fer- 
mentation. But  it  remained  for  Pasteur  to  explain  in  a 
convincing  manner  that  fermentation  is  itself  a  vital  pro- 


526  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

cess,  and  that  the  changes  effected  during  it  are  due  to  the 
growth  of  microscopic  fungi,  the  simplest  of  all  forms  of 
plants.  One  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  exists  in 
the  formation  of  alcohol  in  sweetened  fluids  by  yeast.  The 
minute  fungus  characteristic  of  yeast  {Saccharomyces  cer- 
evisim)  makes  use  of  sugar  as  a  chief  part  of  its  food.  In 
this  favorable  medium  it  flourishes  and  multiplies  abun- 
dantly. The  sugar  which  the  yeast  cells  have  absorbed 
is  altered  within  them,  and  expelled  from  them,  when  it 
is  no  longer  of  use,  in  the  form  of  two  entirely  different 
substances,  alcohol  and  a  gas  familiar  to  every  one  (carbon 
dioxide,  CO^,  found  in  effervescing  waters).  This  kind  of 
fermentation  it  is  that  takes  place  when  bread  is  made  to 
'^rise,^'  when  syrups  and  preserves  ''spoil,"  or  when  malt 
liquors,  wines,  and  the  like  are  manufactured.  The  cells 
that  constitute  the  yeast  are  microscopic,  colorless,  oval 
bodies. 

Pasteur  showed  furthermore  thlit  what  yeast  does  for 
saccharine  fluids,  other  still  more  minute  fungi  do  for 
fluids  of  other  compositions.  These  fungi  are  chiefly  of 
the  sort  called  bacteria.  Each  particular  kind  of  fermen- 
tation has  its  own  or  several  kinds  of  bacteria  as  its  cause. 
When  milk  becomes  sour,  the  sugar  in  it  is  changed  to  lac- 
tic acid  by  bacteria  charged  with  that  function.  When 
butter  grows  rancid,  certain  bacteria  develop  butyric  acid 
from  it.  When  vinegar  is  produced  from  alcoholic  bever- 
ages like  cider  (acetic  fermentation),  it  is  because  the 
growing  bacteria  have  made  acetic  acid  from  the  alcohol. 
They  forma  thick  mass  called  the  ^'mother"  or  *' flower." 
Similar  principles  apply  to  all  forms  of  fermentation  and 
putrefaction.  A  correct  understanding  of  them  is  essen- 
tial to  a  sound  knowledge  of  biology;  and  Pasteur,  in 
stating  these  principles  clearly,  had  an  immense  influence 
in  forming  our  conceptions  of  the  relations  of  living  and 
inorganic  matter.  In  the  course  of  this  and  later  labors, 
Pasteur  made  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  technical 
devices  used  by  bacteriologists  in  the  shape  of  various 
fluids  for  the  artificial  cultivation  of  the  microscopic  fungi 
in  tubes  and  flasks. 

His  work  on  fermentation  led  him  very  naturally  to 
consider  the  possibility  of  spontaneous  generation.  From 
time  immemorial  spontaneous  generation  had  been  accepted 
as  a  fact.  When  vermin  of  various  sorts  were  seen  to  ap- 
pear in  putrefying  material,  the  conclusion  was  that  they 
had  their  origin  directly  from  it.  Although  that  was  readily 
disproved  in  the  case  of  large  organisms  like  worms  and 


LOUIS  PASTEUR.  527 

frogs,  still,  as  late  as  the  middle  of  this  century,  it  was  held 
by  many  to  account  for  the  swarming  microscopic  life  found 
in  fermenting  fluids.  A  flask  of  meat  broth  left  exposed 
to  the  air  will,  after  a  few  days,  contain  countless  tiny  or- 
ganisms, chiefly  bacteria.  Pasteur  showed  (although  he 
alone  is  not  entitled  to  the  credit  of  this  discovery)  that 
these  bacteria  were  the  progeny  of  others  already  in  the 
flask,  or  which  had  fallen  in  from  the  air.  He  made  flasks 
with  long  and  twisted  necks.  These,  while  containing  broth, 
were  boiled.  No  evidence  of  life  appeared  in  the  broth 
afterward.  This  experiment  led  to  the  conclusion  that  in 
the  previous  case  there  had  been  germs  on  the  sides  of  the 
flask,  and  that  others  had  fallen  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
that  these  germs  had  multiplied  enormously,  and  had  given 
rise  to  the  fajse  conclusion  that  the  broth  had  generated 
them  spontaneously.  The  boiling  of  the  flask  had  killed 
the  germs  in  it;  the  heating  of  the  broth  had  done  the 
same  for  it;  and  no  others  entered  from  the  air,  on  account 
of  the  bent  neck  of  the  flask.  A  simpler  device  had  pre- 
viously been  found  by  Schroeder  and  Von  Dusch  in  the 
shape  of  a  plug  of  cotton  placed  in  the  neck  of  the  flask, 
which  could  be  boiled  with  it  and  the  broth.  It  permitted 
the  entrance  of  air,  but  filtered  out  all  the  germs  floating 
in  the  atmosphere.  Broth  so  prepared  could  usually  be 
kept  indefinitely,  and  no  trace  of  any  living  thing  would 
be  detected  in  it.  Removal  of  the  cotton  plug  would  be 
followed  by  the  appearance  of  bacteria  in  the  broth.  That 
the  cotton  actually  acted  as  a  filter  to  keep  out  germs, 
chiefly  attached  to  particles  of  dust,  Pasteur  demonstrated 
by  examining  the  dust  collected  on  the  surface  of  the  cot- 
ton. These  experiments  produced  a  profound  impression, 
and  were  largely  instrumental  in  giving  us  our  present 
knowledge  that  the  air  contains  germs,  usually  harmless, 
floating  in  it,  and  that  objects  about  us  are  covered  with 
them.  Pasteur  also  showed,  by  taking  his  flasks  of  broth 
to  remote  places  and  opening  them,  that  development  of 
life  occurred  much  less  frequently  in  those  exposed  in  the 
country  or  on  mountain  tops  than  in  those  exposed  in  the 
city.  The  inference  is  clear  that  the  air  of  the  latter  con- 
tains a  larger  number  of  germs.  These  are  only  a  few  ex- 
amples of  a  great  many  experiments  made  by  him. 

It  was  sometimes  observed,  that,  even  after  boiling,  the 
culture  fluids  used  would  contain  living  and  growing  bac- 
teria. Pasteur  explained  that  nevertheless  there  was  no 
spontaneous  generation.  Higher  temperatures  than  the 
boiling  point  would  be  found  effectual  in  preventing  any 


528  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

growth.  He  secured  temperatures  of  110  degrees  Centi- 
grade (230  degrees  Fahrenheit),  by  boiling  liquids  under 
pressure.  He  described  also  certain  shining  objects  seen 
in  some  bacteria,  now  usually  known  as  spores.  These 
proved  to  be  the  bodies  capable  of  withstanding  the  boil- 
ing. Spores  had  been  noticed  by  other  observers;  but 
previously  no  one  had  conceived  that  any  living  thing 
could  resist  such  a  degree  of  heat.  Their  true  signifi- 
cance was  not  determined  until  some  years  later  by  a  Ger- 
man, Cohn. 

Van  Leeuwenhoek,  who  has  already  been  mentioned  as 
having  first  seen  the  cells  of  the  yeast  fungus,  likewise 
described  bacteria  in  various  substances  examined  by  him. 
Entirely  upon  speculative  grounds,  the  idea  was  eagerly 
seized  upon  by  others,  that  the  phenomena  characteristic 
of  contagious  diseases  might  be  explained  by  supposing 
them  to  be  caused  by  such  minute  parasites.  But  not 
till  Pasteur  proved  this  to  be  true  for  the  silkworm  disease, 
was  a  sound  basis  furnished  for  the  doctrine.  This  dis- 
ease is  not  indeed  produced  by  bacteria,  but  by  little  bodies 
or  corpuscles  of  extremely  simple  structure,  whose  precise 
nature  seems  to  be  undetermined.  In  the  mild  climate  of 
southern  France,  the  silk  industry  had  grown  to  be  the 
principal  business  and  means  of  support  over  whole  dis- 
tricts. Whether  on  a  small  or  a  large  scale,  almost  every 
one  of  the  inhabitants  had  an  interest  in  it.  In  1853  the 
value  of  the  cocoons  reared  is  said  to  have  been  130,000,- 
000  francs.  But  about  that  time  an  epidemic  attacked 
the  worms,  manifesting  itself  at  various  stages  in  the  life 
of  the  insects,  and  ending  in  causing  either  tlieir  death  or 
a  diseased  offspring.  Frequently  they  became  covered  with 
spots,  making  them  look  as  though  they  were  peppered. 
By  1865  the  yield  was  reduced  to  one-quarter  of  its  former 
value.  No  sort  of  remedy  seemed  of  any  avail.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  Pasteur  lent  his  aid  to  solving  the  problem. 
His  patient  investigation  extended  over  several  years. 
First  of  all  it  left  no  doubt  that  the  parasites  mentioned 
above  were  the  cause.  Very  early  he  was  attracted  by  the 
theory  that  the  little  corpuscles  that  others  had  already 
described  as  occurring  in  the  affected  worms  might  have 
something  to  do  with  the  malady.  Following  up  tliis  line, 
he  found  himself  able  to  infect  healthy  worms  at  will,  and 
indicated  the  means  by  which  the  contagion  was  propa- 
gated from  the  diseased  to  the  healthy.  That  seemed  to 
be  usually  through  the  adhesion  of  infected  particles  from 
diseased  worms  to  the  mulberry  leaves  which  the  insects 


LOUIS  PASTEUR.  529 

devoured  as  food.  The  sound  worms  might  likewise  become 
infected  from  the  claws  of  the  unhealthy  ones.  It  was 
shown  also  that  eggs  of  sound  female  moths  would  pro- 
duce healthy  worms.  Following  this  principle,  it  became 
possible  to  breed  worms  that  would  remain  unaffected  if 
removed  from  contagious  influences.  This  plan  was 
adopted  and  was  successful.  After  the  female  moth  had 
laid  her  eggs,  she  was  carefully  examined  for  evidence  of 
pebrine,  and  if  not  perfectly  sound  her  eggs  were  rejected. 
The  eggs  of  healthy  females  were  kept,  and  only  from  them 
were  the  worms  of  the  next  season  reared.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  silkworm  once  more  became  possible  when  it 
had  seemed  likely  to  die  out.  The  value  of  the  discovery 
to  France  can  be  reckoned  only  in  millions  of  francs.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  in  combating  this  epidemic  among  in- 
sects no  drug  or  poison  Avas  used,  but  only  those  rules  of 
hygiene  which  are  now  widely  taught  and  practiced  in  the 
control  of  contagious  diseases  of  the  human  race. 

It  was  not  a  long  step  from  his  work  upon  pehrine  for 
Pasteur  to  turn  to  similar  affections  in  man.  In  North 
America  the  disease-  of  cattle  known  as  anthrax  or  splenic 
fever  is  fortunately  not  widely  spread.  On  the  continent 
of  Furope  it  is  much  more  frequent.  The  French  call  it 
cliarhon;  the  Germans,  Milzbrand.  Sheep  and  horned  cat- 
tle are  the  animals  most  often  affected,  but  man  occasion- 
ally acquires  it  from  them.  This  happens  usually  to  those 
handling  diseased  animals,  in  whom  local  inflammation  ex- 
cited by  the  anthrax  bacillus  has  given  rise  to  the  name 
"malignant  pustule."  Those  engaged  in  sorting  wool  from 
infected  sheep  have  been  known  to  have  anthrax,  which  in 
this  case  has  been  called  "  wool-sorters'  disease."  The 
organism  peculiar  to  anthrax  is  one  of  the  bacteria.  It 
appears  under  tiie  microscope  as  a  narrow,  straight  body. 
In  fact,  it  looks  like  a  short  line.  Such  bacteria  are  called 
bacilli.  Its  length  is  about  one  four-thousandth  of  an 
inch.  Small  as  that  may  seem,  it  is  the  largest  of  all 
bacteria  known  to  produce  disease  in  man.  On  this  ac- 
count it  was  the  first  of  them  to  be  noticed.  It  was  seen 
in  the  blood  of  animals  by  Pollender  in  1849,  by  Davaine 
in  1850.  The  latter,  who  was  a  distinguished  French 
physician,  announced  its  causal  relation  to  anthrax,  because 
he  had  succeeded  in  producing  this  disease  in  healthy  ani- 
mals by  inoculating  them  from  others  already  having  the 
malady,  with  blood  which  contained  the  bacilli.  But  in- 
asmuch as  Davaine  used  the  blood  for  his  inoculations,  it 
remained  an  open  question  whether  it  was  the  little  rod- 


530  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

shaped  bodies,  which  were  the  anthrax  bacilli,  that  pro- 
duced anthrax  in  the  second  animal.  Some  other  ingre- 
dient in  the  blood  might  have  been  the  bearer  of  the  con- 
tagion. It  was  1877  when  Pasteur  announced  his  results. 
The  objections  to  Davaine's  experiments  were  removed  by 
inoculating  animals  with  the  anthrax  bacilli  by  themselves, 
freed  from  any  of  the  blood  of  the  animal  from  which  they 
were  derived.  This  was  done  by  artificially  cultivating 
the  microbes  in  flasks  of  nutrient  fluids.  After  transplant- 
ing from  one  flask  to  another  many  times  successively,  the 
bacilli  were  still  found  virulent.  That  such  ''  pure  cul- 
tures'" of  bacteria  must  be  obtained,  and  that  they  must 
produce  in  lower  animals  the  disease  which  they  are  sup- 
posed to  cause,  is  a  principle  in  daily  use  by  bacteriologists. 
Its  demonstration  belongs  not  only  to  Pasteur,  but  to  the. 
famous  German,  Koch.  The  two  were  at  work  upon  an- 
thrax at  the  same  time.  The  technical  details  of  bacteri- 
ology were  subsequently  greatly  perfected  by  Koch;  and  it 
is  owing  to  him  that  the  last  fifteen  years  have  witnessed 
such  remarkable  progress  in  this  branch  of  knowledge. 

While  carrying  on  his  studies  upon  the  bacillus  of  an- 
thrax, Pasteur  was  also  working  in  other  directions.  Some 
years  before,  he  had  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain bacteria  flourished  best  in  the  absence  of  air,  or  in- 
deed could  not  grow  at  all  in  the  presence  of  oxygen. 
They  were  said  to  be  "anaerobic."  In  Pasteur's  labora- 
tory such  bacteria  were  cultivated  in  tubes  from  which  the 
air  had  been  exhausted  with  an  air  pump.  Such  cultivation 
may  also  be  done  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  and  by  a 
variety  of  other  ingenious  devices.  Some  of  the  bacteria 
that  produce  disease  are  anaerobes.  Pasteur  was  the  first 
to  discover  one  of  these,  which  he  named  the  Vibrion 
sejjtiqiie.  It  is  more  generally  known  as  the  bacillus  of 
malignant  oedema.  It  is  found  in  soil  and  widely  spread 
in  putrefying  substances.  It  has  been  known  to  produce 
gangrene  in  man.  Another  bacillus  discovered  by  him 
Avas  that  causing  the  disease  of  fowls  called  fowl  cholera. 
He  likewise  obtained  a  bacillus  from  the  malady  of  swine 
known  in  France  as  rouget,  probably  the  same  as  the  Ger- 
man Schweinerothlauf.  Jointly  with  Chamberland,  he 
discovered  that  bacteria  may  be  filtered  out  of  fluids  by 
passing  the  fluids  through  recently  sterilized,  unglazed 
porcelain.  Such  filters  are  widely  used  in  bacteriological 
laboratories,  as  well  as  for  household  purposes. 

Pasteur,  however,  has  obtained  less  notoriety  from  the 
work  of  his  earlier  than  from  that  of  his  later  years3  al- 


LOUIS  PASTEUR.  531 

though  the  former  is  at  present  more  securely  grounded. 
About  1880  he  commenced  to  wrestle  with  the  problem  of 
how  to  effect  preventive  or  even  curative  inoculations 
against  infectious  maladies.  Xo  previous  work  offered  a 
hint  as  to  how  he  might  proceed.  Vaccination  against 
smallpox  gave  no  help,  as  that  procedure  is  as  much  ex- 
perimental to-day  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Jenner.  No 
satisfactory  explanation  for  the  working  of  vaccination 
against  smallpox  has  ever  been  offered.  Pasteur  had  be- 
fore him,  however,  the  suggestive  fact  that  one  attack  of 
an  infectious  disease  usually  confers  immunity  upon  the 
sufferer  from  another  attack.  This  is  well  known,  for  ex- 
ample, of  measles  and  scarlet  fever.  Furthermore,  a  mild 
as  well  as  a  severe  attack  furnishes  immunity.  If  only 
then  virulent  bacteria  could  be  so  modified  as  to  produce 
merely  mild  attacks,  vaccination  against  any  disease  might 
be  possible.  Such  a  modifier  of  their  virulence  Pasteur 
found  in  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.  Heat  and  chem- 
ical agencies,  employed  in  intensities  too  low  to  kill  the 
bacteria,  have  also  been  used.  Pasteur  and  his  assistants 
succeeded  thus  in  preparing  vaccines  from  the  germs  of 
fowl  cholera  and  anthrax,  that  were  effective  in  protecting 
against  those  diseases.  liioculating  certain  bacteria  into 
particular  animals  miglit  diminish  the  power  of  the  mi- 
crobes. The  bacilli  of  rouget,  passed  in  this  manner 
through  rabbits,  made  swine  immune  to  that  affection. 

Pasteur's  last  and  most  famous  effort  was  made  against 
hydrophobia,  or  rabies.  Although  it  seems  possible  that 
hydrophobia  may  be  caused  by  bacteria,  or  some  sort  of 
micro-organism,  none  has  ever  been  found  for  it.  Some 
time  usually  intervenes  between  the  mad  dog's  bite,  to 
which  the  disease  owes  its  origin,  and  the  development  of 
the  first  symptoms.  During  this  interval  Pasteur  under- 
took to  prevent  the  development  of  the  supposed  infect- 
ive agent.  The  patient  was  to  be  protected  by  an  injec- 
tion of  a  vaccinal  material,  something  like  the  weakened 
microbes  of  anthrax  and  chicken  cholera  used  for  his  ear- 
lier experiments.  Such  a  substance  for  hydrophobia  he 
believed  himself  to  have  found.  It  was  prepared  by  des- 
iccating the  spinal  cord  of  a  rabbit  which  had  been  made 
to  die  of  rabies.  The  longer  the  spinal  cord  was  kept  in 
tlie  desiccating  chamber,  the  less  its  virulence.  If  desic- 
cated long  enough,  it  retained  no  virulence  at  all.  Such  a 
desiccated  spinal  cord  was  the  basis  of  the  substance  in- 
jected. Making  use  of  a  series  of  cords,  beginning  with 
one  of  very  slight  potency,  continuing  with  others  of  in- 


532  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

creasing  strength  and  therefore  from  more  recently  killed 
rabbits,  Pasteur  declared  himself  able  to  avert  an  attack 
of  hydrophobia  in  an  individual  bitten  by  an  undoubtedly 
mad  dog.  It  is  not  possible  at  present  to  form  a  certain 
estimate  of  the  value  of  his  treatment.  On  theoretical 
grounds  the  procedure  offers  a  good  hope  of  success.  Hy- 
drophobia is  fortunately  so  rare  an  affliction  that  many  years 
may  elapse  before  trials  have  been  made  upon  enough  pa- 
tients to  permit  of  final  judgment. 

But  wiiatever  the  decision  upon  that  method  may  be, 
Pasteur's  reputation  has  no  need  of  it  to  justify  a  demand 
for  enduring  fame.  We  are  still  too  much  of  his  day  to 
say  that  his  name  will  go  down  through  the  centuries  with 
those  of  Aristotle,  Hippocrates,  Galileo,  and  Newton. 
Yet  the  world  must  gratefully  remember  that  he  was  the 
pioneer  in  opening  to  it  a  knowledge  of  those  regions  of 
infectious  disease,  immunity,  and  preventive  inoculation, 
that  promises  so  richly  for  the  future;  while  his  teaching 
on  fermentation  has  become  so  thoroughly  a  part  of  the 
common  way  of  thinking,  and  hits  so  many  practical  appli- 
cations in  industries,  that  he  must  be  credited  again  with 
having  profoundly  influenced  human  progress. 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA. 

/^RAVE  international  complications  present  themselves 
in  connection  with  Christian  missionary  work  in  China. 
This  work  gives  them  their  immediate  occasion;  but  their 
real  causes  are  traceable  to  dynastic  and  racial  diversities 
long  working  in  the  empire,  to  the  corruption  of  the  great 
official  class,  to  the  surprising  weakness  of  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment, now  for  the  first  time  made  evident  to  the  world, 
and  to  the  general  anti-foreign  feeling  and  sullen  discon- 
tent excited  by  the  vast  proportions  of  the  recent  military 
failure.  To  the  ignorant  populace  the  missionaries  were 
prominent  representatives  of  the  hateful  foreign  influence; 
to  the  corrupt  officials,  low  and  high,  the  purer  moral 
standard  which  they  proclaimed  was  not  only  distasteful, 
but  Avas  also  felt  to  endanger  the  organized  corruption  that 
in  some  great  provinces  was  called  government.  The  mis- 
sionaries, Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant,  fully  believing 
in  the  beneficence  of  their  work,  carefully  avoiding  criti- 


OUTRAGES  OX  MISSIONARIES  IX  CHIXA.  533 

cism  of  the  persons  or  the  methods  of  the  government,  but 
teaching  tlie  people  to  obey  their  rulers,  secure  in  their 
consciousness  of  kindly,  unselfish,  and  noble  purpose,  and 
trusting  to  the  national  treaties  which  guaranteed  to  them 
a  due  protection,  were  carried  by  their  enthusiasm  to  in- 
terior cities  remote  from  the  ports  visited  by  foreign  ships, 
and  often  to  points  far  beyond  those  permanently  occupied 
by  the  enterprise  of  foreign  trade.  At  many  such  points 
a  few  families  of  Christian  Europeans  or  Americans  were 
the  only  foreigners  resident  among  millions  of  Chinese. 

When,  from  any  cause,  the  innate  slumbering  contempt 
and  hatred  of  the  Chinese  for  men  from  other  lands  was 
aroused  to  violent  outbreak,  the  defenseless  Christian 
teachers  in  these  far  inland  cities  were  the  only  victims 
there  accessible.  Their  mission  property  offered  an  easy 
plunder,  their  lives  a  ready  sacrifice.  That  they  were 
foreigners  who  had  dared  for  any  reason  to  make  residence 
on  the  sacred  soil  of  the  Celestial  empire,  was  their  root 
offense;  that  they  were  also  introducers  of  the  despised 
*^  Jesus  religion,"  added  an  incidental  flavor  to  the  savage 
delight  of  robbing  and  butchering  the  "foreign  devils." 
The  international  complications,  suddenly  forced  into  de- 
velopment by  the  recent  massacres  of  missionaries  in  China, 
relate  therefore  ultimately  to  the  question,  not  whether 
men  from  other  lands  shall  be  allowed  to  preach  Christ  in 
various  parts  of  that  empire,  but  whether  men  from  other 
lands  shall  be  allowed  and  protected  there  in  carrying  on 
any  honest  and  decent  business  not  in  violation  of  Chinese 
laws. 

The  Clieiig-Tu  Riot. — During  the  preceding  quarter 
the  old  anti-foreign  feeling  aroused  by  the  causes  above 
alluded  to  had  noticeably  increased  in  bitterness,  and  had 
become  more  open  in  its  manifestation.  There  were  attacks 
by  mobs  on  mission  stations  in  central  and  western  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  with  destruction  of  property,  though 
Avithout  loss  of  life.  The  local  officials,  while  not  prompt 
in  their  suppression  of  these  riots  and  in  their  defense  of 
mission  premises,  yet  at  first  held  a  general  attitude  of  op- 
position to  those  engaged  in  the  tumultuous  assaults.  This 
preliminary  series  of  assaults  culminated  on  May  28  at 
Cheng-Tu  in  the  great  western  province  of  Se-Chuen,  in 
the  destruction  of  the  property  of  five  missions — three 
British,  one  American,  and  one  French.  The  American 
mission  was  that  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  whose 
two  buildings,  one  for  residence,  the  other  for  chapel  and 
dispensary,  were  first  looted  and  then  burned,  at  a  loss  of 


534  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    3a  Qr.,  1895. 

about  |>9,000.  The  French  mission  buildings  included  the 
residence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  for  the  province. 
At  about  the  same  time  similar  outrages  were  reported  from 
several  cities  in  the  western  part  of  the  same  province, 
with  burning  of  chapels  and  dwellings,  and  with  fleeing  of 
missionaries  from  bloodthirsty  mobs.  In  all  these  cities 
the  chief  object  of  the  outbreak  was  gained:  the  hated 
foreigner  was  driven  out,  a  plundered  wanderer. 

A  discouraging  feature  which  came  into  view  in  con- 
nection with  these  riots  toward  the  end  of  the  last  quarter 
was  the  change  in  the  general  attitude  of  the  officials. 
The  formal  opposition  which  in  the  past  they  had  pru- 
dently shown  to  such  misdoings,  seemed  to  give  place  to 
an  indifference  which  was  but  a  veil  for  their  real  sympa- 
thy with  the  crimes  in  progress.  In  the  riot  at  Cheng-Tu 
on  May  28  (above  adverted  to),  the  members  of  the  Metho- 
dist mission  sought  refuge  in  the  district  magistrate's  yamen, 
but  were  ordered  to  return  to  their  abode  and  were  promised 
that  they  should  be  protected  there.  The  mob  soon  at- 
tacked them  there:  they  escaped  into  hiding  near  by, 
whence  they  watched  for  hours  the  plundering  and  burn- 
ing of  their  houses  by  the  mob,  which  also  renewed  its  at- 
tack at  daybreak.  For  a  time  the  two  missionary  physi- 
cians held  the  hospital,  and  kept  the  rioters  at  bay;  mean- 
while several  officials  who  were  quite  near  refused  to  give 
any  aid.  By  noon,  when  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop's 
house  was  in  flames,  scarcely  a  stone's  throw  from  the  vice- 
roy's yamen,  the  viceroy  (who  had  been  notified  of  his  dis- 
missal, and  was  holding  office  till  his  successor  arrived) 
remarked  that  the  affair  was  no  concern  of  his.  The  Lon- 
don Times  of  June  18  reported  the  finding  of  proclama- 
tions bearing  the  seal  of  this  viceroy,  encouraging  assaults 
on  foreigners;  and  it  is  well  known  that  placards  posted 
in  great  numbers  througliout  that  region  charged  that 
the  foreigners  were  kidnapping  children  for  the  pur- 
pose of  extracting  oil  from  their  bodies,  and  urged  the 
populace  to  expel  them.  In  the  hands  of  the  British  con- 
sul is  a  copy  of  an  official  telegram  sent  to  the  various 
cities  of  the  province  at  the  time  of  the  riot,  saying  that 
the  mutilated  body  of  a  male  child  had  been  found  on  the 
mission  premises — and  this,  while  the  officials  were  report- 
ing their  inability  to  send  for  a  force  to  quell  the  disorder 
because  the  telegraph  line  had  been  broken. 

The  various  governments  whose  treaty  rights  had  been 
violated  by  these  acts  of  devastation,  seem  to  have  judged 
that  these  repeated  and  cumulative  outrages,  so  insulting 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA. 


535 


^ 


to  the  great  treaty  powers,  could  be  adequately  met  by  a 
demand  for  money  indemnity,  with  remonstrance  and 
warning.  If  this  course  was  chosen  on  the  theory  that 
only  the  rabble  were  chargeable  with  the  offense,  while  the 
mandarins  were  innocent  or,  at  the  worst,  incompetent, 
then  facts  which  soon  came  to  light  showed  that  theory  a 
fallacy.  If  the  course  was  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  evad- 
ing the  unquestionably 
dangerous  international 
complications  which 
were  liable  to  ensue  on 
prompt  and  forcible  ac- 
tion against  China,  and 
whose  effect  might  be  the 
dismemberment  of  the 
empire  and  an  earth- 
quake shock  throughout 
the  sphere  of  Asiatic  in- 
terests, then  it  is  not  as 
yet  made  clear  that  the 
purpose  will  be  success- 
ful. Perhaps  the  threat- 
ened complications  may 
be  delayed:  wlio  can  tell? 
The  Orient  is  not  an  easy 
field  for  political  proph- 
ecy. But  at  least  it  may 
be  said  that  the  purpose 
thus  to  evade  the  perils 
in  this  case  takes  small  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  Chi- 
nese official  character,  which  is  adept  in  professions  of  recti- 
tude and  promises  of  gracious  compliance — readily  offering 
indemnity  in  large  payments,  which  are  not  ready  until  force 
comes  to  take  them;  ostentatiously  degrading  some  offend- 
ing madarins,  who  are  straightway  provided  with  better  po- 
sitions elsewhere;  selecting  a  few  poor  and  helpless  victims, 
summarily  declaring  them  guilty  of  the  outrage  complained 
of  by  foreign  powers,  and  cutting  off'  their  heads  for  a  showy 
sacrifice  to  atone  for  violated  treaties;  while  the  circle  of 
officials  blandly  waits  for  opportunity  to  repeat  and  enlarge 
the  outrao^e. 

The  Hwa-Saiig  Massacre. — In  the  present  case  their 
waiting  was  not  long.  From  plunder  and  havoc  in  the 
preceding  quarter  they  were  emboldened  to  proceed  to  the 
murders  which  stained  the  quarter  now  specially  under  re- 
view.    On  August  1  occurred  the  savage  massacre  at  Hwa- 


REV.  ROBERT  W.  STEWART, 

ONE   OF   THE    MISSIONARIES   MURDERED  AT 

HWA-SANG. 


536  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3(1  Qr.,  1895. 

Sang,  a  mountain  village  a  few  miles  from,  and  2,000  feet 
above,  the  city  of  Ku-Cheng,  in  the  province  of  Fo- 
Kien,  where  were  two  small  cottages  used  by  the  mis- 
sionaries in  the  city  as  a  sanatorium  during  the  two 
hot  months.  The  victims,  all  connected  with  the  Eng- 
lish Church  Missionary  Society,  numbered  ten  —  the 
Rev.  Robert  W.  Stewart,  who  was  in  charge  at  Ku- 
Cheng,  his  wife,  seven  other  ladies,  of  whom  five  were 
assistants,  Zenana  visitors,  and  teachers — two  being  new- 
comers who  were  studying  the  language  in  preparation  for 
their  work;  also  Mr.  Stewart's  son  Herbert,  six  years  of 
age.  The  baby  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Stewart  also  died,  about 
two  weeks  afterward  from  the  injuries  received,  making 
the  number  of  deaths  eleven.  Mr,  and  Mrs.  Stewart, 
Miss  E.  M.  Saunders,  and  Miss  Lena  Irish  were  burned  in 
their  dwelling,  which  was  fired  in  the  early  morning;  Miss 
H.  E.  Saunders,  Miss  Gordon,  and  MissHessie  Newcombe 
were  killed  by  spear-thrusts,  the  latter  being  also  thrown 
from  a  precipice.  Miss  Elsie  Marshall's  throat  was  cut; 
Herbert  Stewart  was  gashed  and  beaten  to  death;  Miss 
Flora  Stewart,  daughter  of  the  vicar  of  Little  Stukeley, 
Huntingdon,  England,  died  from  nervous  shock.  Four 
other  children  of  the  Rev.  Robert  W.  Stewart  were  seriously 
wounded,  as  was  als3  Miss  Codrington,  who  was  terribly  cut 
about  the  face  and  felled  to  the  ground,  but  with  rare 
presence  of  mind  feigned  death  so  that  her  would-be  mur- 
derer contented  himself  with  a  final  blow  on  the  head, 
which  broke  her  skull.  She  succeeded  in  crawling  and 
creeping  to  the  house  at  which  Miss  Hartford,  of  the  Ameri- 
can Methodist  mission,  was  staying,  where  her  recovery 
under  careful  treatment  is  reported.  The  five  young  ladies 
who  were  dragged  out  of  their  house  begged  for  their  lives 
and  offered  to  give  up  their  valuables.  The  band  of  ruf- 
fians seemed  somewhat  moved  by  their  entreaties;  but  their 
leader,  carrying  a  red  flag,  came  up  and  shouted  *^You 
know  your  orders:  kill  outright."  The  ladies  were  instantly 
gashed  and  hacked  to  death. 

The  escape  of  some  of  Mr.  Stewart's  children  was  due 
to  the  heroism  of  his  daughter  Kathleen,  a  girl  of  eleven 
years.  She  and  her  sister  Mildred  had  risen  early  and 
gone  to  gather  flowers  near  the  house  for  little  Herbert's 
birthday.  The  murderous  gang,  just  then  approaching, 
rushed  upon  them;  Mildred  escaped  to  the  house;  but 
Kathleen  was  caught  by  her  hair,  dragged  along  the  ground, 
and  stabbed  on  the  thigh.  By  a  sudden  movement  she 
broke  away,  sprang  into  the  house,  and  called  out  to  her 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  537 

)arents.  Her  mother  came  quickly  and  closed  the  door; 
and  the  two  little  girls  ran  to  their  own  room,  where  Mil- 
dred tlirew  herself  on  her  bed,  while  Kathleen  crept  under 
hers.  Some  of  the  ruffians  followed,  and  struck  Mildred, 
inflicting  a  terrible  cut  on  the  knee-joint,  which  for  a  time 
was  thought  likely  to  be  fatal.  Kathleen  lay  quiet  till  in 
a  few  moments,  hearing  the  crackling  of  flames,  she  came 
from  her  hiding-place,  and  helped  her  wounded  sister  out  of 
the  house;  then,  returning  for  the  other  children,  found 
her  baby  sister  under  the  dead  body  of  the  nurse,  her 
brother  Herbert  dying  with  several  frightful  wounds,  and 
a  baby  brother  bruised  and  with  a  stab  near  the  eye,  which 
had  pierced  to  his  brain.  The  brave  girl  carried  and 
dragged  all  these  out  of  the  flaming  house;  and  then,  with 
some  difficulty  getting  help  from  a  villager,  carried  them 
to  the  house  where  Miss  Hartford  had  lodged.  But  Miss 
Hartford  was  not  there;  she  reached  her  house  only  after 
a  dreadful  experience  in  which  her  life  was  saved  only  by 
her  own  bravery  and  by  the  noble  fidelity  of  her  Christian 
Chinese  servant,  who  risked  his  own  life  for  hers.  This 
lady  (Miss  Mabel  C.  Hartford,  from  Dover,  N.  H.,  sent 
out  eight  years  ago  by  the  Women's  Missionary  Society  of 
the  American  Methodist  Episcopal  Church)  had  heard  the 
furious  yells  of  the  first  attack,  and  going  forth  met  a  ruf- 
fian who  with  the  cry,  '^  Here^s  a  foreign  woman, ^'  made  a 
lunge  at  her  chest  Avitli  a  huge  three-pronged  spear.  She 
seized  the  trident,  and  turned  it  aside  so  that  it  grazed  her 
cheek  and  ear.  The  ruffian  knocked  lier  down,  and  was 
striking  her  with  the  handle  of  the  spear,  when  her  ser- 
vant ran  up,  seized  the  man,  and  told  her  to  run.  She 
ran  to  a  native  house,  where  she  was  refused  entrance; 
then  climbing  a  hillside  she  gained  a  hiding-place  in  some 
thick  bushes,  whence,  after  an  hour  and  a-half,  she  ven- 
tured to  return  to  her  dwelling.  Here  she  was  found  soon 
afterward,  with  the  Stewart  children,  by  Dr.  Phillips,  one 
of  the  missionaries  who  had  been  absent  when  the  attack 
was  made. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Stewart  had  rendered  nearly  twenty  years 
of  faithful  and  toilful  missionary  service,  and  had  had 
much  success,  especially  in  educational  lines.  For  twelve 
years  he  had  been  principal  of  the  theological  college  at 
Foo-Choo.  Tlie  work  at  his  station  in  Ku-Cheng  had  re- 
cently become  exceptionally  encouraging.  In  his  district 
— the  prefectures  of  Ku-Cheng  and  Ping-Nang — he  had 
fifty-six  village  day  schools  in  charge  of  baptized  converts, 
and  well  attended  by  native  children.    His  blameless  char- 

Vol.  5.-35. 


538  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

acter  and  beneficent  work  had  won  him  many  friends 
among  the  heathen  people.  The  English  Church  station 
at  Ku-Cheng,  established  nearly  thirty  years  ago,  though 
having  missionaries  in  permanent  residence  for  only  eight 
years,  was  well-appointed  and  vigorous:  its  buildings  were 
in  a  compound  about  half  a  mile  outside  the  city  wall: 
the  native  Christians  in  its  connection  numbered  2,112; 

baptisms  last  year,  121. 
The  missions  of  some  other 
denominations  in  the  same 
district  also  had  strong  sta- 
tions at  this  city.  The 
Methodists  and  the  Roman 
Catholics  had  long  been 
active  and  successful  here. 
Ku-Cheng  is  a  walled  city 
of  about  00,000  people,  on 
the  river  Min,  ninety  miles 
northwest  from  the  port  of 
Foo-Choo,  which  port  was 
the  headquarters  of  Chris- 
tian work  through  all  the 
province. 

On  August  7  a  Chinese 
mob  attacked  the  Ameri- 
can mission  chapel  and 
school   at   Fat-Shan,    near 

BURNT  IN  THE  MISSION  HOUSEATHWA-SANO.    (.^^^^^On.         A     Chil^SC     gUU- 

boat  was  sent  to  quell  the  disorder.  Some  of  the  mission- 
aries fled.  No  loss  of  life  nor  much  destruction  of  property 
is  reported. 

Foreign  Issues  in  the  Case. — Until  within  a  twelve- 
month Christian  work  in  the  province  of  Fo-Kien  had  for 
years  given  rise  to  no  serious  disturbances.  In  the  empire 
as  a  whole,  Christianity  has  of  late  been  gaining  favor  with 
the  people  much  more  rapidly  than  in  earlier  years.  Riots, 
limited  in  extent  and  local  in  their  causes,  have  occurred 
indeed;  but  these  had  only  comparatively  little  importance 
on  the  field  of  international  relations.  Violent  attacks  on 
missionaries  have  been  no  more  bloody,  and,  we  must  con- 
fess, no  more  shameful  and  outrageous,  than  have  been 
the  murderous  attacks  on  Chinese  laborers  in  some  por- 
tions of  this  land  which  we  choose  to  call  Christian.  The 
heathen  victims  among  us  have  found  at  the  hands  of 
government  protection  and  redress  no  more  prompt  and  no 
more  complete  than  the    Christian   victims   have   found 


MRS.  STEWART, 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  589 

among  the  Chinese.  Both  countries  are  quiclt  with  excuses 
— our  chief  excuses  being  that  the  Chinese  were  morally  very 
offensive,  and  that  these  horrors  were  the  work  of  the  un- 
American  ignorance  and  lawlessness  in  portions  of  our 
population  recently  imported  and  not  yet  digested  and  as- 
similated into  our  body  politic.  The  excuses,  especially 
the  last,  may  be  good:  it  is  not  appropriate  to  the  purpose 
of  this  article  to  attempt  to  invalidate  them.  It  is  to  be 
said  only  that  they  need  to  be  very  good  in  view  of  the 
scene  of  butchery  at  Rock  Springs,  Wyo.,  September  2, 1885, 
which  to  this  day  remains  unpunished — a  village  of  Chi- 
nese burned  by  150  armed  miners,  the  victims  shot  down 
as  they  fled,  twenty-eight  killed,  fourteen  burned  to  death; 
in  view  again  of  the  twenty-eight  killed  in  the  various 
parts  of  our  great  Northwest  in  1886;  in  view  again  of  the 
ten  Chinamen  in  Oregon  in  1894  ambushed,  **shot,  cut  up, 
stripped,  and  thrown  into  the  water."  China  is  our  mir- 
ror in  which  we  see  ourselves  reflected.  By  all  means  let 
us  gather  all  the  excuses  for  ourselves  that  we  can  find  or 
make.  But  our  consciousness  of  the  need  of  excuses  may 
perhaps  serve  to  tinge  our  judgment  of  our  heathen  neigh- 
bor empire  across  the  Pacific  with  something  of  that  char- 
ity which  is  called  Christian  because  it  is  at  once  truly 
human  and  truly  divine.  This  charity,  however,  has  to 
do  only  with  our  judgment  as  to  the  blame:  our  horror  at 
such  crimes,  on  whichever  side  of  the  sea,  is  not  to  be  miti- 
gated in  the  least,  nor  our  determination  to  use  promptly 
and  to  the  utmost  all  appropriate  measures  for  ending  them. 
When  we  shall  have  ended  tliese  outrages  here  so  com- 
pletely that  we  shall  no  longer  be  finding  or  inventing  ex- 
cuses for  them,  we  shall  be  enabled  to  deal  with  them  there 
without  weakening  our  action  by  some  of  the  lame  and  ig- 
norant excuses  for  the  Chinese  which  present  themselves 
as  a  part  of  "  current  history"  because  they  have  so  much 
place  in  the  utterances  of  the  public  press  on  these  recent 
lamentable  events.  The  offensiveness  of  the  missionary  to 
the  heathen  mind  because  he  preaches  Christ  and  sounder- 
mines  the  deifying  of  ancestors  or  the  custom  of  murder- 
ing infants,  has  no  more  bearing  on  his  right  under  trea- 
ties and  under  the  laws  of  China  to  be  protected  from 
plunder  and  butchery  than  the  offensiveness  of  the  Chinese 
laborer  to  the  American  mind,  because  he  is  uncleanly  in 
his  ways  or  accepts  work  at  less  than  the  market  price,  has 
a  bearing  on  his  riglit  under  treaty  and  under  the  laws  of 
this  country  to  be  protected  from  robbery  and  murder  by 
a  mob.     Something  will  be  gained  when  we  can  clear  ovr 


540  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

case  in  China  from  issues  and  questions  that  have  no  per- 
tinence to  the  matter  in  hand. 

The  peculiar  aggravation  of  the  recent  crimes  in  China 
— the  feature  of  them  which  national  governments  find 
most  significant  in  deciding  their  action — has  already  been 
alluded  to:  it  is  the  growing  evidence  of  the  collusion  in 
them  of  large  portions  of  the  ruling  class.  Riotous  mobs, 
however  brutal,  maybe  signs  of  merely  local  disorder  affect- 
ing the  minds  of  an  ignorant  and  irresponsible  populace;  the 
dealing  with  these  may  not  be  difficult.  But  if  they  grow  in 
number  and  in  virulence;  if  they  show  some  of  the  marks 
of  an  organized  movement  over  extensive  regions,  and  of  a 
system  and  j^lan  to  gain  certain  ends  by  means  of  ferocious 
tumult;  if,  as  months  pass,  they  are  less  and  less  vigorously 
repressed  by  the  authorities;  if  the  authorities  most  di- 
rectly concerned  show  little  concern  and  meet  them  with 
half-hearted  action,  and,  even  when  warned  of  their  evident 
approach,  give  assurance  that  nothing  is  to  be  feared;  or 
if  the  authorities  try  a  different  expedient,  and  declare 
themselves  unable  to  defend  the  intended  victims  against 
popular  fury,  and  urge  them  to  withdraw  to  distant  ports 
and  to  find  protection  under  the  guns  of  foreign  war- 
ships,— then  what  are  the  treaty  powers  to  conclude?  There 
will  be — not  instantly,  but  ultimately — one  of  two  conclu- 
sions: either  that  the  local  authorities  are  acting  under 
instigation  from  the  imperial  government  in  prosecution 
of  a  cunning  policy  to  make  the  world  see  that  it  is  really 
not  practicable  for  foreigners  to  make  residence  in  China 
outside  of  a  few  seaports;  or  that  the  imperial  government, 
with  the  best  intentions  in  favor  of  decent  order  and  fidel- 
ity to  treaties,  is  incapable  of  coping  with  lawlessness  and 
barbarism,  or,  in  other  Avords,  is  not  an  actual  government. 
The  nations,  unless  they  forget  their  own  Christian  civili- 
zation, will  not  spring  in  angry  haste  to  forcible  action  on 
either  of  these  conclusions.  T'hey  will  remember  that  the 
Chinese  character  is  the  Chinese  puzzle  of  the  modern 
world,  with  its  shrewdness,  its  pedantry,  and  its  polish; 
and  they  will  allow  this  most  venerable  and  wrinkled  babe 
of  the  world  a  little  period  to  decide  between  barbarism 
and  civilization  and  to  awake  to  its  proper  place  in  the 
great  family  of  nations. 

The  prevailing  utterances  of  the  European  and  Ameri- 
can press  on  the  attitude  of  the  imperial  government 
toward  the  present  tumults  and  dangers  may  be  taken  as 
showing  a  general  opinion  that  that  government,  however 
honorable  may  be  its  purpose  in  the  matter^  is  actually 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  541 

helpless  to  control  the  elements  of  disorder.  It  is  supposed 
that  immediately  after  its  utter  prostration  in  defeat  before 
a  nation  one-eighth  its  size,  it  could  not  be  so  foolhardy 
as  to  front  with  its  antique  warfare  the  combined  military 
and  naval  strength  of  modern  Europe  and  America.  A 
usual  view  of  the  situation  seems  to  be  that  many  of  the 
nuindarins  and  the  literary  class,  who  largely  hold  the 
local  offices,  but  who  feel  no  responsibility  for  the  Pekin 
government  and  may  know  little  of  foreign  affairs,  are  an- 
gered at  the  triumph  of  tlie  Japanese — a  foreign  triumph, 
with  the  sympathy  of  the  foreign  world  at  large;  and  are 
ignorantly  determined  to  balk  the  central  government  in 
its  whole  policy  of  allowing  foreigners  any  foothold  in  the 
country,  especially  foreigners  who  come  to  propagate  so 
alien  and  abhorrent  a  religion  as  Christianity,  tending  di- 
rectly as  it  does  to  reverse  the  moral  standards  of  thousands 
of  years,  and  to  subvert  quietly  but  effectively  the  entire 
social  fabric  Avhicli  in  that  country  largely  serves  the  usual 
purposes  of  a  religion.  In  support  of  this  view,  which  holds 
the  local  officials  and  perhaps  the  viceroys  of  some  prov- 
inces chargeable,  if  not  with  aiding,  at  least  with  per- 
mitting, the  recent  brutal  outrages  in  the  hope  of  intimi- 
dating the  hated  foreigners  into  withdrawal  from  the 
country,  several  facts  and  considerations  are  cited.  Father 
Cottin,  long  the  head  of  Roman  Catholic  missions  in  China, 
says  that  ^'the  mandarin  has  really  almost  undisputed  au- 
thority" as  regards  interference  in  his  village  by  the  im- 
perial government,  though  the  villagers,  acting  as  a  mob, 
may  procure  his  removal  by  the  governor.  It  is  credibly 
reported  that  the  magistrate  at  Ku-Cheng  had  1,000  soldiers 
under  his  command,  whereas  the  rioters  numbered  only 
about  eighty,  but  that  he  did  not  appear  on  the  scene  till 
the  atrocities  were  completed.  For  months  the  "  Vegeta- 
rians" had  been  threatening  the  missions  in  the  region  be- 
fore the  massacre  at  Ilwa-Sang;  the  ladies  had  been  sent 
away  from  Ku-Cheng  by  advice  of  the  city  officials,  who  de- 
clared themselves  unable  to  give  protection  there;  and  the 
work  at  the  mission  had  to  a  great  degree  been  suspended. 
But,  a  short  time  before  the  massacre,  quiet  seemed  to 
have  been  restored;  and  the  ladies  returned,  not  to  the 
station  in  the  city,  but  to  the  little  mountain  retreat  in 
the  vicinity.  Then  the  Vegetarians  suddenly  reappeared 
on  the  scene  and  proceeded  to  their  murderous  work,  as 
though  to  make  good  the  covert  threat  implied  in  the  ad- 
vice of  the  magistrates  that  all  the  missionaries  should  de- 
part.    The  whole  history  of  the  case  seems  indeed  to  show 


54^  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

a  movement  carefully  planned  for  months,  and  not  with- 
out official  knowledge;  yet  the  evidence  for  such  a  state  cf 
facts  is  perhaps  scarcely  to  be  deemed  conclusive,  and  would 
not  apply  to  other  provinces. 

The  Vegetarians,  to  whom  this  massacre  is  attributed, 
are  a  body  of  men  said  to  number  now  about  12,000  in  this 
province,  and  rapidly  increasing,  concerning  whose  rela- 
tion to  the  atrocity  positive  knowledge  seems  lacking.  It 
is  evident  that  the  mystery  which  attaches  to  them  makes 
their  name  a  very  convenient  one  for  the  use  of  corrupt 
officials  who  need  some  irresponsible  and  untraceable  body 
of  men  on  which  to  charge  atrocities  which  those  officials 
may  choose  to  permit.  As  generally  reported,  they  are  a 
secret  society  of  fanatical  Buddhists,  who  abstain  from 
animal  food  because  Buddhism  forbids  the  taking  of  life, 
and  who  with  absurd  inconsistency  proceed  to  kill  the  mis- 
sionaries because  they  kill  and  eat  animals.  They  oppose 
the  rule  of  foreigners,  hence  they  oppose  the  present  Man- 
churian  dynasty.  The  common  people  believe  them  to 
possess  magic  powers  and  to  be  in  league  with  evil  spirits. 
By  some  they  are  regarded  as  robbers,  by  some  as  rebels, 
by  some  as  religious  fanatics:  probably  they  are  all  three. 
A  body  of  sectaries  of  that  name  have  been  known  as  very 
numerous  for  years  in  Pekin  and  north  China;  but  there 
they  have  been  quite  peaceable  and  well  behaved,  and  have 
not  been  known  as  political  in  their  purpose  or  action.  The 
ruffian  organization  in  Fo-Kien  province  may  merely  have 
appropriated  their  name.  The  president  of  the  Anglo-Chi- 
nese college  at  Foo-Choo  says  that  they  have  come  into 
notice  in  the  Ku-Cheng  district  during  the  last  year.  His 
statement  is: 

"They  have  attacked  Christians  and  non-Christians  alike;  and 
they  hated  the  foreigners  because  they  were  foreigners,  not  because 
they  were  missionaries.  They  had  become  so  violent  that  on  July 
24,  200  soldiers  were  sent  up  to  Foo-Choo  to  hold  them  in  check  if 
possible.  *  *  *  The  Vegetarians  planned  the  murder  carefully; 
and  the  reason  seems  to  have  been  to  take  vengeance  on  the  foreigners 
for  having,  as  they  supposed,  brought  the  troops  to  Ku-Cheng." 

The  tidings  of  the  Ku-Cheng  butchery  roused  instant 
indignation  throughout  civilized  lands — indignation  at  the 
Chinese  government  for  its  timidity,  its  weakness,  or  its 
criminal  collusion;  at  foreign  powers  for  their  lack  of 
watchfulness,  or  for  failure  to  be  at  hand  with  protective 
force;  at  the  missionaries,  and  at  the  churches  that  had 
sent  them  forth,  for  their  foolish  rashness  in  exposing  their 
lives,  and  even  women^s  lives,  in  a  meddlesome  and  fruit- 
less intrusion  into  a  land  whose  people  wanted  neither 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  543 

their  religion  nor  them.  This  wise  criticism  of  everything 
that  had  connection  with  the  case  had  full  sweep,  to  the 
great  satisfaction  of  the  critics.  The  governments  con- 
cerned were  prompt  with  all  the  action  proper  to  the  case. 
They  made  urgent  presentation  of  the  affair,  with  com- 
plaint to  the  imperial  government  and  demand  for  imme- 
diate and  full  investigation,  with  punishment  for  the  guilty 
with  a  view  to  preventing  renewal  of  outrage.  In  view  of 
the  attack  on  the  American  mission  at  Fat-Shan,  August  7, 
the  United  States  minister,  Mr.  Denby,  soon  obtained  from 
the  authorities  promise  of  full  redress  and  protection. 
On  August  12  Admiral  Carpenter  sailed  in  the  Baltimore 
from  Nagasaki  for  Che-Foo;  and  the  Detroit,  under  Com- 
mander Newell,  arrived  at  Pagoda  Anchorage,  near  Foo- 
Choo,  while  the  gunboat  Macliias  was  already  at  Che-Foo, 
and  the  Yorktown  at  Shanghai. 

Early  in  August  the  United  States  minister,  Mr.  Denby, 
ordered  Mr.  Hixson,  consul  at  Foo-Choo,  to  start  for  Ku- 
Cheng  as  a  member  of  the  British-American  commission 
to  attend  the  investigation  by  Chinese  officials  of  the  out- 
rage of  August  1.  The  consul,  after  some  delay  in  ob- 
taining the  consent  of  the  Chinese  government,  went  un- 
der Chinese  military  escort,  and  was  joined  by  Commander 
Newell  of  the  Detroit.  The  refusal  at  first  to  allow  at- 
tendance by  the  British  commissioners,  was  withdrawn  by 
the  Chinese  authorities,  on  a  strong  protest  by  the  British 
government.  Early  reports  that  the  Chinese  intended  the 
investigation  as  a  mere  show — only  the  actual  rioters  being 
held  liable,  while  high  officials  were  to  be  protected — may 
not  be  devoid  of  truth,  but  have  not  been  officially  con- 
firmed in  Mr.  Denby's  reports  to  the  state  department. 
The  participation  of  the  United  States  government  in  or- 
ganizing the  joint  commission  is  not  in  such  form  as  to 
make  its  conclusions  necessarily  binding  on  this  country. 

Arrests,  trial,  and  execution  of  the  Ku-Cheng  murderers 
began  in  August;  and  by  September  6  the  arrests  num- 
bered 130,  the  convictions  twenty-three.  Among  those  ar- 
rested were  the  leader  and  his  two  assistants.  On  Septem- 
ber 17  seven  of  the  prisoners  were  decapitated  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  foreign  consuls. 

The  Cheng-Tu  British  and  American  investigation  rela- 
tive to  the  riots  (destructive  of  property  but  not  of  life)  of 
May  28  and  June  10,  was  delayed  on  the  part  of  the  Brit- 
ish by  various  causes.  In  September  the  United  States 
government,  finding  the  way  open  for  independent  action, 
decided  to  proceed  alone,  but  were  met  by  opposition  from 


544  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.      3d  Qr.,  1895. 

the  Chinese  authorities.  About  September  20  Minister 
Denby  gained  the  withdrawal  of  this  opposition;  and  the 
commission  was  appointed,  consisting  of  Sheridan  P.  Read, 
United  States  consul  at  Tien-Tsin,  Lieutenant-Commander 
John  P.  Merrill  of  the  Baltimore,  and  Fleming  D.  Cheshire, 
interpreter  of  the  United  States  legation  at  Pekin.  A 
Chinese  commissioner  is  to  co-operate.  As  Cheng-Tu  is  a 
month's  travel  from  Tien-Tsin  over  primitive  roads,  the  in- 
quiry cannot  immediately  begin.  France  has  greatly  sur- 
passed in  promptness  tlie  other  nations  in  this  investiga- 
tion, and  has  carried. every  point  in  its  demands.  Besides 
the  dismissal  and  degradation  of  the  viceroy  of  Se-Chuen, 
the  infamous  Liu  Ping  Chang,  tlie  viceroy  is  compelled  to 
pay  800,000  taels  (about  1600,000)  outof  his  private  purse. 
His  official  abettors  and  the  police  also  are  dismissed  and 
degraded.  The  French  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  are 
to  be  fully  reinstated  and  publicly  recognized;  and  the 
Chinese  government  is  to  rebuild  all  their  missions,  schools, 
and  hospitals,  on  a  larger  scale  than  before.  The  British 
government,  slow  in  its  investigation  at  Cheng-Tu,  has 
been  peremptory  in  its  action  for  the  punisliment  of  the 
guilty  viceroy.  On  report  from  tlie  British  minister  in 
China  that  the  viceroy  was  responsible  for  the  outrages, 
the  Marquis  of  Salisbury,  in  September,  demanded  liis  dis- 
missal from  power  and  his  degradation  from  rank  to  prevent 
his  ever  holding  office  again.  The  Pekin  government  de- 
murred. Lord  Salisbury  then  addressed  to  China  an  ultima- 
tum demandingthatwithin  two  weeks  the  government  issue 
a  proclamation  degrading  the  viceroy;  otherwise  the  British 
admiral  in  Chinese  waters  won  hi  have  orders  to  take  im- 
mediate action.  The  British  war-ships  had  already  entered 
the  Yang-tse-Kiang  river;  and  Admiral  Buller,  with  a 
squadron  of  fourteen  vessels,  was  reported  to  be  under 
orders  to  go  to  Nanking  to  enforce  the  British  demands. 
On  September  30  the  imperial  government  issued  the  re- 
quired proclamation.  The  Chinese  official  view  is  said  to 
be  that  their  action  was  a  prudent  yielding  to  superior 
force,  and  that  the  Pekin  government  was  not  properly 
responsible  for  sudden  outbreaks  of  mob  violence  in  remote 
parts  of  the  empire. 

The  Future  of  Chiua. — The  future  of  China  takes 
its  place  with  the  future  of  Turkey,  each  an  international 
problem  of  the  gravest  sort.  The  feeling  is  becoming  al- 
most universal  that  the  empire  exists  only  in  form;  that 
the  existence  of  a  government  responsible  enough  to  be 
treated  with  is  open  to  question;  that  organized  and  per- 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  54S 

manent  interference  by  civilized  powexs  is  necessary,  not 
mainly  for  missionary  work,  for  which  the  world  at  large 
cares  little,  nor  only  for  the  general  interests  of  other 
nations,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  the  Chinese  people  them- 
selves. All  this  feeling  may  be  justified  by  the  facts,  be- 
fore unknown,  which  the  events  of  the  last  twelve-month 
have  brought  into  surprising  manifestation.  But,  if  this 
feeling  seeks  to  issue  into  practical  action,  the  questions 
which  instantly  arise  are  appalling.  Organized  and  per- 
manent interference  of  what  kind?  On  what  lines?  To 
what  extent?  On  what  general  political  principles  com- 
manding the  assent  of  all  the  powers?  By  whom  executed 
and  administered  ?  The  immediate  answer  would  be  either 
silence  or  a  clamor  of  discordant  voices.  Yet  events  move 
so  fast  in  our  day,  that  it  is  conceivable  that  answers  to 
these  questions  may  frame  themselves  after  a  period  of 
waiting.  If  the  questions  should  be  roughly  urged  to 
speedy  decision,  the  answer  might  be  a  European  or  a  world- 
wide war.  Of  two  general  methods  most  prominently  sug- 
gested, one  is  an  international  protectorate.  The  other, 
which  is  not  only  suggested  but  even  prophesied,  is  an  out- 
right partition  of  the  empire  between  five  powers,  England, 
France,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Japan — England  taking 
the  valley  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  France  the  provinces  in 
the  southeast,  Russia  the  valley  of  the  Hoang-Ho.  Ex- 
Secretary  of  State  John  W.  Foster,  one  of  the  highest  au- 
thorities on  Chinese  affairs,  expects  neither  partition  nor 
protectorate;  but  that  the  recent  disasters  will  introduce 
China  into  a  new  era  of  social  and  national  advancement. 
The  Work  of  Missions. — The  attacks  on  missionaries 
in  China  have  aroused  a  general  discussion  of  the  whole 
subject  of  missionary  work,  whose  ultimate  result  will 
doubtless  be  beneficial.  The  large  portion  of  the  public 
that  have  given  little  thought  to  this  great  and  growing 
department  of  Christian  activity,  have  now  had  their  at- 
tention drawn  to  it  as  never  before.  The  press  has  teemed 
with  criticism  and  defense — the  criticism  thus  far  perhaps 
the  most  abundant,  and  often  assuming  the  tone  of  cen- 
sure. Regarding  the  whole  mass  of  accusation  and  censure 
of  missionaries  and  their  work,  two  things  are  to  be  borne 
in  mind:  first,  that  no  great  movement  is  of  much  good  in 
this  world  unless  it  can-  exert  force  enough  to  get  itself 
roundly  abused;  secondly,  that  no  movement,  however 
good  it  may  be,  is  so  good  as  to  be  above  discussion;  and 
that  if  a  movement,  even  though  it  be  wise  and  beneficent, 
takes  all  continents  for  its  sphere,  touches  multifarious  in- 


546  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

terests,  and  organizes  a  multitude  of  agents  for  its  work, 
it  will  always  have  need  to  learn  something  as  to  the  im- 
provement of  its  methods.  Its  enemies  will  be  its  teachers 
even  by  their  very  exaggerations  and  falsifications.  Thus, 
those  who  give  general  direction  to  missionary  work  may  find 
it  desirable  to  consider  whether  the  first  approach  to  the 
pagan  mind  should  not  be  with  the  concrete  facts  which  cen- 
tre in  Jesus  Christ  as  being  himself  the  personal  revelation  of 
God  in  human  history,  and  which  are  on  simple  record  in  the 
gospels,  rather  than  with  the  philosophical  systematizing  of 
those  facts  into  extended  and  precise  creeds  which  were 
not  used  or  known  till  after  the  apostles  had  finished  their 
planting  of  the  church  on  wide  heathen  fields.  They  may 
find  it  desirable  then  to  consider  whether  sectarian  mis- 
sions—not merely  using  but  magnifying  the  doctrinal  or 
other  peculiarities  of  a  sect — are  not  intrinsically  weaker 
than  missions  which  make  prominent  only  the  central  facts 
and  moral  duties  of  a  spiritual  Christianity. 

The  criticism  on  the  mode  of  living  which  sets  the  mis- 
sionaries somewhat  apart  from  the  people  whom  they  seek 
to  reach,  is  urged  by  many.  This  opens  a  question  which 
has  had  large  consideration  in  the  past,  and  has  been 
deemed  settled.  Though  now  urged  in  no  friendly  tone, 
still  the  mission  boards  may  think  it  wise  to  reconsider  it. 

Of  less  value  than  the  foregoing  are  the  censures  of 
the  missionaries  themselves  in  their  personal  character  and 
their  general  spirit  and  bearing  toward  the  heathen.  The 
missionaries  have  their  faults,  not  being  yet  among  the  an- 
gels in  heaven;  but  it  is  not  necessary  at  this  day  to  prove  to 
the  thoughtful  and  well-informed  American  public  that,  as  a 
class,  they  are  good,  trustworthy,  wise,  and  judicious  men 
and  women.  The  Chinese  and  other  pagan  peoples  are 
entirely  reasonable  in  demanding,  proof  on  these  points, 
and  will  probably  get  it  before  some  Americans  who  are 
trying  to  divert  themselves  with  the  effort  to  be  pagans. 
On  the  single  point  of  judiciousness,  however,  some  ex- 
perienced observers,  including  some  of  our  consuls,  favor 
a  degree  of  restriction  to  be  applied  in  China  to  the  zeal  of 
missionaries  who  expose  themselves  at  points  where  danger 
of  murder  is  known  to  exist.  Even  if  the  right  of  self- 
sacrifice  for  a  noble  cause  be  granted,  the  governments 
concerned  have  a  right,  it  is  said,  to  prevent  acts  of  evident 
temerity  which  will  bring  them  into  serious  embroilment. 

A  portion  of  the  current  criticism  which  deals  with 
the  relations  of  our  government  to  missionary  work,  is 
dealt  with  by  ex-Secretary  John  W.  Foster  as  follows: 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  547 

"  There  seems  to  be  in  a  part  of  the  public  press  of  our  country 
a  misconception  of  the  ground  upon  which  the  United  States  govern- 
ment bases  its  intervention  on  account  of  the  Cheng-Tu  riots.  It  is 
not  because  we  are  a  Christian  country  and  are  seeking  to  support  a 
Christian  propagandism  in  China.  It  is  simply  because  the  people  in 
whose  behalf  the  government  intervenes  are  American  citizens,  pur- 
suing a  vocation  guaranteed  by  treaty  and  permitted  by  Chinese 
law." 

The  British  maintain  that  missionaries  in  China  are 
protected  by  imperial  decrees  and  by  express  stipulations 
in  treaties  in  such  form  that  it  is  not  in  the  province  of 
tlie  British  government  to  recall  them  from  the  interior  to 
the  treaty  ports.  If  the  Chinese  government  cannot  pro- 
tect them,  the  European  governments  are  bound  to  do  so, 
landing  marines,  or  sending  an  army  if  necessary.  In- 
formation is  not  at  hand  whether  the  United  States  has 
ever  officially  announced  precisely  this  as  its  position;  but 
Article  29  of  the  treaty  of  Tien-Tsin  expressly  guarantees  to 
Chinese  subjects  the  right  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  to 
American  citizens  the  right  to  teach  and  practice  it  in  the 
empire.  The  censure  of  the  missionaries  for  an  unchris- 
tian haste  in  demanding  punishment  by  China  or  by  their 
own  government  of  all  offenders  against  them,  is  the  ut- 
terance of  either  ignorance  or  malice:  what  they  ask  is 
merely  protection  when  danger  is  seen  to  be  imminent: 
the  missionaries  are  often  found  to  hamper  governmental 
action  in  dealing  with  crimes  against  them,  by  urging  par- 
don of  the  offenders  or  mitigation  of  the  penalty. 

A  favorite  form  of  the  current  criticism  of  missionary 
work  as  a  whole  consists  of  the  sweeping  allegation  that  it 
is  utterly  and  hopelessly  fruitless  in  the  great  majority  of 
heathen  lands,  and  that  especially  in  China  it  has  been 
proved  so  by  experience;  that  therefore  it  is  a  foolish  and 
wicked  waste  of  money  and  effort  that  might  be  far  more 
profitably  used  at  home.  To  this,  the  advocates  of  mis- 
sions reply  by  denial  of  the  fact  of  fruitlessness.  They 
point  not  only  to  the  many  churches  in  China  with  their 
55,000  Protestant  communicant  members  and  much 
more  numerous  Roman  Catholic  members,  representing  a 
far  larger  outer  circle  of  adherents,  but  also  to  the  im- 
mense educational  and  charitable  work  which  has  light- 
ened the  intellectual  darkness  and  lessened  the  misery  of 
countless  multitudes.  Some  of  the  missionary  hospitals  in 
China  are  among  the  greatest  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
the  world.  Schools  of  every  grade  from  the  primary  school 
to  the  university,  have  been  established,  and  are  maintained, 
by  the  missionaries,  bringing  the  dawn  of  a  new  intellect- 


548  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

iial  life  and  opening  the  path  of  national  advancement. 
United  States  Minister  Denby,  speaking  in  the  interest, 
not  of  religion  but  of  humanity  and  civilization,  ascribes 
to  the  work  of  the  missionaries  results  of  immense  value 
and  of  increasing  promise,  which  he  has  traced  and  known 
in  his  residence  of  many  years  in  China.  Ex-Secretary 
Foster  gives  similar  testimony  in  the  strongest  terms  as  to 
China;  and  adds  the  expression  of  his  conviction  that 
the  religious  results  of  missions  in  general  are  far  greater 
than  are  commonly  recognized.  He  points  to  the  fact  that 
in  India,  that  country  of  a  most  ancient,  highly-organized 
religion,  the  converts  gathered  into  churches  at  the  end  of 
the  hundred  years  after  the  first  missionary  landed,  were 
more  numerous  than  at  the  end  of  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era  throughout  the  whole  world. 

To  the  other  frequent  criticism  that  the  Chinese  do  not 
want  the  missionary  nor  his  religion,  and  that  it  is  an  im- 
pertinence to  go  thither  to  carry  it  to  them,  the  advocates 
of  missions  briefly  answer  that  that  is  merely  the  critic's  way 
of  asserting  that  Christianity  is  not  worth  carrying  nor 
worth  having.  They  point  out  that  our  own  heathen  an- 
cestors did  not  want  it:  they  tortured,  slew,  and  burned 
the  impertinent  missionaries  who  brought  it.  The  old 
Koman  empire  did  not  want  it:  the  emperors  tossed  its 
missionaries  to  the  wild  beasts  in  the  arena.  The  old 
heathen  and  Jewish  world  did  not  want  Christ  himself: 
they  combined  to  crucify  Him.  The  first  Christians  gave 
not  the  weight  of  a  feather  to  all  such  opposition;  they 
even  welcomed  martyrdom  in  thousands  in  behalf  of  their 
faith.  In  our  day,  missionaries  thankfully  receive  govern- 
mental protection  in  their  work.  But,  if  governments  in 
Christian  lands  find  protection  onerous,  let  them  withdraw 
it.  If  bloody  persecutions  should  increase,  they  would  be 
the  signal  for  a  vast  new  awakening  of  the  missionary 
spirit;  and  throngs  would  press  forward  to  offer  themselves 
for  the  work  in  place  of  every  one  that  was  stricken  down 
on  the  distant  field.  When  the  time  comes  in  which  the 
Church  of  Christ  finally  ceases  to  be  a  missionary  body,  it 
will  cease  to  be  Christian,  and  will  perish  from  the  earth. 


THE  SITUATION  IN  THE  ORIENT.  549 

THE  SITUATION  IN  THE  ORIENT. 

■pAR-8IGHTEDNES8  in  political  matters  is  a  gift  en- 
joyed by  few;  but  even  a  novice  in  the  study  of  every- 
day affairs  can  readily  discern  that  stupendous  commercial 
and  political  changes  are  developing  in  the  Far  East. 
Just  what  their  outcome  will  be,  however,  no  one  can  yet 
do  more  than  conjecture.  In  Japan  the  domestic  political 
situation  is  critical.  The  masses  of  the  people  resent  very 
strongly  that  European  intervention  which,  by  compelling 
a  retrocession  of  the  Leao-Tong  peninsula  to  China, 
wrenched  from  Japan,  in  the  hour  of  her  triumph,  the 
fruits  of  victory.  Formosa  is  still  a  theatre  of  unrest. 
Order  is  but  slowly,  if  at  all,  merging  out  of  the  chaos  of 
affairs  in  Korea;  and  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Hermit 
Kingdom,  in  view  of  the  evident  designs  of  Russia,  are 
well  calculated  to  mark  that  country  for  some  time  to 
come  as  the  "danger  spot"  of  the  Orient.  The  commer- 
cial relations  of  China  with  Japan  and  the  various  powers 
having  interests  in  that  quarter  of  the  globe,  are  still  in 
process  of  adjustment.  Moreover,  the  Celestial  empire, 
by  giving  up  to  France  a  part  of  its  territory  in  Indo- 
China,  by  indulging  in  somewhat  reckless  borrowing,  and 
by  an  outrageous  display  of  anti-foreign  fanaticism,  has 
entered  upon  a  course  which,  to  say  the  least,  renders 
doubtful  the  question  as  to  its  powers  of  ultimate  cohesion. 
Up  to  the  present,  China  has  given  but  little  evidence  of 
hopeful  reaction  under  the  discipline  and  stimulus  of  her 
recent  chastisement.  Even  the  governing  classes  are  to  a 
great  extent  inwardly  corrupt,  without  a  trace  of  anything 
corresponding  to  what  we  call  patriotism;  and  the  masses 
of  the  people  have  no  hope,  no  aspiration,  no  care,  beyond 
the  narrow  limits  of  a  vegetative  existence.  Yet  the  Chi- 
nese empire  is  a  great  European  market,  and  so  a  great 
European  interest  commercially  and  politically;  for,  in  the 
Far  East,  the  official  world  and  the  commercial  are  parts 
of  one  whole.  Altogether,  the  problems  of  the  present  sit- 
uation in  the  Orient  are  such  as  demand  for  their  wise 
solution  the  highest  type  of  statesmanship. 

Not  the  least  important  feature  of  the  situation — a 
feature  regretfully  noticed  by  the  English  people  them- 
selves— is  the  relative  diminution  of  that  commercial  pre- 
ponderance which  has  in  the  past  been  the  real  founda- 
tion of  England's  political  preponderance  in  Eastern  af- 
fairs. There  was  a  time  when  that  supremacy  was  not 
questioned;  and,  although  England's  position  is  still  great, 
it  cannot  be  said  to  be  any  longer  unique.     Germany  has 


550  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

now  a  substantial  share  in  that  commerce  which  was  once 
monopolized  by  Great  Britain:  she  has  just  secured  a  site  for 
a  German  settlement  at  Tien-Tsin,  and  is  said  to  aim  at  ob- 
taining a  whole  port,  to  be  held  by  her  as  Hong-Kong  is 
held  by  the  British.  France  and  Russia,  on  the  other 
hand,  by  creating  for  themselves  great  political  and  terri- 
torial interests,  have  vastly  increased  their  influence,  and 
now  seem  to  be  aiming  at  some  sort  of  financial  control. 
Moreover,  the  remarkable  self-assertion  of  Japan,  which 
has  recently  brought  her  to  the  front  as  a  recognized  mil- 
itary power,  had  for  years  been  unobtrusively  extending 
her  commercial  influence  and  activity,  and  rendering  her 
a  worthy  competitor  of  the  older  civilizations.  The  fact 
is — that  the  war  which  ended  with  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  Simonoseki  did  not  so  much  create  a  new  situ- 
ation in  the  Orient,  as  bring  into  prominence  the  results 
of  changes  which,  uncomprehended  and  almost  unnoticed  by 
the  world  at  large,  had  silently  but  profoundly  altered  the 
essential  facts  of  the  international  status  of  the  Far  East. 
It  would  see'm  as  if,  for  the  sake  of  her  threatened  com- 
mercial interests,  England  could  not  much  longer  post- 
pone a  positive  declaration  of  her  policy  in  relation  to  the 
international  play  of  conflicting  forces  in  the  Orient,  par- 
ticularly in  relation  to  those  issues  which  are  now  causing 
men  to  ponder  the  doubtful  possibilities  of  a  war  between 
Russia  and  Japan.  A  southward  march  of  Russia  from 
eastern  Siberia,  taken  in  conjunction  with  French  en- 
croachments in  Indo-China,  would  constitute  a  serious 
menace  to  England's  vast  trade  with  China,  to  her  Indian 
possessions,  and  to  her  naval  supremacy  in  Eastern  waters. 
Such  a  movement  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  the  com- 
pletion, within  a  very  few  years,  of  the  trans-Siberian  rail- 
way. While  of  vast  importance  for  the  commercial  de- 
velopment of  Siberia,  this  road  will  be  of  even  greater  im- 
portance for  military  purposes,  enabling  Russia,  when  the 
time  comes,  to  overrun  the  East  with  her  armies,  and  to 
force  from  somebody  the  naval  outlet,  open  all  the  year, 
which  she  some  time  means  to  have.  In  that  day  the 
channel  of  Korea  and  the  Yellow  sea  will  become  a  new 
Dardanelles  and  a  new  Bosphorus.  AVhen  the  late  war  be- 
gan, the  trend  of  English  sympathy  lay  with  China;  but 
the  recent  action  of  the  government  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
guaranteeing  the  payment  of  the  French  loan  to  China — 
presumably  for  a  consideration — has  turned  it  in  another 
direction.  An  alliance  between  the  Dragon  and  the  Bear 
is  a  combination  intently  to  be  watched. 


THE  SITUATION  IN  THE  ORIENT.  551 

Japanese  Politics. — Since  the  introduction  of  con- 
stitutional government  and  popular  representation  in 
Japan,  the  country  has  suffered  from  some  of  the  worst 
evils  of  the  party  system.  The  sessions  of  parliament 
have  been  stormy;  the  wheels  of  government  have  been 
blocked;  dissolutions  have  been  frequent;  and  the  marvel- 
lous growth  of  the  Sunrise  Land  in  importance  among  the 
nations  has  had  no  manifest  counterpart  in  the  develop- 
ment of  political  strength  and  stability  in  her  domestic  af- 
fairs. During  the  late  war,  it  is  true,  all  party  differences 
were  sunk  beneath  that  wave  of  patriotism  which  over- 
spread the  land  and  made  it  the  recognized  duty  of  all  to 
rally  to  the  support  of  the  government  in  the  supreme 
trial  to  which  it  was  subjected  before  the  eyes  of  the  world. 
As  long  as  the  war  lasted,  the  government  of  Count  Ito 
had  its  own  way  and  might  have  asked  and  obtained  what 
it  pleased.  But  now  that  the  war  is  over,  and  at  least  a 
temporary  period  of  rest  assured,  no  one  who  has  studied 
Japanese  politics  in  recent  years  need  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  there  has  been  a  recrudescence  of  the  spirit  of  violent 
opposition,  to  suppress  which  has  forced  the  ministry  to 
the  adoption  of  most  drastic  measures. 

The  pretext  for  this  outbreak  of  opposition  was  fur- 
nished by  the  action  of  the  government  in  assenting,  at 
the  bidding  of  Russia,  France,  and  Germany,  to  the  res- 
toration to  China  of  the  Leao-Tong  peninsula.  To  the 
various  and  individually  weak  elements  of  the  opposition, 
this  submission  to  European  dictation  seemed  to  afford  an 
issue  upon  which  all  might  unite  with  some  hope  of  ac- 
quiring thereby  sufficient  strength  to  achieve  the  long- 
cherished  object  of  driving  tlie  ministry  from  power.  The 
progressionists,  under  the  leadership  of  Count  OKuma,  an 
able  statesman,  formerly  minister  of  finance  and  foreign 
affairs,  were  the  most  active  in  fomenting  and  maintain- 
ing the  agitation.  Delegates  from  the  various  parties  as- 
sembled, adopted  a  program,  and  even  issued  a  manifesto. 
The  government,  however,  was  on  the  alert,  and  promptly 
adopted  suppressive  measures  which  are  said  to  be  far 
more  sweeping  and  drastic  than  any  previously  employed 
in  the  empire  for  checking  internal  political  agitation. 
Under  an  existing  law  which  provides  that  every  political 
party  must  be  publicly  registered  as  such,  and  must  not 
combine  with  another  party  unless  one  or  the  other  dis- 
solves its  own  organization  (conditions  with  which  the 
separate  parties  scarcely  dared  to  comply),  the  agitators 
were  informed   by  the  police   that   their   meetings   must 


552  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

henceforth  be  discontinued.  For  failing  to  observe  the 
proper  legal  formalities,  the  leaders  were  arrested  and 
fined;  and  newspapers  assailing  the  foreign  policy  of  the 
government  were  suppressed  with  little  or  no  warning. 
The  last  serious  attempt  to  hold  a  public  demonstration 
against  the  government,  was  made  in  Tokio  on  June  30. 
A  mass  meeting  was  called  in  one  of  the  principal  build- 
ings; but,  as  soon  as  any  speaker  trenched  on  the  forbid- 
den ground  of  the  retrocession  of  the  Leao-Tong  penin- 
sula and  the  diplomacy  of  the  cabinet,  he  was  ordered  by 
the  police  to  take  his  seat. 

It  augurs  well  for  the  strength  of  the  ministry,  that  on 
the  whole  but  little  popular  opposition  has  been  manifested 
against  this  drastic  policy.  The  progressionists,  the  chief 
agitators,  control  only  about  forty-seven  votes  in  the 
lower  house  of  the  diet.  The  great  masses  of  the  people, 
although  smarting  under  the  humiliation  of  having  the 
fruits  of  victory  snatched  from  their  hands,  and  although 
regarding  the  sudden  apparition  of  European  dictatorship 
in  Oriental  affairs  as  a  menace  involving  contingencies  to 
be  provided  against  in  future,  recognized  that  the  govern- 
ment had  done  what  it  could  in  the  circumstances.  And 
it  is  a  hopeful  sign  for  the  future  of  Japan,  that,  instead  of 
wasting  time  in  the  petty  bickerings  of  party  agitation, 
the  people  have  on  the  whole  set  themselve3  earnestly  to 
the  task  of  developing  the  material  resources  of  the  coun- 
try, increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  army  and  navy,  and 
so  enabling  Japan,  in  the  day  when  the  powers  of  the 
earth  shall  contend  for  mastery,  to  maintain  her  own  with 
dignity  and  honor. 

It  is  impossible  to  outline  the  official  status  of  the  ne- 
gotiations for  the  evacuation  of  the  Leao-Tong  peninsula. 
They  are  still  in  progress.  The  newspaper  reports  are 
conflicting.  The  question  of  an  indemnity  to  be  collected 
ultimately  from  China,  seems  still  to  be  confined  to  the 
region  of  unofficial  rumor.  The  amount  is  variously  stated 
at  from  122,500,000  to  $50,000,000;  and  the  three  powers 
which  interested  themselves  in  inducing  Japan  to  sur- 
render all  claim  to  the  definitive  possession  of  Leao-Tong, 
are  now  said  to  be  bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon  her  for 
an  immediate  evacuation  of  the  peninsula  without  wait- 
ing for  execution  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Simonoseki. 
But  up  to  the  present  (Oct.  1),  the  Japanese  government 
has  apparently  taken  no  steps  toward  turning  over  the  terri- 
tory again  to  China,  beyond  beginning  the  Avork  of  dis- 
mantling the  fortifications  and  removing  the  great  naval 
construction  and  repair  plant  at  Port  Arthur. 


THE  SITUATION  IN  THE  ORIENT. 


553 


Russo-Frencli  and  Chinese  Relations.— The  dark- 
est problem  of  the  Orient  to-day  is  found  in  tlie  enigmatical 
designs  of  Russia.  Her  ambition  to  control  the  commerce 
of  the  East  has  long  been  one  of  the  commonplaces  of 
Asiatic  politics.  Her  recent  acquisition  of  territory  contigu- 
ous with  Korea,  and  of  commercial  concessions  from  the, 
authorities  at  Seoul  (Vol.  4,  p.  519),  are  regarded  as  but 
evidences  of  her  long-cherished  ambitions;  and  even  more 
clearly  so  is  her  construction,  now  under  rapid  way,  of  a 
great  military  railroad  line  across  Siberia,  connecting  her 
Eastern  with  her  Western  dominions.  And  now  still 
another  incident  which  is  generally  looked  upon  as  of  sim- 
ilar portent,  is  found  in  her  stepping  in  to  assist  China  by 
guaranteeing  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  $80,000,000 
of  indemnity  money  advanced  to  the  latter  by  French 
bankers.  The  agreement  embodying  the  conditions  of 
Russians  guarantee  was  signed  July  6;  and  at  the  same 
time  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  the  Chinese  plenipotenti- 
ary and  the  representatives  of  the  French  banks  intrusted 
with  the  issue  of  the  loan.  The  following  day  an  impe- 
rial ukase  was  issued  intimating  that  in  case  China  should 
fail  to  pay  the  interest  to  the  bondholders,  the  czar's 
treasury  would  itself  be  responsible.  The  arrangement 
provides  for  a  four  per  cent  loan  of  180,000,000,  guaran- 
teed by  Russia.  It  is  significant  that  the  treaty  between 
Russia  and  China  regarding  the  loan  contains  absolutely 
no  railway  concession  either  to  France  or  to  Germany,  nor 
does  it  grant  to  Russia  the  right  to  prolong  the  trans-Sibe- 
rian railway  through  Manchuria  to  a  perennially  open  port 
on  the  sea.  It  is  hardly  to  be  assumed,  however,  that 
Russia's  act  of  assistance  was  purely  disinterested.  Even 
if  there  be  no  immediate  material  consideration  paid  in  re- 
turn, the  negotiations  have  greatly  increased  Russia's  in- 
fluence in  Celestial  counsels,  and  have  added  to  her  diplo- 
matic arm  in  the  Far  East  a  power  which  she  will  not  hes- 
itate to  use.  Altogether,  the  loan  is  regarded  as  a  triumph 
of  Muscovite  diplomacy  and  a  blow  to  the  prestige  of 
Great  Britain  in  China.  It  is  true  that  England  has  from 
Russia  a  definite  pledge  to  keep  out  of  Korea;  but  it  is 
also  true  that  in  war  treaties  are  abrogated,  and  that  pre- 
texts for  war  are  readily  found  when  desired. 

Progress  in  Korea.— The  present  outlook  in  Korea 
is  rather  dark.  Russian  agents  are  incessantly  at  work, 
and  Japan  finds  but  little  encouragement  in  the  results  so 
far  attained  by  her  efforts  in  the  way  of  reform.  The 
Koreans  are  admittedly  unfit  for  the  manas^ement  of  their 

Vol.  6.-36. 


554  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

own  affairs;  yet  Japan  cannot  declare  a  protectorate  over 
the  Hermit  Kingdom,  for  that  would  be  contrary  to 
her  own  reiterated  desire  for  Korean  independence,  and 
would  inevitably  be  opposed  by  Russia.  A  reaction  of 
popular  feeling  in  Korea  in  favor  of  the  latter  power,  is 
one  of  the  most  significant  developments  of  the  last  three 
months.  This  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  presence  of 
Japanese  adventurers  and  disturbers,  who  have  swarmed 
into  the  country  since  the  war,  and  whose  conduct  toward 
the  natives  is  intolerable. 

The  departure  of  Count  Inouye  for  Japan  late  in  June 
(p.  310)  had  the  effect  of  reassuring  those  Koreans  who 
persisted  in  fearing  the  declaration  of  a  protectorate  or 
even  direct  annexation  by  Japan.  Count  Inouye's  stren- 
uous efforts  to  carry  out  the  Japanese  scheme  of  reforms 
and  to  insure  thereby  the  future  stability  of  the  kingdom, 
had  met  with  but  little  success,  owing  to  the  turbulence 
and  unsettled  disposition  of  the  populace,  and  the  unre- 
liable character  of  most  of  the  official  material  with  which 
the  Japanese  commissioner  had  to  surround  himself. 
Hardly  had  he  left  the  country,  when  the  Korean  queen, 
led  on,  it  is  said,  by  Russian  influences,  induced  the  king 
to  issue  an  order  for  the  arrest,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  of 
the  home  minister,  Pak  Yong  Ho.  This  official,  who  had 
been  recalled  from  his  exile  in  Japan,  and  installed  in 
power  when  the  work  of  reform  in  Korea  was  entered 
upon,  had  quickly  shown  himself  open  to  intrigue,  and 
alienated  the  affections  of  his  Japanese  friends.  The 
order  for  his  arrest,  it  is  said,  was  therefore  not  displeas- 
ing to  the  latter;  but  Pak  was  nevertlieless  permitted 
to  make  his  escape  to  Japan,  where  he  still  retained  much 
of  the  reputation  for  patriotism  earned  during  his  former 
residence  as  an  exile.  The  result  was  a  temporary  tri- 
umph of  Russian  influence  in  Seoul. 

'Pak  Yong  Ho,  lately  Korean  minister  of  the  interior,  is  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  Korean  king,  with  the  title  of  prince.  He  was  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  late  Kim-ok-Kiun  in  the  progressive  movement  headed 
by  the  latter;  and  in  1883,  notwithstanding  the  law  excluding  him 
from  office  on  the  ground  of  his  relationship  to  the  king,  he  was  ap- 
pointed mayor  of  Seoul.  His  liberal  and  progressive  tendencies  brought 
against  him  the  opposition  of  the  conservatives,  and  he  was  soon  re- 
moved from  office.  In  1884  he  took  part  in  the  abortive  revolt  of 
Kim-ok-Kiun.  He  escaped  and  thereafter  lived  in  Japan,  where  he 
was  held  in  high  esteem.  When  the  new  Korean  ministry  was  formed 
some  months  ago,  the  recall  of  Pak  and  his  appointment  to  the  im- 
portant post  of  the  interior  were  forced  upon  the  king. 

In  view  of  the  critical  situation  resulting  from  the 
flight  of  Pak,  and  the  danger  of  the  increasing  influence 


THE  SITUATION  IN  THE  ORIENT.  555 

of  Russia,  Count  Inouye,  being  strongly  urged  by  the  Jap- 
anese ministry,  consented  to  return  to  Korea  to  check  the 
rise  of  anti-Japanese  sentiment  which  seemed  to  be  spring- 
ing up  under  the  new  order  of  things,  and  to  restore,  if  pos- 
sible, the  status  existing  prior  to  the  flight  of  the  home 
minister.  He  sailed  for  Korea  July  15.  Under  his  influence, 
it  is  reported,  order  was  to  some  extent  again  quickly  re- 
stored. By  the  middle  of  August  a  new  ministry  had  been 
formed,  with  Kim  Koshu  as  minister  president.  It  contains 
several  men  known  to  be  friendly  toward  Japan,  and  there 
is  again  apparent  a  steady  growth  of  Japanese  sentiment. 
General  Viscount  Miura  was  expected  to  succeed  Count 
Inouye  as  Jajaanese  minister  in  Korea  about  the  end  of 
August. 

A  factor  which  counts  much  in  Japan's  popular  favor 
in  Korea,  is  her  evident  determination  to  take  no  backward 
step  in  her  policy  toward  the  latter.  Japan  is  pledged  to 
see  that  the  Hermit  Kingdom  has  independent  govern- 
ment as  soon  as  it  is  qualified  to  stand  alone,  and  to  that 
end  is  pledged  to  go  on  with  the  reforms  which  she  has 
inaugurated.  For  the  sake  of  her  prestige,  and  more  es- 
pecially for  the  sake  of  her  large  pecuniary  and  commer- 
cial interests  in  Korea,  Japan  feels  that  she  cannot  afford 
to  let  the  country  drift  back  into  a  state  as  bad  as  anarchy; 
nor  can  she  allow  it  to  become,  in  the  hands  of  any  other 
power,  a  standing  menace  to  her  own  future  prospects. 
The  only  other  power  at  whose  designs  in  the  peninsula 
real  apprehension  is  felt,  is  tiiat  power  whose  arms  are 
even  now  stretching  eastward  across  the  northern  portions 
of  two  continents,  and  whose  subtle  diplomacy  emanates 
from  the  mysterious  bureaucracy  which  surrounds  the 
czar. 

Formosa. — The  quarter  has  seen  substantial  progress 
made  by  Japan  in  the  work  of  subjugating  the  rebelUous 
''Black  Flags"  in  the  island  of  Formosa.  On  July  10 
the  rebels,  700  strong,  made  an  attack  upon  the  Japanese 
at  Haincha,  but  were  repulsed  after  a  short  fight,  with  the 
loss  of  200  killed.  Again  on  August  8  and  9  the  Japan- 
ese scored  a  complete  victory,  in  which  the  rebels  were 
driven  from  their  headquarters  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
island.  The  latter  then  concentrated  their  forces  in  the 
stronghold  of  Shinchiku,  an  important  city  on  the  south- 
west coast.  Here  the  Japanese,  under  General  Kaway- 
mura,once  more  attacked  them  about  August  18,being  aided 
by  the  co-operation  of  two  gunboats.  The  "Black  Flags" 
were  utterly  routed,  their  defeat  resulting,  as  reported,  in 
the  virtual  suppression  of  the  rebellion. 


556  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Japanese  Military  Rewards.^.The  Japanese  emper- 
or has  not  been  slow  in  recognizing  and  rewarding  the 
valuable  services  of  those  whose  foresight,  skill,  and  brav- 
ery contributed  to  the  glorious  victories  of  Japanese  arms 
in  the  late  war.  Early  in  August  a  number  of  titles  and 
decorations  were  distributed  among  high  officials  of  the 
army  and  navy,  among  them  Marshals  Oyama,  Yamagata, 
Nodzu,  and  Kabayama,  and  Admiral  Ito.  Two  new 
peers  were  created;  two  viscounts  were  raised  to  the  rank 
of  count;  and  four  counts  were  made  marquises.  Marshal 
Yamagata  at  first  declined  his  honors,  but  subsequently 
yielded  to  the  urgent  requests  of  the  emperor.  The  title 
of  marquis  and  the  decoration  of  the  Grand  Order  of  Merit 
were  also  conferred  upon  Count  Ito,  president  minister  of 
state.  The  premier  had  been  made  the  object  of  ungen- 
erous attacks  by  the  opposition  press,  and,  in  the  embarrass- 
ment of  the  situation,  at  first  declined  the  honors  on  the  pro- 
test that  he  was  not  deserving  of  them,  but  presumably  for 
political  reasons.  He  even  tendered  to  the  emperor  his 
resignation  of  office;  but,  in  view  of  the  critical  situation 
in  the  domestic  politics  of  the  empire  and  the  urgent  ap- 
peal of  the  emperor,  he  was  finally  prevailed  upon  to  re- 
turn to  the  capital  and  bow  to  the  sovereign  will. 

Chinese  Commercial  Concessions. — The  commer- 
cial advantages  gained  by  Japan  in  the  treaty  which  put 
an  end  to  the  war  (p.  303),  to  be  supplemented  by  further 
negotiations,  are  destined  to  prove  of  immense  value  to 
her,  and  will  be  shared  to  a  large  extent  by  other  nations 
also.  The  number  of  ports  open  to  Japanese  trade  is  in- 
creased from  fifteen  to  twenty-eight;  and  the  number  open 
to  the  trade  of  other  nations,  from  twenty-five  to  twenty- 
eight.  Heretofore  Japanese  merchants  had  labored  under 
disabilities  to  which  the  traders  of  other  powers  were  not 
subject.  The  latter  were  free  to  trade  in  the  interior  of 
China,  while  the  former  were  compelled  to  confine  their 
business  operations  within  the  limited  bounds  of  the  set- 
tlements at  the  open  ports;  and  goods  imported  by  Japan- 
ese were  subjected  to  heavy  imposts  when  sent  to  the  in- 
terior, while  the  goods  of  Western  merchants  had  simply 
to  pay  transit  dues  amounting  to  one-half  the  customs 
duties.  By  the  new  treaty,  however,  the  Japanese  are 
relieved  from  the  heavy  transit  dues  that  they  were  for- 
merly compelled  to  pay  when  they  desired  to  store  their 
goods  in  the  interior. 

One  of  the  most  important  provisions  of  the  treaty  is 
that  which  grants  to  foreigners  the  privilege  of  establish- 


THE  SITUATION  IN  THE  ORIENT.  557 

ing  and  carrying  on  manufacturing  industries.  This  pro- 
vision virtually  opens  China  to  new  enterprises;  and  the  kin- 
dred provision  relating  to  the  free  import  of  machinery  may 
be  accepted  as  fully  explanatory  of  the  article  contained 
in  the  commercial  treaty  between  China  and  Western  na- 
tions, being  the  first  definite  statement  as  to  machinery, 
which  in  the  past  has  been  imported  under  the  name  of 
commodities.  Only  a  few  years  ago,  when  cotton  gins 
were  sent  from  Japan  to  Shanghai,  the  customs  authorities 
objected  on  the  ground  that  China  did  not  allow  foreigners 
to  engage  in  manufacturing  industries  in  the  interior,  and 
therefore  the  importation  of  machinery  for  manufacturing 
purposes  could  not  be  permitted.  Now,  however,  there 
can  be  no  further  doubt  upon  this  question,  and  machin- 
ery as  well  as  other  merchandise  may  be  imported. 

The  Upper  Me-Koiig  Dispute.— Among  the  legacies 
bequeathed  by  the  late  Rosebery  government  in  England 
to  the  present  ministry  of  Lord  Salisbury,  is  the  task  of 
completing  the  delimitation  of  the  French  and  English 
spheres  of  influence  in  the  region  of  the  upper  Me-Kong 
river  in  Indo-China.  Our  readers  will  remember  that  as 
a  result  of  negotiations  arising  out  of  the  Franco-Siamese 
dispute  of  1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  732),  it  was  decided  by  France 
and  England  to  create  a  *' buffer"  state  between  their  re- 
spective possessions  in  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  out  of 
the  somewhat  indefinitely  bounded  Shan  states  lying  south 
of  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan  and  stretching  over  the 
east  bank  of  the  Me-Kong  (see  map,  Vol.  3,  p.  467). 
Among  these  states  are  Kiang-Kheng  and  Kiang-Hung, 
both  of  which  were  formerly  part  of  Burmah,  but  were,  in 
common  with  all  the  other  Burmese  dependencies,  taken 
over  by  Great  Britain  at  the  time  of  the  deposition  of 
King  Thebaw  in  1886.  It  was  only  last  year  that  China 
and  Great  Britain  reached  an  agreement  as  to  the  Bur- 
mese boundary;  and  in  that  agreement,  ratified  in  August, 
1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  571),  Great  13ritain  recognized  the  sov- 
ereign rights  of  China  in  Kiang-Hung,  but  on  the  condi- 
tion that  China  should  never  cede  any  portion  of  the  state 
to  any  other  power  without  first  reaching  an  understand- 
ing with  Great  Britain  on  the  matter. 

However,  French  diplomacy  has  at  last  stolen  a  march 
upon  British  watchfulness,  being  greatly  aided  in  this  by 
the  recent  action  of  France  in  joining  with  Russia  for  the 
financial  relief  of  China  in  the  matter  of  advancing  the 
indemnity  to  Japan.  In  July  of  this  year  France  not 
only  secured  by  treaty  with  China  most  important  com- 


558  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

mercial  concessions  in  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  but 
also  induced  the  Pekin  government  to  cede  to  her  terri- 
tory forming  part  of  the  state  of  Kiang-Hung,  above  al- 
luded to.  Great  Britain  immediately  protested  against 
the  arrangement;  and  the  territorial  dispute  is  now  the 
subject  of  earnest  diplomatic  correspondence  between  the 
two  powers.  It  is  not  only  over  the  state  of  Kiang-Hung 
that  British  sovereignty  is  called  in  question  by  the  French, 
but  also  over  Kiang-Kheng.  In  1893,  when  Siam  was 
forced  to  submit  to  the  French  demands,  it  will  be  re- 
membered that  England  resisted  the  claims  of  France  in 
the  territory  east  of  the  Me-Kong,  as  conflicting  with  the 
sovereignty  which  Great  Britain  took  over  from  Burmah. 
The  two  countries  agreed  to  a  friendly  delimitation  of 
their  respective  spheres;  and  for  that  purpose  they  ap- 
pointed a  commission  consisting  of  M.  Pavie,  the  French 
minister  resident  at  Bangkok,  and  Mr.  F.  G.  Scott,  rep- 
resenting Great  Britain,  to  survey  the  territory  in  dispute. 
Negotiations  were  still  in  progress  when  the  above  agree- 
ment between  France  and  China  was  concluded.  The 
French  contention  is  that  Kiang-Hung  has  not,  properly 
speaking,  been  ceded  by  China,  since  it  was  not  the  prop- 
erty of  China,  but  of  Siam,  and  hence  comes  witliin  the  pro- 
visions of  the  treaty  of  Bangkok.  In  the  meantime  French 
forces  took  up  a  position  at  Mengsin,  the  capital  of  the  state 
of  Kiang-Kheng,  but  promptly  retired  therefrom  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  formidable  British  force.  The  Indian  govern- 
ment has  built  a  telegraph  line  to  the  capital,  stationed  a 
garrison  of  Goorkhas  there,  and  publicly  declared  its  inten- 
tion to  retain  Kiang-Kheng  as  part  and  parcel  of  the 
British  empire. 

On  the  whole,  while  the  dispute  is  hardly  likely  of 
itself  to  lead  to  open  hostilities,  it  is  calculated  to  increase 
that  prolonged  tension  due  to  the  clash  of  French  and 
English  interests  in  Newfoundland,  Egypt,  and  the  region 
of  the  Niger — all  of  which  paves  the  way  to  open  rupture 
when  the  occasion  therefor  arises. 

The  commercial  concessions  won  by  France  are  cer- 
tainly a  triumph  for  Gallic  diplomacy.  They  include  im- 
portant stipulations  as  to  maintenance  of  French  consular 
agents,  settlement  of  traders,  transit  of  merchandise,  and 
construction  of  railways  and  telegraph  lines  in  the  inte- 
rior. In  a  word,  although  its  contemplated  completion  of 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  French  possessions  in  Indo- 
China  is  called  into  serious  question,  the  treaty  is  un- 
doubtedly a  great  step  toward  solution  of  the  problem  of 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  '  559 

French  access  to  China  by  way  of  Tonkin  and  Yunnan, 
which  has  long  been  a  prominent  feature  of  the  French 
colonial  policy. 


THE  SILYER  QUESTION. 

CjOCIETY  is  made  up  of  individuals,  and  the  forces 
which  direct  and  mold  it  accomplish  results  through 
the  instrumentality  of  individual  acts.  But  it  is  true,  at 
the  same  time,  that  the  individual  seldom,  if  ever,  under- 
stands the  ultimate  bearing  of  his  acts,  or  perceives  the 
end  toward  which  he  in  common  with  others  is  drifting. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  politics:  individual  plans, 
ambitions,  and  efforts,  while  they  contribute  to,  do  not 
determine,  results,  which  are  controlled  by  higher  and 
broader  forces.  Waves  of  sentiment  arise,  sweep  over 
the  country  like  storms,  and  pass  away;  but  it  does  not 
fall  to  the  lot  even  of  the  most  experienced  statesman  to 
be  able  to  foretell  their  strength  or  estimate  their  results. 
The  present  is  one  of  these  periods  of  doubtful  outlook 
in  the  United  States.  There  are  those  who  tell  us  that 
free-silver  sentiment  is  the  natural  and  appropriate  ac- 
companiment of  times  of  panic  and  depression,  and  that 
the  advocates  of  that  political  faith  are  fast  losing  ground 
as  a  result  of  the  increasingly  brighter  outlook  in  business 
and  industrial  circles.  In  proof  thereof  these  political 
prophets  point  to  the  silver  defeat  in  Kentucky  (p.  297) 
and  the  more  recent  defections  from  the  silver  ranks  of 
former  champions  of  free-coinage,  such  as  Senator  Roger 
Q.  Mills  of  Texas  and  Governor  Charles  T.  O'Ferrall  of  Vir- 
ginia; and  they  quote  the  following  reported  declaration  of 
Congressman  Francis  G.  Newlands  of  Nevada,  chairman 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  national  silver  party: 

"I  recognize  the  fact  that  if  business  continues  to  improve,  and 
it  turns  out  that  the  improvement  is  permanent,  the  silver  issue  is 
dead." 

On  the  other  hand,  those  who  look  to  the  remonetiza- 
tion  of  silver  as  the  salvation  of  the  country,  gather  en- 
couragement from  the  fact  chat  free-silver  resolutions 
have  been  adopted  by  party  conventions  in  a  large  number 
of  states,  including  Georgia,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  North 


560  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Carolina,  Nebraska,  and  Texas.  These  they  point  to  as 
strong  evidence  that  the  ''silver  craze/'  as  their  opponents 
contemptuously  call  it,  is  not  only  not  dead,  but  has  still 
sufficient  strength  to  make  it  a  very  serious  and  difficult 
problem  to  determine  how  large  a  part  it  will  play  in  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1896.  Very  little  evidence  has 
yet  come  to   light   of   any  widespread  silver   sentiment 

among  republicans; 
but  numerous  demo- 
cratic state  conven- 
tions have  recorded 
themselves  in  favor  of 
free-coinage,  and 
some  of  the  delegates 
of  that  party  to  the 
national  convention 
next  year  will  un- 
doubtedly make  a 
vigorous  fight  for  a 
candidate  unequivo- 
cally favorable  to  the 
interests  of  free  sil- 
ver. 

Free-Silver  Or- 
ganization.—  As  a 
counterpart  to  the 
energetic  campaign 
which  has  for  some 
time  been  carried  on 
by  the  ''sound- 
money"  elements 
within  the  democrat- 
ic party,  led  by  the 
president  and  his 
cabinet,  we  find  that  representative  democrats  from  about 
thirty  of  the  states  are  now  organizing  with  a  view  of  secur- 
ing control  of  the  next  national  convention  of  their  party  in 
favor  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1 
by  the  United  States  independently  of  all  other  countries. 
This  action  is  pursuant  to  arrangements  made  at  the  free- 
silver  convention  in  Memphis  in  June  (p.  293).  Since 
that  gathering,  it  has  been  the  purpose  of  the  leaders  to 
organize  in  each  state  a  body  of  earnest,  watchful  workers, 
who  shall  not  only  retain  every  silver  state  ever  known  as 
such,  but  who  shall  also  agitate  thoroughly  in  every  other 
state  in  which,  as,  for  example,  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 


HON.  A.  J.  WARNER  OF  OHIO, 
MEMBKR  OF  NATIONAL  SILVER  EXECUTIVE    COM- 
MITTEE. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  661 

vania,  any  germs  of  silver  sentiment  are  apparent.  Local 
clubs  are  to  be  established,  and  literature  spread  broadcast, 
in  the  hope  that  before  the  national  convention  meets  in 
1896  a  majority  of  its  delegates  may  be  captured  in  the 
interests  of  free  silver. 

The  National  Silver  committee  of  one  from  each  state 
and  territory,  appointed  at  the  Memphis  silver  convention, 
met  in  Chicago,  111., 
in  the  middle  of  July. 
Judge  Henry  G.  Mil- 
ler of  Chicago  was 
elected  permanent 
chairman;  and  an  ex- 
ecutive committee 
was  named,  consist- 
ing of  Hon.  A.  J. 
Warner  of  Ohio,  A. 
Walcott  of  Indiana, 
N.  C.  Blanchard  of 
Louisiana,  George  E. 
Bo  wen  of  Chicago, 
and  Judge  A.  J. 
Rucker  of  Colorado. 

Resolutions  were 
adopted  declaring  tliat  tbe 
money  question  "must 
be  decided  by  tbe  people 
at  tbe  election  in  1896," 
and  recommending  tbe 
organization  of  free-coin- 
age leagues  tbrougbout 
tbe  country,  tbe  distribu- 
tion of  literature,  and  tbe 
appointment  of  a  free- 
coinage  c  b  a  i  r  m  a  n  for 
eacb  county  of  tbe  United  States,  vvbo  sball  organize  a  committee 
to  co-operate  witb  tbe  state  and  national  committees. 

The  Washington  Fr^ee- Silver  Conference. — Another 
gathering  traceable  to  the  influence  of  the  Memphis  con- 
vention was  held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  August  14  and  15. 
It  comprised  free-silver  democrats,  who,  to  the  number 
of  about  eighty,  and  representing  nineteen  states,  met  for 
the  purpose  of  effecting  an  organization  strong  enough  to 
commit  the  party,  at  the  next  national  convention,  tc  free 
coinage.  The  delegates  were  distributed  in  representation 
as  follows: 

Virginia,  15;  West  Virginia,  2;  Arkansas,  3;  Colorado,  3;  Soutb 
Carolina,  1;  Nortb  Carolina,  3;  Illinois,  14;  Florida,  4;  Tennessee  4: 


HON.  .TAMES  Z.    GEORGE  OF   MISSISSIPPI, 
DEMOCRATIC  UNITED  STATES  SENATOR. 


562 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.      3d  Qr.,  1895. 


Alabama,  4;  Ohio,  1;  Georgia,  2;  Missouri,  14;  Indiana,  2;  Delaware, 
1;  Maryland,  3;  Kentucky,  1;  Mississippi,  1;  North  Dakota,  1. 

Letters  of  support  and  sympathy  were  received  from 
Senators  Morgan  (Ala.),  George  and  Walthall  (Miss.), 
Blackburn  (Ky.),  Blanchard  (La.),  Tillman  (S.  C),  and 
Voorhees  and  Turpie  (Ind.).  With  one  exception,  the 
speakers  at  the  conference  denounced  bitterly  the  admin- 
istration of  President 
Cleveland.  An  ad- 
dress in  favor  of  ^*  bi- 
metallism "  was  unan- 
imously adopted,  in 
substance  as  follows: 

' '  Disclaiming  all  right 
to  bind  any  person  by  our 
utterances,  but  profound- 
ly conscious  that  the  dem- 
ocratic party  to-day  con- 
fronts a  crisis  the  most 
momentous  in  its  history 
and  fraught  with  far- 
reaching  perils  to  the 
l)eople  and  the  country, 
we  are  assembled  as  indi- 
vidual democrats  to  take 
f'ounsel  together,  and  for 
tlie  undisguised  purpose 
of  inaugurating  and  pro- 
moting a  thorough  and 
-systematic  organization 
f  the  democratic  masses 
.so  that  they  may  go  for- 
Avard  as  one  man  with  a 
resolute  purpose  to  rescue 
the  old  party  founded  by 
Thomas  Jefferson  from 
plutocratic  domination. 
"The  democratic  party  is  the  traditional  friend  and  champion  of 
bimetallism.  Its  strength,  and  power,  and  popularity  have  been 
largely  built  upon  its  steadfast  opposition  to  the  demonetization  of 
silver  and  its  record  of  unwearied  effort  to  restore  it  to  its  historic 
place  as  a  full-money  metal,  equal  with  gold.  The  effort  at  this  late 
day  to  make  it  par  excellence  the  champion  of  gold  monometallism, 
the  enemy  of  the  policy  it  has  upheld,  and  the  defender  of  the  crime 
it  has  denounced,  is  an  effort  to  dishonor  its  record,  its  promises,  and 
its  principles.  The  moment  the  democratic  party  is  forced  into  this 
position  it  heaps  obloquy  on  its  own  past,  and  crowns  its  great  adver- 
sary with  glory  and  honor. 

"Duty  to  the  people  requires  that  the  party  of  the  people  con- 
tinue the  battle  for  bimetallism  until  its  efforts  are  crowned  with 
success;  therefore  be  it 

'' ResoUed,  l^hai  the  democratic  party,  in  national  convention 
assembled,  should  demand  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver 


HON.   EDWARD  C.   WALTHALL  OF  MISSISSIPPI, 
DEMOCRATIC   UNITED   STATES   SENATOR. 


f 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  563 

and  gold  into  primary  or  redemption  money  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1, 
without  waiting  for  the  action  or  approval  of  any  other  nation, 

"Resolved,  That  it  should  declare  its  irrevocable  opposition  to 
the  substitution  for  a  metallic  money  of  a  panic-breeding,  corporation- 
credit  currency  based  on  a  single  metal,  the  supply  of  which  is  so 
limited  that  it  can  be  cornered  at  any  time  by  a  few  banking  institu- 
tions in  Europe  and  America. 

"Resolved,  That  it  should  declare  its  opposition  to  the  policy 
and  practice  of  surrendering  to  the  holders  of  the  obligations  of  the 
United  States  the  option  reserved  by  the  law  to  the  government  of 
redeeming  such  obligations  in  either  silver  coin  or  gold  coin. 

"Resolved,  That  it  should  declare  its  opposition  to  the  issuing 
of  interest-bearing  bonds  of  the  United  States  in  time  of  peace,  and 
especially  to  placing  the  treasury  of  the  government  under  the  control 
of  any  syndicate  of  bankers,  and  the  issuance  of  bonds  to  be  sold  by  them 
at  an  enormous  profit  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  federal  treasury 
with  gold  to  maintain  the  policy  of  gold  monometallism. 

"With  a  view  of  securing  the  adherents  to  a  readoption  of  the 
democratic  financial  policy  above  set  forth  by  the  democratic  na- 
tional convention  to  be  assembled  in  1896,  and  of  the  nomination  of  a 
candidate  for  the  presidency  well  known  to  be  in  hearty  sympathy 
therewith,  we  hereby  pledge  our  mutual  co-operation,  and  urgently 
recommend  to  our  democratic  brethren  in  all  the  states  to  begin  at 
once,  and  vigorously  and  systematically  prosecute  the  work  of  a 
thorough  organization." 

A  plan  of  organization  was  recommended,  including  a 
national  committee  composed  of  one  democrat  from  each 
state,  and  an  executive  committee  to  consist,  until  other- 
wise ordered  by  the  national  committee,  of  Senators  Har- 
ris (Tenn.),  Jones  (Ark.),  and  Turpie  (Ind.),  Governor 
W.  J.  Stone  of  Missouri,  and  Hon.  W.  H.  Hinrichsen, 
secretary  of  state  of  Illinois.  The  following  were  im- 
mediately named  by  the  executive  committee  members  of 
tlie  national  committee:  Ex-Senator  Walsh  of  Augusta, 
Ga. ;  J.  H.  Dennis  of  Keno,  Nev. ;  C.  S.  Thomas  of  Col- 
orado; G.  Ainslee  of  Idaho;  J.-  H.  Head  of  Nashville, 
Tenn.;  and  G.  Armstrong  of  Arkansas. 

Although  confidence  was  expressed  at  the  time  of  the 
Washington  conference,  that  the  democratic  national  con- 
vention of  1896  could  be  carried  in  favor  of  silver,  later  de- 
velopments caused  some  doubt  on  this  point  in  the  minds  of 
the  free-coinage  leaders.  It  was  accordingly  reported  toward 
the  end  of  September,  that  in  the  hope  of  effecting  a  serious 
break  in  the  formidable  ranks  of  the  old  parties,  a  move- 
ment had  been  started  in  Chicago  for  joint  action  of  the 
various  free-coinage  leagues  or  committees  throughout  the 
country  in  the  calling  of  an  independent  national  silver 
convention  in  the  near  future,  and  the  making  of  an  early 
independent  bimetallic  nomination  for  the  presidency. 

The   Georgia  Bimetallic   Convention. — In  addition  to 


564  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

the  gatherings  already  mentioned,  conventions  at  which 
resolutions  in  favor  of  free  silver  were  passed  have  been 
held  in  several  of  the  states.  On  July  18  the  bimetallists 
of  Georgia  met  at  Griffin  and  adopted  a  platform  identical 
with  that  adopted  by  the  recent  Memphis  convention, 
calling  for  the  immediate  and  independent  free  coinage 
of  silver  and  gold.  The  gathering  is  said  to  have  num- 
bered about  5,000  representative  citizens  of  the  state.  A 
noteworthy  feature  was  an  address  by  Senator  John  T. 
Morgan  of  Alabama,  severely  attacking  the  administra- 
tion of  President  Cleveland  for  its  attitude  on  the  money 
question. 

The  Missouri  Democratic  Convention. — The  state 
convention  of  the  democratic  party  in  Missouri  met  at 
Pertle  Springs  August  6,  attended  by  514  delegates. 
Hon.  R.  P.  Bland,  the  noted  free-silver  champion,  was 
temporary  and  permanent  chairman.  By  an  overwhelm- 
ing vote  the  convention  adopted  a  platform  calling  for 
free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1,  and  decided 
to  reorganize  the  state  central  committee.  The  reorgani- 
zation of  this  committee,  by  placing  the  party  machinery 
entirely  out  of  the  control  of  the  gold  men,  is  regarded  as 
a  great  victory  for  Mr.  Bland  and  a  serious  blow  to  the 
Francis  and  Maffitt  faction.  The  coinage  resolutions  of  tlie 
convention  were  identical  with  those  adopted  at  the  demo- 
cratic free-silver  conference  in  AVashington. 

North  Carolina  Silver  Convention. — The  advocates  of 
free  silver  in  the  state  of  North  Carolina  met  in  conven- 
tion at  Raleigh  September  25.  Of  the  nearly  300  delegates 
in  attendance,  tlie  great  majority  were  populists.  James 
C.  MacRae  (dem.)  presided.  The  platform  adopted  de- 
clared that  the  only  way  to  put  an  end  to  the  evils  of  mono- 
metallism was  to  open  the  mints  of  the  country  to  the  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver.  It  also  included  the  fol- 
lowing resolution,  which  was  vigorously  opposed  by  the 
democrats: 

"  We  earnestly  recommend  to  the  voters  that  hereafter  they  elect 
only  such  senators  and  representatives  in  congress  as  are  sincerely  in 
favor  of  principles  herein  before  expressed,  and  only  such  presiden- 
tial electors  as  will  publicly  declare  on  the  stump  that  they  will  vote 
for  no  man  for  president  or  vice-president  who  is  not  in  favor  of  such 
principles,  and  whose  record  and  platform  are  guarantees  that  they  will 
be  faithfully  executed. " 

The  democratic  delegates  wished  to  confine  the  mone- 
tary demands  of  the  convention  to  the  restoration  of  free- 
silver  coinage  at  16  to  1;  but  their  amendment  to  that 
effect  was  overwhelmingly  voted  down. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  565 

Silver  Interests  in  Other  States. — Democratic  state  con- 
ventions in  Texas,  Nebraska,  and  Mississippi,  held  in 
August,  also  adopted  platforms  advocating  independent 
free-silver  coinage. 

Incidents  already  referred  to,  which  are  not  unlikely  to 
have  great  influence  throughout  the  South  and  Southwest, 
were  the  defections  of  Governor  O'Ferrall  of  Virginia  and 
Senator  Mills  of 
Texas  from  the  silver 
ranks.  In  a  letter  ad- 
dressed early  in  Sep- 
tember to  the  chair- 
man of  the  democratic 
state  committee  of 
Texas,  Senator  Mills 
vigorously  opposed 
the  movement  for 
free  coinage  by  the 
United  States  inde- 
pendently of  the  other 
commercial  nations  of 
the  world,  denounc- 
ing it  as  '*a  gigantic 
scheme  to  enrich  one- 
half  of  the  commu- 
nity by  despoiling  the 
other  half.'' 

In  Kentucky  the 
silver  situation  is 
much  complicated 
owing  to  the  action  of 
the  late  democratic 
convention  at  Louis- 
ville (p.  297)  in  nominating  a  free-silver  candidate  for 
governor,  Mr.  P.  Watt  Hardin,  and  at  the  same  time 
adopting  a  "sound-money"  platform.  This  action  has  re- 
sulted in  a  division  of  the  democratic  party  into  two  fac- 
tions, and  has  rendered  the  contest  a  double  one,  with 
issues  which  may  deeply  afPect  the  future  political  life  of 
the  state.  On  the  one  hand,  there  is  the  open  struggle  be- 
tween the  republican  and  democratic  organizations  for  the 
control  of  the  state,  and  on  the  other  the  equally  vital  strug- 
gle between  the  silver  and  anti-silver  forces  in  the  democratic 
party  for  control  of  the  party  machinery  and  of  the  dele- 
gation which  will  represent  Kentucky  in  the  next  demo- 
cratic national  convention.     The  outcome  of  the  struggle 


HON.    ROGER    Q.    MILLS   OP   TEXAS, 
DEMOCRATIC    UNITED   STATES    SENATOR. 


566 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 


is  in  doubt;  but  it  is  not  unlikely  to  add  stimulus  to  the 
efforts  for  a  renewal  of  the  free-silver  propaganda  in  the 
democratic  national  convention  of  1896. 

Sound-Money  Interests. — Ohio  Democratic  Conven- 
tion.— Among  the  foremost  of  the  states  whose  party  drift 
is  commonly  regarded  as  affording  a  sort  of  political  barom- 
eter for  the  country  at  large,  is  the  state  of  Ohio.  Sel- 
dom in  the  history  of 
the  country  has  so 
speedy  and  great  a 
revolution  of  senti- 
ment occurred  as 
that  which  we  have 
to  note  on  the  money 
question  within  the 
democratic  party  in 
Ohio  during  the  past 
year.  After  the  panic 
of  1893,  silver  senti- 
ment made  great  ad- 
vances; and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1894,  while 
the  business  depres- 
sion following  the 
panic  was  still  widely 
and  deeply  felt,  the 
democratic  state  con- 
vention of  Ohio,  by 
the  decisive  vote  of 
4f)8  to 319,  repudiated 
the  financial  policy 
of  President  Cleve- 
land, and  declared 
out-and-out  for  unlimited  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the 
ratio  of  16  to  1.  In  the  convention  of  1895,  however, 
which  met  at  Springfield  August  21,  a  free-silver  sub- 
stitute for  the  "sound-money"'  plank  introduced  by  the 
majority  of  the  committee  on  resolutions,  was  rejected  by 
the  overwhelming  vote  of  524  to  270. 

The  financial  plank  of  the  majority  platform  adopted 
was  as  follows: 

"  We  reaffirm  the  following  portion  of  the  seventh  plank  of  the 
last  national  democratic  convention: 

" '  We  hold  to  the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver  as  the  standard  money  of  the 
country  and  to  the  coinage  of  both  gold  and  silver  without  discrimination 
against  either  metal  or  charge  for  mintage;  but  the  dollar  unit  of  coinage  of 
both  metals  must  be  of  equal  intrinsic  and  exchangeable  value  or  be  adjusted 
by  international  agreement,  or  by  such  safeguards  of  legislation  as  shall  insure 


HON.   JAMES  E.   CAMPBELL  OF  OHIO, 
DEMOCRATIC   CANDIDATE   FOR   GOVERNOR. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  567 

the  maintenance  of  the  parity  of  the  two  metals  and  the  equal  power  of  every 
dollar  at  all  times  in  the  market  and  in  the  payment  ot  debts;  and  we  de- 

fmand  that  the  paper  currency  shall  be  kept  at  par  with  and  redeemable  in  such 

fcoin.' 

"We  insist  upon  this  policy  as  especially  necessary  for  the  pro- 
tection of  farmers  and  laboring  classes,  the  first  and  most  defenseless 
victims  of  unstable  money  and  fluctuating  currency." 

This  defeat  of  the  silver  movement  in  Ohio  is  regarded 
as  a  great  personal  victory  for  Senator  Calvin  S.  Brice. 

Ex-Governor  James  E.  Campbell  was  unanimously 
nominated  for  governor.  He  strongly  favored  the  resolu- 
tion in  the  platform,  introduced  by  Mr.  E.  Finley  of 
Bucyrus,  ex-adjutant-general  of  the  state,  advocating  a 
more  vigorous  enforcement  of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  espe- 
cially in  respect  of  British  operations  on  the  frontier  of 
Venezuela. 

Campbell,  James  Edwin,  was  born  in  Middleton,  Butler  cc, 
O.,  July  7, 1843,  of  Scotch  ancestry.  He  served,  during  the  rebellion, 
in  the  Union  navy,  entering  the  service  before  he  was  twenty -one. 
He  was  mastermate  on  the  gunboats  Elk  and  Naiad,  serving  on  the 
Mississippi  and  Red  river  tiotillas,  and  taking  part  in  many  battles 
and  engagements.  He  was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  in  Butler 
county  in  1875,  and  re-elected  in  1877.  Three  times  he  was  elected  to 
congress  in  a  republican  district.  He  was  looked  upon,  by  the  demo- 
crats, therefore,  as  a  mascot.  In  1889  he  was  nominated  for  governor 
and  elected;  but  in  1891  was  defeated  for  re-election  by  William  Mc- 
Kinley,  the  present  governor. 

Unlike  the  Kentucky  convention,  which  divided  issues 
by  nominating  a  free-silver  candidate  on  a  *'  sound-money  " 
platform,  the  Ohio  convention,  both  in  its  platform  and  in 
its  gubernatorial  nominee,  took  -ground  squarely  against 
free-silver  coinage. 

Pennsylvania  Republican  Convention. — At  Harrisburg; 
on  August  28,  the  state  convention  of  republicans  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Senator  ^L  S.  Quay  being  chairman,  adopted  the 
following  platform: 

"  We  accept  and  reaffirm  the  currency  plank  of  the  national  re- 
publican platform  of  1892,  as  follows: 

"'The  American  people  from  tradition  and  interest  favor  bimetallism;  and 
the  republican  party  demands  the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver  as  standard  money, 
with  such  restrictions  and  under  such  provisions,  to  be  determined  by  the  legis- 
lature, as  will  secure  the  maintenance  of  the  parity  of  values  of  the  two  metals; 
so  that  the  purchasing  and  debt-paying  power  of  the  dollar,  whether  of  silver, 
gold,  or  paper,  shall  be  at  all  times  equal.  The  intei-ests  of  the  producers  of  the 
country,  its  business,  and  its  workingmen  demand  that  every  dollar,  paper  or 
coin,  issued  by  the  government,  shall  be  as  good  as  any  other.' 

"  We  commend  the  wise  and  patriotic  steps  already  taken  by  our 
government  to  secure  an  international  conference  to  adopt  such  meas- 
ures as  will  insure  a  parity  of  value  between  gold  and  silver  for  use 
as  money  throughout  the  world.  We  oppose  the  debasement  of  the 
national  currency  by  the  admission  of  silver  to  free  and  unlimited 
coinage  at  the  arbitrary  ratio  of  16  to  1,  for  the  reason  that  if  such  a 
policy   be  adopted  it  will  not  be  possible  to  maintain  the  parity  of 


568  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

values  of  the  two  metals;  and  tlie  purchasing  and  debt-paying  power 
of  the  dollar,  whether  of  silver,  gold,  or  paper,  cannot  continue  to  be 
equal." 

Iowa  Democratic  Convention. — The  democrats  of  Iowa 
in  convention  at  Marshalltown,  August  7,  put  themselves 
on  record,  by  a  vote  of  651  to  420,  as  opposed  to  free  sil- 
ver. J.  H.  Shields  of  Dubuque,  a  *' sound-money"  man, 
was  elected  chairman.  The  platform  adopted  was  in  sub- 
stance as  follows: 

"  We  declare  the  rescue  of  the  finances  of  the  country  from  the 
baleful  effects  of  the  Sherman  law,  the  repeal  of  the  un-American  fed- 
eral election  law,  and  the  uprooting  of  McKinleyism  to  be  works 
worthy  of  the  history  and  prestige  of  the  great  democratic  party  and 
of  a  courageous  democratic  administration." 

Then  followed  a  reaffirmation  of  a  portion  of  the  seventh  plank 
of  the  national  democratic  convention  of  1892,  like  that  reaffirmed  in 
the  program  of  the  Ohio  convention  above  recorded. 

Resolutions  were  also  inserted  demanding  local  option  and  high 
license,  election  of  United  States  senators  by  the  people  directly,  and 
permission  of  the  manufacture  of  liquors  in  the  state. 

Judge  AV.  F.  Babb  of  Mount  Pleasant,  a  ''sound- 
money  "  candidate,  was  nominated  for  governor. 

Babb,  W.  F.,  was  born  in  Des  Moines  co.,  Iowa,  forty-five  years 
ago.  He  entered  Iowa  Wesleyan  University  at  Mount  Pleasant,  and 
in  1862  entered  and  served  two  years  in  the  Union  army.  Returning, 
he  finished  his  university  course,  studied  law,  and  settled  down  to 
practice  his  profession  in  Mount  Pleasant,  where  he  has  since  lived. 
He  has  been  successful  at  the  bar,  and  has  twice  been  elected  to  the 
bench  in  a  district  strongly  republican.  He  is  widely  known  in  Iowa 
through  his  work  in  connection  with  the  Methodist  Church. 

Sound-Money  Sentinmit  in  New  York. — Both  repub- 
licans and  democrats  in  the  Empire  state  are  committed 
to  opposition  to  free  silver,  and  in  their  respective  conven- 
tions at  Saratoga  and  Syracuse  have  so  declared  themselves. 
(See  review  of  the  political  campaign  in  New  York  under 
"Affairs  in  Various  States.")  The  democratic  financial 
plank,  which  is  a  little  more  advanced  than  the  republican, 
favors  retirement  of  the  greenbacks  and  relief  of  the  gov- 
ernment from  all  responsibility  for  the  ultimate  gold  re- 
serve of  the  country. 

The  Bankers'  Association  of  New  York  state,  in  session 
at  Saratoga,  July  11,  adopted  the  following  ''sound- 
money  "  platform,  with  only  one  dissenting  vote,  that  of 
W.  P.  St.  John,  president  of  the  Mercantile  National  bank 
of  New  York,  who  favored  free  coinage: 

"We  the  bankers  of  the  state  of  New  York,  in  convention  as- 
sembled, being  indebted  to  the  people  to  the  extent  of  $890,000,000 
in  the  form  of  deposits  and  $193,000,000  in  the  form  of  capital  and 
surplus,  declare  ourselves  in  favor  of  honest  money.     We  are  opposed 


f 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  569 

to  inflation.  We  are  opposed  to  a  debasement  of  the  currency.  We 
are  opposed  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1.  We 
are  opposed  to  two  qualities  of  money,  knowing  full  well  that  the 
less  valuable  would  inevitably  drive  out  of  circulation  the  more  val- 
uable. 

"We  favor  a  currency  sound,  elastic,  and  good  as  gold — good 
everywhere,  good  by  the  standard  of  the  world,  and  good  in  the  marts 
of  the  world;  as  good  in  the  hands  of  labor  as  in  the  hands  of  capital. 
We  demand  a  currency  good  and  stable,  based  upon  the  highest  stand- 
ard known  to  the  sister- 
hood of  nations,  worthy 
of  the  wealth  and  dignity 
of  our  glorious  country, 
and  which  shall  prove 
a  firm  and  lasting  basis 
to  restored  and  continued 
prosperity. " 

The  Horr-Har- 
vey  Del) ate. —An 

incident  of  national 
interest  was  a  debate 
on  the  money  ques- 
tion between  Hon. 
Roswell  G.  Horr, 
formerly  representa- 
tive in  congress  from 
Michigan,  now  on  the 
editorial  staff  of  the 
New  York  Tribune, 
and  W.  H.  Harvey  of 
Chicago,  HI.,  author 
of  Coin's  Financial 
School.  The  debate 
was  held  in  a  room 
at  the  Hlinois  Club  in 
Chicago  at  intervals 
between  July  16  and  July  29,  the  speakers,  by  arrange- 
ment, using  only  the  afternoons,  exclusive  of  Sundays, 
and  alternating  in  arguments  of  ten  minutes'  length. 
Mr.  Horr  championed  the  gold  standard;  Mr.  Harvey, 
the  cause  of  free  silver.  Twenty-four  hours  in  all  were 
consumed,  and  about  145,000  words  spoken,  besides  which 
each  contestant  was  allowed  one  week  after  the  close  of 
the  debate  In  which  to  prepare  a  summary  of  his  case 
(limited  to  2,500  words)  for  publication.  Mr.  Horr's  sum- 
mary was  in  substance  as  follows: 

"Mr.  Harvey  admits  that  his  book  is  pure  fiction.     He  repudiates 
its  motto  by  declaring  that  it  does  not  mean  what  it  says.     His  state- 
ment that  primary  monev  only  is  the  measure  of  value  he  has  not 
Vol.  6.-37. 


W.   H.   HARVEY  OP  CHICAGO,   ILL., 
AUTHOR  OF    "coin's   FINANCIAL  SCHOOL. 


570  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

even  attempted  to  sustain,  though  his  proof  has  been  called  for  re- 
peatedly. Mr.  Harvey  next  based  his  case  upon  the  assumption  that 
the  law  of  1873  was  a  crime,  and  stated  that  it  had  its  origin  in  fraud 
and  its  birth  through  bribery  and  corruption.  He  introduced  no  evi- 
dence in  support  of  either  proposition,  and  he  stands  convicted  of 
making  every  one  of  those  charges  without  any  proof  that  would  be 
received  in  any  ordinary  court  of  justice. 

"If  congress  was  bribed  to  pass  a  bad  bill,  then  the  bill  must  have 
first  passed  in  bad  shape.  Now  if  that  be  true,  then  there  would  be 
no  need  of  a  clerk  to  do  the  dirty  work.  If  it  was  done  by  the  en- 
rolling clerk,  then  it  follows  that  congress  passed  the  bill  as  it  ought 
to  have  been,  and  consequently  they  could  not  have  done  what  he 
says  they  were  bribed  to  do.  If  congress  passed  the  bill  all  right, 
and  the  enrolling  clerk  enrolled  it  correctly,  then  the  bribery  could 
apply  only  to  the  members  of  the  conference  committee.  All  these 
villainies  are  then  abandoned  when  he  claims  that  the  whole  thing 
was  accomplished  by  means  of  a  substitute  bill.  He  misled  people  by 
partial  statements  which  led  to  false  conclusions,  when  the  whole 
statement  would  have  been  perfectly  clear  to  any  one.  The  civilized 
world  is  clearly  on  my  side  of  this  issue." 

On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Harvey,  in  summarizing  the 
debate,  said: 

"  It  settled  the  proposition  that  gold  and  silver  are  the  money  of 
the  constitution.  Mr.  Horr  did  not  controvert  this.  The  silver  dollar 
was  the  unit  of  value  in  our  coinage  system  fixed  by  the  act  of  1792. 
Mr.  Horr  admits  this.  Silver  and  gold  were  the  measures  of  value 
of  all  other  property  until  1873,  and  the  debtor  had  a  right  to  pay  in 
either  metal.  The  act  of  1873  was  surreptitiously  passed.  The 
prices  of  all  property  are  now  measured  in  gold  alone  and  are  sub- 
stantially one-half  what  they  would  have  been  under  the  bimetallic 
system. 

"I  have  made  good  all  the  propositions  set  forth  in  my  opening 
statement.  Mr.  Horr  found  no  errors  in  my  book  except  the  state- 
ment that  the  silver  coined  prior  to  1873  was  $105,000,000  instead  of 
$143,000,000.  Mr.  Horr  shows  that  he  does  not  yet  know  what  bi- 
metallism is." 

A  National  Bank  Note  Boycott.— A  remarkable 
manifesto,  which  occasioned  a  temporary  sensation,  but 
which  has  accomplished  few  perceptible  results,  was  issued 
about  July  19  by  J.  R.  Sovereign,  general  master  work- 
man of  the  Knights  of  Labor,  calling  upon  the  members  of 
that  organization  and  all  kindred  and  sympathetic  bodies 
to  establish  a  boycott  upon  all  national  bank  notes.  It  was 
in  substance  an  attack  upon  the  gold  standard,  the  na- 
tional bank  system,  and  the  government  itself,  as  follows: 

"  Behind  the  proposition  to  perpetuate  a  monetary  system  in  this 
country  based  on  a  single  gold  standard,  is  a  proposition  to  perpetuate 
the  national  banks.  In  fact,  the  national  banks,  in  their  individual 
capacity  and  through  the  American  Bankers'  Association,  are  the  bul- 
warks of  a  single  gold  standard  money.  They  realize  that  gold  alone 
will  not  be  accepted  by  the  American  people  as  the  only  circulating 
medium,  and  therefore  they  demand  that  the  monetary  prerogatives 
of  the  government  be  farmed  out  to  them,  making  private  interests, 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION.  571 

and  not  the  public  welfare,  the  only  motive  for  furnisliing  a  paper 
circulation  to  meet  requirements  of  business. 

"The  national  banks  are  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  the 
greenbacks,  the  payment  of  the  bonds  in  coin,  the  funding  acts,  the 
demonetization  of  silver,  and  all  the  corrupt  financial  legislation  in 
this  country  for  the  last  thirty  years.  They  have  boycotted  and  dis- 
criminated against  every  kind  of  money  that  promised  relief  to  the 
debtor  class  and  prosperity  to  the  industrial  masses.  They  are  boy- 
cotters  of  the  most  cruel  and  merciless  kind. 

"Now  we  propose,  through  the  Knights  of  Labor,  Farmers'  Alli- 
ance, People's  Party,  and  all  reform  organizations,  that  a  boycott  be 
placed  on  the  notes  of  national  banks,  and  that  on  and  after  Septem- 
ber 1,  1895,  our  people  be  requested  and  urged  to  accept  no  national 
bank  bills  in  any  of  the  ordinary  transactions  of  business. 

"  National  bank  notes  are  legal  tender  between  the  national  gov- 
ernment and  the  people,  and  between  the  banks  and  the  government, 
but  not  legal  tender  between  individuals.  They  are  not  legal  tender 
for  private  debts,  wages,  or  merchandise,  nor  any  of  the  multifarious 
transactions  that  enter  into  business  intercourse  between  individuals; 
and  it  is  generally  agreed  that  if  only  one  person  in  a  hundred  boy- 
cotts these  notes  it  will  make  the  work  effective  and  depreciate  them, 
and  force  the  banks  into  a  humiliating  defense  of  their  fiat  money. 

"  A  boycott  of  this  kind  will  agitate  the  doubtful  free-silver  ad- 
vocates, and  stick,  in  turn  for  the  dagger  it  has  stuck  into  the  hearts 
of  the  people,  a  dagger  into  the  hearts  of  the  money  power. 

"lam  not  entirely  cold-blooded,  but  believe  in  meeting  the 
enemy  on  its  own  field.  It  may  be  argued  that  the  boycott  herein 
proposed  will  disturb  business  and  make  money  scarcer  than  it  already 
is,  and  that  during  these  hard  times  people  ought  to  accept  any  kind  of 
money.  But  let  it  be  remembered  that  this  boycott  is  against  a  soul- 
less combine  that  is  responsible  for  the  scarcity  of  money,  low  wages, 
and  business  depression. 

"  This  boycott  will  precipitate  the  great  conflict  with  the  people 
on  the  one  side  and  the  banks  on  the  other,  and  the  issues  will  be  as 
sharply  drawn,  as  in  the  struggle  of  Andrew  Jackson  with  the  Old 
United  States  bank  sixty  years  ago.  It  will  force  the  corporations 
and  every  form  of  private  monopoly  to  take  sides  in  the  contest.  It 
will  force  a  plutocratic  press  and  a  foreign  money  power  to  reveal  the 
hidden  hand  of  American  politics,  and  establish  an  impassable  barrier 
between  the  toiling  masses  of  America  and  the  Shylocks  and  pen- 
sioned lords  of  the  world.  And  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  force  na- 
tional bank  notes  upon  the  public  through  such  channel  as  they  are 
by  law  made  a  legal  tender,  we  will  establish  a  redemption  bureau, 
and,  through  existing  lavk^s,  force  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  un- 
load the  locked-up  greenbacks  for  the  benefit  of  the  people. 

"The  struggle  of  1896  must  result  in  victory  for  the  common 
people,  or  the  hope  of  American  liberty  is  lost  and  the  recovery  im- 
possible through  methods  now  sanctioned  by  law. 

"The  campaign  must  be  waged  against  the  combined  foe  of  two 
continents — against  the  allied  forces  of  the  plutocracy  and  tyranny 
throughout  the  world;  and  in  the  light  of  recent  events  it  must  be  the 
most  aggressive  and  offensive  campaign  ever  waged  in  this  country. 

"We  can  expect  no  permanent  relief  without  a  struggle,  and 
therefore  let  us  precipitate  the  conflict  in  time,  and  on  lines  that  will 
expose  the  unsound  money  of  the  money  advocates.  This  can  be 
most  effectually  done  by  a  national  boycott  on  the  unsound  un-Amer- 
ican, unconstitutional  notes  of  the  national  banks. 


572  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

"On  and  after  September  1,  1895,  let  every  Kniglit  of  Labor,  and 
every  person  whose  love  of  justice  is  above  tlie  sordid  interests  of 
tyrants,  refuse  to  accept  national  bank  notes  in  payment  for  wages, 
produce,  or  in  payment  of  any  debt  or  obligation  not  made  necessary 
by  the  limited  legal- tender  qualities  of  the  notes." 

Inasmuch  as  under  the  national  bank  system  every  na- 
tional bank  note  is  fully  secured,  even  should  the  bank 
fail,  by  United  States  bonds  deposited  with  the  comp- 
troller of  the  currency,  and  is  hence  at  all  times  and  in  all 
places  worth  its  full  par  value,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn 
that  the  above  manifesto  has  met  with  little  response  from 
workingmen,  even  within  the  Knights  of  Labor.  And  in- 
asmuch as  the  national  bank  notes  in  circulation  are  now 
only  1206,833,159  in  a  total  circulation  of  $1,585,593,509, 
or  about  13  per  cent, — and  even  this  is  considerably  above 
the  average, — it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  proposed  boycott 
could  possibly  have  had  the  important  results  expected  of 
it.  In  case  a  national  bank  note  should  be  declined  by  a 
debtor,  all  the  creditor  would  have  to  do  to  make  it  avail- 
able for  use  would  be  to  present  it  to  the  treasury  for  re- 
demption. It  would  be  immediately  redeemed  by  the 
payment  to  the  holder  of  a  United  States  legal-tender 
note,  and  the  bank  of  issue  notified  either  to  recoup  the 
government  by  returning  to  it  a  legal-tender  note  or  retire 
the  national  bank  note.  In  case  it  should  elect  to  retire 
the  note,  the  government  would  be  secured  by  United 
States  bonds  previously  deposited  by  the  bank.  Secretary 
Carlisle  and  other  treasury  officials  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  condition  of  the  department  would  not  be  affected 
by  the  boycott.  It  might  cause  temporary  business  em- 
barrassment, they  said,  but  could  have  no  permanent  ef- 
fect. They  denounced  the  proposal,  however,  as  a  boy- 
cott against  the  government  itself  and  an  attack  on  the 
financial  system  of  the  country. 

International  Bimetallism. — Little  hope  is  now 
entertained  in  any  quarter  of  an  early  monetary  confer- 
ence of  the  powers.  The  agrarians  in  Germany  are  still 
agitating  in  favor  of  such  a  gathering;  but  numerous 
states  of  the  empire  have  voted  against  it,  and  the  govern- 
ment is  manifestly  waiting  for  the  initiative  of  England 
in  the  matter.  AVhen  the  late  liberal  ministry  of  Lord 
Rosebery  gave  way  to  a  conservative  ministry  which  in- 
cluded several  well-known  bimetallists,  notably  Mr.  A.  J. 
Balfour,  Mr.  Chaplin,  and  Sir  Henry  James,  some  were 
led  to  think  that  England's  monetary  policy  might  be 
changed;  but  the  following  recent  public  utterance  of 
Mr,  Balfour  has  for  an  indefinite  time  crushed  the  hopes 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  573 

of  bimetallists,  and  shown  that  the  financial  policy  of 
Great  Britain  is  controlled  by  influences  more  potent  than 
the  personal  views  of  members  of  the  government.  Said 
Mr.  Balfour: 

"  I  am,  as  I  always  have  been,  strongly  in  favor  of  an  interna- 
tional agreement  for  an  international  currency;  but  I  have  no  right 
to  pledge  my  colleagues  on  the  subject,  nor  have  I  any  ground  for 
thinking  that  such  an  agreement  would  at  the  present  moment  be  the 
result  of  such  an  international  conference." 

There  are  no  plans  anywhere  matured  for  the  consid- 
eration of  such  a  conference.  Even  the  question  of  the 
proper  coinage  ratio  of  gold  and  silver  is  one  upon  which 
there  is  great  diversity  of  opinion. 


THE  CUBAN  RETOLT. 

'TIIE  conflicting  reports,  from  loyalist  and  insurgent 
sources  respectively,  of  victories  and  defeats,  continue 
to  arrive,  each  loyalist  victory  being  reported  by  the  in- 
surgents as  a  defeat,  each  rebel  advantage  being  described 
by  the  loyalists  as  a  disastrous  reverse.  But  due  allow- 
ance being  made  for  bias  and  prejudice,  the  cause  of  the 
insurgents  seems  to  have  made  good  progress  in  the  third 
trimester  of  the  revolt,  though  strong  reinforcements  of 
troops  arrived  from  Spain.  A  telegram  from  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  dated  July  10,  which  must  have  undergone  official 
revision,  reported  the  surprise  of  400  Spanish  troops  by  a 
force  of  1,200  insurgents  under  the  rebel  chief  Rabi.  only 
after  a  "  most  heroic  struggle "'  was  the  Spanish  force  able 
to  extricate  itself.  Another  telegram  of  same  date,  from 
the  same  place,  told  of  an  encounter  between  a  Spanish 
column  and  a  rebel  band  belonging  to  the  force  formerly 
commanded  by  the  late  rebel  Colonel  Garzon:  rebel  loss, 
twenty-five  men.  One  of  the  facts  regarding  this  insur- 
rection, which  is  beyond  dispute,  is,  that  in  addition  to 
the  20,500  Spanish  soldiers  in  Cuba  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
rebellion  there  were  landed  in  March  8,000,  in  April 
9,000,  in  May  3,000,  and  in  June  10,000.  Captain-Gen- 
eral Callejas  declared  in  March  that  20,500  men  was  a  sort 
of  figure  of  speech,  and  that  the  actual  number  of  troops 


574  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

in  the  island  when  the  troubles  began  was  10,000.  Even 
so,  the  aggregate  of  Spanish  regular  troops  in  Cuba  at  the 
end  of  June  was  not  less  than  40,000  men.  The  expense 
on  account  of  this  army  was,  from  March  1  to  July  1, 
about  $9,000,000;  and  soon  afterward  it  was  about  H,- 
500,000  a  month,  and  steadily  rising. 

Dr.   Caminero,  representative  in  Cuba  of  the  United 

States  Marine  Hos- 
pital Service,reported 
July  11  that  in  the  city 
of  Puerto  Principe 
there  were  then  five 
deaths  daily  from  yel- 
low fever.  In  the  city 
of  Santiago  de  Cuba 
there  were  twenty- 
nine  deaths  from  yel- 
low fever  in  the  last 
week  of  June.  The 
military  hospitals 
were  reported  to  be 
crowded  with  cases, 
the  disease  being  prev- 
alent in  its  most  ma- 
lignant form. 

An  action  justly 
regarded  as  "the 
severest  engagement 
since  the  revolution 
began, ^^  took  place 
1  ,„m  The  Monthly  iiiiisiraior  ncar  Bayamo  July  13. 

ANTONIO  MACEO,  T  ll  C  1  U  S  U  r  g  C  U  t  S 

PROMINENT   LEADEK   OF   THE   CUBAN    INSURGENTS,    clalmcd      Si    briUiaUt 

victory;  the  loyalists  admit  serious  losses  in  officers  and  men. 
The  official  details  of  the  battle  aspublished  in  Havana  areas 
follows:  Marshal  Martinez  de  Campos  started  for  Bayamo 
from  Manzanillo,  July  13,  with  one  battalion,  known  as  the 
Battalion  of  Isabel  the  Catholic,  three  companies  of  the  Sixth 
Peninsular  battalion,  one  company  of  engineers,  two  com- 
panies of  mounted  gnerrilleros,  and  1,200  men  commanded 
by  General  Santocildes.  Antonio  Maceo,  Bartolome  Maceo, 
Rabi,  and  other  prominent  insurgent  leaders,  with  a  force 
of  7,000  men,  were  waiting  for  them,  and  opened  the  battle 
on  the  road  between  Bueycito  and  Datil.  General  Santo- 
cildes, who  was  in  the  vanguard,  received  two  bullets  in 
the  breast  and  one  in  the  forehead.     On  the  death  of  San- 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  575 

tocildes,  Marshal  de  Campos  assumed  command,  and 
broke  the  ranks  of  the  insurgents,  after  which  he  formed 
his  men  in  a  square  and  marched  thus  a  distance  of  two 
leagues,  to  Bayamo,  carrying  with  him  in  the  middle  of 
the  hollow  square  the  bodies  of  General  Santocildes  and 
Adjutant  Sotomayor.  The  insurgents  had  taken  up  posi- 
tions and  deployed  their  lines  on  a  stock  farm.  These  po- 
sitions were  very  advantageous,  and  the  rebels  continued 
the  fight  for  six  hours.  It  ended  at  Mabay  creek.  When 
the  level  ground  was  reached,  the  Spanish  troops  were 
charged  by  a  force. of  more  than  3,000  cavalry  under  the 
command  of  Bartolome  Maceo,  while  the  rebel  infantry 
attacked  the  Spanish  rear  guard;  and  there  the  fighting 
lasted  five  hours  longer.  In  this  account,  the  Spanish 
loss  in  killed  and  wounded  is  not  stated;  but  the  rebel  loss 
is  given  as  400  killed  and  wounded,  among  the  killed  be- 
ing Brigadier-General  Rabi,  Colonel  Machado,  Captain 
Belisario  Ramirez,  Commander  Moncada,  and  three  other 
officers. 

It  would  seem  to  have  been  the  purpose  of  the  rebel 
commander  to  suffer  the  vanguard  of  the  Spaniards  to  pass 
unmolested,  and  to  attack  by  surprise  the  centre,  and  cap- 
ture General  de  Campos;  but,  mistaking  a  small  body  of 
'^explorers"  or  scouts  which  preceded  the  vanguard 
proper  for  the  van,  after  the  scouts  had  passed,  the  rebels 
made  a  furious  onslaught  on  the  vanguard  and  almost  an- 
nihilated it.  The  marshal,  thus  apprised  of  the  presence 
of  the  enemy  in  force,  had  time  to  prepare  for  an  attack. 

Marshal  de  Campos,  on  arriving  at  Bayamo,  tele- 
graphed to  Generals  Valdes  and  Navarro  to  hasten  from 
Santiago  de  Cuba  and  Hoiguin  with  their  respective  forces 
of  1,300  and  1,500  men. 

Daily  there  were  minor  engagements  and  skirmishes 
between  the  troops  and  insurgent  bands.  Sometimes  these 
affairs  involved  disaster  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  theatre 
of  action.  Thus,  on  July  21,  the  town  of  La  Sabana, 
near  Baracoa,  was  set  on  fire  by  a  party  of  insurgents 
and  reduced  to  ashes;  loss,  more  than  $500,000.  As  La 
Sabana  is  a  principal  centre  and  depot  of  the  banana  trade, 
whence  bananas  are  conveyed  to  Baracoa  for  shipment  to 
foreign  countries,  the  burning  of  the  town  produced  a 
paralysis  of  business  at  the  port. 

About  the  middle  of  July  the  cargoes  of  two  large 
schooners  freighted  with  arms,  ammunition,  hospital  sup- 
plies, cannon,  and  other  material,  were  landed  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Trinidad,  and  quickly  conveyed  into  the 


576  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

interior.  The  exploit  of  organizing  and  carr3'ing  to  a 
brilliantly  successful  result  this  important  expedition, 
filled  the  patriots  of  western  Cuba  and  their  chiefs  Max- 
imo Gomez  and  General  Zayas  with  joy;  the  Cuban  revo- 
lutionists in  the  United  States  hailed"^  the  news  with  en- 
thusiasm. At  the  end  of  July  the  numerical  strength  of 
the  Spanish  army  in  Cuba  was  65,000  men;  and  further  re- 
inforcements were  under  orders  to  sail  for  the  Ever  Faith- 
ful Isle.  Besides  these  regulars,  Marshal  de  Campos  had 
40,000  guerrilleros  or  volunteers,  Spanish  residents  in  the 
island,  or  native  Cubans. 

Early  in  August  General  Bartolome  Masso  was  pro- 
claimed president  by  the  revolutionary  forces  of  the  east- 
ern and  central  provinces,  in  succession  to  Jose  Marti, 
slain  in  battle  May  20  at  Dos  Rios.  About  the  same  time 
delegates  from  the  several  provinces  assembled  in  the 
province  of  Puerto  Principe  to  draft  a  provisional  consti- 
tution for  the  Cuban  republic.  General  Lopez  was  named 
by  the  Madrid  government  governor-general  of  Cuba, 
Marshal  de  Campos  being  relieved  of  the  burden  of  civil 
administration,  but  continuing  to  direct  the  campaign  for 
suppression  of  the  rebellion.  The  cost  of  the  war  down 
to  the  middle  of  August  is  put  by  the  London  Standard  at 
120,000,000.  At  the  close  of  that  month  Marshal  de 
Campos  was  in  the  province  of  Santa  Clara,  where  he  was 
building  small  forts  at  different  points,  and  keeping  strong 
patrols  constantly  moving  about.  In  nearly  all  the  prov- 
inces the  insurrection  was  spreading,  and  the  rebel  chiefs 
were  levying  contributions  or  ''taxes''  on  the  planters. 
Prime  Minister  Canovas  del  Castillo,  toward  the  end  of 
August,  said  that  before  the  close  of  September,  or  in  the 
early  days  of  October,  an  additional  25,000  men  would  be 
landed  in  Cuba.  "  The  naval  strength,'"  he  added,  ''  to 
watch  the  Cuban  coast,  will  comprise  nineteen  cruisers 
now  building  in  England,  six  cruisers  which  are  at  Cadiz, 
and  fifteen  already  in  service — total  forty.''  On  the  last 
day  of  August,  near  Ramon  de  las  Yaguas,  Jose  Maceo, 
commanding  a  force  of  1,200  insurgents,  inflicted  a  disas- 
trous defeat  on  a  Spanish  force  of  about  equal  numbers. 
In  the  first  week  of  September,  more  than  13,000  troops 
from  Spain  were  landed  at  Havana,  Cienfuegos,  and  other 
ports. 

A  manifesto  of  Canovas  del  Castillo  was  published  in 
Havana  September  11,  in  which  the  insurgents  are  de- 
nounced as  "  bandits,  whose  sole  object  is  robbery,  murder, 
and  incendiarism."    The  manifesto  is  a  publication  of  the 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  577 

program  nnder  which  Marshal  cle  Campos  will  conduct 
the  winter  campaign.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  island, 
which  has  been  the  stronghold  of  the  insurrection,  will  be 
swept  clean  of  all  rebels  and  sympathizers  with  rebellion. 
It  will  be  a  war  to  extermination  or  surrender,  on  all  Cu- 
ban rebels,  maclieteros,  and  such  like.  The  military  or- 
ganization will  be  full  and  complete:  it  will  be  root-and- 
branch  work  this  time.  Hereafter  Cuba  will  be  for  Spain. 
Spain  will  enter  the  fall  campaign,  says  the  manifesto  as 
summarized  in  press  dispatches,  with  only  one  object  in 
view — immediate  and  absolute  subjugation  of  the  island. 
The  portion  of  the  rebels  will  be  death  or  deportation. 

Among  the  many  precautionary  measures  of  the  gov- 
ernment, one  will  have  an  instant  and  appreciable  effect  on 
the  rebels,  who  need  arms,  ammunition,  and  supplies. 
Early  in  November,  when  the  war  vessels  are  reinforced 
by  the  new  gunboats,  the  whole  island  will  be  surrounded 
by  two  lines  of  ships.  One  line  will  cruise  in  an  inner 
circle,  and  the  other  in  an  outer  circle;  thus  there  will  be 
as  it  were  a  great  blockading  fleet  of  about  sixty  modern 
ships  of  war.  It  is  believed  that  this  arrangement  will 
absolutely  preclude  the  landing  of  men  and  of  supplies. 
It  will  isolate  the  rebels  from  all  aid  from  the  whole 
world  without,  and  from  their  sympathizers.  The  Cubans 
in  revolt  are,  as  represented  by  the  Spaniards,  bandits,  to 
whom,  as  bandits,  belligerent  rights  will  not  be  accorded. 
By  belligerents  are  meant  "armed  bodies  of  men  under  a 
recognized  flag,  who  enter  on  war  with  a  laudable  object, 
and  who  conduct  it  according  to  the  usages  of  civiliza- 
tion." But  that  kind  of  warfare,  we  are  asked  to  believe, 
is  wholly  unknown  to  the  Cuban  rebels,  whose  sole  object 
is  robbery,  murder,  and  incendiarism.  Destruction,  des- 
olation, and  ruin  are  their  work,  and  this  in  spots  where, 
for  the  moment  only,  Spain  has  not  yet  sent  men  to  pro- 
tect life  and  property. 

The  prospects  of  the  revolutionists,  in  view  of  these 
thorough  measures  of  repression,  are  not  reassuring  as  the 
day  draws  near  when  the  whole  power  of  Spain  on  sea  and 
land  is  to  be  exerted  for  the  extermination  of  all  rebels. 


S78  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  ARMENIAN   PROBLEM. 

■^OT  until  toward  the  end  of  July  did  the  Porte  name 
the  high  commissioner  for  carrying  out  the  reforms  in 
Armenia  demanded  by  the  European  powers.  The  ap- 
pointee, Shakir  Pasha,  once  held  an  administrative  posi- 
tion not  unlike  that  to  which  he  is  now  called,  namely 
in  Crete  in  1889  after  the  revocation  of  the  constitution. 
There  his  rule  was  stern  and  rigorous,  but  its  fairness  was 
generally  acknowledged  after  passion  had  subsided.  Si- 
multaneously with  the  appointment  of  Shakir,  an  imperial 
irade  was  published,  granting  amnesty  to  all  the  Arme- 
nian political  prisoners,  with  certain  exceptions.  Immedi- 
ately a  large  number  of  prisoners,  including  those  arrested 
at  Van,  were  set  free. 

The  first  reply  of  the  Porte  to  the  communication  from 
the  powers  demanding  reforms  in  Armenia  having  proved 
unsatisfactory  (p.  325),  anotber  reply  was  made  August  1. 
In  this  the  Porte  promised  compliance  with  many  of  the 
demands.  For  example,  the  Porte  promised  to  appoint 
Christian  assessors  to  assist  the  provincial  governors  to 
select  sub-governors  and  police  from  Mussulmans  and 
Christians,  to  inspect  and  improve  the  prisons,  to  intro- 
duce measures  for  preventing  violence  and  abuses,  and  to 
check  the  excesses  of  the  Kurds  during  their  migrations, 
and  to  try  to  induce  them  to  settle  in  some  particular  lo- 
cality. The  answer  criticised  the  suggested  reform  of  the 
taxes  and  some  of  the  other  points  proposed  by  the  powers, 
contending  that  they  were  not  practical.  This  was  equiv- 
alent to  a  refusal  on  the  part  of  the  Porte  to  comply  with 
the  demands  of  the  powers. 

While  diplomacy  was  thus  slowly  moving  toward  cor- 
rection of  the  evils  of  misgovernment  in  Armenia,  public 
opinion  in  England  was  growing  impatient  of  the  delay. 
A  mass  meeting  was  held  at  Chester  August  6,  to  give  ex- 
pression to  English  sentiment  regarding  the  ^'^  unspeakable 
crimes  committed  in  Armenia. ^^  The  significance  of  that 
meeting  was  that  the  calling  of  it  was  known  to  have  the 
express  approval  of  the  prime  minister.  Lord  Salisbury. 
The  great  speech  of  the  occasion  was  delivered  by  Mr. 
Gladstone;  and  when,  three  weeks  later,  the  Porte  made 
complaint  to  France  and  Russia  against  *Hhe  attitude  of 
England  in  the  Armenian  question,^'  the  utterances  of  the 
aged  ex-premier  were  no  doubt  part  of  the  gravamen. 

The  question  before  the  meeting,  Mr.  Gladstone  said,  was  not  a 
party  question;  neither  was  it  strictly  a  religious  question,  although 
the  sufferers  on  whose  behalf  the  meeting  was  called  were  Christians, 


THE  ARMENIAN  PROBLEM.  579 

The  evil  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  sufferers  were  under  an  intoler- 
ably bad  government,  one  of  the  vv^orst,  in  fact,  that  ever  existed.  He 
was  glad  to  learn  that  the  sentiment  on  the  Armenian  question  in 
America  was  even  stronger  than  in  England.  For,  as  America  had 
no  political  interest  in  the  Levant,  her  deep  concern  over  the  affairs 
there  was  the  more  worthy  of  praise.  When  he  spoke  upon  the  sub- 
ject six  months  ago,  he  advisea  his  hearers  to  avoid  forming  a  pre- 
mature judgment;  but  evidence  was  now  forthcoming  which  showed 
that  unspeakable  crimes  were  committed  in  Armenia  day  after  day 
which  in  horror  were  far  beyond  the  outrages  in  Sassoun.  The  acts 
of  violence  committed,  Mr.  Gladstone  declared,  may  be  truthfully 
summed  up  in  the  four  awful  words,  plunder,  murder,  rape,  and  tor- 
ture. The  government  at  Constantinople  and  its  agents  were,  he 
asserted,  responsible  for  the  crimes;  and  it  was  necessary  that  the  re- 
sponsibility for  their  acts  should  be  brought  home  to  them. 

The  treaty  of  1856,  he  said  in  continuing,  gave  the  powers  the 
right  to  march  into  Armenia  and  take  the  government  of  the  country 
out  of  the  hands  of  Turkey;  and  under  the  treaty  of  1878  the  sultan 
was  bound  to  carry  out  reforms.  The  el-premier  made  three  pro- 
posals: First,  that  the  demands  of  tbe  powers  should  be  moderate; 
second,  that  no  promises  of  the  Turkish  authorities  should  be  accepted; 
and  third,  that  the  powers  should  not  fear  the  word  ** coercion."  We 
have  reached  a  critical  position,  said  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  ending  his 
speech,  and  the  honor  of  the  powers  is  pledged  to  the  institution  of 
reforms  in  Armenia. 

Lord  Salisbury,  in  a  speech  at  AVestminster,  gave  warn- 
ing to  the  sultan  that  the  reforms  demanded  must  under 
penalties  be  carried  out  in  the  Turkish  empire: 

"With  respect  to  Armenia,"  he  said,  "we  have  accepted  the 
policy  which  our  predecessors  initiated,  and  our  efforts  will  be 
directed  to  obtaining  an  adequate  guarantee  for  the  carrying  out 
of  reform.  We  have  received  the  most  loyal  support  from  both 
France  and  Russia.  The  permanence  of  the  sultan's  rule  is  involved 
in  the  conduct  he  pursues.  If  the  cries  of  misery  continue,  the  sul- 
tan must  realize  that  Europe  will  become  weary  of  appeals,  and  the 
fictitious  strength  which  the  powers  have  given  the  empire  will  fail 
it.  The  sultan  will  make  a  calamitous  mistake  if  he  refuses  to  accept 
the  advice  of  the  European  powers  relative  to  the  elections." 

While  the  ambassadors  of  the  powers  at  Constantinople 
were  awaiting  satisfactory  reply  to  the  demands  of  all 
Europe,  the  lot  of  the  Armenians  was  not  improving; 
famine  threatened  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia  as  the  di- 
rect result  of  the  outrages  by  the  Kurds  and  the  oppress- 
ive tax-gathering  of  the  Turkish  government.  A  dis- 
patch from  Moosh  reported  the  planting  of  the  Kurdish 
tribe  of  Kotshar  in  the  country  between  Sassoun  and 
Moosh,  the  Christian  population  of  the  district  being 
driven  out  to  make  room  and  to  provide  houses  for  the 
Kurds. 

Toward  the  end  of  August  the  third  reply  of  the  Porte 
to  the  demands  of  the  powers  was  delivered  to  the  British, 


580  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     3d  Qr.,  1895. 

French,  and  Russian  ambassadors  at  Constantinople.     The 
Porte  makes  these  concessions: 

1.  The  Dragomans  of  tbe  three  embassies  to  be  entitled  to  com- 
municate directly  with  the  president  of  the  Turkish  Permanent  Com- 
mittee of  Control,  which  is  to  sit  at  the  Porte  to  superintend  the 
proper  application  of  the  Armenian  reforms. 

2.  No  Christian  vali  or  mutessarif  to  be  appointed,  but  other 
administrative  functionaries  to  be  chosen  in  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lation, Mahometan  or  Christian. 

3.  Christian  officers  to  be  admitted  to  the  gendarmerie. 

4.  The  mudirs  to  be  elected  by  the  councils  of  elders. 

5.  A  rural  constabulary  to  be  established. 

It  was  not  thought  likely  that  concessions  so  inadequate 
would  satisfy  the  powers.  But  soon  it  became  known  that 
Russia  and  France  were  satisfied  with  the  terms  offered  by 
the  Porte.  Great  Britain,  however,  still  insisted  that  the 
valis  and  .district  prefects  should  be  selected  from  the 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  population  equally;  and  that 
agents  of  the  powers  should  sit  on  the  commission  of  con- 
trol. It  was  distinctly  understood,  that  while  Russia  and 
France  were  reluctant  to  coerce  the  Porte,  they  would  lend 
their  moral  influence  to  England  in  her  efforts  to  obtain 
reforms,  though  those  efforts  might  involve  the  employ- 
ment of  coercion.  On  this  subject  the  London  Times  re- 
marks: 

"It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  all  Europe  should  undertake  the 
execution  of  European  decrees.  Very  often  it  is  much  more  conven- 
ient that  one  power  should  act  and  that  the  others  should  not  go 
beyond  moral  sanction.  Instead  of  being  an  encouragement  to  the 
sultan  to  harden  his  heart,  this  eminently  business-like  arrangement 
ought  to  convince  him  that  his  best  policy  is  to  agree  with  his  ad- 
versary quickly.  He  ought  to  know  that  Russia  cannot  refuse  her 
sanction  and  support  to  the  course  marked  out  by  this  country,  under 
penalty  of  forfeiting  her  claim  to  be  the  general  protector  of  oppressed 
Christian  races  in  the  East.  France  may  have  a  less  particular  in- 
terest in  supporting  vigorous  action,  but  France  is  in  the  van  of  civil- 
ization; and,  when  compelled  to  decide  concerning  a  course  which, 
however  unwelcome  in  itself,  is  sanctioned  by  treaty  and  called  for 
in  the  interest  of  humanity,  it  is  impossible  for  her  to  hesitate.  Both 
from  Germany  and  from  Austria  the  sultan  has  received  urgent  rep- 
resentations as  to  the  importance  of  yielding  to  the  demands  pressed 
upon  him  with  so  much  patience.  The  general  sentiment  of  Euro- 
pean governments  and  peoples  is  more  than  sufficient  to  clothe  the 
action  of  any  single  power  with  the  authority  and  moral  guarantee 
required  to  make  it  effective.  It  ought  to.be  plain  to  a  ruler  so  astute 
as  the  sultan,  that  this  country  is  in  earnest,  and  that  if  driven  to  take 
active  steps  it  will  be  practically  the  mandatory  of  Europe.  In  these 
circumstances,  it  is  absolutely  puerile  to  seek  encouragement  in  resist- 
ance from  fine  distinctions  between  the  attitudes  of  different  powers." 

A  renewal  of  the  outrages  in  Armenia  was  reported 
from  Kars  September  9.  A  company  of  Turkish  gendarmes, 
having  been  attacked  by  brigands,  and  a  sergeant  killed, 


THE  ARMENIAN  PROBLEM.  581 

the  Turkish  authorities,  without,  it  is  said,  making  any 
inquiry,  decided  that  the  assailants  were  Armenian  revohi- 
tionists  from  Kemakh,  purposing  to  release  prominent 
Armenians  who  were  still  in  prison  at  Kars.  A  force  of 
1,000  Turkish  troops  was  sent  to  Kemakh,  and  five  vil- 
lages were  pillaged.  Five  thousand  persons  were  rendered 
homeless;  men  were  tortured,  women  and  children  out- 
raged, and  four  monasteries  sacked. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  government  of  the  Porte  has  on 
sundry  occasions  evinced  a  sincere  disposition  to  deal  justly 
with  the  Armenians,  and  to  punish  those  of  its  agents  who 
are  proved  guilty  of  extortion  and  other  wrongdoing. 
Thus,  on  the  representation  of  the  British  ambassador, 
supported  by  the  ambassadors  of  France  and  Russia,  a  num- 
ber of  officials  in  the  plain  of  Moosh  were  dismissed  for 
having  exacted  the  taxes  by  means  of  extortion,  and  for 
having  treated  the  Armenian  inhabitants  with  ruthless 
severity.  Again,  the  chief  of  the  gendarmerie  at  Bitlis,  ac- 
companied by  an  armed  force,  attacked  a  band  of  nomad 
Kurds  who  were  committing  depredations  and  molesting 
the  Armenians  in  the  Moosh  district.  The  Turkish  force 
inflicted  severe  punishment  on  the  marauders,  and  drove 
them  from  the  property  belonging  to  Armenians,  of  which 
they  had  taken  possession. 

On  the  last  day  of  September  there  was  serious  rioting 
in  Constantinople,  attended  with  loss  of  life.  Several  hun- 
dred Armenian  residents  of  Constantinople  had  started  on 
their  way  to  the  gate  of  the  sultan's  palace — the  place 
where  justice  is  ordinarily  administered — with  the  inten- 
tion of  presenting  to  the  grand  vizier  a  petition  for  redress 
of  grievances.  The  officials,  warned  of  the  coming  of  the 
multitude,  had  given  orders  that  all  the  approaches  to  the 
palace  should  be  guarded  by  police,  and  no  one  suffered  to 
pass.  While  the  crowds  were  waiting,  the  minister  of  the 
interior  arrived  at  a  point  near  the  gate,  and  a  rush  was 
made  toward  him  from  all  the  surrounding  streets.  The 
police  attempted  to  drive  the  people  back,  battering  them 
severely,  and  finally  firing  upon  them.  A  troop  of  cav- 
alry, coming  to  the  assistance  of  the  police,  charged  upon 
the  crowd  and  cleared  the  roadways.  Mr.  Terrell,  the 
American  minister,  reports  to  Secretary  of  State  Olney 
about  sixty  persons,  Turks  and  Armenians,  killed.  The 
rioting  continued  for  two  days.  Mr.  Terrell  affirms  that 
the  petitioners  were  armed  with  pistols.  A  dispatch  from 
Constantinople  to  the  press  of  London  says  that  the  Softas 
"chased  and  attacked  with  bludgeons  every  Armenian  they 


582  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  i895. 

met  in  the  streets  of  the  Stamboul  quarter  of  the  city,  kill- 
ing fifty  of  them  the  second  night  of  the  troubles.  The 
Sottas  also  attacked  a  cafe  in  which  were  twenty  Arme- 
nians, and  killed  every  one  of  them."  The  Armenians  took 
refuge  in  their  churches,  and  the  Pera  church  alone  har- 
bored 500  people.  More  than  1,000  Armenians  were  ar- 
rested and  thrown  into  prison. 


INTERNATIONAL  PEACE  CONFERENCE. 

JpROM  the  13th  to  the  16th  of  August,  Brussels,  the  cap- 
ital of  Belgium,  was  the  scene  of  an  important  interna- 
tional gathering  in  the  interests  of  the  perpetuation  of 
peace.  It  is  variously  spoken  of  as  the  ''International 
Parliamentary  Arbitration  Conference,"  the  "Interpar- 
liamentary Peace  Conference,"  and  again  simply  as  the 
"Peace  Conference,"  all  of  which  titles  serve  to  indicate 
its  nature  and  aims. 

M.  Nyssens,  minister  of  the  newly  created  department 
of  labor,  welcomed  the  delegates  in  the  name  of  the  Bel- 
gian government.  M.  Descamps  David  was  chosen  to  pre- 
side; and  the  members  of  the  bureau  included  Mr.'  Philip 
Stanhope,  representing  England;  Senator  Labiche,  France; 
and  the  poet  Maurus  Jokai,  Hungary. 

The  most  important  topic  discussed  concerned  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  international  court  of  arbitration,  the 
principle  of  which  had  been  accepted  at  a  previous  gath- 
ering. In  the  thought  that  such  a  court  would  consider- 
ably lighten  the  present  military  burdens  of  Europe,  the 
delegates  drafted  a  project  for  the  organization  of  a  per- 
manent international  tribunal  of  arbitration,  in  substance 
as  follows: 

The  preamble  reads — "  The  Interparliamentary  Conference  assem- 
bled in  Brussels,  considering  the  frequent  recurrence  of  cases  of  in- 
ternational arbitration  and  the  number  and  extent  of  compromises  in- 
serted in  treaties,  and  desirous  of  seeing  international  justice  and  juris- 
diction established  upon  a  stable  basis,  charges  its  president  to  recom- 
mend to  the  favorable  consideration  of  the  governments  of  civilized 
states  the  following  articles,  vv^hich  might  form  the  subject  of  a  di- 
plomatic conference  or  of  a  special  convention." 

Then  follows  the  text  of  the  project  itself,  containing  fourteen 
articles,  the  main  features  of  which  indicate  a  plan  for  organizing  a 


THE  BERING  SEA  DISPUTE.  583 

court  of  international  arbitration  composed  of  delegates  nominated  by 
the  various  governments,  whose  mission  shall  be  to  regulate  such  dif- 
ferences as  the  affiliated  powers  may  agree  to  submit  to  its  jurisdic- 
tion. 

It  was  voted  to  hold  the  next  meeting  of  the  confer- 
ence in  Buda-Pesth. 

In  connection  with  the  account  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  Peace  Conference  at  Brussels,  and  as  indicating  the 
gradual  spread  of  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  principle  of  in- 
ternational arbitration  as  a  means  of  settling  disputes,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  French  chamber  of  deputies, 
about  August  1,  adopted  a  motion  asking  the  government 
to  negotiate  as  soon  as  possible  a  permanent  treaty  be- 
tween France  and  the  United  States  for  the  settlement,  by 
arbitration,  of  all  disputes  which  may  arise. 

THE  BERING  SEA  DISPUTE. 

It  was  announced  early  in  August  that  reports  received 
at  the  American  department  of  state  from  the  United 
States  consul  at  Victoria,  B.  C,  were  to  the  eifect  that 
the  seals  in  Bering  sea  had  been  so  diminished  in  numbers 
as  to  indicate  their  speedy  extermination  unless  more  ef- 
fective measures  than  any  existing  were  enacted  for  their 
protection.  For  a  long  time  it  had  been  known  that  the 
regulations  laid  down  by  the  Paris  tribunal  in  1893  had, 
as  actually  interpreted  and  enforced,  proven  largely  inad- 
equate for  the  purpose  intended.  Efforts  were  accord- 
ingly made  by  the  United  States  this  year  to  induce  Great 
Britain  to  assent  to  an  increase  in  the  diameter  of  the  pro- 
hibited zone  around  the  Pribilof  islands,  from  sixty  to 
eighty  or  ninety  miles.  It  is  claimed  that  the  seals  go 
out  beyond  the  sixty-mile  limit  in  search-  of  food,  and 
are  then  freely  killed  and  captured  by  the  poachers. 
It  was  not  announced,  however,  that  Great  Britain  had 
assented  to  any  important  extension  of  measures  of  pro- 
tection, or  that  she  was  likely  to  do  so  as  long  as  the 
United  States  held  in  abeyance  the  matter  of  payment  of 
damages  to  Great  Britain  for  illegal  seizures  of  sealing 
vessels  prior  to  the  establishment  of  a  close  season  in 
1891. 

This  matter  is  now  the  subject  of  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence, which,  it  is  said,  is  likely  to  result  in  another 
arbitration  for  the  assessment  of  damage-claims  to  which 
the  sealers  are  entitled. 

Several  seizures  are  reported  for  the  season  of  1895. 
The  British  schooner  E.   B.   Marvin  was  captured  Sep- 


584  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3cl  Qr.,  1895. 

tember  2  by  the  United  States  revenue-cutter  Rush, 
and  turned  over  to  the  British  war-ship  Pheasant.  The 
Louis  Olsen,  an  American  schooner,  was  seized  next  day. 
Both  vessels  had  violated  the  regulations  as  to  the  ])vo- 
hibited  zone  and  the  carrying  of  firearms,  and  the  Amer- 
ican vessel  carried  no  license.  The  schooner  Beatrice, 
of  Vancouver,  B.  C,  was  seized  August  20  by  the  Mush, 
for  violation  of  Article  5  of  the  protective  regulations, 
providing  for  the  keeping  by  every  commander  of  a 
sealing  vessel  of  a  log  showing  the  number  and  sex  of 
seals  taken  and  other  particulars  of  the  capture  (Vol.  3, 
p.  461). 

GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION. 

Two  features  of  the  international  situation  in  Europe 
now  stand  out  with  special  prominence — the  renewed 
emphasis  lately  placed  upon  the  Franco-Russian  entente, 
and  the  startling  political  developments  in  the  Balkan 
states. 

France  and  Russia. — A  considerable  sensation  was 
caused  in  July  by  the  publication  of  an  alleged  interview 
between  the  St.  Petersburg  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  Herald  and  one  of  the  czar's  ministers,  a  personal 
friend  of  M.  de  Witte,  Russian  minister  of  finance,  at 
which  the  positive  declaration  *was  made  that  a  formal 
treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  had  been  signed 
by  France  and  Russia  as  long  ago  as  1891,  shortly  after 
the  visit  of  the  Frencli  fleet  to  Cronstadt  (Vol.  1,  j).  354). 
Of  the  truth  of  this,  no  indubitable  evidence  has  yet  come 
to  light;  but  careful  observers  have  watched  with  some 
anxiety  the  recent  joint  action  of  the  two  powers  in  inter- 
fering with  the  execution  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Simonoseki  and  in  coming  to  the  financial  aid  of  China; 
and  they  also  regard  it  as  significant  that  the  Russian 
foreign  minister.  Prince  Lobanof  Rostovski,  should  at- 
tend the  recent  manoeuvres  of  the  French  army,  and 
that  the  Russian  General  Dragomiroff  should  enthusiastic- 
ally praise  the  French  troops  and  toast  Russo-French 
fraternity  on  the  field  of  battle.  Time  alone  can  con- 
firm or  dispel  the  conviction  which  tliese  observations 
have  widely  impressed.  Taken  in  connection  with  the 
anti-Italian  intrigues  of  Russia  in  Abyssinia,  and  the 
work  of  Russian  agents  in  the  Balkans,  they  make  the 
situation  one  of  great  complexity  and  ominous  outlook. 
The  fact  is,  that  Russia  is  the  most  profoundly  inscru- 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION, 
table  enigma  of  the  political  and  diplomatic  world  of  to- 
day. 

Politics  in  the  Balkans. — Dark,  however,  as  is  the 
problem  presented  by  Russia  in  the  Far  East,  a  more  im- 
mediate cause  of  misgiving  is  found  in  the  recent  develop- 
ments affecting  her  relations  with  Bulgaria  and  Macedonia. 
Those  who  remember  the  occurrences  which  led  up  to  the 
last  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1877,  will  note  a 
similarity  between  the  present  situation  and  that  which 
just  preceded  that  great  struggle.  Both  Russia  and  Bul- 
garia are  accused  of  playing  toward  Macedonia  the  part 
which  Russia  then  enacted  toward  Bulgaria.  And  when 
one  recalls  how  inflammable  are  the  people  of  the  indepen- 
dent or  semi-independent  states  created  by  the  treaty  of 
Berlin  of  1878,  he  sees  in  the  present  situation  in  the 
Balkans  a  danger,  almost  as  great  as  has  existed  at  any 
time  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  of  a  reopening  of  the 
whole  Eastern  question.  Russia's  attitude,  however,  on 
the  Armenian  question,  hesitating  to  insist  on  unequiv- 
ocal compliance  by  the  Porte  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Berlin  treaty,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  she  does  not 
regard  the  time  for  a  coup  as  quite  yet  ripe.  In  the 
meantime,  Balkan  politics  are  not  unfittingly  compared 
to  ''a game  of  blindman's  buff,  in  which  all  eyes  seem  to 
be  bandaged  and  everybody  groping  in  the  dark." 

Of  the  Balkan  states,  it  is  Bulgaria  which  now  domi- 
nates the  political  situation  in  southeast  Europe.  In  Bul- 
garia there  are  three  parties,  distinguished  from  one  an- 
other by  their  respective  attitudes  toward  Russia: — 1,  the 
national  or  liberal  party,  whose  ideal  is  that  of  an  inde- 
pendent Bulgaria,  free  from  Russian  domination:  to  this 
party  M.  Stambouloff  belonged:  to  him  Russian  domina- 
tion appeared  but  a  step  to  Russian  absorption,  and  he 
fought  against  it  with  all  his  soul;  2,  the  moderates, 
loyal  to  Bulgaria,  but  mindful  of  the  fact  that  it  was 
the  aid  of  Russia  which  made  the  present  Bulgaria  pos- 
sible, and  hence  inclined  to  some  sort  of  alliance  with 
the  great  power  of  the  North:  to  this  party  the  present 
prime  minister,  M.  Stoiloff,  belongs;  and  3,  the  Rus- 
sian party,  led  by  the  late  exile,  M.  Zankoff:  to  this 
party  all  small  states  seem  destined  to  be  absorbed  by  large 
ones;  and  Bulgaria,  by  ties  of  blood  and  religion,  in  their 
opinion,  naturally  belongs  to  Russia. 

The  existence  of  so  many  parties  is  sufficient  of  itself 
to  make  the  situation  in  Bulgaria  extremely  complicated; 
but  several  incidents  have  recently  occurred  which  have 

Yol.  5.-38. 


586  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3cl  Qr.,  1895. 

greatly  added  to  the  complexity — namely,  a  radical  change 
in  the  policy  of  Prince  Ferdinand,  who,  since  his  dismissal 
of  M.  Stambouloff  from  office  last  year  (p.  433),  has  man- 
ifested an  ardent  desire  to  conciliate  the  czar;  the  out- 
break of  a  serious  revolt  against  the  sultan's  rule  in  Mace- 
donia, which  has  drawn  some  support  from  across  the  Bul- 
garian border;  and  the  assassination  of  M.  Stambouloff, 
for  which,  in  the  eyes  of  Europe  and  of  the  world.  Prince 
Ferdinand  is  held  to  be  morally,  even  though  not  legally, 
responsible. 

Strong  evidence  of  the  anxiety  of  Prince  Ferdinand  for 
the  favor  of  Russia,  is  found  in  the  dispatch,  by  the  Bul- 
garian government,  of  a  delegation  to  St.  Petersburg  the 
first  week  in  July,  ostensibly  to  lay  a  wreath  on  the  coffin 
of  the  late  czar,  Alexander  III.,  but  with  the  ulterior  mo- 
tive also  of  paving  the  way  to  a  removal  of  the  present 
misunderstanding  between  Russia  and  Bulgaria,  and  a 
healing  of  the  diplomatic  rupture  which  began  ten  years 
ago  whiile  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg  was  still  on  the 
Bulgarian  throne  (Vol.  4,  p.  791).  Monsignor  Clement, 
metropolitan  of  Tirnova,  who  headed  the  delegation,  is  re- 
ported' to  have  explained  its  mission  by  saying  that 

"  Prince  Ferdinand,  Laving  become  convinced  that  Bulgaria  could 
not  exist  without  the  friendship  and  moral  aid  of  Russia,  was  prepared 
to  make  all  the  sacrifices  necessary  to  secure  Russia's  good  will." 

It  is  signilicant  that  at  the  same  hour  when  the  dele- 
gation performed  its  mission  at  the  tomb  of  Alexander  III., 
masses  for  the  repose  of  tlie  soul  of  the  dead  monarch  were 
celebrated  throughout  Bulgaria. 

The  political  results  of  the  mission  are  apparently 
small.  The  delegates  were  well  received  by  the  Russian 
foreign  minister  and  the  Russian  press,  and  considerable 
sentiment  favorable  to  Bulgaria  was  aroused;  but,  while 
there  was  this  feeling  toward  the  Bulgarian  people,  the 
illegal  status  of  the  existing  Bulgarian  government  could 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  and  was  felt  to  be  a  permanent  bar  to 
the  entrance  of  Russia  into  relations  with  Bulgaria.  A 
semi-official  statement  to  that  effect  was  made  about  Au-- 
gust  1,  Russia  refusing  to  recognize  tlie  rule  of  a  usurper, 
and  demanding  that  a  prince  be  chosen  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  Porte.  The  authenticity  of  this  statement 
may  be  questioned;  but  Nicholas  II.  has  not  yet  publicly 
shown  any  disposition  to  deviate  from  his  father's  policy. 
The  extreme  Russophiles  in  Bulgaria  are  greatly  en- 
couraged; they  assume  the  abdication  of  Prince  Ferdinand 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION. 


587 


to  be  inevitable,  and  are  even  discussing  his  successor. 
There  is,  however,  a  deep  and  widespread  distrust  of 
Russia  among  the  people  of  the  principality.  The  situa- 
tion is  exceedingly  disquieting,  for  another  Russophile  at- 
tempt at  revolution  would  give  rise  to  serious  international 
complications.  It  is,  indeed,  not  unlikely  that  the  con- 
ferences at  Ischl,  early  in  August,  between  the  Austrian 
emperor  and  King 
Charles  of  Roumania, 
had  some  connection 
with  the  eventuality 
of  a  disturbance  of 
public  order  and  of 
the  status  quo  in  the 
Balkans;  and  we  may 
suppose  that  the  same 
topic  received  some 
discussion  at  the  in- 
terviews of  the  Aus- 
trian and  German 
emperors  at  Stettin 
during  the  German 
army  manoeuvres  in 
the  early  part  of  Sep- 
tember. 

The  Assassina- 
tion  of  M.  Stamhou- 
loff.  — G  r  e  a  t  as  were 
the  difficulties  of 
Prince  Ferdinand's 
position,  they  were 
immeasurably  in- 
creased as  a  result  of 
the  assassination  of 
his  former  prime  minister,  M.  Stambouloff.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally believed  that  Ferdinand  was  implicated  in  the  mur- 
derous plot;  but  his  dismissal  from  office  in  May,  1894,  of 
the  man  who,  more  than  any  one  else,  may  be  said  to  have 
created  Bulgaria,  and  to  whom  Ferdinand  owed  his  elec- 
tion as  ruling  prince;  his  total  reversal  of  the  policy  of  his 
former  adviser;  his  subsequent  relentlessness  of  official 
hostility  toward  the  fallen  statesman;  and  his  final  refusal 
to  permit  the  ex-premier  to  leave  the  principality  even 
when  the  doctors  insisted  on  a  course  of  treatment  at 
Carlsbad  as  necessary  to  save  his  life — all  these  things 
combined  to  expose  M.  Stambouloff  to  the  machinations 


THE   LATE    M.    STAMBOULOFF, 
EX-PRIME   MINISTER   OF   BULGARIA. 


588  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

of  the  numerous  enemies  whom  liis  rigorous  regime  had 
aroused,  and  to  the  intrigues  of  Russian  agents;  and  they 
facilitated,  if  they  did  not  invite,  the  conspiracy  which 
culminated  in  his  murder. 

The  crime  was  committed  on  the  evening  of  July  15. 
In  company  with  M.  Petkoff,  his  personal  friend,  editor 
of  his  organ,  the  Svoboda,  M.  Stambouloff  was  returning 
home  from  the  Union  club  in  Sofia,  when  his  carriage  was 
stopped  by  three  or  four  men  armed  with  yataghans, 
knives,  and  pistols.  M.  Stambouloff  leaped  to  the  ground, 
whereupon  the  men  attacked  him,  inflicting  fatal  wounds, 
over  twenty  of  which  were  in  the  head.  Both  his  hands, 
which  he  had  raised  to  defend  himself,  had  to  be  amputated. 
His  naturally  rugged  constitution  had  been  weakened  by 
disease;  he  was  unable  to  survive  the  shock,  and  died  three 
days  later  (July  18).  M.  Petkoff  was  also  slightly  wounded. 
The  assassins  made  good  their  escape  although  the  crime 
was  committed  before  dark  and  in  view  of  several  of  the 
(jendarmes.  M.  Stambouloff's  body-servant,  Todoroff,  at- 
tempted to  pursue  the  murderers,  but  was  prevented  by  a 
police  inspector,  who  cut  him  down  with  his  sword,  seri- 
ously wounding  him.  M.  Stambouloff,  on  regaining  con- 
sciousness, declared  that  he  recognized  among  his  assail- 
ants M.  Haloff  and  M.  Tufektchieff,  the  latter  being  one 
of  the  murderers  of  Dr.  Vulcovitch,  Bulgarian  represen- 
tative at  Constantinople,  in  February,  1892  (Vol.  2,  pp.  61 
and  133).  M.  Tufektchieff,  however,  it  is  said,  proved  an 
alibi;  and,  although  numerous  other  arrests  were  made, 
the  crime  bids  fair  to  linger  long  on  the  calendar  as  un- 
avenged. 

A  subsequent  and  similar  evidence  of  the  desperate 
character  of  the  intrigues  which  run  through  the  half- 
wrought  web  of  Balkan  politics,  was  the  assassination, 
about  August  1,  of  M.  Matakieff,  a  personal  friend  of  M. 
Stambouloff,  at  midday,  in  front  of  the  prefecture  of 
police,  at  Tatarbasardjik.  These  crimes  recall  to  memory 
the  attempted  assassination  of  M.  Stambouloff  in  March, 
1891,  which  resulted  instead  in  the  death  of  M.  Beltcheff, 
minister  of  finance  (Vol.  1,  pp.  120  and  259). 

Madame  Stambouloff  refused  to  admit  to  the  house  any 
of  the  representatives  of  the  government,  accept  any  of 
the  wreaths  sent  by  Prince  Ferdinand,  or  allow  the  fu- 
neral expenses  to  be  paid  by  the  government.  Prince  Fer- 
dinand, who  was  absent  at  Carlsbad,  then  sent  word  forbid- 
ding any  civil  or  military  official  to  attend  the  funeral. 

Even  to  the  grave,  that  fierce  hatred  which  the  dead 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION.  589 

statesman  had  a  faculty  of  arousing,  still  attended  him; 
for  we  are  told  that  an  organized  crowd  of  the  friends  of 
Major  Panitza,  who  was  executed  for  treason  in  June, 
1890  (Vol.  1,  p.  18),  barred  the  passage  of  the  hearse 
through  the  cemetery;  that  only  the  presence  of  a  body  of 
cavalry  prevented  a  riot;  and  that  guards  had  to  be  sta- 
tioned at  night  to  prevent  desecration  of  the  grave. 

The  ex«,ct  truth  concerning  the  motive  which  prompted 
the  murder  of  M.  Stamboulolf  is  not  now,  and  may  never 
be,  generally  known.  The  actual  murderers  may  have 
been  bona  fide  Russian  agents  or  only  Pan-Slavist  fanatics; 
they  may  have  been  partisans  of  Prince  Ferdinand;  they 
may  have  been  avengers  of  Panitza's  death,  or  tools  of  the 
notorious  Russophile  Zankoff.  This  much  alone  can  be 
said — that  M.  Stambouloff  had  many  enemies  who  rejoiced 
at  his  fall  and  would  gloat  over  his  death,  and  that  the  at- 
titude of  Prince  Ferdinand  toward  him  during  a  year  and 
more  past  had  facilitated  the  execution  of  tlieir  desperate 
plans. 

Stambouloff,  Stepiian  N.  (the  name  is  also  spelled  Staiubuloff , 
Stamboloff,  and  Stanibolow),  ex -prime  minister  of  Bulgaria,  famil- 
iarly known  as  the  "  Bismarck  "  of  liis  country,  and  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  figures  of  modern  European  history,  was  born  Jan.  31, 
1854,  at  Tirnova,  the  city  of  the  ancient  Bulgarian  tsars,  on  the  north- 
ern slope  of  the  Balkans.  He  died  in  Sofia  early  on  the  morning  of 
July  18,  from  wounds  received  July  15  at  the  hands  of  assassins.  His 
father  was  a  small  innkeeper.  The  boy  was  originally  intended  for 
a  tailor;  but,  when  only  fourteen  years  of  age,  was  so  roused  by  the 
insurrection  in  Crete  that  he  affiliated  himself  with  a  revolutionary 
committee  in  Tirnova;  and  even  before  that,  we  are  told,  he  had  de- 
termined to  devote  himself  to  study.  After  getting  some  schooling 
in  Bulgaria,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Odessa  University  as  a  scholar  on 
the  foundation  of  the  empress  of  Russia.  He  remained  there  three 
or  four  years;  but  his  industrious  moods  were  fitful  and  irregular; 
and,  when  he  was  suspected  of  complicity  with  nihilists,  he  was  ex- 
pelled. For  a  short  time  he  was  clerk  in  an  advocate's  office  in 
Odessa;  but  soon  found  the  monotonous  routine  of  the  office  ill-suited 
to  his  tastes,  and  turned  his  steps  homeward.  At  Giurgevo,  the  port 
of  Bucharest,  then  a  centre  of  the  Bulgarian  emigration,  he  found 
employment  in  the  establishment  of  a  soap- chandler;  but  soon  re- 
turned to  Tirnova,  where  he  worked  for  a  time  in  a  brewery.  He 
had  in  the  meantime  entered  into  relations  with  the  heads  of  the  Bul- 
garian revolutionary  party,  and  was  thereafter  an  active  conspirator 
against  the  Turks.  On  several  occasions  he  was  nearly  captured  by 
the  Turks;  and  it  was  largely  the  revolutionary  movements  he  in- 
itiated that  caused  the  strong  measures  against  the  revolutionary 
committees,  which  became  known  throughout  Europe  as  the  "Bul- 
garian atrocities,"  among  the  chief  causes  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
of  1877-8.  After  the  liberation  of  Bulgaria,  he  opened  a  lawyer's 
office  at  Rustchuk,  becoming  known  as  the  cleverest  advocate  in  Bul- 
garia. In  the  first  year  of  Prince  Alexander's  reign  (1879),  he  was 
elected  a  deputy  for  Tirnova;  but  for  some  time  remained  in  the  back- 


590  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

ground  though  identifying  himself  with  the  Bulgarian  liberal  or 
patriotic  party  opposed  to  the  domination  of  Russian  influence.  He 
soon  became  the  recognized  leader  of  the  radical  or  advanced  wing  of 
the  liberals.  In  1880  the  patriotic  party  came  into  power,  and  M. 
StamboulofE  was  elected  vice-president  of  the  chamber.  In  1884,  dis- 
gusted with  the  duplicity  of  his  former  ally,  Zankoff,  he  used  his 
whole  influence,  which  was  strong  on  both  sides  of  the  chamber,  for 
the  overthrow  of  that  versatile  politician.  M.  Karaveloff's  second 
ministry  followed,  and  Stambouloff  became  president  of  the  sobranje. 
Within  the  next  two  years,  while  he  held  this  post,  the  successful 
coup  d'etat  of  Philippopolis,  led  by  his  friend  Stoyanoflf,  occurred 
(1885),  which  resulted  in  the  union  of  Eastern  Roumelia  with  Bul- 
garia. The  war  with  Servia,  provoked  by  the  then  King  Milan  I., 
followed,  resulting  in  the  brilliant  defeat  of  the  Servians  at  Slivnitza; 
and  the  abduction  and  deportation  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg 
to  Russian  soil,  his  triumphant  return,  and  final  abdication,  also  took 
place  within  this  period. 

In  the  movement  for  the  recall  of  Prince  Alexander,  M.  Stambou- 
lofE played  a  brilliant  part.  On  August  21,  1886,  when  the  prince 
was  seized  by  a  band  of  conspirators  and  conveyed  to  his  yacht  on 
the  Danube,  M.  Stambouloff  was  spending  his  holidays  at  Tirnova. 
As  president  of  the  sobranje,  he  at  once  issued  a  counter-proclama- 
tion to  that  of  the  provisional  government  which  had  been  set  up  at 
Sofia,  denouncing  the  treachery  of  those  "who  have  been  endeavor- 
ing to  dethrone  our  brave  and  dear  prince,"  and  appointing  his 
brother-in-law,  Colonel  Mutkuroff,  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 
He  also  called  upon  his  partisans  throughout  the  country  to  seize  the 
telegraph  stations,  with  the  loyal  commanders  of  garrisons,  and  with 
his  brother-in-law,  who,  as  commander  at  Philippopolis,  had  control  of 
the  Eastern  Roumelian  army.  He  telegraphed  to  Major  Panoff  in 
Sofia  to  dissolve  the  provisional  government,  which  had  assumed  power; 
constituted  a  regency  consisting  of  himself  and  MM.  Karaveloff  and 
Nikiforoff;  and  looked  around  to  find  Prince  Alexander  and  induce 
him  to  return.  As  a  result  of  these  vigorous  measures,  the  provis- 
ional government  fell  to  pieces  after  an  existence  of  three  days,  although 
the  officers  of  the  Tirnova  garrison  had  already  taken  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance. In  the  name  of  the  prince,  M.  Stambouloff,  still  at  Tirnova, 
now  formed  a  government,  appointing  M.  Radoslavoff  as  its  head; 
and  he  was  among  the  foremost  to  welcome  back  Prince  Alexander. 

However,  the  hostility  of  the  Czar  Alexander  III.  proved  too  much 
for  Prince  Alexander,  whose  spirit  had  been  broken  by  his  misfor- 
tunes, and  who  had  been  deeply  disgusted  by  the  discovery  that  a 
third  of  his  army  had  joined  in  the  plot  against  him,  and  by  the  inter- 
ference of  the  European  powers  to  prevent  the  military  execution  of 
the  ringleaders,  which  Russia  had  declared  she  would  not  tolerate. 
And  so  the  prince  abdicated  his  throne,  being  convinced  that  Russia 
would  never  be  reconciled  to  the  principality  so  long  as  he  remained 
at  its  head,  but  having  first  obtained  a  promise  from  the  czar  that 
Bulgaria  should  not  be  occupied  by  a  Russian  force  "except  in  case 
of  anarchy,"  In  consenting  to  the  abdication,  the  Bulgarians  were 
guided  by  M.  Stambouloff, 

A  second  regency  now  ensued,  composed  of  MM.  Stambouloff, 
Karaveloff,  and  Colonel  Mutkuroff.  The  Russophile  party  continued 
their  agitation,  for  it  was  known  that  neither  the  czar  nor  his  ad- 
visers believed  it  possible  that  Bulgaria  could  continue  to  exist  for  any 
time  under  an  anti-  Russian  regime.  That  they  were  undeceived  was  due 
to  the  extraordinary  ability  and  abundance  of  resource  of  M.  Stambou- 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION. 


591 


loflE.  He  found  the  difficulty  of  choosing  a  new  prince  to  be  almost  insu- 
perable. Prince  Ferdinand,  son  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg 
and  Gotba,  a  cousin  of  the  late  Prince  Consort  of  England,  was  per- 
sona  grata  with  the  czar;  but  the  Russian  government  rigidly  main- 
tained the  attitude  it  had  taken  up  from  the  first,  insisting  that  the 
regency  was  illegal,  that  it  must  resign,  and  that  fresh  elections  must 
be  held  for  the  assembly,  on  which  the  choice  of  a  prince  would  de- 
volve. These  demands  placed  M.  Stambouloff  and  his  colleagues  in 
an  inextricable  difficulty;  for,  if  the  regents  resigned,  no  legal  power 
could  replace  them;  and  if  they  held  a  fresh  election,  it  would  be  as 
illegal  in  the  eyes  of  Russia  as  the  preceding.  In  the  beginning  of 
1887  M.  Stambouloff's  difficulties  seemed  to  multiply.  Turkish  troops 
were  assembling  on  the  frontier,  Russian  agents  were  increasing  their 
activity  throughout  Bulgaria,  and  symptoms  of  discontent  began  to 
manifest  themselves  in  the  country.  A  military  revolt  at  Silistria, 
followed  by  a  more  serious  outbreak  at  Rustchuk,  gave  evidence  of 
the  disorganized  condition  of  the  army.  M.  Stambouloff  faced  every 
danger  with  courage  and  resolution.  Nine  of  the  ringleaders  in  the 
Rustchuk  revolt  were  shot  by  sentence  of  court-martial  three  days 
after  the  event;  and  since  that  time  there  have  been  no  more  military 
revolts  in  Bulgaria.  At  length  Prince  Ferdinand  was  elected,  by  ac- 
clamation, prince  of.  Bulgaria,  M.  Stambouloff  having  made  up  his 
mind  to  do  without  the  czar's  approval.  On  the  11th  of  August,  1887, 
the  first  regent  welcomed  the  new  prince  of  Bulgaria;  and  this  was 
the  beginning  of  a  partnership  which  continued  for  more  than  six 
years  and  brought  about  the  happiest  results  to  Bulgaria.  Those  who 
had  only  superficial  knowledge  could  hardly  understand  two  men  of 
such  different  mold  being  able  to  work  together  in  apparent  harmony 
for  so  long  a  period;  they  could  only  recognize  in  Prince  Ferdinand 
the  Austrian  aristocrat,  the  dilettante  botanist  and  ornithologist,  the 
lover  of  birds,  flowers,  and  precious  stones;  while  in  M.  Stambouloff 
they  saw  only  the  rough  and  ready  man  of  action,  brusque  in  manner, 
careless  of  exteriors,  a  little  barbarous  perhaps,  a  Bulgarian  of  the 
Bulgarians. 

M.  Stambouloff  had  now  triumphed  over  all  his  enemies,  and  had 
vanquished  the  refractory  members  of  his  own  party,  including  M. 
Radoslavoff,  his  prime  minister.  On  the  termination  of  the  regency, 
M.  Stambouloff  would  have  preferred  to  return  to  his  old  post  as 
president  of  the  sobranje;  but  the  situation  was  critical.  The  Porte 
had  informed  Prince  Ferdinand  that  his  presence  in  Bulgaria  was  il- 
legal; and  it  was  announced  that  General  Ernroth  was  about  to  ar- 
rive in  Bulgaria  on  a  special  mission,  ostensibly  representing  the  sul- 
tan, but  in  reality  acting  as  Russian  commissioner.  M.  Stambouloff 
hastened  to  form  a  cabinet.  The  elections  to  the  sobranje  took  place 
in  the  following  month,  and  furnished  an  occasion  to  the  Russophile 
and  Radoslavoffist  parties  for  making  a  last  effort.  Scenes  of  riot 
and  bloodshed  occurred  in  several  places.  But  the  strong  hand  of  the 
minister  made  itself  felt  everywhere,  and  the  government  obtained  an 
enormous  majority.  The  turbulence  of  the  elections  in  1887  con- 
trasts with  the  tranquillity  prevailing  on  a  similar  occasion  in  1890, 
when  M.  Stambouloff  liad  greatly  increased  his  influence.  In  Oriental 
lands  the  people  will  always  acquiesce  in  a  strong  government,  so  long 
as  it  does  not  interfere  with  private  industry  or  impose  excessive  tax- 
ation. This  is  peculiarly  the  case  in  Bulgaria;  and  for  six  years  fol- 
lowing the  accession  of  Prince  Ferdinand,  the  great  mass  of  the  Bul- 
garian peasantry  undoubtedly  looked  up  to  M.  Stambouloff  as  a  bene- 


592  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

factor  who  bestowed  upon  them  a  condition  of  peace  and  well-being 
sucli  as  they  had  never  known  before. 

M.  Stambouloff  directed  all  his  efforts  to  obtain  the  recognition 
of  Prince  Ferdinand,  upon  whose  success  or  failure  the  future  of  his 
own  career  so  largely  depended;  and,  failing  of  success,  he  was  more 
than  once  tempted  by  his  venturesome  disposition  to  proclaim  a  Bul- 
garian kingdom  and  raise  the  standard  of  revolt  in  Macedonia.  He 
was  restrained  only  by  the  characteristic  caution  of  Prince  Ferdinand 
and  by  the  strong  representations  of  some  of  the  foreign  agents  at 
Sofia. 

The  last  years  of  M.  Stambouloff's  administration  were  darkened 
by  two  unhappy  episodes — the  Panitza  plot  of  1890,  and  the  murder 
of  M.  Beltcheff  in  March,  1891.  Undue  importance  was,  perhaps, 
attributed  to  the  Panitza  conspiracy,  which  originated  in  the  disap- 
pointed ambition  of  an  unscrupulous  officer,  who  appears  to  have" 
been  himself  the  victim  of  still  more  unscrupulous  associates.  The 
assassination  of  M.  Beltcheff  was  a  more  serious  occurrence,  indicat- 
ing that  M.  Stambouloff's  enemies  had  taken  recourse  to  new  methods. 
That  M.  Stambouloff  was  the  intended  victim  on  that  occasion  cannot 
be  doubted;  and  those  who  had  known  him  for  years  could  not  fail  to 
see  that  the  balance  of  his  mind  was  affected  by  this  tragic  occurrence. 
There  was  a  fierce  determination,  a  terrible  concentration  of  purpose, 
a  doggedness  of  resolve,  that,  come  what  might,  by  fair  means  or  by 
foul,  the  guilty  should  be  detected  and  punished.  The  severities 
which  disfigured  the  administration  of  Bulgaria  during  the  last  years 
of  M.  Stambouloff's  tenure  of  office — exaggerated,  no  doubt,  by  inter- 
ested persons,  but  none  the  less  existent — bore  testimony  to  the  fact 
that  an  otherwise  singularly  sane  mind  had  in  one  re.spect  become 
unhinged.  But  we  should  remember  that  Bulgaria  is  a  rough  coun- 
try, requiring  strong  rule;  and  that,  with  all  his  harshness.  M.  Stam- 
bouloff, against  enormous  odds,  held  fast  to  the  ideal  of  a  pure  and 
intense  patriotism. 

M.  Stambouloff's  political  career  came  to  an  end  with  his  forced 
retirement  on  May  29,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  433).  The  reasons  for  this  are 
even  yet  not  fully  understood.  It  was  more  than  likely  connected 
with  the  evident  impossibility,  so  long  as  M.  Stambouloff  directed 
government  affairs,  of  Prince  Ferdinand  securing  the  desired  recog- 
nition of  the  powers.  The  relations  between  the  prince  and  his  min- 
ister had  often  previously  been  strained;  and  Prince  Ferdinand  had 
already  manifested  that  inclination  to  seek  the  good  will  of  Russia 
which  has  now  become  part  of  his  avowed  policy.  But  this  time  the 
rupture  was  final,  and  was  succeeded  by  bitter  hostility  on  both  sides. 
It  soon  became  evident  that  the  energetic  minister  could  never  re- 
sume oifice  so  long  as  Prince  Ferdinand  remained  on  the  throne.  M. 
Stambouloff's  numerous  enemies  throughout  the  country  perceived, 
therefore,  that  they  might  with  impunity  give  free  scope  to  their 
deep  feelings  of  revenge;  and  their  numbers  were  increased  by  an 
amnesty  which  enabled  a  number  of  political  exiles,  bitter  jiersonal 
enemies  of  the  fallen  minister,  such  as  M.  Zankoff  (p.  195),  to  return 
to  Sofia.  From  that  moment  M.  Stambouloff  was  convinced  that  at- 
tempts would  be  made  on  his  life.  In  interviews  with  newspaper 
correspondents,  he  evinced  a  determination  to  fight  Prince  Ferdinand 
by  all  means  in  his  power.  This  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  judging  of  the  prince's  refusal  to  let  him  leave  the  country. 

There  are  few  more  thrilling  chapters  in  modern  history  than  the 
story  of  M.  Stambouloff's  career.     Though  surrounded  with  unscru- 


GENERAL  EUROPEAN  SITUATION.  593 

pulous  enemies  whose  customary  weapons  were  intrigue  and  assassina- 
tion, he  yet,  year  after  year,  held  out  in  defiance  of  the  secret  plots 
and  open  attacks  of  Russia,  while  at  the  same  time  developing  out 
of  the  unpromising  material  of  his  nutive  land  a  vigorous  and  patri- 
otic nation.  He  practically  gave  his  country  its  independence;  he 
awoke  its  national  self-consciousness;  he  rendered  the  glory  of 
Slivnitza  possible;  and  he  assured  the  internal  tranquillity  of  the 
principality.  That  his  administration  was  resolute,  dictatorial,  even 
liarsh,  is  not  denied  even  by  his  most  ardent  admirers.  But  the 
work  he  had  to  do  required  strong  measures;  and  a  weak  man  in  his 
place  would  have  been  a  curse  to  his  country  and  a  menace  to  Europe. 

The  Macedonian  Revolt. — The  uprising  in  Macedonia^, 
which  began  in  June  (p.  335),  presently  assumed  serious 
proportions.  An  engagement  was  fought  about  July  19 
between  Turkish  troops  and  a  body  of  insurgents  said  to 
number  5,000,  in  which  the  latter  were  victorious;  but,  by 
the  end  of  that  month,  we  are  told,  the  scattered  bands  of 
rebels,  lacking  efficient  organization  and  equipment,  and 
failing  to  receive  the  full  assistance  which  they  expected 
from  across  the  Bulgarian  border  and  from  the  Christian 
powers,  had  been  so  often  repulsed  that  the  insurrection 
was  seen  to  be  a  failure. 

The  international  interest  in  the  revolt  is  due  to  the 
suspicion,  widely  held,  that  it  was  largely  fomented  by 
Russian  agents  and  was  also  countenanced  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Bulgaria.  The  people  of  Macedonia,  though 
much  mixed  as  to  race,  are  one  as  to  religion,  mainly 
■Greek  Christians.  By  the  Berlin  treaty  of  1878,  they  were 
guaranteed  certain  reforms;  and  the  powers  of  Europe  ob- 
ligated themselves  to  have  them  carried  out.  Turkey, 
however,  has  not  fulfilled  her  treaty  obligations;  and  the 
oppressed  Macedonians  seized  upon  the  agitation  for  re- 
form in  Armenia  as  furnishing  an  occasion  for  calling  the 
attention  of  Europe  to  their  own  grievances  also. 

It  is  said  that  the  Turkish  troops  sent  to  crush  the  up- 
rising numbered  60,000.  Numerous  bands  of  Macedo- 
nians, who,  during  the  past  twenty  years,  have  settled  in 
Bulgaria,  flocked  to  the  assistance  of  their  brethren  across 
the  frontier.  AVidespread  sympathy  with  the  revolt  was 
felt  in  Bulgaria;  and  Prince  Ferdinand  himself,  who  con- 
sented to  receive  a  deputation  of  Macedonians,  was  sus- 
pected of  lending  at  least  moral  aid  to  the  insurgents,  for 
the  sake  of  ingratiating  himself  with  Russia.  But  in  re- 
sponse to  a  note  sent  in  alarm  by  the  Porte,  the  powers  of 
Europe  made  strong  representations  to  the  cabinet  of 
Prince  Ferdinand,  the  result  of  which  was  that  Bulgaria 
finally  put  forth  strong  efforts  to  prevent  Macedonians 
living  within  her  borders  from  joining  in  the  insurrection. 


594  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d Qr,  1895. 

Although  the  crisis  seemed  thus  quickly  to  have  been 
passed,  scattered  bands  of  marauders  caused  considerable 
trouble  in  early  August.  On  the  9th  the  Mussulman  town 
of  Janakli,  in  the  Kirdjali  district,  was  destroyed  by  a  large 
band  from  Bulgaria,  the  number  of  killed  being  stated  at 
from  25  to  100.  About  the  same  time  the  village  of 
Kusterdil  in  the  Rhodope  district  was  also  burned;  and  on 
August  10  the  village  of  Dospat  was  burned  by  a  band  of 
Bulgarians,  and  its  people  slaughtered  indiscriminately, 
over  forty  being  killed,  one-half  of  whom  were  women. 

The  Port  of  Bizerta. — Almost  simultaneously  with 
the  opening  of  the  Kaiser-Wilhelm  canal  in  Germany, 
France  celebrated  the  completion  of  the  construction  work 
which  for  three  years  has  been  converting  the  lake  of 
Bizerta  in  Tunis,  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Carthage,  into  an  impregnable  naval  station  and  an  im- 
portant commercial  port.  The  completion  of  this  port 
enormously  increases  the  strategic  powers  of  France  in  the 
Mediterranean.  In  this  respect  the  possession  of  immense 
coaling  and  docking  facilities  at  Toulon,  and  of  numerous 
minor  refuges  on  the  coast  of  France  and  in  Corsica, 
Algiers,  and  Tunis,  had  already  made  France  the  superior 
of  Great  Britain,  whose  docking  facilities  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  practically  confined  to  Malta,  except  through 
the  favor  of  some  other  power. 

On  June  4,  three  divisions,  forming  the  active  squad- 
ron of  the  French  Mediterranean  fleet,  took  formal  posses- 
sion of  the  port  of  Bizerta,  by  sailing  through  the" canal 
which  now  connects  the  lake  of  Bizerta  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea. 

Bizerta  is  a  fortified  seaport  of  Tunis,  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Africa.  A  canal  cut  through  the  isthmus  of  Zarzana  gives  access 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  lake  of  Bizerta,  which  forms  an  interior 
basin  as  large  as  the  city  of  Paris — large  enough  and  deep  enough  to 
tloat  all  the  navies  of  the  world.  The  lake  is  12  kilometres  (seven 
miles)  in  diameter,  with  a  depth  of  10  to  13  metres  (82  to  39  feet). 
The  canal  is  1,500  metres  (1,640  yards)  long;  120  metres  (131  yards) 
wide;  and  9  metres  (about  10  yards)  deep.  Its  entrance  is  protected 
on  each  side  by  jetties  1,000  metres  long.  High  hills  and  marshy  la- 
goons render  the  lake  inaccessible  except  by  way  of  the  canal.  *  All 
round  the  lake  will  be  constructed  the  various  military  establishments 
required  for  a  naval  port, — arsenals,  building  slips,  foundries,  powder 
magazines,  mastings,  refitting  docks,  provision  storehouses,  schools, 
barracks,  etc.  The  heights  which  command  the  town  and  lake  will 
be  furnished  with  fortifications  in  accord  with  their  topographical 
importance.  In  this  landlocked  harbor  the  entire  French  Mediterra- 
nean fleet  could  ride  in  safety;  and  it  is  asserted  that  they  would  be  as 
secure  from  the  enemy  outside  as  if  they  were  lying  in  an  artificial 
basin  in  the  centre  of  France, 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA  A.  595 

Commercially  the  new  port  will  be  of  great  importance.  Not  only 
does  it  afford  refuge  from  storms;  but  it  enables  goods  to  be  carried 
directly  to  important  internal  ports  without  being  disembarked  on  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  also  shortens  the  journey  from  Marseilles  to 
Tunis,  which  may  now  be  reached  by  railway  from  the  south  of  the 
lake  without  the  traveller  being  required  to  double  Cape  Bon. 

THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA. 

The  Niger  Country. — At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal 
Niger  Company  in  London,  Sir  George  Taubman-Goldie, 
*^  governor  ^^  or  president  of  the  company,  rehearsed  the 
story  of  French  aggression  upon  their  territories,  but  said 
that  the  outlook  was  encouraging  and  that  the  position  of 
the  company  was  now  far  stronger  than  at  any  time  during 
the  last  twelve  years.  The  principal  field  of  recent  French 
aggression  was  the  triangular  region  between  the  meridian 
of  the  town  of  Su,y,  the  middle  Niger  below  Say,  and  the 
9th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  hence  lying  to  the  south  of 
the  demarcation  line  established  by  the  Anglo-French 
agreement  of  1890. 

Last  year  the  "colonial  party "  in  France  discovered 
what  they  thought  was  a  flaw  in  the  company^s  title  to 
this  territory,  and  sent  two  expeditions  to  make  treaties 
with  the  native  potentates.  But  the  company^s  agent,  Cap- 
tain Lugard,  forestalled  this  action,  and  obtained  for  his  em- 
ployers "  treaties  ^^  of  most  unimpeachable  regularity,  con- 
firming all  prior  concessions.  The  French  now  decided  to 
ignore  and  repudiate  the  agreement  of  1890  altogether, 
consequently  all  subsequent  treaties  with  the  natives  with 
regard  to  the  lands  concerned  in  that  agreement.  Numer- 
ous French  expeditions  entered  the  territory  and  became 
practically  masters,  for  the  time  being,  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  British  sphere.  At  first  the  company  was  in- 
clined to  eject  the  intruders  by  force  of  arms;  but,  fearing 
the  probable  consequences  of  a  collision  between  French 
and  English  in  the  heart  of  Africa,  resolved  to  let  diplomacy 
bring  redress.  The  French  are  still  there,  and  cabinets  are 
exchanging  communications. 

But  that  triangular  region  is  not  the  only  field  in  which 
the  company's  rights  have  been  invaded  by  the  French. 
A  French  gunboat  a  few  months  ago  entered  the  British 
Niger  from  the  sea:  the  gunboat  was  to  co-operate  with  a 
French  expedition  from  Dahomey,  for  an  object  "■  not  dif- 
ficult to  divine."  This  attempt  to  seize  territory  belong- 
ing to  the  company  failed  through  an  accident  to  the 
naval  contingent  of  the  expedition.  The  attempt  may  be 
renewed;   and  the  company's   hopes  of   tranquillity   and 


596  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

prosperity  rest  on  the  belief  that  at  length  the  practical 
good  sense  of  the  French  will  put  a  stop  to  these  useless 
and  dangerous  aggressions. 

On  the  other  hand,  at  a  meeting  of  the  French  Com- 
pany of  Africa,  held  at  Paris  in  August,  the  efforts  of 
French  explorers  to  extend  the  influence  of  France  in  Af- 
rica were  praised  as  patriotic  and  worthy  of  all  honor. 
The  company's  president,  M.  Tharel,  complains  of  the 
coldness,  or  even  the  hostility,  of  the  French  government 
toward  French  pioneers  in  the  Niger  country.     Says  he: 

"  The  powerful  movement  of  colonial  expansion  which  for  the 
last  six  years  has  happened  in  our  country  has  done  wonders  in  a  few 
years;  but  the  empire  which  it  has  given  us  in  Africa,  especially  in 
the  centre  of  Africa,  will  continue  to  cost  us  considerable  sums  and 
create  ever  new  embarrassments  for  us  as  long  as  the  role  which  we 
traders,  manufacturers,  engineers,  are  to  play  is  not  understood  and 
vigorously  seconded  by  the  government.  The  intrepidity  of  the  Brit- 
ish subject  is  due  to  his  feeling  himself  protected  and  backed  against 
all  comers  by  the  queen's  ministers.  Why  must  we  certify  that  the 
secret  of  our  weakness,  sometimes  abroad  and  always  in  our  colonies, 
is  that  the  French  citizen  is  too  often  considered  in  the  wrong  and  too 
often  thrown  over?  " 

The  real  object  of  the  French' in  the  region  of  the  Up- 
per Niger  is  by  the  Paris  correspondent  of  the  London 
Times  asserted  to  be  "  to  link  the  colony  of  the  Ivory 
Coast  to  that  of  Dahomey  by  the  absorption  of  the  Eng- 
lisli  and  German  hinterland." 

The  French  in  Madagascar. — The  French  troops 
occupied  Mevatanana  without  opposition  July  12:  all  the 
native  inhabitants  had  fled,  leaving  only  a  few  British  In- 
dian shopkeepers.  The  property  of  the  Suberbie  gold 
mining  company  near  the  town,  abandoned  by  the  com- 
pany last  November,  was  found  intact.  General  Duchesne, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  French  forces,  had  experienced 
great  difficulties  in  his  advance,  owing  to  the  badness  of 
the  roads,  lack  of  bridges,  and  shortness  of  rations. 
Two  hundred  soldiers  were  arriving  every  week  at  Ma- 
junga,  invalided  by  malarial  fever,  dysentery,  and  rheuma- 
tism. Having  reached  Suberbieville  (125  miles).  Gen- 
eral Duchesne  had  completed  one-third  of  the  long  march 
to  the  capital  of  Madagascar.  This  first  stage  of  the  march 
consumed  nearly  three  months,  including  the  time  spent 
in  debarkation  of  troops  and  landing  of  supplies.  Blunders 
and  miscalculations  of  engineers  had  delayed  the  building 
of  wharves  at  Majunga,  and  the  army  and  its  immense  im- 
pedimenla  had  to  be  taken  ashore  in  lighters.  Then  the 
troops,  which  were  to  have  been  taken  up  the  Betsiboka 
river  on  launches  to  Mevatanana,  found  no  launches  ready, 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA.  597 

and  had  to  march  along  the  river  bank  through  swamps, 
under  the  broiling  sun.  As  the  soldiers  succumbed  to  the 
pestilent  influences  of  the  soil  and  climate,  they  were  taken 
to  a  sanitarium  near  the  coast,  or  sent  to  the  island  of 
Reunion  or  to  France. 

As  the  French  advanced  they  met  no  effectual  resist- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  natives.  A  dispatch  from  Gen- 
eral Duchesne  describes  as  follows  the  capture  of  the  town 
of  Andriba: 

"  The  attack  on  Andriba,  wliicb  was  begun  yesterday,  August  21, 
ended  this  morning  without  a  regular  fight.  The  enemy,  demoral- 
ized by  the  effects  of  the  artillery  fire,  evacuated  six  fortified  posts 
and  numerous  encampments.  We  captured  seven  guns  and  lost 
one  Malagasy  tirailleur;  one  gunner  was  wounded,  and  two  others 
received  bruises." 

On  September  19  the  Frencli  troops  captured  the  pass 
across  the  Ambohimena  mountains;  and  the  advance  guard 
reached  Antoby,  about  thirty  miles  from  the  Hova  capital. 
At  the  end  of  the  month  intelligence  was  received  of  the 
capture  of  Antananarivo;  the  queen,  her  household,  and 
the  ministers  of  state,  were  said  to  have  fled  to  Ambosistra. 

The  Kongo  Free  State. — Though  the  Belgian  cham- 
bers declined  King  Leopold's  offer  of  the  Kongo  territories, 
the  people  being  averse  to  the  possession  of  colonies  over- 
sea, a  subsidy  of  15,000,000  was  voted  for  constructing 
the  Kongo  railroad.  It  is  stipulated  that  the  Free  State 
shall  not  enter  into  any  financial  engagement  whatsoever 
without  consent  of  the  Brussels  government  until  the  year 
1900,  when  Belgium  will  have  to  decide  finally  whether  she 
will  adopt  the  Free  State  as  a  dependency,  or  abandon  it. 

The  Indefendance  Beige  of  August  30  published  a  dis- 
patch which  reported  severe  fighting  in  the  Kongo  State 
between  government  troops  and  Mahdist  forces.  There 
M^as  a  desperate  battle  in  the  Adda  district,  in  which  the 
Belgian  loss  was  sixteen  men  and  officers  killed. 

An  Englishman  named  Stokes,  once  a  missionary,  was 
hanged  by  the  authorities  of  the  Kongo  Free  State  early 
in  the  summer.  The  English  newspapers  having  raised 
an  outcry  over  what  they  represented  to  be  a  murder,  the 
Etoih  Beige  made  a  statement  of  the  facts  of  the  case.  For 
some  time  Stokes  had  been  selling  arms  and  ammunition 
to  slave  traders,  but  had  evaded  capture  by  taking  refuge 
in  German  territory  whenever  his  traces  were  discovered. 
At  last  he  was  caught,  and  was  hanged  in  conformity  with 
the  articles  of  the  act  of  Berlin  and  the  act  of  Brussels. 


598  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3ci  Qr..  1895. 

MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS. 

The  Mora  Claim  Paid. — On  September  14  the  inci- 
dents connected  with  the  Mora  claim  (p.  342),  so  far  as 
concerned  the  rehitions  of  the  governments  of  Spain  and  the 
United  States,  were  finally  closed.  On  that  day,  pursuant 
to  agreement  reached  in  Boston,  Mass.,  about  the  middle  of 
August,  by  Secretary  of  State  Olney  and  Sefior  Dupuy  de 
Lome,  the  Spanish  minister  at  Washington,  the  latter 
handed  over  to  Acting  Secretary  of  State  Adee  a  draft  on 
the  London  financial  agent  of  the  Spanish  government  for 
£295,412  16s.  lid.  (11,449,000),  the  equivalent  of  1,500,- 
000  Spanish  pesos,  and  received  in  return  a  receipt  for  the 
full  amount.  The  Spanish  cabinet  on  July  31  had  for- 
mally approved  of  the  payment  of  this  sum  in  spite  of  the 
strong  opposition  of  the  republican  and  Carlist  senators, 
who  contended  that  the  sanction  of  the  cortes  should  first 
be  secured. 

Numerous  claims  have  already  been  presented  in  con- 
nection with  the  distribution  of  the  indemnity,  which  is 
likely  to  be  effected  only  after  much  litigation. 

The  history  of  this  claim,  as  already  stated  (p.  342), 
dates  back  many  years.  The  seizure  of  Mora's  estate  oc- 
curred in  April,  1869,  he  being  suspected,  with  others 
whose  estates  were  also  confiscated,  of  aiding  the  insur- 
gents in  the  revolt  which  had  begun  in  October,  1868,  and 
which  for  over  eight  years  thereafter  kept  in  active  opera- 
tion almost  all  the  resources  of  the  Spanish  kingdom. 

The  Agramonte  Claim. — Another  claim  against 
Spain,  also  arising  out  of  the  last  rebellion  in  Cuba,  and 
now  attracting  general  attention  as  a  result  of  the  success 
of  the  Mora  claim,  is  that  of  Seilor  Agramonte,  an  Ameri- 
can citizen.  A  sum  of  about  $500,000  is  involved.  It  is 
not  charged  that  Agramonte  was  in  collusion  with  the 
rebels;  but  his  property  was  destroyed  by  Spanish  troops 
when  it  became  evident  that  it  would  otherwise  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  insurgents.  The  claim  Avas  considered 
by  the  Spanish-American  Claims  Commission  in  1887,  but 
was  dismissed  as  lacking  sufficient  evidence  to  make  it 
valid.     It  is  now  reported  to  be  about  to  be  revived. 

The  Richlieu  Claim. — Still,  another  claim  against 
Spain  is  that  of  Gustav  Richlieu  for  $20,000  damages  for 
illegal  imprisonment  of  himself  and  a  companion,  from 
February  23  to  April  25,  1895,  in  the  city  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  and  for  confiscation  of  a  vessel  belonging  to  them.  It 
appears  that  Richlieu  and  one  x\ugust  Bolton,  both  Ameri- 
can citizens,  set  out  on  February  8  from  Port  au  Prince, 


MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  599 

Ilayti,  for  Cape  llaytien,  but  were  driven  by  contrary  winds 
to  take  refuge  in  Alligator  bay  on  the  Cuban  coast.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  their  papers  were  in  regular  form,  and  in 
spite  of  the  protest  of  the  American  consul  at  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  they  were  kept  in  prison  over  sixty  days. 

Mexican-Guatemalan  Dispute.— The  treaty  which 
in  May  last  dispelled  the  fears  of  an  armed  conflict  between 
Mexico  and  Guatemala,  provided  that  the  question  of  dam- 
ages due  Mexican  subjects  for  their  expulsion  from  the 
disputed  territory  about  a  year  ago,  should  be  referred  to 
tlie  arbitration  of  the  United  States  minister  to  Mexico 
(Vol.  4,  p.  800;  Vol.  5,  pp.  92  and  345). 

On  September  16  President  Diaz  of  Mexico  formally 
named  the  American  minister,  lion.  Matt  W.  Kansom  of 
North  Carolina,  as  arbitrator.  Guatemala  asserts  that  a 
few  thousand  dollars  will  amply  cover  all  losses  sustained; 
but  the  claims  of  Mexico  run  up  into  the  millions. 

Franco-Brazilian  Dispute. — In  the  absence  of  of- 
licial  reports,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  present 
status  of  the  dispute  affecting  territory  on  the  frontier  be- 
tween French  Guiana  and  Brazil.  It  seems  to  be  deter- 
mined that  the  controversy  shall  be  settled  by  arbitration; 
but,  as  to  particulars,  the  newspaper  dispatches  are  alto- 
gether conflicting.  In  the  middle  of  July  it  was  an- 
nounced that  the  president  of  the  Swiss  republic  was  to 
act  as  arbitrator,  the  Amapa  region  in  the  meantime  being 
placed  under  dual  control  to  prevent  the  lawlessness  and 
anarchy  which  was  spreading  there.  Dispatches  in  Au- 
gust intimated  that  the  king  of  Sweden  was  to  be  the  ar-, 
biter.  But  again  telegrams  from  the  Brazilian  capital  in 
the  latter  part  of  September  announced  the  occupation, 
at  least  temporary,  of  Amapan  territory  by  French  troops, 
and  the  blockade  of  the  city  of  Cuenay.  We  can  only  wait 
for  the  future  to  throw  light  upon  the  situation. 

The  frontier  between  the  French  possessions  in  Guiana 
and  what  is  now  the  republic  of  Brazil  has  been  a  subject 
of  dispute  for  300  years,  France  originally  claimed,  as 
against  Portugal,  all  the  territory  on  the  coast  line  from 
the  Amazon  northward,  and  extending  inland  to  the  river 
Branco.  Her  present  claims,  however,  are  more  limited, 
and  include  only  the  territory  east  and  north  of  the  river 
Araguay,  a  tract  embracing  about  90,000  square  kilometres, 
or  a  little  over  one-third  the  size  of  that  at  first  claimed. 

Italian-Brazilian  Dispute. — The  alleged  outrages 
upon  Italian  subjects  in  Brazil  during  the  recent  rebellion 
in  that  country,  have  been  the  subject  of  lengthy  diplo- 


600  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

mtitic  controversy.  Brazil's  delay  in  acceding  to  the  re- 
quests of  Italy  for  a  settlement,  is  to  some  extent  explic- 
able by  the  concentration  of  the  energies  of  the  republic 
which  has  been  needed  for  the  suppression  of  internal  dis- 
orders, and  the  consequent  comparative  neglect  of  foreign 
relations.  It  has,  however,  caused  some  irritation  in 
Italy.  An  ad  referendum  proposition  was  accepted  by  the 
Italian  representative  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  July,  but  his 
government  refused  to  ratify  it.  Accordingly,  early  in 
August,  Signor  Nobili,  the  Italian  charge,  d'affaires  at  the 
Brazilian  capital,  was  instructed  by  the  foreign  office  at 
Rome  to  submit  to  Brazil  the  final  demands  of  his  govern- 
ment, with  an  intimation  at.  the  same  time  that  delay  or 
equivocation  on  the  part  of  Brazil  would  result -^in  an  im- 
mediate rupture  of  diplomatic  relations.  On  the  last  day 
of  September  a  dispatch  was  received,  stating  that  Presi- 
dent De  Moraes  had  assured  the  Italian  minister,  Signor 
Martino,  that  immediate  attention  should  be  given  to 
Italy's  demand  for  redress.  This  was  followed  a  day  or 
two  later  by  a  report  that  the  representatives  of  Italy, 
France,  and  Great  Britain  in  Brazil  had  entered  into  an 
agreement — a  sort  of  new  '^^ triple  alliance" — for  more  ef- 
fective action  in  securing  redress  for  grievances  of  their 
respective  subjects  during  the  recent  troubles  in  the  re- 
public. 

The  Trinidad  Incident. — A  great  commotion  was 
caused  in  Brazil,  which  culminated  in  July  and  August, 
as  a  result  of  the  occupation  of  the  island  of  Trinidad 
by  the  British  in  January  of  the  present  year.  This 
island,  which  bears  the  same  name  as  one  of  the  impor- 
tant British  possessions  in  the  West  Indies,  is  a  small, 
isolated,  uninhabited,  and  almost  barren  rock,  of  volcanic 
origin,  lying  in  the  South  Atlantic  ocean  about  700  miles 
east  and  a  little  to  the  south  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1895,  the  officers  of  the  British  ship  Barracouta  for- 
mally annexed  the  island  to  Queen  Victoria's  dominions, 
the  gunner  being  appointed  governor,  and  the  surgeon 
medical  officer.  A  landing  was  effected  only  with  great 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  surf  and  the  precipitous  rocks. 
The  exploring  party  found  some  fresh  water,  near  which 
was  some  slight  vegetation,  but  reported  no  other  signs  of 
vegetable  or  animal  life  on  the  island,  save  the  remains  of 
stumps  of  large  trees  which  formerly  grew  there.  It  ap- 
pears that  this  rock  was  first  taken  possession  of  in  the 
name  of  King  William  III.  of  England,  in  1700,  by  the 
great  astronomer  Edmund  Halley^  in  the  course  of  his 


MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  601 

celebrated  scientific  cruise  as  captain  of  the  Paramour 
Pinh.  Portugal,  however,  looked  upon  it  as  a  part  of  her 
transmarine  possessions,  and  ceded  it  to  Brazil  when  the 
latter  secured  recognition  as  a  separate  empire.  About 
fifteen  years  ago  it  was  explored  bvan  Englishman  named 
E.  F.  Knight. 

Great  Britain's  object  in  attempting  to  revive  her  an- 
cient title  is  apparent.  Though  Trinidad  has  no  valua- 
ble resources,  and  no  strategic  or  commercial  importance, 
it  is  of  great  value  as  an  anchorage  for  a  cable  to  South 
America.  At  present  all  existing  cables  between  South 
America  and  Europe  have  their  western  shore-ends  at 
Pernambuco,  which  fact  gives  Brazil  control  of  all  direct 
telegraphic  communication  between  European  and  South 
American  states.  The  distance  between  Europe  and  the 
countries  south  of  Brazil  is,  however,  too  great  for  a  di- 
rect cable,  and  Trinidad  offers  just  the  sort  of  half-way 
landing  station  desired  by  the  engineers. 

The  annexation  caused  intense  excitement  in  Brazil, 
which  spread  to  the  provinces.  Meetings  in  protest  were 
held  throughout  the  country;  and  late  in  July  the  police 
had  to  guard  the  British  consulates  in  the  capital  and 
Sao  Paulo  against  attack.  The  matter  was  even  taken  up 
in  the  Brazilian  congress,  where  both  the  house  of  depu- 
ties and  the  senate  unanimously  passed  resolutions  pro- 
testing against  the  government  allowing  the  British  to 
continue  their  occupation  of  the  island. 

So  deeply  were  the  feelings  of  Brazilians  aroused  in 
the  matter,  that  Great  Britain,  it  was  reported,  finally  de- 
cided to  give  way,  and  on  September  3  announced  her 
readiness  to  recognize  the  claim  of  Brazil  to  Trinidad. 
She,  however,  it  is  said,  exacted  permission  to  land  a  cable 
there,  but  on  condition  that  it  should  not  be  connected  with 
a  line  to  the  Argentine  Ilepublic.  Later  there  was  some  talk 
of  an  attempt,  on  the  part  of  Brazil,  to  colonize  the  island. 

Peru  and  Bolivia. — Tension  verging  almost  upon 
open  warfare  marked  the  relations  of  Peru  and  Bolivia 
during  July  and  a  large  part  of  August.  It  was  due  to 
the  refusal  of  the  Peruvian  government  to  accede  to  the 
terms  of  the  ultimatum  of  July  9  from  the  Bolivian  min- 
ister at  Lima,  demanding  that  within  twenty-four  hours 
Peru  should  salute  the  Bolivian  flag. 

Just  what  are  the  grounds  of  Bolivians  claim,  is  not 
clear  from  the  dispatches;  but  the  salute  seems  to  have 
been  demanded  as  a  compliance  with  part  of  the  terms  of 
a  treatv  relating  to  boundaries.     Ever  since  her  disastrous 

VoK  5.-39. 


602  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

junction  with  Peru  in  the  war  with  Chile  which  ended 
Avith  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Ancon  in  October,  1883, 
Bolivia  has  been  an  inland  country,  deprived  of  the  small 
coast  line  which  she  before  held,  and  which  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  victorious  Chile.  The  late  negotia- 
tions between  Peru  and  Chile  regarding  the  future  owner- 
ship of  the  coast-line  provinces  of  Tacna  and  Arica,  were 
accompanied  by  rumors  of  tension  between  Peru  on  the  one 
hand  and  Bolivia  and  Ecuador  on  the  other,  Bolivia  claim- 
ing a  natural  right  to  parts  of  the  provinces  mentioned, 
as  an  outlet  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  now  reported  that  recent 
negotiations  have  resulted  in  treaty  arrangements  whereby  a 
strip  of  territory  with  a  seaport  is  to  be  restored  to  Bolivia. 
Details  of  the  arrangements,  however,  are  not  yet  pub- 
lished; but  it  is  supposed  that  Bolivia's  somewhat  inconti- 
nent demand  for  a  salute  to  her  flag  was  made  upon  Peru 
in  connection  with  the  negotiations  referred  to. 

At  the  suggestion  of  the  papal  nuncio,  a  settlement  of 
the  dispute,  by  referring  it  to  arbitration,  had  been  agreed 
upon  by  the  Bolivian  and  Peruvian  representatives  at  Lima. 
But  at  this  juncture  (about  July  18)  an  incident  occurred 
which  temporarily  blocked  negotiations.  An  excited  mob 
attacked  the  Peruvian  legation  in  La  Paz,  the  Bolivian 
capital,  and  pelted  the  Peruvian  minister  with  stones. 
Nothing  but  the  alacrity  of  the  police  prevented  demon- 
strations of  a  similar  character  against  Bolivia  in  the 
Peruvian  capital.  Negotiations  were  resumed,  and  re- 
sulted in  a  convention  (signed  August  26),  arranging 
that  the  controversy  as  to  the  salute  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  an  arbitrator  chosen  from  one  of  the  Ameri- 
can states,  Brazil  being  first  choice  and  Colombia  second. 
President  De  Moraes  has  formally  consented  to  act  as  ar- 
bitrator. 

The  Tangier  Incident. — A  formidable  gathering  of 
German,  Dutch,  British,  French,  and  Spanish  men-of-war 
at  Tangier  centred  the  attention  of  the  world  once  more 
upon  Morocco  in  late  July  and  early  August,  and  caused 
exaggerated  rumors  of  impending  danger  to  be  spread 
abroad.  However,  the  international  significance  of  the 
gathering  was  slight. 

Internal  disorder  verging  upon  anarchy  has  reigned  in 
Morocco  since  the  death  of  Sultan  Muley  Hassan  in  June, 
1894;  and  the  young  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz  has  had  much  to 
do  in  coping  with  rebellious  tribes.  Until  recently  the  dis- 
orders had  been  confined  chiefly  to  the  inland  districts, 
but  they  have  lately  spread  to  the  vicinity  of  the  ports. 


MINOR  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  603 

Not  long  ago,  it  appears,  Herr  Neumann,  a  German  sub- 
ject, was  murdered  near  Casablanca;  and  more  recently 
Herr  Rockstroh  was  killed  near  Saffi.  The  German  min- 
ister at  Tangier,  Count  Tattenbach,  after  vainly  insisting 
on  the  punishment  of  the  murderers,  demanded  that  an  in- 
demnity of  $40,000  should  be  levied  on  the  tribe  to  which 
the  murderers  belonged.  Three  German  men-of-war  ap- 
peared at  Tangier  to  enforce  the  demand;  and  the  money 
was  paid  July  23.  In  the  meantime,  two  Dutch  war  ves- 
sels also  arrived  at  Tangier  to  demand  an  indemnity  for 
the  recent  plunder  of  a  Dutch  ship,  the  Maria  Anna,  oft* 
the  Riff  coast. 

Inflammatory  anti-German  articles  appeared  in  the 
Paris  Journal  des  Debats;  but  the  French  government 
showed  its  moderation  by  repudiating  them,  and  acknowl- 
edged the  right  of  Germany  to  take  the  course  she  did. 
At  the  same  time,  French  ships  were  ordered  to  Tangier, 
and  were  promptly  followed  by  Spanish  ships  and  a  squadron 
of  five  British  men-of-war. 

Although  the  incident  at  no  time  threatened  to  end  in 
open  hostilities,  the  mere  fact  that  neither  France,  Spain, 
nor  Great  Britain  feels  able  to  stand  aloof  from  any  gather- 
ing of  foreign  vessels  on  the  Moorish  coast,  is  an  evidence 
of  the  mutual  jealousy  with  which  they  watch  all  develop- 
ments possibly  affecting  their  respective  interests  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Dark  Continent. 

The  French  have  secured  from  the  Moorish  authori- 
ties permission  to  have  a  resident  French  consul  at  Fez. 
This  is  a  privilege  of  which  most  other  European  poAvers 
will  also  be  able  to  avail  themselves,  as  their  treaties  with 
Morocco  guarantee  them  rights  similar  to  those  granted  to 
'*the  most  favored  nation." 

The  Tarsus  Incident. — A  report  from  private  sources 
reached  the  state  department  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Au- 
gust 10,  to  the  effect  that  a  mob  had  attacked  and  done 
much  damage  to  St.  Paul's  Institute,  an  American  school 
at  Tarsus  in  Asia  Minor.  The  United  States  consul  at 
Bey  root,  Mr.  Thomas  R.  Gibson,  was  directed  by  the 
American  minister  at  Constantinople,  Mr.  Terrell,  to  make 
a  personal  investigation;  and  at  the  same  time  the  Porte 
promised  Mr.  Terrell  to  look  into  the  matter.  In  the 
meantime,  August  16,  the  United  States  ship  Marhlehead, 
from  Admiral  Kirkland's  European  squadron,  was  dis- 
patched from  the  English  port  of  Gravesend  to  Mersina, 
the  seaport  of  Tarsus,  for  the  protection  of  American  in- 
terests. 


604  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  3d  Qr..  1895. 

An  official  stutemeiit  from  the  Porte,  made  August  2:2 
through  Mavroyeni  Bey,  Turkish  minister  at  Washington, 
indicated  that  the  trouble  arose  from  a  quarrel  between 
some  Turks  and  one  of  the  servants  in  the  employ  of  Pro- 
fessor Christie,  a  teacher  in  the  institute,  formerly  of 
Baltimore,  Md.  Several  of  the  students  and  servants,  it 
is  said,  however,  were  severely  beaten,  and  Professor 
Christie's  life  was  threatened.  The  participators  in  tlie 
attack  have  been  arrested  and  punished;  and  Minister 
Terrell  was  able  to  telegraph  to  his  superiors  at  Washing- 
ton on  August  27  that  the  Porte  had  given  "emphatic 
assurances   of  security  for  American  citizens  at  Tarsus." 

The  Pamir  Arrangement. — In  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember the  announcement  was  made  that  the  work  of  the 
Anglo-Russian  commission  for  the  delimitation  of  the 
Kiisso- Afghan  frontier  eastward  from  Lake  Victoria  to  the 
Chinese  boundary,  in  accordance  with  the  agreement 
signed  in  March  (p.  343),  had  been  satisfactorily  con- 
cluded. The  northern  frontier  of  Afghanistan  is  now 
delimited  from  Zulfikar  to  the  Pamirs.  The  line  fol- 
lows the  course  set  forth  in  the  Anglo-Russian  agreement 
of  1873  up  to  Lake  Victoria,  and  the  demarcation  now  com- 
pleted gives  effect  to  the  Pamir  agreement  of  this  year. 
It  now  only  remains  for  the  two  governments  to  ratify  the 
work  of  their  commissioners.  The  intercourse  between 
the  British  and  Russian  officers  engaged  on  the  commis- 
sion, it  is  said,  was  of  an  exceptionally  friendly  character. 

Miscellaneons. — President  Cleveland  has  been  ap- 
pointed arbitrator  in  the  dispute  between  Italy  and  Colom- 
bia, growing  out  of  damages  sustained  by  Italians  during 
the  revolution  of  1885  in  the  latter  country.  The  amount 
of  the  claims  involved  is  over  $600,000. 

A  convention  was  signed  about  August  10  at  Yoko- 
hama, between  Japan  and  Spain,  fixing  the  parallel  of 
latitude  which  runs  across  the  Bashi  channel  as  the  limit 
between  the  Philippine  islands  and  Formosa. 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS.  605 

UNITED  STATES  POLITICS. 

J^LECTIONS  will  be  held  in  twelve  states  during  the 
first  week  in  November,  namely  Iowa,  Kansas,  Ken- 
tucky, Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Mississippi,  Nebraska, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia. 
Moreover,  Utah  will  choose  the  first  legislature  entitled  to 
elect  two  senators  to  represent  her  in  the  United  States 
senate.  In  seven  of  these  states,  namely  Maryland,  Miss- 
issippi, Ohio,  Kentucky,  Iowa,  Virginia,  and  New  York, 
the  results  of  the  elections  will  go  to  determine  the  com- 
plexion of  the  United  Stiites  senate,  and  are  hence  of  im- 
portance as  affecting  the  national  political  situation.  Else- 
where, however,  and  on  the  whole,  the  issues  of  the  fall 
elections  of  1895  are  mainly  of  local  interest.  It  is  generally 
regarded  as  not  unlikely  that  the  democratic  party  will 
make  a  better  showing  than  at  the  elections  of  1894.  At 
that  time  the  country  was  suffering  intensely  from  the  ef- 
fects of  long-continued  depression  in  trade  and  industry; 
and,  justly  or  unjustly,  the  voters,  particularly  the  work- 
ingmen,  to  a  large  extent  held  the  democratic  party  re- 
sponsible therefor.  The  democratic  party,  however,  has 
entered  the  campaign  of  1895  with  the  country  rapidly  re- 
covering from  its  prostration,  with  crops  among  the  most 
bountiful  of  any  year  in  our  history,  with  business  pros- 
pects daily  growing  brighter,  and  with  a  general  revival  of 
confidence  and  the  spirit  of  enterprise,  the  effect  of  all 
which  has  naturally  been  to  lessen  to  some  extent  the  in- 
tensity of  the  feelings  of  the  electorate  regarding  the  ques- 
tions upon  which  they  uttered  so  decided  a  verdict  a  year 
ago. 

Some  of  the  republican  organs  still  insist  that  the  tariff 
will  constitute  the  leading  issue  of  the  campaign  of  1896; 
but  their  efforts  have,  so  far  as  is  yet  apparent,  accomplished 
but  little  in  pushing  that  issue  to  the  front.  There  are 
many  of  all  shades  of  opinion,  who  are  opposed  to  any  agi- 
tation likely  to  have  a  chilling  efi'ect  upon  the  reviving 
business  and  industrial  situation.  It  is  still  impossible, 
also,  to  determine  what  part  the  silver-coinage  question 
will  play.  On  this  issue  the  democratic  party  is  divided 
into  two  hostile  factions,  whose  ultimate  relation  to  each 
other  in  the  contest  no  one  can  foresee.  And  even  the  re- 
publican party  has  been  surprisingly  cautious  in  the  mat- 
ter of  positive  declarations  of  policy  which  would  commit 
it  to  any  definite  line  of  action  next  year.  That  it  is  still  the 
party  of  protection  and  *' sound  money "  is   understood, 


606  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

but  affords  no  indication  of  the  definite  lines  along  which 
it  will  direct  its  special  efforts  in  the  coming  national  cam- 
paign. 

National  Reform  Conference. — One  effect  of  this 
indefiniteness  in  the  attitude  of  the  republican  and  demo- 
cratic parties  on  the  possible  issues  of  the  campaign  of  1896, 
has  been  to  afford  an  opportunity  for  third-party  agitation. 
On  July  3,  after  a  five-days'  discussion  by  representatives 
of  the  various  national  reform  movements,  who  had  met  in 
conference  at  Prohibition  Park,  Staten  Island,  New  York, 
the  following  platform  was  adopted,  almost  unanimously, 
as  a  basis  upon  which  their  separate  organizations  might 
unite: 

BASIS  OF  UNION  OF  REFORM  FORCES. 

1.  Resolced:  That  we  demand  direct  legislation,  tlie  initiative, 
and  the  referendum  in  national,  state,  and  local  matters;  the  impera- 
tive mandate,  and  proportional  representation. 

2.  That  we  demand  that  when  any  branch  of  legitimate  business 
becomes  a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  a  few  against  the  interests  of  the 
many,  that  industry  should  be  taken  possession  of,  on  just  terms,  by 
the  municipality,  the  state,  or  the  nation,  and  administered  by  the 
people. 

3.  That  we  demand  the  election  of  president  and  vice-president 
and  of  United  States  senators  by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  and  also 
of  all  civil  officers  as  far  as  practicable. 

4.  That  we  demand  equal  suffrage  without  distinction  of  sex. 

5.  That  as  the  land  is  the  rightful  heritage  of  the  people,  we  de- 
mand that  no  tenure  should  hold  without  use  and  occupancy. 

6.  That  we  demand  the  prohibition  of  the  liquor  traffic  for  bev- 
erage purposes,  and  governmental  control  of  the  sale  for  medicinal, 
scientific,  and  mechanical  uses. 

7.  That  all  money — paper,  gold,  and  silver — should  be  issued  by 
the  national  government  only,  and  made  legal  tender  for  all  payments, 
public  or  private,  on  future  contracts,  and  in  amount  adequate  to  the 
demands  of  business. 

8.  That  we  demand  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  and 
gold  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1. 

It  is  a  debatable  question  whether  such  a  union  as  that 
proposed — etnbracing  so  many  disconnected  and  divergent 
interests — is  ever  possible,  or,  if  possible,  how  long  it 
could  last.  Prohibitionists,  populists,  socialists,  labor 
unions,  female  suffragists,  single-tax  advocates,  free-silver 
men,  and  other  ^^  reformers,"  were  represented,  though  it 
is  said  that  the  majority  of  the  delegates  were  either  pro- 
hibitionists or  populists.  The  readiness  with  which  the 
above  basis  was  adopted  points,  however,  to  the  possibility 
of  at  least  temporary  union;  and>  when  this  scheme  of  re- 
forms is  compared  with  the  prohibitionist  platforms 
adopted  in  Nebraska,  Ohio,  Iowa,  and  even  New  Jersey, 


BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY.  607 

and  with  the  specific  demands  of  the  people's  party,  there 
are  political  prophets  who  profess  to  discern  that  prohibi- 
tionists and  populists  are  drifting  toward  ultimate  union. 
The  campaign  for  Sunday-law  enforcement  in  New 
York  city,  led  by  Hon.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  head  of  the 
police  commission,  has  added  another  element  of  uncer- 
tainty to  the  struggle  in  the  national  arena.  Some  repub- 
lican papers,  notably  the  Tribune  and  the  Inter  Ocean  of 
Chicago,  111.,  profess  to  see  in  the  enforcement  an  element 
of  danger  for  the  republican  party  at  large,  in  the  like- 
lihood that  it  will  estrange  a  large  number  of  voters;  and 
they  point  to  the  losses  of  the  party  in  Chicago  as  a  result 
of  the  attempt  of  a  few  years  ago  to  close  the  saloons  there 
on  Sundays.  It  will,  however,  be  an  evil  day  for  this 
country  when,  by  the  suffrage  of  its  citizens,  any  political 
party  is  privileged  to  set  at  naught  existing  laws,  good  or 
bad. 

BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY. 

Iron  and  Steely  and  Tin  Plate. — The  very  marked 
advance  in  prices  of  iron  and  steel  products,  which  began 
in  February,  was  not  only  sustainecl  but  enhanced  during 
the  quarter-year  ending  with  September.  Early  in  July 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Association  published  a 
table  showing  that  even  then — and  that  was  only  the  be- 
ginning of  the  advance — the  British  and  Belgian  prices 
of  thirteen  iron  products,  plus  freight  to  New  York,  were 
considerably  lower  than  the  prices  of  similar  American 
products  at  Philadelphia.  A  little  further  advance  would 
in  very  many  cases  bring  the  American  prices  up  to  or  be- 
yond the  British  and  Belgian  prices,  with  freight  charges 
and  duty  added.  The  new  American  tin-plate  industry  is 
menaced  with  extinction  by  the  great  advance  in  the  price 
of  black  plates.  Already  in  July  British  tin  plates,  duty 
paid,  were  sold  in  New  York  at  13.73  a  box,  while  the  do- 
mestic product  was  sold  in  Philadelphia  at  $3.75. 

On  August  1  the  output  of  pig  iron  had  risen  to  about 
the  normal  amount  of  prosperous  years.  The  capacity  of 
furnaces  then  in  blast  was,  according  to  the  American 
Manufacturer  of  Pittsburg,  176,505  tons  per  week,  or  at 
the  rate  of  4,589,130  tons  in  six  months.  That  quantity 
was  exceeded  in  the  first  half  of  1892  and  in  the  last  half  of 
1891  and  1890,  but  it  comes  near  to  the  maximum.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  this  large  output  is  not  a  result  of 
large  demands  from  the  railroads  for  steel  rails,  as  was  the 


608 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


3d  Qr.,  1695. 


case  in  former  years  of  large  production:  in  fact  the  out- 
put of  steel  rails  was  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  maxi- 
mum. The  great  demand  was  for  structural  iron  and  steel; 
and  in  those  products  the  record  was  broken  this  year. 
The  Homestead  works  in  July  produced  43,000  tons  of 
structural  iron  and  steel:  the  largest  product  of  all  the 
works  in  the  country  for  any  previous  year  was  505,000 
tons.  On  August  1  the  prices  of  all  kinds  of  iron  and 
steel  were  39  per  cent  higher  than  in  January,  and  only 
7.7  per  cent  lower  than  in  October,  1892. 

The  Outlook  in  the  South. — Secretary  Hoke  Smith, 
of  the  Interior  department,  recounting  his  personal  ob- 
servations of  affairs  in  the  Southern  states,  declared  in  the 
beginning  of  August  that  never  had  he  seen  the  South  look 
so  prosperous.  The  food  supply  of  the  state  of  Georgia 
is  sufficient  for  two  years'  consumption.  Cotton  manu- 
facturing was  never  more  successful  in  the  South  than  it 
is  to-day;  and  all  through  the  cotton  belt  new  mills  are  be- 
ing erected,  and  old  mills  are  being  enlarged.  In  the  iron 
district  of  Alabama  many  furnaces  have  gone  into  blast, 
and  the  workmen  are  fully  employed,  many  of  them  at  ad- 
vanced wages.  All  over  the  South  the  demand  for  labor 
is  constantly  increasing.  Conditions  were  never  better 
for  a  return  of  prosperity  unexampled  in  that  section. 

Fall  and  Recovery  of  Stocks. — The  following  in- 
structive table  shows  in  the  first  column  the  highest  prices 
touched  in  the  early  part  of  1893,  before  the  panic;  in  the 
second  column,  the  very  lowest  points  touched  during  the 
subsequent  period  of  depression;  and  in  the  third,  prices  of 
August  12,  1895.  It  will  be  noted  that  preferred  stocks  of 
solvent  railway  companies  are  now  selling  generally  at  prices 
higher  than  prevailed  in  the  '^buU  market"  that  preceded 
the  panic.  Stocks  of  roads  that  are  bankrupt  and  await- 
ing reorganization  have  naturally  hung  back  in  the  gen- 
eral advance. 

PRICES  OF  STOCKS. 


Highest, 

Lowest 

1893. 

panic. 

5H 

24 

84 

50 

mi 

mi 

104i 

66i 

121 

43 

llOi^ 

75 

mi 

12i 

971 

54i 

58} 

34i 

m 

66 

Prices 
Aug.  12. 


Am.  Cotton  Oil 

Am.  Cotton  Oil  pf  — 

Am.  Sugar  Refs 

Am.  Sugar  Refs.  pf . . . 
American  Tobacco. . . 
American  Tobacco  pf 

Atch.,  T.  &S.  F 

Bait.  &  Ohio 

Canada  Southern 

Canadian  Pacific 


74f 
73^ 
114i 
105J 
ll2i 
113 
*15* 
64i 
.56i 
54 


BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY 

PRICES  OF  STOCKS  ( Continued). 


609 


Chicafjo  <x:  Alton  — 

Chic.  &N.  W 

Chi.  «feN.  W.pf 

C.  B.  &Q, 

C,  C,  C.  <feSt.  L..., 

C.  C.  &  St.  L.  pf . 

M.  &St.  P 

M.  &St.  P.  pf... 

R.  I.  &  Pac 

..  Lack.  &  W.... 


C 

C, 

C, 

C, 
Del 

Distilling  &  C.  F 

General  Electric  

Great  Northern  pf 

111.  Central 

Iowa  Central 

Iowa  Central  pf 

L.  E.  &  Western 

L.  E.  &  West,  pf 

Lake  Shore 

Louis.  &  Nash 

Manhattan  Con 

Michigan  Central 

Missouri  Pacific 

Mo.,  K.  &T 

Mo.,  K.  &T.  pf 

Nat.  Lead  Co 

Nat.  Lead  Co.  pf 

N.  J.  Central 

N.Y.  Central 

N.  Y.  &NewEng 

N.  Y.  &N.  H 

N.  Y.,  C.  &St.  L 

N.  Y„  C.  &  St.  L.  1st  pf  . 
N.  Y.,  C.  &St.  L.2dpf.. 

N.  Y.,  L.  E.  &  W 

N.  Y.,  L.  E.  &  W.  pf 

N.  Y.,S.&  W 

N.  Y.,S.  &  W.pf 

North  American  

Northern  Pacific 

Northern  Pacific  pf 

Pacific  Mail 

Philadelphia  &  Reading. 

P.,  C,  C.  &St.  L 

P.,  C,  C.  &St.  L.  pf 

Pullman  Palace  Car 

Rio  Grande  W 

Rio  Grande  W.  pf 

St.  L.  S.  W   

St.  L.  S.  W.  pf 

St.  P.  &  Duluthpf 

St.  P.  &  Omaha 

Southern  Pacific 

Tenn.  Coal  &  Iron 

Texas  Pacific 

Union  Pacific 

U.  S.  Rubber , 

Wabash 

Wabash  pf 

West.  Union  Tel 

Wheeling*  L.  E 

Wheeling  &  L.  E  pf 


Highest, 
1893 

Lowest 
in 

Prices 
Aug.  12. 

panic. 

1895. 

14..^ 

126 

161 

1161 

m 

lOli 

140 

128 

146  J 

10.35 

69i 

90i 

OOi 

25 

49i 

m 

74 

83J 

464 

7U 

126 

100 

128J 

89J 

.-iU 

79 

175 

127 

1621 

6C| 

12 

2U 

114i 

30 

•m-i 

\m 

100 

12.5i 

104 

86 

99J 

11 

5 

lOi 

37 

12 

37i 

25J 

m 

25J 

82 

53 

8U 

134i 

104 

150i 

771 

431 

.61 

174f 

100 

1171 

108i 

794 

101 

60 

16J 

38i 

16 

8 

18 

281 

13S 

37J 

52^ 

18i 

a5 

96 

48 

93J 

132f 

84 

1031 

IIU 

92 

102i 

52i 

16J 

1.56J 

262i 

188 

204i 

m 

9J 

16f 

78 

45 

72 

41 

18 

31  i 

26i 

7J 

HI 

58 

15 

21 1 

21 « 

8 

|12| 

731 

31 

m 

2} 

5} 

18i 

3i 

5 

501 

15i 

18i 

27i 

8i 

29 

53* 

12 

18} 

2U 

m 

19^ 

62 

40 

55 

206 

132 

174 

22 

10 

m 

40 

— 

7J 

3} 

7J 

15 

6 

17i 

108 

88 

93' 

58J 

24 

4U 

35i 

17i 

25^ 

371 

lOi 

36i 

11 

4} 

12* 

421 

15i 

13 

601 

17 

40J 

12} 

hi 

9 

26J 

n 

2U 

101 

67i 

93J 

m 

10 

16* 

67i 

31 

53i 

*Two  assessments  paid,    t  Four  assessments  paid.    §  New  stock. 

At  the  end  of  September  there  was  seen  no  abatement 
of  the  business  improvement  which  liad  been  growing  since 
early  in  the  year.     Abundant  crops  of  cereals,  corn  espe- 


610  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

cially,  were  assured.  The  outflow  of  gold  had  been 
checked.  The  export  movement  of  cotton  and  wheat, 
soon  to  begin,  was  expected  to  produce  a  return  flow  of 
gold.  Theeastbound  tonnage  from  Chicago  in  September 
was  very  nearly  as  great  as  in  1892,  being  241,154  tons 
against  244,576  tons  in  the  earlier  period. 

THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION. 

Atlanta,  Ga.,  "  Queen  City  of  the  South,"  was  on  Sep- 
tember 18  the  scene  of  one  of  those  events  which  mark 
epochs  in  national  history.  On  that  day  the  president  of 
the  United  States,  at  his  Massachusetts  summer  home  on 
the  shore  of  Buzzard's  bay,  a  thousand  miles  away,  pressed 
the  electric  button  which  set  in  motion  the  vast  machinery 
of  the  chief  exposition  ever  held  in  our  Southern  states, 
and  the  second  greatest  exposition  that  this  continent  has 
seen. 

Thisenterpriseinacity  of  about  110,000people,  of  whom 
not  more  than  70,000  are  white,  had  its  origin  in  a  regret 
and  a  resolve.  The  regret  arose  from  the  fact  that  the 
South  had  not  given  an  adequate  presentation  of  its  great 
interests  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago.  Indeed  the  de- 
velopment of  the  cotton  states  has  been  so  rapid  within  a 
few  years,  that  the  great  mass,  even  of  Southern  business 
men,  had  scarcely  recognized  the  wonderful  new  day 
whose  morning  light  was  spreading  over  great  portions  of 
the  Southland.  The  men  of  Atlanta,  a  city  from  whose 
smoking  ruins  Sherman's  army  had  started  on  their  march 
to  the  Atlantic  thirty  years  ago,  saw  it,  and  resolved  to 
awaken  the  whole  South  to  see  it  and  to  work  in  its  new 
light,  and  to  bring  their  brethren  of  the  North  to  know  it 
and  to  join  them  in  furthering  its  achievements.  Their 
undertaking,  though  sectional  in  its  immediate  aim,  was 
in  its  spirit  and  in  its  ultimate  scope  broadly  national,  as 
has  already  been  abundantly  evinced  in  its  uplift  to  busi- 
ness enterprise  in  distant  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  the 
new  assurance  of  brotherhood  in  all  great  interests  with 
which  it  has  thrilled  our  wide  family  of  states.  This  ex- 
position tends — and  doubtless  was  intended — to  bury  old 
prejudices,  to  annul  traditions  that  had  had  the  force  of 
evil  laws,  to  expel  indolence,  to  teach  and  inspire  enter- 
prise, to  dignify  labor,  to  introduce  improved  methods,  to 
open  throughout  the  country  new  channels  of  trade,  to  re- 
veal the  new  possibilities  of  social  advancement,  and  tc 
knit  all  diverse  interests  into  one  firm  national  fabric.    Its 


THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION.  611 

immediate  object  as  concerns  the  cotton  states  was  to  fos- 
ter their  trade  relations  with  the  countries  southward,  and 
to  show  to  all  the  world,  and  to  those  states  themselves,  the 
inexhaustible  resources  of  the  soil,  the  forest  riches,  the 
mineral  wealth,  the  vast  variety  of  products,  the  unri- 
valled manufacturing  and  industrial  advantages,  the  open- 
ings for  investment  of  brains  and  capital,  of  a  region  that 
thirty  years  since  had  no  manufactures  and  scarcely  any 
mines,  and  whose  agriculture  barely  supported  its  scanty 
population,  diminished  and  impoverished  by  one  of  the 
greatest  wars  in  history. 

The  undertaking,  twenty  months  ago,  amid  extreme 
financial  depression,  was  a  fine  example  of  courage;  and 
its  prosecution  to  success  has  shown  high  executive  ability. 
Within  two  weeks  after  the  initiatory  meeting,  an  organiza- 
tion was  formed,  and  1250,000  was  subscribed  in  Atlanta, 
which  sum  was  eventually  increased  to  1500,000.  The 
press  throughout  the  country  favored  the  plan.  An  ap- 
peal to  congress  was  answered  by  an  act  recognizing  the 
exposition  as  national,  and  appropriating  $200,000  for  a 
government  exhibit.  A  site  of  over  180  acres  was  selected 
in  Piedmont  Park,  where  are  still  visible  the  lines  of  rifle- 
pits  in  which  Sherman's  advance  on  Atlanta  was  vainly 
contested.  Here,  two  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  city,  a 
central  area  of  fifty  acres,  surrounded  by  a  line  of  gently 
rising  hills,  gives  an  amphitheatric  effect.  The  locality 
is  beautiful,  with  a  superb  distant  view,  and  with  an  arti- 
ficial lake,  strikingly  irregular  and  picturesque,  and 
spanned  by  six  bridges,  occupying  part  of  the  central  area. 
This  lake  gives  water  frontage  to  nearly  all  the  great 
buildings,  and  conveyance  by  gondolas  and  electric 
launches  between  different  parts  of  the  grounds.  On 
buildings  and  grounds  more  than  12,000,000  has  been  ex- 
pended, of  which  about  $300,000  was  for  landscape  feat- 
ures such  as  lawns,  shrubbery,  walks,  and  fountains.  The 
largest  electrically  lighted  fountain  in  the  world  throws 
15,000  gallons  of  water  into  the  air  every  minute.  Charles 
A.  Collier  was  chosen  president  and  director-general  of  the 
exposition;  Walter  G.  Cooper,  chief  of  the  department  of 
publicity  and  promotion;  Grant  Wilkins,  chief  of  con- 
struction and  landscape  engineer.  Bradford  L.  Gilbert 
of  New  York  was  appointed  general  architect.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  after  full  debate  a  decision  was  reached  that 
the  exposition  should  not  be  opened  on  Sundays.  Its  ter- 
mination was  fixed  for  December  31. 


612  APFAms  IN  AMERICA.  3d Qr,  1805. 

The  opening  exercises,  on  September  18,  were  introduced 
by  a  military  unci  civic  parade,  including  United  States 
regulars,  volunteer  companies  from  Southern  cities,  5,000 
Grand  Army  men,  and  officials  and  distinguished  visitors. 
The  exercises  consisted  of  a  prayer  by  Bishop  Nelson,  an 
address  by  President  Collier,  an  address  by  Mrs.  Joseph 
Thompson  (representing  the  Woman's  board),  an  address 
by  Booker  T.  Washington  (representing  the  Negro  board),  a 
welcome  to  the  city  by  Mayor  Porter  King,  a  welcome  to 
the  state  by  Judge  George  Brown  on  behalf  of  the  gov- 
ernor, an  exposition  ode  by  Frank  L.  Stanton,  an  oration 
by  Judge  Emory  Speer,  the  benediction  by  Bishop  Becker. 
Judge  Speer's  oration,  graceful  and  eloquent,  was  notable 
for  noble  and  magnanimous  utterances,  which,  sounding 
the  death-knell  of  the  lingering  sectionalism  that  has  di- 
vided North  and  South,  heralded  the  new  day  of  frater- 
nity and  patriotism.  It  seems  to  be  generally  conceded 
that  the  most  remarkable  and  effective  feature  of  the  occa- 
sion was  the  short  address  of  Mr.  Washington,  a  colored 
man,  president  of  the  Tuskeegee  (Ala.)  Normal  and  In- 
dustrial Institute,  a  college  for  colored  youth.  Mr.  Wash- 
ington was  one  of  General  Samuel  C.  Armstrong's  stu- 
dents at  Hampton,  Va. ;  and,  as  a  result  of  the  inspiration 
and  training  received  from  that  brilliant  and  wonderfully 
devoted  man,  he  established  the  Tuskeegee  Institute, 
largely  with  funds  contributed  in  New  England  and  New 
York,  and  has  brought  it  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency 
and  usefulness.  The  unprecedented  invitation  of  a  ne- 
gro in  a  Southern  state  to  a  place  on  such  a  platform  in  so 
distinguished  a  company,  shows  the  spirit,  at  once  gener- 
ous and  progressive,  which  has  inspired  and  directs  the 
Atlanta  exposition.  Mr.  Washington,  on  rising  to  speak, 
was  received  by  his  cultured  audience  with  what  was  in- 
tended to  be  an  encouraging  kindness;  but  this  soon 
changed  to  admiration  of  the  practical  wisdom  of  his 
thought  set  forth  in  lucid  phrase  on  the  vexed  problem  of 
the  negro  in  the  South,  and  of  his  fine  sei^se  of  the  pro- 
prieties of  the  difficult  occasion.  His  successive  points 
evoked  thunders  of  applause;  and  in  a  few  moments  he 
took  his  seat  the  recognized  negro  educational  leader  in 
the  cotton  states. 

The  buildings  number  about  thirty.  The  thirteen 
principal  buildings  (ten  of  which  were  designed  by  Mr. 
Gilbert)  are  the  following: 

United  States  Government  building,  designed  by  tlie  government 
architect;  area,  65,000  square  feet;  containing  exhibits  of  the  depart- 


THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION.  613 

luenls  of  state,  interior,  agriculture,  navy,  and  war,  of  tlie  Fishery 
commission,  and  in  economic  geology  of  the  Oeological  Survey:  Ad- 
ministration building,  with  which  the  main  entrance  is  combined; 
three  stories  high,  440  feet  front,  50  feet  wide  at  centre;  one  of  the 
finest  of  the  structures,  presenting  some  features  of  the  Tower  of 
London:  Auditorium,  four  stories  high,  200  feet  long,  135  feet  wide; 
accommodating  3,000  persons,  also  the  police  and  express  departments: 
Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  building,  the  largest  on  the  grounds. 
356  feet  long,  206  feet  wide,  90  feet  high:  Machinery  Hall,  500 
feet  long,  118  feet  wide,  60  feet  high:  Minerals  and  Forestry  build- 
ing, of  rustic  design,  largely  of  logs  in  the  rough  with  bark  on;  350 
feet  long,  110  feet  wide,  50  feet  high  to  centre  of  dome:  Woman's 
building  (noticed  below),  150  feet  long,  128  feet  deep,  90  feet  to  tne 
top  of  statue  on  dome:  Negro  building,  contracted  with  and  entirely 
built  by  negro  workmen,  for  exhibits  of  the  agricultural,  mechanical, 
artistic,  and  educational  progress  of  the  negro  race;  276  feet  long,  112 
feet  wide,  70  feet  high:  Agricultural  building,  304  feet  long,  150  feet 
wide,  110  feet  high  to  centre  of  dome:  Electrical  building,  262  feet 
long,  85  feet  wide,  109  feet  high  to  centre  of  dome:  Transportation 
building,  450  feet  long,  150  feet  wide,  68  feet  high,  containing  speci- 
mens of  railway  construction  and  equipment  at  various  stages  of  his- 
toric development:  Fine  Arts  building,  an  architectural  gem  by 
Walter  T.  Downing,  an  Atlanta  architect;  245  feet  long,  100  feet  wide, 
50  feet  high:  Fire  building,  showing  all  appliances  and  processes 
for  extinguishing  fires;  205  feet  long,  50  feet  wide,  two  stories  high. 

Many  of  tliese  buildings  are  nnpretentions,  painted  in 
lead  color,  but  impressive  by  their  bold  construction  and 
graceful  contour.  The  grouping  is  entirely  successful. 
The  general  style  has  been  called  '^modern  Romanesque." 
The  material  is  chiefly  Georgia  yellow  pine.  Of  the  many 
other  buildings  of  less  size,  but  some  of  them  of  fine  de- 
sign, are  the  Georgia  Manufacturers'  building,  and  the 
buildings  of  several  of  the  states.  There  are  also  struc- 
tures for  amusement,  "villages"  of  different  nations,  etc., 
ranged  on  the  Midway  Heights. 

All  the  Southern  states  have  large  displays;  and  several 
of  them,  with  five  Northern  states  and  some  of  the  Central 
and  South  American  republics,  have  well-appointed  build- 
ings. In  a  building  which  is  greatly  admired  and  whose 
type  is  that  of  a  grand  old  mansion,  is  housed  the  Woman's 
exhibit,  deemed  by  many  one  of  the  most  attractive  de- 
partments of  the  exhibition.  The  building  was  from  a  de- 
sign by  Miss  Elise  Mercur  of  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  accepted  in 
a  competition  entered  into  by  thirty  architects.  Its  con- 
tents show  the  whole  range  of  woman's  work  in  the  useful 
and  the  fine  arts,  science,  literature,  and  education.  The 
Negro  building  and  exhibit  are  without  precedent  in  any 
great  exposition.  An  interpretation  of  them  in  the  in- 
terest of  political  or  social  theories  would  be  an  imperti- 
nence; nevertheless,  they  must  be  viewed  as  showing  the 


614  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

progress  of  two  races,  and  as  profoundly  significant  of  the 
weakening  of  prejudice  througii  the  natural  growth  of  gen- 
erosity and  justice. 

This  exposition  is  unique  as  being  characterized  by 
unity  of  aim  and  direct  fitness  for  practical  utility.  It  \s 
not  a  bewildering  maze  of  wonderful  and  beautiful  things: 
its  objects  of  wonder  and  beauty  are  types,  instructive  and 
prophetic.  It  commands  the  attention  of  the  country  as  a 
great  object-lesson  of  progress.  It  is  welcomed  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  and  from  the  lakes  to  the  Gulf,  as  a  grand  object- 
lesson  of  national  unity. 

PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS. 

The  Public  Debt.— The  following  are  the  official  fig- 
ures of  the  public  debt,  treasury  assets,  and  liabilities  of 
tlie  United  States  on  September  30,  1895: 

PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  SEPTEMBER  30,  1895. 

Interest-bearinji  debt $747,360,820.00 

Debt  oil  which  interest  has  ceased  since  maturity 1,685,660.26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest 377,448,519.49 


Aggregate  of  interest  and  non-interest-bearing  debt     .   $1,126,494,999.75 

Certificates  and  notes  offset  by  an  equal  amount  of  cash  in  the 

treasury $600,227,693.00 


Aggregate  of  debt,  including  certificates  and  notes $1,726,722,692.75 

CASH  IN  THE  TREASURY. 

Gold-Coin $86,216,755.95 

Bars 57,340,756.80  —$143,557,512.75 

Silver— Dollars 368,142,782  00 

Subsidiary  coin ,• 14,882,336.52 

Bars 124.652.40.5.75—  507,677,524.27 

Paper— United  States  notes 106.316,600.15 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 36.630,854.00 

Gold  certificates 1Q3.370.00 

Silver  certificates 7.862,607.00 

Certificates  of  deposit  (act  June  8,  1872) 3.675.000.00 

National  banic  notes 6,018,774.63  —  100,607,265.78 

Other— Bonds,  interest  and  coupons  paid,  awaiting 

reimbursement 36,793.34 

Minor  coin  and  fractional  currency 1,2.36,8;%.98 

Deposits  in  nat'l  bank  depositaries— gen'l  acc't 10.516,310.82 

Disbursing  officers"  balances 4,2.57,170.80  —     10,047,105.94 


Aggregate $827,889,408.74 

DEMAND  LIABILITIES. 

Gold  certificates $50,748,909.00 

Silver  certificates 338,297,504  00 

Certificates  of  deposit  (act  June  8,  1872) 67,515.000.00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 143.066,280.00  —$600,227,693.00 

Fund  for  redemp.  of  uncurrent  natM  bank  notes. .       7,765.743.45 

Outstanding  checks  and  drafts 3, 188.380.23 

Disbursing  officers' balances 27,549,426  25 

Agency  accounts,  etc  3.752,796.40  —    42,256,352.33 

Gold  reserve $92,911,973.00 

Net  cash  balance 92,493,390.41 185,405,363.41 


Aggregate $827,889,408.74 


PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS. 


615 


Receipts  and  Expenditures.— The  total  receipts  of 
the  government  for  the  three  months  ended  September  30, 
1895,  the  first  quarter  of  the  current  fiscal  year,  were  185,- 
572,072,  against  $97,848,174  for  the  corresponding  quar- 
ter of  last  year,  a  decrease  of  $12,276,102.  Expenditures 
aggregated  195,456,730  as  compared  with  198,628,237  a 
year  ago,  a  decrease  of  over  $3,000,000.  The  net  deficit 
of  the  quarter  ended  September  30,  1895,  was  therefore 
$9,884,658. 

Circulation. — The  following  figures  show  the  amount 
of  each  of  the  various  kinds  of  money  in  circulation  on 
October  1, 1895,  as  compared  with  July  1,  1895,  and  Oc- 
tober 1,  1894: 

MONEY  CIRCULATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Gold  coin 

Standard  silver  dollars 

Subsidiary  silver 

Gold  certificates 

Silver  certificates  

Silver  treasury  notes. . . 
United  States  notes  — 
Currency  certificates  . . 
National  bank  notes 


Totals S^585.593,509   $1.604.131.9(58   $1.6.').5 


Oct.  1.  1895. 


$469,884. 

55,146. 

61,409, 

50,645, 
330,434, 
107,0;45, 
240,364. 

63,840, 


Ju\yJ 


319. 
115, 
265, 
55, 
207, 


,  1895^ 
275.057 
983,16-^ 
,219,718 
381,569 
,731,7.52 
978,708 
,109,456 
405,000 
017,546 


Oct.   1,   1894. 


$500,126,248 

54,276.243 

58.244.768 

64,79G.439 

330,.520,719 

121,49.5,374 

267,283,  481 

.55,755,000 

202,546.710 


The  estimated  per  capita  circulation  on  October  1, 
1895,  was  $22.57  against  $22.96  on  July  1,  1895. 

Foreign  Commerce. — The  most  striking  feature  of 
the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  during  the  fis- 
cal year  ended  June  30,  1895,  as  shown  by  figures  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  was  an  enormous  decrease  in  tiie 
value  of  exports,  amounting  to  over  $84,000,000,  as  com- 
pared with  the  year  just  preceding,  the  totals  for  the  two 
years  being  respectively  $808,000,000  and  $892,000,000; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  an  enormous  increase  in  the  total 
of  imports,  which  amounted  to  $84,000,000  more  than  in 
the  preceding  year,  the  totals  being  respectively  $731,960,- 
310  and  $647,775,017. 

The  following  summary  of  details  will  be  fouuj  of 
value: 

The  loss  in  exports  of  breadstuffs  alone  was  nearly  $52,0(>y  t)00, 
the  aggregate  value  last  year  being  only  $110,098,643,  against  $i61,- 
677,730  for  tbe  preceding  year.  Exports  of  breadstuffs  have  not 
fallen  near  so  low  in  value  as  in  the  past  year,  since  1875,  when  they 
reached  $111,458,265.  Prices  of  cereals  last  year  were  generally 
lower;  but  the  greatest  loss  was  in  wheat  and  wheat  flour.  The 
average  export  price  of  wheat  last  year  was  about  574^  cents  a  bushel, 
against  about  67^:  cents  the  preceding  year;  and  wheat  exports  aggre- 
gated in  value  only  $43,650,841,  against  $59,124,297  the  year  before. 


616  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

a  loss  of  $15,500,000.  Wheat  flour  averaged  about  $3.40  a  barrel, 
against  $4.10  the  preceding  year. 

Exports  of  corn  last  year  amounted  to  only  about  26,000,000 
bushels,  but  sold  for  an  average  price  of  about  53^  cents  a  bushel  and 
were  valued  at  $13,399,415,  against  64,000,000  bushels  exported  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year,  when  the  export  price  averaged  46^  cents  a 
bushel,  and  the  total  value  amounted  to  $29,311,723. 

The  following  table  gives  comparisons  of  value  in  detail  of  ex- 
ports of  breadstuffs  during  the  last  two  fiscal  years: 

UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS  OF  BREADSTUFFS. 


Barley 

Corn 

Cornmeal  — 

Oats 

Oatmeal 

Rye 

Wheat 

Wheat  flour , 


Totals . 


1894. 

1895. 

$2,18-^684 

SV05,5G7 

29,311,723 

13,599,415 

76B,.560 

640,718 

1.995.441 

188.918 

:ii38,279 

565.885 

126,483 

5,097 

59,124,297 

43,656,841 

68,032,263 

50,676,202 

.§161,677,730 

$110,098,643 

Exports  of  provisions,  although  about  $15,000,000  less  than  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year,  amounted  to  $159,169,448.  The  cattle  and 
hogs  exported  were  valued  at  $28,917,689,  nearly  $3,000,000  less  than 
during  the  preceding  year.  Exports  of  beef  and  beef  products 
amounted  to  $27,296,410,  or  about  $1,000,000  less  than  the  previous 
year.  Exports  of  hog  products  amounted  to  $88,643,372,  a  compara- 
tive loss  of  about  $4,000,000;  and  exports  of  dairy  products  amounted 
only  to  $14,311,977,  against  $21,477,106  the  year  before,  the  loss  be- 
ing mainly  in  one  item,  oleomargarine  oil. 

The  cotton  exports  of  last  year  were  enormous  in  quantity,  and 
in  this  respect  exceeded  those  of  the  previous  year  by  more  than 
1,500,000  bales,  and  exceeded  those  of  the  big  crop  year,  1891-2,  when 
9,000,000  bales  were  produced  in  the  country,  by  more  than  a  million 
bales.  But  while  exportations  last  year  were  the  largest  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  country,  the  prices  realized  were  so  low — averaging  barely 
six  cents  a  pound,  against  about  eight  cents  in  the  preceding  year — 
that  the  total  value  of  the  exportation  of  about  seven  million  bales 
was  only  $206,750,843,  or  about  $4,000,000  less  than  in  1893,  and  was 
$50,000,000  less  than  in  1891,  when  the  average  price  realized  was 
about  nine  cents  a  pound  on  5,891,411   bales,  valued  at  $256,809,777. 

Turning  now  to  the  import  trade,  we  find  that  during  the  last  fis- 
cal year,  with  the  new  tariff  in  force  ten  months  of  that  period,  the 
importation  of  goods  free  of  duty  amounted  to  $363,230,927,  or  49^ 
per  cent  of  the  total  imports  of  the  country,  against  $372,575,931,  or 
57^  per  cent,  during  the  preceding  year.  Dutiable  imports  last  year 
amounted  to  $368,729,392,  or  4U  per  cent,  against  $275,199,086,  or 
47  7-10  per  cent,  during  the  preceding  year;  but  the  average  rate  of 
duty  paid  on  the  whole  mass  of  importations  was  higher  last  year 
under  the  new  law  than  under  the  McKinley  law  in  the  preceding 
year.  Importations,  free  and  dutiable,  last  year  aggregated  in  value 
$731,960,310,  on  which  duties  amounting  to  $152,749,405,  or  20  9-10 
per  cent,  were  collected,  against  importations  valued  at  $647,775,017, 
on  which  $131,818,530,  or  20^  per  cent  in  duties,  were  collected  the 
previous  year.  The  value  of  animals  and  articles  of  food  admitted 
free  of  duty  last  year  amounted  to  about  $155,000,000,  against  about 
$245,000,000  the  previous  year  under  the  law  of  1890;  and  last  year 


PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS.  617 

the  value  of  dutiable  articles  of  food  and  animals  imported  amounted 
to  about  $80,000,000,  against  $35,000,000  in  the  previous  year. 

Up  to  June,  1895,  which  is  as  late  a  date  as  detailed  statistics  of 
last  year's  importations  are  yet  obtainable,  the  total  value  of  imports 
of  manufactured  cotton  goods,  on  which,  under  the  new  law,  duties 
are  reduced  about  21  per  cent,  amounted  to  $31,500,000.  This  shows 
an  increase  during  the  nine  months'  operation  of  the  new  law  last 
year  of  $12,000,000  as  compared  with  the  value  of  such  importations 
for  the  entire  twelve  months  of  the  preceding  year.  Of  silk  manu- 
factures, on  which,  under  the  new  law,  duties  are  reduced  about  15 
per  cent,  importations  for  the  nine  months  amounted  to  $29,000,000, 
against  $23,000,000  in  the  previous  year.  On  woolen  goods  the  du- 
ties are  reduced  about  50  per  cent;  but  the  law  did  not  go  into  effect 
until  January  1,  1895;  and  yet,  in  five  months,  or  down  to  June  1, 
1895,  the  total  value  of  importations  of  woolen  goods  amounted  to 
$32,500,000,  or  $14,000,000  more  than  the  importations  of  the  entire 
previous  year,  under  the  old  law.  Of  wool  the  new  law,  up  to  June 
1,  or  in  nine  months,  had  let  in  free  170,323,608  pounds,  valued  at 
$21,319,733,  against  48,436,963  pounds,  valued  at  $5,306,992,  subject 
to  duty,  that  came  in  during  the  previous  year. 

Sugar  duties  during  the  last  fiscal  year,  or  for  the  ten  months 
that  the  new  law  placing  a  duty  on  sugar  was  in  force,  contributed  $18,- 
699,942  revenue,  by  the  40  per  oent  ad  valorem  duty,  on  2,443,075,526 
pounds  brought  in,  valued  at  $46,749,856.  Free  importations 
amounting  to  about  one  billion  pounds,  and  valued  at  $29,000,000, 
were  brought  in  by  the  Sugar  Trust  in  July  and  August,  1894,  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  Gorman- Wilson  tariff  bill  becoming  law,  and  so 
escaped  the  payment  of  duties  amounting  to  about  $11,500,000. 

Profits  of  the  Bond  Syndicate.— The  Morgan-Bel- 
mont bond  syndicate  (pp.  40  and  350)  was  dissolved  in 
September,  and  on  the  21st  of  that  month  the  members  re- 
ceived checks  for  their  profits  out  of  the  recent  bond  trans- 
actions with  the  government.  These  profits  were  much 
less  than  the  public  had  imagined.  They  are  said  to  have 
reached  4.925  per  cent,  besides  1.75  per  cent  for  interest 
(computed  at  4  per  cent  per  aomiim)  on  advances  made, 
aggregating  about  6.G75  per  cent  in  all. 

The  face  value  of  the  bonds  issued  to  the  syndicate 
reached  $62,315,400.  For  these  the  syndicate  paid  a  total 
of  $65,116,275  in  gold,  or,  in  other  words,  a  premium  of 
4.494  per  cent,  nearly  4^  per  cent,  on  their  face  value. 
The  bonds  were  sold  at  112^;  and  the  difference  between 
the  selling  and  the  buying  rate,  which  amounts  to  about 
'K^  per  cent  of  the  latter,  represents  the  gross  profits  on  the 
transaction.  From  this,  however,  was  deducted  f  of  1  per 
cent  commission  to  the  management.  The  net  profits 
were  about  6.675  per  cent. 


Vol.  5.— 40. 


618  -  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  ARMY. 

A  New  Commander-in-Chief. — On  September  29 
Lieutenant-General  John  M.  Schofield,  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  United  States  army,  having  reached  the  age 
limit  of  sixty-four  years,  was  retired,  retaining  his  present 
rank  and  three-fourths  of  his  highest  pay.  Major-General 
Nelson  A.  Miles,  commanding  the  Department  of  the  East, 

was  appointed  to  the  va- 
cant post  on  October  2; 
and,  at  the  same  time, 
Major-General  Thomas  H. 
Ruger  was  transferred 
from  the  Department  of 
the  Missouri  to  the  De- 
partment of  the  East, 
which  General  Miles  va- 
cated. 

SciiOFiELD,  John  McAl- 
lister, lieutenant-general  and 
late  commander-in-cbief,  Uni- 
ted States  army,    was  born  in 
Cbautauqua   co.,    N.   Y.,  Sep- 
tember 29,  1831;    retired  Sep- 
tember 29,  1895.  In  July,  1849, 
lie   was  appointed   a   cadet   at 
LIEUTENANT-GENERAL  JOHN  M.  scHOFiELD,    Wcst  Point  from  Illinois;  and 
RETIRED  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,  UNITED     was  graduated  in  1853,  in  tbe 
STATES  ARMY.  samc  class  with  Philip  Sheri- 

dan, James  B.  McPherson,  and  John  B.  Hood.  He  was  assigned  to 
the  1st  regiment  of  artillery,  and  served  in  garrison  in  South  Carolina 
and  Florida  1853-55,  and  as  an  assistant  professor  at  West  Point  1855- 
60;  was  commissioned  first  lieutenant  in  1855,  and  captain  in  1861.  At 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war  he  entered  the  service  as  major  of  the  1st 
Missouri  volunteers,  and  was  appointed  chief  of  staff  to  General 
Nathaniel  Lyon,  with  whom  he  served  until  the  battle  of  Wilson's 
Creek,  in  which  Lyon  was  killed;  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  later  brigadier-general  of  Missouri  militia,  and  com 
manded  latter  till  November,  1862;  was  appointed  major  general  of 
volunteers,  and  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Missouri, 
1863-4. 

He  was  then  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Department  of  Ohio, 
and  in  1864  joined  General  William  T.  Sherman,  and  took  part  in  the 
Atlanta  campaign.  When  Sherman  left  Atlanta,  General  Schofield 
was  ordered  to  Tennessee  to  join  General  Thomas  in  resisting  Hood's 
invasion.  He  retreated  before  Hood,  and  inflicted  a  severe  check 
upon  him  at  the  battle  of  Franklin,  November  30,  1864.  For  this 
service  he  was  made  brigadier-general  and  brevet  major-general  in 
the  regular  army.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Nashville  and  subse- 
quent pursuit  of  Hood's  army.  In  1865  he  was  sent  to  the  mouth  of 
Cape  Fear  river,  and  later  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  De- 
partment of  North   Carolina;   captured  Wilmington,    February   22, 


THE  ARMY.  619 

1865;  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Kingston,  and  joined  Sherman  at 
Goldsborough,  March  22.  He  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Johns- 
ton's army,  April  26,  and  took  charge  of  the  details  of  capitulation. 

In  June,  1865,  General  Schofield  was  sent  to  Europe  on  a  special 
mission  by  the  state  department,  and  remained  abroad  for  a  year. 
He  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and 
was  in  charge  of  the  1st  military  district,  1867-8.  He  v  as  secre- 
tary of  war  1868-9,  and  was  then  appointed  major-general  and  or- 
dered to  the  Department  of  the  Missouri;  commanded  Division  of  Pa- 
cific 1870-76,  and  again  in  1882-3;  was  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  1876-81;  and  commanded  Division  of  rhe 
Missouri,  1888-86,  when  he  took  charge  of  the  Division  of  the  Atlan- 
tic and  the  Department  of  the  East.  He  remained  at  Governor's  Isl- 
and, New  York  harbor,  until  1888,  when,  after  the  death  of  General 
Sheridan,  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army,  with  headquar- 
ters at  Washington.  The  rank  of  lieutenant-general  was  conferred 
upon  him  in  February,  1895,  having  been  revived  by  special  act  of  con- 
gress for  his  sake  (p.  114).  It  cannot  be  conferred  again  without 
another  special  act. 

As  the  commanding  general  of  the  army.  General  Schofield  dealt 
with  many  important  questions  affecting  the  personnel  and  the  ma- 
terial. Under  all  circumstances  it  was  his  aim  to  improve  the  sea- 
coast  defenses,  to  bring  about  a  concentration  of  troops  near  the 
commercial  centres,  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  army,  to  raise  the 
standard  among  commissioned  officers,  and  to  better  the  condition  of 
the  enlisted  soldier.  To-day  American  soldiers  are  better  housed, 
better  clothed,  and  better  fed  than  those  of  any  other  country.  An- 
nually since  his  elevation  to  the  command  of  the  army.  General  Scho- 
field has  urged  upon  the  attention  of  the  several  secretaries  of  war 
the  importance  of  increasing  the  strength  of  the  army.  He  has  re- 
peatedly said  that,  especially  along  the  seaboard,  where  fortifications 
must  be  erected,  the  augmentation  of  the  military  force  is  demanded. 

Under  no  previous  commanding  general  of  the  army  was  there 
shown  greater  interest  in  the  national  guard.  General  Schofield  re- 
garded the  militia  as  a  highly  important  feature  of  the  country's  mil- 
itary system,  upon  which  dependence  could  confidently  be  put  in  case 
of  local  disorders  or  general  war.  He  constantly  sought  to  improve 
its  condition,  and  urged  congress  annually  to  give  it  aid. 

MiL^ss,  Nelson  A.,  major-general  and  new  commander-in-chief, 
United  States  army,  was  born  in  VVachusett,  Mass.,  August  8,  1839. 
He  received  an  academic  education,  and  was  engaged  in  business 
when  the  civil  war  broke  out.  In  1861  he  joined  the  22d  Massachu- 
setts volunteers  as  lieutenant.  He  distinguished  himself  early  in  his 
career  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  took  part  in  every  engage- 
ment, except  one,  up  to  Lee's  surrender  at  Appomattox.  At  Spottsyl- 
vania,  attacking  the  bloody  angle  on  the  right,  he  broke  the  enemy's 
line,  routed  him,  and  captured  Lieutenant-General  Bushrod  Johnson 
and  his  division.  At  Five  Forks,  Miles  saved  the  day  by  coming  to 
the  rescue  of  Sheridan's  cavalry  and  Warren's  5th  corps. 

General  Miles's  promotion  was  marked  by  somewhat  exceptional 
rapidity,  only  about  a  year  elapsing  before  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  61st  New  York  infantry;  and  a  month  later,  September 
30,  1862,  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  same  regiment.  In  1864  he  at- 
tained the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  early  in  the 
following  year  received  his  commission  as  major-general  of  volun- 


620  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

teers.  In  1866  General  Miles  was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  ser- 
vice and  placed  in  command  of  the  4th  United  States  infantry,  in 
vvrhich  he  remained  till  1809,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  5th  in- 
fantry. As  the  commanding  officer  of  the  Indian  Territory  expedi- 
tion in  1873,  he  proved  himself  one  of  the  most  successful  Indian 
fighters  living.  In  1876  he  drove  Sitting  Bull  over  the  Canadian  line, 
captured  a  number  of  noted  warriors,  and  also  succeeded  in  making 
prisoners  of  Chief  Joseph  and  the  Nez  Perces.  In  1878  he  defeated 
and  captured  a  band  of  Bannocks  in  Yellowstone  Park.  Not  long 
after  this  he  succeeded  in  bringing  in  Sitting  Bull,  and  thus  was  more 
of  a  factor  than  anj'  other  man  in  th«  settlement  of  Montana  and 
North  and  South  Dakota.  In  1886  he  captured  Geronimo  and  his 
band  of  Apaches  in  Arizona.  General  Miles  was  commissioned  brevet 
brigadier-general  March  2,  1867;  brigadier-general  December,  1880; 
and  major-general  in  1890,  when  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  Department  of  the  Missouri,  which  he  relinquished  in  Novem- 
ber, 1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  817).  to  take  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
East  on  the  retirement  of  Major  (jeneral  O.  O.  Howard.  General 
Miles  was  placed  in  command  of  the  troops  called  out  to  suppress 
riots  at  Chicago,  111.,  in  connection  with  the  great  railroad  strike  of 
1894. 

A  Rawhide  Cannon. — At  the  Sandy  Hook  proving 
grounds,  July  23,  tests  were  made  of  a  new  weapon,  the 
invention  of  Mr.  Frederick  Latulip  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
It  was  a  cannon  consisting  of  an  inner  tube  of  steel, 
around  which  were  wound  strips  of  rawhide,  the  exterior 
being  inclosed  in  a  shell  of  metal.  The  gun  was  5  feet 
8  inches  tong,  and  of  2^  inches'  calibre;  weight  456  pounds. 
The  bore  was  of  steel,  f  of  an  inch  thick  at  the  muzzle,  and 
1^  inches  thick  at  the  breech.  The  rawhide  was  1  inch  in 
thickness  at  the  muzzle,  and  3  inches  in  thickness  at  the 
breech,  and  was  cut  in  4-inch  strands.  Around  the  whole 
was  wrapped  two  layers  of  heavy  copper  wire. 

"The  principal  objects  of  the  invention,  as  explained,  are  to 
cheapen  and  lighten  the  construction  of  guns  and  gun  barrels,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  so  to  strengthen  the  same  that  they  will  withstand 
the  explosive  strain  of  not  only  the  usual  charge,  but  an  unusual  one. 
*  *  *  The  tendency  to  transverse  and  longitudinal  rupture  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimum,  as  the  rawhide  gives  the  necessary  tension  to 
withstand  the  explosive  strain  of  the  charge." 

The  gun  successfully  withstood  a  pressure  of  30,369 
pounds  to  the  square  inch;  but  the  recoil  after  this  shot 
broke  the  trail  of  the  carriage,  and  the  test  had  to  be 
stopped.     Further  tests  will  be  made. 

The  G.  A.  R. — The  29th  annual  encampment  of  the 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  was  held  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
during  the  second  week  in  September.  The  attendance 
was  unexpectedly  large;  and  the  parading  column  on  Sep- 
tember 11  took  four  hours  to  pass  the  reviewing  stand. 
The  festivities  were  most  enthusiastic,  but  were  marred 


THE  mmANS.  621 

by  an  accident  causing  the  instant  death  of  four  members 
of  the  Louisville  legion  belonging  to  Battery  A,  and  the 
wounding  of  two  others.  The  four  men  were  riding  on 
the  caisson  of  a  gun  on  the  way  to  Phoenix  hill  to  fire  a 
salute,  when,  from  some  unknown  cause,  the  caisson  ex- 
ploded. There  were  also  several  cases  of  heat  prostration; 
and,  on  the  evening  of  the  12th,  the  collapse  of  a  grand 
stand  at  the  display  of  fireworks  on  the  Ohio  river  caused 
some  painful  injuries. 

Additional  interest  was  added  to  the  reunion  by  the  si- 
multaneous convention  of  the  National  Association  of  Na- 
val V'eterans. 

The  speech  of  welcome  delivered  by  Colonel  Henry 
Watterson,  editor  of  the  Louisville  Courier- J onrna],  in 
behalf  of  the  Citizens'  Committee,  was  remarkable.  He 
said  in  part: 

"There  is  not  a  Southern  man  to-day  who  would  recall  slavery 
if  he  could.  There  is  not  a  Southern  man  to-day  who  would  lightly 
brook  the  effort  of  a  state  to  withdraw  from  the  Union.  Slavery  is 
gone.  Secession  is  dead.  The  Union,  with  its  system  of  statehood 
still  intact,  survives;  and  with  it  a  power  and  glory  among  men  pass- 
ing the  dreams  of  the  fathers  of  the  republic.  You  and  I  may  fold 
our  arms  and  go  to  sleep,  leaving  to  younger  men  to  hold  and  de- 
fend a  property  tenfold  greater  than  that  received  by  us,  its  owner- 
ship unclouded,  and  its  title-deeds  recorded  in  Heaven! 

It  is,  therefore,  with  a  kind  of  exultation  that  I  fling  open  the 
gates  of  this  gateway  to  the  South!  I  bid  you  welcome  in  the  name 
of  the  people,  whose  voice  is  the  voice  of  God.  You  came,  and  we 
resisted  you;  you  come,  and  we  greet  you;  for  times  change,  and  men 
change  with  them.  You  will  find  here  scarcely  a  sign  of  the  battle; 
not  a  reminiscence  of  its  passions." 

General  Ivan  Noble  Walker  of  Indiana  was  elected 
commander-in-chief  to  succeed  Colonel  Thomas  G.  Lawler. 

Walker,  Ivan  Noble,  commander  in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic,  was  born  in  Rush  co.,  Ind.,  February  3,  1889. 
Joined  the  73d  Indiana  volunteers  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war, 
and  in  1863  was  in  command  of  a  company.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
and  sent  to  Libby  Prison,  and  escaped  through  the  famous  tunnel, 
but  was  recaptured  two  days  later.  For  four  years  he  has  been  ad- 
jutant-general of  the  G.  A.  R.  in  Indiana. 


THE  INDIANS. 

In  the  latter  part  of  July  considerable  apprehension 
was  felt  for  the  safety  of  settlers  in  the  vicinity  of  Jack- 
son's Hole,  Wyoming,  it  being  rumored  that  another  Indian 
war  was  impending.  It  appears  that  for  some  time  past 
the  Bannock  Indians  had  been  in  the  habit  of  hunting  on 
the  preserves  of  the  Yellowstone  Park,  which  is  federal 


622  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

property,  claiming  the  right  to  do  so  under  their  treaty  of 
1868.  In  so  doing,  however,  they  were  breaking  the  local 
laws  of  Wyoming;  and  some  of  the  people  of  that  part, 
who  are  not  above  the  suspicion  of  poaching  themselves, 
led  by  a  constable  named  Manning,  had  some  of  the  Ban- 
nocks arrested  in  July.  As  the  Indians  were  being  con- 
veyed to  jail  on  July  13,  they  tried  to  escape,  and  their 
white  captors  fired  upon  them,  killing  several,  the  num- 
ber being  stated  at  four  to  seven.  The  natural  result  was 
that  the  Indians  were  incensed.  To  the  number  of  sev- 
eral hundred  they  gathered  near  the  Salt  river  in  Uinta 
county,  and  for  a  time  remained  away  from  the  reser- 
vation. The  federal  authorities  were  appealed  to;  and 
Brigadier-General  Coppinger,  commanding  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Platte,  was  ordered  to  the  scene  of  the  troubles 
with  a  strong  force  of  troops. 

It  turned  out,  however,  that  the  danger  was  much 
exaggerated.  The  Indians  attempted  no  depredations; 
and  on  the  approach  of  the  troops  quietly  returned  to  their 
reservation,  leaving  their  claim  for  justice  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  authorities.  By  the  first  of  August,  fears  of 
an  uprising  had  died  out;  but  it  is  deemed  wise  to  leave 
for  a  short  time  yet  a  few  troops,  infantry  and  cavalry,  sta- 
tioned at  the  Fort  Hall  reservation,  Idaho,  in  the  Bannock 
Indian  country. 

An  investigation  of  the  whole  affair  was  made  by  the 
government;  and  the  following  reports  of  the  United 
States  district-attorney  and  the  United  States  deputy 
marshal  of  AV^yoming,  are  a  significant  comment  and  an 
instructive  lesson  on  the  rights  of  Indians  and  their  treat- 
ment by  whites.  United  States  District-Attorney  Gibson 
of  Wyoming  says  in  part: 

"I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  killing  of  the  Indian  Ta-Ne- 
(ia-On,  on  or  about  July  13,  was  an  atrocious,  outrageous,  and  cold- 
blooded murder;  and  that  it  was  a  murder  perpetrated  on  the  part  of 
the  constable  Manning  and  his  deputies  in  pursuance  of  a  scheme 
and  conspiracy  on  their  part  to  prevent  the  Indians  from  exercising  a 
right  and  privilege  which  is,  in  my  opinion,  very  clearly  guaranteed 
to  them  by  treaty.  *  *  *  It  seems  to  me  to  be  a  great  pity  that 
there  is  no  national  law  which  can  certainly  be  invoked  for  the  pro- 
tection of  these,  our  domestic  subjects,  weak  and  defenseless  as  they 
are,  in  their  right  to  enjoy  those  privileges  guaranteed  to  them  by  a 
solemn  treaty,  to  the  enforcement  of  which  the  honor  of  our  country 
is  pledged,  and  that  the  only  protection  against  forcible  resistance  to 
their  enjoyment  of  these  rights  must  be  found  in  the  courts  of  the 
state  wherein  the  juries  will  unquestionably  look  upon  them  as  possess- 
ing no  rights  which  a  white  man  is  bound  to  respect." 

The  department  of  justice  at  Washington  concurs  in 


i 


THE  NAVY.  623 

the  opinion  tliat  there  is  no  federal  statute  under  which 
the  offenders  can  be  punished. 

Constable  Manning  stated  in  explanation  of  tlie  shoot- 
ing, that  the  Indian  Ta-Ne-Ga-On  "  would  have  been  ac- 
quitted had  he  come  in  and  stood  his  trial,  for  he  was  an 
old  man,  almost  blind,  and  his  gun  was  not  fit  to  kill  any- 
thing." 

The  report  of  the  United  States  deputy  marshal  was  in 
substance  as  follows: 

The  wliole  affair  was  "  a  premeditated  and  prearranged  plan  to 
kill  some  Indians  and  thus  stir  up  sufficient  trouble  to  get  United 
States  troops  subsequently  into  the  region,  and  ultimately  have  the 
Indians  shut  out  from  Jackson's  Hole."  The  reports  made  by  settlers 
charging  the  Indians  with  wholesale  slaughter  of  game  for  wanton- 
ness or  for  the  hides  of  the  animals,  have  been  much  exaggerated. 
When  Constable  Manning  and  his  posse  of  twenty-six  settlers  arrested 
a  party  of  Indians  on  July  13  and  started  with  them  for  Marysvale, 
he  and  his  men  did  all  they  could  to  tempt  the  Indians  to  try  to  escape 
in  order  that  there  might  be  a  basis  of  justification  for  killing  some  of 
them." 

The  Bannock  chief,  Ben  Sinowine,  claims  that  the  only 
.  reason  why  the  Indians  tried  to  escape  from  their  captors, 
was  because  they  felt  certain  that  the  whites  intended  to 
kill  them. 

THE  NAVY. 

A  Controversy  Determined.— It  has  long  been  a 
moot  point  among  naval  officers,  whether  great  guns  can 
be  fired  straight  fore  and  aft  over  the  deck  of  a  war-ship 
from  her  turret,  without  disaster,  from  concussion,  to  the 
officers  and  men  under  the  fore-and-aft  decks.  To  deter- 
mine the  question,  the  secretary  of  the  navy  ordered  the 
Ampliitrite  to  go  to  sea,  and  fire  her  10-inch  rifles  straight 
fore-and-aft  over  her  decks;  which  was  done.  After  the 
return  of  the  A^nphitrite  to  Fortress  Monroe,  the  inspec- 
tion board  examined  the  vessel  and  reported  that  there 
were  no  signs  of  strain  or  damage.  During  the  test  four 
sheep,  which  had  been  taken  on  board,  were  tied  up  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  concus- 
sion: the  animals  were  uninjured. 

Speed  of  the  '^Columbia." — The  cruiser  Columbia 
made  a  remarkably  speedy  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  in  July. 
Leaving  the  Needles  off  Southampton,  Eng.,  July  26,  at  2 
p.  M.,  between  that  hour  and  noon  of  the  next  day  the  vessel 
steamed  405  knots,  and  to  noon  of  each  of  the  five  days 
following  487,  470,  457,  455,  and  453  knots  respectively; 
from  noon  of  the  sixth  day  till  8:49  a.  m.  of  the  seventh 


624  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

(August  3),  when  she  reached  quarantine  in  New  York 
harbor,  she  steamed  405  knots.  The  time  of  the  voyage 
was  6  days  23  hours  49  minutes.  The  best  four  hours'  run 
was  80^  knots.  This  great  speed — unequalled  by  any  war- 
ship in  so  long  a  voyage — was  made  under  natural  draught. 
The  average  speed  was  18.41  knots  an  hour. 

Court-Martial  of  Captain  Sumner.— After  taking 
part  in  the  celebration  of  the  opening  of  the  Kaiser-Wil- 
helm  canal  (p.  430),  the  Columbia  was  put  in  dry  dock  at 
Southampton  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  and  painting  her 
bottom.  While  in  the  dock  the  vessel  was  damaged  by 
settling  down  on  the  keel  blocks,  which  were  set  5  feet  G 
inches  apart,  whereas  the  distance  ought  not  to  have  been 
more  than  2^  feet.  In  consequence  of  this  improper  dock- 
ing, the  keel  plates  of  the  vessel  were  dented,  as  many  as 
30  dents  appearing;  the  cement  between  the  plates  and 
the  inner  hull  was  cracked,  several  stanchions  were  bent, 
and  there  were  several  other  evidences  of  the  great  strain 
to  which  the  vessel  was  subjected.  The  commander  of  the 
Columbia,  Captain  Sumner,  charged  the  injuries  to  the 
structural  weakness  of  the  ship;  on  the  other  hand,  officers  • 
in  the  navy  department  declared  the  damage  to  be  the  re- 
sult of  gross  carelessness.  A  court  of  inquiry  was  ap- 
pointed August  22  to  investigate  the  matter  and  fix  the 
responsibility.  Upon  the  findings  of  this  court  the  secre- 
tary of  the  navy,  August  31,  ordered  a  court-martial  to  be 
held  for  the  trial  of  Captain  Sumner.  The  charges  were: 
(1)  Culpable  inefficiency  in  the  performance  of  duty;  (2) 
suffering  a  vessel  of  the  navy  to  be  hazarded  in  violation 
of  the  articles  for  the  government  of  the  navy;  (3)  neglect 
of  duty.  The  court  assembled  at  the  navy  yard,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  September  4,  and  on  the  13th  the  findings 
were  made  public  by  the  secretary  of  the  navy.  Captain 
Sumner  was  found  not  guilty  on  charge  2,  and  guilty  on 
charges  1  and  3.  The  sentence  of  the  court,  approved  by  the 
secretary  of  the  navy,  was,  that  Captain  Sumner  ''should 
be  suspended  from  duty  only  for  a  period  of  six  months  on 
waiting-orders'  pay,  and  be  reprimanded  by  the  honorable 
the  secretary  of  the  navy.'' 

Armor-plate  Tests. — On  September  4,  at  the  Indian 
Head  proving  ground  near  Washington,  D.  C,  a  test  was 
made  of  a  specimen  of  steel  armor  plate  and  of  the  frame 
of  an  armored  war-ship.  The  plate  was  double-forged  and 
was  made  by  the  Carnegie  company.  It  was  14  inches 
thick,  18  feet  long,  7i  feet  high,  and  represented  that 
portion  of  the  ship's  armor  which  covers  her  vital  parts. 


THE  NAVY.  625 

Behind  the  armor  plate  was  a  backing  of  oak  five  inches 
thick,  then  the  '*skin"  of  the  vessel,  i.e.,  the  inner  and 
outer  bottoms,  each  five-eighths  of  an  inch  of  steel  plate. 
About  four  feet  farther  back  was  a  five-eighths-inch  steel 
plate  to  represent  the  inner  shell  of  the  vessel;  between  this 
and  the  "skin"  were  the  frames  or  braces,  these  also  of 
five-eighths-inch  plate.  Against  the  inner  plate  were  heavy 
timbers  resting  on  the  side  of  a  hill.  The  test  was  designed 
to  settle  the  question  whether,  the  armor  itself  resisting, 
the  frame  would  be  crushed  by  impact. 

First  a  10-inch  Carpenter  projectile,  500  lbs.,  with  a 
charge  of  140  lbs.  of  prismatic  powder,  was  fired  at  the 
target;  velocity,  1,472  feet  per  second.  The  shell  was 
shattered,  part  of  it  lodging  in  the  plate.  The  backing 
and  plates  were  intact.  The  powder  charge  being  raised 
to  21G  lbs.,  and  the  velocity  to  1,862  feet  per  second,  the 
shell  was  again  shattered,  and  a  larger  portion  was  im- 
bedded in  the  plate.  But  neitlier  crack  nor  bulge  was  seen 
in  the  plate;  and  the  frame  suft'ered  no  injury,  except  that 
one  of  the  armor  bolts  was  drawn  out.  When  a  Wheeler- 
Sterling  projectile  of  850  lbs.,  propelled  by  400  lbs.  of 
powder  at  1,800  feet  per  second,  was  fired,  the  plate  was 
cracked  from  top  to  bottom,  but  the  oak  backing  and  the 
frame  were  uninjured.  The  lesson  of  the  experiments  is 
that  the  14-inch  armor  of  the  new  battle-ships  is  proof 
against  the  fire  of  any  vessel  afloat. 

A  new  kind  of  armor  plate,  the  invention  of  Lieuten- 
ant Ackerman  of  the  navy  ordnance  bureau,  was  tested 
at  Indian  Head  in  September,  and  developed  extraordi- 
nary power  of  resistance.  The  process  of  manufacture  is 
less  complex  than  that  of  Harvey;  but  to  give  an  intelligi- 
ble account  of  it  would  involve  a  comparison  of  Harvey^s 
methods  with  Ackerman's,  and  an  exposition  of  the  theory 
of  steel  making.  It  will  suffice  to  state  here  the  results  of 
the  tests.  A  7-inch  plate  was  attacked  by  four  armor- 
piercing  projectiles.  The  first  shell  struck  the  plate  about 
midway  between  the  top  and  bottom,  toward  the  right 
side;  and  the  second,  in  the  same  relative  position  on  the 
left  side.  The  third  shot  struck  near  the  lower  left-hand 
corner;  and  the  fourth,  at  the  upper  left-hand  corner.  All 
of  the  projectiles  were  more  or  less  damaged  in  the  con- 
tact. The  striking  velocity  of  the  first  shot  was  1,856  foot 
seconds,  and  that  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  shots 
2,100  foot  seconds.  The  lowest  striking  energy  was  3,061, 
and  the  highest  about  4,000  foot  tons.  The  tests  seem 
satisfactorily  to  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  the  process. 


626  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

New  Navy  Rifle. — A  new  type  of  navy  rifle,  invented 
by  J.  P.  Lee  of  Connecticut,  has  been  recommended  by 
the  Small  Arms'  board.  It  is  believed  by  many  to  be  su- 
perior to  the  rifle — the  Krag-Jorgensen — now  used  in  the 
army.  Its  rapidity  of  fire  is  extraordinary;  five  aimed 
shots  have  been  fired  in  three  seconds.  The  total  weight 
of  the  piece,  with  the  straps,  is  8^  pounds.  The  barrel 
is  27  inches  in  length.  The  fire  is  very  accurate  at  2,000 
yards,  and  so  effective  that  at  6,000  yards  the' bullet  would 
penetrate  the  body  of  a  man.  The  material  of  the  barrel 
is  nickel  steel. 

The  Turret  Controversy.— The  question  of  the  best 
form  and  most  convenient  disposition  of  the  turrets  of  the 
new  battle-ships  No.  5  and  No.- 6,  has  received  much  attention 
in  the  various  bureaus  of  the  navy  department;  and  a 
lively  controversy  was  for  a  time  carried  on  between  the 
bureau  of  ordnance,  which  favored  the  erection  of  the 
smaller  turrets  on  the  top  of  the  larger  ones;  and  the  bu- 
reau of  construction,  which  held  that  the  turrets  for  the 
8-inch  guns  should  be  separately  erected  in  the  rear  of, 
somewhat  above,  and  as  close  as  possible  to,  the  turrets 
carrying  the  18-inch  guns.  The  views  of  the  ordnance 
bureau  prevailed,  and  the  new  battle-ships  are  to  have 
double  turrets,  a  smaller  turret  superimposed  upon  a 
larger. 

The  design  includes  three  separate  portions — the  barbette  or  fixed 
portion  being  about  twenty-nine  feet  in  internal  diameter,  consisting 
of  a  firmly  framed  and  rigidly  supported  structure,  to  the  outside  of 
which,  and  extending  vertically  about  eight  feet,  is  secured  a  hollow 
cylinder  of  armor  of  about  fifteen  inches  in  thickness.  The  object 
of  this  structure  is  to  protect  the  rollers  upon  which  the  upper  re 
volving  turret  moves,  and  the  ammunition  hoists  which  pass  up 
through  them.  The  revolving  portion  of  the  design  contemplates 
two  separate  turrets — the  smaller  one  being  rigidly  fastened  to  the 
top  of  the  larger.  Both  of  these  turrets  are  more  or  less  ellip- 
tical in  shape,  the  object  being  to  balance  the  weights  about  the  cen- 
tre of  revolution,  and  thus  decrease  the  power  required  for  turning,  as 
well  as  the  weight  of  turning  machinery. 

The  lower  revolving  turret,  which  is  located  immediately  above 
the  barbette  and  supported  on  rollers  within  the  latter,  consists  of  a 
very  strongly  framed  structure  about  nine  feet  high,  about  twenty- 
seven  feet  in  its  longest  internal  clear  diameter,  and  about  twenty - 
one  feet  in  its  shortest.  The  sides  of  this  structure  are  protected  by 
Harveyized  armor  fifteen  inches  in  thickness,  the  front  or  port  plate 
being  seventeen  inches  in  thickness.  Within  this  turret  are  located 
two  thirteen-inch  guns,  together  with  all  the  mechanism  for  elevating 
and  depressing  them,  operating  the  rammer,  and  receiving  and  hand- 
ling the  ammunition.  The  floor  of  this  turret  is  double,  there  being 
about  four  feet  vertical  height  between  the  two  floors.  Within  this 
space  are  placed  the  hydraulic  turning  engines  by  which  the  entire 


THE  NAVY. 


627 


structure  is  to  be  revolved.  The  roof  of  tliis  turret  consists  of  three 
and  a-half  plates,  on  the  top  of  which  is  located  the  smaller  turret. 
This  smaller  turret  has  an  inside  larger  diameter  of  about  sixteen  feet, 
and  a  smaller  diameter  of  about  ten  feet.  On  the  outside  of  the 
structure  is  secured  armor  eleven  inches  in  thickness  in  front,  and 
nine  inches  elsewhere.  This  turret  contains  two  eight-inch  guns, 
with  mounts  and  all  other  appurtenances. 

The  compound  structure  is  trained  horizontally  as  a  whole  by  a 
man  stationed  in  the  lower  turret,  with  his  head  up  in  a  sighting 
hood  that  is  secured  above  the  hole  in  the  roof;  by  means  of  suitable 
levers  he  can  swing  the  whole  structure  to  the  right  or  the  left.  The 
guns  are  elevated  or  depressed  according  to  the  distance  and  position 
of  the  object  aimed  at;  and  this  is  accomplished  by  men  located  in 
similar  sighting  hoods — one  alongside  and  above  each  gun.  The 
rollers  supporting  the  turret  are  of  cast  steel,  about  twelve  inches  in 
diameter,  running  on  steel  roller  tracks.  The  total  weight  of  the 
complete  structure,  including  all  guns,  is  about  1,000  tons,  about  one- 
third  of  which  is  fixed,  the  other  two-thirds  being  carried  on,  and  re- 
volving with,  the  rollers  referred  to. 

Improvements  in  Gnnboats. — Some  novel  features 
will  be  seen  in  tjie  six  light-draught,  composite  gunboats 
to  be  built  forthwith  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  con- 
gress directing  the  construction  of  such  vessels  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  $230,000  each,  exclusive  of  armament. 
Four  of  the  vessels  are  to  possess  considerable  sail  power; 
in  the  other  two  the  masts  will  be  of  use  for  military  pur- 
poses only.  Though  their  frames  and  general  construc- 
tion will  be  of  steel,  their  hulls  will  have  a  sheathing  of 
wood  plated  over  with  copper.  The  object  of  the  sheath- 
ing is  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  frequent  docking;  the 
large  sail  power  is  of  course  a  means  of  saving  fuel.  The 
greater  part  of  the  battery  will  be  housed  by  a  continuous 
deck:  this  materially  adds  to  the  structural  strength  of  the 
vessel  and  affords  protection,  against  musketry  fire,  to  the 
guns'  crews  in  action.  The  vessels  with  sail  power  have 
single  screws,  the  others  have  twin  screws.  In  all,  the 
armament  is  the  same — six  4-inch  guns,  four  6-pounders, 
two  1-pounder  guns,  all  rapid-fire.  The  principal  dimen- 
sions of  the  vessels  are: 

DIMENSIONS  OF  NEW  GUNBOATS. 


Length  on  load  water-line 

Beam,  extreme,  at  load  water-line. . 
Draught,  normal,  to  bottom  of  keel. 

Displacement,  normal,  about 

Indicated  horse-power,  about 

Speed,  an  hour,  in  knots 


Single- 
screwy  type. 
168  feet. 
36  feet. 
12  feet. 
1,000  ton.s. 
800 
12 


Twin- 
screwtype. 


174  feet. 

34  feet. 

12  feet. 
1,000  tons. 
800 

12 


The  "Texas"  and  the  "Maine."— Two  new  bat- 
tle-ships were  put  in  commission  during  the  quarter — the 
Texas,  at  the  Norfolk  navy  yard  August  15;  and  the  Maine, 


628  APFAlUS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

at  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard  September  27.  The  Texas  was 
launched  June  28,  1892,  and  is  a  twin-screw,  steel-ar- 
mored vessel  of  6,335  tons'  normal  displacement;  length  290 
feet,  width  64  feet  1  inch;  carries  two  12-inch  guns  in  two 
turrets,  and  has  a  secondary  battery  of  four  6-.pounder  and 
four  3-pounder,  rapid-fire  guns,  with  four  47-millimetre 
Hotchkiss  guns.  The  Maine  was  launched  November  18, 
1890.  Dimensions,  water-line  length,  318  feet;  width,  57 
feet;  displacement,  6,648  tons.  The  main  battery  has  four 
10-inch  guns  in  two  turrets.  The  secondary  battery  has 
six  6-inch  guns  protected  by  shields,  eight  6-pounders, 
eight  1-pounders,  and  four  Gatling  guns. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

During  July  there  were  some  threatening  signs  of  an 
epidemic  of  strikes  in  several  extensive  industries.  The  men- 
acing movement,  however,  was  either  avoided  or  checked 
as  far  as  concerned  the  greater  labor  interests,  except  in 
two  occupations,  garment  making  in  New  York  city  and 
vicinity,  and  iron  mining  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  in 
northern  Michigan. 

Garment  Workers'  Strike. — The  United  Brother- 
hood of  Tailors  declared  a  strike  on  July  28;  and,  within 
a  few  hours,  more  than  15,000  workers  in  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  had  quit  work.  The  strike  immediately  ex- 
tended to  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  later  to  Boston,  Mass.  Its 
scope  included  several  branches  of  the  tailoring  trade. 
Explanations  of  its  cause  were  of  course  conflicting;  but, 
as  a  whole,  it  drew  an  unusual  degree  of  public  sympathy 
both  for  its  chief  objects  and  for  its  peaceful  and  law-abid- 
ing spirit.  It  gave  no  sign,  scarcely  even  any  whisper,  of 
violence.  When  the  notorious  Emma  Goldman,  the  in- 
cendiary anarchist,  sought  to  harangue  a  meeting  of  the 
young  women  workers,  she  was  instantly  repressed  by 
unanimous  vote,  and  quietly  put  out  of  the  room  with  the 
information  that  the  young  women  were  workers,  not  an- 
archists. More  noticeable  was  this  orderly  sjiirit — the 
American  spirit — in  view  of  the  fact  that  among  the 
strikers  were  many  immigrant  Russian  Jews,  helpless 
and  degraded  under  the  barbarous  policy  of  that  empire, 
accustomed  to  lowest  wages,  and  wretched  abodes,  and 
meanest  fare,  whose  competition  here  had  resulted  in  low- 
ering the  average  wage. 

This  strike  was  the  second  edition  of  that  of  last  year 
(Vol.  4,  p.  589).      That  was  aimed  at  the  task  system. 


.ABOR  INTERESTS. 


629 


which,  instead  of  requiring  a  certain  number  of  hours  of 
work,  required  completion  of  a  certain  number  of  gar- 
ments, a  number  often  so  great  as  to  hold  the  worker  to 
his  toil  fifteen  or  sixteen  hours  a  day  for  seven  days  in  the 
week.  That  strike  wrested  from  the  contractors  an  agree- 
ment on  a  system  based  on  hours,  ten  hours  being  assigned 
as  a  day's  work.  This  summer's  strike  was  not  so  much 
for  direct  increase  of  wages,  as  for  checking  the  attempt 
by  contractors  to  compel  a  return  to  the  piece  or  task  sys- 
tem. Meyer  Schoenfeldt,  general  organizer  of  American 
garment  workers,  who  showed  vigor  and  prudence  in  con- 
ducting the  movement,  stated  the  following  as  among  the 
demands: 

Fifty-nine  hours  as  a  week's  work;  a  weekly  pay  day;  minimum 
wages,  operators  ,$15,  basters  $13,  pressers  $10,  busbelers  $10,  trimmers 
$10,  finishers  $9;  contractors  not  to  compel  employes  to  make  a  certain 
number  of  garments  in  a  certain  number  of  hours — this  last  demand 
being  the  chief  point  of  disagreement,  as  preventing  a  restoration  of 
the  task  system. 

It  was  the  busy  season  in  the  clothing  trade,  and  the 
contractors  in  a  few  days  showed  signs  of  yielding,  toward 
which  they  were  also  pressed  by  public  opinion.  The 
Tailors'  Union,  made  distrustful  by  experience,  refused 
to  deal  with  the  contractors'  association,  and  required  in- 
dividual agreements  with  proof  of  pecuniary  responsibility 
— the  contractors  being,  as  a  rule,  men  wiUi  little  or  no 
capital,  not  much  more  than  working  tailors.  The  work- 
men demanded  also  that  the  great  wholesale  dealers  should 
send  out  their  cut  garments  to  those  contractors  only  who 
would  agree  to  procure  the  making  up  in  large  shops 
which  would  be  within  the  scope  of  the  factory  laws. 
This  was  a  direct  blow  at  the  tenement-house  system — a 
system  which  involved  the  making  of  garments  in  hun- 
dreds of  little  rooms  where  families  dwelt,  ate,  and  slept 
in  the  midst  of  filth  and  disease.  Also  it  was  a  blow  ulti- 
mately at  the  whole  contract  method  itself.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  August  the  great  body  of  the  contractors  had 
yielded  on  all  the  main  points,  the  strike  had  gained  a 
gratifying  success,  and  nearly  all  the  workers  had  begun 
work  again.  If  the  advantage  thus  gained  shall  be  held, 
this  model  strike  will  have  achieved  on  its  field  what  the 
labors  of  philanthropists  and  acts  of  legislatures  have  failed 
to  achieve — the  abolition  of  the  infamous  sweat-shop 
system. 

Iron  Miners'  Strike  in  Michigan.— The  strike  in  the 
iron  mines  in  Marquette  county,  northern  Michigan,  offers 


630  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

in  its  management  and  its  results  a  pitiable  contrast  to  the 
one  above  recorded.  Beginning  in  the  first  weeks  of  July, 
and  joined  in  by  nearly  5,000  miners,  it  continued  in  full 
force  till  September  1,  when,  under  protection  of  militia 
to  the  number  of  500,  some  of  the  men  resumed  work, 
the  remainder  vainly  prolonging  their  idleness  till  Sep- 
tember 20.  The  strike  centred  at  Ishpeming  and  Ne- 
gaunee,  two  towns  about  three  miles  apart,  of  whose  com- 
bined population  of  18,000  probably  4,000  were  employed 
at  the  mines.  It  has  been  well  described  as  "  a  fruitless  and 
disastrous  contest  by  a  body  of  intelligent  men  who  failed 
to  see  that  the  conditions  made  their  success  impossible." 
The  men  employed  on  the  Marquette  range,  principally 
English  and  Scandinavians,  with  some  Finlanders,  Irish, 
and  French,  were  of  a  class  superior  in  character  and  edu- 
cation to  the  generality  of  miners.  Even  during  the 
strike,  though  their  organized  action  showed  a  menacing 
suUenness,  due  to  what  they  deemed  the  injustice  of  their 
treatment,  there  was  surprisingly  little  of  drunkenness  or 
of  disorderly  action  by  individuals.  The  offenses  of  this 
kind  during  the  progress  of  the  strike  were  chiefly  by 
village  idlers,  not  by  the  workmen.  The  leaders  sternly 
denounced  disorderly  conduct;  three  of  them  were  minis- 
ters or  local  preachers,  and  the  miners'  meetings  were 
usually  begun  with  prayer.  In  its  closing  period,  however, 
the  movement  became  more  lawless  and  threatened  vio- 
lence. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  that  there  was  not  fault  on  both 
sides;  but  the  trouble  seems  to  have  arisen  chiefly  from  the 
men's  misapprehension  of  the  facts  in  the  case.  Months  pre- 
viously, when  all  business  was  depressed,  they  had  engaged 
at  low  wages  with  the  promise  of  increase  as  soon  as  the 
companies  found  their  receipts  adequate.  Many  of  the 
companies,  not  foreseeing  the  great  rise  in  prices  of  iron 
and  steel,  made  contracts  for  this  year's  shipments  at  the 
low  rates  current  last  winter.  Meanwhile  the  miners, 
reading  the  glowing  accounts  of  the  renewal  of  business 
prosperity  in  all  lines  and  especially  of  the  improvement 
in  the  iron  business,  thought  that  the  companies  were  not 
keeping  their  promises  to  increase  wages.  Still,  the  large 
proportion  of  the  men  Avere  reluctant  to  strike,  and,  it  is 
said,  were  brought  to  consent  only  by  the  urgency  of  a  few 
artful  and  self-seeking  political  agitators,  who  assured 
them  that  the  wealthy  companies,  having  been  cheating 
them  in  their  wages,  were  now  covering  their  injustice 
by  misstating  the  facts  of  their  contracts.     Under  this 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  631 

sense  of  injury,  the  miners  united  to  demand  in  all  the 
mines  a  scale  for  the  various  grades  of  work  from  $1.50  to 
12.00  a  day.  They  assert  that  their  pay  had  amounted  to 
11.35  to  $i.50.  This  advance  the  companies  refused;  but 
offered  to  confer  with  a  view  to  arranging  for  the  present 
some  increase  of  rates.  The  miners  declined  all  offers  of 
compromise;  and  when  at  last  some  of  their  number 
weakened  and  sought  to  resume  work,  violence  wa& 
threatened,  soldiers  were  called  in,  the  strike  waned,  and 
finally  collapsed.  The  movement  was  disastrous  to  the 
workmen  and  to  all  interests  in  the  region.  The  daily  loss 
in  wages  was  nearly  16,000;  the  daily  loss  to  the  railroads 
amounted  to  about  $3,700;  the  daily  expense  to  the  county 
for  militia  was  nearly  $1,000.  The  business  prospects  on 
the  whole  Marquette  range  are  seriously  darkened. 

Minor  Strikes. — Early  in .  August,  the  strike  at  the 
bituminous  coal  mines  in  Pennsylvania  ended  in  a  victory  for 
the  miners. — Later  in  August,  the  strike  of  the  bitumin- 
ouscoal  minersin  Indiana,then  of  a  month's  duration,  was  re- 
ported as  unchanged — the  men  holding  out  for  an  advance 
from  the  51-cent  rate  to  the  GO-cent  rate. — In  the  latter 
part  of  September  the  coke-workers  on  strike  at  Union- 
town,  Penn.,  were  threatening  violence,  and  some  Italian 
leaders  had  been  placed  in  jail. 

Illinois  Arbitration  Law. — A  law  providing  for  ar- 
bitration of  labor  disputes  has  been  enacted  by  the  Illinois 
state  legislature.  It  creates  a  state  board  of  arbitration, 
with  official  authority  to  investigate  strikes  or  lockouts. 
In  any  case  where  more  than  twenty-five  workmen  are  em- 
ployed, the  state  board  has  a  legal  right  to  intervene  to 
settle  a  strike.  The  board  consists  of  three  members,  one 
of  whom  must  be  an  employer  of  labor,  and  one  a  mem- 
ber of  some  labor  organization.  No  two  members  of  the 
board  can  belong  to  the  same  political  party. 

The  board  of  arbitration  cannot  interfere  unless  invited  to  do  so 
by  one  or  botb  of  the  parties  to  the  controversy,  or  by  the  mayor  of 
the  town  or  village  in  which  the  strike  or  lockout  is  in  progress.  If 
either  or  both  parties  to  the  dispute  ask  the  services  of  the  arbitrators, 
they  can  intervene,  examine  all  the  books  and  papers  of  the  employ- 
ers, and  call  such  witnesses  as  they  may  see  proper.  The  finding  of  the 
board  is  to  be  binding  on  both  parties  for  a  term  of  six  months,  un- 
less one  or  the  other  gives  notice  of  unwillingness  to  abide  by  it. 
The  law  makes  no  provision  for  a  penalty  in  case  the  decision  of  the 
arbitrators  be  disregarded  by  either  party.  It  is  provided  that  in 
cases  where  neither  party  calls  for  arbitration,  the  findings  of  the  com- 
mission shall  not  be  binding.  The  work  of  the  board  will  be  to  as- 
certain and  publish  the  facts,  and  leave  the  results  to  work  them- 
selves out  in  the  ordinary  course  of  events. 


Finish. 

Elapsed  Time. 

Corrected  Time 

H.     M.     8. 

H.    M.    8. 

H.     M.    8. 

5    21    14 

5    00  24 

4    59  55 

5    29  30 

5    08  44 

5    08  44 

632  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

SPORTING. 

Yacht  Races. — ''America's"  Cup.— After  the  races 
of  October,  1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  764),  in  which  Lord  Dun- 
raven's  Valkyrie  was  defeated  by  the  Vigilant,  that  noble- 
man again  sent  a  challenge  to  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 
for  the  contest  of  the  present  year.  The  challenger  made 
several  requests  touching  the  conditions  of  the  races, 
among  them  that  the  course  should  be  off  Marblehead  or  off 
Newport,  instead  of  in  New  York  bay:  this  was  not  ac- 
ceded to. 

The  first  of  the  races  of  1895  was  run  September  7,  out- 
side of  Sandy  Hook,  fifteen  miles  to  windward  and  return. 
In  the  first  half  (windward)  of  the  race  the  American 
yacht.  Defender,  outsailed  her  British  competitor,  Valkyrie 
III.,  by  nearly  3y- minutes;  and  on  the  return,  by  5  min- 
utes: total  advantage  of  Defender,  including  time  allow- 
ance of  29  1-10  seconds,  8  minutes  49  seconds.  The  offi- 
cial record  was: 

start. 

H.    M.    8. 

Defender 12    20  50 

Valkyrie  III 12    20  46 

The  weather,  though  it  was  not  such  as  yachtsmen  de- 
sire, was  regarded  as  rather  more  favorable  to  the  British 
than  to  the  American  yacht:  a  light,  baffling  breeze:  it  is 
calculated  that  Valkyrie  III.  carried  GOO  square  feet  of 
canvas  more  than  Defender. 

The  second  race  was  sailed  September  10.  Just  before 
the  yachts  reached  the  starting  line,  while  manoeuvring 
for  position,  Valkyrie  III.  bore  down  on  Defender;  and, 
by  the  swing  of  the  English  yacht's  boom,  a  foul  was 
caused,  and  Defender's  spreader  was  carried  away  and  her 
topmast  sprung.  The  American  yacht  hoisted  a  flag  of 
protest,  and  the  two  contestants  proceeded  to  sail  the  race. 
The  course  was  a  triangle  10  miles  to  the  leg  and  the  first 
third  to  windward.  In  the  sail  to  windward  Valkyrie  III. 
gained;  but,  on  the  reaches  forming  the  second  and  third 
sides  of  the  triangular  course,  she  was  outf  ooted  by  Defender; 
and  when  the  English  yacht  crossed  the  line,  she  was  win- 
ner by  only  47  seconds,  corrected  time. 

At  the  first  turn  Valkyrie  III.  had  a  lead  of  3  minutes 
52  seconds;  at  the  second  turn,  3  minutes  35  seconds;  at 
the  finish,  2  minutes  18  seconds.  But  through  the  foul. 
Defender  lost  1  minute  2  seconds  at  the  start.  Deducting 
1  minute  2  seconds,  and  the  time  allowance  of  Defender, 
29  1-10  seconds,  we  find  that  Valkyrie  III.  won  by  47 
seconds,  corrected  time.     The  official  record  was: 


SPORTING.  633 

start.  Finish.  Elapsed  Time.      Corrected  Time. 

H.     M.    S.  H.    M.    .S.  H.     M.    S.  H.     M.    S. 

Vcdkyne  III 11    00  13  2    bb  2-Z  3    55  09  3    55  09 

Defender 11    01   15  ^'    57  40  3    56  25  3    55  56 

The  day  after  the  second  race  the  regatta  committee, 
having  taken  testimony  regarding  the  foul,  awarded  the  race 
to  Defender. 

The  Earl  of  Dunraven  addressed  to  the  committee  a 
note  declaring  that  excursion  boats  interfered  with  the 
free  action  of  the  yachts,  and  withdrawing  from  the  con- 
test unless  the  committee  would  guarantee  an  unobstructed 
course.  Defender  sailed  the  course  alone  on  September 
VZ,  the  date  set  for  the  third  race. 

Races  of  the  Half- Raters. — The  contest  between  Ethel- 
wynn  ?iw(\.  Sjjruce  IV.  for  an  international  trophy  began 
September  22;  but,  for  lack  of  wind,  the  first  race  did  not 
come  off  till  the  next  day.  The  American  boat  Ethelwynn 
then  defeated  the  British  half-rater  over  a  12-mile  course, 
by  7  minutes  41  seconds.     Record: 

start.  Finisli.  Time  Elapsed. 

H.      M.      S.  H.      W.      S.  H.      M.      a. 

Ethelwynn 12  45  00         4  47  15         4  02  15 

Spruce  IV. 12  45  00         4  54  56         4  09  56 

A  second  race  was  run,  but  not  to  a  finish,  September 
24,  and  the  contest  was  renewed  September  25.     Ilecord: 

start.  Fini-sh.  Time  Elapsed. 

H.      M.      S.  H.      M.      S.  H.      M.      S. 

Spruce  IV 12    30    00  4    25    44  3     .55    44 

Ethelwynn 12    30    00  4    26    07  3     56    07 

Ethehvynn  was  the  victor  by  23  seconds. 

In  the  third  race  Mr.  Brand,  owner  of  Spruce  /F., 
protested  Ethelwynn  for  overlapping;  but  the  race  was  run 
and  the  protest  was  not  allowed.     Record: 

start.  Finish.  Time  Elapsed. 

H.      M.      S.  H.      M.      S.  H.      M.      S. 

Ethelwynn 2     25    37  5    11    36  2    46    36 

Spruce  IV 2     25    15  5    12    46  2     47    46 

Etliehmjnn  victor  by  70  seconds. 

In  tlie  last  race,  September  28,  Etlielivynn  again  de- 
feated her  conTpetitor.     Record: 

start.  Finish.  Time  Elapsed. 

Ethelwynn I'i    45    30  4*    15'  09'  3     30'    09- 

SjyrucelV 12    45    37  4     25    50  3     40    50 

Difference  in  time,  10  minutes, 41  seconds. 

The  Henley  Regatta. — The  annual  boat  races  at 
Henley  on  the  Thames,  in  England,  took  place  in  the 
middle  of  July  (p.  364).  The  chief  contestants  in  the 
eight-oared  race  were  the  Leander  (London,  Eng.^,  Trin- 
ity Hall   (Cambridge),  and   Cornell  University   (Ithaca, 

Vol.  6.— 4V 


634  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

N.  Y.)  crews.  The  Cornell  crew  and  the  Leanders  were 
pitted  against  each  other  in  the  first  race.  At  the  um- 
pire's word  "  Go/'  the  Leanders  were  not  ready,  and  so 
did  not  start;  the  Cornell  men  went  over  the  coarse,  and 
were  adjudged  winners.  The  next  day  the  Cornell  crew 
had  the  Trinity  crew  for  competitors.  Cornell  was  lead- 
ing till  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  the  finish,  when 
one  of  her  crew  collapsed,  and  the  race  was  lost  to  Trinity. 
The  judgment  that  the  Cornell  crew  was  "  overtrained 
and  overcoached"  would  seem  to  be  well  grounded. 

International  Athletics. — At  Manhattan  Field, 
New  York,  was  held,  September  21,  a  notable  athletic  con- 
test between  men  selected  out  of  the  London  (Eng.)  and 
New  York  Athletic  clubs.  The  day  was  excessively  hot; 
but  the  contestants  on  both  sides  strained  every  nerve  for 
victory.  Ten  thousand  spectators  viewed  and  applauded 
the  gallant  athletes.  In  the  880-yard  run  Kilpatrick  and 
Lyons  represented  America;  Horan  and  Lewin,  England. 
At  the  finish  Kilpatrick  led  by  20  feet:  time  1:53  2-5;  best 
previous  record  1 :54  2-5. 

In  the  100-yard  dash  the  American  runners  were 
Wefers  and  Crum;  the  English,  Bradley  and  Steavenson. 
At  50  yards  all  were  abreast;  at  75  yards  Wefers  was  a 
yard  ahead,  Crum  and  Bradley  after  him,  abreast;  soon 
Bradley,  by  a  supreme  effort,  outstripped  Crum.  AVefers 
won:  time  9  4-5  seconds,  equal  to  the  best  previous  record. 

Then  came  the  high  jump:  contestants  (American), 
Sweeney  and  Baltazzi;  (English),  Williams  and  Johnston. 
The  bar  was  set  at  5  feet  8  inches,  and  at  5  feet  10  inches, 
and  was  cleared  by  both  pairs  of  men.  Johnston  fell  out 
of  the  contest  at  5  feet  11  inches;  Williams  cleared  the 
bar  at  that  height,  but  fell  out  at  6  feet.  The  Americans 
then  contended.  Finally  the  bar  was  set  at  6  feet  5^  inches: 
Sweeney  cleared  it  ^^with  a  margin  of  an  inch  to  spare:" 
6  feet  5^  inches  was  the  best  previous  record. 

In  a  one-mile  race  between  Luytens  (English)  and 
Conneff  and  Orton  (American),  Conneff  won:  time 
4:18  1-5. 

Wefers  and  Crum  had  for  antagonists  in  the  220-yard 
run.  Downer  and  Jordan,  Englishmen.  At  the  finish 
Wefers  was  5  yards  ahead  of  Crum,  who  was  one  yard 
ahead  of  Jordan. 

In  throwing  the  weight,  there  were  three  contestants 
— Hickok  and  Gray  (Americans)  and  Watson  (Englisii). 
Gray  won;  Hickok  second. 


SPORTING.  — —        gg. 

Chase  and  Cady  represented  America  in  the  120-yard 
high  hurdle  event;  their  English  competitors  were  Shaw 
and  Oakley.   Chase  won;  Shaw  was  second;  Oakley,  third. 

Mitchell  (American)  won  in  hammer-throwing  by  a 
throw  of  137  feet  5^  inches;  the  other  American  contest- 
ant was  second;  the  Englishman  Robertson,  third. 

Jn  the  440-yard  run  the  contestants  were  Sands  and 
Burke  (American),  and  Fitzherbert  and  Jordan  (l]nglish). 
Burke  was  the  winner,  in  virtue  of  an  almost  superhuman 
effort  toward  the  finish,  beating  Jordan  by  2  feet. 

In  the  broad  jump  Bloss  (American)  was  the  winner, 
Sheldon  (American),  second;  longest  jump  22  feet  G 
inches. 

Last  came  the  three-mile  run.  Conneff  and  Kilpatrick 
of  New  York  were  pitted  against  Koran  and  Wilkens  of 
London.  Kilpatrick  dropped  out  after  making  six  laps. 
Conneff  was  then  last,  Horan  in  the  lead.  Soon  Conneff 
left  Wilkens  behind  on  the  last  lap,  Iloran  gave  out,  and 
Conneff  was  an  easy  winner. 

The  bearing  of  the  English  athletes  was  admirable 
throughout,  and  they  were  heartily  cheered. 

International  Chess. — An  international  chess  tourna- 
ment was  opened  at  Hastings,  Eng.,  August  5,  and  con- 
tinued one  month.  All  the  most  renowned  masters 
of  the  game  took  part  in  the  contest — 'J'schigorin, 
Tarrasch,  Bhxckburn,  Bird,  Bardeleben,  Schlechter,  Burn, 
Janowski,  Schiffers,  Marco,  and  many  more.  The  first 
prize  was  £150;  and  experts  saw  that  one  of  these  three 
was  destined  to  win  it — Lasker,  Tschigorin,  Pillsbury. 
Pillsbury  was  defeated  on  the  first  day  by  Tschigorin;  on 
the  second  day  Pillsbury  defeated  Tarrasch  decisively. 
Tschigorin  and  Pillsbury  were  even  8^  points  at  the  end 
of  the  tenth  round;  at  the  eigliteenth,  Lasker  led  with  14^ 
points,  Pillsbury  third  with  i;3-^.  So  far  Pillsbury  had 
faced  the  princes  of  chess;  those  wliom  he  had  next  to  meet 
were  far  less  formidable  adversaries.  He  won  his  three 
remaining  games,  his  score  being  16-|-  points;  Tschigorin 
was  second,  16;  Lasker  third,  15^;  then  followed  Tarrasch, 
Steinitz,  Schiffers,  and  finally  Bardeleben  and  Teichmann 
ex  aequo.  H.  N.  Pillsbury,  the  Avinner,  is  a  citizen  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Tennis  Championship.— F.  H.  Hovey  of  Massachu- 
setts, at  Norwood  Park,  Newport,  R.  I.,  on  August  27,  de- 
feated Wrenn,  for  the  last  two  years  the  national  tennis 
champion  of  the  United  States.  Hovey  won  the  right  to 
challenge  the  champion  bv  defeating  Earned  the  day  be- 


636  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr,  1895. 

fore.  Score:  6-3,  G-2,  6-4.  Lariied  is. champion  of 
Canada,  having  won  that  distinction  July  13,  in  the  tennis 
tournament  at  Niagara,  Out.,  where  he  defeated  Matthews 
of  Toronto,  tlie  Canadian  champion. 

Baseball. — Following  is  the  record  of  games  during 
the  season: 


Clubs. 


Baltimore 

Cleveland 

Philadelphia 

Chicago 

Brooklyn 

Boston 


jWon. 

"  87" 
&4 
78 
72 
71 
71 


Lost. 

46 
53 
58 
60 


P'ct.  I  ■  Clubs. 


.669  ilPittsburg.,, 
.646  I  Cincinnati  .. 
.595  IJNew  York.. 
.554  i  Washington 
.542  1st.  Louis.... 
.542  I i Louisville 


Won. 

Lost. 

71 

61 

66 

64 

66 

65 

43 

85 

39 

92 

:35 

96 

P'ct. 

T538 
.508 
.504 
.:i36 
.294 
.267 


Miscellaneous. — In  presence  of  twenty  thousand 
spectators  the  eighth  Futurity  horse  race  was  run  at 
Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  August  25.  D.  Gideon's  Requital 
won  on  a  three-quarter-mile  course  in  1:11  2-5;  Nagle 
Burke's  Crescendo  being  second,  and  Marcus  Daly's  Silver 
II.  third.     The  winner's  prize  was  153,750. 

The  legislature  of  Texas,  called  together  in  special  ses- 
sion to  give  to  the  governor  authority  to  prevent  the  pro- 
posed fight  between  Corbett  and  Fitzsimmons,  passed  an 
act  to  that  effect;  and  the  exploiters  of  the  pugilists  wera 
looking  for  another  place  for  the  exhibition — in  Mexico, 
in  Indian  Territory,  or  in  Arkansas. 


THE  CHOLERA  PLAGUE. 

Asiatic  cholera  reappeared  this  year  in  several  parts  of 
the  world,  making  its  worst  ravages  in  Japan,  China, 
Korea,  and  Hawaii,  but  also  numbering  victims  in  Kussia, 
Galicia,  and  Algiers,  and  being  brought  to  the  Pacific 
coast  of  the  United  States,  where,  fortunately,  the 
rigid  quarantine  restrictions  proved  an  effective  bar  to  its 
entrance  into  the  country.  It  seems  first  to  have  broken 
out  among  the  Japanese  troops  in  the  Pescadores,  at  Port 
Arthur,  and  at  King-Chow,  in  the  early  summer.  By  the 
end  of  July  it  was  raging  in  Korea  and  on  the  Leao-Tong 
peninsula.  The  germs  of  the  disease  were  carried  to 
Japan  by  returning  soldiers;  and  numerous  centres  were  in- 
fected, including  Tokio,  Yokohama,  and  Osaka.  By  the 
end  of  August  about  27,000  cases  were  reported  in  Japan, 
of  which  16,000  were  fatal. 

In  Hawaii  the  outbreak  was  mainly  confined  to  Hono- 
lulu, and  chiefly  to  the  native  element.  The  disease  was 
brought  to  Honolulu  l:)y  the  Oriental  steamer  Belgic,  on 
her  way  from  Hong-Kong  to  San  Francisco,  Oal.      The 


NOTABLE  CRIMES.  637 

vessel  left  China  with  a  clean  bill  of  health;  but  several 
cases  of  cholera  developed  on  the  passage,  and  the  facts 
were  concealed.  Toward  the  end  of  August  the  disease 
was  raging.  Six  cases  occurred  among  the  sailors  of  the 
United  States  cruiser  Bennington,  one  being  fatal.  On 
September  1  all  churches  in  Honolulu  were  ordered  closed, 
especially  for  the  protection  of  native  Hawaiians,  who 
were  the  ones  chiefly  exposed — an  order  bitterly  de- 
nounced by  the  Anglican  Bishop  Willis.  On  September 
13  Honolulu  was  declared  an  infected  port  by  the  Board 
of  Health  of  San  Francisco,  and  a  rigid  quarantine  was 
established.  In  British  Columbia,  such  special  action  was 
forestalled  by  the  refusal,  in  July,  of  the  steamship  com- 
panies, to  carry  Japanese  immigrants,  and  by  the  later  sus- 
pension of  sailing  of  the  vessels  of  the  new  line  to  Aus- 
tralia until  the  danger  was  past.  By  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember the  disease  was  under  control  in  Honolulu.  Up 
to  the  19th  there  had  been  reported  there  eighty-six 
cases  and  forty  deaths. 

NOTABLE  CRIMES. 

On  July  1  Dr.  Robert  W.  Buchanan  was  executed  by 
electricity  for  the  murder  of  his  second  wife  in  New  York 
city  in  April,  1892.  After  divorcing  his  first  wife,  he 
married  his  victim.  He  poisoned  her  apparently  in  order 
to  secure  her  money,  and  subsequently  remarried  his  first 
wife.  He  was  convicted  in  April,  1893,  but  execution  of 
sentence  was  several  times  postponed. 

On  July  4  three  post-office  burglars,  Killoran,  Allen, 
and  Russell,  escaped  from  Ludlow  street  jail.  New  York 
city.  On  August  1  indictments  for  criminal  negligence 
in  allowing  them  to  escape  were  handed  in  by  the  grand 
jury  of  the  court  of  general  sessions  against  SheriffE.  J. 
H.  Tamsen,  Warden  Henry  F.  Raabe,  and  Keepers  Schoen 
and  Schneer.  The  last  three  named  were  promptly  dis- 
missed from  their  positions  at  the  time  of  the  occurrence. 

On  July  17,  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  the  jury  in  the  case  of 
John  Collins,  indicted  for  the  killing  of  the  Princeton 
student  F.  P.  Ohl  on  June  8  (p.  366),  found  a  verdict  of 
murder  in  the  second  degree. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  July  24,  a  band  of  six  masked 
men  robbed  the  express  car  of  the  westbound  New  York 
and  Chicago  train  on  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  South- 
ern railroad,  at  Reese  Siding,  0.,  a  lonely  place  in  the 
woods  between  Archbold  and  Stryker.     The  train  officials 


B88  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

were  quieted  by  a  superior  show  of  arms;  and  the  thieves, 
after  securing  the  contents  of  the  safe  in  the  express  car, 
rode  away  without  attempting  to  molest  the  passengers. 

An  earnest  effort  is  being  made  by  interested  persons, 
including  Mrs.  Mary  A.  Livermore  and  Miss  Susan  B. 
Anthony,  to  secure  a  commutation  of  the  death  sentence 
passed  in  New  York  city  in  July  upon  Maria  Barberi,  a 
young  Italian  woman  convicted  of  killing  her  lover. 

The  operations  of  the  secret  Italian  society  known  as 
the  Mafia,  which  came  into  wide  notice  through  the 
Parish  Prison  riot  in  New  Orleans,  in  March,  1891  (Vol. 
1,  p.  153),  were  renewed  in  Louisiana  on  July  27.  Four 
Sicilians  were  assassinated,  four  fatally  wounded,  and  two 
dangerously  hurt. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  psychological  puzzle  in  all  the 
annals  of  crime  is  found  in  Herman  W.  Mudgett,  alias  H. 
H.  Holmes,  alias  H.  M.  Howard,  who  is  now  awaiting 
trial,  charged  wi-th  several  murders,  the  alleged  motive 
of  which  was  generally  to  procure  insurance  money  on  the 
lives  of  his  victims,  or  to  hide  his  tracks.  Chicago,  111., 
seems  to  have  been  his  headquarters,  but  indictments  have 
been  found  against  him  in  Toronto  Ont.,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  and  Philadelphia,  Penn. ;  and  other  murders  sup- 
posed to  be  traceable  to  him  are  reported  from  Boston, 
Mass.,  from  Texas,  and  elsewhere.  In  Toronto,  in  August, 
the  coroner's  jury  found  verdicts  charging  him  with  kill- 
ing, on  or  about  October  25,  1894,  Alice  and  Nellie  Pite- 
zel,  two  children  of  his  former  partner,  whose  bodies  he 
had  buried  in  the  cellar  of  a  house  rented  on  St.  Vincent 
street.  In  Indianapolis  he  was  indicted  on  September  11 
for  the  murder  of  Howard  Pitezel;  and  on  September  23 
he  was  arraigned  in  Philadelphia  for  the  murder  of  Ben- 
jamin F.  Pitezel  on  September  2,  1894.  The  trial  was  set 
down  for  October  28. 

W.  A¥.  Taylor,  the  late  defaulting  treasurer  of  the 
state  of  South  Dakota  (p.  130),  was  sentenced  August  14 
to  five  years  in  the  penitentiary. 

AFFAIRS  IN  YARIOUS  STATES. 

lUiuois. — A  race  war  waged  by  the  Italian  upon  the 
negro  miners  at  Spring  Valley,  111.,  lasted  for  three  days, 
beginning  August  4.  For  a*^  long  time  past,  the  white 
miners,  all  Italians  and  Hungarians,  have  wished  to  drive 
the  negroes  out  of  the  coal-mining  belt.  They  at  length 
found  a  plausible  excuse  in  a  murderous  attack  made  upon 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES. 


639 


an  Italian  by  unknown  men,  supposed  to  be  negroes,  on 
August  4.  A  mob  of  white  miners  at  once  attacked  the 
negro  settlement,  stopped  all  work  at  the  mines,  and  de- 
manded from  the  mining  company  the  expulsion  and  dis- 
charge of  the  negroes.  This  the  company  refused,  where- 
upon the  white  miners  took  the  expulsion  into  their  own 
hands  on  August  G,  broke  up  the  settlement,  seriously  in- 
jured  many  of  the 
men,  insulted  the  wo- 
men, destroyed  prop- 
erty, and  drove  the 
n  e  g  r  o  e  s  o  u  t.  The 
mayor  of  Spring  Val- 
ley, himself  an  Ital- 
ian-American, is  ac- 
cused of  culpable  re- 
missness in  that  he 
took  no  steps  to  crush 
the  rampant  lawless- 
ness. The  wide  publi- 
city given  the  out- 
rage by  the  press 
aroused  marked  sen- 
timent throughout 
the  country;  and  on 
August  7  the  white 
miners  resolved  to 
allow  the  Spring  Val- 
ley Coal  Company  to 
resume  operations, 
and  the  negroes  to 
return. 

Iowa.— The  re- 
publicans of  the  state  assembled  in  convention  at  Des 
Moines  July  10.  General  Francis  M.  Drake  was  nomi- 
nated for  governor. 

The  platform,  adopted  without  contest,  ignored  the  prohibition 
question  in  state  issues  as  being  out  of  politics;  denounced  the  ad- 
ministration of  President  Cleveland  as  incompetent;  practically  reaf- 
firmed the  Minneapolis  platform  of  1892;  indorsed  Senator  Allison 
for  president.  No  attempt  was  made  at  the  convention  to  secure  a 
declaration  for  free  silver.  A  resolution  favoring  a  law  permitting 
the  manufacture  of  liquor  in  the  state  was  presented  to  the  commit 
tee  on  resolutions,  but  was  ignored. 

For  proceedings  of  the  democratic  state  convention 
see  p.  568. 


HON.   A.   P.   QORMAX  OF  MARYLAND, 
DEMOCRATIC   UNITED   STATES   SENATOR. 


640  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Maryland. — The  democratic  state  convention  in  Bal- 
timore, July  ol,  nominated  for  governor  John  E.  Hurst. 
This  was  a  victory  for  the  faction  led  by  Senator  Gorman 
and  I.  Freeman  Rasin,  over  the  Cleveland  democracy, 
whose  candidate  was  Judge  William  A.  Fisher.  State 
Senator  Thomas  G.  Hayes  had  been  the  prospective  can- 
didate favored  by  Senator  Gorman;  and  his  rejection  led  to 
the  charge  of  double-dealing  against  the  latter.  A  leading 
issue  in  the  state  is  that  of  passing  a  reassessment  bill 
which  will  equalize  taxation.  It  is  said  that,  owing  to 
valuable  property  being  assessed  for  only  about  one-third 
of  its  value,  hundreds  of  wealthy  owners  escape  their  due 
share  of  taxes;  while  in  thousands  of  other  cases  dwelling 
houses  are  assessed  for  fully  twice  their  present  value. 
Senator  Hayes  had  been  known  as  a  champion  of  reassess- 
ment. Mr.  Hurst  also  has  promised  to  sign  a  reassessment 
bill  if  passed  by  the  legislature. 

The  platform  adopted  indorses  the  national  and  state  adminis- 
trations; reaffirms  tlie  democratic  national  platform  of  1892;  favors 
reassessment  of  all  the  property  in  the  state,  and  says  that  the  best 
tariff  la.w  the  country  has  had  in  thirty-five  years  is  restoring  con- 
fidence and  renewing  prosperity  in  all  branches  of  industry. 

The  republican  state  convention,  held  at  Cambridge, 
August  15,  unanimously  nominated  for  governor  ex-Con- 
gressman Lloyd  Lowndes,  a  wealthy  lawyer  and  banker. 
Its  platform  omits  mention  of  the  tariff  and  silver  ques- 
tions, and  is  confined  to  state  issues,  favoring  reassessment. 

Nebraska.  —  The  democratic  state  convention  was 
held  at  Omaha,  August  22,  to  nominate  a  supreme  judge 
and  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  It  was  con- 
trolled by  free-coinage  men;  and  the  platform  adopted  con- 
tained a  resolution  declaring  the  free  and  unlimited  coin- 
age of  silver  at  a  ratio  of  16  to  1  to  be  the  *' paramount 
issue." 

New  York. — Police  Eeorganization. — Legal  proceed- 
ings in  the  interest  of  police  reform  in  the  city  of  New 
York  met  with  a  stay  on  July  8  in  the  case  of  ex-Police 
Inspector  AVilliam  W.  McLaughlin,  who  had  been  con- 
victed of  extortion  (p.  377).  Justice  Gaynor,  in  the 
supreme  court  in  Brooklyn,  delivered  an  opinion  criticising 
Justice  Ingraham  for  overruling  a  previous  stay  and  com- 
pelling McLaughlin's  trial  in  New  .York  city.  He  also 
questioned  Justice  Barrett's  ruling  admitting  certain  evi- 
dence in  McLaughlin's  second  trial.  Justice  Gaynor's 
decision  granted  a  stay,  which  involves  an  appeal  of  the 
case;  and  on  July  9  the  prisoner  was  released  on  bail  in 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  641 

$30,000:  lie  is  also  on  bail  in  120,000  on  old  indictments' 
not  yet  tried.  By  this  decision  imprisonment  may  be  long 
delayed. 

AVilliam  S.  Devery,  a  police  captain  dismissed  last  year 
for  alleged  blackmail,  and  his  wardman  Edward  Glen- 
non,  were  reinstated  under  orders  of  the  court,  which  de- 
cided that  there  had  been  errors  in  their  trial.  The  re- 
instatement procured  for  them  their  back  pay,  12,337  and 
$1,100  respectively;  but  was  immediately  followed  by  their 
suspension  by  the  police  commissioners  as  being  under  in- 
dictment for  attempted  extortion. 

In  the  detective  bureau  the  police  board  has  made  a 
beginning  of  reorganization.  Commissioner  Parker  stated 
that  the  charges  among  tlie  oflicers  were  made  for  the  good 
of  the  service  and  were  not  to  be  taken  as  reflecting  on  the 
work  of  the  men  reduced  in  rank.  It  is  generally  under- 
stood that  many  of  the  changes  were  found  necessary  for 
stopping  intrigue  in  the  interest  of  a  former  high  police 
official,  which  involved  false  and  disloyal  reports  of  increase 
of  crime  in  tlie  city  under  the  new  regime  and  of  general 
failure  of  the  reform  administration.  The  changes  con- 
sisted in  retirements,  reductions  in  rank,  and  promotions. 
Stephen  O'Brien  was  designated  as  acting  captain,  to  take 
command  of  the  reorganized  detective  squad.  His  age 
is  45  years,  he  has  been  in  the  detective  service  ten  years, 
and  on  the  police  force  twenty  years,  with  never  any  com- 
plaint entered  against  his  name. 

Enforcement  of  tlie  Sunday  ExcUe  Lmcs. — The  impar- 
tial and  unfaltering  enforcement  of  the  state  law  forbid- 
ding sale  of  liquor  on  Sundays,  is  unquestionably  the  most 
conspicuous  signal  of  the  new  era  of  reform"  in  municipal 
administration.  There  is  wide  discussion  as  to  its  practi- 
cal moral  value;  there  is  doubt  in  many  minds  as  to  its 
political  expediency;  but  its  honesty,  its  thoroughness, 
and  its  courage  are  beyond  challenge.  It  affords  a  refresh- 
ing and  picturesque  contrast  between  the  present  board  of 
police  commissioners  and  their  predecessors.  There  is  no 
exaggeration  in  saying  that  it  has  startled  the  continent 
by  accomplishing  what  has  always  been  deemed  impossi- 
ble. It  has  brought  to  Theodore  Roosevelt  a  fame  for  ad- 
ministrative capacity  and  fearlessness  like  the  fame  which 
the  victorious  campaign  a  year  ago  brought  to  Dr.  Charles 
II.  Parkhurst  as  a  devoted,  tireless,  undaunted  inspirer 
and  leader  of  reform — the  fame  coming  alike  to  each  with- 
out his  seeking.  It  is  known  that  the  other  three  com- 
missioners acted  as  a  unit  with  their  young  president  on  the 


642  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

principle  that  the  laws  which  they  found  written  plainly 
on  the  statute-book  they  were  bound  by  their  oath  of  of- 
fice to  enforce  without  either  favor  or  fear.  Their  position 
is,  that  they  were  not  commissioned  nor  paid  by  the  peo- 
ple either  to  make  or  to  set  aside  laws;  the  people  acted  in 
that  function  through  their  legislature.  On  the  statute- 
book  from  time  immemorial  had  been  a  law  restricting  the 
sale  of  intoxicating  drinks  on  Sunday;  this  law  had  been 
revised  so  late  as  1892  by  a  democratic  commission  ap- 
pointed by  Governor  (now  United  States  senator)  David 
B.  Hill,  and  had  been  re-enacted  by  a  democratic  legisla- 
ture and  approved  by  the  democratic  governor.  Mr.  Koose- 
velt  and  the  police  board  may  or  may  not  have  deemed  the 
law  wise  in  every  one  of  its  provisions;  but  their  opinion 
of  its  ethical  effects,  or  the  fact  that  many  people  disliked 
it,  could  not  absolve  them  from  their  oath  to  enforce  it 
until  their  masters,  the  people  of  New  York,  should  alter 
or  annul  it.  If  these  four  commissioners  could  set  aside 
one  law,  they  could  set  aside  any  other  law  and  all  laws. 
Moreover,  the  Sunday  excise  law  was  not,  as  was  frequently 
asserted,  a  dead  letter  now  newly  and  outrageously  en- 
forced. It  had  always  been  enforced.  Every  year  un- 
der the  old  Tammany  board,  about  5,000  arrests  had 
been  made  under  it;  the  very  month  before  Mr.  Roose- 
velt came  into  office,  500  arrests  under  it  were  made. 
He  testifies  that  he  began  with  no  theory  whatever 
about  this  law;  but  that  he  saw  convincing  evidence 
that  it  had  long  been  enforced,  and  was  still  being  en- 
forced, for  purposes  of  blackmail — saloon  keepers  being 
compelled  to  buy  the  right  to  sell  on  Sunday  by  bribin'g 
the  police  and  by  giving  to  Tammany  Hall  their  political 
support  and  a  share  in  their  profits.  The  resort  to  an  im- 
partial enforcement  was  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
make  an  end  of  this  corrupt  practice  so  utterly  demoraliz- 
ing in  its  influence  on  the  entire  police  force.  It  has  been 
ended. 

The  first  attempts,  about  the  middle  of  June,  at  honest 
enforcement,  were  met  with  derision:  it  was  said  that  the 
hopelessly  impossible  was  being  attempted.  But  a  hand 
of  unsuspected  strength,  wielding  a  stern  discipline,  un- 
flinchingly held  the  police  to  their  duty.  The  derision 
soon  gave  place  to  execration  at  ^'Puritanical  bigotry," 
the  revival  of  "blue  laws,"  and  *' invasion  of  personal 
liberty."  Notwithstanding  the  strict  orders  issued  to  the 
police  to  arrest  all  violators  of  the  Sunday  liquor  law,  the 
saloon  keepers,    deeming   themselves    upheld   by   public 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  643 

opinion,  took  no  heed.  A  few  Sundays  showed  them  their 
mistake.  The  public  outcry  which  they  expected  was 
heard  indeed,  as  the  lines  of  law  so  long  loosened  were  felt 
rapidly  tightening.  Aid  did  indeed  come  to  them  from 
many  newspapers  that  roared  against  oppression — aid  from 
politicians  such  as  Senator  Hill,  who  made  haste  to  lift  a 
war  cry,  the  keynote  of  a  political  campaign,  against  the 
invasion  of  personal  liberty  by  the  '' unnecessary '*  enforce- 
ment of  "harsh"  measures  by  republican  officials;  aid, 
also,  from  some  republican  leaders  who  feared  the  wreck 
of  their  party  in  the  storm  which  appeared  impending, 
and  who  in  their  fright  first  confused  the  question  of  the 
wisdom  of  a  law  with  the  question  of  the  impartial  enforce- 
ment of  all  laws,  and  then  sought  cover  under  "  local  op- 
tion," which  should  withdraw  the  Sunday  excise  laws  in 
great  cities  from  state  control  and  remand  them  to  decision 
by  a  municipal  vote.  But  amid  all  the  confused  clamor, 
the  reform  was  still  urged  on  under  special  orders,  and 
with  growing  vigor  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the 
police;  while  President  Roosevelt  tersely  characterized  its 
opponents  as  "allies of  the  criminal  classes."  By  the  mid- 
dle of  July  few  saloons  dared  do  any  Sunday  business;  even 
the  hotels  bad  closed  their  bars,  and  served  liquors  to  those 
only  who  ordered  bona  fide  meals.  The  up-town  clubs 
professed  a  purpose  to  observe  the  law.  No  such  condition 
had  ever  been  known  in  New  York  city.  Many  had  no 
expectation  that  it  could  long  continue.  The  usual  list 
of  Sunday  arrests  for  crimes  had  been  greatly  shortened. 
There  were,  of  course,  many  cases  of  illicit  sale;  but,  as 
Mr.  Depew  has  said,  multitudes  of  laboring  men  had  a 
new  day  of  "personal  liberty"  for  companionship  with 
their  families,  with  the  result  of  "personal  liberty"  from 
several  days  of  imprisonment  thereafter  for  drunkenness 
and  its  accompanying  offenses;  while  the  20,000  barkeepers 
in  the  10,000  saloons  of  thecity  had  anewday  of  "personal 
liberty"  for  their  weekly  rest  and  recreation. 

In  the  last  week  in  August,  the  liquor  sellers  surren- 
dered. The  Wine,  Liquor,  and  Beer  Dealers'  Association 
(comprising  5,500  members,  more  than  half  of  all  retail  liq- 
uor sellers  in  the  city),  at  a  meeting  on  August  27,  adopted  a 
resolution  for  Sunday  closing  on  and  after  September  1. 
It  was  a  clear  capitulation  of  one  of  the  great  strongholds 
of  Tammany  to  the  reform  administration  represented  in 
this  case  by  President  Roosevelt  and  Mayor  Strong.  A 
law  had  been  enforced  because  it  was  law;  a  law  whose  use 
had  been  merely  for  corruption  had  been  turned  to  uses 


644  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

that  were  clean,  even  though  not  all  of  its  provisions 
agreed  with  the  views  of  either  Mr.  Strong  or  Mr.  Koose- 
velt.  That  the  liquor  dealers  had  capitulated  was  evident 
in  their  appended  plea  for  clemency,  in  which  they  asked 
that  the  sentences  of  liquor  men  awaiting  trial  should  be 
made  light.  For  they  had  discovered  that  the  city  courts, 
this  year,  were  not  dispensing  injustice  with  a  view  to  re- 
ward: Mullins,  a  saloon  keeper  who  had  broken  the  Sun- 
day law,  and  whose  case  had  been  transferred  from  the 
special  sessions  to  the  general  sessions,  had  been  convicted 
by  a  jury — the  only  plea  in  his  defense  being  that  the  law 
was  unjust — and  had  been  sentenced  by  Recorder  Golf  to 
a  fine  of  1250,  with  imprisonment  for  thirty  days.  The  im- 
prisonment was  unexpected  and  spread  dismay.  Moreover, 
Recorder  Goff  had  seen  signs  of  an  effort  to  block  the  courts, 
with  numerous  transfers  of  cases,  and  had  said  that  any 
general  attempt  of  that  sort  would  be  dealt  with  as  a  con- 
spiracy calling  for  greatly  increased  severity  in  his  rulings. 
The  association's  change  of  attitude  and  their  promise  to 
obey  the  law  caused  him  to  recognize  their  appeal  for 
clemency  in  the  cases  then  pending;  and  on  the  same  day 
he  imposed  only  a  fine  of  150  each  on  fifty-five  saloon 
keepers  who  ple'aded  guilty.  Evidently  there  was  a  new 
civic  atmosphere.  The  liquor  men  felt  a  growing  discom- 
fort in  their  position  as  continuous  law-breakers.  This 
position  also  they  felt  would,  if  maintained,  greatly  dam- 
age their  appeal  to  the  next  legislature  for  a  change  in 
the  law. 

It  is  believed  that  the  next  legislature  will  be  compelled 
to  face  this  question.  Law  must  ultimately  reflect  the 
judgment  of  the  majority.  Whether  in  the  case  of  this 
law,  the  majority  to  be  consulted  shall  be,  as  hitherto,  that 
of  the  voters  in  the  state,  or  of  the  voters  in  every  several 
great  city,  remains  to  be  decided.  This  is  the  question  of 
*'  local  option"  or  home  rule.  Many  republicans,  of  whom 
some  are  earnest  for  civic  reform,  are  expected  to  uphold 
the  demand,  probably  general  among  democrats,  to  com- 
mit to  the  cities  the  framing  of  their  own  laws  on  this 
class  of  subjects.  There  is  no  report  of  a  thorough  en- 
forcement of  the  Sunday-closing  law  in  any  large  city 
other  than  New  York.  In  no  other  city  had  the  Sunday 
laws  been  organized  by  experts  in  the  science  of  plunder 
into  an  enginery  of  misrule. 

Late  in  June,  the  New  York  State  democracy  (Grace- 
Fairchild  organization)  adopted  resolutions  condemning, 
not  the  enforcement  of  the  law,  but  the  law  itself  as  '*in- 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  645 

excusably  harsh  and  tyrannical"  in  its  effect  in  New  York 
city,  and  urging  endeavors  to  elect  members  to  the  legis- 
lature pledged  to  work  and  vote  for  its  substitution  by  a 
'*  clear  and  Just  measure."  The  principle  of  home  rule  for 
cities  was  also  affirmed. 

On  June  29  a  delegation  of  liquor  dealers,  with  repre- 
sentatives of  the  German-American  Reform  Union,  and 
others,  presented  to  Mayor  Strong  a  protest  against  con- 
tinuing the  enforcement  of  the  law  in  its  Sunday-closing 
provision.  Men  demanding  of  a  chief  magistrate  that  he 
should  stop  enforcing  a  law,  were  naturally  in  no  mood  to 
use  careful  words;  and  these  men  drew  from  the  mayor 
and  Mr.  Roosevelt  an  emphatic  assertion  that  they  would 
surely  continue  to  keep  their  oath  by  enforcing  the  law 
thoroughly.  The  mayor  added  an  expression  of  his  personal 
disapproval  of  the  provision  referred  to,  and  of  his  willing- 
ness to  aid  toward  its  modification  by  the  legislature.  On 
July  2,  a  circular  of  a  very  different  order,  signed  by  Carl 
Schurz,  Gustav  Schwab,  and  others,  was  indorsed  by  the 
managers  of  the  United  Societies  for  Liberal  Sunday  Laws. 
It  urged  the  necessity  for  mitigation  of  the  Sunday  law; 
but  declared  that  all  officials  were  bound  by  oath  to  enforce 
all  laws  to  the  full  extent  of  their  power,  and  that  the 
present  enforcement  was  a  cause  for  joy  to  all  good  citizens 
as  showing  the  restoration  of  government  by  law  after  a 
long  period  of  ''corruption,"  '' tyranny,". and  "robbery." 
The  managers  further  decided  on  a  plan  of  campaign  aim- 
ing to  extend  their  organization  to  six  other  large  cities 
in  the  state;  to  secure  adoption  of  a  liberal  Sunday  plank 
in  the  platforms  of  both  parties;  to  aid  in  electing  to  the 
legislature  members  pledged  to  a  modification  of  the  pres- 
ent Sunday  excise  law;  and  to  urge  the  passing  of  a  local 
option  bill  for  all  cities  of  the  first  class.  The  great  popu- 
lar demonstration  of  these  united  societies  on  September 
25,  when  20,000  men,  mainly  Germans  by  birth,  paraded 
and  then  assembled  in  mass  meeting,  was  less  fortunate  in 
the  impression  made  by  its  inscribed  banners  and  its 
speeches  than  was  the  dignified  circular  above  referred  to. 
Dr.  Parkhurst,  the  mayor,  and  President  Roosevelt  were 
denounced  as  guilty  of  enforcing  the  law.  That  this,  how- 
ever, was  due  to  lack  of  discrimination  rather  than  to 
knowingly  illegal  purpose,  was  shown  by  the  treatment  of 
Mr.  Roosevelt,  who  unexpectedly  appeared  on  the  grand 
stand  in  acceptance  of  an  ironical  invitation  to  review  the 
parade.     His  bearing,  intrepid  yet  kindly,  changed  jeers 


646 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


3d  Qr.,  1895. 


into  repeated  cheers,  and  the  little  incident  may  be  found 
to  have  served  a  large  purpose  in  modifying  prejudice. 

The  German- American  Reform  Union — one  of  the  or- 
ganizations which  were  formed  a  year  ago  with  a  view  to 
a  combined  movement  for  overthrowing  Tammany  at  the 
polls — early  in  September  discarded  its  fundamental  prin- 
ciple, censured  the  reform  government  for  its  course  in 

enforcing  the  excise 
law,  and  arrayed  it- 
self with  Tammany, 
announcing  its  first 
object  to  be  '^person- 
al 1  iberty"  for  free  sale 
of  liquor  on  Sundays 
under  the  law.  This 
action,  said  to  have 
been  taken  without 
opportunity  for  full 
discussion,  was  met  by 
vigorous  protest  from 
many  of  the  most 
eminent  members; 
and  the  result  has 
been  a  new  organiza- 
tion,  the  German- 
American  Citizens' 
Union,  under  the 
leadership  of  Carl 
Schurz  and  others, 
whose  first  object  is 
to  complete  the  work 
of  municipal  reform 
by  the  final  overthrow 
of  Tammany  rule.  To  this  end  it  gives  hearty  support  to 
the  present  city  government,  and  to  the  fusion  ticket  in 
the  current  campaign.  A  second  object  will  be  the  secur- 
ing of  legislation  for  a  more  liberal  Sunday  law. 

In  the  latter  part  of  July,  President  Roosevelt  received 
a  letter  signed  by  forty-one  clergymen  and  philanthropic 
workers  of  all  denominations  in  lower  New  York,  testify- 
ing to  their  '^  grateful  appreciation  of  his  righteous  and  reso- 
lute action  in  enforcing  the  excise  law,'"  and  to  the  *' greatly 
increased  peace,  safety,  and  good  order"  which  they  had 
already  witnessed  as  its  result.  In  regard  to  the  threat 
that  the  strict  enforcement  of  the  Sunday  law  would  be 
regarded  as  bigotry  and  oppression  by  the  great  mass  of 


HON.   J.   SLOAT  PASSETT  OP  ELMIRA,    CHEMUNG 
CO.,   NEW   YOnK. 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  647 

foreign  voters,  and  would  cause  them  to  return  Tammany 
to  power  at  the  next  election,  there  was  much  significance 
in  the  spirit  and  the  utterances  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Total  Abstinence  Union  early  in  August:  priesthood  and 
laity,  while  avoiding  party  issues  as  such,  enthusiastically 
affirmed  the  indispensable  necessity  of  preserving  all  the 
safeguards  of  the  weekly  rest. 

Convention  of  the  RepuhUcan  League. — The  eighth  an- 
nual state  convention  of  the  Republican  League  of  New 
York,  an  organization  of  more  than  one  thousand  clubs, 
met  at  Binghamton  on  September  4  with  a  very  large  at- 
tendance. Among  other  formal  utterances,  the  convention 
heartily  commended  the  New  York  city  officials  for  enforc- 
ing the  Sunday  law,  declared  a  "belief  in  the  American 
Sunday,^^  and  recommended  the  establishment  of  a  national 
insurance  and  labor  system. 

RepuhUcan  Slate  Convention. — The  state  republican 
convention  met  at  Saratoga  on  September  17,  for  nomina- 
tion of  minor  officials.  The  present  incumbents  were  re- 
nominated by  acclamation,  the  ticket  being  headed  by  John 
W.  Palmer  of  Albany  for  secretary  of  state;  and  in  addi- 
tion, for  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals.  Judge  Celora  E. 
Martin  of  Binghamton. 

The  platform  adopted  denounced  tbe  democratic  national  admin- 
istration; complained  of  President  Cleveland's  financial  mismanage- 
ment, but  strongly  opposed  free  coinage;  refused  to  credit  tbe  Wilson 
tariff  for  any  improvement  present  or  prospective  in  tbe  general  in- 
dustrial condition,  and  protested  especially  against  its  free-wool  pro- 
vision— characterizing  tbe  entire  law  as  neither  a  tariff  for  protection 
nor  a  tariff  for  revenue,  but  a  tariff  for  deficit.  A  resolution  com- 
mended Governor  Morton  as  candidate  for  the  presidency.  Tbe  en 
largement  of  tbe  state  committee,  strongly  advocated  in  many  quar- 
ters, was  not  favored  by  the  convention. 

Tbe  contesting  delegates  from  New  York  city  representing  tbe 
"anti-machine"  element,  were  refused  seats  in  tbe  convention. 

Not  included  in  the  above  list  was  the  action  on  the 
issue  most  prominent  in  the  public  mind  both  for  its  moral 
significance  and  for  its  political  effect — enforcement  of  the 
Sunday  excise  law  and  the  maintenance  of  the  law  itself. 
Mr.  Thomas  C.  Piatt,  and  those  of  the  party  leaders  who 
are  his  followers,  thought  it  most  expedient  and  quite 
practicable  for  the  party  not  to  seem  aware  that  there  was 
any  such  issue.  At  first  this  "machine"  element  was  in 
control,  and  Mr.  Milholland's  resolution  favoring  enforce- 
ment of  the  law  was  shelved.  Ex-Senator  Warner  Miller, 
who  had  failed  to  get  recognition  from  the  chair,  firmly 
insisted  on  being  heard,  and  moved,  in  a  short  but  power- 


648  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3(1  Qr.,  1895. 

ful  speech,  tliat  the  following  be  made  a  part  of  the  plat- 
form: 

"We  favor  the  maintenance  of  tlie  Sunday  laws  in  the  interest 
of  labor  and  morality." 

This  brief  uncompromising  utterance,  demanding  not 
only  the  present  enforcement  but  also  the  continuance  of 
the  law,  expressed  the  overwhelming  sentiment  of  rural 
New  York  and  the  strong  convictions  of  many  delegates 
from  cities.  It  forced  the  issue.  After  hasty  consultation 
it  was  announced  by  Mr.  Fish,  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  resolutions,  that  though  they  had  at  first  looked  on  the 
issue  as  merely  local,  they  were  not  prepared  to  dispute  Mr. 
Miller's  position,  and  would  accept  his  resolution  as  part  of 
the  platform.  The  new  plank  was  then  added  by  unani- 
mous vote,  whose  announcement  evoked  enthusiastic  ap- 
plause. The  general  judgment  is,  that  whether  the  posi- 
tion of  the  party  on  this  question  be  right  or  wrong,  the 
action  of  the  convention  honestly  represents  that  position; 
that  no  party  can  afford  to  overlook  the  governmental  issue 
most  prominent  in  the  public  mind;  and  that,  ultimately, 
courage  and  sincerity  in  dealing  with  the  people  is  the 
highest  political  expediency.  The  courage  appears  in  the 
fact  that  this  action  confronts  a  vote  of  30,000  retail  liquor 
dealers  in  the  state;  that  the  liquor  business  in  the  cities 
is  overdone,  so  that  it  depends  for  profits  on  the  illegal 
Sunday  traffic,  whence  this  action  is  in  effect  a  blow  at  the 
business  in  its  entirety,  retail  and  wholesale. 

In  the  few  counties  where  republican  leaders  were  con- 
testing for  supremacy,  the  results  are  not  all  one  way. 
Mr.  Piatt  is  considered  to  have  retained  control  on  some 
points  in  New  York  county,  while  in  Chemung  county 
Mr.  Fassett  won,  and  Erie  county  sent  a  solid  anti-Platt 
delegation  to  the  convention. 

Democratic  State  Convention. — The  democratic  state 
convention  met  at  Syracuse  September  24.  The  ticket 
nominated  for  state  offices  is  headed  by  General  Horatio 
C.  King  of  Brooklyn  for  secretary  of  state.  John  D.  Teller 
of  Auburn  was  nominated  for  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals. 
The  point  of  chief  interest,  aside  from  the  excise  question 
(noted  below),  was  the  reception  to  be  given  to  the  contest- 
ing state  democracy  delegation  from  New  York  city,  headed 
by  Charles  S.  Fairchild.  Senator  Hill  favored  their  re- 
ception in  the  interest  of  harmony;  and  his  proposal  as- 
signed them  one-third  of  the  seats  from  New  York  city, 
Tammany  Hall  retaining  two-thirds.  The  Tammany  in- 
terest, controlled  by  Richard  Croker  and  Senator  Murphy, 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  649 

with  the  co-operation  of  the  present  Tammany  leader,  John 
C.  Sheehan,  would  grant  them  no  more  than  one-fifth  of 
the  seats.  When  this  was  offered  them,  not  as  a  right  but 
as  a  mere  favor,  and  when  the  resolution  offering  it  pro- 
ceeded to  declare  that  the  Tammany  organization  was  to 
be  recognized  as  the  regular  party  organization  now  and 
in  all  future  conventions,  and  entitled  to  use  the  party  em- 
blem on  its  ballots,  the  state  democracy  deemed  the  action 
an  insult.  On  Chairman  Belmont's  announcement  of  its 
adoption,  they  rose  in  a  body,  and  indignantly  marched 
out  of  the  convention  hall.  As  a  result  of  this  rebuff,  this 
organization,  while  supporting  the  democratic  ticket  for 
state  officers,  has  adopted  the  fusion  nominations  for  New 
York  city,  aiming  at  the  final  overthrow  of  Tammany 
rule. 

The  convention  voted  to  enlarge  the  state  committee  on  the  basis 
of  the  fifty  senate  districts.  Among  the  items  in  the  platform  were: 
home  rule  for  municipalities;  accounts  of  expenditures  to  be  required 
of  political  committees  as  well  as  of  candidates;  improved  roads;  federal 
taxation  for  revenue  only;  no  "meddling  with  the  present  reform 
tariff;"  the  Monroe  doctrine  to  be  strongly  upheld;  gold  and  silver  the 
only  legal  tender;  gradual  retirement  of  greenback  currency;  no  free 
coinage  of  silver;  state  rights  to  be  maintained;  general  approval  of 
President  Cleveland's  administration;  and  censure  of  the  republican 
policy,  especially  in  the  state 

On  the  Sunday  excise  question  the  platform  uses  many  words, 
and  is  generally  understood  as  strongly  favoring  local  option,  though 
capable  of  an  interpretation  shaded  somewhat  variously.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  its  phrases: 

"  Equal  and  honest  enforcement  of  all  laws;  a  proper  observation  of  a  day 
of  rest,  and  an  orderly  Sunday;  no  blue  laws;  Lome  rule  in  excise,  as  well  as  in 
other  matters,  within  reasonable  limitations  established  to  protect  the  interests 
of  temperance  and  morality;  and  an  amendment  of  the  excise  and  other  laws 
by  the  legislature  of  the  state,  which  shall  permit  each  municipality  expressing 
its  sentiments  by  a  popular  vott  of  amajority  of  its  citizens  to  determine,  within 
such  proper  legislative  restrictions  as  shall  be  required  by  the  interests  of  the 
entire  state,  what  may  best  suit  its  special  necessities  and  conditions." 

Neio  York  City  Campaign. — In  the  New  York  city  cam- 
paign there  was  afc  first  much  discussion  among  republican 
leaders  on  the  choice  between  a  straight  party  ticket,  and 
afusion  ticket  combining  the  various  anti-Tammany  forces 
as  in  the  election  a  year  ago.  Gradually  the  conviction 
grew  that  it  was  unwise  to  take  any  risk  of  such  a  disaster 
as  the  return  of  Tammany  to  power,  or  even  of  a  check  to 
the  reform  hopefully  begun  but  still  far  from  complete. 
By  October  1  it  had  become  generally  conceded  that  wis- 
dom dictated  a  combination  of  all  reform  elements.  On 
that  day,  however,  a  convention  of  the  Good  Government 
clubs,  whose  zeal  and  vigor  had  done  valiant  service  a  year 
ago,  took  a  step  which  seemed  likely  to  forestall  fusion. 

Vol.  5.-43. 


650  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

A  month  previously  they  had  decided  that  excise  regula- 
tions should  be  relegated  to  the  control  of  the  city  itself. 
Now,  led  chiefly  by  their  more  youthful  members,  they  took 
a  further  step  in  ordering  the  lines  along  which  the  whole 
reform  host  must  move  if  it  would  have  their  company: 
they  put  into  the  field  a  ticket  of  their  own.  Their  argu- 
ment was  that  only  thus  could  they  prevent  bossism  and 
nominations  by  machine  politicians.  This  practical  form- 
ing of  a  new  party  was  to  the  great  comfort  of  Tammany 
Hall.  The  anti-Tammany  leaders  in  the  other  organiza- 
tions saw  that  prompt  and  positive  action  was  needed  for 
fusion.  Dr.  Parkhurst — no  lover  of  bossism  or  machine 
politics — declared  the  Good  Government  ticket  sure  to  fall 
dead,  and  telegraphed  to  Charles  Stewart  Smith,  executive 
head  of  the  Committee  of  Seventy  a  year  ago,  to  call  a 
meeting  and  form  a  new  committee  to  give  strong  and  wise 
direction  to  the  campaign.  This  suggestion  expressed  an 
evident  public  demand;  and  on  October  3  the  New  York 
Chamber  of  Commerce  appointed  a  committee  of  fifty-five. 
The  New  York  county  republican  convention  on  October 
6  adopted  a  plank  favoring  local  option  on  excise  laws, 
decided  not  to  put  a  straight  party  ticket  into  the  field, 
and  appointed  a  committee  of  conference,  with  full  power 
to  arrange  with  other  organizations  for  a  fusion  ticket: 
this  action  by  the  organization  representing  far  the  largest 
body  of  anti-Tammany  voters  brightened  the  prospect  for 
continuance  of  reform  government.  On  October  7,  the 
republicans,  the  state  democracy,  and  the  committee  of 
fifty-five  (or  of  *'  Fifty  ")  agreed  on  a  fusion  ticket.  This 
ticket  was,  as  a  whole,  rejected  by  the  decision  of  the  Good 
Government  clubs  on  October  8  to  abide  by  their  own  ticket. 
This  action  had  been,  by  October  25,  repudiated  by  seven 
of  the  twenty  clubs. 

On  October  9  the  Tammany  ticket  was  nominated,  and 

was  indorsed  by  the  German-American  Reform  Union — 

•  the  president  of  the  union  resigning,  and  many  leading 

members  quitting  the  organization  in  protest,  and  forming 

the  German-American  Citizens'  Union. 

The  intrusion  of  the  Sunday  question  is  generally  re- 
garded as  rendering  uncertain  the  progress  of  reform  in 
New  York  city.  This  complex  contest  draws  the  eyes  of 
the  whole  country,  and  may  bring  into  issue  everywhere 
the  three  questions  of  Sunday  laws,  liquor  laws,  and  muni- 
cipal home  rule. 

Pennsylvania. — The  republican  state  convention  at 
Harrisburg,  August  27  and  28,  has  already  been  treated  in 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES. 


651 


this  number  in  its  bearings  upon  the  silver  question  (p.  567). 
It  was  of  even  greater  interest  from  the  point  of  view  of 
party  politics,  as  the  adoption  of  the  platform  was  preceded 
by  a  bitter  contest,  threatening  a  division  of  the  party, 
for  the  chairmanship  of  the  state  committee,  Senator  M. 
S.  Quay  having  arrayed  against  him  tlie  combined  forces  of 
the  stateadministration  led  by  Governor  Hastings  and  Chair- 
man Gilkeson,  the 
Philadelphia 


ical 


polit- 
combination  led 


by  David  Martin,  the 
member  of  the  repub- 
lican national  com- 
mittee from  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  Pitts- 
burg republican  city 
organization  led  by  C. 
L.  Magee.  The  con- 
test resulted  in  a  vic- 
tory for  Senator  Quay, 
who  thus  secured 
practical  control  of 
the  state  convention. 
On  motion  of  Chair- 
man Gilkeson,  who 
desired  to  restore  har- 
mony to  the  party, 
the  election  of  Sena- 
tor Quay  as  state 
chairman  was  made 
by  acclamation. 

Outside  of  the 
choice  of  a  chairman, 
the  chief  interest  in  the  convention  centred  in  the  adop- 
tion of  a  ''sound-money  "  plank,  as  previously  stated.  The 
platform  also  contained  the  following  significant  planks: 

"Resolved,  That  we  decry  the  growing  use  of  money  in  politics, 
and  the  corporate  control  of  legislatures,  municipal  councils,  political 
primaries,  and  elections,  and  favor  the  enactment  of  legislation  and 
the  enforcement  of  laws  to  correct  sucli  abuses.  We  earnestly  insist 
upon  a  form  of  civil  service  which  will  prevent  the  enslavement  of 
public  officers  and  employes  and  the  compelling  of  those  appointed  to 
preserve  the  peace  to  confine  themselves  to  their  duties;  which  will  in- 
sure absolute  freedom  and  fairness  in  bestowing  state,  county,  and 
municipal  contracts,  and  will  punish  any  form  of  favoritism  in  grant- 
ing them;  which  will  forbid  the  grant  of  exclusive  franchises  to  deal 
in  public  necessities,  comforts,  conveyances,  and  sanitary  requirements, 


HON.    MATTHEW   S.    QUAY   OP   PENNSYLVANIA, 
KEPUBLICAN    UNITED   STATES   SENATOR. 


653 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


3d  Qr..  1895. 


and  will  insure  the  recognition  of  ability  and  fidelity  in  the  public 
service,  keeping  service  to  the  country  ever  foremost,  when  accom- 
panied by  ability  and  fitness. 

"We  demand  that  public  office  should  be  for  public  benefit, 
and  its  term  in  subordinate  positions  should  be  during  good  behavior. 
No  public  employer  or  officer  should  be  permitted  to  influence  prima- 
ries or  elections,  nor  upon  any  pretense  be  assessed  upon  his  salary, 
and  all  unnecessary  positions  and  salaries  should  be  abolished,  and 
expenditures  and  taxation  reduced.  There  should  be  uniform  valua- 
tion of  property  for  pub- 
lic purposes,  corporations 
3njoying  public  privileges 
should  pay  for  them,  and 
schools  should  be  di- 
vorced from  politics  and 
kept  absolutely  free  from 
political  influence  and 
control." 

South  Carolina. 

— The  Constitutional 
Convention  .^The 
election  of  delegates 
to  the  eighth  conven- 
tion for  revising  the 
constitution  of  the 
state  of  South  Caro- 
lina (p.  379),  resulted 
in  a  victory  for  the 
** reform"  or  Tillman 
element.  Only  a  light 
vote  was  polled.  The 
delegates,  numbering 
about  160,  assembled 
in  Columbia  Septem- 
ber 10.  Governor 
Evans  was  chosen  to 
preside.  Senator  Irby 
was  appointed  chairman  of  the  committee  on  declaration 
of  rights;  and  Senator  Tillman,  of  that  on  rights  of  suf- 
frage. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  convention  concerns  its  pro- 
posal so  to  regulate  the  suffrage  as  effectually  to  maintain 
white  supremacy.  It  was  October  1  before  the  report  of 
the  committee  on  rights  of  suffrage  was  submitted  to  the 
convention.  The  following  are  the  most  important  features 
of  the  proposed  suffrage  amendment  unanimously  reported 
from  the  committee: 

(a)  Two  years'  residence  in  the  state,  one  year's  residence  in  the 
county,  four  months'  in  the  district,  and  the  payment  of  a  poll  tax  six 


HON.  JOHN  t.   M.   IRBT  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA, 
DEMOCRATIC   UNITED   STATES  SENATOR. 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS.  653 

months  before  any  election;  (h)  registration  providing  for  the  en- 
rolment of  every  elector  once  in  ten  years;  and  (c)  clauses  in  regard 
to  personal  qualifications,  which  are  as  follows: 

"The  person  applying:  for  registration  must  be  able  to  read  and  write  any 
section  of  this  constitution,  or  must  show  that  he  owns  and  pays  taxes  on  $300 
worth  of  property  in  this  state;  provided,  that  at  the  first  registration  under 
this  constitution  and  up  to  January  1,  1898.  all  male  persons  of  voting  age  who 
can  read  a  clause  in  this  constitution  or  understand  and  explain  it  when  read 
to  them  by  the  registration  officer,  shall  be  entitled  to  register  and  become 
electors.  A  separate  record  of  all  illiterate  persons  thus  registered,  sworn  to 
by  the  registration  officer,  shall  be  filed,  one  copy  with  the  clerk  of  the  court 
and  one  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state,  on  or  before  January  1.  1898.  and 
such  persons  shall  remain  during  life  qualified  voters  unless  disqualified  by  the 
provisions  of  Section  6  of  this  article.  The  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  the  court 
or  of  the  secretary  of  state  shall  be  sufficient  evidence  to  establish  the  right  of 
said  class  of  citizens  to  registration  and  the  franchise. 

"Any  person  who  shall  apply  for  registration  after  January  1, 1898.  if  other- 
wise qualified,  may  be  registered,  provided  that  he  can  both  read  and  write  any 
section  of  this  constitution,  or  can  show  that  he  owns  and  has  paid  taxes  during 
the  previous  year  on  property  in  this  state  assessed  at  $300  or  more." 

An  earnest  debate  on  the  question  of  divorce  resulted 
on  October  1  in  a  decision,  by  a  vote  of  86  to  49,  that  there 
should  never  be  a  divorce  granted  in  South  Carolina  for 
any  cause.  Senator  Tillman  favored  recognition  of  divorces 
granted  in  other  states;  but  on  this  matter  he  was  voted 
down. 

The  convention  also  adopted  on  October  1,  by  a  very 
large  vote,  a  clause  declaring  against  the  return  of  the  old 
barroom  system.  If  the  legislature  should  ever  be  forced 
by  the  supreme  court  to  abandon  the  dispensary  law,  then 
the  sale  of  liquor  by  such  parties  as  are  authorized  will  be 
regulated  as  in  the  dispensary  system.  The  provisions  are 
that  no  liquor  shall  be  sold  in  less  than  half-pint  flasks;  that 
it  must  not  be  consumed  on  the  premises  where  sold;  and 
that  all  sales  must  be  between  sunrise  and  sunset. 

PERSONAL  AND   MISCELLANEOUS. 

Personal  Notes. — On  July  1  Professor  Mark  W. 
Harrington,  head  of  the  Weather  bureau  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  was  removed  from  office  by  President 
Cleveland.  The  exact  reason  for  the  dismissal  is  not  pub- 
lished; but  it  appears  that  on  June  19  the  president  re- 
quested the  resignation  of  Professor  Harrington  ''because 
of  personal  interests,"  which  the  latter,  *'on  the  score  of 
public  interests,"  declined  to  send  in.  The  dismissal 
promptly  followed,  to  take  effect  July  1.  A  tension  between 
Secretary  Morton  and  Professor  Harrington  was  said  to 
have  existed  for  some  time. 

Haukington,  Mark  W.,  distinguished  as  an  astronomer,  meteor 
ologist,  and  writer  on  geographical  and  scientific  topics,  was  born 
in  Sycamore,  111.,  August  18,  1848;  was  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Michigan  1868;  and,  after  teaching  there  a  year,  was  employed  on 


654  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  in  Alaska.  In  1876-7 
he  studied  in  Leipsic;  in  1877-8  was  professor  of  astronomy  in  the 
cadet  school  of  the  Chinese  foreign  office  in  Pekin;  in  1879-91  was 
professor  of  astronomy,  and  director  of  the  observatory,  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan;  and  in  1891-95  was  chief  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau,  having  been  appointed  by  President  Harrison.  He 
founded  the  American  Meteorological  Journal  in  1884,  and  was  its 
editor  till  1892;  was  vice-president  of  the  international  meteorological 
conference  in  Munich  in  1891. 

A  new  head  for  the  Weather  bureau  was  chosen  im- 
mediately, in  the  person  of  Willis  L.  Moore,  said  to  be  a 
republican,  who  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  forecasters 
in  the  serVice. 

The  failure  of  the  authorities  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago to  continue,  after  its  expiration,  the  engagement  of 
Professor  Edward  W.  Bemis,  of  late  associate  professor  in 
the  department  of  economics,  gave  rise  to  rumors,  which 
were  widely  spread  in  August,  to  the  effect  that  Professor 
Bemis  had  been  dismissed  on  account  of  his  well-known 
views  in  opposition  to  trusts  and  the  abuse  by  corporations 
of  municipal  franchises.  No  official  proclamation  of  the 
reasons  for  the  action  of  the  authorities  has  been  published: 
it  is  not  customary  in  such  cases.  They  seem  to  have  been 
connected  with  considerations  affecting  the  extension  work 
of  the  university;  and  no  evidence  has  yet  come  to  light 
that  any  of  the  wealthy  benefactors  of  the  institution — 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  C.  T.  Yerkes,  Marshall  Field,  and 
others — have  made  any  effort  to  interfere  with  freedom  of 
thought  within  its  walls. 

The  post  of  United  States  minister  to  Mexico,  to  which 
Hon.  Matt  W.  liansom  of  North  Carolina  was  appointed 
in  February  (p.  143),  was  practically  declared  vacant  on 
August  16,  as  a  result  of  a  decision  rendered  by  Solicitor- 
General  and  Acting  Attorney-General  Holmes  Conrad,  to 
the  effect  that  Mr.  Ransom's  appointment  was  unconstitu- 
tional. While  Mr.  Ransom  was  still  United  States  senator, 
it  appears  that  the  salary  attached  to  the  post  of  minister 
to  Mexico  was  raised  from  -^12,500  to  ^17,500.  This  made 
him  ineligible  for  the  office  under  Article  6,  Section  2  of 
the  federal  constitution,  which  says: 

"No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States  which  shall  have  been  created  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time." 

However,  the  term  for  which  Mr.  Ransom  was  elected 
to  the  senate  having  expired  March  4,  President  Cleveland 
reappointed  him  to  the  office  August  24. 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 


655 


t 


At  ''Gray  Gables/'  their  summer  home,  near  Buzzard's 
Bay,  Mass.,  on  July  7,  a  daughter  was  born  to  President 
and  Mrs.  Cleveland.  The  little  one  has  been  named 
Marion. 

Miss  Annie  S.  Peck  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  succeeded  in 
climbing  to  the  summit  of  the  Matterhorn,  in  the  Alps,  she 
being  the  third  woman  to  accomplish  the  feat.  The  ascent 
was  made  from  Zer- 


matt. 

The  resignation  of 
James  0.  Broadhead 
of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  as 
United  States  minis- 
ter to  the  Swiss  Re- 
public, was  announc- 
ed September  14. 

Chickamauga 
and  Chattanooga 
National  Park. — 
The  ceremonies  con- 
nected with  the  dedi- 
cation of  this  new  na- 
tional military  park 
were  held  September 
18-20,  the  thirty- 
second  anniversary 
of  the  great  battle  of 


ADLAI   E.   STEVENSON, 
VICE-PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Chicamauga  Septem- 
ber 19  and  20, 1863.  Vice-President  Stevenson  presided.  Be- 
sides federal  officials,  including  Secretaries  Herbert  and 
Smith,  Postmaster-General  Wilson,  and  Attorney-General 
Harmon,  there  were  many  senators  and  ^  representatives 
present,  and  also  the  following  governors  of  states:  Gates 
(Ala.),  Atkinson  (Ga.),  Altgeld  (111.),  Matthews  (Ind.), 
Morrill  (Kan.),  Greenhalge  (Mass.),  Rich  (Mich.),  Hol- 
comb  (Neb.),  Werts  (N.  J.),  Morton  (N.  Y.),  McKinley 
(G.),  Turney  (Tenn.),  and  Woodbury  (Vt.).  There  were 
also  present  Lieu  tenant-General  Schofield  and  Generals  G. 
G.  Howard,  Horace  Porter,  Longstreet,  Dodge,  Butterfield, 
Boynton,  Fullerton,  Stewart,  Smith,  and  Walthall.  Among 
the  speakers  were  General  and  Senator  Palmer  of  Hlinois, 
and  General  and  Senator  Gordon  of  Georgia.  Never  before 
in  any  Southern  city,  and  seldom  on  any  occasion,  had 
there  been  such  a  gathering  of  men  eminent  in  civil,  mili- 
tary, and  political  life. 


656  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  53d  congress,  toward  the  end  of  1894,  provided 
-  for  the  ceremonies  of  dedication  (Vol.  4.  p.  808). 

September  18  was  given  up  to  the  several  states  whose 
sons  had  fought  and  died  in  the  battle.  The  150  monu- 
ments marking  the  positions  of  the  contending  troops  were 
duly  handed  over  to  the  national  government.  The  for- 
mal dedication  of  the  park  took  place  on  the  19th,  and 
the  ceremonies  concluded  with  a  military  parade  on  the 
20th. 

The  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga  park  embraces  the  entire 
battlefield  of  Chickaiuauga  and  the  approaches.  The  area  within  the 
legal  limits  of  the  park  is  about  fifteen  square  miles.  The  approaches 
in  the  vicinity  of  Chickaiuauga  are  mainly  roads  over  which  the  armies 
reached  and  left  the  field.  Those  about  Chattanooga  lie  mainly  along 
the  lines  of  battle.  Those  over  Lookout  Mountain  cross  Hooker's 
battlefield  and  lie  near  Walthall's,  while  the  Crest  road  along  Mission- 
ary Ridge  follows  Bragg's  line  of  battle  in  front  of  General  Thomas's 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  and  General  Sherman's  Army  of  the  Ten- 


Nearly  all  these  approaches,  as  well  as  the  roads  within  the  park, 
have  been  rebuilt  by  the  government  in  the  most  solid  manner.  The 
scenery  alone  over  a  part  of  this  magnificent  boulevard  is  such  as  will 
give  the  drive  a  national  reputation.  When  to  these  remarkable 
charms  of  valley,  city,  river,  and  bold  mountain  a  comprehensive  and 
distant  view  of  the  battlefields  of  Lookout  Mountain,  Orchard  Knob, 
and  Missionary  Ridge  is  added,  this  drive  becomes  one  that  is  without 
a  parallel. 

The  government  has  acquired  the  site  of  Bragg's  headquarters, 
on  Missionary  Ridge,  and  about  three  acres  surrounding  it.  Among 
other  purchases  which  it  has  made,  is  that  of  Orchard  Knob. 
This  was  the  headquarters  of  Grant,  Thomas,  and  Granger  during 
the  battle  of  Missionary  Ridge.  It  is  an  isolated  knoll,  about  six 
acres  in  extent.  The  Confederate  works  and  those  erected  after  the 
Union  forces  captured  it,  are  still  well  defined;  and  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  knoll  remains  unchanged. 

The  old  roads  which  were  those  of  the  battle,  have  been  reopened 
and  improved,  while  roads  opened  since  the  battle  have  been  closed 
and  abandoned.  The  only  natural  feature  existing  at  the  time  of  the 
fight  which  has  been  changed  is  the  underbrush,  which  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  cut  out,  in  order  to  bring  the  lines  of  battle  into 
view  and  to  show  the  topography  of  the  field.  As  a  result  of  this 
work,  carriages  can  now  drive  in  all  directions  through  the  great  forests 
and  along  the  various  lines  of  battle. 

Railway  .Speed  Records. — The  breaking  of  records, 
which  has  been  a  marked  feature  of  almost  every  line  of 
competition  this  year,  has  invaded  the  domain  of  rail- 
road travel.  For  several  years  prior  to  August  20,  1895, 
the  record  for  a  long-distance  run  had  been  held  by  the 
Empire  State  express  on  the  New  York  Central  railroad. 
Its  regular  run  between  New  York  city  and  Buffalo — about 
440  miles — took  8  hours  40  minutes.    On  short  runs  it  had 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS.  657 

made  much  higher  speed — reaching  the  rate  of  112^  miles 
an  hour  May  10,  1893,  during  the  run  between  Batavia 
and  Buffalo  (Vol.  3,  p.  311). 

On  August  20,  1895,  however,  the  long-distance  record 
was  lowered  by  a  train  of  the  London  &  Northwestern 
Railway  Company  which  ran  from  Euston  station,  London, 
Eng.,  to  Aberdeen,  Scotland — 540  miles — in  538  minutes, 
or,  deducting  stoppages,  etc.,  in  512  minutes,  thus  making 
63.27  miles  an  hour. 

The  New  York  Central  road,  however,  recaptured  its 
laurels  on  September  11. 

A  special  train  left  the  Grand  Central  station.  New 
York,  at  5:40:30  A.  m.,  and  arrived  at  East  Buffalo  at 
12:34:57  p.  m.  The  elapsed  time  was  6  hours  54  minutes 
27  seconds.  The  actual  distance  traversed  was  436^  miles, 
and  the  actual  running  time  (exclusive  of  stops  to  change 
engines)  was  407  minutes,  making  an  average  of  64.34 
miles  an  hour  against  the  English  time  of  63.27  miles. 
The  weight  of  the  English  train  was  only  106  tons;  the 
weight  of  the  American  racer  was  179  tons.  But  the  most 
important  fact  proven  upon  this  trial  trip  was  that  Ameri- 
can fast  trains  were  fit  for  commercial  purposes,  such  as 
may  be  run  regularly  and  at  a  profit.  After  the  English 
record  the  railway  managers  of  the  kingdom  declared  that 
these  trains  are  not  such  as  could  ever  be  run  regularly  for 
business  purposes.  They  were  too  small  and  light  to  carry 
a  sufficient  number  of  passengers  to  pay  the  cost. 

The  following  details  of  the  run  betwen  New  York  and 
Buffalo  are  interesting: 

Left  Grand  Central  station,  New  York  city,  5:40:30  a.m.;  reached 
Albany,  143  miles,  7:54:55;  left,  7:56:45;  reached  Rome,  109  miles 
from  Albany,  9:42  A.M.;  reached  Syracuse,  148  miles  from  Albany, 
10:17:15  A.  M.;  made  the  83  miles  between  Syracuse  and  Rochester 
in  73  minutes;  left  Rochester  11:33^^  a.m.;  arrived  at  East  Buffalo 
12:34:57  p.m. 

Up  to  the  end  of  September  the  New  York  Central  rail- 
road thus  held  the  world^s  record  for  long-distance  running. 
It  accomplished  this  result  with  a  train  337  feet  long  and 
having  a  capacity  for  218  passengers.  The  English  train 
was  less  than  half  as  long,  and  little  over  half  as  heavy. 

The  Consular  Service. — On  September  20  an  order 
was  issued  by  President  Cleveland,  which  is  at  least  a  step 
toward  a  removal  of  the  foreign  service  of  the  country 
from  the  domain  of  political  patronage — in  the  eyes  of  many 
eligible  men,  one  of  its  chief  objections— and  the  bringing 
of  it  within  the  civil  service  rules.  The  order  was  recom- 
mended by  Attorney-General  Olney  some  time  ago.     li- 


658  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1695. 

will  affect,  it  is  said,  a  little  mare  than  one-half  of  the  ap- 
pointments to  the  consular  service.  The  following  are  its 
most  important  details: 

"  It  is  hereby  ordered  that  any  vacancy  in  a  consulate  or  commer- 
cial agency  now  or  hereafter  existing,  the  salary  of  which  is  not 
more  than  $2,500  nor  less  than  ,|1,000,  or  the  compensation  of  which, 
if  derived  from  official  fees,  exclusive  of  notarial  and  other  unofficial 
receipts,  does  not  exceed  $2,500  nor  fall  below  $1,000,  shall  be  filled 
(«)  by  a  transfer  or  promotion  from  some  other  place  under  the  de- 
partment of  state  of  a  character  tending  to  qualify  the  incumbent  for 
the  place  to  be  tilled:  or  {b)  by  appointment  of  a  person  not  under  the 
department  of  state,  but  having  previously  served  thereunder  to  its 
satisfaction  in  a  capacity  tending  to  qualify  him  for  the  place  to  be 
filled:  or  (c)  by  the  appointment  of  a  person  who,  having  furnished 
the  customary  evidence  of  character,  responsibility,  and  capacity, 
and  being  thereupon  selected  by  the  president  for"  examination,  is 
found  upon  such  examination  to  be  qualified  for  the  place. 

"  The  examination  hereinbefore  provided  for  shall  be  by  a  board 
of  three  persons  designated  by  the  secretary  of  state,  who  shall  also 
prescribe  the  subjects  to  which  such  examination  shall  relate  and  the 
general  mode  of  conducting  the  same  by  the  board." 

Miscellaneous. — On  July  26  an  order  was  issued  by 
Secretary  Morton,  to  take  effect  October  1,  abolishing  the 
seed  division  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  This 
doing  away  with  the  free  distribution  of  seeds  will  save, 
it  is  estimated,  $200,000  a  year.  It  was  based  on  a  decision 
of  Attorney- General  Olney,  given  in  April,  1895,  regard- 
ing the  class  of  seed  purchasable  by  the  department.  Mr. 
Olney  held  that  the  secretary  of  agriculture  was  em- 
powered to  purchase  only  those  seeds  described  in  Section 
527  of  the  revised  statutes,  viz.: 

"Rare  and  uncommon  to  the  country,  or  such  as  can  be  made 
more  profitable  by  frequent  changes  from  one  part  of  our  own  coun- 
try to  another." 

The  secretary  believes  that  the  money  formerly  spent 
on  seed  may  be  utilized  to  better  advantage  if  applied  to 
the  distribution  of  bulletins  showing  how  chemistry  and 
other  sciences  may  be  applied  to  agriculture. 

A  movement  is  on  foot  in  Boston  and  other  Kew 
England  centres,  to  erect  a  statue  to  Oliver  Cromwell,  the 
great  protector  of  the  liberties  of  England,  and  the  staunch 
friend  of  the  struggling  colonists  in  America.  In  this 
connection  two  addresses  were  recently  delivered  in  the 
Old  South  Meeting  House,  Boston,  by  Rev.  Dr.  E.  E.  Hale  of 
Boston  and  Rev.  Dr.  George  H.  Clark  of  Hartford,  Conn., 
the  latter  being  the  author  of  a  valuable  American  ''life" 
of  Cromwell  (p.  498).     Said  Dr.  Clark  in  part: 

"  You  have  done  well  in  placing  a  picture  of  Oliver  Cromwell  on 
the  walls  of  this  historic  Old  South  Meeting  House,     Patriots  are 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANE( 

represented  here,  Noble  men:  and  now  among  tlieui  appears  one 
whose  life  was  a  sacrifice  offered  on  the  altar  of  political  liberty;  the 
portrait  of  a  ruler  who  consecrated  his  later  years  to  the  unconscious 
creation  of  the  England  of  to-day,  and  whose  name,  in  connection 
with  government /or  the  people  and  not  government  merely /or  kings, 
will  live  and  be  useful  through  coming  ages,  until  despotism  and 
kingly  tyranny  are  unknown." 

Although  Utah  cannot  attain  to  full  statehood  until 
July  4, 1896,  the  order  for  the  addition,  to  the  national  colors, 
of  another  star  representing  the  new  state,  was  issued  by 
Secretary  Lamont  August  27.  The  position  of  the  star  is 
at  the  right-hand  end  of  the" fourth  row  from  the  top.  At 
tlie  same  time  the  regulation  size  of  the,  colors  was  changed 
from  6  by  5  feet  to  5  feet  6  inches  by  4  feet  4  inches. 

A  recent  decision  of  the  superior  court  of  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  was  to  the  effect  that  the  state  law  making  it 
illegal  for  a  contractor  with  a  municipal  corporation  for 
the  performance  of  public  works  to  employ  any  person  ex- 
cept United  States  citizens  was  unconstitutional.  It  is  a 
point  upon  which  the  United  States  supreme  court  may 
be  called  to  decide,  by  what  authority,  federal  or  state,  the 
rights  of  person  and  property  guaranteed  by  treaties  with 
foreign  powers  may  be  overridden. 

Independence  day  (July  4)  witnessed  a  serious  riot  in  East 
Boston,  Mass.,  at  a  parade  in  which  the  American  Protective 
Association  (A.  P.  A.)  and  kindred  organizations  took  part. 
Some  of  the  spectators  took  offense  at  a  float  representing  the 
'kittle  red  schoolhouse,"  an  emblem  intimately  associated 
with  the  A.  P.  A.  movement;  and  a  pitched  battle  ensued, 
in  which  one  man  was  killed  and  about  forty  injured.  A 
warm  controversy  had  previously  been  waged  over  the  ques- 
tion of  allowing  the  display  of  the  emblem;  and  race  and 
religious  rancor  had  been  stirred,  so  that  it  did  not  require 
much  provocation  on  either  side  to  precipitate  the  fight. 

The  twenty-sixth  triennial  conclave  of  the  grand  en- 
campment of  the  Knights  Templar  of  the  United  States 
was  held  in  Boston,  Mass.,  August  28-30.  The  following 
are  the  newly  appointed  grand  officers: 

Grand  master,  W.  Lallue  Thomas  of  Kentucky,  succeeding  Hugh 
McCurdy;  deputy  grand  master,  Reuben  H.  Lloyd  of  California;  grand 
generalissimo,  Henry  B.  Stoddard  of  Texas;  grand  captain-general, 
George  M.  Mouldon  of  Illinois;  grand  senior  warden,  Henry  W.  Rugg 
of  Rhode  Island;  grand  junior  warden,  William  B.  Melish  of  Ohio; 
grand  treasurer,  H.  Wales  Lines  of  Connecticut;  grand  recorder, 
William  H.  Mayo  of  Missouri;  grand  prelate,  Cornelius  Twing  of 
New  York;  grand  standard  bearer,  Thomas  O.  Morris  of  Tennessee; 
grand  sword  bearer,  Edgar  S.  Dudley  of  Nebraska;  grand  warder, 
Joseph  A.  Locke  of  Maine;  and  grand  captain  of  the  guard,  Frank  H. 
Thomas  of  Washington. 


660  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

A  monument  consisting  of  a  beaatiful  shaft  of  Ten- 
nessee marble,  and  erected  by  the  Maryland  Society,  Sons 
of  the  American  Revolution,  was  unveiled  in  Prospect 
Park,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  on  August  27,  in  memory  of  the 
Maryland  patriots  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island 
August  26,  27,  and  28,  119  years  ago. 

A  *' Maggie  Murphy^'  potato  28  inches  long,  14 
inches  in  diameter,  and  weighing  86  pounds  10  ounces — 
the  equivalent  of  1^  bushels  of  ordinary  potatoes — was 
grown  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Swan,  Loveland,  Colo. 

CANADA. 

The  prorogation  of  the  Dominion  parliament  on  July 
22  has  given  a  breathing  space  in  the  struggle  over  the 
Manitoba  school  question,  the  developments  regarding 
which  have  constituted  the  chief  interest  of  the  session 
which  began  on  April  18.  It  cannot  yet,  however,  be 
said  what  the  ultimate  outcome  will  be.  No  unambiguous 
declaration  of  policy  has  yet  been  made  by  the  liberal 
leader,  M.  Laurier.  Perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  a 
positive  declaration  was  made  by  him  at  Grand  River, 
Gaspe  county,  Quebec,  August  26,  during  the  political 
tour  which  he  inaugurated  at  Sorel  on  August  8.  He 
stated,  in  reply  to  a  question,  that  he  would  support  the 
policy  of  the  government  if  favorable  to  the  Catholic  mi- 
nority. There  are,  in  October,  apparently  brightening  pros- 
pects that  the  trouble,  which  f  oratime  threatened  a  severance 
of  the  bonds  of  confederation,  will  be  settled  through  mu- 
tual concessions  of  the  opposing  factions  in  Manitoba, 
without  the  necessity  of  federal  intervention. 

One  important  enactment  of  the  recent  session  was 
the  voting  of  a  bonus  of  $80,000  per  annum  for  twenty 
years  to  the  first  section  of  the  railroad  to  Hudson  bay, 
payments  of  $40,000  a  year  to  begin  when  half  the 
section  is  finished,  and  $40,000  more  when  the  whole  is 
completed.  It  is  admitted  by  the  authorities  that  the 
feasibility  of  developing  the  Hudson  bay  route  for  trans- 
portation of  the  produce  of  the  Northwest  to  Europe  is 
questionable;  and  the  government  has,  accordingly,  not 
committed  itself  to  the  project  in  its  entirety.  As  a  usual 
thing,  it  is  only  from  about  the  middle  of  July  to  the 
middle  of  October  that  navigation  into  Hudson  bay  is  open; 
and  even  then  it  is  at  all  times  dangerous,  owing  to  fog, 
snowstorms,  ice-floes,  and  magnetic  influences  disturbing 
the  needle.  The  steamers  on  the  proposed  route  would 
have  to  be  of  a  type  specially  constructed  to  resist  crushing 


CANADA. 


661 


by  ice.  The  assistance  now  rendered  by  the  government 
to  the  projected  railway  will  enable  the  promoters  to  carry 
the  road  at  least  as  far  as  the  Saskatchewan  river,  and 
will  thus  serve  as  an  important  help  to  colonization. 

Manitoba  School  Question. — The  only  immediate 
tangible  result  of  the  cabinet  crisis  in  July,  which  followed 
the  announcement  of  the  determination  of  the  Dominion 
government  not  to  in- 
terfere in  the  Mani 
toba  school  issue  dur- 
ing the  session  then 
in  progress  (p.  392), 
was  the  resignation  of 
the  minister  of  agri- 
culture, M.  Angers. 
It  has,  however,  long 
been  apparent  that 
unless  the  dispute  is 
handled  in  a  spirit  of 
the  broadest  states- 
manship, it  must  ac- 
centuate those  racial 
and  religious  differ- 
ences which  are  al- 
ready only  too  strong- 
ly marked  in  certain 
sections  of  the  coun- 
try. 

The  dispute  is  still 
confined  to  the  local 
arena — though  its  ef- 
ects  are  felt  far  be- 
yond the  frontiers  of 
Manitoba;  and  there 
are  those  whose  earnest  wishes  for  the  welfare  of  Canada 
prompt  the  hope  that  the  struggle  may  never  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  wider  stage  of  the  Dominion. 

Following  the  reply  of  the  Greenway  government  to 
the  remedial  suggestion  of  March  25  (p.  389),  the  gover- 
nor-general. Lord  Aberdeen,  and  the  premier.  Sir  Macken- 
zie Bowell,  carried  on  further  negotiations  with  a  view  to 
inducing  the  provincial  authorities  to  recede  somewhat 
from  their  uncompromising  attitude  in  the  case;  and,  to- 
ward the  end  of  July,  Mr.  Greenway  was  asked  how  far 
the  Manitoba  government  would  be  willing  to  go  in  the 
way  of  making  concessions.     No  reply  had  been  officially 


HON.   C.   H.   MACKINTOSH, 

LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR  OF  THE   NORTHWEST 

TERRITORIES. 


662  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

published  up  to  the  end  of  September;  but,  early  in  Au- 
gust, certain  defiant  declarations  appeared  in  the  Winni- 
peg Tribune,  which  is  commonly  regarded  as  a  mouth- 
piece of  the  Manitoba  government,  intimating  that  the 
province  would  accept  no  conditions  involving  the  re-es- 
tablishment of  separate  schools.  The  following  is,  in  part, 
one  of  the  statements  referred  to: 

"  The  Dominion  government  should  be  informed  in  the  most  un- 
mistakable language  that  the  province  of  Manitoba  declines  to  be  an 
actor  in  the  farce  which  the  Ottawa  combination  is  now  putting  on 
the  boards.  The  province  of  Manitoba  has  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  execution  of  the  judgment  of  the  imperial  privy  council. 
That  judgment  was  simply  a  declaration  that  certain  privileges  en- 
joyed by  the  Roman  Catholic  minority  having  been  affected  by  the 
legislation  of  Manitoba  in  1890,  that  minority  have  a  right  of  appeal 
to  the  Dominion  government  and  parliament.  The  obligation  to  as- 
certain whether  facts  and  circumstances  justified  the  Manitoba  legis- 
lature in  withdrawing  the  privileges  manifestly  lay  upon  the  Domin- 
ion government.  They  made  no  effort  to  obtain  the  necessary  infor- 
mation; they  made  no  inquiry  into  the  facts  or  circumstances.  They 
simply  acted  like  a  pack  of  reasonless  and  obsequious  lackeys  on  an 
expression  in  the  judgment  of  the  privy  council,  without  in  the  first 
place  asking  whether  the  privy  council  was  not  exceeding  its  func- 
tions and  infringing  on  theirs  by  using  such  an  expression.  *  *  * 
Manitoba  is  now  where  it  intends  to  remain.  *  *  *  The  province 
of  Manitoba  can  gain  neither  in  dignity  nor  in  any  other  way  by  join- 
ing in  the  absurd  game  of  burlesque  '  diplomacy  '  with  which  the  Ot- 
tawa '  statesmen '  now  seek  to  cover  up  the  incompetency  and  dis- 
honesty which  culminated  in  the  remedial  order.  As  a  preliminary 
to  any  further  correspondence  on  the  subject,  the  government  here 
should  make  the  unconditional  withdrawal  of  the  remedial  order  a 
sine  qua  noii," 

In  the  latter  part  of  September  there  were  rumors  to 
the  effect  that  the  authorities  at  Ottawa,  interpreting  the 
delay  of  Premier  Greenway  in  replying  to  their  overture 
on  the  matter  of  concessions  as  a  refusal  to  act,  had  re- 
solved to  force  the  issue  and  let  the  people  of  the  country 
decide  upon  it.  The  right  to  enact  remedial  legislation 
in  the  event  of  a  final  refusal  to  do  so  on  the  part  of  the 
province,  is  reserved  to  the  Dominion  parliament  by  Sub- 
section 3  of  Section  22  of  the  Manitoba  act  of  1870,  which 
reads: 

"  (3)  In  case  any  such  provincial  law  as  from  time  to  time  seems 
to  the  governor-general-in-council  requisite  for  the  due  execution  of 
the  provisions  of  this  section  is  not  duly  executed  by  the  proper  pro- 
vincial authority  in  that  behalf,  then,  and  in  every  such  case,  and  as 
far  only  as  the  circumstances  of  each  case  require,  the  parliament  of 
Canada  may  make  remedial  laws  for  the  due  execution  of  the  provis- 
ions of  this  section  and  of  any  decision  of  the  governor-general-in- 
council  under  this  section." 


CANADA. 

However,  the  attempt  to  impose  legislation  on  the 
province  would  hardly  be  made  without  the  decided  views 
of  the  electorate  throughout  the  country  being  ascertained. 

As  a  result  of  a  personal  investigation  into  the  whole 
school  question  in  Manitoba,  conducted  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  Principal  Grant  of  Queen's  College,  Kings- 
ton, Ont.,  addressed  a  series  of  letters  to  the  Toronto 
Globe,  the  tenor  of  which  was  to  urge  strongly  upon  the 
Manitoba  government  the  wisdom  of  making  concessions 
to  the  Koman  Catholic  minority. 

In  substance  Professor  Grant  says,  that,  under  the  operation  of 
the  law  of  1890  the  educational  condition  of  the  people  of  Manitoba 
has  not  improved  as  much  as  expected.  The  schools  formerly  sepa- 
rate, having  been  deprived  of  the  school  grant,  have  as  a  result  gone 
backward. 

Speaking  of  the  passage  of  the  law,  Dr.  Grant  says:  "It  seems 
to  me  that  the  provincial  government  of  Manitoba  in  1890  made  a 
great  mistake  in  summarily  abolishing  instead  of  reforming  the  old 
school  system.  They  have  been  at  war  ever  since  with  the  preju- 
dices, the  feelings,  and  even  the  religious  convictions  of  a  section  of 
the  population  that  deserved  to  be  treated  with  the  utmost  considera- 
tion. They  believe  that  the  war  would  end  if  it  was  not  supported 
from  without;  but  on  this  point  I  venture  to  disagree  with  them.  It 
will  end  only  when  they  make  concessions  which  to  the  mass  of  the 
people  interested  seem  reasonable;  and  the  sooner  these  are  made,  the 
Ijetter."  Dr.  Grant  goes  on  to  point  out  that  the  provincial  government 
has  made  great  concessions  to  the  Mennonites,  who,  like  the  Roman 
Catholics,  are  unable  to  comply  with  every  detail  of  the  law  of  1890. 
It  has  done  all  it  can  outside  of  the  law,  to  conform  the  system  to  the 
views  of  the  Mennonites.  Hence,  says  he,  it  is  a  pity  that  reform 
was  not  undertaken  with  regard  to  the  Catholic  schools  in  the  same 
moderate  manner. 

It  seems  that  the  majority  of  the  Catholic  schools  are  situated  in 
the  distinctly  Roman  Catholic  districts,  while  there  are  some  in  the 
larger  centres.  The  passage  from  the  separate  to  the  public  school 
law  meant  for  the  Catholics  that  they  should  substitute  for  their  r-wn 
religious  exercises  those  prescribed  by  the  advisory  board,  namely, 
the  exercises  which  had  previously  been  used  in  the  Protestput 
schools,  or  that  there  should  be  no  religious  exercises  at  all.  Objec- 
tion was  taken  to  this  arrangement  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  Mr.  Mar- 
tin himself,  the  framer  of  the  law  of  1890,  says  the  principal,  declared 
that  this  was  an  injustice.  The  Roman  Catholics  in  Winnipeg  asked 
for  a  compromise.  They  wanted  a  gradual  change  in  the  matter  of 
text-books  and  teachers,  and  concessions  covering  their  religious 
scruples.  To  their  overtures  the  government  declined  to  listen. 
"  They  were  curtly  told  they  were  suffering  no  grievance." 

In  some  rural  districts,  schools  formerly  separate  have  been 
brought  under  the  public  school  act.  But  Dr.  Grant  found  in  three 
of  these  schools  which  he  visited,  that  some  unauthorized  text-bocks 
were  vised,  that  Roman  Catholic  exercises  were  permitted  both  before 
and  after  school  hours,  and  that  consequently  the  intention  of  tJie 
public  school  law  was  frustrated,  instead  of  the  law  being  acquiesOv«d 
in  uncomplainingly,  as  had  been  alleged  by  some. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


3d  Qr.,  1895. 


Dr.  Grant's  conclusion  is  that  the  legislation  has  been,  and  is,  too 
severe,  and  that  it  fails,  first,  in  that  it  antagonizes  religious  convic- 
tions; and,  secondly,  in  that  it  does  not  actually  insure  the  efficiency 
in  instruction  w^hich  it  was  designed  to  effect.  Manitoba  should 
therefore  modify  the  law  of  1890.  And  he  adds:  "No  Dominion 
government  that  could  be  formed  would  have  the  moral  right  to  treat 
the  decision  which  has  been  given  to  that  effect" — namely,  to  the  effect 
that  the  minority  are  aggrieved — "  with  contempt." 

It  is  rumored  in 
October  that  Premier 
Green  way  contem- 
plates the  possibility 
of  concessions  on  the 
part  of  his  cabinet; 
but  further  develop- 
ments belong  to  the 
fourth  quarter. 

Hon.  J.  C.  Patter- 
son, whose  retirement 
from  the  Dominion 
portfolio  of  militia 
and  defense,  on  the 
ground  of  ill-health, 
took  place  in  March 
(p.  159),  was,  about 
September  1,  ap- 
pointed lieutenant- 
governor  of  Manitoba 
to  succeed  Sir  J..  C. 
Schultz. 

Patterson,  James 
CoLBROOKE,  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  province 
of  Manitoba,  was  born  in 
Armagh,  Ireland,  son  of 
the  Rev.  James  Patterson,  formerly  of  Kingstown,  near  Dublin.  He 
was  educated  for  the  legal  profession.  Over  twenty  years  ago  he  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Ontario  for  North  Essex,  and  to  the  house 
of  commons  in  1878.  In  January,  1893,  he  became  secretary  of  state  in 
the  cabinet  of  the  late  Sir  J.  J.  C.  Abbott  (Vol.  2,  p.  88).  In  Decem- 
ber, .1892,  he  was  transferred  to  the  department  of  militia  and  defense 
(Vol.  2,  p.  411),  which  position  he  held  until  his  resignation  in  March, 
1895.  He  remained  a  member  of  the  cabinet,  but  without  portfolio, 
until  his  call  to  Government  House  in  Winnipeg. 

Dominion  Public  Accounts.— The  corrected  figures 
for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1895,  show  a  surplus  of 
receipts  on  account  of  the  consolidated  fund  over  expen- 
ditures. The  total  receipts  of  the  government,  however, 
$33,929,809,  were  overbalanced  by  a  total  expenditure  of 


HON.   G.   A.   KIRKPATRICK, 

LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR   OF  THE  PROVINCE  OP 

ONTARIO. 


CANADA.  665 

138,009,341,  showing  a  deficit  of  14,079,532.  But  this 
deficit  was  about  $500,000  less  than  had  been  estimated  by 
the  finance  minister  in  his  budget  for  the  year.  The 
following  table,  covering  the  past  two  years,  shows  details 
of  increase  and  decrease: 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES,  CANADIAN. 


Revenue. 

Fiscal 
year, 
1893-4. 

Fiscal 
year, 
1894-5. 

Customs        .... 

$19,198,114 
8,381.089 
2,809.341 
3,702,746 
2,283,403 

$17,640,464 
7,805,952 
2.792,790 
3.592,297 
2,098.306 

Excise 

Total 

$36,374,693 
37,585,02.5 

$33,929,809 
38,009,341 

Expenditure 

Deficit 

$1,210,332 

$4,079,532 

The  statement  of  the  public  debt  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year 
shows  the  gross  debt  to  have  been  $317,922,117,  as  compared  with 
$308,348,034  in  1893-4.  The  assets,  $64,922,644,  as  against  $62,- 
164,994;  and  the  net  debt,  $252,999,473,  as  against  $246,183,029,  show- 
ing an  increase  in  the  net  debt  during  the  year  of  $6,816,444.  The 
expenditure  on  capital  account  during  the  year  was  $4,340,838,  as 
compared  with  $5,094,003,  showing  a  decrease  of  $753,165,  made  up 
as  follows: — Public  works,  including  railways  and  canals,  show  a 
decrease  of  $784,533;  Dominion  lands,  a  decrease  of  $49,296;  and  rail- 
way subsidies,  an  increase  of  $80,664. 

Turning  to  the  current  fiscal  year,  improvement  is  very  noticeable. 
Every  item  of  revenue  during  the  quarter  ended  September  30,  shows 
an  increase;  while  the  expenditure,  both  on  capital  account  and  on 
account  of  consolidated  revenue,  shows  a  considerable  decrease. 

The  returns  of  Canadian  foreign  commerce  for  the  year  show  an 
export  of  $100,192,000,  orabout  $900,000  less  than  during  the  preced- 
ing year.  This  is,  however,  a  larger  export  than  usual,  the  average 
for  the  last  ten  years  being  about  $95,000,000. 

Dominion  Yoters'  Lists.— There  are  1,353,735 
names  on  the  voters'  lists  of  1895.  These  voters  form 
27.04  per  cent  of  the  whole  population — men,  women,  and 
children,  which  is  an  increase  of  221,498  voters  over  the 
figures  of  1891.  In  1887  the  proportion  of  voters  in  the 
whole  population  was  21.49  per  cent;  in  1891,  it  was  23.43 
per  cent.  In  fact  the  enlargement  of  the  franchise  has 
grown  steadily  since  the  Dominion  franchise  act  was  passed 
in  1885;  and  almost  every  intelligent  adult  male  can  now 
qualify  under  some  of  its  provisions.  The  following  table 
gives  an  analysis  of  the  vote  by  provinces: 


Vol.  5.-43. 


666 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 
DOMINION  VOTERS'  LISTS. 


3d  Qr„  1895. 


Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova  Scotia 

New  Brunswick 

Prince  Edward  Island. 

Manitoba 

Northwest  Territories. 
Britisli  Columbia 


Number  of|  Increase  per 

Proportion 

votes  in 

cent  over 

to  popula- 

1895. 

1891. 

tion. 

650,021 

14'.28 

29.89 

351,076 

16.38 

29  95 

111,124 

23.41 

24.51 

91,697 

30  02 

28.54 

25.245 

4.90 

23.13 

65,648 

40.67 

35.12 

20,878 

30.13 

18.80 

38,010 

163.96 

31.52 

The  Copyright  Question.^-This  is  not  a  question  of 
party  politics.  The  act  of  1889,  which  is  still  awaiting 
imperial  sanction,  was  passed  by  a  unanimous  vote;  and 
no  adverse  criticism  has  arisen  in  Canada  of  the  claim  put 
forth  by  the  Dominion  government,  namely,  that  the  Do- 
minion has  absolute  jurisdiction  over  all  phases  of  copy- 
right within  its  borders.  The  history  of  the  long  contro- 
versy was  outlined  in  a  previous  number  of  Current  His- 
tory (Vol.  4,  p.  861).  Its  settlement  involves  the  solu- 
tion of  difficult  and  delicate  problems  of  grave  interna- 
tional import.  On  the  one  hand,  for  the  imperial  colonial 
office  to  disallow  an  act  passed  by  the  Canadian  parliament 
on  a  subject  lying  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Canada  under 
the  Confederation  act,  would  be  to  create  a  precedent  which 
would  pave  the  way  for  endless  friction  between  the  colo- 
nies and  the  mother  land.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  to  give 
imperial  sanction  to  an  act  which  would  expose  the  American 
market  to  the  competition  of  cheap  Canadian  reprints,  would 
probably  involve  a  repudiation  by  the  United  States  of  the 
copyright  agreement  of  1891  with  Great  Britain,  and  undo 
all  that  was  then  accomplished  after  years  of  effort  for  the 
cause  of  international  copyright  among  the  English-speak- 
ing nations.  Seeing  the  difficulty,  the  late  Rosebery  minis- 
try invited  the  Canadian  government  to  send  a  representa- 
tive to  confer  with  the  colonial  office  in  London.  One  was 
selected  in  the  person  of  Mr.  Newcombe.  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  the  change  of  ministry  in  England,  the  conferences 
of  the  Canadian  representative  were  held  with  Mr.  Joseph 
Chamberlain  instead  of  with  the  Marquis  of  Ripon.  Early 
in  September  it  was  announced  that  the  colonial  office  had 
sent  the  Canadian  copyright  law  back  to  Ottawa  with  an 
outline  of  proposed  changes,  which,  if  adopted,  would  en- 
able the  imperial  government  to  consider  the  act  again. 
What  these  changes  were,  is  not  publicly  known.  In  the 
meantime  the  distinguished  writer  Hall  Caine,  author  of 
The  Manxman,  representing  the  Society  of  British  Au- 


# 


iBk 


CANADA.  667 

thors,  has  been  sent  to  Canada  to  canvass  the  situation, 
remove  misimderstanding  of  the  position  taken  by  British 
authors  and  publishers,  and,  if  possible,  pave  the  way  to 
an  acceptance  of  a  compromise.  Such  a  result  would 
strengthen  further  the  bonds  between  Canada  and  Great 
Britain,  and  would  also  do  much  for  the  higher  interests  of 
literature  by  tending  to  unify  the  intellectual  life  not  only 
of  the  British  empire 
but  of  the  whole  Eng- 
lish-speakiug    world. 

Under  the  existing 
law,  Canadians  claim 
that  American  au- 
thors and  publishers, 
by  putting  out  limited 
editions  in  England, 
gain  control  of  the 
Canadian  market; 
that  British  publish- 
ers and  authors  show 
an  unfair  preference 
in  the  sale  of  their 
copyright  privileges 
to  United  States 
houses,  refusing  to  sell 
to  Canadian  publish- 
ers on  like  terms;  and 
that  the  prohibition 
of  Canadian  reprints 
has  transferred  to 
American  publishers 
the  bulk  of  the  busi- 
ness of  bookmaking 
for  Canadian  readers.  It  was  in  order  to  remedy  these 
grievances  that  the  act  of  1889  was  passed,  whose  entrance 
into  operation  has  been  prevented  by  the  inaction  of  the 
home  government. 

The  act  proposes  that  a  person  having  copyright  under  British 
law  or  by  virtue  of  any  treaty  arrangement  with  Great  Britain,  can 
secure  the  same  in  Canada  only  by  registering  his  work  in  the  office 
of  the  commissioner  of  agriculture  simultaneously  with  its  original 
publication,  and  by  also  reprinting  it  in  the  Dominion  within  one 
month  thereafter.  If  he  neglects  to  protect  himself  in  this  way, 
then  "any  person  or  persons  domiciled  in  Canada  may  obtain  from 
the  minister  of  agriculture  a  license  or  licenses  to  print,  and  publish, 
and  produce  the  work."  But  whoever  puts  out  the  work  has  to  pay 
the  author  a  royalty  of  ten  per  cent  of  the  retail  price,  giving  for  said 
payment  such  security  as  will  satisfy  the  minister  of  agriculture. 


HON.   TELESPHORE  FOURNIER, 
JUSTICE  OP  THE  SUPREME  COURT  OP  CANADA. 


668  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  author  is  not  consulted  as  to  style  of  printing  or  binding,  quality 
of  material,  or  selling  price. 

It  is  admitted  by  Canada  that  the  law  of  1889  involves 
for  the  British  author  some  loss,  or  rather  prevention,  of 
profit  which  would  be  available  were  he  able  to  treat  the 
Canadian  market  simply  as  a  part  of  the  American 
market  without  any  further  trouble  as  to  conditions  of 
time  and  mode  of  publication.  But  the  Dominion  claims 
at  the  same  time,  that,  especially  in  a  matter  coming 
directly  within  her  own  jurisdiction,  she  should  not  be 
discriminated  against  in  favor  of  a  foreign  country.  The 
same  privileges  of  obtaining  employment,  she  claims,  which 
are  enjoyed  by  American  printers  under  the  international 
agreement,  should  be  allowed  to  her.  And  at  any  rate, 
whatever  expediency  may  lie  in  concessions  on  her  part, 
Canada  claims  the  constitutional  right  to  do  as  she 
pleases  in  the  matter.  For,  when  she  accepted  the  terms 
of  the  Berne  convention  of  1886,  it  was  with  the  explicit 
understanding  that  she  could  withdraw  from  it  after  a 
year's  notice. 

Strong  opposition  to  allowance  of  the  act  of  1889  has 
come  from  the  British  Copyright  Association,  the  English 
publishing  trade,  the  London  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and 
the  Society  of  Britisli  Authors.  It  is  pointed  out,  and  ad- 
mitted on  both  sides,  that  the  Canadian  act  is  inconsistent 
with  the  principles  of  the  Berne  convention.  According 
to  that  agreement,  copyright  was  to  be  independent  of 
the  place  of  printing  and  all  conditions  of  manufacture; 
an  author's  property,  even  when  copyrighted,  was  to  re- 
main within  his  regulation  and  control;  and  copyright 
was  to  be  uniform  for  the  British  dominions.  By  the  new 
Canadian  law,  however,  requiring  registration  in  the 
Dominion,  and  the  observance  of  certain  conditions  as  to 
place  and  time  of  printing,  the  principle  of  uniformity  is 
abandoned;  the  regulation  of  publication  and  sale  is  left 
to  the  caprice  of  publishers;  and  even  the  small  ten  per 
cent  royalty  (which  is  below  that  ordinarily  obtained 
from  American  publishers,  namely  15  to  17^  or  18  per 
cent)  is  left  without  adequate  guarantees  of  payment. 
The  difference  in  royalties  alone,  it  is  urged,  would  enable 
Canadian  publishers  to  undersell  American  editions  of  the 
same  work,  and  would  pave  the  way  to  a  flooding  of  the 
American  market  with  cheap  books — a  condition  of  affairs 
under  which  the  United  States  government  could  not  long 
be  expected  to  continue  granting  copyright  privileges  to 
British    subjects,   and   a   relapse   would    ensue   into   the 


JANADA.  669 

former  long-prevalent  condition  of  practical  piracy  and 
robbery.  That  Canada  should  insist  on  her  privilege  of 
repudiating  the  Berne  agreement,  is  one  of  the  chief  em- 
barrassments of  the  imperial  government  in  the  case. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  American  copyright  act 
is  itself  inconsistent  with  the  Berne  principle  of  making 
copyright  independent  of  the  place  of  printing.  To  be 
copyrighted  in  the  United  States,  books  of  English  au- 
thors have  to  be  printed  simultaneously  in  England  and 
America, — a  condition  which  English  authors  consider 
vexatious  and  annoying,  and  which,  by  adding  expense, 
undoubtedly  prevents  many  works  from  being  produced. 
It  is,  however,  a  trifle  compared  with  the  possibilities  in- 
volved in  a  total  repudiation  of  the  British-American 
copyright  agreement.  For  this  reason  it  is  hoped  that 
the  discordant  interests  involved  may  find  some  common 
ground  of  compromise. 

Ontario. — The  appeal  of  the  province  of  Ontario  against 
thedecision  of  the  supreme  court  of  Canadahanded  down  on 
January  15, 1895,  in  the  **  prohibition  test  case,'^  was  argued 
before  the  Judicial  committee  of  the  imperial  privy  coun- 
cil, beginning  August  1.  The  object  of  the  appeal  was  to 
reach  a  final  decision  as  to  whether  the  power  to  pass  pro- 
hibitory legislation  belongs  to  the  federal  or  to  the  provin- 
cial authorities.  Questions  were  also  raised  concerning  the 
right  to  prohibit  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating 
liquors  (p.  157).  The  Canadian  court,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, with  Chief  Justice  Strong  and  Justice  Fournier  dis- 
senting, sustained  the  contention  of  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, that  the  power  to  prohibit  belonged  exclusively, 
and  in  all  its  phases,  to  the  Dominion.  J.  J.  Mac- 
laren,  Q.  C,  chairman  of  the  Dominion  Alliance  exec- 
utive committee,  and  R.  H.  Haldane,  Q.  C,  M.  P., 
representing  the  province  of  Ontario;  E.  L.  Newcombe 
and  H.  W.  Loomis,  representing  the  Dominion;  and 
Hon.  Edward  Blake,  Q.  C,  M.  P.,  and  Wallace  Nes- 
bitt,  representing  the  Brewers'  and  Distillers'  Association 
of  Ontario,  were  among  the  counsel  in  the  case.  Judg- 
ment was  reserved. 

In  1893  differences  between  the  French  and  Irish  sep- 
arate school  ratepayers  in  the  city  of  Ottawa  reached  an 
acute  stage;  and  Inspector  J.  F.  White  reported  very  un- 
favorably upon  the  condition  of  the  separate  schools  in  the 
capital  (Vol.  3,  p.  544).  At  the  request  of  the  separate 
school  board  of  Ottawa,  a  commission  of  three  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  minister  of  education  to  examine  the  con- 


670  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

dition  of  the  Ottawa  separate  schools  and  also  inquire  into 
charges  which  had  been  brought  against  Inspector  White 
by  the  Christian  Brothers.  Two  members  of  the  commis- 
sion, both  Koman  Catholics,  resigned  in  June,  1895  (p. 
400).  It  was  said  at  the  time  that  they  resigned  under  in- 
structions from  Archbishop  Duhamel;  but  this  has  been 
denied.  The  vacancies,  however,  were  filled;  and  the  com- 
mission, consisting  of 
William  Scott,  B.  A., 
vice-principal  of  the 
normal  school,  Toron- 
to, Dr.  Kyan,  B.  A., 
of  Kingston,  and  J. 
J.  Tilley,  provincial 
inspector  of  county 
model  schools,  went 
on  with  the  investi- 
gation. Their  report 
was  published  in  the 
latter  part  of  August. 
It  found  the  efficiency 
of  the  schools  to  vary 
greatly,  commending 
very  favorably  those 
taught  by  the  Sisters, 
])ut  condemning  as 
very  inferior  all  those 
taught  by  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers,  and 
outlining  in  other  re- 
spects facts  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  the 
commissioners,  justi- 
fied the  unfavorable 
report  which  led  to  the  investii^ation. 

It  has  been  decided  to  remove  the  Ontario  School  of 
Pedagogy  from  Toronto  to  Hamilton.  By  arrangements 
between  the  minister  of  education  and  the  Collegiate  In- 
stitutp  board  of  the  latter  city,  the  School  of  Pedagogy 
Avill  be  furnished  with  much  better  facilities  for  practical 
work  than  it  enjoyed  in  Toronto.  A  new  building  will  be 
erected  at  a  cost  of  over  $70,000. 

Two  elections  have  been  held  in  Nipissing  to  deter- 
mine the  location  of  tlie  county  seat.  The  principal  com- 
petitors were  the  towns  of  North  Bay  and  Mattawa.  North 
Bay  won  on  both  occasions.    The  first  election,  March  14, 


HON.   GEORGE   F.   MARTER,   M.   P.   P., 
LEADER  OF  THE  CONSERVATIVE  OPPOSITION   IN 
ONTARIO. 


CANADA.  671 

gave  a  majority  of  160,  but  was  voided  by  the  government 
on  account  of  wrongful  practices  on  the  part  of  botli  con- 
testants. A  second  election,  held  July  11,  reduced  the  ma- 
jority in  favor  of  North  Bay  to  eight. 

On  September  17  Hon.  William  Harty,  M.  P.  P.  for 
Kingston,  commissioner  of  public  works  for  Ontario,  was 
unseated  by  the  courts.  His  counsel  admitted  corrupt 
practices  by  agents  or  supporters  sufficient  to  void  the 
election.  Mr.  Harty  has  since  been  re-elected  by  accla- 
mation. 

MisceHaiieous. — A  monument  to  the  memory  of  Sir 
John  A.'  Macdonald  was  unveiled  on  Parliament  Hill,  Ot- 
tawa, Ont.,  July  1.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  full-length 
figure  in  bronze  of  the  late  Conservative  leader.  Sir 
Mackenzie  Bowell,  the  present  premier,  made  the  dedica- 
tory speech.  A  poem,  composed  for  the  occasion  by  Ar- 
thur Weir  of  Montreal,  was  read;  and  a  few  remarks  were 
made  by  Sir  A.  Caron,  Lieutenant-Governor  Kirkpatrick 
of  Ontario,  and  others. 

On  August  24  another  monument  in  the  shape  of  a 
bronze  statue,  was  unveiled  on  Viger  Square,  Montreal,  in 
honor  of  the  French-Canadian  patriot  Chenier,  who  lost 
his  life  at  the  battle  of  St.  Eustache  in  1837.  The  cere- 
mony of  unveiling  was  performed  by  Dr.  Marcil,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislative  council  of  Quebec.  Mr.  J.  D.  Edgar, 
M.  P.,  of  Toronto,  Ont.,  delivered  the  principal  address  on 
the  occasion. 

Still  another  monument  in  honor  of  Canadian  patriot- 
ism was  unveiled  on  September  25  on  the  historic  battle- 
field of  Chrysler^s  Farm.  Interesting  addresses  were  de- 
livered by  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell,  Hon.  A.  R.  Dickey, 
minister  of  militia,  Hon.  J.  0.  Haggart,  minister  of  rail- 
ways and  canals,  and  others.  The  monument  is  thirty-eight 
feet  in  height,  and  consists  of  seven  huge  blocks  of  Canadian 
granite  from  Stanstead  Plains,  Que.  The  inscription  reads 
as  follows: 

"In  honor  of  the  brave  men  who  fought  and  fell  in  the  victory 
of  Chrysler's  Farm,  on  the  11th  of  November.  1813.  This  monument 
was  erected  by  the  Canadian  parliament,  1895." 

A  sensation  was  caused  in  financial  circles  on  July  15 
by  the  announcement  that  the  Banque  du  Pevple  of  Mon- 
treal had  suspended  payment  for  ninety  days.  The 
causes  lay  not  in  any  defect  in  the  banking  system  or  the 
condition  of  the  country,  but  in  methods  of  management 
which  gave  rise  to  rumors  of  financial  difficulty,  depressed 
the  value  of  the  stock,  and  precipitated  a  run  upon  the  re- 


672  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

sources  of  the  bank  which  could  not  be  withstood.  The 
note-holders  are  absolutely  insured  against  loss  through 
the  joint  redemption  fund  provided  by  law  for  that  pur- 
pose from  contributions  levied  upon  all  banks  doing  busi- 
ness. And  it  is  thought  that  the  double  liability  of  share- 
holders also  insures  all  depositors  against  loss. 

The  first  territorial  exhibition  for  the  display  of  the 
wonderful  agricultural  resources  of  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tories, was  opened  at  Regina,  July  30,  by  His  Excellency 
Lord  Aberdeen.  An  interesting  incident  of  the  exhibition 
was  a  great  pow-wow  held  August  1  between  the  governor- 
general,  Lieutenant-Governor  C.  H.  Mackintosh,  and  the 
Cree,  Sioux,  Piegan,  Blood,  and  Blackfeet  Indians. 

On  July  27  the  retirement  of  Major-General  Herbert 
from  the  chief  command  of  the  Canadian  militia  was  an- 
nounced. Colonel  Gascoigne,  deputy  adjutant-general  of 
the  military  district  of  London,  Eng.,  in  the  volunteer 
service,  has  been  designated  as  his  successor.  Colonel 
Gascoigne  has  had  wide  experience  in  the  English  volun- 
teer system.  He  served  with  his  corps  in  the  Egyptian 
campaign  of  1882,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Tel-el- 
Kebir  and  Suakim. 

On  July  21  the  queen's  prize  at  Bisley,  Eng.,  tlie 
^'^ Mecca  of  all  British  Marksmen,"'  was  for  the  first  time 
won  by  a  member  of  a  Canadian  team — T.  H.  Hayhurst  of 
Hamilton,  Ont.,  a  private  in  the  13th  battalion.  Private 
Hayhurst  had  tied  with  Private  Boyd  of  the  3d  Lanark 
(Scotland)  regiment,  with  279  points;  but  in  shooting  off 
the  tie,  won  by  one  point.  His  score  at  the  first  stage — 
seven  shots  each  at  200,  500,  and  600  yards — was  95.  At 
the  second  stage — ten  shots  at  500,  and  fifteen  at  600  yards 
— he  made  101.  At  the  third  stage — 10  shots  each  at  800 
and  900  yards — he  made  83  points,  with  45  at  800  yards 
and  38  at  900  yards. 

Private  Hayhurst  was  born  in  Kendal,  Westmoreland,  Eng.,  in 
1868,  and  came  to  Canada  in  1893.  He  was  in  a  Manchester  (Eng.) 
corps  until  a  few  years  ago,  and  has  been  a  member  of  the  English 
twenty  at  Bisley,  besides  winning  the  Prince  of  Wales's  prize  in  1889. 

The  charge  of  piracy  has  been  established  against  the 
Labrador  fishermen  who  plundered  and  burned  the  steamer 
Mexico,  which  was  driven  ashore  in  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle 
on  July  7.  The  vessel  was  bound  from  Montreal  to  Liver- 
pool with  a  general  cargo,  including  live  stock  and  pro- 
visions. 

The  report  was  spread  in  August  that  evidences  of 
pleuro-pneumonia  had  been  discovered  in  the  lungs  of  two 


lEWFOUNDLAND.  673 

beeves  landed  at  Deptford,  Eng.,  on  July  10,  from  the 
steamship  Hurona  from  Montreal. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

Fresh  trouble  has  arisen  out  of  the  French  claims  on 
the  west  shore.  In  August  some  of  the  island  fishermen, 
following  their  occupation  in  the  bay  of  Islands  on  the 
west  coast,  were  or- 
dered away,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were 
interfering  with  their 
French  competitors; 
and  the  further  an- 
nouncement was 
made  that  the  French, 
who  had  stationed  a 
squadron  of  war-ships 
in  the  same  bay,  for 
the  enforcement  of 
their  claims,  had  pro- 
tested against  tlie 
completion  of  the 
transinsular  railroad 
now  almost  finished 
from  St.  John's  to 
Port  au  Basques  at 
the  southwest  angle 
of  the  island.  The 
Newfoundlanders  ad- 
mit that,  under  exist- 
ing  treaties,  the 
French  have  the  right 

to    land,    to    fish,   and  h^'^-  William  h.  har^'ood, 

to    dry    their    fish    on  ^"^'^^^^^  ^^  """^  newfounbland  confekence. 

the  west  shore,  but  only  in  the  summer.  But  the  French 
have  now  pushed  their  claims  to  the  extent  of  maintaining 
that  the  treaties  give  them  not  only  exclusive  fishing  rights 
on  the  west  shore,  but  also  territorial  franchises  which  justify 
them  in  stopping  all  road-building,  mining  operations,  and 
settlement  within  the  territory  where  their  claims  exist — 
namely,  the  entire  west  and  north  coasts  to  the  distance  of 
half  a  mile  inland — and  in  preventing  the  railroad  from 
touching  any  part  of  the  said  territory.  When  it  is  borne 
in  mind  that  upon  this  railway  enterprise  largely  depend 
the  settlement  of  the  interior,  the  development  of  the  re- 


674 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


Qr.,  1895. 


sources  of  the  island,  and  the  means  of  communication  with 
Canada,  it  is  not  hard  to  understand  the  resentment  of  the 
islanders  aroused  by  the  French  prohibition  of  the  work  of 
construction. 

The  announcement  that  Sir  Graham  Bower  had  been 
appointed  governor  to  succeed  Sir  Terence  O'Brien  (p.  405), 
proved  to  be  unfounded.     The  post  has  been  confei'red 

upon  Sir  Herbert 
Harley  Murray,  K. 
C.  B.,  lately  imperial 
commissioner  for  the 
charitable  distribu- 
tion of  relief  to  the 
distressed  islanders, 
and  formerly  chair- 
man of  the  British 
board  of  customs.  He 
was  born  in  1829. 


JAMAICA. 

The  British  au- 
thorities in  the  island 
of  Jamaica  for  several 
months  were  threat- 
ened with  an  upris- 
ing of  the  Maroons  in 
St.  Elizabeth  Parish, 
a  semi -independent 
warlike  tribe  of 
mountain  negroes. 
The  trouble  arose  out 
of  a  claim  on  the  part 
of  the  Maroons, 
which  the  government  disputed,  to  an  extensive  and  valu- 
able logwood  estate  known  as  FuUerswood  Pen.  How- 
ever, toward  the  end  of  September,  the  negroes,  failing 
of  expected  support,  gave  up  their  claims  and  became 
peaceable. 

The  Maroons  have  on  several  occasions  been  at  war  with 
the  British,  and  have  never  been  completely  subdued. 
Under  a  treaty  of  peace  negotiated  in  1738  they  had 
certain  reservations  and  rights;  but  they  rebelled  in  1795, 
and  for  some  time  there  was  much  bloodshed  on  the 
island.  Another  treaty  of  peace  practically  reaffirmed 
that  of  1738,  and  for  a  century  they  had  been  quiet  before 
the  recent  trouble  arose. 


HON.   GEORGE  H,  EMERSON, 
DELEGATE   TO   THE   NEWFOUNDLAND   CONFERENCE. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

MEXICO. 


675 


For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  Mexico,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  laws  of  the  country  forbid  duel- 
ling, a  conviction  for  that  offense  was  secured  in  the  courts 
on  August  25.  Owing  to  the  high  social  position  of  the 
parties  concerned,  the  trial  attracted  much  attention.  On 
August  9,  1894,  a  duel  between  Colonel  Francisco  Romero 
and  Colonel  Verastegui,  head  of  the  stamp  department, 
resulted  in  the  death  of  the  latter.  Romero  was  sentenced 
to  three  years  and  four  months'  imprisonment,  and  a  fine 
of  $1,800  or  100  days'  additional  confinement.  He  was 
also  required  to  pay  $4,500  to  the  widow  of  his  victim  an- 
nually for  eighteen  years,  and  the  costs  of  the  funeral  and 
the  trial. 

In  the  early  part  of  August  an  uprising  of  Indians  in 
the  state  of  Yucatan,  apparently  over  the  matter  of  terri- 
torial claims,  caused  the  government  considerable  trouble. 

The  following  is,  in  part,  a  statement  from  President 
Diaz  regarding  the  business  condition  of  the  country,  pub'- 
lished  in  August: 

"Since  1892  commerce  and  industry  have  continued  their  pro- 
gressive march,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in  1892  and  1893  the 
crops  were  short  through  want  of  rain,  and  that  silver,  our  principal 
export,  has  suffered  a  notable  decline  in  foreign  markets.  Respect- 
ing this  last  point,  I  believe,  notwithstanding,  that  in  reality  the  det- 
riment has  not  been  of  the  magnitude  that  was  anticipated,  and  this 
decline  has  been  a  benefit  to  general  industries  in  the  country.  And 
this  is  easily  explained.  The  depreciation  of  silver  has  produced  a 
rise  in  foreign  exchange,  and  therefore  has  raised  the  price  of  im- 
ported goods,  which  actually  means  an  advantage  to  the  industries  of 
the  country.  The  immediate  result  of  this  situation  has  been  the  es- 
tablishment of  new  industries,  the  extension  of  others  already  estab- 
lished, and  the  encouragement  of  agriculture  in  all  those  branches 
suitable  for  exportation,  such  as  coffee,  henequin,  etc.,  which  values 
have  lately  increased." 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

'^  The  (xreater  Republic."— Sentiment  in  favor  of  a 
federation  of  the  five  republics  of  Central  iVmerica  has 
been  greatly  strengthened  as  a  result  of  the  lately  threat- 
ened outbreak  of  hostilities  between  Mexico  and  Guate- 
mala and  the  more  recent  aggressive  action  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  occupying  for  a  time  the  Nicaraguan  port  of  Cor- 
into  (p.  316).  A  federal  union  of  these  states  would  not 
only  increase  their  powers  of  defense  against  outside  ag- 
gressors, but  would  redound  to  the  benefit  of  their  indus- 
trial and  commercial  interests.  By  both  geographical  sit- 
uation and  racial  affinity  they  are  closely  allied.     One  se- 


676  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

rious  obstacle  to  their  complete  union  has  heretofore  been 
found  ill  the  personal  rivalries  and  petty  jealousies  of  their 
political  leaders.  Now,  however,  that  their  essential  weak- 
ness has  been  laid  bare,  the  logical  result  is  a  drift  toward 
union  as  a  means  of  strength. 

A  treaty  looking  ultimately  toward  complete  federation 
was  signed  at  Amapala,  Honduras,  in  June,  1895  (p.  406), 
by  the  presidents  of  Salvador,  Honduras,  and  Nicaragua. 
Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica  were  not  represented  at  the 

-  conference:  just  why,  is  not  clear.  It  has  since  been  re- 
ported that  Presidents  Barrios  of  Guatemala  and  Iglesias 
of  Costa  Rica  have  formed  a  secret  alliance  looking  toward 
a  Central  American  union,  in  which,  however,  Guatemala, 
on  the  ground  of  her  larger  area  and  population,  shall  ex- 
ercise a  dominant  influence. 

The  objects  aimed  at  in  the  treaty  of  Amapala  are 
two:    (1)    The  establishment  of  a  solid    confederation  of 

.  all  the  Central  American  republics  so  as  to  unite  fully 
their  interests  in  foreign  relations;  (2)  a  guarantee  of  do- 
mestic peace  throughout  their  several  dominions,  whereby 
capital  and  immigration  may  be  attracted. 

The  treaty  provides  that  the  three  signatory  states  shall  be  con- 
solidated in  a  political  union  under  the  name  of  "The  Greater  Repub- 
lic of  Central  America."  A  diet  shall  be  established,  composed  of  an 
equal  number  of  representatives  from  each  of  the  three  republics, 
who  shall  sit  yearly  at  the  capitals  of  the  different  states  in  succession. 
This  diet  shall  have  final  charge  only  of  the  adjustment  of  foreign  re- 
lations. It  may  appoint  ministers  and  consuls,  negotiate  treaties, 
and  consider  all  questions  concerning  the  relations  of  the  allied  states, 
or  any  one  of  them,  with  foreign  powers.  It  cannot  however  declare 
war;  but  if  it  is  impossible  to  settle  any  question  peacefully  or  to  have 
it  arbitrated  upon,  the  several  governments  must  be  notified,  and 
they  may  declare  war,  or  settle  the  dispute  as  they  please.  Domes- 
tic differences  between  the  republics  shall  be  settled  by  arbitration, 
preferably  of  the  United  States.  Three  years  are  to  be  allowed  for 
the  final  adoption  of  the  treaty.  If,  within  that  time,  Guatemala  and 
Costa  Rica  shall  accept  the  basis  of  union,  its  name  is  to  be  changed 
to  "  The  Republic  of  Central  America." 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  treaty  does  not  affect  the  sep- 
arate autonomy  of  the  states.  It  will  be  submitted  at  the 
next  session  of  the  several  assemblies  for  ratification. 

On  August  17  a  disturbance  occurred  on  the  frontier 
of  Guatemala  and  Salvador.  A  band  of  Cojutepecue  In- 
dians from  the  latter  republic  made  a  raid  across  the  bor- 
der; and  a  sharp  fight  ensued  with  Guatemalan  troops,  in 
which  the  latter  were  repulsed.  Reinforcements  coming 
up,  however,  the  Indians  were  later  in  the  day  driven 
back.     The  next  day  the  fighting  was  resumed  with  seri- 


VENEZUELA.  677 

is  loss  to  the  Guatemalans,  after  which  the  Indians  re- 
crossed  the  boundary.  The  relations  between  Guatemala 
and  Salvador  are  in  consequence  somewhat  strained. 

On  the  night  of  July  16,  an  American,  P.  G.  D.  Brooks, 
a  native  of  Tennessee,  chief  clerk  and  cashier  in  the  office  of 
an  important  transportation  agency  in  Guatemala,  was 
murdered  for  purposes  of  robbery. 

COLOMBIA. 

Construction  work  is  still  in  progress  on  the  Panama 
canal.  It  is  reported  that  a  syndicate  with  a  capital  of 
1100,000,000  has  been  formed  in  New  Jersey  to  take  over 
the  work  and  prosecute  it  to  completion  under  a  further 
extension  of  the  old  grants  and  privileges  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Company,  which  will  expire  in  about  eighteen 
months. 

A  strike  on  the  question  of  wages  occurred  among  the 
laborers  on  the  canal  in  the  latter  part  of  July.  It  as- 
sumed sufficient  proportions  to  induce  Mr.  J.  L.  Pearcy, 
United  States  consul  at  Colon,  to  request  the  dispatch  of  a 
naval  vessel  thither  for  the  protection  of  American  inter- 
ests; but,  as  the  Colombian  authorities  were  able  to  prevent 
disorder,  such  action  on  the  part  of  the  navy  department 
at  Washington  was  deemed  unnecessary.  In  about  a  week 
the  strike  had  collapsed;  and  at  the  end  of  July  the  men 
were  returning  to  work  at  the  old  rate  of  wages. 

YENEZUELA. 

In  July  revolutionary  attempts  were  made  in  the  west- 
ern districts,  to  overthrow  the  government  of  President 
Crespo;  but  were  suppressed  with  little  difficulty.  Five 
thousand  men,  it  is  reported,  among  them  Dr.  Diaz,  a  for- 
mer secretary  to  the  president,  Avere  banished  for  treason. 

Witliin  the  past  two  years,  and  under  the  operation  of 
the  Wilson  tariff  law,  the  export  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  Venezuela  has  shown  a  steady  increase.  Dur- 
ing the  last  year,  exports  from  New  York  were  over  16,- 
000,000;  and  in  June  of  the  present  year,  $41,000;  in  Julv, 
144,000;  in  August,  146,000;  in  September,  between  $50,- 
000  and  $60,000.  Two  years  ago  Venezuela  imported  al- 
most all  her  cotton  goods  from  England.  The  above  fig- 
ures are  based  on  the  report  of  Consul-General  Luis  For- 
syth of  Venezuela,  who  says  that  the  key  to  the  supplant- 
ing, by  Americans,  of  the  merchants  of  England,  Ger- 
many, and  France,  lies  in  the  development  of  a  line  of 


678  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

fast  steamers  and  in  Americans  paying  the  same  attention 
to  the  details  of  fashion  and  design  required  by  South 
American  consumers  as  is  paid  by  their  European  compet- 
itors. 

BRAZIL. 

The  rumors  prevalent  at  the  end  of  June  regarding 
the  prospects  of  an  ending  of  hostilities  in  the  long-rebel- 
lious state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  were  confirmed  in  Au- 
gust, it  being  definitely  announced  on  the  23d  that  terms 
of  peace  had  been  signed  by  the  generals  in  command  of 
the  government  troops  and  also  by  the  rebel  General  Ta- 
vares.  No  official  declaration,  however,  of  the  details  of 
the  terms  offered  by  the  government  had  been  publicly 
made  up  to  the  end  of  September;  but  they  certainly  in- 
cluded an  amnesty  to  those  participating  in  the  rebellion. 
An  amnesty  bill  was  passed  by  the  senate  August  28,  and 
that  body  also  inserted  a  clause  vouchsafing  the  same  re- 
lief to  all  who  had  taken  part  in  other  revolts. 

However,  in  spite  of  the  favorable  impression  created 
generally  throughout  the  country  by  the  announcement  of 
the  ending  of  hostilities,  the  chamber  of  deputies  has  per- 
sisted in  refusing  to  ratify  the  amnesty  bill.  President  de 
Moraes  intimated  toward  the  end  of  September  that  he 
would  resign  unless  the  bill  were  passed,  and  the  excite- 
ment among  the  deputies  went  to  the  length  of  severe 
personal  encounters  on  the  floor  of  the  house;  but  the  bill 
was  voted  down  September  25.  The  political  situation  is 
regarded  as  serious. 

A  new  plot  against  the  president  has  been  discovered, 
which  includes  some  of  the  highest  officials — among  them 
one  cabinet  minister  and  several  army  officers  of  high 
rank. 

For  some  time  past  a  movement  has  been  on  foot  look- 
ing to  the  selection  of  a  more  salubrious  location  for  the 
capital  of  the  republic  than  is  found  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It 
is  announced  that  the  commission  appointed  uiider  M. 
Cruls,  director  of  the  Rio  observatory,  for  the  determina- 
tion of  a  site,  has  completed  its  work.  A  site  has  been 
chosen  on  the  high  plateau  of  the  Pyrenneos  mountain 
range,  between  latitudes  15'  40'  and  16'  8',  and  longitudes 
49°  31'  and  51°.  It  is  at  an  elevation  of  3,500  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  and  possesses  a  temperature  far  more  agree- 
able than  that  of  the  present  capital  city,  its  climate  be- 
ing similar  to  that  of  southern  France  during  the  summer. 
It  is  likely  to  be  free  from  the  fever  so  prevalent  in  the 


ECUADOR.  679 

coast  region.  It  is  distant  from  the  coast  an  18  to  24 
hours'  ride  by  raih  A  quadrilateral  space  100  miles  long 
and  60  wide  has  been  set  aside  for  the  future  capital. 

THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

A  census  recently  taken  shows  that  the  population  of 
the  Argentine  Republic  numbers  4,750,000. 

Customs  receipts  for  the  first  six  months  of  the  year 
showed  a  heavy  deficit,  and  the  decrease  continued  through 
the  third  quarter.  To  raise  the  requisite  funds  the  finance 
minister.  Sen  or  Romero,  proposes  a  large  issue  of  bonds. 
The  principle  of  the  sclieme  is  unification  of  the  public 
debt,  bonds  to  be  floated  to  the  amount  of  1400,000.000 
in  gold,  $300,000,000  to  satisfy  claims  under  the  unifica- 
tion program,  and  1100,000,000  to  guarantee  the  present 
paper  issue  of  the  republic.  One  bright  feature  of  the 
situation  is  found  in  the  abundance  of  this  year's  produc- 
tion of  wheat,  wool,  and  maize. 

Numerous  desertions  from  the  navy  and  army  have 
drawn  the  attention  of  the  authorities  to  the  unsatisfactory 
condition  of  both  services,  and  extensive  measures  of  im- 
provement are  contemplated. 

ECUADOR. 

Our  record  of  the  recent  revolution  in  Ecuador  closed 
the  last  of  June  (p.  408)  with  General  Alfaro,  the  insur- 
gent leader,  in  practical  control  of  the  government.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  this  revolution  began  in  April, 
and  was  the  result  of  dissatisfaction  over  the  election  of 
President  Cordero,  candidate  of  the  conservative  or 
church  party.  On  June  10  General  Eloy  Alfaro  took 
command  of  the  insurgent  forces,  and  conducted  a  most 
vigorous  campaign.  From  the  first  he  was  popular  with 
the  common  people,  who  generally  favored  the  liberal 
party,  and  his  success  seemed  assured  almost  from  the  be- 
ginning. He  became  provisional  president,  and  June  16 
announced  his  government  and  his  program.  For  about 
a  month  after  this  decisive  step,  there  was  a  cessation  of 
hostilities.  The  rebels  were  in  possession  of  Guayaquil; 
while  the  government  forces  under  General  Sarasti,  min- 
ister of  war  under  President  Cordero,  still  held  Quito,  the 
capital.  It  was  the  purpose  of  Alfaro  to  capture  Quito, 
and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  war.  There  was  a  delay  of 
some  three  weeks,  during  which  time  the  insurgents  re- 
ceived recognition  from  several  of  the  neighboring  states. 


680  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  governments  of  Peru,  Venezuela,  and  Nicaragua  took 
steps  toward  recognizing  the  provisional  government  in 
Ecuador. 

Military  operations  were  resumed  August  7,  when 
General  Vergaza,  in  command  of  a  division  of  Alfaro's 
troops,  met  and  defeated  General  Sarasti  at  San  Miguel  de 
Chimbo.  This  battle  was  fiercely  fought,  3,000  men  be- 
ing engaged,  and  300  killed.  Again,  on  August  16,  the 
two  armies  met.  In  this  battle,  fought  at  Rio  Bamba, 
General  Alfaro  commanded  the  troops  of  the  liberals.  His 
victory  was  complete;  and  Sarasti,  wounded,  fled  to  Quito. 
His  adherents  in  the  capital  were  so  greatly  disgusted  at 
the  defeat  of  their  army  that  they  threatened  Sarasti's 
life.  He  took  refuge,  however,  with  the  American  lega- 
tion. Alfaro's  victorious  troops,  in  pursuit  of  the  defeated 
army,  occupied  Ambato  without  serious  opposition. 

On  September  4  the  liberal  forces  under  Alfaro  en- 
tered Quito.  The  conservative  government  had  no  re- 
sources left,  and  the  insurgents  encountered  no  opposition. 
As  elsewhere,  so  here,  the  insurgents  found  themselves 
enthusiastically  welcomed  by  the  populace.  United  States 
Minister  Tillman  reported  that  the  well-to-do  citizens  of 
Quito  apparently  took  no  interest  in  the  conflict,  but  went 
about  their  business  and  pleasures  indifferent  to  the  out- 
come of  the  struggle.  On  the  whole,  there  appeared  to  be 
very  little  active  opposition  to  the  liberals.  The  govern- 
ment ordered  an  issue  of  new  postage  stamps  commemo- 
rating the  victory  of  Alfaro.  All  the  members  of  the  di- 
plomatic corps  at  Quito  paid  their  respects  to  the  pro- 
visional president,  thus  recognizing  him  as  the  real  head 
of  the  government.  General  Salazar,  who  had  succeeded 
General  Sarasti  in  command  of  the  conservative  forces, 
had  left  the  city,  with  his  ministers  and  the  remnant  of  his 
army,  on  the  approach  of  Alfaro. 

The  two  provinces  of  Assuay  and  Imbabura  alone  were 
unwilling  to  recognize  the  new  government.  After  a 
severe  battle,  however,  Cuenca,  capital  of  Assuay,  was 
brought  to  submit;  and  Imbabura,  also,  though  somewhat 
more  tardily,  announced  its  submission. 

Nothing  now  remained  for  Alfaro  to  do  except  to  pro- 
tect himself  against  treachery.  There  were  reports  of  two 
conspiracies — one  an  attempt  to  assassinate  the  president 
in  his  palace,  and  the  other  a  conspiracy  between  two  of 
his  generals  to  overthrow  the  government.  These  officers 
were  Generals  Bowen  and  Trivino.  They  were  convicted 
of  treason,  the  evidence  of  their  guilt  being  indisputable. 


CHILE.  681 

On  the  whole,  liowever,  the  new  government  meets  with 
the  warm  support  of  all  classes.  Alfaro  declared  a  gen- 
eral amnesty,  and  announced,  upon  taking  the  office  of 
provisional  president,  that  his  policy  would  be  one  of  lib- 
erality and  toleration. 

For  the  third  time  now  this  remarkable  man  has  taken  an  active 
part  in  revolutions  in  Ecuador.  He  was  born  at  Monte  Christi,  in  the 
province  of  Manavi,  and  is  fifty  years  old.  He  is  well  educated.  He 
entered  on  a  commercial  career,  but  left  it  to  take  active  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1872.  This  was  the  insurrection  against  the  govern- 
ment of  President  Gracia  Moreno,  For  his  services  in  this  revolu- 
tion Alfaro  received  the  rank  of  colonel.  Again,  in  1876,  he  was  en- 
gaged in  the  revolution  against  President  Bonero.  In  this  the  insur- 
gents were  successful,  and  Alfaro  became  president  of  Ecuador.  Af- 
ter holding  office  for  a  few  days,  he  resigned  in  favor  of  Jose  Veinle- 
milla.  The  new  president  did  not  conduct  the  government  to  suit 
Alfaro;  and  so  the  latter  iook  it  upon  himself  to  regain  the  office  he 
had  resigned.  The  result  of  this  effort  was  his  own  banishment.  He 
returned  to  Central  America,  and  resumed  his  commercial  life.  The 
news  of  another  revolution,  however,  brought  him  back  to  Ecuador. 
He  sided  naturally  with  the  liberals,  became  their  chief,  and,  as  we 
have  seen,  their  provisional  president,  and  later  the  president  of  Ec- 
uador, holding  undisputed  sway. 

Unless  all  signs  fail,  the  present  government  in  Ecuador 
is  much  more  secure  than  its  predecessor.  It  is  eighty-six 
years  since  the  first  cry  for  independence  was  heard  in 
Ecuador;  and  since  that  time  it  has  had  rather  more  than 
its  share  of  the  revolutions  which  almost  periodically  af- 
flict South  American  republics. 

CHILE. 

A  cabinet  crisis  occurred  in  Chile  which  continued 
through  the  month  of  July,  President  Montt  making  sev- 
eral unsuccessful  attempts  at  securing  a  new  ministry. 
A  coalition  ministry,  consisting  of  liberals  and  radicals, 
was  at  length  formed  under  Senor  Recabarren  as  premier 
and  minister  of  the  interior.  The  names  of  the  other 
ministers,  announced  August  1,  are: 

Senor  Matte,  foreign  affairs;  Senor  Mclver,  finance;  Senor  Val- 
dez,  war  and  marine;  Senor  Sanchez  Fontecilla,  justice;  and  Senor 
Davila  Baeza,  public  works. 

The  new  ministry  is  supported  by  the  Balmacedist 
party;  but  its  tenure  of  office  is  said  to  be  uncertain.  Its 
program  includes  pledges  of  non-interference  in  elections, 
conversion  of  the  public  debt,  strict  attention  to  all  im- 
portant foreign  questions,  and  rigid  fulfilment  of  treaty 
stipulations. 

Vol.  5—44. 


682  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

PERU. 

General  Nicolas  de  Pierola,  the  leader  of  the  revolution- 
ary forces  which  recently  overthrew  the  government  of 
General  Caceres,  was  quietly  elected  president  of  Peru 
July  27.  He  was  officially  proclaimed  September  4;  and 
was  inaugurated  September  8  with  great  popular  enthu- 
siasm. Senor  Guillermo  Billinghurst  was  elected  first  vice- 
president;  and  Seiior  Augusto  Seminario,  second  vice- 
president. 

PiEROLA,  Nicolas  de,  president  of  Peru,  was  born  at  Camana, 
Arequipa,  Peru,  January  5,  1839.  His  father  was  director  of  the 
Lima  museum,  and  the  boy  was  educated  in  that  city,  and  for  a  time 
was  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  and  in  journalism.  He  became 
minister  of  finance  under  President  Balta  (1868-72).  His  revolution- 
ary spirit  led  him  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  the  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  overthrow  Pardo  in  1872  and  1874,  and  Prado  in  1877. 
When  President  Prado  went  to  Europe  during  the  disastrous  war 
with  Chile,  Pierola  deposed  the  vice-president,  and  was  proclaimed 
head  of  the  state  in  December,  1879.  He  vigorously  defended  Lima, 
and  on  the  fall  of  that  city  (January  17,  1881)  fled  into  the  interior, 
and  convoked  a  congress  at  Arequipa.  He,  however,  resigned  in  No- 
vember, 1871,  and  went  to  Europe.  In  1885  he  made  another  at- 
tempt to  secure  the  presidency.  He  has  several  times  been  ban- 
ished for  treason,  but  he  has  always  had  a  strong  following  in  the 
country.  It  was  he  who,  as  minister  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinet 
of  President  Balta,  arranged  the  system  of  credits  with  Europe  through 
the  Paris  house  of  Dreyfus,  which  enabled  Peru  to  undertake  an  im- 
mense, and  as  many  think  an  extravagant,  system  of  public  works. 

A  party  of  American  missionaries  was  expelled  from 
Cuzco  in  August.  The  clergy  and  people,  it  is  reported, 
were  opposed  to  them.  The  government  offered  them 
protection  if  they  would  remain  in  Puno;  but  they  refused 
to  do  so  and  returned  to  Lima. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

AS  was  recorded  in  the  preceding  issue  of  Current  His- 
tory (p.  416),  the  liberal  ministry  under  Lord  Rose- 
bery — defeated  in  parliament  by  a  majority  of  7  on  June 
21 — resigned  on  June  22;  and  Lord  Salisbury,  who  was 
immediately  requested  by  the  queen  to  form  a  new  cabinet, 
accepted  the  commission  on  June  25;  the  new  ministry  ac- 
cepted the  seals  of  office  on  June  29;  the  decree  of  disso- 
lution of  parliament  was  made  on  July  8^  when  also  writs 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


683 


were  issued  for  the  election  of  a  fresh  parliament.  The  new 
cabinet  list  also  appears  in  the  previous  issue.  On  July  6 
parliament  was  prorogued  until  July  24.  The  factories 
bill,  with  its  important  provisions  of  reform,  had  been 
passed  by  a  non-partisan  vote. 

The  General  Election. — The  pollings  extended  from 
July  12  to  July  29,  except  that  the  districts  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland  did  not  vote 
till  August  7.  In  the 
last  parliament  the 
liberal  majority  was 
twenty-eight,  to  re- 
verse which  a  con- 
servative -unionist 
gain  of  fifteen  mem- 
bers was  requisite. 
The  returns  of  the 
first  three  days 
showed  that  this  ma- 
jority had  been  re- 
versed by  a  net  con- 
servative -unionist 
gain  of  eighteen  seats 
(six  on  the  second  day, 
ivvelve  on  the  third, 
day).  Thencefor- 
ward to  the  end  the 
tide  was  all  one  way, 
every  day,  with  the 
single  exception  of 
the  belated  Orkney 
and  Shetland  polling, 
showing  a  net  loss  to 
the  liberals.  The  final  returns  show  the  membership  (670) 
of  the  new  parliament  as  follows:  Conservatives  and  liberal - 
unionists  in  alliance,  411;  all  others,  259;  joint  majority  of 
conservatives  and  liberal-unionists,  152,  The  conserva- 
tive majority  over  all  others  combined  is  six.  The  labor  or 
socialist  party  has,  as  distinguished  from  the  liberals,  no 
members  in  the  new* parliament. 

The  change  which  the  election  has  made  in  parliament 
is  here  shown:* 


LORD  HALSBURY, 
LORD   CHANCELLOR  OF   ENGLAND. 


*  Note,— Tn  the  statistics  of  election  returns  here  given,  C.  indicates  con- 
servative; L.  U.,  liberal-unionist;  and  C.  A.,  the  alliance  of  these  two  —  L.  indi- 
cates liberal;  P.,  Parnellite;  A.  P..  anti-Parnellite;  and  H.  K.,  the  total  of  these 
home-rule  parties  in  opposition  to  the  conservative  alliance. 


684 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 
RESULTS  OF  THE  ELECTION. 


3d  Qr.,  1895. 


321 


July  8,  1895, 

0.  A 276  1 

L.U 45f 

L.... 268 

y QV  349 

A.P 72) 


C.  A. 
L.  U. 
L  ... 
P.... 
A.  P. 


August  7,  189.'5 


C.  A.  majority. 


•^f  [  411 

;i77j 

.  12  V  259 
.  70) 

152 


H.  R.  majority 2 

REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM   AND  ITS  COMPONENT 
PARTS  IN  THE  PRESENT  PARLIAMENT. 


C... 
L.  U. 
L.... 
A.P. 
P.... 


united  kingdom, 
(670  seats.) 

.340 

"1 

,177/ 

70  V  H.  R.,  259 

12 


^;iV  [  C.  A.,  411 


C.  A.  majority. 


152 


C... 
L.  U. 
L.... 
A.  P. 
P.... 


great   BRITAIN. 

(567  seats.) 

323t  p    . 

67t   ^-^ 

176 

1 

0 


390 


t  H.  R.,  177 


C.  A.  majority. 


213 


ENGLAND. 

(465  seats.) 


C "^96  (.   p    A     .040 

L.  U 53,    C.A.,rf49 


H.R.,116 


C.  A.  majority 

SCOTLAND. 

(72   SEATS.) 

C 201 

L.  U 13f 

L 39] 

A.  P 0^ 

P 0) 


WALES. 

(30  seats.) 

C 

L.U 

L 22) 

A.P OV  H.  R. 

P 0\ 


C.  A., 


H.  R.  majority. 


C.  A.,  33 


C... 
L.  U. 
L.... 
A.  P. 

P. . . . 


IRELAND. 

(103  seat-.) 


.17  ( 

.  4r 

A2\ 


C.  A.,  21 


H.  R..  82 


H.  R.  majority.... 
DISTRIBUTION    OF 


H.  R.  majority. 


SEATS    IN    THE    PRESENT    PARLIAMENT   AMONG 
VARIOUS  CONSTITUENCIES. 


- 

Total 
seats. 

Conserv.  alliance. 

Home  rule. 

Maj< 

»rity. 

C. 

5J 

99 

142 

4 

296 

5 
2 

7 

6 

20 

3 
12 
2 

17 
"¥10 

L.U. 

3 

1 
5;i 

I 

1 

8 
5 
0 

Total 
C.  A. 

L. 

A.  P. 

P- 

Total 
H.  R. 

8 

43 
65 
0 

116 

5 

17: 
22 

17 
22 

C.  A.   H.R. 

England 

(465  seats). 

Loudon 

Boroughs...  . 

Counties 

Universities.. 

62 

164 

234 

5 

54 

121 

109 
5 

8 
42 
65 

0 
115 

5 
17 
22 

17 
22 
•  0 
39 

0 
1 
0 
1 
I77 

0 
1 
0 
0 

1 

0 
0 
0 

0 

s 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

i 

Oj 

§ 

0 
0 

6' 
6 
0 
\z 

46 

78 

104! 

5 

Total 

Wales 

(30  seats). 
Boroughs.... 
Counties 

465 

11 
19 

349 

6 
2 

8 

14 
17 
2 
33 

5 
14 
2 

233 

1 

15 

Total 

30 

31 
39 
2 

14 

Scotland 

(72  seats). 

Burghs 

Counties... 
Universities.. 

2 

3 
5 

Total 

Ireland 

(103  seats). 
Boroughs. ... 
Counties...  . 
Universities.. 

72 

16 
85 
2 

13 

2 

2; 

o| 

0 

5 
64 
0 

6!i 

1 
"0 

« 

2 

6 

57 

Total 

103 

4 

21 

82 

61 

Grand  totals... 

670 

71 

411| 

70 

259 

1.52 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


685 


GAINS    OF    SEATS    BY    THE    VARIOUS    PARTIES     IN     THE     RECENT 
ELECTION. 


London 

English  borouiihs 
Enfflish  counties. 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 


Cons»'rv.  alliance. 

Home  rule 

C. 

L.U. 

Total 
C.  A. 

L. 

A.  P. 

P. 

12 

1 

13 

25 

12 

37 

9 

30 

11 

41 

4 

4 

2 

6 

9 

4 

13 

5 

1 

1 

80 

30 

110 

19 

1 

Thus  tLe  net  gain  of  the  conservative  alliance  is  90.  The  net 
gain  (78)  of  that  party  in  London  and  throughout  England  is  over- 
whelming; but  even  naore  significant  are  its  gains  in  Scotland,  where 
Mr.  Gladstone's  influence  was  supposed  to  be  controlling,  and  in 
Wales  where  the  proposal  of  the  liberals  to  disestablish  the  Church 
of  England  was  expected  to  rally  to  them  a  multitude  of  voters. 
The  liberals  have  lost  110  seats,  80  to  conservatives,  30  to  liberal- 
vinionists;  and  have  gained  19  seats,  15  from  conservatives,  4  from 
liberal-unionists.  The  returns  show  the  conservative  majorities  due 
not  so  much  to  abstention  from  voting  as  to  transfer  of  votes.  One 
most  evident  feature  is  a  reaction  of  individualism  against  the  in- 
creasing pretensions  and  demands  of  socialism. 

MEMBERS    RETURNED    BY    THE   VARIOUS    PARTIES    AT    THE    LAST 
THREE   GENERAL   ELECTIONS. 


Conservative  alliance. 

Liberals 

Anti-Parnellites 

Parnellites 


191) 
0^276 
85 


315 
274/ 
72^55 


9\ 


1895. 


12  i 


Showinff  in  1886  a  C.  A.  majority  of  118. 
Showing  in  181)2  a  L.  majority  of  40. 
Showing  in  1895  a  C.  A.  majority  of  15-2. 

VOTES  POLLED  AT  THE  LAST  ELECTION  (1895)  BY  BOTH  PARTIES. 
[The  figures  for  Ireland  not  being  yet  in  hand,  those  for  1892  are  used.] 


London 

England 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland  (1892). 
Great  Britain. 


Conserv.  alliance.  |  Liberal  and  Irish. 


250,146 

1,692,259 

92,129 

233,021 

143.777 

2,267,555 


167,150 
1,472,561 
125,353 
247.519 
363.617 
2,012.5»i 


The  fact  is  noteworthy  that  more  than  one- fourth  of  the  present 
members  were  returned  without  contest  at  the  polls.  For  132  con- 
servative alliance  seats,  and  for  57  home  rule  seats,  there  were  no  op- 
posing candidates.  This  makes  it  impossible  to  estimate  definitely 
the  majority  of  popular  votes  cast  for  the  victorious  party;  but  it 
is  conjectured  that  their  total  majorities  would  have  been  between 
100,0()0  and  200,000  if  all  seats  had  been  contested— a  surprisingly 
small  percentage,  for  their  enormous  parliamentary  majority,  of  a 
possible  poll  exceeding  6,000,000.  This  may  indicate  that  the  liberal 
party,  though  shut  out  from  power  for  a  term  that  seems  likely  to 
reach  to  seven  years,  is  not  buried  beyond  resurrection.  In  the 
last  preceding  election  (1892)  the  total  home  rule  majority  at  the 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


3d  Qr.,  1895. 


polls  was  205,825;  in  1886  that  of  the  conservative  alliance  was  76.- 
225;  in  1885  that  of  the  liberals  was  513,420. 

In  the  preceding  issue  of  this  review,  some  of  the 
causes  assigned  for  this  crushing  defeat  of  the  liberals 
were  presented  (p.  420).  To  these  should  be  added  a  cause 
now  recognized  as  one  of  tlie  most  effective — the  liberal 
proposal  for  disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  England  in 

Wales.  This  was 
viewed  as  one  step  in 
a  policy  menacing  in 
the  near  future  the 
connection  of  church 
and  state  in  Scotland 
and  thereafter  in 
England.  It  was  felt, 
therefore,  as  an  inva- 
sion of  prescriptive 
rights  hallowed  by 
immemorial  usage; 
as  the  desecration  of 
sacred  shrines  and 
of  ancestral  memo- 
ries; as  spoliation  of 
a  treasure  of  patriotic 
and  religious  senti- 
ment. Many  even  of 
those  who  held  aloof 
from  that  church 
shrank  in  fear  from 
the  unknown  risks 
involved  in  the  re- 
moval of  such  a  cor- 
ner-stone of  the  his- 
toric English  state.  While  this  mood  lasts,  men — at  least 
Englishmen — have  no  ear  for  political  theories  or  for  de- 
bates on  abstract  justice:  mere  party  ties  cannot  hold 
them  from  making  their  votes  a  barrier  against  the  inno- 
vation. 

The  New  Parliament  and  Cabinet.— The  four- 
teenth parliament  of  Queen  Victoria  opened  on  August  12. 
In  the  house  of  commons  the  earliest  business  was  the 
election  of  a  speaker.  A  movement  of  some  strength  among 
the  conservatives  to  exercise  their  right  and  their  power 
in  choosing  one  of  their  own  party  to  this  high  office,  had 
met  stout  opposition  from  the  leaders  on  that  side.  Such 
a  proposition  was  deprecated  as  in  violation  of  precedent 


RT.  HON.  WILLIAM  COURT  GULLY, 
SPEAKER  OF  THE  BRITISH  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  687 

and  tradition,  and  therefore  un-conservative,  and  as  tend- 
ing to  reduce  the  speakership  to  a  party  appointment:  the 
impartiality  of  the  occupant  of  the  chair  would  be  brought 
under  suspicion,  and  one  of  the  main  bulwarks  of  the 
dignity  and  independence  of  the  house — the  judicial  atti- 
tude of  the  chair — would  be  destroyed.  Mr.  Gully's  con- 
duct in  his  exalted  position,  it  was  also  testified,  had  been 
above  reproach.  The 
opposition  to  his  re- 
election was  met  b^ 
a  decision  in  the  cabi- 
net, and  the  result 
was  that  AVilliam 
Court  Gully  was  on 
motion  unanimously 
appointed  speaker. 
In  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  party  now  in 
power  had  resisted  to 
the  utmost  his  ap- 
pointment at  the  last 
session,  this  action  is 
significant  and  im- 
pressive. 

Many  prominent 
liberals  and  a  few 
conservatives  are 
missed  from  the  pres- 
ent roll  of  the  house 
through  their  defeat 
at  the  polls.  Among 
these  are  the  follow- 
ing members  of  the 
late  government:  John  Morley,  Mr.  Shaw-Lefevre,  Arnold 
Morley,  Sir  J.  T.  Hibbert,  A.  G.  Brand,  G.  Leveson-Gower, 
C.  R.  Spencer,  G.  W.  E.  Russell.  Sir  W.  V.  Harcourt,  de- 
feated at  Derby,  was  afterward  elected  in  Monmouthshire. 
Many  of  the  new  members  are  men  well  known  in  public 
life. 

Of  the  new  cabinet  (see  p.  417)  the  four  commanding 
names  at  present  are  unquestionably,  Lord  Salisbury, 
Joseph  Chamberlain,  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  Arthur 
Balfour.  The  other  members  are  not  unknown  nor  with- 
out honor  for  mental  and  administrative  capacity;  but, all 
their  differing  drifts  of  policy  are  doubtless  represented 
by  these  four,  and   probably  by  the  first  two.     The  press 


RT.  HON.  JOHN  MORLEY, 
EX-CHIEF  SECRETARY  FOR  IRELAND. 


688  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

teems  with  prognostications  of  the  wonderfully  noble  or 
dire  things  that  these  two  will  agree  to  do  for  or  with 
the  nation;  and  among  liberals  there  may  be  detected  a 
lurking  expectation  that  the  two  will  balance  and  neutral- 
ize each  other  by  diverse  policies.  It  is  pleasant  to  note 
that  there  is  scarcely  any  partisan  impugning  of  either  of 
them  in  regard  to  patriotism,  sincerity,  and  ability. 
These  two  men  are  indeed  picturesquely  diverse: — Lord 
Salisbury,  a  tory,  little  troubled  with  great  general  theories, 
full  of  learning  both  from  books  and  from  large  experience, 
ready  with  merciful  gifts  to  men  who  are  demanding  their 
rights,  strong,  unyielding,  stiffening  the  more  as  pressure 
or  threat  grows  stronger,  capable  of  a  calm  intensity  of 
bitterness  in  debate,  not  troubling  himself  to  be  brilliant 
or  dashing  in  word  or  action  even  if  he  have  that  gift,  not 
troubling  himself  even  to  be  adroit  since  he  is  never  aware 
of  needing  such  a  resort,  not  changeable  in  the  greater 
matters,  yet  curiously  capable  in  peculiar  conjunctures  of 
transferring  himself  suddenly  and  openly  from  one  posi- 
tion to  another,  and  standing  as  innocently  in  the  new 
spot  as  though  he  had  been  born  there — perhaps  a  gift  of 
unconscious  strategy:  Mr.  Chamberlain,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  born  radical,  moderating  his  radicalism  with  an  excel- 
lent practical  wisdom;  energetic  but  capable  of  patient 
waiting  while  the  tide  is  rising,  his  lucid  mind  a  natural 
treasury  of  theories  for  social  betterment;  a  powerful  de- 
bater because  brilliant  and  dashing  while  reasonable  and 
guarded;  a  consciously  strategic  political  organizer  and 
tactician  to  whom  more  than  to  any  one  else  the  lib- 
eral rout  is  due;  one  who  knows  men,  and  knows  him- 
self, and  knows  his  times,  and  is  not  afraid;  a  man  who 
might  appear  in  history  as  the  foremost  British  leader  of 
these  days  if  the  charm  of  a  delicate  sympathy  with 
human  beings — aside  from  his  theories  about  them — could 
be  added  to  his  spiritual  outfit,  and  if  he  could  forget  that 
he  had  appointed  himself  the  champion  of  progress. 

Forecasts  of  the  program  for  the  new  government  are 
of  small  worth.  The  two  leaders,  though  naturally  so  far 
from  unison,  may  be  expected  to  work  together  with  a 
studied  harmony  sufficient  for  practical  purposes.  The 
result  may  be  a  liberalism  more  eifective  than  the  liberals 
have  achieved.  The  program  will  not  be  revealed  until  it 
is  developed  in  action  when,  in  February,  parliament 
settles  down  to  its  work.  The  Irish  question  is  laid  on  the 
shelf.  The  Irish  parliamentary  members  are  shorn  of 
their  power.     But  none  the  less  the  new  government  will 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  689 

find  it  impossible  to  avoid  granting  Ireland  some  measure 
of  relief.  There  have  been  rumors  that  the  conservative 
leaders  intend  to  make  the  house  of  lords  in  some  degree 
an  elective  body.  The  Times,  in  July,  speaking  doubtless 
rather  from  Lord  Salisbury's  side,  indicated  the  following 
items  as  already  practically  proposed  by  the  unionists: 

An  Irish  land  bill,  measures  of  Irish  local  government,  reduction 
of  Irish  representation  in  parliament,  readjustment  of  the  burdens  on 
land,  redistribution  of  seats,  factory  and  mines  legislation. 

The  continental  press  at  about  the  same  time  saw, 
through  some  kind  of  French,  Russian,  or  German  mist, 
stormy  diplomatic  times  ahead,  with  dangers  of  war,  be- 
cause of  the  "jingoism"  which  has  been  attributed  to 
Lord  Salisbury  as  an  uncompromising  upholder  of  British 
interests  against  the  world. 

Parliament  listened  to  the  queen's  speech  on  August 
15.  The  speech  lamented  the  atrocities  on  English  mis- 
sionaries in  China,  and  declared  that  effective  measures 
were  being  taken  to  punish  all  who  were  responsible  for 
the  crimes.  It  expressed  horror  and  indignation  at  the 
outrages  in  Armenia,  and  announced  that  the  response  of 
the  sultan  of  Turkey  was  anxiously  awaited  to  the  sugges- 
tion of  needful  reforms  in  the  administration  of  the  em- 
pire, proposed  jointly  by  the  British,  the  Russian,  and  the 
French  governments.  Lord  Salisbury,  in  an  address  upon 
the  speech,  expressed  his  hope  that  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment would  meet  the  demands  of  the  situation;  then, 
sternly  condemning  the  cruelties  in  Armenia,  significantly 
said  that  England  wished  to  maintain  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire, and  that  the  sultan  would  be  committing  a  calamit- 
ous mistake  if  he  declined  to  listen  to  the  earnest  advice 
of  the  powers.  On  September  5  parliament  was  prorogued 
until  November  15. 

The  New  Commander-in-Chief.— Formal  announce- 
ment was  made  in  parliament  on  August  19  that  the  Duke 
of  Cambridge  would  retire  from  chief  command  of  the 
British  army  on  November  1,  and  would  be  succeeded  by 
Field-Marshal  Viscount  Garnet  Joseph,  first  Lord  Wolseley. 
The  term  of  office  is  to  be  five  years.  The  venerable  retir- 
ing commander  is  held  in  honor  for  his  long  and  faithful 
performance  of  important  duty;  but  times  and  methods 
have  changed  while  he  has  not,  and  for  several  years  it  has 
generally  been  felt  that  his  retirement,  and  replacement 
by  an  expert  in  recent  military  science,  would  facilitate  a 
reconstruction  of  the  service  on  modern  lines. 

General  Lord  Roberts  and  the  Duke  of  Connaught  were 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


3d  Qr.,  1895. 


the  two  men  most  strongly  urged  in  competition  with  Lord 
Wolseley  as  successors  of  the  Duke  of  Cambridge.  Lord 
Eoberts,  the  "hero  of  Candahar/'  is  admired  and  trusted 
by  the  army,  and  is  unsurpassed  in  popular  favor;  he  is 
also  more  in  favor  with  Lord  Salisbury  than  is  Lord 
Wolseley.  A  slight  advantage  of  the  latter  in  point  of 
seniority  seems  to  have  been  decisive  in  the  appointment, 

together  with  the 
fact  that  Lord  Rob- 
erts has  had  less  ex- 
perience  in  head- 
quarters administra- 
tion. It  is  conceded 
that  with  either  the 
army  would  have  an 
excellent  head.  Sen- 
timent and  precedent 
favored  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Duke  of 
Connaught,  who  also 
is  liked  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  has  high 
military  attainments. 
But  the  queen^s  son 
was  not  made  succes- 
sor to  her  uncle,  and 
thus  the  advantage 
of  having  royalty  at 
the  head  of  the  army 
was  dispensed  with. 

WoLSET.EY,     Lord, 
THE  DUKE  OF  CAMBRIDGE,  bom    ill    1833,     eiitcred 

RETIRED  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF  OF  THE  BRITISH     the   armj   RS  ensigii    in 
ARMY.  1853;  served  in  the  second 

Burmese  war,  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  East  India  during  the 
Mutiny;  was  made  major  in  1858,  lieutenant-colonel  in  1859;  served 
in  China  in  1860,  and  in  Canada  in  1867,  having  command  of  the 
Red  River  expedition.  In  1870  he  was  made  a  K.  C.  M.  G .  He 
became  major-general  in  1868.  was  knighted  and  made  assistant  ad- 
jutant-general in  1871.  In  1873  he  received  the  thanks  of  parliament,  a 
grant  of  £25,000,  and  the  honor  of  K.  C.  B.,  for  his  services  as  leader 
of  an  expedition  to  the  African  Gold  Coast.  In  1878  he  was  sent  to 
Cyprus  as  high  commissioner  and  commander,  and  in  1879  to  South 
Africa  as  governor  of  Natal  and  the  Transvaal.  For  his  success  as 
commander  of  the  expedition  to  crush  the  rebellion  of  Arabi  Pasha 
in  Egypt  in  1882,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Wolseley. 
He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  was  adjutant  general 
of  the  forces  from  1882  to  1885.  He  commanded  the  expedition  to 
the  Nile  against  the  Mahdi  of  the  Soudan  in  1884-5,  but  was  sent  too 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  691 

late  to  prevent  tbe  fall  of  Khartoum  and  the  death  of  General  Gor- 
don. Returning  to  England,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount. 
In  the  political  field  his  attacks  on  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish  schemes  in 
1886  excited  much  comment.  He  is  the  author  of  several  works, 
among  them  Narratim  of  the  War  with  China  in  1860;  The  Soldier's 
Pocket  Book  for  Field  Service  (3d  edition,  1882);  2'he  Life  of  John 
Churchill,  Duke  of  Marlborough,  to  the  Accession  of  Queen  Anne 
(1894);  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  Napoleon  (1895);  etc.  For  portrait, 
see  Vol.  4,  p.  407. 

Irish  Affairs. — The  appointment  of  Gerald  Balfour, 
younger  brother  of  Arthur  J.  Balfour,  as  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  was  a  surprise  on  account  of  his  youth  and 
inexperience.  It  is  possible  tliat  his  development  of 
abilities  similar  to  those  of  his  brother  may  occasion  a 
second  surprise;  but,  however  this  may  be,  the  appoint- 
ment may  be  justified  on  the  conservative  tlieory  that  the 
Irish  question  is  no  longer  of  commanding  importance. 
The  new  chief  secretary  in  his  first  address  in  parliament 
made  a  favorable  impression  on  even  the  Irish  members. 

There  has  been  disturbance  in  the  anti-Parnellite  fac- 
tion. In  August,  Justin  McCarthy  issued  a  bitter  public 
attack  on  Timothy  M.  Healy,  who  replied  with  equal  bit- 
terness. Mr.  Healy  and  his  faction  met  a  severe  defeat  at 
the  South  Kerry  election  early  in  September.  The  anti- 
Parnellite  members  of  parliament  on  August  13  patched 
up  a  peace,  and  re-elected  Mr.  McCarthy  chairman  of  the 
party.  Early  in  the  parliamentary  session  the  Irish  mem- 
bers resumed  their  familiar  policy  of  delay,  but  with  no 
effect. 

Rumor  is  heard  of  a  possible  abolition  of  the  lord -lieu- 
tenancy of  Ireland.  The  office  is  certainly  an  anomaly, 
as  it  properly  pertains  to  a  conquered  province  or  to  a 
colony,  and  has,  on  the  conservative  theory,  no  more  place 
in  Ireland  than  in  Scotland  or  Wales. 

An  Irish  national  convention  at  Chicago,  111.,  on  Sep- 
tember 26,  formed  an  organization,  the  Irish  National 
Alliance  of  the  World,  with  the  avowed  object  of  gaining 
independence  for  Ireland  and  establishing  there  a  repub- 
lic by  a  policy  of  physical  force.  The  seat  of  operations 
is  to  be  New  York  city,  and  a  central  council  is  to  issue 
charters  for  state  organizations.  The  plan  repudiates 
as  worthless  the  policy  of  the  Irish  members  in  parliament, 
and  proposes  to  withdraw  the  American  contributions  for 
their  support.  It  urges  the  formation  of  Irish  military 
companies  here  and  elsewhere,  in  order  ''to  be  prepared  for 
action  in  the  hour  of  England's  difficulty  " — this  in  the 
expectation  of  war  likely  to  arise  between  England  and 


692  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

France  or  Russia.  The  Dublin  newspaper  United  Ireland 
welcomes  the  new  movement:  the  English  press  make 
light  of  it. 

Personal  and  Miscellaneous.— The  first-class  nn- 
armored  cruiser  Pow^-r/^^^/,  sister  ship  to  the  Terrible  (p. 
425),  was  lannched  at  Barrow  on  July  24.  Each  of  these 
stupendous  cruisers  carries  a  crew  of  893  men  and  officers, 
150  more  than  the  largest  British  battle-ship  now  afloat. 
Both  vessels  are  to  be  ready  for  commission  in  March, 
1898. 

The  shahzada,  Nasrulla  Khan,  son  of  the  ameer  of 
Afghanistan,  ended  his  visit  of  fifteen  weeks  early  in  Sep- 
tember (p.  424).  A  number  of  high  government  officials 
took  part  in  the  farewell  ceremonials,  which  also  occa- 
sioned much  popular  enthusiasm.  He  made  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  courtesies  which  he  had  received  and  of  his 
enjoyment  of  the  visit,  adding  the  expression  of  his  belief 
that  the  alliance  between  his  country  and  Great  Britain 
would  be  enduring. 

The  largest  single  graving  dock  in  the  world  was 
opened  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  at  Southampton  on  August 
3,  with  elaborate  ceremony  and  immense  enthusiasm."  It 
belongs  to  the  London  &  Southwestern  Railway  Company. 

The  length  is  750  feet  on  the  floor,  with  provision  for  enlarge- 
ment, if  requisite,  to  1,000  feet.  The  width  is  112  feet  6  inches; 
width  of  entrance  at  cope  is  91  feet,  at  sill  level  87  feet  6  inches. 
The  capacity  at  high  water  is  14,500,000  gallons,  which,  with  a  ship 
in,  can  be  emptied  in  two  hours.  There  is  a  complete  equipment  of 
hydraulic  pumps,  cranes,  lifts,  and  capstans,  with  electric  light,  and 
miles  of  rail-tracks. 

The  London  home  of  Thomas  Carlyle  for  forty-seven 
years,  at  24  Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea,  has  been  bought  by  a 
trust,  and  converted  into  a  museum  for  relics  and  me- 
morials of  the  great  writer.  The  house  is  nearly  200  years 
old,  and  contains  much  of  Carlyle's  furniture, "with  some 
of  his  pictures  and  books — the  gift  of  the  late  Mrs.  Alex- 
ander Carlyle.  To  insure  the  permanence  of  the  scheme 
a  maintenance  fund  is  required,  for  which  the  assistance 
of  the  public  is  requested. 

A  new  march  through  Glencoe,  the  scene  of  the  massa- 
cre of  the  Highland  Macdonalds  by  the  Campbells  in 
1692,  was  performed  by  the  Inverary  Pipe  Band  instituted 
by  Lord  Archibald  Campbell.  This  band,  which  has  per- 
formed annually  in  Oban  at  the  Gaelic  Mod  (similar  to  the 
Eisteddfod  of  Wales),  this  year  arranged  for  a  visit  to  the 
magnificent  scenery  of  Gleiicoe.     Their  motives  were  at 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  693 

first  misconstrued  as  reviving  the  old  clannish  hostility, 
and  Lord  Archibald  received  many  letters  threatening  a 
second  massacre  of  Glencoe.  He  and  his  pipers,  however, 
trusting  to  the  Highland  good  will,  went  and  were  received 
with  great  cordiality.  Their  antique  Gaelic  music  excited 
much  enthusiasm. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

Trades-Union  Congress. — This  important  assembly 
of  344  delegates  from  trades  unions,  representing  a  mil- 
lion or  more  of  British  workingmen,  met  in  Cardiff, 
Wales,  September  3.  The  meeting  was  one  of  unusual 
interest  and  importance,  as  showing  a  sudden  and  over- 
whelming turn  in  the  tide  which  for  three  years  past  had 
been  sweeping  the  British  working  population  toward 
socialism. 

In  this  body,  whose  annual  meetings  have  extended 
through  twenty-nine  years,  there  was  developed  a  few 
years  ago  a  division  of  sentiment,  at  first  dimly  outlined, 
but  latterly  clear  and  decided,  between  those  who  sought 
reforms  under  law  in  the  interests  of  labor,  and  those  who 
declared  that  labor  could  come  into  possession  of  its 
rights  only  through  a  general  economic  and  social  revolu- 
tion. Gradually  a  line  of  cleavage  became  manifest — 
radicals  against  conservatives,  or,  as  they  severally  would 
prefer  to  call  themselves,  the  "new  unionists"  against  the 
**old  unionists."  The  new,  who  took  their  start  from  the 
great  dock  strike  in  1889,  were,  in  principle,  socialists  of 
the  type  known  as  '^collectivists."  They  had  begun  by 
accepting  as  a  necessary  item  in  the  trades-union  program 
Henry  George's  doctrine  of  the  nationalization  of  all 
land.  From  this  they  proceeded  to  advocate  the  nation- 
alization of  all  the  means  of  production,  distribution,  and 
exchange;  and  so  active  was  their  propaganda,  that,  having 
begun  with  only  fifty  votes  at  Liverpool,  at  Glasgow 
in  1892  they  failed  by  only  twenty-five  votes  to  secure  a 
declaration  of  their  principles  by  the  congress.  In  1893, 
at  Belfast,  they  prevailed  in  some  issues;  and  in  1894  at 
Norwich,  led  by  Keir  Hardie,  they  controlled  the  assem- 
bly, and  carried,  by  a  large  majority,  a  declaration  of  col- 
lectivism, involving  in  principle  the  confiscation  of  all 
private  property. 

The  new  unionists  had  used  fine  tactics  to  gain  this 
control  of  an  organization  which,  by  sober,  beneficent 
work  through  the  time  of  a  generation,  had  gained  public 


694  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

respect,  and  had,  in  some  of  its  older  trades  unions,  accu- 
mulated large  funds  for  aid  of  poorer  members  and  for 
helping  workingmen  to  seek  justice  in  the  courts.  The 
leaders  of  the  new  section  were,  or  soon  came  to  be,  pro- 
fessional agitators,  not  laboring  men  so  much  as  labor- 
politicians,  organizers,  and  tacticians — some  of  them  being 
natural  orators  of  the  rough  and  ready  sort,  and  some 
showing,  even  in  parliament,  unusual  abilities  in  the 
higher  lines  of  public  debate.  Their  first  step  was  to 
organize  many  little  clubs,  which  they  called  trades 
unions  and  trade  councils;  then  they  procured  admission 
of  these  to  the  congress  in  which  the  vote  of  every  such 
knot  of  a  few  dozen  men,  some*  of  whom  were  merely 
political  talkers,  was  equal  in  power  to  the  vote  of  an  old 
trades  union  of  several  thousand  workingmen. 

To  transmit  to  a  political  machine  for  a  socialist  revolu- 
tion the  power  which  had  been  thus  generated  in  the 
congress,  Keir  Hardie,  with  his  group  of  followers,  organ- 
ized the  independent  labor  party,  whose  purpose  he  pub- 
licly declared  to  be  "the  reorgaiiization  of  our  industrial 
system  on  the  basis  of  an  industrial  commonwealth,  in 
which  the  whole  of  the  Avealth  produced  by  labor  shall 
belong  to  the  workers. ''  Elated  by  the  easy  capture  of 
the  old  trades  unions  by  collectivism  in  the  vote  at  the 
Norwich  congress  last  year,  the  new  unionists  proceeded 
to  pass  a  seemingly  harmless  resolution  giving  a  commit- 
tee power  to  revise  the  standing  orders  with  a  view  to 
facilitate  the  work  of  the  congress.  This  measure,  whose 
real  intention  supposably  was  to  secure  a  new  set  of  rules 
in  the  socialist  interest,  in  effect  opened  the  way  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  victors  in  the  very  hour  of  their  tri- 
umph. The  old  trades-unionists  had  at  last  awakened  to 
the  fact  that  their  trusted  organization,  with  its  honest 
treasure  of  force  and  of  funds,  had  not  only  been  seized 
by  a  clique  and  turned  utterly  aside  from  its  great  object, 
but  that  it  was  also  being  driven  on  a  downward  path  to 
some  unknown  catastrophe.  The  astounding  defeat  of 
the  liberals  in  the  general  election  in  July,  1895,  revealed 
an  unexpected  popular  reaction  throughout  Great  Britain 
against  all  political  schemes  of  progress,  a  conservative 
reaction,  which  there  was  reason  to  attribute  in  some  part 
to  the  general  disgust  and  alarm  at  the  socialistic  attitude 
of  the  trades-union  congress  at  Norwich  in  the  year  pre- 
ceding. It  was  evident  that  large  numbers  of  working- 
men  had  deserted  the  liberal  party  and  had  given  no  heed 
to  the  boasts  and  promises  of  the  new  party  of  social  re- 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  695 

formers.  N"early  all  the  labor  leaders  whom,  as  more  or 
less  identified  with  the  liberals,  that  party  had  helped  into 
seats  in  parliament,  had  lost  their  seats  at  this  yearns 
election;  while  the  few  that  remained  had  barely  escaped 
by  small  majorities.  Overwhelming  defeat  had  come  to 
those  labor  politicians,  the  new  trades-unionists,  who, 
like  Keir  Hardie  and  Alderman  Ben  Tillett,  had  cast  in 
their  lot  with  the  in- 
dependent reform 
party.  Evidently, 
under  the  new  lead- 
ers, the  political  in- 
terests of  wage-earn- 
ers had  suffered  a  dis- 
mal setback. 

The  committee  of 
the  congress  appoint- 
ed to  revise  the  stand- 
ing rules  saw  in  the 
situation  the  neces- 
sity that  trades- 
unionism  should  re- 
turn to  its  old  paths; 
they  saw  also  the  way 
which  their  adver- 
saries had  opened  to 
them  for  leading  it 
back.  Their  pro- 
cedure was  admirably 
bold  and  skilful ; 
and,  although  unde- 
niably irregular  and 
arbitrary,  it  may  be 
justified  as  meeting  a 
revolution  with  a  counter-revolution  for  whose  success  they 
counted  on  the  support  of  the  old  trades-unionists  in  the 
congress. 

Tliey  drafted  their  plan  of  reorganization,  and  notified  all  the 
unions  that  delegates  to  the  Cardiff  congress  were  to  be  chosen  accord- 
ing tolts'niethods;  that  all  delegates  must  be  either  actual  workers 
at  their  trades,  or  paid  officials  of  their  unions — thus  excluding  mere 
political  leaders;  that  the  basis  of  representation  was  changed  so 
that  unions  could  send  only  one  delegate  for  every  2,000  mem- 
bers ;  and  that  the  new  standing  orders  would  take  effect  with  the 
opening  of  the  Cardiff  congress.  Moreover,  the  committee  did  riot 
recognize  the  trade  councils  (mostly  small  political  clubs)  with  any 
notice  to  send  delegates,      A  majority  of  the  committee  is  understood 


.JAMES   KEIR   HARDIE, 

EX-LABOU   MEMBER    OF   THE    BRITISH    HOUSE    OF 

COMMONS. 


696  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

to  liave  accepted  these  changes;  but  only  the  casting  vote  of  the 
chairman  in  a  committee  of  thirteen  carried  the  proposal  to  make 
them  binding  on  the  congress  of  the  present  year. 

The  contest  which  in  the  congress  naturally  ensued  on 
such  arbitrary  procedure  was  both  fierce  and  able.  The 
new  rules  were  suspended  for  the  purpose  merely  of  allow- 
ing the  discussion  of  their  amendment  or  of  a  resolution 
of  censure  of  the  committee  for  putting  them  in  force 
without  first  submitting  them  to  the  congress  for  adoption, 
also  for  not  obeying  instructions  in  pushing  forward  the 
socialist  program  in  parliament.  This  censure  was  urged 
by  the  new  unionists  and  advocated  by  some  old  unionists 
who  disapproved  only  of  the  arbitrary  method  employed. 
John  Burns,  whose  views  seem  to  have  changed  within 
the  year,  was  one  of  the  chief  upholders  of  the  new  rules. 
When  the  time  came  for  the  vote,  the  president,  John 
Jenkins,  a  Cardiff  shipwright,  announced  that  voting 
would  be  according  to  the  new  rules,  which  assigned, 
one  vote  to  every  1,000  members  represented,  instead  of 
one  vote  to  every  trades  union,  large  or  small.  With  re- 
markable firmness  and  unflinching  tenacity,  he  carried  his 
point  against  a  howling  storm  of  dissent,  and  compelled 
the  hesitating  tellers  to  go  their  rounds.  His  decisive 
action,  relieving  the  congress  from  the  dictation  of  a 
minority,  brought  its  own  justification.  The  resolution 
of  censure  was  defeated  by  an  immense  majority,  604,000 
to  357,000.  The  new  unionists  immediately  organized 
a  rival  congress  of  delegates  largely  from  their  trade 
councils;  but  the  departure  of  these  noisy  agitators  is  no 
loss  to  the  old  unionists,  who,  in  entire  control  of  the 
organization,  with  its  honorable  history  and  beneficent 
work,  will  bring  it  back  to  its  old  lines  of  common  sense 
in  practical  effort  in  behalf  of  wage-earners.  The  result 
is  a  stunning  blow  to  radical  socialism  and  all  its  schemes. 

International  Co-operative  Congress. — This  assem- 
bly began  its  session  in  London,  Eng.,  August  19,  under 
the  chairmanship  of  Earl  Grey.  Delegates  were  present 
from  Britain,  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Denmark, 
Switzerland,  Roumania,  Servia,  Russia,  the  United 
States,  and  Australia.  It  was  unanimously  voted  to  con- 
stitute the  International  Co-operative  Alliance  of  those 
organizations  and  individuals  which  had  signified  their 
adhesion.  Resolutions  were  passed  in  favor  of  co-opera- 
tive workshops  and  banks. 

The  chief  enthusiasm  was  evoked  by  the  statistics  reported  from 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  697 

co-operative  stores  in  England:  Stores,  1,674;  membersliip,  1,343,- 
518;  share  and  loan  capital,  more  than  $90,000,000;  invested  capital, 
nearly  $40,000,000;  sales  in  1894,  $350,000,000;  profits  on  sales,  10 
per  cent. 

Reports  on  co-operative  production  in  England  were  less  satis- 
factory: Societies,  120;  capital,  $9,000,000;  profits  in  1894,  nearly 
$340,000.  In  other  countries  this  form  of  production  was  reported 
less  successful  than  in  England;  and  in  Belgium,  a  failure  because 
' '  the  workingmen  were  wanting  in  the  necessary  recognition  of  the 
difEerence  of  capacity  which  made  it  necessary  that  the  manager 
*     *     *     should  exercise  adequate  authority."' 

Dundee  Jute  Workers'  Strike.— This  strike, 
Avhich  had  extended  till  30,000  operatives  were  out  on 
August  29,  was  ended  on  August  30  by  the  resumption  of 
work — the  masters  having  given  one  day's  notice  to  their 
workmen  that  if  they  did  not  resume  on  that  day,  the  fac- 
tories would  be  closed,  and  the  operatives  locked  out  in- 
definitely. 

Socialism  and  Anarchism. — In  France. — The  Car- 
maux  glassworkers'  strike,  while  it  shows  the  pitiable  con- 
dition of  the  workmen,  brings  out  the  essential  selfishness, 
shallowness,  and  bombast  of  the  socialist  members  of  the 
house  of  deputies.  They  urge  the  men  not  to  return 
unless  their  leaders  are  taken  back,  but  to  appeal  for  help 
to  the  glassblowers  of  Europe  and  America;  and  they  base 
their  advice  on  the  necessity  of  advancing  the  interests  of 
the  socialist  party. 

There  have  been  two  or  three  instances  of  resort  to 
bombs  by  anarchists — notably  one  by  Victor  Bouteilhe  at 
the  Rothschild's  bank  in  Paris  on  September  5.  He 
entered  the  bank,  carrying  under  his  arm  a  bomb  with  a 
lighted  fuse.  A  detective  sprang  upon  him,  seized  the 
bomb,  and  extinguished  the  fuse.  The  man  was  hurried 
to  prison.  At  Aniche,  department  of  Nord,  M.  Vuille- 
min,  managing  director  of  the  coal  mines,  was  shot  and 
wounded  on  August  4  by  Camille  Decoux,  an  anarchist 
miner  who  had  been  discharged  from  the  mines  in  1893. 
After  firing  five  shots,  Decoux  was  preparing  to  throw  a 
bomb,  but  it  exploded  prematurely,  disembowelling  the 
assassin.     The  manager's  wounds  were  not  dangerous. 

In  Italy. — The  cosmopolitanism  of  socialists  is  illus- 
trated by  their  society  of  400  members  in  Palermo,  which  was 
dissolved  by  the  police  early  in  September  because  tlie  society 
was  organizing  disturbances  for  September  20,  the  25th  anni- 
versary of  the  liberation  of  Italy  from  pontifical  suprem- 
acy by  the  occupation  of  Rome  with  Italian  troops. 
Socialist  disturbances  were   threatened   on   the   national 

Vol.  5.-45. 


698  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

holiday  in  the  hope  of  compelling  Premier  Crispi  to  liber- 
ate De  Felice  and  other  socialist  leaders  now  in  prison. 
Socialism  is  thus  shown  as  subordinating  patriotism  to  its 
theories  of  international  fraternity. 

Socialism  in  Germany. — The  situation  in  the  German 
empire  is  ominous  of  trouble.  The  emperor's  govern- 
ment is  steadily  pursuing  a  campaign  of  repression,  seiz- 
ing and  confiscating  socialist  papers,  and  arresting  their 
editors  for  prosecution  under  cliarges  of  Use  majeste,  and 
dissolving  socialist  clubs.  The  behavior  of  the  socialists 
is  unquestionably  exasperating  to  the  emperor;  but  there 
may  be  a  question  whether  the  bitterness  that  finds  ex- 
pression in  his  speeches  against  them  is  likely  to  aid  in 
any  practical  settlement  of  affairs.  For  the  socialists 
have  so  rapidly  increased  in  recent  years  that  they  are 
now  the  chief  political  party  in  the  empire:  at  the  last 
election  they  polled  about  1,800,000  votes,  and  elected  about 
forty-five  members  to  the  Reichstag.  Any  union  against 
them  seems  impracticable;  for,  though  the  many  other 
parties  outnumber  them  by  a  great  majority,  those  parties 
are  violently  antagonistic  to  one  another.  This  antago- 
nism operates  to  prevent  the  combining  of  tlie  anti-socialist 
elements  for  the  measures  of  governmental  reform  which 
would  deprive  the  socialist  party  of  their  chief  strength  in 
an  appeal  to  the  people.  At  present  the  socialist  party, 
no  longer  a  noisy  mob,  seems  to  be  gradually  gathering 
into  itself  the  various  liberal  elements  of  the  country  in 
radical  though  peaceable  protest  against  imperial  and  offi- 
cial repression.  A  redeeming  feature  of  the  grave  situation 
is  that  German  socialism  has  now  scarcely  a  tinge  of  an- 
archism. 

Trades-Unionism  in  Russia.— It  is  a  singular  fact 
that  in  Russia,  one  of  the  most  despotic  of  governments, 
trades  unions  (known  as  artels)  abound  and  work  benefi- 
cently, and  are  almost  entirely  free  from  governmental 
control  or  interference.  There  are  few  trades  without 
them.  They  have  some  of  the  features  of  benefit  or  aid 
societies,  and  are  characterized  by  great  watchfulness  and 
honesty.  As  the  laws  for  protecting  workingmen  are 
practically  never  enforced,  and  as  wages  are  pitiably,  almost 
incredibly,  small,  these  artels,  the  outgrowth  of  a  system 
dating  back  several  centuries,  supply  labor  with  almost  its 
only  element  of  comfort  and  aid. 


GERMAN  i".  699 

GERMANY. 

An  incident  of  important  political  significance  was  the 
laying  of  serions  charges  of  embezzlement  and  forgery 
against  Baron  von  Hammerstein,  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Kreuz- Zeitung ,  long  the  leader  of  the  right  in  the  Reichs- 
tag and  the  Landtag,  and  the  practical  dictator  of  the 
policy  of  the  conservative  party.  He  was  charged  with 
embezzling  200,000  marks  from  the  reserve  fnnd  of  the 
Kreuz- ZeiUmg;  accusing  the  now  deceased  cashier  of  the 
paper,  of  the  theft;  and  falsifying  accounts  to  hide  his 
peculations.  In  the  early  part  of  July,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign  his  editorial  post. 

The  publication  of  an  agrarian  program,  in  August,  by 
the  socialists,  has  done  considerable  to  define  the  attitude 
of  the  various  parties  toward  the  agrarian  agitation.  On 
August  13  a  series  of  socialist  meetings  was  held  in  the 
capital  to  discuss  the  program,  but  the  tenor  of  the 
speeches  and  resolutions  showed  that  the  Berlin  social 
democrats  opposed  agrarianism.  Among  the  national  lib- 
erals and  the  centre  party,  on  the  other  hand,  the  agrarian 
agitation  has  made  much  progress.  That  this  is  so  in  the 
case  of  the  centrists,  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  party 
which  in  1891  voted  solidly  for  the  Commercial  treaty 
with  Austria  (Vol.  1,  p.  227)  was  divided  into  two  equal 
halves  on  the  question  of  ratifying  the  Russo-German 
treaty  of  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  90). 

On  August  18,  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  Ger- 
man victory  over  the  French  at  Gravelotte,  which  resulted 
in  shutting  up  Marshal  Bazaine  and  his  army  in  Metz, 
the  foundation  stone  of  the  national  memorial  to  Emperor 
William  I.  was  laid,  with  imposing  military  ceremonies, 
by  his  grandson  Emperor  William  II.  The  completed 
structure  will  stand  on  the  Schlossfreiheit,  a  strip  of 
ground  lying  between  the  river  Spree  and  the  west  front 
of  the  royal  palace  in  Berlin.  The  memorial  was  voted  by 
the  imperial  diet  a  few  days  after  the  old  emperor's  death 
in  March,  1888;  but  numerous  delays  occurred  over  the 
selection  of  a  design  and  site. 

The  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  capitulation  of  the 
French  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  and  his  army  at  Sedan, 
was  celebrated  with  great  display.  On  September  1  the 
festivities  began  with  the  consecration  in  Berlin,  in  pres- 
ence of  the  emperor  and  court,  of  a  new  church  dedicated 
to  the  memory  of  Emperor  William  I.  On  the  2d,  the 
actual  anniversary  of  the  capitulation  was  commemorated 
throughout  Germany  with  great  popular  enthusiasm. 


700  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

At  the  annual  mananivres  of  the  German  army  near 
Stettin,  General  Connt  von  AValdersee  won  great  praise  for 
his  masterly  generalship.  By  strategy  he  succeeded  in  re- 
versing the  wliole  prearranged  jjrogram,  which  fact  has 
strengthened  the  opinion  that  as  a  tactician  he  is  almost,  if 
not  quite,  the  equal  of  the  great  Count  von  Moltke.  He 
was  highly  complimented  by  the  emperor,  who  promoted 
him  to  the  rank  of  lield-marshal.  It  is  stated  that  the 
cavalry  became  exhausted  during  the  manceuvres,  reveal- 
ing the  need  of  a  reform  in  this  branch  of  the  military 
service. 

FRANCE. 

The  council  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor  is  in  pro- 
cess of  reorganization.  On  July  16  its  members  resigned 
in  a  body,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  chamber  of  deputies 
in  calling  upon  the  government  to  introduce  a  bill  to  re- 
organize the  council.  The  reason  for  this  action  on  the 
part  of  the  chamber  was  the  fact,  that,  in  spite  of  the  dis- 
closures implicating  M.  Eiffel  in  the  late  Panama  scan- 
dals, and  notwithstanding  that  the  names  of  some  of  M. 
Eiffel's  associates,  such  as  the  younger  De  Lesseps,  Dr. 
Herz,  and  others,  had  been  stricken  from  the  list  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Legion,  the  council  still  persisted  in  retaining 
on  the  roll  the  name  of  M.  Eiffel.  The  reader  will  remem- 
ber that  this  official  was  convicted  of  retaining  many  mil- 
lions of  francs,  which  he  had  received  for  canal  work,  ma- 
chinery, and  implements.  The  council,  however,  held  that 
his  connection  with  the  Canal  company  was  only  a  com- 
mercial matter,  and  hence  refused  to  dismiss  him.  The 
chamber  thereupon,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  re- 
quested the  reorganization  of  the  council;  and  the  latter 
resigned  office,  but  consented  to  act  until  the  bill  for  re- 
organization had  been  passed. 

Elections  were  held  throughout  France  on  July  28  to 
replace  the  retiring  half  of  the  members  of  what  are  known 
as  the  general  or  departmental  councils. 

For  administrative  purposes,  tlie  country  is  divided  into  ei^lity- 
six  departments,  each  of  wliicli  has  a  general  council,  one-lialf  of 
whose  members  retire  every  three  years.  These  councils  have  func- 
tions somewhat  analogous  to  those  of  the  county  councils  in  England, 
but  have  a  political  significance  not  attaching  to  the  latter.  They 
deal  with  all  the  economic  affairs  of  the  departments;  have  the  power 
to  revise  and  control  many  of  the  acts  of  the  municipal  councils  rep- 
resenting single  communes;  manage  the  roads,  schools,  poor  relief, 
etc. ;  and  also  form  a  part  of  the  electoral  college  by  which  the  senate 
is  chosen.  They  are  subject  to  the  control  of  the  prefects,  who  are  fed- 


tTALY.  701 

eral  officers;  antl  tlieir  decisions  may  be  annulled  by  the  president  of 
the  republic.  It  is  thus  only  indirectly  that  they  affect  the  legislature; 
but  the  elections  are  always  of  great  interest  as  indicating  the  drift  of 
public  opinion  on  social  and  economic  questions. 

The  most  significant  feature  of  the  elections  held  July 
28  was  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  socialists,  showing  that 
the  Frencli  voter,  when  dealing  with  local  matters  which 
he  understands  and  in  which  he  has  a  lively  interest,  pre- 
fers not  to  intrust  the  direction  of  affairs  to  such  noisy, 
unpractical,  and  dangerous  theorists  as  the  socialists  in 
France  have  in  general  shown  themselves  to  be.  The 
moderate  republicans  carried  the  majority  of  the  seats; 
but  the  conservatives  and  radicals  also  made  a  fair  show- 
ing. Out  of  over  1,443  seats,  the  socialists  secured  only 
about  fifteen. 

Dr.  Legrain,  physician  to  the  Paris  lunatic  asylums, 
founded  in  August  what  is  said  to  be  the  first  temperance 
society  in  France.  Its  pledge,  which  does  not  go  to  the 
length  of  total  abstinence,  is  as  follows: 

"  I  promise,  firstly,  to  abstain  entirely,  except  on  medical  advice, 
from  brandy  and  all  liqueurs.  Secondly,  to  make  use  only  in  modera- 
tion of  wine,  beer,  or  cider." 

ITALY. 

Owing  to  recent  disorders  in  the  chamber  of  deputies 
(p.  439),  the  government  prepared  a  bill  for  the  revision 
of  the  rules  of  debate,  some  of  the  clauses  of  which  are 
unique  in  their  stringency. 

If  a  member  refuses  to  take  notice  of  a  call  to  order  by  the 
speaker,  this  fact  is  to  be  entered  in  the  records,  and  he  will  be  de- 
prived of  the  right  to  conclude  his  speech.  If  this  fails  to  have  the 
desired  effect,  or  if  a  member  utters  threats  against  his  colleagues, 
the  speaker  may  impose  silence  upon  him  for  a  period  of  from  three 
to  fifteen  days.  If  the  unruly  member  still  refuses  to  comply,  or 
makes  use  of  physical  force  in  the  house,  the  speaker  may  put  the 
motion  to  have  him  ejected,  refusing  him  admittance  to  the  chamber 
for  a  period  of  not  longer  than  ten  days.  This  is  to  be  decided  with- 
out discussion,  the  "ayes"  rising,  while  the  "noes"  remain  seated. 

The  charges  brought  against  Premier  Crispi  by  the 
radical,  Signor  Cavalotti,  collapsed  in  August  in  the 
criminal  court,  where  they  were  eventually  brought  by 
Cavalotti  himself.  The  charge  of  perjury  was  declared 
to  be  not  substantiated;  while  other  charges,  referring  to 
the  sale  of  a  decoration  to  Dr.  Cornelius  Herz,  were,  as  in 
the  Giolitti  case,  declared  to  be  beyond  the  cognizance  of 
the  ordinary  tribunals. 

While  there  is  no  apparent  prospect  ©f  a  conciliation 


70S 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


3d  Or.,  1895. 


between  the  Vatican  and  the  Quirinal,  it  is  noteworthy 
that  the  former  comes  to  the  aid  of  the  latter  in  its  colo- 
nial enterprises  in  Africa.  Not  long  ago  the  Pope  substi- 
tuted an  Italian  Apostolic  prefecture  in  Eastern  Africa 
for  the  French,  which  threatened  Italian  colonial  interests; 
and  a  more  recent  incident  of  similar  significance  is  found 
in  the  efforts  of    His  Holiness  to  counteract  the  results 

achieved  by  the  re- 
cent Abyssinian  em- 
bassy to  St.  Peters- 
burg (see  ^^  Affairs  in 
Africa ""),  as  well  as 
the  anti-Italian  in- 
trigues of  Eussia  in 
Abyssinia. 

In  August  tlie  Pope 
addressed  letters  to  tlie 
generals  of  the  Jesuit  and 
Dominican  orders  and  to 
the  Prefect  of  the  Propa- 
ganda, pointing  out  to 
them  that  the  Copts, 
whose  faith  is  the  nation- 
al Church  of  Abyssinia, 
are  a  schismatic  offshoot, 
not  of  the  Russian  or 
Greek  Church,  but  of  that 
of  Rome.  He  therefore 
urges  them  to  seek  by 
every  means  in  their  pow- 
er to  combat  the  efforts 
now  being  made  by  Rus- 
sia to  bring  the  Abyssin- 
ians  under  the  spiritual 
rule  of  the  czar;  and  en- 
treats them  to  devote  their 
energies  to  lead  back  the 

Copts  in  Abyssinia,  as  well  as  in  Egypt,  to  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic 

Church,  to  which  they  really  belong. 

It  was  on  September  20,  1870,  that  the  victorious 
troops  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  under  General  Cadorna, 
swept  through  the  breach  in  the  walls  built  by  the  CsBsars, 
took  possession  of  the  Eternal  City,  and  established  what 
is  known  as  "  Italian  unity, '^  with  Rome  as  the  capital  of 
the  united  nation.  The  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the 
event  was  celebrated  in  September  with  great  ceremony. 
The  festivities  continued  from  the  15th  to  the  24th.  On 
the  18th  the  rifle  societies  and  veterans  deposited  a  wreath 
upon  the  tomb  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel  in  the  Pan- 
theon, and  a  national   rifle  contest  was  inaugurated  by 


VICTOR  EMMANUEL, 
PRINCE  OF  NAPLES. 


SPAIN.  703 

King  Humbert.  On  the  20th  a  parade  was  held,  in  which 
not  only  the  present  army,  but  the  veterans  who,  in  the 
wars  of  1840,  1859,  1862,  and  1870,  contributed  to  the . 
creation  of  a  united  kingdom,  took  part.  A  colossal 
monument  to  Garibaldi,  on  the  Janiculum  hill,  was  un- 
veiled in  the  presence  of  the  king  and  queen,  the  Prince 
of  Naples,  and  other  members  of  the  royal  family.  The 
monument  is  twenty-two  metres  high,  visible  from  nearly 
every  part  of  Rome.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  bronze  eques- 
trian statue  of  Garibaldi. 

Signer  Crispi  delivered  a  speech,  in  wliich  lie  paid  a  tribute  to  the 
memory  of  Garibaldi,  and,  while  contending  that  Italy  had  rendered  a 
service  to  the  Catholic  Church  by  relieving  the  Papacy  of  its  temporal 
pow^er,  warned  those  who  sought  to  restore  that  power  that  if 
they  rebelled  and  attacked  the  national  institutions,  they  would  lose 
all  the  benefits  secured  to  them  hy  the  law  of  guarantee,  and  would 
help  anarchism,  which  denied  both  God  and  king." 

On  the  22d  the  new  Humbert  bridge  over  the  Tiber 
was  opened  by  the  king  and  queen,  and  a  monument  was 
unveiled  in  memory  of  Count  Cavour.  On  the  24th 
monuments  were  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  the  Italian 
statesman,  Minghetti,  who  died  in  1886,  and  the  brothers 
Chiroli  and  their  companions,  who  were  killed  on  Sep- 
tember 23,  1867.  No  word  of  protest  against  the 
festivities  was  heard  either  from  republicans  or  from 
clericals.  Everything  was  quiet.  An  amnesty  was 
granted  to  all  persons  condemned  by  the  military  tribunal 
in  Sicily  to  terms  of  imprisonment  not  exceeding  ten 
years.  Persons  condemned  to  longer  imprisonment  were 
granted  a  further  reduction  of  tiieir  sentences  by  one- 
third. 

The  squadron  of  nine  ships  of  the  Italian  navy,  which 
took  part  in  the  festivities  at  Kiel  (p.  432),  paid  a 
friendly  visit  to  England,  arriving  at  Spithead  July  9.  It 
was  received  with  demonstrations  of  great  friendliness, 
but  had  no  special  political  significance.  The  admiral 
in  command  was  Prince  Thomas,  Duke  of  Genoa,  a  nephew 
of  the  late  King  Victor  Emmanuel. 

SPAIN. 

The  weakening  of  the  Spanish  home  forces  by  the 
sending  of  large  bodies  of  troojDS  to  Cuba,  has  aifordedan 
opportunity  for  revolutionary  republican  agitation  in  the 
kingdom.  The  middle  of  August  witnessed  a  concerted 
rising  of  republican  bands  in  the  provinces  of  Valencia 
and  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  which   gave  the  government 


704  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

some  trouble  to  quell.  The  town  of  Chovar,  in  Valencia, 
was  for  a  time  in  the  possession  of  the  republicans,  who 
imprisoned  the  mayor,  seized  all  the  arms  and  money  they 
could  find,  and  then  fled  to  the  open  country.  The  leader 
of  the  outrage  at  Chovar,  Rafael  Rosas  Castener,  was 
arrested  about  a  week  later.  There  is  much  speculation 
over  the  critical  possibilities  involved  in  a  long  continuance 
of  the  Cuban  insurrection. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

When  Count  Kielmansegg  assumed  office  as  Austrian 
premier  in  June  (p.  443),  it  was  understood  that  his 
cabinet  was  really  only  a  provisional  one,  a  cabinet 
d'affaires,  designed  merely  to  expedite  the  administrative 
business  of  the  government.  It  was  of  no  distinct  party 
color,  could  not  hope  for  a  working  majority  in  theReichs- 
rath,  and  was,  in  fact,  formed  only  on  the  understanding 
that  Count  Kielmansegg  should  retain  office  long  enough 
to  put  down  the  anti-Semitic  disturbances  in  Vienna,  and 
enable  the  emperor  to  find  some  one  who  could  rally 
round  him  a  majority  in  the  parliament. 

A  new  ministry  was  announced  September  15,  under 
Count  Badeni  as  president  of  the  council  and  minister  of 
the  interior.     Its  other  members  were  as  follows  : 

Belinski.  minister  of  finance  ;  Gleispacb,  justice;  Ledebur- 
Wicheln,  agriculture;  (ilanz,  commerce  ;  Gautscb,  education;  Welser- 
scbeims,  national  defense. 

The  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Count  G.oluchowski, 
retained  his  portfolio.  He  is  a  Galician,  like  Count 
Badeni,  of  Polish  origin,  and  shares  the  conservative  ideas 
of  the  latter. 

Tbe  new  ministry  is  strongly  conservatiye.  Its  program  includes 
a  scbeme  of  electoral  reform  said  to  inyolve  considerable  increase 
in  tbe  number  of  parliamentary  seats;  a  renewal  of  tbe  decennial 
agreement  witb  Hungary  for  a  division  of  tbe  burdens  and  revenues 
of  tbe  two  sections  of  tbe  empire;  and  a  suppression  of  radical  ten- 
dencies, including  anti-Semitism. 

A  remarkable  application  of  the  telephone  to  commer- 
cial uses  is  reported  from  Pesth,  Hungary.  It  is  a  tele- 
phone newspaper  known  as  The  Telephone  Hirnondo,  or 
Herald,  the  only  one  of  its  kind,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
working  successfully  for  two  years.  Its  6,000  subscribers 
receive  the  news  as  they  would  ordinary  telephone 
messages.  The  following  descriptive  account  Avill  be 
found  interesting: 


RVt^SIA.  705 

A  special  wire  168  miles  long  runs  along  tlie  windows  of  tlie 
houses  of  subscribers,  which  is  connected  with  the  main  line  by- 
separate  wires  and  special  apparatus  which  prevents  the  blocking  of 
the  system  by  an  accident  at  one  of  the  stations.  Within  the  houses, 
long,  flexible  wires  make  it  possible  to  carry  the  receiver  to  any  part 
of  the  room. 

The  news  is  edited  and  arranged  according  to  a  schedule,  so  that 
a  subscriber  knows  what  part  of  the  paper  he  is  going  to  hear.  It 
begins  with  the  night  telegrams  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Then 
comes  the  calendar  of  events 
for  the  day,  with  the  city 
news  and  the  lists  of 
strangers  at  the  hotels. 
After  that  follow  articles 
on  music,  art,  and  litera- 
ture. The  staff  is  on  duty 
from  7.30  in  the  morning 
till  9.30  at  night.  The 
"speakers  '  are  ten  men  with 
strong  voices  and  clear  enun- 
ciation, who  work  in  shifts 
of  two  at  a  time,  and  talk 
the  news  through  the  tele- 
phone. There  are  twenty- 
eight  editions  uttered  a  day. 

To  fill  up  the  time  when 
no  news  is  coming  in,  the 
subscribers  are  entertained 
with  vocal  and  instrumental 
concerts.  The  wire  is  in 
communication  with  the 
opera  house  and  the  mu^ic 
halls,  and  on  Sundays  and 
Saints'  days  with  the 
churches.  The  music  is  trans- 
mitted at  times  to  other  places  in  Austria-Hungary;  and  recently  llie 
Hirnondo  microphone  was  connected  with  the  circuit  going  from 
Trieste,  through  Vienna,  Bremen,  and  Pesth,  to  Berlin,  the  music  be- 
ing heard  in  all  these  places  with  equal  clearness. 


COUNT    AGENOR   GOLUCHOW9KI, 
MINISTEU  OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  FOR  AUSTRIA- 
HUNGARY. 


RUSSIA. 

Nihilism. — iV iliilism  is  now  said  to  be  even  more  active 
tliroughoiit  Russia  than  at  any  time  since  the  assassina- 
tion of  Alexander  II.  in  March,  1881;  and  extraordinary 
precautions  are  at  all  times  taken  to  guard  the  life  of  the 
czar,  Nicholas  11.  An  extensive  conspiracy  was  discov- 
ered in  Moscow  early  in  July,  and  eight  arrests  were  made; 
and,  toward  the  end  of  that  month,  it  was  found  that 
members  of  the  Students'  Union  in  the  University  of 
Moscow  were  implicated  in  a  plot  to  assassinate  the  czar, 
and  that  even  the  priests  in  the  Seminary  of  Kieff  were 
plotting  against  the  administration.  On  August  19,  the 
artillery  barracks  at  Toola,  which  had  been  undermined; 


706  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

presumably  by  nihilists,  were  blown  up,  and  300  persons 
killed,  including  many  officers.  During  the  first  week  in 
September,  as  many  as  900  arrests  of  known  or  suspected 
nihilists  were  made  in  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg.  It  is 
perhaps  too  soon  yet  to  foresee  the  course  which  Nicholas 
II.  will  ultimately  take  regarding  the  promulgation  of 
reforms  in  the  internal  administration  of  the  country;  but 
there  are  rumors  current  which  still  keep  alive  the  hopes 
for  a  more  liberal  regime. 

Temperance  Reform.— It  may  be  doubted  whether 
any  reform  of  domestic  policy  taken  since  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  by  Alexander  II.  compares  in  importance  with 
the  recent  decision  of  the  Russian  government  to  abolish 
private  saloons  throughout  the  empire  and  assume  control 
of  the  liquor  traffic.  No  regulation  of  this  traffic  on  so 
wide  a  scale  has  ever  before  been  attempted,  and  its  results 
will  everywhere  be  watched  with  intense  interest.  While 
considerations  of  revenue  were  no  doubt  raised,  the  chief 
motive  of  the  reform  was  the  desire  to  rid  the  people  of 
the  evils  of  the  liquor  business  as  privately  conducted, 
such  as  law-breaking,  usury,  and  the  promotion  of  drunk- 
enness. A  ukase  recently  issued  provides  for  the  gradual 
establishment  in  the  empire  of  something  like  the  dis- 
pensary system  of  South  Carolina.  The  first  experiments 
were  made  under  Alexander  III.,  in  1894,  in  four  prov- 
inces, and  were  so  successful  that  it. was  decided  to  intro- 
duce the  system  generally.  It  is  to  be  put  in  force  in 
eight  provinces  on  the  first  day  of  July,  1896;  in  seven 
other  provinces  on  the  first  day  of  July,  1897;  and  through- 
out all  the  rest  of  the  empire  on  the  first  day  of  January, 
1898. 

Baltic  and  Black  Sea  Canal.— A  plan  for  a  canal 
through  Russian  territory,  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the 
Black  sea,  has  been  officially  promulgated. 

Its  northern  or  Baltic  terminus  will  be  Riga,  on  the  gulf  of  that 
name.  So  far  as  possible,  it  will  follow  the  courses  of  the  Dwina,  the 
Beresina,  and  the  Dnieper  rivers,  terminating  at  Kherson,  near  where 
the  Dnieper  empties  into  the  Black  sea.  Its  minimum  depth  is  to  be 
30  feet;  its  bottom  width  100  feet,  with  a  surface  breadth  of  twice  as 
much,  while  its  length  is  estimated  at  1,000  miles.  The  work  will 
take,  it  is  asserted,  five  years  to  complete,  and  will  entail  a  cost  of 
200,000,000  roubles  (about  $150,000,000).  The  canal  will  be  fur- 
nished with  electric  light,  and  at  the  regulation  rate  of  seven  miles 
an  hour,  day  and  night,  about  six  days  will  be  required  to  traverse  it. 

AYhile  the  main  object  of  this  gigantic  waterway  is  ad- 
mittedly strategic,  it  is  calculated  to  exercise  an  important 
influence  upon  trade  and  commerce. 


BELGIUM.  »«»»»  Y07 

Surveys  are  also  being  made  for  a  similar  channel  con- 
necting the  Don  and  the  Volga,  opening  communication 
between  the  Black  sea  and  the  Caspian.  France  is  also 
projecting  a  canal  from  Bordeaux  to  Narbonne,  connect- 
ing the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean.  The  develop- 
ment of  these  various  waterways  will  work  important 
changes  in  commerce,  and  not  unlikely  in  political  rela- 
tions also. 

Other  Russian  Affairs. — Under  a  new  law%  patents 
on  imported  foreign  inventions  which  can  easily  be  manu- 
factured in  Russia,  will  be  granted  for  only  three  years. 
If  an  extension  be  desired,  the  article  must  be  manufac- 
tured in  Russia. 

M.  de  Cyon,  a  Russian  councillor  of  state,  who,  as 
agent  of  the  Russian  financial  adftiinistration,  was  the 
chief  promoter  of  the  entente  with  France,  has  been  de- 
prived of  all  his  rights,  titles,  prerogatives,  and  qualities 
as  a  Russian  subject,  by  order  of  the  czar,  for  having 
published  an  adverse  criticism  of  the  administration  of 
M.  de  Witte,  the  present  minister  of  finance. 

THE  JEWS. 

Under  Nicholas  II.  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in 
Russia  is  carried  on  with  even  increased  severity.  The 
Jews  are  driven  into  certain  towns,  and  certain  quarters  of 
those  towns.  They  are  forbidden  to  acquire  the  educa- 
tion which  would  enable  them  to  pass  the  examinations 
entitling  them  to  emigrate.  No  college  or  high  school  is 
allowed  to  have  over  five  per  cent  of  Jews  among  its  students; 
in  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  not  more  than  three  per  cent. 

Under  a  recently  issued  ukase,  no  Hebrew  is  hereafter 
to  be  permitted  to  embrace  the  Christian  faith  unless  his 
wife,  children,  brothers,  and  parents  do  so  as  well;  and,  by 
another  injunction,  the  Jews  are  prohibited  from  joining 
the  Roman  Catholic  or  the  Protestant  churches,  or  any- 
thing but  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church. 

BELGIUM. 

Under  the  new  election  law,  the  clericals  have  an  over- 
whelming majority  in  the  Belgian  parliament.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  Article  17  of  tlie  constitution  declares 
that  "  teaching  shall  be  free,"  the  government,  through 
M.  SchoUaert,  minister  of  the  interior,  brought  in  a  bill 
making  religious  instruction  compulsory  in  all  the  schools, 


708 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


3d  Qr.,  1895. 


public  and  communal.  The  radicals,  the  socialists,  and 
some  prominent  liberals  strongly  opposed  the  measure. 

It  appears  that  under  a  liberal  law,  in  1879,  religious 
teaching  was  eliminated  from  the  list  of  compulsory  sub- 
jects, but  facilities  were  allowed  for  such  teaching  where 
parents  desired  it.  In  1884,  under  a  conservative  regime, 
the  communes  were  allowed  to  subsidize  voluntary  schools 

instead  of  the  public 
schools,  the  result  be- 
ing that  denomina- 
tional schools  multi- 
plied, and  the  public 
schools  were  gradu- 
ally closed,  until 
only  about  150  were 
left,  more  than  half 
of  them  being  in 
Brussels.  Even  this 
remnant  of  the  non- 
sectarian  system  is 
now  to  be  changed. 
Numerous  popu- 
lar demonstrations 
against  the  bill  were 
made.  On  July  23 
a  radical  and  socialist 
demonstration  took 
place  in  Brussels;  and 
on  the  28th  the  capital 
also  witnessed  a  pro- 
test  against  the  bill 

EX-QUEEN   NATALIE  OF  SERVIA.  frOm       OVCr       100,000 

delegates,  who  had  assembled  for  that  purpose  from  all 
parts  of  the  country.  However,  on  July  30,  by  a  vote  of  fifty- 
seven  to  fifty,  the  chamber  refused  to  postpone  until  next 
session  discussion  of  Article  4  of  the  bill — the  article 
making  religious  teaching  compulsory — and  on  August  3  the 
article  was  adopted  by  a  vote  of  seventy  to  fifty-nine.  On  Au- 
gust 30  the  bill  passed  the  senate,  and  on  September  17  be- 
came a  law  by  publication  of  the  royal  sanction. 

A  royal  commission  is  inquiring  fully  into  the  alleged 
evils  of  the  private  conduct  of  the  liquor  traffic. 


SERVIA.  709 

NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

Early  in  July  some  relaxation  was  noticeable  in  the 
tension  between  the  two  members  of  the  Scandinavian 
union.  On  the  5th  the  Norwegian  storthing,  by  a  large 
majority,  voted  to  repay  Sweden  for  the  diplomatic  and 
consular  service  up  to  July  1.  This  show  of  a  spirit  of 
conciliation  led  King  Oscar  to  attempt  to  secure  a  coalition 
ministry  in  Norway,  supported  by  a  majority,  to  replace 
the  present  conservative  cabinet  of  M.  Stang,  which  rep- 
resents only  a  minority  in  the  popular  house.  M.  Thorne, 
a  Norwegian  ex-minister  of  war  and  a  conservative,  was 
asked  to  form  a  cabinet;  but  unforeseen  difficulties  arose, 
which  brought  on  another  deadlock,  and  the  storthing  re- 
fused to  appropriate  anything  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the 
Norwegian  minister  of  state  resident  at  Stockholm. 

SERYIA. 

Instead  of  the  formation  of  a  new  progressist  ministry  in 
Servia,  following  the  return  of  ex-Queen  Natalie  to  Belgrade, 
as  announced  early  in  July  (p.  447),  it  turned  out  that  on 
the  resignation  of  M.  Christitch,  the  task  of  forming  a 
new  cabinet  was  intrusted,  on  July  3,  to  M.  Simitsch. 
He  is  said  to  have  the  co-operation  of  the  radicals,  who 
represent  the  great  majority  of  the  Servian  people. 

The  reason  for  the  change  appears  to  have  been  finan- 
cial. The  foreign  debt  of  Servia  is  held  mainly  in  Vienna, 
Paris,  and  Berlin;  and  the  unification  of  the  debt  is  on  the 
tapis.  The  foreign  creditors,  however,  had  shown  disin- 
clination to  treat  with  M.  Popovitch,  the  finance  minister 
in  the  progressist  cabinet  of  M.  Christitch.  Consequently, 
it  was  decided  to  replace  the  ministry  by  another  more 
closely  in  harmony  with  the  sentiments  of  the  people  at 
large. 


710  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

INDIA. 

The  Future  of  Chitral. — The  British  government 
decided  early  in  August,  without  formally  annexing  Chit- 
ral, the  scene  of  the  recent  punitive  operations,  to  retain 
practical  control  of  the  territory  by  holding  the  direct 
road  from  Peshawur  to  Chitral  through  Dir  with  a  force 
of  about  11,000  troops.  The  country  west  of  the  Panjkora 
river — the  dominions  of  U mra  Khan — is  to  be  evacuated, 
one  part  of  it,  Bajawr,  being  returned  to  the  ordinary 
tribal  government,  while  the  other,  tlie  Baraul  valley,  is 
given  to  the  Khan  of  Dir  as  a  reward  for  his  aid  to  the 
British  in  the  late  campaign. 

The  details  of  the  arrangements  for  the  control  of 
Chitral  include  the  stationing  of  a  small  British  garrison 
at  Fort  Chitral.  The  main  body  of  troops,  however,  will 
have  their  headquarters  at  Kala  Darosh,  about  twenty-five 
miles  south  of  Fort  Chitral,  on  the  road  to  Peshawur,  close 
to  the  Dir  frontier.  Thence  the  Khan  of  Dir,  with  his 
native  levies,  will  take  charge  of  the  British  line  of  com- 
munication as  far  as  the  bridge  over  the  Swat  river  at 
Chakdara,  which  lies  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  the 
British  administrative  frontier.  At  Chakdara  a  regiment 
will  be  quartered,  and  the  chain  with  Peshawur  will  be 
completed  by  the  stationing  of  a  brigade  at  the  Malakand 
pass. 

The  most  dubious  point  in  the  scheme  is  felt  to  be  the 
gap  between  the  garrisons  at  Kala  Darosh  and  in  the  Swat 
valley.  If  the  Khan  of  Dir  or  his  people  should  prove 
faithless,  and  stop  communication  over  the  seventy  miles 
of  rough  country  which  he  is  pledged  to  keep  open,  it 
would  not  unlikely  put  the  northern  British  force  in  a  se- 
rious position. 

In  the  meantime  Khushwakt  is  removed  from  the 
dominion  of  the  young  mehtar  of  Chitral,  which  now 
extends  only  to  the  Katar  country ;  and  affairs  of  state 
will  be  administered  with  the  advice  of  a  British  polit- 
ical agent. 

It  is  possible  that  this  practical,  though  not  nominal, 
annexation  of  Chitral,  will  seriously  affect  the  recent 
amicable  agreement  of  Russia  and  England  regarding  de- 
limitation of  their  respective  boundaries  in  the  region  of 
the  Pamirs. 

A  recent  census  of  Burmah,  said  to  be  the  most  sys- 
tematic and  accurate  ever  taken,  shows  a  total  population 
of  8,088.014,  including  3,000,000  in  the  territory  annexed 


CHINA.  711 

during  the  last  ten  years.  The  whole  province  is  about 
the  size  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  and  the  above 
figures  show  an  increase  of  twenty-five  per  cent  in  the  last 
decade. 

PERSIA. 

Serious  bread  riots  occurred  in  Tabriz  during  the  first 
week  in  August.  The 
scarcity  of  food  liad 
caused  so  much  rest- 
lessness that  the  ba- 
zaars were  ordered 
closed.  This  en- 
raged the  people, 
who  blamed  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  city  and 
demolished  his  house. 
The  mob  threatened 
the  palace  of  the 
crown  prince,  and 
the  troops  were  or- 
dered to  fire  upon  the 
rioters,  which  they 
did,  killing  about 
twenty.  Througli  an 
appeal  from  the  Rus- 
sian consul-general, 
whose  protection  the 
people  had  invoked, 
the  governor  of  the 
province  finally  ef- 
fected a  reduction  in 
the  price  of  bread 
and  meat,  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  city  was 
restored. 


LORD   GEORGE    HAMILTON, 
BRITISH   SECRETARY   OF   STATE   FOR   INDIA. 

promptly  suspended,  and  quiet  was 


CHINA. 

As  the  reports  of  the  defeat  of  China  by  Japan  reach 
the  most  inland  regions  of  the  empire,  it  is  not  surprising 
to  hear  of  revolts  on  the  part  of  restless  tribes  opposed  to 
the  present  dynasty  by  both  blood  and  religion.  In  July 
serious  uprisings  occurred  among  the  Dimunganes,  or 
Dunganis,  Mohammedans  inhabiting  Kan-Soo  and  neigh- 
boring provinces  in  the  extreme  northwest  of  China.  The 
government  has  ordered  a  strong  force  to  the  scene  of  the 
trouble  to  restore  order. 


712  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

On  August  30  it  was  announced  that  Li  Hung  Chang 
had  been  made  imperial  chancellor,  being  succeeded  as 
viceroy  of  the  province  of  Chi-Li  by  Wang  Wen  8hao. 

Li  Hung  Chang,  often  spoken  of  as  the  "Bismarck"  of  China, 
the  most  liberal  of  Chinese  viceroys  and  a  friend  of  Western  institu- 
tions, was  born  in  the  province  of  Ngan-Hwuy,  February  16, 1823.  He 
took  three  successive  literary  examinations;  was  graduated  at  the  Im- 
perial Academy — the  highest  educational  institution  in  the  empire— in 
1849;  was  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  government  printing  establish- 
ment; and  on  the  invasion  of  his  native  province  by  the  Tai-Ping  rebels 
in  1850,  became  military  secretary  to  Tseng  Kuo  Fan,  the  general  in 
charge  of  defensive  operations.  Subsequently  he  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  province  of  Che-Kiang,  and  in  1861  governor  of  the 
province  of  Kiang-Soo.  He  here  became  intimate  with  the  late  Gen- 
eral Gordon,  with  whom  he  co-operated  in  recovering  Suchow  and 
driving  the  rebels  out  of  Kiang-Soo  in  1863.  For  these  services  he  re- 
ceived the  Yellow  Jacket  and  the  Peacock  Feather,  evidences  of  high 
imperial  favor,  and  was  created  an  hereditary  noble  of  the  third  class. 
At  the  close  of  this  thirteen  years'  campaign,  he  sought  permission 
to  organize  an  army  and  navy  on  the  European  model;  but,  while 
heartily  supported  by  Prince  Kung,  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  senior 
empress  dowager  and  tlie  board  of  censors.  In  1865  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  the  provinces  of  Kiang-Si  and  Kiang-Soo;  in  1868- 
70  he  commanded  successfully  the  operations  against  the  Nienfei  and 
Mohammedan  rebels;  and  in  1870  was  made  viceroy  of  the  metropoli- 
tan province  of  Chi-Li,  which  contains  the  city  of  Pekin  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  over  20,000,000,  and  was  also  appointed  senior  grand  sec- 
retary of  state,  the  highest  distinction  to  which  a  Chinese  official  can 
aspire.  He  has  also  held  the  offices  of  high  imperial  commissioner 
of  foreign  affairs,  director-general  of  the  coast  defenses  of  the  north 
and  of  the  imperial  navy,  northern  superintendent  of  trade,  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  of  north  China. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Japan  last  year,  he  was  given  su- 
preme command  of  the  naval  and  military  forces  sent  to  Korea.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  war  the  Chinese  reverses  led  the  emperor  to  de- 
grade him  by  depriving  him  of  the  Yellow  Jacket  and  the  Peacock 
Feather  (Vol.  4,  p.  517);  but  at  the  close  of  the.  struggle  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  commissioner  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  (Vol.  5,  p. 
25).  While  engaged  in  this  service  in  Simonoseki,  he  was  wounded 
in  the  face  by  a  Japanese  fanatic  on  March  24,  1895;  and  regret  for 
this  breach  of  international  courtesy  is  believed  to  have  led  the  Jap- 
anese authorities  to  modify  greatly  their  demands  on  China.  All  the 
treaties  that  China  has  concluded  with  other  powers — excepting  the 
Burlingame  treaty — have  been  signed  by  Li  Hung  Chang  as  high 
commissioner  for  the  emperor.  For  portrait  of  Li  Hung  Chang  see 
Vol.  4,  p.  516. 

JAPAN. 

On  July  3  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council 
of  England  reversed  the  decision  of  the  supreme  court  for 
China  and  Japan  in  reference  to  the  claims  arising  out  of 
the  collision  between  the  Japanese  cruiser  Chishima  and 
the    Peninsula  &  Oriental    Company's   steamer   Ravenna 


AUSTRALASIA.  713 

in  November,  1892  (Vol.  2,  p.  382).  The  Ghishima  was 
sunk,  and  the  Japanese  government  instituted  a  suit  in 
the  British  court  for  Japan,  alleging  that  the  disaster  was 
due  to  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  Rave7ina,  and  claim- 
ing $850,000  damages.  The  P.  &  0.  Company  then 
moved  for  leave  to  file  a  counterclaim  for  $100,000,  and 
also  asked  that  the  suit  and  counterclaim  should  be  heard 
together.  The  judge  refused  leave  to  file  the  counter- 
claim, on  the  ground  that,  as  the  collision  had  occurred 
within  the  territorial  waters  of  Japan,  the  liability  of  the 
Japanese  government  must  be  regulated  by  the  laws  of 
that  country,  which  did  not  allow  liability  to  the  govern- 
ment in  such  cases.  This  decision  was  reversed  on  appeal 
by  the  supreme  court  for  China  and  Japan  (Vol.  3,  p.  832). 
The  Japanese  government  appealed  to  the  judicial  commit- 
tee, which  has  now  allowed  the  appeal,  restoring  the  order 
of  the  court  for  Japan,  with  costs  to  the  appellants. 

A  conspiracy  to  murder  Prime  Minister  Count  Ito  on 
the  night  of  September  27,  was  unearthed  by  the  police. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Another  free-trade  victory  has  to  be  recorded  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  elections  in  New  South  Wales  July  24.  Mr. 
G.  H.  Jleid,  the  premier,  was  returned  to  power,  both  his 
opponents,  Sir  Henry  Parkes  and  Sir  G.  R.  Dibbs,  being 
defeated.  The  distribution  of  members  of  the  new  legis- 
lative assembly  is  as  follows:  Free-traders,  59,  including  3 
who  are  uncertain;  protectionists,  43,  with  1  uncertain; 
labor  party,  19.  Mr.  Reid's  majority  is  not  sufficient  to 
make  him  independent  of  the  labor  party.  The  premier 
is  an  avowed  opponent  of  the  federation  scheme. 

According  to  the  budget  of  Hon.  George  Turner,  pre- 
mier and  treasurer,  submitted  July  30,  the  revenue  of  Vic- 
toria during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  was  £6,719,151; 
expenditure,  £6,834,092;  deficit,  £114,941,  as  against  a  de- 
ficit of  £593,433  in  the  year  preceding.  In  the  revision  of 
the  tariff  now  being  effected,  reductions  have  been  made  in 
the  duties  on  nearly  every  article  except  spirits,  on  which 
it  is  proposed  to  increase  the  duty  to  an  almost  prohibitive 
figure,  namely,  fifteen  shillings  a  gallon. 

New  Zealand  is  also  revising  her  tariff  schedules,  and 
proposes  to  reduce  the  duties  on  tea,  kerosene,  and  other 
articles.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  government,  as  stated 
by  Hon.  J.  G.  Ward,  treasurer,  to  subsidize  the  steamer 
service  from  Vancouver,  B.  C,  by  a  grant  of  £20,000  an- 

Vol.  5.— 4G. 


714  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

nually,  and  to  co-operate  with  Canada  in  the  laying  of  a 
Pacific  cable. 

MALAYSIA. 

A  rebellion  of  the  natives  under  Portuguese  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  island  of  Timor,  was  reported  late  in  Septem- 
ber. In  an  engagement  with  the  rebels,  a  force  of  Portu- 
guese troops  was  repulsed,  the  government  secretary  and 
three  other  officials  being  killed.  Eeinforcements  were 
promptly  sent  to  crush  the  revolt. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAWAII. 

A  proposal  to  provide  a  pension  of  $4,000  a  year  for 
the  Princess  Kaiulani  has  had  some  consideration  at  the 
hands  of  the  government;  but  early  in  July  the  senate 
tabled  the  item  for  action  at  next  year's  session  of  the  leg- 
islature. The  feeling  against  the  royalists  on  account  of 
the  January  revolt,  is  still  strong. 

The  action  of  the  authorities  in  imprisoning  suspected 
persons,  some  of  them  subjects  of  foreign  governments, 
during  the  continuance  of  martial  law  in  January,  has 
been  the  foundation  of  several  claims  which  are  now  being 
pressed  for  damages.  On  July  31,  United  States  Minis- 
ter Willis  submitted  a  request  for  reparation  to  be  made 
to  one  James  DureeH,  an  American  citizen,  a  native  of 
Louisiana.  It  appears  that  Dureell  went  to  the  islands  in 
September,  1894,  and  engaged  in  business  in  Honolulu. 
On  January  9,  1895,  it  is  claimed,  "without  explanation 
or  information  of  any  charge  against  him,  he  was  im- 
prisoned, being  kept  in  jail  seven  weeks,  and  then  dis- 
charged without  any  trial,  charges,  explanation,  or  oppor- 
tunity of  defense."  He  claims  damages  in  the  amount  of 
$25,000.  And  early  in  September  the  British  commis- 
sioner at  Honolulu,  Mr.  Hawes,  asked  the  government  for 
a  statement  of  the  reasons  for  the  arrest  and  imprisonment 
of  a  number  of  British  subjects. 

Rumors  have  been  current  of  the  fitting  out  of  fili- 
bustering expeditions  at  San  Prancisco,  Cal.,  Chicago, 
111.,  and  other  points  in  the  United  States,  looking  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  republican  government  in  the  islands; 
but  they  lack  confirmation.  The  followers  of  the  ex-queen, 
however,  have  submitted  a  formal  request  to  the  United 
States  government  to  restore  the  monarchy,  in  order  to 
avert  inevitable  bloodshed. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA. 

AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA. 

Abyssinian  Mission  to  Russia. — The  Negus  in  July 
dispatched  an  embassy  to  St.  Petersburg,  thus  reciprocat- 
ing courtesies  with  the  czar,  whose  embassy  to  Abyssinia 
had  then  returned  home  (p.  453).  The  news  of  this  em- 
bassy made  a  disagreeable  impression  at  the  Quirinal.  The 
claim  is  made  by  Italy  that  Abyssinia  is  by  treaty  subject 
to  King  Humbert's  suzerainty;  and  that  the  sending  of  a 
mission  to  the  czar  was  an  act  done  in  contempt  of  the 
Italian  government.  At  Rome  it  was  believed  that  war 
was  likely  to  result.  The  mission,  headed  by  Menelek's 
son,  Prince  Damto,  was  treated  with  distinguished  honor 
by  the  governor  of  St.  Petersburg.  The  religious  zeal  of 
the  Russians  for  the  diffusion  of  Orthodox  Christian  faith 
among  the  subjects  of  the  Negus  was  greatly  stimulated 
by  the  presence  of  the  embassy;  and  it  was  proposed  to 
send  to  the  Abyssinians  a  shipload  of  holy  pictures.  The 
head  of  the  late  Russian  mission  to  Abyssinia,  Colonel 
Leontieff,  who  seems  to  have  been  promoted  in  rank  since 
his  return,  was  in  the  middle  of  July  organizing  another 
and  larger  expedition  or  mission  to  the  same  country.  As 
before,  the  religious  feature  was  to  be  made  prominent. 
The  archimandrite  Ephrem  was  to  go  as  representative  of 
the  Holy  Synod. 

There  are  many  signs  that  Russia  is  about  to  enter 
into  closer  ecclesiastical  relations  with  Abyssinia.  But 
Italy  strenuously  objects  to  anything  like  a  political  un- 
derstanding between  the  czar  and  the  Negus.  In  the 
Italian  chamber  of  deputies,  July  25,  the  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs  declared  that  *^all  the  powers"  had  officially 
recognized  the  protectorate  over  Abyssinia  which  had  been 
established  by  Italy,  and  had  admitted  that  *^none  of 
them  was  entitled  to  intervene  between  Menelek  and  the 
Italian  government." 

Italy's  African  Province. — General  Baratieri,  gov- 
ernor and  commander-in-chief  of  Italy's  province  of  Ery- 
threa,  having  been  elected  delegate  to  parliament  for  the 
district  of  Lecco,  arrived  in  Rome  toward  the  end  of  July 
to  take  his  seat  in  the  chamber  of  deputies.  He  was  re- 
ceived with  great  enthusiasm  by  all  the  members  except 
the  radicals  and  the  socialists,  neither  of  which  factions 
approves  the  policy  of  the  Italian  government  in  Africa. 
General  Baratieri  will  in  all  probability  be  a  prominent 
figure  in  Italy's  colonial  annals  during  the  next  few 
years. 


716  AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Egypt. — Frederick  G.  Penfield,  United  States  agent 
and  consul  at  Cairo,  in  a  communication  to  the  depart- 
ment of  state,  makes  some  remarkable  statements  relating 
to  the  public  debt  of  Egypt  and  the  results  of  British  rule. 

It  is  an  error,  he  says,  to  suppose  that  the  debt  has  been  reduced 
— in  fact  it  has  grown — during  the  British  occupation.  Indemnifica- 
tion of  those  who  lost  property  through  Arabi's  rebellion  and  the 
bombardment  of  Alexandria  in  1882,  the  expenses  of  the  military 
fiasco  which  resulted  in  the  loss  of  the  Soudan,  the  construction  of 
irrigation  works,  and  the  necessary  outlays  have  added  nearly  $40,- 
000,000  to  the  debt.  Yet  the  character  of  the  security,  the  great 
natural  wealth  of  the  country,  has  been  so  improved  that  European 
holders  of  Egyptian  bonds  have  consented  to  a  reduction  of  nearly 
one-half  in  the  interest.  The  total  bonded  debt  is  $508,945,299,  borne 
by  an  agricultural  population  of  seven  million  souls:  the  burden  on 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  is  about  $72.  On  every  acre  of  pro- 
ductive land  in  Egypt  rests  the  obligation  of  paying  interest  on  $97.17 
of  the  bonded  debt,  and  of  contributing  annually  for  the  actual 
expenses  of  government  an  average  tax  of  $8. 00. 

British  Bee  hii  an  aland. — When  the  bill  for  annexa- 
tion of  British  Bechuanaland  to  Cape  Colony  was  under 
debate  in  the  Cape  house  of  assembly,  the  opposition  made 
emphatic  protest  against  the  conditions  imposed  by  the 
British  government — namely,  that  no  modification  of  the 
existing  laws  of  the  annexed  territory  with  regard  to  the 
questions  of  drink,  land,  and  native  jurisdiction,  should 
be  proposed  in  the  assembly.  It  was  declared  that  to  im- 
pose such  conditions  was  to  interfere  with  the  institutions 
of  the  colony,  and  that  the  terms  were  such  as  no  free 
people  with  self-respect  could  accept.  Nevertheless,  the 
bill  was  passed  by  a  practically  unanimous  vote. 

The  ^^Castine"  Incident  at  Tamatave.— The 
United  States  gunboat  Castine  (Commander  Thomas 
Perry),  on  arriving  at  Tamatave,  did  not  salute  the  French 
flag,  thus  giving  great  offense  to  the  French  naval,  mili- 
tary, and  civil  authorities  there.  Perry,  in  a  communi- 
cation to  the  secretary  of  the  navy,  explains  that  he  did 
not  salute  the  tricolor  because  the  navy  regulations  do  not 
prescribe  a  salute  to  vessels  of  one  country  in  the  ports  of 
another;  the  only  flag  he  could  rightly  have  saluted  was 
the  Hova  flag — but  that  had  not  been  seen  at  Tamatave 
for  some  time.  Another  unpleasant  incident  happened  at 
Tamatave.  When  the  first  boat  from  the  Castine  landed, 
the  French  military  authorities  attempted  to  prevent  the 
officers  from  approaching  or  speaking  to  United  States 
Consul  Wetter,  on  the  ground  that  jjratiq tie,  or  license  to 
land  after  quarantine,  had  not  been  obtained,  though 
Commander  Perry  states  that  pratique  had  been  granted 


AFFAIRS  m  AFRICA.  Ill 

earlier  in  the  day.  The  French  officers  were  highly  ex- 
cited, and  ordered  the  Americans  back  to  their  boat. 
There  was  danger  of  serious  trouble,  which  was  averted 
only  by  the  coolness  and  judgment  of  the  American  offi- 
cers. On  demand  of  Commander  Perry,  ample  apologies 
were  made  by  the  French  authorities.  The  special  mis- 
sion of  the  Castine  to  Madagascar  was  to  inquire  into  the 
case  of  ex-Consul  John  L.  Waller. 

The  Waller  Case. — The  letters  patent,  of  the  queen 
of  Madagascar,  leasing  and  granting  to  Mr.  Waller,  for 
thirty  years,  fifteen  miles  square  of  land  at  Fort  Dauphin, 
has  been  published.  The  lands  comprise  valuable  india- 
rubber  forests.  The  lease  was  to  be  renewed  for  another 
term  of  thirty  years  after  the  expiration  of  the  first  term. 
Mr.  Waller  calculated  that  the  rentals  for  sixty  years  on 
5,340  acres  alone  would  be  $432,000,  or  1335,000  net  after 
paying  royalties.  At  the  end  of  September  Mr.  Waller 
was  still  a  prisoner,  though  the  United  States  ambassador 
to  France,  Mr.  Eustis,  was  employing  the  resources  of  di- 
plomacy to  obtain  his  release.  For  false  imprisonment 
and  money  loss,  Mr.  Waller  will  claim  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment indemnification. 

Fighting  in  British  East  Africa. — In  August  the 
British  forces  in  East  Africa  inflicted  severe  punishment 
upon  the  marauding  Arab  chief  Mbarake.  The  Arabs  had 
made  their  stronghold  at  Mwele  in  the  southeast  corner  of 
the  protectorate.  On  August  12  Admiral  Rawson  marched 
from  Mombasa  with  a  force  of  about  600  men,  four  Max- 
im guns,  a  rocket  tube,  and  a  7-pounder  gun.  Just  be- 
fore reaching  Mwele  a  sharp  action  was  fought,  the  Brit- 
ish being  attacked  by  a  force  thrown  out  from  Mwele,  under 
the  command  of  Ayoub,  Mbarake's  son.  The  staff  had  a 
very  narrow  escape.  General  Sir  Lloyd  Mathews  being 
wounded.  However,  the  enemy  were  beaten  back;  and  on 
the  17th  Mwele  was  captured  after  a  combined  attack 
from  three  sides. 


718  SCIENCE.  3d  Qr.,  1895, 

SCIENCE. 

The  American  Association.— From  August  29  tc 
September  4,  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  held  the  sessions  of  its  forty-fourth  annu- 
al meeting,  in  Springfield,  Mass.  The  gathering  was  one 
of  great  interest.  Fully  367  members  and  fellows,  from 
thirty  of  the  states  and  from  Canada,  were  in  attendance. 

In  all,  207  papers  were  read  before  tlie  nine  sections,  which  met 
in  different  buildings — namely,  forty-two  in  the  section  of  chemistry, 
thirty-four  in  physics,  thirty-three  in  anthropology,  twenty-eight  in 
botany,  nineteen  in  geology  and  geography,  sixteen  each  in  astronomy 
and  zoology,  thirteen  in  social  and  economic  science,  and  six  in  me- 
chanical science  and  engineering.  Besides  these,  a  large  number  of 
valuable  papers  were  read  in  the  affiliated  societies  which  met  before 
and  after  the  parent  association;  and  in  addition  there  were  illustrated 
public  lectures  by  Professor  W.  M.  Davis  of  Harvard  on  "Geology  of 
the  Connecticut  Valley,"  and  Dr.  Cornelius  Van  Brunt  of  New  York 
on  "Wild  Flowers  of  the  Connecticut  Valley."  The  address  of  the 
retiring  president,  Dr.  Daniel  G.  Brinton  of  Media,  Penn.,  on  "The 
Aims  of  Anthropology,"  was  read  in  his  absence  by  the  general  secre- 
tary, Professor  Putnam.  It  presented  anthropology  as  the  science 
which,  by  the  light  of  the  past  development  of  mankind,  will  show 
the  clear  path  of  future  progress. 

Among  the  other  valuable  papers,  space  forbids  us  to  mention 
more  than  a  few:  By  Dr.  W.  McMurtrie,  president  of  the  chemical 
section,  on  "  The  Relation  of  the  Industries  to  the  Advancement  of 
Chemical  Science,"  giving  many  interesting  cases  of  scientific  discov- 
ery due  to  industrial  operations,  notably  illustrated  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  coal-tar  industry;  by  Dr.  F.  S.  Muckey  and  Dr.  Hallock 
on  "  Voice  Production  "  and  "Voice  Analysis:"  these  investigators 
have  devised  an  ingenious  apparatus  for  photographing  the  vocal 
chords  in  action;  by  W.  LeConte  Stevens  of  Troy  on  "  Recent  Progress 
in  Optics;  "  by  F.  E.  Ives  on  "Colored  Photography;  "  by  P.  de Chal 
mot  and  J.  T.  Morehead  on  electric  smelting  of  coke  and  lime,  as 
carried  on  at  their  works  in  Spray,  N.  C,  for  the  production  of  cal- 
cium carbid,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  acetylene,  the  basis  of  illu- 
minating gas;  by  Professor  W.  Kent  on  "  Relation  of  Engineering  to 
Economics; "  by  Frank  H.  Gushing,  showing  the  historic  teachings 
of  Indian  stone  arrowheads,  which  he  traced  back  to  their  simplest 
beginning;  by  Miss  Alice  C.  Fletcher  on  "  Indian  Songs  and  Music;  " 
by  Professor  F.  W.  Putnam  on  the  symbolic  carvings  on  the  ancient 
mounds  of  Ohio,  expressing  the  conviction  that  the  mound  build- 
ers were  a  branch  of  the  great  Southwest  people  who  were  represented 
by  the  ancient  Mexicans,  who  reared  the  cities  of  Yucatan,  and  that 
those  symbols  closely  resemble  carvings  found  in  Central  America;  by 
Professor  Willis  L.  Moore,  newly  elected  chief  of  the  Weather  bureau, 
detailing  the  work  of  the  bureau,  outlining  proposed  modifications, 
and  showing  its  relations  to  the  science  and  industry  of  the  country; 
to  illustrate,  it  is  claimed  that  $36,000,000  was  saved  to  American 
shipping  by  the  prediction  of  one  great  Atlantic  storm  last  year;  by 
Professor  Frank  H.  Bigelow  on  "Solar  Magnetic  Radiation  and 
Weather  Forecasts,"  showing  a  probable  advance  of  science  in  new 
and  unexpected  lines. 


SCIENCE.  719 

Professor  E.  W.  Morley  of  Cleveland,  0.,  distinguished 
chemist,  presided  over  the  meetings  of  the  association. 

Morley,  Edward  Williams,  president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  was  born  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
January  29,  1838;  was  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1860,  and, 
after  spending  several  years  teaching  chemistry,  was  appointed  in 
1869  professor  of  chemistry  and  geology  in  Western  Reserve  College, 
Hudson,  O.,  now  a  part  of  Western  Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  O. 
In  1873  he  took  the  similar  chair  in  the  Cleveland  Medical  College, 
and  has  since  discharged  the  duties  of  both  places.  In  original  work 
he  has  been  engaged  in  a  series  of  measurements  of  the  fineness  of 
striation  of  all  the  diatoms  on  ten  of  Moller's  diatomacean  test  plates, 
and  in  measurements  made  for  the  purpose  of  showing  precision  in  the 
micrometric  readings  of  graduations.  In  1877  he  also  began  studying 
the  cause  of  the  variation  of  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere; 
and,  to  facilitate  his  work,  devised  an  apparatus  for  analyzing  air,  fol- 
lowing it  with  one  for  gas.  In  1884  he  repeated  Fizeau's  experiment 
on  the  effect  of  the  motion  of  a  transparent  medium  on  the  velocity  of 
light,  and  subsequently  made  experiments  to  test  Fresnel's  explana- 
tion of  astronomical  aberration.  In  conjunction  with  Albert  A.  Mich- 
elson  he  has  determined  a  practical  method  of  comparing  the  wave 
lengths  of  sodium  light  with  the  metre  more  accurately  than  had  pre- 
viously been  done,  and  a  method  of  laying  down  on  a  bar  of  metal  a 
desired  number  of  such  wave  lengths  with  an  accuracy  greater  than 
that  of  a  micrometric  comparison  of  standards  of  lengths,  so  that  the 
sodium  wave  length  may  be  made  a  natural  standard  of  lengths.  In 
1883  he  was  elected  vice-president  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  for  the  chemical  section.  He  received 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  from  the  Cleveland  Medical  College  in  1877,  and 
Ph.  D.  from  the  University  of  Wooster  in  1878.  In  1883  he  deter- 
mined the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen,  correct  to  three  places  of  deci- 
mals, as  15.882  (Vol.  3,  p.  620). 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  ensuing 
year: 

President — Edward  D.  Cope  of  Philadelphia. 

Vice-Presidents — A.  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  William  E. 
Story  of  Worcester,  Mass.;  B.  Physics,  Carl  Leo  Mees  of  Terre 
Haute,  Ind. ;  C.  Chemistry,  W  A.  Noyes  of  Terre  Haute,  Ind. ;  D. 
Mechanical  Science  and  Engineering,  Frank  O.  Marvin  of  Lawrence, 
Kan.;  E.  (leology  and  Geography,  Benjamin  K.  Emerson  of  Amherst, 
Mass.;  F.  Zoology,  Theodore  N.  Gill  of  Washington,  D.  C;  G.  Bot- 
any, N.  L.  Britton  of  New  York  city;  H.  Antliropology,  Alice  C. 
Fletcher  of  Washington,  D.  C;  I.  Social  Science,  William  R.  Laz- 
enby  of  Columbus,  O. 

Premanent  Secretary — F.  W.  Putnam,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

The  British  Association. — The  sixty-fifth  annual 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  was  held  at  Ipswich,  Eng.,  beginning  Septem- 
ber 11.  Sir  Douglas  Galton,  the  president,  in  his  address, 
eulogized  the  late  Professor  Huxley,  and  then  traced  the 
history  of  the  association,  showing  the  benefits  it  had  con- 
ferred in  every  branch  of  science.     He  fainted  during  the 


720  SCIENCE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

delivery,  and  the  remainder  of  the  address  was  read  by 
Sir  John  Evans. 

Argon  and  Helium. — Investigation  of  the  properties 
of  argon  and  helium  is  being  vigorously  pushed,  with 
prospect  of  interesting  results.  In  conjunction  with  Dr. 
J.  Norman  Collie  and  Mr.  Morris  Travers,  Professor  Ram- 
say has  detected  the  presence  of  helium  in  many  other  min- 
erals besides  cleveite,  in  which  it  was  first  noticed  on  the 
earth  (p.  267).  The  most  available  source  of  terrestrial 
helium  appears  to  be  the  mineral  monazite ;  but  it  occurs 
in  a  mineral  consisting  mainly  of  the  oxide  of  uranium, 
found  in  Cornwall,  Eng.  Professor  Ramsay  has  obtained  it 
in  conjunction  with  argon  from  a  portion  of  the  meteorite 
found  in  Augusta  county,  Va. ;  and  Professor  Lockyer 
has  found  it  in  broggerite.  But  perhaps  the  most  start- 
ling announcement  is  that  of  Professor  H.  Kayser  of 
Bonn,  who  claims  that  he  has  found  helium,  associated 
in  small  quantities  with  argon  and  nitrogen,  issuing  freely 
as  a  "stream  into  the  air''  in  the  gases  of  the  springs  of 
Wildbad  in  the  Black  Forest.  It  would  appear,  however, 
that  if  helium  does  thus  enter  the  air,  it  does  not  remain 
there,  but  removes  itself  from  our  planet,  as  hydrogen 
would  if  liberated,  in  virtue  of  the  velocity  of  its  own 
proper  molecular  action,  and  emigrates  to  a  celestial  body 
possessing  sufficient  gravitational  attraction  to  hold  it  fast. 
The  most  searching  tests  have  shown  that  helium  is  not 
generally  diffused  through  our  atmosphere. 

The  further  interesting  announcement  is  made  by 
Professor  Ramsay,  that  two  of  the  lines  in  the  spectra 
of  argon  and  helium  are  absolutely  identical,  from  which 
the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  they  contain  as  a  common 
ingredient  a  gas  not  hitherto  identified,  with  a  probable 
atomic  weight  of  ten. 

From  the  fact  that  no  argon  is  found  in  the  nitrogen 
which  can  be  extracted  from  Bessemer-blown  steel.  Pro- 
fessor Roberts-Austen  intimates  that  argon  may  possibly 
have  united  with  the  iron,  and  given  it  some  of  its  peculiar 
properties.  It  is  further  supposed  by  some,  that  argon 
may  contribute  to  the  nourishment  and  growth  of  plants. 
But  these  and  other  theories  as  to  the  functions  of  argon 
in  nature's  processes  are  rather  indications  of  lines  to  be 
followed  in  investigation,  than  established  inductions. 

The  Geographical  Congress. — The  Sixth  Interna- 
tional Geographical  congress  was  formally  opened  in  the 
Imperial  Institute,  London,  Eng.,  by  the  Duke  of  York, 
July  26.     The  sessions,  which  lasted  until  August  3,  were 


SCIENCE.  m 

attended  by  200  delegates  representing  twenty  different 
governments.  Of  the  five  previous  congresses,  the  first 
was  held  at  Antwerp  in  1871 ;  two  were  held  at  Paris,  in 
1875  and  1889 ;  one  at  Venice,  in  1881 ;  and  one  at  Berne, 
in  1891. 

In  addition  to  the  various  papers  and  addresses,  there  was  held 
an  interesting  exhibition  of  the  geographical  treasures  of  the  British 
Museum,  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  the  Imperial  Institute. 
There  was  exhibited  a  series  of  maps  showing  the  development  of 
English  cartography  from  the  earliest  period.  There  was  also  exhib- 
ited an  interesting  series  of  portraits  of  explorers  and  geographers 
from  the  fourteenth  century  down  to  the  present  day. 

The  subjects  of  greatest  interest  discussed  at  the  congress  were 
arctic  and  antarctic  exploration,  the  future  of  Africa,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  geographical  study  in  schools  and  universities. 

The  Antarctic  Continent. — The  most  striking  feature  of  the  pro- 
gram was  the  account  given  by  the  young  Norwegian,  Mr.  C.  E. 
Borchgrevink,  of  his  recent  visit  to  the  antarctic  regions,  where  he 
was  the  first  human  being  to  effect  a  landing  on  Victoria  Land,  that 
great  continent  supposed  to  be  8,000,000  square  miles  in  extent — 
about  twice  the  size  of  Europe — which  was  discovered  by  Sir  James 
Ross  in  the  Erebus  and  I'error  in  January,  1841. 

It  appears  that  the  expedition  of  which  Borchgrevink  was  in 
command  owed  its  origin  and  support  to  a  Norwegian — Commander 
Svend  Foyn.  It  consisted  of  but  one  ship,  a  whaler,  named  the 
Antarctic,  which  left  Melbourne,  Australia,  September  20,  1894. 
The  Antarctic  circle  was  crossed  on  December  26.  On  January  16, 
1895,  they  sighted  Cape  Adair  in  latitude  south  IV  28'  and  longitude 
169°  56',  and  obtained  a  full  view  of  the  mainland,  west  and  south, 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  On  the  18th  they  landed  on 
North  island.  On  the  23d  they  crowned  their  efforts  by  going 
ashore  on  the  mainland  at  Cape  Adair.  Borchgrevink  verified  much 
of  Ross's  experience.  On  the  6th  of  November,  1894,  in  latitude  58" 
14'  and  longitude  165°  35',  an  innnense  barrier  of  ice  was  sighted, 
extending  from  east  to  northwest  from  forty  to  sixty  miles.  With 
the  beginning  of  the  year  they  found  themselves  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  great  ice  fields.  Marine  animals  were  seen  in  abundance. 
On  North  island  they  found  themselves  resisted  by  whole  armies  of 
penguins.  The  island  consisted  of  volcanic  vesicular  lava,  rising  in 
the  southwest  into  two  pointed  peaks  of  about  300  feet.  The  highest 
of  these  some  of  the  crew  ascended,  and  about  thirty  feet  above  the 
sea  level  discovered  vegetation  on  the  rocks. 

At  Cape  Adair,  where  they  found  the  penguins  as  numerous  as 
on  North  island,  the  average  temperature  of  the  water  in  January 
and  February  was  about  freezing  point.  It  is  Borchgrevink's  opinion 
that  this  is  the  one  place  which  future  expeditions  sliould  make  their 
headquarters  or  base  of  operations.  At  this  point  neither  ice  nor 
volcanoes  seem  to  have  raged.  It  offers  many  advantages  for  making 
meteorological  observations;  and  from  such  a  source  knowledge  is 
much  needed  in  regard  to  the  antarctic.  Borchgrevink  is  quite  san- 
guine that  with  a  properly  equipped  expedition  much  might  be 
accomplished  in  the  South  Polar  circle.  Meteorology,  geology, 
geography,  botany,  and  zoology — all  these  branches  of  science  would 
be  certain  to  benefit ;  and  there  is  evidence  that  mineralogy  also  might 
find  some  fresh  illustration. 


722  SCIENCE.  3d  Qr.,  1805. 

A  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted  by  tlie  congress,  declaring 
the  exploration  of  the  antarctic  regions  to  be  "  the  greatest  piece  of 
geographical  exploration  still  to  be  undertaken,"  and  urging  that  the 
equipment  of  antarctic  scientific  expeditions  be  undertaken  before 
the  end  of  the  century. 

Papers  were  read  on  arctic  exploration  by  Admiral  Markham, 
General  A.  W.  Greely,  Dr.  G.  Neumeyer,  and  Joseph  Hooker.  S. 
A.  Andree  explained  his  plan  of  reaching  the  north  pole  by  balloon. 
(See  below.) 

Papers  on  tropical  Africa  and  its  development  by  white  races 
were  read  by  Sir  John  Kirk,  Captain  F.  D.  Lugard,  and  Slatin 
Pasha,  who  recently  escaped  from  Omdurman,  where  he  was  held 
a  prisoner  by  the  Mahdists  for  eleven  years.  Henry  M.  Stanley 
declared  that  he  knew  of  no  intention  to  colonize  any  part  of  Central 
Africa.  He  did  not  believe  that  the  study  of  scientific  geography 
was  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  colonization.  From  all  that  was 
said  it  seems  clear  that  Central  Africa  is  unfit  for  European  coloniza- 
tion, and  that  the  chief  object  of  those  who  have  taken  more  or  less 
formal  possession  of  it  is  a  mercenary  one  which  is  not  too  careful  of 
the  wishes  and  welfare  of  the  natives. 

ifilisee  Reclus  read  a  paper  on  the  construction  of  a  terrestrial 
globe  on  the  scale  of  1  to  1,000,000.  The  congress  approved  Professor 
Penck's  proposed  map  of  the  world  on  the  scale  of  1  to  1,000,000, 
and  charged  the  executive  committee  with  the  duty  of  carrying  out 
the  work.  It  also  adopted  the  Greenwich  meridian  metrical  measure- 
ment, and  disapproved  almost  unanimously  of  the  proposed  interna- 
lional  institute  of  geography  as  altogether  needless.  It  was  agreed 
to  call  the  attention  of  geographical  societies  to  the  application  of  the 
decimal  system  to  time  and  angles,  the  societies  being  requested  to 
report  upon  the  matter  at  the  next  congress. 

With  regard  to  the  practical  results  of  the  congress,  Hon.  W.  W. 
Rockhill,  third  assistant  secretary  of  state,  who  represented  the 
United  States  government  at  the  congress,  writes: 

"  Perhaps  the  most  important  practical  result  of  the  congress  will  be  the 
extension  of  Reojji-aphical  education,  which  already  underwent  a  great  cl)ange 
after  the  debates  of  the  Antwerp  congress  of  1871.  While  France  and  Germany- 
have  done  much  since  that  time  to  encourage  the  scientific  study  of  geography, 
England  and  other  countries,  among  which  the  United  States  is  prominent, 
have  done  little  or  notiiing.  It  was  only  a  few  years  ago.  at  the  persistent 
request  and  through  the  liberality  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  that  lec- 
turers on  geography  were  appointed  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  While  much 
remains  to  be  done  to  give  this  important  study  its  proper  recognition,  signs 
are  not  wanting  to  show  that  more  will  soon  be  done  for  it  in  English  schools 
and  universities.  Let  us  only  hope  that  our  coimtry  may  also  soon  realize  the 
value  of  thorough  geographical  training,  and  give  geographic  science  a  proper 
recognition  in  our  colleges;  also,  that  in  a  country  where  printing  has  reached 
such  a  very  high  standing,  one  may  find,  outside  of  a  couple  of  government 
offices,  where  work  of  great,  even  unsurpassed,  excellence  is  done,  gootl  maps, 
of  which  we  are  at  present  absolutely  devoid.  With  a  better  knowledge  of 
geography  our  interest  in  foreign  affairs  and  countries  will  broaden,  and  we 
will  be  better  able  to  follow  intelligently  what  is  going  on  around  us  in  the 
world,  and  understand  history  as  we  cannot  possibly  do  without  it,  putting 
aside  all  the  practical  advantages  which  our  more  thorough  knowledge  of  our 
globe  must  bring  us. 

"  If  this  congress  accomplishes  nothing  else,  it  will  have  served  to  show 
us  a  great  educational  defect  in  our  country,  and  it  has  given  us  valuable  sug- 
gestions for  its  cure." 

The  president,  Mr.  Clements  R.  Markham,  C.  B., 
F.  R.  S.  E.,  also  president  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  announced  that  the  next  congress  would  meet  in 
Berlin  in  1899. 


SCIENCE.  723 

Arctic  Exploration. — Return  of  the  Peary  Expedi- 
tion.— Not  even  in  the  history  of  arctic  exploration  can 
one  find  an  instance  of  greater  courage,  determination, 
and  calm  heroism  than  that  displayed  by  the  three  mem- 
bers of  the  last  exploring  party  led  by  Lieutenant  R.  E. 
Peary  in  north  Greenland.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
when  the  steamer  Falcon  reached  St.  John's,  Newfound- 
land, in  September,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  681),  bringing  back 
members  of  the  expedition  which  Lieutenant  Peary  took 
northward  in  the  summer  of  1893,  it  brought  back  the 
news  that  Peary,  together  with  his  companion,  Hugh  J. 
Lee,  and  his  colored  servant,  Matthew  Henson,  both  of 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  had  decided  to  remain  behind  and 
attempt  the  northward  trip  alone  this  year.  Nothing  fur- 
ther was  heard  of  them  in  America  until  September  21, 
1895,  when  the  relief  expedition  in  the  steamer  Kitu, 
reached  St.  John%  Newfoundland,  with  Peary  and  his  two 
companions  safe  on  board. 

The  three  men  passed  the  winter  mainly  in  preparing  for  the  trip 
over  the  ice  cap,  on  which  they  started  from  Anniversary  Lodge 
April  1,  with  five  sledges  and  forty-nine  dogs,  besides  a  supporting 
party  of  natives.  At  a  point  135  miles  inland,  Peary  was  disap- 
pointed in  being  unable  to  find  a  cache  in  which  he  had  stored 
provisions  the  year  before:  it  had  been  snowed  under.  Here  the 
Eskimos  deserted.  The  three  men,  however,  kept  on,  hoping  to 
replenish  their  limited  stock  of  provisions  by  shooting  game.  Peary^ 
object  was  to  reach  Independence  bay,  and  do  some  coast  exploration 
In  this  he  succeeded;  but  at  the  cost  of  dreadful  suffering.  Let 
gave  out  and  had  to  be  hauled  by  the  others  for  several  days  till  the 
bay  was  reached.  Here  several  musk  oxen  were  shot,  which  undoubt 
edly  saved  the  lives  of  the  party.  Peary  could  not  press  his  way 
northward,  but  did  some  coast  exploration  himself  while  Lee  re 
cuperated.  On  the  return  trip  the  dogs  became  emaciated  from  want 
of  food,  and  then  developed  contagious  sickness.  Peary  was  compelled 
to  kill  the  weaker  ones  tjy  degrees  to  supply  the  stronger  ones  with 
food.  Ultimately,  the  stock  of  dogs  became  so  reduced,  that  only  one 
remained  when  headquarters  were  reached.  During  the  return  Lee 
again  collapsed,  and  had  to  take  to  the  sledge,  which  Peary  and 
Henson,  with  the  remaining  dogs,  drew  over  the  frozen  snow  until 
he  recovered.  For  over  two  weeks,  all  three  lived  on  one  meal  a  day. 
They  ate  their  last  ounce  of  food  twenty  miles  from  camp,  and 
passed  twenty-six  hours  without  food  before  they  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing home.  They  got  back  July  25,  just  a  week  before  they  heard 
news  of  the  relief  expedition.  The  main  cause  of  the  failure  was  the 
loss  of  nearly  all  the  caches  of  provisions  which  Lieutenant  Peary 
had  made  along  the  intended  line  of  march,  all  having  been  buried 
by  the  heaviest  snowfall  on  record,  which  obliterated  all  the  marks. 
Only  one  was  found,  and  that  after  prolonged  search. 

The  Kite  reached  the  mouth  of  Inglefield  gulf  July  21,  but  could 
not  penetrate  Northumberland  sound,  owing  to  ice.  Being  forced 
south  by  the  ice  pack,  she  tried  Murchison  sound,  but  failed;  and 


1U  SCIENCE.  3d  Qr.,  1805. 

eventually  entered  McCormick  bay  on  August  2.  The  relief  expedi- 
tion walked  thirty-five  miles  to  Bowdoin  bay,  where  they  found  the 
gallant  trio.     Both  parties  returned  to  the  ship  August  4. 

Lieutenant  Peary,  it  is  reported,  has  said  that  he  will  not  make 
another  attempt  to  explore  north  Greenland. 

Important  scientific  results  are  traceable  to  this  expedition  of 
Lieutenant  Peary  through  the  efforts  of  those  who  formed  the  relief 
party.  It  was  chiefly  through  the  liberality  of  Morris  K.  Jessup  and 
the  directors  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  that  the 
Kite  was  fitted  out.  Emil  Diebitsch,  brother  to  Mrs.  Peary,  was  in 
charge  of  the  relief  party,  which  was  composed  of  Professor  Rollin 
1).  Salisbury  of  the  University  of  Chicago;  Professor  L.  L.  Dyche  of 
the  Kansas  State  University,  representing  the  American  Museum; 
Theodore  Le  Boutillier  of  Philadelphia;  and  Dr.  John  E.  Walsh  of 
Washington.  The  objects  of  the  expedition  were  two:  (1)  To  bring 
back  the  Peary  party,  if  alive;  (2)  to  study  the  geology  and  glaciers, 
the  flora,  and  fauna  of  the  region  visited. 

Professor  Salisbury  studied  the  geological  features  of  Greenland 
from  latitude  64"  to  78°  45',  and  also  examined  the  American  coast  be- 
tween latitude  78"  and  78"  45',  and  from  Ellesmere  Land  to  Dexterity 
Harbor.  Numerous  glaciers  were  studied  in  detail  between  74"  45' 
and  77°  45',  and  important  determinations  were  made  regarding  their 
motion.  Evidence  was  also  gathered  of  the  former  extension  of  the 
Greenland  ice  cap,  but  there  was  no  evidence  of  the  extension  of  the 
ice  cap  towards  America.  The  stratification  of  the  glaciers  was  very 
plainly  marked,  and  their  mobility  and  the  facility  of  their  adaptation 
to  their  beds  was  very  conspicuous. 

The  Greenland  and  American  coasts  form  unequalled  fields  for 
the  study  of  glacial  geology.  The  line  of  snow  is  found  much  lower, 
and  the  ice  comes  down  much  lower,  on  the  American  than  on  the 
(ireenland  coast.  Lieutenant  Peary  mapped  Whale  sound  and  com- 
pleted his  studies  of  the  Eskimo  highlanders.  He  also  brought  back 
another  year's  meteorological  record. 

On  her  return  the  Kite  had  on  board  the  most  valuable  collection 
ever  brought  out  of  the  arctic  regions,  gathered  mainly  through  the 
efforts  of  Professor  Dyche,  who  made  his  headquarters  at  Holstenborg. 
It  comprised  nearly  4,000  specimens  of  birds'  eggs,  and  animals,  in- 
cluding walrus,  narwhal,  seal,  bear,  fishes,  and  other  Northern  ani- 
mals, lichens,  etc. ,  besides  two  large  meteorites,  one  weighing  three 
tons,  which  were  discovered  by  Peary  in  the  Iron  Stone  mountains 
near  Cape  York.  A  meteorite  weighing  forty  tons  was  also  found; 
and  efforts  will  be  made  to  bring  it  to  the  United  States.  Several 
thousand  photographs  were  also  taken,  covering  points  of  interest  in 
west  and  north  Greenland.  The  greater  part  of  the  collection  will  go 
to  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 

The  Jackson- Harmsivortli  Expedition. — News  has  been 
received  from  this  expedition,  which  sailed  from  London, 
Eng.,  in  July,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  684).  The  Winchuard 
safely  made  the  coast  of  Franz  Josef  Land,  at  Cape  Flora, 
on  September  7,  1894,  and  was  soon  icebound  there  for  the 
winter.  On  July  3,  1895,  when  she  left  on  her  return 
trip,  the  party  were  all  in  good  health,  had  established  a 
chain  of  depots  northward  for  100  miles  from  camp,  and 
were  about  to  start  on  their  long  trip  toward  the  pole. 


SCIENCE,  725 

It  was  September  10  when  the  Windward  at  last  re-en- 
tered an  inhabited  world  at  Vardo,  beyond  the  North 
cape.  The  ice  pack  was  of  an  unusually  formidable  char- 
acter. Twelve  of  the  crew  were  attacked  by  scurvy  on 
the  journey,  two  fatally;  and  one  died  while  at  the  winter 
camp  in  Franz  Josef  Land. 

M.  A7idree's  Balloon  Expedition. — At  the  International 
Geographical  congress  in  London  (see  above),  M.  S.  A. 
Andree,  an  engineer  of  the  patent  office  in  Stockholm, 
described  the  method  by  which  he  expects  to  reach  the 
pole  in  1896. 

M.  Andree  expects  to  start  in  July,  the  season  of  most  favorable 
weather,  in  a  balloon  of  special  construction,  from  one  of  the  Nor- 
wegian islands  of  the  Spitzbergen  archipelago  lying  to  the  extreme 
northwest  of  the  mainland;  and  hopes  to  reach  the  pole  in  forty -three 
hours,  and  to  return  safely  to  the  inhabited  regions  of  North  America 
or  Siberia,  His  balloon,  now  being  made  in  Paris,  is  to  be  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  carry  three  persons,  instruments,  and  provisions  for  four 
months,  besides  a  boat  transformable  into  a  sledge.  Gas  under  press- 
ure in  cylinders,  sufficient  to  keep  the  balloon  aloft  for  thirty  days, 
will  be  taken.  The  balloon  will  have  a  "  rudder-sail  "  fastened  to  its 
apex  and  to  the  car  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  moved  freely.  The 
king  of  Sweden  headed  a  subscription  with  $8,000  to  defray  the  esti- 
mated expense  of  about  $36,000, 

Astronomy. — The  periodical  comet  of  Faye,  faintly 
visible,  was  discovered  by  Professor  Javelle  of  Nice,  Sep- 
tember 26.  Its  appearance  during  a  period  of  intense  heat, 
not  only  in  France,  but  throughout  central  Europe  and 
England,  gave  rise  to  much  speculation  as  to  the  connec- 
tion between  the  two  phenomena. 

According  to  Mr.  Brenner,  of  the  Manora  Observatory 
at  Bombay,  the  planet  Venus  rotates  on  her  axis  once  in 
about  twenty-four  hours.  This  agrees  with  Schroter's 
statement  that  the  time  is  23  hours  21  minutes,  and  is  op- 
posed to  that  of  Schiaparelli  and  other  modern  observers, 
who  say  that  the  time  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  planet's 
revolution  around  the  sun. 

It  is  announced  that  of  the  satellites  composing  the 
rings  of  Saturn  (p.  458),  those  in  the  outer  edge  travel 
round  the  central  body  of  the  planet  in  12  hours  5  minutes, 
a  period  slightly  larger  than  that  of  the  fifth  satellite  of 
Jupiter;  while  the  meteoric  bodies  composing  the  inner 
edge  of  the  ring  go  round  in  the  astonishingly  short  inter- 
val of  5  hours  50  minutes,  nearly  two  hours  less  than  the 
period  of  Phobos,  the  inner  moon  of  Mars. 

From  observations  conducted  by  Professor  W.  H.  Pick- 
ering of  the  Harvard  Observatory  at  Arequipa,  Peru, 
some  doubt  is  thrown  upon  the  generally  accepted  conclu- 


726  SCIENCE.  3cl  Qr.,  1895. 

sion  that  no  trace  of  water  exists  on  the  surface  of  the 
moon.     Some  degree  of  humidity  seems  probable. 

Dark  patches  have  been  recognized  indifferent  parts  of  the  moon, 
either  in  the  craters,  or  surrounding  the  crevasses,  or  yet  again  in  the 
regions  to  which  it  has  been  agreed  to  give  the  name  of  seas.  In  the 
craters  at  the  centre  of  the  visible  hemisphere  these  spots  are  darkest 
just  after  full  moon,  vi^hen  shadows  are  impossible  in  this  region ;  and 
they  become,  on  the  other  hand,  invisible  when  shadows  are 
well  marked.  No  other  explanation  of  these  appearances  can  be  found 
than  the  presence  of  water  at  the  bottom  of  these  cavities,  or  of  a 
partially  thawed  frozen  region.  Admitting  that  vegetation  exists 
there,  many  otherwise  inexplicable  facts  become  very  simple  of  inter- 
pretation; but  yet  more  numerous  observations  are  necessary  to  dem- 
onstrate its  existence. 

The  "  Sea  of  Tranquillity  "  is  entirely  covered  with  these  variable 
patches,  the  alterations  of  which  can  be  observed  with  the  smallest 
glass,  and  often  with  the  naked  eye. 

Professor  E.  E.  Barnard  of  the  Lick  Observatory 
recently  discovered  through  photography  a  vast  and  mag- 
nificent nebula,  hitherto  unknown,  in  the  constellation 
Scorpio. 

The  nebula  is  intricate  in  form,  and  appears  connected  with 
many  of  the  bright  stars  of  the  region.  Its  substance  is  gathered 
into  a  number  of  cloud-like  masses,  which  appear  to  surround  certain 
stars,  as  if  physically  connected  with  them,  thus  apparently  showing 
these  stars  to  be  at  about  the  same  distance  from  us. 

Another  achievement  standing  to  the  credit  of  Pro- 
fessor Barnard  is  the  determination  of  the  diameters  of 
the  four  largest  asteroids.  By  micrometric  measurement, 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  great  Lick  telescope  with  its 
unequalled  magnifying  power,  he  has  found  the  diameters 
of  the  four  asteroids  referred  to,  to  be  as  follows  :  Ceres, 
485  miles ;  Pallas,  304  miles ;  Vesta  (heretofore  consid- 
ered the  largest),  248  miles;  Juno,  118  miles.  The 
remarkable  brightness  of  Vesta,  four  times  that  of  Ceres, 
explains  why  Vesta  was  long  believed  to  be  the  largest. 

Atrial  Navigation. — ^Still  another  attempt  to  solve 
this  problem  is  being  made  by  George  J.  Kupprecht  of 
Philadelphia,  Penn. 

Above  the  hull  of  his  air-ship  the  inventor  stretches  a  balloon- 
like, flexible  covering,  which  may  be  inflated  temporarily  to  assist 
iim  in  ascending.  He  then  proposes  to  discharge  (or  compress  in 
Storage  cylinders)  a  large  part  of  the  gas,  and  lower  his  cover  to  a 
curve  corresponding  to  that  of  a  turtle-back,  thus  lessening  the 
resistance  which  would  be  offered  to  a  horizontal  movement  through 
ihe  air.  This  flattening  is  effected  by  screw-threads  on  vertical  rods, 
ilotation  of  the  latter  not  only  partially  collapses  the  balloon,  but  it 
also  shifts  to  an  almost  horizontal  position  several  metallic  ribs,  pro- 
jecting forward,  aft,  and  sideways,  which  stretch  and  support  an 
aeroplane,  the  wings  that  sustain  his  craft  after  it  is  once  up  and  in 


SCIENCE.  727 

motion.  To  assist  the  balloon  in  lifting  the  ship  quickly,  some  fans 
are  mounted  on  horizontal  shafts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  hull,  and 
working  in  semi-circular  depressions  so  that  the  downward  thrust  of 
the  fans  is  exerted  on  the  free  air,  and  the  upward  movement  occurs 
under  cover.  As  soon  as  a  proper  elevation  is  secured,  these  fans  are 
set  so  as  to  act  on  the  air  after  the  fashion  of  screws,  and  co-operate 
with  the  propeller  astern  in  driving  the  vessel  forward.  There  is  a 
rudder  adapted  to  controlling  motions  in  both  a  horizontal  and  a 
vertical  plane,  combining  the  steering  functions  of  a  bird's  tail  with 
those  of  a  fish's.  A  properly  braced  sheet  of  aluminum  constitutes 
the  roof  of  the  craft.  The  gas  bag  is  brought  down  snugly  on  top  of 
this,  when  the  collapsing  stage  is  reached.  This  metallic  shell  keeps 
the  bag  from  being  driven  inward  in  front  by  motion  through  the  air. 
But  for  this  precaution  the  gas  might  accumulate  aft  and  seriously 
disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  vessel  longitudinally.  The  hull,  con- 
taining machinery  and  passengers,  brings  the  centre  of  gravity  well 
below  the  level  of  the  aeroplane,  and  thus  automatically  prevents 
any  lateral  tilting.  The  motor  power  to  be  used  has  not  yet  been 
decided  on. 

The  Hodgkins  Prizes.— The  award  of  the  Hodgkins 
fund  prizes  in  connection  with  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion at  Washington,  D.  C,  attracted  much  attention. 
The  first  money  prize  of  110,000  was  awarded  to  Lord 
Rayleigh  and  Professor  Ramsay  for  their  Joint  discovery 
of  argon  (p.  257);  but  the  second  prize,  12,000,  was  not 
awarded,  none  of  the  228  contestants  having  complied 
strictly  with  the  conditions.  Mr.  McAdie  of  the  Weather 
bureau,  author  of  the  popular  bulletin  on  *^ Protection 
from  Lightning, '^  an  essay  on  "Tornadoes,"  etc.,  was 
awarded  a  bronze  medal;  and  honorable  mention  was 
given  to  the  Rev.  Professor  Frank  H.  Bigelow  of  the 
Weather  bureau,  for  an  essay  on  "Solar  and  Terrestrial 
Magnetism  and  Their  Relations  to  Meteorology;"  to  Dr. 
Charles  Smart,  for  an  essay  on  "  The  Properties,  Consti- 
tution, and  Impurities  of  Atmospheric  Air  in  Relation  to 
the  Promotion  of  Health  and  Longevity;"  and  to  Dr.  F. 
T.  B.  Corderio,  U.  S.  N.,  for  an  essay  on  "Ilypsometry." 

Statistics  of  Anti-Toxin. — Under  orders  of  the  Ger- 
man chancellor,  figures  covering  the  first  three  months  of 
1895  were  recently  collected  from  232  physicians  practic- 
ing in  191  hospitals. 

The  percentage  of  deaths  in  2,228  cases  was  found  to  be  only  17,3, 
whereas  by  the  older  methods  it  averaged  about  50.  Professor  Richet 
publishes  figures  of  mortality  from  diphtheria  in  Paris,  which  show 
that  either  the  disease  has  this  year  taken  a  milder  form,  or  that  Dr. 
Roux's  serum  treatment  is  effective.  The  deaths  in  1884  in  Paris 
hospitals  were  1,400;  from  1887  to  1891  they  were  from  900  to  960  a 
year;  from  1892  to  1894  they  averaged  733;  in  1895  they  were  239. 

Serum   Cure   for    Consumption.— Owing  to   the 

success  of  the  serum  method  in  cases  of  diphtheria  and 


738  SCIENCE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

snake  bite,  the  world  will  watch  with  interest  the  results 
of  the  new  cure  for  consumption  announced  as  the  dis- 
covery of  Dr.  Maragliano  of  the  University  of  Genoa. 
His  method  consists  in  inoculation  with  serum  modified 
with  bacilli  derived  from  virulent  cultures  of  human  tuber- 
culosis. Of  the  eighty-three  patients  thus  far  treated,  in 
all  stages  of  consumption,  forty-five  were  only  slightly 
affected.  All  of  these  were  much  helped,  and  twenty- 
nine  were  cured.  The  ultimate  efficacy  of  the  remedy  in 
cases  where  the  tracts  of  disease  are  extensive  and  there 
is  some  fever,  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated. 

Similar  experiments  are  being  tried  with  a  prospect  of 
success,  by  Dr.  Paul  Paquin,  professor  of  bacteriology  in 
the  Missouri  State  University  at  Columbia. 

Is  Cancer  Contagious? — On  September  22  Dr.  E. 
W.  Burnette  of  New  York  city  died  with  malignant 
cancer  of  the  face.  It  appears  that  about  a  year  ago 
he  applied  nitrate  of  silver  with  his  finger  to  a  swelling 
on  a  patient's  tongue,  which  proved  to  be  a  cancerous 
growth,  and,  an  hour  or  so  later,  with  the  same  finger, 
rubbed  some  powder  on  a  scratch  on  his  own  face  which 
he  had  caused  in  shaving.  It  is  also  stated  that  the 
patient  with  the  diseased  tongue  had  herself  caught  the 
disease  by  using  a  speaking-tube  belonging  to  a  man  who 
had  died  with  cancer  in  the  mouth.  These  facts  have 
caused  much  speculation  as  to  whether  cancer  by  inocula- 
tion is  possible.  It  is  known  to  be  a  possibility  in  the 
case  of  dumb  animals;  but  human  beings  have  heretofore 
been  supposed  to  be  immune  to  it.  Opinions  are  divided 
on  the  matter,  some  claiming  that  a  complete  chain  of 
evidence  has  been  established;  others,  that  the  cut  on  the 
cheek  merely  hastened  the  development  of  the  disease, 
which  would  sooner  or  later  have  appeared  without  it. 

Horseless  Carriages. — For  many  years  experiments 
have  been  made  to  develop  a  practical  automobile  carriage 
for  ordinary  road  use.  In  France,  particularly,  these  ex- 
periments have  been  brought  to  the  verge  of  commercial 
success;  and  where  good  roads  are  to  be  found,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  in  the  near  future,  power-driven  carriages 
and  cycles  will  be  largely  used.  In  some  of  the  inventions 
petroleum  or  gasoline  furnishes  the  power;  in  others,  elec- 
tricity; and  they  appear  to  surpass  the  horse  in  speed, 
endurance,  and  economy.  The  first  attempt  on  record  to 
develop  a  steam  carriage  was  made  in  1801  by  Trevithick 
and  Vivian.  Kecent  experiments  have  been  along  two 
lines,  one  the  application  of  power  to  the  cycle,  the  other 


SCIENCE.  729 

tlie  production  of  steam-driven  carriages.  Cycles  driven 
by  petroleum,  steam,  or  electricity  are  said  to  have  at- 
tained a  speed  of  sixty  miles  an  hour.  Petroleum  seems 
to  be  the  most  practicable  source  of  power.  In  the  cycle 
invented  by  M.  Millet,  said  to  be  the  best  yet  produced, 
cylinders  are  attached  to  the  spokes  of  the  rear  wheel,  the 
pistons  of  which  are  moved  in  succession  by  the  explosive 
force  of  gasoline  led  from  a  reservoir  over  the  rear  wheel 
and  ignited  by  an  electric  spark.  Most  of  the  horseless 
carriages  are  also  propelled  by  petroleum  power.  In  ap- 
pearance they  resemble  ordinary  carriages.  A  steam  en- 
gine has  also  been  invented,  attachable  to  any  carriage. 

An  interesting  contest  of  automobile  carriages  was  held 
in  France  beginning  June  11,  the  course  being  from  Paris 
to  Bordeaux  (36e3  miles)  and  return. 

Sixty-six  vehicles  propelled  by  petroleum,  steam  power,  or  elec- 
tricity, and  five  or  six  petroleum  bicycles  competed.  The  gas,  steam, 
and  electric-driven  carriages  did  not  make  a  very  good  showing. 
The  first  prize  was  taken  by  the  four-seated  petroleum  carriage  of 
Les  Mis  de  Peugeot  Freres;  the  second,  by  the  two-seated  petroleum 
carriage  of  MM.  Panhard  and  Levassor;  the  third,  by  a  two-seated 
carriage,  by  the  winners  of  the  first  prize;  and  the  fourth,  by  a  four- 
seated  vehicle,  by  the  same  parties.  M.  Levassor's  time  to  Bordeaux 
(363  miles)  was  22  hours  28  minutes,  a  speed  of  about  15  miles  an 
hour:  an  accident  caused  a  delay  of  over  an  hour.  The  round  trip 
(727  miles)  was  made  in  2  days  53  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  14.9 
miles  an  hour. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  experts  that  American  roads  are 
not  yet  generally  good  enough  to  permit  of  the  extensive 
use  of  automobile  vehicles.  Except  in  limited  localities, 
where  there  are  broad,  hard,  and  smooth  roadbeds,  the 
present  types  of  these  carriages  could  not  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. 

The  Geomagnetifere. — French  scientists  have  in- 
vented a  machine,  the  geomagnetifere,  for  the  distribution 
of  electric  currents  under  the  surface  of  cultivated  fields. 
Its  purpose  is  to  apply  electricity  to  the  roots  of  the  grain 
or  plant,  and  thereby  stimulate  growth. 

Roughly  speaking,  it  consists  of  a  tall  pole  with  a  number  of  cop- 
per spikes  at  the  top  to  collect  electricity  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
with  conductors  along  the  side  to  lead  the  gathered  electric  fluid  to 
the  base,  where  wires  ramify  it  through  the  soil.  The  use  of  this 
device,  it  is  claimed,  increases  the  productivity  of  a  given  acre  by 
fifty  per  cent,  while  the  cost  is  much  less  than  that  of  manure  neces- 
sary to  effect  the  same  result. 

The  Psychrometer. — An  instrument  known  as  "the 
whirled  psychrometer,"  for  measuring  the  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere,  is  used  at  all  the  stations  of  the  United  States 

Vol.  5.-47. 


730  SCIENCE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Weather  bureau,  having  superseded  the  old  hair  hygro- 
meter, still  in  use  abroad,  which  is  based  on  the  tendency 
of  a  hair  to  shrink  or  swell  under  varying  percentages  of 
moisture. 

The  psych rometer,  the  invention  of  Weather  bureau  officials, 
consists  of  two  ordinary  thermometers  mounted  on  an  iron  frame  so 
that  they  can  be  rapidly  rotated  by  a  ratchet  device  attached  to  a 
long  handle.  One  of  the  thermometers  has  its  bulb  wrapped  in  thin 
muslin.  When  it  is  desired  to  take  the  humidity,  the  muslin  sur- 
rounding the  bulb  is  thoroughly  moistened  and  the  two  thermometers 
are  rotated  rapidly  for  about  thirty  seconds.  The  evaporation  of  the 
moisture  from  the  muslin  cools  the  bulb  and  lowers  the  temperature 
of  the  thermometer.  This  operation  is  repeated  two  or  three  times 
until  the  lowest  temperature  is  reached.  The  dry  thermometer  will 
not  have  altered  in  temperature.  The  difference  between  the  read- 
ings of  the  dry  and  wet  thermometers  is  then  taken,  and  by  means  of 
tables  the  percentage  of  humidity  is  calculated.  The  lower  the 
temperature  of  the  wet  thermometer,  the  lower  the  humidity  and 
drier  the  atmosphere.  When  the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture,  as 
when  it  is  raining,  the  two  thermometers  remain  at  the  same  temper- 
ature, no  matter  how  fast  they  are  whirled.  The  humidity  is  then 
said  to  be  100  per  cent,  and  either  it  must  be  raining  or  there  must  be 
a  heavy  fog.  Sixty-two  per  cent  is  a  normal  amount  of  humidity,  and 
anything  above  70  begins  to  cause  discomfort  if  the  thermometer  is 
at  all  high.  When  such  is  the  case  the  perspiration  will  not  evapor- 
ate, and  consequently  exerts  no  cooling  effect  upon  the  body. 

The  Eidoloscope. — This  instrument — which  seems  to 
have  larger  powers  than  the  kinetoscope — is  said  to  repro- 
duce moving  objects  and  their  every  motion  life  size,  and 
with  absolutely  lifelike  accuracy.  It  is  the  invention  of 
Professor  Woodville  Latham,  a  native  of  Mississippi, 
formerly  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  the  same  in  the  University  of  Mississippi. 

It  really  consists  of  two  instruments — the  eidolograph,  which  is 
capable  of  taking  120  pictures,  perfectly,  in  a  second,  or  7,200  a 
minute,  and  the  eidoloscope,  which  projects  them  life-sized  upon  a 
screen  of  canvas. 

The  Gramophone. — This  instrument  for  the  repro- 
duction of  sounds,  invented  by  Dr.  Berliner,  is  much 
simpler,  and,  it  is  said,  will  be  much  cheaper,  than  the 
phonograph.  Its  records  of  speech  and  music  are  prac- 
tically indestructible,  and  easily  duplicated  by  mechanical 
means;  and  its  utterances  can  be  made  so  loud  as  to  be 
heard  all  over  an  ordinary-sized  house. 

Miscellaneous. — Tests  are  being  made  at  the  Brook- 
lyn navy  yard  of  a  new  invention  for  signalling  after  dark. 
The  apparatus  comprises  a  frame  consisting  of  twenty 
adjustable  sections,  on  each  of  which  is  a  row  of  electric 
lamps,  and  each  of  which  is  connected  with  a   separate 


SCIENCE.  731 

wire  running  to  the  operating  machine.  With  these  illu- 
minated sections  the  forms  of  all  letters  can  be  indicated; 
and  the  required  adjustment  is  made  by  an  operator  at  a 
keyboard  which  resembles  that  of  a  typewriting  machine. 

A  novel  balloon  has  been  invented  by  M.  Savine,  a 
Russian,  resident  in  Paris.  It  consists  of  a  combina- 
tion of  the  ordinary  hydrogen  gas  bag,  with  its  appended 
basket,  and  a  second  balloon,  to  be  inflated  with  hot  air, 
suspended  below  the  basket,  and  itself  bearing  a  metal 
car.  In  the  latter  will  be  carried  a  supply  of  petroleum, 
the  burning  of  which  will  replenish  the  supply  of  hot  air 
at  will,  and  facilitate  ascent  and  descent.  The  inventor 
talks  of  journeying  first  to  New  York  and  later  to  the 
north  pole. 

An  improved  type-setting  machine  has  been  invented 
by  Father  Calendoli,  a  Sicilian  monk.  It  is  said  to  set 
50,000  letters  an  hour,  equivalent  to  the  work  of  twenty 
compositors;  but  its  practical  value  remains  to  be  tested. 
Its  distinguishing  feature  is  the  use  of  the  octave  and 
chord  system  of  the  piano,  whereby  an  entire  word  may  be 
put  in  type  by  a  single  movement  of  the  hand. 

A  German  chemist  has  discovered  a  new  compound,  to 
which  the  name  ^^crostase  "  has  been  given,  which  will 
solidify  when  heated,  and  revert  to  the  liquid  state  on 
cooling  below  32°  Fahrenheit.  It  is  said  to  be  obtained  by 
mixing  equal  parts  of  phenol,  camphor,  and  saporinewith 
a  small  addition  of  essence  of  trebenthine.  Certain  sub- 
stances previously  known,  such  as  albumen,  harden  when 
exposed  to  heat,  but  once  they  have  attained  this  condi- 
tion they  cannot  be  made  to  resume  the  liquid  state. 

*^Gelsoline^Ms  the  name  given  to  a  new  fabric  prepared 
from  the  bark  of  the  mulberry  tree  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  silkworm.  The  bark  is  retted  and  the  fibres 
treated  like  flax,  being  then  purified  with  soap  and  soda. 
The  new  material  is  obtainable  at  one-tenth  the  price  of 
flax,  and  is  very  strong.  It  is  now  being  manufactured  in 
Italy,  and  is  used  for  upholstery  purposes. 

A  process  of  making  Damascus  steel  is  said  to  have 
been  discovered  by  S.  R.  Dawson  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
The  steel  is  flexible,  but  will  not  break,  and  is  said  to  retain 
its  edge  longer  than  that  made  by  any  other  method.  A 
company  with  1500,000  capital  has  been  organized  to  de- 
velop the  industry. 

It  is  claimed  for  '^pegamoid,''  a  product  recently 
placed  on  the  markets  in  Europe,  that   it  will  render 


732  EDUCATION.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

materials  of  any  kind  absolutely  impervious  to  water.  It 
will  not  injure  the  most  delicate  fabric,  we  are  told;  will 
not  rot,  as  rubber  does;  and  leaves  flexibility  of  fabrics 
unimpaired. 

Later  experiments  by  Professor  K.  Olszewski  have  led 
him  to  correct  slightly  his  figures  previously  given  for  the 
critical  and  boiling  temperature  of  hydrogen  (p.  459). 
The  critical  temperature  is  now  given  as -334.5"  C,  and 
the  boiling  point  at  normal  pressure  as  -243. 5°0. 


EDUCATION. 

The  Pan- American  Congress. — This  important 
gathering — full  name  the  Pan-American  Congress  of  Re- 
ligion and  Education — held  its  sessions  in  Toronto,  Ont., 
July  18-25.  In  the  nature  and  breadth  of  topics  dis- 
cussed, it  resembled  the  great  Parliament  of  Religions  held 
in  Chicago  during  the  World's  Fair  in  1893;  but  it  dif- 
fered from  the  earlier  gathering  in  that  its  primary  ob- 
ject was  practical.  As  stated  by  its  president.  Rev.  Dr. 
Samuel  G.  Smith  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  its  object  was — 

"To  bring  workers  in  all  religious  bodies  into  closer  association 
with  other  Christians  in  all  the  great  educational,  philanthropic,  and 
reform  movements  of  modern  Christianity.  *  *  *  Instead  of 
seeking  to  set  forth  the  speculative  difference  of  various  creeds,  the 
object  sought  is  the  practical  union  of  practical  men  in  behalf  of 
practical  affairs  which  make  for  the  redemption  of  the  world. " 

It  thus  differed  in  one  important  respect  from  the 
gathering  of  1893,  at  which  much  time  was  spent  in  ex- 
position of  various  religious  doctrines.  For  several  reasons, 
the  Toronto  gathering  had  a  much  smaller  attendance,  and 
attracted  much  less  general  attention,  than  its  predecessor. 

The  delegates  were  welcomed  in  addresses  by  ex- Mayor  McMur- 
rich  and  Mayor  Kennedy  of  Toronto,  Rev.  Dr.  Sims,  president  of  the 
Ministerial  Association  of  the  city,  and  Rev.  Father  Ryan,  Roman 
Catholic.    The  president,  Dr.  Smith,  delivered  the  inaugural  address. 

The  following  were  the  principal  speakers.and  their  subjects:  Hon. 
C.  C.  Bonney  of  Chicago,  ex-president  of  the  World's  Fair  congress 
of  religions,  on  "  The  New  Movement  for  the  Unity  and  Peace  of  the 
World,"  an  exposition  of  the  national  and  international  workings  of 
the  spreading  idea  of  human  brotherhood;  Hon.  Henry  Wade  Rogers, 
LL.  D.,  president  of  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  HI.,  on 
"Christianity  and  Education,"  a  plea  for  the  continued  association  of 


EDtJCATiON.  13S 

the  two  mightiest  factors  of  modern  civilization;  Rev.  D.  N,  Beach  of 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  "Municipal  Reform,"  describing  how  the  saloon 
has  been  banished  from  Cambridge;  Hon.  C.  R.  Skinner,  state  super- 
intendent of  the  New  York  public  schools,  on  "What  Does  America 
Owe  to  the  Public  Schools?";  Dr.  Bennet  of  Akron,  O.,  on  applied 
Christianity  as  the  remedy  for  the  strife  between  capital  and  labor; 
Hon.  A.  B.  Stickney  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  on  "A  New  Field  for  Edu- 
cational EfEort,"  a  plea  for  a  more  practical  education  of  the  farming 
and  working  classes  to  counteract  the  growing  tendency  to  urban  and 
professional  life;  President  Thwing  of  Western  Reserve  University, 
Cleveland,  O. ,  on  "  What  More  Can  the  American  College  Do  for  the 
American  Life?,"  a  paper  read  in  the  absence  of  the  writer  by  Rev. 
A.  Moore  of  St.  Paul,  deploring  the  increasing  tendency  to  luxury 
and  lavish  spending  in  college  life  as  tending  to  divorce  it  from  the 
life  of  the  people;  Dr.  Pate  of  Orangeburg,  S.  C,  on  "Christ,  the  Ideal 
Teacher;"  Miss  Jane  Addams  of  Hull  House,  Chicago,  HI.,  on  "The 
Settlement  Idea" — the  idea  of  securing  for  the  poor  and  oppressed 
toilers  of  great  cities  some  of  the  helps  and  comforts  of  social  life; 
Rev.  Father  Ryan  of  Toronto,  on  "Organization  of  Charity  and  the 
Catholic  Church;"  Dr.  George  W.  Gray  of  Chicago,  on  "The  Forward 
Movement"  of  rescue  work  in  the  slums,  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the 
success  of  which  is  the  saloon;  Rev.  Dr.  Edwards  of  Chicago,  on 
"  Reforming  Printer's  Ink,"  a  plea  for  purer  literature  for  boys;  Rev. 
A.  C.  Courtice,  B.  A.,  B.  D.,  editor  of  2' lie  Christian  Guardian, 
Toronto, on  "Subjective  and  Objective  Methods  of  Reform,"  show- 
ing the  inadequacy  of  the  latter  without  the  former,  the  need  of  re- 
form of  the  individual  in  order  to  reform  of  society  or  the  state; 
Bishop  Gilbert  of  St.  Paul,  on  "  The  Outlook  for  Church  Unity,"  an 
optimistic  prophecy  of  ultimate  organic  unity;  Captain  C.  Gardener, 
U.  S.  A.,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  on  "Relief  by  Work,"  detailing  the 
methods  of  the  "potato  patch  plan"  so  successfully  adopted  in  De- 
troit and  elsewhere  (p.  472);  Rev.  Dr.  Conaty  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  on 
"The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  Educational  Movements  of  To- 
Day,"  showing  how  the  church  can  adapt  its  policy  to  the  changing 
spirit  of  the  times;  Dr.  H.  K.  Carroll,  editor  of  The  Independent,  New 
York  city,  on  "The  Religious  Development  of  the  United  States;" 
Mrs.  Charles  Henrotin  of  Chicago,  on  "The  Educational  Value  of 
Woman's  Clubs;"  and  Mrs.  Lydia  von  F.  Mountford,  on  "  A  Woman's 
View  of  American  Christianity,"  sarcastically  critical  of  the  inconsist- 
encies of  some  Christian  people,  and  appealing  for  complete  eman- 
cipation of  woman. 

National  Educational  Association.— The  thirty- 
fourth  annual  convention  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  of  the  United  States  was  held  in  Denver, 
Colo.,  July  5-13.  The  attendance  was  unusually  large, 
estimates  placing  the  number  of  visitors  above  15,000. 

The  first  few  days  were  given  to  the  sessions  of  the 
National  Council  of  Education,  composed  of  sixty  promi- 
nent educators.  A  committee  of  nine  was  appointed  to 
report  within  two  years  on  the  reorganization  of  ungraded 
schools,  on  which  subject  recommendations  had  been  sub- 
mitted by  Superintendent  Henry  Sabin  of  Des  Moines, 
Iowa.  The  following  officers  of  the  council  were  elected 
for  the  ensuing  year: 


734  EDUCATION.  M  Qr.,  1895, 

H.  S.  Tarbell,  Providence,  R.  I.,  president;  Earl  Barnes,  Menlo 
Park,  Cal.,  vice-president;  Miss  Bettie  A.  Dutton,  Cleveland,  secretary 
and  treasurer;  Charles  De  Garmo,  Swarthmore,  Penn.;  David  L. 
Koeple,  Minneapolis;  J.  B.  Preston,  Jackson,  Miss.,  and  James  M. 
Green,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  executive  committee. 

On  July  9  the  regular  sessions  of  the  association 
began. 

The  retiring  president,  Professor  Nicholas  Murray  Butler  of 
Columbia  College,  New  York  city,  delivered  a  scholarly  and  eloquent 
address  on  "What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth?,"  depicting  the 
trend  of  modern  philosophic  and  even  scientific  thought  as  away 
from  the  old  and  once  dreaded  materialism  based  on  a  crude  sensa- 
tionalistic  psychology,  and  toward  an  enlightened  idealism  which 
finds  the  primary  and  underlying  energy  of  all  things  in  the  self-ac- 
tivity of  spirit.  Professor  Joseph  Le  (^onte  of  the  University  of 
California,  on  the  other  hand,  upheld  the  evolutionary  doctrine  in  its 
entirety. 

One  session  was  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  patriotism.  George 
H.  Martin,  one  of  the  supervisors  of  schools  in  Boston,  Mass.,  spoke 
of  the  need  of  a  renewal  of  the  old  sense  of  personal  responsibility. 
Professor  Joseph  Baldwin  of  the  University  of  Texas,  and  State 
Superintendent  Preston  of  Mississippi,  also  spoke  on  this  subject. 

Considerable  time  was  given  up  to  discussion  of  correlation  and 
co-ordination  of  studies.  Assistant-Superintendent  Farrell  of  New 
York  criticised  severely  the  attempt  to  introduce  correlation  or  con- 
centration of  studies  at  too  early  a  period  in  the  child's  school  life; 
and  strong  papers  in  favor  of  correlation  were  presented  by  President 
De  Garmo  of  Swarthmore  College,  Pennsylvania,  Professor  Charles 
A.  McMurray  of  Normal  University,  Illinois,  and  Professor  Wilbur 
S.  Jackman  of  the  Cook  County  (111.)  Normal  School. 

Among  other  noteworthy  addresses  were  the  following:  "  Educa- 
tion of  Public  Opinion,"  by  State  Superintendent  Skinner  of  New 
York;  "Education  According  to  Nature,"  a  severe  criticism  of  Rous- 
seau's ^mile  and  Herbert  Spencer's  Education,  by  Chancellor  Payne 
of  the  University  of  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  and  an  outline  of  the  educa- 
tional plans  connected  with  the  Atlanta  exposition,  together  with  a 
plea  for  united  effort  for  their  consummation,  by  ex-Governor 
Northen  of  Georgia,  who  is  in  charge  of  the  educational  side  of  the 
exposition. 

The  social  features  of  the  Denver  convention  of  the 
National  Association  were  of  special  prominence.  The 
following  were  the  officers  elected  for  the  ensuing  year: 

President,  Newton  C.Dougherty,  Peoria,  111.;  secretary,  Edwin 
Shepard,  Winona,  Minn. ;  treasurer,  I.  C.  McNeill,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Miscellaneous. — About  the  middle  of  September  the 
important  announcement  was  made  that  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  Washington,  D.  C,  had  decided  to  open  its 
doors  to  women  and  laymen  on  and  after  October  1,  1895. 
Hitherto  only  priests  were  admitted;  but  now  not  only 
nuns  but  female  students  generally  will  be  allowed  to  take 
the  full  course.  Women  will  not,  however,  be  allowed  to 
receive  any  degrees. 


Music  AND  THE  Drama.  ^^5 

A  remarkable  law  was  enacted  by  the  last  legislature 
of  Florida  upon  recommendation  of  the  state  superintend- 
ent of  education,  making  it  a  punishable  offense  for  any 
school,  public  or  private,  in  the  state,  to  allow  white  and 
colored  students  to  be  boarded  or  educated  in  the  same 
school,  and  forbidding  all  persons  to  patronize  or  teach 
such  schools. 

The  fifth  annual  report  of  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  United 
States  commissioner  of  education,  for  the  school  year 
ended  November  30,  1893,  was  made  public  September  30. 

It  sliows  that  in  the  year  1892-3  the  whole  number  of  pupils  en- 
rolled in  schools  and  colleges,  public  and  private,  in  the  United 
States,  was  15,083,630,  or  22.5  per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  This 
was  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  of  370,697.  The  enrolment 
of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  for  the  year  numbered  13,510,719,  an 
increase  of  1.92  per  cent  over  the  preceding  year,  while  the  average  at- 
tendance increased  3.45  per  cent.  There  were  employed  in  the  year 
122,056  male  and  260,954  female  teachers.  The  number  of  school- 
houses  was  236,426,  valued,  with  their  contents  and  appurtenances, 
at  $398,435,039.  The  school  revenue  for  the  year  was  $165,000,000; 
the  total  expenditures  were  $163,000,000. 

The  number  of  public  high  schools  reported  was  2,812,  employ- 
ing 9,489  teachers,  and  having  232,951  pupils  enrolled.  Reports 
were  received  from  1,434  private  high  schools  and  academies  employ- 
ing 6,261  teachers  and  giving  instruction  to  96,147  pupils.  There  were 
451  universities  and  colleges  for  men  and  for  both  sexes;  of  these  310 
were  co-educational,  an  increase  of  3  per  cent  in  two  years.  The  total 
number  of  instructors  was  10,247,  and  of  pupils  140,053.  Colleges  for 
women  alone  numbered  143,  with  2,114  teachers  and  12,949  students. 

As  the  result  of  professional  education  in  the  year,  there  were 
graduated  4,911  medical  students,  2,852  dental  students,  3,394  phar- 
macists, 6,776  law  students,  and  7,836  theological  students.  The 
graduates  of  normal  schools  numbered  4,491;  the  number  of  students 
was  53,465. 


MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA. 

npHIS  fall's  season  of  entertainment  has  already  witnessed 
the  production  in  America  of  several  important  plays. 
Foremost  among  these  in  dramatic  interest  must  be  placed 
King  Arthur,  a  drama  in  four  acts,  by  Comyns  Carr, 
which  was  staged  for  the  first  time  on  this  continent  by 
Sir  Henry  Irving  and  Ellen  Terry  in  the  Academy  of 
Music,  Montreal,  Que.,  September  19.  The  play  was  pre- 
sented for  the  first  time  on  any  stage  at  the  Lyceum 
theatre,  London,  Eng.,  January  12,  1895  (p.  220). 


736  MUSIC  AND  THE  Dll  AM  A.  SdQr,lg95. 

Sir  Henry  Irving  also  produced  in  Montreal,  for  the 
first  time  in  America,  on  September  21,  Dr.  A.  Conan 
Doyle's  one-act  play,  A  Story  of  Waterloo, 

The  central  figure  of  the  piece  is  Corporal  Brewster  of  the  Royal 
Scots,  now  eighty-six  years  old,  who  still  delights  to  tell  "the  story 
of  Waterloo,"  in  which  he  played  an  important  part  by  successfully 
conveying  ammunition  through  a  burning  wood  to  the  soldiers  who 
badly  needed  it. 

The  Chieftain,  an 
opera,  by  F.  C.  Bur- 
nand,  editor  of 
Punch,  music  by  Sir 
Arthur  Sullivan,  first 
brought  out  in  Lon- 
don, Eng.,  in  De- 
cember, 1894  (Vol.  4, 
p.  930),  was  present- 
ed for  the  first  time 
in  America  at  Ab- 
bey's theatre.  New 
York  city,  Septem- 
ber 9,  by  Francis 
Wilson  and  his  com- 
pany. It  is  having  a 
most  successful  run 
in  this  country,  and 
is  far  superior  to  the 
average  comic  opera. 
An  outline  of  the  play 
was  given  in  this  re- 
view at  the  time  of  its 
appearance  in  Eng- 
land. 

Other  noteworthy 
productions  have  been:  The  Capitol,  by  Augustus  Thom- 
as, a  play  of  Washington  life,  at  the  Standard  thea- 
tre. New  York  city,  September  9;  The  Great  Diamond 
Bobbery,  a  melodrama  of  to-day,  all  the  scenes  of  which 
are  laid  in  New  York,  by  E.  M.  Allfriend  and  A.  C.  Whee- 
ler, at  the  American  theatre,  New  York  city,  Sep- 
tember 4;  That  Imprudent  Young  Couple,  a  three-act 
comedy  by  Henry  Guy  Carleton,  at  the  Empire  theatre, 
New  York  city,  September  23;  A  Social  ffighivayman, 
arranged  by  Miss  M.  A.  Stone  from  the  story  written  by 
Miss  Elizabeth  Phipps  Train,  at  the  Garrick  theatre.  New 
York  city,  September  24;  TJie  Wizard  of  the  Nile,  a  three- 


8IR  HENRY  IRVING, 
GREAT  ENGLISH  ACTOR. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


m 


act  comic  opera  by  Harry  B.  Smith,  music  by  Victor 
Herbert,  at  the  Alvin  theatre,  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  Septem- 
ber 30;  In  Sight  of  St.  Paul's,  a  five-act  drama  by  Sutton 
Vane,  at  the  Bowdoin  Square  theatre,  Boston,  Mass., 
September  30;  and  The  Qveen  of  Liars,  a  three-act  drama 
adapted  by  H.  G.  Fiske  from  the  French  of  Alphonse 
Daudet,  at  the  Duquesne  theatre,  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  Sep- 
tember 30. 

From  abroad  the.  chief  item  of  interest  to  the  musical 
world  is  the  announcement  that  the  remains  found  in  the 
churchyard  of  St.  John's  in  Leipsic,  in  October,  1894,  on 
the  spot  which  tradition  had  pointed  out  as  the  burial 
place  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach,  have  been  positively 
identified  as  those  of  that  great  composer,  the  organist  of 
St.  Thomas's  school,  who  died  July  28,  1750.  The  re- 
mains were  identified  by  Professor  His,  the  eminent  anat- 
omist of  the  University  of  Leipsic;  and  a  committee  has 
been  formed  there  to  collect  funds  for  a  monument  to  the 
composer's  memory. 

The  celebration  of  the  national  Eisteddfod  of  Wales 
was  opened  at  Llanelly,  July  30,  in  the  presence  of  a  dis- 
tinguished assemblage  of  bards,  members  of  parliament, 
and  other  notabilities.  These  yearly  musical  and  literary 
competitions — tournaments  of  song  and  recitation — are  in 
reality  festivals  for  the  encouragement  of  mental  effort 
and  the  preservation  of  historic  tradition.  They  tire  con- 
ducted by  the  people  with  some  of  the  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies in  vogue  among  their  Druidical  progenitors. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 

A  NOTHER  ancient  Greek  hymn  set  to  music,  recalling 
the  discovery  made  in  the  latter  part  of  1893  (Vol.  3, 
p.  866),  has  been  brought  to  light  by  the  French  excava- 
tions at  Delphi.  It  is  inscribed  on  two  large  slabs  of  stone, 
which  have  been  unearthed  in  the  building  described  by 
Pausanias  as  the  ^'Treasury  of  the  Athenians.'' 

The  find  of  1893  included  fourteen  fragments  of  various  sizes, 
four  of  which  were  distinguished  from  the  others  by  a  difference  in 
the  notation  of  the  music.  These  four  were  introduced  to  the  public 
last  year  as  the  "Hymn  to  Apollo"  (Vol.  4,  p.  251).  The  latter  find 
includes  another  large  fragment,  to  which  the  remaining  ten  of  the 
first  discovery  can  be  adjusted,  thus  giving  us  a  second  hymn.     The 


738  AftCH^OLOG"^.  3d  Qr.,  is'jS. 

decipherment  and  transcription  of  tlie  words  and  music,  have,  as  be- 
fore, been  intrusted  to  MM.  Henri  Weil  and  Theodore  lleinach. 

The  purport  of  both  the  hymns  is  substantially  the  same.  After 
an  invocation  of  the  Muses,  the  poet  gives  various  legends  of  Apollo's 
life  and  works,  ending  with  the  slaughter  of  the  Gauls  at  Delphi  in 
279  B.C. ;  and  then  implores  the  god's  protection  for  Delphi  and  Athens 
and  the  government  at  Rome.  The  date  is,  therefore,  after  146  B.C., 
when  the  Romans  took  possession  of  Greece.  Apart  from  the  music, 
the  hymns  are  not  particularly  interesting. 

The  duration  of  the  musical  notes  is  indicated  by  the  syllables 
that  were  sung  with  them.  Thus,  for  example,  where  three  notes  are 
attached  to  a  word  of  one  long  syllable  followed  by  two  short  syllables, 
they  answer  roughly  to  a  crotchet  followed  by  two  quavers.  The 
pitch  of  the  notes  is  indicated  by  various  letters  of  the  alphabet.  In 
the  first  hymn  the  letters  were  those  that  the  Greeks  prescribed  for 
use  with  voices;  but  in  this  second  hymn  they  are  those  that  were 
prescribed  for  use  with  instruments.  As  the  Delphians  would  not 
likely  have  written  down  the  accompaniment  and  omitted  the  song 
itself,  it  is  supposed  that  the  instruments  and  voices  were  here  in 
unison. 

A  discovery  of  importance  for  the  history  of  early 
Christian  litcature  is  credited  to  Dr.  Karl  Schmidt  of 
Cairo,  Egypt  In  the  library  of  the  cloister  of  Ackmim 
— the  same  library  in  which  the  Gospel  and  the  Apocalypse 
of  Peter  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Elijah  were  found — 
Dr.  Schmidt  recently  came  across  an  old  Coptic  manu- 
script containing  a  record  of  conversations  between  Christ 
and  his  disciples.  Both  the  beginning  and  the  conclusion 
have  been  lost  through  mutilation  of  tlie  manuscript. 

The  chief  subject  of  conversation  is  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
which  is  reported  in  detail  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  combine  the 
narratives  of  the  four  gospels.  The  object  of  the  writing  is  to  warn 
the  reader  against  unbelief,  especially  gnosticism.  There  is  a  long 
discussion  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The  work  shows  itself  to 
be  an  apocryphal  missive  of  the  apostles  to  the  congregations,  and 
reveals  the  congregational  orthodoxy  in  the  early  church.  Like  the 
Apocalypse  of  Peter,  it  shows  also  that  the  church  was  not  always 
able  to  resist  the  temptation  of  following  the  gnostic  trend  of  thought. 
Its  date,  approximately,  is  160  a.d. 


RELlGtON.  tad 

RELIGION. 

Christian  Endeavor  Convention. — The  fourteenth 
annual  convention  of  the  United  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor was  held  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  10-15.  Registered 
delegates  to  the  number  of  56,265,  of  many  races  and 
from  many  lands,  were  in  attendance.  The  report  of 
General  Secretary  John  W.  Baer  contained  the  following 
interesting  statistics: 

"Each  year  the  Christian  Endeavor  wheel  widens;  each  year 
thousands  of  spokes  are  added.  Last  year  our  wheel  was  strength- 
ened by  7,750  new  societies,  or  spokes,  if  you  please.  This  is  the 
largest  increase  of  any  one  year  since  the  wheel  commenced  revolving 
fourteen  years  ago.  Spoke  after  spoke  passes  our  vision  rapidly,  in 
all  41,229.     Of  these,  4,712  are  from  other  lands. 

"Pennsylvania still  leads,  with  4,139;  New  York  next,  with  3,822; 
Ohio,  2,787;  Illinois,  2,446;  Indiana,  1,762;  Iowa,  1,568;  Massachusetts, 
1,309;  Kansas,  1,247;  Missouri,  1,133;  Michigan,  1,082;  New  Jersey, 
1,045,  etc.  In  all,  from  the  United  States,  33,412,  against  28,696  last 
year.  And  now  we  have  an  individual  membership  from  every  clime 
and  every  nation,  with  skins  of  varying  color,  of  which  480  are  red, 
20,300  are  yellow,  109,400  are  black,  and  2,343,560  are  white;  in  all, 
a  great  interracial  brotherhood  of  2,473,740. 

"In  the  United  States  the  denominational  representation  is  as 
follows:  The  Presbyterians  still  lead,  with  5,283  young  people's  so- 
cieties and  2,269  junior  societies;  the  Congregationalists  have  3,990 
young  people's  societies  and  1,908  junior  societies;  the  Disciples  of 
Christ  and  Christians,  2,687  young  people's  societies  and  862  junior 
societies;  the  Baptists,  2,686  young  people's  societies  and  801  junior 
societies;  Methodist  Episcopal,  931  young  people's  societies  and  391 
junior  societies;  Methodist  Protestants,  853  young  people's  societies 
and  247  junior  societies;  Lutherans,  798  young  people's  societies  and 
245  junior  societies;  Cumberland  Presbyterians,  699  young  people's 
societies  and  231  junior  societies;  and  so  on  through  a  long  list." 

At  the  session  of  July  12,  a  federation  of  the  different 
societies  into  a  World's  Christian  Endeavor  Union  was 
unanimously  decided  upon.  The  idea  originated  with  the 
Eev.  W.  J.  L.  Closs,  president  of  the  New  South  Wales 
union,  who  presented  an  outline  of  a  model  constitution 
for  a  world's  union.  A  committee  of  five  was  appointed 
to  formulate  a  constitution  after  Mr.  Gloss's  model.  Rev. 
Dr.  Francis  E.  Clark,  founder  of  the  Christian  Endeavor 
movement,  was  unanimously  elected  presidentof  the  world's 
union,  and  accepted  office  for  one  year.  J.  W.  Baer  and 
William  Shaw  of  Boston,  secretary  and  treasurer  respec- 
tively of  the  United  Society,  were  provisionally  elected 
to  the  same  office  in  the  world's  union,  the  first  general 
meeting  of  which  will  be  held  next  year  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  at  the  time  of  the  regular  United  Society  conven- 
tion. 


740  RELIGION.  Sd  Qr..  18SR. 

The  Young  People's  Christian  Union  of  the  TJniversal- 
ist  Church  also  held  its  sixth  annual  convention  in  Bos- 
ton during  the  second  week  in  July. 

Baptist  Young  People's  Union. — Another  great 
gathering  was  the  fifth  international  (United  States  and 
Canadian)  convention  of  the  Baptist  Young  People's  Union 
of  America  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  July  18-21. 

Like  the  Christian  Endeavor  movement,  the  Baptist  Young  Peo- 
ple's Union  lias  liad  a  remarkably  rapid  growth.  It  began  with  about 
1,500  delegates  at  Chicago,  111.,  in  July,  1891  (Vol.  1,  p.  457);  in 
Toronto,  Ont.,  in  1894,  5,714  enrolled  delegates  were  in  attendance; 
and  this  year  the  number  reached  6,559.  Mr,  John  H.  Chapman,  a 
business  man  of  Chicago,  has  been  president  of  the  union  since  its 
inception;  and  Rev.  Dr.  Frank  L.  Wilkins  its  secretary. 

Unlike  a  Christian  Endeavor  convention,  which  is  a  mass  meet- 
ing, the  B.  Y.  P.  U.  A.  convention  is  a  strictly  delegated  body;  and, 
unlike  an  Epworth  League  convention,  which  is  exclusively  denomi- 
national, it  does  not  forbid  its  members  to  enjoy  inter-denominational 
privileges  such  as  are  offered  by  the  societies  of  Christian  Endeavor. 
All  Baptist  young  people,  whatever  their  form  of  local  organization, 
or  if  unorganized,  are  welcome  to  membership. 

The  work  of  the  B.  Y.  P.  U.  A.  is  largely  educational.  Three 
courses  of  study  are  conducted  through  its  organ.  The  Baptist  Union 
— a  Bible  Readers'  course,  a  Conquest  Missionary  course,  and  a  Sacred 
Literature  course.  Regular  annual  examinations  are  held,  the  societies 
that  excel  being  rewarded. 

One  important  resolution  of  the  convention,  was  to  the  effect  that 
the  union  was  opposed  to  the  saloon  and  the  liquor  traffic  in  all  its 
phases. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew. — September  26-29  was 
the  date  set  this  year  for  the  convention  of  the  Brother- 
hood of  St.  Andrew  in  Louisville,  Ky. 

The  origin  of  this  organization  dates  back  twelve  years  to  the 
meeting  of  about  a  dozen  young  men  of  St.  James's  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  Chicago,  111.,  who  agreed  to  pray  daily  for  the  spread 
of  Christ's  kingdom  among  young  men,  and  to  make  an  earnest  effort 
each  week  to  bring  at  least  one  young  man  to  some  service  where  he 
could  hear  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  Though  Jcomposed  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  it  is  not  controlled  by  that 
church,  but  makes  its  own  laws,  and  orders  its  own  actions.  In  the 
United  States  it  has  now  1,200  chapters  with  12,000  members;  in 
Canada,  175  chapters,  2,000  members;  in  Australia,  30  chapters,  300 
members;  in  Scotland,  12  chapters,  150  members.  There  is  not  yet 
any  regular  organization  in  England,  although  fifteen  chapters,  with 
about  200  members,  have  been  formed  there  under  charters  from  Scot- 
land. 

Other  Religious  Matters. — A  prominent  question 
now  under  discussion  in  the  Methodist  Church  is  that  of 
the  admission  of  women  as  delegates  to  the  Conferences. 
The  British  Wesleyan  Conference  in  August,  by  a  vote  of 
187  to  169,  left  the  matter  in  statu  quo  by  declining  to 
take  any  action  on  the  report  of  the  committee  favoring 
the  admission  of  women. 


RELIGION.  741 

This  question  has  been  before  the  church  in  the  United  States 
for  twenty  years.  Women  were  elected  as  alternate  delegates  to  the 
General  Conferences  of  1880  and  1884;  but  their  principals  in  all  cases 
attended.  In  1888  five  women  were  elected  as  principal  delegates, 
and  appeared  in  the  Conference  with  the  proper  credentials.  They 
were,  however,  refused  admission,  by  a  very  close  vote.  In  1892  the 
(ieneral  Conference  merely  submitted  to  the  annual  conferences  what 
is  known  as  the  "Hamilton  amendment"  on  this  subject,  to  be  voted 
upon.  Final  action  on  the  part  of  the  General  Conference  may  there- 
fore be  looked  for  in  the  near  future. — Two  other  questions  are  also 
up  for  consideration, — one  relating  to  a  proposed  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  bishops  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  the  other  concern- 
ing the  length  of  the  pastoral  term,  and  the  effects  of  the  change 
from  three  years  to  five. 

The  Epworth  League  has  now  over  14,000  chapters 
regularly  chartered,  and  over  3,000  junior  chapters. 

On  September  20  a  Methodist  church  was  dedicated  in 
Rome,  Italy,  an  American  Methodist  bishop  officiating. 

Several  cases  of  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  Seventh- 
day  Adventists  have  recently  been  reported  from  Mary- 
land, Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Colorado,  Georgia,  and  else- 
where, which  have  attracted  attention  to  the  subject  of 
Sunday  legislation.  In  all  cases,  apparently,  a  positive 
state  law  has  been  broken  by  the  prosecution  of  ordinary 
work  on  Sundays.  The  offenders,  however,  are  conscien- 
tious in  their  obedience  to  the  law  except  on  this  one  point. 
In  their  opinion  a  higher  than  human  law  commands 
observance  of  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  instead  of  the 
first  day — Saturday,  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  instead  of  Sun- 
day— as  the  day  of  weekly  rest;  and  they  protest  against 
being  deprived  of  the  right  peacefully  to  follow  their  or- 
dinary vocations  on  every  other  day. 

It  was  announced  early  in  August  that  the  different 
branches  of  the  order  of  Franciscan  monks,  which  includes 
the'  Capuchins,  had  decided  to  reunite  under  one  admin- 
istration. The  order  was  founded  by  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  but  became  divided  shortly  after  his  death. 


743 


SOCIOLOGY. 

SOCIOLOGY. 


8d  Qr.,  1895. 


/^NE  of  the  tendencies  of  to-day,  noticeable  in  all  the 
churches,  is  to  turn  aside  from  mere  controversy 
over  dogmas  and  creeds,  and  to  direct  the  activity  of 
Christian  work  along  the  line  of  a  practical  uplifting 
of  humanity.  An  instance  of  this,  worthy  of  note,  is 
found  in  the  action  of  Bishop  Potter  of  New  York,  who 

spent  one  month  this 
summer,  during  the 
usual  holiday  season, 
in  mission  work  at  the 
Cathedral  mission  in 
Stanton  street.  New 
York,  in  one  of  the 
poorest  and  most 
crowded  districts  of 
the  city. 

At  a  meeting  of 
the  Kansas  Equal 
Suffrage  Association 
in  July,  the  follow- 
ing remarkable  reso- 
lution, proposed  by 
Miss  Susan  B.  An- 
thony, was  unani- 
mously adopted: 

^'Resolved,  That  it  is 
the  duty  of  every  self- 
respecting  woman  in  the 
state  of  Kansas  to  fold 
her  hands  and  refuse  to 
help  any  moral,  religious, 
charitable,  reform,  or 
political  association,  un- 
til the  men  of  the  state  shall  strike  the  adjective  'male'  from  the 
suffrage  clause  of  the  constitution." 

The  Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union  of  America  held 
its  twenty-fifth  annual  convention  in  New  York  city, 
August  7-9.  Over  1,200  delegates  attended,  represent- 
ing 864  societies,  and  a  membership  of  over  65,000.  The 
president.  Rev.  J.  M.  Cleary  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  in 
the  course  of  his  address,  said : 

"A  man  cannot  be  a  good  Catholic,  a  docile,  faithful  child  of  the 
church,  and  be  engaged  in  the  unbecoming  business  of  conducting  a 
saloon." 

The  resolutions,  as  adopted,  reiterated  devotion  to  total  absti- 
nence, asked  Catholics  to  ' '  get  out  and  keep  out  of  the  saloon  busi- 


MISS  SUSAN   B.  ANTHONY, 
PROMINENT  ADVOCATE  OF  WOMAN  SUFFRAGE. 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS. 


743 


ness,"  approved  the  execution  of  the  laws  closing  saloons  on  Sunday 
and  as  early  as  possible  on  Saturday,  urged  the  enactment  of  laws  to 
remove  screens  from  saloons  and  allow  but  a  single  entrance,  offered 
co-operation  for  temperance  with  non-Catholics,  and  asked  Catholic 
newspapers  to  refuse  liquor  advertisements. 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS. 

TN  January  of  the  present  year  the  United  States  court 
of  appeals  for  the  District  of  Columbia  decided  that 
the  clauses  of  the  McKinley  tariff  act  of  1890,  granting 
bounties  on  sugar,  were  unconstitutional  (p.  223).  Acting 
on  this  decision.  Comptroller  R.  B.  Bowler  of  the  United 
States  treasury,  in  July,  refused  to  pay  the  back  claims  of 
sugar  producers  for  bounties  during  the  season  of  1893, 
prior  to  the  repeal  of  the  law  and  the  declaration  of  its 
unconstitutionality.  .  He  refused  to  pay  these  claims  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  congress  had  appropriated  $238,000 
for  their  settlement ;  and  he  has  persisted  in  his  refusal. 
The  claimants  have  appealed  from  the  decision  of  Comp- 
troller Bower  to  Secretary  Carlisle. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  issue  involved  in  the  case 
is  the  question  of  the  power  of  an  executive  officer  to 
exercise  judicial  functions,  and  to  limit  the  power  of 
congress  to  give  away  the  public  money.  If  no  executive 
officer  is  to  have  the  power  to  prevent  payment  of  an 
unconstitutional  appropriation,  then  the  only  check  upon 
the  power  of  congress  to  spend  public  funds  is  found  in 
its  own  loyalty  to  the  constitution — a  guarantee  which 
not  a  few  consider  inadequate. 

The  recent  decision  in  the  Bell  telephone  case,  involv- 
ing the  validity  of  the  Berliner  microphone  patent  (p.  475), 
has  been  appealed  to  the  United  States  supreme  court. 


744  DISASTERS.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

DISASTERS. 

American  :— 

Storms  mid  Floods.-^ A.  severe  storm,  July  4  to  7,  swept 
over  the  entire  eastern  watershed  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
from  the  Nebraska  and  Iowa  lines  to  Texas,  causing  great 
loss  of  life  and  destruction  of  property.  Twelve  persons 
were  drowned  at  Winona,  Mo. 

On  July  13  five  lives  were  lost  in  a  storm  which  struck 
Cherry  Hill,  N.  J.,  and  also  did  much  damage  in  Plain- 
field,  N.  J.,  Harlem,  N.  Y.,  and  on  Long  Island. 

A  terrific  wind  and  rain  storm  swept  over  Kansas  and 
Missouri,  July  30.  At  Fort  Scott,  Kan.,  four  inches  of 
water  fell  in  seven  hours,  and  two  boys  were  drowned  in 
the  streets.  The  next  day  sixteen  lives  were  lost  by  floods 
caused  by  rain  in  Socorro,  New  Mexico. 

Fires. — Five  men  were  burned  to  death  and  one  fatally 
injured  at  the  burning  of  Case's  livery  stable.  Congress 
street,  Detroit,  Mich.,  July  10. 

In  early  July  forest  fires  did  much  damage  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan.  The  town  of 
Wallin  was  destroyed. 

On  July  15  the  steamer  Cibola,  of  the  Niagara  Naviga- 
tion Company,  plying  between  Toronto,  Ont.,  and  Lewis- 
ton,  N.  Y.,  was  burned  at  the  latter  place,  her  third 
engineer  losing  his  life  in  the  hold.  The  custom  house 
and  American  hotel  near  the  Lewiston  dock  were  also 
destroyed. 

On  September  8  a  large  portion  of  Liverpool,  N.  S., 
was  destroyed  by  fire;  loss,  between  $50,000  and  $75,000; 
small  insurance. 

Railroad.  —On  July  9,  at  Craig's  Road,  a  station  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  about  fourteen  miles  west  of  Levis,  Quebec, 
a  train  filled  with  excursionists  on  the  way  to  the  shrine  of 
Ste.  Anne  de  Beaupre,  was  run  into  by  another  train  sim- 
ilarly loaded.  Over  twelve  were  killed,  and  about  thirty 
wounded. 

On  August  30  a  train  on  the  Central  road,  filled  with 
Knights  of  Pythias  and  their  friends,  from  Macon,  Ga., 
was  wrecked  by  the  engine  leaving  the  track  at  Pope's 
Ferry,  twelve  miles  from  Macon.  Two  were  killed,  and 
over  eight  injured. 

On  September  2  two  rear  collisions  occurred  on  the 
New  York  &  Sea  Beach  road,  at  Bay  Ridge  and  Wood- 
lawn  stations,  resulting  in  the  death  of  two  persons,  seri- 
ous injury  of  twelve,  and  slight  injury  of  forty-one  others. 


DISASTERS.  745 

On  September  11  a  collision  between  passenger  trains 
on  the  Great  Northern  road,  near  Melby,  Minn.,  a  flag 
station  between  Ashton  and  Evansville,  caused  the  death 
of  five  persons  and  the  injury  of  about  a  dozen  others. 

Miscellaneous. — A  trolley  car  loaded  with  Sunday- 
school  pupils  on  their  way  to  a  picnic  at  Victoria  Park, 
near  Toronto,  Ont.,  on  July  13,  was  run  into  by  another 
car.  One  child  was  killed;  two  persons  were  fatally,  and 
three  seriously  injured. 

On  August  8,  by  the  partial  collapse  of  an  eight-story 
building  in  course  of  construction  at  West  Third  street 
and  West  Broadway,  New  York  city,  fourteen  workmen 
were  killed,  and  several  injured.  A  defective  foundation 
for  one  of  the  columns,  and  neglect  of  the  precautions 
required  by  law,  were  the  causes  of  the  disaster.  Six 
persons  have  been  indicted  by  the  grand  jury  for  man- 
slaughter in  the  second  degree. 

On  August  19  about  twenty-five  men,  women,  and 
children  perished  as  the  result  of  a  boiler  explosion  which 
wrecked  the  Gumry  hotel,  Denver,.  Colo. 

By  the  explosion  of  a  furnace  at  the  Edgar  Thomson 
steel  works  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company  at  Braddock, 
Penn.,  August  20,  eight  workmen  lost  their  lives. 

On  August  20  seven  men  were  drowned  in  the  harbor 
of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  by  the  foundering  of  the  pleasure  steam 
yacht  Rung  Brothers. 

On  August  29  thirteen  miners  were  drowned  near  Cen- 
tral City,  Colo.,  by  the  flooding  of  the  drifts  in  which  they 
were  working. 

On  September  25,  by  the  explosion  of  sixty-five  pounds 
of  giant  powder  in  the  Belgian  mine  at  Adelaide  Park, 
near  Leadville,  Colo.,  six  miners  were  killed  and  two  fatally 
injured. 

Foreign:— 

Marine. — On  July  21,  148  lives  were  lost  by  the  sink- 
ing of  the  Italian  steamer  Maria  P.  in  collision  with 
the  Ortigia  off  the  island  of  Tino,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  bay  of  Spezia  in  Italy.  The  Maria  P.  was  loaded 
with  emigrants  for  South  America. 

On  August  8  the  British  steamer  Catterliun,  of  the  East- 
ern &  Australian  Steamship  Company,  from  Sydney,  N.  S. 
W.,to  Hong-Kong,  China,  was  wrecked  on  the  Seal  rocks 
110  miles  north  of  Sydney,  during  a  gale,  with  a  loss 
of  about  sixty  lives.  Treasure  to  the  amount  of  11,000 
sovereigns  was  also  lost. 

Vol.  5.-48. 


746  DISASTERS.  '    3d  Qr.,  1895. 

A  decision  in  the  case  of  the  owners  of  the  Elbe  (pp. 
229  and  483)  against  the  owners  of  the  Cratlde,  was  ren- 
dered August  10  by  the  admiralty  court  at  Bremerhaven, 
Germany. 

The  court  found  for  the  former,  and  held  that  Mate  Craig,  of  the 
Cratlde,  was  guilty  of  quitting  the  bridge  of  his  ship  before  the  colli- 
sion without  adequate  reason.  The  chief  officer  of  the  watch  on  the 
Klhe  was  censured  also  for  neglecting  to  shift  his  helm  and  use  his 
steam  signals.  The  verdict  exonerates  the  captain  of  the  CratJde 
from  all  blame  for  not  rescuing  the  crew  and  passengers  of  the  Elbe, 
inasmuch  as  his  own  vessel  was  dangerously  damaged  by  the  colli- 
sion. 

On  the  night  of  July  14  the  British  sailing  ship  Prince 
Oscar,  bound  from  Liverpool  to  Iquique,  Peru,  was  sunk 
about  380  miles  off  the  coast  of  Brazil  in  collision  with  an 
unknown  vessel,  which  also  sank.  All  but  four  of  the 
crew  of  the  Prince  Oscar  were  saved;  but  all  on  the  un- 
known ship  were  drowned. 

At  midnight  on  September  18  the  Spanish  cruiser  San- 
chez Barcaizteg^ii  (920  tons,  1,100  horse-power,  7  guns) 
was  sunk  in  collision  with  the  coasting  steamer  Mortera 
off  Morro  Castle,  near  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Ha- 
vana, Cuba.  Admiral  Parejo  and  thirty-four  of  the  crew 
of  the  war-ship  were  drowned. 

On  September  19  the  Netherlands-American  steamer 
Edam,  from  New  York  to  Amsterdam,  was  sunk  in  colli- 
sion with  the  steamer  Turkestan  of  the  Anglo-Arabian  & 
Persian  Steamship  Company  of  London,  Eng.,  fifty  miles 
off  Start  point,  a  headland  on  the  southern  coast  of  Eng- 
land in  the  county  of  Devon.     No  lives  were  lost. 

On  September  29  the  Spanish  cruiser  Christohal  Colon 
ran  aground  off  Bajosdelos  Colorados,  Cuba,  and  was  lost. 
Her  crew,  with  the  exception  of  three  sailors  unaccounted 
for,  were  all  saved.  The  vessel  was  of  1,130  tons' displace- 
ment, 1,500  horse-power,  and  carried  10  guns. 

Railroad. — On  July  26  twelve  persons  were  killed  and 
fifty  or  more  injured  by  the  wrecking  of  a  train  near  St. 
Brieuc,  Erance. 

On  July  28  a  railroad  train  conveying  Japanese  troops 
returning  from  the  campaign  in  China,  was  derailed  by  a 
heavy  sea  while  running  along  the  sea  wall  approaching 
Kobe.  The  engine  and  eleven  cars  plunged  into  the  bay, 
and  140  men  were  drowned. 

Miscellaneous. — On  July  3  five  men  were  killed  and 
thirteen  injured  by  a  boiler  explosion  on  the  Italian  tor- 
pedo-boat Aquila, 


LTTERATURE.  747 

A  remarkable  disaster  occurred  at  the  old  German  town 
of  Briix,  in  the  coal-producing  district  of  northwestern 
Bohemia.  Twenty-five  houses  were  totally,  and  many 
others  partially,  destroyed  on  the  night  of  July  19,  through 
the  caving  in  of  the  surface  ground,  caused  by  shifting  of 
the  sand  layers  beneath — a  phenomenon  not  uncommon  in 
coal  regions.  Fortunately,  no  lives  were  lost;  but  much 
distress  was  caused. 

On  July  27  about  thirty  miners  were  killed  by  an  ex- 
plosion of  fire  damp  and  coal  dust  in  the  Prinz  von  Preus- 
sen  mine  near  Bocum,  Westphalia.  The  explosion  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  caused  by  lightning. 

Eleven  people  were  killed  and  200  head  of  cattle  de- 
stroyed by  an  avalanche  at  Ledmy  in  the  Bernese  olerland, 
Switzerland,  September  10. 

Great  destruction  of  life  and  property  by  earthquakes 
was  reported  from  Honduras  September  12. 


LITERATURE. 

Science:— 

Lakes  of  North  America.  A  Reading  Lesson  for 
Students  of  Geography  and  Geology.  By  Israel  C.  Rus- 
sell, professor  of  geology.  University  of  Michigan.  Pp. 
125.  8vo.  Illustrated.  Indexed.  Cloth.  $1.65.  Bos- 
ton:   Ginn  &  Co. 

"The  origin  of  lake-basins  and  their  place  in  topographic  devel- 
opment; the  movements  of  lake  waters;  the  topography  of  lake 
shores;  the  relation  of  lakes  to  climatic  environment;  the  life  his- 
tories of  fresh  and  of  saline  lakes,  are  some  of  the  subjects  discussed. 
The  scenery  of  some  of  the  most  remarkable  lakes  in  North  America 
is  described  in  popular  language.  Brief  histories  are  presented  of 
the  former  lakes  of  the  humid  Lamertian  basin,  and  of  their  con- 
temporaries, Lakes  Bonneville  and  Lahontan,  in  the  arid  regions  of 
the  West." 

Electricity  for  Everybody.  Its  Nature  and  Uses  Ex- 
plained. By  Philip  Atkinson,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  author  of 
Elements  of  Static  Electricity,  etc.  With  one  hundred 
illustrations,  and  portrait  of  the  author  as  a  frontispiece. 
239  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.50.  New  York:  The 
Century  Co. 

Any  person  of  intelligence,  without  previous  training,  who  will 


748  LITERATURE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

attentively  study  the   pages  of   this   book,   will  obtain  a  working 
knowledge  of  electric  science  in  all  its  principal  details. 

The  Practical  Application  of  Dynamo  Electric  Ma- 
chinery. By  Carl  K.  MacFadden  and  AVilliam  D.  Ray. 
Illustrated.     Pp.  167.    Cloth.     Chicago:    Laird  &  Lee. 

There  is  hardly  a  profession  which  has  not  been  affected  by  the 
development  of  electricity,  and  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  infor- 
mation as  to  its  nature  and  uses  and  the  various  kinds  of  apparatus 
by  which  it  is  generated  and  employed.  In  this  handy  little  com- 
pendium, intended  rather  for  the  general  reader  than  the  expert,  will 
be  found  full  and  clear  descriptions  of  the  modus  operandi  of  the 
most  generally  used  class  of  electrical  machinery. 

A  Text-Book  of  Zoogeography.  By  Frank  E.  Beddard, 
M.  A.,  (Oxon.,)  F.  R.  S.,  prosector  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London,  and  lecturer  on  biology  at  Guy's 
Hospital.  Cambridge  Natural  Science  Manuals.  (Bio- 
logical series.)  General  editor,  Arthur  E.  Shipley,  M. 
A.,  fellow  and  tutor  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 
246  pp.  12mo.  $3.50.  New  York:  Longmans,  Green 
&Co. 

"For  those  who  have  not  the  time  or  opportunity  to  consult 
the  works  of  Wallace,  Drude,  Murray,  and  others,  Mr.  Beddard's 
Text-hook,  as  embodying  all  the  most  recent  conclusions  on  the  ques- 
tion, may  be  recommended  as  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the 
subject.  It  is  also  a  further  step  toward  scientific  exactness  in 
geographical  distribution,  which  only  lacks  an  international  con- 
sensus of  opinion  on  the  zoological  divisions  of  the  globe  to  render  it 
complete." 

The  story  of  the  Plants.  By  Grant  Allen.  Library 
of  Useful  Stories.  Illustrated.  213  pp.  16mo.  40  cents. 
New  York:    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

**  In  this  work  the  writer  puts  before  his  readers  the  principles  of 
vegetable  physiology,  according  to  the  Darwinian  theory,  in  a  way 
that  must  be  readily  seized  by  any  one  of  average  intelligence  and 
education.  An  idea  of  the  manual  may  be  gained  by  glancing  at 
some  of  its  chapters — 'How  Plants  Came  to  Differ;'  'How  Plants 
Eat;'  'How  Plants  Drink;'  'How  Plants  Marry;'  and  so  on — which 
invest  the  subject  at  once  with  unusual  interest,  and  present  it  in  a 
new  and  attractive  light." 

Philosophy  and  Psychology: — 

Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race.  By 
Professor  James  Mark  Baldwin.  496  pp.  8vo.  $2.60. 
New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

Prof  essor  Baldwin's  theory  is  that  the  mind  grows  just  like  a  phy- 
sical organism,  and  that  it  is  not  "  a  fixed  substance,  with  fixed  at- 
tributes." Hence,  he  reasons,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  study 
the  mind  of  the  child.  *  *  *  In  general  we  may  say  that  the  aim 
of  the  author  is  to  establish  imitation  as  the  fundamental  fact  in  the 
natural  history  of  mind,  and  that  he  writes  with  much  vivacity  and 
persuasiveness. 


LITERATURE.  749 

Outlines  of  Psychology.  Designed  for  use  in  teachers* 
classes,  normal  schools,  and  institutes,  and  as  a  guide  for 
all  students  of  applied  psychology.  By  Henry  G.  Williams, 
A.  M.,  superintendent  of  schools,  Lynchburg,  0.  3d  edi- 
tion. 151pp.  Indexed.  Cloth.  75  cents.  Syracuse,  N.Y.: 
0.  W.  Bardeen. 

This  work  is  not  a  text-book  for  a  student  unacquainted  with  the 
subject,  but  is  essentially  a  working  manual  for  the  teacher  of  psy- 
chology. It  presents  a  very  suggestive  topical  outline  which  can  be 
made  the  basis  of  instruction  in  various  ways,  and  which  covers  the 
field  with  adequate  fulness.  It  contains  an  outline  of  the  science  of 
pedagogy  and  of  methodology,  a  history  of  education,  and  chapters  on 
"  The  New  Pedagogics  "  and  "  How  to  Observe  Children,"  besides  a 
bibliography  of  the  subject,  and  questions  based  on  the  text. 

Political  Economy,  Civics,  and  Sociology: — 

Catliolic  Socialism,  By  Francesco  S.  Nitti.  Translated 
from  the  second  Italian  edition  by  Mary  Mackintosh. 
With  an  introduction  by  David  G.  Ritchie,  M.  A.  432  pp. 
Indexed.     8vo.     $3.50.     New  York:    Macmillan  &  Co. 

This  remarkable  work  appeared  in  the  original  in  1890 ;  and  in 
the  minds  of  some  is  closely  connected  with  the  issuance  of  the  ency- 
clical letter  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  May,  1891,  on  social  and  labor 
problems  (Vol.  1,  p.  325).  Although  mainly  concerned  with  the 
study  of  socialism  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  work  also  gives  a 
clear  presentation  of  the  attitude  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  United  States  on  social  questions,  as  represented  by  the  views  of 
leading  prelates. 

Fi'actical  Christian  Sociology.  A  special  series  of  lec- 
tures delivered  before  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
and  Marietta  College,  by  Rev.  Wilbur  F.  Crafts,  Ph.  D. 
Cloth.  12mo.  524  pp.  Illustrated  with  22  portraits. 
11.50.  New  York,  London,  and  Toronto:  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails  Company. 

An  up-to-date  book.  The  first  part  of  the  book  is  occupied 
mainly  with  the  lectures  which  the  author  delivered  in  February  of 
this  year  before  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  These  lectures 
discuss  fairly,  thoroughly,  and  ably  the  questions  of  temperance. 
Sabbath  reform,  gambling,  purity,  civil  service,  ballot  reform,  munici- 
pal reform,  education,  immigration,  divorce,  woman  suffrage,  and  all 
the  other  social  problems,  not  separately,  but  in  their  relations  to  each 
other  as  parts  of  one  great  problem,  which  is  presented  from  the 
standpoints,  first,  of  the  church;  second,  of  the  family  and  education; 
third,  of  capital  and  labor;  and  fourth,  of  citizenship.  The  book  is 
illustrated  with  portraits  of  the  author  and  of  Dr.  Josiah  Strong,  Dr. 
Joseph  Cook,  Lady  Somerset,  Mary  Lowe  Dickinson,  Bishop  Vincent, 
Anthony  Comstock,  Miss  Mary  H.  Hunt,  Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright, 
Professor  R.  T.  Ely,  Mrs.  Helen  Campbell,  Miss  Jane  Addaras,  General 
William  Booth,  Dr.  Washington  Gladden,  Lady  Aberdeen,  Dr. 
Charles  H.  Parkhurst,  Dr.  F.  E.  Clark,  Miss  Willard,  Mrs.  H.  B. 
Stowe,  Theodore  Roosevelt.      The  appendixes  include  chronological 


750  LITERATURE.  Sd  Qr.,  1895. 

data  of  progress  from  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  closing 
with  a  most  valuable  record  of  reform  progress  in  1895.  There  are 
also  valuable  letters  from  Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Professor  R.  T.  Ely, 
and  President  E.  B.  Andrews,  numerous  tables  and  a  great  amount  of 
fresh  statistics  on  all  social  problems.  Much  of  what  the  author 
says  is  of  the  nature  of  expert  testimony,  the  value  of  which  is 
enhanced  by  the  history  of  the  witness,  whose  life  work  has  been 
identified  with  questions  of  reform,  culminating  in  the  establishing  of 
the  National  Bureau  of  Reform  at  Washington,  of  which  he  is 
superintendent.  Joseph  Cook  has  written  the  introduction.  One  of 
the  valuable  features  of  the  book  is  the  abundant  indexes,  including 
a  Bible  Index,  an  Index  of  Modern  Authors  Quoted,  an  Index  of 
Places  Sociologically  Considered,  and  a  very  full  Topical  Index,  which 
is  both  alphabetical  and  analytical. 

The  book  keeps  in  mind  the  need  of  pastors  and  workingmen  of 
a  text-book  at  once  condensed  and  plain-spoken,  that  will  give  the 
important  facts  and  arguments  to  busy  men  and  women  for  the 
smallest  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 

Fads  About  Money.  By  J.  Laurence  Laughlin,  Ph.D., 
author  of  History  of  Bimetallism  in  tlie  United  States,  etc. 
Including  the  debate  with  W.  H.  Harvey  (''Coin'")  at  the 
Illinois  Club,  Chicago,  May  17,  1895.  Illustrated.  The 
Lucile  series.  275  pp.  and  appendix.  12mo.  Paper.  50c. 
Chicago:  E.  A.  Weeks. 

Prof.  Laughlin  is  the  head  of  the  department  of  political  economy  in 
Chicago,  and  was  before  at  Harvard.  In  this  volume  he  gives  an 
answer  from  the  gold  single  standard  standpoint  to  Coiii's  Financial 
School,  by  W.  H.  Harvey  (p.  490).  The  volume  also  contains  a  debate 
between  Messrs.  Harvey  and  Laughlin,  and  tables  and  diagrams  on 
the  currency. 

Patriotic  Citizenship.  By  Thomas  J.  Morgan,  LL.  D., 
author  of  Studies  in  Fedagogy,  etc.  Illustrated.  368  pp. 
Indexed.   13mo.  $1.00.   New  York:  American  Book  Co. 

"The  present  volume  is  upon  an  original  plan.  It  contains  a 
series  of  chapters  upon  patriotism,  the  flag,  the  great  periods  and 
episodes  in  the  history  of  the  United  States,  the  principles  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty,  the  problems  of  emigration,  labor,  and  capital, 
and  so  on.  The  author  asks  a  series  of  questions  and  then  proceeds 
briefly  to  answer  them.  Each  question  and  answer  is  followed  by  a 
page  or  two  of  quotations  from  American  writers  in  further  elucida- 
tion of  the  topic.  The  book  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  a  very  useful 
one  for  school  reading,  and  it  can  readily  be  made  the  basis  for  much 
familiar  discourse  between  teacher  and  pupils." 

Money  and  Banking  Illustrated  hy  American  History. 
By  Horace  White.  Illustrated.  Indexed.  With  appen- 
dixes. Cloth.  488  pp.  $1.50.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Com- 
pany. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  author  the  act  of  February  25, 1862,  making 
the  paper  money  of  the  United  States  government  legal  tender  between 
individuals,  was  a  mistake  not  only  in  the  injustice  which  it  wrought, 
but  in  the  misconceptions  and  delusions  to  which  it  gave  rise.  Among 
these,  the  most  dangerous  and  widely  prevalent  is  the  notion  that 


LITERATURE.  751 

mere  quantity  of  money  is  desirable,  and  that  government  can  and 
should  produce  quantity.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  work  "to  recall  atten- 
tion to  first  principles."  It  advocates  "retirement  and  cancellation 
of  the  legal-tender  notes,  and  the  restriction  of  the  treasury  to  the 
duties  for  which  it  was  originally  and  solely  designed."  It  is  an 
elaborate  history  of  American  finance,  and  in  the  appendixes  is 
brought  up  to  date,  for  the  reader  will  there  find  a  treatment  of 
recent  bimetallic  movements  in  Europe,  the  "Baltimore  plan,"  Secre- 
tary Carlisle's  plan,  etc.  A  bibliography  is  also  given.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  book  is  timely,  and  it  may  be  commended  to  every  student 
of  monetary  affairs. 

Publications  of  the  American  Academy  of  Politi- 
cal AND  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 

Tlie  Minbmim  Principle  i?i  the  Tariff  of  1828,  and  Its 
Recent  Revival.  By  Professor  S.  B.  Harding.  18  pp. 
8vo.     Paper.     25  cents. 

"The  act  of  1828,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  our  tariff 
legislation,  established  a  series  of  duties  graduated  according  to  the 
value  of  a  group  of  goods.  The  evident  purpose  of  this  was  to  retain 
something  of  the  elasticity  of  ad  valorem  rates  while  gaining  the  im- 
munity from  undervaluation  which  goes  with  specific  duties.  This 
series  of  duties  rests  upon  what  is  known  as  the  'graduated  min- 
imum' of  the  woolen  schedule  of  the  act  of  that  year,  the  principle 
of  which  was  revived  and  largely  extended  in  the  act  of  1890,  and 
the  traces  of  which  have  not  been  entirely  banished  from  the  tariff  of 
1894." 

Ethical  Basis  of  Distribution,  and  Its  Application  to 
Taxation.  By  Professor  T.  N.  Carver.  21  pp.  8vo. 
Paper.     25  cents. 

"  The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  show:  (1)  That  the  true  criterion 
of  justice  in  the  distribution  of  the  burdens  of  taxation  is  the  least 
evil  to  the  least  number;  (2)  that  the  evils  of  taxation  are  twofold — 
the  sacrifice  to  those  who  pay  the  taxes,  and  the  repression  of  indus- 
try and  enterprise  which  they  occasion;  (3)  that  the  minimum  of 
repression  is  secured  by  equality  of  sacrifice  and  the  minimum  of 
total  sacrifice  by  an  extreme  form  of  progressive  taxation,  resulting 
in  great  inequality  of  sacrifice;  (4)  that  neither  repression  alone  nor 
sacrifice  alone,  but  both,  are  to  be  considered;  and  (5)  that  the  proba- 
bilities are  that  a  consideration  of  both  forms  of  evil  would  lead  to 
the  adoption  of  a  moderately  progressive  system  of  taxation," 

The  Development  of  the  Present  Constitution  of  Fra^ice. 
By  Professor  R.  Saleilles  of  the  University  of  Dijon.  78 
pp.     8vo.     Paper.     50  cents. 

The  present  monograph  shows  how  the  constitutional  laws  of 
France,  which  were  originally  passed  as  a  mere  temporary  measure, 
have  been  "gradually  modified  and  developed  until  an  organic  con- 
stitution has  been  built  upon  them  as  a  foundation."  It  discusses 
many  interesting  political  questions,  such  as  multiple  candidacies, 
the  advantages  of  a  bi-cameral  system,  cabinet  government,  division 
into  parties,  the  presidential  term,  etc.  For  a  clear  explanation  of  the 
French  government  of  to-day,  this  essay  will  prove  of  great  value. 


752  LITERATURE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

The  Theory  of  Sociology.  By  Professor  Franklin  H. 
Giddings.     2d  edition.     80  pp.     Paper.     50  cents. 

A  monograph  of  tlie  greatest  value  to  any  one  interested  in  soci- 
ology.    It  defines  the  nature  and  limits  of  tlie  science. 

Religion: — 

The  Christian  Consciousness.  Its  Eelation  to  Evolu- 
tion in  Morals  and  in  Doctrine.  By  J.  S.  Black.  244 
pp.     12mo.     11.25.     Boston:    Lee  &  Shepard. 

"It  is  primarily  and  essentially  a  practical  work,  written  with 
the  distinct  purpose  of  bringing  this  important  subject  to  the  imme- 
diate inquiry  of  thoughtful  Christians.  Briefly  the  author  seeks  to 
supplement  the  'three  fountains  of  authority' — the  Bible,  the  church, 
and  the  reason — with  a  fourth,  the  '  Christian  consciousness,'  which  to 
conservatives  will  seem  revolutionary  rather  than  evolutionary,  and 
to  advanced  critics  a  position  long  ago  taken  by  leaders  of  theological 
thought." 

A  Hundred  Years  of  Missions;  or,  The  Story  of  Pro- 
gress Since  Carey's  Beginning.  By  the  Rev.  Delavan  L. 
Leonard.  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Arthur  T.  Pier- 
son,  D.  D.  430  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $L50.  New  York: 
Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

Great  is  the  work  accomplished  by  missions,  but  greater  still 
remains  to  be  done.  "At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  all 
Christendom  was  giving  for  this  work  not  to  exceed  $200,000  a  year, 
and  the  foreign  missionaries  were  so  few  in  number  that  they  all 
could  have  dined  off  one  table.  To-day  the  annual  expenditure  for 
mission  work  is  not  less  than  $16,000,000;  the  number  of  mis- 
sionary stations  and  sub-stations  runs  over  12,000;  and  about 
11,000  men  and  women  sent  out  from  Christian  countries  are  labor- 
ing among  the  heathen  to  convert  them  to  Christianity.  *  *  * 
It  seems  a  matter  for  jubilation  in  the  churches,  that  in  the  heathen 
countries  of  the  world  1,100,000  are  members  of  Christian  churches, 
and  that  three  times  as  many  have  put  themselves  under  the  teach- 
ings of  the  missionaries.  But  there  is  another  side  to  the  story. 
Think  of  the  heathen  who  are  left.  One-fifth  of  the  earth's  inhabi- 
tants are  in  the  triangular  space  between  the  Himalavas  and  Cape 
Comorin.  There  are  in  this  space  175,000,000  Hindus,  50,000,000 
Mohammedans,  50,000,000  devil  worshipers.  More  than  250,000,000 
are  unable  to  read  and  write.  Appalling  ignorance  and  superstition 
hold  the  mass  of  this  great  population.  Out  of  all  the  churches  in 
this  region  but  2,275,000  are  attached  to  the  Christian  church.  In 
China  the  Christian  churches  claim  memberships  of  about  45,000. 
'What  are  45,000  among  350,000,000?'  asks  Mr.  Leonard.  So  it  is 
all  over  the  heathen  world." 

History;— 

The  Rise  of  Wellington.  By  General  Lord  Roberts, 
V.  C.  With  introduction  by  Lord  Frederick  Hamilton  and 
Sir  Douglas  Straight.  With  portraits  and  plans.  The 
Pall  Mall  Magazine  Library.  198  pp.  Indexed.  12mo. 
$1.25.     Boston:  Roberts  Bros. 


LITERATURE.  753 

"The  military  career  of  the  great  duke,  which  is  the  point  at 
which  Lord  Roberts  stops,  naturally  divides  itself  into  three  portions 
— India,  the  Peninsula,  and  the  short  but  decisive  Waterloo  campaign. 
Without  the  experiences  that  he  gained  in  India,  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  Wellington's  seven  years'  contest  with  the  French  forces  in 
Spain  and  Portugal  would  have  had  a  far  less  happy  result." 

The  story  of  Boliemia.  By  Frances  Gregor.  Illus- 
ti-ated.  486  pp.  12mo.  $1.50.  Cincinnati:  Cranston  & 
Curts. 

It  is  believed  that  this  is  the  first  separate  history  of  Bohemia  and 
the  Bohemian  people  to  appear  in  the  English  language.  It  professes 
to  be  based  on  the  works  of  Tomek  and  Palacky,  the  great  authorities 
on  Bohemian  history. 

History  of  Our  Country.  A  Text-book  for  Schools. 
By  Oscar  H.  Cooper,  LL.  D.,  Harry  F.  Estill,  and  Leonard 
Lemmon.  489  pp.  Illustrated  with  maps,  portraits,  etc. 
With  appendixes.  Indexed.  Cloth.  $1.15.  Boston:  Ginn 
&  Co. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  in  the  belief  that  "there  is  a 
need  of  a  text-book  on  the  history  of  the  United  States  which 
would  present  fairly  and  impartially  all  sections  of  the  Union.  The 
authors  have  endeavored  to  divest  the  narrative  of  all  bias  for 
or  against  the  North  or  the  South,  the  East  or  the  West.  The 
strife  for  sectional  or  partisan  supremacy  has  often  transcended 
the  bonds  of  true  patriotism;  but  it  is  believed  that  such  strife  Las 
been  inevitable,  and  that  in  the  long  run  it  has  made  our  country 
stronger  and  richer  in  the  nobler  elements  of  national  life.  *  *  * 
Our  history  should  be  so  taught  that  the  next  generation  will  cherish 
the  patriotism  which  conserves  the  rights  of  the  states,  and  honor  the 
patriotism  which  guards  the  supremacy  of  the  federal  Union." 

Biography: — 

The  Life  and  Letters  of  Edivard  A.  Freeman,  D.  C.  L., 
LL.  D.  By  W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  B.  D.,  Dean  of  Win- 
chester, author  of  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Dean  Hook, 
etc.  Two  volumes.  8vo.  each  $3.50.  New  York:  Mac- 
millan  &  Co. 

In  this  work  the  author  has  performed  with  remarkable  impar- 
tiality a  most  difficult  task.  "Two  dangers  beset  the  biographer: 
First,  that  of  offending  survivors  by  perpetuation  of  the  historian's 
rude  sallies  and  general  thorniness;  secondly,  that  of  offending  truth 
itself  by  presenting  to  us  the  lion  of  Somerleaze  with  his  mane  in 
curl-papers.  The  Dean  of  Winchester  has  fallen  into  neither  of  these 
traps.  We  hear  the  roar  of  Freeman  reverberating  through  his 
pages,  and  yet  the  record  is  marvellously  softened  for  those  whose 
misfortune  it  was  to  come  into  collision  with  the  historian.  Even 
the  ghost  of  Froude  might  skim  these  volumes  with  no  direful  ulula- 
tions.  *  *  *  The  work  of  Freeman  will  in  all  probability  leave 
a  valid  mark  on  historical  literature.  It  was  remarkable  for  what  it 
destroyed  as  much  as  for  what  it  built  up,  for  what  it  swept  scorn- 
fully away  as  much  as  for  what  it  added  to  our  stores  of  permanent 


754  LITERATURE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

knowledge.     Freeman  was  an  iconoclast.     He  rutlilessly  destroyed 
the  idols  of  romantic  conjecture." 

Toivnsend  Harris.  First  American  Envoy  in  Japan. 
By  William  Elliot  Griffis.  AVith  a  portrait.  351  pp. 
Indexed.  12mo.  12.00.  Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co. 

"Americans  are  proud  of  Commodore  Perry,  who  opened  to  the 
world  this  rich  and  attractive  group  of  islands,  but  they  have  also 
good  reason  for  pride  in  the  tact  and  patience,  the  fairness  and  hon- 
esty, with  which  their  first  representative  to  Japan  taught  the  people 
of  the  Island  Kingdom  to  have  confidence  in  the  friendship  of  America, 
and  persuaded  them  to  come  into  the  family  of  nations  under  our 
guidance.     The  author  lets  Mr.  Harris  tell  his  own  story." 

Margaret  Wfuihi'op.  By  Alice  Morse  Earle.  With 
fac-simile  reproduction.  Women  of  Colonial  and  Revo- 
lutionary Times.  341  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $1.25. 
New  York:     Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

The  object  of  the  series  of  which  this  is  the  first  issue  is  to  pre- 
sent not  only  carefully  studied  and  individual  portraits,  but  pictures 
of  the  domestic  and  social,  as  distinguished  from  the  political  and 
public,  life  of  the  people  at  successive  periods  of  national  develop- 
ment. 

M.  Stanibiiloff.  By  A.  Hulme  Beaman.  With  six 
portraits.  Public  Men  of  To-day  series.  Pp.  240.  12mo. 
11.25.     New  York:    Frederick  Warne  &  Co. 

In  judging  the  late  ex-premier  of  Bulgaria,  we  must  take  into 
account  the  environment  in  which  he  lived.  "If  be  ruled  roughly, 
it  was  a  rough  people  he  had  to  deal  with.  He  was  a  young  man  in 
almost  absolute  power  over  a  young  nation.  At  the  age  when  most 
of  our  youths  are  yielding  the  oar  and  the  cricket  bat,"  says  the 
writer,  "he  was  a  leader  in  the  forlorn  struggle  of  Bulgaria  against 
Turkey.  Taught  in  the  hard  school  of  want  and  adversity,  his 
nature  was  as  rugged  as  the  mountains  which  were  his  youthful 
home  and  refuge."  The  work  gives  us  a  picture  of  a  whole-hearted 
patriot. 

Li  Hung  Chang.  By  Prof.  Robert  K.  Douglas.  With 
portraits.  Public  Men  of  To-day.  International  series. 
Edited  by  S.  H.  Jeyes.  251  pp.  12mo.  $1.25.  New 
York:  Frederick  Warne  &  Co. 

A  timely  work  in  view  of  the  important  part  played  by  the  great 
viceroy  of  Pe-Chi-Li  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  Simonoseki, 
and  in  view  of  the  doubtful  political  issues  confronting  the  empire 
of  which  he  is  now  said  to  have  been  made  chancellor.  The  sketch  is 
based  on  an  abundance  of  material  such  as  is  seldom  available  in  the 
case  of  Oriental  potentates.     Says  the  author  in  reference  to  Li: 

"  Despite  his  great  abilities  and  his  great  opportunities,  he  has  never  been 
able  to  free  himself  from  the  narrow,  bigoted,  and  warping  system  which  has 
bound  his  countrymen  in  chains  for  countless  generations.  Nothing  he  has 
heard,  nothing  he  has  seen,  nothing  he  has  read  of  M'estern  lands,  has  served 
to  shake  for  an  instant  his  implicit  faith  and  belief  in  the  ineffable  wisdom  of 
the  founders  of  Chinese  polity,  or  in  the  superiority  of  the  civilization  of  China 
over  that  possessed  by  any  other  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth." 


LITERATURE. 

Literature:— 

Modern  German  Literature.  By  Benjamin  W.  Wells, 
Ph.D.  406pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  11.50.  Boston:  Rob- 
erts Bros. 

.  To  those  wisliing  to  secure  a  comprehensive  view  of  German 
literature  within  a  single  volume,  this  work  will  be  of  special  interest. 
Although  dealing  specially  with  modern  literature,  the  book  contains 
a  chapter  on  the  origins  of  German  literature,  which  serves  as  a  use- 
ful introduction  to  tlie  field  of  later  writers. 

Neiv  Studies  in  Literature.  By  Edward  Dowden,  Litt. 
D.,  Dublin;  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  the  University  of  Dublin; 
Clark  lecturer  in  English  literature.  Trinity,  Cambridge. 
451  pp.    8vo.    $3.00.     Boston:    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

A  collection  of  stimulating  and  instructive  essays  on  Coleridge, 
Meredith,  Robert  Bridges,  John  Donne,  Goethe,  and  other  poets, 
besides  a  particularly  valuable  essay  on  "The  Teaching  of  English 
Literature."  Professor  Dowden  would  have  the  student  carry  in  his 
head  an  outline  map  of  European  literature  closely  resembling  Mr. 
Freeman's  Oeneral  Sketch  of  European  History.  Such  an  introduc- 
tion once  mastered,  the  student  would  be  able  gradually  to  fill  in  the 
details,  understanding  their  relations  and  inter-dependence.  With 
such  study  of  English  literature  as  a  whole.  Professor  Dowden  would 
have  the  student  join  the  careful  study  at  first  hand  of  an  actual  text. 
Professor  Dowden  is  convinced  that  the  rigbt  method  of  approaching 
a  great  author,  the  right  method  of  dealing  with  a  great  literary 
period,  can  be  taught,  and  that  to  teach  this  is  the  most  important 
part  of  a  professor's  work.  His  exposition  of  these  principles  ought 
to  be  learned  by  every  teacher  and  every  student  of  English  litera- 
ture. 

My  Literary  Passions.  By  W.  D.  Howells.  Pp.  258. 
Indexed.    12mo.    11.50.    I^ew  York:    Harper  &  Bros. 

A  sort  of  autobiography,  in  which  the  writer  reviews  in  later 
life  the  literary  examples  which  have  influenced  him.  His  first  im- 
pressions of  writers  are  recalled,  and  their  subsequent  modifications 
explained. 

Education: — 

Ways  of  Working;  or,  Helpful  Hints  to  Sunday- School 
Officers  and  Teachers.  By  Rev.  A.  F.  Schauffler,  D.  D. 
212  pp.     12mo.     11.00.     Boston:  ^N.  A.  Wilde  &  Co. 

The  writer  describes  the  duties  of  the  officers  of  a  school,  giv- 
ing an  account  of  methods,  and  advises  as  to  their  application,  all 
being  given  from  experience.  Private  study,  teachers'  meetings, 
blackboard,  music  entertainments,  library,  etc.,  are  considered  in 
chapters. 

Psychology  in  Education.  Designed  as  a  text-book, 
and  for  the  use  of  the  general  reader.  By  Ruric  N.  Roark. 
312  pp.  Indexed.  12mo,  $1.00.  New  York:  American 
Book  Co. 


756  LITERATURE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Psychology  is  the  basis  of  the  science  of  teaching;  and  educa 
tional  work  is  effective  in  proportion  as  it  conforms  to  an  intelligent 
comprehension  of  the  activities  of  the  mind  and  the  laws  of  its  de- 
velopment. In  the  present  work,  constant  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
necessity  and  the  means  of  carrying  psychology  into  the  daily  work 
of  the  school;  but  at  the  same  time  an  effort  is  made  to  avoid  all 
speculative  metaphysics,  whose  tendency  is  often  to  confuse  thought 
and  "spoil"  the  development  of  a  practically  efficient  instructor. 
The  problems  of  psychology  are  presented  in  a  manner  within  the 
comprehension  of  the  general  reader. 

The  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching  Reading,  Writing, 
and  Spelling.  A  Manual  for  Teachers.  By  George  L. 
Farnham,  M.  A.,  former  principal  of  the  State  Normal 
School,  Peru,  Neb.  3d  edition.  55  pp.  Leatherette.  50c. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

A  book  which  will  commend  itself  to  all  teachers  who  have  experi- 
enced the  difficulty  of  fixing,  in  the  minds  of  children  learning  to 
read,  the  association  between  articulate  sounds  and  the  characters 
representing  them.  In  Germany,  France,  Austria,  and  Switzerland, 
the  method  of  " sounding "  has  superseded  that  of  "spelling,"  but 
the  old  method  still  lingers  in  certain  places  in  England  and  America. 
This  book  goes  even  further  than  the  ordinary  method  of  "sounding," 
by  recommending  the  use  of  brief  sentences  instead  of  words  or  single 
sounds  as  the  starting  points  of  reading  lessons.  It  deserves  the  at- 
tention of  educators. 

An  Outline  Study  of  United  States  History.  By  Har- 
low Godard.  146  pp.  Leatherette.  50c.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.: 
C.  W.  Bardeen. 

Most  useful  to  the  teacher  as  suggesting  topics  for  class  instruc- 
tion, essay,  and  discussion.  It  contains  references  to  more  elaborate 
works,  and  lists  of  novels  and  poems  relating  to  American  history. 

Elementary  Greek  Education.  By  Frederick  H.  Lane, 
principal  of  JBabylon  Union  School,  Babylon,  N.  Y.  85 
pp.  Leatherette.  50c.   Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.W.  Bardeen. 

The  student  of  the  history  of  education  will  find  in  this  little 
work  a  complete  and  interesting  treatment  of  the  subject  of  elemen- 
tary education  as  developed  in  ancient  Greece,  the  country  from  which 
"  all  the  streams  which  swell  the  current  of  modern  civilization  have 
proceeded." 

The  Heart  of  a  Boy  (Cuore).  A  story.  By  Edmondo 
de  Amicis.  From  the  166th  Italian  edition,  by  Prof.  G. 
Mantellini.  290  pp.  12mo.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  gilt  top, 
75c.   Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

A  classic  in  educational  literature.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  journal 
of  a  boy  who  discusses  his  own  actions  and  those  of  his  companions; 
and,  while  his  environment  is  dissimilar  in  every  way  to  that  of  an 
American  schoolboy — for  it  is  an  Italian  boy  who  tells*  the  story — the 
lessons  it  teaches  are  those  touches  of  nature  which  make  the  whole 
world  kin.    Its  influence  is  ennobling;  and,  while  the  inculcation  of 


LITERATURE.  757 

morality  is  the  aim,  the  hortatory  feature  is  not  disproportionate. 
The  book  gives  an  interesting  insight  into  Italian  domestic  life  and 
ways. 

The  Teacher  and  the  Parent.  A  treatise  upon  common- 
school  education  containing  practical  suggestions  to 
teachers  and  parents.  By  Charles  Northend,  A.  M.  With 
portraits  of  the  author,  and  a  special  preface.  320  pp. 
Cloth.  $1.00.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

This  book  first  appeared  in  1856.  It  abounds  in  homely,  good, 
and  serviceable  advice  to  teachers,  particularly  regarding  the  culti- 
vation of  associations  between  the  school  life  and  the  home  life. 
Naturally,  it  reveals  no  grasp  of  the  changes  and  achievements  of 
later  methods  in  education,  but  rather  is  full  of  those  observations 
and  practical  discourses  which  will  always  be  of  service  to  successive 
generationr,  of  teachers. 

The  German  Declensions  Made  Easy  for  Beginners. 
To  be  used  in  connection  with  any  good  First  German 
Book.  By  William  A.  Wheatley,  A.  B.  Paper.  28  pp. 
Price  15  cents  per  copy,  $1.20  per  dozen.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. : 
C.  W.  Bardeen. 

The  design  of  this  little  book  is  to  assist  the  pupil  over  that 
"  Bridge  of  Sighs''  of  German  grammar — the  declensions — by  mak- 
ing the  way  as  short  and  direct  as  possible.  Much  care  has  been 
bestowed  upon  the  gradual  unfolding  of  the  difficulties  of  declen- 
sions and  case  endings. 

A  Working  Manual  of  American  History.  For  Teachers 
and  Students.  By  William  H.  Mace,  professor  of  history 
and  political  science  in  Syracuse  University.  297  pp. 
Cloth.  $1.00.     Syracuse,  N.Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

The  idea  underlying  this  work  is  that  "  history  is  a  process,"  and 
that  it  is  "not  at  all  understood  unless  it  is  so  conceived  and  studied." 
A  topical  outline  of  our  history  in  its  entirety  is  given,  in  which  the 
"process"  is  traced,  and  the  essential  relations  of  incidents  and 
movements  are  clearly  presented,  supplemented  with  elaborate  refer- 
ences to  literature  bearing  on  the  topics  treated. 

Memory.  A  scientific,  practical  method  of  cultivating 
the  faculties  of  attention,  recollection,  and  retention. 
Being  the  system  devised  by  Professor  A.  Loisette. 
Cloth,  75  cents;  paper,  50  cents.  New  York:  J.  Fitz- 
gerald &  Co.,  28  Lafayette  Place. 

Art:— 

Shakespeare's  Heroiiies  on  the  Stage.  By  Charles  E. 
L.  Wingate,  author  of  An  Impossible  Possibility,  etc. 
With  illustrations  from  photographs  and  rare  prints.  355 
pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $2.00.  BWou:  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co. 

"  The  present  volume  aims  to  give,  with  reasonable  completeness, 
the  stage  history  of  fourteen  of  Shakespeare's  women,  those  oftenest 


758  LITERATURE.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

seen  on  the  stage.  The  theatres  of  London,  from  the  Restoration, 
and  those  of  New  York  and  Boston,  are  all  comprehended  in  Mr.  Win- 
gate's  record." 

Poetry;— 

Eliymes  of  Our  Planet.  By  Will  Carleton,  author  of 
Farm  Ballads,  etc.  Illustrated.  195  pp.  12mo.  $1.25. 
New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

Most  of  the  poems  in  this  latest  work  of  Mr.  Carleton,  depict 
scenes  and  incidents  of  rural  and  everyday  life  with  the  quiet  effect- 
iveness for  which  the  author  is  known.  But  the  poem  "  A  Saint's 
Love  " — the  longest  in  the  book — tells  of  the  conversion  to  Christian- 
ity, shortly  after  the  death  of  Christ,  of  a  Jewish  scoffer  bound  by 
ties  of  love  and  ambition  to  the  religion  of  his  fathers,  and  of  his  ex- 
ecution by  the  Romans.  It  is  the  strongest  poem  in  the  book,  show- 
ing  dramatic  power. 

Travel,  Adventure,  and  Description: — 

Malay  Sketches.  By  Frank  Atbelstone  Swettenham. 
289  pp.     12mo.  12.00.     New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

The  writer  has  placed  the  Malay  in  a  new  and  much  better  light 
before  the  civilized  world  than  he  has  ever  stood  in  before.  He  has 
also" done  much  for  the  Malay's  jungles,  rivers,  and  mountains.  His 
delightful  descriptions  have  brought  them  within  the  range  of  every 
imagination.  He  has  made  it  possible  to  appreciate  the  pleasures  and 
discomforts  of  the  country  and  the  people. 

Advance  Japan.  A  Nation  Thoroughly  in  Earnest. 
By  J.  Morris,  author  of  War  in  Korea.  Illustrations  by  R. 
Isayama,  military  artist  of  the  Buzen  clan,  southern  Ja- 
pan. 443  pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  $4.00.  New  York:  Ward, 
Locke  &  Bowden. 

Mr.  Morris's  book  is  a  carefully  compiled  summary  of  the  history, 
customs,  characteristics,  and  present  position,  aims,  and  ambitions  of 
the  Japanese  people.  The  most  interesting  chapters  are  those  which 
supply  a  succinct  but  complete  history  of  the  recent  war  with  China 
from  a  purely  Japanese  point  of  view. 

Madagascar  of  To-Day.  A  Sketch  of  the  Island.  With 
Chapters  on  its  Past  History  and  Present  Prospects.  By 
the  Rev.  W.  E.  Cousins.  With  a  map  and  illustrations. 
159  pp.    12mo.    11.00.    Chicago:    Fleming  H.  Re  veil  Co. 

The  writer  has  been  for  many  years  a  missionary  resident  in  the 
island,  and  here  gives  a  wealth  of  information  about  its  people,  gov- 
ernment, and  political  prospects.  Under  the  direction  of  France  it  is 
probable  that  better  government  will  be  insured. 

Constantinople.  By  F.  Marion  Crawford.  Illustrated 
by  Edwin  L.  Weeks.  79  pp.  Small  quarto.  11.25.  New 
York:    Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

A  very  charming  description  of  Turkish  life — both  outdoor  and 
indoor — and  depiction  of  sights  and  scenes  in  the  curious  old  capital  of 
the  sultan.     Some  interesting  facts  are  also  given  regarding  Turkish 


LITERATURE.  759 

penmanship.  "Turkisb  is  written  wilb  reeds,  and  the  inkstand  is  a 
little  sponge.  The  Massulinans  of  the  Sunnite  sect,  who  do  not  per- 
mit the  representation  of  anything  that  has  breath,  have  devoted  an 
amount  of  attention  to  the  art  of  writing  equal  to  that  which  has  been 
bestowed  upon  painting  in  the  West.  To  the  cultured  Turk  a  piece 
of  beautiful  calligraphy  affords  as  much  artistic  delight  as  we  would 
find  in  the  pictures  of  the  greatest  masters. " 

Quaint  Korea.  By  Louise  Jordan  Miln,  author  of 
When  We  Were  Strolliny  Players  in  the  East.  306  pp. 
12mo.     $1.75.     New  York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

A  book  full  of  entertainment  and  of  information  about  a  land 
which,  but  for  the  recent  war  between  China  and  Japan,  would  prob- 
ably have  long  continued  to  justify  the  name  given  it — the  "  Hermit 
Kingdom  " — and  remained  a  terra  incognita  to  the  average  outsider. 

Alaska.  Its  History  and  Eesources,  Gold  Fields,  Routes, 
and  Scenery.  By  Miner  W.  Bruce.  With  illustrations 
and  detached  map.  128  pp.  8vo.  Cloth,  $1.25;  paper,  75c. 
Seattle,  Wash.:    Lowman  &  Hanford  Co. 

Six  years  spent  in  Alaska  enable  the  author  to  present  accurate 
accounts  of  the  leading  industries  of  the  country,  its  resources,  includ- 
ing the  great  Yukon  gold  fields,  its  railroads,  the  possibilities  of  a 
span  of  communication  with  the  Old  World,  etc.  Great  opportuni- 
ties for  investment  and  for  laying  the  foundations  of  lucrative  busi- 
ness enterprises  are  foreseen  by  the  writer. 

Our  Western  Archipelago.  By  Henry  M.  Field.  With 
illustrations.  250  pp.  12mo.  $2.00.  New  York:  Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons. 

An  entertaining  account  of  the  author's  experiences  amid  unfa- 
miliar Western  scenes.  A  chapter  is  devoted  to  wanderings  in  Ru- 
pert's Land.  The  wonders  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  park  are  exhausted, 
and  the  vast  interior  country  of  the  West  described;  but  greatest 
stress  is  laid  upon  the  wonderful  coast  scenery  stretching  northward 
to  Alaska — a  sea  full  of  islands,  suggesting  comparison  with  other 
archipelagoes. 

Fiction; — 

On  the  Suiuanee  River.  A  Romance.  By  Opie  Read, 
author  of  The  Wives  of  the  Prophet,  etc.  254  pp.  12mo. 
Illustrated.  Golden  Rod  edition.  Paper,  25c;  cloth,  50c; 
cloth,  gilt  top,  75c.    Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

One  of  the  best  works  from  the  pen  of  a  writer  who  revels  in 
Southern  tales  in  which  striking  characters  play  a  leading  part.  It 
has  much  of  the  charm  inseparable  from  the  locality  chosen. 

"  The  personages  are  strongly  tinged  with  sensationalism.  The 
heroine  is  a  mysterious  young  woman  who  enters  the  little  Southern 
village,  and,  without  revealing  anything  regarding  her  antecedents, 
finds  employment  in  a  real  estate  oflftce  and  a  shelter  in  the  home  of  a 
minister.  It  is  afterward  developed  that  on  her  rests  the  shadow  of 
a  homicide.  The  minister  is  an  eccentric  character,  who  is  as  brave 
as  a  lion,  and  is  addicted  in  equal  parts  to  strong  language  and  heret- 
ical doctrines.     His  sister  is  an  extremely  sentimental  young  woman, 


760  LITERATURE.  -Sd  ^r.,  1895. 

wlio  falls  in  love  with  a  train  robber — or  thinks  slie  does,  which 
amounts  to  the  same  thing.  A  comical  character  is  that  of  Commo- 
dore Adams,  a  sort  of  Southern  Micawber." 

The  Starh  Munro  Letters.  Being  a  series  of  twelve 
letters  written  by  J.  Stark  Munro,  M.  B.,  to  his 
friend  and  former  fellow-student,  Herbert  Swanborough, 
of  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  during  the  years  1881-1884. 
Edited  and  arranged  by  A.  Conan  Doyle,  author  of  Roimd 
the  Red  Lamp,  etc.  With  illustrations.  385  pp.  12mo. 
11.50.     New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"  Stark  Munro  was  a  fine,  stalwart,  athletic  youth,  whose  father 
was  an  old-fashioned  medical  practitioner  of  small  means,  conservative, 
and  narrow-minded,  while  his  mother  was  a  clean,  bustling  little 
woman  of  good  literary  taste,  who  firmly  believed  that  her  family  had 
intermarried  with  the' Plantagenets.  Young  Munro  was  highly  im- 
pressible and  strongly  intellectual.  The  study  of  medicine,  or  rather 
the  study  of  anatomy  and  physical  science,  had,  as  usual,  developed 
in  him  a  sort  of  materialism  against  which  his  nature  revolted,  for  he 
really  was  of  the  type  that  takes  to  religion.  Existing  dogmas  and 
tenets,  however,  he  could  not,  in  the  light  of  his  knowledge,  accept, 
and  he  made  much  of  his  unbelief,  dwelling  upon  it  night  and  day, 
letting  it  worry  him,  trying  to  evolve  a  new  creed  of  glorified  Deism 
for  himself.  *  *  *  These  letters  recount  frankly  all  the  young 
man's  trials,  doubts,  fears,  hardships.  *  *  *  The  subject  is  one  in- 
teresting to  all  sorts  of  readers.  But  especially  because  of  its  relig- 
ious discussions  will  it  be  popular.  There  is  a  great  craving  for  books 
that  put  all  the  old  doubts  about  the  truth  of  the  creeds  of  Christian- 
ity into  simple,  everyday  English." 

From  the  Memoirs  of  a  Minister  of  France.  By  Stanley 
J.  Weyman,  author  of  A  Gentleman  of  France,  etc.  Illus- 
trated. 325  pp.  12mo.  $1.25.  New  York:  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co. 

In  these  imaginary  papers  of  the  Due  de  Sully,  the  great  admin- 
istrator of  finance  and  state  affairs  generally  in  France  in  the  time  of 
Henry  of  Navarre,  Mr.  Weyman  has  undoubtedly  drawn  much  from 
the  real  "memoirs  "  left  by  the  statesman  at  his  death  in  1641 — for 
the  work  displays  the  knowledge  of  the  student  as  well  as  the  art  of 
the  story  teller.  We  have  twelve  short  stories,  purporting  to  be  chap- 
ters taken  at  random  from  an  old  man's  memoirs.  The  time  is  gen- 
erally the  closing  years  of  Henry  IV. 's  reign;  but  a  few  of  the  tales 
relate  to  earlier  years,  and  in  one  of  them,  in  which  Richelieu  is  the 
commanding  figure,  the  action  is  brought  nearer  to  our  own  time. 
Court  intrigues,  provincial  hostilities,  some  of  the  many  attempts  of 
the  Italian  clique  to  kill  the  king,  midnight  adventures,  and  love  es- 
capades form  the  material  of  the  tales. 

Hadassah;  or,  Esther,  Queen  to  Ahasuerus.  A  novel. 
By  Mrs.  T.  F.  Black.  Golden  Rod  edition.  Illustrated. 
277  pp.  Cloth,  gilt  top,  50c.;  buckram,  75c.  Chicago: 
Laird  &  Lee. 

A  very  readable  story,  in  which  will  be  found  interesting  descrip- 
tions of  the  ancient  Persian  domains,  the  customs  and  manners  of  the 
people. 


LITERATURE.  761 

Mij  Lady  Nobody.    A  novel.    By  J.  A'ander    Poorsen 

Schwartz  ['*Maarteii  Maartens"],  author  of  .1;^  Old  Maid' fi 

Love,  etc.    Illustrated.   12mo.    $1.50.   New  York:   Harper 

&  Bros. 

This  novel  is  cleaner  tban  the  average  English  novel  of  the  end  of 
the  century.  It  "deals  with  the  fortunes  of  a  distinguished  Dutch 
family,  the  Van  Helraonts,  at  the  close  of  their  history,  when  their 
long  line  of  succession  is  broken  up,  and  their  fair  domain  inherited 
by  strangers.  '  My  Lady  Nobody '  is  a  girl  of  comparatively  lowly 
origin,  who  married  into  the  family  and  diverts  the  estate  from  the 
Van  Helmonts,  or  undertakes  to  do  so  by  false  representations;  but 
repents  and  confesses  in  good  time,  the  requirements  of  poetic  justice 
being  served  by  her  making  a  second  marriage  with  the  rightful 
heir." 

A  Bingiy  Lass,  and  Other  Stories.  By  Mary  Beaumont. 
With  illustrations  by  I.  Walter  West.  Iris  series.  221  pj). 
75c.    New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

'"A  Ringby  Lass'  is  an  idyllic  story  of  Yorkshire  life.  It  has  some 
remarkably  good  pieces  of  character  delineation,  and  is  rich  in  con- 
versational gems  racy  of  the  soil  and  of  the  self-sufficient  '  f urriner  '- 
snubbing  rustics  of  the  Ridings."  There  are  four  other  excellent 
stories  in  the  volume. 

The  Veiled  Doctor.  A  novel.  By  Varina  Anne  Jeffer- 
son Davis.    12mo.    $1.00.    New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

The  scene  of  this  story,  which  is  written  by  the  daughter  of  the 
late  leader  of  the  Confederacy,  is  laid  in  a  sleepy,  country  town.  Dr. 
Wickford  brings  home  his  young  bride.  The  gay  girl  is  dissatisfied 
with  her  humdrum  existence,  and,  being  innately  selfish  and  untruth- 
ful, she  soon  renders  it  impossible  to  have  any  peaceful  family  life  at 
the  home  of  which  she  is  the  centre.  The  turning  point  comes  when 
the  doctor  falls  a  prey  to  a  terrible  cancerous  disease.  Then  Isabel 
realizes  that  she  has  thrown  away  her  own  happiness  as  well  as  that 
of  her  husband.  Miss  Davis  describes  the  course  of  the  dread  disease 
with  pathological  exactness.  The  writer's  design  is  to  depict  the 
awakening  of  a  soul  through  sympathy  for  the  living  martyrdom  of 
another. 

Juvenile  Books:— 

Boris,  the  Bear  Hunter.  A  Tale  of  Peter  the  Great 
and  His  Times.  By  Fred.  Whishaw,  author  of  Out  of 
Doors  in  Tsarland.  Illustrated.  376  pp.  12mo.  $1.25 
New  York:  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons. 

"Boris  has  the  good  luck  to  save  the  czar's  life  during  a  bear 
hunt,  and  the  two  men  are  henceforth  almost  inseparable.  They 
have  many  qualities  in  common.  Their  deeds  of  strength  and 
bravery,  and  their  practical  jokes,  make  up  no  small  portion  of  Mr. 
Whishaw's  book.     The  czar  himself  is  cleverly  portrayed." 

My  Strange  Rescue,  and  Other  Stories  of  Sport  and 
Adventure  t?i  Canada.  By  J.  Macdonald  Oxl'ey,  author  of 
Di  the  Wilds  of  the  West  Coast,  etc.  Illustrated.  368  pp. 
12mo.     $1.25."     New  York:    Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons. 

Vol.  5.-49. 


762  LITERATURE.  3cl  Qr.,  1S95. 

The  book  contains  a  number  of  sbort  stories  by  a  cliarmin^  writer. 
The  young  reader  learns  what  are  the  wild  animals  in  British  North 
America,  and  how  they  are  captured;  goes  on  expeditions  in  canoes 
and  on  snowshoes;  sees  Indian  life;  is  taken  into  a  lumbering  camp; 
visits  Sable  island  and  the  coast  of  Anticosti. 

Yelloio  Beauty.  By  Marion  Martin.  With  six  illus- 
trations reproduced  from  paintings  by  Henriette  Ronner 
of  the  Belgian  Royal  Academy,  the  celebrated  painter  of 
cats.     Boards.     43  pp.     50c.     Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

A  beautiful  specimen  of  typographical  work — suitable  as  a  holi- 
day gift.  The  reproductions  of  paintings  are  full-page  half  tones, 
besides  which  there  are  forty-two  unique  etchings  in  the  text,  by  tho 
publishers'  special  artist. 

Miscellaneous: — 

Hysteria.  History  of  the  secret  doctrines  and  mystic 
rites  of  ancient  religions  (Eleusinian,  Dionysiac,  Orphic, 
etc.),  and  mediaeval  and  modern  secret  orders  (Knights 
Templar,  Freemasons,  Rosicrusians,  lUuminati,  etc.).  By 
Dr.  Otto  Henne  Am  Rhyn,  state  archivist  of  St.  Gall, 
Switzerland.  Paper,  50c;  cloth,  75c.  Xew  York:  J.  Fitz- 
gerald &  Co.,  28  Lafayette  Place. 

The  history  here  presented  claims  to  be  as  authentic  as  painstak- 
ing research  could  make  it.  It  covers  a  vast  field,  yet  with  a  fulness 
rarely  found  in  popular  compends.  In  style  it  is  graceful  and  pleas- 
ing. 

The  Elements  of  Navigation.  A  short  and  complete 
explanation  of  the  standard  methods  of  finding  the  posi- 
tion of  a  ship  at  sea,  and  the  course  to  be  steered.  De- 
signed for  the  instruction  of  beginners.  By  W.  J.  Hen- 
derson, A.  M.  Illustrated.  203  pp.  16mo.  $L00. 
New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

A  most  useful  book  to  all  amateurs  in  nautical  affairs — con- 
venient in  size  and  shape,  and  easy  for  reference  purposes.  It  gives  in 
crisp,  readable  style  what  has  long  been  needed — a  short,  simple,  and 
yet  comprehensive  outline  of  the  art  of  navigating  a  ship. 

Lee's  Priceless  Recipes.  A  Valuable  Collection  of  Tried 
Formulas  and  Simple  Methods.  3,000  secrets.  For  the 
Home,  Farm,  Laboratory,  Workshop,  and  every  depart- 
ment of  Human  Endeavor.  Alphabetically  indexed.  Com- 
piled by  Dr.  N.  T.  Oliver.  Hlustrated.  368  pp.  16mo. 
Russia  leather,  $1.00;  silk  cloth,  marbled  edges,  50c. 
Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

The  above  descriptive  title  indicates  the  nature  of  the  work.  It 
abounds  in  useful  recipes  which  almost  every  one  is  liable  at  some 
time  or  other  to  need,  and  which  are  here  in  endless  variety  and 
readily  accessible 


NECROLOGY.  763 

Toasts  and  Forms  of  Public  Address.  By  W.  Pittenger. 
174  pp.  12mo.  50c.  Philadelphia:  Pennsylvania  Pub- 
lishing Co. 

A  book  wliicli  will  give  many  a  liint  to  one  aspiring  to  be  a  toast- 
master  or  speeclimaker. 

TJie  Modern  Webster  Pronouncing  and  Defining  Dic- 
tionary of  the  English  Language.  By  Edward  Thos.  Roe, 
LL.  B.  Illustrated.  432  pp.  16nio.  Full  Russia  leather, 
$1.00;  silk  cloth,  50c;  silk  cloth,  limp,  not  indexed,  25c. 
Chicago:  Laird  &  Lee. 

Tbis  convenient  little  handbook  contains  60,000  words  and  defini- 
tions, following  the  earlier  Webster  orthography.  It  excludes  rare, 
purely  technical,  or  obsolete  words;  and  contains  a  collection  of  words, 
phrases,  maxims,  and  mottoes  from  classical  and  modern  foreign 
languages.  Also  a  list  of  abbreviations  in  common  use,  and  instruc- 
tions in  proofreading. 


NECROLOGY. 

American: — 

Adams,  J,  Q.,  captain  2d  United  States  infantry  stationed  in 
Rhode  Island;  born  in  New  York  city,  May  29,  1843;  died  at  Atlantic 
City,  N.  J.,  Aug.  15.  He  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  President  J.  Q. 
Adams.  In  the  civil  war  he  marched  under  Sherman  "to  the  sea," 
and  later  took  part  in  the  campaigns  against  the  Modocs  and  the  M  ez 
Perces. 

Beeciier,  Rev.  Edwaed,  brother  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher;  born 
in  Easthampton,  L.  I.,  Aug.  27,  1803,  third  child  of  Lyman  Beecher; 
died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  July  28.  Was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1822, 
and  taught  for  some  years;  from  1826  to  1830  was  a  Congregational 
minister  in  Boston;  and  from  1830  to  1844  president  of  the  Illinois 
College  in  Jacksonville,  111.  In  1844  was  called  to  Boston,  Mass., 
as  pastor  of  the  Salem  Congregational  church,  where  he  remained 
twelve  years.  In  1856  he  accepted  a  call  to  Galesburg,  111,  In  1872 
he  became  associate  editor  of  TJie  Christian  Union,  and  removed  to 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  in  1885  became  pastor  of  the  Parkville  Congrega- 
tional church,  wiiere  he  remained  active  until  April,  1889,  when  he 
suffered  the  loss  of  one  leg  as  a  result  of  being  run  over  by  a  train  at 
Parkville.  His  wife,  a  Miss  Jones,  to  whom  he  was  married  Oct.  27, 
1829,  survives  him,  with  two  sons  and  one  daughter. 

Brierley,  Mrs.  M.  R.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  missionary  in 
Africa  since  1865,  head  of  St.  George's  Hall,  one  of  the  largest  schools 
of  the  American  church  in  Liberia;  died  at  the  St.  John's  Mission, 
Grand  Cape  Mount,  Liberia,  July  6. 

Brooks,  Rev.  Dr.  Arthur,  for  twenty  years  rector  of  the 
Protestant   Episcopal   Church  of   the   Incarnation;  born  in  Boston, 


764  NECROLOGY.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Mass.,  in  1845;  died  at  sea  while  returning  home  from  Europe,  July 
10.     He  was  a  brother  of  the  late  Bishop  Phillips  Brooks. 

Bull,  Ephraim  W.,  originator  of  the  Concord  grape;  born  in 
Boston  March  4,  1806;  died  in  Concord,  Mass.,  Sep.  26. 

BuRCii,  RoBKRT  A.,  for  many  years  managing  editor  of  the 
Brooklyn  Eagle;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  4,  1832;  died  in  Brook- 
lyn Aug.  28. 

Daboll,  David  A.,  publisher  of  TJie  New  England  Almanac  and 
Farmers'  Friend;  born  in  Groton,  Conn.,  in  1813;  died  at  Centre 
Groton,  July  8.  His  family  have  for  generations  been  famous  for 
their  work  in  astronomy  and  mathematics.  He  served  in  the  state 
house  of  representatives  1846  to  1871,  and  later  one  term  in  the  state 
senate. 

Dean,  Rev.  Dr.  William,  said  to  be  the  first  Baptist  missionary 
to  China  and  Siam,  who  gave  fifty  years  to  the  work;  died  at  San 
Diego,  Cal.,  Aug.  13,  aged  87. 

Duryea,  Rev.  Dr.  John,  for  forty-six  years  pastor  of  the  Second 
Reformed  church  in  Paterson,  N,  J.;  born  near Bloomingburg,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  28,  1810;  died  Aug.  7.  He  was  graduated  at  Rutgers  in  1832, 
and  at  the  theological  school  there  in  1837.  He  was  retired  about  ten 
years  ago. 

Foster,  Charles,  playwright;  born  at  Jericho,  N.  Y.,  March  3, 
1833;  died  in  New  York  city  Aug.  5.  Among  his  best-known  plays 
are  The  Swamp  Angels;  Bertha,  the  Sewing  Machine  Oirl;  The  Chain 
Gang;  and  Neck  and  Neck. 

Friganza,  Captain  Romero,  acting  naval  constructor  of  the 
Mississippi  naval  squadron  under  Admiral  Porter  during  the  war, 
and  for  years  connected  with  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard;  born  on  the 
island  of  Minorca  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1815;  died  in  Mound  City, 
HI.,  about  Aug  15. 

Fulton,  Rev.  Canon,  M.  A.,  Protestant  chaplain  of  the  peniten 
tiary  at  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Quebec;  died  Sep.  23. 

Fulton,  Rev.  James  Robert,  S.  J.,  ex-president  of  Santa  Clara 
College,  San  Jose,  Cal.;  born  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  June  28,  1826;  died 
at  San  Jose  Sep.  5.  Was  educated  at  Georgetown  College,  and  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1843;  was  ordained  in  1861;  became  pre- 
fect of  studies  in  Boston  College  in  1864,  and  president  of  that  college 
in  1870;  was  rector  of  St.  Lawrence's  church.  New  York,  1880,  and 
of  St.  Aloysius's  church,  Washington,  D.  C,  1881;  was  chosen  pro- 
vincial of  New  York  and  Maryland  province,  1882;  and  held  this  office 
until  1888,  when  he  was  again  made  president  of  Boston  College, 
Retired  in  1890  on  account  of  ill-health. 

Hall,  Rev.  Dr.  Chajiles  H.,  rector  of  Holy  Trinity  Protestant 
Episcopal  church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  born  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  Nov.  7, 
1820;  died  in  Brooklyn  Sep.  12.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1842, 
afterwards  studying  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary;  was  or- 
dained in  1845.  He  was  two  years  chaplain  of  the  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point.  In  1856  he  was  called  to  Washington  as  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Epiphany,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years.  In  March, 
1869,  he  succeeded  Bishop  Littlejohn  as  rector  of  Holy  Trinity  in 
Brooklyn.  Dr.  Hall  served  on  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  and  was 
for  several  years  a  park  commissioner. 

Hargis,  Rev.  Dr.  James  Hepburn,  presiding  elder  of  the  west 
district  of  the  Philadelphia  conference  of   the  Methodist  Episcopal 


NECROLOGY.  T6o 

Church;  born  in  Maryland  in  May,  1847;  died  in  Germantown,  Penn., 
Aug.  8.  Was  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  in  1871;  was 
stationed  at  Allentown,  Philadelphia,  and  Jersey  City,  and  for  two 
years  (1883-85)  was  in  charge  of  a  mission  in  Rome,  Italy. 

Harper,  Edward  Bascom,  president  of  the  Mutual  Reserve 
Fund  Life  Association  of  New  York;  born  in  Dover,  Del.,  Sep.  14, 
1843;  died  in  New  York  city  July  2.  In  early  life  he  was  engaged 
in  banking;  but  became  connected  with  the  Commonwealth  Life  In- 
surance Company  of  New  York  in  1869,  being  made  Western  man- 
ager the  following  year, 
and  later  general  superin- 
tendent. From  1875  to 
1880  he  was  New  York 
manager  of  the  John 
Hancock  Life  Insurance 
Company.  In  1881  he 
founded  the  great  organi- 
zation of  which  he  was 
president  at  the  time  of 
his  death. 

Holland,  Rev.  Dr. 
George  W.,  president  of 
Newberry  College,  South 
Carolina,  since  1876;  a 
prominent  educator;  born 
in  Augusta  co.,  Va.,  in 
1838;  died  in  Columbia, 
S.  C;,  Sep.  30.  Durino- 
the  war  he  served  in  the 
Confederate  army,  and 
lost  an  arm  in  1863  in  the 
northern  Virginia  cam- 
paign. 

Houghton,  Henry 
Oscar,  head  of  the  pub- 
lishing house  of  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  &  Co.  of  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  prominently 
connected  with  the  de- 
velopment of  literature 
and  literary  taste  in  America;  born  in  Sutton,  Vt.,  Apr.  30, 1823;  died  at 
South  Andover,  Mass.,  Aug.  25.  He  began  work  as  a  printer  in  the  office 
of  the  BnrUngton{Yt.)  Free  Press;  but  at  the  same  time  fitted  himself 
for  college.  In  1839  his  parents  removed  to  Portage,  N.  Y.,  and  here  his 
private  studies  were  completed.  Through  failure  of  his  employer,  he 
lost  all  the  money  he  had  saved  to  defray  part  of  the  expense  of  a  college 
course;  but,  by  dint  of  hard  economy  and  untiring  energy,  he  worked 
his  way  through  college,  being  graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
in  1846.  Coming  to  Boston  he  found  employment  on  a  newspaper,  T7ie 
Traveller,  not  only  doing  the  work  of  a  compositor,  but  writing  for  it. 
In  1849  he  purchased  an  interest  in  the  firm  of  Freeman  &  Bolles, 
who  were  printers.  Shortly  after,  the  firm  of  Bolles  &  Houghton  was 
established  at  Cambridge.  In  time  publishing  was  added  to  the 
business  of  printing.  Many  editions  of  Bacon,  Carlyle,  Macaulay, 
Cooper,  Dickens,  were  issued  by  the  firm.  In  1864  Mr,  Houghton  be- 
came associated  with  M.  M.  Hurd,  and,  under  the  name  of  Hurd  & 


H.   O.   HOUGHTON,   PUBLISHER,   OF   BOSTON,   MASS. 


766  NECROLOGY.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Houghton,  a  large  and  lucrative  business  was  carried  on.  In  1878 
the  house  of  James  R.  Osgood  &  Co.,  the  successors  of  Ticknor  & 
Fields,  was  amalgamated  with  the  firm  of  Hurd  &  Houghton.  The 
firm  then  became  Houghton,  Osgood  &  Co.,  and  later  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.  To  the  mechanical  appliances  of  the  Riverside  Press 
were  added  many  valuable  literary  franchises.  There  were  published 
the  productions'  of  Longfellow,  Ha^vthorne,  Emerson,  Whittier, 
Lowell,  Holmes,  Thoreau,  Whipple,  Agassiz.  In  1873  the  firm  of 
Hurd  &  Houghton  purchased  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  and  from  the 
Riverside  Press  were  issued  the  Journal  of  American  Folk-lore  and 
the  Andover  Review. 

Mr.  Houghton  was  councilman,  alderman,  and  mayor  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  paid  great  attention  to  his  civic  requirements.  Mr. 
Houghton  took  great  interest  in  the  passage  of  the  international 
copyright  law,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  securing  the  inter- 
national agreement.  During  his  long  career  of  activity,  his  relations 
with  the  many  men  of  letters  were  of  the  most  cordial  character. 
In  1854  he  was  married  to  Miss  Nanna  W.  Manning,  They  had  four 
children,  one  son  and  three  daughters. 

HovENDEX,  Thomas,  well-known  artist;  born  in  Dunmanway, 
County  Cork,  Ireland,  Dec.  28,  1840;  accidentally  killed  while  trying 
to  save  the  life  of  a  little  girl  at  a  railway  crossing,  near  Norristown, 
Penn.,  Aug.  14.  Both  he  and  the  child  were  run  over  and  fatally 
hurt.  Mr.  Hovenden  came  to  New  York  in  1803,  and  studied  in  the 
National  Academy  and  later  under  Cabanel  in  Paris.  He  was  hon- 
ored with  membership  in  numerous  societies.  Perhaps  his  best- 
known  painting  is  Breaking  Home  Ties.  Among  his  other  works  are 
Pleasant  News  (1876);  The  Image  Seller  {1876);  Thinking  of  Somebody 
(1877);  Pride  of  the  Old  Folks  and  Peasant  Soldiers  of  La  Vendee, 
1793  (1878);  Elaine  (1882);  and  Last  Moments  of  John  Brown  (1884). 

Howe.  Rt,  Rev.  Mark  Anthony  De  Wolf,  first  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  central  Pennsylvania;  born  in  Bristol,  R.  I.,  Apr. 
5, 1809;  died  there  July  81.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1828,  and  taught  for  some  years  in  Boston  and  at  his  ahna  mater; 
was  ordained  deacon  in  1832;  and  later,  priest;  was  stationed  in  Bos- 
ton, Cambridge,  and  Roxbury,  Mass.,  and  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.  He 
became  bishop  of  the  newly  created  diocese  of  central  Pennsylvania 
in  1871. 

Hughes,  Very  Rev.  James,  vicar-general  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
diocese  of  Hartford,  Conn.;  born  in  County  Longford,  Ireland,  in  Oct., 
1830;  died  in  Hartford  Aug.  7.  He  was  graduated  at  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Fordham;  studied  in  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris;  and  was 
ordained  in  1852. 

Hunt,  Richard  Morris,  distinguished  architect;  born  in  Brat- 
tleboro,  Vt.,  October  31,  1828;  died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  July  31.  He 
was  among  the  first  Americans  who  went  to  Paris  to  study  architec- 
ture; and  he  spent  ten  years  abroad.  Among  the  men  who  profited 
by  Mr.  Hunt's  instruction  were  Professor  William  B.  Ware  of  Co 
lumbia  College,  George  P.  Post,  Frank  Furniss,  Henry  Van  Brunt, 
and  Charles  Gambrill.  Mr.  Hunt  received  in  March,  1893,  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects,  conferred  by  Queen 
Victoria,  being  one  of  only  seventeen  foreigners  who  have  been  so 
honored. 

He  attended  school  in  New  Haven,  and  later  the  Boston  High 
School  and  Latin  School.  Having  always  shown  a  marked  leaning 
toward  architecture,  he  was  sent  to  a  Geneva  school,  where  he  studied 


NECROLOGY.  767 

drawing  under  Samuel  Darier.  From  there  be  went  to  Paris,  Avhere 
he  became  a  student  at  the  J^cole  des  Beaux-Arts  and  a  pupil  of 
Hector  Lefuel,  who  told  him  as  he  completed  his  course  with  honor, 
"If  other  countries  teach  you  as  well  as  France  has  taught  you,  you 
will  do  great  things." 

His  travels  took  him  through  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt;  and, 
when  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1854,  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the 
vast  buildings  which  were  being  erected  by  Lefuel  to  connect  the 
Tuileries  to  the  Louvre.  A  few  years  later  he  returned  to  this  coun- 
try and  at  once  began  an  active  professional  career.  His  first  impor- 
tant work  was  in  assisting  the  late  T.  U.  Walter  in  preparing  plans 
for  the  completion  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  and  also  of  the 
Architectural  League.  Among  his  buildings  are  the  Lenox  Library, 
the  Tribune  building,  and  the  Vanderbilt  mansions,  all  in  New  York 
city,  the  Yorktown  monument,  the  Theological  Library  and  Mar- 
quand  Chapel  at  Princeton,  the  Brimmer  buildings  in  Boston,  and 
many  private  residences.  Mr.  Hunt  built  several  of  the  finest  pala- 
tial residences  in  America,  including  a  number  in  Newport.  He  also 
built  the  Administration  building  at  the  Chicago  Exposition.  Mr. 
Hunt  was  rich  in  honors.  He  was  elected  to  associate  membership 
of  the  Academie  des  Beaux-Arts  of  Paris.  He  was  one  of  the  three 
foreign  members  of  the  oldest  artistic  society  in  the  world,  the  society 
of  St.  Luke  at  Rome.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Jury  of  Fine  Arts  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867,  the  Centennial,  and  the  recent  Colum- 
bian Exposition.  He  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
1882.     Harvard  College  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 

HuRLBERT,  William  Henry,  journalist;  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C,  July  3,  1827;  died  at  Cadenabbia,  Italy,  September  4.  He  was 
for  many  years  connected  with  the  New  York  World,  and  was  editor- 
in-chief  when  that  paper  was  transferred  to  Joseph  Pulitzer  in  1883. 

Jackson,  Howell  Edmunds,  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court;  born  in  Paris,  Tenn.,  April  8,  1832;  died  at 
his  home  in  West  Meade,  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  August  8.  A  sketch 
of  Mr.  Jackson's  career  will  be  found  in  Current  History  (Vol.  3, 
p.  94),  published  at  the  time  of  his  elevation  to  the  supreme  court 
bench  (February  2,  1893).  Shortly  after  his  appointment,  his  health 
began  to  fail,  and  he  had  to  leave  Washington.  He,  however,  par- 
ticipated in  the  recent  decision  on  the  income-tax  law  of  1894,  voting 
for  the  constitutionality  of  the  act  (p.  281). 

Kautz,  Augustus  V.,  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A.,  retired;  born 
in  Germany,  Jan.  5,  1828;  died  in  Seattle,  Wash.,  Sep.  4.  He 
served  as  a  private  in  the  Mexican  war;  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1852.  During  the  civil  war  he  served  with  the  cavalry;  and 
was  mustered  out  in  1806  with  the  rank  of  brevet  major-general  of 
volunteers.  It  was  he  who  led  the  attack  on  Morgan's  rear  during 
the  latter's  raid,  causing  the  rout  of  the  famous  Confederate  and 
leading  to  his  capture.  He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  to  try 
the  conspirators  implicated  in  the  assassination  of  President  Lincoln. 
After  the  war  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  15th  infantry  in  1874,  and 
served  in  Indian  campaigns  after  1875,  when  he  was  put  in  command 
of  the  department  of  Arizona.  He  afterward  commanded  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Columbia,  and  was  retired  in  1892. 

Lasar,  Sigismund,  for  twenty  years  instructor  in  music  at  Packer 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  born  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  Aug.  15, 
1822;  died  in  Brooklyn  Sep.  14.      He  composed  a  number  of  impor- 


768 


NECROLOGY. 


3d  Qr.,  1893 


tant  works;  was  tlie  first  to  sing  the  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic  at  a 
mass  meeting  in  Cooper  Union,  New  York  city;  and  was  one  of  the 
three  musicians  foremost  in  bringing  about  under  Theodore  Thomas 
the  first  Wagner  verein  in  New  York. 

Maxey,  Samuel  Bell,  ex-United  States  senator  from  Texas; 
born  in  Monroe  co.,  Ky.,  March  30,  1825;  died  in  Eureka  Springs, 
Ark.,  Aug.  16.  Was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  and  served 
gallantly  in  the  Mexican  war.  Practiced  law  in  Kentucky  and  Texas. 
Served  in  the  Confederate  infantry  during  the  civil  war,   attaining 

rank  of  major-general  in 
1864.  He  was  made 
United  States  senator 
(dem.)  in  1875,  and  was 
re-elected  for  a  second 
term. 

xIcAnally,  Rev. 
Dr.  ,  senior  editor  of  the 
St.  Louis  Christian  Ad- 
vocate, and  a  prominent 
Southern  Methodist  di- 
vine; born  in  Granger  CO., 
Tenn.,  Aug.  31,  1817; 
died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
July  11. 

McCuLLOCH,  Rev. 
Dr.  W.,  pastor  emeritvs 
of  the  First  Presbyterian 
church,  Truro,  N.  S. ;  died 
July  14,  aged  84. 

McDonald,  Mar- 
shall, for  the  last  seven 
years  U.  S.  commissioner 
of  fish  and  fisheries;  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Sep.  1.  He  invented  a 
number  of  ingenious  ap- 
pliances, including  a 
stairway  to  enable  salmon 
HOWELL  E.  JACKSON,  and  other  migrating  fish 

LATE  ASSOCIATE  JUSTICE     OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  to  aSCCnd  rapids 

suPKEME  COURT.  Meunier,  Leon,  one 

of  the  proprietors  and  editors  of  Le  Courrier  des  J^tats  Unis;  born  in 
Paris  in  1836;  died  there  July  29.  His  paper,  which  is  published  in 
New  York  city,  is  an  organ  devoted  to  France  and  sympathetic  with 
the  United  States. 

Millard,  Harrison,  composer;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  27, 
1829;  died  in  New  York  city  Sep.  10.  He  served  in  the  civil  war  on 
the  Union  side,  and  was  wounded  at  Chickamauga.  Among  his  best- 
known  songs  are:  Waiting,  When  the  Tide  Comes  In,  Under  the  Dai- 
sies, and  Say  Not  Farewell. 

Minor,  John  Barbee,  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia with  which  he  was  connected  over  fifty  years;  died  in  Charlottes- 
ville Va.,  July  29. 

Morris,  Luzon  Burritt.  ex-governor  of  Connecticut;  born  in 
Newtown,  Conn.,  in  April,  1827;  died  in  New  Haven  Aug.  22.     His 


NECROLOGY.  769 

early  years  were  full  ui  toil  and  struggle  with  poverty.  Was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1854,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1856.  He  served  in 
the  house  of  representatives  from  Seymour  two  terms,  and  from  New 
Haven  four  terms,  and  was  in  the  state  senate  one  term.  He  was 
judge  of  probate  of  the  New  Haven  district  from  1857  to  1863.  In 
1890  he  was  the  democratic  candidate  for  governor;  but  a  deadlock  en- 
sued over  the  election;  and  the  case  went  into  the  courts,  and  stayed 
in  litigation  until  the  term  had  nearly  expired.  Judge  Morris  was 
again  his  party's  candidate  in  1892,  and  this  time  he  was  elected  by  a 
clear  majority. 

Mott-Smith,  Dr.  J.,  formerly  Hawaiian  minister  of  finance 
under  Queen  Liliuokalani;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.;  died  in  Hawaii 
Aug.  10.     He  was  at  one  time  Hawaiian  minister  at  Washington. 

Parker,  General  Eli  S.,  supply  clerk  of  the  New  York  city 
police  department;  born  on  an  Indian  reservation  in  western  New 
York;  died  in  Fairfield,  Conn.,  Aug.  31,  aged  69.  He  was  a  lineal 
descendant  of  the  famous  Indian  chief,  Ked  Jacket,  and  was  last  sur- 
viving chief  of  the  Seneca  tribe  of  the  Six  Nations.  During  the  war 
he  served  on  General  Grant's  staff,  and,  as  military  secretary,  drew  up 
the  terms  of  the  surrender  of  Lee  at  Appomattox. 

Pilling,  James  C,  well-known  ethnologist  of  the  Geological 
Survey;  died  in  Olney,  Md.,  July  26.  He  catalogued  and  indexed 
the  literature  relating  to  the  languages  of  nearly  all  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indian  tribes.  His  latest  work  was  a  bibliography  of  the  ancient 
Mexican  language. 

PiXLEY,  Frank  M.,  a  veteran  journalist  of  California,  founder  of 
the  San  Francisco  Argonaut,  and  one  of  the  few  survivors  of  the 
"  Forty-Niners;"  born  in  Westmoreland,  N.  Y.,  in  1825;  died  in  San 
Francisco  Aug.  11.  He  served  in  the  state  assembly  in  1858;  was 
state  attorney-general  in  1861;  and  was  appointed  by  President  Grant 
United  States  district  attorney  for  California  in  1869. 

Rice,  Alexander  H.,  ex-governor  of  Mass.;  born  in  Newton 
(Lower  Falls),  Aug.  30,  1818;  died  in  Melrose  July  22.  In  1840  he 
entered  Union  College,  and  after  graduation  entered  the  paper  busi- 
ness in  Boston,  eventually  becoming  senior  member  of  the  firm  of 
Rice,  Kendall  &  Co.  In  1856  he  was  mayor  of  Boston;  and  in  1858 
was  sent  to  congress  as  representative,  where  he  served  four  successive 
terms,  being  chairman  of  the  committee  on  naval  affairs  in  the  38th 
and  39th  congresses.     In  1876-78  he  was  governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Riley,  Charles  Valentine,  distinguished  entomologist;  born 
in  London,  Eng.,  Sep.  18,  1843;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  as  a  re- 
sult of  being  thrown  from  a  bicycle,  Sep.  14.  His  early  education 
was  received  at  the  College  of  St.  Paul,  Dieppe,  France,  and  at  a 
private  school  in  Bonn,  Prussia.  Being  thrown  upon  his  own  re- 
sources, he  sailed  for  America  when  17  years  of  age,  and  was  em- 
ployed on  a  stock  farm  in  Illinois  for  three  years,  when  his  health 
failed.  Going  to  Chicago,  he  worked  for  a  time  in  a  pork-packing 
house,  but  became  a  reporter  on  the  Evening  Journal,  afterward  the 
Prairie  Farmer,  having  special  charge  of  the  department  of  botany 
and  entomology,  to  which  he  made  many  valuable  contributions.  For 
six  months  in  1864  he  served  with  the  Illinois  volunteers.  In  1868 
he  became  state  entomologist  for  Missouri;  and  in  1873  chief  of  the 
Entomologic  Commission  designed  to  cope  with  the  Rocky  mountain 
locust,  spending  five  years  at  this  work  in  association  with  Dr.  A.  S. 
Packard  and  Cyrus  Thomas,     He  then  became  United  States  ento- 


770  NECROLOGY.  3d  Qr.,  1895 

mologist,  wbich  position  lie  resigned  only  a  few  months  before  his 
death.  His  specialty  was  applied  or  economic  entomolog-y,  and  ho 
did  much  to  ameliorate  the  troubles  of  thiB  farmer.  He  invented  an 
emulsion  of  kerosene  oil  as  an  insecticide,  and  the  "cyclone,"  "eddy 
chamber,"  or  "Riley  system  "  of  nozzle  for  spraying  it  on  trees.  He 
also  introduced  into  California  the  Australian  ladybird  ( Vedalia  ear- 
diiialis)  to  destroy  the  white  scale  affecting  the  orange  groves,  with 
wonderful  results.  The  titles  of  his  writings  number  15,000.  He 
received  many  honors  from  different  lands,  among  them  a  gold  medal 
from  the  French  government  in  1873  for  his  study  of  the  'phylloxera. 
He  held  lectureships  in  several  universities. 

Ritchie:,  Alexander  H.,  artist  and  engraver,  in  his  day  con- 
sidered tlie  foremost  engraver  in  stipple  and  mezzotint  in  America; 
born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1823;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Sep. 
19.  Among  his  large  engravings  are  The,  Death  of  Lincoln  and 
Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea. 

RiTTER,  Ernst,  professor  of  mathematics  in  Cornell  Univ.,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  appointed  to  succeed  the  late  Professor  Oliver;  born  at  Wal- 
tershausen,  Germany,  Jan.  9,  1867;  died  in  the  government  hospital 
on  Ellis  island,  New  York  harbor,  of  typhoid  fever  developed  on  the 
passage  to  America.  He  was  graduated  Ph.  D.,  sitmma  cum  laude,  at 
Giittingen  in  1893;  and  in  1893  became  assistant  there  to  Professor 
Klein.  He  was  considered  an  authority  on  geometry  and  the  theory 
of  automorphic  functions. 

Root,  Dr.  George  F.,  well-known  composer  of  war  songs;  born 
in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  in  1830;  died  at  Bailey's  island,  near  Portland, 
Me.,  Aug.  6.  Besides  his  many  songs,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned The  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom;  Just  Before  the  Battle,  Mother; 
Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,  the  Boys  Are  Marching;  and  There's  Music 
in  the  Air,  he  composed  the  cantatas  J'Jie  Flower  Queen  and  The 
Haymakers,  and  considerable  sacred  music.  He  published  several 
collections  of  instrumental  and  vocal  music,  and  wrote  on  musical 
subjects. 

Rotiiermel,  Peter  F.,  painter  of  The  Battle  of  Oettysburg  and 
other  well-known  pictures;  born  in  Luzerne  co.,  Penn.,  in  1813;  died 
near  Linfield,  Penn.,  Aug.  15. 

Russell,  W.  H.  H.,  ex-member  of  the  state  legislature  of  Mis- 
souri, an  able  lawyer  and  graceful  writer;  born  in  Brighton,  Living- 
ston CO.,  Mich.,  in  November,  1840;  died  there  July  31. 

Shepherd,  CaptainR.  W.,  president  of  the  Ottawa  River  Navi- 
gation Company;  died  at  Como,  Que.,  Aug.  39. 

Stearns,  Joseph  B.,  inventor  of  the  duplex  system  of  teleg- 
raphy; died  in  Camden,  Me.,  July  4,  aged  65. 

Strong,  William,  ex-associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court;  born  at  Somers,  Conn.,  May  6,  1808;  died  at  Lake 
Minnewaska,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  19.  Was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1828,  and 
taught  school;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833,  and  practiced  law 
at  Reading,  Penn.  In  1846  he  was  sent  to  congress  from  Berks  co. 
as  a  democrat,  and  was  re-elected  for  a  second  term.  In  1857  he  was 
elected  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania  for  fifteen  years; 
but  resigned  in  1868.  In  1870  President  Grant  raised  him  to  the 
bench  of  the  federal  supreme  court  to  succeed  Judge  Grier,  resigned. 
He  threw  in  his  decision  in  favor  of  the  constitutionality  of  the  legal- 
tender  acts. 

Tompkins,  Charles  H.,  a  distinguished  veteran  of  the  civil  war; 


NECROLOGY.  771 

born  in  Virginia,  Sep.  13,  18;J0;  died  at  Somerville,  N.  J.,  Aug.  9. 
He  was  made  a  brevet  brigadier-general  for  faithful  and  meritorious 
services  during  tlie  entire  war.  He  was  commended  by  bis  brigade 
commander  for  conspicuous  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
was  recommended  for  the  appointment  of  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers for  bis  services  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Creek. 

Tucker,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  Ireland,  rector  of  tbe  cburcb  of  tbe  Holy 
Cross,  Troy,  N.  Y.;  born  in  Brooklyn  in  1819;  died  in  Troy,  Aug.  17. 
He  is  said  to  bave  been  tbe  first  to  introduce  on  this  side  of  tbe 
Atlantic  a  cboral  service;  tbe  first  to  adapt  tbe  Gregorian  tones  to 
canticles  and  tbe  psalter;  tbe  first  priest  in  America  to  preach  in  a 
surplice,  laying  aside  tbe  black  gown; 
and  tbe  first  to  bring  flowers  into  the 
Episcopal  Church  as  an  accessory  of 
worship.  Dr.  .Tucker  was  best  known 
as  a  compiler  of  church  music. 

VoLK,  Leonard  W.,  sculptor; 
born  in  Wells,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  7,  1828; 
died  in  Osceola,  Wis.,  Aug.  19.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  Stephen 
A.  Douglas  monument  in  Chicago,  sev- 
eral soldiers'  monuments,  and  life-size 
statues  of  Lincoln  and  Douglas  in  the 
state  house  in  Springfield,  111. 

Warren,  John,  prominent  Fe- 
nian leader;  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Sep.  14.  It  was  largely  due  to  Colonel 
Warren's  insistance  upon  his  rights 
as  an  American  citizen,  when  captured 
by  the  British  government  during  the 
Fenian  invasion  of  Ireland  in  1867, 
that  the  two  naturalization  treaties 
proclaimed  in  1870  and  1871  were  con- 
cluded between  this  country  and  Great  Britain. 

Webster,  Warren  T.,  for  twenty-nine  years  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin  in  the  Adelphi  Academy,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  born  in  King- 
ston, N.  H.,  in  1830;  died  in  Brooklyn  Aug."  3. 

Williamson,  Rev.  Dr.,  professor  of  astronomy  in  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Kingston,  Ont. ;  died  Sep.  27,  aged  87. 

Wood,  Alfred  M.,  ex-mayor  of  Brooklyn,  and  a  Union  veteran; 
born  in  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  in  1826;  died  inQueens,  N.  Y.,  July  28. 
He  went  to  the  front  as  colonel  of  the  14th  regiment,  but  was 
wounded  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  was  imprisoned  in 
Libby  Prison. 

Yost,  George  W.  N.,  inventor  of  the  Yost  typewriter;  born  in 
western  New  York  in  1831 ;  died  in  New  York  city  Sep.  26. 

Foreign  :— 

Ancelet,  Gabriel  Auguste,  celebrated  French  architect;  born  in 
Paris  Nov.  21.  1829;  died  there  Aug.  5. 

Babington,  Charles  C,  professor  of  botany  at  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity; born  at  Ludlow  in  1808;  died  at  Cambridge  July  22. 

Baillon,  Dr.  Ernest  Henri,  well-known  naturalist;  born  in 
Calais,  France,  in  1827;  died  in  Paris  July  19. 


LUIS   BOGRAN, 
EX-PRESIDENT   OF   HONDURAS. 


i 


772  NECROLOGY.  3d  Qr.,  1895. 

Battenberg,  Dowager  Princess  of;  born  Nov.  12,  1825;  died 
near  Darmstadt,  Germany,  Sep.  19, 

Beaumont,  Comte  Robert  de,  one  of  tbe  most  brilliant  cavalry 
officers  of  li'rance;  died  at  his  villa  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Geneva 
early  in  August. 

BoGRAN,  Luis,  ex-president  of  Honduras;  born  in  Santa  Barbara, 
Honduras,  June  8,  1849;  died  in  Guatemala  July  10.  He  was  an  ar- 
dent advocate  of  a  federal  union  of  the  Central  American  republics. 

Carvalho  MiOLAN,  Mme.  Marie,  noted  French  singer;  born  in 
1827;  died  at  Dieppe  July  10. 

Derenbourg,  Joseph,  distinguished  French  Oriental  scholar; 
born  in  Mayence  Aug.  21,  1811;  died  in  Paris  Aug.  5. 

Engels,  Frederick,  most  conspicuous  figure  in  the  international 
socialist  movement  since  the  death  of  his  friend  Karl  Marx;  born  in 
1820;  died  in  London,  Eng.,  Aug.  5.  He  wrote  The  Condition  of  the 
Working  Glasses  of  England,  Origin  of  the  Family,  and  an  unfinished 
work,  Socialism,  Scientific  and  Utopian. 

Geffroy,  Mathieu-Auguste,  French  historian;  born  in  Paris 
Apr.  21,  1820;  died  at  Bievres  Aug.  15.  Among  his  most  important 
works  were:  History  of  the  Scandinavian  States  (1851),  Unpublished 
Letters  of  Charles  XII.  (1852),  Marie  Antoinette:  Secret  Correspondence 
(1874),  Rome  and  the  Barbarians  (1874),  The  French  School  of  Borne: 
Its  Origin,  Its  Object,  Its  First  Work  (1877),  and  Mme.  de  Maintenon 
(1887). 

Gneist,  Rudolph,  professor  of  jurisprudence  in  the  University 
of  Berlin;  born  in  Berlin  in  1816;  died  there  July  22.  He  gained  a 
seat  in  the  municipal  council,  in  1848;  and  for  many  years  succeeding 
1858,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prussian  lower  house  and  of  the  Reichs- 
tag, in  which  he  figured  prominently  as  a  national  liberal.  In  1875 
he  was  called  to  the  bench  as  a  senior  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Prussia,  and  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  Emperor  William  I. 
named  him  as  instructor  of  the  present  emperor  in  political  science. 
He  also  published  many  works  on  historical  and  social  subjects. 

Loven.  Sven  Louis,  famous  Swedish  zoologist;  born  in  Stock- 
holm Jan.  6,  1809;  died  there  Sep.  4. 

Lupin,  M.,  known  as  the  "  father  of  the  French  turf;"  died  Sep. 
24,  aged  84.  He  fought  on  the  popular  side  during  the  insurrection 
of  1880. 

Pasteur,  Louis,  celebrated  French  chemist  and  biologist;  born 
in  Dole,  France,  Dec.  27,  1822;  died  in  Paris  Sep.  28.  For  biograph- 
ical sketch  and  portrait  see  p.  521. 

Reichensperger,  Auguste,  well-known  litterateur  and  political 
leader,  formerly  leader  of  the  German  Centre  or  Catholic  party;  born 
in  Coblenz  in  1808;  died  in  Cologne  July  16.  His  written  works  re- 
late chiefly  to  the  art  of  the  mediaeval  world. 

Rydberg,  Abraham  Victor,  eminent  Swedish  author;  born  at 
Jonkoping,  Dec.  18,  1829;  died  in  Stockholm  Sep.  21.  He  wrote 
philosophical  and  historical  works,  besides  works  of  fiction. 

ScHENK,  Charles  Emmanuel,  ex-president  of  Switzerland;  born 
in  Berne  in  1825;  died  there  July  18.  In  early  life  he  was  a  Protest- 
ant minister;  but  entered  politics  and  represented  the  canton  of  Berne 
in  the  council  of  state,  1857-65.  Was  elected  president  of  the  Con- 
federation in  1865. 

Stamboulofp,  Stephan  N.,  ex-premier  of  Bulgaria;  born  Jan. 


NECROLOGY.  773 

31,  1854;  died  July  18,  from  wounds  inflicted  by  assassins  on  July  15. 
For  portrait  see  p.  587;  for  biographical  sketch,  p.  589. 

Stephens,  George,  LL.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  English  Ian- 
guage  and  literature  in  the  University  of  Copehangen;  born  in  Liver- 
pool, Eng.,  in  1813;  died  in  Copenhagen  Aug.  10.  His  published 
works  embrace  prose  as  well  as  poetry,  literature  in  general,  history, 
folklore,  linguistics,  and  runology.  One  of  his  most  ambitious  works 
was,  The  Old  Northern  Runic  Monuments  of  Scandiriavia  and  Eng- 
land. 

Sybel,  Heinrich  von,  eminent  German  historian;  born  in  Diis- 
seldorf  in  1817;  died  in  Marburg  Aug.  1.  Among  his  works  are  the 
History  of  the  French  Revolution,  History  of  the  Establishment  of  the 
German  Empire  hy  William  L,  History  of  the  First  Crusade,  Origin 
of  Royalty  in  Germany,  The  Rising  .of  Europe  Against  Napoleon  I., 
Minor  Historical  Writings,  and  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy. 

Tauchnitz,  Baron  Christian  Bernhard  von,  celebrated  pub- 
lisher of  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  classics;  born  at  Schleinitz  in 
1816;  died  in  Leipsic,  Germany,  Aug.  14.  The  Tauchnitz  collection 
of  British  authors  in  1886  numbered  about  2,500  editions,  to  which 
have  since  been  added  a  series  of  English  translations  of  German 
works  and  many  publications  of  a  classical,  religious,  and  philosoph- 
ical nature. 

Thivrier,  Christophe,  socialist  member  of  the  French  chamber 
of  deputies,  known  as  "the  deputy  with  the  blouse;"  died  Aug.  8, 
aged  54. 

Thomson,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  successful  of  modern  African 
explorers;  born  at  Penpont,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  Feb.  14,  1858. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  where  he  chiefly  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  geography  under  Sir  A.  Geikie.  In  1878  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  sent  an  expedition  to  Central  Africa  under 
the  late  Mr.  Keith  Johnston,  and  Mr.  Thomson  was  chosen  as  an 
assistant.  When  Mr.  Johnston  died  in  1879,  Mr.  Thomson  was  made 
leader  of  the  party,  and  penetrated  north  as  far  as  Ujiji,  and  after 
visiting  Lake  Hekwa  reached  the  coast  at  Bagamoyo  in  1880.  In 
1882  he  explored  Masailand,  and  was  the  first  European  to  visit 
Mount  Kenia.  In  1885  he  went  for  the  Royal  Niger  Company  to 
Sokoto,  and  in  1888  explored  Southern  Morocco  and  the  Atlas  range. 
In  1891,  on  behalf  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company,  he  explored 
the  country  between  Lakes  Nyassa  and  Bangweolo,  and  on  this  jour- 
ney contracted  the  lung  disease  which  finally  caused  his  death.  It 
was  his  boast  that  in  all  his  travels  he  never  shed  a  drop  of  native 
blood.  His  provocations  were  endless,  but  his  marvellous  patience 
and  firmness  always  won  him  his  point  in  the  end.  His  great  work 
is  Through  Masailand;  but  he  also  wrote  other  books  on  African 
travel  and  adventure,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

Thorold,  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  Wilson,  Protestant  Bishop  of 
Winchester;  died  in  Surrey,  Eng.,  July  25,  aered  70. 

Wade,  Sir  Thomas,  K.  C.  B.,  G.  C.  M.  G.,  British  soldier  and 
diplomat;  died  in  London,  Eng.,  Aug.  1,  aged  75.  His  main  service 
\\  as  as  British  representative  in  China  for  many  years. 


k 


EUGENE  FIELD. 


THE   CYCLOPEDIC    REVIEW 
OF     ' 

CUERENT   .HISTORY 

JL'   5.  OCTOBER  1— DECEMBER  31,  1895.  NO. 


EUGENE  FIELD. 

J]UGENE  FIELD,  '^ poet-laureate  of  the  little  folk/' 
journalist,  and  humorist,  was  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
September  2,  1850;  and  died  in  Chicago,  111.,  November 
4,  1895.  He  was  son  of  Roswell  Martin  Field  and  Frances 
(Reed)  Field — both  natives  of  Windham  county,  Vermont. 
His  father  gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and  was  the 
first  attorney  for  Dred  Scott,  the  negro  slave  whose  case 
was  made  memorable  by  its  issue  in  the  decision  rendered 
by  the  United  States  supreme  court  in  1857.  In  Eugene's 
seventh  year  (1857)  his  mother  died;  and  he,  with  his 
younger  brother  Roswell  M.  Field,  Jr.,  came  under  the 
loving  care  of  their  cousin.  Miss  Mary  Field  French,  a 
resident  of  An^^ierst,  Mass.,  under  whose  charge  Eugene 
continued  about  thirteen  years.  At  the  age  of  seventeen, 
in  1868,  he  entered  Williams  College;  and,  on  the  death 
of  his  father  not  long  afterward,  his  guardian  transferred 
him  in  1869  to  Knox  College  in  Galesburg,  111.  By  an- 
other removal  he  became  in  1871  a  student  at  the  State 
University  of  Missouri,  which  he  left  at  the  beginning  of 
his  senior  year  on  attaining  his  majority  and  coming  into 
possession  of  the  property  left  him  by  his  father,  to  the 
value,  as  was  generally  considered,  of  about  170,000.  i 

Such  circumstances  would  form  a  critical  point  in  the 
life  of  any  young  man.  In  the  case  of  this  youth  peculiar 
elements  may  have  added  to  the  solicitude  of  his  well- 
wishers,  who  would  remember  that  nowhere  in  his  diversi- 
fied collegiate  career  had  he  gained,  or  seemed  to  wish, 
the  repute  of  a  devoted  student.  It  was  noted  that  he  had 
made  fun  his  specialty — not  a  wdld  and  boisterous  jovial- 
ity, but  a  continuous  bubbling  jocoseness — and  that 
serious  thought  seemed  far  from  him.  It  had  not  per- 
haps been  noted  by  many,  that  there  was  in  his  nature  a 

Vol.  5.— 50.  Copyright,  1896,  by  Garretson,  Cox  &  Co. 


776  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

deep  of  human  sympathy  whence  might  come  fountains  of 
that  serious  feeling  which  in  a  few  rare  natures  serves 
some  of  the  moral  uses  of  serious  thinking  in  men  gener- 
ally. Perhaps  in  his  youth  the  time  for  development  of 
this  sympathy  had  not  yet  come;  not  yet  had  the  fountains 
of  the  great  deep  been  broken  up  into  those  streams  of 
pathetic  feeling  whose  surface  movement  may  sometimes 
be  with  a  sob  like  the  bubbling,  and  with  a  faint  gleam 
strangely  like  the  sparkle,  of  mirth. 

The  first  development  at  this  crisis  in  young  Mr. 
Field's  life  was  not  very  promising.  The  account  is,  that 
immediately  quitting  college  and  turning  his  inherited 
estate  into  money,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  where  for  seven 
months  he  did  some  reading,  and  much  exploration  of 
book-shops,  collections  of  pictures,  and  cabinets  of  curios 
— gratifying  his  natural  taste  for  wonderful  volumes  and 
articles  that  approached  the  beautiful  on  the  side  of  the 
unique,  the  fantastic,  the  remarkable,  the  historically 
memorable.  He  returned  heavily  laden  with  his  literary 
and  artistic  spoils,  but  burdened  with  only  a  small  rem- 
nant of  his  financial  heritage.  Certainly  he  had  not  put 
his  money  to  its  wisest  use;  but,  as  certainly,  neither  had 
he  put  it  to  its  worst.  He  had  disregarded  all  business 
principles  and  every  canon  of  prudence;  but  he  had  had  a 
long  and  splendid  holiday,  and  one  moreover  not  entirely 
uninstructive,  for  it  had  served  at  least  to  broaden  his  look 
on  life,  to  enlarge  his  stock  of  mental  impressions,  and  to 
reduce  to  some  distinct  and  available  body  and  form  a 
multitude  of  dim,  ghostly,  errant  fantasies  that  had  tended 
to  infest  with  unreality  the  whole  region  of  his  thought 
and  feeling. 

Probably,  however,  his  chief  gain  was  in  his  very  loss 
— the  loss  of  his  money,  which  compelled  this  naturally 
noble  but  unregulated  being  at  last  to  some  degree  of 
practicalness  and  direct  activity  for  subsistence.  He 
never  became  very  practical — that  is  to  say,  he  always  re- 
mained himself,  at  the  farthest  remove  from  the  caution 
that  begins  by  weighing  all  things  in  the  scale  of  self-in- 
terest and  tends  to  sink  into  sordid ness  and  selfishness. 
He  had  a  natural  taste  for  Journalism;  and,  finding  an  open 
door  to  that  profession,  he  entered  it  in  1872  as  a  writer 
on  the  St.  Louis  Journal,  soon  rising  to  be  city  editor. 
In  1875  he  became  connected  with  the  St.  Joseph  (Mo.) 
Gazette,  and  later  took  an  editorial  position  on  The  Times- 
Journal  of  St.  Louis.  After  serving  in  1880  as  managing 
editor  of  the  Kansas  City  Times,  and  in  1881  and  1882  as 


EUGENE  FIELD.  777 

managing  editor  01  the  Denver  (Colo.)  Tribune,  he  removed 
to  Chicago  in  1883,  and  began  his  connection  with  the  Chi- 
cago Morniiig  Neivs  (now  The  Record)  which  continued  un- 
til his  death.  In  that  journal  a  department  was  assigned  to 
him  in  which  his  liberty  of  writing  was  absolute.  Under 
the  title  *' Sharps  and  Flats"  Field's  sprightly  and  amus- 
ing column  became  widely  known;  and  much  of  its  wit 
and  finely  wrought  satire  was  copied  into  newspapers  and 
afterward  collected  in  his  books.  He  had  made  an  earlier 
appearance  as  a  humorist  while  managing  editor  of  the 
Denver  Tribune,  in  a  series  of  articles  which  were  after- 
ward published  under  the  title  The  Denver  Tribune  Primer: 
these  articles  had  drawn  much  attention  by  their  quaint 
comicality,  but  were  not  distinctly  superior  to  the  usual 
product  of  the  journalistic  purveyor  of  jokes.  His  work 
in  Chicago,  though  variable  in  parts,  was  as  a  whole  on  a 
higher  level,  and  gave  him  place  in  the  front  rank  of 
journalistic  humorists.  Its  scope  was  broader,  its  rapid 
touches  were  lighter  and  more  precisely  to  the  point,  its 
seemingly  lawless  frolic  and  comicality  the  mask  at  times 
of  a  living  human  sympathy  flashing  with  sudden  thrust 
to  puncture  some  of  the  shams  that  tend  to  make  our  lit- 
erature or  our  social  life  inhuman.  Meanwhile  he  became 
a  successful  lecturer. 

Much  of  Mr.  Field's  writing — at  least  much  of  what 
will  be  remembered — took  the  form  of  verse;  and  of  this 
nearly  all  was  newspaper  verse;  for  he  was  by  nature  and 
by  choice  a  daily-newspaper  man  rather  than  an  author  of 
books  or  an  elaborator  of  magazine  articles.  He  was  at 
the  farthest  remove  from  a  professional  poet,  indeed  from 
professionalism  of  any  kind.  Hence  the  question  was  nat- 
ural, whether  his  verse  is  poetry.  Evidently  much  of  it 
was  not,  since  much  of  it  was  ephemeral  or  trivial  in  theme 
and  slight  in  frame;  yet  even  this  often  revealed  a  poetic 
temperament  at  play  and  frolicking  like  a  child.  He 
chose  to  be  and  to  remain  a  little  child  as  far  as  con- 
cerned his  verse,  and  this  involved  at  least  his  assumption 
of  a  child's  defect  in  the  sense  of  proportion  in  facts,  and 
a  child's  lack  of  perspective  in  thinking:  the  marvellous 
and  the  inscrutable  are  jumbled  with  the  commonplace, 
the  real  and  the  unreal  shade  into  each  other,  while  the 
frolic  or  the  fantasy  dominates  the  scene.  '^The  Duel" 
serves  as  a  specimen : 


778  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  DUEL. 
From  the  Chicago  Record. 

The  ginprham  dog  and  the  calico  cat 

Side  by  side  on  the  table  sat; 

'Twas  half-past  twelve,  and  what  do  you  thinkl 

Neither  of  them  had  slept  a  wink: 

And  the  old  Dutch  clock  and  Chinese  plate 

Seemed  to  know,  as  sure  as  fate. 
There  was  going  to  be  an  awful  spat. 

(I wasn't  there— I  sim2)ly  state 

What  was  told  to  me  by  the  Chinese  plate.) 

The  gingham  dog  went  "bow-wow-wow!" 
And  the  calico  cat  replied  "  me-ow ! " 
And  the  air  was  streaked  for  an  hour  or  so 
With  fragments  of  gingham  and  calu;o. 

While  the  old  Dutch  clock  in  the  chimney-place 

Up  with  its  hands  before  its  face. 
For  it  always  dreaded  a  family  row. 


W. 


Yow  mind,  Vm  simply  telling  you 

"hat  the  old  Dutch  clock  declares  is  t?iie.) 

The  Chinese  plate  looked  very  blue. 
And  wailed.  "Oh,  dear:  what  shall  w^e  do!" 
But  the  gingham  dog  and  the  calico  cat 
Wallowed  this  way  and  tumbled  that, 

And  utilized  every  tooth  and  claw 

In  the  awfullest  way  you  ever  saw— 
And,  oh:  how  the  gingham  and  calico  flewl 

(Don't  think  that  J  exaggerate— 

I  got  my  news  from  the  Chinese  plated 

Next  morning,  where  the  two  had  sat. 
They  found  no  trace  of  the  dog  or  cat; 
And  some  folks  think  unto  this  day 
That  burglars  stole  that  pair  away; 

But  the  truth  about  that  cat  and  pup 

Is  that  they  ate  each  other  up— 
Now,  what  do  you  really  think  of  that? 

( The  old  Dutch  clock,  it  told  me  so, 
And  that  is  how  I  came  to  know.) 

Mr.  Field's  caricature  is  illustrated  by  this  piece  of 
solemn  mirth,  showing  the  heart  of  the  bibliophile  with 
his  deepest  hopes  and  fears: 

,  :  THE  BIBLIOMANIAC'S  PRAYER. 

Keep  me,  I  pray,  in  wisdom's  way 

That  I  may  truths  eternal  seek; 
I  need  protecting  care  to-day— 

My  purse  is  light,  my  flesh  is  weak. 
So  banish  from  my  erring  heart 

All  baleful  appetites  and  hints 
Of  Satan'    fascinating  art. 

Of  first  editions  and  of  prints. 
Direct  me  in  some  godly  walk 

Which  leads  away  from  bookish  strife, 
That  I  with  pious  deed  and  talk 

May  extra-illustrate  my  life. 

But  if,  O  Lord,  it  pleaseth  Thee 

To  keep  me  in  temptation's  way, 
I  humbly  ask  that  I  may  be 

Most  notably  beset  to-day; 
Let  my  temptation  be  a  book. 

Which  I  shall  purchase,  hold,  and  keep, 


I 


EUGENE  FIELD.  779 

Whereon,  when  other  men  shall  look. 

They'll  wail  to  know  I  got  it  cheap. 
Oh,  let  it  such  a  volume  be 

As  in  rare  copperplates  abounds. 
Large  paper,  clean,  and  fair  to  see. 

Uncut,  unique,  unknown  to  Lowndes. 

His  boyish  freakishness  made  frequent  record  of  itself. 
One  notable  occasion  of  it  is  reported  by  one  of  his  friends, 
Mr.  Francis  Wilson,  who  had  repeatedly  urged  him  to 
give  him  in  his  own  handwriting  a  copy  of  his  tender  lines 
in  imitation  of  the  antique — "  Sometime  there  ben  a  lyttel 
boy."  Every  other  request  of  the  kind  from  this  friend, 
the  poet  had  readily  granted;  but  the  earnestness  of  the 
desire  in  this  case  called  into  action  his  inveterate  delight 
in  teasing  his  friends.  Meeting  Mr.  Wilson  on  April  5, 
1893,  at  a  bookstore,  the  resort  of  book-lovers  in  Chicago, 
Field  dashed  off  on  a  scrap  of  paper  these  comically  grue- 
some lines; 

As  Eugene  Field  lay  dying 

The  death  all  good  men  die, 
Came  Francis  Wilson  flying 

As  only  he  can  fly. 

*'  My  friend,  before  you  peter 

And  seek  the  shining  shore, 
Write  me,  in  common  meter. 

Some  autographic  lore ! " 

Then  Eugene  Field  smiled  sadly. 

And  his  face  grew  wan  aid  dim. 
But  he  wrote  the  verses  gladly 

His  friend  required  of  him. 

And  having  done  this  duty. 

From  out  this  home  of  clay 
That  soul  of  spotless  beauty 
tfcTo  Canaan  soared  away. 

Scarcely  could  there  be  a  contrast  more  striking  than  that 
between  the  far-fetched  absurdity  of  this  jingle  and  the 
sweet  pathos  of  the  little  poem  which  gave  the  occasion 
for  it;  yet,  closely  inspected,  the  contrast  is  seen  to  be  su- 
perficial, pertaining  mainly  to  the  form.  The  two  pro- 
ductions are  alike  in  their  uniqueness;  each  conveys  a 
sense  of  the  everyday  life  of  the  little  limited  present  with 
its  trivialities  as  being  a  transitory  scene,  a  shadow-land, 
soon  to  merge  into  scenes  new  and  strange — in  the  one 
case  into  a  scene  of  the  home  and  heart  left  desolate;  in 
the  other  case  into  a  scene  of  the  vast  unknown.  The 
pathos  of  the  one  and  the  ludicrousness  of  the  other  de- 
pend on  the  same  elements,  used  in  a  natural  combination 
in  one,  confused  in  a  lawless  admixture  in  the  other.  The 
two  show  marks  of  the  same  writer;  they  show  also  marks 
of  a  twofold  and  diverse  direction  of  this  writer's  thought 
and  feeling.     James  Whitcomb  Riley,  who  knew  him  well 


780  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

— and  who  is  probably  the  only  versifier  of  humor,  of  child 
life,  and  of  domestic  happenings,  whose  readers  in  this 
country  outnumber  those  of  Field — pointed  out  the  two- 
foldness  in  the  man^s  style,  and  spoke  of  his  character  as 
^'an  isolated  one."     He  was  unique. 

As  a  man,  as  well  as  a  poet,  he  was  unique.  He  had  a 
genius  for  fun,  and  he  was  a  joker  unmanageable  and  irre- 
pressible. Yet  his  fun  was  human  and  humane,  and  his 
satire,  though  keen,  was  not  hostile.  His  nature  was  sunny, 
flecked  with  clouds.  He  made  few  enemies,  and  he  was  a 
gainer  and  a  keeper  of  friends.  His  practical  jokes  were 
his  most  lawless  doings.  The  decorum  and  solemn  eti- 
quette with  which  the  concealed  jest  was  carried  through 
all  its  stages,  gave  it  the  form  of  an  interesting  riddle. 
An  instance  was  his  Union  League  dinner  to  a  company 
of  notable  literary  folk  from  various  countries  during  the 
Chicago  Exposition.  On  the"  superbly  laid  table  were 
menu-cards  of  exquisite  design  adorned  with  ribbon  and 
bouquet  and  gems  of  poetry,  and  setting  forth  all  the  rar- 
est wines.  The  waiters  gracefully  served  five  courses — 
vegetable  soup,  codfish  stewed  in  cream,  pork  and  beans 
with  Boston  brown  bread,  corned  beef  hash,  pumpkin-pie 
and  cheese.  Between  the  courses  the  club's  wine-steward, 
with  great  ceremony  and  dignity,  filled  the  appropriate 
set  of  wine-glasses  from  an  elegant  pitcher  of  buttermilk. 
The  foreign  guests  were  amazed,  the  Americans  were 
amused.  Another  of  Field's  practical  jokes  was  to  write 
a  poem,  sign  to  it  the  name  of  one  of  his  friends,  and  on 
its  publication  criticise  it  with  merciless  ridicule  in  his 
column  of  ^'^  Sharps  and  Flats." 

Mr.  Field's  love  for  children  was  the  most  salient  point 
in  -his  character  and  the  inspiration  of  his  best  poetry.  He 
was  an  affectionate  husband  and  father;  he  was  a  book- 
lover  and  collector;  but  next  to  his  family,  his  love  and  de- 
light were  in  children-^any  children,  all  children.  He 
would  play  with  them,  walk  with  them,  talk  with  them,  en- 
tertain them  with  songs,  stories,  and  games,  settle  their  small 
quarrels.  Though  a  man  of  prodigious  industry,  writing  at 
the  rate  of  3,000  words  a  day  for  his  paper,  besides  much 
other  work,  he  seemed  to  rank  the  demands  of  children  on 
his  time  as  the  most  important  calls.  His  poetry  relating 
to  childhood,  however,  is  not  so  largely  poetry /or  children 
as  the  poetry  o/*  childhood.  Some  of  his  work  in  this  de- 
partment is  surpassingly  tender  and  sweet,  exploring  baby- 
land  as  an  ideal  realm,  reading  and  interpreting  the  in- 
most sentiment  of  the  little  folk  in  the  years  that  have 


EUGENE  FIELD.  ,        781 

just  left  babyhood  behind — exploration  and  interpretation 
being  guided  by  his  strangely  subtle  instinct  and  sym- 
pathy. For  it  seems  that  when  this  man  saw  a  little  child, 
thought  of  a  little  child,  wrote  of  a  little  child,  he  himself 
was  as  a  little  child;  except  when,  reversing  his  vision,  he 
saw  and  revealed  with  simple  pathos  the  secret  things  of 
paternal  and  maternal  love.  Some  of  his  work  in  this  de- 
partment is  poetry  beyond  question — a  permanent  addition 
to  the  world's  literary  treasures. 

LITTLE   BOY  BLUE. 

The  little  toy  dog  is  covered  with  dust, 

But  sturdy  and  staunch  he  stands; 
And  the  little  toy  soldier  is  red  with  rust. 

And  his  musket  molds  in  his  hands. 
Time  was  when  the  litile  toy  dos:  was  new. 

And  the  soldier  was  passing  fair. 
And  that  was  the  time  when  our  Little  Boy  Blue 

Kissed  them  and  put  them  there. 

"Now.  don't  you  go  till  I  come."  he  said, 

"And  don't  you  make  any  noisel" 
So,  toddliufr  off  to  his  trundie-bed, 

He  dreamt  of  the  pretty  toys. 
And  as  he  was  dreaming,  an  angel  song 

Awakened  our  Little  Boy  Blue— 
Oh,  the  years  are  many,  the  years  are  long. 

But  the  little  toy  friends  are  true. 

Ay,  faithful  to  Little  Boy  Blue  they  stand. 

Each  in  the  same  old  place. 
Awaiting  the  touch  of  a  little  hand. 

The  smile  of  a  little  face. 
And  they  wonder,  as  waiting  these  long  years  through, 

Tn  the  dust  of  that  little  chair. 
What  has  become  of  our  Little  Boy  Blue 

Since  he  kissed  them  and  put  them  there. 

The  ''Dutch  Lullaby" — Wynhen,  BlynJcen,  and  Nod 
— has  been  read  and  spoken  in  schools,  and  sung  in  choral 
societies  and  concert-halls.  Andrew  Lang  has  spoken  of 
this  poem  as  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  very  best  child- 
poem  in  the  English  language. 

DUTCH  LULLABY. 

Wynken.  Blynken,  and  Nod  one  night 

Sailed  off  in  a  wooden  shoe- 
Sailed  on  a  river  of  misty  light 

Into  a  sea  of  dew. 
"  Where  are  you  going,  and  what  do  you  wish?" 

The  old  moon  asked  the  three. 
"  We  have  come  to  fish  for  the  herring-fish 
That  live  in  this  beautiful  sea; 
Nets  of  silver  and  gold  have  we," 
Said  Wynken, 
Blynken, 
And  Nod. 

The  old  moon  laughed  and  sung  a  song 

As  they  rocked  in  the  wooden  shoe; 
And  the  wind  that  sped  them  all  night  long 

Ruffled  the  waves  of  dew; 
The  little  stars  were  the  hen-ing-fish 

That  lived  in  the  beautiful  sea. 


782  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

"  Now  cast  your  nets  wherever  you  wish. 

But  never  afeard  are  we!" 

So  cried  the  stars  to  the  fishermen  three, 

VVynken, 

Blynken, 

And  Nod. 

All  night  long  their  nets  they  threw 
For  the  fish  in  the  twinliling  foam. 
Then  down  from  the  sky  came  the  wooden  shoe. 

Bringing  the  fishermen  home; 
'Twas  all  so  pretty  a  sail,  it  seemed 

As  if  it  could  not  be; 
And  some  folk  thought  'twas  a  dream  they'd  dreamed 
Of  sailing  that  beautiful  sea; 
But  I  shall  name  you  the  fishermen  three: 
Wynken, 
Blynken, 
Aiid  Nod. 

Wynken  and  Blynken  are  two  little  eyes. 

And  Nod  is  a  little  head. 
And  the  wooden  shoe  that  sailed  the  skies 

Is  a  wee  one's  trundle-bed. 
So  shut  your  eyes  while  Mother  sings 

Of  wonderful  sights  that  be. 
And  you  shall  see  the  beautiful  things 
As  you  rock  on  the  misty  sea 
Where  the  old  shoe  rocked  the  fishermen  three — 
Wynken, 
Blynken, 
And  Nod. 

The  two  stanzas  following,  a  specimen  of  genuinely 
simple  pathos,  are  part  of  a  poem  cast  in  the  antique  form: 

Sometime  there  ben  a  lyttel  boy 

That  wolde  not  renne  and  play, 
And  helpless  like  that  lyttel  tyke 

Ben  allwais  in  the  way. 
"Goe,  make  you  merrie  with  the  rest," 

His  weary  moder  cried; 
But  with  a  frown  he  catcht  her  gown 

And  hong  untill  her  side. 
***** 

And  then  a  moder  felt  her  heart 

How  that  it  ben  to-torne,  — 
She  kissed  eche  day  till  she  ben  gray 

The  shoon  he  used  to  worn ; 
No  bairn  let  hold  untill  her  gown. 

Nor  played  upon  the  floore, — 
Godde"s  was  the  joy;  a  lyttel  boy 

Ben  in  the  way  no  more! 

In  a  light  vein,  more  familiar  than  the  foregoing  with 
writers  in  newspapers,  is  the  following  specimen  of  com- 
ical boyishness: 

JES'  'FORE  CHRISTMAS. 

Father  calls  me  William,  sister  calls  me  Will, 
Mother  calls  me  Willie,  but  the  fellers  call  me  Bill! 
Mighty  glad  I  ain't  a  girl— ruther  be  a  boy. 

Without  them  sashes,  curls,  an'  things  that's  worn  by  Fauntleroy! 
Love  to  chawnk  green  apples  an'  go  swimmin'  in  the  lake- 
Hate  to  take  the  caster -ile  they  give  for  belly-ache  1 
'Most  all  the  time,  the  whole  year  round,  there  ain't  no  flies  on  me; 
But  jes'  'fore  Christmas  I'm  as  good  as  I  kin  be! 

Got  a  yaller  dog  named  Sport,  sick  him  on  the  cat; 
First  thing  she  knows  she  doesn't  know  where  she  is  at! 
Got  a  clipper  sled,  an'  when  us  kids  goes  out  to  slide. 


EUGENE  FIELD.  783 

'Long  comes  the  grocery  cart,  an'  we  all  hook  a  ride! 
But  sometimes  when  the  grooeryman  is  worrited  an'  cross. 
He  reaches  at  us  with  his  whip,  an'  larrups  up  his  hoss, 
An'  then  I  laff  an'  holler,  "Oh,  ye  never  teched  mel" 
But  jes'  'fore  Christmas  I'm  as  good  as  I  kin  be  I 

Gran'ma  says  she  hopes  that  when  I  git  to  be  a  man, 

I'll  be  a  missionarer  like  her  oldest  brother,  Dan, 

As  was  et  up  by  the  cannibals  that  lives  in  Ceylon  isle, 

Where  every  prospeck  pleases,  an'  only  man  is  vile! 

But  gran'ma  she  has  never  been  to  see  a  Wild  West  show, 

Nor  read  the  life  of  Daniel  Boone,  or  else  I  guess  she'd  know 

That  Buff'lo  Bill  an'  cowboys  is  good  enougli  for  me! 

Excep'  jes  'fore  Christmas,  when  I'm  good  as  I  kin  be! 

An'  then  old  Sport  he  hangs  around,  so  solemn  like  an' still. 
His  eyes  they  seem  a-sayin':  "  What's  the  matter,  little  Bill?" 
The  old  cat  sneaks  down  off  her  perch  an'  wonders  what's  become 
Of  them  two  enemies  of  her'n  that  used  to  make  things  hum! 
But  I  am  so  perlite  an'  tend  so  earnestly  to  biz, 
That  mother  says  to  father,  "  How  improved  our  Willie  is!" 
But  father,  havin'  been  a  boy  hi?self ,  suspicions  me, 
When,  jes'  'fore  Christmas,  I'm  as  good  as  I  kin  be! 

For  Christmas,  with  its  lots  an'  lots  of  candies,  cakes,  an' toys. 

Was  made,  they  say,  for  proper  kids,  an'  not  for  naughty  boys; 

So  wash  yer  face,  an'  bresh  yer  hair,  an'  mind  yer  p"s  and  q"s, 

An'  don't  bust  out  yer  pantaloons,  and  don't  wear  out  yer  shoes:    . 

Say  "yessum  "  to  the  ladies,  an'  "  yessir''  to  the  men. 

An'  wnen  they's  company,  don't  pass  yer  plate  for  pie  again; 

But,  thinkin'  of  the  things  yer'd  like  to  see  upon  that  tree, 

Jes'  'fore  Christmas  be  as  good  as  yer  kin  be! 

The  following  lines,  dedicated  to  a  young  friend  of  Mr. 
Field,  show  a  somewhat  deeper  dealing  with  the  heart  of  a 


boy. 


SEEIN'  THINGS. 
I  ain't  afeard  uv  snakes,  or  toads,  or  bugs,  or  worms,  or  mice, 
An'  things  'at  girls  are  skeered  uv  I  think  are  awful  nice! 
I'm  pretty  brave,  I  guess;  an'  yet  I  hate  to  go  to  bed. 
For  when  I'm  tucked  up  warm  an'  snug,  an'  when  my  i>rayers  are  said. 
Mother  tells  me  "  Happy  dreams!"  and  takes  away  the  light. 
An'  leaves  me  lyin'  all  alone  an'  seein'  things  at  night! 

Sometimes  they're  in  the  corner,  sometimes  they're  by  the  door, 
Sometimes  they're  all  a-standin'  in  the  middle  liv  the  floor; 
Sometimes  they  are  a-sittin'  down,  sometimes  they're  walkin'  round 
So  softly  an'  so  creepy-like  they  never  make  a  sound! 
Sometimes  they  are  black  as  ink,  an'  other  times  they're  white— 
But  the  color  ain't  no  difference  when  you  see  things  at  night! 

Once,  when  I  licked  a  feller  'at  had  just  moved  on  our  street, 
An'  father  sent  me  up  to  bod  without  a  bite  to  eat, 
I  woke  up  in  the  dark  an'  saw  things  standin'  in  a  row, 
A-lookin'  at  me  cross-eyed  an'  p'intin'  at  me— so! 
Oh,  my!  I  wuz  so  skeered  that  time  I  never  slep'  a  mite- 
It's  almost  alluz  when  I'm  bad  I  see  things  at  night! 

Lucky  thing  I  ain't  a  girl,  or  I'd  be  skeered  to  death! 
Bein'  I'm  a  boy,  I  duck  my  head  an'  hold  my  breath; 
An'  I  am,  oh!  so  sorry  I'm  a  naughty  boy.  an'  then 
I  promise  to  be  better  an'  say  my  prayers  again! 
Gran'ma  tells  me  that's  the  only  M'ay  to  make  it  right 
W^hen  a  feller  has  been  wicked  an'  sees  things  at  night! 

An'  so.  when  other  naughty  boys  would  coax  me  into  sin, 
I  try  to  skwush  the  Tempter's  voice  'at  urges  me  within; 
An'  when  they's  pie  for  supper,  or  cakes  'at 's  big  an'  nice, 
I  want  to— but  I  do  not  pass  mv  plate  f'r  them  things  twice! 
No,  rutherlet  Starvation  wipe  me  slowly  out  o'  sight 
Than  I  should  keep  a-livin'  on  an'  seein'  things  at  night! 


784  OUR  FRONTISPIECE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

One  of  the  best  of  "galloping  songs" — the  syllables 
keeping  time  with  the  motion — is  this: 

THE  RIDE  TO  BUMPVILLE. 

Play  that  my  knee  was  a  calico  mare 

Saddled  and  bridled  for  Bumpville; 
Leap  to  the  back  of  this  steed,  if  you  dare. 

And  gallop  away  to  Bumpville! 
I  hope  you'll  be  sure  to  sit  fast  in  your  seat, 
For  this  calico  mare  is  prodigiously  fleet, 
And  many  adventures  you're  likely  to  meet 

As  you  journey  along  to  Bumpville. 

This  calico  mare  both  gallops  and  trots 

While  whisking  you  off  to  Bumpville; 
She  paces,  she  shies,  and  she  stumbles,  in  spots. 

In  the  tortuous  road  to  Bumpville! 
And  sometimes  this  strangely  mercurial  steed 
Will  suddenly  stop  and  refuse  to  proceed. 
Which,  all  will  admit,  is  vexatious  indeed. 

When  one  is  en  route  to  Bumpville! 

She's  scared  of  the  ears  when  the  engine  goes  •'Toot! " 

Down  by  the  crossing  at  Bumpville 
You'd  better  look  out  for  that  treacherous  brute 

Bearing  you  off  to  Bumpville! 
With  a  snort  she  rears  up  on  her  hindermost  heels, 
And  executes  jigs  and  Virginia  reels- 
Words  fail  to  explain  how  embarrassed  one  feels 

Dancing  so  wildly  to  Bumpville. 

It's  bumpytybump  and  it's  jiggytyjog, 

Journeying  on  to  Bumpville; 
It's  over  the  hilltop  and  down  through  the  bog 

You  ride  on  your  way  to  Bumpville; 
It's  rattletybang  over  bowlder  and  stump. 
There  are  rivers  to  ford,  there  are  fences  to  jump, 
And  the  corduroy  road  it  goes  bumpytybump, 

Mile  after  mile  to  Bumpville! 

Perhaps  you'll  observe  it's  no  easy  thing 

Making  the  journey  to  Bumpville! 
So  I  think,  on  the  whole,  it  were  prudent  to  bring 

An  end  to  this  ride  to  Bumpville; 
For,  though  she  has  uttered  no  protest  or  plaint. 
The  calico  mare  must  be  blowing  and  faint— 
Whaf.'s  more  to  the  point,  I'm  blowed  if  I  ain't! 

So  play  we  have  got  to  Bumpville. 

Mr.  Field  married  in  1873  Miss  Julia  M.  Comstock  of 
St.  Joseph,  Mo.  His  wedded  life  was  singularly  happy. 
His  seven  children,  of  whom  five  survived  him,  were  deep 
treasures  of  his  heart.  Most  of  them  were  boys,  and  he 
always  appeared  to  be  the  biggest  boy  of  all. 

His  death  came  suddenly,  after  a  few  days  of  what  had 
been  deemed,  and  probably  was,  a  slight  illness.  The 
actual  cause  of  death  tlie  physician  judged  to  have  been 
the  formation  of  a  clot  of  blood  at  the  heart.  His  son 
Fred,  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  slept  with  or  near  his 
father,  heard  him  groaning  in  sleep.  When,  near  morn- 
ing, the  groaning  suddenly  grew  more  heavy  and  then 
ceased  altogether,  Fred,  becoming  alarmed,  awaked  the 
family.  Instantly  coming  to  the  bedside,  they  found  him 
dead,  though  with  all  the  appearance  of  an  easy  natural 


EUGENE  FIELD. 


785 


lumber.  All  medical  help,  with  efforts  at  resuscitation, 
proved  unavailing.  Mr.  Field's  death  was  widely  lamented. 
Through  the  children  he  had  endeared  himself  to  the 
general  heart.  A  monument  in  his  memory  is  planned,  to 
be  provided  by  contributions  from  children,  and  to  stand 
in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago. 

Mr.  Field's  limitations  were  such,  and  were  so  honestly 
and  consistently  manifested  by  him  before  all  men,  that 
there  is  small  likelihood  of  his  being  overrated.  He  had 
no  concealments — not  even  from  himself;  so  to  the  last  he 
was  natural  and  unsophisticated:  this  was  one  secret  of 
his  best  work.  He  was  a  sincere  man  and  knew  not  pre- 
tense. His  unconventioiiality  may  perhaps  be  classed  as  a 
mistake,  though  indeed  he  would  probably  as  soon  have 
tried  to  fly  as  he  would  have  tried  to  be  conventional. 
His  excruciating  practical  jokes  were  doubtless  mistakes, 
and  of  a  kind  that  usually  border  on  wrongs  and  need 
forgiveness:  it  is  pleasant  to  know  that  such  was  the  esti- 
mate by  his  friends  of  the  man's  generosity,  deep  unselfish- 
ness, and  unswerving  loyalty  in  friendship,  that  they  for- 
gave him  almost  without  being  conscious  that  they  were 
forgiving  him.  To  men  less  favored  and  less  success- 
ful, especially  if  humble  and  poor,  he  was  a  bountiful 
helper. 

His  works  appeared  in  volumes  in  the  order  following: 
Denver  Tribune  Primer — out  of  prjnt,  very  scarce  (1882); 
The  Model  Primer  (1882);  Chdture's  Garden  (1887);  A 
Little  Book  of  Proiitable  Tales  (1889);  A  Little  Book  of 
Western  Verse  (1890);  With  Trumpet  and  Drum  (1892); 
A  Second  Book  of  Verse  (1893);  Echoes  from  the  Saline 
Farm — paraphrases  of  Horace  (1895). 


^:/?f'. 


786  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION. 

T\rAR  is  not  the  greatest  evil  which  can  befall  a  state. 
A  far  greater  evil  would  be  such  a  degraded  condi- 
tion of  national  sentiment  as  would  think  nothing  worth 
a  war.  In  the  last  resort — when  insult  has  been  wantonly 
inflicted,  when  the  obligations  of  honor  have  been  wil- 
fully repudiated,  and 
when  every  resource 
of  peaceful  diplo- 
macy has  been  ex- 
hausted— no  self-re- 
specting nation  will 
be  found  unprepared 
to  maintain  its  dig- 
nity and  enforce  its 
rights  by  appeal  to 
arms.  It  is  only, 
however,  on  those  ex- 
tremely rare  occasions 
when  war  presents  it- 
self as  the  sole  alter- 
native to  something 
worse,  that  it  is  justi- 
fiable; and  any  execu- 
tive may  well  hesitate 
to  take  an  irrevocable 
step  tending  toward 
open  rupture,  with  all 
the  untold  possibil- 
ities of  mi.se ry  which 
that  may  involve.  In 
such  cases  the  fear — 
if  it  be  such — which 
causes  hesitancy,  is 
a  fear  which  is  akin  to  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 
The  possibilities  of  a  war  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  over  the  Venezuelan  question,  were  seri- 
ously discussed  by  the  press  of  both  countries  in  Decem- 
ber; but  the  temporary  ebullition  of  war  sentiment  quick- 
ly subsided,  save  in  those  few  hearts  in  which  it  is  peren- 
nially cherished,  and  served  only  to  demonstrate  more 
strongly  by  contrast  the  real  feelings  of  sympathy  and  soli- 
darity still  prevailing  between  the  two  great  nations  of  the 
English-speaking  world.  Most  closely  related  to  each  other 
by  ties  of  blood,  mutual  interests,  and  common  aim;  leaders 


davtd  .t.  brewer  of  kansas, 

associate-justice  united  states  supreme 

court;  president  venezuela-guiana 

boundary  commission. 


787 


together  in  the  van  of  progress  in  all  the  arts  of  peace  and 
culture  and  the  triumphs  of  enlightened  civilization — 
grave  indeed  would  have  to  be  the  difference  between  them 
which  could  not  be  adjusted  by  the  ordinary  peaceable 
methods  of  diplomacy  and  jurisprudence.  That  the  pres- 
ent difference  over  the  Venezuelan  matter  is  of  so  grave  a 
character,  is  not  the  general  opinion  in  either  England  or 


MAP  OF  THB  TERRITOUY  IN   DISPUTE  BETWEEN  BRITISH  GTIIANA  AND  VENEZUELA. 

America;  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  display  of  the 
''jingo"  spirit  observable  in  some  quarters  is  not  at  all 
calculated  to  lessen  the  difficulties  confronting  those  to 
whom  the  final  adjustment  of  the  dispute  will  be  com- 
mitted. 

An  outline  of  the  chief  points  of  controversy  between 
Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  over  the  boundary  of  British 
Guiana  has  already  been  given  (pp.  87  and  332).  These 
points  will  also  be  found  set  forth  in  greater^  detail  in 
the  diplomatic  correspondence  outlined  below.  The  pre- 
cise equities  of  the  dispute,  we  do  not  know:  they  can  be 
determined  only  by  elaborate  historical  research  of  the 
documentary  evidence  in  possession  of  the  various  govern- 
ments now  or  heretofore  concerned  in  the  ownership  of 
the  disputed  territory.  ISTo  authoritative  judgment  on 
the  affair  can  be  uttered  until  the  facts  of  the  case  have 
been  ascertained,  for  which  express  purpose  a  commission 
was  appointed  by  President  Cleveland  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  under  authority  of  congress. 

It  will  suffice  here  to  say  that  the  extreme  claim  of 
Great  Britain  includes  all  territory  through  which  flow 
the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Essequibo;  or,  in  other  words, 
Great   Britain  claims  as  the  rightful  boundary  between 


788  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

British  Guiana  and  Venezuela  a  line  drawn  along  the  sum- 
mit of  the  hills  separating  the  watershed  of  the  Orinoco 
from  that  of  the  Essequibo.  This  extreme  claim  would 
carry  the  limits  of  British  Guiana  up  to  the  sources  of  the 
Cuyuni  and  Yuruari  rivers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ex- 
treme claim  of  Venezuela  would  make  the  Essequibo  river 
itself  the  rightful  western  boundary  of  British  Guiana. 

It  was  in  1840  that  Sir 
R.  Schomburgk  was 
commissioned  by  the 
British  government  to 
survey  and  define  the 
limits  of  the  colony. 
T  he  result  was  the 
tracing  of  the  bound- 
ary known  as  the 
Schomburgk  line, 
which  has  played  an 
important  part  in  all 
negotiations  since. 
On  the  coast  the  Brit- 
ish commissioner  car- 
ried  the  British 
boundary  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco 
itself,  placing  the 
frontier  posts  at  Bari- 
ma  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Amacuro  river. 
In  the  interior  he 
traced  a  line  which  he 
defined  as  dividing 
about  midway  the  dis- 
puted territory  be- 
tween the  Essequibo 
river  and  the  extreme  limit  of  Great  Britain's  cLaim.  It 
started  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amacuro,  followed  that 
river  and  the  sweep  of  the  Imataca  mountains  until  it 
struck  the  Cuyuni,  and  was  coincident  with  this  stream 
to  its  southernmost  source  in  the  Roraima  mountains. 
Although  the  proposals  of  Sir  R.  Schomburgk  were  never 
formally  carried  into  effect,  the  line  was  established  as  a 
basis  of  negotiations.  The  British  have  effectively  occu- 
pied the  coast  region  as  far  as  Barima;  and  in  1886  for- 
mally declared  that  they  could  consider  no  Venezuelan 
claim  east  of  the  Schomburgk  line.     To  this  policy  Great 


|H^^^'. 

^•^ 

£^ 

^^^^Br-'lil^         ^^.K' 

^^B 

^ 

^^^^^H 

R.  H,  ALVET  OF  MARYLAND, 

CHIEF  JUSTICE  COURT  OF  APPEALS,  DISTRICT  OF 

COLUMBIA;  VENEZUELA-GUIANA  BOUNDARY 

COMMISSIONER. 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  789 

"Britain  has  since  resolutely  adliered.  She  claims  to  have 
about  40,000  subjects  in  the  territory  in  question,  and  re- 
fuses, by  submitting  to  arbitration  her  claims  east  of  the 
Schomburgk  line,  to  expose  these  subjects  to  the  possible 
risk  of  being  handed  over  to  a  government  disturbed  by 
frequent  revolutions  and  capable  of  giving  only  inade- 
quate guarantees  of  safety  to  life  and  property.  West  of 
the  Schomburgk  line,  however.  Great  Britain  is  willing  to 
submit  her  claims  to  the  judgment  of  a  competent  tribu- 
nal. Her  interest  in  the  matter  is  largely  a  commercial 
one.  It  is  characteristic  of  British  policy  in  South  Amer- 
ica, in  the  Far  East,  in  South  Africa,  and  elsewhere,  to 
strive  not  only  to  maintain  but  to  extend  that  commercial 
supremacy  which  is  in  large  part  the  real  foundation  of 
England's  political  influence,  and  in  regard  to  which  the 
trend  of  developments  in  various  parts  of  the  world  is 
even  now  confronting  her  with  competitors  who  are  not 
to  be  despised.  Free  navigation  of  the  Orinoco  would  im- 
mensely extend  her  control  over  the  commerce  of  north- 
ern and  central  South  America;  and  the  recognition  of 
the  claims  of  England  in  the  basin  drained  by  the  Cuyuni 
and  its  tributaries  would  put  her  in  possession  of  gold 
mines  which  promise  to  be  among  the  most  productive  in 
the  world.  Since  1884  the  output  of  the  yellow  metal 
credited  to  British  Guiana  has  risen  from  nothing  to  $2,- 
772,700  per  annum,  and  the  total  to  date  amounts  to  $11,- 
629,700.  The  output  of  the  Yuruari  district  is  now  about 
$2,000,000  per  annum;  and  the  total  to  January  1,  1895, 
is  over  147,000,000.  In  1850  the  two  countries  agreed  to 
regard  the  disputed  area  as  neutral  territory;  but.  subse- 
quent violations  of  neutrality  by  the  establishment  of 
Venezuelan  settlements  in  the  mining  region.  Great  Brit- 
ain claims,  have  rendered  the  obligations  of  the  treaty  of 
1850  null  and  void. 

The  Yuruan  Incident. — In  October  a  sensation  was 
caused  by  the  report  that  Great  Britain  had  addressed  an 
ultimatum  to  Venezuela,  demanding  an  apology  and  a 
money  indemnity  for  an  outrage  committed  about  a  year 
ago  upon  British  police  officials  at  Yuruan,  a  station  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Cuyuni,  near  the  points  of  junction 
with  that  stream  of  the  Yuruan  and  Yuruari  rivers.  The 
report  was  also  spread,  that  Great  Britain  was  preparing 
to  enforce  her  demand,  and  had  urged  the  colonial  au- 
thorities to  station  Maxim  guns  at  Yuruan  and  other 
frontier  points.  It  appears  tliat  a  Venezuelan  force  had 
crossed   the  Cuyuni  and  raised  the  Venezuelan   flag   at 


790  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Yurnan.  In  January,  1895,  a  small  force  of  British 
Guiana  police,  acting  under  instructions,  removed  the  flag, 
for  which  they  were  arrested  and  carried  into  Venezuelan 
territory.  However,  on  protest  of  the  colonial  government, 
they  were  released  and  sent  back,  as  well  as  reimbursed 
for  personal  losses  which  they  claimed  to  have  incurred. 

The  exact  terms  of  Great  Britain's  demand  for  repara- 
tion (it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  an  ultimatum)  are 
not  yet  publicly  known;  nor  is  the  reply,  if  any,  of  Ven- 
ezuela. But  while  the  importance  of  the  incident  seems 
to  have  been  exaggerated,  and  it  has  not  entered  into  any 
of  the  diplomatic  correspondence  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  which  has  come  to  light  up  to 
the  end  of  the  year,  it  certainly  served  to  arouse  in  this 
country  a  popular  interest  in  the  boundary  dispute,  and 
to  add  to  the  eagerness  with  which  the  public  noted  the 
comments  made  by  President  Cleveland  in  his  annual 
message  to  congress,  and  the  excitement  which  followed 
his  subsequent  special  message  with  publication  of  the 
official  correspondence. 

The  Diplomatic  Correspondence.— The  chief  in- 
terest of  the  United  States  in  the  dispute  arises  from  the 
consideration  that  the  position  taken  by  Great  Britain 
toward  Venezuela  may  possibly  involve  a  repudiation  of 
the  principles  embodied  in  what  is  known  as  the  "  Monroe 
doctrine."  Though  not  a  part  of  the  recognized  body  of 
international  law,  though  never  ratified  by  congress,  and 
though  never,  until  within  the  past  few  months,  having 
been  formally  incorporated  in  diplomatic  correspondence, 
the  Monroe  doctrine  has  long  been  a  part  of  the  public 
policy  of  the  United  States  and  has  silently  but  effectively 
operated  to  maintain  and  perpetuate  republican  institu- 
tions in  the  Western  hemisphere,  and  to  prevent  the  rise  of 
political  conditions  such  as  would  tend  to  make  the  New 
World  a  counterpart  of  the  Old  in  its  aspect  of  an  armed 
camp  groaning  under  the  intolerable  burdens  of  vast  mili- 
tary establishments. 

Whether  the  doctrine  strictly  applies  to  the  British 
Guiana-Venezuela  dispute,  cannot  of  course  be  determined 
until  it  is  positively  known  whether  or  not  England  is  act- 
ually trying  to  extend  her  territory  by  force  in  derogation 
of  the  rights  of  Venezuela — a  matter  now  under  investi- 
gation. In  any  event,  the  invocation  of  the  doctrine  by 
the  United  States  is  a  matter  of  sacred  principle  rather 
than  of  the  magnitude  of  the  material  interests  immedi- 
ately at  stake  in  South  America. 


I 


A- 

THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  791 

The  American  Contention. — On  December  17  the  eagerly 
awaited  correspondence  between  the  governments  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  was  made  public.  Under 
date  of  July  20  Secretary  Olney  addressed  a  communica- 
tion to  Mr.  Bayard,  the  American  ambassador  to  England, 
which  was  transmitted  to  Lord  Salisbury  on  August  7, 
fully  setting  forth  the  attitude  of  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  suggested  arbitration  as  the  only  reasonable 
method  of  settling  the  territorial  controversy  with  Vene- 
zuela, and  asked  for  a  definite  answer  whether  the  British 
government  would  or  would  not  submit  to  impartial  arbi- 
tration of  the  whole  case.  The  substance  of  this  note  was 
briefly  indicated  in  the  president's  annual  message  to  con- 
gress, December  3;  but  Lord  Salisbury's  reply  had  not  at 
that  time  been  received,  so  that  the  full  text  of  Mr.  01- 
ney's  note  was  not  revealed  till  later.  It  is  outlined  as  fol- 
lows, with  most  pertinent  passages  quoted: 

MR.  OLNEY  TO  MR.  BAYARD,  JULY  20,  1895. 

The  controversy  between  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  over  the 
western  frontier  of  British  Guiana  dates  back  at  l(!ast  to  1814,  when 
Great  Britain  acquired  by  treaty  with  the  Netherlands  "the  estab- 
lishments of  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice."  The  claims  of  both 
parties  are  indefinite.  On  the  one  hand  Venezuela  has  always  de- 
clared her  limits  to  be  those  of  the  captaincy-general  of  Venezuela  in 
1810;  yet,  out  of  "moderation  and  prudence,"  it  is  said,  sbe  has  con- 
tented herself  with  claiming  the  line  of  tbe  Essequibo  river  as  the 
true  boundary.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  asserted  that  the  "es- 
tablishments" acquired  by  Great  Britain  in  1814  had  any  clearly  de- 
fined western  limits;  and  Great  Britain  "apparently  remained  indif- 
ferent as  to  the  exact  area  of  the  colony  until  1840,"  when  she  commis- 
sioned Sir  R.  Schomburgk  to  lay  down  its  boundaries.  Venezuela  at 
once  protested  against  the  line  marked  out,  which  Great  Britain  pres- 
ently explained  to  be  "  only  tentative — part  of  a  general  boundary 
scheme  concerning  Brazil  and  the  Netherlands  as  well  as  Venezuela" 
— and  the  monuments  of  the  line  set  up  by  Schomburgk  were  re- 
moved by  the  express  order  of  Lord  Aberdeen.  "  LTnder  these  cir- 
cumstances," says  Mr.  Olney,  "  it  seems  impossible  to  treat  the  Schom- 
burgk line  as  being  the  boundary  claimed  by  Great  Britain  as  matter 
of  right  or  as  anything  but  a  line  originating  in  considerations  of  con- 
venience and  expediency.  Since  1840  various  other  boundary  lines 
have  from  time  to  time  been  indicated  by  Great  Britain,  but  all  as  con- 
ventional lines — lines  to  which  Venezuela's  assent  has  been  desired, 
but  which  in  no  instance,  it  is  believed,  has  been  demanded  as  matter 
of  right.  Lord  Aberdeen  himself  in  1844  proposed  a  line  beginning 
at  the  river  Moroco,  a  distinct  abandonment  of  the  Schomburgk  line. 
Every  change  in  the  British  claim  since  that  time  has  moved  the 
frontier  of  British  Guiana  farther  and  farther  to  the  westward  of  the 
line  thus  proposed.  The  Granville  line  of  1881  placed  the  starting 
point  at  a  distance  of  twenty-nine  miles  from  the  Moroco  in  the  di- 
rection of  Punta  Barima.  The  Rosebery  line  of  1886  placed  it  west 
of  the  Guaima  river,  and  about  that  time,  if  the  British  authority 

Vol.  5.-51. 


793  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

known  as  The  Statesman's  Year  Book  is  to  be  relied  upon,  the  area 
of  British  Guiana  was  suddenly  enlarged  by  some  33,000  square  miles, 
being  stated  at  76,000  square  miles  in  1885,  and  109,000  square  miles 
in  1887.  The  Salisbury  line  of  1890  fixed  the  starting  point  of  the 
line  in  the  mouth  of  the  Amacuro,  west  of  Punta  Barima,  on  the 
Orinoco.  And  finally,  in  1893,  a  second  Rosebery  line  carried  the 
boundary  from  a  point  to  the  west  of  the  Amacuro  as  far  as  the 
source  of  the  Cumano  river  and  the  sierra  of  Usupamo.  An  exer- 
cise of  jurisdiction  corresponding  more  or  less  to  such  claims  has  fol 
lowed  closely  upon  leach,  and  has  been  the  more  irritating,  if,  as  is 
alleged,  an  agreement  made  in  the  year  1850  bound  both  parties  to  re- 
frain from  such  occupation  pending  the  settlement  of  the  dispute. 

"Venezuela  has  made  earnest  and  repeated  efforts  to  have  the 
question  of  boundary  settled.  *  *  *  Shortly  after  the  drawing  of 
the  Schomburgk  line,  an  effort  was  made  to  settle  the  boundary  by 
treaty.  The  negotiations  were  brought  to  an  end  in  1844  by  the 
death  of  the  Venezuelan  plenipotentiary.  In  1848  Venezuela  entered 
upon  a  period  of  civil  commotions  which  lasted  for  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century,  and  the  negotiations  thus  interrupted  in  1844  were 
not  resumed  until  1876.  In  that  year  Venezuela  offered  to  close  the 
dispute  by  accepting  the  Moroco  line  proposed  by  Lord  Aberdeen. 
But  Lord  Granville  rejected  the  proposal,  and  suggested  a  new  line 
comprehending  a  large  tract  of  territory,  all  pretension  to  which 
seemed  to  have  been  abandoned  by  the  previous  action  of  Lord  Aber- 
deen. Negotiations  dragged  along  without  result  until  1882,  when 
Venezuela  concluded  that  the  only  course  open  to  her  was  arbitration 
of  the  controversy. 

"Before  she  had  made  any  definite  proposition,  however,  Great 
Britain  took  the  initiative.  A  treaty  was  practically  agreed  upon 
with  the  Gladstone  government  in  1886,  containing  a  general  arbitra- 
tion clause.  Before  the  actual  signing  of  the  treaty,  however,  the 
administration  of  Mr.  Gladstone  was  superseded  by  that  of  Lord  Sal- 
isbury, which  declined  to  accede  to  the  arbitration  clause  of  the  treaty. 
Since  then  Venezuela,  on  the  one  side,  has  been  offering  and  calling 
for  arbitration,  while  Great  Britain,  on  the  other,  has  responded  by 
insisting  upon  the  condition  that  any  arbitration  should  relate  only  to 
such  of  the  disputed  territory  as  lies  west  of  a  line  designated  by  her- 
self. In  1887  diplomatic  relations  between  the  two  countries  were 
su.spended,  and  have  not  since  been  regularly  resumed." 

To  this  territorial  dispute  the  United  States,  "  in  view  of  its  tra- 
ditional policy,"  could  not  be  indifferent.  Mr.  Olney  goes  on  to  quote 
from  various  communications  which  have  passed  between  the  gov- 
ernments— beginning  with  a  note  from  Secretary  Evarts  to  the  Vene- 
zuelan minister  at  Washington  in  1881 — showing  the  interest  with 
which  the  United  States  has  watched  the  progress  of  the  dispute,  and 
intimating  its  willingness  to  use  its  influence  in  a  friendly  way  to  in- 
duce Great  Britain  to  assent  to  arbitration.  In  December,  1886,  with 
a  view  to  preventing  the  diplomatic  rupture  which  was  foreseen,  and 
which  took  place  in  February,  1887,  Mr.  Bayard,  then  secretary  of 
state,  actually  instructed  the  American  minister  at  London  to  tender 
to  Great  Britain  the  arbitration  of  the  United  States  in  the  case.  Said 
Mr.  Bayard: 

"Her  Majesty's  government  will  readily  understand  that  this  attitude  of 
friendly  neutrality  and  entire  impartiality  touching  the  merits  of  the  contro- 
versy, consisting  wholly  in  a  difference  of  facts  between  our  friends  and  neigh- 
bors, is  entirely  consistent  and  compatible  with  the  sense  of  responsibility  that 
r'^sts  upon  the  United  States  in  relation  to  the  South  American  republics.    The 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  793 

aoctrines  we  announced  two  generations  ago,  at  the  instance  and  with  the 
moral  support  and  approval  of  the  British  government,  have  lost  none  of  their 
force  or  miportance  in  the  progress  of  time;  and  the  governments  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States  are  really  interested  in  conserving  a  «<a<w«  the  wis- 
dom of  which  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  more  than  half  a 
century." 

The  offer  of  arbitration  was  declined  on  the  ground  that  a  similar 
offer  had  been  received  from  another  quarter,  and  that  hopes  of  a  set- 
tlement through  direct  diph»matic  negotiation  had  not  been  aban- 
doned. Since  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations,  the  efforts  of  the 
United  States  to  effect  a  final,  amicable  adjustment  by  arbitration  or 
otherwise  have  been  continued  at  intervals — by  Mr.  Bayard  in  1888, 
by  Mr.  Blaine  in  1889  and  1890,  and  on  various  occasions  within  the 
past  two  years.  In  a  dispatch  dated  July  18,  1894,  from  Secretary 
Gresham  to  Mr.  Bayard,  occurs  the  following  language: 

"The  president  is  inspired  by  a  desire  for  a  peaceable  and  honorable  settle- 
ment of  the  existing  difficulties  between  an  American  state  and  a  powerful 
transatlantic  nation,  and  would  be  glad  to  see  the  re-establishment  of  such  di- 
plomatic relations  between  them  as  would  promote  that  end.  I  can  discern 
but  two  equitable  solutions  of  the  present  controversy.  One  is  the  arbitration 
of  the  right  of  the  disputants  as  the  respective  successors  to  the  historical 
rights  of  Holland  and  Spain  over  the  region  in  question.  The  other  is  to  create 
a  new  boundary  line  in  accordance  with  the  dictates  of  mutual  expediency  and 
consideration." 

Efforts  were  subsequently  made  to  ascertain  whether  Great  Brit- 
ain would  receive  a  minister  from  Venezuela;  and  as  late  as  Febru- 
ary, 1895,  a  joint  resolution  favoring  arbitration  passed  the  United 
States  congress. 

In  summing  up  the  situation  thus  outlined,  Mr.  Olney  says:  "By 
the  frequent  interposition  of  its  good  offices  at  the  instance  of  Vene- 
zuela, by  constantly  urging  and  promoting  the  restoration  of  diplo- 
matic relations  between  the  two  countries,  by  pressing  for  arbitration 
of  the  disputed  boundary,  by  offering  to  act  as  arbitrator,  by  express- 
ing its  grave  concern  whenever  new  alleged  instances  of  British  ag- 
gression upon  Venezuelan  territory  have  been  brought  to  its  notice, 
the  government  of  the  United  States  has  made  it  clear  to  Great  Brit- 
ain and  to  the  world  that  the  controversy  is  one  in  which  its  honor 
and  its  interests  are  involved,  and  the  continuance  of  which  it  cannot 
regard  with  indifference." 

The  remainder  of  Mr.  Olney's  note  is  taken  up  with  a  discussion 
of  the  right  of  the  United  States  to.  interfere  under  the  Monroe  doc- 
trine. Under  an  admitted  canon  of  international  law,  he  argues,  a  na- 
tion may  intervene  in  a  dispute  whenever  what  is  done  or  proposed 
by  any  of  the  parties  primarily  concerned  is  a  serious  and  direct 
menace  to  its  own  integrity,  tranquillity,  or  welfare.  Washington,  in 
his  Farewell  Address,  explicitly  warned  his  countrymen  against  en- 
tanglements with  the  controversies  of  Europe;  and  President  Monroe 
applied  the  logic  of  the  Farewell  Address  by  declaring  in  effect  that 
American  non-intervention  in  European  affairs  necessarily  implied 
European  non-intervention  in  American  affairs.  In  the  celebrated 
"lessage  of  December  2,  1823,  President  Monroe  said: 

"In  the  wars  of  the  European  powers  in  matters  relating  to  themselves,  we 
have  never  taken  any  part,  nor  does  it  comport  with  our  policy  to  do  so.  It  is 
only  when  our  rights  are  invaded  or  seriously  menaced  that  we  resent  injuries 
or  make  preparations  for  our  defense.  *  *  *  We  owe  it  to  candor  and  to  the 
amicable  relations  existins:  between  the  United  States  and  those  powers  to  de- 
clare that  we  should  consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system  to 
any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety .  With  the  ex- 
isting colonies  or  dependencies  of  any  European  power,  we  have  not  interfered, 
and  shall  not  interfere.    But  with  the  governments  who  have  declared  their  in- 


794  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

dependence  and  maintained  it,  and  whose  independence  we  have,  on  great  con- 
sideration and  on  just  principles,  aclinowledfred,  we  could  not  view  any  interpo- 
sition for  the  purpose  of  oppressing  them  or  controlling  in  any  other  manner 
their  destiny,  by  any  European  power,  in  any  other  hght  than  as  the  manifestation 
of  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United  States.  *  *  *  It  is  impossible 
that  the  allied  powers  should  extend  their  political  system  to  any  portion  of 
either  continent  without  endangering  our  peace  and  happiness;  nor  can  any 
one  believe  that  our  Southern  brethren,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  adopt  it  of 
tiieir  own  accord.  It  is  equally  impossible,  therefore,  that  we  should  behold 
such  interposition,  in  any  torm,  with  indifference." 

The  message  also  "  declared  that  the  American  continents  were 
fully  occupied,  and  were  not  the  subjects  for  future  colonization  of 
European  powers,"  a  principle  which  "has  long  been  universally 
conceded." 

In  giving  the  Monroe  doctrine  practical  application,  Mr.  Olney 
defines  its  "  precise  scope  and  limitations"  as  follows:  "  It  does  not 
establish  any  general  protectorate  by  the  United  States  over  other 
American  states.  It  does  not  relieve  any  American  state  from  its  ob- 
ligations as  fixed  by  international  law,  nor  prevent  any  European 
power  directly  interested  from  enforcing  such  obligations  or  from  in- 
flicting merited  punishment  for  the  breach  of  them.  It  does  not  con- 
template any  interference  in  the  internal  affairs  of  any  American 
state  or  in  the  relations  between  it  and  other  American  states.  It 
does  not  justify  any  attempt  on  our  part  to  change  the  established 
form  of  government  of  any  American  state  or  to  prevent  the  people  of 
such  state  from  altering  that  form  according  to  their  own  w  ill  and  pleas- 
ure. The  rule  in  question  has  but  a  single  purpose  and  object.  It  is 
that  no  European  power  or  combination  of  European  powers  shall 
forcibly  deprive  an  American  state  of  the  right  and  power  of  self -gov- 
ernment and  of  shaping  for  itself  its  own  political  fortunes  and  desti- 
nies." 

The  rule  thus  defined,  Mr.  Olney  says,  has  been  the  accepted  pub- 
lic law  of  the  United  States  ever  since  its  promulgation.  "Every  ad- 
ministration since  President  Monroe's  has  given  it  emphatic  indorse- 
ment." Though  it  has  never  been  formally  affirmed  by  congress, 
various  instances  of  its  application  are  given.  "Its  first  and  imme- 
diate effect  was  most  far-reaching.  It  was  the  controlling  factor  in 
the  emancipation  of  South  America,  and  to  it  the  independent  states 
which  now  divide  that  region  between  them  are  largely  indebted  for 
their  very  existence.  Since  then  the  most  striking  single  achieve 
raent  to  be  credited  to  the  rule  is  the  evacuation  of  Mexico  by  the 
French  upon  the  termination  of  the  Civil  War.  But  we  are  also  in- 
debted to  it  for  the  provisions  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  which 
both  neutralized  any  interoceanic  canal  across  Central  America  and 
expressly  excluded  Great  Britain  from  occupying  or  exercising  any 
dominion  over  any  part  of  Central  America.  It  has  been  used  in  the 
case  of  Cuba  as  if  justifying  the  position  that,  while  the  sovereignty 
of  Spain  will  be  respected,  the  island  will  not  be  permitted  to  become 
the  possession  of  any  other  European  power.  It  has  been  influential 
in  bringing  about  the  definite  relinquishment  of  any  supposed  protec- 
torate by  Great  Britain  over  the  Mosquito  Coast. 

"  Another  development  of  the  rule,  though  apparently  not  neces- 
sarily required  by  either  its  letter  or  its  spirit,  is  found  in  the  objec- 
tion to  arbitration  of  South  American  controversies  by  a  European 
power.  American  questions,  it  is  said,  are  for  American  decision; 
and  on  that  ground  the  United  States  went  so  far  as  to  refuse  to  medi- 
ate in  the  war  between  Chile  and  Peru  jointly  with  Great  Britain 
and  France.     Finally,  on  the  ground,  among  others,  that  the  author- 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  795 

ity  of  tlie  Monroe  doctrine  and  the  prestige  of  tlie  United  States  as  its 
exponent  and  sponsor  would  be  seriously  impaired,  Secretary  Bayard 
strenuously  resisted  the  enforcement  of  the  Pelletier  claim  against 
Hayti." 

Mr.  Olney  goes  on  to  say  that  "the  Venezuelan  boundary  contro- 
versy is  in  any  view  far  within  the  scope  and  spirit  of  the  rule  as  uni- 
formly accepted  and  acted  upon."  The  Monroe  doctrine  rests,  he 
says,  upon  facts  and  principles  that  are  both  intelligible  and  incon- 
trovertible. "That  distance  and  three  thousand  miles  of  intervening 
ocean  make  any  permanent  political  union  between  a  European  and 
an  American  state  unnatural  and  inexpedient  will  hardly  be  de- 
nied. But  physical  and  geographical  considerations  are  the  least  of 
the  objections  to  such  a  union.  Europe,  as  Washington  observed, 
has  a  set  of  primary  interests  which  are  peculiar  to  herself.  Amer- 
ica is  not  interested  in  them,  and  ought  not  to  be  vexed  or  com- 
plicated with  them.  Each  great  European  power,  for  instance,  to- 
day maintains  enormous  armies  and  fleets  in  self-defense  and  for  pro- 
tection against  any  other  European  power  or  powers.  What  have  the 
states  of  America  to  do  with  that  condition  of  things,  or  why  should 
they  be  impoverished  by  wars  or  preparations  for  wars  with  whose 
causes  or  results  they  can  have  no  direct  concern?  *  *  *  What 
is  true  of  the  material  is  no  less  true  of  what  may  be  termed  the 
moral  interests  involved.  Those  pertaining  to  Europe  are  peculiar  to 
her  and  are  entirely  diverse  from  those  pertaining  and  peculiar  to 
America.  Europe  as  a  whole  is  monarchical,  and,  with  the  single  im- 
portant exception  of  the  republic  of  France,  is  committed  to  the 
monarchical  principle.  America,  on  the  other  hand,  is  devoted  to  the 
exactly  opposite  principle — to  the  idea  that  every  people  has  an  ina- 
lienable right  of  self-government,  and  in  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica has  furnished  to  the  world  the  most  conspicuous  and  conclusive 
example  and  proof  of  the  excellence  of  free  institutions,  whether 
from  the  standpoint  of  natural  greatness  or  of  individual  happi- 
ness.    *    *    * 

"If  the  forcible  intrusion  of  European  powers  into  American  pol- 
itics is  to  be  deprecated — if,  as  it  is  to  be  deprecated,  it  should  be  re- 
sisted and  prevented — such  resistance  and  prevention  must  come  from 
the  United  States.  They  would  come  from  it,  of  course,  were  it  made 
the  point  of  attack.  But,  if  they  come  at  all,  they  must  also  come 
from  it  when  any  other  American  state  is  attacked,  since  only  the 
United  States  has  the  strength  adequate  to  the  exigency.     *     *     * 

"  The  states  of  America,  South  as  well  as  North,  by  geographical 
proximity,  by  natural  sympathy,  by  similarity  of  governmental  con- 
stitutions, are  friends  and  allies,  commercially  and  politically,  of  the 
United  States.  To  allow  the  subjugation  of  any  of  them  by  a  Euro- 
pean power  is,  of  course,  completely  to  reverse  that  situation  and  sig- 
nifies the  loss  of  all  the  advantages  incident  to  their  natural  relations 
to  us.  But  that  is  not  all.  The  people  of  the  United  States  have  a 
vital  interest  in  the  cause  of  popular  self-government. 

"  To-day  the  United  States  is  practically  sovereign  on  this  conti- 
nent, and  its  fiat  is  law  upon  the  subjects  to  which  it  confines  its  in- 
terposition. Why?  It  is  not  because  of  the  pure  friendship  or  good 
will  felt  for  it.  It  is  not  simply  by  reason  of  its  high  character  as  a  civil- 
ized state,  nor  because  wisdom  and 'justice  and  equity  are  the  invariable 
characteristics  of  the  dealings  of  the  United  States.  It  is  because,  in 
addition  to  all  other  grounds,  its  infinite  resources,  combined  with  its 
isolated  position,  render  it  master  of  the  situation,  and  practically  in- 


796  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

vulnerable  as  against  any  or  all  other  powers.  All  tbe  advantages 
of  this  superiority  are  at  once  imperilled  if  the  principle  be  admitted 
that  European  powers  may  convert  American  states  into  colonies  or 
provinces  of  their  own.  The  principle  would  be  eagerly  availed  of, 
and  every  power  doing  so  would  immediately  acquire  a  base  of  mil- 
itary operations  against  us.  What  one  power  was  permitted  to  do 
could  not  be  denied  to  another;  and  it  would  not  be  inconceivable  that 
the  struggle  now  going  on  for  the  acquisition  of  Africa  might  be 
transferred  to  South  America.  If  it  were,  the  weaker  countries  would 
unquestionably  be  soon  absorbed,  while  the  ultimate  result  might  be 
the  partition  of  all  South  America  between  the  various  European 
powers.  The  disastrous  consequences  to  the  United  States  of  such 
a  condition  of  things  are  obvious.     *    *    * 

"Thus  far  in  our  history  we  have  been  spared  the  burdens  and 
evils  of  immense  standing  armies  and  all  the  other  accessories  of  huge 
warlike  establishments;  and  the  exemption  has  largely  contributed 
to  our  national  greatness  and  wealth,  as  well  as  to  the  happiness  of 
every  citizen.  But  with  the  powers  of  Europe  permanently  encamped 
on  American  soil,  the  ideal  conditions  we  have  thus  far  enjoyed  can- 
not be  expected  to  continue.  We,  too,  must  be  armed  to  the  teeth; 
we,  too,  must  convert  the  flower  of  our  whole  male  population  into 
soldiers  and  sailors;  and  by  withdrawing  them  from  the  various  pur- 
suits of  peaceful  industry  we,  too,  must  practically  annihilate  a  large 
share  of  the  productive  energy  of  the  nation.     *    *    * 

"  The  application  of  the  doctrine  to  the  boundary  dispute  between 
Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  presents  no  real  difficulty.  Though  the 
'  dispute  relates  to  a  boundary  line,  yet,  as  it  is  between  states,  it  nec- 
essarily imports  political  control  to  be  lost  by  one  party  and  gained  by 
the  other.  The  political  control,  at  stake,  too,  isof  no  mean  importance, 
but  concerns  a  domain  of  great  extent;  and,  if  it  also  directly  involves 
the  command  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  is  of  immense  consequence 
in  connection  with  the  whole  river  navigation  of  the  interior  of  South 
America.  It  has  been  intimated,  indeed,  that  in  respect  to  these 
South  American  possessions  Great  Britain  is  herself  an  American  state 
like  any  other,  so  that  a  controversy  between  her  and  Venezuela  is  to 
be  settled  between  themselves.  If  this  view  be  tenable  at  all,  the 
logical  sequence  is  plain.  Great  Britain  as  a  South  American  state 
is  to  be  entirely  differentiated  from  Great  Britain  generally;-  and  if 
the  boundary  question  cannot  be  settled  otherwise  than  by  force, 
British  Guiana,  with  her  own  independent  resources,  and  not  those 
of  the  British  empire,  should  be  left  to  settle  the  matter  with  Ven- 
ezuela. But  the  proposition  that  a  European  power  with  an  Ameri- 
can dependency  is,  for  the  purpose  of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  to  be 
classed  not  as  a  European  but  as  an  American  state,  will  not  admit 
of  serious  discussion.  If  it  were  to  be  adopted,  the  Monroe  doctrine 
would  be  too  valueless  to  be  worth  asserting.  Not  only  would  every 
European  power  now  having  a  South  American  colony  be  enabled  to 
extend  its  possessions  on  this  continent  indefinitely,  but  any  other 
European  power  might  also  do  the  same  by  first  taking  pains  to  pro- 
cure a  fraction  of  South  American  soil  by  voluntary  cession.    *    *    * 

"It  is  not  admitted,  however,  and  therefore  cannot  be  assumed, 
that  Great  Britain  is  in  fact  usurping  dominion  over  Venezuelan  ter- 
ritory. While  Venezuela-  charges  such  usurpation.  Great  Britain 
denies  it,  and  the  United  States,  until  the  merits  are  authoritatively 
ascertained,  can  take  sides  with  neither.  But  while  this  is  so — 
while  the  United  States  may  not,  under  existing  circumstances  at 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  797 

least,  take  upon  itself  to  say  wliicli  of  the  two  parties  is  riglit  and 
which  wrong — it  is  certainly  within  its  right  to  demand  that  the  truth 
shall  be  ascertained.  To  resent  and  resist  any  sequestration  of  Vene- 
zuelan soil  by  Great  Britain,  it  is  necessarily  entitled  to  know  whether 
such  sequestration  has  occurred  or  is  now  going  on.  *  *  *  It  being 
clear  that  the  United  States  may  legitimately  insist  upon  the  merits  of 
the  boundary  question  being  determined,  it  is  equally  clear  that  there 
is  but  one  feasible  mode  of  determining  it,  viz.,  peaceful  arbitration. 

"The  impracticability  of  any  conventional  adjustment  has  been 
often  and  thoroughly  demonstrated.  Even  more  impossible  of  con- 
sideration is  an  appeal  to  arms — a  mode  of  settling  national  preten- 
sions unhappily  not  yet  wholly  obsolete.  If,  however,  it  were  not 
condemnable  as  a  relic  of  barbarism  and  a  crime  in  itself,  so  one-sided 
a  contest  could  not  be  invited  nor  even  accepted  by  Great  Britain 
without  distinct  disparagement  to  her  character  as  a  civilized  state. 
Great  Britain,  however,  assumes  no  such  attitude.  On  the  contrary, 
she  both  admits  that  there  is  a  controversy  and  that  arbitration  should 
be  resorted  to  for  its  adjustment.  But,  while  up  to  that  point  her 
attitude  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired,  its  practical  effect  is  completely 
nullified  by  her  insistence  that  the  submission  shall  cover  but  a  part 
of  the  controversy — that,  as  a  condition  of  arbitrating  her  right  to  a 
part  of  the  disputed  territory,  the  remainder  shall  be  turned  over  to 
her.  If  it  were  possible  to  point  to  a  boundary  which  both  parties 
had  ever  agreed  or  assumed  to  be  such  either  expressly  or  tacitly,  the 
demand  that  territory  conceded  by  such  line  to  British  Guiana  should 
be  held  not  to  be  in  dispute  might  rest  upon  a  reasonable  basis.  But 
there  is  no  such  line.  The  territory  which  Great  Britain  insists  shall 
be  ceded  to  her  as  a  condition  of  arbitrating  her  claim  to  other  terri- 
tory has  never  been  admitted  to  belong  to  her.  It  has  always  and 
consistently  been  claimed  by  Venezuela.  *  *  *  '  It  is  to  be  so  be- 
cause I  will  it  to  be  so,'  seems  to  be  the  only  justification  Great  Brit- 
ain offers.  It  is,  indeed,  intimated  that  the  British  claim  to  this  par- 
ticular territory  rests  upon  an  occupation  which,  whether  acquiesced 
in  or  not,  has  ripened  into  a  perfect  title  by  long  continuance.  But 
what  prescription  affecting  territorial  rights  can  be  said  to  exist  as  be- 
tween sovereign  states?  Or,  if  there  is  any,  what  is  the  legitimate 
consequence?  It  is  not  that  all  arbitration  should  be  denied,  but 
only  that  the  submission  should  embrace  an  additional  topic,  namely, 
the  validity  of  the  asserted  prescriptive  title,  either  in  point  of  law  or 
in  point  of  fact.  Great  Britain  has  arbitrated  the  extent  of  her  colo- 
nial possessions  twice  with  the  United  States,  twice  with  Portugal, 
and  once  with  Germany,  and  perhaps  in  other  instances.     *     *     * 

"  She  says  to  Venezuela  in  substance:  '  You  can  get  none  of  the 
debatable  land  by  force,  because  you  are  not  strong  enough;  you  can 
get  none  by  treaty,  because  I  will  not  agree;  and  you  can  take  your 
chance  of  getting  a  portion  by  arbitration,  only  if  you  first  agree  to 
abandon  to  us  such  otlier  portion  as  I  may  designate.'  It  is  not  per- 
ceived how  such  an  attitude  can  be  defended,  nor  how  it  is  reconcilable 
with  that  love  of  justice  and  fair  play  so  eminently  characteristic  of 
the  English  race.  It  in  effect  deprives  Venezuela  of  her  free  agency 
and  puts  her  under  virtual  duress.  Territory  acquired  by  reason  of 
it  will  be  as  much  wrested  from  her  by  the  strong  hand  as  if  occupied 
by  British  troops  or  covered  by  British  fleets.  It  seems  therefore 
quite  impossible  that  this  position  of  Great  Britain  should  be  assented 
to  by  the  United  States,  or  that,  if  such  position  be  adhered  to  with 
the  result  of  enlarging  the  bounds  of  Britislf- Guiana,  it  should  not  be 


798  LEADING  TOPICS  OP  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

regarded  as  amounting,  in  substance,  to  an  invasion  and  conquest  of 
Venezuelan  territory." 

In  conclusion  the  United  States  government  called  for  a  definite 
decision  whether  Great  Britain  would  consent  to  submit  the  boundary 
question  "  in  its  entirety  "  to  impartial  arbitration.  An  earnest  hope 
was  expressed  that  the  conclusion  would  be  on  the  side  of  arbitration; 
and  it  was  intimated  that  a  negative  answer  would  be  "calculated 
greatly  to  embarrass  the  future  relations"  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain. 

I  The  British  Reply. — Lord  Salisbury  replied  to  the 
above  note  of  Mr.  OIney  in  two  dispatches  addressed  to 
Sir  Julian  Pauncefote  (both  dated  November  26,  1895), 
in  substance  declining  to  recognize  the  right  of  the  United 
States  under  the  Monroe  doctrine  to  interfere  in  the  bound- 
ary dispute,  and  refusing  to  accede  to  the  suggestion  of 
arbitration  otherwise  than  under  the  limits  already  laid 
down  by  Great  Britain.  In  the  first  note.  Lord  Salisbury 
confined  himself  to  an  expression  of  his  difference  from 
Mr.  Olney  regarding  what  is  included  in  the  Monroe  doc- 
trine mainly,  as  follows: 

I.     LORD   SALISBURY  TO   SIR  JULIAN  PAUNCEFOTE,   NO- 
VEMBER 26,  1895. 

"  As  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  Monroe  doctrine  has  never  before  been 
advanced  on  bebalf  of  the  United  States  in  any  written  communica- 
tion addressed  to  the  government  of  another  nation,  but  it  has  been 
generally  adopted  and  assumed  as  true  by  many  eminent  writers  and 
politicians  in  the  United  States.  *  *  *  During  the  period  that 
has  elapsed  since  the  message  of  President  Monroe  was  delivered,  in 
1823,  the  doctrine  has  undergone  a  very  notable  development,  and  the 
aspect  which  it  now  presents  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Olney  differs  widely 
from  its  character  when  it  first  issued  from  the  pen  of  its  author. 
The  two  propositions  which  in  effect  President  Monroe  laid  down 
were:  (1)  That  America  was  no  longer  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  field  for 
European  colonization;  and  (2)  that  Europe  must  not  attempt  to  ex- 
tend its  political  system  to  America,  or  to  control  the  political  condition 
of  any  of  the  American  communities  who  have  recently  declared  their 
independence. 

"The  dangers  against  which  President  Monroe  thought  it  right 
to  guard  were  not  as  imaginary  as  they  would  seem  at  the  present 
I  day.  The  formation  of  the  Holy  Alliance;  the  Congresses  of  Lay  bach 
and  Verona;  the  invasion  of  Spain  by  France  for  the  purpose  of  forc- 
ing upon  the  Spanish  people  a  form  of  government  which  seemed 
likely  to  disappear  unless  it  was  sustained  by  external  aid,  were  inci- 
dents fresh  in  the  mind  of  President  Monroe  when  he  penned  his  cele- 
brated message.  The  system  of  which  he  spoke  and  of  which  he  so  reso- 
lutely deprecates  the  application  to  the  American  continent,  was  the 
system  then  adoptel  by  certain  powerful  states  upon  the  continent  of 
Europe  of  combining  to  prevent  by  force  of  arms  the  adoption  in 
other  countries  of  political  institutions  which  they  disliked,  and  to 
uphold  by  external  pressure  those  which  they  approved.  Various 
portions  of  South  America  had  recently  declared  their  independence, 
and  that  independence  had  not  been  recognized  by  the  governments 
of  Spain  and  Portugal.     It  was  not  an  imaginary  danger  that  he  fore- 


THE  VENEZUELAN.  QUP:STI0N.  790 

saw,  if  be  feared  that  the  same  spirit  which  had  dictated  the  French 
expedition  into  Spain  might  inspire  the  more  powerful  governments 
of  Europe  with  the  ideas  of  imposing,  by  the  force  of  arms,  upon  the 
South  American  communities  the  form  of  government  and  the  politi- 
cal connection  which  they  had  thrown  off.  In  declaring  that  the 
United  States  would  resist  any  such  enterprise  if  it  was  contemplated, 
President  Monroe  adopted  a  policy  which  received  the  entire  sympa- 
thy of  the  English  government  of  that  date. 

"The  dangers  which  were  apprehended  by  President  Monroe 
have  no  relation  to  the  state  of  things  in  which  we  live  at  the  present 
day.  There  is  no  danger  of  any  Holy  Alliance  imposing  its  system 
upon  any  portion  of  the  American  continent,  and  there  is  no  danger 
of  any  European  state  treating  any  part  of  the  American  continent 
as  a  fit  object  for  European  colonization.  *  *  *  Great  Britain  is 
imposing  no  '  system '  upon  Venezuela,  and  is  not  concerning  herself 
in  any  way  with  the  nature  of  the  political  institutions  under  which 
the  Venezuelans  may  prefer  to  live.  But  the  British  empire  and  the 
republic  of  Venezuela  are  neighbors,  and  they  have  differed  for  some 
time  past,  and  continue  to  diller,  as  to  the  line  by  which  their  domin- 
ions are  separated. 

"It  is  a  controversy  with  which  the  United  States  have  no  ap- 
parent practical  concern.  It  is  difficult,  indeed,  to  see  how  it  can 
materially  affect  any  state  or  community  outside  those  primarily  in- 
terested. *  *  *  It  is  not  a  question  of  the  colonization  by  any  Euro- 
pean power  of  any  portion  of  America.  It  is  not  a  question  of  the  im- 
position upon  the  communities  of  South  America  of  any  system  of 
government  devised  in  Europe.  It  is  simply  the  determination  of 
the  frontier  of  a  British  possession  which  belonged  to  the  throne  of 
England  long  before  the  republic  of  Venezuela  came  into  existence. 

"The  government  of  the  United  States  do  not  say  that  Great 
Britain  or  that  Venezuela  is  in  the  right  in  the  matters  that  are  in 
issue.  But  they  lay  down  that  the  doctrine  of  President  Monroe  con- 
fers upon  them  the  right  of  demanding  that  when  a  European  power 
has  a  frontier  difference  with  a  South  American  community,  the 
European  power  shall  consent  to  refer  that  controversy  to  arbitra- 
tion.    *    *    * 

"  Whatever  may  be  the  authority  of  the  doctrine  laid  down  by 
President  Monroe,  there  is  nothing  in  his  language  to  show  that  he 
ever  thought  of  claiming  this  novel  prerogative  for  the  United  States. 
It  is  admitted  that  he  did  not  seek  to  assert  a  protectorate  over  Mex- 
ico or  the  states  of  Central  or  South  America.  Such  a  claim  would 
have  imposed  upon  the  United  States  the  duty  of  answering  for  the 
conduct  of  these  states.  *  *  *  If  the  government  of  the  United 
States  will  not  control  the  conduct  of  these  communities,  neither  can 
it  undertake  to  protect  them  from  the  consequences  attaching  to  any 
misconduct  of  which  they  may  be  guilty  toward  other  nations.  It  is 
not  alleged  that  the  Monroe  doctrine  will  assure  them  the  assistance 
of  the  United  States  in  escaping  from  any  reparation  which  they  may 
be  bound  by  international  law  to  give.  Mr.  Olney  expressly  dis- 
claims such  an  inference  from  the  principles  he  lays  down.  But 
the  claim  which  he  founds  upon  them  is  that,  if  any  independent 
American  state  advances  a  demand  for  territory  of  wliich  its  neigh- 
bor claims  to  be  the  owner,  and  that  neighbor  is  the  colony  of  a 
European  state,  the  United  States  have  a  right  to  insist  that  the 
European  state  shall  submit  the  demand  and  its  own  impugned  righta 
to  arbitration.  > 


800  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

"  I  will  not  now  enter  into  a  discussion  of  tlie  merits  of  this  method 
of  terminating  international  differences.  *  *  *  Whether  in  any 
particular  case  it  is  a  suitable  method  of  procedure,  is  generally  a  deli- 
cate and  difficult  question.  The  only  parties  who  are  competent  to 
decide  that  question  are  the  two  parties  whose  rival  contentions  are 
in  issue.  The  claim  of  a  third  nation,  which  is  unaffected  by  the 
controversy,  to  impose  this  particular  procedure  on  either  of  the  two 
others  cannot  be  reasonably  justified,  and  has  no  foundation  in  the 
law  of  nations. 

"  In  the  remarks  which  I  have  made  I  have  argued  on  the  theory 
that  the  Monroe  doctrine  in  itself  is  sound.  I  must  not,  however,  be 
understood  as  expressing  any  acceptance  of  it  on  the  part  of  Her  Maj- 
esty's government.  *  *  *  International  law  is  founded  on  the 
general  consent  of  nations;  and  no  statesman,  however  eminent,  and 
no  nation,  however  powerful,  are  competent  to  insert  into  the  code  of 
international  law  a  novel  principle  which  was  never  recognized  be- 
fore, and  which  has  not  since  been  accepted  by  the  government  of  any 
other  country. 

"  The  United  States  have  a  right,  like  any  other  nation,  to  inter- 
pose in  any  controversy  by  which  their  own  interests  are  affected; 
and  they  are  the  judge  whether  those  interests  are  touched,  and 
in  what  measure  they  should  be  sustained.  But  their  rights  are  in 
no  way  strengthened  or  extended  by  the  fact  that  the  controversy 
affects  some  territory  which  is  called  American.  *  *  *  Mr.  Olney's 
principle  that  *  American  questions  are  for  American  decision,'  even 
if  it  received  any  countenance  from  the  language  of  President 
Monroe  (which  it  does  not),  cannot  be  sustained  by  any  reasoning 
drawn  from  the  law  of  nations. 

"  The  government  of  the  United  States  is  not  entitled  to  affirm  as 
a  universal  proposition,  with  reference  to  a  number  of  independent 
states,  for  whose  conduct  it  assumes  no  responsibility,  that  its  inter- 
ests are  necessarily  concerned  in  whatever  may  befall  those  states, 
simply  because  they  are  situated  in  the  Western  hemisphere.  It 
may  well  be  that  the  interests  of  the  United  States  are  affected  by 
something  that  happens  to  Chile  or  to  Peru,  and  that  the  circum- 
stance may  give  them  the  right  of  interference;  but  such  a  contin- 
gency may  equally  happen  in  the  case  of  China  or  Japan,  and  the 
right  of  interference  is  not  more  extensive  or  more  assumed  in  the 
one  case  than  in  the  other. 

"  Though  the  language  of  President  Monroe  is  directed  to  the  at- 
tainment of  objects  which  most  Englishmen  would  agree  to  be  salu- 
tary, it  is  impossible  to  admit  that  they  have  been  inscribed  by  any 
adequate  authority  in  the  code  of  international  law,  and  the  danger 
which  such  admission  would  involve  is  sufficiently  exhibited,  both 
by  the  strange  development  which  the  doctrine  has  received  at  Mr, 
Olney's  hands,  and  the  arguments  by  which  it  is  supported  in  the  dis- 
patch under  reply." 

After  quoting  Mr  Olney's  contention  that  "  any  permanent  politi- 
cal union  between  a  European  and  an  American  state"  is  "  unnatural 
and  inexpedient"  on  account  of  physical  and  geographical  conditions, 
and  because  of  the  dangers  of  complication  in  European  disputes  with 
which  America  can  have  no  primary  concern.  Lord  Salisbury  goes  on  to 
say:  "The  necessary  meaning  of  these  words  is  that  the  union  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Canada,  between  Great  Britain  and  Jamaica 
and  Trinidad,  between  Great  Britain  and  British  Honduras  or  British 
Guiana,  is  inexpedient  and  unnatural.     President  Monroe  disclaims 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION. 


801 


any  such  inference  from  his  doctrine;  but  in  this,  as  in  other  respects, 
Mr.  OIney  develops  it.     *     *     * 

"Her  Majesty's  government  maintain  that  the  union  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  territories  in  the  Western  hemisphere  is  both 
natural  and  expedient.  Ihey  fully  concur  with  the  view  which 
President  Monroe  apparently  entertained,  that  any  disturbance  of  the 
existing  territorial  distribution  in  that  hemisphere  by  any  fresh  ac- 
quisitions on  the  part  of  any  European  state  would  be  a  highly  inex- 
pedient change.  But  they  are  not  prepared  to  admit  that  the  recog- 
nition of  that  expediency  is  clothed  with  the  sanction  which  belongs 
to  a  doctrine  of  international  law.  They  are  not  prepared  to  admit 
that  the  interests  of  the  United  States  are  necessarily  concerned  in 
every  frontier  dispute  which  may  arise  between  any  two  of  the  states 
who  possess  dominion  in  the  Western  hemisphere;  and  still  less  can 
they  accept  the  doctrine  that  the  United  States  are  entitled  to  claim 
that  the  process  of  arbitration  shall  be  applied  to  any  demand  for  the 
surrender  of  territory  which  one  of  those  states  may  make  against 
another." 

Lord  Salisbury's  second  note  of  November  26  in  reply 
to  Mr.  Olney's  of  July  20,  is  entirely  historical,  reviewing 
the  whole  boundary  dispute  with  Venezuela,  and  setting 
forth  the  British  claims  as  based  upon  the  cession  of  Gui- 
ana by  Holland.  The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the 
substance  of  the  dispatch: 


II. 


LORD   SALISBURY  TO  SIR  JULIAN  PAUNCEFOTE, 
VEMBER  26,  1895. 


NO- 


In  contradiction  to  Mr.  Olney's  statement  that  the  boundary  dis- 
pute dates  back  to  1814,  Lord  Salisbury  contends  that  it  did  not  be- 
gin in  fact  until  after  1840. 

When,  in  1830,  the  republic  of  Venezuela  assumed  a  separate  ex- 
istence, its  government  was  warm  in  its  expressions  of  gratitude  and 
friendship  to  Great  Britain,  and  there  was  not  at  the  time  any  indi- 
cation of  an  intention  to  raise  such  claims  as  have  been  urged  by  it 
during  the  latter  portion  of  this  century. 

Sir  R.  Schomburgk  did  not  discover  or  invent  any  new  boundaries. 
He  took  particular  care  to  fortify  himself  with  the  history  of  the  case. 
He  had,  further,  from  actual  exploration  and  information  obtained 
from  the  Indians,  and  from  the  evidence  of  local  remains,  as  at  Bar- 
ima,  and  local  traditions,  as  on  the  Cuyuni,  fixed  the  limits  of  the 
Dutch  possessions  and  the  zone  from  which  all  trace  of  Spanish  in- 
fluence was  absent.  On  such  data  he  based  his  reports.  The  Schom- 
burgk line  was  a  great  reduction  of  the  boundary  claimed  by  Great 
Britain  as  matter  of  right,  and  its  proposal  originated  in  a  desire  to 
come  to  a  speedy  and  friendly  arrangement  with  a  weaker  power  with 
Avhom  Great  Britain  was  at  that  time,  and  desired  to  remain,  in  cor- 
dial relations.  In  1844  Lord  Aberdeen  made  certain  concessions  "out 
of  friendly  regard  to  Venezuela,"  and  proposed  a  new  line;  but  no 
answer  to  the  note  was  ever  received  from  the  Venezuelan  govern- 
ment, which  in  1850  was  informed  that  the  proposal  must  be  consid- 
ered as  having  lapsed. 

Lord  Salisbury  points  out  that  what  has  been  termed  the  "  Agree- 
ment of  1850,"  to  which  the  government  of  Venezuela  have  frequently 
appealed  as  prohibiting  encroachments  in  ^he  disputed  territory  by 
either  power,  has  been  repeatedly  violated  by  the  Venezuelans. 


802  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

The  claim  put  forward  by  General  Guzman  Blanco  in  1877  would 
have  involved  the  surrender  of  a  province  now  inhabited  by  40,000 
British  subjects,  and  which  had  been  in  the  uninterrupted  possession 
of  Holland  and  of  Great  Britain  successively  for  two  centuries.  Her 
Majesty's  government,  anxious  to  meet  Venezuela  in  a  spirit  of  con- 
ciliation, declared  their  willingness,  in  the  event  of  a  renewal  of  ne- 
gotiations for  the  general  settlement  of  boundaries,  to  waive  a  por- 
tion of  what  they  considered  to  be  their  strict  rights  if  Venezuela 
were  really  disposed  to  make  corresponding  concessions  on  her  part. 
The  Venezuelan  minister  replied  in  February,  1881,  by  proposing  a 
line  bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  the  proposal  made  by  Lord  Ab- 
erdeen in  1844.  The  lieutenant-governor  and  attorney-general  of 
British  Guiana,  then  in  England,  presented  a  report  showing  that 
in  the  thirty-five  years  since  Lord  Aberdeen's  proposed  concession, 
natives  and  others  had  settled  in  the  territory  under  the  belief 
that  they  would  enjoy  the  benefits  of  British  rule,  and  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  assent  to  any  such  concessions  as  Senor  Rojas's  line  would 
involve.  They,  however,  proposed  an  alternative  line  which  involved 
considerable  reductions  of  that  laid  down  by  Sir  R.  Schomburgk. 
This  boundary  was  proposed  to  the  Venezuelan  government  by  Lord 
Granville  in  September,  1881,  but  no  answer  was  ever  returned  by 
that  government  to  the  proposal. 

Lord  Salisbury  says  that  Mr.  Olney  is  mistaken  in  supposing  that 
in  1886  "a treaty  was  practically  agreed  upon  containing  a  general 
arbitration  clause."  It  is  true  that  General  Guzman  Blanco  proposed 
that  the  commercial  treaty  between  the  two  countries  should  contain 
a  clause  of  this  nature,  but  it  had  reference  to  future  disputes  only. 
Her  Majesty's  government  have  always  insisted  on  a  separate  discus- 
sion of  the  frontier  question,  and  have  considered  its  settlement  to  be 
a  necessary  preliminary  to  other  arrangements.-  Lord  Rosebery's 
proposal  made  in  July,  1886,  was: 

"  That  the  two  governments  should  agree  to  consider  the  territory  lying  be- 
tween the  boundary  lines  respectively  proposed  in  the  eighth  paragraph  of 
Senor  Rojas's  note  of  February  21.  1881,  and  in  Lord  Granville's  note  of  Sep- 
tember 15^  1881,  as  the  territory  in  dispute  between  the  two  countries,  and  that 
a  boundary  line  within  the  limits  of  this  territory  should  be  traced  either  by  an 
arbitrator  or  by  a  joint  commission  on  the  basis  of  an  equal  division  of  this  ter- 
ritory, due  regard  being  had  to  natural  boundaries." 

Seiior  Guzman  Blanco  replied  declining  the  proposal,  and  re- 
peating that  arbitration  on  the  whole  claim  of  Venezuela  was  the  only 
method  of  solution  which  he  could  suggest.  This  pretension  is 
hardly  less  exorbitant  than  would  be  a  refusal  by  Great  Britain  to 
agree  to  an  arbitration  on  the  boundary  of  British  Columbia  and 
Alaska  unless  the  United  States  would  consent  to  bring  into  question 
one-half  of  the  whole  area  of  the  latter  territory.  He  shortly  after- 
ward left  England;  and  as  there  seemed  no  hope  of  arriving  at  an 
agreement  by  further  discussions,  the  Schomburgk  line  was  proclaimed 
as  the  irreducible  boundary  of  the  colony  in  October,  1886.     *    *    * 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  statement  that  the  govern- 
ment of  Great  Britain  have  from  the  first  held  the  same  view  as  to 
the  extent  of  territory  which  they  are  entitled  to  claim  as  a  matter  of 
right.  It  comprised  the  coast  line  up  to  the  river  Amacuro  and  the 
whole  basin  of  the  Essequibo  river  and  its  tributaries.  A  portion  of 
that  claim,  however,  they  have  always  been  willing  to  waive  alto- 
gether; in  regard  to  another  portion,  they  have  been  and  continue  to 
be  perfectly  ready  to  submit  the  question  of  their  title  to  arbitration. 
As  regards  the  rest,  that  which  lies  within  the  so-called  Schomburgk 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  803 

line,  they  do  not  consider  that  the  rights  of  Great  Britain  are  open  to 
question.  Even  within  tliat  line  they  have,  on  various  occasions,  off- 
ered to  Venezuela  considerable  concessions  as  a  matter  of  friendship 
and  conciliation,  and  for  the  purpose  of  securing  an  amicable  settle- 
ment of  the  dispute.  If,  as  time  has  gone  on,  the  concessions  thus 
offered  diminished  in  extent,  and  have  now  been  withdrawn,  this  has 
been  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  gradual  spread  over  the  country 
of  British  settlements,  which  Her  Majesty's  government  cannot  in 
justice  to  the  inhabitants  offer  to  surrender  to  foreign  rule;  and  the 
justice  of  such  withdrawal  is  amply  borne  out  by  the  researches  in 
the  national  archives  of  Holland  and  Spain,  which  have  furnished 
further  and  more  convincing  evidence  in  support  of  the  British 
claims.     *    *     * 

Although  the  negotiations  in  1890,  1891,  and  1893  did  not  lead 
to  any  result.  Her  Majesty's  government  have  not  abandoned  the  hope 
that  they  may  be  resumed  with  better  success,  and  that  when  the  in- 
ternal politics  of  Venezuela  are  settled  on  a  more  durable  basis  than 
has  lately  appeared  to  be  the  case,  ber  government  may  be  enabled  to 
adopt  a  more  moderate  and  conciliatory  course  in  regard  to  this  ques- 
tion than  that  of  their  predecessors.  Her  Majesty's  government  are 
sincerely  desirous  of  being  in  friendly  relations  with  Venezuela,  and 
certainly  have  no  design  to  seize  territory  that  properly  belongs  to 
her,  or  forcibly  to  extend  sovereignty  over  any  portion  of  her  popula- 
tion. 

They  have,  on  the  cont.rary,  repeatedly  expressed  their  readi- 
ness to  submit  to  arbitration  the  conflicting  claims  of  Great  Britain 
and  Venezuela  to  large  tracts  of  territory  which,  from  their  aurifer- 
ous nature,  are  known  to  be  of  almost  untold  value.  But  they  can- 
not consent  to  entertain,  or  to  submit  to  the  arbitration  of  another 
power,  or  of  foreign  jurists,  however  eminent,  claims  based  on  the  ex- 
travagant pretensions  of  Spanish  officials  in  the  last  century,  and  in- 
volving the  transfer  of  large  numbers  of  British  subjects,  who  have 
for  many  years  enjoyed  the  settled  rule  of  a  British  colony,  to  a  na- 
tion of  different  race  and  language  whose  political  system  is  subject 
to  frequent  disturbance,  and  whose  institutions  as  yet  too  often  afford 
very  inadequate  protection  to  life  and  property.  No  issue  of  this  de- 
scription has  ever  been  involved  in  the  questions  which  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  have  consented  to  submit  to  arbitration;  and 
Her  Majesty's  government  are  convinced  that  in  similar  circumstances 
the  government  of  the  United  States  would  be  equally  firm  in  declin- 
ing to  entertain  proposals  of  such  a  nature. 

The  President's  Special  Message. — On  Decem- 
ber 17  President  Cleveland  submitted  to  congress  the  cor- 
respondence in  the  case  which  had  passed  between  the 
British  and  United  States  governments,  accompanying  it 
with  a  special  message,  the  appearance  of  which  seems  des- 
tined to  be  referred  to  hereafter  as  one  of  the  most  striking 
features  of  his  administration.  He  vigorously  upheld  the 
position  taken  by  Mr.  Olney;  and  asked  for  authority  from 
congress  to  appoint  a  commission  to  determine  the  merits 
of  the  boundary  dispute  as  a  preliminary  to  a  final  deci- 
sion by  this  government  as  to  its  course  of  conduct  in  the 
case.     In  substance  the  message  was  as  follows: 


804  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

After  referring  to  the  receipt  of  two  dispatches  from  the  British 
government  in  reply  to  Secretary  Olney's  dispatch  of  July  20,  and 
briefly  indicating  the  British  view  of  the  inapplicability  of  the  Mon- 
roe doctrine  to  the  present-day  dispute  of  Great  Britain  and  Venezu- 
ela, the  president  goes  on  to  say: 

"It  may  not  be  amiss  to  suggest  that  the  doctrine  upon  which 
we  stand  is  strong  and  sound  because  its  enforcement  is  important  to 
our  peace  and  safety  as  a  nation,  and  is  essential  to  the  integrity  of 
our  free  institutions  and  the  tranquil  maintenance  of  our  distinctive 
form  of  government.  It  was  intended  to  apply  to  every  stage  of  our 
national  life,  and  cannot  become  obsolete  while  our  republic  en- 
dures. If  the  balance  of  power  is  justly  a  cause  for  jealous  anxiety 
among  the  governments  of  the  Old  World  and  a  subject  for  our  abso- 
lute non-interference,  none  the  less  is  an  observance  of  the  Monroe 
doctrine  of  vital  concern  to  our  people  and  their  government.  As- 
suming, therefore,  that  we  may  properly  insist  upon  this  doctrine 
without  regard  to  *  the  state  of  things  in  which  we  live,'  or  any  changed 
conditions  here  or  elsewhere,  it  is  not  apparent  why  this  application 
may  not  be  invoked  in  the  present  controversy. 

."If  a  European  power,  by  an  extension  of  its  boundaries,  takes 
possession  of  the  territory  of  one  of  our  neighboring  republics  against 
its  will  and  in  derogation  of  its  rights,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  to 
that  extent  such  European  power  does  not  thereby  attempt  to  extend 
its  system  of  government  to  that  portion  of  this  continent  which  is 
thus  taken. 

"This  is  the  precise  action  which  President  Monroe  declared  to 
be  'dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety;'  and  it  can  make  no  difference 
whether  the  European  system  is  extended  by  an  advance  of  frontier 
or  otherwise.     ♦    *    * 

"Practically,  the  principle  for  which  we  contend  has  peculiar,  if 
not  exclusive,  relation  to  the  United  States.  It  may  not  have  been 
admitted  in  so  many  words  to  the  code  of  international  law;  but  since, 
in  international  counsels,  every  nation  is  entitled  to  rights  belonging 
to  it,  if  the  enforcement  of  the  Monroe  doctrine  is  something  we  may 
justly  claim,  it  has  its  place  in  the  code  of  international  law  as  cer- 
tainly and  as  securely  as  if  it  were  specifically  mentioned;  and  when 
the  United  States  is  a  suitor  before  the  high  tribunal  that  administers 
international  law,  the  question  to  determine  is  whether  or  not  we  pre- 
sent claims  which  the  justice  of  that  code  of  law  can  find  to  be  right 
and  valid. 

"The  Monroe  doctrine  finds  its  recognition  in  the  principles  of 
international  law  which  are  based  upon  the  theory  that  every  nation 
shall  have  its  rights  protected  and  its  just  claims  enforced. 

"Of  course,  this  government  is  entirely  confident  that,  under  the 
sanction  of  this  doctrine,  we  have  clear  rights  and  undoubted  claims. 
Nor  is  this  ignored  in  the  British  reply.  The  prime  minister,  while 
not  admitting  that  the  Monroe  doctrine  is  applicable  to  present  con- 
ditions, states: 

'  '  In  declaring  that  the  United  States  would  resist  any  such  enterprise  if  it 
was  contemplated.  President  Monroe  adopted  a  policy  which  received  the  entire 
sympathy  of  the  English  government  of  that  date.'  *  *  *  Againhesays:  'They 
(Her  Majesty's  government)  fully  concur  with  the  view  which  President  Monroe 
apparently  entertained,  that  any  disturbance  of  the  existing  territorial  distri- 
bution in  that  hemisphere  by  any  fresh  acquisitions  on  the  part  of  any  Euro- 
pean state,  would  be  a  highly  inexpedient  change.' 

"  In  the  belief  that  the  doctrine  for  which  we  contend  was  clear 
and  definite,  that  it  was  founded  upon  substantial  considerations  and 


I 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  805 

ivolved  our  safety  and  welfare,  tliat  it  was  fully  applicable  to  our 
present  conditions  and  to  the  state  of  the  world's  progress,  and  that 
it  was  directly  related  to  the  pending  controversy,  and  without  any 
conviction  as  to  the  final  merits  of  the  dispute,  but  anxious  to  learn 
in  a  satisfactory  and  conclusive  manner  whether  Great  Britain  sought 
under  a  claim  of  boundary  to  extend  her  possessions  on  this  continent 
without  right,  or  whether  she  merely  sought  possession  of  territory 
fairly  included  within  her  lines  of  ownership, — this  government  pro- 
posed to  the  government  of  Great  Britain  a  resort  to  arbitration  as 
the  proper  means  of  set- 
tling the  question,  to  the 
end  that  a  vexatious  boun- 
dary dispute  between  the 
two  contestants  might  be 
determined,  and  our  exact 
standing  and  relation  in 
respect  to  the  controversy 
might  be  made  clear. 

"It  will  be  seen  from 
the  correspondence  here- 
with submitted  that  this 
proposition  has  been  de- 
clined by  the  British  gov- 
ernment upon  grounds 
which,  in  the  circum- 
stances, seem  to  be  far 
from  satisfactory. 

"It  is  deeply  disap- 
pointing that  such  an  ap- 
peal, actuated  by  the  most 
friendly  feelings  toward 
both  nations  directly  con- 
cerned, addressed  to  the 
sense  of  justice  and  to  the 
magnanimity  of  one  of  the 
great  powers  of  the  world, 
and  touching  its  relations 
to  one  comparatively  weak 
and  small,  should  have 
produced  no  better  re- 
sults. 

"The  course  to  be  pursued  by  this  government,  in  view  of  the 
present  condition,  does  not  appear  to  admit  of  serious  doubt.  Having 
labored  faithfully  for  many  years  to  induce  Great  Britain  to  submit 
this  dispute  to  impartial  arbitration,  and  having  been  finally  apprised 
of  her  refusal  to  do  so,  nothing  remains  but  to  accept  the  situation, 
to  recognize  its  plain  requirements,  and  to  deal  with  it  accordingly. 

"Great  Britain's  present  proposition  has  never  thus  far  been  re- 
garded as  admissible  by  Venezuela,  though  any  adjustment  of  the 
boundary  which  that  country  may  deem  for  her  advantage  and  may 
enter  into  of  her  own  free  will  cannot,  of  course,  be  objected  to  by 
the  United  States. 

"  Assuming,  however,  that  the  attitude  of  Venezuela  will  remain 
unchanged,  the  dispute  has  reached  such  a  sfage  as  to  make  it  now 
incumbent  upon  the  United  States  to  take  measures  to  determine  with 
sufficient  certainty  for  its  justification  what  is  the  true  divisional  line 


HON.   ROBERT  R.  HITT  OF  ILLINOIS, 
REPUBLICAN   MEMBER  OF  CONGRESS. 


806  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

between  tbe  republic  of  Venezuela  and  British  Guiana.  The  inquiry 
to  that  end  should,  of  course,  be  conducted  carefully  and  judicially, 
and  due  weight  should  be  given  to  all  available  evidence,  records,  and 
facts  in  support  of  the  claims  of  both  parties. 

"  In  order  that  such  an  examination  should  be  prosecuted  in  a 
thorough  and  satisfactory  manner,  I  suggest  that  the  congress  make 
an  adequate  appropriation  for  the  expenses  of  a  commission,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  executive,  who  shall  make  the  necessary  investiga- 
tion, and   report    upon   the   matter   with   the   least   possible   delay. 

When  such  report  is  made 
and  accepted,  it  will,  in  my 
opinion,  betheduty  of  the 
United  States  to  resist  by 
every  means  in  its  power, 
as  a  wilful  aggression  up- 
on its  rights  and  interests, 
the  appropriation  by  Great 
Britain  of  any  lands,  or 
the  exercise  o  f  govern- 
mental jurisdiction  over 
any  territory,  which  after 
investigation  we  have  de- 
termined of  right  belongs 
to  Venezuela.  In  making 
these  recommendations  I 
am  fully  alive  to  the  re- 
sponsibility incurred,  and 
keenly  realize  all  the  con- 
sequences that  may  fol- 
low. I  am,  nevertheless, 
firm  in  my  conviction  that 
while  it  is  a  grievous  thing 
to  contemplate  the  two 
great  English-speaking 
people  of  the  world  as  be- 
ing otherwise  than  friend- 
ly competitors  in  the  on- 
ward  march  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  strenuous  and 
worthy  rivals  in  all  the 
arts  of  peace,  there  is  no 
calamity  which  a  great  nation  can  invite  which  equals  that  which  fol- 
lows a  supine  submission  to  wrong  and  injustice  and  the  consequent 
loss  of  national  self-respect  and  honor,  beneath  which  are  shielded 
and  defended  a  people's  safety  and  greatness." 

Congressional  Action. — The  message  was  received 
by  congress  with  demonstrations  of  enthusiastic  approval 
of  its  vigorous  spirit  of  Americanism.  A  bill  introduced 
by  Representative  Hitt  of  Illinois,  appropriating  1100,000 
for  the  expenses  of  the  commission  of  inquiry  suggested 
by  the  president,  was  immediately  and  unanimously  passed 
by  the  house,  December  18.  In  the  senate  more  hesita- 
tion was  shown.  It  was  thought  by  some  that  the  deliber- 
ative branch  should  have  a  voice  in  the  selection  gf  the 


HON,   WM.   B.   CHANDLER  OF  NEAV  HAMPSHIRE, 
RBPDBLICAN    UNITED   STATES   SENATOR. 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  807 

commissioners;  by  others,  that  a  definite  time  should  beset, 
within  whieli  the  commissioners  should  report;  by  others, 
that  a  statement  of  the  Monroe  doctrine  should  be  incor- 
porated in  the  bill.  Several  amendments  were  offered  by 
the  committee  on  foreign  relations;  but,  while  the  details 
of  the  bill  were  questioned,  tliere  was  no  criticism  of  the 
position  taken  by  the  president;  and  on  December  20,  aftei 
cogent  speeches  from  Mr.  Piatt  (Conn.),  Mr.  Chandler 
(N.  H.),  Mr.  Lodge  (Mass.),  and  others,  the  proposed 
amendments  were  laid  aside,  and  the  bill  as  it  came  from 
the  house  was  passed  unanimously.  It  was  feared  that 
any  amendment  might  be  interpreted  as  a  hesitation  on 
the  part  of  the  senate  to  sustain  the  president  in  his  posi- 
tion. 

For  a  short  time  it  looked  as  if  Mr.  Cleveland  would 
command  almost  universal  indorsement  throughout  the 
country.  A  majority  of  the  press  applauded  the  message 
as  American,  vigorous,  and  just;  and  many  of  the  govern- 
ors of  the  states  expressed  sympathy  with  its  spirit.  It 
was,  however,  no  secret,  that  even  in  congress  there  were 
influential  men,-  both  republicans  and  democrats,  who 
questioned  the  president's  interpretation  of  the  Monroe 
doctrine,  and  especially  the  wisdom  of  the  step  he  took  in 
confronting  Great  Britain,  before  the  actual  merits  of  the 
boundary  dispute  were  determined,  with  an  implied  threat 
of  war.  Presently  a  very  strong  and  emphatic  current  of 
protest  manifested  itself  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  A 
number  of  influential  journals — among  them  the  Xew 
York  World,  Herald,  and  Uvening  Post,  the  Boston 
Herald  and  Transcript,  the  Baltimore  JSun,  and  others 
— arraigned  the  president  more  or  less  vigorously.  Pro- 
tests were  uttered  by  many  prominent  university  pro- 
fessors, lawyers,  financiers,  and  clergymen — such  as  Prof, 
von  Hoist  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  an  authority  on 
American  constitutional  history;  Prof.  T.  S.  Woolsey  of| 
Yale,  an  authority  on  international  law;  Pres.  Hyde  of  I 
Bowdoin  College;  Mr.  James  C.  Carter  of  the  New^  York' 
bar;  ex-Mayor  A.  S.  Hewett  of  N.  Y.  city;  Rev.  Dr. 
Lyman  Abbott;  and  others.  On  the  other  hand,  among 
those  who  approved  the  message,  we  note  the  names  of 
the  well-known  American  historian  Prof.  J.  B.  McMaster 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  Prof.  Huffcut  of  Cor- 
nell; Prof.  Sumner  and  Prof.  Hadly  of  Yale;  ex-Minister 
Robert  T.  Lincoln;  Gen.  R.  A.  Alger;  Mr.  Chauncey  M. 
Depew;  and  others. 

In  England  the  publication  of  the  message  caused  a 

Vol.  5.-52. 


808  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr..  1895. 

profound  agitation,  its  tenor  being  noted  with  amazement, 
and  arousing  no  little  resentment.  That  a  particular 
method  of  settling  a  dispute  between  two  powers  should 
be  dictated  by  a  third  power  not  primarily  concerned,  or 
that  a  frontier  of  any  portion  of  the  dominions  of  one  power 
should  be  established  by  dictation  from  another  power  under 
threat  of  war — these  were  propositions  which  it  was  felt 
no  self-respecting  nation  could  for  a  moment  entertain. 
In  this  view  of  the  case  Great  Britain  was  backed  up  by 
the  greater  portion  of  the  press  of  Europe,  Russia  being 
the  only  great  power  which  up  to  the  eud  of  the  year  had 
not  manifested  a  distinct  bias  against  the  interpretation 
placed  by  the  United  States  government  upon  the  Mon- 
roe doctrine  as  a  menace  to  every  power  having  colonial 
possessions  in  any  part  )t  the  world. 

In  Venezuela  the  message  naturally  aroused  great  en- 
thusiasm, strengthened  the  popular  expectation  of  ultimate 
support  from  the  United  States,  and  greatly  stimulated 
the  anti-British  war  feeling.  In  fact,  the  possibility  that 
some  of  the  rather  turbulent  populace  may  be  prompted 
at  any  moment  to  commit  an  overt  act  of  hostility,  and 
thus  precipitate  an  armed  struggle,  is  felt  to  be  one  of  the 
uncertainties  of  the  situation  at  the  end  of  1895. 

The  Boundary  Commission. — Under  the  authority 
conferred  upon  him  by  congress.  President  Cleveland 
promptly  selected  a  commission  "  to  investigate  and  re- 
port upon  the  true  location  of  the  divisional  line  between 
the  territory  of  the  republic  of  Venezuela  and  that  of  Brit- 
ish Guiana."  The  commissioners  are  to  report  to  the 
president  '^  with  as  little  delay  as  is  compatible  with  the 
thorough  and  impartial  consideration  of  the  subject  to  be 
dealt  with."  The  personnel  of  the  commission,  announced 
January  1,  1896,  is  as  follows: 

David  J.  Brewer,  republican,  of  Kansas,  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  elected  president. 

Richard  H.  Alvey,  democrat,  of  Maryland,  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Andrew  D.  White,  republican,  of  New  York,  ex-president  of 
Cornell  University,  and  ex-minister  to  Germany  and  Russia. 

Frederick  R.  Coudert.  democrat,  of  New  York,  who  was  one 
of  the  counsel  for  the  United  States  in  the  Bering  sea  arbitration. 

Daniel  C.  Oilman  of  Maryland,  president  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  who  is  said  to  be  "with  republican  leanings." 

Brewer,  David  Josiah,  was  born  in  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor,  the 
son  of  a  missionary.  Rev.  Josiah  Brewer,  his  mother  being  a  sister  of 
the  late  David  Dudley  and  Cyrus  W.  Field.  Was  graduated  at  Yale 
In  1856,  and  at  the  Albany  (N.  Y.)  Law  School.  Practiced  law  in 
Leavenworth,  Kan.,  from  1859  until  his  elevation  to  the  supreme  court 


THE  VENEZUELAN  QUESTION.  809 

bencli  in  1889.  In  1861  be  was  appointed  United  States  commissioner; 
in  1862-65  was  judge  of  the  probate  and  criminal  courts  of  Leaven- 
worth county;  and  in  1865-69,  of  ihe  district  court.  Was  elected  jus- 
tice of  the  state  supreme  court  in  1870,  1876,  and  1882;  and  became 
judge  of  the  United  States  circuit  court  for  the  8th  district  in 
1884.  President  Harrison  appointed  him  to  succeed  the  late  Stanley 
Matthews  on  the  United  States  supreme  court  bench  in  1889. 

Alvey,  Richard  Henuy,  was  born  in  St.  Mary's  county,  Md., 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Hagerstown.  Was  imprisoned  in 
Fort  Warren  for  a  time  during  the  war;  and  was  afterward  active  in 
reorganizing  the  democratic  party.  He  was  on  the  judiciary  commit- 
tee of  the  Maryland  constitutional  convention  of  1867;  was  elected 
chief  judge  of  the  4th  circuit  under  the  new  constitution,  and  re- 
elected in  1882.  He  was  designated  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  ap- 
peals of  Maryland  to  succeed  Judge  Bartol;  but  this  place  he  resigned 
to  accept  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  the  federal  court  of  appeals  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  He  is  said  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  Spanish  language,  and  to  be  a  careful  student  of  history. 

GiLMAN,  Daniel  Coit,  was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1831,  and 
is  a  distinguished  educator.  Was  graduated  at  Yale,  and  has  travelled 
extensively  and  studied  abroad,  giving  great  attention  to  social, 
political,  and  educational  conditions.  In  1875  he  was  elected  the  first 
president  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  in  Baltimore.  Among  the 
many  works  that  he  has  written  is  a  memoir  of  James  Monroe,  which 
was  prepared  for  "  The  American  Statesman."  His  fame  as  a  scien- 
tist and  historian  is  world-wide.  Mr.  Gilman  is  said  not  to  be  affiliated 
with  any  political  party,  but  his  tendencies  are  inclined  to  the  repub- 
lican organization. 

White,  Andrew  Dickson,  was  born  in  Homer,  N.  Y.,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1832,  of  New  England  parentage.  Was  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1853,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an  educator.  From  1857  to  1862 
he  was  professor  of  history  and  English  literature  in  the  University 
of  Michigan;  and  from  1863  to  1866  served  in  the  New  York  slate 
senate.  In  1867  was  chosen  first  president  of  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  retiring  through  ill  health  in  1885.  In  1871  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  United  States  commissioners  to  report  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  annexation  of  San  Domingo;  and  in  the  same  year  was  chair- 
man of  the  New  York  state  republican  convention.  Was  minister  to 
Germany  1879-81;  and  in  1892  became  minister  to  Russia,  resigning 
in  1894.  He  has  been  one  of  Cornell's  greatest  benefactors,  giving 
liberally  of  his  own  means.  Besides  contributions  to  periodicals,  he 
has  written  Outlines  of  a  Course  of  Lecttires  on  History  (1861);  A 
Word  from  the  Northwest  (1863);  Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  Modern 
History  (1876);  The  Warfare  of  Science  (1876):  Paper  Money  Infla- 
tion in  France  (1876);  llie  Neic  Germany  (1882);  On  Studies  in  Gen- 
eral History  and  in  the  History  of  Cimlization  (1885);  A  History  of 
the  Doctrine  of  Comets  {1S8Q);  and  European  Schools  of  Histoi-y  and 
Politics  (1887). 

CouDERT,  Frederick  R.,  is  among  the  foremost  members  of  the 
New  York  bar,  and  was  associated  with  James  C.  Carter  and  E.  J. 
Phelps  in  presenting  the  arguments  for  the  United  States  before  the 
Bering  sea  tribunal  of  arbitration  in  Paris  in  1893.  He  is  classed  as 
an  anti-Tammany  democrat;  is  president  of  the  Manhattan  Club;  and 
is  recognized  as  a  brilliant  orator  and  shrewd  advocate. 

The  worst  result  so  far  felt  of  the  crisis  between  the 


810  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

British  and  American  governments,  has  been  in  the  finan- 
cial world.  As  a  result  of  the  stand  taken  by  the  presi- 
dent, the  difficulties  of  the  financial  problem  in  the 
United  States  were  at  once  greatly  increased.  (See  ar- 
ticle below,  on  ^'The  Financial  Problem.")  For  a  day 
or  two  business  in  Wall  street  was  deranged;  and  on  the 
London  stock  exchanges  American  securities  were  sold  in 
large  blocks,  railroad  securities  suffering  worst  from  the 
decline.  In  a  few  days,  however,  the  general  feeling  of 
uncertainty  and  distrust  gave  way  to  one  of  restored  con- 
fidence. The  pulpit  and  religious  press  in  both  countries 
were  unanimous  in  deprecating  any  warlike  spirit.  Cham- 
bprs  of  commerce,  trade  associations,  and  other  organiza- 
tions— religious,  commercial,  literary,  and  semi-political — 
passed  resolutions  urging  peace  and  deploring  the  tension 
of  feeling  that  existed.  That  the  eagerness  for  war  mani- 
fiested  by  the  so-called  *^  jingoes"  did  not  represent  the 
deep-seated  sentiment  of  the  responsible  portion  of  either 
people,  was  in  abundant  evidence. 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  admitted  at  the  close  of 
the  year  that  serious  difficulties  still  mark  the  situation 
created  by  President  Cleveland's  message  of  December  17; 
and  no  one  can  foresee  what  developments  will  follow  the 
report  of  the  boundary  commission  in  case  of  it  being  ad- 
verse to  the  territorial  claims  of  Great  Britain. 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 

A  FFAIRS  in  Asia  Minor  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Bos- 
phorus  at  the  end  of  1895  presented  all  the  elements 
for  one  of  the  great  crises  in  history.  The  crisis  itself, 
however, — the  point  of  actual  decision  and  new  combina- 
tion,— though  near  and  urgent. at  the  beginning  of  the 
last  quarter,  is  delayed.  Months  ago — indeed  ever  since 
the  dreadful  massacres  of  1893  and  1894  with  6,000  to  10,- 
000  victims — the  condition  of  the  Turkish  empire  was 
deemed  so  intolerable  as  to  be  nearly  incredible  though 
abundantly  attested.  It  seemed  impossible  of  continuance; 
forces  that  were  urging  the  crisis  were  many,  and  any  one 
of  them  might  in  a  week  or  a  day  precipitate  it.  The  new 
year  finds  the  intolerable  tolerated  and  even  clung  to,  in 
dread  of  the  unknown  and  unimaginable  that  might  suc- 
ceed it.     The  reluctance  of  the  great.  European  powers  to 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  Sll 

take  remedial  action  after  the  horrors  of  1893  and  1894, 
developed  in  1895  into  a  European  policy  of  avoidance  of 
action.  The  powers  thus  tolerating  the  intolerable,  would 
naturally  either  take,  or  seem  before  the  world  to  be  taking, 
the  position  that,  after  all,  the  condition  as  it  had  been 
reported  was  really  incredible;  that,  though  far  from  be- 
ing approved,  it  might  properly  for  some  time  indefinite 
be  allowed  to  continue.  The  recent  events  as  briefly  out- 
lined below  show  all  the  Christian  nations  in  this  general 
position,  though  with  some  specific  difference  in  the  atti- 
tude and  the  sentiment  of  Great  Britain.  The  accounts 
of  massacre  of  the  Armenian  Christians  are  from  reports 
by  eye-witnesses  or  from  other  trustworthy  sources;  and 
are  abundantly  corroborated,  in  many  cases  by  official 
statements  from  consuls.  Only  some  of  the  great  massa- 
cres— those  whose  victims  were  numbered  by  hundreds — 
are  here  presented;  meanwhile  a  riot  of  slaughter  and  pillage 
was  sweeping  over  the  hamlets  and  remote  little  villages. 
The  Armenian  Massacres. — The  massacre  at  Trebi- 
zond  by  soldiers.  Lazes,  and  Turks,  on  October  8,  is 
described  by  eye-witnesses  on  the  Austrian  steamer  Venus 
and  on  the  Russian  steamer  Azov.  The  Turkish  popula- 
tion, by  a  deliberate  movement,  rose  and  armed  themselves 
for  slaughter.  The  Armenians,  unarmed,  were  suddenly 
attacked  in  the  streets;  those  hiding  in  their  homes  were 
driven  out;  and  as  they  sought  to  escape  they  were  sliot 
down,  or  stabbed,  or  beaten  to  death  with  clubs.  One  of 
the  witnesses  writes: 

"  Tbe  street  is  tliickly  strewn  with  corpses;  women  are  screaming, 
cliildren  crying  for  their  parents.  Whole  families  have  been  destroyed. 
Six  hundred  Armenians,  if  not  more,  have  been  killed." 

A  statement  fully  indorsed  by  United  States  Minister 
Terrell  gives  the  number  killed  in  the  city  at  800,  and  in 
the  villages  adjacent  300.    The  correspondent  writes  later: 

"The  bodies  remained  in  the  roadway  a  day  and  a-half.  Two 
days  after  the  massacre  I  walked  through  the  town,  and  my  feet  were 
wet  with  the  blood  of  Christians,  for  the  pools  of  gore  were  often  so 
close  together  that  it  was  impossible  to  avoid  them.  *  *  *  On  a 
hill  near  Trebizond  are  some  Armenian  settlements.  They  were  sur- 
rounded and  set  on  fire.  Any  one  who  tried  to  escape  was  shot  down, 
and  the  people  were  burned  alive." 

The  Armenian  shops  in  Trebizond  were  broken  open 
and  plundered.  Two  significant  facts  are  mentioned: 
"Only  five  Turks  fell;"  and  "The  soldiers  and  police 
aided  and  abetted  the  work."^  These  facts,  well  corrobo- 
rated in  this  incident  as  in  many  incidents  similar,  show 


812  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

the  Turkish  official  reports  from  Constantinople  to  be 
nothing  else  than  a  tissue  of  lies — those  reports  which  de- 
clared in  regard  to  this,  as  in  regard  to  almost  every  other 
scene  of  outrage,  that  an  insurrection  of  the  Armenians 
with  an  attempt  to  put  the  Moslem  population  to  the  sword 
had  been  suppressed  by  the  troops,  and  that  perfect  order 
had  been  re-established  in  the  whole  region. 

At  and  near  Baiburt  in  the  same  district,  on  October 
13,  the  report  of  the  European  manager  of  the  United 
Press,  approved  by  Minister  Terrell,  states  that  500  Ar- 
menians were  killed  in  the  city  and  300  in  the  villages. 
Later  reports  make  the  number  in  the  town  1,000;  adding 
that  young  men  and  young  women  were  burnt  alive  at 
stakes,  and  many  women  outraged  and  horribly  mutilated. 

A  European  resident  of  Aintab  says  in  the  London 
Daily  Neivs  of  December  IG,  that  before  a  second  massacre 
began  there  on  IS^ovember  23,  the  commander  of  the  troops 
harangued  the  soldiers,  and  that  they  stood  looking  on 
while  the  Armenians  were  killed.  Telegrams  from  Con- 
stantinople dated  November  27,  reported  massacre  and 
plundering  at  Marash  on  November  18,  with  the  burning 
of  the  theological  school  of  the  American  Board  of  Mis- 
sions (Congregational)  at  that  place,  and  of  other  mis- 
sionary buildings.  The  lives  of  the  missionaries  were 
spared  on  account  of  their  American  citizenship;  but  Ar- 
menians were  ruthlessly  slaughtered,  to  the  number  of  1,000. 

Harput,  a  city  twenty  miles  east  of  the  river  Euphrates, 
witli  a  population  of  20,000,  and  environed  by  about  thirty 
villages,  was  the  scene  of  a  massacre  by  soldiers,  Kurds, 
and  Turks,  on  November  11. 

The  city  has  long  been  noted  for  the  prosperous  work  of  the  Ameri 
can  Board  of  Missions  in  establishing  churches,  and  such  institutions  of 
higher  education  as  till  very  recently  were  found  nowhere  in  the 
Turkish  empire  except  as  the  results  of  missionary  labors.  The  first 
church  began  with  two  members.  There  are  now  (or  were  till  last 
November)  in  Harput  and  its  adjacent  district  twenty  five  churches 
with  nearly  3.000  members.  There  is  a  Normal  school  for  training  of 
male  teachers.  Female  education  was  almost  unknown  in  that  part 
of  the  empire,  when  the  Harput  Female  Seminary  was  founded, 
which  institution  has  since  been  broadened  into  the  Euphrates  Col- 
lege, the  head  of  a  graded  system  of  uniform  study  comprising  also 
seventy  primary  and  intermediate  common  schools  and  seven  high 
schools,  with  a  total  of  about  4,000  pupils,  of  which  more  than  600 
are  in  the  college  or  directly  preparing  for  it. 

In  the  attack  by  the  Kurds,  about  1,000  Armenians 
are  said  (on  the  same  authority  quoted  regarding  Trebi- 
zond)  to  have  been  killed;  the  Armenian  houses  were 
plundered;  and  large  stores  of  food  and  clothing,  which 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 


813 


le  missionaries  had  gathered  for  the  aid,  during  this 
winter,  of  the  multitude  that  had  been  robbed  by  previous 
marauding  attacks,  were  destroyed  or  carried  away — leav- 
ing thousands  of  women  and  children  homeless,  almost 
naked,  and  starving.  Eight  of  the  twelve  missionary 
buildings  were  burned,  and  all  were  completely  sacked. 
All  would  have  been  burned  if  the  missionaries  had  not 
got  out  the  fire-engine  and  fought  the  fire  for  many  hours. 
The  Turkish  officials  or- 
dered them  to  quit  their 
buildings,  as  they  could 
not  be  protected  there; 
they  refused,  saying  that 
they  chose  to  die  there  if 
they  were  to  die.  Their 
lives  were  spared,  with  the 
loss  of  nearly  $100,000 
worth  of  mission  proper- 
ty, all  their  personal  ef- 
fects, and  the  fruits  of 
their  toil  through  many 
years  in  building  up  their 
educational  fabric.  More 
full  reports  of  Kurdish 
and  Turkish  atrocity  in 
the  two  provinces  of  Har- 
put  and  Diarbekr  (excluding  the  uncertain  reports  of  kill- 
ing) show  that  176  towns  and  villages  in  that  district,  con- 
taining 8,050  Armenian  houses,  were  burned.  Of  the  Ar- 
menian population  of  92,000  in  these  two  provinces,  15,845 
were  killed — evidently  a  large  majority  of  all  the  adult 
males,  leaving  their  families  to  suffer  and  perish  by  star- 
vation. 

The  massacre  by  the  Kurds  on  October  30  at  Erzroom, 
a  city  of  about  30,000  Moslems  and  10,000  Armenians,  as 
reported  by  a  correspondent  of  the  London  Times  of  No- 
vember 22,  was  directly  abetted  by  the  Turkish  officials 
and  fully  participated  in  by  the  Turkish  soldiers.  The 
troops  fired  volley  after  volley  at  the  Armenian  houses, 
then  looted  them,  and  murdered  all  the  inmates  remaining. 
The  most  authentic  reports  number  the  killed  at  800  in 
the  city  and  500  in  the  villages. 

The  massacre  at  Erzingjan  on  October  21 — 1,000  killed 
in  the  city,  900  (estimated)  in  the  villages — was  not  only 
unprovoked  but  also  unexpected,  as  the  Turkish  com- 
manders  had   expressly  promised  protection  against  the 


SIR  PHILIP  CURRIE, 
BRITISH  AMBASSADOR   AT   CONSTANTINOPLB. 


814  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895 

Kurds  and  had  •  searched  the  Christians  and  compelled 
them  to  give  up  their  arms  "to  prevent  trouble/"  Then 
the  slaughter  began,  and  two  days  later  the  dead  bodies 
were  carted  av/ay  in  heaps  and  tumbled  into  great  trenches. 
The  villages  were  burned.  All  supplies  for  the  coming 
winter  were  carried  off.  The  soldiers  gave  no  protection 
against  the  Kurds,  but  instead  joined  them  in  murder, 
rapine,  and  pillage. 

In  Cesarea  the  massacre  on  November  30  numbered  at 
least  1,000  victims,  with  the  usual  plundering  of  property 
and  outraging  of  women  and  girls,  in  which  the  soldiers 
joined  with  the  Circassians  and  Turks.  The  London  Daily 
Neius  of  December  16  says  that  no  well-informed  person  in 
Constantinople  doubts  that  the  pillage  was  under  direct 
orders  from  the  government. 

The  events  at  Zeitoun  in  the  Taurus  mountains  north 
of  Marash  show  that  the  Armenians  would  make  a  brave 
stand  for  their  lives  if  they  were  not  disarmed  and  hope- 
lessly outnumbered.  It  is  the  only  spot  where  they  have 
met  the  government  with  armed  resistance.  The  peace- 
ful and  industrious  people  of  Zeitoun  saw  their  country- 
men in  neighboring  j^rovinces  butchered  by  order  or  by 
consent  of  the  Turkish  goverument.  When,  early  in  No- 
vember, the  murderous  soldiery  advanced  against  them 
they  resolved  that  they  would  not  die,  leaving  their  wives 
and  daughters  to  dishonor,  without  a  struggle.  .  So  they 
seized  the  town  and  its  fortifications,  compelling  the  sur- 
render of  the  Turkish  garrison  of  GOO;  and  held  the  place 
against  large  bodies  of  troojis  sent  to  besiege  and  recapture 
it.  On  December  22  the  Turkish  army  bombarded  the 
place,  and  stormed  the  walls,  but  were  repulsed,  though 
the  Armenians  were  without  artillery.  It  is  scarcely  possi- 
ble that  the  Armenians  cau  hold  out  much  longer;  and  as 
it  was  understood  that  the  government  had  issued  orders 
that  the  recapture  of  the  place  should  be  followed  by  uni- 
versal massacre  sparing  neither  man,  woman,  or  child, 
the  representatives  of  foreign  governments  were  at  the 
end  of  the  year  taking  steps  to  dissuade  the  Porte  from 
perpetrating  such  a  horror. 

As  to  tlie  total  number  of  Armenians  butchered  at  all  places  of 
massacre,  only  a  conjecture  can  be  formed:  great  numbers  were  killed 
in  out-of-tbe-way  places.  The  total  is  variously  conjectured  from 
30,000  to  50,000.  In  some  larger  cities  and  towns  an  estimate  can  be 
made.  That  which  is  given  in  the  incomplete  table  below  is  from  the 
London  Times,  from  which  journal  the  following  items  also  are  taken, 
relating  to  seven  provinces.  Out  of  about  3,300  .Armenian  villages,  it  is 
estimated  that  2,500  villages  have  been  destroyed.     For  the  number 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  815 

"of  people  killed  in  these  2,500  villages,  no  data  are  accessible:  the 
Armenian  population  in  the  whole  8,300  villages  was  588,500.  In 
cities  and  larger  towns,  the  Armenians  numbered  177,700;  of  whom 
the  killed  number  30,000.  It  is  estimated  that  the  number  reduced 
to  starvation  in  the  large  towns  and  cities  was  75,000;  in  the  villages 
350,000;  total  425,000. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  ARMENIAN  MASSACRES. 


Name  of  town. 


Constantinople 

•Ak  Hissar 

Trebizond 

Baiburt 

Gumushane 

Erzingjan 

Bitlis    

Harput 

Sivas 

Palu 

Diarbekr 

Albistan 

Erzroom 

Ourfa 

Kara  Hissar 

Malatia 

Marash 

Aintab 

Gurun 

Arabkir 

Argana 

Severek 

Moosh 

Tokat 

Amasia 

Marsovan 

Cesarea !  Nov 

Gemerek 

Egin 

Zileh 

Se'er 


Date  of 
mas- 
sacre. 


Sep. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Nov 
Nov 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Nov 
Oct. 
Nov 
Nov 
Nov 
Nov 
Nov 


Nov. 


Nov, 


No 
No 

1.5 
No 
No 

15 

30 
No 
No 
No 
No 


No.     I 
killed.  I 


By  whom  done. 


172| 

45 
800, 

1,000 
No' 

1,000 
900> 

i,ooo; 

1,200 

4.50' 

2..500J 

300 

800 

.SOOi 

.500, 

21:0 

1,000 

No 

3,000 

2,000 

details 

details 

C 

details 

details 

125 

1.000 

details 

details 

details 

details 


Police  and  softas 

Moslem  villagers 

Soldiers,   Lazes,  and  Turks 

Lazes  and  Turks 

details 

Soldiers  and  Turks 

Soldiers,  Kurds,  and  Turks 

Soldiers.  Kurds,  and  Turks 

Soldiers  and  Turks 

Soldiers,  Kurds,  and  Turks 

Soldiers,  Kurds,  and  Turks 

Soldiers  and  Turks 

Circassians  smd  Turks 

Soldiers  and  Turks 

details 

Kurds  and  Turks 

Kurds  and  Turks 


Kurds 


Tnrks 

Circassians  and  Turks 


The  Riot  in  Constantinople. — Early  in  October  the 
Armenians  in  Constantinople  took  a  rash  step  before  the 
eyes'of  all  the  foreign  ministers,  which,  by  precipitating 
a  conflict,  gave  the  Porte  its  desired  pretext  for  greatly 
extending  its  outrages,  and  prejudiced  the  already  nearly 
friendless  Armenian  cause  in  the  eyes  of  the  world.  They 
are  a  people  that  have  no  helper.  Goaded  by  the  tales  of 
oppression  and  fearful  suffering  from  their  kinsfolk  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  and  losing  all  hope  of  help  from  the 
hesitant  and  timorous  diplomacy  of  Europe,  some  of  their 
nnmber  determined  to  force  the  issue,  and,  by  raising  a 
serious  disturbance  in  the  capital  city,  compel  the  Chris- 
tian nations  to  interfere.  The  origin  of  the  movement  is 
attributed,  probably  with  reason;  to  a  party  of  young  Ar- 
menian revolutionists,  the  Huntchagists,  wliose  visionary 
theories  of  society  and  government  have  within  a  few  years 
repeatedly  called  forth  strong  rebuke  and  warning  from 


816     *  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

the  American  missionaries.  The  demonstration,  known  to 
liave  been  long  prearranged,  took  the  form  of  a  presenta- 
tion to  the  sultan  of  a  petition  begging  relief  from  the  in- 
tolerable position  of  the  Armenians  in  the  provinces.  This 
was  presented  first  to  the  Armenian  patriarch  at  the  close 
of  a  great  service  on  a  church  festival  in  the  cathedral. 
He  was  entreated  to  summon  all  the  faithful  and  lead  them 


2      A      C 


s    e 


ua  '»*"••»• 


MAP  OF   THE  DARDANELLES  AND  THE  BOSPHORTTS. 

in  procession  to  present  the  petition  at  the  palace.  The 
patriarch  refused,  and,  turning  toward  the  congregation, 
exhorted  them  against  such  a  demonstration  as  being  both 
unlawful  and  sure  to  hinder  the  desired  reform.  He  be- 
sought them  to  remain  calm  and  patient,  and  then  withdrew 
from  the  church.  Immediately  the  congregation,  num- 
bering 2,000  or  3,000,  began  to  form  in  procession,  and, 
when  prevented  by  the  police,  dispersed  to  reassemble 
at  another  point.  The  police  were,  for  once,  in  the  right. 
The  citizen  may  indeed  petition  his  sovereign;  but  a  great 
assemblage  of  citizens  marching,  some  of  them  armed,  to 
the  sovereign's  presence,  must  be  recognized  as  a  revolu- 
tionary outbreak.  The  police  were  speedily  re-enforced 
by  the  softas — young  Mohammedan  theological  students 
numbered  by  thousands — who  have  a  fanatical  thirst  for 
Christian  blood,  especially  for  the  blood  of  Armenians, 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  817 

whose  presence  in  the  empire  they  deem  a  polhition.  The 
general  mob  of  the  city  soon  joined  the  softas,  and  scenes 
of  frightful  tumult  and  bloodshed  ensued,  continuing  for 
two  or  three  days.  The  helpless  Armenians  were  hunted 
out  in  street  or  home,  chased,  stabbed,  and  bludgeoned, 
or  thrown  by  hundreds  into  prison  with  prospect  of  tor- 
ture and  death  sentence.  In  the  riot  three  or  four  Turks 
were  killed;  the  number  of  Armenians  killed,  according 
to  latest  information,  was  172. 

This  riot  spread  consternation  through  the  metropolis, 
unnerved  the  sultan,  and  alarmed  all  Europe  with  its  sig- 
nal of  the  final  crisis  of  the  Turkish  empire — a  crisis  to 
eventuate  in  a  general  war.  But  the  only  actual  results 
were  the  fall  of  two  Turkish  cabinet  officials — the  grand 
vizier  and  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs — and  a  collective 
note  from  the  six  great  powers  requesting  of  the  Porte 
restoration  of  order,  release  of  innocent  prisoners,  and 
strict  inquiry  regarding  the  disturbances.  In  the  account 
of  national  interests,  and  as  Aveighed  in  the  scales  of  di- 
plomacy finely  graduated  to  infinitesimals,  the  mistake  of  a 
few  hasty  young  Armenians  was  heavier  than  ail  the  years 
of  oppression,  all  the  desolated  fields,  all  the  plundered 
homes,  all  the  mutilated  corpses,  that  have  made  one  of 
the  fairest  regions  of  the  world  a  desert  and  its  very  name 
a  horror  in  history. 

Chief  Causes  of  the  Trouble.— This  caption  is  al- 
most misleading;  it  is  as  though  one  should  speak  of  the 
chief  causes  of  disturbance  in  chaos.  The  Turkish  em- 
pire itself  is  one  agglomeration  of  disturbances,  political,  so- 
cial, racial,  moral,  religious.  The  empire,  considered  not  as 
to  the  heterogeneous  and  antagonistic  elements  in  its  popu- 
lation, but  merely  as  a  government,  has  little  right  to  be 
now  in  existence:  it  fails  to  secure  the  true  ends  of  gov- 
ernment, even  the  order  possible  under  a  genuine  despot- 
ism. By  its  nature  it  is  incapable  of  gradual  reformation. 
Its  inevitable  end,  near  or  remote,  is  destruction,  that  its 
place  may  be  taken  by  some  form — it  matters  little  what 
form — of  order  and  administrative  power. 

These  sweeping  statements — which  must  be  understood 
here  as  applying  to  the  government  and  not  necessarily  to 
the  Turks,  inasmuch  as  many  of  the  genuine  Turks  in  the 
vast  mongrel  population  are  not  in  accord  with  their  savage 
and  robber  government — are  statements  which  probably  have 
been  true  for  more  than  a  generation,  but  liave  become  the 
unavoidable  inference  from  the  events  of  the  last  quarter 
of  1895.     They  are  made  here  not  as  general  remarks,  but 


m  '  LEADING  Topics  OF  THE  QtJAtlTER.    4th  Qr.,  IS^^S. 

as  showing  the  difficulties  of  the  problem  now  pressing 
with  such  awful  urgency  on  the  sultan  himself,  and  on 
the  powers  of  Christian  Europe,  which,  for  reasons  of  their 
own,  have  thought  it  prudent  to  keep  this  corpse  of  a 
government  unburied.  The  sultan  is  said  to  have  the 
manners  of  a  refined  and  courteous  gentleman.  If  soft 
manners  in  this  case  mask  a  brutal  and  bloodthirsty  nature, 
Abdul  Hamid  II.  is  not  the  first  Oriental  ruler  who  has 
found  such  a  mask  convenient.  But,  whatever  the  fact  as 
to  this  may  be,  the  sultan  is  not  left  free  to  manage  his 
empire,  and  therefore  is  not  to  be  held  alone  responsible; 
for  he  is  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  Turkey  only  because,  and 
only  so  long  as,  the  European  system  keeps  him  there.  It 
is  too  much  to  assert  that  he  is  merely  a  piece  of  high 
power  moved  by  the  actual  players  on  the  chess  board  of 
Europe,  and  so  moved  by  one  as  to  block  the  other's  game; 
yet  the  history  and  state  of  the  diplomatic  game  might 
suggest  this.  "His  empire,  with  its  abuses,  would  end  within 
thirty  days  after  the  combined  powers  had  given  the  word, 
or  after  both  Great  Britain  and  Russia  together  had  agreed 
to  withdraw  from  it  their  support. 

Looking  first  at  the  disturbing  elements  within  the 
empire  itself — elements  not  new,  but  which  the  last  few 
months  have  brought  into  fiercer  action  than  before — we 
notice  as  general  the  following: 

1.  A  race  antagonism,  wliicli,  instead  of  being  reduced  or  modified 
by  governmental  policy,  has  been  fostered  and  used  for  sinister  pur- 
poses by  that  policy. 

2.  A  serai-barijaric  theory  of  government  in  a  form  of  despotism 
which  overrides  all  rights  of  individuals — even  the  right  of  the  inno- 
cent to  live;  which  denies  justice;  which  makes  official  corruption  its 
very  atmosphere;  which  habitually  violates  its  most  solemn  pledges 
whether  to  individuals  or  to  great  communities;  which,  by  scientific 
and  systematized  lying,  misleads  its  well-meaning  subjects  into  ap- 
palling crime;  which  either  directly  commands  or  indirectly  abets 
murder  and  every  most  horrid  atrocity,  and  this  on  a  scale  more  vast 
than  any  other  so-called  government  of  modern  times. 

3.  A  religion  which,  whatever  may  be  its  modicum  of  truth  and 
its  beneficial  influence  in  some  directions,  shuts  out  the  nation  from 
its  share  in  modern  enlightenment  by  encasing  it  in  intolerance  and 
self-conceit,  and  fosters  a  savage  cruelty  by  expressly  commission- 
ing its  votaries  to  make  converts  by  the  sword. 

What  can  Europe  expect  an  amiable  and  courteous  em- 
peror, even  if  his  intentions  are  as  just  as  his  manners  are 
soft,  to  do  with  a  government  whose  whole  fibre  and  nature 
is  woven  with  such  elements  as  these?  And  if  he  cannot 
or  will  not  do  anything  with  it  but  to  make  himself  and 
Europe  responsible  for  the  ghastliest  crime  of  several  bun- 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  819 

[red  years,  what  can  the  powers  do?  They  have  done  (so 
they  tell  the  world)  all  that  they  can  do.  Having  sent 
large  squadrons  under  six  flags  into  Turkish  waters,  they 
have  asked,  been  refused,  and  then  sternly  insisted  on, 
the  privilege  respectively  of  doubling  their  guard-ships  jn 
the  Bosphorus.  On  December  10  the  sultan  granted  the 
necessary  firman.  After  this  great  naval  achievement 
Europe  rested;  and  the  massacres  went  merrily  on. 

Looking  next  at  some  causes  of  internal  disturbance 
which  are  more  special  to  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the 
present  crisis,  we  note  the  two  following  as  in  some  degree 
new  to  the  world  at  large: 

1.  It  now  appears  that  the  empire  is  undermined  by  revolu- 
tionary coiispirncies.  These  have  not  sufficient  unity  of  object  to 
compass  the  government's  overthrow;  yet  they  represent  several  fac- 
tions that  enfeeble  it  and  at  any  moment  may  combine  for  its  destruc- 
tion. One  faction  comprises  the  Arabs,  who  regard  the  present  sul- 
tan as  a  usurper  and  impostor,  inasmuch  as  he  is  not  of  Arab  blood  as 
they  believe  that  the  caliph  of  Islam  must  be.  They  even  charge  him 
Avith  sacrilege  in  striking  out  from  certain  religious  books  the  pass- 
ages requiring  the  caliph  to  be  an  Arab.  Another  faction  denies  the 
sultan's  right  to  reign,  as  his  elder  brother  still  living  is  the  only  true 
sultan.  Another  faction  is  that  of  "Young  Turkey,"  in  which  are 
grouped  various  elements  of  political  disaffection  and  revolt,  such  as 
the  softas,  or  fanatical  young  Mohammedan  theological  students, 
also  nearly  all  the  college  students,  many  lawyers  and  doctors,  and 
even  many  army  and  navy  officers,  with  civil  officials  of  the  Porte. 
This  group  is  so  heterogeneous  that  some  leading  Armenians,  and  many 
Turks  who  would  readily  kill  an  Armenian,  are  together  in  it,  all 
equally  detesting  the  present  government.  In  it  are  those  who  at- 
tack the  sultan  for  his  intolerance  in  regard  to  creed  and  race,  and 
those  who  attack  him  for  too  easy  tolerance  of  Christians. 

Another  group,  the  sanest  of  all,  and  perhaps  the  most  central, 
and  giving  to  the  others  in  the  "Young  Turkey"  faction  its  own 
watchword  of  "Reform,"  is  the  constitutionalists,  who  demand  lib- 
erty, order,  and  progress,  and  who  denounce  the  sultan  for  violating 
his  solemn  pledge  to  Europe  and  to  his  own  country,  by  abrogating 
the  great  irade  which  he  issued  in  1877  a  few  months  after  his  reign 
began,  granting  to  the  empire  a  constitution  and  parliamentary 
government.  It  was  just  after  the  Bulgarian  atrocities,  which  had 
shown  Turkey  as  a  nuisance  to  the  world  and  as  a  danger  to  European 
peace.  Midhat  Pasha,  the  wise  grand  vizier,  seeing  the  peril  im- 
pending, drew  up  a  constitution  providing  for  civil  and  religious 
freedom,  popular  suffrage,  and  representative  government.  It  was 
promulgated,  elections  under  it  were  held,  the  sultan  in  person  opened 
the  first  parliament  on  March  19, 1877,  lauding  the  principle  of  liberty 
and  equality  for  all  his  subjects.  It  was  a  critical  hour  for  Turkey, 
an  hour  when  regeneration  and  a  new  life  of  honor  and  prosperity 
seemed  to  have  become  unexpectedly  possible  for  the  old  worn-out 
and  worm-eaten  empire.  But  no  such  new  life  was  believed  in  by 
the  two  representatives  of  the  European  system  then  chief  in  the 
conference  on  Oriental  affairs,— Lord  Salisbury  of  Great  Britain, 
General  Ignatieff  of  Russia.     They  proceeded  on  the  lines  of  standard 


820  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  TFIE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

diplomacy  with  no  regard  to  the  pledged  reform — as  though  they 
judged  it  a  mere  pretense.  The  British  ambassador  at  Constantinople 
saw  reason  to  put  faith  in  it,  but  could  not  persuade  the  prime  min- 
ister and  cabinet  to  believe  in  it  or  to  give  it  any  encouragement.  No 
other  nation  cared  aught  for  it.  Consequently  it  fell  in  its  first  en- 
counter with  one  of  the  giant  old  abuses  of  the  government,  and  a 
decree  of  the  emperor  abrogated  the  constitution  and  abolished  tlie 
parliament.     The  new  day  ended  with  its  dawn. 

The  Turco-Russian  war  of  1877-8  followed;  then,  the  darkness 
deepening  through  the  years  till  now.  The  reform  group  in  the 
"Young  Turkey"  faction  now  demand  that  that  constitution  be  re- 
established. 

2.  The  other  great  special  cause  of  difficulty  has  been  and  is  the 
immeasurable  depth  and  breadth  of  the  lying  which  is  now  seen  to  be 
the  chief  substance  of  all  Turkish  governmental  policy  both  domestic 
and  foreign.  That  policy  has  always  been  under  suspicion  for  insin- 
cerity and  duplicity  beyond  the  bounds  of  falsification  recognized  as 
usual  and  proper  in  civilized  diplomacy;  but  it  seems  now  to  be  the 
opinion  of  those  best  informed,  that  no  credence  whatever  can  be 
placed  in  Turkish  official  reports  or  declarations,  especially  in  those 
most  solemn. 

A  rapid  glance  at  the  action  of  the  powers  during,  the  quarter, 
and  at  Turkey's  response  thereto,  will  show  how  the  people  have  been 
deceived  by  their  government,  and  may  explain  in  part  the  attitude 
of  the  Turks  toward  their  Christian  countrymen  amid  the  recent 
scenes  of  horror.  For  the  pure-blood  Turk,  even  though  narrow- 
minded  and  taught  intolerance  by  his  religion,  is  not  naturally  savage 
nor  devoid  of  human  sympathy.  He  often  is  found  dwelling  in 
friendly  and  pleasant  relations  with  his  Christian  neighbors.  But  the 
Turk  in  Constantinople  and  the  undisturbed  parts  of  the  empire  knows 
nothing  whatever  of  the  facts  as  to  the  Armenians.  For  facts  he  is 
given  a  supply  of  enormous  lies.  Turkish  newspapers  are  under  strict 
censorship,  and  can  tell  the  people  nothing  unpleasant  to  the  govern- 
ment. The  respectable  Turk  reads  the  repeated  official  dispatches  an- 
nouncing day  after  day  that  in  one  province  or  city  after  another  the 
Armenians  have  risen  in  armed  revolt,  have  put  the  leading  Moslems 
to  death,  outraging  their  sacred  harems,  and  are  holding  the  whole  re- 
gion in  terror;  that  documents  have  been  discovered  by  the  police  and 
are  now  in  Constantinople,  revealing  an  Armenian  conspiracy  organ- 
ized and  supported  in  England  to  overturn  the  Ottoman  throne, 
divide  the  empire,  abolish  Mohammedanism,  and  reduce  all  Moslems 
to  slavery  under  Christian  masters.  Within  a  day  or  two  he  will 
read,  with  thanks  to  God  and  the  Prophet,  that  the  Armenian  insur- 
rection in  a  certain  district  has  been  quelled  after  fierce  fighting,  that 
its  bloodthirsty  leaders  under  arrest  have  confessed  their  treasonable 
plot,  and  that  perfect  order  is  now  restored. 

The  last  quarter  has  given  a  further  illustration  of 
Turkish  official  deceit,  in  the  history  of  the  well-meant 
but  hopelessly  inapt  attempt  of  the  powers  to  introduce  re- 
form of  those  conditions  which  had  produced  the  massa- 
cres of  1893-4.  It  was  this  very  attempt  at  protection  that 
brought  down  on  poor  Armenia  the  avalanche  of  1895. 
The  lesson  of  it  all  is,  that  against  Turkish  official  fraud 
and  deceit  nothing  avails  except  force,  and  a  force  sufficient 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  821 

Eo  crush.  Tlie  most  solemn  pledges  of  reform  are  given  only 
to  gain  delay  for  vaster  crime.  The  delay  has  been  allowed ; 
and  the  signs  now  are  that  the  hour  for  protection  of  victims 
has  passed,  and  that  little  remains  except  vengeance — a 
work  which  is  usually  taken  very  suddenly  out  of  human 
planning  and  ordering,  and  is  done  at  last  by  a  power  that 
works  thoroughly  and  that  uses  no  diplomacy.  But  we 
return  to  the  illustration  of  Turkish  deceit. 

On  May  11,  as  will  be  remembered,  the  powers  de- 
manded reforms  in  Armenia.  The  six  disturbed  provinces 
were  to  be  rearranged  geographically  with  attempt  at  eth- 
nological grouping  of  population.  Governors  were  to  be 
appointed.  Christian  or  Mohammedan,  in  every  province  ac- 
cording to  the  majority  of  the  people  in  the  province;  and 
in  every  province  a  deputy-governor  of  a  religion  diifering 
from  that  of  the  governor.  A  similar  assignment  was 
provided  for  subordinate  officials.  District  councils  were 
to  be  composed,  one-half  of  Mohammedans  and  one-half  of 
Christians.  Of  the  gendarmes,  at  least  one-third  were  to 
be  non-Mohammedans.  Prisons  were  to  be  reformed ;  Kurds 
to  be  disarmed  and  controlled;  farming  of  taxes  was  to  be 
abolished;  amnesty  was  to  be  granted  to  political  prisoners, 
with  indemnity  to  all  suiferers  from  outrages  at  Sassoun, 
etc.  The  rights  of  Christians  throughout  the  empire  were 
to  be  respected.  To  insure  these  reforms,  a  permanent 
committee  of  control,  of  three  persons  at  Constantinople 
approved  by  the  powers,  was  to  be  appointed. 

These  proposals  by  Christian  nations  deeply  wounded  the 
Mohammedan  pride,  and  were  soon  rejected  by  the  govern- 
ment. At  last,  under  continuous  pressure,  chiefly  from 
Great  Britain — to  which  power  had  been  committed  by  the 
Berlin  treaty  the  leadership  in  necessary  dealings  with 
Turkey  for  reforms — the  Turkish  government  issued  an 
irade,  published  on  October  17,  accepting  (with  some  un- 
desirable modifications)  the  general  scheme  of  reform  as 
finally  drawn  up  by  the  British,  French,  and  Russian  em- 
bassies. This  result  of  a  long  and  urgent  process  was 
hailed  by  the  public  in  some  lands  as  atriumph  of  civiliza- 
tion and  as  an  end  of  horrors.  No  long  time  had  elapsed, 
however,  when  it  began  to  prove  itself  the  signal  for  a 
series  of  massacres  whose  fiendish  atrocity  and  resultant 
suffering  to  survivors  are  probably  without  parallel  since 
the  Middle  Ages.  These  began  a  few  days  before  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  irade  of  reform,  when  it  had  become 
evident  that  that  concession  must  be  made  to  European 
diplomacy;  and  they  continued  for  six  or  seven  weeks. 


822  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

The  massacres  formed  a  systematic  campaign  whose  pur- 
pose was  so  to  reduce  the  Armenian  population,  first  by 
murder  of  the  bread-winners,  then  by  starvation  of.  their 
bereft  families,  that  Armenians  would  be  in  a  hopeless  and 
poverty-stricken  minority  in  every  district,  and  that  no 
Christian  governor  should  have  place  under  the  new  re- 
form in  any  province  or  town.  This  has  been  in  large  de- 
gree the  actual  effect.  Probably  it  was  intended  also  to 
give  Christian  Europe  an  object-lesson  to  the  effect  that 
nothing  was  to  be  gained  by  its  dij)lomatic  meddling  in 
Turkish  matters  when  the  Turkish  government  might  see 
fit,  as  in  1894,  to  slaughter  six  or  eight  thousand  of  its 
unarmed  Christian  subjects  and  to  plunder  and  burn  the 
homes  of  thousands  more. 

Inaction  of  the  Powers. — This  is  the  terrific  object- 
lesson  which  the  civilized  nations  are  just  now  pondering. 
It  is  not  yet  known  what  they  will  or  can  make  of  it,  for 
the  object-lesson  is  also  a  problem  dealing  with  the  most 
tremendous  issues  of  international  dynamics.  The  cause 
of  the  difficulty  is  perfectly  simple:  the  in'terests  of  the 
nations  clash  with  one  another  in  any  mode  of  settlement 
which  diplomacy  can  suggest.  No  theoretical  or  ideal  so- 
lution can  now  gain  a  moment's  consideration.  The  policy 
of  avoidance  has  the  entire  field.  Every  power  is  waiting 
for  some  unknown  wind  or  some  unimaginable  tide  to  favor 
its  supposed  necessities  for  new  territory,  or  its  necessities 
for  protection  of  its  colonial  communications,  or  its  neces-  - 
sities  for  strengthening  its  alliance  against  its  rival  allied 
powers.  This  condition  is  complicated  by  the  uncertainty 
of  the  national  alliances  which  seem  to  exist,  and  by  the 
kaleidoscopic  chances  and  changes  of  combinations  that 
are  constantly  appearing  on  the  diplomatic  field.  The 
press  has  teemed  with  tidings  or  presages  from  this  field, 
for  some  of  which  high  authority  has  been  claimed;  but 
probably  few  of  these  have  more  than  the  value  of  a  shrewd 
guess.  For  the  purpose  of  this  article  it  is  not  necessary 
to  discuss  rumors,  or  claim  either  special  insight  or  special 
information,  but  only  to  glance  briefly  at  the  attitude  in 
which  some  of  the  nations  present  themselves  by  their  ac- 
tion— or  rather  inaction — thus  far. 

Lord  Salisbury,  speaking  at  a  conference  of  the  colonial 
delegates  in  London,  November  19,  wherehe  made  public 
a  unique  communication  from  the  sultan — pledging  his 
honor  to, carry  out  Armenian  reforms — in  which  the  sultan 
urged  the  British  prime  minister  to  offset  by  another 
speech  the  effect  of  his  remarks  uttered  at  the  lord  mayor's 


THE  CRISIS  IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 


823 


banquet  a  few  days  previously — plainly  showed  Britain, 
as  formerly,  ready  for  decisive  European  action  for  secur- 
ing a  civilized  administration  in  the  Turkish  empire,  while 
maintaining  the  integrity  of  that  empire.  There  was  of 
conrse  only  one  possible  way  to  this:  there  must  be  joint 
action  of  the  powers;  the  allied  fleets  mnst  force  the  pass- 
age to  Constantinople,  and  give  the  sultan  liis  choice  of 
abdication  or  of  administering  the  requisite  reforms  under 
assurance  of  their  aid  and  protection.  But  such  a  plan 
was  impracticable  from  the  start.  There  was,  and  indeed 
there  must  have  been  known  to  be,  no  power  except  Italy 
ready  to  join  England  in  it.  Austria  was  mildly  favorable, 
but  fearful  of  precipitating  a  general  European  war,  in 
view  of  Russia's  traditional  policy  that  Turkish  adminis- 
tration should  be  left  to  go  from  bad  to  worse  until 
the  utter  collapse  of  that  empire  should  open  the  way  for 
Russia  to  seize  its  fragments,  and  especially  the  long- 
coveted  Constantinople.  She  would  not  be  satisfied  with 
mountainous  and  remote  Armenia.  At  that  time  it  was 
thought  fitting  to  speak  of  Germany  and  France  as  indiffer- 
ent or  neutral  regarding  England's  action;  but  events 
speedily  showed  one  or  both  of  them  strongly  opposed  to  a 
European  leadership  with  its  probable  result  of  a  practi- 
cally British  administration  at  Constantinople  such  as  is 
now  seen  in  Egypt.  It  is  understood  that  if  actual  parti- 
tion of  Turkey  (which  England  seeks  to  avoid  in  this 
crisis)  should  from  any  cause  ensue,  England  would  con- 
sider as  her  share  Egypt  and  Constantinople;  while  Aus- 
tria is  even  now  waiting  to  seize  Macedonia,  and  would 
claim  Salonica;  France  would  demand  Syria  and  Tunis; 
and  Italy  would  take  Tripoli. 

The  end  of  1895  saw  the  international  relations  of  the 
Ottoman  crisis  practically  unchanged  from  those  in  No- 
vember, except  that  the  antagonisms  had  grown  somewhat 
more  definite.  It  is  evident  that  England  and  Russia 
stand  each  in  the  other's  way  in  regard  to  any  forcible  in- 
tervention for  reforming  or  for  ending  the  Turkish  em- 
pire; and  that  conflicting  national  interests  would,  in  the 
present  state  of  feeling,  bring  all  the  great  powers  of  Eu- 
rope into  a  war  whose  tremendous  shock,  and  whose  devas- 
tation beyond  measurement  by  man,  would  be  one  of  the 
most  awful  horrors  in  the  history  of  the  human  race.  No 
statesman,  no  nation,  to-day  dares  force  such  an  issue. 
But  men's  feelings  rise  and  fall  in  tides;  and  if  mod- 
ern civilization  is  not  a  hollow  mockery,  the  nations, 
inspired  bv  higher  motives,  may  rise  to  the  noble  reason- 

Vol.  5.-53. 


824  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

ableness  which  carries  power,  works  justice,  and  makes 
peace. 

Attitude  of  the  United  States. — This  country 
holds  aloof  from  all  entanglements  on  other  continents. 
But  the  hundreds  of  American  citizens  working  with  large 
success  as  Christian  missionaries  for  the  enlightenment 
and  education  of  the  peoples  in  unfortunate  Turkey,  have 
properly  drawn  the  attention  of  our  people  and  our  govern- 
ment to  their  protection  in  life  and  property.  These  cul- 
tured men  and  women  have  suffered  great  privations,  have 
been  environed  by  frightful  perils,  and  have  had  narrow 
escapes  from  death.  Though  urged  by  officials  to  accept 
a  military  escort  and  retire  from  their  dreadful  exposure, 
they  have  refused  to  flee  for  safety  and  to  desert  those  who 
had  no  others  to  whom  to  look  for  help  or  pity.  They  re- 
main to  minister  to  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  to  care  for 
the  starving  and  naked  victims  of  cruelty,  disbursing  for 
this  purpose  the  contributions  from  this  country  and  Great 
Britain.  They  give  united  testimony  to  the  unceasing 
watchfulness  and  care  which  our  government  and  the 
United  States  minister,  Mr,  Terrell,  have  exercised  in 
their  behalf.  For  the  great  destruction  of  mission  build- 
ings and  property,  full  indemnity  has  been  demanded  by 
our  government,  and  will  be  exacted,  from  the  Porte. 

The  Red  Cross  Society,  under  the  lead  of  Miss  Clara 
Barton,  having  been  requested  by  the  American  mission- 
aries and  others  in  Turkey,  to  bring  its  superbly  organized 
force  into  action  for  distribution  of  relief  to  the  half-mil- 
lion Armenians  starving  and  freezing  in  the  ravaged  prov- 
inces, were,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  preparing  to  enter  on 
that  work. 


THE  FAR-EASTERN  SITUATION. 

T^HE  forces  which  determine  the  present  situation  in  the 
Far  East,  and  must  determine  its  further  development, 
are  partly  political,  partly  commercial  and  industrial.  It 
would  be  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of 
either. 

Political  Adjustments.— From  the  political  point 
of  view,  the  most  significant  sequence  of  the  close  of  hos- 
tilities between  Japan  and  China  has  been  a  virtual 
ranging  of  the  powers  having  special  interests  in  the  Orient 
into  two  opposing  camps.     On  the  one  side  are  ranged  the 


THE  FAR-EASTERN  SITUATION.  825 

three  powers  (Russia,  France,  and  Germany)  whose  inter- 
vention wrested  from  Japan  the  mainland  territory  she 
had  won  by  her  prowess  in  war  with  China,  and  whose 
subsequent  actions  point  more  or  less  openly  to  at  least  a 
partial  dismemberment  of  the  Celestial  dominions.  On 
the  other  side  we  find  that  the  policy  of  which  England  is 
the  chief  exponent — a  conservative  maintenance  of  the 
status  quo — and  to  which  Japan  has  been  driven  perforce 
— has  created  a  community  of  political  interests  between 
the  two  island  empires.  In  this  readjustment,  a  striking 
feature  is  the  commanding  diplomatic  position  secured  by 
Russia  with  French  aid,  and  the  evident  inability  of  Great 
Britain  to  rely  upon  European  assistance  iri  checking  the 
Muscovite  advance. 

When,  after  the  close  of  the  war,  Russia  came  to  the 
financial  assistance  of  China  by  guaranteeing  payment  of 
interest  on  the  indemnity  loan  which  China  was  forced  to 
raise,  no  one  supposed  that  her  action  was  disinterested. 
Either  a  specific  consideration  had  been  secretly  given  by 
China  in  return  for  Russia's  help,  or  Russia  sought  to  es- 
tablish a  lien  which  would  make  her  the  virtual  protector, 
if  not  the  dictator,  of  the  Celestial  empire.  Much  excite- 
ment was  therefore  caused  in  the  latter  part  of  October  by 
a  published  rumor  that  the  secret  of  Russia's  action  was 
at  last  out.  A  dispatch  from  Hong-Kong  to  the  London 
Times  purported  to  give  the  details  of  a  secret  treaty 
whereby  China  conceded  to  Russia  a  right  of  anchorage 
for  her  fleet  in  Port  Arthur,  and  the  right  to  extend  the 
trans-Siberian  railway  so  as  to  connect  Vladivostok  and 
Port  Arthur  by  way  of  Tsitsihar,  ns  well  as  to  carry  a 
branch  of  the  road  to  Moukden,  besides  certain  exclusive 
commercial  privileges.  The  Chinese,  it  was  said,  reserved 
the  option  to  purchase  the  railway  after  twenty  years. 

The  ratification  of  these  concessions  would  alter  the 
whole  aspect  of  the  Far-Eastern  situation.  Russia  would 
secure  not  only  a  "short  cut"  to  the  object  of  her  long 
desire — an  open  seaport — but  also  control  of  an  impregna- 
ble naval  station  which  would,  go  far  to  give  her  the  com- 
mand of  the  North  Pacific.  The  creation  of  two  Pacific  ter- 
viini  for  the  trans-Siberian  railway — one  on  the  sea  of  Japan, 
and  the  other  at  the  head  of  the  Yellow  sea — with  Korea 
between  them,  would  contribute  greatly  to  transfer  the 
alleged  title  to  suzerainty  over  Korea  from  Pekin  to  St. 
Petersburg.  The  very  independence  of  Japan  as  a  nation 
would  be  threatened;  and  England's  vast  commercial  in- 
terests in  China,  and  in  fact  the  whole  of  her  Pacific  trade, 


826  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

would  be  menaced;  while  the  possibilities  of  the  case  might 
even  extend  to  a  serious  affection  of  the  integrity  of  her 
empire  in  India  and  Australasia. 

No  evidence  confirmatory  of  the  alleged  secret  conven- 
tion had  come  to  light  up  to  the  end  of  1895;  but  students 
of  the  times  agree  that  its  provisions  comport  with  the 
well-known  aspirations  of  Russia  in  the  Far  East,  and  that 
concessions  of  some  such  nature  as  the  above  may  still  be 
looked  for.  In  one  respect  they  seem  not  unreasonable 
for  Russia  to  demand — namely,  as  regards  the  possession 
of  a  perennially  open  outlet  to  the  sea.  That  an  empire  of 
nearly  9,000,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  115,- 
000,000,  and  with  limitless  agricultural,  forest,  and  mineral 
resources,  should  for  any  reason — political  or  otherwise — 
be  subject  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year  to  physi- 
cal limitations  on  her  freedom  of  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  rest  of  the  world,  is  a  staUis  of  affairs  the  ex- 
pediency of  which,  even  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
self-interest  of  other  powers,  is  open  to  qaestion. 

The  first  instalment  of  the  Chinese,  war  indemnity, 
£8,000,000,  was  paid  to  Japan  through  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land at  the  end  of  October.  About  the  same  time,  it  is 
reported,  negotiations  for  evacuation  of  the  Leao-Tong 
peninsula  ended  in  an  agreement  whereby  Japan  consented 
to  accept  30,000,000  taels  (about  122,000,000),  to  be  paid 
in  November,  as  supplementary  indemnity  for  such  evac- 
uation, which  was  to  be  completed  within  three  months 
after  receipt  of  the  indemtiity.  Japan  also  agreed,  it  is 
said,  to  recognize  Formosa  channel  as  neutral  water,  and 
bound  herself  not  to  hand  over  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores 
to  any  other  power.  On  December  12  the  station  of  Port 
Arthur,  which  had  been  surrendered  to  the  Japanese  No- 
vember 21,  1894,  was  formally  restored  to  the  possession 
of  China.  Not,  however,  as  the  formidable  stronghold  it 
once  was — for  the  Japanese,  before  quitting  the  place,  had 
taken  care  to  disrobe  it  of  its  glory  as  a  naval  station. 
Fortifications  were  dismantled;  guns,  stores,  and  mechan-, 
ical  appliances  removed.  Only  a  few  elementary  acces- 
sories for  making  slight  repairs  to  vessels  cruising  along  the 
Korean  coast  w^ere  left  in  the  workshops  of  the  great  ar- 
senal. It  would  take  many  years  to  restore  the  place  to 
its  former  strength. 

The  Korean  "Coup  d'Etat." — Events  occurring  in 
the  Hermit  Kingdom  in  October  demonstrated  once  more 
tlie  difficulties  confronting  the  Japanese  in  their  work  of 
regenerating  that  turbulent  land. 


THE  FAR-EASTERN  SITUATION.  827 

It  will  be  remembered  that  after  the  successful  attempt 
of  the  queen  to  restore  pro-Russian  influences  by  the  over- 
throw and  exile  of  the  home  minister,  Prince  Pak  Yong 
Ho  (p.  554),  Count  Inouye,  the  Japanese  minister,  then 
in  Japan,  was  induced  to  return  to  Korea,  and  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  restoring  confidence  by  forming  a  ministry 
friendly  to  the  government  of  the  Mikado.  It  was  even 
thought  that  he  had  won  over  the  queen  to  favor  certain 
Japanese  policies.  However,  on  the  withdrawal  of  Count 
Inouye  from  Korea  about  the  beginning  of  September, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  General  Miura,  the  queen  at 
once  began,  it  is  said,  to  flout  the  authority  of  the  cabi- 
net, to  crowd  her  Ming  partisans  into  office  to  the  serious 
dislocation  of  the  new  finance  system,  and  to  resume  her 
influence  over  the  king. 

The  newspaper  accounts  of  what  followed  vary  consid- 
erably; but  it  is  certain  that  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  the  life  of  the  queen,  which  was  to  all  appearances 
carried  successfully  into  execution  on  October  8.  Among 
those  implicated  in  the  plot  was  the  Tai-Won-Kun,  father 
of  the  king,  and  long  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  queen,  of 
whose  ascendency  over  the  king  he  was  jealous.  The 
couj)  (Vetat  was  facilitated  by  the  discontent  of  the  newly 
organized  troops,  whom  it  was  the  wish  of  the  queen  to 
disband,  and  by  the  presence  in  Seoul  of  a  considerable 
number  of  Japanese  adventurers  who  had  flocked  thither 
during  and  since  the  war,  and  who  were  tainted  with  soslii 
tendencies  and  eager  for  the  complete  subjugation  of 
Korea  to  Japan.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  of 
the  Japanese  officials  in  Seoul  were  also  implicated,  at 
least  passively.  The  immediate  instrument  employed  for 
carrying  out  the  plot  was  a  battalion  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized troops.  It  seems  that  the  troops  were  threatened 
with  disbandment  on  the  charge  of  insubordination  be- 
cause of  collisions  with  the  native  constabulary,  which  had 
been  connived  at  by  the  queen  as  afiiording  a  basis  for  the 
charge,  and  that  they  were  easily  persuaded  to  avert  the 
punishment  by  recourse  to  violence.  Under  a  pretense  of 
petitioning  the  king  to  withhold  his  wrath,  the  battalion 
was  marched  to  the  palace  early  on  the  morning  of  Octo- 
ber 8.  A  considerable  number  of  Japanese  in  civilian 
dress  were  found  at  the  palace  gates.  The  guards  were 
attacked,  offering  only  a  desultory  resistance,  and  dispers- 
ing after  one  or  two  casualties.  Some  of  the  troops  and 
Japanese  adventurers  penetrated  to  the  apartments  of  the 
queen,  slew  the  minister  of  the  household,  who  impeded 


828  LEADING  TOPICS  OV  THE  QtJARTER.    4thQr.,l8§R. 

their  progress,  and  stubbed  to  death  the  queen  and  three 
of  her  female  attendants.  The  queen's  body  was  subse- 
quently removed  and  cremated.* 

The  Tai-Won-Kun  presently  arrived  at  the  palace  es- 
corted by  Japanese  troops,  demanded  audience  of  the  king^ 
and  forced  the  latter  to  sign  a  proclamation  deposing  the 
queen  and  degrading  her  to  the  level  of  the  common 
people.  He  at  once  assumed  control  of  affairs,  summoned 
a  number  of  partisans,  and  constructed  a  new  cabinet,  the 
king  in  the  meantime  being  practically  a  prisoner.  One 
motive  actuating  the  Tai-Won-Kun  is  said  to  be  the  desire 
to  set  his  favorite  grandson — a  son  of  the  king's  elder 
brother — upon  the  Korean  throne.  A  guard  of  marines 
from  the  United  States  ship  Yorktown  at  Chemulpo  was 
marched  to  Seoul  to  protect  American  interests. 

In  Japan  the  incident  evoked  strong  condemnation 
from  men  of  all  shades  of  political  opinion.  An  imperial 
ordinance  was  at  once  issued  prohibiting  Japanese  subjects 
from  visiting  Korea  without  special  permission.  General 
Miura  and  over  forty  members  of  the  legation  and  consu- 
lar staffs  in  Seoul  were  promptly  recalled,  General  Kam- 
ura  being  designated  successor  to  Miura. 

Count  Inouye  was  once  more  directed  to  visit  Korea 
with  a  view  to  disentangle  the  new  complications.  He 
reached  Seoul  about  November  1;  and  on  November  13 
it  was  announced  that  though  deploring  the  crime  of 
October  8,  he  had  nevertheless  decided  to  recognize  the 
ministry  formed  by  the  Tai-AVon-Kun  and  known  to  be 
friendly  to  Japan.  To  restore  the  old  ministry,  it  was 
thought,  would  be  to  some  extent  to  play  into  the  hands  of 
Russia.  The  Tai-Won-Kun,  however,  was  stripped  of  his 
authority  and  relegated,  at  least  for  a  time,  to  privacy; 
and  at  the  beginning  of  December  a  fair  condition  of  order 
had  been  restored.  Russian  influence,  however,  in  Korea, 
is  still  vigorously,  if  quietly,  at  work;  and  the  ultimate  des- 
tiny of  the  kingdom  is  yet  a  problem  of  the  unknown 
future. 

An  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  November  28  by 
partisans  of  the  Ming  faction  and  politicians  dissatisfied 
with  the  recent  turn  of  affairs,  to  avenge  the  murder  of 
the  queen  and  drive  the  new  ministry  from  power.  The 
mob  were  met  by  an  unexpected  display  of  firmness  by  the 
palace  guards,  and  quickly  retreated  under  fire,  leaving 

*NoTE— This  report  of  the  queen's  death  has  not  been  absoUitely  confirmed. 
It  Is  noted  that  a  former  attempt  upon  her  hfe,  made  in  1882,  was  followed  by 
her  disappearance;  but  that  three  years  later  she  emerged  from  the  retreat  ia 
which  she  had  taken  refuge.— Ed. 


THE  FAR-EASTERN  SITUATION.  820 

several  prisoners.     An  American  missionary  named  Un- 
derwood participated  in  the  emeute. 

Formosa. — The  opposition  which  the  Japanese  met 
on  taking  over  the  island  of  Formosa  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Simonoseki,  came  not  alone 
from  the  "  Black  Flags/^  but  also  from  the  Chinese  prop 
erty-holders  and  officials  in  Formosa,  and  the  hordes  of 
Hakka  tramps,  who  were  averse  to  giving  np  their  sources 
of  revenue  or  plunder.  Their  chief  leader  was  Liu,  a  very 
wealthy  mandarin.  He  was  the  chief  agitator  in  proclaim^ 
ing  the  short-lived  "  republic ""  last  May;  and  he  did  much 
to  prolong  disorder  by  importing  and  arming  reinforce- 
ments for  the  "  Black  Flags." 

From  early  June  to  November — about  five  months — 
the  campaign  lasted.  The  Chinese  fought  from  the 
heights  commanding  the  valleys  and  defiles,  while  the 
Japanese  had  not  only  to  fight  but  to  cut  their  way 
through  bamboo  thickets  resembling  the  jungles  of  India. 
Besides,  several  walled  towns  and  a  few  larger  cities  had 
to  be  occupied.  However,  the  Japanese  army  gradu- 
ally forced  its  way  southward;  and  about  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember the  fleet  was  able  to  land  reinforcements  in  the 
south  at  Pang  Liau.  Takao  was  captured  October  IG; 
and  soon  afterward  the  leader  of  the  rebels.  General  Liu, 
wlio  had  taken  a  last  stand  at  Tai-Wan,  acceded  to  the 
Japanese  demand  for  unconditional  surrender.  He  sub- 
sequently fled  to  China.  Even  up  to  the  end  of  the  year, 
however,  a  desultory  resistance  was  kept  up  by  scattered 
bands  who  probably  preferred  the  chances  of  plunder  to 
the  risk  of  surrender.  General  Kabayama  is  the  Japanese 
governor  of  Formosa. 

The  Upper  Me-Kong  Dispute. — The  rivalry  of 
French  and  English  interests  in  Indo-China  still  contin- 
ues to  manifest  itself  in  territorial  adjustments  of  both 
powers  in  relation  to  China.  Late  in  December  it  Was  an- 
nounced tliat  Sir  N.  O'Conor,  lately  British  minister  in 
rekin,now  at  a  similar  post  in  St.  Petersburg,  had  secured 
from  Chiiui  tlie  cession  to  Great  Britain  of  four  states  on 
the  Burmo-Chinese  frontier — and  this  without  Great  Brit- 
ain renouncing  her  claim  to  the  portion  of  the  Shan  states 
recently  ceded  by  China  to  France  (p.  557).  The  effect 
of  the  arrangement  is  to  offset  completely  the  diplomatic 
victory  of  July  wliereby  France  secured  territory  lying  be- 
tween the  upper  Me-Kong  river  and  the  Chinese  province 
of  Yunnan  which  Great  Britain,  only  a  year  before,  had 
ceded  to  China  on  the  understanding  that  it  should  never 


830  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

be  transferred  to  another  power  without  Great  Britain's 
consent.  By  that  victory  France  secured  a  direct  trade 
route  from  Ton^uin  to  Yunnan;  but  Great  Britain  by  her 
present  acquisition,  also  secures  direct  access  to  southwest 
China.  She  also  adds  to  her  dominions  an  area  said  to  be 
eight  times  as  large  as  that  ceded  to  France.  The  region 
borders  at  the  south  on  the  Siamese  Shan  states  already 
.virtually  under  British  protection,  and  stretches  north- 
ward to  Yunnan.  On  the  east  the  Me-Kong  river  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  lesser  Shan  states  ceded  to  France,  while 
on  the  west  it  joins  the  British  frontier  of  Burmah  be- 
yond Bhamo.  Strategically  it  is  of  great  value.  It  blocks 
the  westward  progress  of  France,  and  prevents  a  junction 
of  the  French  and  Russian  empires  in  Central  Asia.  It 
pushes  the  frontiers  of  British  territory  up  to  China,  and 
facilitates  the  extension  of  the  Burmese  railroad  system 
past  Mandalay  and  Bhamo  to  the  borders  of  Yunnan,  thus 
opening  up  an  outlet  route  for  the  vast  trade  of  southern 
China  which  is  likely  to  prove  a  more  than  worthy  rival  of 
the  French  routes  down  the  Me-Kong  or  through  the  gulf 
of  Tonquin. 

Commercial  and  Industrial  Prospects. — Great 
as  are  the  political  and  territorial  changes  likely  to  spring 
more  or  less  directly  from  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of 
Simonoseki,  it  is  from  the  commercial  and  industrial  point 
of  view  that  the  great  struggle  which  ended  with  the  sign- 
ing of  that  instrument  seems  to  derive  its  greatest  import- 
ance for  the  world  at  large.  The  present  trend  of  events 
points  to  a  vast  commercial  and  industrial  revival  in  the 
near  future  in  which  the  "  yellow  "  races  of  the  Orient 
bid  fair  to  prove  the  equals,  if  not  the  superiors,  of  their 
Western  competitors. 

One  measure  of  the  commercial  importance  of  the 
treaty  is  found  in  the  clauses  extending  the  area  open  to 
foreign  trade  in  China.  The  free  navigation  of  the  Yang- 
|tse-Kiang  is  extended  from  I-Chang  to  Chung-King,  en- 
abling foreign  influence  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  valley  of  that  river;  while  the  opening  of 
Su-Chau  and  Hang-Chau,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the 
Woosung  river  and  canal  connecting  these  two  cities,  are 
of  no  less  importance  to  foreign  interests  in  the  lower  ba- 
sin of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang. 

But  there  are  other  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  still  greater 
significance,  since  they  open  upa.field  for  industrial  enter' 
prise  under  foreign  impulse  and  direction,  of  which  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  overrate  the  importance. 


THE  FAR-EASTERN  SITUATION.  831 

Under  Article  6,  Japanese  subjects  are  to  be  free  to  en- 
gage in  manufacturing  in  all  the  open  ports  of  China; 
freedom  to  import  all  kinds  of  machinery  is  granted;  and 
complete  reciprocity  is  established  between  Japan  and 
China  regarding  articles  manufactured  in  each  country  by 
subjects  of  the  other,  in  respect  of  inland  transit  and  inter- 
nal taxes,  warehousing  and  storage  facilities,  and  exactions  of 
all  kinds — all  of  which  advantages  are  secured  to  other  pow- 
ers under  the  most-favored-nation  clauses  in  their  treaties. 

The  importance  of  the  field  thus  opened  up  is  empha- 
sized by  the  extraordinary  rapid  industrial  progress  of 
Japan  in  recent  years.  To  take  the  cotton  industry  as  an 
example.  Japanese  imports  of  raw  cotton  ran  up  from 
1800,000  in  1885  to  119,500,000  in  1894,  or  to  more  than 
twenty-four  times  as  much.  Early  in  1885  there  were 
nineteen  spinning  mills,  with  about  50,000  spindles,  in 
Japan;  nine  years  later  there  were  forty-six  with  600,000 
spindles.  The  result  is  that  Japan  is  rapidly  coming  to 
make  for  herself  the  yarns  she  formerly  imported.  And 
in  1894,  it  is  significant  to  note,  Japan  appeared  for  the 
first  time  as  an  exporter  of  cotton  yarns,  sending  4,500,000 
pounds,  chiefly  to  China.  That  this  diminution  of  imports 
is  due  to  the  competition  of  native  industry,  is  shown  in 
the  fact,  that,  wherever  that  competition  has  not  assumed 
such  proportions,  as,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  cotton  piece  goods, 
imports  during  the  same  period  have  steadily  increased. 

Still  another  noteworthy  fact  is,  that,  largely  owing  to 
the  cheapness  of  native  labor,  the  cotton  mills  of  Japan 
paid  large  dividends  in  1894,  while  the  spinning  compan- 
ies of  Lancashire  were  working  at  a  loss. 

Similar  results  may  already  be  noted  in  connection 
with  many  other  branches  of  industry.  Eeady-made  cloth- 
ing, boots  and  shoes,  hats  and  caps,  umbrellas,  paper  of 
every  quality,  beer,  matches,  are  all  represented  by  annu- 
ally diminishing  figures  in  the  import  column  of  Japanese 
trade  returns,  while  the  corresponding  figures  in  the  ex- 
port column  are  rising  every  year.  Silk  manufactures  ex- 
ported from  Japan  have  increased  in  value  from  $54,547 
in  1885  to  18,400,000  in  1894.  The  annexation  of  For- 
mosa may  be  expected  to  give  an  immense  impetus  to  the 
sugar  industry  by  securing  to  Japan  a  field  of  almost  un- 
limited capacity  for  the  production  of  raw  sugar.  Japa- 
nese coal,  the  exports  of  which  have  risen  in  value  from 
under  $2,000,000  in  1885  to  over  16,500,000  in  1894,  is 
rapidly  driving  English  coal,  except  for  special  purposes; 
out  of  every  market  east  of  Singapore. 


83^ 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 


The  prices  at  which  the  Japanese  are  able  to  produce 
many  of  the  principal  articles  of  general  consumption, 
coupled  with  the  well-known  ambition  of  the  island  em- 
pire of  the  East  to  rank  as  the  foremost  manufacturing 
nation  of  the  word,  are  making  the  new  Japan  aformidable 
rival  for  the  control  of  the  leading  markets  of  the  globe. 
And  although  there  has  been  no  foundation  in  fact  for  the 
recent  rumors, -which  appear  to  have  started  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.,  that  Japanese  agents  had  already  begun  to  sup- 
plant American  manufactures  in  the  home  markets  of  the 
United  States,  the  rumor  of  such  a  movement  and  the  ap- 
prehension aroused  thereby  have  a  significant  lesson  for 
the  future. 

A  menace  almost  equally  grave,  comes  from  China. 
The  Chinese  standard  of  wages  is  even  lower  than  the  Jap- 
anese, and  the  material  resources  of  the  Celestial  empire 
are  exhaustless.  True,  Chinamen  are  radically  deficient 
in  the  highest  qualities  of  the  manufacturer  and  mer- 
chant; but  in  natural  ability,  as  laborers,  servants,  handi- 
craftsmen, and  artisans,  as  retail  dealers  and  middlemen, 
they  seem  to  be  quite  on  a  level  with  the  Japanese.  When 
a  fair  degree  of  stability  has  been  restored  to  the  internal 
condition  of  the  Chinese  empire,  when  machinery  has 
been  more  widely  introduced,  and  the  intelligence  and  en- 
terprise of  foreign  direction  more  extensively  applied, 
there  will  be  little  further  needed  to  bring  the  limitless 
supply  of  Chinese  cheap  labor  into  competition  with  the 
labor  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  this  connection,  the 
following  table  showing  the  wages  paid  in  Japan  in  vari- 
ous lines  of  industry,  will  be  found  interesting: 

WAGES  PAID  IN  JAPAN. 


Carpenters 

Paperhangers 

Stonecutters 

Woodsawyers 

Bricklayers 

Cabinet-makers  (.furniture^ . 
Tailors,  Japanese  clothing. 
Tailors,  foreign  clothing... 

Blacksmiths 

Tobacco-makers 

Compositors 

Farm  hands  (men) 

Farm  hands  (women) 

Weavers 

Coolies  or  general  laborers. 


Highest. 

Lowest. 

$0..50 

$0  20 

.60 

.20 

.69 

.22 

.50 

.13 

.88 

.20 

..53 

.17 

.46 

.15 

1.00 

.25 

.60 

.18 

.50 

.11 

.83 

.10 

.30 

.16 

.28 

.06 

.40 

.07 

.33 

.14 

$0.30 
.31 
.36 
.30 

.m 

.30 
.2S 
.49 
.30 
.26 
.29 
.19 
.19 
.1.5 
.22 


The  wages  of  laborers  in  China  are  said  to  be  still  lower. 

But  there  is  also  another  side  to  the  picture,  wiiich  in- 
dicates that,  while  certain  branches  of  the  trade  and  indus- 


THE  PlNANCiAL  PROBLEM.  833 

try  of  America  and  Europe  may  be  menaced  by  the  awak- 
ening of  the  Orient  from  its  long  sleep,  unknown  possibili- 
ties for  the  extension  of  Western  commerce  with  the  Far 
East  along  other  lines  may  also  be  opened  up.  It  is  noted 
that  in  the  decade  ending  with  1894  the  total  annual  foreign 
trade  of  Japan  increased  from  162,500,000  to  $230,000,000, 
and  that  by  far  the  greatest  increase,  in  spite  of  the  di- 
minution noted  in  special  lines  such  as  those  above  men- 
tioned, was  in  foreign  imports,  which  rose  from  $28,000,- 
000  to  $117,000,000  within  the  decade. 

On  the  other  hand,  compared  with  the  foreign  trade 
of  Japan,  that  of  China  shows  no  such  wonderful  increase 
during  the  decade  referred  to:  its  increase  was  from  $230,- 
000,000  to  $435,000,000.  In  1885-1894  Chinese  imports 
of  foreign  goods  increased  from  $132,000,000  to  $243,000- 
000,  or  only  by  about  80  per  cent;  whereas  imports  into 
Japan,  as  shown  above,  increased  by  about  300  per  cent. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  amiss  to  note  that  while  the 
total  volume  of  the  trade  of  foreign  countries  with  China 
and  Japan  may  still  be  undiminished,  its  character  is 
changing  and  it  is  being  carried  on  at  a  steadily  diminish- 
ing rate  of  profit.  Some  of  the  most  lucrative  branches 
of  trade  have  already  passed  from  the  former  unquestioned 
control  of  Western  powers,  especially  England;  and  others 
are  passing. 


THE  FINANCIAL  PROBLEM. 

Secretary  Carlisle's  Report.— The  reserve  of  gold 
in  the  United  States  treasury  was  steadily  declining  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  quarter;  and  at  the  close 
of  the  year  amounted  to  about  $63,000,000,  or  $30,000,000 
less  than  on  October  1.  The  secretary  of  the  treasury  sub- 
mitted his  annual  report  to  congress  December  16. 

After  narrating  the  facts  of  the  three  issues  of  bonds  between 
February  1,  1894,  and  March  15,  1895,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to 
$163,815,400,  Mr.  Carlisle  points  out  the  inefficiency  of  this  method 
of  sustaining  the  government's  credit.  The  treasury  was  filled  only 
to  be  emptied  again  for  redemption  of  legal-tender  notes  of  the  United 
States,  The  secretary  is  required  by  the  act  of  congress  of  May  31, 
1878,  to  reissue  legal-tender  notes,  no  matter  how  received  into  the 
treasury;  and  thus  the  note  redeemed  in  gold  to-day  goes  out  again 
to-morrow,  to  be  presented  again  the  day  after  for  redemption  in  gold; 
and  so  on.  Of  this  "endless  chain"  process  of  exhausting  the  gold 
reserve,  the  secretary  declares  that  either  "it  must  be  abandoned,  or 
such  means  must  be  at  once  provided  as  will  have  a  tendency  to  facili- 


834  LEADING  TOPlCS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4tii  Qr.,  1895. 

tate  tlie  efforts  of  tlie  secretary  to  accumulate  and  maintain  a  coin  re- 
serve sufficient  in  amount  to  keep  the  public  constantly  assured  of 
the  stability  of  our  entire  volume  of  currency  and  of  our  ability  at  all 
times  to  preserve  equality  in  this  exchangeable  value  of  its  various 
parts."  He  foresees,  if  the  present  system  shall  be  persisted  in,  the 
inevitable  incurrence  of  a  public  debt  much  larger  than  would  be  in- 
curred by  retirement  and  cancellation  of  the  notes  when  redeemed. 
Besides,  says  he,  "the  annual  interest  charged  will  be  much  greater 
than  it  would  be  necessary  to  incur  on  a  new  class  of  bonds  adapted 
to  the  present  circumstances  of  the  government  and  the  well-known 
preferences  of  investors.  If,  however,  an  attempt  is  to  be  made  to 
keep  the  United  States  notes  and  treasury  notes  permanently  in  cir- 
culation by  reissues  after  redemption,  and  the  government  is  to  be 
permanently  charged  with  the  duty  of  sustaining  the  value  of  all  our 
currency,  paper  and  coin  alike,  the  conclusion  cannot  be  avoided  that 
the  policy  of  issuing  bonds  for  the  accomplishment  of  these  purposes 
must  also  become  permanent,  and  such  additional  powers  must  be 
conferred  upon  the  secretaiy  as  will  enable  him  to  execute  the  laws 
relating  to  these  subjects  with  the  least  possible  disturbance  of  the 
business  affairs  of  the  people  and  the  least  possible  charge  upon  the 
treasury.  I  am  thoroughly  convinced  that  this  policy  ought  not  to  be 
continued,  but  that  the  United  States  notes  and  treasury  notes  should 
be  retired  from  circulation  at  the  earliest  practicable  day,  and  that  the 
government  should  be  wholly  relieved  from  the  responsibility  of  pro- 
viding a  credit  currency  for  the  people." 

Were  the  legal-tender  notes  permanently  retired,  a  very  large 
amount  of  gold  would,  in  Secretary  Carlisle's  opinion,  promptly  re- 
turn to  take  its  place  in  our  currency  and  constitute  a  permanent  part 
of  our  medium  of  exchange.  The  secretary  meets  the  objection  against 
retirement,  that  it  would  injuriously  contract  the  volume  of  circulat- 
ing medium,  thus:  "The  retirement  and  cancellation  of  the  legal- 
tender  notes  would  not  necessarily  produce  any  contraction  of  the  cir- 
culation; and  if  such  a  result  should  follow  and  continue  for  any 
considerable  period,  it  would  be  a  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  the 
volume  of  currency  previously  existing  was  not  needed  in  the  business 
of  the  people;  for,  whenever  the  volume  is  reduced  below  the  actual 
requirements  of  trade,  the  deficiency  will  be  supplied  either  from 
abroad  in  exchange  for  our  products  and  securities,  or  by  the  banks 
at  home,  or  by  both." 

The  difficulties  of  the  treasury  are  enormously  intensified  by  the 
issues  of  silver  certificates.  No  matter  how  large  the  revenue  of  the 
United  States  might  be,  unless  it  was  in  gold,  and  unless  that  gold 
was  exempted  by  law  from  the  obligation  now  incumbent  on  it  of  re- 
deeming and  redeeming  again  in  endless  series  the  legal-tender  notes, 
it  would  be  insufficient  to  support  the  credit  of  the  government  on  an 
absolutely  stable  basis.  "  Owing  to  the  peculiar  character  of  our  cur- 
rency, the  ability  of  the  treasury  to  hoard  United  States  and  treasury 
notes  is  limited  to  a  certain  amount,  which  cannot  be  definitely  deter- 
mined in  advance;  and  if  it  should,  after  that  amount  has  been 
reached,  refuse  to  pay  out  these  notes  in  making  disbursements  at  the 
places  where  our  customs  are  collected,  the  immediate  result  would  be 
that  nearly  all  payments  to  the  government  would  be  made  in  silver 
certificates,  which  it  is  bound  to  take,  but  can  compel  no  one  else  to 
take.  There  would  be  a  stream  of  these  non-legal-tender  certificates 
constantly  flowing  into  the  treasury,  and  it  would  receive  scarcely 
any  more  United  States  notes  or  treasury  notes  as  parts  of  the  surplus 


THE  FINANCIAL  PROBLEM.  835 

Avenue,  but  would  soon  be  compelled  to  pay  out  those  already  accu- 
mulated, or  pay  gold,  or  break  down  in  its  operations  at  the  sub- 
treasuries." 

Secretary  Carlisle's  suggestion  of  a  remedy  for  these  financial  ills 
— "the  one  safe  and  effectual  way  to  protect  the  treasury" — is: 
"To  retire  and  cancel  the  notes  which  constitute,  the  only  means 
through  which  the  withdrawals  can  be  made.  Many  partial  and  teul- 
porary  remedies  may  be  suggested  and  urged,  with  more  or  less  plausi- 
bility", but  this  is  the  only  one  that  will  certainly  remove  the  real  cause 
of  our  troubles.     *     *     * 

"This  can  be  most 
successfully  and  economi- 
cally accomplished  by  au- 
thorizing the  secretary  of 
the  treasury  to  issue  from 
time  to  time  bonds  pay- 
able in  gold,  bearing  in- 
terest at  a  rate  not  exceed- 
ing 3  per  centum  per  an- 
num, and  having  a  long 
time  to  run,  and  to  ex- 
change the  bonds  for 
United  States  notes  and 
treasury  notes  upon  such 
terms  as  may  be  most  ad- 
vantageous to  the  govern- 
ment,  or  to  sell  them 
abroad  for  gold  whenever, 
in  his  judgment,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  do  so,  and  use 
the  gold  thus  obtained  in 
redeeming  the  outstand- 
ing notes. 

"In  order  to  further 
facilitate  the  substitution 
of  other  currency  for  the 
retirement  of  legal-tender 
notes,  the  national  banks 
should  be  authorized  to  is- 
sue notes  equal  in  amount 
to  the  face  value  of  bonds 
deposited  to  secure  them, 
and  the  tax  on  their  circulation  should  be  reduced  to  one-fourth 
of  1  per  centum  per  annum.  When  the  national  banking  system 
was  established,  the  bonds  of  the  United  States  were  selling  be- 
low par  in  the  market;  and  there  was,  consequently,  a  sufficient 
reason  for  limiting  the  amount  of  the  circulating  notes  author- 
ized to  be  issued  to  90  per  centum  of  the  face  value  of  the  securities 
deposited;  but  this  reason  has  long  since  ceased  to  exist,  and  the 
limitation  should  be  removed. 

"  As  a  part  of  the  plan  for  the  retirement  and  cancellation  of  the 
legal-tender  notes,  the  treasury  should  be  relieved  from  responsibility 
for  the  redemption  of  national  bank  notes,  except  worn,  mutilated, 
and  defaced  notes,  and  the  notes  of  failed  banks;  and  each  association 
should  be  required  to  redeem  its  circulation  at  its  own  office  and  at 
agencies  to  be  designated  by  the  controller  of  the  currency,  as  was 


HON.   NELSON   DINGLEY,   .JR.,   OF   MAINE, 

CHAIRMAN  AVAYS   AND   MEANS  COMMITTEE,    HOUSE 

OF   REPRESENTATIVES. 


836  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895 

the  case  prior  to  the  passage  of  the  act  of  Jane  20,  1874;  or,  if  this  is 
not  considered  expedient,  and  the  present  system  of  current  redemp- 
tion by  the  treasury  is  continued,  the  secretary  should  have  the  power, 
after  a  future  date  to  be  fixed  in  the  law,  to  require  the  banks  to  keep 
their  5  per  cent  redemption  fund  in  gold  coin  and  to  deposit  gold  coin 
for  the  withdrawal  of  bonds  whenever  circulation  is  to  be  permanently 
surrendered  or  reduced." 

Even  should  congress  be  disposed  to  put  in  execution  the  meas- 
ures recommended  by  Secretary  Carlisle,  that  will  take  considerable 
time;  meanwhile  the  secretary  advises  against  any  further  issues  of 
treasury  notes  or  national  bank  notes  of  denomination  less  than  ten 
dollars.  Such  a  policy,  he  says,  "  would  make  room  in  the  circula- 
tion for  silver  coins  and  silver  certificates  of  small  denominations, 
thus  increasing  their  use  among  the  people  in  the  transaction  of  their 
daily  business  and  preventing  their  frequent  return  to  and  accumula- 
tion in  the  treasury.  The  larger  silver  certificates  now  outstanding 
could  be  retired  and  cancelled  when  received,  and  smaller  ones  sub- 
stituted for  them,  so  that  there  would  be  no  diminution  of  the  amount 
of  small  currency  in  circulation;  and  the.  ultimate  result  would  be  an 
increased  use  of  our  present  stock  of  silver  in  the  form  of  subsidiary 
coin,  or  standard  dollars  and  certificates." 

The  President's  Message. — The  monetary  situation 
having  been  aggravated  by  apprehensions  of  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  and  the  consequent 
unwillingness  of  European  capitalists  to  take  United  States 
bonds,  President  Cleveland  on  December  20,  three  days 
after  submitting  his  famous  special  message  on  the  Vene- 
zuelan question,  sent  to  congress  another  special  message 
urging  the  necessity  of  prompt  legislation  in  aid  of  the 
treasury.  Drafts  on  the  gold  reserve  for  shipment  of  gold 
abroad  had  brought  the  country  face  to  face  with  the  neces- 
sity of  further  action  by  congress. 

Our  "dangerous  and  fatuous  operations" — namely,  in  redeeming 
and  reissuing  the  treasury  notes — had  brought  about  another  season 
of  perplexity,  and  such  seasons  would  perpetually  recur  until  we 
should  have  amended  our  financial  system.  And  if  the  perplexity 
comes  just  at  this  time  of  friction  in  our  foreign  relations,  that  fact 
only  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  devising,  without  delay,  a  remedy 
for  the  ills  that  encompass  us.  Of  the  complete  solvency  of  the  na- 
tion there  can  be  no  doubt,  nor  does  any  reasonable  man  apprehend 
that  the  American  people  will  be  false  to  its  obligation  of  paying  its 
debts  in  "  the  recognized  money  of  the  world."  Nevertheless,  capital 
is  timid,  and  even  an  unreasoning  or  unreasonable  fear  must  be  taken 
into  account  if  we  would  avert  public  loss  and  sacrifice  of  the  interests 
of  the  people.     The  message  then  continues: 

"The  real  and  sensible  cure  for  our  recurring  troubles  can  only 
be  effected  by  a  complete  change  in  our  financial  scheme.  Pending 
that,  the  executive  branch  of  the  government  will  not  relax  its  efforts 
nor  abandon  its  determination  to  use  every  means  within  its  reach  to 
maintain  before  the  world  American  credit,  nor  will  there  be  any 
hesitation  in  exhibiting  its  confidence  in  the  resources  of  our  country 
and  the  constant  patriotism  of  our  people. 

"  In  view,  however,  of  the  peculiar  situation  now  confronting  us. 


■ 

W  THE  FINANCIAL  PROBLEM.  837 

^  I  have  ventured  to  herein  express  the  earnest  hope  that  the  congress, 

W  in  default  of  the  inauguration  of  a  better  system  of  finance,  will  not 

■t-  take  a  recess  from  its  labors  before  it  has,  by  legislative  enactment  or 

■  declaration,  done  something  not  only  to  remind  those  apprehensive 

B  among  our  people  that  the  resources  of  this  government  and  a  scru- 

^  pulous  regard  for  honest  dealing  afford  a  sure  guarantee  of  unques- 

tioned safety  and  soundness,  but  to  reassure  the  world  that  with  these 
factors  and  the  patriotism  of  our  citizens,  the  ability  and  determina- 
tion of  our  nation  to  meet  in  any  circumstances  every  obligation  it 
incurs  do  not  admit  of  question. 

"I  ask  at  the  hands  of  congress  such  prompt  aid  as  it  alone  has 
the  power  to  give,  to  prevent,  in  a  time  of  fear  and  apprehension,^ 
any  sacrifice  of  the  people's  interests  and  the  public  funds  or  the  im- 
pairment of  our  public  credit  in  an  effort  by  executive  action  to  relieve 
the  dangers  of  the  present  emergency." 

Congressional  Action.— Congress,  acting  on  the  ear- 
nest request  of  the  president,  voted  to  forego  the  customary 
Christmas  recess,  and  to  deliberate  upon  measures  of  finan- 
cial relief.  A  tariff  bill  for  increasing  the  revenue,  and  a 
bond  bill  to  protect  the  gold  reserve  of  the  treasury  were 
introduced  in  the  house  of  representatives  from  the  com- 
mittee on  ways  and  means,  December  25.  The  revenue 
bill  was  passed  by  the  house  the  next  day,  and  the  bond 
bill  on  December  28. 

Tarif  Revision. — The  text  of  the  revenue  bill  is  as 
follows: 

"  A  Mil  to  temporarily  increase  revenue  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
government  and  provide  against  a  deficiency. 

"Be  it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  congress  assembled:  That  from  and 
after  the  passage  of  this  act,  and  until  August  1,  1898,  there  shall  be 
levied,  collected,  and  paid  on  all  imported  wools  of  classes  1  and  2,  as 
defined  in  the  act  hereinafter  cited,  approved  October  1,  1890,  and 
subject  to  all  the  conditions  and  limitations  thereof,  and  on  all  hair  of 
the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  and  other  like  animals,  except  as  hereinafter 
j)rovided,  and  on  all  noils,  shoddy,  garnetted  waste,  top  waste,  slub- 
bing  waste,  roving  waste,  ring  waste,  yarn  waste,  and  all  other  wastes 
composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  and  on  woolen  rags,  mungo,  and 
flocks,  a  duty  equivalent  to  sixty  per  centum  of  the  duly  imposed  on 
each  of  such  articles  by  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  reduce  the  revenue 
and  eq»«alize  duties  on  imports,  and  for  other  purposes,'  approved 
October;  1,  1890,  and  subject  to  all  the  conditions  and  limitations  of 
said  ac*.,  and  on  all  wools  and  Russian  camel's  hair  of  class  3  as  de- 
fined iu  said  act  approved  October  1,  1890,  and  subject  to  all  the  con- 
ditions* and  limitations  thereof,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected,  and 
paid  the  several  duties  provided  by  such  act  approved  October  1, 1890. 
And  paragraph  279  of  Schedule  K,  and  also  paragraph  685  in  the  free 
list  of  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  reduce  taxation,  to  provide  revenue 
for  the  government,  and  for  other  purposes,'  which  became  a  law 
August  27,  1894,  are  hereby  suspended  until  August  1,  1898. 

"Sec.  2.  That  from  and  after  the  passage  of  this  act  and  until 
Augui^t  1,  1898,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected,  and  paid  on  all  im- 
porteii  articles  made  in  whole  or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  or  other 


838  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

materials  described  in  Section  1  of  this  act,  except  as  hereinafter 
provided,  sixty  per  centum  of  the  specific  pound  or  square-yard  duty 
imposed  on  each  of  such  articles  by  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  reduce 
the  revenue  and  equalize  duties  on  imports,  and  for  other  purposes,' 
approved  October  1,  1890,  and  subject  to  all  the  conditions  and  limi- 
tations thereof,  in  addition  to  the  ad  valorem  duty  now  imposed  on 
each  of  such  articles  by  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  reduce  taxation,  to 
provide  revenue  for  the  government,  and  for  other  purposes,'  which 
became  a  law  August  27,  1894;  and  on  carpets,  druggets,  bockings, 
mats,  rugs,  screens,  covers,  hassocks,  bedsides,  art  squares,  and  other 
portions  of  carpets  or  carpeting,  made  in  whole  or  in  part  of  wool, 
the  specific  square- yard  duty  imposed  on  each  of  such  articles  by  said 
act  approved  October  1,  1890,  and  subject  to  all  the  conditions  and 
limitations  thereof  in  addition  to  the  ad  valorem  duty  imposed  on 
such  articles  by  said  act  which  became  a  law  August  27,  1894. 

"Sec.  3.  That  from  and  after  the  passage  of  this  act  and  until 
August  1,  1898,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected,  and  paid  on  all  im- 
ported lumber  and  other  articles  designated  in  paragraphs  674  to  683, 
inclusive,  of  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  reduce  taxation,  to  provide 
revenue  for  the  government,  and  for  other  purposes,'  which  became 
a  law  August  27,  1894,  a  duty  equivalent  to  sixty  per  centum  of  the 
duty  imposed  on  each  of  such  articles  by  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to 
reduce  the  revenue  and  equalize  duties  on  imports  and  for  other  pur- 
poses,' approved  October  1,  1890,  and  subject  to  all  the  conditions 
and  limitations  of  said  last-named  act;  but  pulp  wood  shall  be  classed 
as  round  unmanufactured  timber  exempt  from  duty:  Provided,  That 
in  case  any  foreign  country  shall  impose  an  export  duty  upon  pine, 
spruce,  elm,  or  other  logs,  or  upon  stave  bolts,  shingle  wood,  pulp 
wood,  or  heading  blocks  exported  to  the  United  States  from  such 
country,  then  the  duty  upon  the  lumber  and  other  articles  mentioned 
in  said  paragraphs  674  to  683,  inclusive,  when  imported  from  such 
country,  shall  be  the  same  as  fixed  by  the  law  in  force  prior  to  Oc- 
tober 1,  1890. 

"Sec.  4.  That  from  and  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  and  until 
August  1,  1898,  there  shall  be  levied,  collected,  and  paid  on  all  the 
imported  articles  mentioned  in  Schedules  A,  B,  V,  D,  F,  G,  H,  I, 
J,  L,  M,  and  N  of  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  reduce  taxation,  to 
provide  revenue  for  the  government,  and  for  other  purposes,'  which 
became  a  law  August  27, 1894,  a  duty  equivalent  to  fifteen  per  centum 
of  the  duty  imposed  on  each  of  said  articles  by  existing  law  in  addi- 
tion to  the  duty  provided  by  said  act  of  August  27,  1894:  Provided, 
That  the  additional  duties  imposed  by  this  section  shall  not  in  any 
case  increase  the  rate  of  duty  on  any  article  beyond  the  rate  imposed 
thereon  by  the  said  act  of  October  1,  1890,  but  in  such  case  the  duty 
shall  be  the  same  as  was  imposed  by  said  act:  And  provided  further,  , 
That  where  the  present  rate  of  duty  on  any  article  is  higher  than  was 
fixed  by  said  last-named  act,  the  rate  of  duty  thereon  shall  not  be 
further  increased  by  this  section,  but  shall  remain  as  provided  by  ex- 
isting law." 

The  purposes  of  this  important  measure  are  best  ex- 
plained in  the  report  of  the  ways  and  means  committee, 
written  by  Chairman  Dingley,  in  the  main  as  follows: 

"  Your  committee  regard  the  chronic  deficiency  of  revenue  for  the 
past  two  years  and  a  half  as  a  most  potent  cause  of  the  difficulties 
which  the  treasury  has  encountered,  and  an  important  factor  in  the 


THE  FINA^^CIAL  PROBLEM.  839 

creation  and  promotion  of  that  serious  distrust  wliicli  Las  paralyzed 
business  and  dangerously  shaken  confidence  even  in  the  financial 
operations  of  the  government.     *     *     * 

"  The  serious  fact  which  we  are  called  upon  to  confront  is  that  in 
the  two  and  a  half  years  that  have  elapsed  since  Jtily  1,  1893,  this 
government  has  had  an  insufficiency  of  revenue  to  meet  current  ex- 
penditures amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  about  $133,000,000.  Even 
in  the  first  half  of  the  present  fiscal  year  the  deficiency  will  reach 
about  $20,000,000,  and  about  $3,000,000  in  this  present  month  (Dec). 
And  up  to  the  present  time  there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  conclud- 
ing that  this  insufficiency  of  revenue  will  not  continue  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  fiscal  year,  and  how  much  longer  no  one  can  safely 
predict. 

"  If  the  consequences  of  such  a  chronic  deficiency  were  only  the 
necessity  of  borrowing  money  to  meet  current  expenses  in  time  of 
peace,  even  this  would  afford  abundant  reason  for  increasing  the  rev- 
enue. But  the  consequences  are  more  wide-reaching  than  that.  In- 
sufficiency of  revenue  has  made  it  necessary  to  use  the  redeemed 
United  States  legal-tender  notes  to  pay  current  expenditures,  and  thus 
supply  additional  means  to  draw  gold  from  the  greenback  redemption 
fund — in  short,  to  create  the  '  endless  chain '  of  which  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury  complains,  and  which  has  made  it  necessary  to  sell 
issue  after  issue  of  bonds  to  .replenish  the  reserve. 

"This  will  be  clearly  seen  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  sec- 
retary of  the  treasury  has  issued  and  sold  a  little  over  $162,000,000 
of  5  per  cent  ten-years'  and  4  per  cent  thirty-years'  bonds,  from 
which  he  has  realized  about  $182,000,000,  and  after  redeeming  $182,- 
000,000  of  United  States  legal-tender  notes  with  the  proceeds,  he 
has  been  obliged  immediately  to  pay  out  $133,000,000  of  these  de- 
mand notes  to  meet  current  expenditures,  and  thus  has  furnished 
$133,000,000  of  governmental  demand  notes  to  be  again  and  again 
used  to  draw  gold  from  the  treasury.  It  is  evident  that  so  long  as 
there  is  insufficient  revenue  this  performance  will  go  on,  and  bond 
sale  after  bond  sale  will  be  required. 

"It  is  also  evident  that  if  there  had  been  a  sufficiency  of  revenue, 
these  redeemed  legal-tender  notes  would  not  have  been  paid  out  at 
once,  and  there  would  have  been  so  much  the  less  opportunity  to 
draw  gold  from  the  treasury.  *  *  *  Those  who  oppose  raising 
more  revenue,  in  effect  favor  borrowing  in  preference  to  paying  as 
we  go. 

"Your  committee  believe  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives to  frame  and  pass  a  measure  that  will  yield  not  far  from 
$40,000,000  (sufficient  to  put  an  end  to  the  deficiency).     *     *    *          , 

"Two  facts  have  led  your  committee  to  look  to  an  increase  of . 
customs  duties  as  the  most  appropriate  source  of  additional  revenue.  | 
They,  are,  first,  the  fact  that  we  are  already  raisiog  a  disproportion- 
ate amount  from  internal  revenue,  which  has  always  been  regarded 
as  a  war  resort.  Indeed,  Jefferson  took  the  ground  that  excise  taxes 
should  not  be  resorted  to  by  the  federal  government  as  sources  of  rev  - 
enue  in  time  of  peace,  and  the  democratic  national  convention  main- 
tained the  same  doctrine  in  1884;  and,  secondly,  the  fact  that  by  in- 
creasing customs  duties  on  imported  articles  which  we  can  and  ought 
to  produce  or  make  at  home,  for  revenue  purposes,  we  can  at  the  same 
time  incidentally  encourage  stricken  industries,  and  materially  aid 
in  turning  in  our  favor  the  balance  of  trade  which  has  been  so  heavi- 
ly against  us  all  through  this  calendar  year,  and  which  has  caused 

Tol.  5.-54. 


840  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

a  demand  for  gold  for  export  that  our  treasury  lias  been  called  to 
supply.  For  so  long  as  the  balance  of  trade  is  against  us  on  account 
of  excessive  imports  of  articles  which  we  ought  to  produce  or  make 
for  ourselves,  we  must  export  gold  or  (what  is  the  same  thing)  prom- 
ise to  pay  gold  to  pay  for  the  excess  of  imports  over  the  exports. 

"  Your  committee  have  not  undertaken  a  general  revision  of  the 
tariff  on  protection  lines.  *  *  *  We  believe  that  a  simple  meas- 
ure increasing  all  duties  of  the  dutiable  list,  and  taking  from  the  free 
list  of  the  present  tariff  a  few  articles  that  were  always  on  the  dutia- 
ble list  until  August  27,  1894,  and  which  have  always  been  important 
revenue  producers,  and  limiting  the  operation  of  such  legislation  to 
about  two  years  and  a  half — until  the  present  deficiency  of  revenue  is 
overcome — ought  to  receive  the  approval  even  of  those  who  do  not 
favor  protective  duties  on  patriotic  grounds.     *    *    * 

"  In  framing  the  bill  submitted  for  your  consideration,  it  has  been 
necessary,  if  action  was  to  be  taken  promptly,  to  resort  to  a  consider- 
able extent  to  a  horizontal  raise  of  duties,  for  the  reason  that  it 
would  have  required  months  to  deal  with  each  article  separately. 
*     *     * 

"But  while  we  have  presented  in  the  bill  reported  a  horizontal 
increase  of  15  per  cent  of  existing  duties  on  all  the  schedules  but  two, 
which  is  an  addition  of  less  than  8  per  cent  to  the  average  ad  valorem 
rate,  giving  about  $15,000,000  revenue  from  that  source,  yet  more 
than  $25,000,000  of  the  $40,000,000  which  it  is  estimated  this  bill 
would  add  to  our  annual  revenue  will  come  mainly  from  wool,  which 
is  taken  from  the  free  list  and  given  a  moderate  duty,  and  from  man- 
ufactures of  wool,  which  are  given  a  compensatory  duty  equivalent 
to  the  duty  on  wool,  which  is  always  necessary  when  a  duty  is  placed 
on  wool,  in  order  to  give  the  wool-grower  the  benefit  and  make  it 
possible  to  manufacture  woolens  at  home. 

"  The  bill  reported  by  your  committee  proposes  to  make  the  duty 
on  imported  clothing  wool  60  per  cent  of  the  duty  imposed  by  the  act 
of  1890,  which  could  give  an  equivalent  of  six  and  six-tenths  of  a 
cent  per  pound  on  unwashed  wool,  or  about  40  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
This  reduction  from  the  duty  of  the  act  of  1890  has  been  made  be- 
cause the  restoration  of  the  full  duty  in  that  act  might  seem  to  be  too 
great  a  change  from  the  present  law  to  those  whose  co-operation  it  is 
necessary  to  secure  in  order  to  have  any  legislation,  and  not  as  a 
measure  of  what  might  be  done  when  all  branches  of  the  government 
are  in  harmony  with  the  majority  of  the  house  on  protection  lines. 
The  duty  on  manufactures  of  wool  is  increased  by  a  specific  duty 
equivalent  to  the  duty  on  wool. 

"  The  duty  on  carpet  wools  is  left  at  the  32  per  cent  ad  valorem^ 
where  it  was  placed  in  1890.  This  is  a  purely  revenue  duty,  as  we 
raise  very  few  carpet  wools. 

"  Such  lumber  as  was  placed  on  the  free  list  by  the  act  of  1800  is 
restored  to  the  dutiable  list,  but  with  a  duty  of  only  60  per  cent  of 
the  duties  provided  by  the  act  of  1890 — giving  an  equivalent  of  only 
about  15  per  cent.  Such  a  reduction  from  the  low  rates  of  1890  is 
justified  only  on  the  ground  that  the  object  of  your  committee  has 
been  to  frame  a  bill  mainly  on  revenue  grounds,  in  the  hope  that  it 
would  secure  the  approval  of  those  in  official  place  whose  co-operation 
is  essential  to  legislation,  and  who  may  be  supposed  to  feel  that  in 
such  an  exigency  as  now  exists  the  public  necessity  must  control. 

"  Believing  that  such  an  increase  of  revenue  as  is  proposed  is  es- 
sential as  a  first  step  in  the  restoration  of  confidence  »nd  the  restora- 


THE  FINANCIAL  PROBLEM..  841 

tion  of  the  treasury  to  a  sound  condition,  and  that  otlier  legislation 
to  be  proposed  to  this  end  cannot  be  effective  without  adequate  rev- 
enue to  meet  the  expenditures  of  the  government,  your  committee 
recommend  the  pas^age  of  the  accompanying  bill." 

The  Bond  Bill. — The  bill  for  protecting  the  gold  re- 
serve and  authorizing  the  issue  of  bonds  to  meet  temporary 
deficiencies  of  revenue,  enacts: 

"That,  in  addition  to  the  authority  given  to  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  by  the  act  approved  January  14,  1875,  entitled  'An  act  to 
provide  for  the  resumption  of  specie  payments,'  he  is  authorized 
from  time  to  time,  at  his  discretion,  to  issue,  sell,  and  dispose  of,  at 
not  less  than  par,  coin  coupons  or  registered  bonds  of  the  United 
States  to  an  amount  sufficient  for  the  object  stated  in  this  section,  bear- 
ing not  to  exceed  three  per  centum  interest  per  annum,  payable  semi- 
annually, and  redeemable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  United  States  in  coin, 
after  five  years  from  their  date,  with  like  qualities,  privileges,  and 
exemptions  provided  in  said  act  for  the  bonds  therein  authorized. 
And  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  shall  use  the  proceeds  thereof  for 
the  redemption  of  the  United  States  legal-tender  notes  and  for  no 
other  purpose.  Whenever  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  shall  offer 
any  of  the  bonds  authorized  for  sale  by  this  act  or  by  the  resumption 
act  of  1875,  he  shall  advertise  the  same,  and  authorize  subscriptions 
therefor  to  be  made  at  the  treasury  department,  and  at  the  sub-treasu- 
ries and  designated  depositories  of  the  United  States. 

"Sec.  2.  That  to  provide  for  any  temporary  deficiency  now  ex- 
isting, or  which  may  hereafter  occur,  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  is 
hereby  authorized,  at  his  discretion,  to  issue  certificates  of  indebted- 
ness of  the  United  States,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  |5O,()O6,O0O, 
payable  in  three  years  after  their  date  to  the  bearer  in  lawful  money 
of  the  United  States,  of  the  denomination  of  |20,  or  multiples  thereof, 
with  annual  coupons  for  interest  at  the  rateof  three  per  centum  per  an- 
num, and  to  sell  and  dispose  of  the  same  for  not  less  than  an  equal 
amount  of  lawful  money  of  the  United  States  at  the  treasury  depart- 
ment and  at  the  sub-treasury  and  designated  depositories  of  the  United 
States,  and  at  such  postoffices  as  he  may  select.  And  such  certificates 
shall  have  the  like  qualities,  privileges,  and  exemptions  provided  in 
said  resumption  act  for  the  bonds  therein  authorized.  And  the  pro- 
ceeds thereof  shall  be  used  for  the  purpose  prescribed  in  this  section, 
and  for  no  other." 

The  affirmative  votes  were  170,  all  except  one  cast  by 
republicans.  The  negative  votes  (total  136)  consisted  of 
forty-six  republican,  eighty-three  democratic,  six  populist, 
and  one  silver.  At  the  end  of  December  the  senate  had 
not  yet  taken  action  on  this  bill. 

The  purposes  of  the  measure  were  explained  as  follows 
in  the  report  from  the  committee  on  ways  and  means 
accompanying  the  bill: 

"  The  committee  report:  That  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  now 
has  the  authority  under  the  resumption  act  of  1875  to  issue  and  sell 
ten  year  5  per  cent  bonds  and  thirty-year  4  per  cent  bonds  to  main- 
tain the  fund  for  the  redemption  of  United  States  notes,  and  that  he 
has  sold  $100,000,000  of  the  former  description  of  bonds  and  about 


842 


LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 


$63,000,000  of  the  latter  description  of  bonds  in  the  past  two  years. 
As  the  redemption  fund  has  declined  to  almost  sixty  millions,  the 
secretary  requests  authority  to  issue  a  lower  rate  and  shorter  time 
bond  in  lieu  of  the  higher  rate  and  longer  time  bonds,  in  expectation 
that  at  an  early  date  he  will  be  required  to  sell  additional  bonds,  to 
procure  coin  for  this  fund. 

"  The  question  involved  is  not  whether  or  not  bonds  shall  be  sold 
for  this  purpose.  The  secretary  announces  his  intention  to  avail  him- 
self of  the  authority  given  by  the  resumption  act  and  sell  the  high 

rate  and  long  term  bonds, 
and  the  only  question  is 
whether  it  is  not  clearly 
for  the  public  interest  that 
he  should  have  authority 
to  sell  a  lower  rate  and 
shorter  term  bond. 

"  Your  committee 
think  that  it  is  clearly  in 
the  public  interest  that  he 
should  have  this  author- 
ity. In  granting  this  au- 
thority, however,  we  have 
included  in  the  bill  a  pro- 
vision that  the  proceeds 
of  bonds  sold  under  the 
act  of  1875,  and  under  the 
bill  which  is  proposed, 
shall  be  used  exclusively 
for  redemption  purposes, 
our  object  being  to  secure 
such  a  separation  of  the 
redemption  fund  from  tbe 
ordinary  cash  in  the  treas- 
ury as  will  maintain  and 
l)rotect  the  reserve.  We 
also  provide  that  such 
bonds  shall  be  offered  for 
sale  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  invite  investment 
among  the  masses  of  the 
people. 

"The  second  section 
of  the  act  reported  authorizes  the  issue  of  certificates  of  indebted- 
ness of  small  denominations,  payable  in  three  years  and  bearing 
three  per  cent  interest,  not  to  exceed  $50,000,000  in  the  aggregate,  to 
meet  temporary  deficiencies  in  the  treasury,  and  to  be  used  for  no 
other  purpose.  In  our  judgment  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  should 
always  have  such  authority  as  this  to  meet  temporary  deficiencies 
that  are  liable  to  arise.  Unless  this  authoritv  is  given,  the  secretary 
will  indirectly  use  the  proceeds  of  bonds  sold  under  the  resumption 
act  for  redemption  purposes  to  meet  the  deficiency  in  the  revenue, 
as  he  has  been  doing  the  past  two  years  and  a  half." 

On  December  30  the  bond  bill  reached  the  senate  and 
was  referred  to  the  committee  on  finance,  which  body  re- 
ported it  back  to  the  senate  with  all  the  house  provisions 
struck  out,  and  the  following  silver  substitute  inserted: 


HON.  JOHSr  DMXtSLL  OF  PENNSYLVAKIA, 
A   UEPUBLICAN  MEsIbER   OF   THE   HOUSE   COM- 
MITTEE  ON   WAYS  AND   MEANS. 


THE  FINANCIAL  PROBLEM.  843 

lat  from  and  after  the  passage  of  this  act  the  mints  of  the 
United  States  shall  be  open  to  the  coinage  of  silver,  and  there  shall  be 
coined  dollars  of  the  weight  of  41 2^  grains  troy,  of  standard  silver  nine- 
tenths  fine,  as  provided  by  the  act  of  January  18,  1837,  and  upon  the 
same  terms  and  subject  to  the  limitations  and  provisions  of  law  reg- 
ulating the  coinage  and  legal-tender  quality  of  gold;  and  whenever 
the  said  coins  herein  provided  for  shall  be  received  into  the  treasury, 
certificates  may  be  issued  therefor  in  the  manner  now  provided  by 
law. 

"Sec.  2.  That  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  shall  coin  into  stand- 
ard silver  dollars,  as  soon  as  practicable,  according  to  the  provisions 
of  Section  1  of  this  act,  from  the  silver  bullion  purchased  under 
authority  of  the  act  of  July  14,  1890,  entitled  'An  act  directing  the 
purchase  of  silver  bullion  and  the  issue  of  treasury  notes  thereon,  and 
for  other  purposes,'  that  portion  of  said  silver  bullion  which  repre- 
sents the  seigniorage  or  profit  to  the  government,  to  wit,  the  differ- 
ence between  the  cost  of  the  silver  purchased  under  said  act  and  its 
coinage  value,  and  said  silver  dollars  so  coined  shall  be  used  in  the  pay- 
ment of  the  current  expenses  of  the  government;  and  for  the  purpose 
of  making  the  said  seigniorage  immediately  available  for  use  as  money, 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  issue 
silver  certificates  against  it,  as  if  it  was  already  coined  and  in  the 
treasury. 

"  Sec.  3.  That  no  national  bank  note  shall  be  hereafter  issued  of 
a  denomination  less  than  ten  dollars,  and  all  notes  of  such  banks  now 
outstanding  of  denominations  less  than  that  sum  shall  be  as  rapidly 
as'  practicable  taken  up,  redeemed,  and  cancelled,  and  notes  of  ten 
dollars  and  larger  denominations  shall  be  issued  in  their  stead  under 
the  direction  of  the  comptroller  of  the  currency. 

"Sec.  4  That  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  shall  redeem  the 
United  States  notes,  commonly  called  'greenbacks,'  and  also  the 
treasury  notes  issued  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  July  14,  1890, 
when  presented  for  redemption,  in  standard  silver  dollars  or  in  gold 
coin,  using  for  redemption  of  said  notes  either  gold  or  silver  coins, 
or  both,  not  at  the  option  of  the  holder,  but  exclusively  at  the  option 
of  the  treasury  department;  and  said  notes  commonly  called  'green- 
backs,' when  so  redeemed,  shall  be  reissued  as  provided  by  the  act  of 
May  31,  1878." 

Further  details  of  proceedings  in  congress  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tariff  and  bond  bills,  belong  to  the  new 
year. 

Another  Bond  Issne. — The  secretary  of  the  treasury 
was  expected  from  day  to  day  to  issue  bonds  to  the  amount 
of  $100,000,000,  but  had  not  done  so  when  the  year  ended. 
It  was  generally  expected  that  the  marketing  of  the  bonds 
would  be  undertaken  by  a  syndicate  of  New  York  banks 
and  bankers;  and,  several  days  before  Secretary  Carlisle 
published  the  official  call  for  a  public  loan  of  1100,000,000, 
J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.,  New  York  bankers,  sent  out  to  cer- 
tain of  their  correspondents  and  associates  the  following 
prospectus: 

"J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.  propose  to  form  a  syndicate  in  order  to  make 


844  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

a  contract  with  the  United  States  government  for  the  sale  of  11,500,- 
000  ouncesof  gold,  payable  in  United  States  four  per  cent  bondsof  1925; 
of  this  amount  at  least  5,750,000  ounces  to  be  firm,  and  the  balance 
may  be  firm  or  in  the  form  of  an  option  in  whole  or  in  part;  the  price 
to  be  upon  about  the  basis  of  the  contract  of  February  8,  1895.  No 
participation  hereunder  shall  be  binding  unless  the  equivalent  of 
$100,000,000  of  bonds  are  subscribed  for.  Subscriptions  may  be  taken 
up  to  a  larger  total  in  the  discretion  of  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.,  prior  to 
execution  of  contract  with  the  government;  any  option  to  apply  ratably 
among  all  firm  subscriptions. 

"The  syndicate  is  to  be  under  the  management  of  J.  P.  Morgan 
&  Co. ,  and  they  are  to  be  allowed  one  per  cent  therefor. 

"The  undersigned  agree  to  accept  firm  participations  in  any  such 
syndicate  to  the  extent  set  opposite  their  respective  names,  and  ratably 
in  any  option,  and  to  furnish  gold  accordingly,  it  being  understood 
that  such  gold  is  not  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  United  States  treasury 
for  the  purpose  of  said  subscription." 

The  syndicate  was  formed,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
year  the  subscriptions  received  much  more  than  covered 
the  proposed  issue  of  $200,000,000.  But  the  intelligence 
that  a  combination  of  bankers  had  parcelled  out  the  loan 
among  themselves  called  forth  loud  protests,  and  when  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  in  the  early  days  of  January,  1896, 
announced  an  issue  of  bonds,  he  ignored  the  syndicate, 
and  invited  loans  from  individuals  and  from  banks  in 
their  individual  capacity.  The  chief  figure  in  the  syndi- 
cate and  its  organizer  was  J.  Pierpont  Morgan.  Of  the 
first  $100,000,000  of  bonds,  he  undertook  to  dispose  of 
$75,000,000,  viz.,  in  this  country  $50,000,000,  and  in  Eu- 
rope $35,000,000.  The  bonds  to  be  placed  in  this  country 
were  to  be  allotted  to  New  York  banks  and  their  corre- 
spondents, and  to  other  financial  institutions.  Those  to  be 
placed  in  Europe  would  be  taken  in  Berlin  and  a  part  in 
London.  The  remaining  $25,000,000  bonds  were  to  be 
placed  in  this  country  by  James  Stillman,  president  of  the 
National  City  Bank,  who  also  undertook  to  dispose  of  $25,- 
000,000  of  the  second  $100,000,000. 


THE  NOVEMBER  ELECTIONS. 

QTATE  elections  were  held  November  5  in  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Kentucky,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Mississippi,  Ne- 
braska, New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Virginia.  Of  these  states,  seven — Iowa,  Kentucky,  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts,  Mississippi,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio — 
elected  governors.  State  officers  of  lower  rank  than  gov- 
ernor were  chosen  in  four — Kansas,  Nebraska,  New  York, 


THE  NOVEMBER  ELECTIONS.  845 

Pennsylvania.  Seven — Iowa,  Kentucky,  Maryland, 
Mississippi,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio — elected 
new  legislatures;  while  two — New  York  and  Virginia — 
chose  part  of  their  legislatures.  Utah  elected  a  governor, 
state  othcers,  and  a  legislature.  The  legislature  elected  in 
Iowa  will  choose  a  successor  to  Senator  Allison  (rep.);  that 
of  Maryland,  a  successor  to  Senator  Gibson  (dem.);  that 
of  Mississippi,  a  successor  to  Senator  George  (dem.);  that 
of  Ohio,  a  successor  to  Senator  Brice  (dem.);  that  of  Ken- 
tucky a  successor  to  Senator  Blackburn  (dem.);  while  the 
state  senators  elected  in  New  York  and  Virginia  will  par- 
ticipate in  the  election  of  successors  to  Senators  Hill  and 
Daniel,  respectively. 

Of  the  municipal  elections  the  most  conspicuous  were 
held  in  New  York  city  and  Brooklyn,  Detroit,  Mich.,  Bal- 
timore, Md. ,  and  Boston,  Mass.  In  New  York  city  the  most 
significant  feature  of  the  contest  was  the  reaction  mani- 
fested at  the  polls  against  the  municipal  reform  associated 
with  the  names  of  Hon.  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  Rev.  Dr.  C. 
H.  Parkhurst,  and  the  consequent  winning  of  a  victory  by 
the  forces  of  Tammany.  (Seearticleon  "Affairs  in  Various 
States, ^^  subhead  "New  York/^  where  the  local  campaign 
is  reviewed  at  greater  length.)  In  Brooklyn,  Detroit,  and 
Baltimore,  mayors  were  elected,  and  there  was  unusual  in- 
terest. In  Brooklyn  the  contest  would  show  whether  the 
reform  spirit  which  had  elected  Mayor  Schieren  was  still 
dominant.  Mr.  Wurster,  the  republican  candidate,  was 
elected  by  a  close  vote.  In  Detroit  Mayor  Pingree  was 
for  the  fourth  time  candidate,  and  his  election  was  con- 
tested more  bitterly  than  it  had  previously  been;  yet  he 
was  returned  by  a  larger  majority  than  ever  before.  In  Bal- 
timore dissatisfaction  with  the  prevailing  forces  in  the 
politics  of  the  city  made  the  election  of  a  republican  to 
the  office  of  mayor  a  possibility.  For  an  account  of  the 
election  in  Boston,  see  subhead  "Massachusetts"  in  article 
on  "Affairs  in  Various  States." 

In  an  "off  year"  like  1895,  with  a  presidential  election 
about  to  occur,  the  various  parties  make  strenuous  efforts 
for  success  in  order  to  secure  the  moral  effects  of  victory, 
and  consequent  ability  to  enter  upon  the  presidential 
contest  with  greater  prestige.  It  is  the  wont  of  parties  in 
a  state  campaign  to  treat  at  length  in  their  platforms, 
their  organs  of  the  press,  and  their  stump  speeches,  of 
both  state  and  national  affairs.  The  result  of  the  at- 
tempted blending  of  dissimilar  interests  is  often  confusion 
to  the  voter.     If  the  gubernatorial  candidate  of  his  party 


846  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

is  unsatisfactory  to  him,  he  is  still  urged  to  vote  the  regu- 
lar ticket  because  of  its  effect  upon  the  important  contest 
which  is  soon  to  occur,  and  which  is  already  casting  its 
shadows  before.  But  the  politicians  are  not  always  con- 
sistent in  their  appeals.  For  instance,  the  democratic  can- 
didates for  governor  in  Maryland  and  Kentucky  were  un- 
satisfactory to  a  large  constituency  in  their  own  party. 
The  ground  of  complaint  against  the  former  was  purely 
local,  while  it  was  urged  against  the  latter,  not  that  he 
would  make  an  unacceptable  executive,  but  that  his  views  on 
certain  national  questions  were  not  in  accord  with  the  opin- 
ions of  the  majority  of  his  party.  It  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve that  both  candidates  found  the  grounds  on  which 
the  defection  from  their  following  had  occurred,  sufficient 
to  defeat  them. 

Of  the  states  which  elected  state  tickets,  Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Iowa  were  known  as  surely  republican. 
Massachusetts  elects  a  governor  every  year,  and  during  the 
last  thirty  years  has  elected  but  three  democrats  to  that 
office.  Pennsylvania's  usual  republican  majority  is  not  far 
from  100,000,  and  only  twice  in  twenty-five  years  has  a 
democrat  succeeded  in  turning  the  scale.  In  Iowa  the 
republican  majority  is  ordinarily  very  large;  but  sometimes 
the  large  prohibition  and  populist  elements  cause  compli- 
cations which  make  the  result  doubtful.  New  York,  al- 
though a  *' doubtful  state,"  had  for  two  succeeding  years 
given  the  republican  state  tickets  large  majorities;  while 
Ohio  had,  two  years  ago,  elected  Major  McKinley  governor 
by  a  large  plurality.  New  Jersey  had  never  elected  a  re- 
publican governor;  and  Kentucky  and  Maryland  were  still 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  "  Solid  South."  Kansas, 
which  has  had  a  democratic  governor  but  once  in  many 
years,  had  felt  strongly  the  rising  wave  of  populism,  and 
in  1892  gave  its  electoral  vote  to  the  populist  candidate 
for  the  presidency.  Nebraska,  too,  has  had  experience  of 
populism,  and  has  now  a  populist  governor.  Mississippi 
has  too  few  republican  voters  to  make  its  elections  spe- 
cially interesting;  while  Virginia  stands  firmly  by  the 
principles  of  the  democracy  known  as  "Bourbon."  It  had 
long  been  the  desire  of  republican  leaders  to  break  the 
''Solid  South,"  but  it  had  been  so  often  tried  without  suc- 
cess that  the  attempt  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  hopeless. 

From  this  brief  resume,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  outlook 
at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  promised  well  for  the 
republicans,  though  it  was  also  considered  certain  that  the 
democrats  would  make  a  better  showing  than  they  did  iu 


THE  NOVEMBER  ELECTIONS.  847 

N"ovember,  1894.  The  dawning  revival  of  industry  and 
trade  had  done  much  to  lessen  the  intensity  of  feeling  of 
the  working  classes  on  the  tariff  and  some  other  questions, 
which  contributed  to  the  democratic  defeat  a  year  ago. 

The  Massachusetts  republicans  nominated  for  a  third 
term  Frederick  T.  Grreenhalge.  Ilis  democratic  opponent 
was  the  Hon.  George  Fred  Williams,  lately  an  able  con- 
gressman. The  American  Protective  Association  showed 
that  it  had  a  considerable  influence  in  and  about  Boston. 
This  influence  was  exerted  against  the  renomination  of 
Governor  Greenhalge;  but  during  the  campaign  it  was 
understood  to  be  turned  to  his  support.  Governor  Green- 
halge was  re-elected  with  a  very  large  majority. 

In  Iowa  the  contest  was  quite  one-sided.  The  popu- 
lists gained  appreciably,  but  the  democrats  put  forth  little 
effort,  and  the  republican  candidate  for  governor  received 
a  very  large  majority.  The  legislature  is  republican  by 
a  large  majority. 

The  result  of  the  election  in  Ohio  was  at  no  time  in 
doubt.  The  democratic  candidate  for  governor  was  Ex- 
Governor  Campbell;  but  in  spite  of  strong  efforts  on  his 
part,  he  was  defeated.     The  new  legislature  is  republican. 

In  Kentucky  General  P.  AVatt  Hardin,  the  democratic 
candidate  for  governor,  a  ^'free-silver^' man,  was  in  the 
unusual  position  of  being  at  variance  with  the  "sound- 
money  "  principles  laid  down  by  his  party  in  its  platform. 
In  this  he  had  the  support  of  Senator  Blackburn.  The 
not  unexpected  result  was  tliat  the  party  refused  to  give 
its  leaders  its  loyal  support.  The  republicans  found 
themselves  for  the  first  time  victors  in  Kentucky.  The 
governor  is  of  that  party;  and  the  legislature  is  evenly  di- 
vided between  the  two  leading  parties,  with  two  populists 
holding  the  balance  of  power. 

In  Maryland  the  revolt  against  the  faction  led  by  Sena- 
.  tor  Gorman  (p.  640)  led  to  the  complete  defeat  of  the  dem- 
'  ocratic  ticket.  The  legislature  will  elect  a  republican  to 
succeed  Senator  Gorman's  colleague  in  the  United  States 
senate.  For  the  first  time  since  the  war,  a  republican  holds 
the  office  of  governor  in  Maryland. 

In  1872  New  Jersey  gave  its  electoral  vote  to  General 
Grant,  but  since  that  time  it  had  been  consistently  demo- 
cratic. In  1895,  however,  as  a  result  of  the  strenuous 
and  persistent  efforts  of  Mr.  Griggs,  their  candidate  for 
governor,  the  republicans  gained  a  most  decisive  victory. 
The  legislature  contains  three  times  as  many  republicans 
as  democrats. 


848  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th  Qr.,  1895. 

In  Pennsylvania  the  majority  which  the  republican 
candidates  received  was  even  larger  than  usual. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  single  cause  to  which 
this  almost  universal  republican  success  can  be  attributed. 
The  tariff  question  did  not  appear  conspicuously  in  any  of 
the  campaign  discussions  except  in  Ohio.  The  currency 
question  was  generally  discussed;  but  party  lines  were  not 
strictly  drawn  on  it;  and  the  locality  more  than  party 
principles  determined  the  kind  of  declarations  made  by 
party  conventions  on  this  question.  There  seems  to  have  been 
an  undefined  dissatisfaction  with  existing  conditions.  The 
average  voter  did  not  pause  to  inquire  at  length  into  the 
cause  of  present  conditions,  but  voted  for  a  change.  It  is 
seldom  that  one  of  the  states  known  as  *^ doubtful^'  casts 
large  majorities  for  the  candidate  of  the  same  party  three 
years  in  succession.  Yet  New  York,  whose  electoral  vote 
has  so  often  changed  the  result  of  presidential  elections, 
has  given  during  the  last  three  years  republican  majori- 
ties averaging  more  than  100,000. 

Municipal  elections  are  becoming  more  interesting  and 
important  every  year.  Their  chief  interest  and  import- 
ance lies  in  the  fact  that  the  people  of  our  larger  cities  are 
rapidly  learning  the  lesson  of  city  government.  They  are 
coming  to  the  conclusion  that  in  general  the  only  qualifica- 
tions that  should  recommend  a  candidate  for  municipal 
office  should  be  intelligence,  ability,  and  honesty.  In 
1894  the  union  of  all  the  elements  opposed  to  Tammany 
Hall  in  New  York  city,  and  the  election  of  Mayor  Strong, 
promised  well  for  the  future  of  that  city's  government. 
This  fall,  however,  when  the  better  elements  of  the  city 
tried  to  unite  in  order  to  complete  the  demoralization  of 
Tammany,  it  was  found  that  the  course  of  the  reform  ad- 
ministration in  enforcing  the  excise  law,  and  its  failure  to 
distribute  offices  as  many  of  its  supporters  had  expected  it 
would  do,  had  alienated  some  of  the  organizations  which 
had  given  it  hearty  support  the  year  before.  The  Ger- 
man-American Reform  Union,  the  *'  O'Brienites,''  and 
the  "Stecklerites,"  parted  company  with  the  ''Fusionists,'' 
as  the  opponents  of  Tammany  were  called.  This  defec- 
tion brought  defeat  to"  the  reform  party. 

For  a  comparative  study  of  the  results  of  the  state  elec- 
tions of  1895  and  those  of  1894,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
accompanying  tabulated  statement.  If  a  governor  was 
elected  this  year,  his  name  appears  in  the  column  headed 
'^Governor."  If  any  other  state  officers  were  elected,  the 
name  of  the  office  appears.  The  republicans  appear  in 
Bold  Face  type,  democrats  in  Roman. 


A'iyr, 


THE  NOVEMBER  ELECTIONS 
•dojl  M'^lll^lllliS 


•dan  ^^"-='^5;  '  '^'=®S;^S"*'^ 


•raaa 


^^ss§§s^8s?«So5;§ 


Is 
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•do  J I 


!§* 


•daa,  ^|??35|"'feS|S| 


•uiaa  S5''8 


CO  O  05  OS  "^  * 


^t-^c-^coo; 


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ll^iiiiisil  IS 


i^os^jjoeoooin-^osoco 
S  §?  S  o  o  S  ao  CO  o  -"T  5_^ 

'odoTr-Cos  C*  t-^o'i-<  OS  so 


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849 


650  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr.,  1895. 

THE  CUBAN  RETOLT. 

"POR  a  clear  understanding  of  the  events  which  have  taken 

place  in  Cuba  since  September  30,  when  our  last  pre- 
vious record  was  closed  (p.  573),  a  brief  description  of  the 
island  and  of  the  forces,  both  loyal  and  rebel,  will  be  help- 
ful. Cuba  is  divided  into  six  provinces,  which  might  be 
classified  according  to  their  sympathies  in  the  present 
'  struggle,  as  follows:  Pinar  del  Rio,  the  westernmost 
province,  and  Havana,  the  capital  province  and  the  cen- 
tre of  operations  for  the  Spanish  army,  were  loyal  and 
almost  entirely  undisturbed  by  the  insurgents.  Matanzas 
had  a  sprinkling  of  rebels;  while  Santa  Clara,  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, and  Santiago  de  Cuba,  the  three  easternmost  provinces, 
were  almost  entirely  given  over  to  the  rebels  and  their  sym- 
pathizers. 

The  revolt  was  begun  February  24,  1895  (p.  59).  On 
that  day  the  Cubans  declared  their  separation  from  the 
Spanish  monarchy.  The  forces  of  the  insurgents  were 
at  first  unorganized  and  had  no  concerted  plan.  The  re- 
volt was  largely  due  to  unfavorable  economic  conditions. 
The  rebels  took  tip  arms  in  the  beginning  principally 
for  the  reason  that  business  was  unsuccessful  and  the  at- 
tractions of  labor  and  trade  but  few.  It  was  felt  that  the 
restrictions  placed  by  the  Spanish  government  upon  Cuba's 
trade  relations  with  other  countries  were  chiefly  responsible 
for  this  unprosperous  condition.  As  time  went  on  and 
the  purposes  of  the  insurgents  became  clearer,  the  rabble 
had  been  transformed  into  an  army  possessing  discipline 
and  definite  aim.  Their  plan  was  to  establish  uninterrupted 
communication  between  the  insurgents  throughout  the 
length  of  the  island  and  to  press  as  near  to  Havana,  the 
capital  and  headquarters  of  the  loyalists,  as  possible. 

In  the  beginning  of  October  the  rebel  army  consisted 
of  30,000  men,  and  was  in  two  divisions,  the  western  occu- 
pying the  province  of  Puerto  Principe  under  the  command 
of  General  Gomez,  and  the  eastern  commanded  by  General 
Maceo.  The  Spanish  army,  although  numbering  in  all 
76,000  men,  consisted  of  not  more  than  30,000  who  were 
immediately  available. 

General  Campos's  plan  was  to  proceed  eastward  from 
Havana,  routing  the  rebels  and  clearing  the  ground  as  far 
as  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  But  this  program 
could  by  no  means  be  easily  carried  out.  His  opponents 
were  inured  to  the  peculiar  climate;  they  knew  their  ground; 
they  were  practiced  in  guerrilla  warfare;   and  they  were 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT.  851 

filled  with  enthusiasm.  But  he  was  fighting  for  the  last 
colonial  possession  of  an  empire  which  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  overshadowed  all  Europe.  The 
Spanish  government,  limited  in  resources,  and  with  di- 
minished credit  among  nations,  finds  this,  her  last  des- 
perate attempt  to  keep  a  colony  in  her  possession,  an 
exceedingly  hazardous  and  expensive  undertaking.  Spain 
had  negotiated  with 
France  for  a  loan  of 
50,000,000  francs 
($10,000,000);  but 
with  a  monthly  ex- 
penditure of  $4,500,- 
000,  the  French  loan, 
if  granted,  would  not 
long  suffice.  Toward 
the  middle  of  October, 
however,  a  fresh  wave 
of  hope  and  enthusi- 
asm arose  at  Madrid, 
and  the  government 
was  able  to  secure  a 
loan  of  75,000,000 
francs  from  the 
Banque  de  Paru  des 
Pays  Bus. 

The  Cubans  early 
in  October  appointed 
a  permanent  govern- 
ment and  adopted  a 
constitution.  The 
president  was  Salva- 
dor Cisneros;  secre- 
tary of  war,  Carlos  Roloff;  general-in-chief,  Maximo  Go- 
mez; and  his  lieutenant-general,  Antonio  Maceo.  Five 
of  the  six  provinces  were  represented  in  the  new  govern- 
ment, which  rallied  an  immediate  and  widespread  allegiance. 

The  constitution  authorized  the  vesting  of  the  executive  and  de- 
liberative functions  in  a  president  and  cabinet.  The  cabinet  was  to 
consist  of  four  secretaries,  who,  together  with  the  president  and  the 
vice-president,  were  to  constitute  the  ministerial  council.  There  was 
no  provision  made  for  a  representative  government.  The  judicial 
department  was  to  be  kept  distinct  from  the  other  two  divisions  of 
the  government. 

The  battles  fought  since  the  beginning  of  October  have 
been  numerous  and  fairly  important.  The  insurgents  have 
used  dynamite  to  bombard  railroad  trains,  and  have  been 


\  ^hHf 

■Ul 

^yi 

l^iii 

^^^^^S^WMf  f 

''^^^^^H 

m^'^'A 

^^1 

^^^^H 

kl^h 

BJJH 

MARSHAL  MARTINEZ   DE   CAMPOS, 
COMMANDING   THE   SPANISH   TROOPS. 


852  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.     4th Qr,  1895. 

generally  successful  in  guerrilla  expeditions.  The  conflict- 
ing reports  that  have  reached  the  United  States  after  each 
engagement  preclude  the  making  of  any  definite  statement 
concerning  the  outcome  of  many  of  the  encounters;  but  as 
a  rule  the  truth  regarding  most  of  them  has  sooner  or  later 
found  its  way  to  us.  Baracoa,  an  important  port  on  the 
northeastern  extremity  of  the  island,  was  blown  np  by  the 

Cubans  on  October 

10.  On  the  same  day 
Colonels  Cotrina  and 
Diez,  Spanish  leaders, 
were  defeated  by 
a  band  of  insurgents. 
The  increase  ol  yel- 
low fever  among 
the  Spanish  troops 
worked  great  havoc 
with  them. 

To  Secretary  01- 
ney^s  request  that 
Hon.  Ramon  0.  Wil- 
liams, our  consul-gen- 
eral at  Havana,  should 
be  granted  diplomatic 
as  well  as  consular 
powers,  Spain  replied 
that  it  could  not  be 
conceded  under  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of 
1789.  The  conten- 
tion of  the  American 
government  was  that 
the  "favored-nation^' 
clause  of  the  treaty  permitted  such  a  concession. 

The  most  important  battle  of  October  was  fought  on 
the  second  of  the  month  at  Mount  Mogote.  Maceo,  with  800 
Cubans,  attacked,  and  in  five  hours  defeated,  2,000  Span- 
iards under  Generals  Garcia,  Navarro,  and  Linares.  In  this 
battle  five  officers  were  killed  and  ten  wounded. 

Seilor  Carlos  M.  Cespedes,  son  of  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  first  provisional  government  of  Cuba,  read- 
ily lent  his  sympathies  to  the  insurgents,  and  on  Octo- 
ber 20  sailed  from  Canada  with  arms  and  ammunition  for 
the  Cubans. 

A  notable  and  bloody  battle  was  fought  at  Taguasco  in 
the  province  of  Santa  Clara  November  18  and  19,     The 


HON.  RAXOK  O.  WIIXIAM8, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSUL-SENERAL  AT  HAVANA. 


THE  CUBAN  REVOLT. 


853 


Spanish  forces  were  commanded  by  Generals  Suarez  Val- 
des,  Luque,  and  Aldave;  while  the  generals  in  command 
of  the  Cubans  were  Gomez  and  Maceo.  The  loss  of  the 
Spaniards  was  about  500.  The  result  of  this  defeat  was 
naturally  a  diminution  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  the 
Spaniards.  The  inactivity  of  General  Campos,  together 
with  the  remarkable  activity  of  the  rebels,  promised  to 
result  at  no  distant  date 
in  the  complete  victory 
of  the  latter;  and  accord- 
ingly General  Pando  was 
dispatched  from  Cadiz 
with  30,000  troops,  and 
became  lieutenant  of  Gen- 
eral Campos.  This  of- 
ficer was  well  known  to 
the  islanders,  for  he  had 
been  their  governor,  and 
had  borne  among  them 
the  reputation  of  being  an 
exceedingly  energetic  of- 
cial.  The  fact  that  he 
had  been  appointed  to 
share  the  command  of  the 
Spanish  army,  seemed  to 
the  Cubans  an  indication 
that  Spain  was  ready  to  use 
extremely  vigorous  means 
to  crush  the  rebellion. 

Rumors  were  thickly  flying  at  this  time  to  the  effect 
that  Spain  had  bought  off  Generals  Gomez  and  Maceo,  and 
that  Marshal  Campos  had  resigned  his  command.  But 
these  reports  proved  to  be  baseless.  The  persistence  and 
activity  of  the  insurgent  generals  was  being  daily  shown  to 
their  great  advantage  and  the  confusion  of  their  enemies, 
while  the  Spanish  commander  still  continued  to  announce 
his  plans  and  to  display  his  usual  confidence  in  his  own 
military  ability. 

The  operations  in  December  began  with  the  defeat  of 
the  Cubans  at  Las  Villas  and  Camaguey;  but  on  the  10th 
of  the  month  the  tables  were  turned,  and  Commander 
Garado  of  the  Spanish  army  was  defeated  at  La  Virginia. 
Again  at  Minas  in  Puerto  Principe,  a  Spanish  force  of 
eighty  troops  was  attacked  and  utterly  defeated  by  a  rebel 
band  of  500.  On  the  23d  of  the  month  the  Cubans  showed 
the  advantage  which  their  acquaintance  with  the  country 


MAXIMO  GOMEZ, 
COMMANDER-INrCniEP  OF  THE  REBEL 

JORCES. 


854  LEADING  TOPICS  OF  THE  QUARTER.    4th  Qr..  1895. 

afforded    them,  by  entrapping  and   defeating  a  Spanish 
force  of  3,000  in  Palmarito. 

In  the  latter  part  of  December,  General  Campos  re- 
turned to  Havana,  where  he  was  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm. The  leaders  of  the  three  political  parties — the 
autonomist,  the  constitutionalist,  and  the  unionist — gave 
him  assurance  of  their  loyal  and  united  support.  Mean- 
while the  insurgents  were  marching  rapidly,  burning  and 
destroying  property  as  they  went.  This  march  of  General 
Gomez,  which  began  after  a  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  at 
Colon,  and  included  an  invasion  of  Matanzas,  was  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  and  dramatic  incidents  of  the  war. 
On  December  26  the  insurgents  invaded  the  loyal  province 
of  Havana.  Here,  however,  their  advance  was  checked, 
and  they  were  turned  back.  They  were  met  by  Spaniards 
near  Calimete,  in  Matanzas,  and  repulsed.  Two  other  de- 
feats were  soon  inflicted  upon  them.  These  successes 
caused  General  Campos  to  state  that  the  backbone  of  the 
rebellion  was  broken;  but,  a  few  days  later,  it  was  an- 
nounced that  although  the  Cubans  had  suffered  defeat  and 
had  been  driven  back  from  Havana  through  the  province 
of  Matanzas  to  Santa  Clara,  yet  they  had  managed,  at  the 
opening  of  the  new  year,  to  fix  their  centre  of  operations 
at  Guanajay,  only  forty-five  miles  distant  from  the  city  of 
Havana. 

As  the  new  year  opens,  the  insurgents  have  resumed 
their  march  in  force  in  the  direction  of  the  capital.  Many 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  hitherto  loyal  province  of  Havana, 
stimulated  by  the  presence  and  success  of  the  enemies  of 
the  government,  are  said  to  have  joined  the  invaders. 
General  Campos  has  declared  martial  law  throughout  the 
provinces  of  Havana  and  Pinar  del  Rio. 

More  than  half  of  the  island — namely,  the  provinces  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  Puerto  Principe,  and  half  of  Santa 
Clara,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  garrison  towns  and  sea- 
ports— is  already  in  possession  of  the  insurgents.  j 

During  the  entire  struggle  the  United  States  has  main- ' 
tained  a  position  of  strict  neutrality;  but  there  have  been 
numerous  expressions,  both  by  individuals  and  societies,  of 
sympathy  with  the  Cubans.  But  neither  our  nation  nor 
any  other  has  officially  dignified  the  insurgents  with  the 
name  "belligerents.^" 

The  Cubans  are  certainly  loyal  to  their  cause.  When 
it  was  learned  that  Spain  was  negotiating  with  France  for 
a  loan  in  order  to  carry  on  the  war,  and  that  the  Cuban 
sugar  crop  was  to  be  offered  as  security,  the  insurgents  re- 


OUTRAGES  OX  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA.  855 

solved  to  burn  their  cane  and  shut  their  refineries  in  order 
to  thwart  their  enemies.  An  order  to  this  effect  was  issued 
July  10;  but  the  necessity  for  carrying  it  out  was  not 
generally  seen  until  some  months  later,  when  it  was  almost 
universally  obeyed. 

The  question  as  to  what  the  result  of  the  success  of  the 
insurgents  would  be,  has  been  eagerly  discussed  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  not  probable  that  any  large  body  of 
the  Cubans  would  favor  annexation,  even  though  it  should 
be  offered  by  this  country.  The  autonomists  are  the  largest 
and  most  influential  of  the  Cuban  parties;  and  their  policy 
would  probably  prevail  in  case  the  rebellion  should  finally 
be  successful.  This  policy  is  thought  to  be  outlined  al- 
ready in  the  constitution  which  the  insurgents  have  drawn 
up,  and  to  be  a  policy  of  complete  independence  for  Cuba. 


.--.-c-<i!;j^C*^r>i^^^^^i3iiri^^ 


OUTRAGES  ON  MISSIONARIES  IN  CHINA. 

^FTER  the  fanatical  outrages  on  Christian  missionaries 
in  China,  which  were  a  subject  of  special  review  last 
quarter  (p.  532),  two  methods  were  suggested  by  which 
England  and  the  United  States  could  provide  for  the 
safety  of  their  citizens  resident  in  the  Celestial  empire. 
The  more  peremptory  was  to  take  the  Chinese  government 
at  its  word,  it  having  professed  inability  to  protect  the 
lives  of  foreigners  in  certain  provinces,  and  themselves  to 
assume  armed  protection  of  their  citizens;  the  other  was  to 
appoint  an  investigating  committee,  which,  in  connection 
with  native  officials,  should  bring  the  suspected  men  to 
trial.  Th€  milder  and  more  usual  method  was  adopted, 
and  a  commission  was  appointed. 

The  Kii-Cheng  Investigation.^The  work  of  the 
commission  has  been  slow  and  tedious.  So  great  has  been 
the  delay  and  so  marked  has  been  the  duplicity  of  the 
Chinese  officials,  that  little  has  been  accomplished. 

The  mode  of  obtaining  evidence  in  a  Chinese  court  has 
greatly  hampered  the  commission.  No  one  testifies  freely 
and  openly.  The  intertwi-ning  of  family  relationships 
makes  such  a  course  impossible.     After  a  long  examina- 

Vol.  5.-55. 


856  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

tion,  however,  the  following  facts  were  established  beyond 
contradiction: 

On  the  niglit  of  the  march  to  Hwa-Sang,  289  armed  men  passed 
through  the  village  of  Ang-Chiong  on  their  way  to  Hwa-Sang. 

After  the  massacre  was  over,  180  of  the  band  came  to  the  village 
of  Twai-Kiang,  about  nine  miles  east  of  Hwa-Sang,  and  sat  down 
leisurely  to  eat  their  dinner.  The  discrepancy  is  accounted  for  by 
the  desertion  which  must  have  taken  place  through  fear. 

It  is  thus  shown  that  at  least  130  men  took  part  in  the 
outrage.  According  to  Chinese  law  all  of  these  deserve 
death.  Only  forty-five,  however,  have  been  convicted, 
and  of  these  but  eighteen  have  been  offered  for  execution 
by  the  native  officials.  The  yamen  (board  of  foreign 
affairs)  has  been  active  in  aiding  the  commission  in  its 
work  of  inquiry  and  in  bringing  the  culprits  to  conviction. 
But  the  decrees  of  the  viceroy  take  precedence  of  any  or- 
ders of  the  yamen,  and  he  is  disposed  to  view  the  matter 
in  the  light  of  an  ordinary  street  brawl.  Consequently  he 
has  delayed  giving  concurrence  to  the  sentences  passed  by 
the  officials,  agreed  to  by  the  yamen,  and  sanctioned  by 
the  commission. 

On  October  15,  however,  Mr.  Mansfield,  the  British 
consul,  had  an  interview  with  the  viceroy  of  Fo-Kien, 
who  agreed  to  the  execution  of  the  eighteen  men  on  whom 
sentence  of  death  had  been  passed. 

But  this  sentence  could  not  satisfy  the  commission. 
They  have  demanded  and  have  reiterated  the  demand  of 
the  yamen  and  the  taotai  (the  presiding  magistrate),  that 
all  the  offenders  shall  be  tried  and  convicted,  and  that  the 
extension  of  clemency  shall  be  an  after-consideration. 
There  is  but  slight  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  officials 
to  meet  this  demand. 

When  the  number  of  convicted  prisoners  had  reached 
forty-five,  the  officers  of  the  court  announced  that  the  in- 
vestigation would  cease  as  there  were  no  more  Hwa-Sang 
massacre  cases  to  be  tried.  There  still,  however,  remained 
nearly  100  untried  cases.  But  it  is  highly  improbable  that 
the  commission  can  secure  the  co-operation  of  native  officials 
to  an  extent  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  proceed  with  any 
hope  of  success.  The  taotai,  the  yamen,  the  commission, 
and  the  viceroy  seem  to  be  working  at  cross  purposes. 
Whatever  promises  the  taotai  may  make,  the  viceroy  may 
annul.  AVhatever  steps  the  commission  may  take,  may  be 
blocked  by  the  native  officials  if  they  choose. 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA.  857 

THE  BERING  SEA  DISPUTE. 

A  convention  looking  toward  a  settlement  of  the  now- 
long-standing  damage  claims  of  Canadian  sealers,  was  re- 
ported on  November  13  t-o  have  been  negotiated  by  Sir 
Julian  Pauncefote,  the  British  ambassador  at  Washington, 
and  Secretary  of  State  Olney,  after  consultation  with 
Premier  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell  and  Minister  of  Justice 
Sir  C.  Hibbert  Tupper,  representing  the  Canadian  gov- 
ernment. 

In  substance  it  provided  for  a  joint  commission  consisting  of  one 
representative  each  from  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  to  meet 
at  Victoria,  B.  C,  to  assess  the  damages  suffered  by  the  Canadians. 
Should  the  two  commissioners  fail  to  agree,  a  third  was  to  be  chosen. 

The  full  text  of  the  correspondence  between  the  foreign 
office  in  London,  Eng.,  and  Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,  relating 
to  the  claims,  and  covering  the  period  from  May  8, 1894,  to 
August  31,  1895,  was  transmitted  to  the  American  depart- 
ment of  state  November  25,  and  made  public. 

It  is  reported  that  nearly  40,000  sealskins,  of  which 
about  80  per  cent  were  from  females,  were  taken  in  Ber- 
ing sea  in  1895  after  July  31,  when  the  close  season  came 
to  an  end;  and  that  the  officials  on  the  Pribilof  islands 
counted  27,000  dead  pups  which  had  starved  at  the  rook- 
eries. 

THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA. 

The  French  in  Madagascar, — The  Hova  capital, 
Antananarivo,  was  taken  by  the  French  troops  on  the  last 
day  of  September  (p.  597).  After  some  sharp  fighting 
during  the  preceding  two  days.  General  Duchesne  seized 
the  heights  east  of  the  city.  Then  he  formed  two  columns, 
that  on  the  right  under  command  of  General  Metzinger, 
and  that  on  the  left  under  General  Voyron.  The  action 
was  hot,  and  the  French  were  attacked  simultaneously 
from  the  front,  the  right,  and  the  rear.  By  two  o'clock  the 
heights  of  Andrainariva  were  gained,  while  General  Voy- 
ron occupied  the  northern  heights.  The  order  was  now 
given  to  bombard  the  capital;  and  General  Duchesne  was 
about  to  advance  in  six  columns,  when  the  Hovas  hoisted 
a  white  flag  and  opened  negotiations  for  a  truce.  But  the 
French  commander  required  the  surrender  of  the  city;  and 
with  this  demand  the  Hovas  complied  perforce.  General 
Metzinger  then  took  possession;  and  the  following  morn- 
ing, October  1,  General  Duchesne  entered  Antananarivo, 
fixing  his  headquarters  at  the  royal  residence.     That  even- 


858  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

ing  a  treaty  was  signed  by  the  queen  and  her  ministers. 
The  fall  of  tlie  capital  was  followed  everywhere  by  a  sur- 
render of  the  armed  forces  of  the  native  government. 
General  Metzinger  was  ajjpointed  governor  of  Antanana- 
rivo. 

The  treaty  concluded  with  the  queen  of  Madagascar 
comprises  seven  articles. 

The  queen  accepts  the  protectorate  of  the  French  republic;  and 
that  republic  accepts  all  the  obligations  of  such  protectorate:  thus 
there  will  be  no  annexation  of  the  island  to  France,  at  least  for  the 
present.  A  French  resident -general  is  to  control  all  relations  between 
Madagascar  and  foreign  countries.  France  reserves  the  right  to 
maintain  military  forces  in  the  island;  and  the  French  resident  is  to 
control  the  internal  government.  The  Hova  government  is  not  al- 
lowed to  contract  loans  without  authorization  from  France.  France 
assumes  the  financial  responsibilities  whicli  Madagascar  has  hereto- 
fore contracted,  but  will  assist  in  the  conversion  of  the  loan  contracted 
in  188G,  and  will  also  define  the  limits  of  the  Diego  Suarez  territories 
at  the  earliest  possible  time.  The  new  treaty  is  essentially  a  renewal, 
with  additions,  of  the  protectorate  treaty  of  1885. 

The  terms  of  the  treaty  give  some  dissatisfaction  in 
France.  Mr.  De  Mahy,  ex-minister  for  the  colonies,  who 
planned  the  expedition  to  Madagascar,  declares  that  the 
island  must  be  made  a  French  colony. 

"  The  protectorate,"  he  says,  "  is  useless;  nothing  but  full  posses- 
sion can  recompense  P^rance  for  her  expenditure  of  lives  and  treasure, 
otherwise  French  commerce  there  will  be  exposed  to  the  crushing 
competition  of  Manchester  and  Birmingham." 

The  press  of  Germany  see  in  the  outcome  of  the  expe- 
dition new  care  and  trouble  for  France.  In  Madagascar  the 
martial  energies  of  France  will  have  a  field  for  their  exercise, 
and  the  peace  of  Europe  will  be  less  endangered.  The 
British  press  sees  both  commercial  advantage  to  England 
in  the  French  protectorate,  and  a  menace  to  British  su- 
premacy in  East  Africa.  The  acquisition  of  Madagascar, 
it  is  recalled,  Avas  eagerly  desired  by  Napoleon  the  Great 
as  a  base  against  British  aggression  and  aggrandizement. 

"  We  are  now  bound,"  says  the  London  Morning  Advertiser,  "to 
face  both  the  strategic  and  the  commercial  results  of  French  annexa-' 
tion — which  will  now  be  simply  a  question  of  time." 

Whatever  the  treaty  may  say,  it  is  evident  that  in  fact 
Madagascar  will  henceforth  be  a  colony  of  France.  In 
the  French  chamber  of  deputies,  on  November  27,  the 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  M.  Berthelot,  read  a  statement 
prepared  by  the  cabinet,  in  which  Madagascar  was  de- 
clared*'a  French  possession."  The  declaration  was  re- 
ceived with  prolonged  applause.  The  minister,  however, 
added  that 


THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA.  859 

France  would  respect  any  engagement  which  Madagascar  had  con- 
tracted toward  certain  powers;  and  in  cases  where  the  Hova  govern- 
ment had  contracted  obligations,  France  would  respect  the  rules  of  in- 
ternational law  applicable  thereto.  The  government,  he  said,  would 
preserve  the  native  internal  administration  of  the  island,  and  would 
also  modify  the  original  treaty  with  Madagascar,  which  the  queen 
had  signed.  The  amended  treaty  would  shortly  be  submitted  to  the 
chamber. 

A  proclamation  by  the  queen  of  Madagascar  was  pub- 
lislied  in  the  middle  of  October,  as  follows: 

"We,  Ranavolomanjaka  III.,  by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  will  of 
the  people  queen  of  Madagascar  and  guardian  of  the  laws  of  this  land. 
This  is  what  we  proclaim  to  you,  O  people.  You  all  have  known  and 
have  seen  how  Rainilaiarivony,  prime  minister,  has  devoted  himself 
to  the  good  government  of  this  country,  and  has  done  all  in  his  power 
to  bring  you  happiness,  my  subjects.  But  now  you  have  observed 
that  he  has  become  weakened  by  age  and  that  his  body  is  often  ailing. 
We  have,  therefore,  decided  to  appoint  in  his  place,  as  prime  minis- 
ter and  commander  in-chief,  Rainitsimbazafy,  fifteen  honors,  minis- 
ter of  the  interior;  and  this  is  what  we  would  have  you  know,  O 
people.  Moreover,  we  thank  Rainilaiarivony  for  the  services  he  has 
rendered  to  this  kingdom  and  to  our  crown  for  all  these  many  years. 
And  this  also  we  proclaim  to  you,  O  people.  Our  own  object  is  that  there 
should  be  peace  and  prosperity  among  you.  Therefore  observe  well 
one  and  all  of  you  these  our  commands;  let  each  scrupulously  obey 
the  orders  of  Rainitsimbazafy,  prime  minister  and  commander-in- 
chief,  else  he  will  be  followed  up  as  a  rebel  and  severely  punished  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land.  Thus  has  spoken  Ranavolom- 
anjaka III.,  queen  of  Madagascar,  etc.  Signed  in  our  palace  at 
Tsarahafatra  on  the  28th  day  of  Adiraizana  (October  15),  1895." 

The  queen  had  been  obliged  by  Hova  etiquette  to  marry 
Eainilaiarivony  when  she  took  him  for  prime  minister. 
When,  by  orders  of  General  Duchesne,  she  dismissed  him, 
she  ingenuously  inquired  of  the  French  commander  whether 
she  must  now  marry  the  new  incumbent  of  the  office. 

On  November  21  a  mob  of  2,000  natives  attacked  the 
house  of  the  Friends' mission  in  Arivonimano,  and  murdered 
and  mutilated  Mr.  Johnson,  the  missionary,  his  wife,  and 
their  child. 

Anglo-French  Boundaries. — The  delimitation  of 
the  boundary  between  Gambia  and  Senegal  was  to  have 
been  commenced  in  December.  Under  the  agreement  of 
1889  between  England  and  France,  the  former  power  was 
to  have  a  strip  300  miles  long  stretching  inward  from  the 
coast  to  Yarbatenda,  and  having  a  width  of  ten  miles  along 
the  river.  A  commissioner  on  the  part  of  England  was 
to  have  met  one  on  the  part  of  France  in  December,  and 
the  two  were  to  survey  the  strip.  The  French  govern- 
ment had  under  consideration  a  similar  proposal  with  re- 
gard to  the  hinterland  of  Sierra  Leone. 


860  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  4th Qr,  1895. 

OTHER  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS. 

International  Arbitration. — Since  1816  there  have 
been  112  international  arbitrations  between  diiferent  Euro- 
pean-nations,  the  United  States,  and  the  states  of  Central 
and  South  America.  Nearly  all  of  them  have  taken  place 
within  the  last  half-century,  in  which  period  the  United 
States  has  arbitrated  its  contentions  thirty  times,  seven 
times  with  Great  Britain,  reaching  in  all  cases  a  practi- 
cally satisfactory  result. 

The  noticeable  spread  of  favor  with  which  the  principle 
of  arbitration  has  been  received,  is  due  to  some  extent  to  the 
working  of  the  Association  for  the  Keform  and  Codification 
of  the  Law  of  Nations,  whose  membership  is  drawn  from 
all  the  principal  countries,  and  represents  the  highest  stand- 
ards of  ability,  learning,  and  public  spirit. 

This  association  held  its  seventeenth  conference  during 
the  first  week  in  October  in  Brussels,  where  it  was  organized 
twenty-two  years  ago. 

It  aims  to  promote  international  arbitration,  to  conserve  tlie  peace 
of  the  world,  and  to  discuss  with  a  practical  bearing  questions  such 
as  the  regulation  of  the  traffic  in  alcoholic  liquors,  the  slave  trade, 
the  laws  of  marriage,  of  boundary,  and  similar  subjects. 

Sir  Richard  Webster,  attorney-general  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, presided.  In  the  course  of  his  inaugural  address,  he 
said : 

"  While  in  order  to  attain  the  greatest  amount  of  success  it  was 
the  dream  and  aim  of  many  to  establish  a  permanent  court  supported 
by  civilized  nations,  to  which  court  all  should  appeal  in  lieu  of  adopt- 
ing the  terrible  arbitrament  of  war,  yet  there  was  an  intermediate 
condition  of  things  no  less  important  and  no  less  urgently  demanded 
by  events  of  everyday  national  life,  and  that  was  reference  to  the  ar- 
bitration of  tribunals  appointed  with  special  reference  to  questions, 
which  might  from  time  to  time  arise." 

He  instanced  cases  of  boundary,  cases  of  damage  for  an  admitted 
wrongful  act,  and  cases  of  dispute  involving  questions  of  legal  right. 
The  first  of  these,  in  Sir  Richard's  opinion,  would  appropriately  be 
referred  to  a  commission  of  military  or  naval  men  or  travellers;  the 
second,  commercial  men  of  standing  could  settle;  while  the  third 
should  be  referred  to  those  experienced  in  the  law.  The  establishment 
of  an  academy  of  men,  rfecruited  from  time  to  time  from  various 
quarters  of  the  world,  and  supported  by  the  joint  contribution  of  the 
nations,  would  provide  a  permanent  court  for  the  adjudication  of  in- 
ternational differences,  the  decisions  of  which,  in  Sir  Richard's 
opinion,  would  be  recognized  as  impartial,  and  would  in  most  cases 
carry  the  weight  of  final  authority. 

After  careful  deliberation  a  series  of  rules  relating  to 
a  treaty  of  international  arbitration  were  adopted,  which 
will  in  due  time  be  published  and   commended  to  the 


OTHER  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  861 

statesmen  of  different  nations.  The  adoption  of  such 
a  set  of  rules  as  between  nations,  would  not  only  lessen 
international  quarrels,  many  of  which  spring  from  doubt 
as  to  the  proper  course  of  action  to  take,  but  would  also 
lessen  the  work  of  courts  of  arbitration. 

Before  adjournment  the  association  voted  to  change 
its  name  to  "The  International  Law  Association,"  using 
the  present  name  as  a  substitute;  and  also  voted  to  meet  in 
the  United  States  in  1897. 

International  Copyright. — The  Association  Lit- 
teraire  et  Artistique  Internationale  met  in  Dresden  Sep- 
tember 21  to  28.  It  was  the  first  time  since  its  foundation 
in  1878,  that  it  had  met  in  Germany.  M.  Pouillet  of  Paris 
presided.  The  attendance,  unusually  large,  included  del- 
egates from  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Greece, 
Italy,  Norway,  and  Mexico;  but  neither  Great  Britain  nor 
the  United  States  was  officially  represented.  It  was  this 
association  that  organized  the  movement  which  resulted 
in  the  Berne  convention  of  1886,  creating  the  Interna- 
tional Copyright  Union. 

The  discussions  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  resolutions  indicating 
amendments  considered  desirable  in  existing  legislation  relating  to 
literary  and  artistic  property.  It  was  considered  that  the  exclusive 
right  to  publish  or  reproduce  a  literary  or  artistic  work  belonged  to 
the  author,  independent  of  its  merits,  use,  or  destination;  and  that 
this  right  should  exist  for  fifty  years  after  the  author's  death,  to  the 
profit  of  his  heirs  or  assigns.  All  reproduction,  entire  or  partial, 
made  without  the  author's  consent,  should  be  repressed,  and  should 
be  understood  to  include  translation,  representation,  or  public  perform- 
ance, as  well  as  adaptation,  dramatization,  musical  arrangement,  or 
reproduction  by  another  art.  Textual  citation  should  be  permitted 
only  in  a  criticism,  a  polemic,  or  for  instruction,  and  on  condition  that 
the  author's  name  and  the  source  used  should  be  indicated.  All  works 
should  be  equally  secured.  The  right  of  reproduction  should  be  con- 
sidered as  independent  of  the  right  of  property  in  a  manuscript  or 
work  of  art;  and  the  transference  of  the  material  object  should  not 
imply  the  right  of  reproduction.  The  author  who  has  parted  with 
his  right  of  reproduction  conserves  the  right  to  superintend  the  re- 
production of  his  work,  to  prosecute  piracy,  and  oppose  changes  made 
without  his  consent. 

That  the  sale  of  a  work  of  art  should  not  carry  with  it  the  alienation 
of  the  right  of  reproduction  by  the  artist,  is  a  principle  which  was  in- 
dorsed by  the  association:  it  is  already  embodied  in  the  laws  of  Ger- 
many, Belgium,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Switzerland,  and  some  of  the  non- 
union countries.  In  England,  however,  copyright  in  a  painting 
ceases  upon  sale  of  the  picture,  unless  the  artist,  by  a  written  agree- 
ment, reserves  the  copyright  to  himself,  or  assigns  it  to  the  purchaser. 
In  France  no  explicit  statute  governs  the  case;  but  decisions  have  for 
many  years  been  generally  adverse  to  the  artist. 

From  various  reports  submitted,  it  was  shown  that  the  larger 
European  countries  are  tending  toward  membership  in  the   Berne 


863  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS.  4th  Qr.,  1893. 

union;  and  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  and  tlie  adjustment  of  the  in- 
ternational exchange  of  literature,  so  far  as  the  minor  states  are  con- 
cerned. The  serious  question  remains  with  Canada  and  the  United 
States. 

The  project  for  the  creation  of  a  universal  bibliographical  bureau 
was  revived  by  M.  Jules  Lermina.  The  association  voted  that  it  was 
a  matter  of  international  interest  to  constitute  a  universal  repertory  of 
all  the  books  which  have  appeared  or  are  to  appear  in  the  entire 
world.  The  question  of  how  it  could  be  carried  out  was  passed  to  a 
committee  to  report  at  the  next  congress. 

.  In  regard  to  anonymous,  pseudonymous,  and  posthumous  works, 
the  congress  resolved  that  legal  protection  for  each  class  should  be 
given  for  fifty  years  from  first  publication. 

As  regarded  encyclopedic  works,  it  was  resolved  that  the  person 
under  whose  direction  the  whole  work  was  executed  should  be  con- 
sidered the  legal  author  of  it,  but  without  prejudice  to  the  right  of 
each  collaborator  to  reproduce  his  personal  contributions  in  a  manner 
not  to  injure  the  entire  publication. 

It  was  also  resolved  that  the  reproduction  of  art  works  belonging 
to  a  public  museum  should  be  permitted  only  with  the  consent  of  the 
artist  or  his  legal  heirs. 

The  next  congress  is  to  be  held  in  Pjiris  in  1896. 

The  Alaska  Boundary.— At  the  end  of  the  year, 
the  time  for  the  conclusion  of  their  labors  having  expired. 
General  W.  W.  Duffield,  superintendent  *of  the  United 
States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  and  W.  F.  King,  chief 
astronomer  of  the  Canadian  department  of  the  interior — the 
two  commissioners  appointed  to  survey  the  disputed  por- 
tions of  the  frontier  between  Alaska  and  British  Columbia 
— signed  a  joint  report  for  presentation  to  their  respective 
governments.    Its  details  were  not  immediately  published. 

Much  discussion  followed  the  announcement,  early  in 
December,  that  the  Canadian  government  had  let  a  con- 
tract for  the  carrying  of  mail  matter  from  Juneau,  Alaska, 
to  Forty-Mile  Creek,  which  is  in  the  disputed  region. 
The  Canadians,  however,  disclaim  all  intention  of  occupy- 
ing permanently  territory  which  shall  be  found  to  belong 
of  right  to  the  IJnited  States.  At  the  request  of  settlers 
in  the  frontier  mining  regions,  many  of  them  Americans, 
they  have  patrolled  a  portion  of  the  disputed  territory  for 
the  preservation  of  law  and  order. 

War  Vessels  on  the  Lakes. — The  question  of  abro- 
gating the  treaty  signed  in  1817  by  Richard  Rush,  United 
States  secretary  of  state,  and  Sir  Charles  Bagot,  represent- 
ing Great  Britain,  limiting  the  number  of  war  vessels 
which  each  power  may  maintain  or  build  on  the  great 
lakes,  has  again  been  revived.  It  was  widely  discussed  in 
1892,  at  which  time  an  outline  of  the  provisions  of  the  treaty 
and  the  discussion  thereof  was  given  in  Current  History 


OTHER  INTERNATIONAL  AFFAIRS. 


863 


(Vol.  2,  p.  335).  Its  present  revival  is  due  to  the  action  of 
the  United  States  navy  department  in  rejecting  the  tender 
of  the  Detroit  (Mich.)  Dry-Dock  Company,  which  was  the 
lowest  submitted,  for  construction  of  two  of  the  six  war- 
ships soon  to  be  added  to  the  navy.  The  tender,  it  seems, 
was  rejected  on  the  ground  that  the  building  of  the  ves- 
sels at  any  lake  port  would  be  contrary  to  the  terms  of 
the  Rnsh-Bagot  treaty.  This  led  Mayor  Pingree  of  De- 
troit, in  the  interest  of  the  ship-building  industry  located 
there,  to  submit  to  the  council  of  the  city  a  recommenda- 
tion that  the  treaty  be  abrogated.  The  resolution  was 
adopted. 

Franco-Brazilian  Dispute. — The  king  of  Sweden 
has  accepted  the  office  of  arbitrator  in  the  Amapa  terri- 
torial dispute  between  France  and  Brazil  (pp.  343  and 
599).  France,  however,  refuses  to  submit  to  arbitration 
her  claims  arising  out  of  injuries  to  French  subjects  in  the 
contested  region. 

The  rumors  of  the  death  of  the  Brazilian  leader  Cabral 
last  May  were  subsequently  contradicted;  and  he  has  given 
the  authorities  much  trouble  since  by  his  cruelty  to  French 
prisoners  and  his  avowed  enmity  to  the  present  Brazilian 
government,  which  disclaims  any  responsibility  for  his 
acts.  Considerable  dissatisfaction  is  felt  at  Cayenne,  the 
capital  of  French  Guiana,  at  the  delay  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment in  taking  forcible  steps  to  crush  the  band  of  brig- 
ands led  by  Cabral. 

Miscellaneous. — Early  in  December  the  .signing  of  a 
treaty  was  announced,  whereby  Italy  and  Brazil  agreed  to 
submit  to  the  arbitration  of  the  president  of  the  United 
States  the  long-disputed  claims  of  the  former,  arising  out 
of  alleged  outrages  to  Italian  subjects  during  the  late  re- 
bellion in  Brazil  (p.  600). 

The  queen  regent  of  Spain,  according  to  a  dispatch 
dated  November  28,  has  been  selected  as  arbitrator  in  the 
dispute  over  delimitation  of  the  boundaries  of  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  and  Peru. 

The  boundary  dispute  between  Chile  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  (Vol.  3,  p.  50)  has  been  finally  closed  by  both 
republics  ratifying  the  award  of  the  mixed  boundary  com- 
mission. Chile  consented  to  the  removal  of  the  landmark, 
San  Francisco  de  Limache,  in  accordance  with  Argentina's 
contention,  and  to  allow  the  new  boundary  line  to  pass 
through  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Andes.  Under  the  award 
and  agreement,  Argentina  gains  600  leagues  of  territory 
in  El  Gran  Chaco,  formerly  supposed  to  belong  to  Bolivia. 


864  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Various  and  conflicting  reports  have  of  late  been  fre- 
quent regarding  the  difference  between  Brazil  and  Great 
Britain  over  their  respective  rights  in  the  island  of  Trini- 
dad (p.  600).  It  appears,  however,  that  the  British  gov- 
ernment finally  proposed  arbitration  of  the  case,  and  that 
the  Brazilian  cabinet  is  divided  as  to  acceptance  of  the 
proposal,  President  de  Moraes  and  the  finance  minister 
favoring  arbitration,  while  the  foreign  minister  and  the 
other  members  of  the  cabinet  are  opposed  to  it. 

A  slavery  convention  between  Egypt  and  Great  Britain 
was  signed  at  Cairo  in  November. 

It  is  accompanied  by  a  law  which  will  be  submitted  to  the  native 
legislative  council,  and  which  inflicts  increased  penalties  for  the  ill- 
treatment,  sale,  purchase,  and  transportation  of  slaves.  Sentence  of 
death  may  be  inflicted  for  the  mutilation  of  male  slaves.  The  pass- 
ing of  the  law  will,  it  is  thought,  gradually,  but  certainly,  result  in 
the  complete  abolition  of  every  form  of  slavery  throughout  Egypt. 
Article  5  declares  that  every  slave  in  Egyptian  territory  is  entitled  to 
full  and  complete  freedom,  and  may  demand  letters  of  enfranchise- 
ment whenever  he  desires.  A  court  of  ultimate  appeal,  consisting  of 
three  natives  and  two  Europeans,  will  judge  all  slavery  questions,  and 
will  take  the  place  of  the  court-martial  system  everywhere,  except  on 
the  frontier  and  on  the  Red  sea. 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS. 

A  SIDE  from  the  November  elections,  which  are  elsewhere 
reviewed  (p.  844),  the  chief  topics  of  a  political  nature 
requiring  record  during  the  last  three  months  of  1895  are 
the  selection  of  places  of  meeting  of  the  republican  and 
prohibition  national  conventions  of  1896,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  an  independent  secret  political  league  in  the  inter- 
ests of  free  silver.  The  personality  of  presidential  candi- 
dates is  widely  discussed,  the  leading  names  mentioned  be- 
ing Senator  W.  B.  Allison  (Iowa),  ex-President  Harrison 
(Ind.),  lion.  AVm.  McKinley  (0.),  Representative  Thomas 
B.  Reed  (Me.),  and  Governor  Levi  P.  Morton  (N.  Y.). 

The  republican  national  convention  of  1896  will  meet 
in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  16,  that  place  and  date  being 
chosen  by  the  national  committee,  which  met  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  December  10.  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Chicago, 
111.,  and  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  were  the  chief  competitors  with 
§t.  Louis,  and  the  contest  was  a  spirited  one,  the  final  bal- 


UNITED  STATES  POLITICS.  865 

lot  standing  St.  Louis  28,  San  Francisco  16,  Chicago  7, 
Pittsburg  0. 

The  national  committee  of  the  prohibition  party,  in 
session  at  Chicago,  III.,  early  in  December,  selected  Pitts- 
burg, Penn.,  as  the  location,  and  May  37  as  the  date,  for 
the  meeting  of  the  prohibition  national  convention  of  1896. 
Denver,  Colo.,  and  Baltimore,  Md.,  made  a  strong  light  in 
the  contest  before  the  committee. 

As  a  result  of  the  national  reform  conference  held  on 
Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  in  July  (p.  606),  a  petition  was  signed 
by  about  100  prominent  men  and  women  early  in  Novem- 
ber, requesting  the  national  committees  of  the  populist, 
prohibition,  and  socialist  parties  each  to  appoint  a  sub- 
committee to  confer  and  to  calla  joint  national  conference 
of  reform  parties  early  in  1896.  The  prohibition  national 
committee  voted  by  21  to  16  that  the  request  did  not  come 
within  its  jurisdiction. 

The  Patriots  of  America. — A  secret  political  league 
bearing  this  title  is  organizing  in  the  West  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restoring  the  bimetallic  money  standard.  Its 
prime  mover  and  chief  organizer  is  William  H.  Harvey, 
well  known  as  the  author  of  Coin's  Financial  School. 
The  league  does  not  intend  to  nominate  candidates  for 
office,  but  to  take  such  steps  as  will  compel  recognition 
of  the  claims  of  bimetallism  by  the  representatives  of 
the  democratic  or  the  republican  party  in  the  national 
conventions  in  1896.  A  thorough  canvass  of  every  county 
in  the  United  States  has  been  made,  says  the  chief  organ- 
izer, or  '* First  National  Patriot,"  as  Mr.  Harvey  is  styled 
as  head  of  the  league;  and  from  every  quarter,  even  from 
New  England,  come  responses  promising  energetic  support. 
In  describing  the  plans  and  methods  of  the  Patriots  of 
America,  Mr.  Harvey  says: 

"It  is  a  non-partisan  organization,  and  will  put  no  candidates  in 
the  field.  Each  four  years  its  members,  by  ballot,  will  decide  by  a 
majority  vote  what  political  relief  is  demanded,  and  will  then  pro- 
ceed to  select  by  a  majority  vote  the  candidate  of  their  choice  for 
president  and  congress  in  each  district,  from  the  candidates  nominated 
by  the  existing  political  parties.  The  lodge  meetings  will  exclude  all 
who  are  not  members.  Its  policy  as  to  secret  sessions  is  modelled 
after  the  executive  sessions  of  the  United  States  senate." 

But  a  contingency  may  arise  in  which  the  Patriots  of 
America  shall  be  in  a  manner  compelled  to  name  for  them- 
selves candidates  for  the  presidency  and  congress;  for  if  it 
shall  be  found  impossible  to  bring  either  of  the  two  leading 
parties  into  line  for  free  silver,  a  national  conference  of 
silver  men  will  likely  be  called  early  in  1896  to  nominate 


866  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

a  separate  presidential  ticket.  Chicago,  111.,  is  the  seat  of 
the  organization.  The  work  of  enrolling  members  has  been 
actively  though  secretly  pushed  since  early  in  1895,  and 
already  the  league  claims  to  have  organized  1,000  lodges 
or  subordinate  bodies  in  thirty  states.  The  Patriots  of 
America  have  strong  financial  support  from  Western 
capitalists;  and  their  propaganda  does  not  lag  for  want  of 
the  ''sinews  of  vvar.^^  A  weekly  organ,  the  National  Bi- 
metallist  (a  title  that  will  probably  soon  be  changed  for 
one  expressive  of  its  relation  to  the  Patriots  of  America), 
is  the  official  mouthpiece  of  the  league. 

William  H.  Harvey  is  named  as  temporary  first  national  patriot; 
Charles  H.  McClure  of  Michigan,  national  recorder;  and  James  F. 
Adams  of  Chicago,  national  treasurer.  The  constitution  provides  that 
there  shall  be  no  salary  for  the  national  officers,  except  the  national 
recorder;  and  Mr.  McClure,  who  w^ill  fill  that  office  until  the  first 
regular  election,  declines  to  receive  a  salary.  Mr.  Harvey  says  he 
will,  in  addition  to  charging  no  salary,  put  his  income  behind  the 
order.  There  is  no  membership  fee  to  the  order,  except  in  the  way 
of  voluntary  contributions.  The  monthly  dues  are  classified  from  ten 
cents  to  $1  a  month.  There  is  a  co-ordinate  branch  to  the  order, 
known  as  **The  Daughters  of  the  Republic,"  a  charitable  organiza- 
tion, to  look  after  the  poor  of  the  order. 

The  first  national  patriot,  first  state  patriot,  and  first  county 
patriot  take  an  oath  renouncing  political  office  either  by  election  or  by 
appointment.  They  also  renounce  for  life  the  ownership  of  property 
in  excess  of  $100,000.  The  renunciation  of  office  and  wealth  does 
not  apply  to  others  in  the  order. 

THE  FIFTY-FOURTH  CONORESS. 

The  54th  congress  assembled  at  Washington  on  Mon- 
day, December  2,  amid  the  scenes  of  activity  and  excite- 
ment incident  to  the  opening  of  a  congress.  There  was 
added  interest  from  the  fact  that  the  legislative  branch  of 
the  government  had  undergone  a  political  change,  the 
former  congress  having  been  democratic  in  both  branches, 
while  the  present  one  has  a  large  republican  majority  in 
the  house,  and  a  republican  plurality,  but  not  a  majority, 
in  the  senate.  This  change  was  accompanied  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  many  new  members  of  the  senate  and  house, 
who  took  the  places  of  those  who  had  become  veterans  in 
congressional  service,  such  as  Holman,  Bland,  Hatch, 
Wm.  L.  AYilson,  and  Springer. 

Organization  of  Committees.— Vice-President  Ste- 
venson presided  over  the  senate,  and  the  existing  exec- 
utive staff  was  continued,  as  the  peculiar  political  divi- 
sion of  the  body  made  it  inexpedient  to  urge  a  reorganiza- 
tion.    This  division  is:  republicans  44,  democrats  39,  pop- 


THE  FIFTY-FOURTH  CONGRESS.  867 

ulists  3,  independent  1,  vacancy  1;  total  88.  The  vacancy 
is  that  in  Delaware,  where  a  contest  exists  over  the  irregu- 
larity of  tlie  election  of  Mr.  Du  Pont,  republican  (p.  366). 
Two  of  those  included  in  the  forty-four  republicans,  as 
enumerated  in  the  congressional  directory,  are  Senators 
Jones  and  Stewart  of  Nevada,  who  affiliate  with  the  popu- 
lists. In  these  circumstances,  the  forty-five  votes  neces- 
sary for  a  majority  in  the  senate  are  not  lield  by  any  single 
one  of  the  parties. 

Shortly  after  the  senate  assembled,  however,  amotion 
prevailed  for  the  reorganization  of  all  committees,  and 
these  have  been  reorganized  with  republican  chairmen  and 
republican  majorities. 

Tlie  house  of  representatives  was  organized  with 
Thomas  B.  Reed  as  speaker;  Andrew  McDowell,  clerk; 
Benjamin  Russell,  sergeant-at-arms;  W.  J.  Glenn,  door- 
keeper; Joseph  C.  McElroy,  postmaster;  Rev.  Henry  M. 
Conden,  chaplain.  The  choice  of  Mr.  Reed  for  speaker 
was  conceded  from  the  outset,  so  that  the  usual  excite- 
ment of  a  speakership  contest  was  lacking.  The  repub- 
lican majority  in  the  house  exceeds  100.  Mr.  Reed  an- 
nounced the  committees,  of  which  the  chairmen  of  the 
principal  ones  are  as  follows: 

Ways  and  means,  Nelson  Dingley,  Jr.  (Me.);  appropriations, 
Joseph  Q.  Cannon  (111.);  foreign  affairs,  Robert  R.  Hitt  (111.);  bank 
ing  and  currency,  Joseph  H.  Walker  (Mass.);  coinage,  weights,  and 
measures,  Charles  W.  Stone  (Penn.);  military  affairs,  John  A.  T. 
Hull  (Iowa);  naval  affairs,  Charles  A.  Boutelle  (Me.);  invalid  pensions, 
John  A.  Pickler(S.  D.);  rivers  and  harbors,  Warren  B.  Hooker  (N.  Y.); 
judiciary,  D.  B.  Henderson  (Iowa);  agriculture,  James  W.  Wads- 
worth  (N.  Y.);  postoffices  and  post-roads,  Eugene  F.  Loud  (Cal.);  pub- 
lic lands,  John  F.  Lacey  (Iowa);  Indian  affairs,  James  S.  Sherman 
(N.  Y.);  territories,  J.  A,  Scranton  (Penn.);  merchant  marine  and  fish- 
eries, S.  E.  Payne  (N.  Y.);  elections,  No.  1,  C.  Daniels  (N.  Y.);  No.  2, 
H.  U.  Johnson  (Ind.);  No.  3,  S.  W.  McCall  (Mass.);  public  buildings 
and  grounds,  S.  L.  Milliken  (Me.);  Pacific  railroads,  H.  H.  Powers 
(Vt.);  interstate  and  foreign  commerce,  W.  P.  Hepburn  (Iowa);  claims, 
C.  N.  Bruram  (Penn.);  mines  and  mining,  D.  D.  Aitken  (Mich.);  en- 
rolled bills,  A.  L.  Hager  (Iowa);  railways  and  canals,  C.  A.  Chicker- 
ing  (N.  Y.);  war  claims,  T.  M.  Mahon  (Penn.);  election  of  president, 
N.  M.  Curtis  (N.  Y.);  alcoholic  liquor  traffic,  E.  A.  Morse  (Mass.); 
library,  A.  C.  Harmer  (Penn.);  printing,  G.  D.  Perkins  (Iowa);  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  A.  C.  Harmer  (Penn.);  education,  G.  A.  Grow 
(Penn.);  pensions,  H.  C.  Loudenslager  (N.  J.);  immigration  and  nat- 
uralization, R.  Bartholdt  (Mo.);  irrigation  of  arid  lands,  B.  Hermann 
(Ore.);  levees  on  the  Mississippi  river,  G.  W.  Ray  (N.  Y.);  labor,  T. 
M.  Phillips  (Penn.);  patents,  W.  F.  Draper  (Mass.);  manufactures, 
L.  D.  Apsley  (Mass.);  militia,  B.  F.  Marsh  (111.);  private  land  claims, 
G.  W.  Smith  (111.);  reform  in  the  civil  service.  M.  Brosius  (Penn.); 
revision  of  laws,  W.  W.  Bowers  (Cal.);  expenditures  on  public  build- 
ings, T.  Settle  (N.  C). 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


Legislation  Introduced. — As  a  rule  the  month  of 
December  is  given  entirely  to  the  organization  of  congress, 
the  holiday  recess  closing  the  month,  after  which  the  act- 
ual work  of  legislation  begins.  But  this  year  the  urgency 
of  the  president's  recommendations  to  congress,  concern- 
ing Venezuela  and  the  financial  conditions  of  the  treasury, 
led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  usual  holiday  recess,  and 

the  initiation  of  legis- 
lation at  a  very  edrly 
day  in  the  session. 
The  action  concern- 
ing Venezuela,  and 
the  creation  of  the 
Venezuela  commis- 
sion, are  elsewhere 
stated  (pp.  806  and 
808). 

Tariff  Revision. — 
Legislation  concern- 
ing the  tariff  and  the 
issue  of  bonds  was 
primarily  brought 
about  by  the  special 
message  which  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  sent 
to  congress  December 
20,  the  substance  of 
which  the  reader  will 
find  outlined  else- 
where (p.  836). 

As  the  house  of 
representatives  origi- 
nates all  revenue, 
legislative  steps  were 
at  once  taken  in  this  branch  to  perfect  bills  to  meet  the 
emergencies  set  forth;  and,  by  December  26,  the  ways  and 
means  committee  had  submitted  a  tariff  revision  bill  and 
a  bond  bill,  both  of  which  passed  the  house  before  the  end 
of  the  month.  The  details  of  the  provisions  of  these  bills 
and  congressional  action  thereon,  will  be  found  in  our  re- 
view of  ''The  Financial  Problem"  (p.  833). 

Aside  from  the  passage  of  the  tariff  revision  and  bond 
bills,  the  house  did  little  during  December  except  to  re- 
ceive bills  and  begin  their  consideration.  A  resolution  in- 
troduced by  Mr.  Barrett  of  Massachusetts  providing  for  the 
impeachment  of  Ambassador  Bayard  because  of  addresses 


HON.  D.   B.   HENDERSON  OF  IOWA, 

CHAIRMAN   OF  THE   HOUSE  COMMITTEE  ON 

JUDICIARY. 


THE  FIFTY-FOURTH  CONGRESS.  869 

made  in  England  criticising  tlie  American  system  of  pro- 
tection, was  adopted  after  modification,  so  that  the  resohi- 
tion  called  on  the  state  department  for  information,  with- 
out suggesting  impeachment. 

Confederate  Disabilities  Removed. — In  the  senate  the 
only  bill  of  importance  to  pass  was  that  of  Mr.  Hill  of 
New  York,  repealing  the  disabilities  of  those  who  served 
in  the  Confederate  army  or  navy.  It  was  urged  on  the 
day  before  Christmas,  as  a  fitting  expression  of  reconcilia- 
tion and  good  will,  and  as  a  '' Christmas  present"  to  the, 
South.  The  vote  was  unanimous  in  its  favor.  The  bill 
repeals  Section  1218  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  which  was  as 
follows: 

' '  No  person  who  held  a  commission  in  the  army  or  navy  of  the 
United  States  at  the  beginning  of  the  late  rebellion,  and  afterward 
served  in  any  capacity  in  the  military,  naval,  or  civil  service  of  the 
so-called  Confederate  states,  or  of  either  of  the  states  in  insurrec- 
tion daring  the  late  rebellion,  shall  be  appointed  to  any  position  in 
the  army  or  navy  of  the  United  States." 

Election  Irregularities  in  Florida. — The  senate  also  in- 
stituted an  investigation  into  election  irregularities  in  Flor- 
ida, by  adopting  the  following  resolution  offered  by  Mr. 
Call  of  Florida: 

"Resolved,  That  the  committee  on  privileges  and  elections  be 
charged  with  the  duty  of  investigating  the  subject  of  the  efforts  of 
corporations  in  the  state  of  Florida,  or  of  the  president  and  directors 
thereof,  to  control  the  election  of  members  of  congress  from  the  state 
of  Florida,  or  to  influence  the  legislation  of  congress;  also  to  investi- 
gate and  report  to  the  senate  whether  corrupt  means,  bribery,  or 
free  transportation  have  been  or  are  being  used  to  influence  such  elec- 
tions in  the  state  of  Florida;  also  to  inquire  and  report  to  the  senate 
whether  the  use  of  such  influences  or  means  is  consistent  with  the 
preservation  of  the  republic  of  the  United  States  and  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  people,  and  to  report  a  bill  for  the  prevention  of  such 
practices." 

Senate  Bills. — The  titles  of  all  important  senate  bills 
introduced  are  as  follows: 

To  establish  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy  throughout  the 
United  States. 

To  provide  for  a  governmental  telegraph  system. 

For  the  erection  of  a  monument  and  statue  of  General  Ulysses  S. 
Grant  on  ground  belonging  to  the  United  States  government,  in  the 
city  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

To  abolish  imprisonment  of  seamen  in  the  common  jails  of  the 
United  States  for  desertion. 

To  encourage  American  shipping. 

To  amend  the  various  acts  relative  to  immigration,  and  to  provide 
for  the  exclusion  of  alien  anarchists. 

To  provide  for  the  daily  publication  of  a  summary  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  congress. 


870  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

To  repeal  all  laws  authorizing  the  issue  and  sale  of  bonds. 

To  protect  interstate  commerce;  to  prevent  dealing  in  "options" 
and  "futures;"  to  prohibit  the  formation  of  "trusts,"  "combines," 
"corners,"  and  other  combinations  which  affect  prices;  and  to  punish 
conspiracies  against  freedom  of  trade  among  the  people  of  the  several 
states. 

To  prevent  desecration  of  the  national  flag. 

Authorizing  the  appointment  of  anon-partisan  commission  to  col- 
late information  and  to  consider  and  recommend  legislation  to  meet 
the  problems  presented  by  labor,  agriculture,  and  capital. 

To  secure  aerial  navigation. 

To  carry  into  effect  the  recommendations  of  the  International 
American  Conference  by  the  incorporation  of  the  International  Amer- 
ican bank. 

Providing  that  no  person  shall  be  eligible  as  assignee  or  receiver 
of  a  banlcrupt  corporation  engaged  in  interstate  commerce  who  shall 
have  been  a  director,  officer,  or  employe  of  such  corporation  at  any 
time  during  the  three  years  next  preceding  such  bankruptcy. 

To  provide  for  fixing  a  uniform  standard  of  classification  and 
grading  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  and  rye,  and  for  other  purposes. 

For  the  erection  of  a  monument  to  the  late  Edwin  M.  Stantca. 

To  provide  for  the  register  of  copyrights. 

To  provide,  in  connection  with  other  nations,  for  the  unlimited 
coinage  of  gold  and  silver  at  the  ratio  of  1  to  15^. 

To  provide  for  adequate  compensation  to  the  employes  of  railway 
corporations  engaged  in  interstate  commerce  when  disabled  or  killed 
in  the  line  of  duty. 

To  prevent  and  punish  railroad  corporations  engaged  in  interstate 
commerce  from  controlling  or  attempting  to  control  elections. 

To  prevent  the  carrying  of  obscene  literature  and  articles  designed 
for  indecent  and  immoral  use  from  one  state  or  territory  into  another 
state  or  territory. 

Providing  for  postal  savings  banks. 

To  provide  a  temporary  government  for  that  portion  of  the  Indian 
Territory  occupied  by  the  Five  Civilized  Tribes  of  Indians,  and  to  be 
hereafter  known  as  the  territory  of  Indianola. 

To  prevent  citizens  of  the  United  States  from  soliciting  or  receiv- 
ing and  accepting  titles,  patents  of  nobility,  or  degrees  of  honor  from 
foreign  nations,  and  for  other  purposes. 

To  equalize  the  several  states  of  the  Union  in  the  grant  of  lands 
for  school  purposes. 

For  the  erection  of  a  monument  in  the  city  of  Washington  to  the 
memory  of  the  late  Commodore  John  Paul  Jones. 

To  provide  for  the  greater  safety  and  efficiency  of  railway  service 
by  retiring  employes  after  twenty-five  years'  continuous  service,  and 
requiring  payment  of  annuity  or  pensions  to  be  made  to  them. 

To  regulate  the  rates  of  transportation  on  railway  corporations  en- 
gaged in  interstate  commerce. 

To  provide  for  telegraphic  communication  between  the  United 
States  of  America,  the  Hawaiian  islands,  and  Japan,  and  to  promote 
commerce. 

For  the  better  protection  of  the  public  serice  by  excluding  aliens 
from  government  employment. 

To  protect  public  forest  reservations. 

Providing  for  the  retirement  of  employes  in  the  executive  depart- 
ments of  government  of  the  classified  service. 


THE  FIFTY-FOURTH  CONGRESS.  871 

To  establish  and  maintain  agricultural  experiment  stations  in 
Alaska. 

To  consolidate  mail  matter  of  the  third  and  fourth  classes. 

To  strengthen  the  military  armament. 

To  establish  a  bureau  of  military  education  and  to  promote  the 
adoption  of  uniform  military  drill  in  the  public  schools  of  the  several 
states  and  territories. 

Providing  for  the  increase  of  the  navy. 
-    To  establish  a  national  university. 

For  the  erection  of  an  equestrian  statue  of  General  Zachary  Taylor. 

To  provide  for  fortifications  and  other  seacoast  defenses. 

Senate  Resolutions. — Senate  resolutions  were  introduced 
as  follows: 

Relative  to  the  enforcement  of  th^  Monroe  doctrine.  Introduced 
by  Mr.  Lodge. 

Declaring  that  a  state  of  public  war  exists  in  Cuba,  and  that 
belligerent  rights  be  accorded  to  the  Cuban  government.  Introduced 
by  Mr.  Call. 

Proposing  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  of  the  United  States 
providing  for  the  election  of  senators  by  the  votes  of  the  qualified 
electors  of  the  states.     Introduced  by  Mr.  Mitchell. 

To  amend  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  so  as  to  provide 
for  the  election  of  president  and  vice-president  by  a  direct  vote  of  the 
people,  to  extend  the  term  to  six  years,  to  provide  that  no  person 
shall  hold  the  ofiRce  of  president  more  than  once,  and  that  a  vice- 
president  shall  not  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  president. 

To  enforce  the  Monroe  doctrine.     Introduced  by  Mr.  Cullom. 

House  Bills. — The  important  house  bills  introduced 
are  as  follows: 

To   amend  the  naturalization  laws  of  the  United  States. 

To  regulate  immigration  and  to  amend  the  naturalization  laws  of 
the  United  States. 

To  prevent  the  carrying  of  obscene  literature  and  articles  de- 
signed for  indecent  and  immoral  use  from  one  state  or  territory  into 
another  state  or  territory. 

To  limit  the  redemption  of  United  States  notes,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

To  empower  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  to  control 
sleeping  cars,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Authorizing  the  secretary  of  war  to  procure  medals  for  those  who 
responded  to  and  enlisted  under  the  first  call  of  President  Lincoln 
for  75,000  troops  to  aid  in  the  preservation  of  the  Union. 

To  repeal  the  interstate-commerce  law,  or  "An  act  to  regulate 
commerce,"  and  all  acts  in  addition  thereto. 

To  secure  to  the  people  the  advantages  accruing  from  the  issue 
of  circulating  promissory  notes  by  banks,  to  increase  the  volume  of 
such  notes,  and  to  supervise  and  control  banks  by  officers  of  the  Uni- 
ted States. 

Prohibiting  the  appointment  of  aliens  to  oflBces  or  places  of  honor, 
trust,  or  profit  under  the  government  of  the  United  States  within  the 
states  or  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

To  establish  a  postal  savings  bank  department. 

To  create  and  establish  a  tariff  statistical  bureau. 
Vol.  5.-56. 


872  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

To  enable  the  people  of  Oklahoma  to  form  a  constitution  and 
state  government,  and  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  the  original  states. 

Making  appropriation  for  site  and  pedestal  of  a  statue  of  the  late 
Major-General  Ambrose  E.  Burnside  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
D.  C. 

To  establish  a  national  military  park  at  the  battlefield  of  Stone 
river. 

Making  an  appropriation  for  the  expenses  of  a  commission  to  in- 
vestigate and  report  on  the  true  divisional  line  between  the  republic 
of  Venezuela  and  British  Guiana. 

To  prevent  adulteration  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  and  ale  by  the 
use  of  substitutes  for  hops. 

To  provide  for  fortifications  and  other  works  of  defense,  and  for 
other  purposes. 

To  establish  a  military  and  national  park  upon  the  Palisades  of 
the  Hudson. 

Appropriating  $15,000  for  a  statue  to  General  Lafayette  to  be 
erected  on  the  battlefield  at  Brandywine,  where  Lafayette  was 
wounded. 

To  provide  for  the  enrolment  and  organization  of  naval  reserve 
forces. 

Making  appropriation  for  a  statue  of  the  late  Major-General  John 
Sedgwick,  in  the  city  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

Providing  for  the  election  of  a  delegate  to  represent  the  District 
of  Columbia  in  the  house  of  representatives. 

To  change  the  day  for  the  first  annual  meeting  of  congress  from 
the  first  Monday  in  December  to  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  4th  day 
of  March,  and  to  the  first  Monday  after  the  1st  day  of  January  for 
the  second  annual  session,  and  to  provide  for  a  meeting  of  congress 
to  count  the  electoral  vote  for  president  and  vice-president,  and  to 
transact  no  other  business,  and  for  other  purposes. 

To  enable  the  people  to  name  their  postmasters. 

To  make  oleomargarine  and  all  other  imitation  dairy  products 
subject  to  the  laws  of  the  state  or  territory  into  which  they  are  trans- 
ported. 

For  the  relief  of  Union  soldiers  who  were  confined  in  Southern 
prisons. 

Providing  representation  in  congress  for  Alaska. 

To  increase  the  tax  on  fermented  liquors  to  $2  per  barrel. 

Making  it  unlawful  to  shoot  at  or  into  any  railway  train,  or  at 
any  person  thereon,  or  to  throw  any  rocl^  or  other  missile  at  or  into 
any  railway  train,  and  providing  punishment  therefor. 

To  reduce  the  postage  on  books  transmitted  by  mail. 

Making  appropriation  for  site  and  pedestal  of  a  statue  of  the  late 
Major-General  George  G.  Meade,  in  the  city  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

Requiring  that  all  duties  on  imported  goods  after  March  1,  1896, 
shall  be  paid  in  gold  coin,  and  repealing  all  acts  inconsistent,  etc. 

To  define  "train  wrecking  with  the  intent  to  rob,"  and  to  provide 
the  penalty  of  death  therefor. 

To  provide  for  the  coinage  of  all  the  silver  bullion,  the  product 
of  the  mines  of  the  United  States  and  the  territories  thereof. 

To  enable  the  people  of  New  Mexico  to  form  a  constitution  and 
state  government,  and  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  the  original  states. 

To  enable  the  people  of  Arizona  to  form  a  constitution  and  state 


THE  FIFTY-FOURTH  CONGRESS.  873 

government,  and  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  footing 
with  the  original  states. 

To  declare  February  12  a  national  holiday. 

To  levy  and  collect  duties  on  wool. 

For  the  better  control  of  and  to  promote  the  safety  of  national 
banks. 

To  prohibit  immigration  of  all  skilled  and  unskilled  foreign 
manual  labor. 

To  provide  for  refunding  to  the  several  states  certain  sums  of 
money  which  were  collected  from  persons  residing  in  said  states  as  a 
a  tax  upon  cotton. 

To  provide  means  for  gathering  and  storing  rain  water  in  semiarid 
regions  of  the  United  States,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Providing  for  the  opening  of  the  Indian  Territory  to  settlement 
under  the  homestead  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

To  establish  and  maintain  a  national  school  of  forestry. 

To  repeal  the  laws  providing  for  the  retirement  of  officers  of  tlie 
army  of  the  United  States. 

To  purchase,  inclose,  and  improve  the  sites,  or  portions  thereof, 
of  certain  forts,  battlefields,  and  graves  of  American  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  marines  in  the  Maumee  valley,  and  to  erect  thereon  appropriate 
monuments  and  commemorative  tablets. 

To  establish  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy  throughout  the 
United  States. 

To  protect  the  American  laborer  from  unfair  competition,  and  to 
prevent  foreign-born  laborers  from  coming  to  the  United  States. 

To  establish  a  bureau  of  public  health  in  the  treasury  department 
of  the  United  States,  to  establish  and  maintain  a  system  of  quaran- 
tine, and  to  provide  measures  of  security  against  the  introduction  and 
spread  of  contagious  and  epidemic  diseases. 

Providing  for  the  inspection  of  immigrants  by  United  States 
consuls. 

Withdrawing  the  right  of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  issue 
bonds,  and  for  other  purposes. 

To  restore  the  bimetallic  system  of  the  United  States,  and  for 
other  purposes. 

To  secure  the  separation  and  independence  of  the  executive  and 
legislative  departments. 

To  require  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  pay  the  bonds  issued 
under  the  contract  of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  with  August  Bel- 
mont &  Co.  and  others,  bearing  date  February  8,  1895,  interest  and 
principal,  not  less  than  one-half  in  standard  silver  dollars. 

Making  it  unlawful  for  any  person  to  print,  stamp,  or  impress  any 
words,  figures,  or  designs  upon  the  flag  of  the  United  States,  or  any 
representation  thereof. 

To  prevent  trusts,  monopolies,  and  combinations  in  trade. 

To  reduce  the  cases  in  which  the  penalty  of  death  may  be  in- 
flicted. 

House  Resolutions. — House  resolutions  were  introduced 
as  follows: 

To  provide  for  the  appointment  of  a  joint  committee  to  examine 
into  and  report  upon  the  questions  involved  in  the  boundary  dispute 
between  British  Guiana  and  Venez.uela. 

Abrogating  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  concluded  April  19,  1850. 


874  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4thQr.,lS95. 

For  the  erection  of  a  statue  of  Francis  E.  Spinner  at  the  treasury 
department  building  in  Washington. 

Proposing  an  amendment  to  the  preamble  of  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States,  acknowledging  Almighty  God  as  the  source  of  all 
power  and  authority  in  civil  government,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as 
the  ruler  of  nations,  and  his  revealed  wall  as  authority  in  civil  affairs. 

Declaring  that  a  state  of  public  war  exists  in  Cuba,  and  that  bel- 
ligerent rights  be  accorded  to  the  Cuban  government. 

Proposing  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  giving  congress 
jurisdiction  over  divorce. 

BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY. 

The  Flurry  in  Stocks. — The  immediate  effect  of 
President  Cleveland's  special  Venezuela  message  to  con- 
gress, December  17,  was  to  produce  in  the  European 
bourses  an  uneasy  feeling  as  to  the  security  of  American 
stocks  of  all  kinds;  and  holders  of  such  stocks  threw  them 
on  the  market  to  be  sold  at  any  price.  The  European 
panic  was  reflected  and  repeated  in  our  own  exchanges; 
and  not  only  stocks  that  are  held  by  foreign  investors, 
but  those  of  which  none  have  ever  gone  abroad,  were 
seriously  affected,  many  of  the  latter  more  seriously  than 
those  others.  Of  six  railroad  stocks  very  largely  sold 
abroad,  the  sales  during  the  week  following  the  publica- 
tion of  the  message  were  662,437  shares;  but  of  six  trust 
stocks,  none  of  which  are  placed  abroad,  the  sales  were 
942,132  shares.  The  decline  in  the  speculative  value  of 
all  the  stocks  affected  is  supposed  to  have  amounted  to  a 
thousand  million  dollars;  and  pessimists  reckoned  that  fig- 
ure as  so  much  loss  to  the  United  States  as  a  nation.  But 
really  those  stocks  Avere  all  the  time  earning  as  much 
money  as  before  the  message,  and  were  therefore  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  real  value.  Besides,  after  the  decline  had 
reached  its  lowest  point,  the  average  price  of  sixty  railroad 
stocks  was  slightly  higher  than  it  was  nine  months  before. 
The  December  earnings  of  the  railroads  were  6.4  per  cent 
greater  than  in  December,  1894. 

Imports  and  Exports. — The  balance  of  trade  in- 
clined perceptibly  in  favor  of  the  United  States  in  Novem- 
ber, when  the  imports  were  the  lowest  for  any  month 
since  February.  And  in  December  the  volume  of  importa- 
tion was  still  smaller.  In  four  weeks  of  December,  10  per 
cent  less  of  foreign  goods  entered  the  port  of  New  York 
than  in  four  weeks  of  November.  And  our  exports  showed 
a  substantial  increase.  Though  the  quantity  of  cotton  ex- 
ported was  abnormally  small,  the  total  of  exports  from 
New  York  was  nearly  18  per  cent  greater  in  December, 
1895,  than  in  December  of  the  previous  year. 


THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION.  875 

Tin-Plate  Production. — A  special  report  on  the  tin- 
plate  industry  was  published  in  October  by  the  treasury 
dejmrtment,  containing  returns  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1895. 

In  tliat  period  the  production  of  commercial  tin  and  terne  plates 
was  193,801,073  lbs.  against  139,223,467  lbs.  in  the  previous  fiscal 
year.  And  about  83  per  cent,  or  160.576,934  lbs.,  was  in  1895  made 
from  sheets  rolled  in  the  United  States,  against  about  62  per  cent  in 
1894.  Of  black  plates  there  was  made  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1895,  185,571.479  lbs.,  against  98,970,880  lbs.  in  the  previous  year. 
The  total  imports  during  the  rear  ended  June  30,  1895,  were  513,963.401 
lbs.;  the  total  exports,  126,777,800  lbs.;  net  imports,  387,185,601  lbs.  The 
annual  consumption  is  estimated  to  be  580,986,674  lbs. ;  and  the  capacity 
of  the  mills  in  operation  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  was  450,000,000 
lbs. ;  but  at  that  date  there  were  many  mills  in  course  of  construction, 
which  when  in  operation  would  raise  the  annual  capacity  to  570,000,000 
lbs.,  or  very  nearly  the  present  annual  consumption. 

Fluctuations  of  Prices. — In  the  prices  of  sundry 
materials  and  manufactured  products,  there  were  extraor- 
dinary fluctuations  during  tlie  year,  as  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  prepared  for  Bull's  Review.  Highest,  low- 
est, and  closing  prices  are  compared  with  prices  for  Janu- 
ary 1,  1895,  which  are  regarded  as  100. 

PRICES  DURING  1895. 


Jan.  1 


Iron,  pig,  Bessemer 

Iron  manufactures  — 

Coal,  anthracite 

Wool 

Woolen  manufactures 

Silk 

Cotton 

Cotton  manufactures. 

Hides 

Hides,  leather 

Boots  and  shoes 


100.0 
lOO.O- 
100.0 
100.0 
1000 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 


Lowest. 


100.0  Jan.  1 
90.0  Mcb.  6 
69.4  Sep.  1 
9.5.2  June  1 
95  7  Apr.  1 
100.0  Jan.  1 
97.7  Mch.  1 
96.6  Mch.  1 
100.0  Jan.  1 
100.0  Jan.  1 
100.0  Jan.  1 


Highest. 


Clos- 
ing. 


175.1  Sep.  3'  109.1 
15.3.7  Sep.  17  123.5 
115.3  Nov.  14     94,4 

107.7  Aug.    1   lOf.9 

100.8  Nov.  1  100.8 
114.3  Sep.     lllior 

164.7  Oct.  15,  147.1 

116.8  Oct.  81  114.5 
173.5  July    3  113.0 

148.2  Sep.     4  121.4 

127.9  Sep.      ll  112.6 


THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION. 

The  exposition  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  after  a  continuance  of 
nearly  fifteen  weeks,  from  September  18,  was  closed  on 
December  31.  It  has  passed  into  history  as  an  achieve- 
ment of  singular  sagacity  and  courage,  directly  aimed  at 
practical  results,  skilfully  planned,  and  developed  through 
all  its  course  with  high  administrative  and  executive  abil- 
ity. Its  primary  purpose  was  the  industrial  and  commer- 
cial advancement  of  the  South;  but  it  is  evident  that  this 
purpose  was  broadly  conceived  as  including  benefits  to  all 
public  interests,  and  as  tending  to  a  general  educational 
and  social  uplift.  It  is  gratifyingly  evident,  further,  that 
its  aim  at  advancement  of  the  group  of  states  specially 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


Copyright,  1S95,  by  C.  D.  Arnold. 

THE   COTTON   STATES   EXPOSITION.     VIEW   T.OOKINQ  WEST  FROM 
TRANSPORTATION   BUILDING. 

concerned  wus  in  no  spirit  of  sectionalism  or  of  local  or 
racial  prejudice,  but  in  a  generous  sense  of  the  fraternity 
of  interests  throughout  the  whole  family  of  states,  which 
left  nothing  to  be  desired.  Its  promoters  had  courage 
enough  to  have  set  their  exposition  on  its  course  without 
co-operation  from  any  state  outside  their  local  group,  and 
without  modifying  in  one  iota  any  local  theory  or  custom; 
but,  instead,  they  chose  to  express  at  Atlanta  that  fraternal 
feeling  which  is  the  choicest  fibre  of  patriotism,  when  they 
showed  themselves  expectant  of  co-operation  by  Northern 
and  Western  states.  Their  confidence  that  remote  com- 
monwealths wonld  recognize  all  true  interests  of  any  group 
of  states  as  interests  equally  of  the  whole  country,  indicated 
what  would  be  their  own  response  to  a  like  appeal.  Five 
Northern  states  were  represented  by  well-appointed  build- 
ings with  good  exhibits.  The  exhibit  of  the  United  States 
government  surpassed  all  the  others  in  general  interest. 
The  exposition  is  a  thing  of  the  past;  but  the  national 
kinship  which  it  touched  into  action  abides. 

The  industrial  and  commercial  results  are  of  a  nature 
that  develops  gradually.  The  general  financial  depression 
which  had  to  be  reckoned  with  by  the  daring  enterprise  of 
those  who  started  the  exposition,  continues,  and  doubtless 
it  delays  for  awhile  some  of  the  proper  results.  But  this 
is  a  minor  feature  of  the  case.  Channels  of  business  have 
been  opened;  producers,  manufacturers,  dealers  have  been 
made  aware,  as  never  before,  of  the  facilities  in  their  vari- 
ous lines  which  a  newly  awakened  energy  has  created  in 
a  vast  region  richly  endowed  by  nature,  convenient  to  great 
markets,  and  hitherto  but  little  developed. 


THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION, 
has 


877 
Much  as  this  enterprise  has  accomplished  in  making 
the  cotton  states  J^nown  to  the  world  outside,  its  largest 
and  most  important  work  has  been  in  making  the  South 
known  to  itself.  For  various  reasons  those  states  have 
been  peculiarly  slow  in  discovering  themselves.  A  great 
mass  of  the  population — not  only  of  the  black  but  also  of 
the  wliite — have  never  come  into  consciousness  of  their  own 
capacities  for  science^ 
art,  or  varied  indus- 
try, nor  become  aware 
of  the  immeasurable 
wealth  in  theirnatural 
heritage  of  soil  and 
forest  and  mine.  This 
unawakened  public 
was  one  of  the  great 
obstacles  that  was 
feared  at  the  start  in 
Atlanta — a  n  obstacle 
which,  taking  the 
form  of  indifference 
of  the  legislatures  in 
several  neighboring 
states,  would  have  dis- 
couraged less  courage- 
ous men,  and  which 
reduced  in  some  de- 
gree the  beneficial  re- 
sult. 

Only  two  Southern 
states  were  represent- 
ed on  tlie  grounds  by 
buildings  erected  to 
represent  them — Georgia  and  Alabama;  and  the  Alabama 
building  was  erected  by  private  contributions,  as  that 
state  and  Mississippi  made  no  appropriation  for  the  ex- 
position. Most  of  the  state  appropriations  were  sur- 
prisingly small  and  inadequate,  though  some  states  made 
a  fair  showing  through  private  liberality.  The  exhibits 
from  Georgia  and  Louisiana  were  considered  the  most 
complete,  and,  indeed,  in  some  of  their  departments  have 
scarcely  been  surpassed:  Georgians  showing  was  "wonder- 
fully fine.""  North  Carolina  made  an  exceedingly  credit- 
able mineral  display.  Arkansas^s  showing  was  chiefly  a 
very  large  and  artistically  arranged  array  of  apples.  The 
big  state  of  Texas  sent  a  very  small  exhibit.     As  a  whole 


CHARLES  A.   COLLIKR,   DIRECTOR-GENERAL 

COTTON    STATES   EXPOSITION. 


878 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


Copyright,  1895,  by  C.  D.  Arnold. 

UNITED   STATES   GOVERNMENT   BUILDING,    COTTON   STATES   EXPOSITION. 

the  attendance  from  the  Southern  states,  including  even 
Georgia,  fell  much  below  expectation.  This  was  in  part 
counterbalanced  by  much  larger  delegations  of  Northern 
visitors  than  had  been  looked  for.  Chicago  day,  on  which 
perhaps  200  visitors  from  that  city  were  expected,  brought 
more  than  1,000.  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, and  other  cities,  also  several  states,  had  their  re- 
spective days,  with  gratifyingly  large  attendance.  The 
Southern  newspapers  gave  surprisingly  little  attention  to 
the  Atlanta  enterprise,  far  less  than  those  of  the  North, 
which  were  too  remote  to  feel  any  twinge  of  local  jealousy. 
This  unfortunate  indifference,  however,  far  from  detract- 
ing from  the  success  universally  conceded  to  the  exposi- 
tion, makes  that  success  more  surprising  and  more  admir- 
able, while  it  strongly  emphasizes  the  need  which  the  en- 
terprise aimed  to  meet. 

The  attendance,  small  for  the  first  few  weeks,  partly  be- 
cause the  farmers  could  not  quit  home  till  their  crops  were 
harvested,  increased  steadily  after  early  November,  and 
grew  to  a  crowd  in  the  last  fortnight. 

European  countries  were  not  officially  represented  in  the 
exact  sense  of  those  terms;  yet  creditable  displays  were  sent 
from  several  of  them,  and  added  to  the  attractions  in  the 
building  for  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts — notably  from 
Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Rus- 
sia.    Mexico,  Costa  Rica,   Chile,  and  other  countries  in 


THE  COTTON  STATES  EXPOSITION. 


879 


Central  and  South  America,  were  officially  represented  by 
commissioners,  and  sent  exhibits  general  or  special.  The 
signs  are  that  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the  exposition 
— to  cultivate  closer  acquaintance  and  increased  trade  rela- 
tions with  the  American  countries  southward — was  greatly 
forwarded.  The  immensity  of  the  reciprocal  trade  that 
awaits  development  in  those  countries  was  revealed;  as  was 
also  their  desire  for 
closer  relations  with 
the  United  States. 

The  exhibits  most 
interesting  to  the  gen- 
eral  public  appeared 
to  be  those  in  govern- 
ment  buildings,  the 
Minerals  and  Forestry 
building,  the  Manu- 
factures and  Liberal 
Arts  building,  the  Ma- 
chinery Hall,  and  the 
Agricultural  build- 
ing.  To  lovers  of  the 
beautiful,  the  Fine 
Arts  collection  was 
the  most  attractive 
feature,  with  its  more 
than  a  thousand  ad- 
mirably selected 
works  in  oil  painting, 
sculpture,  water  color, 
black-and-white  draw- 
ing,  and  etching. 
Special  exhibits  in  this 
department  were  in 
mural  painting,  and  in  architectural  drawing  sent  by  the  Ar- 
chitectural League  in  New  York.  The  four  buildings  most 
admired  for  general  effect,  and  the  best  for  purity  of  design, 
were  the  Art  building,  the  Woman's  building,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania building,  and  the  New  York  building.  The  last  two 
buildings  were  erected  on  the  grounds  of  tlie  Piedmont  Driv- 
ing Club,  and  at  the  close  of  the  exposition  were  formally 
turned  over  to  the  club.  The  Massachusetts  building  was 
presented  by  that  state  to  the  Atlanta  Chapter  of  the 
Daughters  of  the  American  Kevolution. 

All  visitors  were  impressed  with  the  remarkable  beauty 
of  the  whole  scene  of  the  exposition  both  by  day  and  by 


MRS.   .lOSEPn   THOMPSON, 

PRESIDENT   OF   WOMAN'S   BOARD,    COTTON   STATES 

EXPOSITION. 


880 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


4th  Qr.,  1895 


Copyright,  1895.  by  C.  D  Arnold. 

woman's  building,  cotton  states  exposition. 

night.  The  natural  features  of  the  locality  and  the  artistic 
grouping  of  the  structures  presented  a  picture  to  be  re- 
membered. 

The  Negro  building,  and  its  exhibit  of  handiwork  in- 
dustrial and  artistic,  was  a  remarkable  and  welcome  indi- 
cation of  the  growing  purpose  to  open  to  the  colored  race 
the  path  of  thrift  and  of  elevation  through  training  in 
various  lines  of  useful  work  hitherto  largely  unattempted. 
These  features,  and  the  public  exercises  of  Negro  day, 
October  20 — not  properly  to  be  interpreted  as  bearing  on 
any  social  or  political  theories — evince  a  growing  spirit  of 
magnanimous  consideration  for  a  race  long  repressed,  and 
a  readiness  to  give  the  colored  man  a  chance  for  education 
in  both  its  lower  and  its  higher  lines.  The  keynote  of  the 
principal  address  on  Negro  day,  by  Prof.  J.  W.  E.  Bowen, 
Ph.  D.,  was  the  granting  of  equal  privileges  in  education 
to  all  races. 

The  exposition  may  be  judged  fortunate  in  its  jury  of 
awards — a  body  -whose  work  in  such  cases  is  always  beset 
with  difficulties  in  its  progress  and  with  sharp  criticism  at 
its  end.  The  jury,  at  whose  head  was  placed  President 
Gilman  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  comprised  a  num- 
ber of  the  most  widely  known  educators,  experts,  and  critics 
in  the  country. 

The  financial  results  as  a  whole  are  understood  to  be 
satisfactory  to  the  projectors.  The  small  attendance  at 
first  caused  a  gradual  accumulation  of  indebtedness  amount- 


(  iipyriKlit,  1N95,  by  C.  D.  Arnold. 

ART  BUILDING,    COTTON    STATES   EXrOSITIOV. 

ing  Oil  November  7  to  1100,000.  The  chairman  of  the 
finance  committee  subscribed  half  of  this  amount,  and 
members  of  the  board  of  directors  the  other  half,  putting 
the  enterprise  on  firm  financial  footing.  The  admissions 
had  risen  to  25,000  on  November  G.  At  the  close,  Decem- 
ber 31,  the  chairman  of  the  finance  committee  is  said  to 
have  stated  that  the  exposition,  when  all  debts  are  paid, 
will  have  cost  Atlanta  about  $200,000,  or  less  than  10  per 
cent  of  the  money  expended:  this  includes  the  original 
stock  subscription  and  the  appropriation  by  the  city.  Per- 
sons well  informed  have  said  that  the  money  expended  in 
Atlanta  by  visitors  amounted  to  $5,000,000;  and  that  the 
ultimate  benefits  of  the  enterprise  to  the  city  and  the 
cotton  states  will  surpass  all  estimates  now  deemed  rea- 
sonable. 

Among  beneficial  results  to  be  expected  is  a  great  in- 
crease in  cotton  manufacture  in  the  South,  now  that  the 
advantages  of  that  region  are  more  widely  known.  Capital 
and  population  will  thus  be  brought  in.  It  is  not  expected 
that  existing  manufactures  will  be  transferred  from  New 
England,  but  that  New  England  manufacturers  will  see 
the  advantage  of  building  branch  concerns  in  the  South 
when  they  desire  to  enlarge  their  production.  Already 
the  increase  in  Southern  manufacture  of  cotton  is  marked: 
in  1894-5  there  were  more  spindles  in  either  North  Caro- 
lina or  South  Carolina  than  in  the  whole  South  fifteen 
years   before;   while  in  the  two   states,  there   were  more 


882  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

spindles  than  in  the  whole  South  as  late  as  1887-8.  The 
Southern  increase  in  ten  years,  from  1869-70  to  1879-80, 
was  nearly  140  per  cent;  in  ten  years,  from  1879-80  to 
1889-90,  it  was  187  per  cent;  in  the  succeeding  five  years, 
nearly  60  per  cent.  The  increase  in  the  last  quarter-cen- 
tury was  several  times  greater  than  in  the  Northern  states. 

PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS. 

Tlie  Public  Debt.— At  the  close  of  1895  the  total 
debt  of  the  United  States,  less  1178,027,200  cash  balance 
in  the  treasury,  was  1947,298,262,  against  1910,903,696  at 
the  close  of  1894,  an  increase  during  the  year  of  $36,394,- 
566.  The  official  figures  of  the  debt,  treasury  assets,  and 
liabilities  on  December  31,  1895,  are  as  follows: 

PI^BLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  DECEMBER  31,  189.5. 

Interest-bearing  debt $747,301,960.00 

Debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased  since  maturity 1,674,510.26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest : 376.288,992  14 

Aggregate  of  interest  and  non-interest-bearing  debt $1,125,325,462.40 

Certificates  and  notes  offset  by  an  equal  amount  of  cash  in 

the  treasury $568.02.3.673.00 

Aggregate  of  debt,  including  certifica^tes  and  notes $1,693,349,135.40 

CASH  IN  THE  TREASURY. 

Gold— Coin  $83,378,392.24 

Bars 29,820.315. 43-$113,198,707. 67 

Silver-Dollars 364.0a3,702.00 

Subsidiary  coin 12.764.321 .05 

Bars 124,612,531 .78—  501,460,5.54  83 

Paper— United  States  notes 11.5.825.143.00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 22,044,511 .00 

Gold  certificates 163,450.00 

Silver  certificates...- 9,62.5.856.00 

Certificates  of  deposit  (act  June  8,  1872) 2.84.5.000.00 

National  bank  notes 7,063,136.78-  157,567,096.78 

Other   -Bonds,  interest  and  coupons  paid,  await- 
ing reimbursement 32.079. 36 

Minor  coin  and  fractional  currency 1.048,728.75 

Deposits  in  nat'l  bank  depositaries— gen'l  acc't. ..      10,475.1.32.20 

Disbursing  officers' balances 3,796,148.03—    15. .352,088. 34 


Aggi-egate $787,578,447.62 

DEMAND  LIABILITIES. 

Gold  certificates $50,099,889.00 

Silver  certificates 345,702,504.00 

Certificates  of  deposit  (act  June  8,  1872) 34,4.50,000.00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 137,771,280. 00-$.568,023,673. 00 

Fund  for  redemp.  of  uncurrent  nafl  bank  notes...      7.835,379.38 

Outstanding  checks  and  drafts 2.834,026.06 

Disbursing  officers'  balances 25,259,795.04 

Agency  accounts,  etc 5,598,373.22—     41,527,573.70 

Gold  reserve $63,262,268.00 

Net  cash  balance 114,764,932.92 178,027,200.92 


Aggregate $787,578,447.62 

Receipts  and  Expenditures. — Government  expendi- 
tures exceeded  receipts  for  the  six  months  ended  Decem- 
ber 31,  1895,  the  first  half  of  the  current  fiscal  year,  by 


PUBLIC  ACCOUNTS.  883 

about  115,500,000.     The  following  are  the  figures  in  de- 
tail: 

RECEIPTS  JULY  1   TO  DECEMBER  31,  1895. 

Customs ^^'^1'^^ 

Internal  revenue     76,884,465 

Miscellaneous ■       8,342,315 

Total $167,568,053 

EXPENDITURES  JULY  1  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1895. 

Civil  and  miscellaneous $44,933,437 

War        30,497,021 

Navy 13,541,491 

Indians 5,690,184 

Pensions 71,258,127 

Interest 17,042,500 

Total $182,962,760 

Circulation. — The  supply  and  distribution  of  the  var- 
ious kinds  of  money  in  the  United  States  at  the  close  of 
1895,  are  indicated  as  follows: 

MONEY  SUPPLY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  DECEMBER  31,  1895. 


1^ 


Gold  coin 

Silver  dollars 

Subsidiary  silver 

Gold  certificates 

Silver  certificates 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 

United  States  notes  (Kreenbacks). 

Currency  certificates  of  1872 

National  bank  notes 


Totals $1,579,206.724  $617.79.3,512 


In  circulation. 


$484,728,547 
59,205,927 
64,417,685 
49,936,439 
336,076,648 
115,726.769 
230,855.873 
31,605.000 
206,653,8:36 


In  the 
treasury. 


$as,  278.392 

364,083,702 

12,764,321 

163.450 

9,625,856 

22,044,511 

115,825,143 

2,845,000 

7,063,137 


The  Mints. — An  order  was  issued  in  the  latter  part  of 
October,  by  Secretary  Carlisle,  for  the  suspension  after 
November  16,  1895,  of  all  coinage  of  silver  in  the  United 
States,  except  coinage  of  subsidiary  silver. 

The  report  of  Mr.  Preston,  director  of  the  mint  for  the 
fiscal  year  1895,  contains  the  following  interesting  statis- 
tics regarding  the  production  and  use  of  gold  and  silver: 

The  value  of  gold  and  silver  estimated  to  liave  been  used  in  the 
industrial  arts  during  the  calendar  year  1894,  was  approximately  |21,- 
541,652,  of  which  $10,658,604  was  gold,  and  $10,883,048  silver. 

The  estimated  metallic  stock  in  the  United  States  on  July  1,  1895, 
was:  Gold,  $636,229,825;  silver,  $625,853,949;  a  total  of  $1,262,083,- 
774. 

The  estimated  product  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  United  States 
during  the  calendar  year  1894,  was:  Gold,  1,910,813  fine  ounces,  of 
the  value  of  $39,500,000;  silver,  49,500,000  fine  ounces,  of  the  com- 
mercial value  of  $31,422,000,  and  of  the  coining  value  of  $64,000,000. 

The  estimated  production  of  the  world  for  the  calendar  year  was: 
Gold,  8,737,788  fine  ounces,  of  the  value  of  $180,626,100;  silver,  167,- 
752,565  fine  ounces,  of  the  coining  value  of  $216,892,200;  commercial 
value,  $106,522,900. 


884  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Mr.  Preston  gives  an  estimate  of  the  approximate  stock  of  money 
in  the  principal  countries  of  the  world.  He  places  the  stock  of  gold 
at  $4,086,800,000,  the  stock  of  full  legal-tender  silver  at  $3,439,300,- 
000,  stock  of  limited  tender  silver  at  $631 ,200,000,  making  a  total  silver 
stock  in  the  world  of  $4,070,500,000;  the  uncovered  notes  are  placed 
at  $3,469,500,000. 

THE  ARMY. 

Oificial  Reports. — The  annucal  report  of  Daniel  S. 
Lamont,  secretary  of  war,  was  submitted  late  in  November. 

The  full  strength  of  the  enlistment  in  the  army  is  given  at  25,706. 
A  consistent  effort  has  been  made  to  restore  officers  to  their  commands 
and  reduce  the  number  of  those  on  detached  duty.  The  policy  of 
concentrating  the  army  and  abandoning  unnecessary  posts  has  won 
uniform  approval.  Special  reference  is  made  to  the  lack  of  defense 
for  the  ports,  and  the  attention  of  congress  is  called  to  appropriations 
for  putting  them  in  satisfactory  condition.  The  amount  required  for 
the  eighteen  ports  is  stated  as  $82,000,000;  and  the  entire  work  can 
be  completed,  it  is  said,  within  ten  years.  The  general  condition  of 
the  army  is  reported  as  excellent,  and  the  policy  of  promoting  the 
personal  comfort  of  the  officers  and  men  has  resulted  in  h  much 
better  morale.  The  health  record  is  the  best  ever  known,  and  there 
has  been  a  significant  decrease  in  the  number  of  courts-martial. 

The  secretary  urgently  recommends  the  adoption  of  the  three- 
battalion  formation,  as  in  his  report  of  1894. 

The  report  of  Inspector-General  J.  C.  Breckinridge 
recommends  the  institution  of  yearly  manoeuvres  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  European  armies,  in  Avliich  large  bodies 
of  troops  shall  be  engaged,  and  the  conditions  of  actual 
warfare  be  reproduced  as  accurately  as  possible.     Says  he: 

"  The  number  of  officers  in  our  service  who  have  had  experience 
in  handling  large  masses  of  troops,  is  growing  less  and  less  each  year; 
and  there  are  many  on  its  rolls  who  have  never  seen  a  brigade  of 
troops.  Can  a  satisfactory  condition  of  instruction  exist  under  such 
circumstances?  Has  not  the  time  come  when  it  is  absolutely  essential, 
in  order  to  instruct  the  younger  officers  of  the  army  how  best  to  ap- 
ply the  theoretical  knowledge  which  they  have  acquired  at  the  mili- 
tary academy  and  at  the  service  schools,  occasionally  to  concentrate 
troops  at  some  central  points  and  engage  in  a  series  of  manoeuvres 
approximating  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  actual  conditions  of  war, 
forbidding  the  exercise  of  any  manoeuvre  which  can  be  performed 
while  in  garrison?  There  was  never  a  time  in  the  history  of  our  army 
when  the  officers  and  men  were  better  prepared  theoretically  to  meet 
an  enemy  than  now;  what  they  need  is  practice;  and,  next  to  war,  a 
simulated  condition  of  war,  with  a  system  of  thorough  and  intelligent 
inspection,  is  the  best  school." 

During  the  year  ten  military  posts  were  abandoned,  and  three  es 
tablished. 

Defects  in  the  New  Rifle.— That  the  rifle  of  foreign 
design  recently  adopted  for  the  regular  army  has  failed  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  an  efficient  and  durable  weapon, 
is  abundantly  corroborated  by  the  reports  of  officers  who 


THE  INDIANS.  885 

have  had  experience  of  the  arm  during  the  past  year.  The 
main  points  in  which  defect  is  alleged,  are  indicated  in  the 
following  passage  from  the  report  of  the  inspector  of  small- 
arms  practice  for  1895  in  the  Department  of  the  Colorado: 

"The  principal  defects  reported  are  tbat  beyond  the  300-yard 
range  it  (the  rifle)  shoots  too  high  and  to  the  left;  the  bullet  is  easily 
deflected  by  the  wind;  the  hits  vary  after  the  fifth  or  sixth  shot,  when 
the  barrel  becomes  heated;  the  metal  of  the  bolt  and  chamber  is  too 
soft,  causing  the  bolt  to  jam  where  it  cannot  be  opened  without  cock- 
ing the  piece  and  oiling  the  bolt.  The  magazine  spring  becomes 
weak  and  will  scarcely  keep  the  gate  shut;  the  magazine  cut-off  is 
easily  pulled  out  and  lost;  the  front  sight  is  easily  bent;  spindle  on 
safety-lock  and  hinge-bar  to  magazine  are  constantly  breaking;  the 
head  of  the  ramrod  is  too  large  for  cleaning  purposes;  and  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  the  bolt  well  lubricated  in  order  to  insure  its  working, 
causes  much  injury  to  the  clothing  of  the  men.  Objection  is  also 
found  to  the  straight  butt  plate,  and  a  curved  one  is  recommended  in 
its  stead;  it  is  also  reported  that  the  metal  in  the  butt  plate  is  very 
soft  and  wears  rapidly.  The  greatest  fault  found  with  the  new  arm, 
however,  is  the  absence  of  the  wind-gauge  and  automatic  drift  correc- 
tion on  the  rear  sight." 

THE  INDIANS. 

The  Lake  Mohonk  Conference. — The  thirteenth 
annual  Indian  conference  at  Lake  Mohonk,  New  York, 
was  held  October  9  to  11,  being  very  largely  attended. 
The  following  is  the  platform  unanimously  adopted: 

"  1.  The  reservation  system  is  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  civiliza- 
tion, and  should  be  abolished,  the  tribal  organization  destroyed,  the 
lands  allotted  in  severalty,  the  Indians  intermingled  with  the  whites, 
and  the  Indians  treated  as  other  men. 

"  2.  Until  the  Indian  comes  into  complete  possession  of  his  allot- 
ment, he  should  have  the  special  protection  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment; special  federal  officials  should  be  endowed  with  magisterial  au- 
thority for  the  administration  of  local  justice;  the  bureau  should  have 
power  and  means  to  employ  and  assign  counsel  for  the  legal  protection 
of  his  rights;  he  should  be  guarded  by  adequate  legislation  from  the 
land  robber,  the  gambler,  and  the  liquor  dealer;  he  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  sell  or  lease  his  lands  except  upon  permission  first  obtained 
from  a  federal  judge;  and  provision  should  be  made  for  the  secular 
and  industrial  education  of  all  Indian  children  of  school  age  in  schools 
supported  by  and  under  exclusive  control  of  the  government,  state  or 
federal. 

"3.  It  is  unrepublican  and  un-American  to  permit  the  existence 
of  any  landed  class  in  the  community  exempt  from  taxation;  such  ex- 
emption is  equally  unjust  to  the  taxed  and  to  the  untaxed.  The  taxes 
otherwise  due  on  the  allotment  of  the  Indian  citizen,  so  long  as  by  a 
protected  title  his  land  is  exempt,  should  be  provided  for  out  of  In- 
dian funds  in  the  hands  of  the  national  government;  or,  if  there  are 
no  such  funds,  out  of  the  general  treasury. 

"4.  No  Indian  tribe  should  be  transferred  from  one  reservation 
to  another  without  its  consent,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  with  its  consent. 


886  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1695. 

Rations  should  be  given  only  where  required  by  existing  treaty  stipu- 
lations, or  to  avert  imminent  starvation,  and  should  be  done  away 
with  entirely  as  soon  as  practicable.  Distribution  of  money  pe?'  capita 
is  often  disastrous,  and  should  be  made  with  increased  caution. 

"  5.  The  nation  possesses  a  supreme  authority  over  every  foot  of 
soil  within  its  boundaries;  its  legislative  authority  over  its  people  it 
*  has  neither  right  nor  power  to  alienate;  the  attempt  to  do  so  by  Indian 
treaties  in  the  past  does  not  relieve  it  from  the  responsibility  for  the 
condition  of  government  in  the  reservations  and  in  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory; and  despite  those  treaties  it  is  under  a  sacred  obligation  to  exer- 
cise its  sovereignty  by  extending  over  the  300,000  whites  and  50,000 
so-called  Indians  in  the  Indian  Territory  the  same  restraints  and  pro- 
tection of  government  which  other  parts  of  the  country  enjoy. 

"6.  The  best  of  laws  are  useless  unless  they  are  faithfully  and 
equitably  enforced.  Such  enforcement  through  the  Indian  depart- 
ment is  impossible  unless  appointments  are  made  only  for  merit,  re- 
movals only  for  cause,  and  the  tenure  of  administrative  officials  is  to 
this  extent  made  permanent.  We  congratulate  the  country  upon  the 
evidence  which  the  history  of  the  past  year  has  afforded  that  it  is  the 
purpose  of  the  department  to  administer  the  Indian  bureau  upon  this 
principle;  and  we  call  upon  congress  to  co-operate  with  the  executive 
in  such  measures  as  may  be  necessary  to  secure  permanently  the  In- 
dian bureau  from  the  fatal  effects  of  the  spoils  system. 

"7.  The  government  alone  cannot  solve  the  Indian  problem. 
Our  American  civilization  is  founded  upon  Christianity.  A  pagan 
people  cannot  be  fitted  for  citizenship  without  learning  the  principles 
and  acquiring  something  of  the  spirit  of  a  Christian  people.  The  duty 
of  the  church  is  increased,  and  the  hopefulness  of  accomplishing  it  is 
made  more  reasonable  by  every  advance  the  government  makes  in 
providing  protection  and  secular  education  for  the  Indian  race.  The 
progress  already  made  toward  the  dissolution  of  organic  barbarism, 
the  opening  already  afforded  for  free  Christian  work,  eloquently  sum- 
mon Christian  philanthropists  to  furnish  that  contribution  which 
nothing  but  unofficial,  voluntary,  and  Christian  service  can  furnish 
toward  the  emancipation  and  elevation  of  the  Indian." 

The  following  resolutions  were  also  adopted  unani- 
mously, though  not  made  a  part  of  the  platform: 

"1.  Resolved,  That  we  specially  commend  the  work  of  the  Field 
Matrons  as  productive  of  the  best  good  of  the  Indian  communities 
through  the  instruction  and  elevation  of  the  Indian  women,  and  in 
that  respect  peculiarly  necessary.  We  urge  substantial  additions  to 
the  appropriation  for  their  support,  that  their  number  may  be  largely 
increased. 

"2.  Resolved,  We  note  with  satisfaction  that  the  experiment  of 
introducing  reindeer  into  Alaska  has  proved  a  marked  success.  But 
the  supply  of  reindeer  is  as  yet  totally  inadequate  for  the  needs  of  the 
natives.  The  sum  hitherto  appropriated  has  been  but  $7,500  a  year, 
sufficient  only  to  purchase  150  reindeer  and  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
herders.  We,  therefore,  earnestly  second  the  request  of  Commissioner 
Harris  that  the  appropriation  be  increased,  and  that  congress  set  aside 
for  this  coming  year,  for  the  purchase  and  maintenance  of  reindeer, 
the  sum  of  $20,000." 

A  recent  ruling  of  Judge  Baker  of  the  United  States 
court  in  a  case  in  which  a  prisoner  was  charged  with  sell- 


THE  NAVY.  887 

ing  liquor  to  a  Pilla  Indian,  recognizes  Pilla  Indians  in 
Arizona  as  United  States  citizens.  The  ruling  will  be 
passed  upon  by  the  United  States  supreme  court. 

Another  United  States  court  decision,  given  at  Chey- 
enne, Wyo.,  November  21,  sustains  the  Bannock  Indians 
in  their  claim  to  a  right  under  treaty  to  hunt  in  the  Jack- 
son's Hole  region  of  the  state  (p.  621).  Judge  Riner 
ordered  the  release  of  a  Bannock  Indian,  named  Race 
Jlorse,  who  had  been  held  by  the  state  authorities  for  kill- 
ing game  in  the  district  mentioned.  This  case  is  also  to 
be  passed  upon  by  the  supreme  court. 

The  Choctaw  Indian  council  is  said  to  have  adopted  in 
November  two  resolutions  which,  it  is  thought,  are  likely 
to  be  a  source  of  trouble.  The  first  practically  confiscates 
the  property  of  the  wealthy  class  of  "  squaw  men/'  or  whites 
who  have  married  Indian  wives:  tliey  are  not  to  be  permitted 
to  hold  lands,  share  yearly  grants,  or  fill  offices.  The 
second  resolution  is  a  rejection  of  the  proposition  of  the 
Dawes  Commission  to  do  away  with  the  tribal  title  and 
allot  lands  in  severalty  (Vol.  4,  p.  821). 

The  Nez  Perces  reservation  in  Idaho  was  quietly  thrown 
open  to  settlement  November  18. 

THE  NAVY. 

Additions  to  the  Navy.  —  The  armored  cruiser 
Brooklyn  {Cruiser  No.  S)  was  launched  at  the  Cramps' 
shipyard,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  October  2,  being  christened 
by  Sliss  Ida  May  Schieren,  daughter  of  the  mayor  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Altliougb  called  a  sister  sliip  of  tlie  New  York,  the  Brooklyn  is 
larger  and  will  have  a  coal  endurance  of  6,088  miles  at  a  speed  of  10 
knots,  or  about  16  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  the  New  York.  Her 
leading  features  are:  Length,  400^  feet;  lieam,  64.68  feet;  mean  nor- 
mal draught,  24  feet;  displacement,  9,271  tons;  estimated  speed,  20 
knots.  The  Brooklyn  is  fourteen  feet  longer  and  of  1,000  tons'  greater 
displacement  than  the  New  York.  Her  construction  was  authorized 
by  an  act  of  congress  passed  July  19,  1892;  the  contract  price  for  the 
ship,  minus  her  armament,  was  $2,986,000;  and  her  keel  was  laid 
early  in  1893.  She  has  twin  screws,  each  driven  by  a  pair  of  vertical 
inverted  triple-expansion  engines,  inclosed  in  separate  compartments, 
and  with  shafts  so  arranged  that  the  forward  engines  can  be  uncoupled 
and  the  after  ones  alone  used  for  cruising  at  low  speed.  The  arma- 
ment of  the  vessel  will  consist  of  eight  8-inch  and  twelve  5- inch 
breech-loading  rifles,  twelve  6-pounder  and  four  1 -pounder  rapid- 
firing  guns,  and  four  machine  guns.  There  will  also  be  five  torpedo- 
launching  tubes,  one  in  the  bow  and  two  on  each  side. 

On  October  19  two  new  gunboats  were  launched  at 
Newport  News,  Va.     The  Nashville,  christened  by  Miss 

Vol.  5.-57. 


888  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895, 

Emma  Thompson  of  Nashville,,  Tenn. ;  and  the  Wilmington, 
christened  by  Miss  Anne  Gray,  daughter  of  Senator  Gray 
of  Delaware.  Both  vessels  were  built  by  the  Newport 
News  Shipbuilding  Company. 

It  is  significant  of  the  awakened  spirit  of  enterprise  in 
the  South,  that  when  the  bids  for  construction  of  the  new 
battle-ship  Kearsarge  and  a  sister  ship  (No.  6)  not  yet 
named,  which  were  authorized  by  the  53d  congress,  were 
opened  on  November  30,  it  was  found  that  the  Newport 
News  Shipbuilding  Company  had  underbid  the  Cramps 
by  about  $1,000,000. 

These  two  ships  will  be  unique  in  point  of  armor  protection  and 
disposition  of  batteries.  Their  general  dimensions  and  principal  feat- 
ures are:  Length  on  load  water  line,  368  feet;  beam,  extreme,  72 
feet  2.5  inches;  freeboard  forward,  14  feet  30  inclies;  freeboard  aft, 
12  feet  8.0  inclies;  normal  displacement,  11,500  tons;  corresponding 
draught,  23  feet  6  0  inches;  indicated  horse-power,  estimated,  10,000; 
corresponding  speed,  16  knots;  coal  supply  on  normal  displacement,' 
410  tons;  coal  supply  at  25-foot  draught,  1,210  tons.  Batteries:  Main, 
four  13-inch  breech-loading  rifles,  four  8-inch  breech -loading  rifles; 
secondary,  fourteen  5-inch  rapid-fire  breech-loading  rifles;  auxiliary, 
twenty  6-pounder  rapid-tirers,  six  1-pounder  rapid-firers,  four  machine 
guns.  Tlie  torpedo  tubes,  of  which  there  are  five,  will  be  disposed 
one  in  the  stem  and  two  on  each  broadside  amidships. 

The  character  of  our  coast  made  a  comparatively  light  draught 
indispensable.  The  largest  of  European  ships  of  this  sort  usually  draw 
about  28  feet  when  fully  laden;  and  our  own  Iowa  and  Indiaiia  class 
draw  something  over  24  feet  under  normal  conditions.  The  Kear- 
sarge and  No.  6,  however,  with  all  weights  on  board  ready  for  sea, 
and  with  410  tons  of  coal  in  their  bunkers,  will  draw  but  23|  feet  of 
water;  and  with  1,200  tons  of  coal  dumped  loosely  into  their  bunkers, 
without  packing  or  further  handling,  will  have  an  even  keel  draught 
of  25  feet. 

The  double-decked  turret  is  essentially  novel.  Resting  upon  the 
protective  deck,  3  feet  6  inches  above  the  water  line,  the  barbettes  of 
15-inch  steel  rise  up  to  a  height  of  three  feet  above  the  main  deck; 
and  within  the  protection  of  these  heavy  walls,  the  turning,  loading, 
and  other  vital  mechanisms  of  the  guns  and  turrets  are  worked  in 
comparative  security.  The  turrets  for  the  13-inch  guns  will  be  as 
thick  as  their  supporting  barbettes,  except  where  augmented  two 
inches  about  the  ports  through  which  the  guns  peer  out.  The  turrets 
for  the  8-inch  guns  rigidly  fixed  to  the  more  ponderous  ones  below,  and 
incapable  of  independent  lateral  movement,  are  nine  inches  thick  gen- 
erally, except  for  a  similar  thickening  of  two  inches  about  the  face. 
The  primary  features  of  advantage  possessed  by  this  uncommon  type 
of  turret  are  the  concentration  of  motive  mechanisms  and  the  un- 
usual protection  given  the  ammunition  hoists  for  the  8  inch  guns 
above. 

There  will  be  no  speed  premiums.  A  penalty,  however,  of  .$100.- 
000  a  knot  is  imposed  for  failure  to  reach  the  contract  speed  of  sixteen 
knots.  The  cost  of  these  vessels,  exclusive  of  armor  and  armament, 
is  limited  to  |4,000,000  each. 

On   her   official   trial   trip,  October    18,  the   Indiana 


THE  NAVY.  889 

averaged  15.61  knots  an  hour  for  four  hours,  earning  a 
premium  of  150,000  for  her  builders,  the  Messrs.  Cramp, 
in  excess  of  the  contract  price.  A  premium  of  125,000 
had  been  offered  for  every  quarter-knot  developed  in  ex- 
cess of  the  15  knots  required.  During  six  miles  of  the 
run,  the  vessel  maintained  a  lG.30-knot  speed.  She  also 
developed  9,700  horse-power,  or  700  above  the  require- 
ments. This  trial  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  one  of 
the  new  ships  was  tested  in  a  practically  finished  state. 

On  October  31  occurred  the  first  failure  of  a  vessel  of 
the  new  navy  to  reach  contract  requirements.  The  har- 
bor-defense ram  Katalidin,  built  by  the  Bath  (Me.)  Iron 
AV^orks,  on  her  trial  trip  developed  a  speed  of  only  16.13 
knots,  and  stood  therefore  rejected  under  her  contract, 
which  called  for  17  knots.  The  chiefs  of  the  bureaus  of 
construction  and  engineering  recommended  the  acceptance 
of  the  vessel  at  a  reduction  below  contract  price  propor- 
tionate to  the  falling-oft'  in  speed,  pointing  out  that  the 
rejection-on-failure  clause  had  not  been  inserted  in  con- 
tracts for  other  vessels.  Secretary  Herbert,  however, 
could  not  see  that  he  had  any  discretion  in  the  matter; 
and  in  this  position  he  was  finally  sustained  by  President 
Cleveland,  to  whom  appeal  had  been  allowed.  Toward 
the  end  of  December  a  special  bill  for  the  purchase  of  the 
Katalidin  by  the  government  was  introduced  in  congress 
by  Senator  Hale  of  Maine. 

Ordnance  and  Armor  Tests. — A  novel  American 
invention — the  Browning  automatic  rapid-fire  gun — was 
recently  tested  at  the  Indian  Head  (Md.)  proving  ground. 

Unlike  other  automatic  arms,  in  which  the  recoil  of  the  barrel  is 
depended  upon  for  actuation  of  the  repeating  mechanism,  the  automatic 
action  of  tlie  Browning  gun  is  due  directly  to  the  pressure  of  the 
gases  liberated  by  the  successive  discharges.  On  pulling  the  trigger  a 
shot  is  fired;  and,  after  the  bullet  has  passed  a  certain  point  in  the 
barrel  at  which  there  is  a  vent,  and  before  its  exit  from  the  muzzle, 
the  powder  gases  act  through  the  vent  upon  the  mechanism  of  the 
piece,  open  the  breech,  eject  the  shell,  and  feed  to  the  carrier  another 
cartridge.  The  gun  consists  of  a  single  barrel  of  .236  calibre  attached 
to  a  breech  casing  in  which  is  the  mechanism.  It  is  mounted  on  a 
support.  The  gun  weighs  40  lbs.;  the  mount  70  lbs.  The  cartridges 
are  fed  to  the  gun  by  means  of  belts  coiled  in  boxes  readily  attached 
to  the  breech  casing.  As  many  as  400  rounds  were  fired  in  1  minute 
49  seconds,  the  gun  working  satisfactorily,  with  no  serious  interrup- 
tious- 

An  improvement  on  the  Gatling  gun  was  recently 
tested  with  apparently  satisfactory  results.  It  consists  of 
an  electric  motor  attachment,  which  is  said  to  render  pos- 
sible the  firing  of  1,800  shots  a  minute. 


1 


890  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

In  the  trials  completed  December  9,  of  the  three  dyna- 
mite guns  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  each  gun  threw  five  15-inch  dummy  projectiles  aver- 
aging 8^  minutes  for  the  five.  In  the  range  test  three 
sub-calibre  8-inch  shells  were  thrown  1,500,  2,000,  and  2,- 
500  yards,  respectively;  and  one,  carrying  100  pounds  of 
dynamite,  was  thrown  two  miles.  Great  accuracy  was  at- 
tained, and  the  tests  were  said  to  be  satisfactory  in  every 
respect. 

Tests  were  made  at  Indian  Head,  to  determine  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  belt  armor  and  structural  support  protecting 
the  water-line  region  of  the  loiva,  now  building,  and  also 
to  determine  the  acceptability  of  a  group  of  armor  plates 
of  which  the  test  plate  was  a  type. 

The  plate  was  16  feet  long,  7^  feet  bigb,  backed  by  5  incbes  of 
oak,  and  rested  upon  a  structural  counterpart  of  tbe  Iowa's  inboard 
water-line  region.  Four  attacks  were  made,  two  by  tbe  10-incb  gun, 
one  by  the  12-inch  gun,  and  one  by  the  13-inch  gun,  at  388,  883,  and 
378  feet  distance,  respectively.  Primarily  the  results  showed  the 
superior  destructive  power  of  the  13-inch  rifle;  but  also  showed  the 
toughness  and  resistibility  of  Harveyized  nickel  steel,  as  was  the 
armor  plate,  the  structural  efficiency  of  the  supporting  framework, 
and  the  vast  amount  of  punishment  that  can  be  borne  without  irre- 
])arable  injury;  and  further  emphasized  the  improbability  of  placing, 
at  fighting  range,  so  many  large  shots  within  so  small  an  area  and 
with  a  normal  impact. 

Other  Naval  Matters. — In  the  latter  part  of  October 
Rear-Admiral  Wm.  A.  Kirkland,  commanding  the  Euro- 
pean station,  was  formally  detached  from  his  command 
and  placed  on  waiting  orders.  Commodore  Thomas  0. 
Selfridge,  Jr.,  of  the  Board  of  Inspection  and  Survey, 
was  assigned  to  the  post  vacated  by  Rear-Admiral  Kirkland, 
becoming  thus  an  acting  rear-admiral.  His  father,  Rear-Ad- 
miral T.  0.  Selfridge,  Sr.,  is  still  alive  and  on  the  retired  list. 

On  November  4  the  Texas  was  docked  at  the  Brooklyn 
navy  yard.  A  few  days  later,  injuries  similar  to  those 
which  happened  to  the  Columbia  iu  dry  dock  at  South- 
ampton, Eng.  (p.  624),  were  found  to  have  developed. 
Repairs  were  immediately  begun. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

The  American  Federation. — The  fifteenth  annual 
convention  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  was 
opened  in  the  Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York  city, 
December  9.  There  were  present  about  100  delegates  rep- 
resenting thirty-two  national  unions,  fifteen  central  bodies, 
four  state  branches,  and  twenty-three  local  unions. 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  891 

Resident  McBride  in  his  annual  report  considered  the 
question  of  the  intervention  of  the  Federation  in  political 
affairs. 

He  favored  political  action,  but  refrained  from  defining  tLe  course 
that  ought  to  be  followed  by  the  Federation.  "Regardless  of  our 
differences  of  opinion  as  to  either  scope  or  methods,  we  all  recognize 
the  necessity  of  doing  something,  and  doing  it  in  a  manner  that  will 
insure  the  hearty  co-operation  of  all  our  forces."  The  emission  of 
United  States  bonds  for  the  purchase  of  gold  was  denounced  as  "the 
greatest  crime  of  the  nineteenth  century."  Of  the  Federation  itself, 
President  McBride  declared  that  both  numerically  and  financially  it 
was  stronger  than  at  the  end  of  1894. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  discussed  in  the 
convention  was  that  of  the  eight-hour  workday.  It  was 
voted  not  to  make  a  general  strike  in  all  the  trades  for  the 
eight-hour  day;  but  that  the  executive  council  should  des- 
ignate one  trade  to  make  the  demand,  with  the  support  jof 
the  entire  organization.  Resolutions  were  adopted,  favor- 
ing postal  savings  banks,  and  condemning  capital  punish- 
ment. 

Samuel  Gompers,  eight  times  president  of  the  Federa- 
tion, who  was  defeated  in  1894  by  John  McBride  (Vol. 
4,  p. 828),  was  again  elected  president  by  a  small  majority 
over  McBride.  His  opponent  was  supported  by  the  so- 
cialist wing  of  the  organization  and  by  nearly  all  the  dele- 
gates from  the  Western  states. 

The  motion  to  adopt  and  approve  as  a  whole  the  twelve 
planks  of  the  Denver  convention  of  1894  was  defeated  by 
a  decisive  negative  vote;  but  the  Denver  platform  was 
nevertheless  approved  as  '^an  abstract  declaration  of  prin- 
ciples." Briefly  stated,  the  twelve  clauses  of  the  Denver 
program  were: 

1.  Compulsory  education.  2.  Direct  legislation.  3.  The  eight- 
hour  workday.  4.  Sanitary  inspection  of  all  workshops.  5.  Liability 
of  employers  for  injury  to  life,  body,  or  health.  6.  Abolition  of  the  con- 
tract system  in  public  work.  7.  Abolition  of  the  sweating  system. 
8.  Municipal  ownership  of  city  railroads,  telephones,  etc.  9.  National- 
ization of  mines,  railroads,  telegraphs,  etc.  10.  Abolition  of  the  monop- 
oly system  of  landholding,  and  substitution  of  the  title  of  occupancy 
and  use  only.  11.  Repeal  of  conspiracy  laws  and  all  similar  legislation. 
12.  Abolition  of  the  monopoly  of  issuing  money  from  banks,  and  re- 
servation of  that  power  to  the  United  States  government. 

The  newly  elected  president  is  very  strongly  opposed  to 
what  is  called  socialism.  He  holds  that  workmen  organ- 
ized in  trades  unions  can  right  all  their  wrongs  without 
any  revolution  of  the  present  system  of  government. 

Philadelphia  Trolley  Strike.— On  December  17  was 
commenced  a  strike  of  the  employes  of  the  Union  Traction 


892  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Company  of  Philadelphia,  in  consequence  of  Avhicli  the 
working  of  nearly  all  the  trolley  lines  in  the  city  was 
stopped  for  nearly  two  weeks.  Of  the  6,100  employes  of 
the  company,  4,500  were  members  of  the  Amalgamated 
Association  of  Railway  Employes.  The  strike  was  ordered 
by  the  executive  committee  of  the  Amalgamated  Associa- 
tion, to  enforce  on  the  company  compliance  with  these  de- 
mands: 

1.  A  ten-liour  (consecutive)  workday  at  $2  per  day.  2.  Provision 
for  tlie  comfort  of  niotormen.  3.  Extra  compensation  for  "  trippers," 
sweepers,  and  operators  of  snowplows.  4.  No  man  to  be  discharged 
for  belonging  to  a  labor  organization;  and  restoration  of  men  previ- 
ously discharged  on  that  ground. 

On  the  first  day  the  company  made  a  valiant  effort  to 
operate  the  roads,  but,  after  300  cars  had  been  wrecked,  de- 
cided to  await  sufficient  police  protection  before  making 
another  attempt.  On  the  second  day  a  few  cars,  guarded 
by  policemen,  were  moved;  but  at  dusk  these  cars  were 
withdrawn.  The  cars  ran  at  long  intervals — an  hour  or 
more — and  they  met  with  frequent  obstructions  on  the 
tracks.  When  the  policemen  left  the  cars  to  remove  the 
obstructions,  the  mob  would  attack  the  motormen  and  con- 
ductors, and  break  the  car-windows.  On  the  19th,  traffic 
was  partially  resumed  on  many  of  the  lines,  and  passengers 
were  less  afraid  of  the  risk  of  riding  in  the  cars.  The 
company  declared  that  they  had  engaged  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  new  men  to  run  their  cars  regularly.  But  still  the 
lines  were  not  operated  during  the  night. 

On  the  assurance  of  the  mayor  of  the  city  that  the 
Union  Traction  Company  had  agreed  to  submit  the  mat- 
ter to  arbitration  and  to  reinstate  the  striking  employes,  the 
committee  of  the  Amalgamated  Association,  on  the  night 
of  December  20,  declared  the  strike  at  an  end,  and  ordered 
the  men  to  return  to  work.  But  the  president  of  the  Trac- 
tion Company  refused  to  take  the  men  back,  and  repudi- 
ated the  concession  made  by  one  of  the  directors  to  the 
mayor.  The  strike  therefore  was  still  ^^on;"  but  on  the 
23d  the  strikers,  as  employes  or  ex-employes  of  the  com- 
pany, not  as  members  of  the  Amalgamated  Association, 
had  a  conference  with  the  officers  of  the  company,  and  a 
settlement  was  reached.  The  men  w^on  no  point  of  their 
contention.  The  men  newly  employed,  1,900  in  number, 
would  be  retained  in  their  situations,  and  the  old  employes 
would  be  engaged  only  so  far  as  there  were  places  for  them. 
AVhen  the  old  employes  came  to  realize  the  full  measure 
of  their  defeat,  there  was  a  renewal  of  the  strike  and  a 


Labor  interests.  893 

new  outbreak  of  savage  violence;  but  as  numbers  deserted 
from  their  ranks  and  went  back  into  the  company^s  ser- 
vice, the  leaders  saw  the  hopelessness  of  their  cause,  and 
the  trolley  service  of  Philadelphia  soon  resumed  its  nor- 
mal state. 

Garment  Workers'  Strike.— For  the  third  time  (p. 
628)  the  United  lirotherhood  of  Tailors  commenced  a 
strike  against  the  Contractors'  Association  in  NeAV  York 
city  and  neighboring  towns,  December  17.  Again  the 
brotherhood  chose  for  its  leader  Meyer  Schoenfeldt,  whose 
prudence,  enterprise,  and  judgment  had  before  won  a 
complete  victory  for  the  organization.  The  Contractors' 
Mutual  Protective  Association  decided  on  December  15  to 
repudiate  the  agreement  they  had  made  with  their  men  in 
July;  and  notice  was  served  on  their  employes  that  they 
must  agree  to  work  under  a  new  code  of  regulations,  or  be 
locked  out.  In  particular,  the  weekly  work  system  was  to 
be  done  away,  and  the  *^task"  system  restored.  These 
facts  are  undisputed.  It  was  estimated,  that  the  day  after 
the  notices  were  posted,  4,000  tailors  inN^ew  York  city  and 
2,000  in  Brooklyn  quit  work  for  the  contractors.  By 
breaking  the  agreement  with  their  men,  the  contractors 
forfeited  their  bonds,  amounting  to  1250,000  for  the  550 
contractors  in  New  York  city  who  had  given  such  bonds. 
Many  of  the  contractors  refused  to  post  the  notice,  and  so 
retained  their  workmen.  Some  of  the  contractors  were 
reported  cynically  to  have  invited  the  tailors  to  sue  for  the 
amount  of  the  bonds,  saying  that  not  over  15  per  cent  of 
the  $250,000  could  be  collected:  they  had  given  '* straw 
bondsmen.''  Toward  the  end  of  December  there  were 
numerous  secessions  from  the  Contractors'  Association;  the 
men  also  were  opening  shops  for  co-operative  manufac- 
ture of  garments;  and  negotiations  were  nearly  completed 
for  starting  a  great  co-operative  establishment  in  New  Jer- 
sey. It  was  confidently  expected  that  when  the  busy  sea- 
son commenced  the  contractors  would  be  under  the  neces- 
sity of  acceding  to  the  demand^  of  the  men.  The  strike 
was  unattended  by  any  acts  of  violence. 

Housesmitlis'  Strike. — A  strike  of  the  Ilousesmiths' 
and  Bridgemakers'  Union  in  New  York  commenced  No- 
vember 18  and  lasted  into  December.  The  principal  de- 
mands of  the  men  were:  A  general  advance  of  wages,  an 
eight-hour  workday,  and  employment  only  of  members  of 
tlie  union.  The  employers'  association,  the  Iron  League, 
refused  to  treat  with  the  union.  For  a  week  or  more, 
work  was  practically  at  a  standstill  on  twelve  or  more  great 


894  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4tliQr.,i89r). 

buildings  at  the  time  in  process  of  erection;  and  thousands 
of  workmen  besides  the  striking  housesmiths  were  thrown 
out  of  employment.  But  the  Iron  League  brought  work- 
men from  other  cities,  and  before  long  work  was  proceed- 
ing satisfactorily.  Early  in  December  the  striking  work- 
men showed  a  disposition  to  recede  from  their  demands  if 
the  employers  would  afford  them  opportunity  of  doing  so 
without  too  great  humiliation.  At  last,  on  December  13, 
a  settlement  was  reached,  but  neither  the  employers  nor 
the  men  would  make  public  the  terms  of  it.  During  the 
strike  not  a  single  act  of  violence  was  committed,  and  no 
striker  was  arrested. 

Commissioner  Wright's  Report. — Hon.  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  commissioner  of  labor,  has  issued  a  bulletin  of 
statistics  of  strikes  for  the  years  1881  to  1894 — 13-|-  years. 

In  that  time  tliere  were  in  the  United  States  14,380  strikes,  in 
wliich  69,167  establishments  were  involved,  and  the  persons  thrown 
out  of  employment  numbered  3,714,406.  The  loss  in  wages  is  esti- 
mated to  be  $163,807,866  from  strikes,  and  $26,685,516  from  lock- 
outs; the  loss  to  employers  $82,590,386  in  strikes,  and  $12,235,451  in 
lockouts.  To  the  losses  of  wages  must  be  added  $5,262,000  paid  to 
strikers  by  labor  organizations.  The  strikes  were  successful  in  45 
per  cent  of  the  cases,  and  partly  successful  in  12  per  cent.  The  effort 
to  raise  wages  led  to  25  per  cent  of  the  strikes,  to  reduce  the  hours  of 
daily  labor  to  13  per  cent,  to  resist  reduction  of  wages  to  8  per  cent, 
both  to  raise  wages  and  reduce  hours  to  6  per  cent;  7  per  cent  were 
sympathetic,  4  per  cent  to  prevent  employment  of  non-union  men, 
and  3  per  cent  for  recognition  of  trades  unions, 

SPORTING. 

The  Yacht  Race  Investigation. — Two  notable  com- 
plications in  the  sporting  world  have  of  late  occupied  the 
attention  not  only  of  sportsmen,  but  of  all  who  take 
even  a  casual  interest  in  the  outcome  of  games  and  races. 
One  arose  from  Lord  Dunraven's  withdrawal  of  his  yacht, 
Valkyrie  III.,  from  the  third  race  with  the  Defender 
(p.  633),  and  his  subsequent  charge  against  the  owners 
and  crew  of  the  American  yacht.  This  charge  was  con- 
tained in  a  pamphlet  published  soon  after  his  return  to 
England.  After  reviewing  the  conduct  of  the  races,  the 
foul  that  occurred  in  the  second,  and  the  interference  of 
the  excursion  steamers  with  the  third,  he  charged  that  the 
Defender's  load  water  line  was  changed  by  the  transfer  of 
ballast  between  the  time  of  measurement  and  the  first 
race.  The  New  York  Yacht  Club  im.mediately  appointed 
a  committee  to  investigate  the  charges.  Messrs.  J.  Pier- 
pont  Morgan,  William  C.  Whitney,  and  George  L.  Rives 


SPORTING.  895 

composed  the  committee.  They  had  authority  to  increase 
their  membership,  and  added  the  Hon.  Edward  J.  Phelps, 
ex-minister  to  England,  and  Captain  A.  T.  Mahan,  U.  S.  N. 
Tlie  committee  began  tlieir  sittings  at  the  end  of  Decem- 
ber. Mr.  Joseph  H.  Choate  acted  as  counsel.  Lord  Dun- 
raven  returned  from  England  to  be  present  at  the  investi- 
gation. 

Upon  Lord  Dunraven^s  withdrawal  from  the  races  for 
the  America's  cup,  Mr.  Charles  D.  Eose,  a  member  of  the 
Victoria  Royal  Yacht  Club,  issued  a  challenge  to  the  New 
York  Yacht  Club  for  a  race  to  be  sailed  in  1896.  The 
challenge  was  accepted,  but  Mr.  Eose  felt  constrained 
later  to  withdraw  it  as  it  was  understood  by  many  in 
England  to  reflect  upon  the  conduct  of  the  English  com- 
petitor in  the  race  of  1895. 

Intercollegiate  Athletics. — The  other  complication 
which  has  been  referred  to  is  of  longer  standing,  but  of 
a  less  serious  nature.  Mention  has  been  made  in  Cur- 
rent History  (p.  363)  of  the  charge  of  rough  playing  on 
the  part  of  Yale  in  the  Harvard-Yale  football  game  of 
1894,  and  of  the  request  of  the  Yale  captain  to  the  Har- 
vard captain  that  these  charges  be  officially  denied  by  the 
Harvard  athletic  management,  and  of  Harvard^s  refusal  to 
comply.  The  negotiations  which  have  since  taken  place 
between  the  football  authorities  of  the  two  universities 
have  been  published.  It  now  appears  that  although  the 
players  and  large  numbers  of  the  alumni  of  both  universities 
would  be  glad  to  see  the  annual  games  resumed,  yet  that 
the  Harvard  advisory  committee  on  athletics  lias  stood  in 
the  way  of  Harvard's  resuming  her  former  relations  with 
Yale  on  the  terms  laid  down  by  the  latter. 

The  football  playing  of  1895  was  in  many  respects 
much  more  satisfactory  than  that  of  the  previous  year. 
The  game  was  more  "open,''  there  was  lesf  roughness, 
and  on  the  whole  the  sport  resumed  the  tone  which  will 
permit  students  of  our  universities  again  to  p.irticipate  in 
it  in  a  becoming  manner.  This  is  due  in  part  to  a  change 
in  rules  which  now  forbid  the  use  of  the  "flying 
wedge,"  which  has  been  the  cause  of  many  disasters  since 
its  introduction  in  1892.  It  is,  however,  due  in  a  large 
degree  to  the  healthy  reaction  which  the  excessive  rough- 
ness of  the  game  as  played  in  1894  could  not  fail  to  pro- 
duce in  the  minds  of  college  students  in  general.  Yale 
virtually  gained  the  football  championship  of  1895. 
Pennsylvania,  Princeton,  and  Harvard  followed  in  the 
order  named. 


806  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th Qr.,  1895. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  June,  1895,  the  athletic 
ui-sociations  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities  issued 
a  Joint  challenge  to  Harvard  and  Yale  to  meet  them  in  a 
contest  in  track  athletics.  Harvard  declined  the  chal- 
lenge, and  on  that  account  Oxford  withdrew  in  favor  of 
Cambridge.  The  contest  took  place  on  Manhattan  Field, 
New  York,  October  C.  Y^ale  won  eight  of  the  eleven 
''events."  Cambridge  won  first  place  in  only  the  440- 
yard,  the  half-mile,  and  the  mile  runs. 

Other  Sporting  Matters.— The  last  prize  fight  of 
note  that  took  place  in  the  United  States  was  fought  in 
Florida.  In  these  days  one  is  evidently  enough  for  any 
state;  and  when  Corbett  and  Fitzsimmons  in  October 
wanted  to  decide  the  pugilistic  championship  of  the  world, 
they  turned  their  attention  to  Texas  as  a  good  stamping 
ground.  But  Governor  Culberson  of  that  state  called  a 
special  session  of  the  legislature,  and  addressed  to  it  a 
message  urging  it  to  prohibit  prize  fighting  within  the 
state.  The  members  promptly  complied,  and  passed  a  bill 
making  prize  fighting  a  felony  in  Texas.  The  fighters 
then  intended  to  go  to  Arkansas;  but  they  received  a  let- 
ter from  Governor  Clarke  telling  them  that  fighting  in 
Arkansas  would  be  regarded  as  an  intolerable  insult  to  the 
people.  Later  Chancellor  Martin  issued  an  omnihis  in- 
junction forbidding  the  fight.  There  was  talk  of  holding 
the  encounter  on  some  Indian  reservation,  but  Attorney- 
General  Harmon  stated  that  the  figlit  would  not  be 
allowed  to  take  place  in  any  territory  over  which  the  gov- 
ernment ot  the  United  States  has  control.  Thus  the  hope 
of  having  the  pugilistic  championship  of  the  world  settled 
by  these  two  fighters  is  indefinitely  deferred. 

An  international  sculling  contest  took  place  at  Austin, 
Texas,  November  6.  The  championship  in  single  sculling 
was  won  by  Gaudaur  of  Canada.  The  double-sculling 
contest  waF  won  by  Messrs.  Bubear  and  Barry,  English- 
men. Th(!y  made  a  world's  record.  In  the  four-oared 
race  the  Englishmen  Avere  again  successful.  The  course 
was  threo  miles  with  a  turn.  The  time  was  17  minutes 
20-^  seconds. 

The  golf  championship  was  won  at  Newport,  R.  I., 
October  3,  by  Charles  B.  MacDonald  of  Chicago,  111.  The 
prize  was  a  thousand-dollar  gold  cup  given  by  President 
Theodore  A.  Havemeyer  of  the  National  Golf  Association. 
This  cup  is  to  be  for  one  year  in  the  keeping  of  the  Chi- 
cago Club. 
/ 
/ 


NOTABLE  CRIMES.  897 

NOTABLE  CRIMES. 

On  October  8  the  judgment  of  the  lower  court  in  the 
case  of  Bartholomew  Shea,  convicted  of  the  murder  of 
Robert  Ross  at  the  election  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  March  6,  1894 
(Vol.  4,  pp.  157  and  593),  was  sustained  by  the  court  of 
appeals  at  Albany.  Shea  was  resentenced  to  die  during 
the  week  beginning  December  23;  but  on  December  17, 
Governor  Morton  granted  a  postponement  of  sentence  to 
January  7,  1896. 

On  November  1  Theodore  Durant  was  convicted  of  the 
murder  of  Blanche  Larnont  in  April,  in  San  Francisco, 
Cal.  (p.  365).  He  was  sentenced  to  death,  February  21, 
1896,  being  fixed  as  the  date  for  the  execution. 

On  November  2  the  notorious  Herman  W.  Mudgett, 
alias  H.  H.  Holmes,  was  convicted,  on  the  first  ballot  by 
the  jury,  of  murder  in  the  first  degree,  for  killing  Benjamin 
F.  Pitezel  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  on  September,  2,  1894 
(p.  638).     On  November  30  he  was  sentenced  to  be  hanged. 

On  December  11  Harry  Hay  ward  was  hanged  in  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.,  for  the  murder  of  Miss  Catharine  Ging  on 
December  3,  1894  (p.  131).  Before  his  execution  he  con- 
fessed his  guilt,  and  made  the  startling  statement  that  he 
had  previously  committed  three  other  murders. 

Lynchings  of  negroes  continue  with  apparently  little 
abatement.  On  October  16  an  armed  squad  of  men  took 
from  the  constables  a  negro  prisoner  named  Jefferson  Ellis, 
who  had  criminally  assaulted  a  little  white  girl  near  Mount 
Pleasant,  Miss.,  and  who  confessed  to  other  crimes  of 
assault  and  murder.  After  mutilating  Ellis  in  a  horrible 
manner,  the  mob  hanged  him  to  a  telegraph  pole. 

On  October  30  Henry  Hilliard,  a  negro,  who  had  out- 
raged and  murdered  the  wife  of  a  farmer  living  near  Tyler, 
Tex.,  was  burned  with  horrible  torture  lasting  fifty  minutes, 
in  the  public  square  of  that  place.  This  incident  recalls 
the  similar  one  at  Paris,  Tex.,  in  February,  1893  (Vol.  3, 
p.  86). 

On  November  17  a  negro  named  James  Goings  was 
forcibly  taken  by  a  mob  from  the  jail  at  Frederick,  Md., 
and  hanged  for  assaulting  a  white  girl. 

On  November  21  a  negro  who  had  killed  a  white  boy 
was  taken  from  the  jail  at  Wartburg,  Tenn.,  and  hanged. 

At  Tiffin,  0.,  on  October  27,  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
was  made  by  a  mob  to  lynch  L.  J.  Martin,  in  jail  for  shoot- 
ing August  Schultz,  the  city  marshal  of  Tiffin.  Sheriff 
Van  Ness,  being  forewarned  of  the  attempt,  armed  the 


898  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

guards  at  the  jail;  and  when  the  mob  made  the  attack, 
they  were  met  by  a  volley  from  Winchester  rifles,  which 
killed  twq^ot  their  number.  Several  companies  of  militia 
were  proMptly  ordered  to  the  scene,  and  further  trouble 
was  prevented. 

A  most  remarkable  case  of  juvenile  crime  was  the  wreck- 
ing, on  November  19,  of  the  eastbound  fast  mail  train  on 
the  New  York  Central  railroad  about  three  miles  west  of 
Rome,  N.  Y.  The  company's  tool- house  had  been  broken 
open,  and  the  fastenings  of  the  two  opposite  rails  on  the 
track  removed  by  means  of  the  tools  thus  obtained.  The 
engineer  of  the  train  was  instantly  killed,  and  a  tramp  fatally 
injured;  ten  others  were  injured  more  or  less  seriously. 
The  inquest  resulted  in  a  verdict  charging  the  crime  to 
four  young  men,  of  18  to  19  years  of  age — of  respectable 
families — the  motive  being  "  to  commit  murder  and  rob- 
bery.'' All  four  are  under  arrest.  They  seem  to  have 
been  influenced  by  reading  sensational  stories  of  the  dime- 
novel  class. 

One  of  the  most  daring  and  mysterious  robberies  ever 
committed  in  New  York  city,  occurred  on  the  night  of 
December  27,  when  jewels  valued  at  nearly  $60,000  were 
stolen  from  the  residence  of  I.  T.  Burden,  the  wealthy 
proprietor  of  the  Burden  Iron  Works.  The  crime  remained 
a  complete  mystery  up  to  the  end  of  the  year. 

AFFAIRS  IN  YARIOUS  STATES. 

Massachusetts. — At  the  democratic  state  convention 
on  October  2,  ex-Congressman  G.  F.  Williams,  *^the 
original  mugwump"  of  1884,  was  unanimously  nominated 
for  governor. 

The  platform  approved  President  Cleveland's  foreign  policy,  his 
efforts  to  improve  the  civil  service  and  protect  the  public  credit;  de- 
manded stringent  regulation  of  corporations,  and  restriction  of  their 
power;  approved  the  present  tariff  law  as  much  more  beneficial  than 
the  McKinley  law,  though  not  ideally  perfect;  declarel  for  the  gold 
standard  and  against  free  silver;  denounced  the  A.  P.  A.  and  all 
secret  political  bodies,  as  vrell  as  the  introduction  of  religious  differ- 
ences into  politics;  and,  with  regard  to  the  monetary  policy  of  the 
government,  declared: 

"  We  reaffirm  the  demands  of  our  platform  of  last  year,  that  the  government 
shall  not  carry  on  a  banking  business;  that  the  untaxed  notes  of  state  or  na- 
tional banks  shall  be  the  only  credit  currency;  and  that  the  government  shall, 
with  the  development  of  a  banking  system  adequate  to  the  demands  of  trade, 
retire  as  rapidly  as  possible  all  United  States  paper  money.  *  *  *  Pending  a 
return  to  these  sound  principles  of  finance,  from  which  the  country  has  departed 
under  republican  rule,  we  favor  the  grant  to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  of 
power  to  negotiate  short-term  loans  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  sufficient 
gold  reserve,  and  insuring  the  parity  of  all  our  different  forms  of  currency  and 
an  increase  in  the  gold  reserve." 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  899 

The  republican  state  convention  on  October  5  renomi- 
nated Governor  F.  T.  Greenhalge,  subsequently  elected 
(p.  847). 

The  platform  urged  restriction  of  immigration  and  more  stringent 
laws  against  prize  fighting;  declared  for  protection  and  "sound 
money,"  and  against  free  silver;  deplored  tlie  admixture  of  religion 
and  race  partisanship  in  politics;  opposed  appropriation  of  public 
funds  for  sectarian  purposes;  denounced  the  saloon;  and  called  for 
rigid  legislative  and  muni- 
cipal  regulation  of  the 
liquor  traffic. 

Among  the  inter- 
esting municipal  con- 
tests on  December  10, 
was  that  for  the  may- 
oralty of  Boston,  the 
candidates  being  Jo- 
si  ah  Quincy  (dem.) 
and  Edwin  II.  Curtis 
(rep.,  renominated). 
My.  Quincy  was  elect- 
ed  by  a  plurality  of 
about  4,500,  against 
2,557  for  Curtis  in 
1894.  He  is  the  first 
incumbent  of  the  of- 
fice under  the  new  city 
charter,  which  makes 
the  post  tenable  for 
two  years  instead  of 
one.  The  third  ticket 
in  the  field  was  known 
as  the  '* Municipal 
Reform^'  ticket — a 
fusion  of  prohibition- 
ists, labor  men,  populists,  and  socialists. 

New  York. —  The  State  Election. — The  election  on 
November  5  closed  a  campaign  whose  chief  animation  was 
connected  with  discussions  of  the  Sunday  excise  laws  in 
New  York  city.  Returns  from  the  state  showed  continu- 
ance of  the  republican  ascendency  of  last  year  by  a  plurality 
of  90,145  for  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  which  headed 
the  ticket — the  total  number  of  ballots  cast  for  this  office 
by  all  parties  being  1,189,021,  of  which  republicans  cast 
601,205,  democrats  511,060.  The  republican  majority  was 
increased  in  both  houses  of  the  legislature,  and  now  stands 
38  to  12  in  the  senate,  109  to  41  in  the  assembly.     The 


HON.    THEODORE   KOOSEVELT, 

CHAIRMAN   OF   THE   NEW   YORK   CITY   BOARD   OP 

POLICE   COMMISSIONERS. 


900 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


19,000,000  appropriation  for  canal  enlargement  and  im- 
provement was  favored  by  a  majority  of  nearly  187,000. 

The  election  was  in  an  "'off  year,^^  when  only  minor  offices 
are  voted  for  and  the  number  of  voters  is  reduced.  A 
proper  comparison  (with  1893)  shows  the  republicans  to  have 
gained  generally  in  the  interior  counties,  but  to  have  lost 
about  5,000  in  Kings  county  (Brooklyn).    The  democratic 

gain  in  New  York  city 
is  noticed  below.  It 
is  observable  that  the 
populist  vote  (6,916) 
failed  to  amount  to 
one  per  cent  of  the 
whole.  The  socialist- 
labor  vote  was  some- 
what above  21,000; 
the  prohibition  vote 
somewhat  above  25,- 
000.  The  great  re- 
publican majority 
(ninety-four)  on  joint 
ballot  in  the  legisla- 
ture makes  it  highly 
probable  that  Senator 
Hill  will  be  succeeded 
in  1897  by  a  republi- 
can in  the  United 
States  senate. 

^^eiu  York  City 
Election. — T  h e  elec- 
tion  in  New  York 
city  brought  victory 
to  Tammany  for  the 
minor  city  and  county  o^ae^,  against  the  *' fusion ""  ticket, 
which  was  headed  by  republicans  and  supported  by  various 
organizations  of  anti-Tammany  democrats.  The  Tammany 
vote  in  the  city  was  cast  solidly  for  the  regular  democratic 
ticket  for  state  offices,  Tammany  being  the  regularly  recog- 
nized democratic  organization  for  the  city.  This  accounts  for 
the  difference  between  democratic  pluralities  for  county 
offices  and  those  for  state  offices:  democrats  in  the  city  were 
divided  in  their  city  vote,  united  in  their  state  vote. 

The  result  in  the  city  showed  a  plurality  for  the  head 
of  the  democratic  state  ticket  of  43,660;  while  pluralities 
for  the  offices  on  the  democratic  county  ticket  varied  from 
17,844  to  23,976.     The  average  excess  of  the  vote  for  the 


HON    AMOS  J.   CUMMINGS   OF  NEW  YORK   CITY, 
liEMOCBATIC  MEMBER   OF   CONGRESS. 


>**■ 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  901 

democratic  state  ticket  over  the  Tammany  county  ticket 
was  about  14,000.  Tlie  average  excess  in  the  vote  of  the 
republicans  was  in  the  reverse  direction — their  fusion 
county  ticket  surpassing  their  state  ticket  by  an  average  of 
about  10,000.  The  strength  of  the  state  democracy  or 
Grace-Fairchild  faction,  which  supported  the  republican 
fusion  county  ticket,  is  conjectured  at  probably  10,000  to 
possibly  15,000  votes.  The  total  of  votes  cast  in  the  city 
by  all  parties  for  the  office  at  the  head  of  the  state  ticket 
was  261,540,  of  which  were  democratic  141,136,  republi- 
can 97,476,  socialist-labor  10,903,  prohibition  971,  populist 
699.  Defective  ballots  numbered  3,966;  blank  ballots 
6,290.  .On  the  state  ticket  Tammany's  majority  in  the  city 
was  about  23,000  less  than  its  majority  two  years  before. — 
Turning  to  the  county  ticket,  w^e  observe  that  though  the 
Tammany  pluralities  range  from  about  18,000  to  about  24,- 
000,  the  total  of  Tammany  votes  was  ority^out  13,000  more 
than  a  year  ago,  when  Tammany  was  defeated  by  a  majority 
of  45,000.  This  indicates  an  extensive  neglect  of  voting. 
The  registration  lists  show  that  nearly  40,000  persons  went 
so  far  as  to  register  with  a  view  to  voting,  and  then  failed 
to  go  to  the  polls.  The  average  socialist- labor  vote  in 
the  city  was  about  11,000;  prohibition  abo^t  950;  populist 
660.  The  Good  Government  strength,  as  far  as  shown  by 
their  vote  given  to  a  few  candidates,  was  between  1,400 
and  1,650.  Alfred  Steckler,  candidate  of  the  independent 
county  organization  for  one  of  the  supreme  court  judge- 
ships, received  10,170  votes. 

The  representation  of  New  York  city  in  the  legislature 
shows  a  gain  for  Tammany:  the  senate  stands  3  republicans  to 
9  democrats;  the  assembly,  8  republicans  to  27  democrats. 

Issues  of  the  Campaign. — It  was  seen  early  in  the  cam- 
paign that  the  political  situation  in  New  York  city  was 
peculiarly  mixed.  Besides  five  county  tickets,  there  were 
the  tickets  of  several  factions  which  had,  or  were  supposed 
to  have,  various  elements  otantagonism  to  Tammany  Hall. 
Leading  advocates  of  municipal  reform  saw  the  necessity 
of  renewing  the  anti-Tammany  combination  which  in  the 
previous  year  wrought  the  overthrow  of  the  organized  cor- 
ruption that  had  long  held  the  city  in  its  iron  grasp.  Com- 
bination was  necessary  because  Tammany  was  still  the 
strongest  single  organization  in  the  city.  The  republican 
body,  being  the  next  largest,  was  naturally  taken  for  the 
nucleus  of  the  coalition  which  was  to  secure  an  honest 
government  pledged  to  avoidance  of  political  partisanship 
as  far  as  the  citv  was  concerned. 


903  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Partisan  predilections  seemed  at  first  to  be  silenced; 
but  soon  personal  leadership  began  to  urge  its  claims  in 
one  or  another  direction,  and  partisan  jealousy  showed  it- 
self still  alive.  Moreover,  the  present  reform  government 
had  necessarily  aroused  some  serious  differences  of  opinion; 
it  had  not  reformed  enough,  or  it  had  reformed  too  much. 
Yet  the  movement  might  have  proceeded  successfully  ex- 
cept for  the  anger  and  resentment  caused  among  the  great 
body  of  German  Americans,  helpers  in  the  previous  year's 
fight  against  Tammany,  by  the  thorough  and  honest  en- 
forcement of  the  law  closing  the  liquor  saloons  on  Sunday. 
It  was  nothing  to  them  that  the  observance  of  law  by  offi- 
cials sworn  and  paid  to  enforce  it  until  its  rej^eal  by  the 
law-making  power,  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  honesty 
of  administration,  and  that  the  idea  of  reform  without  it 
is  an  absurdity.  It  seems  to  have  been  quite  forgotten  by 
them  that  one  of  the  chief  agencies  of  the  corruption  which 
had  aroused  them  to  reform  one  year  before  had  been  the 
non-enforcement  of  the  Sunday  excise  law  on  condition  of 
payment  of  blackmail  to  the  police.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  accuse  them  of  loving  their  Sunday  beer  more  than  they 
loved  pure  and  decent  government.  Perhaps  their  resent- 
ment may  be  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  their  national 
customs  and  inherited  prejudices,  by  their  unthinking  re- 
volt against  what  they  deemed  religious  intolerance  and 
invasion  of  their  personal  liberty.  Roused  to  sudden 
anger,  their  powerful  organization,  the  German-American 
Reform  Union,  which  had  been  one  of  the  great  factors  in 
the  defeat  of  Tammany,  passed  over  to  the  enemy,  and 
adopted  and  vigorously  supported  the  Tammany  ticket, 
though  losing  thereby  a  considerable  number  of  their  most 
eminent  leaders,  who  denounced  the  affiliation  with  Tam- 
many, while  urging  that  after  the  election  the  Sunday  ex- 
cise laws  should  be  modified. 

This  new  peril  brought  together  the  remaining  friends 
of  reform,  and  a  fusion  ticket  was  agreed  on  and  put  into 
nomination  by  joint  action  of  the  republicans,  the  state 
(Grace-Fairchild)  democracy,  and  the  Committee  of  Fifty 
— the  last  an  organization  for  harmony  hastily  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

The  excise  plank  in  the  fusion  platform  was  a  modification  of 
that  in  the  state  republican  platform:  it  demanded  the  enforcement 
of  all  laws,  but  looked  toward  the  consideration  of  a  repeal  of  laws 
found  unacceptable  to  a  majority  of  the  people. 

Meanwhile,  the  Good  Government  clubs,  rigid  young 
reformers,  found  fault  with  the  fusion  leadership  and  with 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  903 

a  few  of  the  names  on  the  fusion  ticket  as  being  unfit,  or 
as  being  suspected  of  sympathy  with  Tammany,  and  nomi- 
nated a  ticket  of  their  own.  Dr.  Parkhurst  supported  the 
fusion,  but  with  some  exceptions  to  its  method  and  to  its 
ticket,  and  with  no  overwhelming  enthusiasm. 

Thus,  this  battle  was  lost  before  it  was  fought.  How- 
ever, the  reform  administration  of  New  York  remains  in 
power  two  years  more.  All  the  most  important  executive 
and  administrative  and  many  of  the  judicial  offices  are  in 
the  hands  of  stanch  opponents  of  Tammany  and  its  ways. 
The  principal  damage  of  the.  defeat,  and  it  is  undeniably 
great,  is  the  moral  elfect,  discouraging  the  rising  hope  of 
municipal  purification,  and  tending  to  discredit  the  reliance 
on  the  public  discernment  if  not  on  the  popular  sense  of 
righteousness. 

The  question  of  Sunday  excise  laws  and  of  the  liquor 
traffic  in  general  is  expected  to  be  one  of  the  important 
themes  of  discussion  in  the  legislature  of  1896.  It  is  gen- 
erally considered  that  the  present  system  needs  revision 
and  may  be  greatly  improved.  There  are  earnest  and 
eminent  advocates  of  reform  government  who  favor  some 
carefully  guarded  concessions  as  to  sale  of  liquor  on  Sun- 
days; but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  outside  the 
large  cities  all  attempts  to  frame  such  concessions  into  law 
will  meet  an  overwhelming  public  disapproval. 

MisceUnneous. — Scandals  affecting  the  public  works 
department  in  Buffalo  have  been  under  investigation  dur- 
ing the  quarter. 

The  state  statutory  revision  committee  have  com- 
pleted their  report  concerning  revision  of  the  code  of  civil 
procedure.  The  report  is  a  valuable  document  of  thorough 
historical  research,  tracing  the  development  of  civil  pro- 
cedure from  the  earliest  times  and  in  different  lands.  It 
gives  also  a  statement  of  the  methods  in  the  various  states 
in  the  Union,  and  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  practice  in  thirty- 
four  foreign  countries.  It  is  preparatory  to  the  draft  of  a' 
revised  code  which  the  committee  expect  to  submit  to  the' 
legislature  in  1897. 

South  Carolina. — The  Ketu  Constittdion. — On  De- 
cember 4  the  constitutional  convention  which  had  been  in 
session  in  Columbia  since  September  10  (p.G52)  adjourned 
sine  die.  The  new  constitution  was  ratified  directly  by  the 
convention  itself;  it  was  not  submitted  to  the  voters  of  the 
state.  The  final  vote  stood  115  for  to  7  against  its  adop- 
tion.    It  went  into  force  January  1,  1896. 

Suffrage  and  Begistration. — The  most  significant  clauses  relate  to 

Vol.  5.-58. 


904  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

the  suffrage,  it  having  been  the  express  aim  of  the  convention  to 
guarantee  perpetual  white  supremacy.  In  South  Carolina  the  blacks 
outnumber  the  whites.  In  1890,  of  a  total  population  in  the  state  of 
1,151,149,  the  blacks  numbered  689,141,  or  about  50  per  cent  more 
than  the  white  population  of  462,000.  At  the  end  of  1895  the  total 
population  (estimated)  is,  in  round  numbers,  1,250,000 — 500,000 
whites,  750,000  blacks.  In  1890  the  white  males  of  voting  age  were 
102,657;  the  colored,  132,949.  It  is  estimated  that  fully  75  per  cent 
of  the  grown-up  colored  men  of  the  state  are  illiterate. 

In  these  circumstances,  negro  domination  was  felt  to  be  a  danger 
which  ought  to  be  put  out  of  the  way  forever.  Many  plans  of  suf- 
frage restriction  were  discussed.  Finally  the  Mississippi  plan  was 
adopted  for  two  years.  In  a  word,  it  excludes  illiterates,  but  permits 
enrolment  of  men  unable  to  read  if  they  can  explain  any  section  read 
to  them  by  the  registering  officer,  who  thus  has  an  enormous  discre- 
tionary power.  And  it  was  also  decided  to  retain  on  the  voters'  lists 
for  life  all  enrolled  prior  to  January  1,  1898.  On  and  after  that  date 
no  new  voter  can  be  registered  unless  (1)  he  can  read  and  write  any 
part  of  the  constitution,  or  (2)  can  show  that  he  owns  and  has  paid 
taxes  on  property  assessed  at  not  less  than  $300. 

The  immediate  effect  of  these  regulations  is  to  disfranchise  between 
two-thirds  and  three-fourths  of  the  colored  voters.  About  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  white  voters  are  illiterate;  but  it  is  impossible  to  esti- 
mate how  many  of  these  will  be  denied  enrolment. 

By  its  express  terms  the  new  constitution  definitely  discriminates 
against  nobody.  Its  demands  for  learning  and  intelligence  in  voters 
are  moderate;  and  its  property  qualifications  put  a  premium  upon  in- 
dustry, frugality,  and  temperance.  But  in  practice  the  registering 
officers  will  have  vast  discretionary  powers  which  they  can  use  arbi- 
trarily if  they  choose. 

Owing  to  their  importance,  we  quote  the  main  portions  of  the  suf- 
frage and  registration  clauses.     The  requirements  for  registration  are: 

"  (a)  Residence  in  the  state  for  two  years,  in  the  county  one  year,  and  in  the 
polling  precinct  four  months,  and  the  payment  six  months  before  any  election 
of  any  poll  tax  then  due,  provided,  however,  that  ministers  in  charge  of  an  or- 
ganized church,  and  teachers  of  public  schools,  shall  be  entitled  to  vote  after 
six  months'  residence  in  the  state,  if  otherwise  Qualified. 

"(6)  Registration  which  shall  provide  for  the  enrolment  of  every  elector 
once  in  ten  years,  and  also  an  enrolment  during  each  and  every  year  of  every 
elector  not  previously  registered  under  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

"(c)  Up  to  January  1, 1898,  all  male  persons  of  voting  age  applying  for  regis- 
tration who  can  read  any  section  in  this  constitution  submitted  to  them  by  the 
registration  officer,  or  understand  and  explain  it  when  read  to  them  by  the  reg- 
istration officer,  shall  be  entitled  to  register.  *  *  *  AH  persons  registered 
before  January  1,  1898,  shall  remain  during  life  qualified  electors  unless  disquali- 
fied by  other  provisions  of  this  article. 

"  (d)  Any  pei-son  who  shall  apply  for  registration  after  January  1,  1898,  if 
otherwise  qualified,  shall  be  registered,  provided  that  he  can  both  read  and 
write  any  section  of  this  constitution  submitted  to  him  by  the  registration  offi- 
cer, or  can  show  that  he  owns  and  has  paid  all  taxes  collectible  during  the  pre- 
vious year  on  property  in  this  state  assessed  at  $300  or  more." 

Section  6  disqualifies  all  persons  convicted  of  an  enumerated  list 
of  crimes,  and  also  idiots,  insane  persons,  and  paupers  supported  at 
the  public  expense. 

It  is  also  provided  that  until  the  first  of  January,  1898: 

"The  registration  shall  be  conducted  by  a  board  of  three  discreet  persons 
in  each  county,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  senate.  *  *  *  The  registration  books  shall  be  public  records 
open  to  the  inspection  of  any  citizen  at  all  times. 

"Section  9.    The  general  assembly  shall  provide  for  the  establishment  of 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  905 

polling  precincts  in  the  several  counties  of  this  state,  and  those  now  existing 
shall  continue  until  abolished  or  changed.    *    *    * 

"Section  11.  The  registration  books  shall  close  at  least  thirty  days  before 
an  election,  during  which  time  transfers  and  registration  shall  not  be  legal; 
provided,  persons  who  will  become  of  age  during  that  period  shall  be  entitled 
to  registration  before  the  books  are  closed." 

Section  13  declares  tliat  in  municipal  elections  in  any  city  or  town 
for  the  purpose  of  the  issue  of  bonds,  there  must  be  as  a  condition  pre- 
cedent a  petition  to  the  general  assembly,  signed  by  a  majority  of  the 
freeholders  of  said  city  or  town,  as  shown  by  its  tax  books.  *  *  ♦* 
A  majority  vote  is  necessary  to  authorize  the  issue  of  such  bonds. 

Sections  14  and  15  make  the  usual  provisions  protecting  electors 
from  arrest  on  election  day  while  at  the  polls  or  going  to  them  or 
from  them,  and  providing  that  no  civil  or  militarj-  power  shall  at  any 
time  exercise  the  power  to  prevent  the  free  exercise  of  the  right  of 
suffrage. 

The  Legislature. — The  sessions  of  the  legislature  will  be  yearly, 
as  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island,  and 
will  be  held  in  Columbia,  beginning  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  January, 
1897,  and  each  year  thereafter  on  the  same  date.  After  the  first  four 
sessions  under  the  general  constitution,  the  payment  of  members  of 
the  general  assembly  shall  be  limited  to  forty  days  foj  each  session. 

The  house  of  representatives  consists  of  124  members,  each  county 
constituting  one  election  district.  Election  of  members  of  the  house 
are  to  be  held  every  other  year,  and  the  members  are  to  be  apportioned 
to  the  counties  in  ratio  to  population.  The  senate  is  composed  of  one 
member  from  each  county  elected  for  four  years.  Elections  are  to  be 
on  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  1896,  and  every 
second  year  thereafter. 

Exeynptions  and  Assessments. — The  general  assembly  is  required 
to  enact  laws  exempting  from  attachment,  levy,  and  sale  under  any 
process  issued  from  any  court  to  the  head  of  any  family  residing  in 
the  state,  a  homestead  in  land,  whether  held  in  fee  or  in  lesser  estate, 
to  the  value  of  $1,000,  and  to  every  head  of  a  family  in  the  state, 
whether  entitled  to  a  homestead  exemption  in  land  or  not,  personal 
property  to  the  value  of  $500.  Any  person  not  a  head  of  a  family 
shall  be  entitled  to  a  like  exemption  in  all  necessary  wearing  apparel, 
tools,  and  instruments  of  trade,  not  to  exceed  in  value  the  sum  of 
$300. 

All  taxes  upon  property,  real  and  personal,  shall  be  laid  upon  the 
actual  value  of  the  property  taxed,  as  the  same  shall  be  ascertained 
by  an  assessment  made  for  the  purpose  of  laying  such  taxes. 

Legislative  Prohibitions. — It  is  forbidden  to  donate  any  lands  be- 
longing to  or  under  control  of  the  state  to  private  corporations  or  in- 
dividuals, or  to  railroad  companies.  Nor  shall  any  such  land  be  sold 
to  corporations  or  associations  for  a  less  price  than  that  for  which  it 
can  be  sold  to  individuals.  This  is  not  to  be  construed  as  preventing 
the  general  assembly  from  granting  a  right  of  way  not  exceeding  150 
feet  in  width  as  a  mere  easement  to  railroads  across  state  lands. 

The  general  assembly  is  forbidden  to  enact  local  or  special  laws 
in  a  series  of  enumerated  matters,  and  it  is  provided  that  in  all  other 
cases  where  a  general  law  can  be  made  applicable  no  special  law  shall 
be  enacted.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  general  assembly  to  enact 
laws  limiting  the  number  of  acres  of  land  which  any  alien  or  any 
corporati<m  controlled  by  aliens  may  own  within  the  state. 

l^Jie  Executive,  etc. — The  governor  is  to  be  elected  for  two  yearu; 
No  person  shall  be  eligible  to  the  ofiace  of  governor  who  denies  the 


906  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

existence  of  the  Supreme  Being,  or  who  at  the  time  of  such  election 
has  not  attained  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  who  shall  not  have  been 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States  and  a  citizen  and  resident  of  the  state 
for  five  years  next  preceding  the  day  of  election. 

Other  state  officers  provided  for  by  the  constitution  are  the  lieu- 
tenant-governor, who  is  to  preside  in  the  senate  without  a  vote  unless 
the  senate  be  equally  divided,  a  secretary  of  state,  a  controller- gen- 
eral, an  attorney-general,  a  treasurer,  an  adjutant  and  inspector  gen- 
eral, and  a  superintendent  of  education.  These  officers  are  all  elected 
by  the  voters  of  the  state  for  terms  of  two  years. 

It  is  provided  that  the  general  assembly  shall  pass  laws  allowing 
differences  to  be  decided  by  arbitrators  to  be  appointed  by  the  parties 
who  may  choose  that  mode  of  adjustment. 

Municipal  Monopolies. — Cities  may  directly  own  and  operate  their 
various  supply  services  if  they  wish  to  do  so. 

"No  law  shall  be  passed  by  the  general  assembly  granting  the  right  to  con- 
struct and  operate  a  street  or  other  railway,  telegraph,  telephone,  or  electrical 
plant,  or  to  erect  water  or  gas  works  for  public  use,  or  to  lay  mains  for  any 
purpose,  without  first  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  local  authorities  in  control  of 
the  streets  or  public  places  proposed  to  be  occupied  for  like  purposes.  Cities 
may  acquire  by  construction  or  purchase  and  may  operate  waterworks  sys- 
tems and  plants  for  furnishing  light,  and  may  furnish  water  and  lights  to  indi- 
viduals and  firms,  or  private  corporations,  for  reasonable  compensation;  pro- 
vided that  no  construction  or  purchase  shall  be  made  except  upon  a  majority 
vote  of  the  electors  in  said  cities  or  towns  who  are  qualified  to  vote  on  the 
bonded  indebtedness  of  said  cities  or  towns." 

It  is  provided  that  no  city  or  town  shall  hereafter  inaugurate  any 
bonded  debt  which,  including  existing  bonded  indebtedness,  shall  ex- 
ceed eight  per  cent  of  the  assessed  value  of  the  taxable  property 
therein.  Cities  and  towns  may  exempt  from  taxation  by  general  or 
special  ordinances,  except  for  school  purposes,  manufactories  estab- 
lished within  their  limits,  for  five  consecutive  years  from  the  time  of 
the  establishment  of  such  manufactories. 

"  No  armed  police  force  or  representatives  of  a  detective  agency  shall  ever 
be  brought  into  this  state  for  the  suppression  of  domestic  violence,  nor  shall 
any  other  armed  or  iniarmed  body  of  men  be  brought  in  for  that  purpose  ex- 
cept up(jn  the  application  of  the  general  assembly  or  of  the  executive  of  this 
state  when  the  general  assembly  is  not  in  session,  as  provided  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States." 

The  Liquor  Traffic. — The  dispensary  system  is  not  absolutely  re- 
quired, but  it  is  permitted.  The  whole  subject  of  the  regulation  of 
the  liquor  traffic  is  dealt  with  in  the  following  section: 

"In  the  exercise  of  the  police  power  the  general  assembly  shall  have  the 
right  to  prohibit  the  manufacture  and  sale  at  retail  of  alcoholic  liquors  or  bev- 
erages within  the  state.  The  general  assembly  may  license  persons  or  corpo- 
rations to  manufacture  and  sell  at  retail  alcoholic  liquors  or  beverages  within 
the  state,  under  such  rules  and  restrictions  as  it  deems  proper;  or  the  general 
assembly  may  forbid  the  manufacture  and  sale  at  retail  of  alcoholic  liquors  and  i 
beverages  within  the  state,  but  may  authorize  and  empower  state,  county,  and 
municipal  officers,  all  or  either,  iinder  the  authority  and  in  the  name  of  the 
state,  to  buy  in  any  market,  and  retail  within  the  state,  liquors  and  beverages 
in  such  packages  and  quantities,  under  such  rules  and  regulations,  as  it  deems 
expedient;  provided  that  no  license  shall  be  granted  to  sell  alcoholic  beverages 
in  less  quantities  than  one-half  pint,  or  to  sell  them  between  sundown  and  sun- 
rise, or  to  sell  them  to  be  drunk  on  the  premises;  and  provided,  further,  that  the 
general  assembly  shall  not  delegate  to  any  municipal  corporation  the  power  to 
issue  licenses  to  sell  the  same." 

Coi'porations. — Article  9  deals  with  corporations.  This  article 
undertakes  to  hold  corporations  strictly  accountable,  provides  against 
discrimination  in  charges  by  transportation  companies,  forbids  the 
consolidation  of  corporations,  provides  that  stock  or  bonds  shall  not 


AFFAIRS  IN  VARIOUS  STATES.  907 

be  used  by  any  corporation  except  for  labor  done  or  money  or  prop- 
erty actually  received  or  subscribed,  and  all  fictitious  increase  of  stock 
or  indebtedness  shall  be  void.  The  general  assembly  is  required  to 
enact  law^s  to  prevent  all  trusts,  combinations,  contracts,  and  agree- 
ments against  the  public  welfare,  and  to  prevent  abuse,  unjust  dis- 
criminations, and  extortion  of  all  charges  of  transporting  and  trans- 
mitting companies. 

Education,  etc. — Article  11  deals  with  education.  The  general 
assembly  is  required  to  provide  for  "a  liberal  system  of  free  public 
schools  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years," 
and  for  the  division  of  the  counties  into  suitable  school  districts.  An 
annual  tax  of  one  dollar  must  be  assessed  on  all  taxable  polls  in  the 
state  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  sixty  years,  excepting  Con- 
federate soldiers  above  the  age  of  fifty  years,  the  proceeds  of  which 
tax  shall  be  expended  for  school  purposes  in  the  several  school  dis- 
tricts in  which  it  is  collected. 

Provision  is  further  made  for  the  levy  of  a  property  tax  for  school 
purposes. 

"  Separate  schools  shall  be  provided  for  children  of  the  white  and  colored 
races,  and  no  child  of  either  race  shall  ever  be  permitted  to  attend  a  school 
provided  for  the  children  of  the  other  race. 

"All  convicts  sentenced  to  hard  labor  by  any  of  the  courts  of  this  state 
must  be  employed  upon  the  public  works  of  this  state,  or  of  the  counties,  or 
upon  the  public  highways." 

Confederate  Pensions. — Regarding  the  pensioning  of  Confederate 
soldiers,  it  is  declared: 

"The  general  assembly  is  hereby  empowered  and  required  to  provide  such 
legislation  as  will  guarantee  and  secure  an  annual  pension  to  every  indigent  or 
disabled  Confederate  soldier  and  sailor  of  this  state  and  of  the  late  Confederate 
states  who  are  citizens  of  this  state,  and  also  to  the  indigent  widows  of  Con- 
federate soldiers  and  sailors." 

Amendments. — The  adoption  of  a  proposed  amendment  can  be 
only  by  a  two-thirds'  vote  of  each  house  of  the  legislature,  and  sub- 
mission to  the  voters  of  the  state. 

Divorces,  Status  of  Women,  Gambling,  etc. — The  following  re- 
iiiarkable  clauses  were  inserted: 

"  Divorce  from  the  bonds  of  matrimony  shall  not  be  allowed  in  this  state. 

"  The  marriage  of  a  white  person  with  a  negro,  or  mulatto,  or  person  who 
shall  have  one-eighth  or  more  negro  blood,  shall  be  unlawful  and  void. 

'•  No  unmarried  woman  shall  legally  consent  to  sexual  intercourse  who 
shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of  fourteen  years. 

"  The  real  and  personal  property  of  a  woman  held  at  the  time  of  her  mar- 
riage, or  that  which  she  may  thereafter  acquire,  either  by  gift,  grant,  inheri- 
tance, device,  or  otherwise,  shall  be  her  separate  property,  and  she  shall  have 
all  the  rights  incident  to  the  same  to  which  an  unmarried  woman  or  a  man  is 
entitled.  She  shall  have  the  power  to  contract  and  be  contracted  with  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried. 

"All  prize  fighting  is  prohibited. 

"  No  lottery  shall  ever  be  allowed  or  be  advertised,  by  newspapers  or  other- 
wise or  its  tickets  be  sold  in  this  state,  and  the  general  assembly  shall  provide 
by  law  at  its  next  session  for  the  enforcement  of  this  provision. 

"It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  holding  an  office  of  honor,  trust,  or 
profit,  to  engage  in  gambling  or  betting  or  games  of  chance;  and  any  such  offi- 
cer upon  conviction  thereof  shall  become  thereby  disqualified  from  the  further 
exercise  of  the  functions  of  his  office,  and  the  office  of  said  person  shall  become 
vacant  as  in  the  ease  of  resignation  or  death. 

"No  person  who  denies  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being  shall  hold  any 
office  under  this  constitution." 

Utah. — Much  excitement  was  aroused  among  politi- 
cians in  Utah  early  in  October,  by  the  action  of  Joseph  F. 
Smith  and  George  Q.  Cannon  of  the  Mormon  Church  in 


90S  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

censuring,  at  a  meeting  of  the  priesthood,  two  prominent 
members  of  the  church — B.  H.  Roberts  and  Moses  Thatcher 
— for  accepting  nominations  for  congress  and  the  United 
States  senate  on  the  democratic  ticket  without  asking  per- 
mission of  the  church  autliorities.  It  was  at  once  inferred 
by  many  that  the  church  had  thrown  its  influence  in  favor 
of  the  republican  party.  The  Utah  democratic  conven- 
tion was  accordingly  ordered  by  special  call  to  reassemble 
at  Salt  Lake  City  October  22,  when  an  address  to  tlie  peo- 
ple was  adopted,  containing  the  following  emphatic  pro- 
test against  the  interference  of  the  church  in  politics: 

"  We  declare  tlie  trutli  to  be,  that  man  may  worship  bis  Maker 
as  bis  conscience  dictates;  tbat  no  state  or  political  party  has  tbe  right 
to  interfere  with  this  great  privilege;  tbat  man's  first  allegiance  polit- 
ically is  to  bis  country;  tbat  no  church,  ecclesiastical  body,  or  spirit- 
ual adviser  should  encroach  on  tbe  political  rights  of  a  citizen;  tbat 
in  a  free  country  no  man  or  body  of  men  can,  with  safety  to  the  state, 
use  the  name  or  the  power  of  any  religious  sect  or  society  to  influence 
or  control  the  elective  franchise;  that  a  trust  is  imposed  on  each  citi- 
zen of  a  free  country  to  act  politically  upon  bis  own  judgment  and  ab- 
solutely free  from  control  or  dictation,  ecclesiastical  or  otherwise.  No 
party  can  be  required  to  obtain  the  consent  of  any  church  or  the  leader 
thereof  before  selecting  its  candidate  for  public  office;  no  citizen,  by 
reason  of  bis  association  with  any  church,  can  be  absolved  from  bis 
duty  to  the  state,  either  in  times  of  war  or  times  of  peace,  without  tbe 
consent  of  tbe  state;  all  men  should  be,  and  of  right  are,  free  to  think, 
free  to  act,  free  to  speak,  and  free  to  vote  without  fear  of  molestation, 
intimidation,  or  undue  influence.  Thus  believing,  wherever  designing 
men  have  seized  upon  tbe  cloak  of  religion  to  hide  from  view  their  ne- 
farious designs,  and,  while  appealing  to  man's  spiritual  faith,  have 
sought  to  control  bis  political  action  for  selfish  ends,  tbe  democratic 
party,  since  its  organization,  has  denounced  such  a  course.  It  has  de- 
clared in  the  past,  and  it  declares  now,  for  every  man's  political  freedom, 
whatever  may  be  tbe  governmental  views  of  those  who  guide  bis  spirit- 
ual welfare.  We,  therefore,  in  tbe  most  solemn  manner,  say  that  we 
will  not  be  dictated  to,  interfered  with,  or  hindered  in  political  duties 
by  those  selected  to  minister  to  us  tbe  consolations  of  the  gospel." 

In  November  great  activity  in  gold  mining  operations 
and  in  mining  stock  speculation,  developed  as  a  result  of 
recent  discoveries  of  vast  gold  fields  in  the  vicinity  of 
Mercur,  about  sixty-five  miles  south  of  Salt  Lake  City. 

PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 

New  Supreme  Court  Justice. — On  December  9  the 
United  States  senate  confirmed  without  opposition  the 
nomination  (made  on  the  3d  of  the  month)  of  Judge 
Rufus  W.  Peckham  of  New  York,  as  associate  justice  of 
the  United  States  supreme  court,  in  the  room  of  the  late 
Howell  E.  Jackson,  who  died  August  8. 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS.  909 

Peckham,  Rufus  W.,  was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  Nov.,  1838, 
his  father,  of  the  same  name,  being  judge  of  the  New  York  court  of 
appeals.  He  studied  law  in  his  father's  office,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1859.  He  took  a  course  of  study  at  the  Albany  Academy,  but 
he  is  not  a  college  graduate.  He  became  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Peckham  &  Tremain.  He  was  elected  in  1869  to  the  office  of  district 
attorney,  and  also  served  by  appointment  as  corporation  counsel.  He 
was  active  in  democratic  political  affairs.  In  November,  1888,  he  was 
elected  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  In  November,  1886,  Judge 
Peckham  received  a  small  majority  vote  over  Charles  Daniels  as  a 
candidate  for  associate  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals.  Next  to  Chief 
Judge  Andrews,  he  was  the  oldest  in  term  of  service  among  the 
judges  of  the  state  court  of  appeals;  and  he  had  served  longer  than 
any  other  democratic  member  of  the  court.  His  decisions  have  been 
characterized  by  vigor  and  independence  of  thought,  and  terseness 
and  force  of  language.  He  is  a  younger  brother  of  Wheeler  H.  Peck- 
ham, whose  nomination  to  the  place  on  the  supreme  bench  now  occu 
pied  bv  Associate- Justice  E.  D.  White  was  rejected  in  February,  1894 
(Vol.  4,  p.  116). 

The  Department  of  Agriculture.— Some  signifi- 
cant facts  are  revealed  in  the  report  of  Hon.  J.  S.  Morton, 
secretary  of  agriculture,  for  the  fiscal  year  1895. 

"During  the  fiscal  year  1895  the  United  States  exported  to 
foreign  countries  commodities  aggregating  in  value  $798,000,000. 
The  value  of  the  agricultural  products  included  in  that  sum  was 
$553,215,817.  Of  the  total  exports  Europe  received  a  valuation  of 
$628,000,000,  or  79  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Thus  American  agricul 
ture,  after  feeding  itself  and  all  the  towns,  villages,  and  cities  of  the 
United  States,  also  sold  in  the  outside  world's  markets  more  than 
$500,000,000  worth  of  products.  So  the  farmers  of  the  United  States 
furnished  69.68  per  cent  of  the  value  of  ail  the  exports  from  the 
country  during  the  year  1895." 

Speaking  of  the  export  trade  in  dairy  products,  the  report  points 
out  that  in  cheese  the  United  States,  while  a  larger  shipper  to  British 
markets,  holds  a  conspicuously  unflattering  place  in  the  extreme  rear 
as  to  quality  and  price,  and  as  the  only  one  of  the  competitors  for  this 
trade  whose  business  shows  a  serious  falling  off.  This  is  attributed 
to  the  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  American  cheeses  by  adultera- 
tion with  oleo  and  other  ingredients.  In  butter  the  United  States  is 
out  of  the  race,  supplying  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  British  demand 
for  foreign  butters,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  im- 
ported, in  eight  months,  $46,000,000  worth  of  butter. 

Improved  road  construction  is  progressing  in  many  of  the  states, 
notably  in  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  North  Carolina,  and  Kentucky. 
More  than  half  the  states  passed  neAv  road  laws  within  the  last  year. 

The  Denver  '^Healer." — Wide  interest  was  sus- 
tained throughout  October  and  early  November  by  ac- 
counts of  the  alleged  miraculous  cures  effected  by  one 
Francis  Schlatter,  who  had  appeared  in  Denver,  Colo.,  and 
suddenly  begun  to  minister  to  the  physical  ailments  of  all 
comers.  Thousands  from  all  parts  of  the  country  flocked 
to  him,  reminding  ns  of  the  pilgrimages  to  Lourdes. 
Daily,  from  9  a.m.  to  4:30  p.m.,  he  stood  bareheaded  in  the 


910  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

street,  receiving  one  by  one,  with  a  simple  laying  on  of 
hands  and  the  silent  sending  up  of  a  short  prayer,  the 
crowds  who  hoped  to  be  cured  through  his  touch.  Koughly 
dressed,  with  hair  and  beard  trained  so  as  to  give  him  a 
resemblance  to  the  representations  of  the  Savior,  with 
manner  simple,  unassuming,  sincere,  and  respectful,  he 
was  a  striking  figure.  He  claimed  to  be  under  the  im- 
mediate direction  of  God,  whom  he  spoke  of  as  ''Father;"' 
and  had  evidently  a  sincere  faith  in  his  calling  and  power. 
He  would  take  no  money,  nor  reward  of  any  sort. 

It  appears  that  Sclilatter  is  an  Alsatian  peasant,  a  sboemaker  by 
trade,  who  came  to  America  a  few  years  ago,  and  settled  in  James- 
port,  Long  Island.  About  a  year  ago  he  went  to  New  Mexico,  and 
first  attracted  general  attention  by  his  astonishing  "cures"  at  Albu- 
querque. He  claims  to  have  received  a  request  or  command  "to  arise 
and  go  forth  and  heal  all  the  world  who  will  believe." 

During  the  night  of  November  13  he  disappeared,  leav- 
ing in  his  room  at  the  house  of  Alderman  Fox,  where  he 
had  stayed,  only  a  note  saying: 

"  My  mission  is  finished.     Father  takes  me  away.     Good-by." 

He  is  supposed  to  have  gone  back  to  New  Mexico. 
There  is  much  doubt  expressed  as  to  the  genuineness  of 
many  of  his  supposed  cures,  and  much  speculation  as  to 
the  really  operative  cause  in  cases  where  beneficial  effects 
were  undoubtedly  observed. 

Miscellaneous. — Over  300  delegates,  representing 
Canada  and  various  sections  of  the  United  States,  at- 
tended the  Deep  Waterways  Convention  at  Cleveland,  0., 
about  November  1.  The  object  of  the  yearly  gathering  is 
to  promote  the  establishment  of  a  deep-water  route  from 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  ocean.  Various  schemes 
are  proposed :  To  deepen  to  twenty-two  feet  or  more  the  lake 
connections,  and  to  dig  a  ship  canal  from  Lake  ICrie  to  the 
ocean;  a  canal  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  river, 
favored  by  Pittsburg,  Penn. ;  a  canal  around  Niagara  Falls 
on  the  American  side;  a  canal  and  river  route  from  Chi- 
cago, via  the  Mississippi,  to  New  Orleans,  La.,  etc. 

Resolutions  were  adopted  approving  of  the  steps  taken  in  New 
York  to  improve  the  Erie  canal,  but  making  no  mention  of  a  ship 
canal,  except  by  implication,  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

Up  to  the  present,  however,  the  commercial  necessity 
of  a  ship  canal  from  the  lakes  to  the  sea  is  as  much  a  mat- 
ter of  vague  speculation  as  is  its  engineering  possibility 
within  any  limit  of  cost  at  all  commensurate  with  its  pos- 
sible value. 

The    trans-Mississippi    congress    met     this    year    at 


PERSONAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 


911 


Omaha,  Xeb.,  November  25,  attended  by  delegates  repre- 
senting twenty-four  states  and  territories. 

Resolutions  were  presented  in  favor  of  government  control  of  tlie 
Nicaragua  canal,  appointment  of  a  United  States  irrigation  commis- 
sion, admission  of  New  Mexico  to  statehood,  free  coinage  of  silver,  the 
improvement  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers,  (enactment  of  a 
national  bankruptcy  law,  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  and  Cuba,  con- 
;truction  of  a  railway 
from  southern  California 
to  Salt  Lake,  tlie  speedy 
completion  of  the  Hen- 
nepin canal,  and  the  deep- 
eningof  theDuluth 
(Minn.)  harbor. 

On  the  morning 
of  October  24,  the 
world^s  speed  record 
for  a  long-distance 
railway  run  was  brok- 
en by  a  train  of  the 
Lake  Shore  &  Michi- 
gan Southern  rail- 
road, between  100th 
street,  Chicago,  111., 
and  Buffalo  Creek, 
an  outskirt  of  13 uf- 
alo,  N.  Y.  The  dis- 
tance, 510  miles,  was 
covered  in  8  hours  1 
minute  7  seconds,  an 
average,  including 
stops,  of  63.6  miles 
an  hour,  or,  exclud- 
ing stops,  of  64.98 
miles  an  hour.  The  train  consisted  of  an  engine,  tender, 
and  three  drawing-room  cars:  total  weight,  488,500  lbs. 

The  summary  of  the  run  is:  Left  Chicago,  3:29:27;  arrived  at 
Buffalo  Creek,  11:30:34.  Time — 510.1  miles  in  481  minutes  7  seconds. 
Average  speed — 63.60  miles  an  hour.  Time  lost  by  five  stops — 10 
minutes  57  seconds.  Time,  excluding  stops— 510. 1  miles  in  470 
minutes  10  seconds.  Average  speed — 64.98  miles  an  hour.  Number 
of  slow-downs  for  railroad  crossings,  24;  number  of  other  slow- 
downs, 14. 

Some  of  the  passengers,  taking  the  New  York  Central's 
Empire  State  express,  reached  the  Grand  Central  station, 
New  York  city,  the  same  evening  at  10:15. 

On  November  5  the  new  Carnegie  Library,  the  gift  of 
Andrew  Carnegie   to   the   city  of   Pittsburg,  Penn.,  was 


THE   DUKE   OP   MARLBOROUGH. 


912  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

formally  dedicated.  The  magnificent  structure,  built  in 
the  style  of  the  Italian  renaissance,  and  having  a  capacity 
of  250,000  volumes,  stands  at  the  entrance  to  Schenley 
park. 

A  society  event  which  excited  much  interest  was  the 
marriage,  on  November  6,  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
and  Miss  Consuelo  Vanderbilt,  only  daughter  of  William 
K.  Vanderbilt.  The  ceremony,  which  was  made  an  occa- 
sion of  magnificent  display,  was  performed  in  St.  Thomas's 
church,  New  York  city,  by  Bishop  Littlejohn,  assisted  by 
Bishop  Potter  and  Rev.  Dr.  J.  Wesley  Brown,  rector  of 
the  parish. 

Much  interest  also  attached  to  the  marriage  on  Novem- 
ber 12,  also  in  St.  Thomas's  church,  of  Mr.  Almeric  Paget 
of  England  and  Miss  Pauline  Whitney,  daughter  of  Hon. 
W.  C.  Whitney  of  New  York,  secretary  of  the  navy  in 
President  Cleveland's  first  administration. 

In  November  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller  gave  to  the 
University  of  Chicago  $1,000,000  unconditionally  for  en- 
dowment, to  be  paid  in  the  year  1896;  and  $2,000,000  ad- 
ditional, to  be  paid  only  in  amounts  equal  to  contributions 
which  other  friends  of  the  university  might  make  prior 
to  January  1,  1900.  These  gifts  would  bring  the  total  of 
Mr.  Rockefeller's  benefactions  to  the  university  up  to 
nearly  $7,500,000.  Of  the  $2,000,000  requisite  to  insure 
the  full  gift  of  Mr.  Rockefeller,  Miss  Helen  Culver  of  Chi- 
cago in  December  gave  $1,000,000  to  the  university,  to  be 
applied  in  the  interests  of  biological  science. 

On  October  12  the  United  States  circuit  court  of  ap- 
peals at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  sustained  the  decision  given 
in  June  by  Judge  Ross  of  the  United  States  district  court, 
in  the  noted  case  of  the  federal  government  against  the 
Stanford  estate  (p.  387)-  Ati  appeal  has  been  ordered  to 
the  United  States  supreme  court. 

The  colored  national  convention  met  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  in  October. 

It  adopted  a  long  platform  reaffirming  allegiance  to  republican 
principles,  denouncing  the  crime  of  lynching,  favoring  freedom  for 
Cuba,  and  declaring  in  favor  of  the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver  as 
money. 

In  a  contest  held  at  Chicago,  111.,  November  24,  for  the 
championship  on  the  Mergenthaler  linotype  machine, 
a  printer  named  Green  eclipsed  all  previous  records  by  set- 
ting 70,000  ems  connected  solid  nonpareil  in  seven  hours. 

On  December  19  another  legal  decision  favorable  to 
Erastus  Wiman  (p.  145)  was  delivered.     The  court  of  ap- 


» 


CANADA.  913 

peals  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  affirmed  the  certificate  of  doubt 
issued  by  Judge  Barrett  as  to  the  justice  of  the  conviction 
for  forgery  on  the  trial  in  June,  1894  (Vol.  4,  pp.  361  and 
619). 

On  December  31,  at  midnight,  the  great  Atchison,  To- 
peka  &  Santa  Fe  railroad  system  passed  out  of  the  hands 
of  receivers  into  the  control  of  the  new  corporation. 

On  December  16  Chief  Justice  David  S.  Snodgrass  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee,  shot  at  and  wounded  Colo- 
nel John  li.  Beasley,  who  had  criticised  in  a  newspaper  some 
of  the  chief  justice^s  official  acts.  Mr.  Snodgrass  is 
awaiting  trial. 

It  turns  out  that  the  alleged  mammoth  potato  dug 
up  in  Colorado  (p.  660)  was  a  fraud.  An  ingenious  photo- 
graph of  the  marvellous  production  had  succeeded  in  de- 
ceiving several  reputable  journals,  among  them  the  Scien- 
tific American  of  New  York  city,  which  made  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  find  in  good  faith.  The  paper  men- 
tioned comments  upon  the  incident  thus: 

"  An  artist  who  lends  himself  to  such  methods  of  deception  may 
be  ranked  as  a  thoroughbred  knave,  to  be  shunned  by  everybody." 

CANADA. 

It  is  hard  to  define  exactly  the  political  situation  in  the 
Dominion  at  the  close  of  1895.  With  parliament  about 
to  reassemble  to  grapple  with  the  school  question  in  Mani- 
toba, with  a  campaign  in  progress  in  that  province  to  learn 
again  the  verdict  of  its  people  on  this  issue,  and  with 
mutterings  of  dissatisfaction  in  the  cabinet  with  the  avowed 
policy  of  the  premier,  the  outlook  at  the  close  of  the  year 
was  one  of  great  complexity  and  uncertainty.  It  was 
known  that  the  government  of  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell  was 
passing  through  a  crisis  seldom  if  ever  paralleled  in  the  his- 
tory of  Canada,  and  men  felt  that  the  culmination  of  the 
crisis  could  not  much  longer  be  delayed.  All  efforts  at  com- 
promise on  the  school  question  had  apparently  been  ex- 
hausted. Expectancy  and  apprehension  were  the  order 
of  the  hour. 

Manitoba  School  Question. — A  second  definite  break 
in  the  ranks  of  the  ministry  on  this  issue,  occurred  Decem- 
ber 11,  when  Hon.  N.  Clarke  Wallace  handed  in  his  resig- 
nation as  comptroller  of  customs.  The  formal  reply  of 
the  Manitoba  government  to  the  request  from  Ottawa, 
made  in  July,  that  the  province  by  appropriate  legislation 
should  remove  the  issue  from  the  federal  arena,  had  not 
yet  been  uttered;  but  positive  declarations  had  been  made 


914  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

by  Premier  Greenway  and  others,  which  left  no  doubt 
that,  as  the  Eoman  Catholics  of  Manitoba  would  regard 
no  minor  concession  as  a  solution  of  the  difficulty,  the 
provincial  government  would  persist  in  its  determination 
not  to  re-establish  any  sort  of  denominational  schools. 
Mr.  Wallace  accordingly  refused,  by  retaining  office  longer, 
to  continue  in  a  position  which  might  be  interpreted  as 

one  of  sympathy  with 
the  avowed  intention 
of  the  ministry  to  pro- 
ceed with  remedial 
legislation  at  the  ap- 
proaching session. 

Hon.  John  F . 
Wood,  comptroller  of 
inland  revenue,  was 
at  once  appointed  to 
succeed  Mr.  Wallace 
as  comptroller  of  cus- 
toms; and  the  post  va- 
cated by  Mr.  Wood 
was  filled  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel E.  G. 
Prior,  M.  P.  for  Vic- 
toria, B.  C. 

Prior,  Hon.  E.  G., 
Canadian  comptroller  of 
inland  revenue,  was  born 
May  31,  1853,  second  son 
of  Rev.  Henry  Prior,  late 
of  Dallowgill,  Yorkshire, 
Eng.  He  studied  at  the 
Leeds  Grammar  School, 
and  took  a  course  in  min- 
ing engineering  at  Wake- 
field. He  went  to  British  Columbia  as  mining  engineer  and  surveyor 
for  the  Vancouver  Coal  Mining  &  Land  Co.,  which  position  he  held 
until  1878,  when  he  engaged  in  the  iron  business  in  Victoria.  In  1886 
he  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly  of  British  Columbia.  He 
served  until  January,  1888,  when  he  was  elected  by  acclamation  to 
represent  Victoria  in  the  commons  in  place  of  Mr.  Shakespeare,  re- 
signed. He  is  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  British  Columbia  brigade  of 
garrison  artillery. 

On  December  24  Hon.  Dr.  W.  H.  Montague  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  post  of  secretary  of  state  to  that  of  minister 
of  agriculture,  rendered  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  M.  An- 
gers in  July  (p.  393). 

On  December  20  the  Manitoba  government  completed 


LIBUTENANT-COLONEL  E.  G.  PRIOR,  M.  P.  FOR  VIC- 
TORIA,  B.    C,    NEW    COMPTROLLER    OF 
INLAND   REVENUE. 


CANADA.  915 

its  reply  to  the  communication  addressed  to  it  on  July  27  by 
the  Dominion  government  (p.  661),  relative  to  concessions 
in  the  matter  of  remedial  legislation;  and  on  December 
23  the  dissolution  of  the  provincial  parliament  was  an- 
nounced, and  an  appeal  taken  to  the  people  on  the  burn- 
ing issue,  in  order  that  the  Greenway  ministry  might  have 
the  emphatic  indorsement  of  the  electorate  in  its  resist- 
ance to  the  claims  and  contentions  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment. January  15, 1896,  was  fixed  as  the  date  for  the  elec- 
tion. On  December  26  the  full  text  of  Manitoba's  reply 
was  published.  It  reaffirmed  the  position  taken  by  Mr. 
Greenway,  rejected  all  proposals  of  compromise,  and  re- 
iterated the  request  for  a  commission  of  inquiry — a  re- 
quest favored  by  the  liberal  leader  in  the  commons,  M. 
Laurier.* 

After  referring  to  the  order-in-council  addressed  to  the  Manitoba 
government  on  July  27  as  leaving  "  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  remedy 
or  relief  sought  for  is  the  re-establishment  in  some  form  of  state-aided 
separate  schools,"  the  reply  of  Manitoba  goes  on  to  say:  "  The  order- 
in-council  in  question  may  in  effect  be  stated  to  be  a  declaration  that 
the  advisers  of  His  Excellency  the  governor-general  have,  as  a  matter 
of  educational  policy,  decided  upon  the  re-establishment  of  state-aided 
separate  schools  for  the  Roman  Catholic  minority,  that  it  is  desired 
by  His  Excellency's  advisers  that  such  policy  shall  be  adopted  and 
carried  into  effect  by  the  government  and  legislature  of  Manitoba, 
and  that  should  such  policy  not  be  so  adopted  and  carried  into  effect 
the  parliament  of  Canada  will  be  forthwith  asked  to  override  the 
wislies  of  the  people  of  the  province,  its  legislature,  and  government, 
and  re-establish  such  separate  schools  by  Dominion  legislation.  *  *  * 

"It  has  been  held  by  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council 
that  the  present  educational  statutes  of  Manitoba  are  constitutionally 
valid.  The  more  recent  decision  of  the  same  court  in  no  way  weak- 
ens or  impairs  the  force  of  the  former  decision,  which  stands  as  an 
authoritative  declaration  that  the  said  statutes,  which  abolished  sepa- 
rate schools,  are  constitu.tional,  and  therefore  that  such  separate  schools 
are  not  guaranteed  to  the  minority  by  the  constitution.  The  legis- 
lative assembly  of  the  province  has  repeatedly  declared  itself  to  be 
resolute  in  its  determination  to  maintain  the  principle  of  the  present 
educational  law.     *     *    * 

"  The  decision  of  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council  has 
in  many  quarters  been  misapprehended.  Its  entire  scope  and  effect 
is  to  declare  and  define  the  powers  of  the  governor-general-in-council 
and  the  parliament  of  Canada  as  in  the  exercise  of  appellate  functions. 
It  is  respectfully  affirmed  that  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council  did  not  declare  how  the  powers  of  the  government  or  of  par- 

*NoTE.—Mostimportant  developments  occurred  in  January,  1896,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Manitoba  school  question;  but  space  forbids  even  an  outline  of 
them  here.  It  will  suffice  to  say  that  the  Greenway  government  was  triumph- 
antly returned  to  power;  that  a  reconstruction  of  the  Dominion  cabinet  took 
place,  involving  the  retirement  of  Sir  C.  Hibbert  Tupper.  minister  of  justice, 
and  the  re-entry  into  the  ministry,  as  secretary  of  state,  of  his  father.  Sir 
Charles  Tupper,  now  Canadian  high  commissioner  in  England,  who  was  a  col- 
league of  the  late  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald;  and  that  the  outlook  for  remedial  leg- 
islation as  we  go  to  press  is  altogether  uncertain.— Ed. 


916  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1695. 

liament  ouglit  to  be  exercised,  nor  did  the  said  court  possess  any  au- 
thority to  make  such  a  declaration.  The  function  of  the  court  was 
to  declare  the  constitutional  powers  of  the  government  and  parlia- 
ment, and  not  their  policy.  The  action  to  be  taken  in  the  exercise 
of  such  powers  is  purely  a  matter  of  statesmanship,  to  be  decided  in 
the  last  resort  by  the  people  of  Canada,  and  not  by  a  court  of  law. 
The  question  of  relief  to  the  minority,  therefore,  came  before  the  gov- 
ernor-general-in-council,  and  will  now  come  before  parliament,  as  a 
question  of  policy  to  be  decided  upon  its  educational  merits,  subject 
always  to  the  well-recognized  principle  that  the  central  authority  ought 
not  to  interfere  with  a  province  except  in  a  case  of  the  most  urgent 
necessity. 

"The  remedy  sought  to  be  applied  is  fraught  with  great  danger  to 
the  principle  of  provincial  autonomy.  *  *  *  So  drastic  a  proceed- 
ing as  the  coercion  of  a  province  in  order  to  impose  upon  it  a  policy 
repugnant  to  the  declared  wish  of  its  people,  can  only  be  justified  by 
clear  and  unmistakable  proof  of  flagrant  wrongdoing  on  the  part  of 
the  provincial  authorities.  In  the  present  case  there  has  been  no 
wrong  committed  by  the  provincial  authorities.  It  is  justly  maintained 
by  the  legislature  that  the  law  complained  of  is  founded  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  equal  justice  to  every  section  of  thecommunity;  and  so  confi- 
dent was  that  body  of  the  fairness  and  justice  of  its  position,  that  in  its 
reply  to  the  remedial  order  it  challenged  an  impartial  inquiry  into  the 
facts  of  the  case.  The  judgment  of  the  court  that  the  minority  have  a 
grievance,  does  not  in  any  way  indicate  that  a  moral  or  political  wrong 
has  been  done.  The  legal  grievance  referred  to  in  the  judgment  con- 
sists in  the  abolition  of  a  privilege  theretofore  enjoyed,  irrespective  of 
whether  the  privilege  was  founded  on  reason  and  justice.  There  is  no 
inference  to  be  derived  therefrom  that  the  privilege  ought  to  be  restored. 
Whether  such  privilege  shall  be  restored  or  not  is  a  question  of  pub- 
lic policy.  The  reasons  which  have  impelled  the  advisers  of  His  Ex- 
cellency to  decide  without  investigation  upon  the  establishment  of 
separate  schools  for  the  Roman  Catholic  minority  in  Manitoba,  have 
not  been  made  known  to  the  government  or  legislature  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  it  is  respectfully  affirmed  that  a  full  and  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  whole  subject  fails  to  disclose  any  sufficient  reason  for  the 
adoption  of  such  policy. 

"It  is  therefore  recommended  that,  so  far  as  the  government  of 
Manitoba  is  concerned,  the  proposal  to  establish  a  system  of  separate 
schools  in  any  form  be  positively  and  definitely  rejected,  and  that  the 
principle  of  a  uniform  non-sectarian  public  school  system  be  adhered 
to. 

"The  legal  position  in  regard  to  the  proposed  remedial  legisla- 
tion is  far  from  clear.  It  has  repeatedly  been  declared,  according  to 
reported  utterances,  that  remedial  legislation  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  the  remedial  order  will  be  literally  followed,  or  that  the 
system  of  separate  schools  which  existed  prior  to  1890  will  be  restored. 
It  would  appear  reasonable  to  conclude  that  no  one  could  seriously 
contemplate  the  restoration  of  that  system.  Yet,  if  remedial  legisla- 
tion in  any  other  form  than  a  literal  confirmation  of  the  remedial 
order  be  introduced,  a  grave  doubt  arises  as  to  the  competency  of 
parliament  to  pass  such  legislation  without  the  same  being  first  sub- 
mitted to  the  legislature  of  the  province.  On  the  other  hand,  any 
proposed  measure  would  require  to  be  in  accord  with  the  order 
of  the  governor-general-in-council,  so  that  the  first  step  required 
might  be  to  amend  the  remedial  order.     Whether  any  power  exists  to 


CANADA.  917 

amend  or  rescind  the  remedial  order  is  also  a  subject  of  some  doubt. 
It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  invitation  extended  by  the  legislative 
assembly,  to  make  a  proper  inquiry  into  the  facts  of  the  case,  has  not 
been  accepted,  but  that,  as  above  stated,  the  advisers  of  His  Ex- 
cellency have  declared  their  policy  without  investigation.  It  is 
equally  a  matter  of  regret  that  parliament  is  apparently  about  to  be 
asked  to  legislate  without  investigation.  It  is  with  all  deference  sub- 
mitted that  such  a  course  seems  to  be  quite  incapable  of  reasonable 
justification,  and  must  create  the  conviction  that  the  educational  in- 
terests of  the  province  of 
Manitoba  are  being  dealt 
with  in  a  hostile  and  per- 
emptory way  by  a  tribunal 
whose  members  have  not 
approached  the  subject  in 
a  judicial  spirit,  or  taken 
the  proceedings  necessary 
to  enable  them  to  form  a 
proper  opinion  upon  the 
merits  of  the  question. 

"The  desire  of  the 
legislature  and  govern- 
ment of  the  province 
throughout  the  whole 
course  of  the  proceedings, 
beginning  with  the  enact- 
ment of  the  statutes  of 
1890,  has  been  to  provide 
the  best  possible  means  of 
education  for  the  children 
of  our  citizens.  To  that 
end  every  possible  effort 
has  been  put  forth,  and 
every  possible  pecuniary 
sacrifice  made,  in  order 
that  there  might  be  estab- 
1  i  s  h  e  d  a  school  system 
based  upon  sound  prin- 
ciples, and  equipped  and 
administered  in  accord- 
ance with  approved  mod- 
ern educational  methods.  Though  very  much  remains  to  be  ac- 
complished, it  may  be  fairly  asserted  that  a  reasonable  measure  of 
success  has  attended  the  efforts  which  have  thus  far  been  put 
forth.  In  amending  the  law  from  time  to  time,  and  in  adminis- 
tering the  system,  it  is  the  earnest  desire  to  remedy  every  well- 
founded  grievance,  and  to  remove  every  appearance  of  inequality 
or  injustice  that  may  be  brought  to  notice.  With  a  view  to  so 
doing,  the  government  and  the  legislature  will  always  be  ready  to 
consider  any  complaint  that  may  be  made,  in  a  spirit  of  fairness  and 
conciliation.  It  seems  therefore  most  reasonable  to  conclude,  that 
by  leaving  the  question  to  be  so  dealt  with,  the  truest  interests  of  the 
minority  will  be  better  served  than  by  an  attempt  to  establish  a  sys- 
tem of  separate  schools  by  coercive  legislation. 

"Such  a  system,    discredited  as  it  is,  will  be  from  the  outset 
crippled  by  reason  of  insufficient  pecuniary  support  and  ineffective  ed- 


■  JOSEPH  HATCOCK,   M.   P.  P., 
LEADER   OF   THE   PATRONS   OF  INDUSTRY. 


918 


AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


ucational  equipment,  and  will  be  an  injury  rather  than  a  benefit  to 
those  whom  it  is  intended  to  serve." 

By-Elections. — Several  important  by-elections  have 
been  held.'  On  October  22  a  vacancy  was  caused  in  Card- 
well  by  the  resignation  of  Mr.  R.  S.  White,  who  felt  un- 
willing to  enter  the  approaching  session  with  his  hands 
tied  by  the  pledge  given  to  his  constituency  in  1891,  that 

he  would  withdraw  his 
confidence  from  the 
government  in  the 
event  of  the  Manitoba 
school  law  of  1890  be- 
ing made  the  subject 
of  disallowance  by  the 
Dominion  authorities. 
He  was  also  anxious 
to  relieve  the  govern- 
ment of  embarrass- 
ment in  the  naming  of 
a  collector  for  the  port 
of  Montreal,  Que.,  a 
position  to  which  he 
has  since  been  ap- 
pointed. 

The  election  to 
fill  the  vacancy  in 
Cardwell  resulted  on 
December  24  in  the  re- 
turn of  Mr.  William 
Stubbs,  an  adherent 
of  Mr.  Dalton  Mc- 
HAXL  cAiNE,  BRITISH  NOVELIST.  Carthy,   by  a  plural- 

ity of  over  200  votes.  The  polls  stood:  Stubbs  1,503;  W.  B. 
Willoughby  (conservative)  1,296;  R.  B.  Henry  (liberal)  544. 
The  liberal  poll  was  surprisingly  small  (in  1891  it  was 
1,380),  showing  that  large  defections  from  the  ranks  of 
that  party  had  taken  place,  probably  on  account  of  its  un- 
certain attitude  on  the  school  question  and  in  the  matter 
of  trade  policy. 

At  an  election  held  in  North  Ontario  December  12, 
Mr.  J.  A.  McGillivray,  Q.  C,  conservative,  was  returned 
by  a  majority  of  764  over  Mr.  Brandon,  patron  of. 
industry,  and  1,044  over  Mr.  Gillespie,  liberal.  To  the 
lesson  deducible  from  the  result  of  this  contest — namely, 
that  a  party  composed  exclusively  of  farmers  is  not  likely 
to  succeed  in  Canada — may  be  traced  in  part  the  action 


CANADA.  919 

of  the  grand  board  of  the  patrons  of  industry  in  approv- 
ing a  motion  which  will  be  introduced  by  Mr.  Joseph 
Haycock,  the  patron  leader,  at  the  next  meeting  of  the 
grand  association,  recommending  that  membership  in  the 
organization  be  opened  to  all  classes  and  professions  ac- 
cepting its  platform,  and  that  all  secret  signs,  passwords, 
and  pledges  be  abolished.  The  effect  of  the  latter  had 
been  to  create  some  degree  of  prejudice  against  the  pa- 
trons in  the  minds  of  independent  voters. 

On  December  27  and  30  important  liberal  victories 
were  won  at  the  by-elections  in  Montreal  Centre  and 
Jacques  Cartier,  respectively.  In  the  former,  Sir  William 
Kingston,  M.  D.,  conservative,  was  defeated  by  Mr.  James 
McShane,  liberal,  a  conservative  majority  of  1,214  in  1891 
being  turned  into  a  liberal  majority  of  336  in  1895.  The 
vacancy  in  Montreal  Centre  was  caused  by  the  elevation 
of  Hon.  J.  J.  Curran,  solicitor-general,  to  the  superior 
court  bench. 

The  Copyright  Question. — Asa  result  of  the  tactful 
efforts  of  Mr.  Hall  Caine,  representing  the  Society  of  Brit- 
ish Authors,  and  his  colleague,  Mr.  F.  R.  Daldy,  repre- 
senting the  British  Copyright  Association,  who  were  sent 
to  Canada  to  undo  if  possible  the  deadlock  which  had  oc- 
curred over  the  matter  of  copyright  (p.  666),  a  new  copy- 
right law  for  Canada  has  been  drafted,  which  bids  fair  to 
become  formally  enacted  in  the  near  future.  It  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  compromise;  secures  a  measure  of  control  for 
the  author  over  reproduction  of  his  work;  and  does  not 
seem  likely  to  necessitate  withdrawal  of  Canada  from  the 
Berne  convention,  which  would  seriously  affect  the  copy- 
right agreement  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  Canadian  publishers.  Copyright  Association, 
and  Press  Association  have  approved  of  the  draft. 

As  throwing  light  on  this  little  understood  question, 
we  quote  tlie  following  significant  utterances  of  Mr.  Caine 
at  a  banquet  tendered  him  on  October  25  in  Toronto,  Ont., 
by  the  publishers  and  booksellers  of  that  city. 

After  referring  to  tbe  limited  copyrigLt  law  in  force  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  as  a  "half-loaf"  which  was  "better  than  no  bread,"  Mr. 
Caine  went  on  to  say:  "The  attitude  of  authors  toward  your  act  of 
1889  is  very  easily  stated — we  object  to  your  claim  to  manufacture 
our  books  whether  we  will  or  not,  because  the  right  of  the  author, 
which  ought  to  be  shared  with  the  reader  only,  would  be  divided 
with  the  printer  also,  who  ought  to  be  no  party  to  the  copyright  con- 
tract. On  grounds  of  natural  law  there  is  only  one  party  to  copyright, 
the  author.  The  laws  of  nations  have  agreed  to  allow  a  second  party 
to  come  in,  the  reader,  who  is  granted  limited  right  on  stringent 
terms.  You  are  now  claiming,  as  the  United  States  claimed,  the  ad- 
Vol.  5.-59. 


920  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

mission  of  a  tliird  party,  and  if  tlie  first  party  does  not  like  three  to 
the  contract,  you  are  asking  that  there  shall  be  only  two,  with  the 
discontented  party,  the  first  party,  the  party  of  the  author,  left  out. 

"That  is  our  objection  to  your  act  of  1889  on  abstract  principles. 
On  grounds  of  material  fact  we  object  to  it  because  (1)  it  multiplies 
the  places  of  manufacture,  and  so  prevents  the  production  of  all  but 
very  popular  books,  and  that  will  be  a  grievous  injury  to  works  of 
scholarship  and  research;  (2)  it  puts  a  book  into  the  position  of 
merchandise  coming  to  your  shores,  whereas  no  book  will  ever  come 
here  and  ask  you  to  manufacture  it  unless  you  first  go  deliberately 
over  the  water  and  fetch  it  across;  (3)  it  allows  of  a  period  when  a 
book  is  no  longer  under  its  author's  control,  and  that  strikes  a  blow 
at  the  absolute  spirit  of  copyright,  and  demands  a  freer  name;  and, 
finally,  (4)  it  requires  that  you  should  withdraw  from  the  Berne  con- 
vention, which  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  the  hope  of  all  who  have  fought 
for  the  security  and  dignity  of  literature." 

The  act  of  1889,  Mr.  Caine  said,  was  of  no  benefit  to  author, 
reader,  printer,  publisher,  or  bookseller.  He  proceeded  to  say:  "I 
recognize  the  fact  that  your  geographical  position  in  relation  to  the 
United  States,  the  absence  there  of  an  agreement  with  the  Berne  con- 
vention, and  the  presence  there  of  a  manufacturing  clause  in  favor 
of  American  printers,  gives  you  a  certain  justification  which  no  other 
English  colony  (such  as  Australia)  could  possibly  have,  for  a  measure 
of  self-control  and  for  a  limited  right  to  make  the  books  intended  for 
your  own  market.  *  *  *  As  long  as  the  United  States  keeps  out 
of  the  Berne  convention,  and  as  long  as  they  insist  on  manufacturing 
their  own  books,  just  so  long,  but  not  one  hour  longer,  I  would 
(speaking  for  myself  alone)  be  willing  to  grant  to  Canada  (divided  as 
it  is  from  the  States  only  by  an  imaginary  border  which  is  easily 
passed)  the  right  to  make  her  own  books  under  some  measure  of  au- 
thor's control.  Given  this  author's  control,  I  do  not  think  your  Ca- 
nadian copyright  should  be  any  cause  of  offense  to  America,  or  dis- 
turb the  understanding  on  which  the  president  made  his  proclamation. 
And  I  do  not  think  it  ought  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  the 
Berne  convention,  whose  second  article  seems  to  provide  for  just  such 
cases  as  your  own. 

"  But  everything  depends  on  the  measure  of  control  which  you 
leave  to  the  author;  and  I  must  tell  you  at  once  that  unlimited 
licensing  under  the  direction  of  your  government  would  be  entirely 
inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  author's  rights  entertained  by  the  signa- 
tories to  the  Berne  convention.  Some  form  of  licensing  I  should  per- 
sonally advocate  for  Canada  under  the  peculiar  difficulties  of  her 
present  relation  to  the  United  States,  with  its  right  to  manufacture; 
but  it  must  be  single  licensing,  and  it  must  take  cognizance  of  au- 
thor's control." 

On  November  25  Mr.  Caine  and  Mr.  Daldy,  with  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Canadian  publishers,  the  Canadian 
Copyright  Association,  and  the  Canadian  Press  Associa- 
tion, had  a  conference  with  Sir  C.  Hibbert  Tiipper  and 
Hon.  J.  A.  Ouimet,  representing  the  Dominion  govern- 
ment, and  submitted  the  draft  bill  above  referred  to. 

The  bill  extends  the  time  within  which  a  copyright  holder  can 
publish  in  Canada,  and  so  secure  an  absolute  and  untrammelled  copy- 
right, from  30  to  60  days,  with  a  possible  extension  of  30  days  more 


CANADA.  921 

at  the  discretion  of  tbe  autliorities.  Only  one  license  is  to  be  granted 
for  the  production  of  a  book  that  has  not  fulfilled  the  conditions  of 
Canadian  copyright  law,  and  it  is  to  be  issued  with  the  copyright 
holder's  knowledge  or  sanction.  A  copyright  holder  who  has  an  in- 
dependent chance  of  securing  copyright  for  himself  within  a  period  of 
60  days  is  to  be  allowed  a  second  chance  after  it  has  been  challenged 
and  before  it  can  be  disposed  of  by  license;  and  the  royalties  of  the 
author  are  to  be  secured  to  him  by  a  revenue  regulation  providing 
for  the  stamping  of  an  edition  of  a  book  on  the  issue  of  a  license. 

This  draft  act  was,  in  December,  subjected  to  a  revi- 
sion by  the  imperial  authorities,  removing  the  prohibi- 
tion on  books  L'lwfully  printed  and  published  for  general 
circulation  in  countries  of  the  Berne  copyright  union — a 
change  which,  it  is  thought,  will  meet  the  only  objection 
urged  against  the  bill  on  behalf  of  Canadian  readers  and 
retail  booksellers. 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  Service.— In  November  it  was 
announced  that  the  imperial  government  had  decided  to 
support  a  fast  steamer  service  between  Great  Britain  and 
Canada  to  the  probable  extent  of  £75,000  per  mininrf,  and 
that  tenders  were  to  be  invited  for  the  service.  Sir  Charles 
Tupper,  Canadian  high  commissioner  in  London,  visited 
Canada  to  confer  with  tlie  authorities  at  Ottawa  on  the 
matter;  but  has  been  detained  indefinitely  as  a  result  of 
the  crisis  in  the  Dominion  cabinet  over  the  Manitoba 
school  question. 

The  Pacific  cable  scheme  is  progressing.  On  Novem- 
ber 19,  at  a  conference  in  London  between  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain, colonial  secretary,  Sir  Charles  Tupper,  Canadian 
high  commissioner,  and  representatives  of  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  and  Victoria,  it  was  announced  that 
the  home  government  had  accepted  the  proposal  laid  be- 
fore it  a  few  days  previously  for  the  appointment  of  a 
mixed  commission  of  six  members — two  from  Great  Brit- 
ain, two  from  Canada,  and  two  from  the  Australasian  col- 
onies— to  meet  in  London  as  soon  as  possible  and  arrange  de- 
tails of  a  scheme  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
the  Pacific  cable.  The  proposal  was  suggested  by  Hon. 
W.  B.  Ives,  Canadian  minister  of  trade  and  commerce, 
shortly  after  the  tenders,  opened  late  last  year,  had  facili- 
tated an  estimation  of  the  probable  cost  of  the  scheme 
(Vol.  4,  p.  858). 

The  Year's  Business. — Business  failures  in  Canada 
during  1895  are  indicated  in  the  following  table,  which 
also  gives  the  aggregate  figures  for  1894.  In  1895  the 
average  of  the  last  nine  years  was  barely  exceeded.  Dis- 
tinguishing between  manufacturers^  and  traders^  failures, 


932  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

the  liabilities  of  the  latter  were  smaller  in  1895  than  in 
1894  by  $1,647,826,  or  14.4  per  cent. 

BUSINESS  FAILURES,  CANADIAN,  1895. 


Provinces. 

No. 

Assets. 

Liabilities. 

907 
678 
66 
108 
53 
70 
9 

$4,-362,208 
5,386,714 
701  ,.373 
334,942 
473,350 
201,155 
40,500 

$5,967,161 
7,530,706 
708,148 
690,138 
505,439 
325,697 
75.700 

British  Columbia 

Manitoba 

New  Brunswick 

Prince  Edward  Island 

1894 

1,891 
907 

$11,500,242 
13,510.0.56 

$15,802,989 
17,616,215 

Foreign  commerce  during  the  fiscal  year  1894-5 
showed  a  total  decline  of  about  $16,579,000  as  compared 
with  the  year  just  preceding.    The  following  are  the  figures: 

FOREIGN  COMMERCE.  CANADIAN. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

Fiscal  year  1893-4 

$123,474,940 
1 10.781 ,682 

$117,.524,949 

<R2Jn  OQO  8SQ 

"     1894-5 

113,638,8031    224'420.485 

Decline,  1894-5 

$12,693,258 

$3,886,146!   $16,579,404 

For  the  second  time  in  the  history  of  the  Dominion, 
exports  exceeded  imports,  the  ordinary  rule  being  the  re- 
verse. In  1879-80 — a  year  of  depression — the  same  thing 
occurred,  exports  being  $87,911,458  against  imports  of 
$86,489,747. 

The  United  States  and  the  West  Indies  are  the  only 
countries  whose  trade  with  Canada  increased  as  compared 
with  1894.  The  following  table  shows  the  proportion  of 
exports  and  imports  in  trade  with  the  principal  countries 
during  the  year,  the  figures  for  imports  being  based  upon 
the  amount  entered  for  consumption — a  total  considerably 
less  than  that  of  the  imports  actually  purchased: 

CANADIAN  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  FOR  1895. 


Great  Britain 

United  States.... 

Germany 

France 

West  Indies 

Newfoundland . . . 
China  and  Japan 

Spain 

Belgium 

South  America . . . 

Italy 

Holland 

Portugal 

Australia 

Switzerland 

Other  c«.)untries.. 
Totals 


Exports  to.     Imports  from. 


$61,856,990 

$31,131,737 

41,297.676 

54.634..521 

626.976 

4,794,159 

335.282 

2,585.174 

3.725,426 

4.956,196 

2.32.5,196 

739,850 

378,160 

2,528,414 

34,101 

402,479 

251,402 

441,617 

1,303.474 

306,996 

34.3-25 

381,.594 

140,264 

243,900 

58,781 

57,140 

417,m 



259,400 

853.626 

1.789.334 

$113,638,803 

$ia5,252.511 

CANADA.  923 

Political  Independence  of  Canada.— For  a  good 
many  years  the  question  of  the  ultimate  political  future 
of  Canada — whether  it  shall  be  union  with  the  republic  to 
the  south,  or  independence,  or  continued  maintenance  of 
British  connection — has  now  and  then  been  discussed  in 
various  localities,  chiefly  along  the  border  of  the  United 
States,  but  without  arousing  sufficient  interest  or  be- 
ing accompanied  with  a  movement  of  sufficient  propor- 
tions to  be  considered  a  question  of  practical  politics. 
We  have  now,  however,  to  record  the  formal  organiza- 
tion of  a  political  party  distinctly  committed  to  the 
policy  of  independence  for  Canada.  This  new  political 
birth  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  ^^Independence  of  Canada" 
Club  organized  toward  the  end  of  October  by  residents  of 
Essex  county,  Ontario,  and  the  town  of  Windsor.  On 
November  1  a  platform  was  adopted  as  follows: 

"  We  are  of  tlie  opinion  that  tlie  Dominion  of  Canada  has  arrived 
at  such  a  stage  of  growth  and  development  as  to  be  able  to  maintain 
herself  an  independent  nation,  and  that  such  a  change  would  be  will- 
ingly granted  to  us  by  the  imperial  parliament  in  case  our  parlia- 
ment requested  it,  and  that  under  such  a  change  the  best  interests  of 
Canada  and  the  Canadian  people  would  be  subserved;  therefore  we  in- 
dorse and  adopt  the  following  platform: 

"  The  political  freedom  and  independence  of  Canada,  to  be  ob- 
tained in  an  amicable  and  constitutional  manner. 

"  The  establishment  of  a  republican  form  of  government,  with 
such  a  constitution  as  would  be  suitable  to  our  requirements. 

"Reduction  in  the  cost  of  government,  and  strict  economy  in  the 
public  expenditures. 

"Constitutional  guarantees  of  full  religious  liberty  to  all  denom- 
inations. 

"The  adoption  of  such  legislative  measures  as  would  be  neces- 
sary effectually  to  put  down  monopolies  and  combines. 

"A  more  just  and  equitable  distribution  of  the  burden  of  taxa- 
tion. 

"Public  lands  to  be  disposed  of  to  adult  settlers. 

"Appointment  of  public  officers  and  civil  servants  by  reason  of 
merit  and  not  to  satisfy  political  influence. 

"The  cultivation  of  friendly  relations  with  other  countries. 

"All  international  disputes  to  be  settled  by  arbitration. 

"  The  extension  of  trade  and  commerce  by  reciprocity  treaties  with 
such  countries  as  may  be  desirable." 

Miscellaneous. — In  the  course  of  an  expedition  due 
north  from  Ottawa,  Ont.,  across  the  height  of  land  to 
Rupert's  House  on  James  bay,  by  the  most  direct  water 
route.  Dr.  Robert  Bell  of  the  Geological  Survey  reports  the 
exploration  of  a  great  river  whose  existence  had  not  pre- 
viously been  generally  known. 

The  new  river  is  said  to  be  500  miles  long,  much  larger  than  the 
Ottawa,  and  is  classed  among  the  great  rivers  of  the  world;  has  three 


924  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

large  branclies,  one  having  its  source  north  of  Three  Rivers,  Que.,  an- 
other in  the  Lake  St.  John  region,  and  the  third  near  Lake  Mistassini; 
its  average  width  is  over  a  mile,  and  it  Las  expansions  many  miles 
wide;  it  is  very  deep,  and  flows  through  a  low,  level,  clay  country 
well  adapted  for  agriculture.  Toward  its  mouth,  however,  there  are 
successions  of  great  rapids  which  render  it  useless  as  an  inland  route. 
The  primeval  forest  extends  along  the  whole  length  of  the  river.  It 
appears  that  the  Indian  name  for  the  stream  is  Nottaway,  the  two 
principal  branches  being  the  Waswanapi  and  the  McKiskan. 

Early  in  the  quarter  a  vacancy  on  the  bench  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  Canada,  caused  by  the  resignation  of  Jus- 
tice Fournier,  was  filled  by  the  appointment  of  M.  Desire 
Girouard. 

The  vast  unorganized  territory  of  the  Dominion  in  the 
north  and  northwest  has  recently  been  set  apart  into  pro- 
visional districts.  The  territory  east  of  Hudson  bay,  hav- 
ing the  province  of  Quebec  on  the  south  and  the  Atlantic 
on  the  east,  is  to  be  hereafter  known  as  Ungava.  The 
territory  embraced  in  the  islands  of  the  Arctic  sea  is  to 
be  known  as  Franklin;  the  Mackenzie  river  region  is  to  be 
known  as  Mackenzie;  and  the  Pacific  Coast  territory  lying 
north  of  British  Columbia  and  west  of  Mackenzie,  is  to 
be  known  as  Yukon.  The  extent  of  Ungava  and  Frank- 
lin is  undefined.  Mackenzie  covers  538,600  square  miles; 
and  Yukon  covers  225,000  square  miles,  in  addition  to 
143,500  square  miles  added  to  Athabasca,  and  470,000  to 
Keewatin.  The  total  area  of  the  Dominion  is  estimated 
at  3,456,383  square  miles. 

On  November  25  the  judgment  of  the  superior  court 
rendered  October  30,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  860),  in  the  cele- 
brated case  of  the  Canada  Revue  against  Archbishop 
Fabre  of  Montreal,  Que.,  was  confirmed  by  the  court  of  re- 
view, the  action  of  the  plaintiff  being  dismissed  with  costs 
of  both  courts.  Judge  Archibald  dissented  from  the 
judgment  of  his  colleagues.  Chief  Justice  Tait  and  Judge 
Taschereau. 

About  December  1  a  proclamation  was  issued  by  the 
government,  declaring  Section  14  of  the  Washington  Treaty 
act  of  1888  no  longer  in  force.  This  section  gave  United 
States  fishermen  certain  privileges  in  Canadian  waters 
pending  the  adoption  of  the  treaty  negotiated  in  Washing- 
ton in  1888.  On  paying  a  license  of  $1.50  a  ton,  the  fish- 
ermen were  allowed  to  purchase  bait  and  supplies  in  Cana- 
dian ports,  and  also  transship  their  catch  and  crews.  The 
treaty  was  rejected  at  Washington,  but  the  modus  vivendi 
had,  nevertheless,  been  retained  in  force  as  an  act  of 
courtesy. 


CANADA.  9S5 

Another  monument  to  the  late  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald 
was  unveiled  at  Kingston,  Ont.,  October  23,  by  the  pres- 
ent premier.  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell.  Speeches  were  de- 
livered by  the  premier,  by  Hon.  Dr.  Montague,  Lieutenant- 
Governor  Kirkpatrick,  Hon.  G.  E.  Foster,  Hon.  G.  W. 
Ross,  and  others. 

The  monument,  which  stands  at  the  main  entrance  to  the  city 
park,  consists  of  a  bronze 
statue  eleven  feet  high,  by- 
Mr.  G.  Wade  of  London, 
Eng.,  representing  Sir 
John  in  the  robe  of  a  privy 
councillor.  It  is  a  replica 
of  the  statue  unveiled  in 
Montreal  in  June  (p.  400). 
The  pedestal,  built  of  New 
Brunswick  granite,  is  12 
feet  square  at  the  base, 
and  15|  feet  high. 

On  November  4  the 
Bmiqtie  du  Penple  of 
Montreal  (p.  671)  re- 
sumed operations,  de- 
positors at  once  get- 
ting twenty-five  per 
cent  of  their  deposits. 
A  report  submitted  by 
a  committee  of  the 
shareholders  attrib- 
utes the  present  con- 
dition of  the  bank 
wholly  to  inadequate 
supervision  of  its  af- 
fairs on  the  part  of  the 
directors,  several  of 
whom  had  been  allowed  to  make  large  overdrafts  without 
giving  security,  and  to  the  fact  that  no  inspection  of  the 
head  office  and  the  agencies  had  been  made  for  years. 

A  remarkable  case  of  refusal  to  pay  taxes  was  reported 
in  November,  from  the  township  of  Lowe,  in  Ottawa 
county.  Que.  Troops  had  to  be  sent  to  the  locality,  to  aid 
the  county  officials.  The  cost  of  the  expedition  is  to  be 
defrayed  by  the  municipality. 

On  December  21  Wm.  F.  McMillan,  convicted  of  set- 
ting fire  to  the  Osgoodby  building  in  Toronto  in  January, 
1895  (p.  158),  was  sentenced  to  ten  years  in  the  peniten- 
tiary. 


HON.  DESIRE  GIROUARD, 
PUISNE  JUDGE,    SUPREME   COURT   OP   CANADA. 


926  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

Valuable  new  coal  deposits  have  been  discovered  in  the 
island,  which  give  promise  of  revenue  that  will  be  of  great 
assistance  to  the  colony  in  the  financial  straits  to  which  it 
has  been  reduced.  They  are  said  to  cover  an  area  of 
twelve  by  six  miles,  and  consist  of  three  distinct  seams,  one 
^  of  which  is  ten  miles  long  and  a  mile  wide.  The  deposits 
are  within  forty  miles  of  the  water,  and  convenient  to 
shipping  passing  through  the  St.  Lawrence  river.  One  of 
the  seams  is  estimated  to  contain  12,000,000  tons,  and  the 
others  are  said  to  be  equally  rich. 

A  great  number  of  smuggling  scandals  occupied  the  at- 
tention of  the  authorities  in  October.  Many  prominent 
people  were  implicated,  and  there  were  numerous  arrests 
and  convictions.  . 

THE  WEST  INDIES. 

Hayti  is  again  reported  in  a  state  of  unrest,  in  view  of 
the  approaching  election  for  president.  Martial  law  was 
declared  in  Port  au  Prince,  the  capital,  in  the  latter  part 
of  October.  On  Christmas  eve  an  uprising  occurred  at 
Aux  Cayes,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  republic,  which, 
however,  was  promptly  suppressed.  There  has  always 
been  tension  between  the  northern  and  southern  sections 
of  Hayti.  President  Hyppolite  is  considered  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  former. 

It  is  not  only  in  Cuba  that  the  Spanish  government  in 
the  New  World  is  beset  with  difficulties.  A  revolutionary 
conspiracy  in  Porto  Rico  was  checked  in  December 
through  the  treachery  of  one  of  those  implicated  and 
the  arrest  of  its  leaders  after  a  feeble  show  of  resist- 
ance. The  trouble  grew  out  of  an  attempt  made  about  a 
year  ago  by  the  Spanish  governor-general,  General  Gamir, 
.to  demonetize  Mexican  money,  the  principal  currency  of 
Porto  Rico.  A  secret  orde'  was  then  formed,  whose  mem- 
bers swore  to  fight  for  the  i^idependence  of  the  colony. 

Several  small  uprisings  have  been  reported  from  San 
Domingo,  all  of  which  have  been  suppressed  in  the  sum- 
mary manner  characteristic  of  the  regime  of  President 
Heureaux  in  dealing  with  such  attempts.  Late  in  Octo- 
ber a  disturbance  occurred  near  Barnica  on  the  frontier  of 
Hayti;  but  all  the  rebels  were  killed  by  the  government 
troops,  who  gave  no  quarter.  Again,  about  the  middle  of 
November,  a  revolutionary  attempt  was  made  in  Lopez, 
near  Santiago.  Several  of  the  malcontents  were  captured 
and  summarily  shot. 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL.  927 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

It  is  stated  that  a  secret  compact  was  ratified  at  the 
capital  of  Guatemala  about  the  first  week  in  Octo- 
ber, to  oppose  any  action  calculated  to  force  Guatemala 
into  the  projected  union  of  the  Central  American  repub- 
lics (p.  676). 

THE  NICARAGUA  CANAL. 

The  annual  report  of  Hiram  Hitchcock,  president  of 
the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua,  was  submitted 
to  Secretary  Hoke  Smith  in  November. 

The  Nicaragua  Canal  Construction  Company  Las  been  reorganized 
under  the  name  of  tlie  Nicaragua  Company,  and  is  maliing  active 
preparations  to  resume  work  under  tLe  contract  of  the  old  construe 
tion  company  with  the  Maritime  Company. 

The  report  of  the  government  commission  appointed 
early  in  the  year  to  examine  the  route  of  the  canal 
(p.  165),  was  published  about  December  1.  Its  findings 
are  unfavorable  to  the  enterprise. 

The  surveys  hitherto  made  are  declared  to  be  incomplete  and  un- 
trustworthy, and  the  estimate  of  the  cost  is  said  to  be  far  too  low. 
The  commission  believes  that  the  "keystone  of  the  whole  project," 
the  Ochoa  "rock-fill"  dam,  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  to  be  prac- 
ticable. Many  important  changes  in  the  plans  of  the  company  are 
recommended,  and  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  a  more  thorough 
survey  is  necessary.  The  commissioners  suggest  that  congress  should 
appropriate  $850,000  for  a  commission  of  competent  engineers  to 
make  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  whole  scheme.  Eighteen  months 
are  said  to  be  required  for  such  a  study. 

THE  PANAMA  CANAL. 

The  French  company  formed  last  year  (Vol.  4,  p.  871) 
has  1,800  men  at  work  on  construction,  and  is  preparing 
to  add  to  that  number.  In  the  opinion  of  Sir  Henry 
Tyler,  late  president  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  who 
recently  visited  Panama,  there  is  no  insuperable  difficulty 
in  the  completion  of  the  canal  in  six  years,  at  a  cost  of 
$100,000,000,  by  utilizing  the  work  already  done  for  a  dis- 
tance of  sixteen  miles  from  Colon  and  four  miles  from 
Panama.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Colquhoun,  correspond- 
ent of  the  London  Times,  who  has  recently  inspected  the 
route,  estimates  that,  even  supposing  one-third  of  the 
Avork  to  have  been  concluded,  it  will  cost  more  than  $200,- 
000,000  to  complete  the  entire  undertaking.  He  declares 
that  the  Chagres  river  and  the  Culebra  cut  of  the  present 
Panama  canal  plans  are  insurmountable  obstacles. 


928  AFFAIRS  IN  AMERICA.  4th Qr.,  1895. 

COLOMBIA. 

Early  in  November  the  government  raised  the  state  of 
siege  declared  in  the  republic  at  the  time  of  the  recent  re- 
bellion (p.  165).  Amnesty  was  granted  to  all  implicated 
in  the  rebellion  except  those  who  are  charged  with  com- 
mon crimes  or  who  acted  as  leaders  in  organizing  invading 
expeditions  against  Colombia.  The  cost  of  the  rebel- 
lion is  officially  estimated  to  have  been  $15,000,000. 

YENEZUELA. 

The  crisis  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
growing  out  of  the  boundary  dispute  between  Venezuela 
and  British  Guiana,  is  fully  reviewed  elsewhere  (p.  786). 

The  only  other  item  of  interest  concerns  a  futile  at- 
tempt at  revolution,  which  caused  a  few  days'  excitement 
in  November.  Reports  as  to  the  origin  of  the  uprising  con- 
flict: perhaps  the  majority  point  to  ex-President  Rojas 
Paul,  in  exile  at  Cura^oa;  but  the  truth  in  this  respect  is 
not  known.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that  existing  complica- 
tions were  taken  advantage  of,  and  facilitated  the  enlistment 
of  discontented  ex-officeholders  and  other  malcontents  in 
the  attempt.  A  recent  cabinet  crisis  had  left  four  vacancies 
in  the  cabinet  still  unfilled;  President  Crespo  was  away  at 
his  country  seat  in  Maracay,  leaving  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  Vice-President  Acevedo;  relations 
with  Great  Britain  were  strained,  and  similar  tension  was 
culminating  in  relations  with  Germany.  The  time  seemed 
ripe.  But  the  government  discovered  the  plot,  November 
17.  The  great  blow  was  to  have  been  struck  at  Caracas, 
where  policemen  had  been  bribed  to  blow  up  with  dyna- 
mite the  barracks  and  the  houses  of  the  ministers;  but  the 
arrest  of  the  policemen  frustrated  this.  The  rebels  then 
declared  themselves  in  various  parts  of  the  republic — 
chiefly  the  three  coast  states  of  Bermudez,  Miranda,  and 
Lara — but  the  energetic  movement  of  the  government 
troops  caused  them  to  surrender  almost  immediately,  a  few 
of  their  leaders  escaping  to  the  mountains.  In  three  days 
after  its  discovery,  the  rebellion  was  practically  dead. 

BRAZIL. 

Toward  the  end  of  October,  a  plot  to  restore  the  mon- 
archy in  Brazil  was  discovered  by  the  government.  The 
headquarters  of  the  conspiracy  were  in  Sao  Paulo,  with 
branches  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Baliia,  and  other  cities. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

ECUADOR. 


929 


About  November  1  General  Alfaro,  the  new  executive 
of  Ecuador  (p.  679),  formed  a  cabinet.  The  program  of 
the  ministry  comprises  the  maintenance  of  peace  with  all 
nations,  the  execution  of  all  national  reforms  and  internal 
improvements  compatible  with  modern  progress,  and  the 
promotion  of  commerce  and  harmony  among  the  republics 
of  the  New  World. 

CHILE. 

A  cabinet  crisis,  threatened  for  some  time,  occurred  in 
the  middle  of  October,  owing  to  dissensions  of  the  ministers 
among  themselves.  It  lasted  over  a  month.  On  Novem- 
ber 26  the  choice  of  a  new  cabinet  was  announced,  includ- 
ing Oswaldo  Renjifo  as  minister  of  the  interior,  Adolfo 
Guerrero  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  Pereze  Arce  as 
minister  of  finance. 

It  is  decreed  that  the  standing  army  of  the  republic 
shall  consist  of  9,000  men;  the  navy  will  include  14  war 
vessels  and  13  torpedo  boats.  The  naval  contingent  will 
consist  of  4,000  men. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

The  School  Question. — All  England  is  in  heated 
debate  over  the  question  of  support  for  denominational 
schools  from  public  funds.  This  debate  of  religious  edu- 
cation, which  has  now  become  the  chief  controversy  of  the 
time,  threatens  to  issue  with  unknown  results  on  the  politi- 
cal arena.  Its  cause  is  the  demand,  led  by  adherents  of 
the  Church  of  England,  for  a  change  of  the  educational 
system  and  principle  established  by  the  compromise  of  1870; 
and  this  demand,  long  in  contemplation,  is  set  forth  at  this 
time  because  the  recent  overwhelming  conservative  victory 
gives  hope  of  its  success. 

In  England  tliere  are  now  about  2,400  board  schools  under  the 
authority  of  school  boards  and  supported  by  public  money,  and  about 
14,000  voluntary  schools  supported  by  private  subscription.  Of  these 
voluntary  schools,  whose  purpose  is  to  include  denominational  in- 
struction, about  12,000  are  supported  by  the  Church  of  England,  the 
others  being  supported  chiefly  by  Roman  Catholics  or  by  Wesleyans. 


930 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


Yet  of  tlie  4,750,000  pupils  in  England,  only  1,750,000  are  in  the 
church  schools.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  all  except  about 
sixty  of  the  2,400  board  schools,  supported  by  public  money  and 
therefore  excluding  denominational  tenets,  give  unsectarian  Bible 
teaching  to  the  amount  of  a  hymn,  a  short  Bible  reading,  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer.  No  Bible  teaching,  not  even  the  least,  is  required  by 
law  in  any  board  school;  it  is  merely  permitted  where  the  local  tax- 
payers appoint  it.  In  an 
immense  majority  of  lo- 
calities it  is  desired  and 
so  appointed. 

The  board  schools 
appear  to  have  raised 
the  standard  of  edu- 
cation during  the 
twenty-five  years  of 
the  present  system, 
inasmuch  as,  drawing 
on  government  funds, 
tliey  have  better 
buiklings  and  equip- 
ment, pay  higher  sal- 
aries, and  get  better 
teachers.  Thus  the 
voluntary  or  denomi- 
national schools  have 
been  compelled  to  in- 
crease their  expenses 
largely  in  competi- 
tion. .  This  is  one  rea- 
son for  the  growing 
complaint  from  the 
Church  of  England 
people,  and  for  their 
demand  that  government  support  shall  be  extended  to 
the  denominational  schools  as  well:  in  this  demand  the 
Koman  Catholics  join,  and  in  a  modified  degree  the  Wes- 
leyans.  The  non-conformists  stoutly  uphold  the  present 
system,  which  allows  unsectarian  Bible  teaching  in  dis- 
tricts where  the  rate-payers  elect  it,  but  prohibits  the  use 
of  public  funds  for  inculcating  the  tenets  of  any  church  or 
sect. 

The  present  government  has  not  yet  put  forth  any  pro- 
posals on  the  question,  but  is  supposed  to  favor  the  de- 
mands of  the  English  church.  Should  these  be  embodied 
in  a  motion  in  parliament,  it  is  thought  that  the  liberals 
may  find  in  the  educational  question  some  needed  material 
for  tlieir  opposition  platform. 


SIR  JOHN  E,  GORST, 

VICE-PRESIDENT    OF   THE    BRITISH    COUNCIL    FOR 

EDUCATION. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


931 


Action  on  Trade  Interests.— Mr.  Chamberlain  as 
colonial  secretary  is  bringing  liis  well-known  sagacity  and 
energy  to  bear  on  the  commercial  relations  of  Britain  and 
its  colonies.  After  consultation  with  chief  officials  of 
Canada  and  the  other  self-governing  colonies,  he  issued  a 
dispatch  to  the  colonial  governors  calling  for  an  investiga- 
tion, at  once  comprehensive  and  minute  in  details,  as  to 
'^the  extent  to  which 
in  each  of  the  colonies, 
foreign  goods  have  dis- 
placed or  are  displac- 
ing British  goods,  and 
the  causes  of  the  dis- 
placement." Minute 
returns  are  to  be  made 
to  the  colonial  office, 
with  specimens  of  the 
foreign  articles  for  in- 
spection  —  these  ar- 
ticles then  to  be  sent 
to  manufacturers 
throughout  Britain 
lor  their  guidance  in 
competition.  Mr. 
Chamberlain  also  seeks 
to  open  a  market  in 
England  for  raw  prod- 
ucts from  the  colonies, 
and  thus  by  systematic 
governmental  action 
to  build  up  a  vast  in- 
tra-imperial  trade. 
He  receives  universal 
praise  for  his  plan  for  culture. 

turning  the  imperial  power  into  channels  so  novel,  far- 
reaching,  and  practically  helpful. 

The  movement  in  England  toward  a  return  to  protec- 
tion, though  not  yet  extensive,  is  decided,  and  is  plainly 
increasing.  Prime  Minister  Salisbury  has  even  found  it 
advisable  to  declare  against  a  protective  tariff.  But  the 
unsatisfactory  conditions  of  trade  in  recent  years,  and  the 
fearful  depression  of  agriculture,  dispose  the  public  mind 
toward  some  change  of  policy;  and  a  large  conference  in 
London,  in  December,  passed  resolutions  to  the  effect  that 
national  industries  should  be  protected,  and  that  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  scheme  should  be  made  practical  by  speedy 


no's.  WALTER  LONG, 
PRESIDENT    OF    THE    BRITISH    BOARD    OP    AGRI- 


932 


AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


establishment  of  preferential  trade  relations  between  all 
parts  of  the  British  empire.  This  last  is  one  of  the  planks 
in  the  platform  of  the  National  Agricultural  Union,  which 
claims  232  members  in  parliament  pledged  to  support  its 
demands  whether  or  not  the  conservative  party  be  disrupted 
thereby. 

While  the  government's  promises  to  introduce  early 

measures  for  relief 
can,  of  course,  con- 
template no  directly 
protective  methods, 
yet  forecasts  of  indi- 
rect protective  action 
are  freely  heard,  based 
on  some  official  utter- 
ances favoring  a  boun- 
ty on  the  wheat  prod- 
ucts of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

The  Manchester 
Ship  Canal.— This 
great  water-way, 
about  35  miles  long, 
172  feet  wide,  26  feet 
deep,  recently  con- 
structed with  the  in- 
tent to  make  inland 
Manchester  a  seaport 
rivalling  or  surpass- 
ing Liverpool,  is  thus 
far  a  grievous  disap- 
pointment to  its  pro- 
jectors and  investors. 
It  was  begun  by  a  private  company  on  an  engineering  esti- 
mate of  125,000,000  as  its  total  cost.  The  estimate  was 
a  blunder.  The  company  had  spent  $52,000,000,  and 
reached  the  end  of  its  borrowing  power,  when  the  city  of 
Manchester  adopted  the  canal  as  a  municipal  work,  bor- 
rowed 122,500,000,  and  finished  it — making  its  total  cost 
about  $75,000,000.  Kich  and  poor  alike  were  enthusiastic 
investors  in  it,  believing  in  its  sure  profitableness  to  them- 
selves and  to  their  city.  Thus  far  the  receipts  have  failed 
to  meet  interest  charges  and  operating  expenses.  Every 
inducement  has  been  offered  to  merchants  and  shippers; 
tolls  and  dues  are  made  very  low,  and  many  usual  charges 
dispensed  with;  still  the  canal  and  its  immense  terminal 


SIR  MATTHEW  WHITE    RIDLEY, 
BRITISH   HOME   SECRETARY. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  933 

docks  are  empty  of  the  expected  crowd  of  great  sea-going 
ships.  Few  vessels  enter  it  other  tlian  the  small  steamers 
employed  in  the  Manchester  coasting  trade. 

It  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  success  of  any  enterprise 
could  have  a  surer  basis  both  in  theory  and  in  undeniable 
statistics  than  this  canal  had.  Within  thirty  miles  of 
Manchester  townhall  ai;e  three-fourths  of  the  cotton  man- 
ufacture of  England,  and  7,000,000  people  to  be  fed.  To 
the  Manchester  wharves  this  canal  could  bring  cotton  and 
provisions,  and  from  those  wharves  it  could  take  the  man-i 
ufactured  goods — tlius  saving  railway  tolls  and  all  trans- 
shipment. Foreign  trade  may  hereafter  be  tempted  to 
take  this  route,  but  as  yet  it  utterly  declines  and  keeps  to 
Liverpool  and  transshipment.  The  only  beneficial  result 
hitherto  for  Manchester,  is  that  the  new  possibility  of  com- 
petition has  brought  large  reduction  in  railway  rates  from 
Liverpool  to  Manchester.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  that 
trade  has  its  occult  as  well  as  its  arithmetical  laws. 

War  Office  Reform. — An  order-in-council,  of  date 
November  21,  established  a  new  system  of  army  adminis- 
tration, aiming  to  embody  a  new  principle.  The  official 
heads  of  the  great  departments,  heretofore  satellites  of  the 
commander-in-chief,  are  now  made  directly  responsible  to 
the  secretary  of  state:  this  is  at  least  the  theory;  though 
it  is  pointed  out  that  it  is  so  modified  by  certain  exceptions 
deemed  necessary,  that  there  remains  possible  in  practice  a 
centralization  of  power  in  the  commander-in-chief. 

The  system  of  1888  contemplated  only  two  great  officers 
— the  commander-in-chief  with  a  great  variety  of  impor- 
tant functions,  and  the  financial  secretary.  The  new  sys- 
tem assigns  six  great  officers — commander-in-chief,  adju- 
tant-general, quartermaster-general,  inspector-general  of 
fortifications,  inspector-general  of  ordnance,  and  financial 
secretary.  The  control  of  all  purely  military  movements 
and  operations,  with  all  functions  naturally  involved 
therein,  remains  with  the  commander-in-chief. 

Tlie  New  Poet  Laureate. — Among  the  honors  con- 
ferred by  the  queen  at  the  New  Year  was  the  appointment 
of  Alfred  Austin  as  poet  laureate,  who  thus  succeeds  to  the 
office  rendered  vacant  by  the  death  of  Lord  Tennyson  on 
October  6,  1892. 

Austin,  Alfred,  poet,  dramatist,  critic,  essayist,  novelist,  and 
journalist,  was  born  at  Headingley,  near  Leeds,  May  30,  1835.  His 
father  was  a  merchant  and  magistrate.  His  parents  were  Roman 
Catholics,  and  his  early  studies  were  at  Stonyhurst  College,  and  at 
St.  Mary's  College,  Oscott.  In  1853  he  took  his  degree  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1857.     To  the  profes- 


934  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

sion  of  law,  however,  he  has  given  small  attention,  having  applied 
himself  continuously  to  literature.  He  has  long  held  a  respectable 
place  among  prose  writers  as  a  vigorous  critic  and  a  racy  polemic  es- 
sayist, and  has  gained  actual  distinction  in  journalistic  work.  His 
stanch  and  able  tory  advocacy  would  naturally  gain  the  regard  of  the 
present  premier. 

As  a  writer  of  poetry  Mr.  Austin  is  not  considered  original,  crea- 
tive, or  thrilling:  his  tone  is  pleasant,  well-modulated,  occasionally 
charming.  He  can  doubtless  make  a  good  poem  to  order  on  occasion, 
as  a  poet  laureate  should;  and  he  may  be  considered  as  fully  reaching 
the  average  rank  of  his  predecessors  since  Dryden  in  that  office,  if 
Wordsworth  and  Tennyson  be  excepted.  His  competitors  for  the 
place  could  really  scarcely  be  considered  but  by  their  personal  friends. 
Several  of  them  have  indeed  done  work  of  surprising  promise,  but 
unaccountably  their  work  of  commanding  power  lingers.  Two  others 
have  earned  world-wide  fame  by  their  high  mastery  in  poesy — Alger- 
non Swinburne  and  William  Morris;  but  William  Morris  is  a  social- 
ist— if  any  one  knows  what  that  is;  and  Swinburne,  he  of  the  magical 
meters,  early  went  wading,  alas!  in  a  pool  of  mud — and  any  one  may 
know  what  that  amounts  to. 

Balfour  Sentenced.— The  trial  of  Jabez  Spencer 
Balfour,  formerly  member  of  parliament  for  Burnley  (Vol. 
4,  pp.  198  and  647),  ended  with  a  second  conviction  on 
November  20.  He  was  sentenced  to  fourteen  years'  im- 
prisonment— seven  years  for  each  conviction.  Justice  has 
thus  at  last  overtaken  one  of  the  greatest  defrauders  of 
modern  times. 

Ireland. — Mr.  Healy  Expelled  from  the  Parliame7itary 
Committee. — This  expulsion,  which  took  effect  November 
14,  is  attributed  to  Mr.  Sexton,  with  Messrs.  McCarthy  and 
Dillon,  as  the  natural  result  of  Mr.  Healy's  bitter  attack 
on  their  leadership,  which  had  endangered  the  unity  of  the 
party.  Mr.  Healy  will  remain  in  the  Irish  party,  but  as  an 
independent  member.  It  is  not  expected  that  this  action 
will  materially  affect  the  Irish  political  situation. 

Free-Love  and  Marriage. — In  October  the  case  of 
Edith  Lanchester  brought  into  discussion  in  England  the 
new  socialist  theories  of  the  relation  between  the  sexes. 
The  young  woman,  now  24  years  old,  of  a  respectable  and 
prosperous  family,  and  well  educated  at  institutions  of 
high  grade  by  her  father,  imbibed  socialist  principles,  and 
some  years  ago  left  her  home  for  a  residence  in  the  work- 
ing-class district  of  Battersea,  having  a  small  income  of 
her  own,  to  which  she  added  by  work.  She  became  a  strong 
and  eloquent  public  advocate  of  socialism,  and  was  made 
a  socialist  candidate  for  the  London  school  board. 

For  two  years  she  had  evidently  been  much  interested 
in  John  Sullivan,  a  workingman  inferior  to  her  in  breed- 
ing and  education.     Her  father,  however,  made  no  objec- 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


935 


tion  to  their  marriage;  but  when  she  declared  that  she  in- 
tended to  act  on  extreme  socialist  principles,  dispensing 
with  the  formality  of  marriage  in  forming  their  new  rela- 
tion, her  parents  took  steps  to  prevent  this.  They  con- 
sulted a  specialist  in  mental  disorders,  on  whose  advice  she 
was  taken  to  an  insane  asylum  as  a  monomaniac.  Sullivan 
appealed  to  the  commissioners  in  lunacy,  who,  after  ex- 
amining her  accord- 
ing to  law,  reported 
that  they  discovered 
no  signs  of  lunacy, 
and  ordered  her  set  at 
liberty. 

As  to  the  right, 
also  as  to  the  judi- 
ciousness of  the  pa- 
rents' action,  opinions 
differ:  their  legal 
right,  however,  to  take 
a  course  which  would 
bring  a  decision  by  the 
commissioners  is  gen- 
erally  conceded. 
Equally  general  is  the 
opinion  that  the 
young  woman's  act  is 
foolish,  and  the  man's 
acceptance  of  her  sac- 
rifice abominably  self- 
ish. Even  the  official 
organ  of  socialism, 
Justice,  though  fully 
accepting  her  theories 
of  marriage,  declares  her  course  useless  and  harmful  in 
applying  her  theories  by  her  own  individual  action  ^'re- 
gardless of  the  harm  which  [her]  behavior  may  do  to  oth- 
ers," inasmuch  as  "we  are  living  in  the  world  as  it  is." 

Lord  Sackville's  Case  Recalled.— Lord  Sackville, 
British  minister  to  the  United  States,  1881-89,  issued  dur- 
ing the  quarter  a  pamphlet  which  is  a  curiosity  in  diplo- 
matic annals. 

It  comprises  fifty-two  pages,  and  is  entitled  "My  Mission  to  the 
United  States,  '81-89,"  "printed  for  private  distribution."  About 
100  copies  are  said  to  have  been  printed.  It  is  a  complaint  of  ill 
treatment,  a  sweeping  accusation  against  American  statesmen,  and  a 
disparagement  of  American  politics  in  general  as  selfish  and  merce- 
nary— all  set  forth  bv  way  of  statements  of  occurrences  connected  with 
Yoi:  5.— 60, 


THE  MARQUIS  OF  DUFFERIX, 
BRITISH   AMBASSADOR   TO   FRANCE. 


936  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  K\ 

several  episodes  in  the  writer's  diplomatic  career  in  this  country.  The 
doleful  testimony  of  this  sufferer  is  that  he  found  the  leaders  of  both 
political  parties  to  be,  not  statesmen  who  were  trustworthy  through 
their  adhesion  to  their  professed  principles,  but  mere  politicians  of  a 
low  type,  always  truckling  to  the  Irish  vote;  ready  to  stoop  to  any 
trick;  either  actually  hating  England  by  reason  of  their  ignorant  sym- 
pathy with  "oppressed  Ireland,"  or  deeming  it  their  best  policy  to 
curry  favor  with  the  vulgar  crowd  by  appearing  to  hate  the  mother 
country.  He  found  it  impossible  to  procure  from  the  United  States 
government  the  application  of  restraints,  called  for  under  interna- 
tional law,  to  men  who  were  actively  and  almost  publicly  fomenting 
and  organizing  in  this  country  conspiracy  and  rebellion  in  Ireland: 
no  administration  dared  let  itself  be  known  as  thus  interfering  with 
the  enemies  of  England.  Lord  Sackville  deliberately  declares  that 
at  this  time  his  life  was  in  danger  from  Fenian  assassins.  He  found 
that  neither  England  nor  Canada  could  get  justice  done  from  the 
United  States  in  the  early  Bering  sea  negotiations,  because  the  Alaska 
fur  corporation  "  was  rich  and  influential  in  both  houses  of  congress." 
The  famed  Murchison  letter,  with  Lord  Sackville's  summary  dis- 
missal from  the  country — on  account  of  his  answer  to  it,  advocating 
President  Cleveland's  re-election  as  the  candidate  most  likely  to  be 
friendly  to  England — naturally  is  his  most  grievous  memory,  and  calls 
forth  his  bitterest  denunciations  against  President  Cleveland  and 
Secretary  Bayard  who  first  requested  his  recall,  and,  when  that  was 
not  granted,  sent  him  home  as  an  unendurable  meddler.  He  alludes 
to  Mr.  Bayard  as  "the  perpetrator  of  these  degrading  acts  of  political 
trickery." 

This  pamphlet  is  of  little  consequence,  inasmuch  as  the 
issues  which  it  treats  are  dead:  it  is  an  unpleasant  ghost 
story.  We  may  well  be  sorry  that  this  particular  diplomat 
— doubtless  an  estimable  gentleman  in  his  private  charac- 
ter— should  have  had  such  a  disagreeable  experience  with 
us.  Also,  the  style  in  which  he  expresses  himself  suggests 
certain  qualities  in  his  natural  disposition  which  might 
easily  have  occasioned  his  departure  out  of  diplomatic  life 
in  this  or  any  other  country.  Yet  it  may  be  wise  for  the 
United  States  as  a  nation  to  take  some  heed  on  the  points 
urged  against  it  by  even  such  an  ungenial  critic. 

Miscellaneous. — The  queen-in-council  at  Windsor,  on 
December  12,  formally  prorogued  parliament  to  February 
11,  1896. 

Announcement  was  made  near  the  end  of  October  that 
Princess  Maud  of  Wales,  youngest  daughter  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  is  betrothed  to  Prince  Karl,  second  son  of  Prince 
Frederick,  who  is  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  of  Denmark. 
The  announcement  follows  the  return  of  the  Princess  of 
Wales  with  her  two  daughters  from  Copenhagen  after  a 
long  visit  to  her  parents,  the  king  and  queen  of  Denmark. 
Princess  Maud  was  born  November  26, 1869;  Prince  Karl, 
August  3,  1872. 


LABOR  INTERESTS.  937 

A  second  son  was  born  to  the  Duke  of  York,  at  Sand- 
ringham  Hall  on  December  14. 

Lord  Dufferin,  British  ambassador  to  France,  explains 
his  recent  resignation  of  the  post  of  lord  warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports  as  occasioned  by  his  intention  to  make  his 
residence  at  his  place  in  Ireland  at  the  close  of  his  diplo- 
matic career  next  summer,  and  by  his  consequent  inability 
to  fulfil  the  duties  of  lord  warden. 

The  battle-ship  Victorious  was  launched  at  the  Chatl.j  m 
dockyard  on  October  19. 

The  ship  is  390  feet  long,  75  feet  beam,  21  \  feet  draught.  The 
armament  is  to  be  four  breech -loading  46- ton  guns,  twelve  6- inch 
quick-fire  guns,  sixteen  12-pounders,  and  several  3-pounder  Hotch- 
kiss  guns  and  Maxims;  also  five  torpedo  tubes,  of  which  four  are  to  be 
submerged. 

LABOR  INTERESTS. 

The  Carmaux  Strike. — Carmaux,  in  the  department 
of  Tarn,  southwestern  France,  has  recently  witnessed 
scenes  which  recall  those  of  the  great  strike  of  1892  (Vol. 
2,  pp.  245  and  365).  The  glassworkers'  strike,  which  be- 
gan during  the  summer,  of  which  some  mention  was  made 
last  quarter  (p.  697),  continued  over  three  months.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  struggle  of  three  years  ago,  the  chief  im- 
portance of  the  strike  of  1895  lay  in  its  relation  to  the  so- 
cialist movement  in  France.  In  both  cases,  politics  were 
involved;  but  in  1895  there  was  little  of  the  violence  that 
marked  the  earlier  struggle. 

The  cause  of  the  strike  of  1895  was  the  refusal  of  the  employers 
to  reinstate  two  employes  dismissed  for  absenting  themselves  in  order 
to  attend  a  meeting  in  another  city.  About  1,300  men  went  out. 
The  men  afterward  offered  to  end  the  strike,  even  without  exacting 
reinstatement  of  their  two  comrades,  for  whose  support  they  voted  to 
provide  through  assessments;  but  M.  Resseguier,  manager  of  the 
works,  then  imposed  additional  conditions  which  the  men  would  not 
accept.  On  October  15  M.  Resseguier  was  fired  at  in  the  street,  and 
slightly  wounded.  Socialist  papers  throughout  the  country  kept  up  a 
constant  agitation;  and  the  cause  of  the  strikers  was  championed  in 
the  chamber,  notably  by  M.  Jaures,  deputy  for  Tarn,  a  distinguished 
scholar,  who  spoke  with  moderation  and  counselled  arbitration. 
Early  in  November  the  prime  minister,  M.  Bourgeois,  requested  M. 
Resseguier  and  the  strikers  to  submit  their  differences  to  arbitration; 
but,  while  the  men  agreed  to  do  so,  the  director  of  the  glass  works 
refused.  A  government  commissioner  was  sent  to  investigate;  and, 
on  his  advice,  it  is  said,  the  men  finally,  toward  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber, intimated  their  intention  of  presenting  themselves  at  the  works 
for  employment,  and  of  laying  the  foundation  of  glass  works  for  the 
blowers  themselves.  M.  Bourgeois  sanctioned  a  grant  of  20,000  francs  . 
by  the  Paris  municipality  to  the  men  who  were  unable  to  secure  it- 
employment. 


938  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

British  Shipbuilding  Strike.— A  great  strike,  in- 
volving altogether  over  60,000  men,  seriously  hampering 
the  coal  and  iron  trade,  and  jeopardizing  the  important 
national  industry  of  shipbuilding  by  giving  exceptional 
facilities  to  foreign  competitors  at  a  time  when  rivalry  is 
becoming  acute,  began  in  the  shipyards  at  Belfast,  Ireland, 
October  11,  but  soon   spread  to  the  great  yards  on  the 

Clyde  in  Scotland. 

The  origin  of  the  con- 
flict was  the  dispute  over 
the  wages  of  a  few  engi- 
neers in  Harland  &  Wolff's 
yard  in  Belfast.  When 
times  were  bad  two  years 
ago,  their  wages  were  cut 
down  two  shillings  a  week, 
with  the  understanding 
that  the  reduction  should 
be  made,  good  when  busi- 
ness improved.  Times  be- 
ing better,  the  engineers 
asked  to  have  their  wages 
restored  to  the  former 
level.  The  employers  re- 
fused, on  the  ground  that 
they  had  taken  contracts 
at  so  low  rates  that  they 
could  not  raise  wages. 

During  the  first  week 
in  November  the  Clyde 
builders  became  involved 
in  the  struggle,  not  as  the 
result  of  any  local  griev- 
ance— for  it  seems  that  the 
relation  between  masters 
and  men  was  there  f  riend- 
GBRALD  BALFOUR,  ly,  and  that  a  future  ad- 

CHiEP  SECRETARY  FOR  IRELAND.  vauce  in  wagcs  had  been 

practically  arranged  for — but  as  the  result  of  an  agreement  whereby 
the  Clyde  masters  were  bound  to  stand  by  the  Belfast  masters  in  all 
labor  disputes.  At  the  request  of  the  latter,  a  partial  lockout  was 
declared  on  the  Clyde,  the  result  being  a  general  strike. 

Earnest  efforts  were  made  toward  settlement.  The  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  Gerald  Balfour,  was  asked  by  the  government  to  use  his 
good  offices  to  that  end;  but  the  masters  were  opposed  to  government 
interference.  However,  about  December  15,  a  conference  between 
employers  and  employes  was  arranged.  Lord  James  of  Hereford  pre- 
sided; and  terms  of  settlement  were  agreed  upon,  to  be  submitted  to 
the  ballot  of  the  men  at  Belfast  and  Glasgow.  The  terms  were  that 
the  Clyde  engineers  should  get  an  advance  of  a  shilling  a  week,  to  go 
into  effect  immediately,  and  receive  another  shilling  increase,  begin- 
ning in  February,  1896.  The  Belfast  men  were  to  receive  a  shilling 
a  week  advance,  beginning  in  February,  with  the  understanding  that 
there  should  be  no  change  in  the  rate  of  compensation  for  six  months 
thereafter. 


GERMAN  r.  939 

These  terms  were  rejected  by  the  men,  and  all  hopes  of  a  com- 
promise for  the  time  being  crushed.  Public  opinion  throughout 
Great  Britain  against  the  action  of  the  Clyde  masters  is  marked. 

Arbitration. — Dr.  von  Botticher,  the  German  im- 
perial minister  of  the  interior,  introduced  in  the  Reichs- 
tag, December  16,  a  bill  providing  for  creation  of  a 
chamber  composed  of  artisans  and  employers,  the  duty  of 
which  shall  be  to  decide  trade  disputes. 

GERMANY. 

An  important  congress  of  social  democrats  was  held  in 
Breslau,  beginning  on  October  6.  The  agrarian  program 
published  in  August  (p.  699),  in  which  the  right  to  landed 
property  was  recognized  to  some  extent,  failed  altogether 
to  gain  a  majority. 

The  government  is  steadily  continuing  its  campaign  of 
repression  against  the  socialists  (p.  698).  One  of  the 
most  striking  incidents  of  the  proceedings  at  Breslau  was 
the  rejoinder  of  Herr  Liebknecht  to  the  anti-socialist  utter- 
ances of  the  emperor  on  September  2,  the  anniversary  of 
the  battle  of  Sedan.     Herr  Liebkneclit  said: 

"  The  highest  authority  in  the  land  insults  us;  let  us  take  up  the 
challenge.  No  matter  what  he  may  be  who  throws  dirt  at  us,  he  can 
not  touch  us,  for  we  are  above  his  insults.  The  socialists  now  num- 
ber more  millions  than  there  were  thousands  in  Lassalle's  time,  and 
it  is  idle  to  curtail  suffrage  as  a  weapon  against  them.  The  violation 
of  universal  suffrage  would  be  equivalent  to  the  death-warrant  of  the 
imperial  government. " 

For  these  words,  Herr  Liebknecht  was  sentenced  to 
four  months'  imprisonment  by  the  criminal  court  at  Bres- 
lau. A  raid  made  by  the  police  upon  the  offices  of  social- 
ist papers  and  the  residences  of  socialists  in  Berlin  toward 
the  end  of  November,  revealed  documents  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  tlie  public  prosecutor  decided  at  once  to  close 
the  headquarters  of  the  election  unions  of  the  socialists. 
Formal  actions  were  instituted  against  several  of  the  so- 
cialist leaders.  However,  the  Reichstag,  on  December  9, 
without  debate,  resolved  to  suspend  during  the  present 
session  all  legal  actions  against  socialist  members  charged 
with  Use-majeste.  During  the  preceding  four  months  the 
prosecutions  for  Use-majeste  ending  in  convictions  had 
numbered  fifty-six. 

Simultaneously  with  the  gathering  at  Breslau,  a  con- 
gress of  the  people's  party  (  Volkspartei) ,  composed  mainly 
of  southern  German  democrats  belonging  to  the  liberal 
bourgeois  class,  was  held  in  Munich,  Bavaria. 


940  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

The  Volkspartei  is  an  evolutionist  rather  than  a  revolutionist 
party.  It  expects  the  reorganization  of  society  through  the  slovi^, 
quiet,  and  sure  elaboration  of  successive  reforms,  which  must  be  at- 
tained lawfully  and  without  violence. 

Officers  of  the  new  Reichstag  were  chosen  December 
4,  as  follows:  President,  Baron  Buol  von  Berenberg,  re- 
elected; first  vice-president,  Herr  Schmidt,  Eichter  radi- 
cal; second  vice-president,  Herr  Spahn,  clerical. 

About  December  9  Herr  von  Koller,  Prussian  minister 
of  the  interior,  retired,  being  succeeded  by  Baron  von  der 
Recke,  governor  of  the  province  of  Diisseldorf,  who  is  de- 
scribed as  an  independent.  Chancellor  von  Hohenlohe  de- 
clared that  Von  Koller's  resignation  was  due  to  misunder- 
standings from  which  it  was  impossible  to  find  any  other 
issue,  and  it  was  not  caused  by  his  advocacy  of  anti-social- 
ist repression  or  any  kindred  question. 

The  action  of  the  53d  United  States  congress  in  adopt- 
ing a  differential  duty  discriminating  against  the  bounty- 
supported  German  exporter  of  sugar,  was  soon  followed 
by  the  prohibition  of  imports  into  Germany  of  American 
cattle  and  meat  products,  professedly  on  considerations  of 
public  health  (Vol.  4,  p.  778).  This  action  on  the  part  of 
Germany  has  since  been  followed  by  the  burdening  of 
American  insurance  companies  doing  business  in  Germany 
with  conditions  which  President  Cleveland  in  his  annual 
message  to  congress  described  as  "  new  and  unforeseen," 
and  which  have  been  so  vexatious  as  to  lead  to  the  re- 
nouncing by  those  companies  of  their  concessions  from  the 
German  government.  Retaliatory  action  against  German 
companies  is  contemplated  in  the  United  States;  but  ne- 
gotiations are  in  progress  which  may  lead  to  a  compromise. 

The  notorious  "Jew-baiter,"  Rector  Ahlwardt,  at- 
tempted to  institute  an  anti-Semitic  campaign  in  the  Uni- 
ted States.  He  spoke  for  the  first  time  in  Cooper  Union, 
New  York  city,  December  2,  to  a  small  audience,  but  was 
then,  and  has  since  been,  received  with  litle  favor.  On  De- 
cember 21  the  Democratic  Anti-Semitic  Union  in  Berlin 
disavowed  responsibility  for  his  campaign  or  utterances 
in  America. 

Baron  von  Hammerstein,  the  absconding  ex-editor  of 
the  Kreuz-Zeitung  (p.  699),  was  arrested  near  Athens, 
Greece,  December  27. 

FRANCE. 

A  New  Ministry. — The  third  French  republic  has  now 
its  thirty-fourth  ministry,  and,  for  the  first  time  in  its  his- 


FRANCE. 


941 


tory,  finds  itself  face  to  face  with  radicalism  in  office,  and 
that  with  the  support  of  socialism.  On  October  28  the 
Eibot  ministry  formed  in  January,  1895  (p.  187),  was  de- 
feated by  a  coalition  between  the  extreme  revolutionary 
faction  and  the  so-called  conservatives  of  the  right.  This 
occurred  as  the  result  of  a  debate  on  an  interpellation  with 
regard  to  the  Southern  railway  scandal  brought  forward 
by  M.  Kouanet,  a  so- 
cialist republican,  and 
a  journalist  by  profes- 
sion, who  declared 
that  the  scandal  had 
compromised  the  good 
repute  of  parliament. 
It  was  this  same  rail- 
way question  which 
led  to  the  overthrow 
of  M.  Dupuy's  cabi- 
net in  January,  1895 
(p.  182). 

M.  Rouanet  liad 
charged  that  certain  sen- 
ators and  deputies,  among 
them  Senator  Edmond 
Magnier,  had  received 
large  shares  of  the  profits 
of  the  South  of  France 
Railway  Syndicate,  which 
was  organized  by  the  late 
Baron  Reinach  of  Panama 
canal  notoriety.  A  ma- 
gisterial investigation  had 
already  resulted  in  the 
conviction,  imprisonment, 
and  fining  of  M.  Magnier. 
M.  Rouanet  insistedon  full 
explanations  from  the  minister  of  justice.  Two  members  of  the 
right  having  followed  with  similar  speeches,  M.  Trarieux,  minister 
of  justice,  asserted  that  whenever  the  government  believed  they  had 
detected  guilty  persons  they  had  prosecuted  them.  He  proceeded  to 
give  certain  explanations,  and  demanded  a  vote  of  confidence.  A 
resolution  declaring  that  members  of  parliament  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  participate  in  financial  syndicates,  was  unanimously  carried. 
M.  Rouanet  then  moved  a  resolution  demanding  that  full  light 
should  be  thrown  on  the  affair,  and  all  the  guilty  parties  prosecuted, 
and  that  the  report  of  the  expert  should  be  communicated  to  the 
chamber.  This  was  opposed  by  the  premier,  but  carried  by  311  to 
210  votes.  The  majority  against  the  government  included  28  mod- 
erates, 14  constitutionalists — the  "rallied" — 139  radicals,  55  social- 
ists, and  47  reactionaries.  The  minority  comprised  171  moderates, 
12  constitutionalists,  and  five  reactionaries. 

The  members  of  the  ministry  at  once  withdrew,  and  proceeded  to 


M.  BOURGEOtS, 
NEW   PRIME    MINISTER  OF  FRANCE. 


942  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4thQr.,i£95. 

tender  their  resignations  to  tlie  president,  wlio  accepted  them.     The 
chamber  then  adjourned  for  a  week. 

M.  Bourgeois,  radical,  succeeded  in  forming  a  new 
cabinet,  which  was  completed  November  1  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  ministry  of  the  colonies,  which  portfolio 
had  been  offered  to  M.  Leveille,  but  was  accepted  on  No- 
vember 4  by  M.  Pierre  Paul  Guieyesse,  republican.  The 
list,  which  includes  four  radicals  besides  M.  Bourgeois, 
stands  as  follows: 

Prime  Minister  and  Minister  of  the  Interior — M.  Bourgeois. 

Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs — M.  Berthelot. 

Minister  of  War — M.  Cavaignac. 

Minister  of  Marine — M.  Lockroy. 

Minister  of  Finance — M.  Doumer. 

Minister  of  Justice  and  Worship — M.  Ricard. 

Minister  of  the  Colonies — M.  Guieyesse. 

Minister  of  Public  Instruction — M.  Combes. 

Minister  of  Public  Works — M.  Guyot-Descaigne. 

Minister  of  Commerce — M.  Mesureur. 

Minister  of  Agriculture — M.  Viger, 

Bourgeois,  Leon  Victor  Auguste,  was  born  in  Paris  May  21, 
1851.  Summarized,  his  political  career  has  been  as  follows:  Secre- 
tary-general of  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  1885;  prefect  of  Haute  Ga- 
ronne, 1885;  director  of  communal  affairs  in  the  ministry  of  the  in- 
terior and  prefect  of  police,  1887;  returned  a  member  of  the  chamber 
of  deputies  for  the  first  time  at  a  by-election,  1888;  under-secretary 
of  state  under  Minister  Floquet,  1888;  re-elected  member  of  the 
chamber,  1889;  minister  of  public  instruction  (cabinets  of  MM.  de 
Freycinet  and  Loubet),  1892;  minister  of  justice,  cabinet  of  M.  Ribot, 
December,  1892,  and  January,  1893;  re-elected  in  1893  by  8,585  votes, 
no  candidate  running  against  him. 

The  policy  of  the  new  ministry  was  announced  No- 
vember 4. 

It  contemplated  a  searching  examination  into  the  railway  scan- 
dals; prohibition  of  senators  or  deputies  from  serving  as  directors  in  any 
companies  having  contracts  with  the  state,  under  penalty  of  losing 
their  seats;  the  submitting  to  arbitration  the  questions  involved  in  the 
glass  workers'  strike  at  Carmaux  (p.  937);  modification  of  the  treaty 
with  Madagascar;  creation  of  a  colonial  army;  levying  of  a  progress- 
ive probate  tax;  and  the  imposition  of  a  general  income  tax  "  to  cor- 
rect the  anti-democratic  inequalities  in  the  fiscal  system."  Foreign 
relations  were  to  remain  unchanged. 

A  division  has  occurred  in  the  ranks  of  French  social- 
ists, with  the  result  that  two  socialist  congresses  were  held 
this  year  in  France,  one  at  Limoges  and  another  at  Troyes. 
The  Limoges  congress,  which  met  the  last  week  in  Sep- 
tember, represented  about  2,000  workingmen^s  unions,  all 
opposed  to  the  parliamentary  socialism  of  Jules  Guesde, 
and  leaning  toward  violent  methods.  The  Guesdists,  who 
form  the  organized  socialist  party,  met  at  Troyes. 


ITALY.  943 

Emile  Arton,  the  notorious  Panama  lobbyist,  who  dis- 
appeared from  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  great  scandal  in 
1892  (Vol.  2,  p.  369),  was  arrested  in  London,  Eng.,  No- 
vember 14.  The  request  of  the  French  government  for  his 
extradition  for  various  crimes  of  forgery  and  fraud,  of 
which  he  had  been  convicted,  was  granted.  He  was  con- 
nected with  Baron  Reinach  and  Dr.  Cornelius  Herz,  as  a 
medium  between  bribers  and  bribed  in  the  Panama  canal 
case. 

The  reorganization  of  the  council  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  was  completed  in  December  (p.  700),  General 
D^Auerstadt  succeeding  General  Fevrier  as  grand  chan- 
cellor. 

The  anarchist  Bouteilhe  (p.  697),  about  October  1, 
was  sentenced  to  three  years^  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of 
100  francs. 

ITALY. 

Under  the  management  of  Finance  Minister  Baron 
Sonnino,  Italy  seems  at  last  to  have  turned  the  corner  of 
her  financial  difficulties.  The  budget  presented  Novem- 
ber 25  was  unique  in  the  history  of  similar  Italian  papers, 
in  that  it  showed  a  surplus. 

The  complete  accounts  for  1894—5  showed  a  notable  improvement 
on  the  figures  submitted  in  December  last;  that  the  corrected  budget 
of  1895-6  showed  a  surplus  of  1,270,000  lire;  and  that  the  estimates 
for  1896-7  presented  an  effective  surplus  of  802,000  lire.  The  sta- 
tistics of  trade  and  industry,  he  said,  were  most  consoling.  Other 
satisfactory  symptoms  were  the  increased  yield  from  the  taxes  on 
articles  of  consumption,  the  improved  railway  receipts,  and  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  deposits  in  postoffice  savings  banks. 

King  Carlos  I.  of  Portugal,  who  had  contemplated  vis- 
iting the  king  and  queen  of  Italy  on  the  occasion  of  his 
recent  trip  to  various  European  courts,  abandoned  his  in- 
tention on  learning  that  it  would  offend  the  Pope,  it  be- 
ing intimated  to  him  that  should  he  visit  the  Quirinal  he 
could  not  expect  to  be  received  at  the  Vatican.  As  a  re- 
sult, Italy  has  suspended  diplomatic  relations  with  Portu- 
gal until,  to  use  the  sarcastic  words  of  Premier  Crispi, 
*^she  recovers  her  independence  in  international  politics." 

At  the  end  of  December  the  state  of  siege  declared  in 
Sicily  in  January,  1894  (Vol.  4,  p.  205),  as  a  result  of  the 
socialistic  and  revolutionary  disturbances  which  began  in 
the  latter  part  of  1893,  was  raised.  No  further  trouble  is 
feared  from  the  plottings  of  the  Fasci  dei  Lavoratori  (la- 
borers' unions)  and  other  secret  socialistic  bodies,  to  which 
the  disorder  was  largely  due. 


944  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Violent  earthquake  shocks  were  felt  in  Rome  Novem- 
ber 1.  The  convent  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  and  several 
palaces  and  public  buildings  were  seriously  damaged. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

In  political,  social,  and   religious  affairs   the  two  por- 
tions of  the  dual  empire  stand  in  marked  contrast  to  each 

other.  In  Hungary, 
Christian  and  Jew,  Prot- 
estant and  Catholic,  are 
equal  before  the  law, 
which  recognizes  no 
distinctions  of  church  or 
creed.  In  Austria,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  trend 
is  toward  religious  ab- 
solutism. The  anti- 
Semitic  agitation  has 
assumed  vast  propor- 
tions. At  the  munici- 
pal elections  in  Vienna, 
early  in  October,  the 
anti-Semitic  party  se- 
cured control  of  the  city 
council;  and  on  the  29th 
of  the  month  the  council 
elected  Dr.  Karl  Liiger, 
the  anti-Semitic  leader 
in  the  Reichsrath,  as 
burgomaster.  The  emperor,  however,  refused  to  confirm 
the  election.  On  November  13  Dr.  Liiger  was  again  chosen 
by  the  council  to  fill  the  office,  receiving  an  overwhelming 
majority.  Accordingly  the  government  took  action,  and, 
for  the  second  time  within  the  year,  dissolved  the  munici- 
pal council  of  Vienna  by  imperial  decree  (p.  442).  This 
action  caused  much  irritation  among  both  anti-Semites 
and  clericals,  and  several  stormy  scenes  occurred  in  the 
Reichsrath.  A  large  anti-Semite  meeting  in  the  Prater, 
on  December  2,  was  dispersed  with  some  difficulty  by  the 
police,  whereupon  the  paraders  marched  through  the 
streets.  Their  leaders  were  arrested.  The  new  premier. 
Count  Badeni,  is  determined  to  combat  anti-Semitism  to 
the  utmost. 

The  program  of  the  party  is   reactionary.     It  provides  that  all 
Jews  shall  be  expelled  and  excluded  from  the  municipal  service;  that 


BR.  KARL  Lt?GBR, 

ANTI-SEMITB  LEADER   IN  VIENNA. 


I 


PORTUGAL.  945 

no  Jews  shall  be  allowed  to  make  contracts  with  the  municipal  gov- 
ernment, and  that  all  such  contracts  now  existing  shall  be  cancelled; 
and  that  the  public  schools,  which  are  supported  by  a  general  tax, 
shall  no  longer  be  open  to  Jewish  children.  The  program  also  dis- 
criminates against  Protestants.  No  more  Protestant  teachers  will  be 
allowed  in  the  schools,  and  the  whole  system  of  public  instruction 
will  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  as  completely 
as  it  was  before  the  liberal  legislation  of  1868. 

Another  point  of  contrast  between  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary is  found  in  the  privileges  ac- 
corded to  women.  In  Austria  an 
appeal  for  the  higher  education 
of  women  has  just  been  denied  by 
the  imperial  government;  while, 
almost  simultaneously,  Hungary 
has  decreed  the  free  admission  of 
women  even  to  the  highest  insti- 
tutions of  learning. 

About  the  middle  of  October, 
the  government  abolished   the 
state  of  siege  which  had  been  de- 
clared in  Prague,  Bohemia,  in 
September,  1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  601), 
when  riotous  demonstrations  of         ^^^^t  casimir  badeni, 
the  Young  Czechs  were  causing         ^  ^^'"'"^^  "'"'^^^""• 
much  trouble.    The  new  Bohemian  diet  elected  in  Novem- 
ber has  a  majority  for  the  Young  Czech  party. 

All  the  so-called  religious  bills  which  have  lately  been 
the  subject  of  agitation  in  Hungary,  have  now  become  law. 
The  new  civil  marriage  law  went  into  force  October  l;and 
the  first  ceremony  performed  on  that  day  was  made  the 
occasion  of  a  demonstration  by  a  large  crowd. 

PORTUGAL. 

King  Carlos  I.  started  at  the  beginning  of  October  on 
a  visit  to  the  courts  of  Spain,  Germany,  and  Great  Brit- 
ain. He  was  received  most  cordially,  ample  festivities  be- 
ing arranged  during  his  stay  at  each  capital.  His  original 
intention  of  visiting  King  Humbert  at  Eome  had  to  be 
abandoned  owing  to  conflicting  claims  of  Pope  and  king 
(p.  943).  Had  he  visited  the  Quirinal,  the  probable  result 
would  have  been  not  only  the  refusal  of  the  Pope  to  re- 
ceive him,  but  the  recall  of  the  papal  nuncio  to  Portugal, 
which  would  have  led  to  grave  international  complaic- 
tions. 

Carlos  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  is  thirty-two  years  of  age,  the  eldest 


946  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

son  of  the  late  King  Louis  and  Queen  Maria  Pia,  sister  to  King  Hum- 
bert I.  of  Italy.  Through  his  grandfather  he  is  descended  from  the 
famous  Saxe-Coburg  family  which  has  spread  its  branches  into  so 
many  European  dynasties.  He  married  in  1886  the  Princess  Amelie, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  late  Comte  de  Paris,  and  came  to  the  throne  in 
1889  on  the  death  of  his  father. 

The  parliamentary  reform  begun  early  in  the  year  (p. 
191)  has  now  been  advanced  by  a  reorganization  of  the 

house  of  peers. 

The  chamber  of  peers 
will  henceforth  consist  of 
ninety  members  nomi- 
nated for  life,  in  addition 
to  those  peers  who  are  at 
present  members  by  hered- 
itary  right.  The  nomi- 
nated peers  may  be  selected 
without  limitation  as  to 
class,  but  certain  restric- 
tions and  disqualifications 
are  to  be  imposed.  The 
elective  portion  of  the 
chamber  ceases  to  exist. 

RUSSIA. 

On  November  15  a 
daughter  was  born  to 
the  czar  and  czarina. 
She  was  christened 
Olga. 

The  fastest  vessel 
afloat  is  now  said  to 
be  the  Russian  tor- 
pedo-boat Sokol  (Rus- 
sian for  Hmuk),  built 
by  Yarrow  &  Company  of  London,  Eng.  On  an  experi- 
mental trip  she  attained  a  speed  of  29f  knots  (about  34^ 
miles)  an  hour  over  the  measured  mile,  and  during  part  of 
the  run  went  at  a  speed  of  over  thirty  knots  an  hour,  the 
first  vessel  to  reach  that  distinction. 

The  Sokol  is  190  feet  long;  18  feet  6  inches  beam;  horse-power 
over  4,000.  She  is  a  twin-screw  vessel,  with  triple  compound  en- 
gines, supplied  with  steam  from  eight  water  tube  boilers.  Her  hull 
is  of  nickel  steel;  aluminum  has  been  used  in  construction,  where 
practicable,  to  save  weight;  and  the  same  object  is  aimed  at  in  the 
use  of  high-class  bronzes  in  the  engines. 


CARLOS  T.,  KING  OF  PORTTTGAL. 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN.  947 

BELOIUM. 

Brussels  was  declared  a  seaport  by  royal  decree  on  Oc- 
tober 19.  A  canal  is  to  be  constructed  at  an  estimated 
cost  of  35,000,000  francs  ($7,000,000),  which  will  enable 
vessels  of  2,000  tons^  burden  to  discharge  their  cargoes  at 
the  wharves  of  the  city. 

On  November  17  the  communal  elections  took  place, 
resulting  in  considerable  gains  to  the  clericals  and  social- 
ists. 

M.  Boique,  head  of  the  water  department  of  Brussels, 
was  deliberately  murdered  on  October  16  by  a  discharged 
employe  of  the  water  service. 

SWITZERLAND. 

On  November  3  the  voters  of  the  Swiss  Republic,  in  a 
referendum,  declared  decisively  against  centralization  of 
the  military  power,  by  rejecting  the  bill,  passed  by  the  fed- 
eral legislature  in  June,  transferring  the  organization  and 
management  of  the  army  from  the  cantonal  governments 
to  the  federal  authorities. 

The  bill,  wliicli  passed  tbe  legislature  by  a  vote  of  111  to  9,  pro- 
vided that  federal  districts  were  to  take  the  place  of  cantons  for  mili- 
tary purposes,  and  that  each  regiment  should  be  composed  of  Swiss 
citizens  without  distinction  of  canton,  while  the  task  of  equipment 
now  conducted  by  the  cantons  was  to  pass  to  the  central  government. 

The  tendency  of  the  bill  was  to  reduce  the  cantons, 
for  military  purposes,  to  a  condition  very  much  like  that 
of  the  French  prefectures;  but  its  most  objectionable  feat- 
ure was  felt  to  lie  in  its  general  tendency  toward  central- 
ization. The  "state  rights"  feeling  asserted  itself  in  the 
large  majority  against  the  bill. 

NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

In  the  early  part  of  October  King  Oscar  finally  ac- 
cepted the  resignation  of  the  ultra-Norwegian  cabinet  of 
M.  Stang;  and  on  October  14  a  coalition  ministry  was  an- 
nounced, with  Dr.  Hagerup  as  premier.  The  real  head  of 
the  cabinet,  however,  is  said  to  be  M.  Sverdrup,  the  min- 
ister of  worship,  who  represents  a  party  which  oscillates 
between  conservatives  and  radicals,  though  tending  toward 
the  latter.  Its  policy  is  to  maintain  the  Scandinavivn 
union  of  1814.  The  premier  belongs  to  the  right,  as  do 
the  ministers  of  public  works  and  of  national  defense. 
The  ministers  of  finance  and  of  the  interior  and  the  secre- 


948  AFFAIRS  IN  EUROPE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

tary  of  the  department  of  revision  are  members  of  the  left, 
and  the  minister  of  public  worship  is  a  moderate.  Each 
of  the  three  parties  has  a  representative  in  the  Norwegian 
delegation  in  the  council  of  state  at  Stockholm. 

A  commission  composed  of  representatives  of  both 
members  of  the  union,  is  to  attempt  a  settlement  of  the 
differences  between  them.  It  will  sit  alternately  in  the 
two  capitals  and  under  the  alternate  presidency  of  a  Nor- 
wegian and  a  Swede. 

BULGARIA. 

A  second  son  was  born  to  Prince  Ferdinand  on  No- 
vember 17,  and  was  named  Cyril,  receiving  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Preslava. 

The  report  of  the  parliamentary  commission  investi- 
gating the  acts  of  the  ministry  of  the  late  M.  Stambou- 
loff,  was  published  late  in  November. 

It  accuses  tlie  deceased  minister  and  his  colleagues  of  all  manner 
of  abuses  of  power  in  the  matter  of  personal  liberty  and  electoral 
rights  and  in  the  application  of  state  funds.  The  report  calls  upon 
the  sobranje  to  impeach  eight  of  M.  Stambouloff's  former  colleagues, 
and  to  take  proceedings  to  obtain  pecuniary  restitution  from  the  heirs 
of  the  late  premier  and  of  Colonel  MutkurofE,  ex -regent  (p.  590). 

ROUMANIA. 

The  Catargi-Carp  coalition  ministry  formed  early  in 
1892  resigned  office  on  October  15,  owing  to  dissensions 
among  themselves  and  manifestations  of  popular  discon- 
tent with  the  government's  policy  of  adhesion  to  the 
Triple  Alliance.  The  premier,  M.  Catargi,  w^as  anxious 
to  limit  the  influence  of  the  Dreibund;  but  his  colleague, 
M.  Carp,  leaned  strongly  toward  Austria  and  Germany,  and 
in  this  policy  was  supported  by  the  king. 

A  new  coalition  ministry  took  office  October  16,  with 
M.  Sturdza,  leader  of  the  national  liberals,  as  premier.  It 
is  composed  of  Junimists  (young  conservatives)  and  na- 
tional liberals,  the  latter  forming  the  small  opposition  of 
thirty  in  parliament. 

MONTENEGRO. 

Hitherto,  in  the  500  years  of  its  existence,  Montenegro, 
which  is  considered  the  most  warlike  of  the  Balkan  states, 
has  had  no  regular  army.  The  forces  of  the  state  have 
been  simply  the  state  itself  under  arms,  every  man  except 
the    Mussulman  inhabitants   of    Dulcigno,  who  are   ex- 


GREECE. 


949 


empted  on  payment  of  a  special  tax,  being  liable  to  serve 
in  time  of  war.  Even  the  women  have  done  their  part  in 
campaigns  by  performing  the  duties  of  a  commissariat. 
It  is  now,  however,  announced  that  Prince  Nicholas  has 

decided  to  found  a  

standing  army,  and 
barracks  for  its  ac- 
commodation are  be- 
ing erected.  The  pres- 
ent condition  of  the 
principality  is  peace- 
ful, contrasting  favor- 
ably with  that  of  Ma- 
cedonia and  Albania. 

GREECE. 

Negotiations  for 
an  arrangement  of  the 
foreign  debt  have  been 
reopened  with  the 
bondholders  in  Lon- 
don, Paris,  and  Ber- 
lin (p.  448).  The  gov- 
ernment of  M.  Dely- 
annis  has  accepted  the 
principle  that  the 
surplus  from  the  rev- 
enues specifically  as- 
signed for  certain  pay- 
ments to  the  bondholders  shall  also  be  appropriated  for 
their  benefit. 


THEODOR  DELTANNIS, 
PRIME   MINISTER  OF   GREECE. 


950  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

INDIA. 

The  Opium  Question. — At  a  conference  held  in 
London,  Eng.,  in  December,  at  which  several  members  of 
parliament  were  present,  a  resolution  was  unanimously 
passed,  condemning  the  conduct  of  the  recent  opium  com- 
mission (p.  423),  as  follows: 

"  This  conference  calls  upon  the  government  to  prohibit  the  ex- 
port of  opium  from  India  to  China,  and  so  bring  to  an  end  our  na- 
tional connection  with  a  trade  the  one  aim  of  which  is  to  multiply 
opium-smokers,  that  is  to  say  the  victims  of  a  habit  which  the  royal 
commission  acknowledged  in  its  report  to  be  universally  condemned 
in  India,  which  the  Japanese  will  not  tolerate  under  any  pretext  in 
their  country,  which  has  wrought  untold  degradation  in  China,  and 
which  brings  our  national  action  into  direct  opposition  to  the  Chris- 
tian Church." 

Mutiny  in  Goa. — A  military  revolt  in  Goa,  the  Portu- 
guese possession  in  India,  occupied  the  attention  of  the 
Lisbon  government  in  September,  October,  and  Novem- 
ber. It  started  September  14  with  the  mutiny  of  a  regi- 
ment of  troops,  who  objected  to  being  sent  to  Mozambique 
in  East  Africa.  They  were  told  by  the  officials  that  they 
were  being  sent  merely  as  a  relief,  but  suspected  that  they 
were  to  be  called  upon  to  fight  the  natives  in  rebellion  there 
under  Chief  Gungunhana.  (This  chief  was  signally  de- 
feated by  Portuguese  troops  on  November  15.) 

The  mutinous  battalion,  after  seizing  some  munitions 
of  war  at  Goa,  fled  to  the  open  country,  and  intrenched 
themselves  among  the  thickly  wooded  hills;  and  the  re- 
volt spread  until  it  included  most  of  the  natives  and  the 
soldiers  of  the  entire  Goanese  standing  army.  The  gov- 
ernor-general of  Goa  offered  the  mutineers  full  amnesty 
"on  condition  of  disarming;  but  they  declined  the  offer,  and 
continued  their  depredations  at  various  points.  The  gov- 
ernor-general was  recalled  by  the  home  government;  and 
an  expeditionary  force  of  700  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artil- 
lery was  dispatched  from  Lisbon  under  command  of  the 
king's  brother,  the  Duke  of  Oporto,  besides  troops  from 
Mozambique.  The  force  arrived  November  12;  and  by  the 
first  week  in  December  the  mutiny  had  been  crushed 
without  much  fighting.  An  offer  of  assistance  from  Brit- 
ish India  — where  the  moral  eff'ect  of  the  mutiny,  in  case 
it  should  be  successful,  was  feared— was  declined  by 
Portugal. 

Goa  is  a  strip  of  territory  on  the  west  coast  of  India,  comprising 
2,365  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  a  little  over  475,000. 

Mohammed  Akram  Khan,  British  agent  at  Cabul,  the 


CHINA.  951 

capital  of  Afghanistan,  was  killed  about  November  1  by  a 
messenger  of  the  agency,  who  ran  amuch  because  of  being 
punished  by  the  agent's  son.  The  agent's  son  was  also 
fatally  wounded,  and  the  messenger  was  finally  killed  by 
bystanders. 

CHINA. 

The  Dungan  Rebellion. — The  insurrection  in  north- 
west China,  already  noted  (p.  711),  proved  a  most  formid- 
able uprising.  It  aifected  not  only  Kan-Soo,  in  the  ex- 
treme west,  but  extended  to  Shensi  and  other  provinces, 
and  involved,  it  Avas  said,  as  many  as  800,000  men.  In 
some  features  it  recalled  the  last  Mohammedan  uprising, 
which  broke  out  in  1862  and  lasted  about  seventeen  years. 
*' Dungan''  (or  "Tungan")  is  probably  derived  from  a 
Turkish  word  meaning  *^ convert,"  and  is  loosely  applied 
to  all  Mohammedan  settlers  from  Kashgar  to  the  verge  of 
the  Great  Wall  of  China. 

The  uprising  of  1895  was  encouraged  by  the  disturbed 
condition  of  the  country  following  on  the  demoralization 
produced  by  the  war  with  Japan;  but  its  immediate  cause 
was  an  act  of  oppression  by  a  Chinese  official,  namely,  the 
imprisonment,  in  March,  of  the  Imam  of  a  Mohammedan 
village,  by  the  district  magistrate  of  Hochow,  a  city  about 
150  miles  southeast  of  Lanchau-fu,  the  capital  of  Kan- 
Soo.  The  rebellion  rapidly  spread.  In  May  General  Tung 
Fusiang  was  sent  with  25,000  Chinese  troops  to  the  prov- 
ince; but,  in  spite  of  his  defeat  of  the  rebels  in  several 
skirmishes  in  the  vicinity  of  Lanchau-fu,  the  latter  gained 
fresh  adherents,  and  captured  important  points.  General 
Ma,  the  leader  of  the  insurgents,  finally  invested  Lanchau- 
fu,  which  was  said  to  be  garrisoned  by  about  10,000 
troops.  General  Tung,  marching  to  raise  the  siege  of  the 
capital,  was  met  by  General  Ma  about  fifty  miles  from  the 
city;  and,  after  a  battle  said  to  have  lasted  three  days,  was 
signally  defeated.  News  of  this  battle  reached  us  early  in 
October.  Toward  the  end  of  November  it  was  reported 
that  the  Chinese  general  had  suffered  another  defeat,  at 
Hsian,  and  that  the  rebels  were  masters  of  half  of  Kan- 
Soo.  A  month  later  the  tables  seem  to  have  been  com- 
pletely turned;  and  the  rebellion  was  reported  crushed. 
Further  news  from  that  remote  region  will  soon,  it  is 
hoped,  throw  more  light  on  the  progress  of  hostilities. 
China  was  reported  to  be  about  to  ask  for  Russian  assist- 
ance in  putting  down  the  rebellion. 

The  Tsung-Li-Yameii. — There   are   hints   of  some 

Vol.  5.— 61. 


952  AFFAIRS  IN  ASIA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

change  coming  over  the  spirit  of  Chinese  administra- 
tion. The  chief  function  of  the  Tsung-Li-Yamen — that 
of  managing  the  foreign  affairs  of  the  empire — has,  ac- 
cording to  a  report  received  in  early  December,  been  virtu- 
ally transferred  to  the  new  ministry  of  war.  The  control 
of  the  provincial  arsenals,  hitherto  vested  in  the  local  vice- 
roys, has  also  been  transferred  to  the  new  ministry.  Under 
the  old  system,  the  viceroy  was  practically  an  independent 
ruler.  By  now  centralizing  control  of  her  fighting 
energy,  China  has  taken  a  marked  step  toward  removing 
one  great  cause  of  her  weakness. 

An  important  concession  for  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
road from  tide  water  to  Pekin  has  been  granted  to  an  Amer- 
ican syndicate  in  which  Senator  Brice  of  Ohio,  ex-Secre- 
tary of  State  J.  AV.  Foster,  and  others  are  said  to  be  inter- 
ested. 

JAPAN. 

An  important  political  step — virtually  the  introduction 
of  purely  party  government  into  Japan,  where  the  min- 
istry has  heretofore  held  itself  responsible  to  the  emperor 
— has  recently  been  taken  at  Tokio.  It  is  a  coalition  be- 
tween Prime  Minister  Ito  and  Count  Itagaki,  the  leader 
of  the  liberals,  and  assures  to  the  government  the  added 
support  of  a  well-organized  party  in  the  parliamentary 
session  which  began  December  28. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

A  contest  of  importance  has  recently  been  waged  be- 
tween the  two  branches  of  the  legislature  of  New  South 
Wales,  over  the  question  of  direct  taxation.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  the  budget  proposed  by  Premier  Reid  in 
May  (p.  451)  looked  toward  the  removal  of  taxes  from 
all  imports  except  narcotics  and  intoxicating  liquors,  and 
the  imposition,  instead,  of  a  land  and  income  tax.  Mr. 
Reid  however  proposed  an  extensive  system  of  exemptions, 
including  incomes  up  to  £300  a  year  and  land  to  the 
unimproved  value  of  £475.  The  exemption  from  income 
tax  was  practically  accepted  without  much  discussion. 
The  legislative  council,  however,  in  October,  refused  to 
accept  the  land-tax  exemption  clause,  which  had  passed 
the  assembly,  on  the  ground  of  the  odious  class  discrimina- 
tion which  it  virtually  involved.  It  was  argued  that  of 
the  142,000  landowners  in  the  colony,  fully  90,000  would 
be  exempted,  and  that  the  law  would  thus  throw  the  bur- 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAWAII.  953 

den  of  public  expense  on  a  relatively  small  portion  of  the 
community. 

However,  about  December  1,  a  compromise  was  reached 
as  a  result  of  conferences  between  the  two  houses. 

The  Federation  Enabling  act  drafted  in  February,  1895 
(p.  203),  finally  passed  the  New  South  Wales  legislature 
November  13.  About  a  month  later  it  also  went  through 
the  legislatures  of  South  Australia  and  Victoria.  The 
three  colonies  mentioned  can  now  proceed  to  elect  dele- 
gates, ten  each,  to  a  convention  for  the  drafting  of  a  fed- 
eral constitution. 

Lord  Lamington,  M.  P.  for  north  St.  Pancras,  a  well- 
known  traveller  in  the  Orient,  succeeded  Sir  Henry  Nor- 
man in  October  as  governor  of  Queensland;  and  Colonel 
Gerard  Smith,  a  prominent  English  banker  and  business 
man,  formerly  groom-in-waiting  to  the  queen,  followed 
Sir  Wm.  Kobinson  in  a  similar  capacity  in  Western 
Australia.  >l 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAWAII. 

The  Pacific  Cable  Company,  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,- 
000  all  paid  in,  was  incorporated  December  16. 

The  company  will  construct  and  operate  an  electric  submarine 
cable  between  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  Hawaii.  The  stock  is  divided 
into  10,000  shares  of  the  par  value  of  $100  each.  The  shareholders 
and  incorporators  are:  Ex-Mayor  Abram  S.  Hewett  of  New  York 
city,  1,000  shares;  Colonel  Fred  Grant,  1,900  shares;  G.  M.  Dodge, 
1,000  shares;  D.  O.  Mills,  1,500  shares:  Wager  Swayne,  500  shares; 
James  J.  Hill  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  500  shares;  Z.  S.  Spaulding  of 
San  Francisco,  2,500  shares;  John  H.  Browning  of  Tenafly,  N.  J.,  1,000 
shares;  Mason  W.  Tyler  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  1,000  shares.  The 
principal  office  of  the  company  will  be  in  San  Francisco. 

Public  worship  was  resumed  in  the  churches  of  Hono- 
lulu September  22  after  three  weeks'  suspension  (p.  637); 
and  the  public  schools  were  reopened  a  week  or  so  later, 
no  further  danger  from  cholera  being  apprehended. 

Mr.  F.  M,  Hatch  of  Honolulu  in  November  succeeded 
Mr.  W.  K.  Castle  as  Hawaiian  minister  at  Washington. 
Mr.  Castle  had  consented  to  hold  office  for  only  six 
months. 


954 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA. 

AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


The  Crisis  in  the  Transvaal.— For  many  months 
dissatisfaction  of  the  Uitlanders  (foreign  residents)  with 
the  condition  of  political  affairs  in  the  South  African 
(Transvaal)  republic  had  been  growing  in  intensity;  and 
toward  the  end  of  December  there  was  an  insurrection 

against  the  Boer  gov- 
ernment.    The  griev- 
ances of  the  Uitland- 
ers were  chiefly  that 
though  they  consti- 
tuted a  majority  of  the 
population  and   con- 
^^^^^^^m».  ^^^^m  ^^^^^^^^  nearly  all  the 
fl^Bn^HVI^^^H  ^^^^^^'^^  ^^  ^^^^  state, 
flj^B  ^"^^'^^^^^H  ^^^y  ^^^  ^^  voice  in 
aHl-  ^^^H  ^^^  legislation,  no 

IhHK.  ^^^^m  ^^i*g^^^^  rights;   and 

^^^^^  that  no  subvention  was 
given  out  of  the  pub- 
lic treasury  to  any 
schools  save  those  in 
which  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage was  used.  In 
Johannesburg,  centre 
of  the  richest  gold- 
mining  region  in  the 
republic,  a  city  of  60,- 
000  inhabitants,  the 
Uitlanders  were  ac- 
tively preparing  for 
an  uprising;  and  Dr. 
Jameson,  administrator  of  Bechuanaland  for  the  South 
Africa  Chartered  Company,  was  invited  to  invade  the  ter- 
ritory and  provide  a  nucleus  of  a  disciplined  force  for  the 
insurgents.  Jameson,  at  the  head  of  700  armed  men  drawn 
from  the  military  police  of  Bechuanaland,  crossed  the  fron- 
tier about  December  29,  and  marched  toward  Johannes- 
burg. The  Boer  government,  fully  informed  of  the 
movements  of  the  malcontents,  had  summoned  the  farm- 
ers to  arms;  and  a  strong  force  of  expert  riflemen,  sup- 
ported by  several  Maxim  guns,  took  up  an  advantageous 
position  on  the  road  which  the  invaders  must  take  on  the 
way  to  Johannesburg.  Jameson's  men  had  made  forced 
marches,  they  were  weary  and  hungry,  and  their  horses 


RT.    HON.   CECIL  J.   RHODES, 
PRIME  MINISTER  OF  THE  CAPE  COLONY. 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  955 

exhausted.  The  Englishmen  fought  against  the  much 
superior  force  of  the  Boers  till  their  ammunition  was 
spent  and  very  many  of  their  comrades — numbered  vari- 
ously from  100  to  300 — had  fallen;  then  they  surrendered, 
and  with  their  commander  were  taken  to  Pretoria,  and 
there  confined  in  prison. 

The  German  emperor  (January  3,  1896)  addressed  a 
personal  telegram  to  President  Kruger  of  the  Transvaal 
republic  in  these  words: 

"I  express  my  sincere  congratulations  that,  supported  by  your 
people  and  without  appealing  for  help  to  friendly  powers,  you  have 
succeeded  by  your  own  energetic  action  against  the  armed  bands  which 
invaded  your  country  as  disturbers  of  the  peace,  and  have  thus  been 
enabled  to  restore  peace,  and  safeguard  the  independence  of  your 
country  against  attacks  from  without." 

As  a  result  of  this  message,  the  language  of  which  vir- 
tually ignores  the  British  suzerainty  over  the  Transvaal, 
the  relations  between  Germany  and  England  were  serious- 
ly strained  during  the  early  days  of  the  new  year;  and 
further  developments  were  being  watched  for  with  an  in- 
tensity of  interest  which  forced  into  the  background  the 
much.-talked-of  Venezuelan  question.  The  British  colo- 
nial office  and  the  directorate  of  the  South  Africa  Char- 
tered Company  denounced  the  action  of  Dr.  Jameson,  and 
declared  it  to  have  been  taken  without  their  approval, 
consent,  or  foreknowledge. 

War  in  Abyssinia. — Early  in  October  General  Bara- 
tieri,  Italian  commander-in-chief  and  governor  of  the 
province  of  Erythrea,  with  a  force  of  8,000  men,  left 
Adigrat,  marching  southward  to  prevent  a  threatened  in- 
vasion of  northern  Tigre  and  Erythrea  by  an  Abyssinian 
army.  His  immediate  object  was  to  disperse  the  army  of 
Ras  Mangascia,  before  that  leader  could  form  a  junction 
with  the  forces  of  Menelek  and  Ras  Makonnen.  On  Oc- 
tober 9  the  Italian  vanguard  attacked  the  rear  of  Man- 
gascia^s  force  and  routed  them,  capturing,  besides  arms 
and  ammunition,  1,000  head  of  cattle.  General  Baratieri 
then  put  General  Arimondi  in  command  of  a  detachment 
with  orders  to  pursue  Mangascia.  Some  days  later  a  re- 
port, subsequently  contradicted,  of  Menelek^s  death  by 
lightning,  reached  Rome,  and  hope  rose  high  that  now  the 
rival  chiefs  of  the  Abyssinians  would  be  unable  to  hold  to- 
gether for  defense  of  their  country.  General  Baratieri 
now  turned  his  attention  to  his  means  of  defense.  He 
fortified  a  camp  at  Adowa,  and  completed  the  defenses  of 
Adigrat  and  Makale.  Meanwhile,  Ras  Mangascia  retreated 


956  AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

to  the  Vogeral  mountains.  A  column  of  troops,  variously 
reported  as  1,500  and  2,500  strong,  under  Major  Toselli, 
the  advance  of  General  Arimondi^s  force,  pressed  on  to 
prevent  or  delay  the  union  of  Menelek,  Ras  Makonnen, 
and  Ras  Mangascia.  The  Italian  force  was  absurdly  inade- 
quate. Before  General  Arimondi  could  come  up  with  the 
main  force,  nearly  the  whole  of  Toselli's  detachment  was 
slain,  including  its  commander.  General  Arimondi  was 
forced  to  retreat  before  a  vastly  superior  force  of  Abyssin- 
ians,  and  reached  the  fortified  position  at  Adigrat.  Gen- 
eral Baratieri  telegraphed  to  Rome  that  70,000  Abyssinians 
had  invaded  Tigre,  and  that  40,000  were  in  the  vicinity  of 
Adowa;  by  his  orders  the  Italian  force  at  Adowa  had  fallen 
back  to  Adigrat.  Reinforcements  were  immediately  dis- 
patched from  Italy. 

The  Abyssinians  were  in  the  middle  of  December  re- 
ported to  be  advancing  in  two  columns  on  Adowa  and 
Asmara.  Ras  Mangascia  made  an  attack  on  Makale  De- 
cember 20,  but  was  repulsed.  General  Baratieri  was  at 
Adigrat  with  10,000  men,  expecting  daily  to  be  attacked 
by  Menelek  with  an  army  of  60,000  men.  A  Dervish  host 
was  reported  to  be  approaching  Atbara  in  Nubia,  150  miles 
northwest  of  the  northern  frontier  of  Tigre.  It  was  ap- 
prehended that  Menelek  was  contemplating  a  flank  move- 
ment to  cut  off  General  Baratieri  from  communication 
with  his  base,  Massowah.  A  Russian  major  was  believed 
to  be  directing  the  movements  of  the  Abyssinian  armies. 
The  London  Times  of  December  16  had  a  dispatch  from 
Rome  saying  that  in  military  circles  there  the  belief  pre- 
vailed that 

'*  Great  Britain  stands  sentinel  at  Zella  on  the  gulf  of  Aden  as 
guardian  of  Ras  Makonnen's  interests,  enabling  him  to  unite  with 
Menelek  for  an  attack  on  General  Baratieri." 

A  strong  feeling  was  reported  to  be  growing  in  Italy 
that  the  Italo-British  entente  was  a  failure. 

On  December  23  a  dispatch  from  Rome  reported  that 
General  Baratieri  had  been  authorized  by  his  government 
to  conclude  peace  with  Menelek  on  condition  that  the 
treaty  of  Uccialli,  which  virtually  places  Abyssinia  under 
the  protection  of  Italy,  should  be  recognized. 

The  conditions  also  provided  that  Menelek  should  admit  the 
validity  of  the  Italian  possession  of  the  country  to  the  Mareb  river, 
and  that  the  Tigre  country  should  be  an  Italian  dependency. 

A  dispatch  from  Massowah  under  date  of  December  22 
reported  that  the  force  under  command  of  the  rebel  Ras 
Mangascia  attacked  Makale  on  December  20,  but  was  re- 


AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  957 

pulsed  by  the  Italian  troops  forming  the  garrison  of  that 
place. 

The  Ash  ant  i  War. — On  the  ground  that  treaty  ob- 
ligations had  been  violated  by  the  king  of  Ashanti,  an  ul- 
timatum was  addressed  to  him  by  the  British  government, 
requiring  him  on  or  before  October  31  to  put  his  kingdom 
under  British  protection  and  to  receive  a  resident  British 
commissioner.  The  specific  acts  charged  against  the  king 
were  that  he  permitted  the  practice  of  human  sacrifices  to 
continue;  that  he  had  interfered  with  British  trade  with 
his  people;  and  that  he  had  attacked  neighboring  tribes 
living  under  British  protection.  The  king  made  a  nega- 
tive answer  to  the  ultimatum. 

The  expedition  intended  to  march  on  Kumassi,  the 
king's  capital,  was  to  consist  of  Houssa  troops,  West  In- 
dians, and  soldiers  from  the  British  regular  army,  in  all 
about  1,500  men,  and  was  to  be  under  the  command  of 
Sir  Francis  Scott,  inspector  of  the  Gold  Coast  constabulary. 
The  European  contingent,  with  the  commander,  sailed 
from  Liverpool  toward  the  end  of  November;  the  other 
contingents  were  to  have  arrived  at  Cape  Coast  Castle  in 
time  to  join  them  for  the  march  to  King  Prempeh's  capi- 
tal. A  few  days  previously,  intelligence  was  received  in 
London  that  Prempeh  had  accepted  the  conditions  of  the 
British  government  and  promised  to  pay  the  costs  of  the 
preparations  made  to  punish  him.  Several  weeks  before, 
the  British  government  had  refused  to  give  a  hearing  to 
envoys  from  the  king,  though  they  were  empowered  to  ac- 
cede in  his  name  to  the  British  demands  (London  Times, 
November  29). 

The  Ashantis  were  reported  to  be  armed  -with  good 
rifles  and  to  have  plenty  of  ammunition,  their  armament 
having  been  supplied  to  them  by  French  traders.  The 
great  chief  Samory,  who,  it  was  at  one  time  supposed, 
would  be  an  ally  of  the  British,  was  threatening  to  join 
King  Prempeh.  A  dispatch  from  Cape  Coast  Castle  re- 
ported December  16  that  King  Prempeh  had  attacked  and 
routed  with  great  slaughter  the  Adansis  tribe,  allies  of  the 
English. 

Bechuanaland. — An  official  announcement  has  been 
made  by  the  British  colonial  office  of  the  terms  of  the  set- 
tlement arrived  at  between  the  British  government,  the 
South  Africa  Company,  and  the  three  chiefs  of  Bech- 
uanaland— Khama,  Sebele,  and  Bathoen. 

The  settlement  provides  for  land  being  given  up  by  the  chiefs 
for  the  railway  to  Matabeleland,  to  be  marked  out  by  a  special  com- 


958  AFFAIRS  IN  AFRICA.  4th  Qr..  1895. 

missioner.  Eacli  of  the  tliree  chiefs  is  to  have  a  country  in  which  he 
shall  live  as  hitherto  under  the  protection  of  the  queen:  and  an  of- 
ficer will  reside  with  each,  and  discharge  certain  functions.  In  re- 
gard to  the  liquor  traffic,  it  is  provided  that  "white  man's  strong 
drink  shall  not  be  brought  for  sale  into  the  country  assigned  to  the 
chiefs,  and  those  who  attempt  to  deal  in  it  or  give  it  away  to 
black  men  will  be  punished.  No  new  liquor  license  shall  be  issued, 
and  no  existing  liquor  license  shall  be  renewed."  The  boundaries  of 
the  territory  assigned  to  each  chief  are  designated,  and  it  is  provided 
that  outside  these  boundaries  the  British  South  Africa  Company  will 
administer 

Morocco. — On  November  7  the  troops  of  the  sultan 
fought  a  battle  with  rebels  around  the  city  of  Morocco. 
The  engagement  lasted  eleven  hours,  and  fighting  was  re- 
newed on  the  two  days  following.  A  conference  for  ar- 
ranging terms  of  peace  broke  up  amid  scenes  of  violence. 
At  latest  advices  a  large  force  of  rebels,  including  1,500 
cavalry,  surrounded  the  city. 

Egypt. — Nubar  Pasha,  president  of  the  Egyptian 
council  of  ministers,  retired  from  office  November  11,  as- 
signing as  the  reason  his  advanced  age.  Mustapha  Fehmy 
Pasha,  the  minister  of  war,  succeeds  to  the  premiership, 
with  the  portfolio  of  minister  of  the  interior.  Fehmy 
Pasha  is,  like  th&  retiring  premier,  a  devoted  partisan  of 
the  British  control.  Abani  Pasha  succeeds  to  Fehmy 
Pasha  as  minister  of  war. 

The  Kongo  Free  State. — On  the  demand  of  the 
British  government.  Captain  Lothaire,  by  whose  orders  the 
Englishman  Stokes  was  tried  for  supplying  arms  to  slave- 
traders  and  on  conviction  hanged  (p.  597),  was  put  under 
arrest  and  held  for  trial  before  a  military  court  at  Boma. 
Ah  indemnity  of  $30,000  was  paid  to  the  family  of  Stokes 
by  the  Kongo  Free  State  government.  The  German  gov- 
ernment has  demanded  indemnity  for  the  carriers  at- 
tached to  Stokes^'s  caravan,  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
hired  by  Stokes  in  territory  within  the  German  protector- 
ate. Stokes's  caravan  had  reached  the  coast  of  German 
East  Africa  carrying  $200,000  worth  of  ivory. 

South  African  Gold  Mines.— In  September  the 
stocks  of  the  South  African  gold-mining  companies  reached 
their  highest  values  in  the  world's  great  centres  of  finan- 
cial speculation.  The  present  rate  of  output  of  these 
mines  is  nearly  $4,000,000  a  month,  mostly  from  the  Wit- 
watersrand  district,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Johannesburg. 
The  issued  capital  of  the  South  African  companies  is 
about  $250,000,000,  but  in  September  the  selling  price  was 
nearly  $1,080,000,000.  This  speculative  value  fell  in  No- 
vember to  about  $718,000,000,  a  loss  of  nearly  $359,000,- 


SCIENCE.  959 

).  The  decline  took  place  in  the  stocks  of  companies 
whose  properties  are  undeveloped.  In  all  there  are  at  the 
Witwatersrand  district  about  150  companies,  but  few  of 
which  are  actually  taking  gold  out  of  the  mines;  their 
properties  are  valuable  only  in  prospect.  Only  twenty- 
live  companies  in  all  South  Africa  have  yet  paid  any  divi- 
dends, and  the  face  value  of  the  stocks  of  these  twenty-five 
is  132,773,635.  The  fall  in  these  stocks  was  from  $192,- 
822,000  to  $157,934,000,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  they  will 
fall  lower.  Of  the  non-dividend-paying  companies  many 
have  been  closed  out,  but  133  still  remain. 

The  Waller  Case.— Early  in  November  the  secretary 
of  state  at  Washington  was  officially  apprised  of  the  will- 
ingness of  the  French  government  to  release  John  L.  Wal- 
ler from  prison  "as  an  act  of  graciousness  to  the  United 
States."  But  as  Mr.  Waller's  demand  is  for  his  right  and 
for  reparation  of  injuries,  the  offer  of  clemency  had  no 
effect,  the  representatives  of  the  imprisoned  man's  in- 
terests refusing  to  accept  release  unless  it  was  coupled 
with  indemnity. 


SCIENCE. 

Astronomy. — By  means  of  the  negative  plates  taken 
under  the  photographing  telescope  of  the  Harvard  station 
at  Arequipa,  Peru,  two  "new  stars,"  i.  e.,  heavenly  bodies 
which  burst  into  brilliancy  and  sometimes  afterward  fade 
away,  have  just  been  discovered.  Only  sixteen  similar  dis- 
coveries, it  is  said,  have  now  been  made  in  the  2,000  years 
of  astronomical  observation  the  last  three  being  by  Har- 
vard (Vol.  3,  p.  841).  Between  March  5  and  April  8  a 
new  star  appeared  in  the  constellation  Carina  {Kova 
Carinm);  and  on  December  12,  Mrs.  Fleming,  the  indefat- 
igable student  and  investigator  at  the  Harvard  Observa- 
tory in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  discovered  still  another  new 
star  in  Centaurus  {Nova  Centauri).  Attention  was  called 
to  it  by  a  peculiarity  of  the  spectrum  on  a  plate  made  July 
18,  1895. 

On  November  17  a  bright  comet  moving  pretty  rapidly 
southeast  through  the  feet  of  Virgo,  was  discovered  by 
Professor  Perrine  of  the  Lick  Observatory.    Its  position  at 


960  SCIENCE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

discovery  was:  Right  ascension  13  hrs.  44  min.;  declina- 
tion north  1°  40'.  It  had  a  short  tail  and  a  stellar  nucleus 
of  about  the  seventh  magnitude. 

On  November  22  Professor  W.  R.  Brooks  of  the  Smith 
Observatory,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  discovered  a  comet  on  the 
border  of  the  constellation  Hydra  in  the  southeastern  sky, 
in  Right  ascension  9  hrs.  51  min.  50  sec;  declination  south 
17°  40',  with  a  northerly  motion.  It  ^vas  round,  quite 
large,  and  moderately  bright. 

Chemistry. — Acetylene  Gas. — The  discovery  of  a  com- 
paratively cheap  process  of  manufacturing  acetylene  gas, 
promises  to  be  not  only  an  event  of  great  scientific  impor- 
tance, but  one  of  even  greater  import^ance  from  a  commer- 
cial and  industrial  point  of  view. 

The  discovery  was  made  as  long  ago,  it  seems,  as  1890,  by  one 
T.  L,  Wilson,  said  to  be  a  Canadian,  in  Spray,  N.  C,  during  experi- 
ments made  with  a  view  to  finding  a  cheap  process  of  extracting  alu- 
minum from  clay.  In  order  to  separate  calcium  from  lime  as  a  pre- 
liminary step,  a  mixture  of  burnt  lime  and  powdered  carbon  (coke 
dust  was  used)  was  put  between  the  poles  of  an  electric  arc.  By  in- 
tense heat  a  brown  crystalline  compound  was  formed,  which  proved 
to  be  calcic  carbide,  a  substance  apparently  first  noticed  about  eight 
years  ago  by  the  German  scientist  Dr.  Borchers,  and  more  recently 
manufactured  by  M.  Henri  de  Moissan,  the  distinguished  French 
chemist.  On  calcic  carbide  being  brought  into  contact  with  water,  a 
chemical  change  takes  place.  The  calcium  is  released  from  the  car- 
bon and  converted  back  into  ordinary  lime;  and  the  carbon  at  once 
unites  with  hydrogen  liberated  from  the  water,  forming  acetylene 
(Ca  Hs),  which  is  freely  given  off. 

The  gas  has  great  illuminating  power.  A  burner  allowing  a  flow 
of  one-half  a  cubic  foot  an  hour,  it  is  claimed,  will  give  the  same  illu- 
mination as  three  ordinary  5-feet  burners  using  city  gas.  Based  upon 
photometric  tests,  1,000  feet  of  acetylene  is  equal  to  12,500  feet  of  city 
gas.  Rays  of  acetylene  light  are  claimed  to  diffuse  to  greater  extent 
than  any  other  known  illuminant.  Under  them  all  colors  and  shades 
are  almost  as  accurately  distinguished  as  in  sunlight. 

The  chief  gas  corporations  of  the  country  are  taking  up  the  matter, 
and  preparing  for  the  manufacture  or  use  of  acetylene.  A  new  com- 
]>any  was  formed  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  which  is  constructing  a 
plant  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  for  the  manufacture  of  calcic  carbide. 
The  following  advantages  are  claimed  for  the  gas  by  the  Philadelphia 
company: 

"  It  gives  more  light,  throws  out  less  heat,  consumes  less  oxygen,  and  can 
be  produced  at  much  less  cost,  than  other  illuminating  gases.  It  is  capable  of 
being  stored  as  a  solid,  in  the  shape  of  calcic  carbide,  as  a  liquid,  or  as  a  gas.  It 
may  be  shipped  long  distances  as  carbide,  or  as  a  compressed  liquid  gas  manu- 
factured from  it;  and  in  the  latter  state  may  be  applied  to  all  purposes  of  iso- 
lated lighting,  especially  as  in  railroad  trains,  street  cars,  carriages,  bicycles, 
steamships  or  sailing  vessels,  street  lighting;  and  it  may  be  used  in  dwellings, 
stores,  or  mamifactories.  its  application  for  the  latter  purpose  permitting  the 
manufacture  of  a  gas  suflSciently  low  priced  to  be  used  for  fuel  or  heating  pur- 
poses." 

There  is,  however,  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
present  feasibility  of  manufacturing  acetylene  cheaply  enough  to  en- 
able it  to  compete  with  the  older  methods  of  illumination.     Also,  the 


SCIENCE.  961 

gas  is  very  explosive,  apd  even  a  dilute  mixture  readily  supports  com- 
bustion. The  overcoming  of  the  latter  defects,  however,  is  purely  a 
question  of  mechanics.     The  cost  is  the  chief  element  of  doubt. 

Glucinium. — A  new  metal,  glucinium,  has  properties 
which  fit  it  especially  for  electrical  purposes. 

Its  atomic  weight  is  9.1;  specific  gravity  2;  attractive  power  con- 
siderably greater  than  that  of  iron;  and  conductibility  equal  to  that 
of  silver.  It  is  lighter  than  aluminum,  and  now  worth  about  $20  a 
pound. 

Othe7'  Chemical  Kotef^. — Up  to  the  present  time  all  ef- 
forts to  liquefy  the  gas  helium  have  been  unavailing.  Its 
boiling  point  is  therefore  lower  than  that  of  hydrogen 
(-243.5°  C),  and  it  is  the  most  volatile  of  known  sub- 
stances. Like  argon,  it  is  exceedingly  inert,  refusing  so 
far  to  be  coaxed  into  any  combination  whatever  with 
other  elements. 

Dr.  Linde,  inventor  of  a  refrigerating  system,  has  de- 
vised a  simple  apparatus  whereby  liquid  air  can  be  pro- 
duced on  a  commercial  scale. 

The  liquefaction  is  caused  by  a  succession  of  compressions,  ex- 
pansions, and  coolings.  The  use  of  carbonic  acid  and  ethylene,  re- 
quired in  former  processes,  is  dispensed  with. 

Locomotive  Testing  Plant. — Purdue  University, 
Lafayette,  Lid.,  is  credited  with  supplying  to  its  engineer- 
ing department  the  first  plant  ever  constructed  for  the 
testing  of  locomotives.  The  original  plant,  built  in  1891, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  January  23,  1894,  but  has  been  re- 
placed by  a  larger  one  arranged  for  the  accommodation  of 
any  locomotive,  steam  or  electric. 

The  locomotive  to  be  tested  is  mounted  so  that  its  drivers  are  in 
running  contact  with  supporting  wheels  whose  shafts  revolve  in  fixed 
bearings;  breaks  of  sufficient  capacity  to  absorb  continuously  the  max- 
imum power  of  the  locomotive,  are  mounted  in  connection  with  the 
shafts  of  the  supporting  wheels;  and  a  dynamometer  has  been  devised 
to  indicate  the  tractive  power  exerted.  The  performance  of  locomo- 
tives can  be  determined  with  much  greater  accuracy  than  under  ordi- 
nary conditions  on  the  road. 

A  remarkable  fact  observed  in  the  course  of  tests,  is  that  the 
driver,  through  the  action  of  its  counterbalance,  will  sometimes  leap 
off  the  track.  Wires  passed  at  high  speed  under  the  moving  wheel, 
have  come  out  with  a  portion  of  their  length  untouched. 

The  Lanston  Monotype. — This  machine,  the  inven- 
tion of  Tolbert  Lanston  of  Washington,  D.  C,  marks  an 
important  advance  in  the  development  of  typographical 
art. 

It  is  both  a  type-setting  and  a  type-casting  machine.  Unlike  the 
linotype,  the  invention  of  Ottmar  Mergenthaler,  which  casts  a  solid 
line  of  metal  with  the  type  faces  on  the  edge,  and  which  is  now 


962  SCIENCE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

almost  exclusively  used  on  large  newspapers  hi  setting  up  solid  mat- 
ter where  no  very  high  grade  of  artistic  excellence  is  required,  the 
Lanston  machine  casts  each  character  in  a  separate  type,  and  spaces 
the  words  so  that  each  line  is  flush  at  both  ends. 

The  matter  is  first  written  on  a  specially  constructed  typewriter 
which  punches  holes  in  a  paper  ribbon.  This  ribbon  is  then  fed  to 
the  machine,  which  it  regulates  automatically,  and  which  produces 
galleys  of  type  of  any  length  of  line  desired,  ready  to  go  into  the 
forms.  By  adjusting  the  length  of  the  lines,  space  may  be  left  blank 
for  the  insertion  of  cuts.  The  type  may  be  melted  over  or  sold  and 
used  again  as  ordinary  type. 

The  Eophone. — This  device,  invented  by  Frank  De 
La  Torre  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  aims  to  enable  one  not  only 
to  hear  sounds  from  a  greater  distance  than  with  the  naked 
ear,  but  to  locate  them  more  quickly  and  exactly. 

The  sound  is  gathered  in  a  funnel  about  eighteen  inches  in  di- 
ameter at  its  mouth,  which  is  directed  toward  any  point  in  the  arc  of 
probable  sound.  With  the  funnel  are  connected  two  rubber  tubes 
terminating  in  ear  pieces.  As  the  funnel  is  moved  about,  the  sound 
grows  strong  or  weak,  being  strongest  when  the  funnel  points 
directly  toward  the  distant  sounding  object,  whose  location  is  thus 
determined. 

The  Telephotograph. — This  Swedish  invention  will 
reproduce  to  tne  eye  pictures  transmitted  from  a  distance, 
doing  for  the  organ  of  sight  what  the  telephone  does  for 
the  ear. 

It  is  based  upon  the  peculiarity  of  selenium,  that  its  resistance  to 
the  transmission  of  electricity  to  a  great  extent  depends  upon  the 
strength  of  the  light  to  which  it  is  exposed.  A  fine  point  of  selenium 
is  made  to  move  in  a  plane  by  a  mechanical  arrangement  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  describes  a  spiral  consisting  of  very  close  windings. 
An  electric  current  passes  through  the  selenium  point,  and  the  power 
of  this  current  will  vary  according  to  the  light  to  which  the  point  at 
any  given  moment  is  exposed.  The  receiver  is  constructed  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  to  the  above,  except  that  a  very  susceptible  incandescent 
light  has  been  substituted  for  the  selenium  point.  The  intensity  of 
this  light  varies  in  harmony  with  the  light  to  which  the  selenium 
point  is  exposed.  When  the  incandescent  light  is  made  to  move  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  movements  of  the  selenium  point,  it  will  pro- 
duce lights  and  shadows  on  the  plane  similar  to  those  through  which 
the  selenium  point  passes  in  its  plane.  The  dispatching  apparatus  is 
inclosed  in  a  case,  something  like  a  photographic  camera  fitted  with 
an  objective,  which  can  be  so  adjusted  that  the  picture  of  the  subject 
to  be  telephotographed  is  formed  in  the  movement  plane  of  the  selen- 
ium point.  The  lights  and  shadows  produced  by  the  incandescent 
light  of  the  receiving  apparatus  will  then  produce  a  picture  identical 
with  the  one  at  the  dispatching  station.  This  picture  can  be  made 
visible  in  various  manners,  either  through  photography  or  by  being 
directly  looked  at  through  some  magnifier,  or  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  one  used  in  a  magic  lantern. 

Miscellaneous. — An  important  scientific  task  has 
recently  been  completed  under  direction  of  William  Ein- 


SCIENCE.  963 

beck  of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey — 
namely,  the  measurement  of  the  distance  from  the  Golden 
Gate  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Chesa- 
peake river  along  the  39th  parallel. 

Upon  the  survey  depends  the  determination  of  the  precise  shape 
of  the  earth  and  the  accurate  laying  of  lines  of  longitude,  instead  of 
the  approximate  ones  now  in  use.  The  work  has  cost  something  over 
$150,000.  The  figure  of  the  earth  has  already  been  determined  by 
north  and  south  lines,  but  the  present  is  the  only  one  of  any  extent 
running  east  and  west.  There  are  two  or  three  of  the  north  and 
south  lines,  from  which  the  shape  of  the  earth  has  been  determined 
north  and  south;  but  it  was  necessary,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  exact 
shape,  to  run  a  similar  line  east  and  west.  The  United  States  is  the 
only  country  that  has  enough  territory  to  accomplish  this,  which  is 
the  greatest  geodetic  line  ever  measured  in  the  world. 

Attempts  at  aerial  navigation  continue  to  be  an- 
nounced from  time  to  time.  Percy  S.  Pilcher,  lecturer  on 
marine  engineering  at  Glasgow  University,  has  con- 
structed two  flying  machines  based  on  that  of  Herr  Lilien- 
thal  (Vol.  4,p/450). 

They  are  light  structures  of  wood  and  steel,  supporting  a  spread  of 
150  square  feet  of  wing  area,  and  braced  with  piano  wire.  Each  has 
a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  rudder,  the  one  cutting  the  other  at  right 
angles.  The  former,  which  is  rigid,  is  to  keep  the  machine's  head  to 
the  wind;  the  latter  arrests  the  inclination  to  pitch  sideways.  Mr. 
Pilcher  has  at  times  risen  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet. 

An  apparatus  named  the  ^^thermophone"  has  been  de- 
vised, in  which  sounds  are  produced  by  the  changes  in  the 
circuit  due  to  variations  of  temperature.  Its  use  is  to 
measure  temperature,  particularly  in  distant  or  inaccess- 
ible places,  as  at  sea-depths,  bottom  of  lakes,  etc. 

A  novel  invention  called  the  **^phantoscope^^  is  said  to 
have  been  devised  by  two  young  men  of  Washington, 
Jj.  G. 

The  principles  of  the  kinetoscope  and  the  stereopticon  are  com- 
bined. Life-size  pictures  are  thrown  on  a  screen,  and  the  motions  of 
life  imparted  to  them. 

A  forward  step  has  been  taken  in  the  art  of  photog- 
raphy in  colors,  comprising  a  development  of  the  three- 
negative  process  of  Mr.  F.  E.  Ives  (Vol.  3,  p.  845).  By 
means  of  an  instrument  to  which  has  been  given  the 
name  **photochromoscope,^'  a  stereoscopic  effect  is  pro- 
duced, in  which  the  original  tints  stand  out  faithfully. 
It  does  away  with  the  original  method  of  merging  upon  a 
screen  three  separate  pictures. 

The  greatest  ocean  depth  ever  sounded  lies  in  the 
Pacific  ocean  off  the  coast  of  Japan,  where  the  wire  of  the 
sounding  apparatus  of   the  surveying  ship   Penguin   re- 


964  ART.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

cently  broke  at  a  depth  of  4,900  fathoms  (about  six 
miles).  The  deepest  previous  cast  had  been  4,655 
fathoms. 

The  largest  specimen  of  black  diamond  yet  known 
was  recently  found  in  the  Carbon  district,  the  old  dia- 
mond fields  of  Brazil.  It  weighs  3,073  carats.  The  great 
diamond  found  in  South  Africa  a  few  years  ago,  weighed 
about  970  carats. 

A  diamond  weighing  214^  carats,  and  estimated  to  be 
worth  between  £15,000  and  £40,000,  was  found  in  August 
at  the  Monastery  mine  in  the  Orange  Free  State. 

Our  statement  on  page  770,  referring  to  the  late  Pro- 
fessor C.  V.  Riley  as  the  inventor  of  a  nozzle  for  sprinkling 
emulsion  of  kerosene  oil,  needs  correction.  The  actual 
author  of  the  invention  was  the  late  Professor  W.  S.  Bar- 
nard. This  was  freely  admitted  by  Professor  Riley  him- 
self. The  latter,  however,  did  much  to  bring  the  inven- 
tion into  extensive  practical  use. 


ART. 

'pHE  "Glasgow  school"  of  painters  was  fully  represented 
for  the  first  time  in  America  at  the  St.  Louis  (Mo.) 
exposition,  which  closed  about  the  middle  of  November 
after  six  weeks'  duration.  The  art  department  was  under 
the  direction  of  Charles  M.  Kurtz,  assistant  chief  of  the 
Department  of  Fine  Arts  at  the  World's  Fair  in  1893. 
The  Glasgow  painters  sent  over  100  pictures — oils,  water- 
colors,  and  pastels — which  displayed  great  strength  and  re- 
finement in  color,  right  appreciation  of  values,  a  feeling  for 
decorative  qualities,  and  a  deep  undertone  of  thought  and 
sentiment.  The  artists  were  James  Guthrie,  E.  A.  Wal- 
ton, A.  Melville,  Hornel,  Macaulay  Stevenson,  A.  Roche, 
Whitelaw  Hamilton,  David  Gauld,  W.  Y.  MacGregor, 
James  Paterson,  T.  Millie  Dow,  J.  Crawhall,  Jr.,  W. 
Kennedy,  G.  Pirie,  J.  E.  Christie,  G.  Thomas,  J.  Reid 
Murray,  W.  H.  P.  Nicholson,  T.  C.  Morton,  W.  Moun- 
cey,  and  H.  Mann. — There  were  also  exhibits  by  Danish, 
French,  Dutch,  German,  and  American  artists,  among 
the  last  being  James  Whistler,  the  late  George  Innes,  D. 


EDUCATION. 


965 


AV.  Tryon,  Gari  Melchers,  Walter  Gay,  and  Wm.  M. 
Chase. 

The  second  annual  Loan  Exhibition  of  Portraits,  in 
November — again  for  the  benefit  of  St.  John^s  Guild  and 
the  Orthopedic  Hospital,  New  York  city  (Vol.  4,  p.  925) 
— consisted  of  portraits  of  men,  women,  and  children, 
with  special  emphasis  given  to  children. 

The  Winter  Loan  Exhibition  at  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum of  Art,  New  York  city,  in  December,  included  works 
of  the  early  American  painters.  An  object  of  special  in  • 
terest  was  the  Gibbs-Channing  portrait  of  Washington , 
by  Gilbert  Stuart  (1755-1828). 

The  trustees  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York  city,  have  refused  to  accept  the  bequest  of  the 
late  James  Renwick  (p.  461),  so  that  the  pictures  revert  to 
the  residuary  estate.  The  reasons  for  the  refusal  are  not 
formally  given,  but  it  is  said  that  there  is  doubt  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  pictures. 

The  first  International  Art  Exposition  recently  held  in 
Venice,  Italy,  was  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind  in  recent 
years.  Italy,  Spain,  Holland,  Germany,  and  France  were 
well  represented.  The  leading  American  exhibitors  were 
James  Whistler,  whose  Lady  in  White  won  a  prize  of  2,- 
500  francs,  Eugene  Benson,  and  J.  AY.  Alexander. 


EDUCATION. 

T^HE  political  and  religious  bearings  of  the  school  question 
in  England,  now  so  prominent,  are  fully  treated  else- 
where (p.  929),  as  is  also  the  school  question  in  Manitoba 
(p.  913). 

Secondary  Education  in  England.— The  report  of 
the  English  Royal  Commission  on  Secondary  Education, 
was  published  November  1. 

After  reviewing  the  past  and  present  history  of  the  subject,  the 
commissioners  recommend  that  the  central  authority  should  be  a 
department  of  the  executive  government,  responsible  to  parliament, 
and  absorbing  into  itself  the  educational  functions  of  the  charity  com- 
missioners and  the  Science  and  Art  Department.  The  minister  at  its 
head  should  be  the  same  as  the  one  to  whom  elementary  education  is 
intrusted;  but  it  is  not  proposed  to  apply  to  secondary  education  the 


966  EDUCATION.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

present  system  of  dealing  with  primary  schools.  The  difficulty  of 
combining  the  independence  of  a  minister  of  education  with  due 
weight  to  the  judgment  of  educational  experts,  the  commissioners 
propose  to  meet  by  the  appointment  of  an  educational  council  of 
twelve  members,  representing  the  crown,  the  universities,  and  the 
teaching  profession.  The  commissioners  suggest  the  creation  of  a 
local  authority  for  secondary  education  for  every  county  and  county 
borough  with  a  population  exceeding  50,000,  the  members  to  be  chiefly 
appointed  by  the  county  councils,  borough  councils,  and  school  boards, 
others  to  be  nominated  by  the  minister,  and  the  remainder  co-opted 
by  the  members  already  chosen.  The  duties  and  functions  of  these 
local  authorities  are  duly  set  forth.  The  report  proceeds  to  make  cer- 
tain recommendations  for  the  better  organization  of  schools.  As  to 
financial  arrangements,  the  commissioners  think  that  by  the  adoption 
of  measures  of  reform  and  consolidation,  which  they  suggest,  existing 
sources  of  revenue  may  be  turned  to  better  account,  and  little,  if  any, 
fresh  burden  imposed  upon  the  taxpayers.  Finally,  the  report  deals 
with  questions  specially  affecting  teachers,  suggesting  limitations  to 
the  power  of  head  teachers  for  the  dismissal  of  assistants,  and  urging 
the  establishment  of  a  register  of  qualified  teachers  and  some  provi- 
sion for  the  professional  training  of  teachers.  The  report  is  signed 
by  all  the  commissioners. 

University  Extension. — The  following  summary 
gives  in  substance  the  report  of  Professor  James  E.  Kus- 
sell,  on  the  extension  of  university  teaching  in  England^ 
In  1893  Professor  Russell  was  commissioned  by  the  State 
University  Convocation  of  New  York,  to  visit  Europe  and 
report  on  all  matters  likely  to  be  of  great  practical  import 
tance  to  New  York  institutions. 

In  every  community  there  are  men  and  women  anxious  to  keep 
up  some  form  of  study  for  the  sake  of  their  own  intellectual  life.  To 
such  as  these,  the  extension  of  university  teaching  comes  as  a  boon  of 
which  every  advantage  is  most  eagerly  accepted  and  profitably  en- 
joyed. There  are  others  whose  strength  would  be  turned  into  chan- 
nels of  questionable  benefit  to  themselves  and  to  society,  were  they 
not  attracted  to  the  harmless,  if  not  stimulating,  occupations  suggested 
by  extension  methods. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  universities  can  supply  the 
teaching  force  and  means  of  supervision  requisite  for  bringing  certain 
phases  of  the  higher  culture  within  reach  of  those  who  cannot  them- 
selves seek  it  at  the  fountain  head.  Unless  it  be  true  that  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning  exist  for  the  privileged  few,  the  benefits  that 
proceed  indirectly  from  cloistered  retreats  are  not  to  be  compared 
with  the  active  influence  that  may  be  exerted  when  citizen  and 
scholar  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  the  promotion  of  the  common 
weal. 

The  one  great  hindrance,  however,  to  the  progress  of  the  move- 
ment, and  that  which  most  limits  its  educational  influence,  is  the  lack 
of  sufficient  financial  support.  Few  men  with  the  proper  equipment 
can  be  induced  to  devote  their  lifework  to  the  precarious  profession 
of  itinerant  lecturer,  in  which  salaries  range  from  £825  in  England, 
and  $4,500  in  America,  down  to  absolute  zero,  the  lower  limit  being 
oftener  reached  than  the  higher.  Few  men  have  the  strength  to  en; 
dure  the  fatiguing  journeys  necessitated  in  circuit  work  among  cen- 


EDUCATION.  967 

tres  too  poor  to  organize  properly.  District  associations  cannot  be 
maintained  for  lack  of  funds  to  support  a  permanent  secretary.  In 
brief,  the  best  work  of  university  extension  is  limited,  its  highest 
ideals  rendered  unattainable,  because  there  is  no  foundation  on  which 
teachers  can  take  their  stand  and  feel  themselves  secure;  there  is  no 
assurance  that  when  the  people  ask  for  bread  they  will  not  receive  a 
stone. 

The  movement  from  its  inception  has  been  voluntary,  and  so 
must  it  remain.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  this  characteristic  is  at 
once  its  weakness  and  its  strength.  Compulsory  higher  education  is 
an  anomaly  that  needs  no  explanation.  State  inspection  which  looks 
to  success  in  examinations,  governmental  graifts  based  on  attendance 
or  any  other  tangible  result,  regulations  in  the  interest  of  a  more  sym- 
metric system  and  for  facility  in  central  management,  are  in  the  na- 
ture of  things  opposed  to  those  interests  based  on  personal  freedom. 
Lehrfreiheit  is  an  essential  of  university  education.  If  some  choose 
a  lesser  good  in  place  of  a  greater,  the  conclusion  does  not  follow  that 
what  they  secure  is  necessarily  bad.  In  fact  it  may  be  doubted  if  the 
system  of  university  extension  could  long  endure  with  state-paid 
teachers  or  a  constituency  assisted  to  such  a  degree  as  to  make  self- 
help  no  longer  necessary.  It  rests  to-day  on  a  purely  missionary  ba- 
sis; its  strength  is  that  it  brings  to  earnest,  self-sacrificing  students 
that  power  which  can  be  appreciated  and  properly  used  only  by  those 
who  are,  or  can  become,  interested  in  truth  for  its  own  sake. 

Finally,  the  permanency  of  this  great  educational  movement  is 
dependent  on  economic  laws  deeper  and  more  profound  than  the  en- 
thusiastic encomiums  of  its  friends  or  the  drastic  criticisms  of  those 
who  oppose  it.  What  is  needed  is  an  education  that  will  produce  a 
greatness  of  character  commensurate  with  the  responsibilities  of 
modern  political  life;  an  education  that  will  vouchsafe  a  strength  of 
patriotic  purpose  unassailable  by  conniving  politicians  or  prating 
demagogues;  an  education  impregnated  with  the  highest  ideals  of  life, 
and  abounding  in  the  noblest  conceptions  of  man's  duty  to  his  fellow- 
man.  If  the  extension  of  university  teaching,  considered  as  a  whole, 
contributes  to  these  highest  ends,  it  becomes  an  essential  factor  in  a 
national  system  of  education.     It  needs  no  further  apology. 

An  important  movement  looking  to  the  classification 
of  American  universities,  colleges,  and  schools,  has  been 
started  by  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  M.  MacCracken,  chancellor  of 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

He  urges  that  an  earnest  effort  be  made  to  induce  congress  to  au- 1 
thorize  the  commissioner  of  education  to  institute  inquiries  into  the 
standing  of  state  universities  and  colleges,  and  to  class  them  according 
to  what  he  finds  to  be  their  actual  condition  in  all  relations,  not  their 
reported  condition.  As  it  is  now,  the  commissioner  of  education  can 
accept  only  the  reports  from  state  authorities  on  the  subject,  having 
no  right  to  go  behind  the  returns,  so  to  speak.  The  object  of  the 
movement  is  to  do  away -with  the  evils  due  to  the  heterogeneous  ed- 
ucational condition  of  the  forty-five  states,  and  to  establish  uniformity 
in  standards  of  requirement  for  entrance  and  graduation. 

The  American  Historical  Association  held  its  eleventh 
annual  meeting  in  AVashington,  D.  C,  December  26  and 
27.  A  great  number  of  important  papers  were  read.  The 
following  officers  were  elected: 

Vol.  6.-63. 


968  MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Rev.  R.  S.  Storrs,  D.D.,  LL.  D.,  president,  succeeding  United 
States  Senator  G.  F.  Hoar  of  Massachusetts;  Dr.  James  Scliouler  and 
Professor  G.  P.  Fisher,  D.  D,,  LL.  D.,  vice-presidents. 


•~--<-^!r$5G*^i^is^L^||^^i3*^?^^     — • 


MUSIC  AND  THE  DRAMA. 

nnUE  most  striking  operatic  incident  of  the  quarter  has 
been  the  enthusiastic  reception  accorded  to  Englbert 
Humperdinck^s  Hansel  and  Gretel,  a  fairy  opera  in  three 
acts.  For  a  year  it  has  been  the  sensation  of  Europe.  It 
was  produced  at  Daly^s  theatre,  Xew  York  city,  Octo- 
ber 8. 

The  libretto,  by  the  composer's  sister,  Mrs.  Wette,  is  an  adaptation 
from  the  well-known  story  of  the  child-eating  witch  in  GnmiriS 
Fairy  Tales,  and  is  written  in  smooth  and  attractive  verse.  The 
writer  has  enriched  the  tale  by  putting  Hansel  and  Gretel  to  sleep  in 
the  gloomy  wood  by  the  aid  of  the  friendly  Sandman,  waking  them 
by  the  Dew  Fairy,  bestowing  angel  guardians  on  them,  and  making  the 
Witch  an  Ilsenstein  witch,  who  bakes  her  little  victims  into  ginger- 
bread, and  is  punished  by  being  baked  into  gingerbread  herself. 

Among  other  noteworthy  productions  were:  The  Heart 
of  Maryland,  by  David  Belasco,  at  the  Grand  opera  house, 
Washington,  D.  C,  October  9 — a  romantic  drama  of  love 
and  war,  abounding  in  strong  situations  and  of  sustained  in- 
terest; Leonardo,  a  three-act  comic  opera  by  J.  Pearsall 
Thorne,  libretto  by  Gilbert  Burgess,  at  the  Providence 
opera  house.  Providence,  R.  I.,  October  9;  Ambition,  a 
three-act  play  by  Henry  Guy  Carleton,  along  lines  similar 
to  those  of  Tlie  Senator,  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  theatre, 
New  York  city,  October  22;  and  Benedict  Arnold,  a  five- 
act  play  by  Richard  Golden,  following  pretty  closely  the 
well-known  historical  incidents  connected  with  the  name 
of  Arnold,  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  theatre,  Xew  York  city, 
December  27. 

In  the  Old  World  several  important  works  have  been 
produced.  An  opera  by  Mascagni,  entitled  Sijlvano,  scored 
a  pronounced  success  on  its  first  presentation,  at  the  Xew 
theatre  in  Berlin,  Germany. 

A  new  play,  Marcelle  (four  acts),  by  M.  Sardou,  which 
critics  describe  as  lacking  in  freshness  and  filled  with  too 
many  improbabilities,  was  brought  out  at  the  Theatre  du 
Gymnase,  in  Paris,  France,  December  21,  and  very  cor- 
dially received. 


I 


RELIGION.  969 

The  story  is  one  of  love  and  sacrifice,  but  with  a  happy  ending. 
It  concerns  the  love  of  Olivier,  son  of  a  baroness,  for  Marcelle,  a  very 
pretty  reader  in  the  service  of  his  mother;  the  unselfish  sacrifice 
which  Marcelle  in  earlier  life  had  undergone  to  save  her  brother,  and 
which  brought  her  own  character  under  suspicion;  and  her  final  jus- 
tification. 

Tommy  Atkins,  a  grand  military  drama,  by  Arthur 
Shirley  and  B.  Landeck,  was  produced  at  the  Duke  of 
York's  theatre,  London,  Eng.,  December  23. 

The  story  is  highly  sensational,  and  is  along  familiar  lines.  It 
includes  a  villain  and  his  schemes;  a  love-sick  curate  who  turns 
soldier,  but  comes  into  trouble  through  insubordination;  and  the  final 
triumph  of  Tommy  Atkins,  disgrace  of  the  villain,  and  righting  of 
the  heroine's  wrongs. 

La  Jacquerie,  a  four-act  opera,  begun  by  M.  Lalo, 
composer  of  Le  Roi  cVYs,  and  finished  by  M.  Coquart,  h^d 
its  first  presentation  December  23  at  the  Opera  Comique 
in  Paris. 

The  plot  is  taken  from  the  revolts  of  the  peasants  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  centres  around  the  love  of  a  young  peasant  for  a  larid- 
owner's  daughter. 

Cinderella,  a  new  pantomime  by  Sir  Augustus  Harris, 
scored  a  success  in  London,  Eng.,  December  25. 

The  same  is  to  be  said  of  A  Wo7nan's  Reason,  a  play  by 
C.  Brookfield  and  F.  C.  Phillips,  brought  out  at  the 
Shaftesbury  theatre  in  London,  December  27. 

The  story  is  that  of  the  unhappy  marriage  of  an  impoverished 
lord's  daughter  (a  part  taken  by  Mrs.  Beerbohm  Tree)  with  a  wealthy 
Jewish  gentleman,  Mr.  Dacosta.  The  wife  finally  elopes  with  her 
lover.  Captain  Crozier,  deserting  her  child,  a  boy  of  six.  In  the  last 
act  Dacosta's  remark  that  "  a  sinful  woman  should  either  be  killed  or 
forgiven,"  is  acted  on  by  his  choosing  the  latter  alternative. 


RELIGION. 

TJUEING  the  last  quarter  occurred  a  great  many  impor- 
tant and  interesting  religious  conventions;  but  space 
forbids  here  any  more  than  a  very  brief  account  of  theii 
proceedings. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Triennial  Convention. — 
The  triennial  general  convention  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  held  its  sessions  this  year  in  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  October  2-22 — the  first  occasion  of  its  assem- 
bling west  of  the  Mississippi. 


970 


RELIGION. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


On  account  of  infirmities,  Bishop  Williams  of  Connecticut  and 
Bishop  Clark  of  Rhode  Island  were  both  absent,  so  that  it  fell  to  the 
venerable  Bishop  Whipple  of  Minnesota,  next  in  seniority,  to  preside 
in  the  house  of  bishops.  The -Rev.  Dr.  Morgan  Dix  of  New  York 
city  was  re-elected  president  in  the  house  of  deputies,  having  served 
in  that  capacity  at  every  convention  since  1886.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel 
Hart  and  Rev.  Dr.  Chas.  L.  Hutchins  were  also  chosen  again  secre- 
taries, respectively,  of  the  house  of  bishops  and  the  house  of  deputies. 
The  sermon  on  the  opening  day  was  preached   by  Bishop  Coxe  of 

Western  New  York. 

The  general  conven- 
tion— the  legislative  body 
of  the  church — resembles 
the  federal  congress  in  its 
organization  in  t  wo  houses. 
In  the  house  of  bishops, 
all  diocesan,  assistant,  and 
missionary  bishops  have 
seats,  held  during  life;  in 
the  house  of  deputies,  on 
the  other  hand,  clergy  and 
laity  unite,  each  being 
represented  by  four  dele- 
gates elected  from  the  sev- 
eral dioceses,  and  serving 
during  one  convention 
only,  there  being  also  one 
clerical  and  one  lay  deputy 
from  each  missionary 
jurisdiction.  The  house  of 
bishops  sits  in  secret  ses- 
sion, its  transactions  ap- 
pearing in  the  published 
Journal;  the  sessions  of 
the  house  of  deputies  are 
generally  open  to  the  pub- 
lic. Legislation  may  origi- 
nate in  either  house,  but 
enactment  requires  the 
concurrent  assent  of  both 
houses.  The  two  houses, 
assembled  as  one  body,  compose  the  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Domes- 
tic and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  church.  Finally,  on  nomi- 
nation by  the  house  of  bishops,  the  house  of  deputies  elects  the  mis- 
sionary bishops,  either  domestic  or  foreign;  and  even  in  the  case  of 
diocesan  bishops,  if  their  election  take  place  within  three  months  be- 
fore the  meeting  of  the  general  convention,  further  action  must  be 
deferred  until  the  house  of  deputies,  when  it  shall  have  convened, 
may  approve  the  proceedings,  and  assent  to  the  consecration  of  the 
bishops-elect. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  time  occupied  by  the  convention  in  de- 
bate, was  devoted  to  the  question  of  revision  of  the  constitution  and 
canons  of  the  church.  A  committee  of  twenty-one,  appointed  at  the 
convention  of  1892,  consisting  of  equal  representation  from  bishops, 
clergy,  and  laity,  submitted  an  entire  redraft  of  the  constitution,  pre- 
faced by  a  declaration  of  faith.     The  declaration  of  faith,  however, 


RT.   REV.    HENRY  B.   WHIPPLE,    D.    D., 
PROTESTANT   EPISCOPAL  BISHOP   OF   MINNESOTA. 


RELIGION.  971 

"was  rejected  witli  very  little  discussion,  as  lying  beyond  tlie  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  committee  to  formulate. 

The  leading  features  of  the  revision,  as  proposed,  were  the  pro- 
visions for  the  formation  of  provinces  of  five  or  more  dioceses,  each 
to  be  under  an  archbishop  or  primate,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
presiding  bishop  of  the  house  of  bishops  as  primus  or  head  of  the 
church  in  America.  The  other  changes  related  largely  to  details  of 
government  and  procedure.  The  prevailing  opinion  seemed  to  be 
that  the  tendency  of  the  proposed  changes  was  toward  an  extension 
of  the  powers  of  the  bish- 
ops and  a  curtailment  of 
those  of  the  clergy  and 
laity,  although  the  advo- 
cates of  revision  contend- 
ed that  the  changes  were 
in  the  line  of  simplifica- 
tion and  conformity  to 
modern  and  advanced 
ideas.  The  house  of  bish- 
ops accepted  the  revision 
with  little  change;  but  the 
house  of  deputies,  aftef 
long  discussion,  in  the 
course  of  which  some 
amendments  were  adopt- 
ed, ended  by  referring  the 
whole  matter  to  a  new 
committee.  Subsequent- 
ly, by  concurrent  action 
of  both  houses,  the  revised 
canons  were  recommitted 
to  the  old  commission, 
Avhich  is  to  report  to  the 
convention  of  1898. 

The  conservatives 
were  strongly  in  a  major- 
ity in  the  convention.  The 
propositions  to  call  the 
presiding  bishop  of  the 
church  a  "primate,"  and 
the  general  convention  a 
"general  synod,"  were  voted  down  by  the  house  of  deputies,  as  was 
also  the  proposal  to  recognize  the  title  '  •  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States. "  Other  changes  of  name  for  the  church  were  sug- 
gested— as  the  "American  Church,"  the  "Holy  Catholic  Church;"  but 
none  were  adopted.  In  only  one  instance  was  a  new  name  allowed — 
the  title  "assistant  bishop"  being  changed  to  "bishop  coadjutor." 
The  house  of  deputies  also  voted  adversely  on  the  resolution  offered 
by  Rev.  Dr.  W.  R.  Huntington  of  New  York  city,  authorizing  indi- 
vidual bishops  to  take  under  their  care  congregations  of  other  Chris- 
tian bodies,  provided  they  conformed  to  the  doctrines  and  discipline 
of  the  church — thus  ending  for  the  time  the  well-meant  attempt  to 
effect  Christian  unity  on  the  basis  of  the  Lambeth  "quadrilateral" 
(p.  470). 

A  clause   in  the  old  constitution  giving  the  house  of   deputies 
power  to  adopt  a  measure  provided  the  bishops  failed  to  act  on  it 


RT.   REV.   JOHN   WILLIAMS,   D.    D., 
PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  BISHOP  OF  CONNECTICUT. 


973  RELIGION.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

within  three  days,  was  rescinded;  and  it  was  also  decided  that  foreign 
missionary  bishops  should  no  longer  be  counted  in  making  a  quorum 
of  the  house  of  bishops.  A  portion  of  the  diocese  of  North  Carolina 
was  set  apart,  to  be  under  a  missionary  bishop,  who  will  be  known 
as  the  bishop  of  Asheville;  and  the  missionary  districts  of  Western 
Texas  and  Northern  Michigan  were  recognized  as  now  strong  enough 
to  become  regularly  organized  dioceses.  The  new  missionary  juris- 
diction of  Alaska  was  created,  the  Rev.  Peter  Trimble  Rowe  of  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  Mich.,  being  appointed  missionary  bishop;  and,  by  a  divi- 
sion of  the  present  diocese 
of  Minnesota,  a  new  mis- 
sionary jurisdiction  was 
created,  to  be,  however, 
only  in  part  dependent  on 
the  Board  of  Missions.  The 
house  of  deputies  refused 
to  permit  the  erection  of  a 
second  diocese  in  Japan. 

RowE,  Rt.  Rev. 
Peter  Trimble,  first 
missionary  bishop  of  Alas- 
ka, was  born  in  Toronto, 
Ont. ,  thirty-nine  yearsago. 
Was  graduated  at  Trinity 
University  in  1878;  or- 
dained deacon  by  Bishop 
Fauquier  in  1879,  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  priesthood  in 
1880.  For  five  years  after 
entering  the  ministry  he 
worked  on  the  Indian  reser- 
vation at  Grand  River, 
Ont.,  along  the  shore  of 
Lake  Huron,  and  on  the 
islands  of  St.  Joseph  and 
Cockburn,  doing  much  of 
his  travelling  in  small 
boats  in  the  summer  and 
on  snowshoes  in  the  win- 
ter. He  was  appointed  to 
the  mission  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  Mich.,  in  July, 
1884,  and  found  six  communicants  there  when  he  arrived.  He  built  up 
the  work  at  the  Sault,  and  established  several  missions  in  that  region. 
During  the  thirteen  years  of  his  residence  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  where 
he  has  been  the  rector  of  St.  James's  church,  Mr.  Rowe  interested 
himself  in  educational  matters,  and  for  several  years  has  been  com- 
missioner of  education  and  superintendent  of  schools  for  the  county 
of  Chippewa,  Mich.  He  speaks  six  of  the  Indian  dialects  fluently.  He 
was  consecrated  in  St.  George's  church,  New  York  city,  November  30. 
A  striking  incident  of  the  convention  was  the  adoption,  on  Octo- 
ber 3,  by  a  virxi  voce  vote  of  about  500  to  20,  of  a  motion  to  send  frater- 
nal greetings  to  the  Methodist  Conference  of  Northern  Minnesota  then 
also  in  session  in  Minneapolis.  It  was  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  general  convention  that  greetings  were  sent  to  a  conference  of  an. 
other  denomination. 


RT.    REV.    A.    C.    COXE,    D.    D.. 

PROTESTANT   EPISCOPAL   BISHOP   OF   WESTERN 

NEW   YORK. 


RELIGION.  973 

Congregational  Triennial  Council. — Great  inter- 
est attached  to  the  proceedings  of  the  triennial  national 
council  of  the  Congregational  Church,  in  session  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  October  9-14.  Ex-Governor  Nelson  Dingley 
of  Maine  was  chosen  moderator,  succeeding  Rev.  A.  II. 
Quint,  D.D. 

The  most  significant  action  taken  related  to  the  subject  of  Chris- 
tian unity.  An  elaborate  report  on  this  subject,  reviewing  the  whole 
history  of  the  attempts  heretofore  made,  and  proposing  a  basis  of 
union  for  the  various  Protestant  churclies,  was  submitted  by  the 
Committee  on  Church  Unity,  composed  of  Rev.  W.  H.  Ward,  D.  D., 
(chairman).  Revs.  Samuel  W.  Dike,  LL.  D.,  A.  H.  Quint,  D.  D., 
George  E.  Hail,  D.  D.,  D.  M.  Fisk,  and  J.  H.  Morley,  However,  as 
the  report  seemed  to  trench  on  matters  belonging  to  another  commit- 
tee, of  which  Rev.  J.  M.  Sturtevant,  D.  D.,  was  chairman,  the  two 
committees  were  directed  to  combine  their  reports  if  possible.  This 
was  done,  and  the  combined  report  was  adopted  October  12,  the 
names  of  the  committees  being  changed  to  "  Committee  on  Denomina- 
tional Comity"  and  "Committee  on  Union  with  Other  Denomina- 
tions."    The  report  is  substantially  as  follows: 

"That  it  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Union  with  Other  De- 
nominations, in  cases  where  it  may  seem  wise  to  this  committee  to  at- 
tempt specific  .  union  with  any  particular  denomination,  to  conduct 
negotiations  with  such  denomination  by  means  of  persons  whom  it 
shall  select  for  such  purpose. 

"That,  in  particular,  this  committee  be  directed  to  act  in  confer- 
ence with  the  commission  appointed  by  the  Christian  quadrennial 
convention,  with  a  view  to  closer  co-operative  union,  and,  if  it  seem 
feasible,  organic  union.  We  suggest  also  particularly  that  the  com- 
mittee continue  the  communications  with  the  Free  Baptists,  which 
have  been  hitherto  in  progress. 

"The  Committee  on  Union  with  Other  Denominations  shall  be 
understood  to  act  upon  the  following  basis: 

"  {a)  In  accordance  with  the  constitution  and  organic  declaration 
of  this  national  council,  adopted  at  Oberlin,  O.,  in  1871,  declaring  the 
Holy  Scriptures  '  the  sufficient  and  only  infallible  rule  of  religious  faith 
and  practice,  their  interpretation  thereof  being  in  substantial  accord- 
ance with  the  great  doctrines  of  Christian  faith  commonly  called 
evangelical,'  and  that  '  the  liberty  of  our  churches'  affords  '  the  ground 
and  hope  of  a  more  visible  unity  in  time  to  come,' we,  as  Congrega- 
tional churches,  recognize  no  creed  of  human  origin,  no  matter  how 
venerable  or  historically  honored  by  us  and  by  the  Christian  Church, 
to  have  authority  over  our  faith,  which  authority  belongs  only  to  the 
Word  of  God. 

"(&)  In  any  union  contemplated,  those  who  join  together  have, 
accordingly,  the  right  to  maintain  their  conscientious  varieties  of 
faith  and  order, 

"(c)  *  *  *  We  approve,  as  a  proposed  basis  of  union,  the 
platform  of  union  suggested  by  the  New  Jersey  Association  and  ap- 
proved by  a  number  of  our  other  state  bodies,  and  we  direct  the  Com- 
mittee on  Union  with  Other  Denominations  to  present  it  in  the  fol- 
lowing slightly  amended  form  to  our  sister  denominations  of  evan- 
gelical Christians  for  their  consideration : 

"  We  propose  to  other  Protestant  evangelical  churches  a  union,  or  alliance, 
based  on 


974  RELIGION.  4th  Qr.,  1895 

'*  1.  The  acceptance  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in- 
spired by  the  Holy  Ghost  as  containing  all  things  necessary  to  salvation,  and  as 
being  the  rule  and  ultimate. standard  of  Christian  faith. 

'"2.  Discipleship  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  divine  Lord  and  Savior  and  the 
Teacher  of  the  world. 

"3.  The  Church  of  Christ,  which  is  his  body,  whose  great  mission  it  is  to 
preach  his  Gospel  to  the  world. 

"4.  Liberty  of  conscience  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  church. 

"Such  an  alliance  of  the  cliurclies  sliould  have  regular  meetings 
of  their  representatives,  and  should  have  for  its  objects,  among 
others; 

"1.  Mutual  acquaintance  and  fellowship. 
"2.  Co-operation  in  foreign  and  domestic  missions. 

"3.  The  prevention  of  rivalries  between  competing  churches  in  the  same 
field. 

"4.  The  ultimate  visible  union  of  the  whole  body  of  Christ." 

The  following  two  sections  encourage  efforts  tending  toward 
union;  and  the  report  ends  as  follows: 

"  When  it  shall  seem  proper  that  a  conference  of  the  various  de- 
nominations be  sought,  either  for  comity  or  for  closer  union,  this 
shall  be  provided  for  by  the  joint  action  of  the  two  committees,  each 
consenting  thereto." 

In  a  word,  the  basis  of  union  proposed  by  the  Congre- 
gationalists  is  that  of  the  simple  evangelical  faith  with 
liberty  of  interpretation  and  administration.  The  plat- 
form offered  by  the  Anglican  Church  has  been  practically 
declined  by  general  consent  of  other  denominations,  and 
virtually  withdrawn  by  Episcopalians  themselves,  a  large 
party  in  the  church  repudiating  it;  while  the  Presby- 
terians have  definitely  directed  their  committee  on  the 
subject  to  cease  all  correspondence  until  the  Episcopal 
Church  shall  be  ready  to  accord  recognition  to  ministers 
of  all  other  bodies. 

The  Eucharistic  Congress. — On  October  1  the  four- 
*;een  archbishops  of  the  Roman  "Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States  met  at  Washington  to  discuss  their  diocesan 
affairs  and  to  hold  their  annual  consultation  as  directors  of 
the  Catholic  University.  On  the  next  day  the  first  Eu- 
charistic congress  ever  held  in  America  was  opened  by 
Monsignor  Satolli,  the  apostolic  delegate. 

"  The  Eucharistic  League"  is  a  doctrinal  order  which  was  founded 
in  Paris  in  1855,  having  for  its  object  to  promote  devotion  to,  and 
spread  the  knowledge  of,  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  tran substantiation. 
The  American  branch  of  the  order  was  instituted  at  Notre  Dame 
University,  at  South  Bend,  Ind.,  in  August,  1894.  The  order  has 
thousands  of  members  in  Europe,  and  is  growing  rapidly  in  this 
country.  The  Rev.  Bede  Maler  of  St.  Bernard's  Abbey,  Ind.,  is  the 
director-general,  and  is  supported  by  a  board  of  directors  composed  of 
representatives  from  each  archdiocese  in  the  country. 

Among  the  more  important  resolutions  adopted,  is  one  pledging 
the  league  to  do  everything  in  its  power  to  cause  the  veneration  of 
Sanday,  and  indorsing  the  decree  of  the  plenary  council  of  Baltimore 
on  that,  subject,  which  urges  pastors  to  secure  the  sanctification  of 


RELIGION.  975 

lay,  and  specifies  tlie  opening'  of  saloons  as  one  way  of  its  dese- 
cration. Another  important  resolution  adopted  was  that  indorsing 
Christian  unity.  It  had  been  given  out  that  this  congress  would 
arraign  Secretary  Smith's  administration  of  Indian  affairs  in  the 
form  of  charges  to  be  investigated  by  the  United  States  congress. 
But  Cardinal  Gibbons,  when  interviewed  on  the  subject,  made  this 
statement : 

"  The  archbishop  and  bishops  will  never  make  a  united  petition  to  congress, 
no  matter  how  grave  the  circumstances  or  how  grievous  the  complaint.  If  the 
Catholic  Church  has  reasons  to  believe  that  its  rights  have  been  imposed  upon, 
or  its  members  unfairly  treated,  it  will  simply  ask  for  justice  as  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  They  will  never  demand  satisfaction  as  a  body  of  powerful 
prelates  supported  by  millions  of  voters.  Such  action  would  be  contrary  to 
their  high  prerogative  of  the  exponents  of  the  great  Teacher  of  charity  and 
humility." 

Mgr.  Satolli  Made  a  Cardinal. — In  the  latter  part 
of  November  Pope  Leo  XIII.  announced  the  creation  of 
nine  new  cardinals,  among  them  Mgr.  Satolli,  apostolic 
delegate  to  the  United  States.  The  appointment  will  not 
materially  affect  the  relations  of  Mgr.  Satolli  to  the  church 
in  America.  He  was  formally  invested  with  the  berretta, 
the  insignia  of  the  cardinalate,  in  the  cathedral  at  Balti- 
more, Md.,  January  5,  189C. 

In  accordance  with  instructions  in  a  letter  dated  Sep- 
tember 18,  from  His  Holiness  to  Mgr.  Satolli,  Roman 
Catholics  in  the  United  States  are  to  be  dissuaded  from 
joining  in  promiscuous  religious  congresses.  Says  the  let- 
ter, among  other  things: 

"  We  have  learned  that  in  the  United  States  of  America  conven- 
tions are  sometimes  held  in  which  people  assemble  promiscuously. 
Catholics  as  well  as  those  of  other  denominations,  to  treat  upon  reli- 
gion as  well  as  upon  correct  morals.  *  *  *  Although  these  promis- 
cuous conventions  have  unto  this  day  been  tolerated  with  prudent  si- 
lence, it  would  nevertheless  seem  advisable  that  the  Catholics  should 
hold  their  conventions  separately,  and  that,  lest  the  utility  of  these 
conventions  should  result  simply  to  their  own  benefit,  they  might  be 
called  with  this  understanding — that  admittance  should  be  open  to  all, 
even  to  those  who  are  outside  of  the  Catholic  Church." 

The  Community  of  St.  Benedict.— Our  readers 
will  remember  that  in  September,  1894,  in  Trinity  church 
(Protestant  Episcopal),  New  York  city.  Bishop  Potter  or- 
dained "Brother  Hugh''^  (formerly  Russell  Whitcomb,  a 
successful  business  man  of  Boston,  Mass.)  to  the  work  of 
the  newly  founded  "  Community  of  the  Brothers  of  the 
Church"  (Vol.  4,  p.  696).  The  subsequent  history  of  this 
community  is  interesting. 

A  home  was  provided  in  the  western  part  of  the  city,  and  there 
were  a  few  accessions  to  the  community.  The  life  of  the  brothers, 
however,  became  gradually  more  ascetic,  and  a  strong  tendency  to 
monasticism  developed.  They  felt  that  a  rural  locality  would  be  bet- 
ter adapted  to  their  objects  than  a  cosmopolitan  city,  and  accordingly 
accepted  an  offer  of  a  commodious  farmhouse  at  Falsington,  Penli., 


976  RELIGION.  4th  Qr.,  1893. 

near  Trenton,  N.  J.,  wliere  they  opened  a  liome  for  orphaned  and 
crippled  children.  By  this  time  they  had  given  up  their  community 
name,  and  had  become  the  "  Fathers  of  the  Community  of  St.  Bene- 
dict," and  had  adopted  the  full  habit  of  the  Benedictine  monks.  The 
austerity  of  the  life,  however,  it  seems,  proved  too  severe,and  several 
members  returned  to  pursue  their  former  callings.  In  the  fall  of 
1895,  the  home  was  given  up,  and  the  monks  repaired  to  a  tem- 
porary shelter  in  Jericho  Mountain,  where  they  lived  in  great  pov- 
erty. In  November  the  announcement  was  made  that  the  two  re- 
maining members  had  decided  to  abandon  their  life,  and  seelc  places 
for  work  in  other  directions.  Father  Hugh  going  West  to  work  under 
the  direction  of  Bishop  Grafton  of  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis. 

The  Lutheran  Church. — One  of  the  most  important 
conventions  of  the  General  Council  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  since  the  organization  of  the  council  in  18G7, 
was  held  at  Easton,  Penn.,  adjourning  October  17. 

A  step  of  very  great  significance,  revealing  that  spirit  of  union 
which  is  now  abroad  and  growing,  was  taken.  A  long  and  bitter 
strife  had  been  waged  between  the  General  Council  and  the  General 
Synod,  chiefly  over  mission  work;  but  not  long  ago  the  committees 
of  the  two  bodies  agreed  to  enter  upon  a  policy  of  comity  in  all  mis- 
sion work.  The  general  council  at  Easton  formally  approved  this 
action.  Neither  body  is  to  interfere  with  the  mission  work  of  the 
other  at  home  or  abroad;  and  fraternal  delegates  are  to  be  sent  from 
one  body  to  the  other.  This  is  generally  regarded  as  preparing  the 
way  for  a  confederation,  if  not  a  final  consolidation,  of  Lutheran 
churches. 

The  American^  Board. — The  eighty-sixth  annual 
meeting  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions  was  held  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  October  15-18. 

According  to  the  annual  report  relating  to  the  twenty  missions 
of  the  board,  the  work  in  South  Africa  has  been  very  interesting  and 
successful.  The  larger  part  of  the  report  was  taken  up  with  accounts 
of  the  work  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Marash  mission  is  in  advance  of  the 
other  missions  in  Asia  Minor  in  its  educational  equipment.  Besides 
the  usual  complement  of  kindergartens  and  common  schools,  there  are 
boarding-schools  for  girls,  crowned  by  the  Girls'  College  at  Marash; 
three  boys'  high  schools,  crowned  by  Central  Turkey  College  at 
Aintab;  and  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Marash. 

The  Harput  membership  of  the  churches  is  reported  as  2,005,  of 
whom  1,018  are  women;  number  of  church  members  received  from 
the  first,  3,198.  The  straitened  circumstances  of  the  American  Board 
have  curtailed  the  school  work.  The  total  amount  given  by  the  peo- 
ple, $13,285,  is  an  advance  upon  last  year  of  $1,159. 

The  condition  of  the  country  and  the  attitude  of  the  government 
toward  the  Van  station,  have  rendered  general  touring  and  aggressive 
work  outside  the  city  impossible.  It  has  not  been  practicable  for 
colporteurs  to  circulate  as  in  former  years,  even  if  the  abject  poverty 
of  the  people  had  not  made  it  impossible  for  the  people  to  buy  books. 
As  for  the  missionaries  themselves,  aside  from  the  increased  danger 
that  would  come  to  them  on  the  road,  there  has  been  constant  danger 
that  their  visits  would  bring  trouble  to  those  by  whom  they  were  en- 
tertained.    The  Armenians  have  become  fully  convinced  that  the 


I 


RELIGION.  977 

missionaries  are  their  true  friends  and  are  laboring  for  their  good;  and 
it  looks  as  if  there  would  be  a  general  readiness  to  allow  them  to  carry 
on  whatever  of  evangelical  work  they  may  wish,  if  once  government 
opposition  were  removed  and  safety  and  quiet  granted  to  the  country. 
The  report  of  the  assistant  treasurer  showed  the  following  items: 

EXPENDITURES. 

Cost  of  missions  (20) $661,886 

Agencies,  printing,  and  cost  of  administration 53,346 

Balance  of  debt  from  1894 116,237 

Total .$831 ,469 

RECEIPTS. 

Donations,  legacies,  etc $716,837 

Debt,  August  31,  1895 114,632 

Total $831,469 

GENERAL  SUMMARY,  1895. 
MissUms. 

Missions 20 

Stations 103 

Out-stations - 1,163 

Places  for  stated  preaching 1,461 

Average  congregations 72,000 

Laborers  Emj)loyed. 

Ordained  missionaries  (16  being  physicians) 187 

Male  physicians  not  ordained  (besides  1 1  women) 13 

Other  male  assistants 5 

Women  (1 1  of  them  physicians)  (wives  187,  unmarried  180) 367 

Whole  number  of  laborers  sent  from  this  country 572 

Native  pastors 242 

Native  preachers  and  catechists 500 

Native  school-teachers 1,734 

Other  native  laborers 613 

Total  of  native  laborers  3,107 

Total  of  American  and  native  laborers  3,679 

The  Churches. 

Churches 431 

Church  members 44.413 

Added  during  the  year 3,;^6 

Whole  number  from  the  first,  as  nearly  as  can  be  learned 131,914 

Resolutions  were  adopted  giving  instructions  to  the  prudential 
committee  to  confine  expenditures  within  income,  and  to  throw  the 
responsibility  for  the  reduction  of  the  work,  if  such  should  be  neces- 
sary, upon  the  churches. 

Miscellaneous. — The  second  international  conference 
of  the  Epworth  League,  representing  the  young  peoples' 
societies  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States,  the  Methodist  Churcli  South,  and  the  Methodist 
Church  of  Canada,  was  held  in  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  June 
27-30.  It  was  a  most  successful  gathering,  being  attended 
by  fully  10,000  visitors. 

The  tenth  annual  convention  of  the  Brotherhood  of 
St.  Andrew  met  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  the  first  week  in  Octo- 
ber. 

The  second  biennial  federal  convention  of  the  Brother- 
hood of  Andrew  and  Philip  was  held  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  November  15-17,  attended  by  160  visiting  dele- 
gates. 


978  RELIGION".  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

The  brotherliood  was  organized  in  1888.  Its  two  rules,  wliich 
set  forth  its  objects,  are:  "The  rule  of  prayer — to  pray  daily  for 
the  spread  of  Christ's  kingdom  among  young  men,  and  for  God's 
blessing  upon  the  labors  of  the  brotherhood;"  and  "  The  rule  of  ser- 
vice— to  make  an  earnest  effort  each  week  to  bring  at  least  one  young 
man  within  the  hearing  of  the  Gospel  as  set  forth  in  the  services 
of  the  church,  young  people's  prayer- meetings,  and  young  men's 
Bible-classes." 

The  order  of  the  King^s  Daiiglders  held  a  convention  at 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  early  in  October. 

Organized  in  January,  1886,  by  a  band  of  ten  women  in  New 
York  city,  this  order  has  now  a  membership  of  over  400,000,  and  has 
branches  in  South  America,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Italy, 
Greece,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Turkey,  India,  China,  Japan,  Aus- 
tralia, New  Zealand,  Hawaii,  and  the  Bermudas  and  Bahamas.  It 
does  works  of  Christian  charity  in  unobtrusive  ways. 

The  sixteenth  annual  conference  of  Unitarian  and 
other  Christian  churches  was  held  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
beginning  October  22. 

Resolutions  were  adopted  urging  all  good  citizens  to  unite  in  com- 
mon efforts  for  good  municipal  government  without  regard  to  party 
affiliations,  and  denouncing  intemperance  and  the  traffic  in  intoxicat- 
ing drinks.  On  the  matter  of  Christian  unity,  the  following  revised 
resolutions,  reported  by  Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  were  finally  adopted: 

""^ Resolved,  That  this  church  accepts  the  religion  of  Jesus,  holding,  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  teaching,  that  practical  religion  is  summed  up  in  love  to  God 
and  love  to  man;  and  we  cordially  invite  to  our  working  fellowship  any  who, 
while  differing  from  us  in  belief,  are  in  general  sympatliy  with  our  spirit  and 
our  practice. 

""Resolved,  That  the  national  council  give  the  above  declaration  the 
widest  possible  publicity  as  a  sufficient  basis  not  only  for  Christian  unity,  but 
also  for  the  religious  unity  of  the  world." 

The  eighth  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of 
Church  History  was  held  in  New  York  city  December  26 
and  27. 

A  controversy  has  arisen  within  the  ranks  of  the  Chris- 
tian Endeavor  Society  over  the  attitude  which  its  mem- 
bers should  adopt  toward  the  national  prohibition  party. 
Mr.  J.  G.  Woolley,  the  temperance  orator,  contends  that 
the  United  Society  should  commit  itself  to  the  support  of 
the  third  party.  Dr.  Francis  E.  Clark,  father  of  the 
Christian  Endeavor  movement,  holds  a  contrary  opinion. 

The  annual  conventions  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ  were 
held  in  Dallas,  Tex.,  October  18-25,  with  over  1,000  dele- 
gates in  attendance. 

On  October  21  the  twentieth  annual  convention  of  the  Foreign 
Christian  Missionary  Society  began.  This  society  carries  on  work 
by  about  140  missionaries  and  helpers,  at  fifty-nine  stations,  in  six 
fields:  England,  Scandinavia,  Turkey,  India,  Japan,  and  China. 

In  October  it  was  announced  that  the  revision  of  the 
Bible,  including  the  Apocrypha,  was  at  last  completed. 


SOCIOLOGY. 


979 


It  was  in  February,  1870,  that  the  proposal  made  by  Bishop 
Wilberforce  at  a  convocation  in  England,  for  a  revision  of  the 
authorized  King  James's  version,  vv^as  adopted.  The  revision  com- 
mittee began  its  work  in  June,  1870;  the  revised  New  Testament  ap- 
peared in  May,  1881;  and  the  Old  Testament  in  May,  1885. 


SOCIOLOGY. 

The  W.  C.  T.  U. 

— rAt  the  annual  con- 
vention of  the  Wo- 
man's Christian  Tem- 
perance Union,  which 
was  held  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  and  closed  on  Oc- 
tober 23,  Miss  Fran- 
ces E.  Willard  was 
elected  president  for 
the  seventeenth  con- 
secutive time. 

Mrs.  L.  M.  N.  Stevens 
of  Maine  was  chosen  for 
the  newly  established  of- 
fice  of  vice- president- at- 
large.  The  other  officers 
elected  include  Mrs.  Cath- 
erine L.  Stevenson  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, corresponding 
secretary;  Mrs.  Clara  C. 
Hoffman  of  Missouri,  re- 
cording secretary;  Mrs. 
Frances  E.  Beauchamp  of 
Kentucky,  assistant  re- 
cording secretary ;  and  Mrs. 
Helen  M.  Barker  of  Illi- 
nois, treasurer. 

Resolutions  were  adopted  commending  tbe  "  Staten  Island  Basis 
of  Union  "  (p.  606)  as  the  best  plan  to  secure  co-operation  of  reform 
forces  against  intemperance  and  injustice;  inviting  Roman  Catholic 
and  Hebrew  women  to  send  fraternal  delegates  to  the  W.  C.  T.  U. 
conventions,  and  to  establish  branches  of  the  White  Ribbon  Society 
within  their  own  borders;  indorsing  the  prohibition  party  "as  the 
only  political  party  with  courage  to  speak  out  boldly  in  favor  of  wo- 
man suffrage  and  the  total  annihilation  of  the  liquor  traffic;  "  favor- 
ing an  educational  suffrage  qualification  for  both  sexes;  condemning 
the  use  of  tobacco  and  narcotics  as  liable  to  lead  to  the  opium  habit; 
and  asking  for  tbe  appointment  of  women  on  the  divorce  commissions 
of  the  various  states. 


MISS  FRlNCBB  E.  WILLARD, 
PRESIDENT  OF  THE  WORLD'S  CHRISTIAN  TEM- 
PERANCE  UNION. 


980  IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS.         4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Woman  Suifrage. — A  referendum  is  to  be  taken  in 
Massachusetts  on  the  question  whether  "■  it  is  expedient 
that  municipal  suffrage  be  granted  to  women ;^^  and  female 
suffragists  have  urged  registration  of  all  persons,  male  or 
female,  qualified  as  voters.  Only  a  small  portion  of  the 
women  of  the  state,  however,  have  availed  themselves  of 
the  privilege.  A  man-suffrage  association  has  been  or- 
ganized to  combat  the  female-suffrage  movement.  In 
October  it  issued  a  strong  protest  signed  by  100  prominent 
men,  including  President  Eliot  and  Professor  Norton  of 
Harvard,  ex-Governors  Robinson  and  Russell,  R.  H.  Dana, 
Francis  Peabody,  John  Piske,  and  others,  in  part  as  follows: 

*'  Women,  as  compared  with  men,  have  had  but  little  experience 
in  private  or  trust  or  corporate  business  affairs.  This  is  not  due  to 
our  laws,  but  to  other  causes.  Our  city  and  town  governments  are 
great  public  business  corporations.  So  long  as  the  relative  inexperi- 
ence of  women  in  business  affairs  continues,  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  the  combined  vote  of  men  and  women  will  give  as  good  results 
as  the  vote  of  men  alone;  and  we  submit,  therefore,  that  the  rights 
and  property  of  our  citizens,  female  as  well  as  male,  are  now  better 
protected  and  more  intelligently  cared  for  than  they  would  be  if  the 
mass  of  voters  should  be  doubled  by  established  woman  suffrage. 

"  We  submit  that  woman  suffrage  will  not  promote  the  happiness 
or  physical  welfare  of  woman,  that  it  will  not  tend  to  her  social  or 
moral  elevation,  and  that  it  will  not  prove  a  benefit,  but  rather  an  in- 
jury, to  the  family,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  growth  and  prosperity 
of  the  state." 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS. 

Ci^  November  18  Attorney-General  Hancock  of  New 
York  state  decided  'for  the  plaintiffs  in  the  case  of 
C.  A.  Whelan  &  Co.,  who  were  acting  in  the  name  of  the 
people,  against  the  American  Tobacco  Company,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Cigarette  Trust.  The  firm  had  ap^ 
plied  for  permission  to  bring  suit  against  the  trust,  the 
charge  being  that  the  latter  was  an  unlawful  trust,  organ- 
ized under  the  laws  of  another  state  (New  Jersey)  and 
doing  business  contrary  to  the  statutes  and  public  policy 
of  New  York.  To  take  an  example — it  seems  that  the 
trust,  which  controls  about  ninety  per  cent  of  the  cigarette 
trade  of  the  country,  boycotts  all  dealers  who  handle  the 


IMPORTANT  LEGAL  DECISIONS.  981 

goods  of  any  other  company. — It  is  expected  that,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  decision,  movements  will  be  taken  against 
trusts  in  several  other  states. 

On  November  18  the  United  States  supreme  court,  in 
an  opinion  by  Justice  Harlan,  gave  an  important  decision 
regarding  telegraph  monopoly. 

It  held  in  effect  that  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company  had  no 
right  to  make  a  lease  practically  giving  the  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph Company  an  exclusive  right  to  maintain  telegraph  lines  along 
the  road  of  the  railroad  company;  that  the  United  States  had  a  right 
to  compel  the  Union  Pacific  to  maintain  its  own  lines  along  its  route, 
the  obligation  resting  on  the  road  to  do  so  being  as  great  as  that  to 
maintain  its  tracks. 

The  case  came  from  Nebraska,  and  the  court  by  its  decision  re- 
versed the  judgment  of  the  United  States  circuit  court  of  appeals, 
and  affirmed  the  judgment  of  the  circuit  court  for  the  Nebraska 
district. 

On  December  18  the  supreme  court  of  New  York  state 
again  supported  the  contention  of  Amherst,  Dartmouth, 
Hamilton,  Kochester,  and  Williams  colleges,  declaring 
null  the  deed  of  trust  affecting  the  distribution  of  the 
residuary  estate  of  D.  B.  Fayerweather  of  New  York  city, 
who  died  November  15,  1890  (Vol.  4,  p.  849).  These  col- 
leges claimed  that  the  residue  of  the  estate  should  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  twenty  colleges  as  if  the  codicil  of  the  deed 
of  trust  had  never  existed;  and  this  opinion  is  upheld  by 
the  general  term  of  the  supreme  court. 

Under  the  ninth  clause  of  his  will,  Mr.  Fayerweather  left  $2,150,- 
000  to  twenty  colleges,  and  in  the  tenth  clause  he  left  the  residue  of 
his  estate,  amounting  to  about  $3,000,000,  to  the  same  colleges  men- 
tioned, share  and  share  alike.  A  codicil,  however,  changed  this  resi- 
duary bequest,  leaving  the  residue  absolutely  to  the  trustees.  The 
contest  claimed  that  this  absolute  bequest  was  illegal,  and  there- 
upon the  trustees  made  a  so-called  deed  of  gift,  distributing  the  resi- 
due on  a  very  different  basis,  making  a  very  different  list  from  that 
of  Mr.  Fayerweather.  The  trustees  excluded  from  their  list  the  col- 
leges mentioned  above,  and  gave  large  amounts  to  hospitals  and  other 
colleges  and  institutions.  Thus,  Cooper  Union  and  the  Woman's  Hos- 
pital had  $200,000  each;  Barnard  College,  Harvard,  Princeton,  North- 
western, and  Rutgers,  $100,000  each;  and  Wells  Female  College 
$150,000.  This  decision  will  be  appealed  to  the  United  States  su- 
preme court.  If  the  decision  of  the  state  supreme  court  shall  stand, 
the  specified  bequests  under  clause  nine  of  the  will,  and  the  share  of 
the  residue,  will  be  as  follows: 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


College. 


Bowdoin 

Dartmouth 

Williams 

Amherst 

Wesleyan 

Yale 

Columbia 

Union  Theological  Seminary. 

Hamilton 

Kochester 

Cornell 

Lafayette 

Lincoln 

University  of  Virginia 

Hampton 

Mary  ville 

Marietta 

Adelbert 

Park 

Wabash 

Totals 


Specified 
bequest. 


$100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
»  100,000 
100,000 
300,000 
200,000 
50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
200.000 
50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 


$2,150,000 


Share   of 
residue. 


,150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150.000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 


$3,000,000 


On  December  18  Judge  Pardee,  in  the  United  States 
circuit  court  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  gave  a  short  but  forci- 
ble decision  against  the  position  assumed  by  Comptroller 
R.  B.  Bowler  of  the  United  States  treasury,  regarding  the 
payment  of  back  claims  for  sugar  bounties  (p.  743).  The 
case  will  be  taken  to  the  United  States  supreme  court. 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 

The  Crops. — The  year  was  one  of  the  driest  on  record, 
yet  the  harvests,  except  wheat  and  cotton,  were  unusually 
large,  their  leading  features  being  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing summary: 

The  area  planted  to  corn  was  the  largest  on  record.  For  three 
years  the  crops  had  been  small,  but  prices  had  suffered  less  than  any- 
other  grain.  The  area  devoted  to  this  crop  alone  amounts  to  almost 
one-fourth  of  the  total  area  of  improved  land  in  farms  in  1890;  equals 
the  combined  area  of  New  England,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, and  Maryland;  and  is  greater  than  the  total  area  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  or  Italy,  or  Norway.  The  season  was  not  entirely  favor- 
able, most  districts  suffering  "at  some  period  of  growth  from  lack  of 
rainfall;  but  the  average  rate  of  yield  for  the  whole  country  was  higher 
than  in  recent  years,  and  the  total  crop  is  estimated  at  2,272,000,000 
bushels,  or  160,000,000  larger  than  any  previous  crop. 

Naturally,  prices  have  steadily  declined;  and  corn,  at  the  end  of 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS.  983 

November,  was  selling  as  low  as  fourteen  cents  a  bushel  in  Kansas, 
a  figure  never  before  reached  under  modern  conditions.  A  large 
amount  of  capital,  both  rural  and  urban,  is  taking  advantage  of  low 
prices,  and  is  now  engaged  in  cribbing  this  immense  crop.  The  large 
surplus  thus  removed  from  immediate  marketing  will  tend  to  depress 
corn  prices  for  perhaps  two  years  to  come. 

The  damage  to  winter  wheat  from  drought  was  severe,  but  the 
yield  of  spring  wheat  in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  was  large  enough 
to  make  up  most  of  the  deficiency.  The  total  crop  is  estimated  at 
460,000,000  bushels,  sufficient  for  all  domestic  requirements,  and, 
with  the  accumulated  reserves  from  old  crops,  enough  to  supply  all 
probable  export  demand. 

In  Qftts  the  crop  exceeded  900,000,000  bushels,  by  far  the  largest 
ever  grown,  and  the  largest  small-grain  crop  ever  grown  in  axiy  coun- 
try. So  far  is  the  crop  beyond  commercial  requirements  that  the 
])rice  in  Chicago  declined  from  32  to  18^  cents  per  bushel,  fixing  the 
farm  value  west  of  the  Mississippi  river  as  low  as  11  cents. 

An  acreage  much  larger  than  usual  was  planted  in  potatoes.  The 
season  was  favorable  in  most  sections;  and  the  rate  of  yield,  while  not 
the  largest  on  record,  was  heavy  enough  to  give  a  product  beyond  all 
possible  demands  for  domestic  consumption.  This  excessive  produc- 
tion has  crushed  prices  below  cost  of  production  in  many  sections. 
In  the  Northwest  this  is  especially  true,  the  ruling  prices  not  paying 
cost  of  digging  and  handling,  so  that  many  growers  have  abandoned 
the  results  of  their  year's  work.  The  crop  is  estimated  at  282,000,000 
bushels,  or  a  total  nearly  60,000,000  bushels  in  excess  of  the  heaviest 
crop  ever  before  grown. 

The  fruit  crop  of  the  year  was  phenomenal,  especially  in  view  of 
tlie  frosts  in  May  after  apples  and  small  fruits  were  in  bloom.  The 
apple  crop  is  one  of  the  largest  ever  grown,  a  heavy  deficiency  in  New 
England  and  a  small  crop  in  New  York  being  made  up  by  the  heaviest 
crop  on  record  west  of  the  Allegheny  mountains. 

The  yield  of  all  kinds  of  vegetables  was  in  keeping  with  the 
character  of  the  season  in  other  lines  of  production. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  acreage  and  production  of  the 
principal  and  some  minor  crops  of  1895: 

CROPS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,   1895. 


Product. 

Acres. 

Corn        

VinsVi 

2,272,378,000 
459,589,000 
904,095,000 

33,707,000 

98,381,000 
282.148,000 

15,687,000 
442,585,000 
114,142,500 

66,256,000 

81,488,000 

36,565,000 

30.130,000 

2,414,000 

3,791,000 

3,204,000 

578,000 

659,073 

Wheat " 

Oats " 

Barley , 

Potatoes 

Flaxseed 

Tobacco 

" "    '■".■.'."'.'.■'.'*    lbs. 

200,100 

Apples 

bbls. 

Business  Failures. — Accordingto  Bradstreefs,  there 
were  13,013  failures  in  1895,  as  compared  with  12,721  in 
1894,  an  increase  of  2.2  per  cent. 

This  is  the  largest  number  of  failures  ever  reported  since  the 

record  was  begun,  with  a  single  exception  of  the  panic  year,  1893, 

when  the  aggregate  number  of  failures  was  15,560.     As  compared 

with  that  year,  the  falling  off  in  1895  is  16  per  cent.    The  total  amount 

Vol.  5.— 63. 


984 


IMPORTANT  STATISTICS. 


4th  Qr.,  1835. 


of  liabilities  aggregated  $158,842,445,  or  more  than  $9,000,000  in  ex- 
cess of  the  total  in  1894.  The  grand  total  of  assets  during  the  year  was 
$88,115,530,  or  more  than  $8,000,000  in  excess  of  the  previous  year's 
total. 

Messrs.  R.  G.  Dun  &  Co/s  figures  differ  slightly  from 
the  above.     They  are  as  follows: 

FAILURES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1895. 


States. 

Total,  1895. 

Total,  1894. 

No. 

Assets. 

1 
Liabilities. 

No. 

Assets. 

Liabilities. 

New  England.. 

Middle 

South    

1,305 
3,471 
2,355 
1,126 
2,311 
1,425 
1,204 

$7,476,441 
33,182,888 
19,703,921 

8,098,908 
34,799,786 
12,650,345 

5,109,246 

$18,965,817 
60,577,969 
26,180,502 
10,345,188 
34,800,305 
13,992,317 
8,333,962 

1,607 
3,621 
2,625 
1,055 
2,133 
1,464 
1,380 

$9,889,410 
31,337,202 
25,454,259 

7,024,432 
24,663,608 
15,328,506 

7,553.659 

$22,860,292 
55,895,049 
31  230  Mi 

Southwest 

Central 

West 

9,082,CK0 
24,910.601 
16,912,979 

Pacific 

12,100,711 

Aggregate. 

13,197 

$121,021,535 

$173,196,060 

13,885 

$121,251,136 

$172,992,856 

When  classified,  the  failures  of  1895,  as  compared  with 
1894,  are  as  follows: 

CLASSIFIED  FAILURES,  1895. 


Kind. 


Manufacturing — 

Trading 

Other  commercial. 
Banlting 


No.       Liabilities. 


10,381 
181 
132 


$73,920,073 

92,706,422 

6,569,565 

20,710,210 


No. 

Liabilities. 

2,832 

10,840 

213 

125 

$67,363,775 
94,652,131 
10,97'6,950 
25,6  6,035 

Gold  and  Silver  Production.— The  following  sta- 
tistics of  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  during  1895 
are  very  nearly  exact. 

The  United  States  has  once  more  resumed  the  first  place  among 
the  gold  producers  of  the  world,  the  output  of  Australasia,  which 
last  year  exceeded  our  own  by  a  few  thousand  dollars,  having  increased 
less  rapidly  than  ours.  Africa  takes  the  second  place,  and  Australasia 
is  third,  Russia  retaining,  as  in  1894,  the  fourth  place. 

The  total  output  of  gold  in  the  United  States  has  reached  approxi- 
mately $44,871,000,  the  increase  being  made  up  by  gains  in  almost 
all  the  mining  states.  The  greatest  has  been  in  Colorado,  where  the 
activity  in  gold  mining  in  all  the  older  camps,  the  gold  discoveries  in 
Leadville,  and  the  very  active  exploitation  of  the  mines  of  Cripple 
Creek,  the  latest  district,  have  raised  production  from  $9,549,731  to 
about  $15,000,000.  Nearly  one-half  of  this  amount,  or  $7,225,000,  is 
from  the  Cripple  Creek  district  alone.  Leadville  produced  $1 ,  327, 500. 
California  has  reached  a  total  of  about  $15,500,000,  owing  to  the  work- 
ing of  many  new  mines  and  the  reopening  of  old  ones.  Arizona  has 
largely  increased  its  production,  rising  from  $1,991,000  in  1894  to 
about  $3,000,000  in  1895.  Alaska  also  shows  a  substantial  increase, 
nearly  45  per  cent  in  amount,  and  takes  a  high  rank  among  the  pro- 
ducing states.     South  Dakota,  which  produced  less  in  1894  than  in 


DISASTERS.  985 

1893,  has  risen  again  very  nearly  to  the  output  of  the  earlier  year. 
Montana  and  Idaho  show  substantial  gains,  and  considerable  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  Oregon  and  Washington. 

The  silver  production  from  domestic  ores  was  somewhat  less  than 
in  1894,  but  there  was  a  considerable  increase  in  silver  smelted  or  re- 
fined from  imported  ores  and  bullion,  the  total  increase  being  small. 
The  silver  mines  have  suffered  from  the  greater  attention  given  to 
gold  properties. 

In  the  South,  gold  mining  has  made  but  little  progress,  and  the 
returns  show  only  a  small  gain  over  1894. 

In  Europe,  Russia  continues  to  be  the  only  large  producer  of  gold. 
Among  other  European  countries  Germany  holds  the  first  place, 
and  Austria  the  second.  No  changes  of  importance  are  to  be  noted  in 
them  in  1895.  Of  silver,  Germany  is  the  chief  producer,  the  metal 
coming  from  the  mines  of  Freiburg  and  the  Harz,  and  from  the 
Mansfeld  copper  mines.  The  production  of  France  and  Spain,  which 
come  next  in  order,  is  obtained  from  the  lead  and  zinc  ores.  In  Rus- 
sia (in  which  Asiatic  Russia  or  Siberia  is  included),  as  in  nearly  all 
the  other  gold- producing  countries  of  the  world,  the  output  of  the  yel- 
low metal  in  1895  showed  a  notable  increase;  and  the  production  may 
be  expected  to  increase  for  some  years  to  come. 

In  Africa,  the  gold  industry  of  the  Transvaal  has  continued  to 
grow,  though  perhaps  not  in  as  rapid  a  ratio  as  was  expected.  The 
extraordinary  speculation  based  upon  the  Transvaal  mines  is  spoken 
of  elsewhere  (p.  958),  and  reference  is  made  here  only  to  the  actual 
progress  of  the  industry  itself.  The  development  of  the  year  has 
been  wholly  confined  to  the  Witwatersrand  district.  The  production 
from  this  district  in  1895  was  1,872,889  fine  ounces,  as  compared  with 
1,651,714  fine  ounces  in  1894,  and  1,206,484  fine  ounces  in  1893. 


DISASTERS. 

American  :— 

On  October  6,  throngh  the  collapse  of  a  crowded  plat- 
form during  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  laying  of 
the  corner  stone  of  the  new  St.  Mary's  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  Lorain,  0.,  eleven  persons  were  fatally,  and 
over  that  number  seriously,  injured. 

On  October  7  an  explosion  in  the  Dorrance  coal  mine 
near  Wilkesbarre,  Penn.,  caused  the  death  of  four  miners. 

On  the  night  of  October  7  the  steamer  Africa  of 
Owen  Sound,  Ont.,  having  in  tow  the  barge  Severn  of  To- 
ronto, Ont.,  both  coal-laden,  was  proceeding  up  Lake 
Huron  bound  for  Owen  Sound;  when,  owing  to  heavy 
weather,  she  was  obliged  to  let  the  Severn  go.  The  latter 
went  ashore  on  Loyal  island,  and  became  a  total  wreck. 
The  Africa  went  down  in  the  gale  with  all  on  board. 

On  October  13,  in  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  a  broken  brake- 


986  DISASTERS.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

rod  allowed  a  trolley  car  to  dash  down  a  long  hill.  The 
car  jumped  the  track,  and  dashed  over  an  embankment, 
causing  the  death  of  three  persons  and  injury  of  nine 
others. 

On  the  night  of  October  21  the  wooden  screw  steamer 
City  of  St.  Augustme,  of  the  St.  Augustine  Steamship 
Company,  from  New  York  city  to  Florida,  was  burnt  at 
sea  about  eighteen  miles  off  Cape  Hatteras.  The  crew 
were  saved. 

On  October  27  the  main  building  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  It  was 
partially  insured. 

On  November  4  fire  destroyed  over  $250,000  worth  of 
property  in  the  business  portion  of  Decatur,  111. 

On  November  5  the  buildings  of  the  Manhattan  Sav- 
ings Institution  and  the  Empire  State  bank,  at  Bleecker 
street  and  Broadway,  New  York  city,  were  destroyed  by 
fire.  An  explosion  during  the  fire  wrecked  the  Empire 
State  bank  building,  and  a  score  of  firemen  and  citizens 
were  seriously  injured. 

An  appalling  calamity,  the  most  disastrous  boiler  ex- 
plosion which  has  occurred  in  the  United  States,  took 
place  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  on  the  morning  of  November  6. 
Owing  to  low  water  in  the  boilers  of  the  building  occupied 
by  the  Detroit  -  Journal,  at  the  corner  of  Slielby  and 
Earned  streets,  they  exploded,  wrecking  a  portion  of  the 
Journal  building,  and  totally  destroying  the  premises  ad- 
joining, occupied  by  John  Davis  &  Co.,  wholesale  grocers, 
the  Kohlbrand  Engraving  Company,  AY.  W.  Dunlap's 
agency  for  Kogers  Typograph  supplies,  the  mailing  and 
stereotyping  departments  of  the  Jour7ial,  and  the  book- 
bindery  of  George  J.  Hiller.  Nearly  forty  deaths  were 
the  result,  and  twenty  or  more  were  injured.  Mr.  Hiller 
was  among  the  killed.  It  was  he  who  did  all  the  binding 
for  Current  History  while  the  magazine  remained  in 
Detroit. 

On  the  evening  of  November  16,  in  Cleveland,  0.,  a 
street  car  filled  with  people  plunged  through  the  Central 
street  draw  of  the  Central  viaduct  into  the  Cuyahoga 
river,  120  feet  below.  '  Nearly  twenty  persons  were  killed 
outright.  The  draw  was  open,  but  the  gates  were  closed 
on  both  sides,  and  the  usual  danger  lights  were  displayed. 
The  conductor,  it  is  claimed,  who  was  among  the  killed, 
signalled  the  car  to  come  on;  and  the  motorman,  for  some 
unaccountable  reason — possibly  the  misty  covering  on  the 
glass  of  the  vestibule  due  to  the  rain  then  falling — failed 


DISASTERS.  987 

to  see  the  closed  gate  or  the  danger  lights  in  time  to  stop 
the  car. 

On  November  29  the  falling  in  of  an  overhanging  wall 
in  the  Tilly  Foster  iron  mine  near  Brewster,  N.  Y.,  caused 
the  death  of  about  a  dozen  men  and  the  serious  injury  of 
nine  others. 

On  December  3  fire  destroyed  the  premises  of  seven 
concerns  in  the  wholesale  district  of  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
causing  two  deaths;  property  loss,  $400,000. 

On  December  18  the  main  starboard  supply  pipe  in  the 
engine-room  of  the  steamship  St.  Paul,  burst.  ^Mne  men 
were  fatally  scalded,  and  several  injured. 

On  December  19  an  explosion  of  gas  in  the  Cumnock 
coal  mine  in  Chatham  county,  N.  C,  caused  forty-eight 
deaths. 

A  similar  explosion  on  December  2C  caused  twenty- 
four  deaths  at  the  Nelson  mine  near  Dayton,  Tenn. 

On  December  22  the  Eed  D  line  steamer  Nansemond 
was  sunk  in  collision  with  the  Spanish  steamer  Mexico,  oft* 
the  island  of  Oruba  in  the  West  Indies,  with  the  loss  of 
eight  lives. 

On  December  27  a  false  alarm  of  fire  caused  a  panic  in 
the  old  Front  Street  theatre,  Baltimore,  Md,,  in  which 
twenty-three  persons,  mainly  women  and  children,  were 
crushed  to  death,  and  thirty  injured,  some  fatally. 

Foreign : — 

On  October  6  a  railroad  collision  near  Ottignies,  in  Bel- 
gium, caused  the  death  of  seventeen  persons  and  the  in- 
jury of  100  others. 

About  October  13  the  French  bark  Pacifique,  for  Val- 
paraiso, Chile,  was  sunk  in  collision  with  the  British 
steamer  Emma,  with  a  loss  of  twelve  lives. 

On  October  16  an  explosion  on  a  Chinese  transport 
steamer  near  King-Chow  caused  the  death  of  about  375 
troops. 

On  November  G  the  court  of  marine  jurisdiction  at 
Rotterdam,  Holland,  decreed  that  the  owners  of  the 
Crathie  should  pay  all  damage  sustained  by  the  owners  of 
the  Elbe  through  the  collision  on  January  30, 1895  (pp. 
229,  483,  and  746),  with  interest  at  six  per  cent,  besides  all 
costs. 

On  November  13  a  launch  belonging  to  the  British 
war-ship  Edgar  was  upset  off  Chemulpo,  Korea,  with  a  loss 
of  forty-seven  lives. 

On  November  25  an  explosion  of  old  cartridges  which 


988  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

were  being  emptied  outside  the  walls  of  Palma,  capital  of 
the  island  of  Majorca,  caused  the  death  of  about  eighty 
employes. 

On  December  11  the  White  Star  line  steamer  Germanic, 
from  Liverpool  to  New  York  city,  collided  with  and  sank 
the  steamer  Cumhrce  of  Glasgow,  inbound  for  Liverpool, 
off  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey.     No  lives  were  lost. 

On  December  23  the  British  ship  Moresby,  for  Pisagua, 
Chile,  went  ashore  in  a  gale  in  the  bay  of  Dungarvan,  on 
the  south  coast  of  Ireland,  with  a  loss  of  nineteen  lives. 


LITERATURE. 

Science:— 

The  Story  of  the  Earth  in  Past  Ages.  By  H.  G.  Seeley, 
F.  R.  S.  With  forty  illustrations.  The  Library  of  Use- 
ful Stories.  186  pp.  16mo.  40  cents.  New  York:  D. 
Appleton  &  Co. 

To  throwliglit  upon  tlie  present  condition  of  the  eartli,  Professor 
Seeley  tells  its  past  liistory,  taking  care  to  explain  tlie  nature  of  the 
common  materials  which  form  rocks,  and  gives  their  classification  and 
growth.  The  book  will  help  to  make  wiser  men  of  those  who  still 
mock  science  with  demands  "for  the  evidence  of  the  origin  of  the 
earth,"  or  "  proofs  of  the  mode  of  origin  of  life  which  has  nourished 
upon  it." 

The  hitellectual  Rise  in  Electricity.  A  History.  By 
Park  Benjamin,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.  Illustrated.  611  pp. 
Indexed.    8vo.     $4.00.     New  York:     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

A  book  which  every  electrician  will  find  useful  for  reference — 
historic,  not  scientific  reference — and  which  will  be  instructive  to  the 
thoughtful  of  all  classes.  No  more  complete  historic  survey  of  this 
increasingly  important  subject  has  been  written. 

Philosophy  and  Psychology: — 

Elements  of  Psychology. — By  Noah  K.  Davis,  Ph.  D., 
LL.  D.  346  pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  $1.00.  New  York:  Harper 
&  Bros. 

In  this  book,  though  elementary,  the  mature  student  will  find 
abundant  material  for  reflection.  It  covers  the  whole  ground  of  mod- 
ern psychology  in  an  exhaustive  manner. 

Political  Economy,  Ciyics,  and  Sociology: — 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Finance.  A  Practical  Guide 
for   Bankers,  Merchants,  and   Lawyers^     Together  with 


LITERATURE.  989 

a  summary  of  tne  national  and  state  banking  laws,  and 
the  legal  rates  of  interest.  Tables  of  foreign  coins,  and 
a  glossary  of  commercial  and  financial  terms.  By  Edward 
Carroll,  Jr.  311pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  $1.75.  I^ew  York: 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

This  work  shows  great  care  in  preparation.  The  author  takes  up 
the  money  of  the  United  States,  the  national  and  state  banks,  savings 
banks,  trust  companies,  exchanges,  etc.,  and  conducts  the  reader 
through  the  complicated  affairs  of  all  kinds  of  financial  establish- 
ments with  intelligent  guidance.  In  fact,  the  book  answers  the  pur- 
pose of  a  cyclopedia  of  all  ordinary  financial  transactions. 

Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe.  By 
Dr.  Albert  Shaw,  author  of  Municipal  Government  in  Great 
Britain.  505  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  $2.00.  New  York: 
Century  Co. 

"  Continues  the  work  done  by  the  author  in  his  previous  work  on 
Municipcd  Government  in  Great  Bi^tain  (Vol.  4,  p.  934),  Paris,  the 
French  municipal  system,  that  of  each  leading  European  country,  and 
special  studies  of  Hamburg,  Vienna,  and  Buda  Pesth  complete  the  vol- 
ume. An  appendix  gives  the  budget  of  Paris,  of  Berlin,  and  the  French 
municipal  code.  Parts  of  the  articles  have  appeared  in  the  Century 
and  in  the  Atlantic;  but  the  book,  as  a  whole,  is  a  fresh  and  thorough 
study  of  municipal  government  in  Europe." 

The  Laws  of  Social  Evolution.  By  Rev.  Franklin  M. 
Spragiie,  author  of  Socialism.  A  critique  of  Benjamin 
Kidd's  Social  Evolution,  and  a  statement  of  the  true  prin- 
ciples which  govern  social  progress.  166  pp.  12mo.  $1.00. 
Boston:  Lee  &  Shepard. 

This  is  an  endeavor  to  analyze  Benjamin  Kidd's  Social  Evolution, 
which  the  author  has  found  to  be  contrary  to  universally  accepted 
principles  and  axiomatic  truth.  Mr.  Sprague  aims  not  merely  to  re- 
fute or  explain,  but  also  to  construct,  and  to  that  end  formulates  a 
statement  of  the  true  principles  which  govern  social  progress. 

The  Poor  in  Great  Cities.  Their  Problems  and  What 
is  Doing  to  Solve  Them.  By  Robert  A.  Woods  and  others. 
Illustrated.  400  pp.  8vo.  Indexed.  $3.00.  New  York: 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

The  papers  in  this  book  bring  together  a  remarkable  record  of 
experience  and  observation  on  this  vital  subject.  The  authors  of  the 
papers  have  been  for  years  among  the  best-known  students  of  the 
great  social  problem.  Sir  Walter  Besant;  Jacob  Riis,  the  author  of 
How  the  Other  Half  Lives;  Mr,  Woods,  head  of  Andover  House  in 
Boston;  the  late  Oscar  Craig,  president  of  the  New  York  State  Board 
of  Charities;  and  many  others.  The  work  gives  a  view  of  the  present 
status  of  the  whole  problem  of  mitigating  the  evils  of  poverty  in  both 
England  and  America, 

The  Up-to-Date  Primer.  A  First  Book  of  Lessons  for 
Little  Political  Economists.  By  J.  W.  Bengough.  12mo. 
Limp  cloth.  75  pp.  Illustrated.  25  cents.  New  York, 
London,  and  Toronto:  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 


990  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895 

"  Wit  can  often  pierce  where  graver  counsel  fails."  Assuming 
the  truth  of  this  old  saw,  we  discern  a  very  effective  weapon  for  so- 
cial reformers  in  general,  and  single-taxers  in  particular,  in  this  little 
book.  The  Up-to-Date  Primer.  It  consists  of  seventy  separate  "  les- 
sons "  in  words  of  one  syllable,  each  illustrated  with  very  cleverly  ex- 
ecuted cartoons.  Each  lesson  is  preceded  by  nine  words,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  child's  primer,  these  words  combining  in  themselves 
caption  to  the  cartoon  and  introduction  to  the  lesson.  They  are  veri- 
table serio-comic  bombs  which  clear  the  way  completely  to  an  ade- 
quate understanding  of  the  single- tax  theory.  The  book  is  a  good 
exposition  of  Henry  George's  works. 

The  Principles  of  International  Law.  By  T.  J.  Law- 
rence, M.  A.,  LL.  D.,  lecturer  in  Downing  College,  Cam- 
bridge, Eng.;  associate  of  the  Institute  of  International 
Law,  etc.  Indexed.  645  pp.  Buckram.  Boston,  Mass. : 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Not  only  every  student  of  political  science  and  jurisprudence,  but 
every  intelligent  student  of  the  times — every  one  at  all  interested  in 
the  important  and  frequent  developments  which  affect  the  mutual  re- 
lations of  the  various  powers — will  find  this  work  one  of  great  teach- 
ing value  to  himself.  Within  the  limits  of  convenient  size,  it  gives 
a  concise  and  clear,  yet  full  and  comprehensive,  treatment  of  one  of 
the  most  important  and  at  the  same  time  difficult  branches  of  learn- 
ing. The  author  indicates  the  scope  of  the  work  as  an  attempt  to 
trace  "the  development  of  International  Law  in  such  a  way  as  to 
show  on  the  one  hand  its  relation  to  a  few  great  ethical  principles, 
and  on  the  other  its  dependence  upon  the  hard  facts  of  history."  Of  the 
four  parts  into  which  the  book  is  divided,  the  first  deals  with  the  na- 
ture and  history  of  International  Law;  the  others  set  forth  the  rules 
actually  observed  among  states  in  their  dealings  with  one  another,  du- 
ring peace,  war,  and  neutrality.  The  work  is  to  be  commended  to 
every  student  of  current  diplomatic  history. 

Publications  of  the  America:n^  Academy  of  Politi- 
cal AJ^^D  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 
The  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine.     By 
Prof.   L.   M.  Keasbey.     Paper.    8vo.     31   pp.     Price  25 
cents. 

Of  especial  interest  at  the  present  time,  in  view  of  the  complica- 
tions arising  out  of  the  British  Guiana- Venezuela  boundary  dispute. 
The  author  presents  a  full  outline  of  the  diplomatic  controversy  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  as  to  who  should  control 
the  trans-isthmian  canal;  and  gives  an  insight  into  that  larger  struggle 
which  has  continued  since  the  Revolution,  for  dominion  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent. 

The  Advantages  of  the  Nicaragua  Route.  By  J.  W. 
Miller.  ^    Paper,  8vo.     8  pp.     Price  15  cents. 

An  argument  in  favor  of  the  route  mapped  out  by  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  Company,  as  being  the  cheapest  and  most  available. 

,  The  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the  Economic  Development 
of  the  United  States.  By  Dr.  E,  R.  Johnson.  Paper.  8vo. 
12  pp.     Price  15  cents. 


LITERATURE.  991 

This  paper  shows  what  great  commercial  benefits  the  canal  will 
bring  to  the  United  States  both  by  shortening  the  route  of  domestic 
commerce  between  the  East  and  the  West,  and  by  bringing  us  nearer 
to  South  America,  Asia,  and  Australia.  He  shows  also  how  it  will 
serve  to  develop  our  industries,  and  why  the  canal  itself  should  prove 
a  paying  investment  for  American  capital. 

The  ProUem  of  Sociology.  By  Dr.  George  Simmel. 
Paper.    8vo.     13  pp.     Price  15  cents. 

The  purpose  of  the  paper  is  to  tell  the  scope  of  the  science  of  so- 
ciology, and  to  enumerate,  in  a  general  way,  the  problems  with  which 
it  has  to  deal. 

Social  Basis  of  Proportional  Representation.  By  Prof. 
J.  W.  Jenks.     Paper.    8vo.     10  pp.     Price  15  cents. 

A  strong  plea  for  proportional  representation,  which,  the  writer 
claims,  would  secure  a  longer  tenure  in  office;  would  encourage 
men  of  independent  tendencies  to  take  a  more  active  part  in  directing 
the  policy  of  their  party;  would  secure  better  candidates;  would  do 
away  with  political  bribery;  and  which  is  the  only  system  that  is  in 
accord  with  our  democratic  institutions. 

The  Custody  of  State  Funds.  By  E.  E.  Buckley. 
Paper.    8vo.     15  pp.     Price  15  cents. 

The  author  discusses  the  method  of  takiiig  care  of  the  moneys 
which  belong  to  the  various  state  governments.  He  shows  how  the 
different  states  have  gradually  given  up  the  independent  treasury  sys- 
tem and  deposited  their  money  in  banks,  and  also  where  interest  is 
paid  on  such  deposits  in  banks,  and,  if  so,  for  whose  benefit. 

Recent  Political  Experime7its  in  the  Swiss  Democracy. 
By  Prof.  Louis  Wuarin.  Paper.  Svo.  20  pp.  Price  25 
cents. 

The  author  explains  the  manner  of  working  and  the  advantages 
which  have  followed  the  adoption  in  Switzerland  recently  of  several 
new  political  institutions — the  referendum,  the  right  of  initiative,  and 
proportional  representation.  Incidentally  he  touches  on  a  fourth  re- 
form, that  of  compulsory  voting.  In  conclusion  he  shows  how  these 
great  reforms  may  be  carried  out  in  other  countries  which  are  not  so 
small  as  Switzerland  and  are  more  densely  populated. 

Railway  Departments  for  the  Relief  a^id  Insurance  of 
Employes.  By.  Dr.  E.  R.  Johnson.  Paper.  8vo.  46  pp. 
Price  35  cents. 

The  conclusion  reached  by  the  author  is  that  the  railway  relief 
department  "is  an  institution  of  undoubted  benefit  to  the  employes, 
the  railway  companies,  and  the  public.  It  is  founded  upon  the  true 
principle  that  the  interests  of  labor,  capital,  and  society  are  common 
and  harmonious,  and  can  be  promoted  more  by  co-operation  of  effort 
than  by  antagonism  and  strife." 

The  Theory  of  Social  Forces.  By  Prof.  Simon  N. 
Patten.     Paper.    8vo.     151  pp.  Price  11.00. 

A  study  of  the  various  steps  in  social  evolution,  particularly  of 
some  hitherto  neglected  processes  in  development. 


993  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Religion: — 

The  Elements  of  HiyUer  Criticism.  By  Andrew  C. 
Zenos,  professor  of  Biblical  theology  in  the  McCormick 
Theological  Seminary,  Chicago.  Cloth.  12mo.  268  pp. 
$1.00.  New  York,  London,  Toronto:  Funk  &  Wagnalls 
Co. 

What  is  the  Higher  Criticism  as  a  method  of  study,  applied  to 
the  Bible?  Is  there  any  legitimate  sphere  for  such  a  thing?  This 
book  is  essentially  an  exposition ,  yielding  concise  and  non-controver- 
sial answers  to  the  above  questions.  The  scope  of  the  work  is  not  to  ad- 
vocate or  oppose  any  set  of  results,  but  to  state  and  explain  the 
principles  and  methods  of  the  higher  criticism,  with  reference  to  the 
large  and  growing  periodical  and  book  literature  on  the  subject,  and 
as  an  aid  to  students  who  are  about  to  approach  the  criticism  as  a 
part  of  their  preparation  for  teaching  and  preaching  the  Bible;  also, 
as  a  book  of  information  for  any  intelligent  and  interested  reader. 

A  Study  of  Death.  By  Henry  Mills  Aid  en,  author  of 
Ood  in  His  World,  etc.  336  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  Half 
leather.     $1.50.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

"Mr.  Alden  considers  the  problem  of  death  and  the  problem  of 
the  existence  of  evil  as  one  problem,  and  addresses  his  attention  not 
so  much  to  the  solution  thereof  as  to  a  restatement  of  its  terms  as  ob- 
servable in  the  light  of  modern  science.  The  strictly  orthodox  mind 
will  be  somewhat  disturbed  on  finding  that  the  foundations  of  the 
creeds  are  regarded  and  treated  as  figures,  and  these  figures  as  given 
in  Christian  formulae  are  compared  with  the  legends  and  traditions  of 
other  religions.  The  book  is  such  a  remarkable  example  of  close  and 
lofty  thinking  upon  the  most  profound  and  baffling  of  all  human 
problems,  that  it  must  surely  command  the  serious  attention  it  de- 
serves from  all  classes  of  intelligent  readers." 

The  Blessing  of  Cheerfulness.  By  J.  R.  Miller,  D.  D., 
author  of  Silent  Times,  etc.  32  pp.  12mo.  35  cents.  New 
York:  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co. 

Dr.  Miller  believes  that  we  are  set  in  this  world  to  be  happy,  and 
especially  to  make  others  happy.  And  he  argues  that  we  cannot  add 
to  the  cheer  of  others  unless  we  ourselves  have  first  learned  the  les- 
son of  cheerfulness.  Dr.  Miller  shows  the  secret  of  good  cheer,  and 
points  out  its  various  lessons  and  duties. 

Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion.  A  New  Work  on  Sys- 
tematic Theology.  By  Professor  Emanuel  V.  Gerhart, 
D.  D.,LL.  D.,  professor  of  systematic  and  practical  theol- 
ogy in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
Lancaster,  Penn.  With  an  introduction  by  Philip  Schaff, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  late  professor  of  church  history  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  etc.,  etc.  2  vols. 
8vo.  Cloth.  1744  pp.,  with  index  to  each  book.  Price 
per  volume  13.00;  the  set,  $6.00;  carriage  free.  New  York: 
Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

A  work  revealing  on  the  part  of  its  author  not  only  an  easy 


LITERATURE.  993 

familiarity  with  tlie  essential  differences  of  the  doctrinal  opinions  of 
the  day,  but  a  power  of  philosophical  profundity  of  thought,  il- 
lumined at  the  same  time  with  a  spirit  of  thorough  loyalty  to  the 
evangelical  theology.  The  central  doctrine  is  "the  divine-human 
personality  of  Jesus  Christ;  the  author's  aim  being  to  construct  all 
doctrines,  not  from  God's  sovereign  will  nor  from  the  freedom  of 
man  as  the  point  of  observation,  but  from  the  vital  union  of  both  as 
realized  in  the  life  and  work  of  the  Mediator.  The  method  is  posi- 
tive rather  than  controversial  or  polemical,  and  historical  rather  than 
analytic  or  synthetic." 

History: — 

Israel  Among  the  Nations.  A  Study  of  the  Jews  and 
anti-Semitism.  By  Anatole  Leroy  Beaulieu.  Translated 
by  Frances  Hellman.  385  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  11.75. 
New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam^s  Sons. 

A  comprehensive  yet  condensed  work.  It  reviews  the  tribulations 
of  the  Israelites,  and  discusses  their  relationship  to  the  various  na- 
tions of  the  world  and  to  Christianity  and  modern  ideas  particularly. 
Other  chapters  relate  to  Jewish  tradition,  physiology,  genius,  spirit, 
nationalization,  and  fraternization. 

Tlie  Journal  of  a  Spy  in  Paris.  During  the  Reign  of 
Terror,  January — July,  1794.  By  Raoul  Hesdin.  204  pp. 
12mo.     $1.25.     New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 

A  series  of  pen  pictures,  among  the  most  vivid  of  which  are  the 
descriptions  of  the  horrible  famine  in  Paris,  the  extent  of  vice,  the 
state  of  art  and  literature,  the  horrors  of  the  executions,  judicial 
methods  under  the  Terror,  municipal  extortions,  and  briberies. 

The  Groivth  of  British  Policy.  An  Historical  Essay. 
By  Sir  J.  R.  Seeley,  Litt.  D.,  K.  C.  M.  G.  In  two  volumes. 
With  a  portrait.  436,403  pp.  Indexed.  12mo.  13.50. 
New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

Sir  John  Seeley  in  this  work  endeavors  to  supply  a  manifest 
want  in  our  historical  literature.  We. have,  as  he  says,  already  ec- 
clesiastical histories,  parliamentary  histories,  economic  histories,  and 
more  especially  constitutional  histories.  But  we  have  no  continuous, 
connected,  and  comprehensive  history  of  England  in  its  international 
relations. 

Europe  in  Africa  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  By  Eliza- 
beth Wormeley  Latimer,  author  of  France  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  etc.  Illustrated.  451  pp.  12mo.  $2.50. 
Chicago:  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

"Beginning  with  an  account  of  the  career  of  Mehemet  Ali  during 
the  second  decade  of  this  century,  Mrs.  Latimer  takes  up  in  succes- 
sion the  most  important  events  that  have  gradually  brought  the 
greater  part  of  Africa  under  European  control.  Arabi  Pasha,  Gordon, 
the  Mahdi,  Livingstone,  and  Stanley  are  among  the  most  prominent 
personages  whose  careers,  so  far  as  they  were  connected  with  Africa, 
are  sketched  in  a  pleasing  and  entertaining  manner." 

Great  Men's  Sons.  AVho  They  Were,  What  They  Did,  and 


994  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

How  They  Turned  Out.  A  glimpse  at  the  sons  of  the  world's 
mightiest  men  from  Socrates  to  Napoleon.  By  Elbridge 
S.  Brooks,  author  of  Historic  Boys,  Historic  Girls,  etc. 
Illustrated.  303  pp.  12mo.  $1.50.  New  York:  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons. 

' '  Great  men  come  we  know  not  liow,  and  tliey  seldom  leave  any 
one  behind  tliem  who  can  continue  their  mission.  This  volume  is 
proof  that  heredity  doesn't  work  at  all  times." 

Giistavus  Adolphus.  A  History  of  the  Art  of  War  from 
its  Revival  after  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  End  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  War.  With  a  detailed  account  of  the  campaigns 
of  the  Great  Swede,  and  of  the  most  famous  campaigns  of 
Turenne,  Conde,  Eugene,  and  Marlborough.  With  237 
charts,  maps,  plans  of  battles  and  tactical  manoeuvres,  cuts 
of  uniforms,  arms,  and  weapons.  By  Theodore  Agrault 
Dodge.  Great  Captains  series.  864  pp.  Indexed.  8vo. 
$5.00.     Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  author  has  already  covered  the  period  of  ancient  history  in 
the  three  preceding  volumes  of  the  series — which  bring  the  history 
of  the  art  of  war  down  to  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  the 
present  volume  he  takes  up  the  military  history  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  the  revival  of  the  art  of  war  under  new  conditions.  Between 
Caesar  and  Gustavus  Adolphus  there  is  a  gap  of  about  1,600  years, 
during  which  there  were  wonderful  campaigns  and  brilliant  deeds; 
but  the  art  of  war  had  practically  no  development  until  the  begin- 
ning of  modern  history.  Here  Gustavus  emerges  as  the  inventor  of 
new  ideas  and  new  combinations  adapted  to  the  changed  order;  and 
with  the  history  of  his  campaigns,  which  cover  the  long  religious 
wars  upon  the  continent,  we  have  to  follow  those  of  the  great  French- 
men and  the  great  English  captain,  down  to  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  and 
Malplaquet,  and  the  end  of  Charles  XII. 's  career  at  Plutowa.  The 
next  volume  will  carry  the  subject  still  further  to  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  the  older  system  under  Frederick  the  Great;  and  the 
sixth  and  last  will  complete  the  study  with  the  history  of  the  cam- 
paigns of  Napoleon. 

Leading  Events  of  the  American  Revolution.  By  W.  II. 
Brearley.  Paper.  32  pp.  Price  10  cents.  New  York  city: 
The  Spirit  of  ^76. 

Contains  over  500  brief  descriptions  of  events,  with  dates.  The 
book  contains  two  separate  arrangements  for  each  date — one  alpha- 
betical, the  other  by  days.     Very  convenient  for  reference. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  Neio  England  and  Their  Puri- 
tan Successors.  By  John  Brown,  B.  A.,  D.  D.,  author  of 
John  Bunyan,  His  Life,  Times,  and  Work.  With  intro- 
duction by  Rev.  A.  E.  Dunning,  D.  D.  With  illustrations 
from  original  sketches  by  Charles  Whymper.  368  pp. 
Indexed.     8vo.     $2.50.     Chicago:  Fleming  H.  Re  veil  Co. 

"  The  author  of  this  agreeable  volume  describes  the  scenes  in  the 
English  country  places  from  which  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  were  chiefly 


r 


LITERATURE.  995 

drawn;  the  conflict  with  the  legal  authorities  which  led  first  to  their 
migration  to  Holland,  and  later  to  the  New  World;  he  then  tells  us 
again  of  the  sailing  of  the  Mayflower;  of  the  settling  in  New  Eng- 
land of  the  indomitable  band,  and  of  their  successors. 

Biography :— 

The  Laureates  of  England.  From  Ben  Jonson  to  Al- 
fred Tennyson.  With  selections  from  their  works  and  an 
introduction  dealing  with  the  origin  and  significance  of 
the  English  laureateship.  By  Kenyon  West.  Vignette 
edition,  with  numerous  new  illustrations,  by  Frederick 
C.  Gordon.  459  pp.  12mo.  $1.50;  half  calf,  $3.00. 
New  York:  F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co. 

These  biographical  sketches  and  critical  estimates  are  necessarily 
of  the  shortest,  as  they  were  designed  merely  to  stimulate  detailed 
study. 

Memoirs  of  Constant  (Louis  Constant  Wairy,  first  valet 
de  cJiambre  of  the  emperor)  on  the  private  life  of  Napoleon, 
his  family,  and  his  court.  Translated  by  Eliz.  Gilbert 
Martin,  with  preface  by  Imbert  de  Saint-Amand.  4  vols. 
13mo.     $5.00.     New  York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

Practically  this  is  anew  work,  for,  though  first  published  in  1830, 
it  has  never  before  been  translated  into  English,  and  the  original  edi- 
tion is  almost  out  of  print.  Here  we  see  the  great  Napoleon  in  un- 
dress. His  foibles,  his  peculiarities,  his  vices,  as  well  as  his  kindness 
of  heart,  his  vast  intellect,  his  knowledge  of  men,  and  his  extraordi- 
nary energy,  are  here  shown  without  reserve. 

The  German  Emperor  William  II.  By  Charles  Lowe, 
M.  A.,  author  of  Prince  Bismarck,  etc.  With  two  por- 
traits. Public  Men  of  To-day  series.  274  pp.  12mo.  $1.25. 
New  York:  Fred'k  Warne  &  Co. 

Is  brimful  of  information  on  the  recent  history  of  the  German 
empire,  and  graphically  depicts  the  interesting  but  puzzling  char- 
acter of  the  present  occupant  of  the  German  throne — the  "modern 
Caligula." 

Vailima  Letters.  Being  correspondence  addressed  by 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson  to  Sidney  Colvin,  November,  1890 
— October,  1894.  With  a  frontispiece  and  portrait.  2  vols. 
281,  275  pp.  12mo.     $2.75.     Chicago:    Stone  &  Kimball. 

This  work  "unites  in  the  rarest  manner  the  value  of  a  familiar 
correspondence  with  the  value  of  an  intimate  journal;  for  these  Sa- 
moan  letters  form  record,  scarcely  interrupted,  of  Stevenson's  think- 
ings and  doings  from  month  to  month,  and  often  from  day  to  day, 
during  the  last  four  romantic  years  of  his  life."  They  reveal  in  a 
striking  manner  his  charming  personality  and  impulsive,  affectionate 
disposition,  and  present  a  picture,  on  the  whole,  of  a  serene  and — 
apart  from  the  moods — a  contented  life. 

Letters  of  Mattheiu  Arnold.     1848-1888.  Collected  and 


996  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

arranged  by  George  W.  E.  Russell.     2  vols.     467,  442  pp. 
$3.00.    New  York:  Macmillan  &  Co. 

It  was  Matthew  Arnold's  express  wish,  we  are  told,  that  he  might 
not  be  made  the  subject  of  a  biography;  but  his  family  felt  that  a 
selection  from  his  letters  was  not  prohibited,  and  that  "  such  a  selec- 
tion might  reveal  aspects  of  his  character — his  tenderness  and  play- 
fulness and  filial  affection — which  could  be  only  imperfectly  appre- 
hended through  the  more  formal  medium  of  his  published  works." 

Literature : — 

The  Reader's  Shakespeare.  His  Dramatic  Works  Con- 
densed, Connected,  and  Emphasized,  for  School,  College, 
Parlor,  and  Platform.  By  David  Charles  Bell.  Vol  I., 
496  pp.   Cloth.    $1.50.    Kevv  York:  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

"  For  the  first  time,  in  this  series  (there  are  to  be,  in  all,  three  vol- 
umes), all  Shakespeare's  dramas  will  be  condensed,  connected, 
emphasized,  and  annotated  on  a  uniform  plan.  The  condensations 
are  for  use  in  schools,  colleges,  and  for  private  and  public  reading, 
and  should  prove  of  especial  value  for  use  irj  supplementary  reading 
in  the  public  schools.  In  condensing  the  text  for  these  purposes  al- 
lowance has  been  made  for  the  prime  necessities  of  expurgation  and 
compression,  so  that  for  the  family  circle,  the  clerical  reader,  the 
platform  elocutionist,  and  in  the  school  or  college,  the  particular  ad- 
vantages of  Shakespearian  exercises  become,  in  this  series,  available 
and  enjoyable  for  all.  The  present  volume  contains  the  historical 
plays,  English  and  Roman;  also  general  notes,  suggestions,  etc.,  for 
students  in  elocution,  particularly  for  those  using  Shakespeare. 

A  Victorian  Anthology,  1837-1895.  Selections  illus- 
trating the  Editor's  Critical  Review  of  British  Poetry  in 
the  Reign  of  Victoria.  By  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman, 
author  of  Victorian  Poets,  etc.  Illustrated.  739  pp.  In- 
dexed. 8vo.  $2.50;  full  levantine.  $6.00.  Boston:  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  present  volume  is  designed  to  supplement  the  Victorian 
Poets,  and  it  is  a  comprehensive  and  judicious  selection  of  "choice 
and  typical  examples  of  the  work  discussed  in  that  review."  Mr. 
Stedman  has  given  unmutilated  examples  of  the  work  of  every  poet 
of  the  Victorian  period  who  has  attained  even  moderate  note,  from 
Walter  Savage  Landor  to  Rudyard  Kipling,  and  he  has  even  included 
the  English  colonial  writers.  Wordsworth  is  omitted  from  this  vol- 
ume because  Mr.  Stedman  regards  his  poems  as  characteristic 
of  the  Georgian  epoch.  The  value  of  the  book  is  increased  by  a 
series  of  brief  but  sufficiently  informing  biographical  notes  by  Miss 
Vernetta  E.  Coleman. 

Education:  — 

Map  Modeling  in  Geography.  Including  the  use  of 
sand,  clay,  putty,  paper  pulp,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  other 
materials,  also  chalk  modelling  in  its  adaptation  to  pur- 
poses of  illustration.  Fully  illustrated.  By  Dr.  Albert 
Elias  Maltby,  A.  M.,  C.  E.  223  pp.  12mo.  ^$1.25.  New 
York:  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 


LITERATURE.  997 

"  The  volume  embodies  the  result  of  a  long  and  successful  expe- 
rience in  teaching.  It  will  enable  young  teachers  to  take  up  the  work 
and  pursue  it  without  making  those  mistakes  that  would  be  inevitable 
without  some  help  of  this  kind.  The  pupil  begins  with  the  most 
familiar  objects,  as  fields,  hills,  etc.,  and  proceeds  gradually  until  the 
study  of  continents  is  reached." 

Teacliing  in  Three  Continents,  By  W.  Catton  Grasby. 
Cloth.  335  pp.  Indexed  ^1.50.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.:C.  W. 
Bardeen. 

The  author,  who  is  an  Australian,  gives  us  here  a  valuable  com- 
parative study,  based  on  notes  of  personal  observation,  of  educational 
systems  in  America,  Europe,  and  Australia.  The  value  of  buch  study 
lies  in  its  suggestions  of  mutual  helpfulness  in  the  solution  of  great 
problems;  and  the  present  work  reveals  many  points  of  contrast  be- 
tween our  own  educational  system  and  that  of  other  nations,  to 
which  American  educators  should  give  heed. 

Tlie  Claims  of  Greeh.  By  Professor  Lees,  University 
of  l^ebraska.  Paper.  15  pp.  Price  25  cents.  Syracuse, 
X.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

An  earnest  plea  for  the  refinement  of  education  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  ideal  side  of  life  through  classical  learning,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  more  grossly  utilitarian  pursuits  of  applied  science 
and  technical  training. 

The  Art  of  Putting  Questions.  By  W.  T.  Young. 
N'ew  edition,  revised  by  C.  W.  Bardeen.  Paper.  66  pp. 
Price  15  cents.     Syracuse,  X.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

This  little  monograph  will  prove  of  great  service  to  every  teacher 
who  seeks,  not  so  much  ability  to  communicate  knowledge,  as  ability 
to  rouse  into  activity  the  thinking  powers  of  his  pupils. 

A  Manual  of  Pedagogics.  By  Daniel  Putnam,  A.  M. 
With  an  introduction  by  Richard  G.  Boone,  A.  M.,  Ph.D. 
330  pp.  Indexed.  12m6.  11.50.  Boston:  Silver,  Bur- 
dett  &  Co. 

A  valuable  book  for  the  common  teacher  seeking  intelligent  guid- 
ance in  his  work  by  private  reading,  for  the  reading  circle,  for  the 
teacher's  class  in  the  high  school,  or  the  normal  class  in  pedagogics. 

Youthful  Eccentricitya  Precursor  of  Crime.  By  Forbes 
Winslow, "Member  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London: 
Physician  to  the  British  Hospital  for  Mental  Diseases,  etc. 
16mo.  120  pp.  50  cents.  New  York:  Funk  &  Wagnalls 
Co. 

"Many  having  care  of  the  young  are  careless  through  ignorance, 
and  think  that  as  the  child  grows  older  it  will  outgrow  its  perverse 
eccentricities.  This  book  will  teach  such  that  the  fault  must  lie  at 
their  own  doors  if,  its  teachings  having  been  discarded,  the  child 
develops  into  that  which  was  farthest  from  their  hopes  or  expectations. 
The  book  should  be  studied  by  all  having  charge  of  home  education, 
also  by  those  having  pastoral  charge  of  the  home  educators. " 


998  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

Art:— 

Architecture  for  General  Readers.  A  short  Treatise  on 
the  Principles  and  Motives  of  Architectural  Design.  With 
an  historical  sketch.  By  H.  Heathcote  Statham.  With 
illustrations  drawn  by  the  author.  332  pp.  Indexed.  8vo. 
$3.50.     New  York:  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

In  this  work,  196  pages  are  devoted  to  an  analysis  of  architecture 
based  on  construction.  The  remainder  of  the  book  gives  an  histori- 
cal sketch  of  architecture,  in  which  various  styles  are  described  and 
classified  with  reference  to  construction. 

Travel^  Adventure,  and  Description: — 

Rambles  in  Japan.  The  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun.  By 
H.  B.  Tristram,  0.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  E.  S.  With  45  illustra- 
tions by  Edward  Whymper,  from  sketches  and  photo- 
graphs, an  index,  and  a  map.  306  pp.  8vo.  13.00.  Chi- 
cago: Fleming  H.  Eevell  Co. 

This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  recent  volumes  of  travel  talk.  It 
is  based  on  journals  kept  during  a  visit  to  Japan  before  the  late  war, 
undertaken  primarily  to  obtain  information  about  missionary  work  and 
the  relations  between  Japanese  Buddhism  and  that  of  Chinaand  Ceylon. 
But  the  book  is  also  rich  in  references  to  the  Japanese  flora  and  fauna, 
popular  customs,  and  other  matters,  many  of  which  are  missed  by  the 
majority  of  travellers. 

From  Far  Formosa.  The  Island,  Its  People,  and  Mis- 
sions. By  George  Leslie  MacKay,  D.  D.,  for  twenty- 
three  years  a  missionary  in  Formosa.  Edited  by  Eev.  J. 
A.  Macdonald.  364  pp.  Indexed.  $2.00.  Chicago:  Flem- 
ing H.  Revell  Co. 

The  work  of  Dr.  MacKay,  "the  missionary  hero  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Canada,"  has  been  carried  on  in  Formosa  since  1872 
with  almost  no  foreign  helpers.  In  that  year  the  soil  was  virgin 
from  a  missionary  point  of  view.  Now  there  are  in  Dr.  MacKay's 
mission  in  north  Formosa  sixty  native  churches,  four  of  them  self- 
supporting,  with  a  membership  of  2,719,  and  a  communion  roll  of 
1,805;  and  each  of  the  sixty  churches  has  a  trained  native  minister. 
At  Tamsui  has  been  established  Oxford  College,  with  fifteen  students 
for  the  ministry,  a  girls'  school,  and  a  hospital  and  dispensary.  But 
the  book  is  much  more  than  a  record  of  conversions,  chapel-building, 
and  missionary  adventure.  It  will  be  read  by  thousands  who  care 
for  none  of  these  things,  because  of  its  instructive  chapters  on  the 
geology,  botany,  and  zoology  of  Formosa,  and  its  studies  in  the  eth- 
nology of  its  inhabitants.  The  many  illustrations  and  maps  add 
greatly  to  its  interest  and  value. 

Constantinople.  By  Edwin  A.  Grosvenor.  With  an 
introduction  by  General  Lew  Wallace  and  250  illustrations. 
811  pp.  Indexed.  2  vols.  8vo.  $10.00.  Boston:  Koberts 
Bros. 

The  first  adequate  historical  treatment  of  the  subject  in  English. 
Constantinople,  even  more  than  Rome,  has  been  a  meeting  point  of  di- 


LITERATURE.  999 

■Terse  civilizations;  and  a  proper  treatment  of  the  city  required  just  such 
exceptionally  wide  learning  and  observation  as  the  author  possessed. 
Professor  Grosvenor  was  for  many  years  professor  of  history  at  Rob- 
ert College  in  Constantinople. 

In  the  first  volume  the  history  of  the  city  is  narrated  and  its  sur- 
roundings described.  The  second  deals  with  the  identification  of 
sites  and  the  description  of  buildings  and  their  remains.  The  work 
not  only  will  be  invaluable  to  visitors  to  Constantinople,  but  offers 
material  to  every  historical  student  and  teacher,  by  which  to  sup- 
plement a  period  hitherto  lacking  both  illustration  and  information, 
with  minute  description. 

Echoes  of  Battle.  By  Bushrod  Washington  James. 
Illustrated.  Cloth  extra,  gilt  edges.  222  pp.  12mo.  12.00. 
Philadelphia,  Penn. :  Henry  T.  Coates  &  Co. 

This  volume  is  one  that  will  interest  every  American.  The  prose 
portions  are  valuable  as  sketches  of  both  the  Revolution  and  the  in- 
vasion part  of  the  Rebellion,  while  the  corresponding  poems  depict 
with  pathetic  effectiveness  some  of  the  scenes  just  after  the  battles  of 
Antietam  and  Gettysburg.  The  battle  of  the  Brandy  wine,  and  the  sad, 
long  days  at  Valley  Forge,  are  well  described,  ' '  Missing  "  is  a  ten- 
derly touching  production,  telling  of  the  unknown  lost  ones  in  battle; 
and  the  description  of  the  "  Hero  of  Johnstown  "  is  full  of  vivid  and 
thrilling  pathos. 

Handsomely  bound,  and  profusely  and  suitably  illustrated  with 
artistic  half-tone  reproductions  of  photographs  and  drawings,  this 
book  will  be  an  attractive  addition  to  every  library,  as  well  as  a  most 
readable  and  instructive  book  for  young  and  old  alike. 

Aroimd  the  World  on  S60.  By  Robert  Meredith.  Illus- 
trated. 371  pp.  Cloth,  75  cents;  paper,  25  cents.  Chicago: 
Laird  &  Lee. 

An  amusing  and  instructive  story  of  a  tour  of  the  world.  The 
objects  the  writer  had  in  view  in  making  the  pilgrimage,  were:  "To 
prove  that  an  American  can  live  on  as  poor  rations  and  endure  as 
much  hardship  as  any  other  human  being;  that  he  can  earn  his  living 
in  any  country;  and  that  a  poor  man  need  not  be  deprived  of  the 
pleasures  of  travel  and  of  seeing  and  enjoying  even  more  than  the 
rich." 

Westminster.  By  Sir  Walter  Besant,  M.  A.,  F.  S.  A. 
author  of  Lo7idon,  etc.  With  130  illustrations  by  William 
Patten  and  others.  397  pp.  Indexed.  8vo.  Buckram. 
13.00.     New  York:  F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co. 

Rather  than  being  a  complete  history,  this  work  is  a  series  of 
sketches  dealing  almost  at  random  with  a  few  out  of  the  multitude 
of  subjects  suggested  by  the  title.  Westminster  was  once  a  city  dis 
tinct  from  London  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name.  The  book  is  very 
pleasant  reading. 

Notes  in  Japan.  By  Alfred  Parsons.  With  illustra- 
tions by  the  author.  226  pp.  8vo.  $3.00.  New  York: 
Harper  &  Bros. 

"These  are  the  observations  recorded  both  with  pen  and  brush, 
of  an  English  landscape  painter  in  Japan,     They  are  interesting  in 

Vol.  5.-64. 


1000  LITERATURE.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

many  ways,  but  notably  for  the  evidence  tbey  give, that  the  Japanese 
landscape  is  not  so  very  different  from  the  landscape  of  other  parts 
of  the  world,  as  we  have  been  accustomed  to. assume  from  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  Japanese  painters.  Many  of  its  distinctive  charac- 
teristics— the  bright  atmosphere,  the  simplicity  of  outline,  the  breadth 
of  clear  color — are  in  their  interpretation. " 

Fiction:— 

The  Men  of  the  Moss-Hags.  Being  a  History  of  Ad- 
venture taken  from  the  papers  of  William  Gordon  of 
Earlstown,  in  Galloway,  and  told  over  again  by  S.  R. 
Crockett.  370  pp.  12mo.  $1.50.  New  York:  Macmillan 
&Co. 

In  this  story  we  have  given  us  a  part  of  the  tragedy  of  Claver- 
house  and  the  Covenanters,  a  tragedy  which  still  has  power  to  stir  the 
blood  and  thrill  the  heart  with  rare  emotion.  So  graphic  are  the  de- 
pictions that  the  reader  feels  a  strong  sense  of  dealing,  not  with  the 
creations  of  a  novelist,  but  with  real  men  and  women  who  lived  and 
suffered  among  the  hills  of  Scotland  two  centuries  ago. 

Casa  Braccio.  By  F.  Marion  Crawford,  author  of 
Saracinesca,  etc.  2  vols.  With  illustrations  by  A.  Cas- 
taigne.  334,332  pp.  12mo.  $2.00.  Xew  York:  Macmillan 
&  Co. 

The  plot  of  this  story,  laid  in  Italy,  is  powerful,  and  the  charac- 
ters are  developed  with  extraordinary  dramatic  force.  In  the  char- 
acter of  Gloria  Dairy mple  lies  the  secret  of  Paul  Griggs's  unhappy 
life.  She  was  never  his  wife.  Her  husband  was  an  Italian  artist  of 
repute,  to  whom  she  was  passionately  attached,  but  herevil  disposition 
forced  her  to  quarrel  with  him,  and  she  went  to  Griggs  and  com- 
pelled him  to  take  her  in.  She  never  loved;  him  and  after  her  death 
by  suicide  he  learned  of  that  fact,  and  it  made  him  the  man  he  was. 

The  Lottery  Twhet.  By  J.  T.  Trowbridge.  Illustrated. 
202  pp.  12mo.     $1.00.     Boston:  Lee  &  Shepard. 

The  desire  to  possess  more  money  to  spend  in  pleasure  than  a  very 
small  salary  allows  him,  leads  Weber  Lockridge,  at  the  instigation  of 
a  friend  some  years  his  senior,  to  invest  in  a  lottery  ticket.  His 
friend  is  a  clerk  in  a  bank;  and  Weber,  while  led  to  think  he  has 
drawn  a  prize  of  a  thousand  dollars,  finds  himself  involved  in  a  rob- 
bery.    The  story  carries  an  excellent  moral. 

The  Sorroivs  of  Satan:  The  Strange  Experience  of  One 
Geoffrey  Tempest,  Millionaire.  A  Romance.  By  Marie 
Corelli,  author  of  Barahbas,  etc.  With  frontispiece.  471 
pp.  12mo.     $1.50.     New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

This  work  has  created  a  great  sensation  in  England.  It  is  weird, 
imaginative,  and  brilliantly  written,  containing  a  most  bitter  satire 
upon  the  smart  fin  de  deck  society  of  our  day.  The  reviewers  also 
come  in  for  a  little  sharp  criticism. 

A  House- Boat-on-the- Styx.  Being  Some  Account  of  the 
Divers  Doings  of  the  Associated  Shades.  By  John  Ken- 
drick  Bangs.  Illustrated.  171  pp.  12mo.  $1.25.  New 
York:  Harper  &  Bros. 


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TOOi:  'aHXixvHaiin 


LITERATURE.  1003 

Old  Stories  Retold.  With  59  original  illustrations.  By 
Paul  Binner,  principal,  Day  School  for  Deaf  Mutes,  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.  Board  covers.  64  pp.  Price  25  cents.  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y:  C.  W.  Bardeen. 

Contains,  in  slightly  altered  dress,  seven  of  the  old-friend  pastime 
tales  which  are  the  perpetual  delight  of  childhood.  The  illustrations 
are  unique,  and  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  book. 

Miscellaneous: — 

The  Book  of  Athletics  and  Out-of-Door  Sports.  Con- 
taining practical  advice  and  suggestions  from  college  team 
captains  and  other  amateurs,  on  football,  baseball,  tennis, 
rowing,  golf,  sprinting,  bicycling,  swimming,  skating, 
yachting,  etc.  Edited  by  Norman  W.  Bingham,  Jr. 
Illustrated  by  G.  W.  Picknell  and  others.  318  pp.  In- 
dexed.    12mo.     $1.50.     Boston:  Lothrop  Publishing  Co. 

It  collects  in  book  form  the  latest  suggestions  and  theories  of  the 
college  and  amateur  field,  advanced  by  men  who,  as  competing 
athletes  or  as  trainers  of  young  athletes,  are  at  home  in  their  subjects 
and  speak  from  knowledge  and  from  fact.  The  volume  is  profusely 
illustrated  with  diagrams  and  decorative  designs.'  Without  being 
technical,  it  is  brief,  brisk,  concise,  and  up-to-date. 

Samantha  in  Europe.  By  *' Josiah  Allen^s  Wife"  (Mari- 
etta Holley).  Illustrated  with  125  artistic  and  humorous 
engravings  by  C.  De  Grimm.  8vo.  727  pp.  Cloth,  $2.50; 
half  russia,  $4.00.  Sold  only  by  subscription.  New 
York,  London,  and  Toronto:  Funk  &  AVagnalls  Co. 

From  the  preface,  in  which  Josiah  and  his  spouse  have  a  little 
"spat "  about  the  book,  to  the  last  of  its  chapters,  humor  and  pathos 
make  the  smiles  chase  one  another  over  the  face,  while  all  the  time 
wholesome  moral  reflections  are  making  their  impressions  on  the 
heart.  New  characters,  surprises,  and  ludicrous  episodes  abound  in 
the  pages  of  the  book,  which  will  prove  of  interest  and  profit  to  every 
person  who  can  enjoy  a  hearty  laugh  or  yield  a  sigh  of  sympathy. 

Fables  and  Essays.  By  John  Bryan  of  Ohio.  Vol.  I. 
(complete  in  itself).  245  pp.  Buckram.  New  York: 
The  Arts  and  Lettres  Co.,  874  Broadway. 

The  purpose  of  this  very  readable  book  is  didactive.  Each  fable 
contains  a  moral,  which  the  author  expresses  at  the  end;  and  the 
tenor  of  the  essays  may  be  read  by  him  who  runs.  The  governing 
ideas  of  the  work  are:  Liberty  and  Justice. 

Practical  Palmistry.  A  Treatise  on  Chirosophy  Based 
upon  Actual  Experiences.  By  Henry  Frith,  author  of 
'' Chiromancy 'Mn  The  Science  of  Palmistry,  eio,.  With 
numerous  illustrations  by  Edith  A.  Langton.  138  pp. 
12mo.     50  cents.     New  York:  Ward,  Lock  &  Bowden. 

One  of  the  fads  of  the  day  is  palmistry.  It  is,  at  the  most,  harm- 
less; and  Mr.  Frith's  little  book  tells  one  all  that  possibly  is  worth 


1004  NECROLOGY.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

knowing  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  lines,  elevations,  depressions,  and 
general  form  of  the  hand. 


NECROLOGY. 

American:— 

Ames,  Oliver,  ex-governor  of  Massachusetts;  born  in  North 
Easton,  Mass.,  Feb.  4,  1831;  died  there  Oct.  22.  A  descendant  of 
William  Ames,  of  old  English  Puritan  stock,  who  came  to  America 
in  1635.  He  was  educated  at  the  academies  of  North  Attleboro,  Lei- 
cester, and  North  Easton,  and  took  a  special  course  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity; was  elected  state  senator  as  a  republican  in  1880  and  1881;  in 
1882,  1883,  and  1884  was  elected  lieutenant-governor,  and  in  1887 
governor,  filling  that  office  for  three  consecutive  years.  He  was  a 
noted  financier,  being  identified  with  the  vast  interests  of  the  firm 
of  Oliver  Ames  &  Sons. 

B.\SSETT,  Isaac,  assistant  doorkeeper  of  the  United  States  senate; 
born  in  Washington  in  1819;  died  there  Dec.  18.  He  had  served  the 
upper  house  continuously  for  sixty -four  years. 

Blake,  Eli  Whitney,  Hazard  professor  of  physics  at  Brown 
University;  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  April  20,  1836;  died  in  Hamp- 
ton, Conn.,  Oct.  1.  Was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1857,  subsequently 
studying  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  and  abroad.  At  various 
times  he  held  academic  positions  at  the  University  of  Vermont,  Cor- 
nell University,  and  Columbia  College.  From  1870  to  1895  he  was 
professor  of  physics  at  Brown.  He  was  a  son  of  the  well-known  in- 
ventor of  the  same  name. 

Booth,  William  Agur,  for  many  years  president  of  the  Third 
National  bank,  New  York  city,  and  prominent  in  many  religious  and 
benevolent  organizations;  born  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  Nov.  6, 1805;  died 
at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  Dec.  28.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the 
Chicago  &  Northwestern  Railroad  Company;  in  1870  was  chairman 
of  the  committee  investigating  the  Tweed  frauds.  He  was  an  active 
worker  in  connection  with  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  was  greatly 
interested  in  mission  work  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  One  of  his  sons 
is  Dr.  H.  M.  Booth,  president  of  Auburn  Theological  Seminary;  an- 
other, the  Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Russell  Booth,  a  distinguished  divine. 

BoYESEN,  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  novelist,  poet,  essayist,  and  pro- 
fessor of  the  Germanic  languages  and  literature  in  Columbia  College, 
New  York  city;  born  in  Fredericksvarn,  Norway,  Sep.  23,  1848;  died 
suddenly  in  New  York  city  Oct.  4  His  preliminary  education  was 
gained  at  the  gymnasium  in  Christiania,  and  a  course  at  Leipsic  pre- 
ceded his  graduation  in  1868  from  the  University  of  Norway.  He 
passed  the  next  year  travelling  in  the  United  States  and  decided  to 
remain  in  this  country.  He  became  editor  of  the  Fremad,  a  weekly 
Scandinavian  paper,  published  in  Chicago,  111.,  but  left  it  to  accept  a 
tutorship  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  a  small  Ohio  college,  with  a  view  to 
mastering  more  quickly  the  difficulties  of  the  English  language.  In 
1874  he  was  appoini-ed  professor  of  German  in  Cornell  University,  oc- 
cupying the  chair  until  1881,  when  he  became  instructor  in  German 


NECROLOGY.  1005 

in  Columbia  College.  On  June  5,  1883,  lie  was  made  Gebliard  pro- 
fessor of  German,  and  on  Jan.  6,  1890,  be  was  invested  witb  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Germanic  languages  and  literature,  which  he  held  until 
his  death.  Professor  Boyesen  published  twenty-three  books.  He  was 
well  known  as  a  lecturer.  His  first  novel,  Qunnar,  appeared  in  The 
Atlantic  in  1871;  and  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  magazines. 
Among  his  other  writings  are  Tales  From  Two  Hemispheres,  Falcon- 
herg.  Queen  Titarda,  Ilka  on  the  Hilltop,  Social  Strugglers,  Idylls  of 
Noricay,  and  Other  Poems,  Goethe  and  Schiller,  Essays  on  German 
Literature,  and  Essays  on  Scandinaman  Literature.  Among  his  latest 
writings,  A  Commentary  on  the  Writings  of  Henrik  Ibsen,  The  Saga 
of  Eric  the  Red,  The  Novelist's  Art  of  Characterization,  The  Feud  of 
the  Wildhaymen,  and  llie  Evolution  of  the  Heroine,  may  be  cited.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Authors'  Club. 

Brooks,  James  J.,  for  thirteen  years  head  of  the  United  States 
secret  service;  born  in  England;  died  in  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  Oct.  11, 
aged  73. 

BuNDY,  Hezekiaii  S.,  ex-congressman,  known  as  the  "Grand 
Old  Man"  of  the  Tenth  Ohio  district;  born  Aug.  15,  1817;  died  in 
Wellston,  O.,  Dec.  13. 

Dempsey,  JohnE.,  known  as  "Jack"  Dempsey  and  the  "Non- 
pareil," pugilist;  born  at  the  Curragh  of  Kildare,  Ireland,  Dec.  15, 
1863;  died  in  Portland,  Ore.,  Nov.  1.  He  was  victor  in  over  eighty 
contests;  but  was  finally  defeated  by  Fitzsimmons. 

Field,  Eugene,  poet  and  journalist;  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Sep. 
8,  1850;  died  in  Chicago,  111.,  Nov.  4.  For  a  sketch  of  Mr.  Field's 
career  see  page  775:  his  portrait  forms  the  frontispiece  opposite. 

Frothingham,  Rev.  O.  B.,  litterateur  and  radical  theological 
writer,  formerly  a  Unitarian  minister;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov. 
36,  1833;  died  there  Nov.  37. 

Granger,  Miles  T.,  ex-congressraan  from  Connecticut;  born  in 
North  Marlborough,  Mass.,  in  1817;  died  in  North  Canaan,  Conn.,  Oct. 
31.  He  served  in  both  branches  of  the  Connecticut  legislature;  was 
made  a  state  supreme  court  judge  in  1867;  and  in  1886  was  elected 
to  congress  from  the  Fourth  district. 

Gray,  Major  Horace,  a  pioneer  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  an  early  set- 
tler of  Grosse  Isle;  born  in  Watertown,  N.  Y.,  in  1813;  died  in  Grosse 
Isle  Nov.  38.  He  commanded  the  4th  Michigan  cavalry  at  the  battles 
of  Chickamauga,  Lookout  Mountain,  and  Chattanooga. 

Haas,  Maurice  F.  H.  de,  artist;  born  in  Rotterdam,  Holland, 
Dec.  13,  1833;  died  in  New  York  city  Nov.  33.  He  was  strongest  in 
marine  pictures,  among  his  best-known  works  being  Farragufs  Fleet 
Passing  the  Forts  Beloic  New  Orleans,  Off  the  Coast  of  France,  Sun- 
set at  Sea,  Early  Morning  Off  the  Coast,  Long  Island  Sound  by  Moon- 
light, The  Shipwreck,  Moonrise  and  Sunset,  Sunset  at  Cape  Ann,  A 
Marine  View,  Scarborough,  and  The  Rapids  Above  Niagara. 

Harris,  William  Hamilton,  brevet  lieutenant-colonel  U.  S.  A. 
(retired);  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  died  in  Genoa,  Italy,  Nov.  6.  Was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Rochester  in  1858,  and  at  West  Point 
in  1861;  was  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run;  commanded  a  battery  in 
Fort  Monroe  during  the  raid  of  the  Merrimac  in  March,  1863,  and 
later  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac;  served  in  the  last  Tennessee 
campaign  in  1863-4,  and  was  in  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Spott- 
sylvania,  North  Anna,  Cold  Harbor,  and  the  siege  of  Petersburg.    In 


1006  NECROLOGY.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

August,  1864,  he  was  promoted  brevet  lieutenant-colonel  "for  gallant 
and  efficient  service  in  the  battles  from  the  Rapidan  to  Petersburg." 
He  was  retired  at  his  own  request  in  1870. 

He YERMAN,  Oscar  F.  ,  commander  U.  S.  N. ;  born  in  Prussia  Feb. 
17,  1844;  died  at  sea  Oct.  27.  Was  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy 
in  1864.  He  efficiently  filled  numerous  important  naval  posts.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  famous  old  Kearsarge  when  she  was  wrecked 
on  Roncador  reef  in  the  Caribbean  sea  in  Feb.,  1804  (Vol.  4,  pp.  145 
and  353),  and  was  suspended  from  rank  and  placed  on  waiting  orders 
for  two  years. 

Jordan,  Eben  D.  ,  senior  member  of  the  large  dry  goods  firm  of 
Jordan,  Marsh  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.;  born  at  Danville,  Me.,  Oct.  13, 
1823;  died  in  Boston  Nov.  15.  His  career  was  an  example  of  indus- 
try, faithfulness,  and  enterprise  duly  rewarded.  He  was  one  of  the 
original  stockholders  of  the  Boston  Globe,  and  stood  by  that  paper 
during  a  trying  period  in  the  early  seventies. 

Jordan,  Thomas,  ex -Confederate  general;  born  in  Luray,  Va., 
Sep.  30,  1819,  of  Revolutionary  stock.  Was  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1840,  and  served  in  the  Florida  war  and  the  war  with  Mexico.  It  was 
he  who  completed  the  quartermaster's  arrangements  for  the  evacua- 
tion of  Mexico  by  United  States  troops,  and  he  was  the  last  American 
soldier  to  leave  the  soil  of  that  country.  He  afterward  served  in 
Indian  campaigns  in  the  Far  West,  and  introduced  steam  navigation 
on  the  upper  Columbia  river.  It  is  also  claimed  that  he  was  the  first 
to  introduce  to  the  arid  regions  the  system  of  irrigation.  On  the  se- 
cession of  Virginia  he  resigned  his  commission;  fought  at  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run;  was  adjutant- general  of  the  Confederates  at  Shiloh, 
afterward,  as  brigadier-general,  serving  with  Beauregard  at  Charleston, 
but  soon  being  compelled  by  illness  to  take  a  less  active  part  in  the 
struggle.  In  1869  he  organized  the  forces  of  the  Cuban  insurgents,  and 
with  an  army  of  580  men  severely  defeated  several  thousand  Spaniards 
at  Las  Minas  de  Tama.  A  reward  of  $100,000  was  offered  for  his  cap- 
ture. Being  unable  to  induce  the  Cubans  to  adopt  a  policy  of  concen- 
tration instead  of  guerrilla  warfare,  he  returned  to  the  United  States. 
He  became  editor  of  The  Mnancial  and  Mining  Record,  advocating  the 
interests  of  silver.  Greneral  Beauregard  regarded  him  as  one  of  the 
ablest  of  living  military  organizers. 

Kendrick,  Dr.  A.  C,  Monroe  professor  of  Greek  in  Rochester 
University;  born  in  Poultney,  Vt.,  Dec.  7,  1809;  died  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  21.  Was  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1831,  and 
for  nineteen  years  was  tutor  and  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  the 
linstitution  now  known  as  Madison  University.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  American  committee  on  revision  of  the  New  Testament. 

Keyes,  General  Erasmus  Darwin;  born  in  Brimfield,  Mass., 
May  29,  1810;  died  in  Nice,  France,  Oct.  14.  Was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1832,  and  had  experience  in  Indian  campaigns  in  the  North- 
west in  the  fifties.  In  1861  he  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers; 
fought  at  first  Bull  Run  and  in  the  Peninsula  campaign;  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army  for  gallant  conduct 
at  Fair  Oaks.  He  published  Fifty  Yearn''  Observation  of  Men  and 
Emnts  (1884). 

Lawson,  Professor  George,  F.  R.  S.  C,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  for  thirty 
years  professor  of  chemistry  and  botany  in  Dalhousie  College, 
Halifax,  N.  S. ;  born  in  Scotland;  died  Nov.  lO.  On  coming  to  America 
he  was  first  connected  with  Queen's  College,  Kingston,  Ont.      For 


NECROLOGY.  1007 

many  years  lie  was  secretary  of  agriculture  to  the  provincial  govern- 
ment of  Nova  Scotia. 

MacKay,  John  W.,  Jr.,  a  wealthy  American;  died  Oct.  19  in 
France,  from  injuries  due  to  being  thrown  from  his  horse. 

Mahone,  General  William,  ex-Confederate  officer  and  ex- 
United  States  senator;  born  in  Monroe,  Southampton  co.,  Va.,  Dec. 
1, 1826;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C. ,  Oct.  8.  Was  graduated  at  the  Vir- 
ginia Military  Institute  in  1847,  and  practiced  engineering.  Through- 
out the  Civil  War  he  was  active  in  the  Confederate  service.  He  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  the  Norfolk  navy  yard  in  1861 ;  and  was  en- 
gaged in  most  of  the  battles  of  the  Peninsula  campaign,  those  on  the 
Rappahannock,  and  those  around  Petersburg,  where  he  won  the  title 
of  the  "  Hero  of  the  Crater."  He  was  commissioned  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  March,  1864,  and  in  August  of  the  same  year  major-general. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  General  Mahone  resumed  practice  as  an  en 
gineer,  and  became  president  of  the  Norfolk  &  Tennessee  railroad, 
and  afterward  of  the  Atlantic,  Mississippi  &  Ohio.  His  prominence 
in  politics  dates  from  about  1869.  He  organized  the  "  True  and  Lib- 
eral Republicans  of  Virginia,"  who  favored  the  reconstruction  meas- 
ures, and  their  candidates  were  elected;  but,  on  General  Mahone's 
withdrawal  for  business  reasons,  the  platform  was  repudiated  by  the 
old  school  democrats,  who  secured  control  of  the  old  organization.  In 
1873  General  Mahone  suffered  great  losses  owing  to  the  panic,  and 
re-entered  politics.  In  1879  his  party  carried  both  branches  of  the 
legislature,  with  the  policy  of  "readjustment"  (or,  in  other  words, 
practical  repudiation  in  part,  on  certain  conditions)  of  the  Virginia 
state  debt.  Being  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in  1881,  he 
joined  the  republicans,  favoring  the  policy  of  protection. 

McPherson,  Edward,  for  many  years  clerk  of  the  United 
States  house  of  representatives;  born  in  Gettysburg,  Penn.,  July  31, 
1830;  died  there  Dec.  14.  Was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1848,  and  became  a  journalist;  was  elected  to  congress  as 
a  republican  in  1858,  serving  two  terms.  For  about  eleven  years  end- 
ing in  1873  he  was  clerk  of  the  house,  and  subsequently  filled  that 
office  from  1881  to  1883,  and  from  1889  to  1891.  He  was  author  of 
Handbook  of  Politics,  a  well-known  biennial  publication,  and  Polit- 
ical History  of  the  United  States  During  the  Great  Rebellion  and  Du- 
ring Reconstructio7i  (two  works).  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
American  editor  of  the  Almanach  de  Gotha. 

Miley,  Rev.  Dr.  John,  professor  of  systematic  theology  in  Drew 
Theological  Seminary  (Methodist  Episcopal),  Madison,  N.  J.,  since 
1873;  died  Dec.  11,  aged  about  82.  Among  his  published  works  are 
Atonement  in  Christ  and  Systematic  Theology. 

Millard,  Spencer  C,  lieutenant-governor  of  California;  born  in 
Ionia,  Mich.,  in  1857;  died  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Oct.  24. 

QuiNBY,  George  T.,  ex -district  attorney  of  Erie  co.,  N.  Y. ;  born 
in  Mendon,  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1849;  died  at  the  Buffalo  (N.  Y.) 
State  Hospital  Nov.  17.  He  was  three  times  elected  to  fill  the  office. 
Asa  lawyer  he  was  considered  among  the  best  in  the  country  in  crim- 
inal cases. 

Richardson,  Colonel  B.  H.,  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Co- 
lumbus (Ga.)  Daily  Enquirer- Sun;  born  in  Maryland;  died  in  Colum- 
bus Oct.  10.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  army  through  the  war, 
and  was  afterward  engaged  in  various  journalistic  enterprises  in  Ala- 
bama and  Georgia. 


1008  NECROLOGY.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

RoYALL,  Colonel  W.  B.,  U.  S.  A.  (retired);  born  in  Virginia 
April  15,  1820;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Dec.  13.  He  was  com- 
missioned in  the  regular  army  as  a  reward  for  gallantry  in  the  Mexi- 
can war.  He  afterward  served  in  Indian  campaigns,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Civil  War,  being  finally  disabled  by  wounds 
at  Old  Church.  He  was  made  lieutenant -colonel  in  1865,  and  fought 
against  the  Indians  in  the  West  in  the  latter  sixties;  became  colo- 
nel of  cavalry  in  1882,  and  was  retired  in  1887. 

Shaw,  Rev.  John,  D.  D.,  prominent  Methodist  divine:  lx)rn  at 
Three  Rivers,  Que.,  April  29,  1830;  died  in  Toronto,  Ont.,  from  the 
effects  of  an  accident  while  bicycling,  Dec.  3. 

Shufp^ldt,  Rear- Admiral  Robert  Wilson,  U.  S.  N.  (retired); 
born  in  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  Feb.,  1822;  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  Nov.  7.  He  was  appointed  midshipman  in  1839,  but  resigned 
a  lieutenant's  commission  in  1854,  and  engaged  in  business  enterprises. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  volunteered  for  naval  duty;  but 
was  soon  made  consul-general  at  Havana,  Cuba,  and  jealously  guarded 
Union  interests  in  the  Spanish  colony.  He  was  sent  to  Mexico  on  a 
special  mission  in  connection  with  the  French  invasion,  and  afterward 
re-entered  the  navy,  with  the  rank  of  commander,  serving  with  credit 
during  the  remaining  years  of  the  war.  In  1875  he  was  made  com- 
modore. He  was  appointed  arbitrator  by  the  English  and  American 
governments  to  settle  the  Liberian  question,  and  was  authorized  to 
open  negotiations  with  Korea  for  the  protection  of  American  life  and 
property,  as  a  result  of  which  a  treaty  was  signed  in  the  early  eight- 
ies. Admiral  Shufeldt  was  president  of  the  advisory  board  which 
designed  the  first  steel  cruiser  and  mapped  out  a  program  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  new  navy.  He  was  made  rear-admiral  in  1883,  and 
retired  on  account  of  age  in  1884. 

Smith,  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  F.  ,  author  of  the  patriotic  anthem 
"America;"  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  21,  1808;  died  there  Nov.  16. 
Graduating  from  the  public  schools,  he  entered  Harvard  at  seventeen, 
graduating  in  the  famous  class  of  '29,  which  comprised  such  men  as 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  Judge  B.  R.  Curtis,  late  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court;  the  late  Chief  Justice  Bigelow  of  the  Massachusetts 
supreme  court,  and  the  Rev.  James  Freeman  Clark.  From  Cam- 
bridge he  went  to  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  it  was 
while  there,  in  February,  1832,  that  he  wrote  the  words  of  the  hymn 
"America."  He  attributed  the  origin  of  the  hymn  to  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  tune  to  which  it  is  ordinarily  sung — which  he  found  in  a 
German  school  book,  but  did  not  know  at  the  time  to  be  the  same  as 
the  tune  of  the  British  national  anthem,  "God  Save  the  King."  The 
words  were  written  in  about  half  an  hour;  and  the  hymn  was  first 
sung  in  public  in  the  Park  Street  church  in  Boston,' July  4,  1832. 
Said  Dr.  Smith: 

"  I  do  not  share  the  regrets  of  those  who  deem  it  an  evil  that  the  national 
tune  of  Britain  and  America  is  the  same.  On  the  contrary,  I  deem  it  a  new  and 
beautiful  tie  of  union  between  the  mother  and  the  daughter,  one  furnishing  the 
music  (if,  indeed,  it  is  really  English),  and  the  other  the  words." 

In  1834  Dr.  Smith  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Water- 
ville,  Me.,  and  at  the  same  time  professor  of  modern  languages  in 
Colby  University.  Eight  years  later  he  moved  to  Newton  Centre, 
Mass.,  where  he  had  since  lived.  He  was  for  seven  years  editor  of 
TJie  Christian  Review;  and  until  July,  1854,  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Baptist  church  at  Newton  Centre;  then  for  fifteen  years  was  con- 
nected with  the  foreign  missionary  work  of  that  church.     He  wrote 


NECROLOGY.  1009 

many  books  and  other  hymns  besides  "America,"  including  "The 
Morning  Light  is  Breaking."  On  April  3,  1895,  he  was  the  recipient 
of  a  grand  public  testimonial  in  recognition  of  his  authorship  of 
"America." 

Stone,  Professor  Dudley  C,  a  pioneer  educator  of  California; 
born  in  Marietta,  O.,  in  1829;  accidentally  killed  by  being  run  over 
by  an  electric  car  in  East  Oakland,  Cal.,  Dec.  1.  He  taught  first  in 
New  Orleans,  La. ,  but  removed  to  California  in  1852. 

Story,  William  Wetmore,  sculptor  and  legal  author;  born  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  Feb.  12,  1819;  died  at  the  country  house  of  his 
daughter,  the  Marquise  Peruzzi,  at  Vallombrosa,  Italy,  Oct.  7.  He 
was  graduated  in  arts  and  law  at  Harvard,  and  practiced  in  Boston 
until  1850,  publishing  several  important  legal  works,  as  Contracts 
Not  Under  Seal,  Treatise  on  Sales  of  Personal  Property,  and  Reports 
of  Decisions  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States  (3  vols.),  besides 
editing  several  works  of  his  father.  Justice  Story  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court.  Since  1850  he  had  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
sculpture  and  literature,  living  most  of  the  time  in  Rome,  Italy. 
Among  his  works  in  sculpture  are  numerous  monuments,  ideal 
figures  and  groups,  colossal  statues,  portraits,  and  busts.  Of  the  por- 
traits, statues,  and  monuments,  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Edward 
Everett,  in  Boston;  George  Peabody,  in  London  and  in  Baltimore; 
William  Cullen  Bryant;  and  a  large  monument  to  Francis  Scott  Key, 
surmounted  by  a  colossal  figure  of  America,  in  San  Francisco;  and 
besides  these,  statuettesof  Shakespeare,  Byron,  Beethoven,  and  a  large 
number  of  portrait  busts.  Of  large  ideal  statues  may  be  mentioned 
two  different  statues  of  Cleopatra,  ''The  Lybian  Sihyl,"  Medea, 
Electra,  and  many  others.  Among  the  groups  in  marble  are  Aphro- 
dite and  Eros,  llietis  and  Achilles,  The  Silent  Land,  Bacchus  on  a 
Panther,  etc.  In  general  literature,  among  his  prose  publications  are: 
Life  and  Letters  of  Joseph  Story,  Rdba  di  Roma,  The  American  Qnes- 
tioii,  Proportions  of  the  Human  Figure,  Castle  St.  Angelo,  The  Etil 
Eye,  Stephania,  a  tragedy,  etc.  His  literary  works  include  two  vol- 
umes of  poems,  and  many  poems  printed  but  not  collected. 

TiiURMAN,  Allen  Granbery,  ex  United  States  senator  from 
Ohio,  familiarly  known  as  the  "The  Old  Roman;"  born  in  Lynch- 
burg, Va.,  Nov.  13,  1813;  died  at  his  home  in  Columbus,  O.,  Dec.  12. 
His  father  was  a  Methodist  minister.  His  grandfather  on  his  mother's 
side  was  a  nephew  of  Joseph  Hewes,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  From  1819  to  1853  he  lived  in  Chillicothe,  O.,  but 
removed  in  the  latter  year  to  Columbus.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  and  the  academy  at  Chillicothe.  Studied  law  three 
years  with  his  uncle,  William  Allen,  and  then  became  private  secre- 
tary to  Governor  Lucas,  and  entered  the  law  oflSce  of  Judge  Swayne 
in  Columbus.  Was  called  to  the  bar  in  1835,  and  then  formed  a 
partnership  with  his  uncle.  Governor  Allen,  in  Chillicothe.  In  1844, 
during  his  absence  in  Kentucky  on  business,  he  was  nominated  for 
congress  as  a  democrat,  and  was  elected,  being  the  youngest  member 
of  the  house.  He  refused  renomination.  Was  elected  to  the  state 
supreme  bench  in  1851.  From  1854  to  1856  served  as  chief  justice, 
but  declined  renomination.  In  1867  he  was  defeated  by  Rutherford 
B.  Hayes  for  governor,  but  was  chosen  United  States  senator  by  the 
legislature. 

His  congressional  career,  including  one  term  in  the  house,  covered 
fourteen  years.     At  the  time  of  his  election  to  the  29th  congress, 


1010 


NECROLOGY. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


fifty  years  ago,  tlie  Oregon  boundary  controversy  was  being  waged, 
and  the  democratic  platform  demanded  "Fifty-four,  forty,  or  fight." 
Mr.  Thurman  was  elected  to  congress  on  such  a  platform,  and  when 
in  the  first  session  of  the  39th  congress  his  party  backed  down  in 
obedience  to  the  slave  power,  and  emasculated  the  resolution  to  give 
notice  to  Great  Britain  that  the  joint  occupation  by  that  nation  and  the 
United  States  under  the  treaty  of  1827  must  cease,  he  and  a  few  other 
democrats,  including  Stephen  A.  Douglas  and  Andrew  Johnson,  re- 
belled, and  voted  against  what  was  generally  styled  "  the  disgraceful 

Oregon  surrender. "  In  the 
same  congress  he  again 
found  himself  in  opposi- 
tion to  a  majority  of  his 
party  when  he  voted  for 
the  Wilmot  proviso  de- 
claring that  neither  slav- 
ery nor  involuntary  servi- 
tude should  be  established 
in  any  territory  that  might 
be  acquired  from  Mexico. 
Upon  his  entrance  to 
the  United  States  senate 
in  March,  1869,  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee on  the  judiciary, 
of  which  he  remained  a 
member  during  his  twelve 
years'  service  as  senator. 
In  1879  he  became  chair- 
man of  the  committee, 
which  place  he  continued 
to  occupy  until  his  final 
retirement  from  public 
life,  in  1881. 

In  the  43d  congress  Mr. 
Thurman  vigorously  op- 
posed the  passage  of  the 
Resumption  act.  In  the 
44th  congress  he  supported 
the  resolution  which  de- 
clared that  the  public  debt 
of  the  United  States  was  payable  in  silver  coin  of  standard  weight 
and  fineness;  and  he  also  spoke  for  and  voted  for  the  Bland-Allison 
act. 

Judge  Thurman  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  adjustment  and 
settlement  of  the  disputed  presidential  election  of  1876.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  joint  committee  raised  to  consider  the  mode  of  count- 
ing the  electoral  votes,  and  shared  in  the  work  of  framing  the  bill 
providing  for  the  electoral  commission.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
commission.  He  took  an  active  interest  in  the  subject  of  the  in- 
debtedness of  the  Pacific  railroads  to  the  government,  and  in  the 
44th  congress  reported  from  the  judiciary  committee  a  bill  to  pro- 
vide a  sinking  fund  for  the  payment  of  that  indebtedness  at  ma- 
turity. The  bill  failed  to  become  a  law;  but  in  the  succeeding  con- 
gress he  renewed  his  efforts,  with  success.  Judge  Thurman  also 
supported  the  anti-Chinese  legislation  of  the  46th  congress.     He  was 


N.   ALLEN  G.   THURMAN  OF  OHIO, 
EX-UNITED   STATES   SENATOR. 


NECROLOGY.  1011 

defeated  for  re-election  to  the  senate  by  General  Garfield.  When 
the  latter  became  president,  he  appointed  Judge  Thurman  a  dele- 
gate to  the  International  Monetary  Conference  in  Paris,  France. 
Judge  Thurman  was  nominated  for  the  vice- presidency  in  1888,  on 
the  unsuccessful  ticket  headed  by  Mr.  Cleveland. 

Upham,  Dk.  Francis  W.,  Biblical  student  and  author;  born  in 
Rochester,  N.  H.,  Sep.  10,  1817;  died  in  New  York  city  Oct.  17.  Was 
graduated  at  Bowdoin,  and  practiced  law  in  Boston;  but  came  to  de- 
vote his  life  to  the  defense  of  the  Bible  against  the  so-called  "higher 
criticism."  He  travelled  extensively.  His  published  works  include 
The  Debate  between  Church  and  Science,  The  Star  of  Our  Lord, 
Thoughts  on  the  Holy  Gospel,  St.  Matthew's  Witness,  and  T'he  First 
Words  from  God. 

Van  Dyck,  Rev.  Dr.  Cornelius  Van  Alen,  noted  Arabic 
scholar,  and,  since  the  death  of  Dr.  Wm.  M.  Thomson  (author  of  I'he 
Land  and  the  Book,  in  April,  1894),  the  oldest  member  of  the  Syria 
mission;  born  in  Kinderhook,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  13,  1818,  of  early  Dutch 
stock;  died  in  Bey  rout,  Syria,  about  Nov.  22.  After  taking  a  course 
of  study  in  medicine,  he  was  sent  to  Beyrout  as  a  missionary  of  the 
American  Board  in  1840.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  task  of  preparation  of  the  Arabic  Bible.  The  work  is 
regarded  as  a  classic  throughout  Africa,  India,  Central  Asia,  and 
China.     Upon  it  he  spent  seven  years,  1857-64. 

Van  Wyck,  Charles  H.,  ex-United  States  senator  from  Ne- 
braska; born  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  in  Nov.,  1824;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Oct.  24.  Was  graduated  at  Rutgers  College,  and  prac- 
ticed law  in  Sullivan  co..  New  York.  In  1858  and  1860  was  elected 
to  congress  as  a  republican.  During  the  war  he  commanded  the  56th 
New  York  volunteers  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  South,  and  became  brigadier-general  at  the  close  of  the 
struggle.  Re-elected  to  congress  from  New  York  in  1866  and  1868; 
in  1874  removed  to  Nebraska,  engaging  in  scientific  farming.  In  1876 
was  chosen  a  state  senator,  serving  until  1880;  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  for  one  term,  but  defeated  for  re-election.  He 
was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  movement  in 
Nebraska,  and  in  1892  was  the  unsuccessful  people's  party  candidate 
for  governor. 

Vaux.  Calvert,  landscape  architect;  born  in  London,  Eng., 
Dec.  20,  1824;  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  21.  He  was  associated 
with  A.  J.  Downing  in  laying  out  the  ground  surrounding  the 
Capitol  and  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  and  with 
Frederick  Law  Olrastead  in  laying  out  Central  Park,  New  York  city. 
Other  works  after  his  designs  are  Prospect  park,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ; 
the  public  parks  in  Chicago,  111.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  the  New  York 
state  reservation  at  Niagara  Falls,  the  Riverside  and  Morningside 
parks,  New  York  city.  He  also  designed  many  residences  and  several 
public  buildings. 

Wain  WRIGHT,  William  P.,  brevet  brigadier-general.  United 
States  volunteers;  born  in  New  York  city;  died  there  Oct.  17,  a^ed 
nearly  78.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  and  studied  medicine.  Commanded  the"  76th  regiment.  New 
York  volunteers,  during  the  war,  and  served  with  great  distinction, 
being  wounded  at  South  Mountain  and  Turner's  Gap. 

Wayman,  Bishop  Alexander  W.,  senior  bishop  of  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  born  in  Caroline  co.,  Md.,  Sep.  21, 1821; 


1012  NECROLOGY.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

died  in  East  Baltimore,  Nov.  30.  His  bishopric  included  Illinois, 
Iowa,  and  Wisconsin. 

Wright,  General  Edward,  ex-speaker  of  tlie  Iowa  assembly, 
and  ex-secretary  of  state  for  Iowa,  a  distinguished  veteran  of  the 
Civil  War;  born  in  Salem,  O.,  June  27,  1824;  died  in  Des  Moines 
Dec.  6. 

Wright,  Harry,  veteran  baseball  manager;  born  in  Sheffield, 
Eng.,  Jan.  10,  1835;  died  in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  Oct.  3. 

Foreign:— 

Arnold,  Arthur,  author  and  traveller;  born  May  28,  1833;  died 
in  London,  Eng.,  Nov.  25.  He  was  elected  M.  P.  for  Salford  in  1880; 
president  of  the  Free  Land  League  in  1885;  and  county  alderman  in 
the  London  council  in  1889.  He  wrote  The  History  of  the  Cotton 
Famine  (between  1863  and  1866);  From  the  Levant  (1868);  Throvgh 
Persia  by  Caravan  {ISl 5);  and  Social  Politics  amdFree  Land  (1879-80). 

Arnould  Arthur,  noted  Communard;  born  in  1833;  died  in 
Paris,  France,  Nov.  25.  He  was  an  active  representative,  in  the 
Commune,  of  the  so-called  "liberal  professions,"  i.  e.,  the  scientists, 
authors,  artists,  etc.,  who  joined  the  workingmen  members  of  the  rev- 
olutionary movement.  He  was  exiled  after  the  Commune,  but  re- 
turned in  1880.  He  wrote  The  Freedom  of  Theatres,  History  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  Princess  Belladone. 

Bolton,  Baron  (William  Henry  Orde-Powlett),  English  peer; 
born  Feb.  24,  1818;  died  Nov.  7. 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  Roman  cardinal;  born  in  Rome,  Italy,  Nov. 
15,  1828,  second  son  of  Prince  Lucien  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon 
I. ;  died  in  Rome  Nov.  19.  After  the  death  of  Prince  Joseph  he  was 
the  chief  of  his  branch  of  the  family.  Was  ordained  priest  in  1855; 
made  a  cardinal  in  1868. 

BoNGHi,  RuGGiERO,  author,  member  of  the  Italian  chamber  of 
deputies;  born  in  Naples  in  1828;  died  near  there  Oct.  22.  He  wrote 
over  twenty  volumes  on  politics,  philosophy,  and  biography,  and 
translated  over  fifty.  His  work  on  Cavour,  Bismarck,  and  Thiers 
(1879)  was  translated  into  four  languages. 

Brown,  Robert,  distinguished  Scotch  botanist  and  scientific  ex- 
plorer; born  at  Caithness,  Scotland,  March  23,  1842;  died  in  London, 
Eng.,  Oct.  26.  He  commanded  the  first  Vancouver  Island  exploring 
expedition,  Mount  Brown  being  named  after  him. 

BusCH,  Dr.  Moritz,  known  as  the  "  Boswell "  of  Prince  Bis- 
marck, author  of  the  famous  journal  of  his  tour  with  that  statesman 
in  France;  born  Feb.  13,  1821;  died  late  in  November.  He  was  one 
of  the  secretaries  to  the  Berlin  congress  in  1878,  and  was  afterward 
director  of  the  so-called  Oriental  department  of  the  German  foreign 
office. 

Cavendish,  Ada,  actress;  died  in  London,  Eng.,  Oct.  7. 

CoMTE,  Pierre  Charles,  French  painter,  a  member  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor;  born  in  Lyons,  Apr.  25,  1825;  died  Nov.  29. 

Dacre,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Arthur,  English  actors;  died  by  suicide 
in  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  about  Nov.  16. 

DoBSON,  George  Edward,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  distinguished  biologist 
and  scientific  writer;  born  in  Ireland,  Sep.  4,  1844;  died  in  London, 
Eng.,  Nov.  26. 


NECROLOGY. 


1013 


DowE,  Heinrich,  the  Mannlieim  tailor  wliose  reputed  invention 
of  a  bullet-proof  coat  attracted  mucli  attention  in  1894  (Vol.  4,  pp. 
417  and  691);  died  at  Wiesbaden,  Germany,  Dec.  9. 

Drummond,  Sir  J.  R.,  G.  C.  B.,  gentleman  usher  of  the  black 
rod  in  the  British  parliament,  a  retired  admiral;  born  in  1813;  died 
Oct.  7.  He  commanded  the  Retribution  at  the  bombardments  of 
Odessa  and  Sebastopol  in  the  Crimean  war. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  the  younger;  distinguished  French  novelist 
and  playwright;  born  in  Paris  July  28,  1824;  diedatMarly-le-Roi,  near 
Versailles,  Nov.  27.  He 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of 
the  great  author  whose 
name  appears  upon  the 
title  page  of  over  1,200 
volumes — Alexandre  Du- 
mas, the  elder.  Speaking 
of  the  circumstances  of 
his  birth,  the  son  says: 

"  My  mother  was  a  good, 
courageous  woman,  who 
worked  to  rear  me;  my  fa 
ther,  a  government  employ  6, 
with  a  salary  of  1,200  francs  a 
year  ($240),  having  his  mother 
to  support.  By  a  lucky  chance 
it  80  happened  that  mv  father, 
though  impulsive,  was  kind- 
hearted.  When,  after  his  first 
successes  as  a  dramatist,  he 
thought  he  could  rely  upon 
the  future,  he  recognized  me 
and  gave  me  his  name.  That 
was  much.  The  law  did  not 
force  him  to  do  so,  and  I  have 
been  so  grateful  that  I  have 
borne  that  name  as  well  as  I 
could." 

At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen he  wrote  a  volume  of 
poems  published  in  1847 
under  the  title  Les  PecJies 
de  Jeunesse,  but  possessing 
little  merit.  After  his 
school  days  were  over  he 
went  with  his  father  to 
Spain  and  Africa,  and  on  his  return  published  a  curious  novel  in 
six  volumes,  Aventures  de  Quatre  Femmes  et  d'un  Perroquet.  But  he 
early  began  to  use  his  own  experiences  as  the  material  for  his  books, 
and  Marguerite  Gauthier,  the  heroine  of  La  Dame  aux  Camelias 
(1848),  was  drawn  from  a  certain  Alphonsine  Plessis,  a  mistress  of 
his,  who  had  died  the  year  before  at  twenty-three  years  of  age.  In 
the  same  way,  L' Affaire  Clemenceau,  by  many  considered  his  best 
novel  (1867),  was  full  of  autobiographical  details;  and  the  play  Le 
Pere  Prodigue  was  little  else  than  a  sketch  of  his  father,  that  ' '  great 
big  child,"  as  he  used  to  say,  "who  was  born  to  me  when  I  was 
little. "  There  was  truth  in  this  mot,  for  in  their  life  together  it  was 
the  son,  a  boy  under  twenty,  who  took  the  management,  so  far  as 
there  was  any  management — and  he  had  ultimately  to  pay  the  con- 
siderable debts  of  the  joint  establishment. 

It  was  his    dramatization  of  Tm  Dame  aux  Camelias,  in  1852, 


ALEXANDRE  DUMAS,  THE  YOUNGER, 
FRENCH  NOVELIST  AND  PLAYWRIGHT. 


1014  NECROLOGY.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

which  first  made  hhn  famous.  Since  1852  the  play  has  fully  held  the 
stage;  and  the  role  of  its  heroine  is  the  favorite  part  of  both  Sarah 
Bernhardt  and  Madame  Duse.  Women  who  have  been  compromised, 
or  more,  remained  the  chief  topic  of  interest  to  M.  Dumas;  and  their 
deeds  and  destiny  were  treated  by  him  in  such  plays  as  La  Dame  aux 
Perles  (1853),  Le  Demi-Monde  (1855),  Les  Idees  de  Madame  Avtbray 
(1867),  and  Deiiise  (1885).  Once  or  twice  he  made  an  excursion  into 
other  fields  of  disputed  morals,  as  in  La  Question  d' Argent,  a  stock 
exchange  play  (1887);  but  nearly  always  his  imagination  and  his 
ideas  of  moral  reform  kept  to  the  one  subject  and  its  many  ramifica- 
tions. For  example,  Le  Mis  Naturel  dealt,  as  its  title  implies,  with 
the  position  of  a  son  declasse  by  no  fault  of  his  own;  and  La  Femme 
de  Claude  (1875)  carried  on  to  the  stage  the  theories  which  M. 
Dumas  had  expounded  in  a  pamphlet  that  made  some  scandal  as  to 
the  proper  m,  le  of  dealing  with  an  erring  wife.  The  significant 
title  of  the  pamphlet  was  Tue-la!  His  drama  Joseph  Balsamo,  based 
on  his  father's  romance  Cagliostro,  was  performed  for  the  first  time 
in  March,  1878.  He  published  in  1880  Les  Femmes  qui  Tuent  et  les 
Femmes  qui  Votent,  in  1881  La  Princesse  de  Bagdad,  in  1885  Denise, 
and  in  1887  Francillon. 

Dumas  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1874; 
and  to  the  end  he  continued  to  be  one  of  the  most  influential  men, 
socially  and  intellectually,  in  Paris.  The  most  striking  feature  of 
his  writings  is  perhaps  not  so  much  the  dubiousness  of  his  ethics  as  the 
narrowness  of  his  point  of  view.  Like  the  majority  of  popular 
writers  among  his  countrymen,  only  one  class  of  subjects  seemed  to 
interest  him;  to  him  they  exhausted  the  whole  of  life. 

His  prefaces  to  his  collected  plays  were  admirable  in  style  and  ex- 
quisitely ingenious  as  analyses  of  the  plot  or  of  the  genesis  of  his 
ideas. 

Latterly  his  life  had  seemed  to  be  disturbed  by  domestic  storms 
which  affected  his  creative  genius. 

Gallenga,  Antonio,  Italian  patriot,  journalist,  and  author,  for 
many  years  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  London  I'imes;  born  at 
Parma,  Nov.  4,  1810;  died  Dec.  17. 

Gregory,  Lady  Fanny,  formerly  Mrs.  Stirling,  wife  of  an 
English  stage  manager,  an  accomplished  actress;  born  in  1817;  died 
in  London  Dec.  30.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1886,  and  in  1894 
married  Sir  Charles  Gregory,  a  consulting  engineer  for  several  of  the 
British  colonies. 

Halle,  Sir  Charles,  celebrated  English  pianist,  and  director 
of  the  Musical  Institution  at  Manchester;  born  in  Hagen,  Germany, 
April  11,  1819;  died  in  Manchester  Oct.  25.  For  twelve  years  he  was 
one  of  the  musical  lights  of  Paris,  but  removed  to  England  owing  to 
the  revolution  of  1848.  His  organization  of  subscription  concerts  and 
his  frequent  appearances  at  different  points,  did  much  to  elevate  the 
popular  musical  taste  in  England.     He  was  knighted  in  1888. 

Harland,  Sir  E.  J.,  conservative  M.  P.  for  North  Belfast,  Ire- 
land, since  1889;  born  at  Scarborough  in  1831;  died  Dec.  23.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1885  on  the  occasion  of  the  Prince  of  Wales's 
visit  to  Belfast,  of  which  city  he  was  then  mayor. 

.  HiiiLS,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  George,  consecrated  first  bishop  of  British 
Columbia  in  1859,  resigned  in  1892;  born  at  Eyethorn,  Kent,  Eng., 
in  1816;  died  at  Parham,  Suffolk,  Dec.  10. 

Hind,  John  Russell,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  astronomer;  born  in 


i 


NECROLOGY.  1015 

Nottingham,  Eng.,  May  12,  1823;  died  at  Twickenham  Dec.  23.  He 
made  numerous  discoveries  of  heavenly  bodies,  and  received  many 
honors  at  home  and  from  abroad.  He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society  in  1880,  and  was  for  a  long  time  superintendent  of 
the  Nautical  Almanac  office.  He  published  The  Solar  System  (1846); 
Expected  Return  of  the  Great  Comet  of  1^64  and  1556  (IMS);  Astro- 
nomical Vocabulary  and  Replies  to  Questions  on  the  Comet  of  1556 
(1852);  Illustrated  London  Astronomy  (1853);  Elements  of  Algebra 
(1855);  and  Descriptive  Treatise  on  Comets  (1857). 

Jackson,  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  W.  W.,  bishop  of  Antigua,  West  Indies, 
since  1860;  born  in  Barbadoes  about  1810;  died  at  Ealing,  Middlesex, 
Eng.,  Nov.  25. 

KiTASiiiKAKAWA,  Prince,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Japanese 
fosces  in  Formosa,  a  relative  of  the  emperor;  died  Oct.  29. 

Leuaudy,  Max,  known  as  Le  Petit  Sucrier  (the  Little  Sugar 
Bowl),  a  French  millionaire  noted  for  his  extravagances;  died  Dec. 
24. 

LuMBY,  Rev.  Joseph  Rawson,  D.  D.,  professor  of  divinity  at  St. 
Catharine's  College,  Cambridge,  Eng.,  since  1879;  born  in  Stanning- 
ley,  Yorkshire;  died  in  Grand  Chester  Nov.  21,  aged  65.  He  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1858,  and  became  a  scholar  and  fellow  of 
Magdalene  College,  also  lecturer  there  and  at  Queen's.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Early  English  Text  Society,  and  a  member  of 
the  committee  on  revision  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  historic  documents  published  by  the  government,  and 
the  author  of  several  works,  including  History  of  the  Creeds  and  Cam- 
bridge Companion  to  the  Bible. 

Melchers,  Paul,  Roman  cardinal,  principal  ecclesiastical  leader 
of  the  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  Kulturkampf  mXvodxxced.  in 
Germany  by  Prince  Bismarck  in  the  early  seventies;  born  in  Miinster 
in  1813;  died  in  Rome  Dec.  14.  In  1874,  being  then  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  he  was  sent  to  jail  for  setting  the  new  laws  at  defiance;  forty- 
two  other  priests  were  similarly  punished.  In  1876  he  was  expelled 
from  his  see  by  the  government,  but  he  continued  to  administer  it 
from  Holland.  Even  after  the  death  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  and  after  a 
final  modus  vivendi  had  been  arranged,  Bismarck  would  not  consent 
to  his  reinstatement  as  archbishop.     He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1885. 

MONTEGUT,  Jean  Baptiste,  French  litterateur;  born  at  Limoges 
June  24,  1825;  died  in  Paris  Dec.  11.  Through  the  columns  of  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  of  which  he  was  for  a  time  editor,  he  was 
the  first  European  to  expound  the  philosophy  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emer- 
son. 

Patterson,  Sir  J.  B.,  K.  C.  M.  G.,  ex-premier  of  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, and  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  legislative  assembly ;  born 
at  Alnwick,  Northumberland,  Eng.,  in  1833;  died  Oct.  30. 

PoNSONBY,  General  Sir  Henry  F.,  G.  C.  B.,  private  secretary 
to  Queen  Victoria;  born  at  Corfu,  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  1825,  of 
an  aristocratic  border  family,  his  father  being  Major-General  Sir  F. 
Ponsonby  of  Waterloo  fame;  died  at  Osborne  Cottage  on  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  Nov.  21 .  He  entered  military  service  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
as  ensign;  became  captain  in  1848.  Was  private  secretary  to  three 
lords-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  Served  in  the  Crimea  at  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol.  In  1856  became  equerry  to  the  Prince  Consort,  and  after 
his  death  in  1861  commanded  a  battalion  of  grenadier  guards  in  Can- 
ada; in  1868  was  promoted  major-general.  In  1870,  on  the  death  of 
Vol.  5—65. 


1016 


NECROLOGY. 


4th  Qr.,  18D5. 


General  Grey,  the  queen  made  liim  her  private  secretary.  He  was 
in  constant  daily  attendance  upon  the  queen,  and  had  charge  of  the 
enormous  mass  of  correspondence,  other  than  family  correspondence, 
which  was  supposed  to  receive  her  attention.  He,  too,  it  was  who 
communicated  between  the  queen  and  her  ministers.  He  had  besides 
to  attend  to  all  such  petty  matters  as  communicating  with  the  royal 
tradesmen,  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  books  or  music  from  loyal 
authors,  etc.  Sir  Henry  Ponsonby  had  need  of  all  his  power  of  hard 
work  and  tact  to  fulfil  his  duties.  In  1877,  on  the  death  of  Sir  Thomas 

Biddulph,  he  was  called  upon 
to  add  to  his  responsibilities  by 
taking  up  the  office  of  keeper  of 
the  privy  purse,  as  well  as  his 
secretarial  duties.  These  new 
duties  were  discharged  by  him 
with  admirable  exactitude  and 
precision.  That  the  queen  val- 
ued the  work  of  Sir  Henry,  was 
shown  in  many  ways.  The  mak- 
ing him  K.  C.  B.,  as  was  done 
in  1879,  might  be  taken  as  a 
matter  of  course;  but  his  pro- 
motion to  be  a  privy  councillor 
in  1880  and  G.  C.  B.  in  1887, 
may  be  looked  upon  as  marks  of 
special  favor. 

Reeve,  Henry,  C.  B.,  D. 
C.  L.,  for  fifty  years  registrar 
of  the  privy  council  of  Eng- 
land; born  Sep.  9,  1813;  died 
Oct.  21. 

RusTEM  Pasha  {Chimelli  de 
Marini),  Turkish  ambassador  to 
Great  Britain;  born  in  Constantinople,  of  Italian  and  Christian  parent- 
age, in  1810;  died  Nov.  20.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  govern- 
ment at  an  early  age.  He  chose  the  name  of  Rustem,  a  legendary 
Mohammedan  hero.  His  first  line  of  employment  was  as  secretary  and 
interpreter  to  various  high  officials.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  secretary- 
general  to  the  foreign  office,  and  was  the  first  to  organize  the  service  of 
the  Bureau  de  la  Correspondance  ^trangere  at  the  Porte  as  it  now  ex- 
ists. In  1856  he  was  appointed  charge  d'affaires  at  the  court  of  Turin, 
and  resided  in  Italy  for  fourteen  years,  being  successively  raised  to 
the  rank  of  minister- resident  and  envoy-extraordinary,  at  that  court, 
the  seat  of  which  was  afterward  removed  to  Florence.  In  1870  he 
went  on  a  special  mission  to  Rome  on  the  occasion  of  the  Vatican 
council.  A  few  months  later  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  th^  court 
of  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  three  years.  Perhaps  the  most 
brilliant  period  of  his  career  was  that  spent  in  the  Lebanon,  of  which 
province  he  was  appointed  governor-general  with  the  assent  of  the 
powers  in  1873.  His  intelligence,  activity,  and  impartiality  preserved 
order  among  the  mutually  hostile  populations  of  that  wild  region,  and 
won  the  respect  alike  of  Mussulmans,  Druses,  and  Christians.  In 
1885  he  was  appointed  Turkish  ambassador  in  London  on  the  retire- 
ment of  Musurus  Pasha.  He  was  essentially  a  high-principled,  lib- 
eral-minded  man,  who,  nevertheless,  continued  to  combine  those 
qualities  with  perfect  loyalty  to  his  master.     He  was  by  no  means 


BARTHfiLBMY  SAINT-HTLAIRB, 

FRENCH  STATESMAN  AND  LITTERATEUR. 


NECROLOGY. 


1017 


blind  to  the  defects  of  the  Turkish  administration  in  general  and  of 
Abdul  Hamid's  centralized  system  of  palace  rule  in  particular,  but  he 
would  never  allow  a  word  of  disparagement  of  his  adopted  country  or 
of  the  sultan  to  be  uttered  in  his  presence. 

Saint-Hilaire,  Jules  Barthelemy,  French  litterateur  and 
statesman;  born  in  Paris  Aug.  19,  1805;  died  there  Nov.  25.  In  1825 
he  received  an  appointment  in  the  ministry  of  finance,  but  wrote  very 
freely  in  the  newspapers  from  1826  to  1830.  After  the  revolution  of 
1830  he  founded  the  Bon  Seiis,  and  as  a  liberal  took  an  active  part  in 
politics.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  tutor  and  ex- 
aminer in  French  litera- 
ture at  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  about  this 
time  undertook  a  com- 
plete translation  of  Aris- 
totle, a  work  which  was 
completed  in  1892,  after 
about  sixty  years'  labor. 
He  was  appointed,  in  1838, 
to  the  chair  of  Greek  and 
Latin  philosophy  in  the 
College  of  France,  and  in 
1839  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  the  Moral 
and  Political  Sciences. 
The  revolution  of  1848 
threw  him  again  into  poli- 
tics, and  he  was  elected  to 
the  constituent  assembly 
as  a  moderate  and  an  anti- 
socialist.  He  did  not  op- 
pose the  candidature  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  After 
the  coup  d'etat  of  De- 
cember, 1852,  however, 
and  the  overthrow  of  the 
parliamentary  system,  he 
resigned  his  chair  at  tbe 
College  of  France  rather 
than  swear  fidelity  to  the 
empire.  He  returned  to  his  literary  and  Oriental  studies,  and  after 
ten  years  was  reinstated  in  his  professorship.  He  had  spent  a  good 
deal  of  the  intervening  time  in  independent  research  and  in  a  journey 
to  Egypt  with  M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  to  explore  the  isthmus  of 
Suez.  _  In  1860  he  published  Buddha  and  His  Religion;  in  1865  Ma- 
homet'and  the  Koran,  and  in  1866  Philosophy  of  the  Two  Amperes. 

In  1869  he  was  returned  to  the  Cor2'>s  Legislatif.  He  voted  with 
the  extreme  left.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  he  remained  in  the  cap- 
ital, which  he  quitted  after  the  armistice,  in  order  to  take  his  seat  in 
the  national  assembly  at  Bordeaux.  He  joined  with  Grevy,  Dufaure, 
Leon  de  Malleville,  and  Vitet,  in  proposing  that  M.  Thiers  should  be 
appointed  chief  of  the  executive  power.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee of  fifteen  who  were  named  to  assist  the  government  in  con- 
ducting negotiations  for  peace  with  Prussia.  Under  M.  Thiers  he 
acted  as  secretary-general.  He  joined  the  republican  minority  in 
the  senate  when  he  was  elected  a  life  senator  in  Dec,  1875. 


GEORGE  AUGUSTUS  8ALA, 
BRITISH  JOURNALIST  AND  AUTHOR. 


1018 


NECROLOGY. 


4th  Qr.,  1895. 


In  1880,  under  M.  Jules  Ferry,  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of  for- 
eign affairs. 

On  the  accession  to  power  of  Gambetta  in  1881,  M.  Saint-Hilair^ 
again  applied  himself  to  his  studies.  He  found  occupation  as  literary 
executor  to  M.  Victor  Cousin  and  M,  Thiers.  Early  in  1895  he  pub- 
lished a  masterly  work  in  three  volumes  on  Victor  Cousin,  in  which 
he  showed  himself,  in  spite  of  his  89  years,  a  powerful  controversial- 
ist. This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  defense  of  his  old  friend 
Thiers,  of  whom  he  was  a  stanch  and  eloquent  apologist.     He  was 

the  author  of  numerous 
other  original  works  be- 
sides the  important  trans- 
lation of  Aristotle  already 
mentioned. 
^^^^^p^l^^^  Sala,  George  A  uGus- 

JBjl^uUmg^^^  Tus,  journalist  and  author, 

flpSmH^H^^  for  over  forty  years  known 

^^Bj^^^k  as  the  doyen  of  British 

"I^^^^H  journalism;  born  in  Lon- 

^^^B  don  in  1828;  died  at  Brigh- 

^^HH  ^^^  Dec.  8.     It  was  as 

B^^ifll^^       i^B*^^  special    correspondent   of 

f  ^^^       ^%    ]  the  London  Daily  Tele- 

f  M  ffff^pf''}  signing   himself 

1^^^  .    ^  "G.  A.  S.,"  that  he  was 

^^Bjjfe^  ar  ^^^^  known.     He  was  a 

^^^^■p^  W  contributor  to  Household 

Woi'ds  and  Welcome  Guest, 
founder  and  first  editor  of 
Temple  Bar  Magazine,  for 
which  he  wrote  the  stories 
of  "The  Seven  Sons  of 
Mammon"  and  "Captain 
Dangerous; "  wrote  for  the 
Illustrated  London  News, 
the  Hogarth  papers  in 
Gornhill  Magazine,  and  a 
story  entitled  "Quite 
Alone"  for  All  the  Tea'. 
Round.  In  1863  he  visit 
ed  the  United  States  as 
special  correspondent  ior  the  Daily  Telegraph,  and  at  the  close  of  1864 
published  America  in  the  Midst  of  War.  He  visited  Algeria  and  Morocco 
in  1864  and  again  in  1875.  He  represented  the  Daily  Telegraph  in 
France  during  the  war  with  Germany,  and,  after  the  fall  of  the  em- 
pire, visited  Italy  to  record  the  entry  of  the  Italian  army  into  Rome. 
In  January,  1875,  he  visited  Spain  on  occasion  of  the  entry  of  Alfonso 
XII. ;  and,  later,  described  the  fetes  attending  the  interview  of  Em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  and  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  publishing  his  im- 
pressions under  the  title  Two  Kings  and  a  Kaiser.  In  1876  he  visited 
Russia,  witnessed  the  mobilization  of  the  army,  and  traversed  the 
length  of  the  empire,  finally  reaching  Constantinople,  by  way  of  the 
Black  sea,  in  time  for  the  opening  of  the  conference  on  the  Eastern 
question.  His  other  best  known  works  are:  How  I  Tamed  Mrs. 
Cruiser  (1850);  Twice  Round  the  Clock  and  Journey  Due  North:  a 
Residence  in  Russia  (1859);  The  Baddmgton  Peerage,  Looking  at  Life, 


COUNT  TAAFFE, 
LATK  EX-PRIME  MINISTER  OP  AUSTRIA. 


NECROLOGY.  1019 

and  Make  Your  Game:  a  Narrative  of  the  Rhine  (1860);  Dutch  Pic- 
tures, with  some  Sketches  iii  the  Flemish  Manner  (1861);  Accepted  Ad- 
dresses, Ship  Chandler,  and  Other  IMes,  and  2' wo  Prima  Donnas  and 
the  Dumb  Poor  Porter  (1862);  Breakfast  in  Bed  (1863);  After  Break- 
fast (1864);  Trip  to  Barhary  hy  a  Roundabout  Route  (1865);  From 
Waterloo  to  the  Peninsula  (1866);  Rome  and  Venice  and  Wat  Tyler, 
M.  P.:  a  Burlesque  (1869);  Under  the  Sun  (1872);  Paris  Herself 
Again  and  America  Revisited  (1882);  A  Journey  Due  South  and  2'he 
Land  of  the  Oolden  Fleece  (1885).  He  started  a  weekly  called  Said's 
Journal  in  1892;  but  it  was  a  financial  failure. 

Stepniak,  Sergius,  Russian  refugee  and  author;  born  at  Had- 
jatsch,  in  the  Ukraine  mountains,  in  the  government  of  Poltawa,  in 
1841;  accidentally  killed  by  a  railway  train  at  a  crossing  near  Chis- 
wick,  Eng.,  Dec.  23.  He  studied  at  Kieff  from  1859  to  1863.  In  that 
time  he  published  several  works  in  the  Little  Russian  dialect,  which 
were  prohibited  by  the  government  in  1862.  In  1865  he  became  in- 
structor in  ancient  history  in  the  University  of  KiefF;  and  in  1870  be- 
came a  professor,  but  was  removed  from  his  chair  by  the  government 
three  years  later.  His  criticisms  on  the  system  pursued  by  Count 
Tolstoi',  one  of  the  ministers  of  justice,  led  to  his  exile  in  1876.  He 
went  to  Geneva.  In  1877  he  began  a  series  of  reviews  in  the  Ukraine 
dialect,  called  "Hromada"  ("common  things").  At  the  same  time 
he  worked  hard  for  the  establishment  of  equal  political  rights  for  all 
people  in  Russia,  and  declared  against  socialism  as  well  as  absolutism. 
Some  of  the  principal  works  which  Stepniak  produced  are  The  Turks, 
Within  and  Without;  Tyrannicide  in  Russia;  and  Little  Russian  In- 
ternationalism, He  also  contributed  to  the  magazines  some  papers 
on  East  European  Peoples  and  the  Propaganda  of  Socialism  and  His- 
toHcal  Poland  and  the  Muscovite  Democracy.  He  is  also  known  for 
his  works  on  the  ethnography,  history,  and  literature  of  Little  Russia; 
and,  with  M.  Antonowitch,  edited  a  collection  of  Little  Russian  folk- 
songs. 

Taaffe,  Count  Edward,  ex- prime  minister  of  Austria;  born  in 
Vienna  in  1833;  died  on  his  estate  at  Elischau,  in  Bohemia,  Nov.  29. 
He  was  of  Irish  origin,  retaining  the  family  titles  of  Viscount  Corren 
and  Baron  Ballymote,  which  were  first  bestowed  upon  his  ancestor 
Sir  John  Taaffe  in  1628.  Throughout  its  history  the  family  remained 
devoted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  and  loyal  to  the  Stuart  cause. 
In  1852  Count  Edward  entered  the  civil  service,  and  obtained  rapid 
promotion.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  governor  of 
Bohemia  and  chief  of  the  provincial  court  at  Prague.  Two  years 
later  he  became  governor  of  Salzburg,  and  in  1867  was  made  Stadt- 
halter  of  Upper  Austria.  Shortly  afterward  Count  Taaffe  entered 
Beust's  ministry  as  minister  of  the  interior.  Then  the  so-called 
"Bourgeois  ministry"  came  into  office,  and  Count  Taaffe  was  made 
minister  of  national  defense.  After  the  resignation  of  the  premier. 
Prince  Charles  Auersberg,  Count  Taaffe  provisionally  undertook  the 
presidency  of  the  cabinet.  Then  came  a  split  in  the  cabinet,  and  he 
found  himself  one  of  the  minority  who  were  in  favor  of  electoral  re- 
form. Both  sides  published  their  views,  and  the  ministers  tendered 
their  resignations.  Those  of  the  minority  were  accepted,  but  the  cab- 
inet that  followed  did  not  last  long,  and  Count  Taaffe  came  back  to 
office  in  the  Potocki  cabinet  as  minister  of  the  home  office.  Then 
for  eight  years  he  was  governor  of  the  Tyrol.  In  1879  he  was  again 
head  of  the  home  office,  under  the  premiership  of  Von  Stremayr.  On 
the  resignation  of  the  latter.  Count  Taaffe  became  premier,  and  in 


1020  NECROLOGY.  4th  Qr.,  1895. 

addition  held  the  portfolio  of  the  interior.  He  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  Austrian  cabinet  until  Oct.  30,  1893  (Vol.  3,  p.  819).  His  pol- 
icy was  to  endeavor  to  establish  concord  among  the  various  races 
composing  the  Austrian  empire.  The  cause  of  his  fall  in  1893  was 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  deal  with  the  burning  question  of  the 
franchise. 

Count  TaafEe  was  a  Knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  received 
many  other  marks  of  imperial  favor.  He  is  succeeded  in  his  Austrian 
and  Irish  honors  by  his  only  son  Henry,  born  in  1872. 

Thedtm,  Senhor  Augusto  de  Sequeira,  Portuguese  minister 
to  the  United  States;  born  in  1857;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Nov. 
21.  He  had  previously  been  secretary  of  legation  at  Madrid  and 
Rome. 

Waterford,  Marquis  of  (John  Henry  De  la  Poer  Beresford, 
P.  C,  K.  P.),  formerly  conservative  M.  P.  for  Waterford,  and  at  one 
time  master  of  the  buckhounds;  born  in  London,  Eng.,  in  1844;  died 
by  suicide  Oct.  23.  He  was  invalided  in  1885  by  a  fall  from  his 
horse. 


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