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i 




(OJiraRIl l.N THE IS ei.UOBN0B SUANOU, (iUAETHR- 
MASTEB-fiBSKUAM DBPARTMENT, 

noBSK GUARns. 



tJAPTAIN A. R. SAVILE, 







-'t^ ^=^ 



LONOOW; 

iA.><t»i,IS, (%i>ritmDroM) IljliltliOXAMa^l^en, Pull »iU| 
.■«i (;», 13, Wsltriio PImmi W>MiTcnrLL, Ctinniif Cnai 
Co., hUvriiiiitHr Rii*! Iii!iK)igBft<<a,&7 A.I'rir, LnlVlaOiUi 

Mtahy Qmna ftCai'Ili* Unnl, l'»TU(«i 
A. ACDmiib, CiNnliur^hi 
>H;AblMiy StrMtjMiil'C^i'oxXHaT, (jratUiii KtrcM, PubUsi 
ISW. 

/'w IVc BkUtingi and SiijMrtw. 




LIBRARY OF THE 
PRUDENTIAL INS. CO. or AMERICA 

NEWARK, N. J. 
aT«TISTICtAN'« OErARTMCNT 

Seetin „ 

Sukjtct - -, 

DaWKiid. 

AcimvjUJgtd 



HARVARD COLLEGE 
LIBRARY 




TRANSFERRED 

FKUU Tiie 

GRADUATE SCHOOL 
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION 



CYPEUS. 



OOMPILEn IN TnB INTELLIOENCE BKANOH, qTTAETEO- 

MASTER-QBNERAL'S DEPARTMENT, 

H08SE OUARDS. 



(JAPTAIN A. R. SAVILE, 

18(A, Tkt Hn>/al h-ith Regiment. 




LONDON: 
Pnnlfd tinder the Sipei-iatta^ncf nf Htr Sfajttti/'t Slaliontiy Offlet, 

AND SOLD BT 

W. Cloiteb ft Sons, 1», Clinnnz Ctofs ; lIiRRiEOH k SoRB, G9, Fall M>U i 

W. H. AtLRif ft Co., 13, Wfilciloo rincpi W. Mitchrll, Cbaiing OroM; 

LoHOMjkN ft Co., rnlcrnoitor Butr ; TnniiNER ft Co., 67 ft 69, Liulgste Uill ) 

Stahfobp, Charing Crow; nml C. Kroah VkVh ft Co., 1, PatenMtter Bqium : 

Aleo bj aiiiFFiN A Co., Hie Unnl, Fori«> i 

A. ft C. nutcK, Edinbiircli i 

Alrx. Thom, Abbp; Street, and E. PoHiiovBr, OraftoD Btnet, Dublin. 

1878. 

J'n'ce ISm ShiVingt and Shi'encf, 



Mq 11^^ ■''^ 




RARVAKU CULLhbt LILNAUt 
y^ lECEIVEO THROUGH THE 

6RA0UATE SCHOOL 0F4 
IUS1NES8 ADMINISTRATIUM 

1^33 






PREFACE. 



The sulrject of tlie firat clinnLer of this book, viz., the Histoiy of 
(Jypnis, is one upon which many vohimes might be wiitten, for 
few conntries have a longer or more varied history ; it has there- 
fore been impossible to give more than a mere sketch of the 
numerous dyna<^ties which have succeeded one another in the 
island, and to i-elate the most import^mt liistorical events. Stress 
has boon laid upon the incidents which occun'ed at the end of tlie 
twelfth centmy leading to the conquest of Cyprus by Eichard 
Cceur dc Lion, its sale to the Templars, and subsequent transfer to 
the Lfisignan fann'ly, for this period in the histoiy of the island is 
of R)M»cial inlxm»st Ui English ix»4ulei'S. The process by which 
Cyprus was annexed three Inmdred years later by the Venetian 
Ilepublic is explained in detail, nnd the events of the invasion by 
the Turks, and their subjugation of the island in 1570-71 arc 
also related, Tnfonnation concerning the ancient history has been 
chiefly gathered fmni the works of llawlinson, Smith, Di Cesnola, 
and Knight. M. De Mas Latrie's " Histoii-e de L'lle de Cliypre," 
is a most valuable work ; it contains minute information concerning 
the events of the Lusignan dynasty, and touches also upon the 
Venetian rule ; this history has Ixjen of great assistance to the 
compiler of this book. The particulara of the conquest of Cyprus 
hy the Turks are contained in the Histories of the Ottoman 
Empire, by KnoUes and Von Hanmer ; both these authoi-s enter 
into the subject in full detail. Additional historical infoimation 
has been derived from various sources; a complete list of the 
authoi-s antl their works from which extracts have been taken, will 
be found at tlie end of this book. 

The four descriptive chaptei-s, II to V, aixj comjuled from the 
Writings of travellei^ in C'yjniis, and from all other available 
s»)ui*cc.s ; the island is now daily becoming better known, and when 
it has been complet<)ly and accurately surveyed and examined, it is 
not unlikely that errors will be foimd in both the reports and the 
(774) a 2 



PREFAOS. 

maps now in existence ; in order that such discrepancies may be 
corrected and new matter added, some copies of this portion of 
the book are interleaved. 

The observations upon the climate of Cyprus, a subject of the 
deepest interest and importance, are supplemented by very valuable 
information and statistics which have been kindly supplied by the 
Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, A. Buchan, Esq., 
whose remarks, contained in Chapter YI, with regard to the 
atmospheric conditions affecting the healthiness of the island, ai'e 
highly important. 

The geological description is chiefly deiived from the works of 
Albert Gaudry, Dr. linger, and Dr. Kotschy, but the thanks of the 
compiler are also due to Professor Bupeit Jones, who kindly gave 
most valuable assistance in clearing up ambiguous points, and 
reconciling apparently conflicting statements in the works of the 
above authors. 

The chapters upon Natural History, Agi'iculturo, Tnide, and 
Bevenue, have been compiled not only from the writings of 
traveller, but, in a very great nieasuix3, from tlie Reports annually 
furnished by Her Majesty's Consuls. The General and Statistic 
Report of Vice-Consul White, dated March 1863, is a most valu- 
able paper, and has been largely used in this compilation. The 
consular reports indicate in the clearast possible nuiinier the 
vaiious causes which, under the Turkish administration, have year 
by year influenced the harvests, trade, revenue, and the general 
prosperity of the island ; the infoimation given on these subjects 
cannot but be of value to all who ai*e interested or concerned 
in the future welfare of Cyprus. 



A. li. S. 



Adair House, Pall Mall, 
3Ui August, 1878. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 



HISTORY OF CYPBUS.— page 

Ancient names of Cjprus — The first colonists — Phoenicians and Q-reeks — 
Kingdoms and totrns — Cjprus subject to Assjrrio — Under Egyptian 
rule — Surrender to Persia — Pearo of Anfitlcidas — Civil wars— Sur- 
render to Greece — T)ie Ptolemaic dynasty — Cyprus becomes a Roman 
pporinco — Introduction of Cliristianity — Jewish insurrection — Cyprus 
included in the Byzantine Empire — Temporary conquest by the San- 
cens— Richard I of England lands in Cyprus -Subjugation of the 
island — Cyprus sold to the Templars — Transferred to Guy de Lusig- 
nan — The Lusienan dynasty — The Cornaro family — Annexation of 
Cyprus by the Venetian Republic — Cyprus under Venetian rule — 
InTBsion by the Turks— Sicgo and capture of Nicosia and Fama- 
gust* —Cyprus falls under Turkish rule -Turkish mi^government — 
Transfer of the island t<i Circnt Urihiin— The nmToiifion of Defen- 
sive Alliance —Objects of the British occupation -The British 
garrison — Summary of the dates of the chief erenta in the history 
of Cyprus •• .. .. .. .. *. .. •• .. 5—32 



CHAPTER II. 



GEOGRAPnY AND TOPOGRAPHY.— 

Situation — Extent and shape — Capes — Gulfs and bays — ^Roadsteads and 
harbours — Towns and Tillages — Mountains — Rivers — Springs- 



Lakes — Plains 



83-8J 



CHAPTER III. 



TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND ANTIQUITIES.— 

Description of Nicosia — Famagusta and Varoschia — Lamaca — Limasol — 
Baffo and Ktima — Cerinca — Morpho — Euklia — Dali — Brrikou — 
Number of towns and Tillages — Antiquities — Ancient cities — Classi- 
fication of antiquities — Inscriptions—Statues — Terra-cottas — Works 
in metal — Coins — Glass — Architecture — Value of the discoTeries in 
r "CCypnis 



40-53 



CHAPTER IV. 

COMBOJNICATIONS : INLAND, MARITIME, AND TELEGRAPHIC— 

Inland communications — Character of the roads — Lamaca to Nicosia — 
Famagusta to Lamaca — Nicosia to Ccrinea — Nicosia to Famagusta-^ 
Lamaca to Limasol — Limasol to Baffo— Marituno oommunicationa— 
Postal arrangemento — Telegraphic communications . . . . • . 64-64 

(774) A 



CONTENTS. 



CHAl^Eli V. 

COAST, HARBOUBS, &o.— pias 

Famaguflta Harbour — The coast botireen Famagueta and Lamaca — Lar* 
naca Boad — The coast between Lamaca and Limasol — Limasol ancho- 
rage — ^The coast between Limasol and Baifo — Baffo — The west 
coast — Khrjsokho Bay — Morpho Bay — Cerinea — The north coast — 
Cape St. Andrea to Famagusta — Summary of remarks upon the coast. 65-70 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE CLIMATE OF CYPRUS.— 

Accurate knowledge of the climate is important — Table of tho observa- 
tions of the Scottish Meteorological Society — Temperature — Rainfall — 
Barometer — Winds— General conclusions — Yariability of climate in 
different parts of the island — Local insanitary conditions — Malaria 
from the marshes — Periodical droughts — Disastrous effects of droughts 
— ^Water supply-;— Defectiyo drainage — Conclusiona . . . . . . 71-81 



CHAPTER VIL 

NATURAL HISTORY.— 

Domestic animals — Horses — Camels — Mules — Asses — Oxen — Slieep and 
goats — Trade in wool — Pigs— Poultry — ^Wild animals — Game — Binls 
of prey — Reptiles and insects — Asps— Snakes — Spiders— Locusts — 
Bayaffes by locusts — Measures taken to destroy locusts — Bees — ^Woods 
and roresto — Destruction of forests in Cyprus — Means suggested for 
the restoration of the forests — Trees suitable to the climate and soil 
— Existing forest trees — Tlio fruits of Cyprus — ^Vegetables — Colo- 
cynth— Sumac — Sugar cane — Coffee — The Flora of C^^prus . . . . 82- OG 



CHAPTER VIII. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS — 

The stato of agriculture of Cyprus — Value of different kinds of land — 
Irrigation — Proportion of cultivated land — Means of improving tho 
system of agriculture — Growth, culture, and quantities of the agri- 
cultural pr^ucts — ^Wlieot — Barley — Grain crops — Cotton — M^adder 
roots — Silk — Wine — Locust beans — Tobacco .. .. .. .. 97-111 



CHAPTER IX. 

OEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.^ 

Geological aspect of Cyprus— Chronological order of the geological for- 
mations which occur in the island — The compact limestone — The 
sandstones — The wliito marl, chalky limestone, and gypsum — ^The 
plutonic and igneous rocks — Tho coarse limestone, sand, and mnrl 
— Sands and conglomurutos — General conclusions — The niotuls 
— Gold — Silver and lead — Copper — Zinc — Iron — Manganetfo — 
Building materials — Limestones and sandstones — Gypsum- Ornuniou- 
tal stones — Rock-crystal — Jasper — Agato — Opal — Anulciine — Erne- 
raid — Morion — Mineral substances employed in the arts and industries 
— Clay and marl — Potteries — Umber — Green earili — Coppcruj* — 
Asbestos — Emery — Alum — Soda — Cool — Salt — Theories regunling the 
formation of the salt lakes — Reyenue derived from the exportation of 
salt •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• llS'lZo 



CONTENTS. 



CHArTEll X. 

POPULATION, INHABITANTS, CHARACTEB, LANGUAaS, BB- 

LIGION, AND EDUCATION.— Piai 

The populntion of Cjpnu, past and present — ^Nationalities of the inha- 
bitants — Their character — Customs — Superstitions — Personal appear- 
ance— Languoffe—Beligion—Earljr forms of worship— Christianitj 
ntroduced — Mahomedans — Linobamboki — ^Armenians — Maronites — 
Patron saints — Education . . 126-182 



CHAPTER XL 

INTEBNAL ADMINISTBATION: CIVIL, BCCLBSIASTIOAL, 
AND MILITABY.— 

Civil Administration — Subdirision of the island foradmininistrative pur- 
poses — The judicial courts — Condition of Christians in Cjprus under 
the Turkish rule — Commercial lav — Criminal code — Secular law — 
Land tenure — The police force — Order in Council proriding for the 
administration of the gOTommout in Cyprus under British rule — ^Ecdes- 
iastical administration — Independence of the Greek Church — ^The 
Chuit;h of England— Military force 188-148 



CHAPTER XIL 

MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRY.— 

Maniifwliircs Printing; (tilicoos —Morocco leather — Silks — Embroideries 
— Cotton, woollen, and linen stuffs — Soap — Pottery — Distilleries — 
Consular report upon tlio industries of Cyprus in 1877— -Sponge fisheries 
— Prcwnt industrial condition of Cyprus — Consular report upon the 
industrial classes in 1872— Art — Literature 144-147 



CHAPTER XIII. 

TRADE AND BEYENUE.— 

Trade — Pamlrsing effects of Turkish rule — Statistics of the direct trade 
between Urcat Britain and Cyprus — Statistics of exports from Lar- 
nara and Limosol — Statistics of imports at Lamaca and Limasol — 
Nationality of ressels trading with Cyprus — Berenue — ^Taxation 
hitherto excessire and inappropriate — Sources of reTenue — Estimates 
of rerenue by Consul White, Herr Yon L5her, and Consul Lang— 
The tithe tax — Tax on wine — Tobacco tax — Tithe on cotton — The 
salt monopoly — Personal tax — The cost of the Turkish goTemment. . 148-168 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CUBRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASUBES, AUTH0BITIE8, AND 
CARTOGRAPHY.— 

Currency — The new regulations of 1863 — Consequent depredation of 
property — Coinoge— Weights and measures — Prices of articles of 
tood — House rent — Fuel and forage — Fairs — List of authorities upon 
Cyprus— The Cartography of Cyprus 169-106 

INDEX 167-170 



(774) A S 



CHAPTEB I. 



H18TORT OF Ctprus. 



Therb is perhaps no place which has been called bv so many YarioiiftiaiiiM 
different names as Cyprus; in ancient times we find it called oftheUand. 
Gerastis in allusion to its numerous promontories ; Sphecia, from 
its ancient inhabitants, the Spheces ; Collinia, from its many hills ; 
.£rosa, from its mines of copper ; Macaria, from its excellent situa- 
tion and rich products, and various other more or less poetic 
appellations. 

Through its Greek population the island received the name of 
KyproB, a title which is believed to be derived from the Hebrew 
Kopher (Henna — Lawsonia alha)^ a plant found there in great 
abundance, and from which various highly prized oils and salves 
were produced. 

This origin of the present name of the island is generally 
accepted, thoush some authorities have endeavoured to trace the 
word to the Koman cyprum, or cuprum, copper; to the Greek 
eryptos, hidden ; and it has even been suggested that the island 
was called Cyprus from the cypress-tree ; but this opinion is not 
supported by anything beyond the similarity in the names. 

The earliest notice we have of the inhabitants of Cyprus is de- ^•'^^ ■ettlart. 
rived from Josephus, who clearly identifies the island with the 
Chittim of the Old Testament, the place in which the descendants 
of Slittim, son of Javan, son of Japhet, settled and founded the 
ancient Citium. This race appears to have held the island, or a 
portion of it, down to the time of Solomon. Btyant intimates that 
the Cuthites were also amongst the first settlers in Cyprus. 

In these early aires the Phoenicians, belomzinff to the rising Colonlnbcm 
kingdom of Tyte. w^ the great traders of the fie£teiianean. ml ^J^^*^ 
from Eratosthenes we learn that about the year B.o. 1045, this 
people established settlements in Cyprus. The history of the 
island at tliis period is, however, so involved in an accumulation of 
legends which have gathered round and obscured the original facts, 
ilmt no precise information regarding the colonization by the 
Phoenicians can be procured. It appears that the early settlers 
maintained from the first a connection with the mother country, 
and in the time of Hiram, Eling of Tyre, about B.0. 1,000, we find 
them revolting against the tribute levied by that sovereign. This 
revolt was suppressed, and it appears that for a long subsequent 
period the island continued to be tributarv to Tyre. 

Equally uncertain is the history of the Greek colonies which QnA 
are found to have been formed after those of the Phcenioiahfl, and <»l<nuM. 



ba( little b acfinntely known of the reladona between the two 
racea, bat it Beema probable that the Oreeka gradually established 
a political snpremacy, whilst the PhceniciaDa continued to form an 
important part of the population, and exercised considerable influ- 
enee over the manners and customa, arts, and religious rites of the 
inhabitants in general, and, in fact, although the umguages of the 
two races remaued distinct, it would seem that their religions be- 
came hj d^rees entirely amalgamated The Phcenicians had in- 
troduced the worship of the goddess Ashtaroth, whose temple at 
Faphos was founded, according to tradition, inimitation of a temple 
of the Tniaa goddess Astarte at ^Qcalun; this worship was 
uniTersally accepted by the Greeks in the island, and the goddess 
yM id^nt^i^ hr them with their own Aphrodite. 

Xt>B plv^ciaDS settled cbiefiy on the south coast at the mo«lb 
(;99Yepieiit( pointy (91 trade, and their cbief towns were Paphoa, 
4m|hit«, ftit4 Citium. Salamis wft? the most important q{ tbe 
Qxw)l tomm J Soli 4n4 Eythrtea were founded by the Atheniiw^j 
LaQQ^uB, Cerinea, Nea Papbos, and <iKilgoi am fuso said t^ hAT^ 
all ovf ed their origin to Qreek colonists. 

, M TeSffl?* W9 evly mQparchical institution* of Cyprus, it Is 
^VQ ti\^,\ bQth .^Wtotle and Tfieppbr^tus wrote on ttiat svipjqo^ 
^t, (Ji^ «lgfi^ writmBi b»v9 been lost, m)4 only a veij few foctg 
rwpsin- -AwKfPiwa t*» StwJw, the inland wm divjqed into ten petty 
kingdome, which were sometiines at war with, and sopietiHies aUiea 
ta» Hrt Wi^jbt^uring wtwers of Greece and A^ Minor. The king- 
40919 W^ ^ajiiwis, Soli, Chytri, Curiuffli I^peUius, Cerinea, ^ea 
j^pjwa, JiJarium, Citium, mi Apiftthus ; the twQ latter alone appew 
to fia.y6 baeq wider Phoenician rule- 

Ttte fin^ of the kings mentioned in history is Cinyras, of whose 
reign variqiis events arq related hy Homer, but these are much 
mixed up with legends. 

It WDu)d Wpe^f that the kings of Salamis were generally tbfl 
Ptpqt pQWeifuli ^nd (it tiin^ ^ven (he whole island was subdued by 
tfeen*., 

Iq (h^ge ancient day^ a great portion of tb^ commerce between 

ilie east aod tlie \^ . m, lentred in Qmw ; the i9lftn4 then possessed 
good seapoisle ^viili ' "ivenient hatiKmrfi, forcflt^ of treeq 6ntte,blp fer 
(l^Pfbyil^ing, iiiiJK-.-. ubich were prodwclJve of g^eat wealth, and 

(ifl eii,trwo«lj ft>rM!c stU ; qongeqifently riches poured in, and th« 

ivipbjtols l^^caw^ noKwi^iM for Inxu^y ajjd plewure. 

To foUc-w ttie l|iptory pf Cyprus 4nring thes» tiwes would be 4 
liiftjCHlt k^.Tl;, f(-- t!y :?ftr^bHt,few poaitJYe fscts Ui guide up, and 
tai^ii, ; ' cajft 1?« rel4l«4 but » Mrie« of uncoDUBcted 

(j^iViiW, ■- ^'iiv - - 'kp i^ftod. was cowiuered by Tbothmes m 
»p4 Wcap« ^uhjept to Egypt : aftftrwar49 most of its cities vew 

d«tr9yed ^ Bslu^i, Kwg of Troy ; in ^.q. 707 we rend that seven 
('t; the Cypnote wpn»TChp ^nt pseaents, or tnlji^te, tp Saigon, King 
tj; +Bay^^ft, thu* iippjyipg subjecticat. . This tribute ia sw4 to haye 
fQmieted qf gold, silw, vsAes, logj* of ebony, aud various nianufa«r 

tiii-ea of the island. Tb& eViYoys re^wvcd^ an4 csjrried Vtwk. W 
fl\i4Qnt token of subjection, iu an e£^ qf S^rgon, which waq set 
Dp m JA^vm, wh^re it wafl di«over«d, and 19 no^ in the Berlin 



BISTORT OF CTPRU8. 7 

Museum. This setting tip of the image of a kiiiff was theti always 
a sign that he had conquered the conniry, nevertnelesss, iti B.O. 686; 
it is believed that the kings assisted the Cilicians in their struggle 
against Sennacherib, fearing lest the occupation of CiliGia by Ui^ 
Assyrians might endanger their own island. 

Again, we read that about B.o. 675, the King of Cyprus fbmished 
Esathaddon, King of Assyria, with materials —great beams of wood, 
statues, and various works in metal — for the construction of hitf 
palace at Nineveh. 

In B.G. 594, Apries, or Uaphris, King of Egypt (the Pharaolt 
Hophra of Scripture) defeated several Cypriote monarchs lieair 
Citium, and returned to his country laden with spoiL 

In B.G. 659, Cyrus subdued the island, but left the kings in 
their respective dominions, on condition that they should pay tri- 
bute to him. A few years later, however Tabout B.0. 660), it appears 
that Amasis, King of Egypt, again brougnt the island undet the 
'EgyptiBLn rule, but during the reign of PsatnmeticuSi his son and 
successor, this yoke was thrown off, and in B.o. 625 the island Sariender to 
surrendered to Persia, joining heartily with King Cambyses in the ^•"**- 
war against Egypt, and becoming thenceforth a tributary protinee 
of the Persian Empire. 

When Darius became King of Persia, and foimded the satrapies, 
Cyprus was included with Phoenicia and Palestine in the fifth 
province. Peace was, however, never thoroughly established ; in Fi^uent 
the time of Aristagorns of Miletus, a rebellion broke out, which ^^ mmuno 
took the Persians a year to suppress ; again, during the Ionian re- * 
Tolt, B.C. 499-500, the whole island, except Amathus, rose in arms» 
and led by Onesilus, brother of Qorgus, King of Salamis, besieged 
Amathus ; after several attacks, in one of which both OnesifuSi 
and Aristocyprus, King of Soli, were slain, this rebellion weA 
crushed. 

In B.C. 477, the Athenians and Lacedemonians under Pausaniad 
conquered part of Cyprus, and some years later Cimon atrived with 
a large fleet to capture the remainder of the island, but he died 
whilst besieging Citium, and all the conquests were then abandoned. 

During the subsequent wars of the nfbh centuty before our era, 
C]rprus was frequently the scene of hostilities between the Persians 
and Greeks ; attempts to secure a lasting peace were frequently 
made but always failed, until at last the peace of Antalcidas was* Peace of 
concluded in B.C. 387, and Cyprus was thereby formally relinquish^ Antalcida*. 
to Persia ; the actual possession of the island was, however, not 
easily to be obtained ; Evagoras, King of Salamis, had for some timd 
been in a state of revolt; he was assisted by the Athenians, by 
Achoris, independent King of Egypt, and by Hecatomnus, vassal 
Kin^ of Caria; notwithstanding the peace, Evagoras continued 
hostilities, and at last Artaxerxes, wishing to crush this trouble- 
some rebellion, sent no less than 300 vessels, bearing a large armjr 
under command of Tiribazas, to Cyprus. Evagoras ventured M 
attack this fleeti but was utterly defeated, and his tribune^ Wer6 
dispersed. A struggle was still continued in order to obtaih good 
terms of peace, and it was not until about B.c. 379 that Ev^oraft 
was finally subdued. He was, strange to say, even then allowed td 



9 cypBUB. 

retain biif kingdom with the single obligation of paying an annual 
(iribute to King Artaxerzes of Peisia. 

About B.O. ^50, the Cypriote kin^ revolted against the rule of 

th^ cruel and sanguinary Ochus, Kme of Persia^ and nine of the 

king9 assumed independent sovereignties, each in his own principal 

town ; thi^ rebellion was crushed by Ickicus, Prince of Caria. 

Cyprus then remained quietly subject to Persia for a few years. 

The Pn^riote j^ut afte? the battle of Issus, B.C. 333, Alexander the Great 

Kingt dedm advanced into Phoenicia and besieged Tyre ; the Cypriote Kin^ 

!li£iA^rtiie ^^®^ declared in his favour, and sent a fleet of 120 vessels to jom 

Gz«at. ^6 Macedonian fleet off that city. 

On the partition of Alexander's dominions at his death, B.c. 
328, Cyprus fell to the share of Antigonus, but the importance 
and wealth of the island made its possession an object of contention 
amongst all Alexander's successors, so whilst Antigonus was at war 
with Cassander, Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, made a descent upon the 
island, and, in B.c. 305, forced the kings to submit to him. In 
B.O. 306, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, made an 
" attempt to recover the island ; he besieged Salamis both by sea 
and land, shutting up Ptolemy's brother, Menelaus, in the city. 
Ptolemy hastened to the relief with a large fleet, and a sea-flght, 
one of the most memorable of ancient history, ensued, in which 
iDemetrius achieved a complete victory, and the whole island 
subsequently fell into Ids hands. 
Ertobliibm^ni About ten years later, b.c. 295, Ptolemy retook Cyprus, and 
of the Ptdle- after this capture the island remained for nearly two and a half 
mftiodyiiMtj. centurics under the sceptre of the Ptolemies, who appear to have 
made it a store-house for their wealth, jewels, and plate. During 
this period Cyprus became one of the most valuable possessions of 
the Egyptian monarchs ; the timber of Olympus was largely used 
for the construction of ships, and the metallic and vegetable products 
also contributed greatly to the revenue. It is said that the island 
was now divided into four districts, viz., Paphos on the west, 
Amathus on the south, Lapethus on the noi*th, and Salamis on the 
east. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus founded the several cities in Cyprus 
which formerly bore the name of his wife, Arsinoe. Under the 
Lagid dynasty the government was under a viceroy who was chosen 
from amongst the highest nobles of the Alexandrian court, and to 
whom full powers were given. About the middle of the second 
century before our era, dissensions arose between the brothers 
Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes, and during their quarrel for 
the possession of Cyprus, Demetrius Soter, King of Syria, en- 
deavoured, but unsuccessfully, to make himself master of the 
island. 

Ptolemy Lathyrus was King of Egypt when, through the 
intrigues of Cleopatra, Alexander succeeded to that throne; 
Lathyrus then retired to Cyprus, and held the island as an in- 
dependent kingdom for 18 years, B.o. 107-89, during which time 
Cleopati-a and Alexander reigned in Egypt. We read that at this 
period an army of 30,000 men was raised in Cyprus to oppose 
Alexander Jannseus, King of Palestine, and the fact that so laige 



HISTORY OF CTPRUB. 9 

an army could be raised for foreign service shows that the popula- 
tion was then very laiga When Lathyrus was recalled by the 
Alexandrians to E^^pt, his younger brother Ptolemy Alexander, in 
the ho]3e of becoming master of the island, invaded it, but was 
defeated by Chiereas, and killed in the battle. 

While Ptolemy Auletes occupied the throne of Egypt, his 
brother, another Ptolemy, was Kmg of Cyprus ; during his reign 
Publius Clodius Pulcher, a Roman of mgh family, was taken 
prisoner by Cilician pirates in the waters of Cyprus, and it is 
said that an insufficient ransom was offered by Ptolemy, whose 
character for avarice was well known. Clodius was afterwards tJnjiiH deerM 
chosen Tribune, and being anxious to revenge himself upon the ^™« Boman 
King of Cyprus, obtained a decree from the Roman Senate to ™"***' 
dispossess Ptolemy, and to constitute his kingdom a province of 
Rome, the claim being pretended to be founded upon a will of 
Alexander, late King of Egypt, who made the Roman people his 
heirs. 

Marcus Cato was commanded to put this decree in force, and 
despite his objection to such an unwarrantable act of aggression and 
spoliation, he was compelled to obey. He sent his secretary, 
Candidius, to Cyprus to deliver the decree, to which Ptolemy 
submitted, and soon afterwards committed suicide (B.o. 68). Cato 
took possession of the island, also the immense treasures in the 
palace at Salamis, which amounted to 7,000 talents, and sent the 
money to Rome. Thus ended the Ptolemaic dynasty in Cyprus. 

From this time the island became a Roman province, and was Ojpmk Im* 
annexed to Cilicia under one pro-consul, but it had a queestor of ^•^ •-^ 
its own, and separate courts for the administration of justice. In ^^^ ' 
B.C. 47, Csesar gave the island to Arsinoe and Ptolemy, the sister 
and brother of Cleopatra, and Strabo tells us that Antony after- 
wards gave it to Cleopatra, but after the battle of Actium and the 
death of the Triumvir, Augustus Crosar revoked the gift, and at 
the division of the provinces between the empire and the senate in 
B.O. 27, it was constituted an imperial province ; five years later, 
however, it was given up by Augustus to the senate, and was 
from that time governed by propraetors, with the title of Pro- 
consul. 

In A.D. 45, the island was visited by Paul and Barnabas, and Chtirtaanity 
the pro-consul Sergius Paulus was converted. Cyprus was there- infcrodmjed. 
fore the first country governed by a Christian ruler. 

The next remarkable event in the history of the island was an Inflomefckm 
insurrection in A.D. 115, on the part of the Jews, who formed a ^ ***• J*''* 
very considerable portion of the population ; led by Arteminiiis, 
they massacred a vast number of Greeks, and it is said that before 
the suppression of the revolt by Lucius two years later, no less 
than a quarter of a million of the inhabitants were slain. By a 
decree of the Senate, the Jews were then expelled from the island, 
and for several centuries subsequently it is steted that any Jew 
found in Cyprus was instantly executed. 

Christianity now rapidly increased in the island, 13 bi8hot)rics ^]V?* ?*- 
were esteblished, and under Constantine this province became one ^^'"■''•*^*J' 
of the richest in the Roman Empire. 



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A frtite •ttempt of the csmel-dziTer Qalooenia to make hiiii^ 
mU ^iii^ of Qypnis in 4J>. 334, was frustzafced by Dalmatiua, 
wbo €t|^t<ii€d tbe ambitiaii^ 

^ In AJ>. S66$ 9t the dividon of the Bomaii Empiie, Cyprus, with 
the adjacent conntziea, natnzally passed under the Eastern or 
ByzantinoempoiQi^; it remained in their possession for about 
900 jeei9, fwd despite several attempts of the Arabs to conqiier it» 
9lijo70d oomparatiTe tranquiUitj. Daring this period the island 
YSS goremeo by a ** Considaris ** and the capital was tiansfiened 
^om P^hos to Balamis 

In AJ}. 648, the island was invaded by the Arabs under 
Hoayyah, a general of the CSaliph Othman, who destroyed Salamis, 
and gained temporary possession of the island, but two years later 
it was recovered by Uie Oreek Emperor. 

Again, about the year a.d. 802, daring the reign of the Oaliph 
Haroun-el'Bashid, Cyprus was conquer^ by the Saracens, and 
was this time held by them for about 160 years ; for not until 
4.P« 964 throagh the conquests of Nicepboros II, was it regained 
\iy the ^ysantine Einpirp. 

For some time afterwards tbe history of the island is without 
interest, but we find that its governors occasionally took 
sdvantage of the oft-recurring weakness *or necessities of the 
empiro to endeavour to make themselves independent, but these 
rerolta were never successfid, until in A.D. 1184, Isaac Comneuus, 
then Governor or "Duke" of Cypros, a nephew of the reigning 
Qreek Emperor Andronicus Comnenus, entirely threw off the yoke, 
estabUsbed himself as an independent sovereign, with the title of 
Jimperor, and ruled the island with a severe and despotic authori^. 

Shortly afterwards a new page opened in the history of Cyprus^ 
and as it is one in which England took part^ the events of this 
period are related with more detail than hitherto. In the year 
1191, we find King Richard I. of England on his journey from 
Messina to St. Jean d'Acre, where he had appointed to meet King 
Philip of France, and to co-operate with him in the third crusadeL 
On tlia fourth day of the voyage, a violent storm came on from thd 
south, ^hich dispersed the fleet, and the King reached Bbodes with 
difficulty. Three of his largest ships were driven upon the south 
Qoaat or Cyprus, and the crews and soldiers were robbed, mal- 
treated, and thrown into prison at limasol. The ship which 
contained King Bichard'a sister. Queen Bowager of Sicily, aud hia 
fianfiit, Berengeria, daughter of the King of' Navan*e, was driven 
by tba storm towards Limasol, and gained the roads, but was 
refused entrance to the port, and had to anchor in the open roadstead. 

Isaac Comnenus arrived that day at limasol, and tried to eutica 
the royal ladies to come on shore ; but they, suspecting treachery 
and violence, refused the invitation, wnich was vehemently 
re|]teated, and again declined ; preparations were made to seize die 
ship, which was consequently obliged to set sail, and shortly fell 
in with King Bichard and the remamder of the fleet. 

frovokea by Isaac's conduct, and refusal to give up the 
prisoners, or to water the fleet, Bichard determined to disemx 
park a portion of his force at Limasol and take vengeance. He 



— ^ 



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}9 -OYFIIUS. 

the etrong castles in the porth of the island, which would otherwiM 
foi-m places of refuge for the few Qreeks who had not auirendered. 
I Eichard, being detained by illness at Il'icosia, intrusted this task to 
thn^teSiai, puy de Lusignaii, ^yllo was a prominent figure in all the operations ot 
the conquest of Cypma. ■ The castle of Ceiinea was the first attacked, 
it soon capitulated, and Isaac's wife, daughter, and treasures fell into 
the hands of the Eoglish. Lusignan then marched against Fort St. 
Hilarion, which, after a brave resistance, was also forced to capitu- 
late. Shortly afterwaida the castles of Buff&vento and Kantara 
opened their gates to lUchard himself, and the subjugation of the 
island was then complete. 

Richard was now able to turn his tboughta to his neglected 
crusade ; he returned to Limasol and sent Isaac's daughter, with 
bis own wife and sister, on before him to St Jean d'Acr& On the 
jK">B^j^j^ 6th June, 1191, Bichard himself sailed from Cyprus, leaving the 
'**'*• vTP""- islaud ia charge of Richard de Canville and Itotert de Turnham, 
with injunctions to keep the anny in Syria well provided with 
provisions. 

Isaac was Qjaced in silver fetters and taken with King Eichard 
to Syria, where he was handed over to the Hospitallers, since 
Kniglits of lUiodes, for safe custody, and was by them confined in the 
casUe of Maigat near Tripoli, where he died shortly afterwards. 

Several insurrections subsequently occurred in Cyprus, but were 

al} suppressed by the decision and prompt action of Robert de 

Turnham. 

SbIo of The Templars now entered into negociations with King Eichard 

Pn»^'to tl" for the purchase of Cyprus, and they eventually obtained it from him 

""pi"^ for the sum of 100,000 Saracenic golden besauts, it was further ar- 

rauged that 40,000 bosante should be paid at once,and the remainder 

as soon as it could be derived from the revenues of the island.* 

The Templars ruled Cyprus for a time with a heavy hand, and 
their government became highly unpopular amongst the inhabitants, 
who continued in a perpetuid state of revolt, causing so much 
annoyance and trouble to their masters, that in May 1192, the 
Templars, finding that the popular feeling was entirely beyond 
their control, were compelled to entreat King Richard to take hack 
the island, and they begged that the price which they had paid for 
it might be returned to them. Richard expressed his wilUngness 
to take over the island, but refused to return the 40,000 besants. 
King Guy de Lusignan now came forward, and, having arranged 
with the Templars that in the event of his being made King of 
Cyprus, he would refund to them what they had paid, went to 
Richard, and asked him for the island as compensation for the 
loss of the crown of Jerusalem, engaging also to pay the same sum 
Qaj d« Iiu. tiyjt t],g Templars had agreed to. This ofi'er was accepted and 
oStM^^mw. ^^y intrusted to his chancellor, Pierre d'Engoulesme, Bishop of 

* To Mtimata tht rsUtira nJiM of thii pcTmaiit, the goldan bewut m^j b« takn 
■I aquiTkleut to about D fr. 60 oont., m ths inm warn about 96C^OOO tiuiua, wUieli la 
tlw prMODt dsj irould be wortli kbgol eiglit timea u much, to that ths prioa out 
bs oontldorad to b« >boat £804,000 it«riing. Bas " L'Hutoira de L'Ua de OhfpM," 
bj U. L. De Uh I«trie, toL ii, page 7 (note). 



HISTORY OP CYPRUS. 13 

Tripoli, the task of raising the money. The snm of 60,000 besants 
was collected by means of loans from the citizens of Tripoli, and 
from the Genoese, and was paid by Gtiy to Richard, ^ho asked tot 
the remaining 40,000 besants, bat Qny then pleaded poverty, and ^ 
it is stated that the English King did not urge this claun further.* 

Guy de Lusignan at once took possession of the island (May, Tlia Luiigiiim 
1192) but it appears, accordii^ to De Mas Latrie, that he never dyoMfy. 
actually assiuned the title of .Sing of Cyprus. His reign was but 
short, lasting only one year and eleven months, but from all accounts 
he governed wisely and restored order and tnmquillity in the island. 
One of his first measures was the introduction of a feudal system, 
and he endowed with portions of land, according to rank, about 300 
knights and 200 esquires, who formed the nucleus of the nobility 
and privileged bodies in Cyprus. 

Guy was succeeded by his son Amaury de Lusi^an. The 
following table gives the names, titles, and the duration of the 
leign of the Lusignan Kings of C^rus. 



• Some Bnglish hittoriaiif haye stated that King Richard gara PTpnia to Onj 
de Lnrignan without pajment, but De Mae Latrie ooaaiden thif a iiiiitake|.ana 
rapports his aooouni of the sale bj docomentary eridenoe. See " L'JSistoira de ti'De 
de Uhjpre," toI. i, page 87 (note), toL U, page 21, and toL iii, page 694. 



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UIST0B7 Ot CYPRUS. 1^ 

There is but little of historical importance to relate conceimilig OyprvA tuA^ 
the three centuries during which Cyprus was ruled by the Lusig- ^* I"**^ 
nan dynasty : internal tranquillity, a state of affairs which had ^"^'^ 
hitherto been almost unknown in the island, prevailed throiigh- 
out nearly the whole period, with the two exceptions mentioned 
below, and consequently the kingdom was generttlly in a flourish- 
ing condition; at the same time some (ustinction waS gtidned 
against the Arabs and Turks. In 1372, an untoward incident 
occurred ; Pierre II was then King of Qyprus, and whilst hs waft 
entertaining several Genoese and Venetian gmnddes on A festival 
day, a quarrel with regard to precedence arose, and was decided by 
the King apainst the former. It is said that the Genoese thsn 
plotted acainst the King's life, and that their intentions bding 
discoyerea, it was ordered that all the Genoese Subjects in the 
kingdom should be put to death. This monstrous conmULnd was 
only too faithfully obeyed, and the Bepublio of Genoa, in otder to 
avenge the murder of her citizens, despatched at once ft consideriible 
fleet to Cyprus under the command of Admiral Pietro Fregosd, 
who, after several engagements, took Famagusta in 1378, and Oapiareot * 
carried off Jacopo Lusignan, the King's uncle, and lisntenlint- ?*^^^ 
Governor of the island. The Genoese continued to hold Snd yJ??,. 
garrison Famagusta, strongly fortifying the city in order to ensure 
their grasp on the island, and they exercised supremacy there fol* no 
loss than ninety years, when King Jacques II., with tne aid ot tbs 
Egyptians, retook the place. 

In 1426, Cyprus was invaded by an Egyptian force which first PTpma i>e- 
took Lamaca, then limasol, and subsequently ravaged slmoSt th6 ^JTZn^i^ 
whole island. King Janus was carried off a prisoner to the Stlltan ^ ^w^ 
at Cairo, but after paying a ransom, and promising that Cyprus 
should send an annual tribute to Egjrjpt, he was liberated, and 
allowed to return to his kingdom as the heutenant of the Sultan.* 

King Janus died in 1432 ; he was succeeded by Ids son JeAn II., 
who married Helena Paleologos, niece of the Emperor of Constanti- 
nople, and their daughter, Carlotta, was now the only legitimate de- 
scendant of the Lusignans. King Jean, however, left a natural Son, 
named Jacques, who was Archbishop of Cyprus. Carlotts, on the 
death of her father in 1468, became Queen of Cyprus ; dhs had 
married, first, one of the sons of the King of PortugHl, ahd secondly, 
Louis de Savoie, who, with her, goyemed Cyprus tmdet the titls§ df 
King and Queen of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Armenia. Th^it f^ign ?*'*'?^****»2f 
was, however, but short, for in September 1460, Jacques, "te Bdtard," f^^^^j^ 
who was a man of great abihty, and highly popular with ths Balaid. 
Cypriotes^ headed a revolt against their authority, seized Nicosis, 
tlie capital, and then with the assistance of the Sultan of Egypt 
forced the King and Queen to fiy from the island; he was 
immediately proclaimed King, with the title of Jacquds II., and 
before dismissing the Egyptian troops, he captured Famagusta fironi 
the Genoese. This exploit greatly increased his popularify amohgat 
- - ■ ■ ■ ■ ^ -^ — 

* An iniereiting ftoooont of this Bgrptmn ioTSMon is io be found in ft ^oemiMlit 
oontemed in De Mae Lft«arie*8 Historj ^ OTprue, toL ii, page 60S^H t iiivai wiiiteil 
hj KlialUBhelieri, the Sultan's rider. 



^§ CYPRUS. 

, tl^e natiyes, to lyhom the presence of foreign troops holding one of 
their chief cities had been yeiy galling. 

Thus Queen Charlotte was the last legitimate successor of the 

Lu^ignan Kings ; she became a widow in 1482, and abdicated in 

fayour of her nephew Charles I, Duke of Sayoy, on the 25th 

February, 1485* ; she died at Borne on the 16th July, 1487.t 

AlUftnoenith King Jacques II, in order to strengthen his position, allied 

Venioa, and mmaelf with ttie Venetian Bepublic, and, in 1472, married Catherine 

K^gJ^QM. Comaro, a daughter of one of the noblest Venetian houses. This 

union was fat^ to last but a yeiy short time, for in July 1473 

King Jacques died, leaying Catherine to direct the kingdom in the 

interest of their unborn heir. Two months later Catherine gaye 

birth to a son, who receiyed his father's name, and was crowned 

King Jacques III., but in August, 1474, this infant king died, and 

Catherine then reigned alone for about fifteen years. 

The Oonmro To show clearly how Cyprus now passed fix)m the Lusignan 

faimij. dynasty imder the rule of the Venetian Bepublic, it is necessary to 

giye a short history of the Comarof family. 

This family (now extinct) was among the oldest of the Vene- 
tian fiobility ; established at first at Padua, it gradually acquired both 
riches and influence, and, since the fourteenth century, had con- 
stantly several of its members in the senate, and holding yarious 
hifi[h offices. Of the numerous branches which sprang from the 
original stock, two fure famous in history : the first of these were 
the owners of Piskopi in Cyprus, and were generally called Comaro 
-* Piscopia ; this family liyed in Venice in the palace Saint Luc (now 

the property of the Campama Peccana family), here Frederic 
Oomaro leceiyed King Pierre II of Cyprus, when he yisited Venice 
in 1365 and 1368, and, as a Cypnote landowner, he adyanced 
60,000 ducats to the King for war expenses ; this branch became 
extinct at the end of the sixteenth, or the commencement of the 
seyenteenth century. The second branch, the Comaro ddla ca§ 
grande or ddla regina (also sometimes called Comaro de Saint 
. Cassien), is that from which Catherine Comaro, Queen of Cyprus, 
is descended. This family had two palaces in Venice, the Saint 
Pi^ul, now called Mocenigo-Comer, and the Saint Cassien. Queen 
Catherine after her abdication of the crown of Cypms and sub- 
sequent return to Venice, always liyed in the latter palace, which, 
rebidlt in the sixteenth century by Sansoyino, has retained the 
name of Palazzo della ca grande. 

According to the tables drawn up by Capellari, and now kept 
at Venice, the following is the genealogical tree of Queen Catherine 
of Cyprus. 

* H. De Mm Latrie in hia Hutoire de L'Ho de OhTpre, toI. iii. page 557-589, 
pabliihes a leriee of documente ihowing the oonimuanoe of the pretennont of the 
ftinoes of Saroj to the orown of pjpHrtte, after' the ialaiid had been taken bj the 
Torki, and the recognition of their rignte bj the European powers. 

t Sereral penont claim to be the descendants of the Lusignan familj ; 
ainongst them are two brothers, the elder, Gtnj do Lusignan, bears the titles of 
Prince Boyal of Chrprus, Jerusalem, and Armenia, and now Htos in Paris; the 
jounger, Corene Nar-Bar Lusionan, is Archbishop of Beshiktash-Oonstantinoplo : 
their unue, Loub de Lusignan, nyes at St. Petersbuiv. 

J Oomaro is the Italian form, but the popular and truly Tenetian name is Carumr. 
The Tenetian word ca is merelj an abDreriation of the Tuscan eaaa. 



BWTOBY Of CTTRDS. 



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The last descendant of the family of Queen Catherine of Cyprus, 

and the last direct representative of the Comaro house, was M. 

Catherine Comer, who died at the beginning of this century. He 

be(]^ueathed the splendid Saint Caasien Palace to Pope Pius YII, 

who united it to the pontifical property. Gregory YII gave it to 

the Abb^ Cavagnis, who afterwards ceded it to the Venetian 

municipality, and it is now the " Mont de Pi^t^ " of Venice. 

The Yenetian As soon as the fact of King Jacques IPs death was known in 

Bepablio gra- Venice, the Senate of that city began to interest itself in the afiaira 

»Mwee iu- °^ Cyprus, and on the 22nd August, 1473, Captain General Pierre 

premaoy in Mocenigo was ordered to take the fleet of the Bepublic at once to 

PTprna. Cyprus ** in order to watch over the security of the Queen and the 

country;" and on the 2nd September, the Senate wrote to the 
Queen assuring her of the goodwill of Venice, promising protec- 
tion in all eventualities, and informing her that Mocenigo had 
been ordered to leave at least five gaUeys in the port of Fama- 
gusta at her disposal It appears that eight galleys were left, 
and the crews maintained at the expense of the republic, but on 
the 7th November, the Queen was asked to provide them with 
bread. On the 14th November, 1473, Andr^ Comaro, Auditor of 
Cyprus, and uncle of the Queen, was murdered at Famagusta, 
and then Mocenigo received fresh orders from Venice, dated 20th 
December, 1473, to ^atch over all the affairs of C^rpnis, to main- 
tain the Queen and ^er infant son in possession oi the throne, to- 
prevent the establishment of any foreign power in the island, and 
to Qpcupy all the strong places. On the 6th January, 1474> all the 
Venetian cftvaby and infantry in Cyprus were placed under the* 
command of the proveditor Jacques Marcello, and by degrees,, 
having occupied with their troops all the fortresses, having exiled! 
all their chief opponents, and calmed the popular feeling, the Vene- 
tian Bepublic acquired complete ascendancy in the island. 

On the 28th March, 1474, the Senate decided that forthwith twor 
Venetian counsellora and one proveditor should reside in Cyprus, 
to assist the Queen in the government and to command the forces 
of the Bepublia iVanqois Minio and Louis Gabriel, were the 
counsellors, and Jean Soranzo, the proveditor first; elected ; miuuta 
instruction^ were given to them regarding the mapagement of the 
revenue, the general government of the country, and the armament 
of the fortresses. 

From August, 1474, when the infant King Jficques III died» 
the island though nominally ruled by Queen Catherine, was, for 
all practical purposes, entirely imder Venetian authority, and no 
order of any importance could be enacted by the Queen, until it 
had received the approbation of the republic or the counsellors. 
Matters continued so until 1488, when, in consequence of the war 
with the Turks, the Bepublic of Venice determined to take full 
possession of Cyprus, the Senate considering the island valuable 
not only as regards commerce, but as a good naval and military 
station, and further, as the most favourable position from which to 
threaten and annoy the southern Ottoman provinces, and to main- 
tain friendly relations with the Peraians, whose co-operation was of 
great importance. Accordingly Georges Comaro, brother of the 



HI8T0RT OF OTPBUS. 19t 

Queen, was sent by the Senate to Cypnis to beg Catherine to resign 
t^e orown and leave the island. He was authorized to point out 
that if she would not consent to this step, the Senate would be 
obliged to resort to measures of compulsion ; the mission appearSi 
however, to have been executed with considerable tact, and was 
completely successful, for in a very short time the Queen signified 
her assent to the proposal Navagiero relates that the formal Abdication o! 
abdication, and the erection of the banner of Saint Maro, took place S"*?" ^ 
at Famagusta on the 26th February, 1489, in the presenc^ of t^lowS 
Fran9ois de Priuli, Captain-General of the Venetian flee^ audi that Yenioe. 
the Queen soon afterwards left the island for Yenica 

The new government of Cyprus was at once instituted;; the Oj^tub under 
admim'stration consisted of a lieutenant, with the title of Viceroy Venetian role. 
of Cyprus, assisted by two counsellors (who with the lieutenant 
formed the Privy Council), and a Captain, who was called Captain 
of Cyprus, or Captain of the Kingdom, and who added to his other 
duties, the function of Proveditor. 

To these officials the entire direction of the government, of 

J'ustice, of finance, and of the army was intrusted, save only the 
Relative authority and right of appeal, which was reserved to the 
metropolitan. The Lieutenant was never kept in office more than 
two years, and between 1489 and 1571, when the Turks obtained 
possession of the island, no less than 46 Venetian nobles held the 
post. The first Lieutenant was Francois Barbarigo, appointed in 
1489, and the last, Sebastian Venier, appointed in 1569, who was 
to have been succeeded by Daniel Barbarigo, Duke of Candio, but 
before the latter left Venice to assume the vice-royalty, the news 
of the loss of the island was received by the Senate at Venice. 

Duiing the Venetian rule the island was divided into eleven 
districts, some governed by captains, others by " civitains :'' the 
towns of Nicosia and Famagusta were placed under Cypriote Vis- 
counts (Sheriffs) as in the time of the Lusignans. The districts 
were — ^Baffo, Avdimu, Limasol, Mazoto, Saline, Viscontado, 
Messaria, Caipasso, Cerinea, Pente^gia, and Khrysokho. 

A detailed report, compiled at the end of the fifteenth century, 
and containing statistical information concerning the populatioUi 
the number of villages, the amount of the harvests, Uie products of 
the island, the incomes of the chief landowners, the possessions of 
the clergy, and the public lands in C]rprus at this date> is contained 
in M. De Mas Latrie's " Histoire de L'lle de Chypre," voL iii, page 
493. 

There is but little of importance or of general interest to relate 
concerning the period during which the Venetians nded over 
Cjrprus; uie Lieutenants succeeded one another far too quickly to 
organise and establish alterations and improvements, or mdeed to 
acquire even a sufficient knowledge of the necessities of the country, 
and an interest in its welfare. Once only, however, did the Greek 
population rebel ; in 1546, an attempt was made to recall remem- 
brances of ancient Greece, and the inhabitants combined to effect 
a chanffe of masters ; the Venetian government acted promptly, and 
soon stifled the insurrectionary feelins, the leader, Jacques Le Cretois, 
called the Didascalos, paid with his life for his ambitious projecb 
(774) B 2 



99 CYPRUS. 

Punng t^he Venetian occupation the island was visited by oeveral 
calamiliies. In 1492 and 15^, immense destruction was caused by 
yio][ent earthquakes. In 1644, the locusts were so numerous that all 
the crops yere destroyed, and for two years the inhabitants had to 
be fed oy provisions imported from other countries. In 1574 the 
rainfaU was so great that the Messaria plain became a lake, and 
po c^ps 'Vf hatever could be crown. More than once piitites entered 
Uie ports, and ravaged the adjoining towns with impunity. 

The tenure of Cyprus by the Venetians may be described as 
* 8ii)iply a military occupation, and as no measures for its proper 
maintenance were taken, the prosperity of the island visibly declined 
throughout the whole period ; trade languished, manufactures al- 
most ceased, landowners abandoned their property, schools closed, 
the population emigrated, cultivation was neglected, the streams 
were allowed to overflow and form infectious marshes, and the 
national wealth rapidly diminished.* 
Cjpnts But the greatest cedamities that threatened Cynrus were the in- 

UirMtenacI by creasing power of the Turks, and the advance that tney were making 
Turkey, |^^]^ j^ ^^j^ ^^^^ Africa, so we now pass on the time at which they 

invaded and obtained possession of me island. 

It appears that after the subjugation of Egypt by the Sultan 
Selim i{. m lS}7i ^^^^ tribute which, since 1426, had been regularly 
paid by Cyprus to the King of Eeypt, was then annually sent to 
the Sultaii of TH^'key instead, ana with this arrangement the old 
chroniclers say that " they (the Turks) held themselves well con- 
tented.'' Solyman the Qreat, was, however, succeeded on the 25th 
September, 1566, by the ignoble and degenerate Selim II, to whom 
his own national historians give the epithet of " Uie fool," and in 
1570, the self-willed cupidity and violence of this prince, involved 
the Porto in a war with Venice for the acquisition of Cyprus, the 
possession of which island Selim had coveted, wliilst he was 
governor of Eutahia in his father's lifetime.! 

A( tliis time a treaty of peace existed between the Porto and 
Yenice, but Selim, endeavouring to satisfy his conscience with 
regard ^ ^^ proposed act of aggression, obtained from his Mufti, 
^bousououd, a fetva authorising him to attack Cyprus, in open 
violation of the treaty. 

Xhe island had, as we have seen, been at one time under 
Maho^ietan rulers, and the Turkish authorities now proclaimed, 
and acted upon the principle, that the sovereign of Islam may at 
fmy time break a treaty for the sake of reconquering from the mis- 
believers, a country which has formerly belonged to the territory 
of Islamf The Grand Vizier, SokoUi, earnestly, but vainly opposed 
the war against Venice, his influence being counteracted by the 
suggestions of Lala Moustepha, who encouraged Selim in his project 

• Sm D« Mm Latrie*! *' Hiitoire de L'I1« de OhTpre/* toL iii, page S2d. Other 
authon nae bj no maana auoh forcible language to deaoribo the faults of the Venetian 
adminiatration, and in some reepecta thej are eren able to award praiso. 

t It iaaaid that Selim found the attraotiona of Cjprua wine irreaiatiblo, and a Jew 
oallod Joaeph Naaij, who waa hia farourtto, flrst gare him the idea tluvt ho should 
make himaelf master of the island. 

t Ton Hanmer'B " Hiatoir of the Ottoman Empire " (Oerman 2nd edition), toI. U, 
page 402, an i Sir B Orway . ** History of the Ottoman Turka," page 217. 



HISTORY OF CTTRUB. SI 

Hostilities were commenced in Febmair 1670, when ail army Commteo*- 
was sent into Epirus, and to the frontiers of Dalmatia to overrtm SJS^ 
Venetian territory, and to attract the attention of the Bepublio 
away from Cyprus ; and further^ in the middle of April, a neefc of 
80 ^Edleys and 30 galliots, under Fiall Pasha, was sent to sea to 
prevent aid being despatched from Venice to Cyprus, and to securd 
the unintemiption of the invasion of the Island. Lala Moustapha 
was given command of the expedition ac^ainst Cyprus, and on the 
26th May, 1570, he, accompanied by Haiy Pasha, sailed from Con- 
stantinople; at Rhodes he was joined by Piall Pasha, and the 
combined fleets amounted to 200 galleys, with numerous galliots, 
horse transports, &c.. 

On the 1st July, this fleet cast anchor in the roadstead of Lmdonol 
Limasol, and the disembarkation of the troops was, owing to the S[^r"J^ ^* 
negligence and incapacity of Nicholas Danoalo, who commanded cnitan of 
the Venetian force on the spot, eflected without oppositipn or loss ; LtmaMol. 
the fort of Leftari, near Limasol, also surrendered at the first 
summons. The Turkish army now entrenched itself, and a council 
of war was held to determine whether Famagustaor Nicosia should 
be the next object of attack. The great heat, and the unhealthy 
situation of the former town at this time of year, caused the 
decision to be in favour of an advance against Nicosia, which was 
the capital of the island, and centrally situated. 

Nicosia was then strongly fortified ; the old defences had been 
only recently demolished by the Venetians ; new and strong walls, 
having a circuit of three miles, had just been constructed, and the 
place converted into a regular fortress with eleven bastions and 
three gates ; the walls were defended by 260 pieces of artillery.* 

The garrison appears to have consisted of from 8,000 to 10,000 
men ; of which mmiber, 3,000 were Venetians, 2,600 native militia^ 
1,500 Italians, 1,000 nobles of Nicosia, together with Albanians 
and other8.t 

On the 22nd July, Lala Moustapha reached the neighbourhood ^|^^^* 
of Nicosia, and eiicamped his army within one and a half miles of ^^'^ 
the waUs. It is reported that he had with him 2,600 cavalry, 
and 50,000 infantry, with which force he commenced a regular 
siege of the fortress, the troops constructing trenches and batteries 
wim the greatest activity. The operations of this siege, which 
lasted seven weeks, are well described by Elnolles in his " G^eral 
History of the Turks," page 848. At the beginning of September, 
the investing army received a reinforcement of 20,000 sailors and 
marines, sent by Piall Pasha from the Turkish fleets and on the 
9th of Uiat month an assault was ordered, the attack being chiefly 
directed upon the Podocataro, Costanza and Tripoli bastions. 

The struggle was long and sanguinary, but in the end the 9{£^^ 
superior numoers of the besiegers prevailed, and the gallant *™*'*' 
defenders were forced rback from the walls ; the Turks then 
entered the city, and for eicht days murder and pillage reigned 
supreme It is said that 14,866 of the garrison and inhabitants 

* The fortiScatioiiB of Kiooflia we further described in Obapter III. 
t Bee Ton Hanmer, French edition, toL li, page 408. 



i22 CYPRUS. 

jperiahed dii the 9th September^ and that altogether 20,000 were 
'killed, and 2,000 youths and girls taken a^^ay as slaves. 

Lala Moustapha, leaving a garrison under Mousaffer Pacha in 
Nicosia, marched immediately with the rest of his army to Famar 
gosta^ arriving before tlie walls of that town on the 18th 

^2^^ ^®?^^^*' ^^ ' ® » ^® ^^ ^^^ constructed a redoubt from which an 
^""*^*^ • artillery fire 'rtras -kept up against both the town and the port 

Q?he defenders, commanded by Marc Antonio Bragadino, made 
several brave sorties, and showed the Turks by their eneigetic 
^^ defence that a speedy capitulation need not be expected. Lala 
terad ui^^ Moustapha therefore shortly withdrew the greater part of his 
the following troops from the siege works, and retired for the winter into 
ym. quarters in the villages round Famagusta, which town he, how- 

ever, still endeavoured to invest in order to prevent the arrival of 
'l^inforcements or supplies. 

On the 23rd January, 1671, the Venetian fleet under Mairc 

Antonius Quirini, succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the Turks, 

and brought into Famagusta 1,600 men, and a quantity of pro- 

Visidns and warlike stores. 

Siege and cap- Wh^li the winter was over, Lala Moustepha advanced his forces 

tuieofFama- nearer to Famaguste; on the 16th April he reviewed his whole 

^^ * army, and then at once resumed his siege works with surprising 

activity. 

Bragadino, on his side, organized a strong defence, and his 
^btbve personal example inspired tlie whole garrison with a firm 
determination to hold their fortress to the very last extremity. 
The frequent assaults delivered by the Turks are well described in 
|Cnblles' work, page 863 ; the siege continued through the months 
of May, June, and July, the garrison fighting desperately against 
the overwhelming strength of the besiegers.* 

At last provisions became scarce, and on August Ist, nego- 
ciations were entered into, and a capitulation was signed under the 
following conditions, viz. ; that the garrison should march out with 
their arms, five guns, and the horses of the commanders, and 
should be conveyed to Candia in the ships, and at the expense of 
>the Turks ; that the inhabitants should be free to quit the town and 
take their property, and that those who preferred to remain should 
be unmolested, both as regards their persons and their goods. 

Acclordlngly, after alapse of three days, Famaguste was evacuated, 
^b on^the bth August, Bragadino preseihted himself in the Turki^ 
'cataip accom^pianied by his chief commanders, Baglioni, Quirini dud 
* others, ^th'dh 'escort of 40 men. Lala Moustepna in the course of 
the discussion '\t^hieh ensued, 'made some compldnte concerning the 
details of the ctipitulation, and becoming angry at the an^wets 
whicJh he received, ended l^ making prisoners of the whole party. 
'Baglioni,* Quirini, and the other offic€irs were at once put to death, 
Tortoreand hxit Bragadino, the hero of ^he defence of Famaguste, was reserved 
Bn^^o. '^^^ ^oss indignities, with long alnd iiifamous toi-tures, under which 

he 'Expired ten days later, having been at last flayed alive. 

» ^ _^ 

* Fo^lietfiky'atid OontariDi, give dotaiU conoeming the aiiaulte of the 2lBfc and 
S&th of June, and of the 9th, lith, 20th and 80th Julj. 



HISTORY Ot CYPRUS. 23 

The completion of the subjugation of the island was carried on Pyp«^*¥j . 
by tlio Turks with frightfiU cruelty, although after the fall of J^f ^^^^^ 
Famagusta no further opposition was here ofierod on the part 6f ',..,. 
the Venetians. A maiitime league acainst the Turks was now 
formed by Pope Pius V, and joined by the Spaniards, Vene- 
tians, and Knignts of Malta, by whom hostilities were continued in - '^'''- 
various places for some time ; the battle of Lepanto was fought 
and gained by the confederate fleets, but at last Venice was com- 
pelled to sue for peace, and on the 7th March, 1573, a treaty was 
signed; it was then ^eed that not only shoidd the Sultan 
retain Cyprus, but that the Venetians should refund to the Porte 
the expenses of the conquest of the island, which were rated at 
300,000 ducats. Venice now, of course, was no longer required 
to pay to Turkey the yearly tribute of 8,000 ducats for Cyprus. 

Thus the island passed under Turkish rule. 

The neglected state of Cyprus prior to the advent of the Turks Qoremment 
has been already alluded to, but the ill-fated island was now ^J^SS. 
doomed to fall into a far worse condition, and the mismanagement of 
a Turkish administration was soon demonstrated by a rapid 
decrease in the revenue. Proof of this is contained in an in- 
teresting document by Bernard Sangrado, contained in Be Mas 
Latrie's Histoire de L'lle de Chypre, vol. iii, page 560, which com- 
pares the annual revenue and expenditure under the Venetians, 
with their amounts in the years 1575-86, during which period the 
Tiirks were in possession, and it shows a marked falling off imder tbe 
new rule. 

There are scarcely any historical incidents of importance or 
interest to relate concerning Cyprus, during the three centuries 
that it has remained in the hands of the Turks, and almost the sole 
noticeable fact regarding the island is the ruin which has resulted 
from both neglect and oppressive despotisuL We find that since 
the days of the Lusignans, not only has the population dwindled 
to less than half its former number, but that the baneful and 
paralysing influence of the Porte has extended over agriculture, 
commerce, and arts. 

Districts which were once fertile and productive, are now either 
marked by traces of sterility, or, for want of culture, are over- 
grown with thorny plants, and other useless or no^ous weeds. 
It need scarcely be said that the mineral wealth which, from all 
accounts, the island contains, has been allowed to lie unworked 
and unexplored. The forests, which in ancient days were famed 
throughout the world, have been not only imcared for, but even 
recklessly and wantonly cut down and destroyed, the residt of 
which has been an evident deterioration of climate and increased 
frequency of droughts, causing both sanitary and agricultural mis- 
chief. With the decrease of the products of the idand, trade also 
naturally declined ; one instance only need here be given in support 
of this assertion ; under the Venetian rule, (according to Mariti), as 
much as 6,600,000 lbs. of cotton were annually exported, but now 
the amount has dwindled down to about 500,000 lbs. and perhaps 
not more than a twentieth part of the cotton which the islanais 
capable of producing is at present grown. Industry and manufac- 
tures are inconsiderable, and public works are entirely neglected. 



H 



CYPBUS. 



ocoajM^ibii of 
Hot*- 



Tnrkbh ad- 
miniitradoii. 



Traiuferof 
Oyprui \o 
Great 
BritauD. 



The ppp^essiy^ tax^ and the arbitraiy system of goyenunent 
caused an insurrection in 1764^ which assumed serious dimensions, 
(ind the civil war which ensued lasted for two years. 

I^ July 1832, after the capture of Acre by Ibrahim Pacha, 
Cynrus lyas militarily occupied by Egypt, and was held by 
Menemet 41i for about eight years ; but this temporaiy cession was 
cancelled, by a firman at the end of 1838, and in 1840 the 
island was returned to the Porte. 

It has been reported that since this period a more just and 
equitable system of government has been pursued, although there 
has still been room for much improvement ; since 1840 the popular 
tion has about doubled itself. 

Until 1870, Cyprus was included in the " Vilayet of the Islands 
of the White Sea," but it was then formed into an independent 
Mutessarifiik. 

A finnan concerning reforms was read in Cyprus after the 
accession of the Sultan Murad, but it is reported to have remained 
practically a dead letter, and to have in no way attracted the con- 
fidence or the enthusiasm of the peopla The annoyances ez- 
nerienced by villagers at the hands of the zaptiehs with regard to 
^he collection of t^es did not cease, and but fittle protection from 
oyer-exaction was secured to the inhabitants of the rural districts. 
A succesaibi^ of bad harvests has lately caused an increase in the 
exp^nse^ of the island, for the government, on several occasions, 
has been obliged to supply food to a large number of poor people 
to keep them from starvation. 

The last, and most important, event in the History of Cyprus 
ia the transfer of the island to Ikigland by a conditional Conven- 
tion entered into by Great Britain and Turkey on the 4th June, 
1878, the terms of which are as follow : — 

^ ConverUion of Defensive AUiance hetioeen Great Britain and Turkey ^ signed 

June 4, 1878. 

'* ^er Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, Empreas of Lidia, and his Imfierial Majesty the Sultan, being 
mutually ammated with the sincere desire of extending and strenath- 
ening the relations of friendship happily existing between their two empu^es, 
haye resolved upon the conclusion of a Convention of defensive alliance, 
with the object of securing for the future the territories in Asia of his 
^perial Majesty the Sultan. 

f< Their Majesties have accordingly chosen and named as their Plenipo- 
tentiaries, that is to say : — 

'^Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, Empress of India, the Bijg;ht Honourable Austen Henry Layard, her 
Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentary at the 
Sublime Porte ; 

^'And His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, his Excellency Safvet Paahsi 
Minister for Foreign AfBurs oi his Imperial Majesty ; 

'^ Who, after having exchanged their full powers, found in due and good 
form, have agreed upon the following articles : — 

Artide L 

** If Batoum, Ardalian, Kars, or any of them, shall be retained by Russia, 
and if any attempt shall be made at any future time by Bussia to take pos- 
session of any further territories of his Imperial Majesty the Sultan in Asia, 



mSTOBT OF 0TPBU8. 25 

ma fixed by the definitive treaty of peace, England engages to join his Imperial 
liajeety the Saltan in defending them by force of Arma. 

** In return his Imperial Majesty the Sultan promises to England to in- 
troduce necessary reforms^ to be u;reed upon later between the two PowerS| 
into the Qovemmenti and for the j^rotection, of the Christian and other 
mbfects of the Porte in those territones^ and in order to enable England io 
make ne c e ssa ry provision for executmg ^ her engagement his Imperial 
Majesty the Sultan further consents to assign the island of Oypms to be 
occupied and administered by England. 

Artide 11. 

" The present convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications thereof 
shall be exchanged, within the space of one month, or sooner if possible. 

"In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the 
same, and have affixed thereto the seal of their arms. 

" Done at Constantinople, the fourth day of June, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-eight 

(L.S) " A. a. Lataad. 

(L.8.) "SAFviBT.»' 

This conditional convention having been enter^ into in the Ocea|N^ion 
view of the possible retention by Bussia of a portion of the Asiatic ^ 
territories of the Porte, and as, by the articles of the Berlin ^'^P*- 
Congress, the condition upon which it was founded became fulfilled,* 
a fiman was at once issued by the Porte authorizing the transfer 
of CHrprus to England, and measures were at once taken to occupy 
the island, and to administer the government on behalf of Her 
Majesty, Queen Victoria. 

The following correspondence respecting the convention has 
since taken place, and is inserted, as it explains several points in 
the first document 

"No. 1. 

" Mr, Layard to th€ Marquis of Salubtuf.^Reoeived May 90). 

(Telegraphic) 

'' Constantinople, May 29, 1878. 

''Grand Vizier begs you to consent to an Annex providing^ that a 
Mussulman religious tribunal may be maintained in Cyprus, which will 
exclusively take coflnizanoe of religious matters (this wiU create a very good 
imp res s i on upon Mussulman population there and elsewhere); and that 
sniplus of revenue over expenoitnre should be paid in Uie form which the 
Porte wiU submit to me." 

"No 2. 

" Mr. Layard to the Marquis of Salisbury. — (Received May 30). 

''XTelegn^jhic.) 

"Constantinople^ May 30, 1878. 

The Annex proposed includes three points — ^viz., the Musralman tribunal 

referred to in my telegram of yesterday ; that average be taken of the mass of 

* 

• Artide 68 of the Trelly of Berlin, signed cm the 18th July, 1878, is ss follows t— 
*' The Sublime Porte cedes to the Bnsden Bmpiie in Asia, the territoriss of Ardahaa 
Xisn, and Batonm, together with the latter ^rt, as well ss all the territories comprised 
between the ancient Rasso*Tarkish frontier and the foUowing line*'^(Ihe new 
frantMT is then described). 



'S6 CYpEDB. 

sipendlture darinf; Uit'-flve jttixa to be paid bj England U 

it, aa the anniisJ leveikua of the iaJftod a imcreaaiiia yearly, 

)i the average ehoold be [iud to the Porte ; and that ifRuada ki 



Forte, but that, aa the anniisJ leveikue of the ia]aod a imcreaaiiia yearly, any 
excess over the average ehoold be [«id to the Porte ; and that ifRuada kitm 
up Kara and her cocqueHtj 'in Armenia, C^nu will be eracuated. ran 



B&ead^ authorized to accede to last condition. I shall be glad to reoeire 
ir Xordnhlp'a instructioua as to the other polnta." 



" Foreign Office, May 30, ie7& 
" A» Rpglwd will probably spend the growing eurpl us in the improve- 
ment of the inland, Her Majesty's Qovermnent cannot assent to second con- 
dition sa it stands, but they have no objection to pay the average of the last 
five yean/ teveaue." 



' " 2^ Jfatyvii ofSalCAury to Mr. Lojfard, 
"(Tel^;r8phio,) 

" Foreign Office, Mo^ 30, 1878. 
"Ton are authorized to consent to a UuasDlmaa tribunal for the exclodva 
cwnisance of Uussulmau relidous matters, but you should not bind Her 
Majee^'s Government im to jnaiciol institutions for persons not Mussulmans." 



" Sir A. n. Lasard to the Marquit of Saliibury, — {deceived June .) 

"Thorapis, Jutu 7, 1878. 
"'Mt Lord, — I have the honour to enclose a draught of the conditions 
which tne Grand Vizier requests may be inserted in the Annex to the Con- 
iventlon signed by Saf vet E^iaha and myself on the dth inst. I have already 
'aoquointea your Lordsbip with the substance of these conditions by the 
'^eleanph, and (un now waiting for your Lordship's instnictionB to agree to them. 

" A. H, LiTARD." 



" Enclosure in No. 6. 



" It is understood between the two hi^ contracliug parties tliat England 
agrees to the following conditions relatmg to her occupation and admiuia- 
tntion of tie Island of Cyprus :— 

" I. That a Mussulman religious tribunal (Mihkfimei Sh^ri) shall continue 
to eiiai in the island, whicli will take eicluaive cogui^muce of religious 
'matters, and of no othars, concerning the HuBsulmau |io|iuIatiun of the isUuid. 

' " II. That a Mussulman resident in the island shall be named by the Board 
6f Pions Foundations in Turkey (Evkaf) to superintend, in conjunction with 
a delegate to be apiuintod by the British Aullioritiee, the admuiisti'ation Of 



HISTORY OF CYPRUS. ^7 

the property I fnndii^ and lands belonging to moaqnes, cemeteriec^ Mtuvalmlui 
■diooliL and other leligiotu establiahments existing in Cyprus. 

"III. ThAt England will bay to the Porte whatever is the present exoeta 
of revenae over ej^>endltdre m ihe island ; this excess to be calctilated npoh 
and determined by the average ol the last five yeais^ stated to be 22^936 
purses^ to be duly verified hei^ter, and to the exelouon of the l>rodnoe of 
State and Crotrli lahds let or told durinft that period. 

*< lY. That ihe Sublime l^orte may freely sell and lease hinds and other 
'propertv in ^prtiS belonging to the Ottoman Crown and State (Arasii Miriv6 
v6 Emlaki Houmavoun) the produce of which does not fonh part ot we 
revenue of the island referred to in Article III. 

"V. That the Englidi Government, throuffh their competent authoritiee^ 
may purchase compulsorily, at a fair price, lana required for public improve- 
ments, or for other public purposes, and hmd which is not cultivated. 

" YI. That if Bnssia restores to Turkey Kars and the other conqnests 
made by her in Armenia during the last war, the island of Cyprus will be 
evacuated by England, and the Convention of the 4th of June, 1878, will be 
at an end." 



"No. 6. 
" The Marquis of SalMuty to iSir A. H, ZayarcL* 

"Berlin,Jtfn«17, 1876. 

" Sir, — I have under my consideration the proposed Annex to the Con- 
vention enclosed in your despatch of the 7th inst, and I authorize your signing 
it with the followinff modincations : — Articles 3 and 4 must be so worded 
as to prevent the Porte from claiming as average revenue under the 3rd 
clause the yield of land which it has let or sold under the 4th. 

" I prefer to omitJClauae 6, as when published it may tend to friahten 
awav capitalists who will not understand it. Surely, in the present oonoition 
of toe Forte's finances, it is thiite superfluous. 

"Your Excellcn<7 should add a clause to tliis efiect : — 'The English 
Government may purchase compulsorily, at a fair price, land wanted tor a 
public improvement, or land which is uncultivated.' 

" I am, &c, 

"SAUaBUBT." 



"No. 7. 

"Sir A. H. Layard to the Marquis of Salisbufy, ^Received June 83). 

"(Telegraphic.) 

" Then^us Jwne 28, 167a 

"The Grand Yizier still wishes for li written engagement that if t ^ 
Island of Cyprus is at any f dture time evacuated, England will not claim 
from Turkey compensation for public works and improvements." 



" No. 8. 
" The Marqtiis of Salisbury to Sir A, ff. Layard,^ 

^'Berlin, :fune 23, 1878. 

" Sir, — ^The question of compensation for improvements and public works 
involves so many difficulties that I should not like to anthorize you to sign an 

* Substance telegraphed. 



umm^t iritlunit bftving the Un^ga cftrafuUr ocnuidned nndw ttgil 
Mvice, ' J do Dot object to the principlfl that the Kn^ah Treuory ihall not, 
on retracesaioD, ask Irom the TreMiuy at Conatantmopls oompenntioD for 
pioney spent on imprOTeineiita j but there are two filjMM of reeemtion irhicb 
muat bo iniule, and could not be stated with praciaion bv telegi«i^ — it^ where 
ihe improvemeiitB were iuanj ehape jielding an aanital revenue Her Uajeaty** 
Government ehould ask equivalent of revenne on retrooeeaion ; where private 
capitalists liaj adviuiced money, they must be oompeawted if they were 
interfered with. Ton may aaaiire the Grand Viser that Her Majeaty'a 
Oovemment will make an agreement aubaequently witb him in that general 
BCDse, but ita deUila miiat be carefully conaidered. 



" 5t> A. H. Layard to lit MarguU ofSaUtbwy. — {Rteeivtd Jum iA). 
"(Telegraphic) 

"Therapia, Jun» SI, 1878. 
" Any agreement that you may propoee with nward to claims for oompcu- 
gation for improvementa in Cyprua will be willing^ accepted if a draft ia aent 



"No. la 



" Sir A. U. layard to tho IfarqM of Salubuiy.—{lUotit»d Jwto S6). 
" (Tel^iaphic.} 

"Theiapia, J»n« iC, 187B 
** Saf vet Paaha wiahes, before cdgning Annex, to aacertain amount of eiCMB 
of expenditure over revenue during laat five yean, and to insert it in the 
Annex. Orders have been given that the Finnan tor the aurreuder of Cypma 
aball be prepared." 



"No. 11. 

" Mr, Stcrtlari/ Crou to Sir A. M. Laj/ard.. 

"(Telegraphic.) 

"Foreign OfBce, July 13, 1878. 
"Yovahould tell the 'Grand Vizier that the wording of Article of the 
Annex as to money expended on improvementa requires careful conaide- 
ration, and probably some information aa to the details, and that it is desirable 
to defer tnuismiarion of the article for a few days until the Cabinet can 
confer with Lord Salisbury on his return from Berlin." 



The ruasoDB which caused her Majestji's Government to enter 

into this ConveutioQ of Defensive Alliance with the Forte are 

' clearly set forth in a despatch from Lord Saliebury to Sir A. 

Layaid, diited 30th May, 1878, which was laid beforo Parliament 

with the Convention itself, on the 8th July. 

lu this despatch Lord Salisbury says : — 



HISTORY OF CYPRUS. 29 

" It ifl safficiently manifeet thaty io respect to Batonm and th« fortreeBM 
north of the Araxes, the Gk>Yemment of JEtOflaiA is not prepared to recede 
froai the stipulations to which the Porte has been led by the evenbi of the 
war to consent. Her ICaiesty's (Government have consequently been forced 
to consider the effect which these agreements, if they are neither annulled nor 
counteracted^ will have up<m the future of the Asiatic provinces of the Otto- 
man Empire and upon the interests of England, which are closely affected by* 
the condition of those provinces. 

''It is impossible mat Her Majesty's (Government can look upon these 

dianges with indifference. Even if it be certain that 

Batoum and Ardahan and Elars will not become Uie base from whidh emis- 
saries of intrigue will issue forth, to be in due time followed by invadinff 
armies, the mere retention of them by Bussia will exercise a powerfm 
influence in disintegrating che Asiatic dominion of the Porte. As a monu- 
ment of feeble defence on the one side, and successful anression on the other 
thejr will be regarded by the Asiatic population as f oieooding the course of 
political history in the immediate future, and will stimulate, by the combined 
action of hope and fear, devotion to the Power which is in the ascendant, atid 
desertion of the Power which is thouoht to be fallinff into decay. 

"It is impossible for Her Maiestj^ G^ovemment to accept) without making 
an effort to avert it, the effect wnich such a state of feeling would produce 
upon regions whose political condition deeply concerns the Oriental interests 

of Great Britain The only provision which can fumiiifli a 

substantial security for the stabilihr of Ottoman rule in Asiatic l\irkeyi and 
which would be as essential after the re-conquest of the Bussian annexations 
as it is now, is an engagement on the part of a Power strong enough to fulfil 
it, that any further encroachments by Bussia upon Turkish territory in Asia 
will be prevented by force of Arms. Such an undertaking, if ^ven fuUv and 
unreservedly, will prevent the occtirrence of the contingency which would bring 
it into operation, and will, at the same time, give to the populations of the 
Asiatic provinces the requisite confidence that Turkish rule in Asia is not 
destined to a speedy fall. 

''There are, however, two conditions which it would be necessary tor the 
Porte to subscribe before England could give such assurance. 

''Her Majesty's Government intimatra to the Porte, on the occasion of the 
Omf erence at C!onstantinople, that they were not prepared to sanction mis- 
government and oppression, and it wiU oe requisite, bnore thev can enter into 
any agreement for the defence of the Asiatic territories of the Porte in cer- 
tain eventualities, that they should be formally assured of the intention of the 
Porte to introduce the ne ce ss a ry reforms into the government of the Ohristian 
and other subjects of the Porte in these regions, it is not desirable to require 
more than an engagement in general terms, for Uie specific measures to be 
taken could only oe defined af & a more careful inquiiy and deliberation than 
could be secured at the present juncture. 

" It is not impossible that a careful selection and a faithful support of the 
individual oflicers to whom power is to be entrusted in thoie countries would 
be a more important element in the improvement of the condition of the 
Mople than even legislative changes, but the assurance required to give 
England a right to insist on satisfactory arrangements for these purposes will 
be an indispensable part of any agreement to which Her Majesty's Govern- 
ment could consent. It will further be neoessaiy, in order to enable Her 
Majesty's Government eflSciently to execute the enffaffements now proposed, 
that they should occupy a position near the coast of Asia Minor, and Syria. 
The proximity of British officers, and if necessary British troops, will be the 
best security that all the objects of this agreement shall be attained. The 
Island of Oyprus appears to them to be in i3l respects the most available for 
this object Her Majesty's Qovemment do not wish to ask the Sultan to 
alienate territory from nis sovereign^, or to diminish the receipts which now 
pass into his treasuijr. They wUl, therefore, propNoee that while the adininis- 
tration and occupation of Uie island shall be assigned to Her Majesty, the 
tstritory shall stiU continue to be part of the Ottoman Empire, and that the 
excess of the revenue over the expenditure, whatever it at present may 
be, shall be paid over annually by the British Government to the treasniy of 
the Sultan." 



^Q QYFBU9. 

^!bA policy of the Qovermnent with rogaid to the occupation of 
&rpj\xB, WW further explained by the Earl of Beaconsfield in the 
pouj^e of fx)rd9 on Thursday, Jidy 18th. After adverting to the 
^Qea^ion of tenitoiy claimed by BuBsie^ in the Treaty of San 
Stclanp,. t^i F^miei: e^id : " It oeemed to ua that the time had 
cpme flxei) we ought to consider whether certain efforts should 
not be ina^e to put an end to these perpetuftUy occurring wars 
l)^twe<^ j})i9 Por6a ctpd Bussia, ending, it may be, sometimf^s, 
^pparQAfi^Y ipi Qomparatively ii^sigQificant results, but always termi* 
gating with, one fatal resultr—namely, shaking to the centre the 
influence and the prestige of the I^orte in Asia, and diminishing the 
^leans of profitably and advantageously governing that country 
. . . . the time had come when we ought to consider whether 
"^e could not do something which would improve the general con- 
dition of the dominions of the Sultan in Asia, and instead of these 
most fc^voured portions of the globe every year being in a more 
^rlorp wd disadvautageous position, whether it would not be 
pos^ble to teke some step which would secure at least tranquillity 
imd order; and, when tranquillity and order were secured, whether 
son^e opportiuiity might not be given to !Ehirope to develope the 
^[esQurcQA of a country which nature has made so rich and teeming 
. , s . Now this was the origin of that Convention at Con-^ 
atantiuppl^ which is on your Lordships' table, and in that Conven- 
tion our object was not merely a military, or chiefly a military 
object Our object was to place this country certainly iii a posi- 
tion in which its advice, and in which its conduct might, at leasts 
hftvo the advantage of being connected with the military power, and 
with that force which it is necessary to possess often when ^ny 
great transactions are upon the carpet . . ^ . Our object iA 
entering into that engagemept with Turkey was, as I said before, tq 
producQ tranquillity and order. We have, therefore, entered into 
fin alliance — ^a defensive alliance — with Turkey, to guard he^ 
against a4y further attack from Bussia. . , . . In teking 
C^ixil?^ the movement is not Mediterranean ; it is English. Wei 
^ve tcuceQ a step there which we thijik necessary for the main-r 
tenance of our Empire, and for its preservation in peace. If that 
^ our toft consideration, our next is the development of the 
gqwtry. .... I only hope t^at the Qouse will not mis- 
\ppLde^um4 — W<} \ thi^ik the county will not misunderstand — oiur 
QiqtiyQQ. in Qccupying Cyprus, and in encouraging those intimatq 
relatiomf with the Government and thq population of Turkey. 
They are not movements of war : they are operations of peace and 
of civiijst^tion." 
Detaila of the Tb^ evmtff pf th^ British occupation have since followed one 
oooapatton. another in rapid succession ; they may be briefly summed i^p aq 
upde?: — 

/t^Iv ll^^Mr. W. l^aring, oecond 9ecretaiy of H.M.'s ^ba^Qy 
^t th^ Tortq, earived at Cypnm bearing the Sultan's firman, and 
took official possession of tne island on behalf of Great Britain, 
^'t the same time, the cession was proclaimed by Samih Pasha, the 
representative of the Sultan. 



HI8T0RT OF CTPRUS. 8l 

July 12th — lieutenaut-General Sir Garnet Wolselev, G.O.M.G.> 
K.C.B., gazetted to be the Administrator of the Island of Chrpros, 
under the style of H.M.'s High Commissioner and Commanaer-in- 
Chief. (Published in the Gazette of Tuesday, July 16tL) 

The ceremonial of the surrender of Cyprus to Great Britain^as 
completed at Nicosia, the capital, by Admiral Lord John Hay, 
Acting Governor. 

July l^th — Sir Gkunet Wolseley, and Staff, left London for 
Cyprus. 

July Vlth — Sir Garnet Wolseley, and Staff, reached Malta on, 
their way to Cyprus. Four hundred Indian troops from Malta 
disembarked at Lamaca, in Cyprus. 

July nth — Sir Garnet Wolseley, and the greater part of the 
British and Indian troops intended to form the Cyprus garrison, 
sailed from Malta. 

Jidy 22nd — Sir Garnet Wolseley landed at Lamaca, tdok the 
oaths of allegiance and of ofKcOi and assumed the goyemment 

The British Garrison in Cyprus was composed as follows : 

High CommiflBioner and LientensntrGeneral Sir G. J. Wolseley^ G.C.M.G.9 Bbdt. * 

Commander in Chiaf ELC.B. 

Chief of the Staff .... Brevet Colonel G. R Greavesi QB. half-pay late 

70th F. 
An&tant Military Secre- Brevet Lieut-Colonel R CL BobmU, C.R 13th 

tary Hussars. 

A 'j^ J n ».. i Captain H. M'Caimont, 7th Huasars. 

Aides de Camp | Cajitain B. F. Zorrf Gifford 67th Regiment; 

Brigadier General .... Major General W. Payn^ C.B. 

Ai^ de Camp Lieut G. Bourke, RA. 

BriWe Major Captain H. J. T. Hildyard, 7l8t High. L.L 

AjBsistant Adjutant and f Brevet Lieut -Colonel H. Brackenhury, RA. 
QiuurterMasterGeneral \ Brevet Colonel Hon, J. C Dormer h.p. late 13th L.L 

^^5[f ^^!^^k.Jit I B'^^e* Major Aon. H. J. 1. Wood, ISth Unoen 

'Brevet Colonel R Biddulph, C.R RA. 
Captam J. F. Maurice, R A. 
Specially employed ....- Captain J. T. Burr, RA. 

Lieut W. H. Holbech, 60th Rifles. 
(^Captain L. L. Swaine^ R Brigade. 
District Commiasary .... D4>uty Commiasary General A. W. Downei^ QR 

General 
CommiBsazy (Ordnance).... CommiiBary T. Sparkes. 

3l8t Company, Royal Engineers. British 

F Battery 3nd Brigade, myal Artillery. Troops. 

42nd Royal Highlanders. 

7l8t Highland Light Infantry. 

lOlst Royal Bengal Fusiliers. 

Detachments of the Army Service and Army Hospital CotXM. 

2 Companies Bombay Sappers and Miners. Indian iioope. 

2 Companies Madras Sappers and Miuers. 

1st Bombay Lancers. 

9th Bombay Native Infantry. 

26th Boml)ay „ „ 

13th Bengal „ „ 



* From the Armj List of August, 1878. 



82 CYPHUS. 

3l8t Benffal Native Infantry. 
3n4 Qoonika Beffiment. 
S6tb Madras Native Infantry. 



8I7MHAB7 OF TH|S DATES OF THE CHIEF EVENTS IN THE HISTOBT 

OF CYPKUS 

No exact dates with r^ard to the early colonization of Oyprua 
can be ascertained : Eratosthenes gives B.c. 1045, as the approxi- 
mate date of the first Phoenician settlements, but the island was 
inhabited many centuries before this period. 

B.O. 1000. Bevolt againat the eoverei^ty of Hiram, King of l^re. 
,, 707. Tribute paid to Sargon, King of Aaayria, by the Cypriote 

Kings. 
^ SM. Invaaion by Apriea, King of Egypt 

550. CvpruB brought under Egyptian nde by Bling Amaeia 

5S5. The C^riote Kings tender allegiance to Gunbysea^ King of 

Persia. 
477. Oonquest of part of Cyprus by the Greeks under Pausaniaa. 
3S7. Peace of Antalcidas. Cyprus became a Persian possension. 
93S. The Qnpriote Kings declared in favour of Alexander the 
Great 
„ 3^ Qz^ the death of Alexander, Cyprus was allotted to AntigonusL 
„ 295. Commencement of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Cyprua 
M 58. Cvjprus annexed by the Boman Empire. 
▲.D. 45. ylnt of Paul and Barnabas, and conversion of Sergiu^ Paulua. 
„ 115. Insurrection by the Jews, and maaaacrejif Greek population. 



n 

»• 
•> 



305. Cyprus became part of the Eastem, or Bycantinej Ehnpire. 

648. Invasion by the Arabs, and destruction of Balamis. 

802. Cyprus conquered by tne Saracens in the reign of Hanmn-el- 

964. Cyprus regained by the Byzantine Empire. 

1191. tionquest of Cyprus by luchard I of England, and sale to the 
Templars. 

1192. Commencement of the Lusignan dynaatv. 
1 393. Fama^ta taken by the Genoese, and hefd by them for 90 rears. 
1425. Invasion of Cyprus by the Egyptians, after which the Island 

became tributory to fegypt 

9, 1489. The Venetian Bepublic annexed Cyprus. 

1546. Serious rebellion m the island. 

1570. Invasion by the Turks, and capture of Nicosia. 

1571. Famagusta besieged, and taken by the Tvaka, 
1573. Cyprus ceded by treaty to the Porte by the Yenetian Republic. 
1764. Insurrection and civil war in Cyprus. 
1832. Temporary occupation by Egypt 

,, 1840. Cyprus pyen back to the Porte by E^jpt 

„ 1878. Occupation of Cyprus by Great Britain. 



99 

n 

99 

99 
99 
19 



99 
99 
99 
99 
99 
99 



OKOGRAPHT AND TOPOORA.PHT. 33 



CHAPTER II. 



Geoorapht and Topoorapht. 

The Island of Cyprus is situated in the north-east part of the SitiuUon. 
eastern basin of the Mediterranean, with Asia Minor to the north 
of it and Syria to the east, between latitude 34"" 30' to 35'' 41' N., 
and longitude 32^ 15' to 34^ 35' 30" K 

The distance from Cape St Andrea, the north-east extremity of 
the island, to the nearest point of the Coast of SyriA in the neigh- 
bourhood of Latakiehy is >bout 60 miles ; Cape fcormaldti on the 
northern shore is about 41 miles from Cape Anamour in Cilicia. 
Lamaca, on the southern shore, the chief port of the island, is 258 
miles from Port Said, and 1,117 miles from the harbour of Yaletta 
in Malta.* 

The estimates of the area of Cjrprus differ considerably, in con- Extent and 
sequence, no doubt, of the imperfect manner in which tiie island *^*P«' 
has been surveyed. Keith Johnston's estimate is 3,678 square 
miles, Drs. linger and Kotschy state it to be 3,788 square miles, 
other writers believe it to be 4,200 or 4,500 square miles, but these 
last measurements appear to be considerably above the mark. 

arprus is larger than either Corsica or Crete, the areas of which 
ands are 3,377 and 3,327 square miles respectively, and the only 
Mediterranean islands which surpass it in extent are Sardinia and 
Sicily. The greatest length of Cyprus from west-south-west to 
east^north-east, between Cape Drepano and Cape Sb Andrea, is 
140 miles, and the greatest breadth from north to south, between 
Cape Kormakiti and Cape Gata, is 59 miles. 

The greater part of the island is in shape somewhat of an 
irregular parallelogram, about 100 miles long from west to east, 
and from 69 to 33^ mUes in breadth ; the remainder consists of a 
peninsula about 40 miles long and from ten to three miles broad, 
projecting in an east-north-east direction, and terminating at Cape 
St Andrea. The ancients compared the shape of the island to that 
of an outspread deer's skin or fleece, of which the tail was the long 
peninsula above mentioned ; a glance at the map will show that the 
fancied resemblance was not inappropriate. 

On the north coast are Cape Kormakiti (the north-west Cape9.t 
extremity). Cape Plakoti, and Cape St. Andrea (the north-east 

* These meaearementa nre giren in Eii|dish mfles of 69*1 to the decree, and are 
taken from Kiepert't Map of the Ottoman Empire. From Lamaca to v alefeta ia 070 
nantieal milea. 

t The Oapes, gnlft, bajt, roadsteads and harhonrt are deeoribed in the Ooaei 
Be|Kni at Chapter Y, here thej are onlj named. 

(774) 



M cmTB. 



dtrecitf). Od tLe wut txod^ Gfcfe K«ikkii>o, Pcsao Piiat^ Gipe 
Aranffi^i, or Sc Tj^zi^hkinio, the anrirrit 4ramM 'lije meat vsteni 
fotzji^^ Gi4« ]>r«^iu]^, umI Gipe Ka5>, or PjifLo. On the sMith 
ecMot ; Ciipe Biucioo, CWpe ZepLgui, Cfcpe Gula 'iLe sDcxLcaii pant 
«f tiie iiluiiJy. Cftzrclttie PoiiiCC&pe Kid,ixkd Gi|ie PlIl On the 
cut crju^ Giipe Gicco (the aocil^^ast tixXrtautj of the isbnd), 
Oitpe Eut^ Pjrnia Pointy and Gape Peia, <v Vousteix Point. In 
aDsskn to these nnmeroos capes the island wmtat ooe timecillod 
ty the anraCTita^ Censtis^or h^ i&LoML 
Oii& ni FamagoBla Bay, or the Bay of Salamis, on the east ; T^wi^Aa 

Bcf, .Akiodii /liinaa&l) Baj« and the Gclf of Pifioopi aa the aonth ; 
the GnlCi of Khiysokho, umI Morpbo, or Pfaitagia, in the notth- 
west put of the islaDd. 

The Roadsteads are at Famagnstn^ imnnaj^^ and limaaoL 
iuBinxB. Formeil J there w&e harbcHns at Salamin, Famagosta^ Baffio. and 
GetiDea^ bat the pien are now in a mined state, and the interiore 
dkoked with sand and mud. (See Chapter Y.) 

In the interior, Nicosia (the capital), Kythnaa^ Vatili, Athifjym, 
Dali, lithiodonda, Kilani (Gilan), Omodos^ Leflca. 

On or dose to the coast: — 

Scmtk — TjuTiana. Timaaol, yolossi, Piskopi, ATdinn, ^SDOii, 
Knklia. 

W€9t—BaJfo, Ktima, Poli tcRi Khiysokho, Soli, Moipha 

Jtr^i^rA— Ooiinea^ Tayftthns, Acanthon, Kantaia^ Kupas (Bhizo 



Ikut — FaniagQSta» Varoschia, SalaTniii Qr rains). 

Hie mountains of Cyprus are the chief topogrsphicsl featiue of 
the conntiy. lliey consist of two main systems, niiich are separate 
and distinct. The northern range, called the Kaipas Moontain^, 
and, to waids their western extremity, the Cerinea Monntains, fonna a 
continuous chain bordering the nordiem shore 6om Cape St Andrea 
to Cape Konnakiti, a distance of about 100 nulea. The summit 
of this renge consists throughout of a narrow, but rocky and rugged, 
ridge, whidi is generally within about three miles of the coast At 
the foot of the northern slope, which is veiy abrupt^ there is k 
naiTow and fertile plain, which is well watered and hs^ a prsduo- 
tive soil On the south side the countzy falls to the laige plain of 
ICessaria, which occupies the centre of the island. 

Threughout the eastern portion of the range, the elevations do 
not exceed 2,000) feet, but in tlie centre and west are higher 
summits: via., Kautara, 2,020 feet above the sea; Pentadaktyion, 
2,480 feet ; Buffavento, S,240 feet ; Mount Eliaa, 2,810 feet ; and 
St Hilarion, S,S40 foctt 

On the summits of *Kantara, Buffavento and St Hilarion are 
ruined castles, and there are several monasteries, some of which 
are also in ruins. 

The streams flowing iVom tliis chain of mountains are merely 
brooks and mountain U^rrenta, and are short and uuimpoitant 

The second raup:^ of mountains is the most extensive as well 

• NiMkrly *)1 ihiws lomna m\A tilU^r^yi ni^ ^^U> <^M«<^vibea m Chapten III and IV. 
t Th«««» af«) ili« lioighu ^{yt^n rtn \ht kAmivtiM^ OhMi, No. a074 j the iguzM of 
«tb«r MilhoriUM ikM but ywy •hglU^y <)iA>)x>nls 



GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 85 

as tlie most lofty ; it occupies the whole of the western and south- 
western portions of thfa island, and trending thence along the south 
coasts terminates in the isolated peak called Monte S. Croce, or 
Btavrovonni (Oros Stavro), about 12 miles west of Lamaca* The 
highest summit of this range, which is also the most elevated point 
in Cyprus, is now known as Mount Troodos, 6,590 feet ; this summit 
is said to be the ancient Olympus, though it is also asserted that 
the mountain designated by Strabo under that name is evidently 
Stavrovouni (2,300 feet). Other lofty summits in this chain are 
Mount Adelph^, 5,883 feet, and Mount Makhera, 4,730 feet* This 
range throws off on all sides subordinate ranges, or spurs, of con- 
siderable altitude, one of these extends to Cape An^auti, and fills 
up the north-western extremity of the island. Other spurs, called 
the Elikko mountains, of wliich the highest summit is 3,863 feet 
above sea level, branch off northwards, from the western part of 
the range, towards Pomo Point, and numerous ramifications extend 
from Mount Troodos and Mount Makhera towards the southern 
coast. 

Lastly, from Stavrovouni a succession of low hills run eastward 
towards Cape Greco. 

The northern slopes of the Olympus range are somewhat bold 
and rugged, but the southern side is still more so, presenting a 
deeply serrated outline, with partially wooded slopes ; the trees 
found here are chiefly pines of several varieties, oaks, cypresses, &c. 
The valleys are very deep, and have steep sides which are generally 
covered with a luxuriant growth of arbutus, olives, myrtles, carobs, 
junipers, oleanders, and other shrubs. 

The rivers of Cyprus are nearly all mere mountain torrents^ Riren. 
with rough and stony beds which are generally dry in summer. 
None of the rivers are navigable. After the spring and winter 
rains, the water rushes with violence down the slopes of the moun- 
tains, fills up, and then breaks out from, the narrow water-courses, 
overflowing the surrounding country, and depositing upon it a rich 
alluvial earth, which enriches the soil^ and to which much of its 
fertility is due. This tendency of the streams to overflow their 
baz^ at certain seasons, has, however, an evU effect in the pro- 
duction of lai^e marshes, which breed miasma and cause fevers ; 
to drain these marshes and bank up the channels of the rivers, are, 
perhaps, amongst the engineering works most ur^ntly needed in 
Cyprus. The variable condition of the water m the rivers at 
different times of the year is probably the reason why no fish 
are to be found in them. The chief rivers of Cyprus which have 
received names are mentioned below ; the list may perhaps appear 
long for an island of this size, but it must be borne in mind 
that onlv the two first-named — the Fedias and the Idalia — are of 
any real importance at present, the others being almost without 
exception mountain torrents which cannot be reUed upon to have 
water in their channels except immediately after rain. 

The laigest river in the island is the Pedias ; it rises amongst 

* These are the heights of the Admiralty Chart. Von Ij5her*t meaeurement o£ 
Moant Troodoe is 6190 feet, and Unger makes aU the heights sligfaUj difterent from 
those giTen abore, 

(774) c 2 



86 CYPRUS. 

the northera slopes of Mount Makhera, and flows at first in a 
northerly direction past Tamassus to Ano Deftera, where it turns 
north-east, and forms a loop round the northern side of the capital, 
Nicosia; it then turns eastward and flows tlirough the plain of 
Messaria, falling into the sea near the ruins of the ancient Salamis, 
ahout four miles north of Famagusta. Its total length is ahout 
65 miles ; throughout its middle and lower course in the plain it is 
largely employed for irrigating the adjacent grain fields; the 
channel is very narrow, and after heavy rain the water overflows 
the banks, inundating the surrounding country, and near the mouth 
extensive marshes have been thus formed. 

The river Idalia (or Yalias), also has its source on the northern 
side of Mount Makbera ; it flows north-east through Lithrodonda 
and past Dali (the ancient Idalium), and here fertilizes a large 
district. After a course of about 38 miles it falls into the Biver 
Pedias in the Messaria plain to the north of the village of Yatili, 
and about 13 miles west of Salamis. 

Tlie Plaho is another small tributary of the Pedias which flows 
from the north side, and joins it about five miles from the mouth. 

The springs at Eytlinea to the north-east of Nicosia supply 
a large amount of water, and, after the several streams unite, they 
form a river which, though short, is of the highest importance as a 
fertilizing agent, and is also used to work several mills. It flows 
due south, and falls into the Pedias about two and a half miles 
below the ancient Chytri. 

The rivers which enter the sea on the south coast of the island 
are the following : — 

The Tretus (or Tetios) river, rises near the Thekla monastery, 
about five miles south of Dali, and flows southwai*d; near its 
mouth it waters a level tmct of country to the west of Cape 
Kiti, and falls into the sea on the south coast of the island after a 
course of about 16 miles. A river, which in some maps is called 
the Deresi, rises in a valley to the north-east of Monte S. Croce, 
and flowing southward nearly parallel to the Tretus, enters the sea 
about one and a-half miles west of that river. It is probably 
not more than a mountain torrent. 

The Pentaskhino river rises on the south side of Monte S. 
Croce, and after receiving the waters of several rivulets falls into 
the sea close to Doles Point. 

The Maroni river rises in the high ground north of Lefkara, 

J asses on the east side of that place, and then flows soutliwards to 
(aroni, falling into the sea a few miles east of Cape Carubier. 
The Yasilipotamus rises among the southern slopes of Mount 
Makhera, and flows south towards Cape Carrubiere. Tlie St. Helenas 
stream rises in the high ground above Ora, and flows southward. 

The Moni river also rises near Ora, and takes a soutlierly course 
past the village of Moni on the Lamaca-Limasol road, reaching the 
shore slightly to the eastward of the site of the ancient Amathus. 
The Garili river is amongst the most important in the island ; 
it tekes ite source in a valley on the south side of Mount Adelph^, 
and flows due south to Limasol. It formed the boundaiy between 
the Piskopi and Limasol districte. Ite length is about 20 miles. 



QE0ORAPR7 AND TOPOGRAPHY. 37 

The Piscopi river is made ap of several streams which rise on the 
southern side of Mount Troodos above Kilani (the Lycos, the 
Kouri, and others), these unite near Trakoni ; the river crosses the 
Limasol-Baffo road at Fiskopi, and enters the sea to the west of 
Cape Zepbsari. 

The Enapotamus flows southwards from near Flataniskia, 
The Diarisos, or Hieropotamus, rises in the mountainous region 
to Uie west of Mount Troodos, passes near Omodos, and enters the 
sea close to Euklia and Pal® Paphos. This is one of the principal 
rivers of tlie island. 

The Biver Ezusa, the ancient Bogarus, rises slightly to the west 
of the Diarisos ; it flows in a south-westerly direction, and enters the 
sea nearly opposite the Mulia rocks, to the south of Bafib. 

None but very small and unimportant torrents flow into the 
sea on the west coast between Baflfo and Cape Amauti. 

On the north-west side of the island we find several streams : — 

The Aspno Bremo torrent flows from near Ehrysoroghiatissa 
into the Gulf of Ehrysokho, near the town of that name. 

The Xerophano river rises in a valley amongst the north- 
western spurs of the Troodos range, near the Ei&o monasteryi 
and flows northwards, entering the sea close to Cape limnitL 

The Sllaros river ri^es on the north side of Mount Troodos, and 
Rows northwards, past Evrikou, into the Bay of Morpho. 

The Morpho river flows westwards through the plain of Morpho, 
where it is largely utilized for irrigation, and falls into the Bay of 
the same name. Along the north coast, from Cape Eormakiti to 
Gape St. Andrea, a large number of mountain torrents rush down, 
after rainy weather, from the mountains which border the shore, 
but none of them are of importance, or can even be depended 
upon to contain any water in their channels except during winter. 

The chief springs are at Eythraea, Hierokipos, Arpera, Earava 
and Lapethus. The three first-named are especially worthy of 
notice on account of their volume of water. 

Eythraui is about nine miles north-east of Nicosia, and near the 
foot of tlie southern slope of the mountains which here border the 
coast The water issues from a limestone breccia in five laige 
streams and several smaller ones; these soon unite, forming a 
small river which is a fertilizing agent for the whole distnct, 
and has caused settlements to be established in this neighbourhood 
from the earliest ages. The water is of good quality, and is always 
cold in summer. The stream is sufficiently strong to work about a 
dozen mills; the water was at one time conveyed by a large 
aqueduct to the then populous city of Salamis, 25 miles distant^ but 
now all that remains from irrigation runs into the Pedias near 
Chytri. Hierokipos is a small village about three miles east of 
Bafib, and is supposed to have been the site of the garden of 
Venus ; here a larae spring gushes out from the rock, supplying 
abundance of excellent water, which is of the highest value in the 
cultivation of the gardens in the vicinity. Arpera is a tmsJl 
village about seven miles south-west of Larnaca ; the water of 
the spring at this spot has, for hundreds of years, been brought 
by means of an aqueduct to Larnaca, but tliis supply alone is 



38 CYPRUS. 

• 

not sufficient to meet the requirements of both quarters of the 
town. 

jj^eB. ^® ^^^ ^^' mention by travellers of the existence of any fresh- 

water lakes in the mountain regions, and there are but two in the 
plains, viz., Lakes Paralinmi and Yatili. The first of these is 
situated about three and a-half miles south of Famagusta ; it is four 
' m^es Ions from east to west, and about one mile broad. 

Lake Yatili, in the Messaria Plain, is shown on the geologically 
coloured map in Drs. linger and Eotschy's work on Cyprus, to the 
north of the village of Yatili, and not far from the junction of the 
riyers Pedias and Idalia. No other map indicates its existence. 
Both these lakes dry up very considerably in summer, and the 
authors mentioned above, say that Gaudiy's assertion that fish are 
to be found in them is no longer correct. When General di 
Cesnola paased Lake Paralimni he noticed that it was dry, and he 
mentions that in the time of the Venetians, rice waa cultivated in 
the neighbourhood, which shows that plenty of water for irrigation 
must then have been available. There are two small lakes close to 
the sea between Famagusta and the ruins of Salamis, but the water 
of thesQ is brackish. In addition to the above there are the laige 
9alt lakes near both Lamaka and Limasol; these lakes, and the 
manner in which the salt is produced and gathered, are described in 
Chapter IX; 

p. . The l^est and most important plain in the island is that called 

the Messaria ; it is a broad tract of trcoloss land, extending ontii*ely 
across the island from the Bay of Famagusta to Moi'pho Bay, a dis* 
tiance of about 60 miles, and with a breadth varying from 10 to 20 
miles. The plain is broken here and there by curious table-shaped 
heights composed of layers of conglomerate and sand ; they occur 
chiefly in that part of the plain lying to the south-east of Nicosia ; 
they are sometimes i*ectangular and sometimes round in shape, the 
intervals between them appear to have been caused by the action 
of water, and the hills themselves are of the pliocene or quaternary 
age ; the ground where they occur is not cultivated. 

The Messaria is watered by the Pedias, the Idalia, and the 
Morpho rivers, and their tributaries ; these streams, though as a 
rule dry in summer, in winter and spring overflow their banks, and 
deposit ove)* the surface of the ground a rich alluvial soil which acts 
as a manure, and adds greatly to the fertility of the adjoining fields. 
In this plain is situated a large proportion of the cultivated 
area of the island, nearly the whole of the northern part is tilled 
axmually, and produces good grain crops. It is said that the ordi- 
nary ai*able land averages £3 to £3 lOa. per acre, but cotton-pro- 
ducing ground generally fetches £10 per acre. The best lands 
ave reported to yield 30 bushels of wheat per acre, and in a good 
year as much as 40 bushels of barley are produced per acre. Still 
the plain is not now cultivated to anything like the extent that it 
formerly was ; Yon Loher tells us that two centuries ago the whole 
of it was one huge highly cultivated fields filled with corn, vines> 
iiuit, and vegetables, but that every year it becomes more unfit for 
cultivation, stones and marshes usurping much of what was for- 
merly fertile and productive land. 



GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 89 

Another level tract of country borders the shore of the west 
side of the Bay of Lamaca ; much of the land Iiere is waste, and 
'covered with heath, weeds, prickly shrubs and thistles : a third 
plain borders part of the road between Famagusta and Larnaca to 
the north of the village of Ormidia. It is said that the famous 
forest of Idalium once extended over this part of the island, but it 
is now described as a dreary, treeless, and uninhabited plain. 
Lastly, there is a very narrow strip of nearly level and partially 
cultivated ground, bordering the northern shore at the foot of the 
Gerinea mountains. 



40 CYPRUS. 



OHAPTEB ni .♦ 
Towns, Villages, and Antiquities. 

NICOSIA. 

d^^'^^^^^f NicosrA, called also Lefcosia, has since the time of the Lusignans 
Uw^wn.^ ^ ^6^ ^^^^ capital of Cyprus, the seat of the government, and the 

residence of the Governor. The population is now estimated at 
about 16,000, and a greater proportion of the inhabitants are 
Mussulmans than in any other town in Cyprus. Nicosia is situated 
IQ the flat, fertile, and treeless plain called the Messaria, and at 
ft distance of about 12 miles from the north coast of the island. 
As Nicosia is approached from Lamaca, the town comes into view 
from a small ridge about two miles distant, and from here it has a 
picturesque and even imposing appearance ; inside the circle of 
fortifications are seen domes, minarets, spires, flat roofed houses 
with gaily painted balconies, alternating with palm, orange, and 
lemon trees ; the interior does not, however, fulfil the expectations 
raised by this first view, for the town is irregularly built, and inter- 
sected by narrow and tortuous stone-paved lanes, which are bounded 
by high garden walls. 
Homes. There are no w but very few good or commodious houses in Nicosia, 

as those built by the Lusignan nobles are crumbling away in decay. 
Nearly all are built of mud-coloured sun-dried bricks ; some few 
have the lower story composed of stone hewn by the Venetians 
during their occupation, but the great pi'oportion are simply one- 
storied rectangiuar buildings with small courtyards. The bazaars 
afford almost the only variety of scene in the town ; they are either 
under arches, or are covered overhead with trellised vines or 
stretched awning of canvas. The articles offered for sale are vege- 
tables and fruits, unbleached cotton goods from Manchester, which 
have been printed on the spot in flaring colours, tin ware, pack 
saddles, rugs, silks of native manufacture, petroleum, &c. No 
house furniture can be obtained, and the local tradesmen are unenter- 
prising and apathetic. The largest bazaar has been built since 
1856, the old one having been destroyed by fire in that year. 
Oathednl and Ihe Cathedral of St Sophia is a fine edifice built in the Gothic 
chnrohM. gtyle ; it was formerly richly decorated, but of the ornamentation 

* Tliu GUiaptor ia ohiefljr oonflned to a topoorapbical dotcripiion of Uio principal 
plaoei in Oypnu, and a ttatemont of tuch f oiiiflcauona aa Uiej maj poeecss s aoparata 
ohapten are deroted to the oonaideration of their indiutriea, tntde, agrioultaral 
producta, and capabilitiea for the formation of harboora . 



I 



TOWNS, VIUaAOBS, AND ANTIQUITIES. 41 

only the carved stonework how remains. The pillared interior is 
approached from the portico by three arched portals. The Turks 
have daubed the walls with whitewash streaked with red, yellow, 
and green, and the beautv of the architecture is now all that is 
worth seeing. The Gothic towers have been destroyed, and only 
their mere ^es still stand ; with the hewn stone thus obtained two 
unusually high Moslem minarets have been erected by the side of 
the bell tower. Another beautiful ancient Christian church, that of 
St. Nicholas, stands close to the Cathedral, and is now used by the 
Turks as a granary. It has three noble entrance gates, and aU the 
niches are decorated with a fine stone tracery. The Archbishop's 
Chapel is an interesting building, the walls of which are covered 
with ancient pictures. 

There is also a small church used as a place of worship by the 
Armenians, who number about 160 in Nicosia. 

Nicosia is literally without drainage, and the ground is sodden Want of 
with the sewage of centuries. There is no fall of ground, so that dimuMge. 
the rains, when they come, wash nothing away. AU sewase which 
does not remain on the surface stan£ in cesspools, which are 
generally close to wells. Hence, in the hot months the place is de- 
scribed as a fecund fever bed, and until sanitary measures have been 
ut into execution, Nicosia can scarcely be considered as habitable 
y Europeans. 

The water supply of the town is abundant, and when it first Water mpply. 
comes into the place is cool, clear, and of excellent quality. An 
aqueduct which is supplied from the adjacent hills by a communica- 
tion supported on arches, encircles the town following the line of 
the fortifications ; at frequent intervals, subsidiary conduits lead 
from it to the fountains in the lower area within ; along these con- 
duits pure water constantly flows, and it is better to take water 
directly from them, than to use the well water. The overflow of 
the fountains runs along shallow open ditches in the centre of the 
streets, and from these ditches smcdl drains are cut into the gardens 
that abound all over the town ; thus these are well irrigated and 
are very productive, the fruit trees being especially fina It may 
perhaps be found necessary in future to convey the aqueduct wat^ 
all over the town in pipes, in order to insure a good supply for 
drinking in all parts. 

Nicosia was first fortified in the time of Constantino the Oreat^ Fottifioalloat. 
and has always been considered a strong place, but in 1570, when 
the Turkish invasion was imminent, the old defences were destroyed 
by the Venetians, the works were entirely remodelled and the town 
was converted into a regular fortress surrounded by walls of three 
miles circuit, pierced by three gates called Paphos, Cerinea, and 
Famagusta, and flanked at regular intervals by eleven bastions which 
were named Podocataro, Costanza^ Davila, Tripoli, Boccas, Mula, 
Quirino, Barbaro, Loredano, Abra, and Carafia. The former circuit 
of the fortifications was no less than nine miles, and by this great 
reduction of the length of parapet to be defended, the strength of 
the place was matenallyjncreased, but, in order to effect the alterap- 
tion, a laige area of the suburbs, together with many churches and 
a large monastery had to be levelled. The walls were originally 



42 



QYPBUS. 



iigh and massive, and when made must have been very Strang; 
ibey are now in a dilapidated condition, and by no means as perfect 
(U9 tl^ose of Famagusta» The rampart consists of two retaining 
walls of stone with earth rammed in between them, in places they 
are 80 or 40 feet high ; the top is level and is used as a walk and 
ride. The ditch, if ever there was one, is now wholly obliterated, 
aiid as the town is commanded by high ground within range on three 
sides, it could not in its present state be held against the fire of 
modem artillery. The ramparts are armed with about 50 guns, 
moat of which are of old and curious patterns, and quite obsolete ; 
some are Venetian bronze cannon, and both guns and carriages are 
quite worn out and unserviceable, with the exception of a few 
English naval guns made in the reign of George III, from which it 
is possible to fire salutes. The fortress of Nicosia, defended by the 
Venetians, withstood for 45 days a vigorous si^e on the part of 
the Turks, it was at last taken by storm on the 9th September, 
1570, and from that day commenced the rapid decline and decay 
of. the city, which was so celebrated in the time of the Lusignans. 



Ancient his- 
tory. 



Situation. 



Deffcriptiou. 



FAHAGUSTA. 

Famagusta (called by the Turks, Maoussa) occupies the site of 
the ancient Ammochostos, one of the royal cities which paid tribute 
ta Assyria, and it is also said that Ptolemy Philadelphus founded 
here one of the four cities named by him after his sister Arsinoe. 
After the battle of Actium, Augustus called it Fama Agusti, fix)m 
which the present name is derived. The town, which had been 
built 800 years ago by the Christians out of the ruins of Salamis, 
was destroyed by the Turks in 1571, after the terrible siege during 
which the Venetian soldiers so long and heroically defended their 
position. 

Famagusta is situated on the east coast of the island, in the bay 
of the same name, and about 4^ miles south of the ancient city 
and port of Salamis. 

This once considerable and important city is now described as 
consisting simply of a mass of ruius, and the streets are said to be 
at present only lanes almost choked up by the fallen ruins of the 
adjacent buildings. Under the Lusignans and the Venetians, 
Faiuagusta was a populous city, counting its beautiful churches by 
hundreds, and its pcdatial mansions by thousands. Now the place 
is almost uninhabited, except by a company of Turkish soldier% 
and the native population is not above 500, all of whom axe 
Mussulmans. Of the 300 churches which are said to have existed, 
two pnly now remain ; the beautiful Latin Cathedral of St Nicolas 
is now used as the Turkish mosque of Famagusta ; it is a very large 
apd fine structure in the Gothic style, and although it is much 
ruined, the rose windows bricked up, the ft^scoes covered with 
plaster, and the altar-piece dismantled, its splendid proportions still 
remain in their original grandeur. The other church is used as a 
gcanary and stable by the Turks. On the still existing walls of 
many of the fine mediaeval churches, frescoes remain plainly visible 
in the interiors. The hewn stones with which the houses are built 



TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND ANTIQUITIES. 43 

are lying about in all directions ; the few inhabited houses are of 
stone, small, rectangular, and flat-roofed. There is a barrack in 
which the garrison is quartered, also a hospital, and on the north 
side of the town are bomb-proof magazines and cannon-foundries. 
It is considered that the town might be rebuilt with the stone 
which it contains, and from the ruins of Salamis. 

The place is now very unhealthy, owing to the marshes in the Present un- 
neighbourhood and the defective drainage, and fevers are very pt^ ^^te"**** ' 
valent Consul Lans says that when he was in Cyprus, estimates 
were made for cleansmg the town, and draining the marshes and 
stagnant pools in the covered pits which were made by the Turks • 

in 1571 ; also for introducing good fresh water into the town through 
iron pipes : but, owing to the impecuniosity of the Gk)vemment| and 
the mstability of the Governors, the plans were never put into 
execution. It has been stated by competent authorities tnat with 
a moderate expenditure, Famagusta might again become what it 
was in the time of the Venetians — an agreeable, healthy town> 
capable of containing 30,000 inhabitants. 

The vicinity of Famagusta is fertile and in part cultivated; Zp. 

fruit, v^etables, grain, cotton, and madders, are grown in th6 EI 

neighbourhood ; but the present population is not nearly sufficient 2 

to make the most of the advantages afforded by nature. ^ 

dose outside the city, and to the southward, is the small town Suburb of *• ^^ 

of Varoschia, divided into Upper and Lowbr Varoschia, the popula- VwpoeoWa. ^, 

tion of which is over 2,000 ; tlie inhabitants are chiefly Christians, ^ 

wlio arc not permitted to rcfiido within the walls of Famagusta, v« 

of which place Varoschia may be considered a suburb. This little ; *r- 

town was founded by tlie Christian population expelled from — ^ 

Famagusta at the time of its capture by the Ottoman army; it 1t-^ 

is very thriving, and as neither accommodation or provisions can 

be obtained in Famagusta itself, travellers always come to *'"' 

Varoschia for lodging. Some of the houses are built of stone, «q 

and are as good as any in Lamaca or Nicosia ; the town has also a ^j 

fine Greek church, with a new belfry, which is a fair specimen of 1^ 

the local modem architecture ; there is a good bazaar^ and several m 

manufactures of pottery: Fruitful groves* of orangf) and lemon 
trees abound ; there are also extensive gardens generally studded 
with mulberry trees, which are planted for the cultivation of the f 

silk-worm, and the general appeai*ance of Varoschia presents a .^ 

marked contrast to the gloomy quarters of Famagusta occupied by i 

the Turks. 

Famagusta is strongly fortified ; the walls which surround the FortiflcattoM 
city are nearly in the form of a parallelogram, and measure about ® *^™«So«'»- 
4,000 yards in perimeter. They are built of stone with great | 

solidity and strength, their thickness is 17 feet, and they are pro^- g 

vided with extensive bomb-proof magazines, storehouses, and f 

foundries. Although now dismantled, the ramparts are still in 
a very fair- state of preservation, and it is believed that they could 
easily be adapted to modem requirements, pending the constmc* 
tion of such other works of a more important character aS might be 
dtsemed necessary at any future date, should Famagusta become tha 
port of GypniSi Beneath the ramparts on the land' side is a ditch 



44 



.CYPRUS. 



Situation. 



Name. 



Deaeripti<m of 
the town. 



t 



cut into the rock ; it measures about 80 feet in width and 26 feet in 
depth ; at one time the sea was admitted into it^ but it is now diy. 
The only gate on this side is at the south-west corner, the road 
leading to Yaroschia passes through it, and it is provided with a 
drawbridge and portcullis. The only other gate is on the side of 
the port, and is called the water-gate ; a deep and winding archway 
with a portcullis, here leads under the rampurt of a circular bastion 
to a rude pier of loose stones. There is a citadel on the sea-side, 
which is isolated from the remainder of the works by a ditch of 
stagnant water. The armament of the fortifications is in a very 
ne^ected state ; on the open space above the water-gate are four 
bronze Turkish guns of very old patterns, and mounted on rotten 
carriages ; these are just in a sufficient state of preservation to fire 
salutes, but could scarcely be used for anything else. Several of 
the large Venetian bronze guns, bearing the date 1569, Ue dis- 
mounted close inside the rampaits. Some of the worst criminals 
of the Turkish Empire have until now been confined in the fortress 
of Fomagusta. 

Although this description shows that Famagusta is at present 
in the last state of ruin and decay, still the natural advantages of 
the place, particularly as regards facilities for the construction of a 
harbour, are so great that in all probability the town will occupy 
an important place in the future history of Cyprus. The existing 
remains of the ancient port are fully described in the chapter upon 
the Coast at page 65. 

LABNACA. 

Laruaca, at present the chief commercial town of Cyprus, is 
situated on the south-east coast of the island in a bay of the same 
name, contained between Capes Pila and KitL 

According to General, di Cesnola, the town takes its name from 
the ancient tombs over which it is partly built ; it has been sup- 
posed by some that the word Lamaca, signifying in Greek a box or 
chest, and sometimes a funeral urn or tomb, contained an alluision 
to unJIiealthiness in the place, but this hardly appears to be the 
case. The ancient Citium once occupied the site on which Lamaca 
now stands, and traces of Byzantine architecture are also to be 
found in the neighbourhood. 

Lamaca is comparatively a modem town, having sprung into 
existence since the conquest af the island by the Turks, but, like 
some of the ancient cities of C}rprus, it consists of two separate 
districts a short distance apart. The portion which borders the 
sea-shore is called the Marina (travellers at the beginning of this 
century always called it Salines), while Lamaca proper is to the 
north, and about three-quarters of a mile inland. Some 40 or 50 
years ago the Marina consisted only of a few scattered houses and 
stores, and all the Foreign Consuls and chief residents lived at the 
inland part of the town ; but, since the pirates of the Greek Archi- 
pelago who used to infest these shores, have, thanks especially to the 
efibrts of England, been exterminated, the Marina has become the 
more important district of the two, and is a comparatively thrivinff 
and busy place. At present a line of dwelling-houses, bazaars, and 



TOWNS, TILLAGES, AND ANTIQUITIES. 4t6 

caffs extends for about a mile along the shore, and the strand is a 
thoroughfare from end to end of the sea front, which is chiefly shingle; 
the existing stone jetties are almost entirely ruined and useless, so 
that new ones constructed of wood had to be provided for t&e dis- 
embarkation of our troops ; the massive stone work of the Lusignans 
is nearly everywhere crumbling down into the water. The Foreigh 
Consuls now, with only one or two exceptions, live on the Marina, 
in a row of buildings close to the sea ; several mosques and churches 
are close by ; the Konak, or government building, is a large irregular 
house on the western edge of the Marina, close to the little fort, 
and there is a telegraph office communicating^ with Beyrout ; it is 
said that of late years the Marina has increased in the same ratio as 
Lamaca proper has become depopulated. The external appearance 
of the houses is rather humble, they are generally built of mud 
bricks dried in the sun, and, as a rule, have only one story above 
the ground floor : this is said to be a precaution against the earth- 
quakes which are severely felt here ; still there are some houses of 
several stories, and the interiors of many are both spacious and 
comfortable, many of the apartments are paved with a kind of 
marble, and have long corridors, roomy staircases, and high ceilings, 
all of which are very necessary in such a climate. All the better 
class of houses stand within a courtyard and garden, and are pro- 
vided with lai^e verandahs standing upon light piUars. The roofs, 
which are supported by short beams of red pine, generally consist 
of bamboo matting plastered over with a thick layer of mud ; the 
cementing is cflectcu by the use of talc. Between the Marina and 
the upper town, is a large establishment belonging to the Sisters 
of Charity, containing a chapel, school, and dispensary. In 
Lamaca, there is a fine old Tjatin church, called St Lazarus, which 
is surrounded by rows of pillars with pointed arches between them. 
The main part of the church i£i built in the form of a cross, with a 
dome in the centre, and is evidently of sreat antiquitv ; it comprises 
three long and laige vaults surrounded by cupolas. A Greek bishop 
resides at Lamaca and the population is now more Greek thto 
Turkish; in 1863 the inhabitants were reported to be 10,000 in 
number, the present population is probably greater. The country 
surrounding Lamaca, is arid, uninteresting, and generally without « 
verdure, the soil is white and calcareous. 

It has been generally reported that the climate of Lamaca is Local 
unhealthy in the simimer months, and that intermittent fevers are climate, 
very prevalent at that season ; this insalubrity may however be 
easUy accounted for by the existence of large marshes and salt 
lagoons in the immediate vicinity, as well as by the dirty and 
unwholesome state in which the town has been kept, and there is 
little doubt that the causes of disease are local, and can be easily 
removed. Consul Lang says that during his residence in Lamaca, 
he was able, by means of public subscriptions, to bring under 
cultivation the worst of the two marshes near the town, and to 
introduce by iron pipes a good supply of water into the houses t 
the effect upon the general health of the place was most beneficial, 
and it is considered that more extensive works of a similar kind, 
combined with due attention to the cleansing of the toWn^ Will 
remove all existing causes of unhealthiness. 



48 



CYPBUS. 



'^ftitr fuppi J. 



Monto 8. 
Orooe. 



Buildlnff 
xiiAtflriau. 



The fort of 
Lamm. 



Boadftead. 



Situation.' » 



Popiilafcion 
anainhabi- 
tanta. 

Pesoription. 



Lamaca is well supplied with water ; it is conveyed into ike 
town by aquedu.ct8, and is of good quality, and sufficient in quantity. 
Should the town increase, and a further supply become necessary^ 
it is worthy of notice that this is one of the places where Oaud^ 
suggests th^ water might be found by artesian borings of sufficient 
depth to reiu^h the miocene beds of white marL* 

About i2 miles west of Lamaca is Monte S. Croce. 2,300 feet 
aboye the sea ; here there is a Greek convent which is much re- 
sorted to in summer as a sanatarium, for the heat in the town is 
firequenUy very great, though abated to a certain extent by the sea 
and land breezes, which generally blow at regular intervals. 

Building materials of various descriptions can be obtained in 
the neighbourhood of Larnaca, and it is said that there is no 
difficulty in 'transporting them to the places where they are re- 
quired : this subject is dealt with in Chapter IX. 

The only defence possessed by Lamaca at present, is a small 
and insignificant fort, built in 1626 ; it is situated at the extreme 
west eQa of the Marini^, on the right of the custom-house quay, 
fmd (4ose to the water's edge. It is square, roomy, and has strong 
l^alls 'pf w^te masonry, it is well supplied with water, but is 
pesfectly useless for defence, having no earthen protection, and 
could consequently be quickly demolished by the fire of heavy 
naval guns. Its armament consists of eleven long Ifi-pounders, 
green with verdiffris, and. caked with rust; also four field pieces 
^sed for firing salutes. Meaiy of the gun carriages are broken, and 
all are cumbdnBome and rotten. Two of the guns are of English manu- 
facture, and bear the initials O.R Some of the larger guns are 
mounted to fire tlirough embrasures, and others are en barbiiie on 
the top of the fort, which is reached by a broad zig-zag slope. The 
only use of this fort to us, is as a barrack, there being excellent 
ftccommodation for about 80 men, with officers' quarters. 

The roadstead of Lamaca is described in the chapter upon the 
Coast, pa^ 67, and full particulai's concerning the commerce are 
given in Ohapter XIII. 

UMASOL. 

t 

limasol is situ£Lted on the south coast, in Akrotiri Bay, which 
is enclosed between Capes Carrubiere and Gata, and is about 
42 miles west of Lamaca. 

The town contains a 'population of about 6,000 persons, of 
'^hom about one-third, and these the poorest class, are Turks ; 
among the Greek population there are several wealthy merchants, 
who trade in grain, and the wine of the country. 

Limasol is generally considered the best situated town in 
Ofprus, it is more Euronean in its appearance than any other 
place in the island, and all travellers describe it as comparatively 
neat, clean, and wholesome, with tolerably well built houses of 'day 
and stone. Limasol has but one street ; it is a Ions line of shops 
and cafds wliich run parallel to the beach, and behind it are most of 



• « €Mologie de L*ne de Oliypre/' hj Albert Qmdry (1S59) page 176. Page 16 
6l CaptaiB Maurioo'B translation of this work. 



TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND ANTIQUITIES. 4t 

the best dwelling-houses, all standing in gardens. The bazaat is smaU^ 
and generally closely packed with merchandize ; there is a brisk 
trade in wine, locust-beans, and pain ; nearly all the countries 
which trade with Cyprus have a vice-consul at limaSoL 

A great portion of the inhabitants are poor, and their habita- 
tions are humble, but still they are not such hovels as are deen in 
the other towns. There are several Greek churches and a konak, 
the government building in which the court of justice is held, thU 
prisoners confined, and all local affairs regulatea. The gardens ilii 
and near, the town are very productive, ftnd the fruits are especisiUy 
fine. 

Much of the water iti the town is brackish, but font miles otf ^^^ •upply. 
is a stream from which good and pure water can be obtained ; th6 
better class of the inhabitants generally Send there for their supplj^i 
which is carried in earthenware jars by donkeys. The nvet 
Gkrili flows into the sea close to the western extremity of the towfli 
but cannot alwajrs be depended upon to contain watei*. 

The plain in which Limasol stands is fertile, and might easily h6 Sunonndiiig 
made very productive ; it is thickly studded with locust-bean, (* ooimtij. 
carob trees, which also cover the lower part of the hills BUN 
rounding the plain at some little distance inland. The vineyards, 
for which this part of the island is famous, are situated on the 
southern slopes of Olympus to the north-west of the town. The 
climate is considered better than that of Lamaca, and it is very 
probable that Limasol, under British rule, will thrive and increase, 
and may eventually be one of the most agreeable and best fre- 
quented resorts in the island. 

The anchorage in the roadstead off Limasol is described in Anohongo. 
Chapter V. 

The only fortification is tin old Venetian fort, which is a small DefenoM. 
but inassive square structure, with deep subterranean dungeons, 
(tnd in the centre a deep well, which always contaihs t)ure end 
Cold Water. Its sole armament up to the present time wilS fonf 
old guns, honeycombed with rust. 



dAF)rO. 

Baffo is situated at the south-western extremity of the isla&A Bihuiion. 
on the site Of the ancient Nea Paphos, which, under tihe ^tnatiS 
was the chief town of the western division of the island ; but of PeMripUon. 
late years Baffo has been almost abandoned, and has lately beeii 
reported to be a ruined town containing not more thftn lOO inhabi- 
tants ; scarcely any vestiges of its former importance t^mcdn, and 
the only relic of even the Venetian period is the church dt St 
George. This locality is famous in ancient history as the favourite 
residence of Aphrodite or Venus ; here was her most celeblttted 
temple, and on a hill near Baffo is s ruin which the ilihftbitants 
call the tomb of Venus. During the reign of the fhnpeiDt 
Augustus, the town was destroyed by an earthquake, and *wb^ 
afterwards rebuilt In Paphos, St Paul converted Sergius Paiflus 
the Boman deputy, and here Elymas the sorcera-, wftS Struck i»lilid 



48 



cypBus. 



Bunounding 



^tioia. 



Climate. 



Pefonoet. 



fop ^()4dAyQuriag to froatrate St. Paul's attempts to christianise 
(he PpopW* 

The 9mall an4 unsfife port is fully described in Chapter Y. 

The ^und round» and above, BafiTo, slopes gently down to the 
^ea; it is picturesque, and is extremely fertile; mulbeny trees 
abQU^4» fuid i^^ ^^^ produced in the neighbourhood is the finest 
in the ia^4« Olive trees here attain great perfection, a good deal 
of \o\iSfiGO ba9 also been gro^, and is considered to be of ezccd- 
)ent quality \ a little care and attention bestowed upon the land in 
this neighbourhood would doubtless be very remunerative. 

About one mile north is the large village of Etima, which 
forms the Qreek quarter ; it contains about 1,600 inhabitants and 
has quite eclipsed Baffo itself as a place of residence. The houses 
are small, they are built of rough unhewn stone, and each one is 
provided with a garden. Loher describes this place as " a little 
town standing upon raised stone dykes." 

The climate of the environs of Baffo is generally stated to be 
somewhat unhealthy, for in addition to the ordinary mild fevers 
i^hich are common at certain seasons, other fevers of a more per- 
nicious kind not unfrequently prevail. 

The- port is commanded by a small and insignificant castle, 
Ifhich ^as built by the Turks, but has been allowed to fall into a 
^tate of ruin. 



BiUiation. 



Dascription* 



A 



V 



Hiatoiy. 



.•• * 



Ilaiboar. 



FortiflcAtioiif. 



CERINSA. 

Cerinea, or Kerynia, is a small town situated on the north coast 
of the island, about 14 miles by road from Nicosia, and at the 
foot of the steep slopes of the mountains which here border the 
shore, and stands in the midst of a beautiful and productive country. 

Cerinea is but a small place, and its population is said not to 
exceed 800 persons ; it has been described as a cluster of old, tall, and 
massive houses built almost touching the sea, with a fortress, a 
ruined palace, a mosque, and the mere fragments of a mole and light- 
house. There are however, indications that it was once a large 
and fine town, the outskirts abound with ancient tombs, and where- 
ever excavations have been made valuable antiquities have been 
discovered ; its origin has been traced to the Dorian colonists under 
Prfgcander and Cepheus, and it was the capital of one of the nine 
petty kingdoms into which the island was once divided. 

Xn 1766, we find that the inhabitants of Cerinea under the 
leadership of Halil Aga, took a very prominent share in the revolt 
against the poll-tax of 14 piasti*es which was levied by the 
governor, Hanz Mahommed Effendi. 

The harbour is described in Chapter V ; it is small, and unsafe 
during north winds, but is the usual port for vessels trading 
between Cyprus and the opposite coast of Caramania. 

At one time a strong wall surrounded the town, but the greater 

Sart of this has now fallen down, and has partially filled the 
arbour with its ruins ; on the east side stands the castle of Cerinea, 
a fortress erected, it is said, by the Venetians; it is well built, 
square in shape, and flanked at each comer by a circular tower. 



TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND ANTIQUITIBa. 44 

It is constructed of excellent stone, and in the old days must have 
been a place of great strength, with quarters for a verj large 
^rrison. On the north and east sides it is washed by the sea, and 
IS defended on the south and west sides by a deep ditch;* there is 
a gate on the west side. 

Besides cellars, which were probably used as dungeons, there 
are two tiers of lofty casemated chambers and a flat roof upon 
which the guns were klso worked ; each story of casemates has em- 
brasures, so there were three tiers of fire. 

The armament is a strange assortment of old guns ; there is 
one long bronze piece, the exterior of which is sixteen-sided ; there, 
are old mortars for throwing large stone balls, as well as bronze 
pieces of the time of the Lusignaus, and others which belonged 
to the Venetians. 

General di Cesnola remarks that Cerinea is " almost exclusively GhMieter of 
inhabited by Mussulmans, who, with the garrison, ei\joy a very **»• ushM* 
bad reputation — second only to tlrnt of their co-religionists at New *"**• 
Paphos." 

MORPHO. 

Oeneral di Cesnola describes Morpho as a town containing from Deioription. 
550 to 600 houses. It is situated at the western extremity of the 
Messaria Plain, and near the shore of Morpho Bay. The inhabi- 
tants are mostly Christians ; there is a large Greek convent close 
outside the town with a school for 200 bovs. Several streams 
flowing from the eastward supply Morpho with water, and are used 
for the irrigation of the surrounding fields ; much grain is grown 
in the neighbourhood, and tlie district is considered one of the most 
productive in the island ; madder roots have been cultivated, and 
until they were superseded by the Alizarine dye, were found to be 
very remunerative. The shore of the bay is low and sandy, and is 
suitable for disembarkation from boats, but, with winds from west 
to north, there is always a heavy sea rolling in. 

KUELU. 

The village of Euklia stands upon the site of the ancient Palss Dateripdon. 
Paphos, and is situated about nine miles south east of Bafib on 
the road leading to Limasol. Under the Venetians there was a 
considerable town here, but scarcely anything now remains ex;cept 
a heap of ruined houses, and the pillars and foundations of ancient 
churches. There are only about 30 small stone houses standing, 
these are inhabited partly by Turks and paitly by Greeks, all of 
whom are of a very poor class. 

Loher describes tne place and its vicinity as a " scene of deso- 
lation." The surroimding heights have flowering shrubs here and 
there, interspersed with palms and other trees, but cultivation, 
appears to be neglected. 



(774) 



fiQ CYPBUS. 



DALL 



BMoripCion. * Qpli ifl a 3iball village standinff on the site of the ancient 

tdalium, on the southern edge of me Messaria plain, and about 
ten miles squth of Nicx)sia. The river Idalia passes along the 
Qorthem side of the village, and is a fertilizing agent for the whole 
n^i^hourhood. There was formerly a large temple of Venus here, 
it IS now a mere heap of ruins. General di uesnola made this, 
place his summer residence for several years, and praises it very 
nighlv. At one time the great forest of Idalium covered this spot, 
l^d tne countiy eastward, out now trees are only to be seen close 
t^ running water or wells, and in the immediate vicinity of the 
villages. 

SVRIKOU. 

The village of Evrikou deserves mention, not on account of 
its size, but Decause of its excellent position. It stands in a 
beautiful valley, 1,700 feet above the sea, amongst fruitful and 
luxuriant pastures, about mid-way between Mount Troodos and 
the Gulf of Pentagia or Morpho. T)ie population is about 700, 
and the inhabitants are a very fine race, supposed to be purely 
descended from the ancient Greek colonists. The surrounding 
country is extremely picturesque, and is well wooded with plane, 
oak, elm, poplar, ash, alder, and other trees. The village is said to 
be one of the pleasantest places in the island, and is well suited 
fbr a summer residence. The valley is well watered and cultivated ; 
it could support ten times the number of its present inhabitants. 
Mulberry trees and vines are cultivated, and cotton, wine, and silk 
are sent from here to the markets. Unger, Kotschy, and Von 
Iioher are all loud in their praises of tliis spot. 

The foregoing are the towns and villages of Cyprus, which on 
account of their trade, situation, population, defences, or associa- 
tion with ancient history, are tlie most important places in the 
island ; but besides these there are a gi*eat number of villages, 
some of which are populous, and form the chief towns of districts. 
Ap<?.ofding \Q Vioe-Consul White's report of 1863, the total 
qi^ml^ of towns and villages in the island was then 605, of which 
lis were inhabited solely by Mussulmans, 248 by Christians only,, 
and 239 had a mixed population. 

Tlie following are some of the principal villages which have 
not yet been mentioned : many of these are described in the next 
chapter, which deals with the principal inland communications of 
the island. 

Lefca, a village near the southern comer of Morpho Bay. 

Poll ton Khrysokho, a village near the western extremity of 
the island, and on the gulf of the same name. 

Lapethus, on the north coast, nine miles west of Cerinea. 

Eythraea, famous for its spring, nine miles north-east of 
ITicosia. 

Athienou, on the road between Lamaca and Nicosia, and about 



eitiot* 



TOWNS, VILLA0E8, AND ANTIQUITIES. S£ 

12 miles ftom each ; a village occupied chiefly by muleteers, who 
keep mules for hire. 

Episkopi, on the limasol — ^Baflb road, about eight miles west 
of Limasol. 

Tamassus, a village on the upper course of the Pedias river, and 
once falnous for the mining operations carried on in the viciiiity. 

There are numerous others of about the same size, amongst 
which may be mentioned Lithrodonda, Kilani, Lefkara, Yatili, 
Tricomo, ^radippo, Avdimu, &c. 



ANTIQUITIES. 

tt would be beyond the scope of this work to enter into 
any archaeological details concerning the antiquities of Cyprus; 
these remarks are therefore confined to a brief enumeration of the 
discoveries, and a notice of the light which they throw upon the 
ancient histoiy of the island ; those who are interested in this subject 
will find in General di Cesnola's recently published book, " Cjrprus : 
its Cities, Tombs, and Temples," a complete and well narrated 
record of the explorations made by him in the island, and which 
have been described as adding a new and very iinportaht chapter to 
the histoiy of Art and Archaeology. 

There is but very little to be seen above ground of the remains 
of antiquity in Cyprus ; the ancient royal cities afibrd the most 
interesting fields for the explorer, but as these are now buried, their 
treasures can only be reached by excavation. Idalium, Golgos, 
Curium, and Amathus, have yielded interesting and valuable refics, 
but it is not certain whether these sites have been entirely worked 
out The explorations at Paphos have, so far, been comparatively 
unproductive ; the great temple, rebuilt by Vespasian in the archaic 
form, is now only a mass of shapeless ruins, owins perhaps to the 
effect of successive earthquakes. At Citium, the harbour and the 
waUs of the ancient city may still be traced to the Southward 
of tlie modem town of Lamaca, and excavations have here b^en 
rewarded with some objects of great iiiterest, especially the 
Assyrian stele, bearing the figure and annals of Sckigon, now in 
the Berlin Museum ; also some terra-cottas of the Macedouiali 
period. Salanus has been less productive, as probably the remailiff 
of the ancient city were used for building purposes by the mediadvai 
rulers of the island. 

The antiquities to be found in the island have beeti classified ed ciaMifloftUon 

follows : — o^ antiquiti 

1. Inscriptions.— Egyptian, Assyrian, Cjrpriote, Phoenician, 

Greek, and Boman. 

2. Statues, and figures in stone.. 

3. Terra-cottas.- — ^Archaic, Greek, and false Archaic 
4 Objects in metal — Ornaments and bowls. 
6. Coins. — Cypriote, Phoenician, Greek, Bomatf, Byzantihe, tad 

Kingdom of Qyprus. 
6. Glass. 
(774) D 2 



52 



qrPHUs. 



IntoHptioni. 



Statues. 



TeiTA-cottas. 



Works in 
metal. 



Coins. 



qt)MU. 



Arohitectare. 



7«lae of th« 
disooTeriesin 



An appendix to General 4i Cesnola's work, describes fully the 
Oreek inscriptions discovered at False Paphos, Kythrsea, Curium, 
and other piloses, also the Cypriote inscriptions obtained chiefly in 
Qolgos, and the Phoenician wliich were found at Citium. All 
remains in the Cypriote character are of the highest value to the 
archaeologist. 

A19 regards the statues discovered in Cyprus, there are no traces 
of very Ugh ait ; the character of Oriental taste was too firmly 
fixed for Hellenic art, late in arrival, and never wholly welcome to 
the national instincts, to plant itself securely in the islaRd. It is, 
moreover, evident that art was affected by the abundance of the 
soft limestone of Cyprus, which lent itself with fatal facility to the 
production of inferior work ; thus Cypriote statues are but little 
superior to the lower class of terra-cottas in force of execution and 
attention to detail. Their general characteristics are shown by the 
good typical series of stetues and stetuettes from the famous city of 
Idalium, discovered by Mr. Lang, and arranged in the British 
Museum at the entrance of the great Egyptian gallery on the 
ground floor. 

Among the archaic vases and terra-cottas in the upper gallery 
>vill be found good typical examples of Cypriote work. An inter- 
esting article on the Pottery of Cyprus, by Mr. A. S. Murray, forms 
an Appendix to General di Cesnola's book. 

The metal objecte found at Curium are of beautiful workman- 
ship ; they consist of solid Rold armlets, necklaces, bracelets, signet 
rings, earrings ; paterae of gold and silver ; goblete, bowls, and 
dishes of silver and silver-gilt ; tripods and candelabra of bronze, 
copper, and iron. The drawings of these in General di Cesnola's 
boioK are exceedingly good. 

Coins are found in abundance throughout Cyprus. The most 
valuable are those bearing Cypriote inscriptions, ranging probably 
from the sixth century, b.g. to the middle of the fourth. The 
Phoenician coinages of the Eangs of Citium and Idalium, dating in 
the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., deserve the next place. Botli 
these illustrate the religion and history of the island. A few fine 
Greek coins of Paphos and Salamis have come to light, but they 
were evidently scantily issued. Under the Ptolemies, the mint of 
Cyprus struck a large quantity of money, and as the greater part of 
the silver coins are dated, the class is of unusual interest. The 
Boman coins of Paphos, with the representation of the great temple 
of Aphrodite, are not uncommon. Of subsequent currencies, the 
most interesting is that of the Lusignan Kings of Cyprus, a com- 
plete representetive series of which is very ham to obtain. 

Glass vases are found in great numbers and varieties in the 
tombs at Dali, where the whole vicinity is one vast cemetery ; also 
in the tombs at Amathus, beautiful inidescent glass objecte have 
been found. 

As regards architecture; the mediaeval remains, particularly 
those of the Lusignan dynasty at Nicosia, and of the Genoese at 
Famagusta, merit careful study ; the architecture of many of the 
convents also deserves examination. 

The value of these discoveries is explained by Mr. B. Stuart 



TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND ANTIQUITIES. 63 

Poole in an article in the CatUejnpoi'aiy JRevieia of January, 1878. 
It appears that nntil the late discoveries in Cyprus, followed by 
those in the Troad and at Mycense, no works could be assigned to 
Homer's age, or to the age before him. Homer may be dated 
in the ninth century before our era, and until quite lately there has 
scarcely been known any Greek or Greeco-Asiatic work of art, 
of which it could be said that it was older than about B.C. 800, for 
that is the period to which the objects found in the Hellenic sites 
can be carried back in an unbroken series. Now, however, we have 
a mass of works of an undoubtedly earlier period, and it is believed 
that they range from the Trojan age, perhaps B.C. 1200, to the close of 
the Greek dominion, in a series of monumental records unrivalled for 
continuous succession anywhere in the world save in Egypt; it is 
also evident tliat they are in origin and characteristics r boenician, 
bearing the impress of the art of the nations which ill turn ruled 
the Eastern Mediterranean, Greek art alone being but faintly repre- 
sented. 

Much still remains to be done in the way of antiquarian 
research in Cyprus; the ancient cities of Aphrodisium, Soli, 
Arsinoe and others, are as yet almost untouched, but now that the 
Turkish jealousy of archaeological exploration is removed, these 
sited will doubtless be carefully investigated, and more light thrown 
upon the present obscure subject of the early histoiy of CjrpruS. 



^ CYPBUS. 



CHAPTEB IV. 

Communications: Inland, Mabitime, and Teleqraphig. 

Inland com- ^^^ means of internal communication in Cyprus are, as is generally 
munications. the Case throughout the Turkish dominions, very defective. 

The only road which is really fit for carriages is that connecting 
Nicosia with Lamaca, but even this, as will afterwards be shown, 
is at present anything but a good road according to English ideaa 
The want of a good means of communication between these 
to^ms has long been apparent, and is indeed almost a necessity 
for the conduct of the business of the island, but the apathy and 
dilatoriness of the Turkish officials has long delayed and pre- 
vented its construction. Consul Sandwith in a report of 1867, 
says that an abortive attempt to construct this road was made three 
or four years previously, but instead of devoting any of the usual 
revenue of the island to the purpose, a tax was imposed on that 
part of the country which was to have benefited by the undertaking, 
and its labouring population was compelled to work on thd road 
gratuitously. After £3,000 had been expended in the payment 
of salaries to an engineer and his staff, and in preliminary ex- 
I)enses, the work stopped, the only result being the cutting of a 
ditch for five miles on either side of the intended road. The next 
Governor recommended the abandonment of the scheme, but at 
the beginning of 1867, Consul Sandwith found that the inhabitants 
of the district were still paying the road tax, and as much as 
£130 had been taken from one village, where the population, being 
very poor, had offered to work without remuneration in lieu of 
paying the tax, but were told that money, and not labour, was 
required. 

At some period, however, during the last ten years, this road 
has been inade passable for carriages, and has been daily used by a 
•diligence, or omnibus, which runs between Nicosia and Lamaca, 
but it is very evident from the accounts of it which have lately 
reached us, that a good deal of labour must still be expended upon 
it, before it becomes a convenient communication. The remaining 
roads of the island, even those radiating from Nicosia to the cliief 

J laces on the coast such as Famagusta, Cerinea, Limasol, and 
iaffo, as well as the road along the southern shore from Famagusta, 
through Laniaca and liininsol, to Buffo, avQ said to l>e notliing more 
than lair mule and camel tracks, whicli are, however, used in places 
with more or loss difficulty by the native carts carrying agricul- 
tural produce. Most of these roads might, it is stated, be con- 



COMMUNICATIONS. 



66 



verted into carriage roads without any very gi^eat outlay; more- 
over, the level character of a great portion of the interior of the 
island ofifers facilities for the construction of good roads, and there 
can be no doubt that the immediate attention of the present govern- 
ment will be directed to the subject of the improvement of existing 
conmiunications, and the construction of new ones where requirea 
In the more mountainous parts of the island, only rough and 
difficult bridle paths are at present to be found. Bridges are very 
generally wantmg, and are much needed, for in winter, when the 
numerous torrents which cross the roads are swollen by rain, 
dangerous accidents are of frequent occurrence, as travellers who 
are ignorant of the depth and of the force of the current, are 
compelled to wade across the stream. 

The annual consular reports invariably coiitain allusions to the 
neglect on the part of the Turkish Government of public works, 
and especially the construction and repair of roads and bridges. 

Vizierial orders to provincial governors on the subject, have 
indeed not been wanting, but as no funds are provided or set apart 
for the purpose, the urgent orders practically go no further than 
their record. Consul Kiddell, writing in April 1876, says that 
" the pressure for money to help Imperial necessities at the capital 
is so great, that it is useless to expect any expenditure on the much 
need^ public works in Cj^prus;" and Consul Watkins in his 
report dated March 1878, notices that nothing whatever had been 
done during the past year, and even tlie existing carriage road 
between Larnaca and Nicosia was greatly neglected. 

The following descriptions of the principal inland communica- 
tions of the island have been extracted from the accounts of 
travellers who have passed over them at various times, they may 
serve to give some idea of their present state ; further details are 
not at hand : — 



FlMef onthe 
Road. 




Lamaea 



DESGBIPTION OF TH£ BOAD. 



1. LARNACA TO NICOSIA. 

The road, on leaying the Marina of Lamaea, tokes a 
northerly direction to Larnaca proper, irhich ii about 
three-quarters of a mile distant, and winds through 
the narrow streets of that town, from which it emetgfs 
upon an cxtensire pkin of dry, but apparently fair soil 
of a white marly aescription. For about Ihreo miles 
there are indications of cultiration ; at first cotton fields 
are not infrequent, and portions of land here bear grain 
crops ; yineyards, too, occasionally appear, but the Tines 
in this neighbourhood are generally awarf and stunted, 
and the grapes Tcry small. The general direction of the 
road is north-west, it is yery rough and stony, f uU of deep 
ruts, and entirely out of repair. Tlie Q-reok yiUage ox 



56 



0YPBU8. 



fltMgontlM 



DtoUncMla 
mllM. 



DBSCBIPTION OF TUI BOAD. 



Aradippo •• 



Atkienom • • 



Piroi 



Ificotia •• 



8 



8 



10* 



81 



8 



18i 



17 



26 



Labkaoa to Nicosia — oontinued. 

Aradippo, which oonaists of abont twentj-ilTe houaea and 
a ohurcn, lies a ihort diatanoe to the left of the road, 
and ifl lunronnded hy a few amall gardena. Micoaia 
can be reached hy a road through Aradippo and Dali« 
but the diatance ia rather longer Uian hj the mam road 
through Athienou. 

CultiYation now almost entirelj ceaaes, and the oountir 
is generallj dry and arid, but whercTer there la 
eren a trickle of water all becomes yerdant; at in- 
terrala email huta are paaied, and theie, being built 
dose to water, stand in fertile gardena forming oasea 
in the miniature desert. For about six miles the road 
ascends, but not steeply, and passes through a hiDT 
limestone country ; then a narrow plateau is crossed, 
from which an extensiye yiew oyer the Messaria plain 
is obtained, and the road descends the northern slope of 
the hills. The country is here much broken, ana the 
rayines of the winter torrents are coyered with shrubs. 
There are two roads between Aradippo and AthienoUp 
the westerly one of the two Is the best. The un- 
cultiyated ground Is thickly coyered with wild thyme, 
bushes of a fur^ nature, and thistles. 

The yillage of Athienou conalata of a group of mud 
houses and a neat Greek church. There . is not much 
to attract the eye, but it Is considered in Cyprus a 
thriying yillage, and is chiefly inhabited by muleteers, 
who keep good mules for hire. The yillage stands in a 

gentle depression, and round it are cornfields, some 
irge and rich gardens of oliyes and mulberries, and a 
few yineyards. The water supply is plentiful, and 
some of the undulating ground in tne yidnit^ is under 
tillaffe. The road continues through a partially culti- 
yated countiy, and the plain is yaned here and there 
by low table-shaped hUls of sand and conglomerate. No 
trees are to be seen except the oliyes and other fruit 
trees which generally grow close to the yillages or 
detached houses. 
Piroi is a small and unimportant yillage close to the 
road. Here the riyer Idalia is crossed by a stone bridge 
whidi was built by the Venetians. A mule track from 
Lamaca, which is said to be shorter than tlie main 
road, joins it at the bridge, haying hitherto taken a direo* 
tion sUghtly more to the eastward. The road continuea 
throu(^ a fiat and uninterestinir country and pa s ses 
Adanffia and other insignificant yulaffes ; a low ridge of 
hills & crossed from which a good yiow of Nicosia, 
about two miles distant, is obtained. The northern 
part of the Messaria plain is well oultirated, and 
produces the best gnin crops in the island. The town 
of Nicosia is described in the preceding diapter. 
Ihe whole road, though passable by carriages, u said to 
be in a yery bad condition. 



CiOHMUMICATIONS. 



67 



FlMMoatb* 



In 



mikt. 



I 



DESCBimOK or THB BOAD. 



I^mapuMia, 



12 



12 



ZamoMi 



16 



27 



2. FABiiaUSTA TO LABNAOA. 

The road leayes Famagosta by the gate at the eoath- 
weetern angle of the fortiflcatioDt, and takes a sontherly 
direction to the town off Yaroechia. Both Famagnsta 
and Yaroechia are deteribed in the preceding chapter. 
The road then tarns sonth-west, and partes through a 
flat and drearj country, which is entirely without trees, 
and rery scantilv inhabited. The westm end of Lake 
Paralimni, which in summer is diy, is skirted, and the 
small Tillage of Sotira also lies on the left-hand side of 
the road, which continues through a dry and arid plain, 
OTcr which it is said at one time the forest of Idalium 
extended. 

The Tillage of Ormidia is pleasantly situated at the 
eastern extremity of the Bay of LamacA i it oonsists of 
a number of scattered huts built along a range of 
heiffhts oTcrlooking the water. Genenl di Cesnola 
made this place his summer residence for soTeral years, 
and praises it Teiy hiffhly ; the chief attractions are 
stated to be, a never failing cool breese at night, good 
water, and largo shady gardens. The road turns west 
after passing Ormidia, and skirts the shore of the bay 
for some mues passing MaTrospilios and Ridcelia i the 
sea is bordcrea by low rocks which time and weather 
haTO formed into stalactitio shi^MS. At a ruined and 
dismantled fort called Teni Kale, Uie coast line trends 
round to the southward, and the road follows the 
course of the bay, turning a little inland in order to 
aToid a piece of marshy ground where some streams run 
down to the sea. A great part of the oountiy in thia 
neighbourhood is uncultiTated and coTered with heath, 
weMs, thistles, and thorny shrubs. 

Lamaca is described in the preceding ehapter. This 
road could be made passable by carriages without any 
great labour, as most of the country tniTersed is quite 
flat. 



iVer Pedioi 



l\ 



n 



8. NICOSIA TO CERIVBA. 

The road passes through the fortiflcations by the 
Cerinea gate, and takes a general northerly direction 
through a plain, the srMter part of which is in the spring 
sown with grain, and yields good crops. In summer n 
is, howcTcr, entirely burnt up, and only thistles and 
thorny weeds are to be seen amongst stubble. 

The road crosses the RiTor Pedias about one and a 
half miles from the walls of Nicosia i this stream Is 
Tery Tariable in its condition ; after the rains it is so full 
of water that it oTcrflows its banks, inundates the 
adjoining flat country, and spreads a rich allufium 
orer the fields, but in summer it Is often either diy , or 
has only a mere trickle of water in its bed. Vor 
about two and a half miles more, the road continues 



59 



cypBua 



FlioMonthe 
Boad. 



J>ikomo 



• • 



Summii 
JPaf# 



^ 



DlfUncciia 
udltB, 



2i 



31 



11 



O^rin^a 



• • 



16 



PESO&IPTION OP XHI BOAP. 



NzooBiA TO Obbimba — oontinuod. 

through a plain of the wne nature as abore da* 
Bcribea, then it commences gradually to rise, and 
enters a broken and rugged country, oOYored with low 
rooky hills of a brown colour j these ore dirided* by 
steep gullies, which, in the rainy season become 
torrents. The road is nothing more than a mere 
bridle-path winding amongst the out-cropping ridges 
of rocK. This description of countir -continues for 
about four miles, and then the road dips into a narrow 
Talley, where the green herbage indicates the presence 
of water, flocks of sheep and goats are to be found 
here, but not much of tho land is cultirated, and it is 
reiT thinly populated. 

On the northern side of this yall^, and near the foot 
of the steep slope of the chain of mountains bordering 
the coast, is the vmall Tillage of Dikomo, pleasantly 
situated amongst groyes of trees, and fertile fielA 
irrigated by the springs of the Tslley. The road soon 
commences to asoend somewhat steeply to the summit 
of a low spur which projects from tho main ron^e, and 
alon^ the rid^e of wmoh it continues for a short distance, 
leading straight to a gorge which intersects Uie 
mountains. The surfiice of the ground is chiefly rock, 
but in the interstices and whereyer there is soil, tnere is 
a thick growth of myrtle and eyergreen shrubs, and a 
carpet of wild thyme, and other sweet-scented flowers t 
in the hollows are some young pines and oliye trees. 
In the gorge the road improyos, it is narrow but well 
defined, and has been built across the depressions { the 
surface is somewhat rough and ston^r, but no yery great 
labour would be required to conyert it into a practicable 
road for strong yeludes. The road is not quite straight, 
so the distance measured on the map is only approxi- 
mate. 

The road ascends gradually to the summit of the Pass, 
whence a good yiew is obtained oyer the sea to Cha 
north of the island, and the mountains of Caramania are 
seen on the horison. The gorge is bounded by bare 
grey rocks. As the descent oommenocs the gorge 
beffins to open out, and soon Cerinea may be seen far 
below on the shore. The northern slope of the 
mountains is yery steep, and there is no regular road 
down the side until near the bottom, where a narrow 
belt of smooth ground slopes gently down to the water's 
edge. Locust- bean trees and oliyes abound, mudi of 
the land is cdltivoted, and yillages and detached houses 
are scattered here and there. This appears to be a 
fayoured part of the island as regards both climate and 
fertUity. 

Cerinea is described in the preoeding chapter. 



COMMUNICATIONS. 



69 



ntcMonthe 

BMd. 



DManeMln 
mOet. 



I 



DESCBIPTION OF THE BQAD. 



Nico$%a 



Miver Idalia 

Omiai 
ApTkandia .. 



AMchia 



VaiiU 



Knilia 



KalopMa •• 



8» 

1 
1 



8» 
101 



8 



181 



8 



16* 



n 



24 



21 



Aicheriin . . 
Varoiehia .. 



4 
6i 



261 



801 
86 



1 



4. NICOSIA TO FAMAauSTA. 

Tho city o£ NicoBia has been deeoribed in th« pn- 
ceding chapter. This road pasBes through the fortifl- 
oations by the Famagosta gate, and takes a south-easterly 
direction through the Messaria plain which is here yeiy 
generally cultirated and under tilUuei the crops are 
chiefly wheat and barley. Beiff says that he noticed Ittve 
floolu] of sheep in sereral parts of the plain. The 
yillaffe of Aglangia is seen off the road to the riffht- 
handside; shortly a small group of houses cidled 
Paliokora is passed, and numerous sheep-folds are in 
this neighbourhood. Bei Kiu, an unimportant hamlet 
is passed, and a Tillage called Timpu, orTI^nibo, lies off 
the road to the right. The plain is bordered on the 
south by a series of low bare hills. 

As the River Ididia is approached, the road passes 
through fertile gardens ana plantations of trees irrigated 
by the riyer, the water supply of which is, howerer, 
rery uncertain. 

Soon alter crossing the riror tho road passes through 
tho Turkish Tillage of Omithi, and a mile further tne 
sniall Tillngo of Apliandia is ronclicd. Both of these 
are quite unimportant, the latter consists merelv of a 
cluster of miserable clay huts. The country is here a 
bare plain, traces of cidtiTation are. rarely seen, and 
there are no trees whateyer. 

Aschia is a large Gheek Tillage, after passing which 
the road turns slightly more towards the east, and a 
TilW e called Stronghik is shortly seen about one mfle 
to the left of the road. The country adjoining the 
road here becomes more cultiTated. 

Yatili is described by Seiff as a pleasant Tillaffe, of which 
the houses are unusually dean, and whi<m possesses 
a church with a fine tower. About six miles further on 
the Tillage of Ck)ntea is seen a short distance off tha 
road on the right, it consists chiefly of detached housaa 
surrounded by eardens and trees. 

Kuklia is a smiul Tillage, where the only thina worthy 
of notice is the beautiful countiw place oi Signer 
MantroTani ; here the carefully planted sardens and 
orchards show what maT in this place ana climate be 
acliioTed by a thorough knowledge of the art of ouItiTa- 
tion. 

After Euklia the road passes amongst a series of 
sandy hillocks, which are entirely without Tegetation, 
until it reaches the poor Tillage of Kalopaida, situated 
in a small TaUey. In this Ticinity Seiff noticed the 
locust traps, comj)osed of screens and ditches, iuTsntad 
br M. Mattei, and which are described in Chapter Vll. 
from Kalopsida the road traTerses a low ana marshy 
country, until the rising ground in the Ticinity of 
Aechcritu is reached. Then again the road passes orcr 
a large expanse of low marshy ground. Varoschia is a 
Buburt> of Fnmagusta, and both these places 
described in the lost Chapter. 



60 



CYPRUS, 



FlioMon the 



MitmagMsta .. 



Zammea 



Arjwra 



• • 



Mtuoio 



Marami 



• • 



Ifoul 



AmaihiM 



DlfUncMlii 



1 



861 



DBSORIPnON OF TBI BOAD. 



n\ 



9 



10 



7* 



12i 



ai» 



8U 



86i 



NiootiA TO I'axaouita — oontanoMl. 

Before entexinff Famaguata aereral large potteries and 

eztenaiTO garaeni are passed. 
The rottd enters the town by a ^ate at the soath-west 

comer of the fortifications oroaaing the ditch by means 

of a drawbridge. 
There appears to be no diiBoulty in transforming 

this route into a good carriage road, as it trayerses 

almost leTel ground through the whole distance; 

hitherto it has been but little used, as the traffic 

between Nicosia and IVimaffusta is yery small compared 

to that between Nicosia and Larnaca. 



6. LABlfACA TO LIMASOL. 

Thb road, ou leaving Tiamaca, takes for % short 
distance a direction nearly west i it skirts the northern 
extremity of the salt lakes, and then turns south-west ; 
the cultivation b yery partial, and between the plots of 
tilled ground, occur Uurge wastes of heath, thistles and 
thorny bushes. 

The springs of Arpera, and the aqueduct leading 
thence to Larnaca, haye already been mentionecf. 
The yiUage is small and nnimportftnt ; there is a mill 
driven by the water. At short intervals the road now 
crosses mountain torrents rising in the slopes of Honte 
8. Oroce, along the stony beds of which a considerable 
yolume of water flows during the rainy season, but in 
summer they are generally dry. The names of the 
largest of these streams are the Tetios, the Deresi and 
the Pentaskhino. Near the left bank of the latter 
stream, and about one-and-a-half miles from the shore 
is the yillage of Mazoto, which la better built than the 
majority of Uie villages along this coast ; the inhabitants 
are entirely Greeks} part of the country in thii 
neighbourhood is ciUtivated. The road now turns 
more to the westward, and is parallel to the shore, and 

Smerally at a distance of about a mile from it ; on the 
opes of the mountains to the north are large quantities 
of carob and olive trees, many of which are wild, and 
require grafting. 

Maroni stands on the left bank of the stream of the 
same name which flows from Mount MAkhera { it is aa 
unimportant yillage. 

The road is not passable by carriages, and there is 
often difficulty in crossing the streams and ravines on 
horseback, as there are scaroelf any bridges. A great 
deal of th^ land between Harom and Amathus is wasto, 
the yillages of Pentakomo, Moni, and others eoually 
insigniflcant are passed. The spurs fix>m Mount 
Mauera here extend nearly to the shore. 

At Amathus are the ruins of an ancient town, which 
boars eyidont traces of having originally been a 
PhoDnidan settlement ; Tacitus and other authors speak 
of Amathus as the oldest city in Cyprus. Qeneial di 



C0MHDNICATI0N8. 



61 



FImmob tiM 
Boad. 



Liwuuol 



DlBtftacMta 
mllet. 



61 



48 



DE8CBIIT10N OF THE BOAD. 



Labvaca to Limabol — continued. 

Cesnola in Chapter X of his work on OTpras, giTes a 
sketoh of the ancient hiatgry of thifl place, and an 
acoonnt of the antiquities which have been dieooTerad 
there. The road now follows the northern oorre ol 
Akrotiri (Limasol) Baj, where the shore is low and 
sandv. As Limasol is approached, the land becomes 
highly cnltiTated, and yields excellent croj^i tUs 
looditj is considered one of the best agnonltoxal 
districts in the island. 

The town of Limasol has been described in the pre- 
oedins chapter. 

To make the road between Lamaca and Limasol good 
and passable hj carriages, would be a more dimeolt 
task tnan many of the oUier roads, and some engineering 
skill would be required, for the numerous torrents 
must be bridged, and the beds of the streams better 
defined, as in. wet weather they now overflow, and 
cause much damage. 



LiwutMol 



Ko!a»9i 



ek 



6» 



Spit^opi 



U 



8 



e. LIMASOL TO BAFFO. 

On 1 earing Limasol, this road crosses the BiTor Qarili, 
and takes a westerly direction through a cultiTated 
country with high ground on the right. High up on 
the mountuns are tne rineyards for which thu district 
is celebrated, below these are large grores of otiTes, 
earobe, Ac., on the IctcI ground are fields which bear 

rd crops of grain and cotton, and to the southward 
the large salt lake of Limasol* on the Akrotiri 
Peninsula. 

Kolossi is a Tillage sunounded by nrdens and plenti- 
fully supplied with water. At this spot is a laige 
square tower, said to haye been built by the Templan, 
the summit of which commands a flneTiewi there is 
also a large aqueduct of the same period whioh Is still 
used I TOth these constructions are of a limes to ne 
resembling marble. In this neighbouihood the best 
Gommanderia wine is produced, and larse dhipmenta of 
it are annually made from Limasol toTnesto and 
Venice. 

Episc^ is a pleasantly situated Tillage standing on 
tne tfpiBCOjpi, or Lycos, RiTcr, and Tcry abundanUT 
supplied with water. The houses are surrounded with 
fruitful gardens, and there are fields of grain and 
cotton in the Ticinity. The inhabitants haye^ howerer, 
Tcry small holdings, and are as a rule miserably poor. 
In former days Epiaoopi was a rich dty, and contained 
in the Venetian times large manumotoiiee i of ite 
ancient greatness now remain the ruins of an aqueduct, 
immense storehouses or yanlts, and seyeial ruined 
Greek churches. The spurs from Mount Troodoe here 
extend neariy down to the shore and the road follows 
the coast line, trayeraing a yery beantifxd country i the 



62 



CYPBUS. 



flftOMOBttM 



DiflUnoMln 
mOM. 



DE8CBIFTI0N OF THE BOAD. 



iV 



XmkUa 



Mnrokipo9 • • 



9 



17 



9i 



8 






au 



891 






41 
42i 



LiHABOL TO BAFFQ--continued. 
ffround in spring is ooTered with flowen and aromatio 
nerbs, and tne rayinee are filled with: a luxuriant growth 
V>f orpreesea, wild olires, and flowering shrubs. 

The Turkish Tillage of ATdimu, founded by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus in honour of his sister ArsinOe, lies a littlie 
off the road to the ri^ht ; it is now unimportant. 

Fysouri is a small village through which the road 
passea; it stands on the summit of a lofty hill and 
commands a fine fiew over the surroundinff country. 
Qlienoe the road continues through country of the same 
character to EuUia, situated on the site of the ancient 
Pals Paphos ; it is a poor village with no interest beyond 
its ruins j mention has been made of this place in 
the last chapter. The road, still following the. coasts 
now turns towards the north-west, and passea through a 
somewhat luUv country, intersected by numerous ravines 
and ffullios, wnioh in winter contain water running from 
the slopes of the Olympus range down to tlio soo. 

Heiroldpos is only important on account of its springs, 
which have been mentioned in Ohapter II., but is 
interestinff on account of the tradition that in this place 
was the nivourite garden of Yenus, and tho basin of 
water dose by it is known as the Bath of Aphrodite. 
The country is here veiy picturesque, the ground 
generally slopes gently towards the sea, but appears in 
places to have been cut into large plateaux or terraces, 
which are surroxmded bv thick groves of olive trees 
many centuries old ; carob trees auo flourish here. 

Baffo, with the adjacent village of Ktima, which has the 
larger population of the two, has been described in the 
last chapter. Some trouble and labour will be required 
to make this road suitable for carriages, and several 
bridges will have to be constructed. 



There are but few other roads in Cyprus connecting places 
of importance besides those already described, but one upon wliick 
there U & certain amount of traffic ia that from Lamaca, through 
Deii, to Nicosia ; it is rather longer than the main road through 
Athienou ; the (Ustances on it are the following : — 



Iiamacato Aradippo 
Ajradippo to Dali .... 
Dali to Nicosia 



Smiles.. 
15 
10 






Total 28 



II 



This road ascends to Lymbia, about four miles south-east of 
Dali» and then traverses the southern part of the Messaria plain. 
Dali is pleasantly situated on the Eiver Idalia, a tributary of the 
£ediaa, and is a good summer resoi-t. 

Another road, which is, however, but little used, is that from 
Nicosia, through Morpho to Poli tou Khrysokho. 



C0MMUKIGJLTI0N8. 63 

Nicosia to Heirolakico .... .... lOl miles 

Hcirolakko to Morpho .... .... 12( „ 

Morpho to Soli .... .... .... 14 ,1 

Soli to Poli tou Khiysokho .... .... 30 „ 

Total 67 „ 

This road, throughout the distance to Morpho, passes through 
the Messai'ia plain in a westerly direction; it then turns soutti'*' 
west to Soli, from which place it follows the curve of the coast to 
Poli tou Khrysokho ; the portion of the route between the two lasfc-> 
named places is but a very rough bridle path, and is much cut up 
by neglected watercourses. 

There is a road between Nicosia and Mount Olympus, passina 
through Trimithia, Feristerona, Evrikou, Galata, Fodromo, and 
Trooditissa ; at the latter place is a monastery where travellers can 
obtain lodging. From the monastery a difiScult bridle path leads 
down the southern slopes of the mountains to limaaol, passing 
through Omodos and Fotamia. 

The means of direct communicatiott between Oyprud and Haritime 
Western Europe have hitherto been but few, and these sometrhat «>™niumoa- 
slow and inconvenient. "** 

Of possible routes from London to Lamaca, thode most used 
have been, as far as Port Said or Alexandria, identical with thd 
routes leading to India. Tlius, if it was desirod to perform thd 
whole journey by sea, the Peninsular and Oriental Steamers from 
Southampton, as well as the liverpool and London Steamers bound 
for Bombay, wero available as far as Port Said or Alexandria ; or 
again, the journey could be made overland to one of the Mediter- 
ranean ports, such as Genoa,' Marseilles, Venice, Trieste, or Brindisi, 
dnd thence by sea to Port Said or Alexandria. Between Port Said 
and Beyrout, the steamers of the French Messofferies Maritimes, and 
the Austrian Lloyd's Line ply on fixed dates, but lately the only 
steamers touching regularly at Cyprus have been those of the latt^ 
Company. These leave Khodes and Beyrout fortnightly on Sun- 
day and reach Lamaca on Tuesday. There has also been a boat 
every other Wednesday, which leaves Larnaca for Messina, Scan- 
deroon, Latakieh, and Beyrout, and returns from Beyrout by the 
same route on the following Thursday. 

There will now doubtless be additional means of communi- 
cation ; the Postmaster-General has made arrangements with Bell's 
Asia Minor Company, for the conveyance of a mail to and from 
Cyprus weekly, in connection, at Alexandria, with the overland 
India mails via Brindisi, the mail being made up in I/)ndon every 
Friday evening. By the same route, mails will be brought to 
London weekly with the overland India mails via Brindisi. 

The Messageries MarUiiiies de France announce a steamer to 
Lamaca from Marseilles, via Alexandria, leaving every alternate 
Thursday at noon, commencing August 1st, and before long we 
shall probably hear that some of the other companies whose 
steamers ply among the Turkish islands, such as the Bussian Camr 
paffnie de Coimnierce ei de Navigation, the Italian Trinacria, and 
Bubaitino, Companies, the Turkish Mahsussi, and the £g3rptian 



64 CYPBUS. 

Khedive Company, will, as the tmffic aud commerce develope, 
make arrangements for their vessels to call at the Cyprus ports on 
fixed days, but as yet there has scarcely been time for any such 
arrangements to be made. It is, however, reported that the 
Italian Minister of Public Works is already arranging with the 
BvbaUino Company, the preliminaries of a convention for prolong- 
ing the course of the steamers bound for Alexandria ^as far as 
Lamaca, touching at Port Said, Jaffa, and Beyrout. The voyages 
will probably be undertaken gratuitously by the company until 
December. In Liverpool, the establishment of a direct line of 
steamers between that port and Cyprus has already been proposed, 
and this is a fair proof of the energy with wliich the steam trade 
of England, and especially of Liverpool, is carried on in the 
Mediterranean. The cost of the journey from London, overland to 
Trieste, and thence by Port Said and Beyrout to Lamaca, is stated 
' to be £29. Is. Od first class, and £20. 13«. 6(2. second class. 
Tolegraphio In 1871, a submarine cable was laid down bom Latakieh, in 

^mmamca- Syria, to Cape St. Andrea, the noith-eastem extremity of Cyprus, 
and from there the telegraph wires were carried overland to 
Nicosia. Strong representations were then made by the com- 
mercial community of Lamaca, showing, and urging, the great 
commercial need of the extension of the telegraph from Nicosia tp 
Lamaca ; a work of but trifling cost, and which would soon be 
repaid by the more frequent use of the wires. For some time, 
however, nothing but promises could be extracted from Turkish 
authorities, but by 1873 the poles were set up, and in the next 
year the communication was completed, and is of great advantage 
to the town of Lamaca. Possibly a direct cable will now be laid 
between Cyprus and Alexandria, as a means of promoting com* 
mercial enterprise, and also to place the island in closer con- 
nection with Great Britain. 



DESCRITTION OF THE COAST, ETC. 65 



CHAPTER V. 

Descbiption of the Coast,* Anchorages, Boadsteads, Ports, 

AND Harbours of Cyprus. 

The Bay of Famagusta is about 25 miles wide from Cape Eleea at Famsgiista. 
the north extremity, to Cape Greco at the south ; ic enters the land 
about nine miles. The bay is very deep, the Admiralty Chart 
shows soundings of 200 fathoms over the whole of the outer part'. 
The holdinc ground is described as bad,t and the anchorage is. open 
to east and south-east winds. Large vessels anchor al^ut 1,yOO 
yards off the town of Famagusta in about 17 fathoms, stiff mud ; 
inside 12 fathoms the bottom is rock and sand. Small vessels can 
obtain good anchorage, in three or four fathoms, close to the town, 
inside of a reef that runs parallel to the shore. This inner harboiir 
was once deep and spacious, but is now choked with sand and 
mud, and the entrance is narrowed by stones fallen from a ruined 
lighthouse. About four and a-half miles to the northward of 
Famagusta is the ancient port of Salamis, now only a shallow 
basin ; in the roadstead abreast of it is good anchorage in 10 to 16 
fathoms with mud bottom. 

Although this account of Famagusta Harbour shows it to be 
certainly at present in a bad condition, and quite unfit for use by 
war vessels, it is equally apparent, according to all reports, that 
should it be cleared out, its safety as a port would be beyond all 
doubt, for it is encircled by a tongue of land, with a series of rocks 
in continuation of it ; and at a distance of 600 yards from the ram- 
parts, and, parallel to the coast, runs a line of rock ledges, which 
gradually dip into the sea towards the north, commencing at a 
height of 13 feet above the water line, and falling to 18 feet below 
it These rocks are of scliist, the same formation as are the three 
small islands which close in the port to the east These islands, if 
joined by a causeway, the construction of which would not be a 
difficult matter, would form the southern boundary of the harbour. 
The northern side is protected by a jetty which runs out to a 
length of 170 yards at right angles to the shore, leaving an en- 
trance to the harbour, about 35 yards in width. It is stated that 
this jetty requires but little repair, except at a breach mad6 by 

* The Coact is deseribod oommenciDg at FamagnBta on the eMtetn aliore^ Uien 
along ihe soath coast in a woBterly direction, up tno weBtem nde^ Along the north 
coast from west to east, and so round the island. 

t Laurie's " Mediterranean Diroetorr," page 168. 

(774) B 



66 CYPRUS. 

the sea about the centre of it; it is through this gap that the 
sand and mud which now encumber and choke the harbour have 
penetrated. 

The original dimensions of the harbour were &om 70 to 75 acres ; 
of this extent, seven acres have still a depth of about 12 feet of 
water, the remainder has in places a depth of from three to seven feet, 
but is also partly dry. The original depth is believed to have been 
about 30 feet with a good bottom of sand and mud. 

The roadstead lies mainly to the north of the harbour, and is 
now about 130 acres in extent for vessels drawing from 18 to 20 
feet of water. 

To make the harbour fit for the reception of large vesselSi it is 
manifest that several considerable works must be undertaken. The 
whole of the interior would have to be dredged out so as to give a 
uniform depth of not less than about 24 feet, the breach in the 
jetty would }iave to be repaired, and a connection made between 
the islands. Building materials are said to exist in abundance on 
t^he spot, QO the latter operations would probably not be attended 
with ^y very great expense. 

To enlarge the area of the harbour, the line of rocks on the 
^9Sp side poiud ^e prolonged by the construction of a jetty in less 
than nij^e feet pf water, and this would give an additional space of 
f^bqi^t 77 OQi^es, a|id if Uie jetty were again prolonged into 24 feet of 
wa^r, an are^ o»f from 250 to 300 acres would be sheltered. Other 
attendant ^xp^nses would be the necessary repairs to the aqueduct 
so as to bring fresh water to the harbo\ur, and the clearing of the 
approaches Reading to it. It is stated that no rpcks have bee^ 
discovered near the bottom of the harbour, and that nothing but 
sand and piud would have to be removed. 

With these alterations and improvements, it is not improbable 
that Famagusta would in time become a port of the highest value, 
a|id this more specially if the Euphrates Valley railway scheme is 
carried Qut^ for it would form a safe, convenient and weU-situated 
harbour^ capable of affording shelter and protection to a la^ge 
number of vessels. 

Famagusta has apparently greater natural advantages for the 
formation of a good port, than any ot}ier place on the shores of 
Cyprus, and the matter is really only a question of expense. 

yice-Coiisul White in a Beport of 1863, says ; '* It cannot be 

doubted that should Cyprus ever fall into the hands of any Ei;- 

rope^ powef, Famagusta would once more become a place of 

grefit importance. Its great strength and sheltered harbour 

would not fail to be turned to good account" The occupation 

of the island by England may possibly cause a speedy realization 

of this prediction. 

ThecoMt From Famagusta to Cape Greco, the south-eastern point of 

from Famft- Cyprus, is about 14 miles ; this cape may be recognised by the 

£JJ^^^ abrupt table cliff, 400 feet high, one mile to the westwMd of it, 

whicn appears like an old fortress ; the cape itself is low and taper- 
ing, and when seen from the south-west has a marked brown and 
barren appearance. There is deep water close off the point, and a 
current sets round it to the westward at the rate of from a half to 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COAST, ETC. 67 

three-qnarters of a knot per hour. About four and five miles 
northward of Cape Qreco, nearly one mile from the Bhore, and 
one mile apart, are two rocks with three fathoms over them. 
Vessels running for the anchorage off Famagusta must be careful 
not to bring Cape Greco to the eastward of south three-quarters 
east until past these dangers. 

The coast trends west from Cape Greco for 14 miles to Cape 
Pila, the shore is rocky, but has one or two coves where a landing 
from boats can be effected. Cape Fila is tolerably high and bold; 
it is easily recognized by a ruined tower on it. 

After Cape Pila the coast forms a large curve to the southward, 
and encloses the Bay of Larnaca, on the west side of which is the 
town of the same name. Here there is no harbour, but the 
anchorage in the bay, though open to winds from south-west by 
south to east, is safe even aurin^ the winter season fwhen south- 
east sales prevail) for vessels with good anchors ana cables, but 
the snort sea, and heavy swell that runs into the bay at these 
times, renders the anchorage very uncomfortable, and, except in 
cases of necessity, it is not to be recommended at that season. 
That part of the town of Lamaca which extends along the beach is 
called the Marina, the rest of the town is about three-quarters of a 
mile inland. Vessels usually anchor off the northern part of the 
Marina in from 12 to 18 fathoms, here the bottom is soft mud and 
good holding ; inside 10 fathoms the bottom is in some parts hard 
and bad holding ground With strong south-east winds, the sea 
often breaks in five or six fathoms of water, and a heavy surf on 
the beach renders landing in such a case both difficult and dan- 
gerous. Tlie Lamaca Bay anchorage is however very safe in the 
spring and simimer months, when north-west winds as a rule 
previuL The mouth of the Bay is 17 miles wide from Cape 
rila to Cape Kiti, and it enters Uie land about seven miles. 

The shore varies considerably in different parts: from Capo 
Pila westward for nine miles, it is rocky witli a few outlying 
rocks close off it; then for six miles from a ruined fort callea 
Yeni Kale to Lamaca, it is a sandy beach backed by a slight eleva- 
tion on which are sev^ul villages ; from Lamaca southward for 
seven miles to Cape Kiti is a stony and shingly beach, at the back 
of which is an extensive plain, with a series of large salt lagoons 
lying parallel and close to the shore. 

From a mast on a white house situated 165 yards northward of J^J^ 
the Lazaretto is exhibited, at an elevation of 46 feet^ a fixed red ^ 
light, visible four miles in clear weather. 

Cape Kiti, the southern extremity of Lamaca Bay, is low The oomI 
and flat^ but is easily distinguished by a square tower 73 feet above [r*?iijj!!5r^ 
the sea, built on a slight elevation one mile to the northward 
of it 

In 1864 a fixed white light was established 90 yards from the Kifti Ligbt. 
extremity of Cape Kiti on a mast on a white house ; it is elevated 
92 feet, and is visible eight miles in clear weather. 

All the coast hereabouts is skirted by shoal water, and vessels 
coming from the southward should not approach Cape Kiti within 
one and a quarter miles, there being only five fathoms at that dis- 
(774) E 2 



68 CYPRUS. 

(ance. From Cape Kiti die coast trends south-west for 28 miles 
to Amathus (now in ruins), it has a slight convexity to the south- 
ward, the apex of which, Carrubiere Point, is close to the mouth of 
the Yasili river; along this shore there are outlying rocks. At 
about eight miles inland, is situated the high ground of Monte S. 
Croce or Oros Stavro (2,300 feet), and further to the west is Monte 
Makhera (4,730 feet). 
Limaiol. After Amathus, the coast curves round to the southward for six 

miles to limasol, and the shore is a low and sandy beach enclos- 
ing Akroteii Bay, on the west side of which is the town of LimasoL 
This shore appears to be suitable for the disembarkation of troops 
of all arms, as it was selected for this purpose by Richard Coeur de 
lion in 1191, and again by the Turks when they invaded Cyprus 
in 1570. There is no harbour at Limasol, but there is an anchora^ 
off the town in from seven to twelve fathoms wiUi good holding 
ground. This roadstead is, according to the " Mediterranean Pilot *' 
considered preferable to that off Larnaca ; it is quite sheltered &om 
the prevailing westerly winds, but is directly open to the east and 
Qouth-east. 
The ooott From Limasol, the low sandy beach continues for six miles due 

from Limaaol south to Cape Gata, which is the eastern extremity of Akroteri 
to Baffo. Peninsula, a projection extending about five miles from the general 

run of the coast Cape Gata is the most southern point of Cyprus. 
The peninsula is six miles wide, and attains a height of 188 feet 
close to the sea midway between Cape Gata and its western extre- 
mity. Cape Zephgari. 
Gata Light. On Cape Gata, at a height of 190 feet, is a fixed white light, 

yaried by a flash every two minutes, visible in clear weather 15 
miles. 

Off Akroteri Peninsula there is foul ground for a mile out, and 
a wide berth should be given. West of Cape Zephgari the coast 
recedes about six miles, and then, curving round westward to 
Cape Bianco, forms Episcopi Bay, the shore of which is, between 
Cape Zephgari and Episcopi village, a low sandy beach, and, beyond 
the village, a series ot small sandy bays backed by high cliffs. This 
bay is fmly exposed to the prevalent westerly winds, and the swell 
which is continually rolling in, renders the anchorage both unsafe 
and uncomfortable. From Cape Bianco to Paphos Point (Cape 
Baffo), a distance of about 20 miles, the coast trends nearly north- 
west ; for the first five miles the shore is high and rugged, with 
rocks and sunken ledges extending out about a quarter of a mile, this 
is succeeded by a low, sandy, and stony beach, and the inland country 
is here somewhat marshy and unhealthy. The Moulia Rocks, two 
and a half miles south-east three-quarters south of Baffo (the 
ancient Nea Paphos), extend one and a-half mile off shore, leaving 
a channel of 12 feet inside them. There is a summer anchorage to 
the south-east of tliis reef. 
Buffo. At Baffo there was a small harbour formed by two moles, which 

have now braken away in several places, exposing the port and 
rendering it very unsafe ; it is, moreover, nearly choked with sand, 
and there are only four to eight feet of water at the entrance, and 
10 to 12 feet in a smidl space inside, so that it can only be used by 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COAST, BTO. 69 

vessels of very small burden and light draught The place is 
notoriously unsafe during south and south-east gales. 

From Bafib the coast trends nearly north for 27 miles to Cape The ooMfc 
Amauti (Acamas), the north-west extremity of the island. Through- from Baffo to 
out this distance the shore presents a forbidding aspect, as there Khiytokho 
are reefs and ledges of rock projecting out idong the greater part of *^' 
it, and on these a heavy sea is generally breaking ; the coast 
itself consists of a succession of smcdl sandy bays and cliffy bights ; 
the shoal ground extends generally from one-third to three-qucurters 
of a mile from the land. 

Cape Arnauti is a low and shaip headland, of which the western 
side is nearly perpendicular, but the eastern part is thickly wooded, 
and slopes graduedly down to the beach of Khrysokho Bav in which Khryiokho 
there is summer anchorage and good holding ground. The " Medi- Bay. 
terranean Pilot" states that Uiis bay is much used by local coasting 
vessels which come for .com and firewood. At the head of the 
bay near Poli (Khysokho) village is a small jetty, and thd shore 
is here a low and sandy beach nine miles in length. 

The width of the Bay from Cape Arnauti to Porno Point, its 
eastern extremity, is about 16^ miles, and it enters the land 
about six miles. The end of Pomo Point is low and sandy, but in 
other parts the shore is rugged and skirted by rocks ; off the point 
there is shoal water for one mile in a north-westerly direction. 

The coast now trends east, but after 16 miles of rocky shore it Morpho Bay. 
curves to the northward for 20 miles to Cape Kormakiti, and 
encloses Moipho Bay, on the eastern side of which there is a low 
pebbly and sandy beach ; off this is deep water and a good bottom ; 
still this anchorage is generally considered unsafe, being entirely 
exposed to westerly winds, which drive in a heavy sea, and often 
render a landing from boats quite impossible. Morpho Bay is 21 
miles across from Cape Kormakiti to Cape Kokkino, and enters the 
land about 10 miles. 

About 23 miles east of Cape Kormakiti is the town of Cerinea, Oerinea. 
or Kyrenia, which has a small port, into which it was reported in 
1855 that vessels of 120 tons could enter. It is considered that 
if provided with a mole, Cerina would become a favourite port 
for vessels bound from the Archipelago. The roadstead is luge, 
but the holding ground, is not very good, and northerly winds 
raise a heavy sea; this anchorage is now only used by small 
vessels trading between Cyprus and the opposite coast of Cara- 
mania, as the port is not protected from the north. 

The 76 miles of the north coast from Cerinea to Cape St. The north 
Andrea require but brief notice. The shore is almost straight, is ^'^'^rt* 
without ports or shelter, and is verv scantily inhabited. The 
Karpas mountains border the sea and Slope steeply down to it. Off ^IJ ®*- 
Cape St Andrea are several small rocks and islets surrounded by y"^^^ 
deep water. From Cape St Andrea the coast trends south-west 
for about 37 miles to Cape Elsea, before mentioned as the northern 
point of Famagusta Bay; the shore throughout this distance is 
nearly straight, and has no shelter. 

IVom the foregoing description of the coast of Cyprus it appears Remarks, 
that there are three open roadsteads, viz. : Famagusta, Larnaca, and 



70 CYPBUS. 

' limaaol, i!L6 first of which is undoubtedly capable of being con- 
verted^ with a certain outlay^ into a safe and commodious hc^bour, 
but equal facilities do not appear to exist at the other two places, 
though perhaps something may be done to provide shelter. There 
are dso insecure harbours now existing at BafiTo and Cerinea, which 
in a veiy small way are used for trading purposes by light coast- 
ing vessels \ hat, to render them safe, the existing moles must be 
repaired, and at Cerinea a new one constructed ; a certain amount 
of dredging work would also have to be undertaken to enable them 
to admit the ordinary class of trading vessel. 

In all the roadsteads of the southern shore ships have good 
holding ffround, and, with proper care, may ride out any storm 
without oanger. The only disadvantage of these anchorages is the 
shallowness of the water in-shore, which causes a dangerous surf to 
break in stormy weather. The native coasting craft often have not 
sufficient cable to anchor outside the surf, and consequently numbers 
are driven ashore every year, but Consul Lang says that during the 
nine years of his residence in Cyprus, no casualty ever occurred to a 
European vessel at anchor, nor can he remember that any such vessel 
was ever obli^d to go out ^ to sea for safetv. On the whole it 
tippears that ironclads or any sea-worthy vessels with good anchon 
and cables mav lie off Lamaca, Famagusta, and limasol during 
the worst of the winter months, viz. January and February, but 
it may froquently happen that ships in the roadsteads are unable to 
hold any communication with the shore for several days. 

On the north coast the sea room is more restricted, and it does 
not appear that the ports on this side can ever be turned to much 
use, though small coasting vessels may perhaps find shelter at 
Cerinea and Morpho in certain winds. 



THE CLIMATE OF CYPRUS. 71 



CHAPTER VI. 



The Climate of Cyprus. 

To obtain an accurate knowledge' of tlie climate of oar new 
possession, is naturally a matter of the highest importance, in order 
that Uie proper sanitary measures may be adopted to ensure the 
health of the British garrison and the inhabitants generally. Thd 
first reports which were circulated when the occupation of the island 
by England was announced, although conflicting, were, on the whole, 
unfavourable ; but later and more reliable information tends to 
show that whilst certain fevers are very prevalent during the hot 
mouths, they are generally of a mild type, and that the acknow- 
ledged unhealthiness of certain towns and districts is not really 
attributable to the climate, but rather to local insanitary conditions, 
all of which are capable of removal, and indeed there is little 
doubt that many of tlie sinister reports concerning the general un- 
healthiness of the island are much exaggerated. The health statistics 
of the troops during the first few months of the occupation cannot 
be accepted as a fair criterion of what may be expected in future 
summed, for the present conditions of irvice'^are pecuUarly 
trying, in consequence of the amount of extra work and exposure 
involved in the disembarkation, the first occupation of the island, 
and the want of suitable acconmiodation ; but even under these 
exceptional circumstances the cases of illness are nearly all 
recognized as ephemeral fever, due to exposure to solar heat, and,, 
as the name implies, of but short duration. 

To arrive at a correct conclusion regarding the climate of 
Cyprus, not only must the atmospheric conditions which affect 
health be considered, but also the numerous and various causes of 
unhealthiness which inevitably result from the existence of 
marshes, scarcity of water, imperfect drainage, and the absence 
of trees. 

On the first subject, the climatological aspect of Cyprus, some 
valuable information has been kindly supplied by Alexander 
Buchan, Esq., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society^ 
who writes as follows : — 

"Between the years 1863 and 1867, the Scottish Meteorological 
Society established various CUroatological Stations in diflerent 
parts of Europe, with the view of collecting trustworthy informa- 
tion cx)nceming the climates of places which might be recognized 
aa Sanataria. Four such stations were established, viz., at Jerusalem^ 



72 CYPRUS. 

Beyrout and Damascus in Syria, and at Lamaca in Cyprus, mainly 
through the instrumentality of the late Dr. Keith Jolmston, at 
that time the Society's Honorary Secretary, whilst on an eastern 
tour in the spring of 1863. Admiral Fitzroy most cordially co- 
operated with the CouncQ in this matter, and secured sets of the 
best instruments for the observers from the Board of Trade. The 
observer at Lamaca was Thomas B. Sandwith, Esq., H.M.'s Vice- 
Consul for Cjrprus, who was supplied by the Board of Trade, 
through this Society with a barometer, six common thermometers, 
one maximum, and one minimum thermometer, and a rain gauge. 
The observations commenced in October 1866, and were continued 
with a few interruptions for fibout four years, or till about the time 
Mr. Sandwith left Lamaca. The results were published from time 
to time in the Society's Journal 

'' The following tables give a condensed rdsumd of these four 
yeai's' observations, particularly as regards their climatological 
^pects, and it is believed that no other meteorological data exist 
which can throw a better light on the climate of Cypms." 



THE OUIUTE OF CTFRUa 



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74 GYPRua 

T«mperfttii|r«. " The mean annual temperature is 66°'6. The coldest month is 

Februarj, with a mean temperature of 52^*8, which is all but 
vlentical with the temperature of London during May; and the 
{lottest month is August, with a mean temperature of 81^*5, being 
olosely approximate to the summer temperature of Algiers, 
i^exandria, Athens, and Constantinople. 

' " The mean temperature for the six months from November to 
April varies between 52^*8 and 60^*9 ; and since between these 
inean temperatures, deaths from diseases of the respiratory 
organs, and from bowel complaints are either at a minimum or 
are comparatively small, it may safely be stated that, so far as 
atmospheric temperature is concerned, the climate of Cyprus is 
exceptionally good during these six months. Indeed it is highly 

f)robable that several situations round the coasts of Cyprus will be 
bund with winter climates so good, and for a large class of in- 
valids so safe, that they will take rank above the best Sanataria of 
the Mediterranean. It will be observed that the lowest recorded 
temperature during these four ^ears was 36^1 which occurred in 
February 1870; and an examination of the observations them- 
selves malces it clear that the tempei^ture rarely falls below 40^0. 
This is an invaluable feature in the climate of any Sanatarium, 
w}ien the evil effects on the weak of the occasional occurrence of 
low temperatures and the discomfort and positive injuriousness to 
the health arising from all temperatures between the maximum 
' density of fresh water (39^*2) and its freezing point (32^0), are 
taken into consideration. 
: " On the other hand, the temperature of the six months from 

; May to October is very high, being from 68^1 to 81^*5. This high 
suinmer temperature Cyprus has in common with the coasts of 
Algeria, the south of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, in all which 
regions a* still higher temperatui'e prevails on advancing from the 
coast inland. At Bagdad, for example, the mean summer tempera- 
ture rises to 95^0. The prolongation of the summer heat into 
September, and on frequent occasions into October, is a striking 
feature of the climates of Syria and adjoining I'egions. 

" If we except June 1869, the highest recorded temperature 
was 96^0 in August 1869, a temperature of 94^*3 having also been 
noted in July of the same year — temperatures which are of frequent 
occurrence on the Continent, and even in London, as high tempera- 
ti^res have occurred. A period of extraordinarily high tempera- 
! tore occurred in the East from the 21st to the 26th of June, 1869. 
The means at Alethriko for these five days were at — 



4 A.1C* ,.t. M., 69 '9 I 

J " 192? iMean temp :«95°-5. 

3 P.M 1031 r"*^***? '^*"A' • 



This mean temperature of 95°'6 is about the summer temperature 
of the Punjab. Tlie maximum heat was 105^ on the 24t]i, and on 
the same day the tempemture rose to ^.00^*0 at Lamaka on the 
CQast, 92^6 at Beyrout, and 103^*6 at Jerusalem, at a height of 



f ^'i 

f 



> 



THE CLIMATE OP CYPRUS. 76 

2,600 feet above the eea These five days were characterised by 
the observers as one of unprecedented heat and drought over the 
regions bordering the Levant 

" The differences between the highest and the lowest observed 
temperatures of the months for the four years which are about 
30^*0, show that the climate of Cyprus has a character decidedly 
insular and therefore very equable, and this insular character is 
still further shown in the fact that the period of greatest annual 
cold is delayed to February, and the greatest heat to August." 

"The mean annual rainfall is 12*80 inches, nearly the whole of BamfaU. 
which falls durinc the cool season from November to April. Since 
the rain which fsAls in May and September is trifling in amount 
and of rare occurrence, it may be considered that thete are 
practically five rainless months in the year in Cyprus* The whole 
of the regions about the Levant are equally characterised by rain- 
less summers, the only exceptions being the higher mounteinoua S 
regions.where thunderstorms and heavy thunder showers are of occa- ^.t 
sional occurretice. It will be seen from the monthly extremes, that C 
the rainfall varies greatly from year to year. In the cool monthd 
of 1867-68, there fell 15*98 inches of rain, whereas in the corre- 
sponding months of 1869-70, there fell only 665 inches. Very 

heavy faUs occur: thus on November 27th, 1866, thero fell ill ^ 

three hours and a-half, 407 inches of rain, and among the heavy •^ 

thunder-showers may be noted 050 inch at Lamaka in one hour 
from 3 to 4 p.m. of June 30th, 1869. Tliis heavy, short continued 
shower, as well as the high temperatures of tlie week preceding, 
were exceptional weather phenomena at Lamaka." ^ 

"Tlie state of the barometer and the winds connect the Barometer ^ 

meteorology of Cyprus with that of Central Asia where atmo- widWindi. i 

spheric pressure is very high in winter and very low in summer. ^ 

In sunlmer, the prevailing westerly winds of the Levant, with the -• 

cloudless rainless skies accompanying them, are only port of the ^ 

extensive atmospheric current which sets in at this season towards -^ 

the region of low atmospheric pressure in Asia, and th6 breadth * 

swept by this atmospheric current before reaching Cyprus, doubts- 1 

less mitigates in some degree the heat of summer. T 

" The winter climate of Cyprus extending from November to Oenena con- 
April is exceptionally good for two reasons. Its mean temperature dmionB of 
ranges from 52® 8 to 60°-9, being the limits of temperature between ^JtSSro^'*'* 
which deaths from diseases of the respiratory organs, and from iJ^f^J^ 
bowel complaints are either at the minimum or comparatively Boetetj. 
small. Secondly, the lowest temperature noted during four years was 
36^1, and as the temperature seldom falls below 40^0 ; it follows 
that the winter climate of Cyprus is singularly free from the dis- 
comfort and positive injuriousness to the health inseparable froni 
temperatures ranging from 40°0 to 32° and lower. Since, owing 
to their exposure to the cold dry winds of the mistral, and to other 
causes, the winter climates of North Italy, South France, Spain, 
and Algiers are characterised by the occasional occurrence of lower 
temperatures, and by a more fluctuating temperature than that of 



76 . CYPRU8. 

Cyprus ; it follows tbat Cyprus presents attractions for the esta- 
bUshment of winter Sanatai'ia superior to those afiforded by Italy, 
France, Spain, or Algiers. It is to be noted also that at this 
season the rainfall is moderate, being not much different in amount 
from that of Xondon, but it falls much seldomer ; three days out 
o( every four being without any rain at all. 
, ''The summers are, in common with those of the coasts of 
Algeria, South Italy, South Greece, and South Asia Minor very 
hot and rainless, and must therefore be exposed to an increased 
unhealthiness and mortality firom bowel complaints and other 
diseases incident to climates where the mean temperature reaches 
81^*5. But Cyprus presents in its varied surface, which rises to 
heights of several thousand feet above the sea, culminating in 
Mount Olympus, 6,590 feet high, admirable facilities for the esta- 
blishment of summer Sanataria among its mountains, just as has 
been done in India among the Himalaya Mountains and Neil- 
gherry Hills. Though we have no definite information regarding 
the summer climates of the highlands of Cyprus there can be no 
doubt, reasoning from the meteorology of the region of the 
Caucasus, and from remarks scatterea through Mr. Sandwith's 
Meteorological Journals, that in addition to a lower temperature 
4ue 9imply to the greater height, showers of raip, with and with- 
out thunder, are not of unfrequent occurrence among the moun- 
tMus of Cjrprus in summer. 

"It must be clearly understood that in the above remarks, 
reference has been made only to atmospheric conditions as deter- 
mining the healthiness or unhealthiness of the climate. There are, 
it is scarcely necessary to say, other conditions affecting the health 
of a country than merely its atmospheric conditions. These, in a 
country like Cyprus, are chiefly those malarious and noxious elements 
which find their way into the atmosphere from lands once culti- 
yatedi but now allowed to lie uncultivated, and from lands where the 
drainage is more or less defective. It follows therefore that much may 
be done in mitigation of the effects of the summer heat by the estab- 
lishment of Sanataria among the mountains and by carrying through 
agricultural improvements and engineering works which would at 
the same time contribute to the material prosperity of the island." 

It will be observed that the above valuable report of the 
Scottish Meteorological Society refers entirely to the south coast of 
C}'prus, in the neighbourhood of Larnaca ; and we have at hand 
no such detailed and accurate information regarding the climate of 
the interior, and of the north coast of the island ; but, according to 
all accounts, the temperature at each season varies very considerably 
in different parts of tne island, being affected by the features of the 
physical geography. Thus, in the central plains, the heat in 
summer is stated to be excessive, the winters here are mild, and 
snow is of rare occurrence. At Nicosia, though the summer nights 
are believed to be cooler than at Larnaca, the summer generally is 
hotter, and the winter colder, than at the latter place. At Fama- 
gusta the heat is reported to be still greater, owing to the sandy 
soil which prevails there. 



THE CLIMATE OP CYPRUS. 77 

On the northern shore, the summers are far more temperate, ill 
consequence of the winds blowing from tlie snow-covered moun- 
tains of Asia Minor ; for the same reason the winters are here ofteh 
piercingly cold, particularly on the mountains, which are generally 
cdvered with snow for seveml months. The snow also lies durin<r 
the cold weather upon the southern, or Olympus, range. The 
country bordering the south and east coasts, consisting of a white 
chalk marl (which in summer produces a great glare), is sheltered 
by mountains from north and north-west winds, but is exposed to 
tiie full blast of hot winds from the Sjrrian, Arabian, ana Lybian 
deserts, consequently this part of the island has a very high tem- 
perature. Tlie table giving the percenta^ of wind direction, shows 
that durins the summer months, the wmds blow chiefly from the 
south, south-east, and south-west ; these winds are unhealthy and 
scorching, and have an injurious effect upon vegetation. During 
the summer the " imbatto " or sea-breeze is, fortunately, tolerably 
regular, and to a certain extent, mitigates the heat ; it generally 
commences at about 8 a.m. and lasts tmtil 3 or 6 p.m., then there is 
an interval of calm till the land-breeze makes at about one or two 
o'clock in the morning, and continues until about sunrise. Tlie 
imbaito is mostly felt on the north-west part of the island, and the 
land-breeze on the sotith-west About the middle of September 
these breezes usually cease, and the heat is then venr trying. 

Another climatorial source of unhealthiness is the cessation of 
rainfall during the summer; this is distinctly indicated in the 
foregoing table, which shows that during June, July and August, 
there is as a rule absolutely no rain whatever, and that this rainless 
period sometimes extends over both May and September. This 
want of rain must, however, not be confounded with the droughts 
which occasionally occur during the winter season, and wliich, as 
is afterwards explained, may be traced to an entirely distinct cause, 
quite apart from the climate.* 

We now pass on to the consideration of the various local insani- 
tary conditions, all of which may be removed by active and 
systematic hygienic measures. 

First then, the malaria, which is the cause of unhealthiness in Malaria re- 
certain districts and towns, notably in and round Lamaca and Jhi'JJSstence 
Famagusta, may with certainty be traced to the existence of of manhes, 
marshes, lagoons, and stagnant waters in the vicinity, jfrom these ^c** 
spots a white fog or vapour ascends in the hottest weather, spreads 
over the whole of the adjacent country, and gives rise to acue and 
various intermittent fevers. Tliis is, however, a danger which can 
be easily avoided, for both the dangerous times and places are well 
known, and the remedy, viz.: the drainage of the marshes, iB 
obvious, and would apparently be no very great enrineering feat 
Consul Lang says " that even a partial drainage of the marshes 
near Lamaca in his time, had a visibly beneficial effect upon the 
health of the town. 

Again, there can be little doubt that the reckless and wasteful Drong^u 

' arieing from 

* The nature of the eoil in Oyprns makee a larso rainfall unneoeaMuy i the aTerage 
o! about thirteen inohee ie quite tuificient to proouoe a lair grain crop. 



4 

1 



78 CYPBUS. 

tewoit/ of d^truotioQ of the forests which, iu)cording to report, once nearly 

treM. covered Oyprus, has exercised a pernicious influence upon the 

climate, and has wrought much sanitary mischief, inasmuch as it 
is the chief pause of the droughts from which the country suffers 
80 severely about every fifth year. It is a recognized fact, 
especially in sub-trppical ^regions, that where the mountains are 
clothed with wood, rains fall frequently and moderately, the air is 
kept pool a^d the hmd is fertilized. But, when the forests are out 
down, tberp fu^ lopg intervals of drought followed by torrent§ of 
rain, whioh wash the vegetable mould off the slopes into the plains* 
leaving on the one hand bare rock^, a^d on the other, miasmar 
breeding marshes. That the summer months should be rainless, 
is, as Mr. Buchan has remarked, a characteristic of the regions 
surrounding Cyprus, but the occasional lack of rain during the 
winter months may perhaps be attributable to the present treeless 
condition of so great a part of the island. This subject is furtheir 
entered into in Chapter Yll. 

SeT«ro A notable instance of drought occurred in the winter of 1869-r 

^t^lf* *^* '^^^ ^^®^ ^® rainfaU was as fdlows :— 

1809. 



Beptemher, 1869 .... 


.••• 


0-48 inches 


October, „ .... 


•* . 


0-27 „ 


Noyember, „ .... 


•••• 


0-53 „ 


December, „ .... 


•t«« 


018 ^ 


Januaiy, J870.... 


«••• 


e-44 " 


February, „ .... 


*••• 


0-24 „ 



Total 414 



$9 



Of this total quantity, no less than 218 inches fell on the 

thirteen days from the 15th to 28th January, leaving a little leas 

than two inches for the rest of the six months. During the period 

of drought north winds were very prevalent. 

Betulto of Such droughts as these not only occasion sickness amongst the 

drought. inhabitants, but have also the most disastrous effects upon both 

live stock and agriculture. It may be useful to instance some of 
the results. Consul Lang reported in 1871, that, in consequence 
of the drought, the whole of the grain crops of the previous year 
had been a totol failure, and that instead of exporting, as is usually 
the case, a surplus produce of grain, the island was under the 
necessity of importing largely for the food of the inhabitants. The 
year I87O will long be remembered in Cyprus as one of severe 
distress. Forage was so scarce,*" that as early as July, 1870, one- 
third of the bullocks in the island had died of starvation, or had 
\)een sold for shipment to Egypt ; and at the close of the year it 
was estimated uiat onlj^ one-third of the live stock of 1869 re* 
mained available for agncultural purposes. Bullocks were sold as 
low as IO5. per head, and sheep at Is, 8d. Thus the agricultural 
interest of the island received a severe blow, and one which it will 
require a long time to repair. 

Consul Siddell, writing in April, 1874, remarks another con- 

* In 1868 and 1809, large tuppliea had boon sent out of the uland by QoTexn- 
ipent for th^ re^uirementa of the army and a needy jpopuUtion in Crete, consequently 
the place vaa m exceptionally diaadrantageou* drouvtUnoet to meet mi» un- 
paralleled drought. 



THK CLIMATS OF CYPRUS. T9 

sequence of drought, which was noticed in that year. He says : " the 
pasturage having been early dried up by the drought, the flocks 
were reduced to a very poor condition, and the rapid growth of 
new grass which succeeded the first rains, produced great mortalitjr 
among the sheep by the sudden change." 

That the planting of trees, and the careful preservation of such 
woods as still remain, would soon work wonders in the way of 
sanitary improvement, is the opinion of many medical and scien- 
tific men ; several competent authorities have suggested the 
planting of the EucalyptvA globulus, which has been attended with 
great success in Algeria and other places. Some of the peculiar 
properties of this tree are described by Mr. P. Hinckes Bird, 
F.RC.S., F.I.S., from whom the following remarks are quoted : — 

"I would sum^ the advantage that might accme from freely plantiiig 
the euocd^pttu ff&bului, or Australian blue gum tree, aa has been done in 
manJiy districts at the Gi^ of Qood Hope, in Cnbai Franoek Italy, and 
Algeria. Its erowth is remarkably r^id, and some interesting mstanoes are 

Siren of its salutary action — in Algeria by Consul Playfau* — in improving un- 
ealthy districts and in dissipating the miasmatic influences which created 
such havoc amoiiff the colomsts in the first years after the conquest. It is 
stated that a locauty so unhealthy existed between Nice and Monaco that the 
Paris^ Lyons, and Mediterranean KaOway Company were obliged to change 
every two or three months a watchman at a crossing there ; but after plan- 
tations of the eucalyptus were formed, the same watchman has resided thelw 
wiUi his family witnont experiendng tne least inconvenience. Other it^«*i^t^ffff 
of its beneficial action mi([tit be cited. 

Besides giving out antiseptic camphorous emanations^ and thus inereasiiig 
the quantity of ozone in the air, it absorbs Inr^ quantities of water by its 
roots^ facilitatinff the drainajp;e of a marsl|y district. 

It is said to be also so ef^tual a remedv affainst the lively, horn-blowing, 
blood-sucking mosquito, that a single pot plant of eu^calyplUM sufficed to keep 
a chamber free from these pests." 

It has been stated that, apart from droughts, there is a scarcity Water supply, 
of water in Cyprus, but since our acquaintance with the island has 
become more extensive, it does not appear that this statement is 
entirely supported by facts. It Would perhaps be more accurate to 
assert that nitherto there has been shameful waste and loss of water 
which would have been df the highest value both from a sanitaty 
and an agricultural point of view, and that this waste has, even in 
ordinary seasons, frequently led to the supply becoming for a time 
limited ; but with a watershed like the Olympus range traversing 
the island from West to East, and with the several abundant 
springs which have already been enumerated, it is difiKcult to 
believe that with proper precautions, water could be really scarce ; 
and, indeed all reports, wliether from Lamaca, Nicosia, or Limasol, 
which have been received since the arrival of the British troops, 
agree in the statement that water is plentiful, and of good qualitv ;* 
it is also said that in many parts of the island, water is found in 
abundance at a depth of 18 feet.t The neglect of the river beds has 
been already noticed; not only is the water allowed to break 
tlirough the banks and run to waste, but the local farmers often 

* For instsnce, we hear that the ootered aqueduct at the eamp near Lanac^ 
giTes 4,000 gallons an hour, 
t See also the Chapter upon the Geology of PTprut, page 114 



80 



CYPfiUS. 



Defeotire 
drainage. 



poncliiaioii^< 



.contrive to conduct the water on to their lands, and this operation 
being generally efifected in a most unskilful manner, the full benefit 
'Of the streaim is not obtained, and great loss of water results. 
Tanks, to be filled by rain-water during the winter, might with 
advantage be constructed in several localities, and the whole r^u- 
latio4 of the water supply is a very important matter, and one 
to which engineering talent might bo applied with very great 
benefit to the island. 

The defective drainage of the towns has hitherto naturally been 
one of the principal causes of unhealthiness, and of diseases which 
are often wrongly attributed to the climate. That the chief towns 
will now be thoroughly cleansed, and a systematic set of sanitary 
measures adopted, is a matter of course ; these precautions together 
with c^ more rigorous and efifective quarantine tlian has hitherto 
existed, may be expected to work a vast improvement in the 
health of the inhabitants. The present state of Nicosia, the capital, 
may be mentioned as a proof of the want of drainage ; it is stated 
the ground on wliich the city stands is sodden with the sewage of 
centuries ; there is no fall of ground, so that the rain can wash 
nothing away, and there is not a drain in the whole place. All the 
sewage that does not remain on the service, percolates into cesspools, 
which arc never emptied, and which are almost invariably in close 
proximity to wells. No offal, refuse, garbage, or manure is ever 
removed, the most that is done is to throw it up in heaps, which arc 
left to reek in the hot sun, and spread disease over the neighbour- 
hood. Perhaps all the towns are not quite so bad as this ; the 
accounts of Limasol, for instance, are of an infinitely more cheering 
nature, but evidently there is still much work to be done befoi'e 
they can be thoroughly cleansed and purified. 

It appears, on the whole, that the climate of Cyprus is not 
really so bad as has been asserted by many people who have based 
their opinion either upon a short visit to the island during the 
worst season of the year, or upon mere heai*say. Numerous 
residents of long standing are unanimous in saying that the 
inliabitants enjoy good, and even robust, health, that they are subject 
to but few ailments, and generally live to ^ great age. The fevers 
which are prevalent in July and August, are but seldom of a 
malignant or dangerous type, and by prqper care and attention 
po diet they may be avoided. It is found that the fevers usually 
attack those who indulge in an over-abundant^ diet of cucumbers, 
melons, and fruits, but comparatively seldom aQect those who can 
afford better nourishment. Inflammations, agues, and fevers also 
frequently arise from impnident exposure to either sun or wind, and 
from sleeping at night in the open air, or near the marshes, and 
this risk ought to be carefully guarded against Ophthalmia is 
said to be common ; it may, however, be attributed not only to the 
glare from the white soil, but also in a great degree to want of 
cleanliness on Uie part of the natives. Sunstroke must be guarded 
against; the inhabitants take great precautions, enveloping their 
heads in large turbans and shawls. 

On the other hand, epidemics are of rare occurrence in the 
island ; Captain Farrant, RN. has written upon this subject, and 



THE CLIMATB OF CYPRUS. 8l 

mentions the fact of cholera raging on the adjacent coast of Syria, 
whilst Cyprus was quite free from it Consumption is said to be 
unknown, and pulmonary complaints are uncommon. A proof of 
the comparative healthiness of the climate is found in the &ct that 
the diseases which prevail in Cyprus, both as to frequency and 
character, do not relatively reach three-fifths of the amount of 
disease in Europe generally. In spite of the sinister reports that have 
been circulated, it is quite certain that Cyprus is not unhealthy 
in the sense that particular places, such as the West Coast of 
Africa are so, and the climate is in fact not dangerous to the 
constitution of Northern Europeans. Comparing Cyprus with 
Malta, the former has in hygienic aspects many manifest 
advantages ; — it is larger ; the population, compared to the area, is 
smaller; the island as a whole is incomparably more fertile, 
and there are many elevated sites suitable for habitation: con- 
sequently it is not improbable that when Cyprus has its sanitary 
laws, it may be made, at all events, as free from fever as Malta^ 
where, when we first took possession, and for years afterwards, 
particularly bad forms of aguisli fever were exceeding prevalent 



4 



1 

\ 



(774) 



B» 



^ypKua. 



OHAPTEE VII. 



NATUjiAii History. 



Hones. 



Camels. 



Mules and 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

TQ]^ beasts of burdep ui ordinary use in Ojrprus are Uie camel, the 
mnl0 and the ass. 

Until lately, horses do not appear to have been much used, and 
indeed, they were rarely to be seen except in towns, and there only 
of inferior breeds ; yet, in reports dated 1845, we read that the 
horses of Cyprus, though small, are hardy, and might be useful for 
light cavahy. Consul Biddell, writing at the beginning; of 1876, 
remarks that the old and cumbrous bullock cart is being rapidly 
supplanted by the more general and iuci*casing use of carts con- 
structed upon European models, many of which are ditiwn by 
horses instead of bullocks. The importation of horses, may, to a 
certain extent, be looked upon as a natural consequence of the 
British occupation. 

Camels are very generally used for transporting the produce of 
the cultivated districts to the markets and to Lamaca and Limasol, 
from which places nearly the whole exports are sent out of the 
island. The camels are less expensive than good horses, and can 
carry a heavier weight; their pace is comparatively slow, but 
hitherto time has been of no object in Cyprus, and the slow move- 
ments of camels and mules are in perfect harmony with the 
indolent character of the Cypriotes. 

The mules and asses of the country are of good quality, and 
are very generally used for riding ; some of the former have an 
excellent and easy amble, which does not fatigue the traveller, and 
is a faster pace than the trot. The mules of Cyprus are much 
esteemed throughout the Levant, and Consul Wliite, writing in 
1864, says that a considerable number of mules are annually ex- 
ported to Bhodes, and that asses are also exported to Syria. 
During the Abyssinian War, Consul Lang purchased in Cyprus 
over two thousand mules for the British government in the course 
of a month, at a cost of about £20 each, they were officially 
reported to be the best of all that were obtained, they went up the 
country to Magdala, and returned to the coast in good condition 
for sale. As the roads in the island are not fit for driving, all 
t;ravelling has to be accomplished by riding. On this subject General 



* \ 



.•> 



.J 



NATURAL HISTORY. 88 

« 

di Cesnola remarks " I found it in the end more profitable and less 
expensive to purchase than to hire animals, and in this way I 
became the possessor of several fine well-broken mules and two 
strong donkeys, as high almost as horses, of a breed peculiar to 
Cyprus. These donkeys are glossy and sleek, with lar^e eyes, and 
will trot as fast as a mule ; they are besides very intelligent" 

The inhabitants of the village of Athienou, which is in a central 
position between Lamaca and Nicosia, are mostly muleteers by 
occupation, and 0\vn tolerably good saddle mules, which can be 
hired to visit any part of the island. The muleteers, as a class, 
are described to be excellent and trustworthy, even under the 
temptation of conveving large sums of money from one town to 
another. General di Cesnola mentions that during his residence 
in Cyprus, he never heard of a professional muleteer proving un- 
worlJiy of the trust confided in him, and this statement is fully 
confirmed by Consul Lang. Travellers usually select their mule, 
and bargain with the owner of it for a lump sum for the entire 
journey, or else at the rate of so much a day. The latter mode is 
generally found preferable, for should the mule turn out badly, 
the traveller womd be at liberty to change it on the road if lie 
could meet with a better one ; still, the natives, for the sake of 
economy, generally make a bargain for the journey. The saddle is 
of rough native manufacture, and is called " stratouri ; " across it are ^ 

hung, m such a manner as not to incommode the rider, two large -^ 

canvas bags for carrying his effects, upon these several coloured 

blankets or quilts for beclding are piled, the stirrups aro tied on lo ^ 

this mass by ropes, and the rider has then to be assisted to ascend ' 

to the top. > 

Tlie load often appears enormous for the size of the animal, i 

but the Cyprus donkeys are as a rule very strong, and can resist 
the fatigues of a long journey better than the mules. : 

Oien are employed exclusively for agricultuml purposes, they Oxen. J 

are of a small kind, and usually in anything but good condition. Their ' 

number is small, for there is no grass pasture land. Beef is con- ' 

sequently not always to be obtained, and its quality is often far | 

from good ; the natives scarcely ever eat it 

Cows are never kept for dairy purposes, and the 'milk is not 
drunk ; the Cypriotes appear to have an aversion against it as well 
as the flesh. Oxen usually fetch from £3 to £7 10a./ati>Qrding to 
their quality. 

The flocks of sheep and goatp form a considerable portion of 8li<?«p 
the wealth of the island. In 1862, the numbers, exclusive of ^''^ 
lambs and kids less than one year old, were about 400,000, but 
Consul Watkins reports that in 1877, the number of sheep alone 
was estimated to be 750,000. Tliese flocks browse upon Uie herbs 
of the uncultivated districts. 

The sheep are of two kinds, the small, and the fat-tailed. A 
laige quantity of both sheep and goat hides are tanned in the island, 
and in 1862 it was reported that about 2,000 or 3,000 hides were 
annually sent to Europe, chiefly to Trieste. The annual export of 
lambskins was then about 16,000, these also were chiefly sent to 
Trieste, and about 5,000 kids* skins were annually sent to Mar- 
(774) r 2 



84 CTriius. 

seilles. Consul Watkins, writing in March 1878, deacribes the 
present trade in skins as follows : — " The trade in skins is some- 
what brisk, though limited. Cyprus exports a certain number 
oyer and above its producing capacity, as some are brought from 
Xlgypt and other places to be prepared and tanned hei-e. The prices 
were as follows : for lambskins. Is. 3d. each ; for sheep, 8^. each ; 
kids, 7d. each ; goats. Is. 3d. each ; and for bullocks' hides. Is. 3d. 
per oke/'t 

A considerable quantity of wool, unwashed and in the grease, 
is annually exported from Cyprus ; Consul White, writing in 1864, 
says that about 3,400 cwt are sent annually to Marseilles and 
Trieste. Some later consular reports are quoted below to show the 
present value of this article of export. 

Consul Riddell's Keport for 1872 :— 

''The quantity raised in this island appears to vary very little year by 
year and may liie averaged at about 400,000 lbs. ; the quality ia somewhat 
ooarae and wiry, but the staple ia strong and of good length. All the wools 
of Cyprus are exported in tne grease, and no attention whatever is given to 
improve their quality bv improved breeding in the flocks. The pasturace ii 
often scant ana genendiy precarious during the summer and autumn, there 
being nothing beyond the rough and scantjr produce of the uncultivated hill 
and table lands, so that whenever the rainndl is insufficient the food ui scanty, 
and many of the flocks of both sheep and goats perish from disease generated 
by insufficient nourishment. Qoats are able to subsist better than sheep during 
periods of drought. The entire number of both in the island is computed at 
about 800,000, in the proportion of one-third sheep and two-thirds goats." 

Consul Eiddeirs Report for 1873 :— 

''The production and export of sheep's wool in 1873, having been of all 
kinds, 47^860 lbs., rather exceeds the average yield. This quantity, however, 
comprises 43,040 lbs. of old wool, i.e. wool which has been used for various 
domestic nurposes, and which the povert]r of the owners has obliged them to 
sell in order to procure the means of existence. Deducting this from the 
whole quantity exported, leaves 435,820 lbs. as the yield of 1873." 

Consul Riddell's Report for 1874 :— 

" The growth of sheep's wool will probably turn out about an average in 
quantity, and of superior qualitv. The pasturage has been very abundant 
eveiy where, and the flocks have been maintained in fine condition. The only 
drawback has been the prevalence of small-pox among the flocks in various 
Darts of the island, but tne mortality is not reckoned to have exceeded 12 to 
15 percent. 

Consul Watkins* Report for 1877 :— 

''The quantity of the wool produced last year was about 330,000 Ihs. 
The mildness of the latter part of the winter, and the abundance of pasturage 
greatly contributed to the growth of this article. The number of sheep is put 
down at 750,000." 

The mutton of Cyprus is described by Consul White as not 
being very good, having a strong rank taste with a coarse fibre, 
but this is not the universal opinion. Goats' flesh is said to be 
much eaten, and when fat and young is superior to the mutton. A 
considerable quantity of cheese is made from the milk of the 
sheep and goats, the kinds called " hellumi," and also that made in 

* One oko is equal to 2| Englif h Ibe. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 85 

the Yillage of Acanthoii, ai-o much esteemed, and ara frequently ex- 
ported to Syria. Cesnola mentions that the priest of Acanthou 
assured him that the number of small cheeses, weighing not over 
^ lb. a-piece, which are made, averages 2,000,000 a year. 

It has been remarked by competent authorities (Consul Sand- 
witli and others) that a most lucrative trade in the export of live 
stock eeneraUy to Egypt and Syria, might be carried on greatly to 
the advantage of those countries, and to the breeders in Cyprus, 
did not the government put absurd restrictions on the trade in 
order to raise the prices. The consequence of so naiTow-minded 
a policy is that the flocks increase so rapidly that sheep and goats 
sell for IQs. or 12^. a-head, while in Egypt they can sometimes 
command three times that price. 

At Beyrout, in winter, mutton sometimes goes up to 8d. a pound, 
wliilst in Cyprus, at a distance of only twelve hours by steam, it 
sells at 3d. a pound ; and yet exportation is as strictly prohibited 
as if the two countries were in a state of war with one another. 

Pigs are very generally reared by the Christian population, and Figs, 
abundance of pork of good quality may be easily procured ; it is 
eaten by the upper classes only in winter, being rightly considered 
unwholesome during the hot weather, but the peasantry salt it, and 
in that state it is laigely consumed by them at all seasons. 

Poultry is very plentiful. Turkeys are abundant, and can be PouKrj. 
bought at moderate prices, but, owing to the scarcity of water, 
ducks and geese are somewhat rare. 



WILD ANIMALS. 

It is stated Uiat formerly wild animals abounded in Cyprus, Some tpecita 
but of the larger species, such as deer and roebucks, none are at ^^? Iwome 
present to be found. The fox is the only carnivorous animal now ^ '°^ ' 
in the island. 

Game is very abundant. The mufflon or wild sheep, and wild Game, 
boars are found on Mount Troodos, and in the wild and uninhabited 
regions at the eastern and western extremities of the island, in the 
vicinity of Capes St. Andrea and Amauti, and also in the Mara- 
tassa valley. Many of the sheep and goats on the slopes of 
Olympus, though the descendants of domesticated animals, are now 
quite wild, and it is said that in the Acamas and Karpas districts, 
horses, asses, and oxen rove at large in a wild state. Hares are 
plentiful, and as they subsist upon the sweet herbs which 
abound, their flesh is of excellent quality. The plains are fre- 
quented by flocks of bustards, partridges, francolins and quails. 
The francolins, in size and shape, resemble our red-lo.!:»gea par- 
tridges, but their plumage is much darker, and their llesh more 
wliite and delicate, approaching in flavour that of the pheasant 

Of birds of passage, woodcock, snipe, and wild duck are very 
plentiful during the winter, frequenting the island from end to end. 
Beccaficos are abundant in October ; the Cypriotes preserve them 
partially boiled in Commanderia wine, for winter eating. 



86 CYPRUS. 

The country about Euklia, Pysouri, Baffo, and the Maratasaa 
valley are the parts of the island where game most abounds. 

Hitherto neither game or fish have been preserved in any way, 
and both shooting and fishing are allowed anywhere^ so long as the 
crops are not injured. Gunpowder is, however, a government 
monopoly, and peasants cannot obtain it without a declaration 
signed before the Cadi, and other expensive formalities. Then, 
again, the Greeks never carry guns, for a Mussulman law, stricUy 
enforced by the local authorities, prevents Christians from bearing 
any other firearms but pistols, which may be worn at the girdle 
while travelling or after dark, as a protection against robbers. 
Travellers and tourists have, however, never been considered as 
Christians so far as this decree went. Under the new government, 
the establishment of a close season for game may naturally be ex- 
pected. 
BircU of prey. Of birds of prey, eagles, vultures, buzzards, falcons, and hawks 

are very common. 
Reptiles and Of reptiles and noxious insects there are asps, other snakes 

inaecta, which are said not to be venomous, scorpions, tarantulas, and 

locusts. Some travellers have related startling stories regarding 
the dangers to be encountered from the reptiles, Gaudry mentions 
that he saw an ass stung by an asp, and it died in a few hours ; he 
also' says that deatlis among the natives are frequent from asp 
bites ; that asps are generally found in the standing com, and that 
reapers attach little bells to their sickles to frighten the snakes 
away. That venomous reptiles do exist in the island can scarcely 
be doubted, but most of the reports as to their numl)er and dead- 
liness are circulated by writers who have paid a flying visit to the 
island, and have lent a credulous ear to the stories of timid natives, 
or who have really no personal knowledge whatever of the countiy ; 
whilst residents who have tmvelled on foot and on horseback 
throughout Cyprus, state positively that they have never been 
bitten.* The peasantry have a great dread of asps, and indeed of 
all snakes, as they consider them unlucky, and it is an abnost 
universal practice to wear high boots as a protection ; still many of 
their tales which have been both believed and repeated are much 
exa^erated. General di Cesnola mentions that the site of the 
ancient Curium is a favourite resort of asps, and he says that once 
when excavating at Mulasha, a kuji, or asp, was encountered, and 
the sight of it was sufficient to deter the diggers from furtlier ex- 
ploration at that spot 

A large species of snake is said to be common in tlie north- 
western part of the island, but it is harmless ; the asps are 
described to be of middling length, great thickness, of a blackish 
hue and with a blunt tail Sonuini describes a large spider, which 
he calls the galcode of the Levant, as existing in Cyprus, and saya 

* Dr. Olorke apont ten days in Cjrprut, and giyeeaniost melancholy aooountboih 
^ tlie oUumle. ana of the dangers of rcnomous reptiles } his work has boon muoh 
quoted by pcssimisls, but Consul Lang, who renadod nine voan iu the inland, and 
teayelled all oyer it, says that he could only find specimens of asps and tarantulas aftav 
•oonsiderable search, and that he neyer heard of the pernicious feyers repoTtsd Iry 
Dr. Clarke, though they might possibly haye existed before lua arriTal. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 6f 

that ita bite is very datlgorotid. Dv. Clarko Btatcd that tamntulotf 
having black bodies covered with hair, and bright yellow eyes 9M 
not uncommon. 

By far the worst enemy amongst the animal cniatioH, thstt Loeuitf. 
Cypnis has to contend with, and the most injurious to agricul-' 
tuml prosperity, is the locust. Writers of the iSfteenth centunr 
mention the feaiful depredations of this insect at that period, ft 
is by some imagined that it was first blown aoross the sea from the 
coasts of Caramania or Syria, and by others that it may have' beett 
introduced by ships bringing cai^oes of grain, but afterwards the 
eggs were deposited in the island and the locusts remained from 
year to year. Although, owing to active measures of destruction^ 
this plague has at present ahnost disappeared, it may be both 
useful and interesting to notice how only a few vears agd; thel 
island was invaded by these pests. It appears that the insect ii) M 
wonderfully prolific, that unless continual and active measure dtd' 
taken to extirpate it, it increases in the course of a fbw years ihf 
such quantities as to swarm in myriads over the wholb cotlutSrf, 
but, on tlie otiier hand it is evident that with cdre and penseveraue^ 
its almost complete disstruction may be ensured. The measure 
adopted by Osman Pasha in 1856-^56, were very successful; diid 
consequently the island enjoyed a fbw years of comparative 
freedom from this scourge, but the precautionary measures were 
subsequently neglected, and the locusts graduallv increased in 
numbera till in 1861, the spring crops suffered feamtUy from their 
ravages. In 1862, Zia Pasha, who was then governor of Cyprus, 
took the matter up actively, and, through his representations, the 

Evemment was induced to grant a sum of 2,500 Turkish lire 
juivalent to about £2,270) for carrying out various plans proposed 
r the destruction of the insect. At the same time a tax of 
20 okes of locusts' eggs per head was imposed upon the inhabi- 
tants. It was calculated that by this tax at least a million' of okes 
of ^gs would be collected, and aa each oke was found to contain 
on an average 1,800 eggs, from each of which 30 locusts ore pro- 
duced, the number of insects thus destroyed in the egg would be 
enormous. 

The numbers were, however, so great that it required some years 
to work a change, and in 1864 we read that the locusts Were still 
very numerous, but Consul Sandwith in his report for the year 
1869 was able to state that, owing ' to the energetic measures 
adopted, the locusts had nearly disappeared, and Consul Lang, 
writing in 1871, said that these measui^es were still being carried 
on with fair success, and that the agricultural interest of the island 
had then a better prospect than for a long time previously. Since 
that time we hear tnat, thanks to recent intelligent efforts, the destnic- 
tion of the insect has been accomplished, and that it now only remains 
to watch and guard carefully against its return. It is worthy of 
notice tliat the presence of locusts in the island, was alwavs a 
Standing obstacle to the proper cultivation of cotton (which 
might be a great source of wealth) by the delay which it ilecessi- 
tated in the planting of the seed, for this could not be done until* 
the passage of the locusts across the land was over ; consequently 



88 CYPBU8. 

(he plfmts did not ripen until late in the year, and at times the 
^lls did not open at all, from want of sufficient heat in the 
autumnal season. It is stated that now the cotton may be sown 
early in May, and so there is full time for the plant to come to 
maturity hefoie the end of the summer. 

Drs. linger and Kotschy devote the whole of Chapter YIII, of 
their joint work upon Cyprus to an account of the ravages of 
locusts in the island ; the German authors, SeifiT and Yon Loher 
also describe their depredations. 

It appears that the yoimg locusts are hatched about the end of 
March, and a fortnight later they commence hopping and creeping 
westward, destroying every leaf as they pass it ; by the end of 
April their wings are fully developed, and the work of devastation 
commences, fields of com are devoured to the very roots, and 
fruitful salens entirely laid waste. In August, the eggs are 
deposited, and shortly afterwards the insects die. The spots where 
the eggs are laid can easilv be detected by a shiny viscous matter, 
with wnich the locusts soften and cover the earth in which they are 

S laced. Every female lays two or three eggs, and each of these pro- 
uces on an average about 30 locusts, uie egg being in fact an 
agglomeration of small eggs bound close together in a small oblong 
mass. A simple and very effective method of destroying locusts, 
was hit upon by a large land owner, M. Mattel He observed that 
the insects could not ascend smooth surfaces, and that even when 
fuUy winged they were compelled to seek the earth at short 
intervalEi, and continue their progress by creeping and hopping ; 
so he caused several rows of ditches about 2^ feet deep to be dug at 
right angles to the line of flight, and on the further side of these, 
screens of linen, oilcloth, &c., were erected. The locusts on trying to 
scale the screens generally fell back in masses into the ditches, where 
they were either covered with earth, or shovelled out, thrown into 
sacks, and buried in other spots. Those that sunnounted the first 
screen, were generally stopped by the second, and in no case cleared 
the third. TaiQ plan was the means of destruction of enormous 
quantities of locusts, and it was adopted all over the island ; both 
SeifT and Yon Loher testify to its merits. 
Beet. Bees are kept in great numbers in many parts of the island ; 

Dr. Clarke mentions the large number of hives which he saw at a 
village called Attien (jprobably Athienou) ; Yon Loher notices 
that there were quantities on flie slopes below Buffavento. It is 
stated, however, that there has been but little encouragement to the 
peasantry to keep bees, for the honey is generally demanded by the 
governor, so that an apiary may be considered as merely an additional 
tax. 



WOODS AND FORESTS. 

Orpnwfor. From ancient writers we learn that when Cyprus was first 

iimrlv w«u' colonized, the whole countiy was covei-od with forests, wliicli were 
fHH^M, in certain places cleared by the Phoenicians for the double purposes 

of opening out ground for cultivation, and using the timber as fuel 



NATURAL HISTORY. 89 

for smeltmg copper. From historical accounts it also appears that 
the ancient rulers of Cyprus, whether Greeks, Persians, E^rptians, 
Bomans, Arabs, or Byzantines, all gave particular care and atten- 
tion to Uie cultivation and protection of the fine forest trees which 
then contributed so materieuly to the prosperity of the island ; con- 
sequently, not only did stately pines and other trees cover the 
whole of the mountain ranges, but the entire plain was also clothed 
with a dense mass of forest. 

The modem traveller in Cyprus would, however, have some Destruction of 
difficulty in realizing that this hstd really been the case, for except ^^ forcsta. 
on the Olympus range in the south-west part of the isknd, and on 
some of the slopes of the Cerinea and Karpas mountains, the island 
is now wholly denuded of forests, and so bare and treeless is the 
Messaria plain at the present day, that it in by no means easy to 
appreciate its former condition. Cyprus has undoubtedly in many 
ways sufifered much at the hands of her recent owners, but in no 
particular is this fact more clearly evidenced than in the utter de- 
struction of the forests. 

It is said that it was during the two first centuries of the 
Lusignan dynasty, the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, that 
the first serious attack was made upon the luxuriance of the Cyprian 
forests ; at tliis period ship-building was carried on to an enormous 
extent^ and no pains were taken to replace the trees used for this 
purpose. 

The Venetians, who came next, were also great shipbuilders, 
but had sufficient foresight to undertake a certain amoimt of plant- 
ing ; their tenure of the island was, however, comparatively short, 
in 1572, Cyprus fell under Turkish rule, and then at once com- 
menced the ruthless destruction which, were it continued much 
longer, could only end in the conversion of the island into an arid 
waste. Yon Loher supplies us with details concerning the various 
ways in which the improvidence and carelessness of the Turks 
have caused the disappearance of the forests. 

It appears that year after year the pashas, kaimakams, and agas 
have increased their revenues by cutting down the trees, and leav- 
ing those which they could not seU to be appropriated by whoever 
chose to take them. Every maritime disaster entailed fresh de- 
mands upon the Cyprian forests ; if a hundred trunks were wanted, 
a thousand were felled, it being slightly easier to select the finest 
trees when lying on the ground than when upright, the best were 
then taken away, and the remainder left to rot where they lay. 
The forests were under no protection from government, and the 
poorer classes have derived a considerable portion of their livelihood 
from the sale of the trees, which they cut down when they please ; 
near every village, or inhabited spot, the spoliation of the surround- 
ing timber is evident ; the small trees have all been cut down at 
the roots, whilst the larger ones which would entail some labour to 
fell, have had all their branches and bark hacked off. During the 
temporary occupation of the island by Egypt under Mehemet Ali, 
1832-1840, the work of destruction continued with, if possible, in- 
creased activity, shipments of timber to Egjrpt being permitted and 
encouraged. But, in addition to all this, a very large proportion of 



90 GTPRUS. 

the forests have been destroyed simply though either carelessness 
or wanton mischief. Fires in the woods aix) of very ft*equent 
oconrrence, they are generally kindled by the wandering shepherds 
OF their families, who make not the slightest attempt to check the 
devastation which often ensues. Yon Loher mentions that he rode 
through' several charred' and blackened districts, where it was quite 
evident that the progress of the fire had only been arrested by there 
being no more trees or shrubs to bum ; he also sa}'s that the 
inhabitants of dififerent villages often set fire to each other's trees 
or shrubs in order to avenge a quarrel Fine trees meet with 
the same fate simply for the pleasure of seeing them bum, and it 
is stated that this is an amusement frequently indulged in by 
ignorant and unreflecting shepherds, in order to while away their 
time spent on the mountains. 

The forests of dark pines which formerly clothed the mountain 
sides have also fallen victims to the foolish and reckless manner in 
which the tar burners and I'esin distillers caiTy on their business. 
Yon Loher says, " Operations are commenced by stripping off the 
bark on one side, the finest trees being always selected, as high as 
the man can reach, and the resin taken. Fire is then applied to 
the base of the trunk, and a few hours suffice to lay it low. The 
branches are then lopped off, and with portions of the trunk, are 
heaped into a roughly constmcted oven formed of quaiTied stona 
File is then applied to the wood, and the resin pours forth into a 
little channel cut to receive it. The first fruits of this process 
are called' kolophonium, and the second, resin, whilst the last 
result forms a kind of tar. Half the resin is, of course, wasted in 
this rough process, and when the devastators have taken of the 
best the hill-sides affoixl, they climb down to another gi-een and 
luxuriant spot, there to recommence their work of destruction." 
Qaudry says that if a peasant wishes to sow some gi^in up in the 
mountains, he simply burns down the trees which stand on the 
spot, and their ashes serve to enrich the soil for a few yeara, during 
which it is cultivated, and when this j)iece of land is worked out, 
the same process is repeated in another place, and so on. 
^tT^^th^ To restore the forests to anything like their former con- 

foreiitt. ^ dition will be the work of many years, and may at fii*st involve 

a heavy expenditure ; in the end, however, it cannot but prove 
remunerative, not only as regai-ds the actual value of the timber 
itself for manufacturing purposes, but also on accoimt of the influ- 
ence which the existence of forests would have upon the climate. 
This last subject has been considered in Chapter VI. 

To effect the restoration of the timber supplies of the island, 
not only will whole districts have to be replanted, but it is suggested 
that all the existing woods and forests should be put under the im^ 
mediate protection of the government, and their culture and general 
management entrusted to efficient persons; every act of wanton 
destruction should be punished, boundary lines round the villages 
should be fixed, and restrictions placed upon the present trade in 
resin. Opinions regarding the best trees to plant in the island have 
been freely offered since our occupation of C^pms commenced. In 
the selection of these trees, gi^eat care will be i*equii*ed, for various 



NATURAL HISTORY. 91 

qnalificfitions are needful, and no trees should be introduced vliich 
will not eventually repay the Government by an increase of re- 
venue ; thus, those which are chosen, should, if possible, be trees of 
rapid growth, be able to resist both heat and drought, and to 
adapt themselves to the soil of the island ; they should, moreover, 
supply the requisite material for fuel, and for manufacturing pur-^ 
poses. The suitability of the eucalyptus ghlndxia for planting in 
the plains is universally insisted upon from a directly hygienic 
point of view ; ite capacity for destroying the malaria of marshy 
lands, and its rapid growth in almost any soil have already been 
alluded to in Chapter VI. But there are numerous other treeff 
equally, if not more, important, which may well be mentioned. 
Several varieties of the Australian acacia would prove invaluable 
acquisitions in a manufacturing point of view ; amongst these th0 
Acacia cyanophilla and the Acacia leiophylla resist heat and drought 
in a wonderful manner, and are not particular as to the quality of 
the soil in which they grow. The wood of these trees makes ex- 
cellent fuel, and is useful for cabinet work. The bark is extremely 
rich in tannin, yielding as much as 25 per cent., against 6 or 7 per 
cent, in the ordinary oak bark. Some of these Australian acaciad 
have been planted in Algeria, and at ten years of age have been 
found to have bark about six times as thick as oak trees of the 
same age. The careful removal of the bark at proper intervals, 
does not affect the growth of the trees, so that in this way alone a 
new and important industry would be introduced into the island^ 
and at the same time the quantity of firewood that would be available 
from the proper lopping of the trees would be enormous.* It is also 
quite possible that the jaiTah tree of West Austmlia, the timber of 
which is superior to any other variety for ship-building purposes, 
might flourish in the island. The pinus maritivui, which even now 
a1x)unds in parts of the island, is a fine and useful tree ; more of 
these should be planted, and the existing trees tended and 
encouraged. On the mountains may be found spots where there is 
a young growth of this tree, but in most cases tlie plants are not 
allowed to reach maturity, for those which are not destroyed by 
man, are irreparably injured by the sheep and goats which wander 
at will amongst them. 

Amongst other trees which flourish in the Levant, the walnut is 
one of the most valuable, and fine specimens now exist in Cypnisi 

Tlie Spanish chestnut would probably flourish ; it is important 
as a crop-bearer, and its timber is very valuable for house- 
building, being almost imperishable. It should also be remembered 
that amongst the exports of the Levant, valonia, the cup of the 
acorn of the qiiercus a^gilops, is very largely consumed in Englknd, 
being the chief aid of the tanner. This article varies in marketable' 
value from £20 to £30 per ton, and is at present gathered only in 
its Avild state. Any quantity of acorns can be collected, and there? 
can be little doubt tiiat should oak forests be planted upon CtDWit 
lands in Cyprus, they would eventually yield an important revenue. 

* When our troops first arrived iu Cyprus, it mis reported that eroiTthiiig iftJi 
cbeap and plentiful, except fuel and fodder. 



92 



CYPRUS. 



Forest trees 
liow existing 
in Pjprus. 



Fruil trees. 



Oranges, 
citrons, and 
lemons. 



Pome- 
granates. 

Apricqts. 



Figs. 
Pricklj pears. 

Chnpes. 



The trees which are at present to be found in the island are the 
following: — ^the pmus marUima covers most of the mountain 
regions to the height of 4,000 feet above the sea, as one of the 
commonest t^ees ; the pinus laricio abounds on most of the heights 
to 4,000 feet, and on the western mountains it rises to 6,000 
feet, giving the slopes a dark appearance when seen from a distance ; 
the wild cypress (cupreaaua horizontalta) is the next most abundant 
tree ; it is very common in the eastern part of the island, and in some 
places forms woods by itself; thi-oughout the northern chain this 
wild cypress often grows to the height of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet 
above the sea, and it is probable that in ancient times large forests of 
this tree covered a great portion of the island. A shrub, the 
juniperus phasnicea is also common, and was once very abundant 
indeed, especially in the southern part of the island. 

Several varieties of the oak, and the cork-oak, are found in the 
northern mountains ; the arbutus abounds everywhere, and on the 
banks of the rivers and streams, the carob and olive trees flourish, 
and extend up to an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea. 

Dr. Unger and Kotschy, in "Die Insel Cypem," Chapters V. VI. 
yil. pages 97-401, supply most valuable botanical infoi-mation 
regarding the forest and fmit trees, and the vegetation of the island 
generally. 

The fruit trees of Cyprus deserve special notice; they have 
acquired some notoriety, and, as may be expected from the geogra- 
phical position of the island, are mostly those peculiar to southern 
countries. 

Orange, citron, and lemon trees are largelv cultivated in the 
gardens throughout the island, but not in sumcient quantity for 
their fruits to be an article of exportation ; indeed oranges are 
occasionally imported into Cyprus f^om Tripoli and Jaffa. 

Pomegranates are very abundant, and a quantity of this fruit is 
annually exported to Alexandria. 

The apricot is said to be the finest fmit of Cyprus, and the best 
variety is grown at Famagusta. Dr. Clarke says that the apricot 
tree appears to be indigenous in the island, and that it seems to 
flourish thei*e in greater perfection than in any other country. He 
notices the great size of some of the trees at Nicosia, and 
mentions that the branches were suppoited by props to prevent 
their being broken by the load of fruit upon them. One variety 
has a smooth shining skin like a nectarine; another, called the 
'* caisha," is sweet-kemelled and very luscious, and there is besides 
a small variety which is of poor quality, and is considered un- 
wholesome. 

The fig-tree is very common, and is found in the neighbourhood 
of all villages. 

The prickly pear grows in lai-ge quantities ; it often lines the 
road- sides, and is also found in gardens. The fruit is cooling and 
wholesome, and is much eaten by the lower classes. 

Grapes are abundant and of excellent quality ; tlie vines grow 
to a great size, tlio bundles of grupus are largo, and the fruit is 
highly flavoured ; in some varieties the juice is said to i*esemble a 
concentrated essence. Some of the best vines have a yellowish 



I 



NATURAL HISTORY. 93 

grape from which the Commanderia wine is made. The mauufacturo 
of wine, and its export from Cyprus, are considered in Chapter VIII. 
It was from this island that the vine was introduced with so much 
success into Madeira, and when the grape disease destroyed so 
many of the vines at the latter place, fresh shoots were sent from 
Cypnts to supply their places. 

A small description of cherry is to be found in the island, and ciicrries. 
it is sold in the markets of Nicosia and Larnaca. 

Small quantities of apples and pears are raised, but their quality Apples and 
is very inferior. pcara. 

Melons and water-melons are produced in considerable quan- Melons, 
tfties ; the ordinary melons have little of the aroma of the culti- 
vated fruit, but rather resemble the cucumber in flavour; there 
is however, another description, called '' tumburse," which is sweet 

and well-flavoured. The water-melons are smaller than those of ^ • 

Jaffa, and by no means equal to them in taste. ^ 

Tlie palm tree abounds in Nicosia and Lefca^ and is also found Palms. ; V 

in smaller numbers in Larnaca and Limasol. Its presence in a 

village generally indicates that the majority of the inhabitants are ' *^ 

Turks, the Mussulmans being much attached to this tree. The 
dates produced by the Cyprian palms are much inferior to those of 
Egypt, and never attain to the same degree of maturity. 

Olives are one of the chief indigenous trees in Cyprus. They Olives, 
are constantly found with the carob trees at the base of the 
mountains and skirting the plains, forming a line of demarcation 
between the uncultivated mountain sides, and the tilled land below. 
The olive tree requires a certain amount of culture, and as it has 
been much neglected is now less common in the island, and 
less fruitfid than in former times, consequently, instead of the 
oil forming a valuable article of export, barely enough is now 
produced for the supply of the inhabitants, and in spite of the 
profusion in which the tree is found, it is sometimes necessary to 
import olive oil into Cyprus to meet the requirements of the local 
consumption. Vast quantities of the trees in a wild state are 
scattered over the island, particularly in the vicinity of Baffo, but 
these are entirely unproductive, though all that they require to 
make them fruitful is merely to be grafted. From Consul Watkins' 
Beport for 1877, we learn that the produce of olive oil in that year 
was estimated at 260,000 okes against 200,000 okes in 1876. 

Prices ranged from nine to ten piastres per oke. 

The presses which are used in the island are venr imperfect, and 
it is said that twelve pounds of olives jrield about three pints of oil. 
A tree often bears 150 lbs. of fruit. 

The oil-producing districts are Cerinea, Eythrsea, Larnaca 
and Limasol. As a rule the olive tree only produces abundantly 
once in five years, the conditions required for a good yield are cold 
and wet weather, then the quantity produced may reach 400,000 
or even 500,000 okes. The oil is rarely exported ; when it is cheap, 
soap is made in such quantities as to supply Mersine and other 
parts of Caramania. 

Mulberry trees are grown in small plantations in various parts iCulbenr 
of the island, in order to supply leaves for the food of silkworms, trees. 



u 



CYPRUS. 



Nuts. 



Tegetablee. 



Ooloojnth. 



Sumao. 



Sugftr caiiM. 



The culture of the tree ia, howover, almost entirely neglected, and 
consequently the quality of ihe silk has deteriorated. The best 
ftQd finest mulberry trees are found near Baffo. 

Walnut and almond trees are comparatively rare, but they are 
found here and there in the island. General di Cesnola mentions 
the *' two noble walnut trees close to his house at Dali. 

The utilization of the fruit of the island as a means of profit is 
but little thought of, as the amount sold in the bazaars of the 
town bears but a very small proportion to what is, or might be, 

g reduced. Yon Loher sajj^s that even the celebrated vegetables of 
Cyprus are but little cultivated, and some varieties are becoming 
almost unknown, as the inhabitants content themselves with 
gathering wild cresses, artichokes, purslane, and asparagus. Of 
the vegetables which have been cultivated with success in Cyprus, 
and which can be procured there at the present time, the following 
are those most worthy of notice : — ^potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers, 
pumpkins, cucumbers, gherkins, marrows, lettuces, tomatoes, 
spinach, celery, broad beans, french beans, lentils, onions and 
brinjals. 

The prices asked for these vegetables have hitherto been very 
moderate. 

Sweet potatoes are said to be indigenous to the country, but 
are not cultivated, and the people appear to be ignorant of the 
value of this esculent. Potatoes yield two crops a year, producing 
from 60 to 75 cwt. per acre ; they are of fair quality, and do not 
appear to be afiected by any disease. 

It is said that Cyprus is the native place of the cauliflower, 
which in its English form has been produced by the art of the 
gardener from the Brassica oleracea, the part used for food being 
the deformed flower stalks. 

The cultivation of rhubarb, safifron, hemp, and other valuable 
vegetable natural products is almost entirely neglected. 

Colocynth is somewhat larg^ely grown in the island and forms 
an article of export. The plant is the cucumis colocipUhis, or 
dtrullus colocynthis, but is known in Cyprus as colloquintida. 
The plants spread over the gi'ound like the water-melon, which 
they also resemble in leaf and flower, as well as in fruit, whilst the 
melons are young : the spongy inside, or pith of the fruit, is used 
medicinally as a cathartic. 

Sumac grows in a wild state in Cyprus, and is an indigenous 
shrub. The quality of the Cyprian sumac is considered superior 
to that of the Tyrolese, but in the European markets, the Sicilian 
plants command a higher price. This maybe due to want of special 
cultivation, to imperfect preparation of the leaf, or to a natural 
inferiority of the plant. It is generally exported from Limasol in 
ihe leaf ; veiy litUe goes to England, but in 1877, £500-worth was 
sent to Turkev, and £450-worth to Greece. Various parts of the 
plant are used for tanning, dyeing, and in medicine. 

At the time when the Venetians possessed Cyprus, large 
plantations of sugar canes were mado, and it is said that the plant 
iBUCoeeded in tlie districts of Episcopi and Lefca, as well as in Egypt. 
Buildings in which tlie sugar was refined were erected on these 



NATURAL HISTORY. 96 

spots, and the profits derived from the production of sugar so near 
Europe, must doubtless liave been large. The plantations haye 
now been entirely abandoned, though the soil and climate are 
probably as suitable at the present time for the growth of sugar- 
canes as at any previous period. 

The soil of Cyprus is in various parts favourable for the ColTw. 
growth of tlie coffee plant, and Sonnini tliinks that it might be 
successfidly cultivated. 

At one time a lucrative trade was carried on with Syria In the Jajn^ oil. 
oil extracted from the seed of the jujube tree, zizyphics jujxtba. 
This oil, as well as that obtained from glasswort, is used when the 
supply of olive oil is insufficient. 

The mastic tree (pitachia lentiscus) grows abundantly in the Mastic, 
torrent valleys ; on incision a resinous gum exudes, which is very 
useful as an astringent, an aromatic, and an ingredient in drying 
varnishes. 

From various plants found in the island, liquid storax, also Stomx. 
called liciuid amber, is obtained ; it is a fragrant resinous substance, 
medicinally used as an expectorant, and by the natives it is burnt 
for incense. 

This substance is a gum resin of dark colour and pungent Ladnnum oil. 
odour. It is distilled to some extent in Cyprus from the cistus 
ladaniferus and the cistus ci'eticits, and is chieAy used medicinally 
as a mild stimulant in external applications. 

One of the most important plants of the island in r^ect to FernlaGrwca. 
its economical uses is the Ferula Grccca ; of the stalks the Cypriote 
forms a great part of his household furniture, and the pith is used 
instead of tinder for conveying fire from one place to another. 

Drs. Uiiffer and Kotschy in '* Die Iiisol C/yi)em " give a complete The Flora, 
synopsis and enumeration of the flora of Cyprus, together with their 
commercial and medicinal uses ; they say that prairie or meadow- 
land does not exist in the island, but arable land entirely takes the 
place of it. 

The want of hay for the food of the animals belonging to the 
British army of occupation, was much felt when the troops first 
landed, and a quantity of fodder had to be imported. 

After the rains, but only for a short time, cereals give a satin- 
like green to the landscape, and among them grow a profusion of 
flowers; but these artificial rather than natural fields fade more 
quickly than the flowers, and scarcely last more than a few weeks 
after the end of the spring rains. The great heat of summer 
destroys all the tender plants, and only those survive which, 
through their anatomical construction, or hard substance, can resist 
the effects of the heat. This description applies, however, only to 
open plains where there is no water, for throughout the island 
wherever the earth is sufficiently supplied with moisture, thousands 
of plants spring up in rich profusion, and there can be no doubt 
that tlie soil is almost everywhere luxuriantly fertile. One of the 
principal difficulties experienced by agriculturists is to keep their 
com from being smothered by weeds.. The valleys of the rivers and 
torrents are clothed with immense quantities of shrubs and flowers ; 
of these the most abimdant are the arbutus, myrtle, oleander. 



» - 

• a 






96 CYPBUS. 

juniper^ and mastic ; whilst the carpet of flowers is composed of 
roses, jasmine, poppies, tulips, hyacinths, narcissus, ranunculus 
anemones, &o., all of which thrive without any cultivation. 

In February and March there is a profusion of lilies along the 
edges of aU streams, and in April and May the flowers which have 
been mentioned are in their greatest beauty. 

Drs. Unger and Eotchy state that in Cyprus, as far as the island 
has yet been explored, there are a thousand difierent sorts of plants, 
mid they enumerate all the genera and species. 

Still, with all the inducements to cultivate the soil which exist, 
vast wastes have under the late government been allowed to exist, 
although probably at one time or another the greater part of them 
have been under tillage. These uncultivated tracts are burnt vip 
and dry ; they are generally covered with bushes of a furzy nature, 
prickly brambles and thistles, or overgrown with heath, thyme, 
and various aromatic and odoriferous plants. 



In the following chapter, which treats of the agriculture of the 
island, and those vegetable productions which at present form 
articles of trade and export, a full account is siven of the growth, 
culture, and quantities of several products which have not been 
mentioned above, viz., wheat, barley, cotton, madder-roots, silk, vines, 
(and the manufacture of wine), locust-beans, and tobacco. 



AGRIOULTURJLL PRODUCTS. 9? 



CHAPTER VIIL 



Agricultural PRODUcrrs. 



Thb report of Consul Riddell for 1872 contains several important I>«f«*» ^ ^ 
facts relating to the agriculture of Cyprus. From it we gather that SStawT^**"* 
this branch of industry is in a very rude and backward state ; the 
formers are poor, they possess but small holdings, their implements 
are of the rudest and least costly description, and they are whoUv 
without the means or knowledge requisite for maintenance of high 
cultivation. Scarcely any system 'in the rotation of crops is 
observed; manure in sufficient quantity thoroughly to enricn'the 
soil is not to be obtained, aiiificial manures are imknown in the 
island, and their cost would prevent their general use ; so, to pre- 
vent the land from becoming quite worked out, it is usually 
allowed to lie fallow every alternate year. No root crops were then 
produced beyond a few patches of ill-cultivated potatoes in the 
vicinity of towns, but we now hear better accounts of the potatoes, 
also that beets, turnips, and artichokes do well imder irrigation, the 
latter yielding from 2^ to 5 tons per acre. 

Land has generally hitherto been cheap, but its price varies I>iffereiit 
according to its suitability for particular crops, its means of irriga- ^"^®' ^^ 
tion, and its distance from anv town or village. The richest 
^und is used for crops of madder roots, cotton, tobacco, &a, and 
it is stated by Consul White that in 1863, good cotton land, in a 
favourable position, was worth about £9 the acre, and that madder 
root land at Famagusta commanded a comparatively very high 
price, as much as x90 the acre having been paid for it ; this price 
IS a striking instance of the influence of the situation of land over 
its value, for the madder roots produced at Famagusta are inferior 
to those grown at Aghia Irene or at Morpho, yet the land at (he 
former place is five times more valuable than at the others, in con-^ 
sequence in a great measure, of its more convenient position for 
the shipment of the crop, and the larger population of the district, 
as well as the greater profit obtained by the earlier growth of the 
root In the Messaria, where wheat is laigely groWn^ land 
«¥eraged in 1863, &om £2 to £3. IO5. It is said that ordinary cropr 
bearing ground fetched on an average £3 an acre, and cotton-pro- 
ducing ground £10 an acre. The value of land both for agricul- 
tural and building purposes, may, however, be expected to undergo 
•great change in consequence of the British occupation of the 
island, and, as far as private properties are concerned, the land- 
owners will probably consider the prices mentioned above (o b6 
quite a thing of the past 

(774) a - 



•.]'l 



9Q OTPRU& 

Irnniion of As regards irrigation, the country is divided by one writer into 

J^*- Ave Jrinds ;— 

1. Plains watered by rivers. 

2. Jiand dependent on rain for iiTigation. 

3. Land watered by wells, and worked by means of mules. 

4. Mountainous regions, producing only vines and timber. 

6. Soil prepared so as to retain its moisture during the dry 
season. 

Cultivation being in Cvprus so entirely dependent upon the 
water supply, the nature of the irrigation is of the highest import 
tance in the selection of land. In 1845, land watered by torrents 
or springs fetched £10 per scala, whilst that which was depen- 
dept on rainfall only fetched from la. to 19a. per secda,^ Districts 
( with running waters are cultivated for cotton, bai-ley, and wheat. 
Droughts have generally occurred in recent times about every 
fifth or sixth year. Blights are frequent in April and May, 
and some of the hot winds in summer exercise a veiy in- 
jurious influence upon the crops, especially the cotton plants, 
which are withered and burnt down to the very roots by it 

The number of acres annually under tillage has been variously 
cSud° estimated at from 130,000 to 160,000 ; this, if we take the area of the 
|mi4. island at 3678 square miles (Keith Johnston's figures), represents 

only about one-fifteenth or sixteenth part of the vmole countiy,but 
ai9 a great part of the land is generally left fallow every alternate 
year, we may consider that scarcely one-tenth part of the area is 
tmder cultivation,! and when it is remembered that the part now 
cultivated does not yield, owing to the defective modes of culture 
which have been alluded to, more than perhaps a hidf of what 
it might produce, it is evident that there is a wide scope for in- 
telligent development of the agricultural resources of die island.^ 
Consul Lang in his Paper on Cyprus in Macmillan's Magazine of 
August, )878, says that he is BtUl of the same opinion as when, in 
1870, he stated that the part which Englishmen have chiefly to 
play in tl^e development of the agricultural resources of the island, 
is not as labourers, but as intelligent farmers, bringing their 
practical ]cnowled^ to guide operations carried out by natives, and 
possessing a sufficient capital to undertake works upon a consider- 
able scale. 

A consular Beport of 1873, states that the main obstacles to 
the introduction and general use of improved agrioultural imple- 
ments are not only their cost, but also the ignorance of the native 
c^iltivators, who would have to be taught the proper use of Euro- 
pean implements, and lastly the want of skilled workmen to keep 
them in rei ' ' 



P X 9odla k about 60 ptoef iqiuuna. 

f Perhaps m much m one-fouiih part of the uland hat at one tame or another 
been under onltiTation, but much of thie now bean no traoee of tiUage, and le 
eoTored with thornr lorub and weeda. 

I Bepoii of H.M. Ooneul upon Induitrial Olawei, 187S, referred to again at page I46b 

I Y^nen Ooneul Lang wae In Qjpnia, he had Xngliih plougMi hwrowe, so., eent 
put fo him, but found after a time that the natiTes eould not give him effeotare aid 
witii theie imnlemente, to he abandoned them, and got the beet modele of the naliTe 
plouf^ Intteao. He aajt that the resujti of hia offoita in the wpgr of agrioaltnra 
■mpaaaed all hia fspeetatiopa. 



AGRICULTURAL PR0DU0T8. 99 

Consul Biddell agrees in the belief that colonization by 
industrious Eui*opean farmers, can alone bring about the needful 
improvements, and he says that the soil, climate, and geographical 
position of the -island offers strong inducements to European 
mimiffration, against which the only deterrents wore the long 
periods of drought, and consequent bad seasons to which the island 
was subject, and the unfostering character of the Turkish Govern- 
ment The last of these no longer existing, it is to be hoped that 
British enterprise may to a certain extent overcome or counteract 
the evil effects of the first, and that Cyprus may in future years 
become highly productive. That the water supply for purposes of 
irrigation can be both improved and economized, is beyond a 
doubt, and the attention of both the Government and the private 
agriculturists, will probably be turned at once to this matter. 

Consul Biddell, writing again in 1875, says, '' there is a ^p^eat 
and increasing scarcity of field labourers, even at comparatively 
high wages, and there being also a very great want of animal power 
for agricultural purposes, much of the land put under crop has been 
insufficiently worked, which will affect the yield and diminish the 
average quantity." 

In 18/6, Consul Biddell says, " I am unable to report any im- 
provement either in the system of agriculture or the implemente 
used, and although improved European implements have been 
partially introduced, they do not appear as yet to have attracted 
such notice amongst the native agriculturists as to have had any 
general or even extensive use. 

Still the chief wealth of the island lies in its agricultural pro- Agrioultural 
ducts, the most important of which are wheat, barley, cotton, products, 
madder roots, silk, wine, raisins, olive oil, locust-beans, tobacco, 
fruits, and vegetables. 

The following details concerning the growth, culture, and 
amounts of these products are, iu a gi-eat measure, extracted from 
the annual reports of the British Consul at Cyprus ; the informa- 
tion contained in these is of the highest value, for thev indicate 
verv clearly the various causes, such as drought, imperfect culti- 
vation, iigudicious taxation, decrease in demand, &c., which in 
different years have affected the yield, and consequently the export 
trade of the island, so tiiat if the following remarks are read in 
coxgunction with the statistics of trade which are given in Chap- 
tor XIII, a fair estimate of what the wealth of Cj^rus might be 
under an enlightened government can be easily deduced. 

Tbb wheat of Cyprus is a hard and small grained varietv; Vfhmk. 
its quality is good and it is said to possess all the aavantc^es of uie 
hard wheato of Bussia. It is largely grown in the north part of 
tiie Messaria plain, the best lands there are said to have yielded thirty 
bushels per acre in a good year ; throughout the island the yield of 
wheat ranges from 9 to 20 bushels per acre, averaging 14^ bushels ; 
the difference being attributable to the care taken in its cultivation, 
and the nature of the season ; the wheat from the Baffo district 
18 considered the best in the island. In 1862 the harvest was 
unusually large, and is supposed to have yielded aa much as 
120,000 quartm ; the average annual produce at that time being 
(774) a 






loo DYPRtS. 

about 80,000 quarters. The sowing season commences in October, 
and continues as the weather permits, until the beginning of 
Januaiy, the harvest commences at the end of May, or beginning of 
June. It has been noticed that the value of all the grains of 
Cyprus is lowered in European markets in consequence of the 
primitive manner ia which the operation of threshing is conducted ; 
it is found that small stones from the threshing-floor become mixed 
with the grain, and can only be separated afterwards at great 
trouble and expense. This defect can of course be easily remedied, 
but at present it is a fatal objection to the use of the grain by 
neailv all the grinders of flour in England. 

^lej. Tiie barley of Cyprus is a (^ood description, and superior to the 

ordinary Egyptian barley. In the best lands of Messaria the yield 
per acre in a good year is said to be as high as forty bushels, and 
the average throughout the island is about twenty-nine bushels. The 
average produce of the island is about 120,000 quarters, but the 
harvest of 1862, which, as stated above, was very abundant, yielded 
180,000 quarters. The seed is sown during September and the 
two following months, and the crop is reaped at the close of 
April, and the beginning of May, thus preceding the wheat harvest 
by about a month. 

Gnincropi. The following extracts from consular reports indicate the 

variations which occur in the grain crops generally from year to 
year^ and show clearly how they may be accounted for. 

From Consul UiddcU's Koport for 1872 :— 

« The gi-ain harvest of 1872, though superior to that of the previous year^ 
was yet below the average of what is considered a good year in Cypnia. In 
1870 the grain crops were a total failure ; in 1871 the production sufficed for 
seed and the wants of the population, with only a snuul surplus left over for 
exportation ; in 1872 there was comparatively a much laiger quantity of both 
wheat and barley exported, which was chiefly sent) the fonner to the Archi- 
pelago and Ital^ and the latter to Barbary, where nearly a famine prevailed. 
The average prices obtained here may be quoted at about I6s, 6d, for baiieyj 
foid 34«. for wheat per imperial quarter. I regret to have to state that, 
owing to the want of sufficient rain, the crops of 1873 are likely to be 
nearly a failure again, and at the best it is reckoned that few farmers will 
gather from their cultivated lands mora than the seed sown upon them, in 
many cases not even this, thus losing all their labour and receiving nothing 
to support themselves, their families, and the animals neceesaiy to till the 

rnnd and prepare it for next year's croiw. The lot of the peasant farmer 
Cyprus had become, tlirough a succession of bad seasons and droughty 
one of extreme liardship and poverty, and I trust the Imperial Qovernment 
may come to their aid, generously and timely, either by remission of taxes or 
^viiig employment on public works undeitaken for this purpose, ^d for 
which there is a profitable field/' 

From Consul Biddell's Eeport for 1873 :— 

** In my Report for the year 1872 I mentioned that owing to the want of 
sufficient rain tne harvests of 1873 were likely to turn out a failure. This 
has proved to be the case to an extent even exceeding the worst apprehensions ; 
and unfortunately applies to nearly all the products of the island, so that not 
only have large quantities of grain be^i imported at high prices, with an 
accompanying strain upon the financial resources of the island, but also there 
having been little produce for exportation^ trade has severely suffered 
throughout the year. The prices of grain continued until the end of June at 
f\^^\ the same as stated in my Eeport of 1872, say £1, 14^. fpc wheat^ and 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 1()1 

10«. M for barley per imperial quarter. By the end of Augnst it became 
apparent that a considerable importation of grain from abroad would be 
remiired to carry through the winter — ^but although imports then commenced, 
and prices also began to advance, it was not until the last two months of ihe 
year that any serious rise in prices took place. By the end of the year, and 
notwithstanaing considerable importations of grain from Turkey, prices here 
had risen to £S. 16«. for wheat, and £1, 17«. for barley." 

" Owing to prices having continuously advanced in Syria, Caramania, and 
Anatolia— from whence suDpHos for Cyprus could be brought — imports not 
only cost more money to tlie importer, out ^supplies began also to lall off in 
quantity, so that bv the end of March of the present year stocks in Cyprus 
were well-nigh exhausted, notwitlistanding that prices had risen to aoout 
£3, lbs. for wheat and £2» Is, for barley, with an insufficient supply for the 
wants of the island till next harvest. Qreat numbers of tlie quasi-starving 
peasants were obliged to subsist on the edible roots of such indigenous plants 
M thev could diffup in the fields, using also locust beans to a laige extent in 
lieu of cereals. The tithes of the year collected by the Government amounted 
to only a small amount, wluch had all to be given out to the peasant fahners 
for seed, without which they had not the means of replanting their fields for 
the harvests of 1874." 

" Altogether, 1873 has proved in every respect one of the most disastrous 
years remembered in Cyprus, and, owing to tne great scarcity and hig^ price 
of food, the borders of famine have been touched, and the hat-dsmp and 
suffering are great." 

From Consul Riddell's Report for 1874 :— 

''The year 1874 will be remembered as one of the sreatest abundance 
within the memory of any living inhabitant Generally all the crops of 1874 
in this island have been abundant^ whilst those of cereals have far surpassed 
the most sanguine computation. Both barley and wheat, C8]iecially the former, 
having met with an active demand for exportation, the produce has been 
tamed into money as fast as it could be Drought to market, and at more 
than the usual average prices for Cyprus grain. At the end of the year 
there had been exported to Europe alone 48,000 quarters of wheat and 
66,800 quarters of oarley, besides considerable quantities, of which no cor- 
rect estimate can be obtained, sent to Syria and Anatolia, and the year 
dosed with large quantities of both wheat and barley still existing in the 
island for export thereafter. The average price paid for wheat may be 
estimated at £%, Zs, and of barley £1. Is, per imperial quarter, put free on 
board ship. A new and remarkable feature in the grain trade oi Cyprus is 
the quantity of barle;^ exported to England, carried there chiefly by steamers. 
Of- the total quantity of biu-ley exported to Europe to the end of 1874, 
estimated at 66,800 quarters, and valued at j£70,350., no less than 41,300 
quarters, valued at j£43,365, were sent to England." 

From Consul Eiddell's Eeport for 1875 : — 

" The crops, though yielding less in quantity than in 1874, were nevertheless 
a ^ood fair average, and grain met with an active export demand at fair 
prices ; indeed, at the beginning of the season wheat found numerous buyers 
for Itfliy at exceptionally high prices, though the average figure for the vear 
is computed at about £\, 12«. per imperial quarter. At the beginning of the 
season the Italian demand pushed up the price to about £2 to £L 2s, per 

auarter. Barley realized an average of about lis, per quarter. Of barley 
liere was exported to Great Britain in 1876 about 46,000 quarters^ against 
41,300 quarters in 1874." 

From Consul Pierides' Report for 1876 : — 

" The rainfall during the winter of 1876 and the spring of 1876 was 
nificant, so that the grain crops of 1876 were verv short, and the exi 
amounted tp onlv one-third or even one-fourth of those in 1876, ahd tne 
quality of both wheat and barley was poor. The average price for wheat wfiii 




102 or? RUB. 

80f. per qnaiter, and that of barley 14t., free on board. The wheat irae 
chiefly ahipped to Italy, and barley to Belgium and Eng^d, vith three or 
four amall caxgotB to Africa." 

From Oonsul WatMns' Beport for 1877 : — 

" Although a very fair proportion of land was put under cultiyation^ the 
result of the grain crops for tne year 1877 is as follows : — 800,000 kilos, of 
wheats against 1,600,000 in 1876 ; 1,600,000 kUos. of barley, agunst 3,400,000 
in 187a 

" Of this a little was exported in the earlv part of the hanrest^ and when 
it was thought that the cropa would succeed Detter than they eyentually did ; 
as the season, howeyer, adyanced, it was found necessaiy to import rather than 
to export, and prices of grain increased from £\, lOt. to £%. 16t. for wheat per 
quarter, and from 17«. to £1, \2$. for barley per quarter. 

Only a very small quantity of oats is raised in Cyprus, but 
heavy crops have been obtained. Maize is also but little grown, 
and the quality is very poor; the plant only attains a height 
of 4 ft. or 5 ft., but better cultivation and irrigation would very 
much improve this crop. 
OoOotL Cotton is a very important product of Cyprus, and though the 

native seed is not of a very superior descnption, the island is 
capable of producing most serviceable qualities of cotton wooL 
During the American War, American seeds were introduced into 
Cyprus, and proved a great success, the fibre is excellent, but 
the staple is somewhat short. Consid Lang himself tried the 
New Orleans seed with profitable results, but he mentions a dif- 
ficulty experienced by peasant cultivators in the production of 
cotton from American seed. It appears that the pods produced 
by it open out at maturity so fully, that, unless the cotton is at 
once picked, it falls on to the ground and deteriorates, thus the 
picking during the season requires to be done almost daily, but 
this does not suit the tax-gatherer who has to be in attendance to 
receive his eighth portion; and this cii'cumstance alone prevents 
many native growers from using tlus seed, although they acknow- 
ledge its advantages. Consul Lang suggests that as nearlv all 
the cotton grown in the island is exported, it would be of advan- 
tage to the grower that the tax imposed upon the produce should 
be collected at the time of shipment, and not when the crop 
is gathered. Mariti relates that under the Venetian rule, 30,000 
bales, or 6,600.000 lbs. of cotton were annually exported from 
Cyprus; latterly, the quantity produced is comparatively veiy 
small, as is shown by Uie reports wliich follow, and it is con- 
sidered that Dorhaps not more than one-twentieth part of the 
cotton which the island is capable of producing, has recently been 
grown. The greater part of that which is now exported is sent to 
France and Austria. Intimately connected with the gro¥rth of 
cotton is the subject of the increase of the means of iirigation, and 
if, as suggested by competent authorities, water could be obtained 
in Cyprus by the artesian system, the profits that might be realized 
in this branch of agriculture alone, would Ih> great. 

The best time lor sowing cotton is in April or May, but until 
very lately the growers were compelled to wait for tlie swanns of 
locusts to cnross the land before sowing, otherwise the whole crop 



AORICULTURAL FB00UCT8. 



16^ 



I 
I 

■a « 



wotild have been destroyed. The loss occasioned by deferring the 
sowing till so late is alluded to in Cliapter VII, but now for- 
tunately owing to the destruction of the locusts, the seed can 
be put into the ground at the proper time, and the cotton is fit for 
picking before the autumnal rains, which are ii^jurious to it. The 
seeds are planted three and four together at proper distances, and 
when the shoots appear above ground, the strongest plant is allowed 
to remain, and the rest removed. The ground is hoed in June or 
July, and the cotton collected in October or the begimiing of 
November. 

The yield averages about two bales of 250 lbs. each to the acre, 
and its value is about 4d, per pound. 

There are various qualities of cotton, called the best, good mer- 
cantile, passable, and mercantile.; there is also an inferior kind * 
known by the name of scovazze, which is consumed on the island. ? 

From Consul Riddell's Beport for 1872 :— 

"The yield of 1878 has proved very deceptive. The cotton lands were 
planted under favourable auspices, and the seea sprouted readily : — the plantii 
as they grew up had a vifforous and healthy appearance, flowenng most ahun- 
dantly, and until the endof September there was ever^ appearance to justify 
the expectation of an abundant yield of good quahty ; from that time, 
whether owing to some atmospheric influences or other unknown causes, a 
great change was obsenrable in all the. cotton fields, the plants lost their vigour, 
the flowers dropped off*, and many of the boUs which had already formed, 
shrivelled and fell off the plant, whilst a laise proportion of those which 
came to maturity contained dificoloiired cotton of weak and brittle fibre. The 
entire yield is not estimated, by the most sanguine, at more than 7.000 native 
bales of about 860 lbs. each, whilst several experienced and well-informecl 
agriculturists do not expect it will turn out more tluai 6,000 bale^ if even ro 
much. There in a growing favour for cotton produced from American iiisteNd 
of from native cotton seed, owing to the higher prices and readier sale which 
the former meets with in those markets to which it is exported ; but there is 
great need of a new and suflicient supply of fresh American seed to maintaili 
all its beet characteristics when grown in this island." 

From Consul Biddell's Report for 1873 :— 

''The result of the crop of 1873 turned out very deficient in quantity and 
inferior in quality. The mfluences which caused such an unfortunate result 
were alluded to in my Report of 1878 ; but the yield of the whole crop fell 
much below the lowest and worst estimates then formed. 

"The gathering of cotton in Cyprus rarely begins earlier than the ffonth 
of October, and there is none ready for export before the month of November. 
Only a reiy insisnificant Quantity was exported to Great Britain in 1873, 
owing in psft to tne want of regular opportimities of shipment referred to in 
my Report of 1878, and also that down to about the middle oi the year, the 
prices obtained for raw cotton in the markets of Marseilles and Trieste were 
relatively much hisher than those current at the same period in Liverpool ; 
hence the bulk of tne riiipments in 1 873 went to foreign ports. Of a total export 
amounting to 887,704 lbs., onW 19,430 lbs. went direct to Great Britain. Prices 
here based upon quotations of value in the Mediterranean ports became greatly 
inflated, and there is too much reason to believe that verv heavy losses have been 
sustained by exporters. The crop of 1874, owins to the larger area of cotton 
land which the torrents have permitted to be well watered, will it is expected 
be both lar^ and good, unless subjected, as it was in 1873, to unusual and 
deleterious influences." 

From Consul Riddell's Report for 1874 :— 
" Oontraiy to the general expectation the cotton crop of 1874 has been a very 



.104 OTFBUB. 

indifforent one, the quantity small, and the quality inferior, except on aome of 
th^ ctioicesf Wftt^red and best cultivated landa The xeauced prices of raw 
cotton in the European markets, compared with what they were during the 
American Civil War, the difficulty of procuring sufficient ''pickers^ when the 
cotton {(Town from American seed arrives at maturity^ and the deterioration 
in quality Pptly from bad seed, and careless cultivation, sufficiently account 
for the aeciiiiing state into which this valuable textile has fallen in Cyprus ; 
nor does there appear any reasonable ground of hope for future improvement. 
Much land upon which cotton has been planted during past years is now being 
' ttown wjth crops requiring less care and attention in the cultivation than cotton, 
and it is said that a comparatively small breadth of land in 1876 will be 
devoted to cotton. The scarcity and high wages of labourers, coupled with 
the scarcity and deamess of all animals suited to Agricultural labour, operates 
no doubt as a great barrier to maintaining and extending cotton culture in 
Oypma.** 

From ConBul Riddell's Beport for 1876 :— 

'^CoUon. — Its culture has not under^ne any change since my last report^ 
and it appears to be stationary both m the extent of production and the 
quality of the fibre. Its cultivation in Cyprus is now mostly confined to 
such localities and soils as are best adapted to its growth. The Cyprus 
cotton ii; now chiefly sent to Marseilles, and also to Spanish markets through 
Smyrna, and a little to Trieste. Hardly any goes to Great Britain, where it 
4oeB not command the same prices as it obtains in other foreign markets.'' 

From Oonsul Pierides' Jleport for 1876 : — 

** The laigest portion of the whole production (which exceeded that of 
1876) was shipped to Trieste and Marseilles, the average price being about 4d. 
per lb." 

Fron^ Consul Watkins' Report for 1877 : — 

^ The cotton crop in 1877 was very fair as regards quantity and quality, 
and may be estimated at about 2,000 bales of 200 okes per bale, the average 
price being about id, per lb. 

Great care and attention are given to the cultivation of this plants which 
is chiefly of American seed. 

Experiments have been made with tlie view of introducing tlie Bamia 
cotton, but it is thought the dry nature of the soil is little a(£tpted for its 
groww." 

Madder roots. Madder roots, which produce a dye commonly known as Turkey 
red, were for a long time in great demand in England, to whidi 
coimtnr about two-tliirds of the annual shipments of ibis article 
from Oyprus were consigned, and the ti-ade was one of the most 
important and profitable possessed by the island. Of late years, 
however, as evidenced by the reports which follow, the demand 
baa decreased owing to the substitution of alizarine dye. The 
Plain of Morpho, and the fields round Aghia Irene, and near 
Famagusta, are the localities where madders are produced in the 
largest quantities. The roots grown at Aghia Irene are the finest 
and have the richest colour, those of Morpho are next esteemed^ 
and afterwards those of Famagusta. The culture of this plant 
requires very assiduous care and attention, but the profits are 
correspondingly large. Madders ai'e planted in November, January^ 
and ]^bruary; at Morpho, and at Aghia Irene the roots are in 
their greatest perfection three yeaw afterwards, and should not be 
gathered until then. At Famagusta, however, they are best fit for 
picking eighteen months after planting, but rjtrely are the roots 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUOTa :l06 

allowed to remain so long in the ground, for in order to obtain 
more rapid profits they are picked at Morpho and Aghia Irene two 
years, and at Famamista one year, after planting. 
From Consul Eiddell's Eeport for 1872 :— 

" Prices in the island having been more favourable to the grower this than 
the preyions year, a lai^r Quantity was lifted, estimated at about 0,000 cwts., 
of which about 5.(K)0 cwts, nave been exported to Great Britain. Rumours 
of asnccenful substitute being largely produced n Oermany are creating some 
apprehension amonffst the growers of roots in this idaud, and as a conse- 
mience the prices otterinff bemg now lower, a snudler Quantity has been lifiMl 
this spring than usual Madder-root lands bear a hign value in Cyprus, and 
anythmg arising to permanently lower the value of t£e roots in the JBuropean 
markets would prove very injurious to the owners of such high priced lands." 

From Consul Biddell's Beport for 1873 >— 

** The quantity of madder roots produced in 1876 has been scarcely inferior 
to that of previous years, notwithstanding the great depreciation in the i^due 
of this dye in the markets of Europe. The falling off, however, in the 
ouantity sent to Qreat Britain is remarkable, being only 230 cwts. against 
4,030 cwts. in 1878. Of the entire quantity exported in 1873 (about 4,700 
cwts.) 4,260 cwts. went to France ; it would theraore appear that prices have 
been more remunerative in Fnmce than in England. Growers ui Cyprus 
are turning their madder-root land to other purposes, as they Affirm that 
present prices are much less remunerative than will be other products which 
they can obtain from the same lands. The crop of 1874 will be probably much 
below that of previous years." 

From Consul Riddell's Report for 1874 :— 

** The cultivation of madder roots in this island is being gradually aban- 
doned, and this branch of commerce, formerlv laxge and valuable, will soon 
become extinct Tliis arises from Uie dimculty of sale, and ^e greatly 
reduced value of the root in the markets cf Europe, where the new mineral 
alizarine is now used idmost exclusively by all Turkey red d^ers. The madder 
lands of Cyprus are being turned to other purposes, as the prices obtainable for 
rootis either here or abroad, no longer remimerate the grower." 

From Consul Riddell's Report for 1875 :— 

" Having been almost superseded in the European markets by the mineral 
Barine dye there cannot oe said to be any demand for them, even at the 
very low prices which planters would accept in order to enable them to lift their 
roots ana clear the lands for other crops. This trade, formerly a h^rse imd 
valuable one in Cyprus, may now be said to be practically extihguished. 

From Consul Pierides' Report for 1876 : — 

" During the summer of 1876 there was a sligjht demand for thc^ tVench 
market, but it only lasted a short time. The cultivation is being abandoned 
in many districts, and madder roots are superseded by the cultivation of more 
advantageous produoe.** 

From Consul Watkins' Report for 1877 :— 

''The produce in 1877 amounted only to about 250 tons. 

^ It is pit>bable that the root will not be cultivated any longer, seeinff that 
the expense of growinff it exceeds the actual selling price. The cause ot ttna is 
the late substitution of alizarine for madder roots. Prices averaged kli per 
ton free on board." 

The silk trade, though less flourishing than in former tilnes is BOiu 



w - 






106 OYPBua 

6tUl of yalu9 to the island. Yanoiifl causes, mentioned below, have 
caused 1^ diminution in the quantity annually exported. Hie best 
silk is produced at Baffo and the surrounding district ; this supe- 
^ority IS chiefly the result of the mulberry trees being older thui in 
other localities, and also because they are not grafted. The BafTo 
BiOji ^ ^nerally of a beautiful golden yellow colour. Silk is also 
TOodiiced fit Yaroschia, dose to Famagusta; at Eythr»a in the 
J^arpas district, and many other of the northern villages, and also 
at Maratassa in the Troodos region, where the cocoons are remark- 
able for their beauty, and the brilliancy of their colour. 

Ihe Yaroschia and the Earpas silks are very fine, and are 
generally white ; in other places the cocoons are orange, sulphur- 
yellow, or golden yellow. In 1863 the average quantity of silk 
produced annually in Cyprus was about 56,000 lbs., one-half of 
which was raised in the district of Baffo ; about one-tenth of the 
llfhole was f^t that period consumed in native manufactures, and 
the greater part of the remainder was exported to France. The 
Cyprus silk only needs a 'better system of winding to be adopted, 
to make it fetch a far higher price than at present, and to cause it 
pQ be inore sought after in the markets of Lyons and liverpooL 
(Consul Watkins, writing at the beginning of 1878, reports that — 

''Theproduotion of ailk has aeiudbly diminiahed duriiiff the last few years, 
owing to diaaaae amongst the silkworms, and to a partial fall in prices in Uie 
|*rench market 

''The quantity produced formerly exceeded S6.000 okes of reeled silk. 

*' In 1877 the estimate of dry cocoons exported is 16,000 okes, and of those 
fised in the island 4,000 okes. 

Price of cocoons, 3«. 6cL per lb. free on board." 

It can scarcely be disputed that owing to the evenness of the 
weather in Cyprus after the winter has passed, the island possesses 
great advantages over many other countries where silkworms are 
reared. 
^in«. The wines of Cyprus form one of the principal articles of 

export Tliev are made of several qualities : the cheapest are 
black and red common wines ; these are coarse, heady, ana have a 
strouR taste of tar, acquired firom the casks in which they are kept, 
and tne skins in which they are transported, being always coated 
with pitch to preserve them from leaking. The tarry flavour 
is highly disagreeable to most tastes, but the natives are very 
partifu to these wines, and they consider them extremely whole* 
9op[^e. ^iarge quantities of these common wines are exported from 
limasol in particular, and also from Lamaca, to Egypt, Syria, and 
Trieste, but never to Western Europe. 

The best wine is that called Commanderia ; it derives its 
name from a commandery formerly possessed by the Templars at 
Eolossi, about six miles west of Umasol on the road to Baffo. 
This is a sweet mslmsey wine, but strong and heady ; when quite 
pew it is of a dark colour like a brown sherry, but aiter it has been 
kept two or three years it becomes very much lighter, though when 
ola it again becomes dark, and eventually turns almost black, and 
thick lixe syrup. Commanderia, when quite free from contamina- 
tion by tar, is of a rather agreeable flavour, but does not appear 



AGRICUtTUllAL PRODUCTS. id? 

generally to suit English taste, for few Enfflish travellers purchase 
it, and it is never sent direct to England ; latge quantities are, how- 
ever, exported annuallv to Trieste and Constantinople, and some of 
the older and best qualities are shipped to France and Italy. There 
is another wine manufactured in Cyprus called " Mavro " (black), as 
all red wines are styled in Greek. It is very dry, and is conse- 
quently not much consumed, for the inhabitants, like all Orientals, 
prefer rich and sweet wines. 

Morocanella is another description of very fair quality. Mus- 
cadine is a white wine, which is very sweet, and becomes like 
syrup even when comparatively new. Raki is a weak white brandv, 
made from the commonest red wine ; a good deal is consumed in 
the island, the remainder is exported to Turkey. Cyprus wines are 
in best condition in spring and summer ; both their colour and 
flavour are destroyed by great cold. 

The grievances connected with the culture of vines and the 
manufacture of wine which are alluded to in the consular reports 
which follow, existed as long ago as 1863, and are then mentioned 
by Consul White, who says that the peasants were even then 
bc^nning to find it more profitable to seU their grapes, or to make 
them into raisins, rather than by turning them into wine to subject 
themselves to the duty lately imposed over and above the tithe and 
export duties, which were collected in a very harassing manner. 
The growers have had to pay, under the tax called " dunes ** an 
eighui part of the produce of grapes to the treasury ; but this could 
not be taken in kind, so a money value was fixed yearly by the 
local " medilis " or mixed tribunal, but as the assessment was based 
on the market price at the chief town of the district, instead of the 
value at the place of growth, this tax instead of being about 12^ 
l^er cent, in reality amounted to over 20 per -cent Then again, 
when the' wine was made, an excise duty of 10 per cent, was levied, 
and on export a tax of 8 per cent had to be paid. The natural 
consequence of these excessive impositions has been the diminu- 
tion of a culture for which the island is particularly adapted. Con- 
sul Lang suggests that it might be wise to free this proauction from 
all tax, except a proper export duty. 

In 1852, the vines were attacked by a disease called " oidium," 
which has prevaUed more or less ever since, and has greatly reduced 
the quantity of wine manufactured. With improved methods of 
preparation the Cyprus wine trade would doubtless become more 
extensive, for even the common wine of the country, which is sold 
at about Id, per quart bottle, is a wine which in the opinion of 
competent judges, would be very valuable to the trade for mixing, 
if freed from its tarry taste. 

From Consul Riddell's Report for 1872 :— 

" The GiiaDtity prodaoed in the island of all kinds has been diminiahing ; 
this is attnbuted to heavy and injudicious taxation, the vine disease, imd^e 
contintied drouffhts affecting the vinej^ards. It is also said that although the 
enortation of the lower ordinaiy qualities is maintained, there is a remarkable 
fauing-off in the demand in all foreign markets for Commanderia of ^e bettd* 
and more expensive sorts." 



'IQ8 oTPRua 

Fropi Ckmsnl piddeH's Beport for 1874 : — 

'^The prodnction of wine in the iaUnd haa been this year rerj abundant, 
mipaaaing the yield of many preTiona yean, especially the common or black 
tortB, BQcS as are oonaomed in the island, and largely exported to lUrypt and 
Turkey. Yeiy Uttle of this wine finds its way to any of the European 
marked owing chiefly to the "tany" flavour imnarted to it dui-ing the 
prooosMS of fermentation and preparation, which unnta it for the puri)oee of 
miang with other kinds of wine. The quantity of this common wine exported 
during 1874 is estimated at j^,&00 in value. 

IVom (Consul Riddell's Eei^ort for 1875 :— 

''The wine trade of Cyprus was last year exceptionaUy larse, owing to 
the abundant produce of Uie vineyards in 1874. The outcome of Si^pM i^d 
wines in 1875 did not exceed an ordinary average, and growers itifl complain 
kxidly that the imposts upon wines, reckoning mm the grape to the va^ are 
ao heavy — amonntmg to about 35 to 40 per cent, and ueir imposition and 
ooUeotum so very arbitrary and unequal, that many vineyards are being 
abandoned. The Qovemmeut, it is said, liave under consideration the 
•'^^"^"wnQitfttit of the wine trade in Cyprus with a view to relieve and redress 
the many grievances of whidi producers complain, and in the meanwhile 
the collection of the imposts is suspended. Should the result prove to be the 
elaboration of a fair, reasonable, and consistent scale of duties, the revival of 
the wine trade may oe reasonably looked forward to^ and imder sound regu- 
lalaana and with intelligent foeterinff. the trade could undoubtedly become a 
large and profitable one to this ialaim. The principal wine-produdng districts 
are sitaaied in the vicinity of Tiimasol, wnence the principal exports are 
ahiHped." 

From Consul Pierides' Beport for 1876 :— 

** The quantity of all sorts of wine produced was much below that of 1875. 
The principal shipments were made to Trieste and Venice. The collection 
of the imposts, which was for a short time suspended, has recommenced, and 
the manner in which it is conducted is still arbitrary and vexatious^ while 
iflmonstranoes have hitherto been of no avaiL It is time for the Gk>vemment 
to pat an end to these grievances which indeed threaten to destroy one of the 
best resources of the island.* 

From Consul Watkins' Report for 1877 :— 

''The manufacture of wine here is greatly on the decrease ; for, owing to 
an sorts of unreasonable regulations^ and to the vexatious mode of their ap- 
pliiTft**^"^ cuHivatoni now praer making their gn^ies into rainna 

"The wine produced in 1877 was 2,400,000 okes, of which one-fifth was 
Commanderia. 

" Prices of both, 2^ pias. per oke, first cost* 

The finait of the carob tree (ceratania Miqua), called in 
oommerce locust-beans, is extensively exported from Cyprus. 
Until 1827> the sale of this product was a Government monopoly, 
but since this was abolished the cultivation of the carob tree has 
greatly increased, wild trees have been grafted, and new plantations 
aro everywhere springing up. The tree flourishes in a wild state 
throuo^out the island, but is more particularly abundant in the 
districts of limasol and Cerinea. Plantations at a distance from 
the sea are more productive than those in the immediate vicinity 
of the coast General di Cesnola mentions some carob trees grow- 
ing near Lefca, which measured 120 feet in ciroumferenca The 
pods, or beans, were not many years ago exported chiefly to Trieste, 
apd to Odessa or other Russian ports, but, according to recent 
trade rotoms, England has now become the laigest purohaaer of the 



». 



AGRtCULtURAL iPBODUOtS. 1'09 

beans, which are employed as food for cattle, and also in the manu- 
facture of a kind of molass. IVom the pulp of the beans the natived 
manufacture a sort of sweet cake, which they call St John's bread ; 
it is said to resemble manna, and is highly esteemed as a nutritiye 
article of food ; the Russian peasantiy also eat a great deal of it 
during Lent The great obstacle against a larger export of this 
product is the cost of freight, which represents iu)out 30 per cent 
of its price at the place of shipment Now that British enterorise 
is especially directed to Oyprus, it is probable that means wfll be , ^ ^ 

foond to crush, and manufacture it into food for cattle before ship- 
ment, and so economize in large j^art the heavy freight The pro- 
duction is especially valuable, as it requires but little labour and is 
largely remunerative; the following reports give full particulars 
re^trding the present state of its culture and export 

• 

From Consul Riddell's Beport for 1872 :— 

''The product of this food is annually increaaui^ throughout the talancL 'i 

The tree ffrows readily in most soils, and not requiring much moisture or 
care its cmtiTation gives little trouble; however, althou^ the tree grows, 
and thrives without much moisture the yield of fruit is imected during diy 
seasons, the quantity being less and the quality inferior. The productioh A' 
1879 has been moderately abundant, and is estimated for all tne districts at 
about 10,000 tons. The export is chiefly to the Russian ports of the Black 
8ea» and the avera^ prices paid here this season maj^ be reckoned at j6i. lOi. 
per ton, which is high, and above the average of previous years." 

From Consul Eiddell's Report for 1874 :— 

" The production of carobs in 1874, which forms a vei^ important pro- 
duct in this island, has been below an average in quantity, whilst tne qualify is 
very inferior, attributableu no doubt, to 9ie weaker condition of the trees 
through previous years of drought. Great, and what appears to be very 
foolish, competition amongst native exporters and dealers nas. howeven So 
far compensated growers by the exoroitant prices paid, ana upon wnich 
there is too much reason to fear heavy losses must ensue. The abundant 
rains of last and the previous winter five rise to reasonable expectations of a 
good carob crop this autumn as regains both quantity and quanty." 

From Consul Riddell's Report for 1875 :— 

''The crop of last vear turned out^ as anticipated, to be vezy abundant in 
quanti^, and also of superior quahtv. At tne beginning of the season in 
September, chiefly owing to the heavy losses of the previous ^ear upon ship- 
ments to Russia, the export demand was very limited and prices low* Later 
on a comparatively laaqge demand sprang up for England. Prices rapidly 
advanrad to about £i, lOf. to £6 per ton, and considerable shipments were 
made si about these figures. This demand has now ceased apparently, 
and prices have receded to about £S, lOs. per ton with few purcbasen^ ana 
also a comparatively smaU stock left over unsold. ^ As comnared with former 
yean, Rnnia has taken a much smaller quantity, the lai]^|est proportion 
having bem sent to English ports. The entire crop is estunated at fully 
18,000 tons.*" 

From Consul Pierides' Report for 1876 :— 

''The crop was not so abundant as that of 1876. The demand for Russia 
is on the decline, and England is now our largest purchaser. The demand, 
however, is less steady, and prices are lower than in 1876. The crop amounts 
to about 14,600 tons, against 18,000 in 1876. Actual price ;S8. Idn. 6dL per ton 
ot SO owi| free on bottd." . • i i 



Fhtn Cooaol Watkina' Beport, for 1877 : — 
" '*Tte itMwad for euofa* being vearly on the inereaae, Uie peMwiU are 
iiwii'M^y Vmby their attention Ui the propw eultiTation of tbi tree, whidi 
«M tut^rto womrwbat &eglect«d. 

** Tte tmU m 1677 arwxged 60,000 cant&ra of Aleppo, ag&uut 40,000 in 
187** 

■* It M MMt »baad«nt vhen the winter ia Mvere. 

" la-tha MriYjMit c^ the aeuon they chuiged hitncU at £3. Oi. per ton, 
tnt ^ iHMid. Tm Uat purcbawe were mads at ;£4 per ton, free on bowd* 

The axttscta bom the Consular Keporte -which are quoted helow, 
utJi\:at», without necessity for further oomment, the cause of Uie 
littctiua in the culture and export of tohacco from Cyprus, and it is 
«ih>u^h to mention that 20 years ago the production of this plant 
tu the islftBd was very considerable, also that the qualities giown 
iii certain localities near Limasol, were highly esteemed both in 
^ritt and in Egypt, but at present the production does not repre- 
sent a tenth part of the consumption of tobacco in the island. The 
iMUM of this anomaly is explained by the Consuls, and it has been 
4u>nMeted that in order to raise this valuable culture to ito former 
ttuportauce, it might be advisable to free it for a time from all 
burdeas except export duty. 

fran Consul Lang's lieport for 1870 : — 

* bo>Mtu)t taxation Tezatiouslr applied ia lapidlr extinguiahins the 
uu«)u<>tioB of thia plant in the ialana. Unlj a few yean ago the iolana pro* 
JXhW awn than a aufBoienay for the wonta at the population, now four-fiftha 
yi tfae MMMiaptlon la supplied by importation." 

t>4in Consul Biddell's Beport for 1872 :— 

>• iti* piodnction of thia narcotic in Cypnu ia anull and ia apparently 
[^i^^^..-itim 'Whotber from over taxation and other Aaoal impoeiuona and 
hiu Ji^fMtiti it* growth ia diacouraged, it ia certain that the production, as 
i^wu bv tie revenue derived Som it, doea not aofflce for local wanta. 
^1 u;k'"^ ^ probably extensively carried on as well internally aa along the 
iM>i.'*i Jfi>Mn other oountriea. The revenue collected from it into the Im- 
LkMUl ^k-jkrvittMr amounted in 1668 to only about ;C400 whilst in 1878 it baa 

Vyvm l\»tts«l Riddell's Beport for 1875 : — 

* V'it'.Wt IkM " lUgi* " eyatem the production of tobacoo in Cypma, which 
^ wi»iiv4 Wv^ liu ilmoet ceased; on the other hand the conaumptiou 
uuMk« *v ^ '"''^ iLiuatained, if not indeed exceeded, notwithatwiding the 
^Y- - ~ » ,,ii,'« t.' Ill" conauraer and the decreaaed value to the grower. Thia 
tiiimn *•' t" -'"('' iN'oflnned by the remarkable increase in the revenue 
jQnwI IS\-«H I') < '> under the action of the " R6gie " which came into 
y?:,!^.^ (M tSv'"' I'l''^ ^^ month of April, 1874, To show thia more 
3ColWv Wi'ii ii'ilf to obtain from a reliable source the amount of the 
T?*Sj Iff" ■—■'"■'**'' *"™ tobacco in Cyprus during the past &n yuMO, 
JXII^ X-T*"'! to the 1st (13th) Uarch of each year ;- 

Piastres. 
IHTl ,.„ 67,836 

ml J?."! 

!S :::: :» «S1S 

|«Tf ..- .- ..-. 8«,W7 

k V44 4«.fihir at U*W^ " ^^ <^ *"'' ** '^»"'on equivalent to about KM 



AORICULTOBA.L PRODUCTS. Ill 

thus satisfaciorilj, I think, showing that, howeyer local prodaction maj have 
interfered wiUi and leswned, it may be attributable more to len fayoorable 
adyantagee of soil or climate than to any redaction of ooneumption thronffh 
the action of the '' B6giej" whilst this monopoly contribates laimly to the 
feyenuee of the State. leyied upon an article which must be regarded more as 
a luxury than a necessity." 

From Consul Pierides' Report for 1876 : — 

"The cultiyation in the island is being abandoned on account of the 
fiscal difficulties attending it. The consumption of foreign tobacco is f idly 
maintained under the " Mgie," and the revenue derived is on the increase." 

From Consul Watkins' Report for 1877 : — 

** The monopoly is farmed oui, and there are eight dep6t8 In the islan<l, ot 
which four are in Nicosia, two in Lamaca, and two in Limlksol, opened in 
1874. SeUing prices vary from 30 to 10 pias. The qualify lold here is 
principally the lowest, and about 6,000 okes at 16 pias. the oke. lli^ quantity 
disposed of in a year is about 100,000 okes, from which the Govenmient nets 
1,900,000 pias. The payment to the Qoyemment was formerly made iu 
Medjidis, at 80 pias., but now calm6 is taken at par. Of the Aor^ qiiluntity 
of 100,000 okes, one-tenth is exported to Syria and Caramania in fealed 
packets. ^ 

The tobaoob used here is brought from Yolo and Salomca, where it Ptys ta 
"octroi'' duty of three pias. per oke. Cyprus formerly produoaci about 
90,000 okes of tobacco, but now, on account of the yezations to which the 
grower is subjected, tiie quantity grown does not exceed 6,000 okei." 



This Chapter has been confined to a description of those affricul- 
tural productions of Cyprus, which at present form articles of trade 
and export. In Chapter VII, which treats of the Natural History 
of the island, a full account has been given of all the other vew^e- 
table products, viz. : the forest trees, the fruit trees, the vegetables, 
shrubs, plants, herbs, and flowers. 



4 



^'1^ 0YPRt}6. 



• ' 



• OHAPTEE IX. 

Gbolooy and Mineralogy. 

This phyaical features of Ojrprus, consisting of two distinct 
mountain systems, the larger, the Olympus range, which occupies 
the south and south-west portion of the island, separated by a large 
plain, called the Messaria, from the other, called the Cerinea and 
^arpas ran^e, which borders the north coast, have been topo- 
graphically described; it now remains to consider their geological 
aspect. 

Speaking in general terms, the fundamental masses of both the 
moipitain granges are composed of igneous or plutonic rocks, but 
th^ is ^his cufTorence, namely, that in the southern lanfie tbeae 
rocks fonn the main mass of the mountains, and extend in a con- 
tinuous line from west to east ; whilst in the northern range they 
occur only in subordinate and isolated patches of small extent. 
This plutonic, or perhaps in part metamorphic, formation, consists 
chiefly of greenstone, with its varieties, such as diorite, gabbro, 
aphanite, &c., and is associated with a quartz-bearing tnumyte, a 
rock uf undoubted volcanic origin. 

These crocks are overlain by sedimentary deposits, amongst 
which we find various limestones, sandstones, argillaceous manS; 
beds of ^^ypsum, and conglomerates. 

The chronological oider of the several formations has been 
determined by Gaudry as follows, commencing with the oldest — 

1. The compact Limestones. These are supposed byGaudiy 

to be cretaceous, whilst linger and Kots^y classify them 
as Jurassic. 

2. Sandstones or " macignos." Gaudry considers this formation 

to be lower tertiary (eocene), but it is identified by Unger 
and Kotschy as Vienna sandstone (upper cretaceous ?) 

3. The white marl, white chalky limestone, and gypsum. These 

beds are middle tertiaries (miocene). 
4 The igneous and plutonic (metamorphic ?) rocks. 

5. Tlie coarse limestone, sand, and mart These beds are upper 

tertiaries (pliocene). 

6. The sands and conglomerates. These are a quaternary for- 

mation. 

The above order is only open to question with regard to the 
relative chronological position of the plutonic rocks ; in this matter 
the authorities before us are not of accord, and until a more 
thorough geological examination of the island has been made, it is 
difficult to speak on the subject with certainty. It appears, how- 



GiBOLOOT AND ICINXItALOOT. lid 

ever, to be not improbable that the main mass of these so-called 
plntonic rocks, may in reality prove ultimately to be metamorphosed 
and hichly plicated strata of secondary and primary (cretaceous 
and older) formations. Such rocks have been known in South 
America^ in Jamaica, in the British Isles, and other places to assume 
the appearance of some of the common igneous rocks, and it may 
possibfv be the case in this instance. Subsequentlv these rocks, 
with the unaltered sedimentary rocks which overlie them, may 
have been traversed and altered by the trachytes and their asso- 
ciated igneous rocks. This view of the relations of feldspatliic and 
homblendic masses is comparatively modem, and may not have 
been considered at the time when the valuable works of Gaudry, 
Unger, and Kotschy were written. 

1. This limestone forms the axis of the northern chain of mouh- |. i%0 eom- 
tains, and extends, in a narrow and unbroken ridge of rugged and im- pact lime- 
even rock, from near Cape Kormakiti to Komi in the Karpas district, ■^^*- 

a distance of about 60 miles. Gkiudry recognises this limedtone as 
identical in appearance with the masses of hippurite limestone 
which abound in the south of Europe, and which reappear in Asia 
and Africa, but Drs. Unger and Eotschy consider it to be a jtlrdssic 
formation. This rock is generally fine-grained and of even texture, 
but in the vicinity of the plutonic rocks it is very variable both in 
texture and colour, it often loses its compactness and becomes 
schistose, with all the variations between the two ; the fracture is 
sometimes even, sometimes conchoidal, the colours are black, grey, 
blue, and white. No definite stratification can be detected ; the 
beds are much tilted up, in many cases even approaching the verti- 
cal, and it is not impossible that on closer examination they may 
prove to be closely folded beds, denuded at the surface. 

The highest pointo in the chain rise to about 8,000 feet, and 
consist, as a rule, of yellowish red limestone containing small frag- 
mento of dolomite ; this is the case at Pentadactylon and at Buf- 
favento. Here and there amongst the plutonic rocks on the 
southern slope of Mount Oljrmpus, and on the Acamas peninsula, 
are found limestones similar to those above described, and they are 
probably of the same formation. At Cape Greco, tne south-east 
extremity of the island is a limestone rock rising 600 or 600 feet 
above the sea. It is compact^ of a light colour, has steep sides and 
contains corals such as the Favia, the Stylina, and perhaps the 
Hetorocomia. Professor Heuss is of opinion that this rook belongs 
either to the chalk or to the upper Jurassic formations. 

2. Gaudry, following the example of the. Itelian geologists, gives •• Thtiand. 
this formation the name of " Macignos,'' using the teim to denote a "^^"^ 
certain physical contexture, ratlier than a definite chemical com- 
position ; he considers the rock to belong to the eocene period. 

Drs. Unger and Kotschy identify the formation with the Vienna 
sandstone. 

These sandstones present numerous mineralogical difTerences ; 
they are in different places, calcareous, argillaceous, and micaceous. 
Their colour is usually dark grey, but is often tinged with yellow, 
brown, or green. The rock is generally fine-graineid, but the several 
beds vary considerably in hardness. 

(774) M 



IH cYPRua 

T|U8 fonnation is found ulinost exclusively in the northern 
itmge, where it rests upon the compact limestone^ but it also exists 
in isolated patches in the south-western extremity of the island, 
near Cape Acamas, and at Drimou, Chrysorogniatissa, Hagioa 
GeoTgios, and Acoutzo. The absence of organic remains in this 
sandstone renders its geological age difficult to determine. In 
most oases the formation occasions a hilly and unproductive dis- 
trict, fmd it is only in the localities where the slopes are gentle, 
and where shales prevail, as above Myrtu and Asomato, that 
cultivation is attempted. Good building stone can be obtained 
fVom this formation. 
|. T|)» whiu 3, This formation is of the middle tertiary age, it covers a very 

illiiiMioiif »bd ^*^ portion of the island, and is one of its special geological fea- 
f/Mum. ' tures. The white marls of the Messaria plain and of the Karpas 

range ; the chalk-marls along the southern side of Mount Olympus, 
and on the Acamas peninsula ; the beds of gypsum in the Karnas 
mountains, and to the northward of Lamaca, all belong to this 
formation. 

In the great plains surrounding Nicosia and Morpho the white 
marl forms a productive soil, which at first sight might be supposed 
to consist of detritus washed down by streams horn the friable 
shales of the northern range, but, on closely examining the order 
of superposition of the strata, this is found not to be the case, 
for the nearly perpendicular strata of sandstone (eocene) fall to- 
wards the south, and gradually disappear under the marl, which in 
its turn is in places, and particularly along the south side of the 
Messaria, surmoimted by the sands and conglomerates of the 
pliocene and quaternary formations, but where these have been 
removed by erosion, the white marl forms the upper stratum. Certain 
fossils are found in tliis formation, but they are somewliat rare. 
Uaudry mentions the Astrsea, Chenopus, Toxubrissus, Cidaris, and 
various foraminifera. 

That the marly strata belong to the tertiary formation is evident 
fi'om then* connection with the white chalky limestone which 
forms so large a part of the mountains throughout the island, 
and in which are found the large beds of gypsum described a few 
psges further on. The rock is well exemplified in the chain 
of liills which stretch along the north of Lamaka to Monte St. 
(iroce ; no organic remains have been discovered in it. Gaudry 
says ** that the inclination of sedimentary beds on the south slopes 
of the hills to the west of Lamaca, is such as to lead to the belief 
timt artesian wells sunk at Lamaca and the Marina, sufficiently 
duep to reach the white marl, would afford an abundant supply of 
Wnier." He illustrates this by a section showing the disposition 
of the strata from Sinaitico, through Hagia Anna and Ealo Khorio, 
to Lamaca. 
4 'lltM |ilu 4. These rocks cover about a quarter of the island and are well 

tMi«|i< Notl In YfuiiUy of attention, on account both of their curious metamorphic 
MitMUd ii«.i»i ^f^'^^^l^^^ ^nii of the minerals which they contain. They form the 

NUiiiiuit aud the whole of the northern slopes of the Olympus range 
t\u\\\ the western shore at Khrysokho Bay to Monte S. Croce, and 
OM ihu south side of the mountains they extend as far as Scfupho, 



GEOLOGY AND. MINERALOGY. lift 

Omodofl, PhinioAiga, nnd Moni. [ii the northern chain they do not 
constitute the main mass of the mountain, but only appear here 
and there above the compact limestone in isolated domes ; their 
chief points of development in this part of the island are between 
Hagios Fanteleimona and Vasilia, near Clepini and Hagios Chry- 
sostomos, and between Ghilanemo and Platanisso in the Karpas 
district 

The most important of these rocks are greenstone, hornblende, 
diorite, augite, diabase, and gabbro, only these prevail to any great 
extent, and they constitute the main portion of the formation 
wliilst quartzite, porphyry, wack^, day-slate, ochre, &c., are only 
found isolated, and are entirely subordinate to the first-named 
rocks. Allied to the clay-slate is a yellow and red argillaceous 
iron-stone found with aphanite at Herakli ; it is not worked 

Diorite, diabase, gabbro, and such like rocks are the chief com- 
ponents of the mountains in the south-west of the island ; they 
rise to a height of from 2,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea, and form 
a continuous chain from Monte St. Croce to the Troodos, and 
thence to the sea. 

This range averages about 25 miles in breadth and is seamed in 
all directions with deeply sunken valleys. This broken character 
is indeed the main feature of the mountains of Cyprus, and 
looking westward from Prodomo, it may be observed to the best 
possible advantage. The several ores and minerals found in this 
formation are described later. 

The aphanite and quartz-poi*phyry wliich appear in places on 
either side of the rugged limestone rocks of the northern range, 
ffive evidence of the rocks which, though hidden by more recent 
formations, underlie the whole island. 

The quaitsi-bearing trachyte found in the north-west environs 
of the Hagios Chrysostomos is certainly an igneous and eruptive 
rock, and is of more recent date than any already mentioned. 
It differs outwardly so little from the older limestone which sur- 
rounds it, that on a superficial glance it might easily be over- 
looked, especially as its colour is much the same. It is a fine- 
grained, somewhat earthy decomposed mass of greyish-white colour, 
containing numerous brownish-grey and smoke-grey crystals of 
quartz. Feldspar crystals are not found in it, neitlier is there any 
trace of hornblende. The rock answers completely to the normal 
Hungarian rhyolite of von Eichthofen. 

The several rocks wliich are in close proximity to the plutonic 
formation present various strange metamorphic phenomena. In 
the northern range, the compact limestones, naturally of a dark 
colour, become white in the neighbourhood of the wack6s ; close to 
the line of contact, they are impregnated with silex and are 
schistose; they shine and the •white colour is tinted with grey, 
green, and brick-red. 

Where the sedimentary formations are in immediate contact 
with the wackis, ochres are found with shiny greenish surfaces, 
and they are often cracked and broken into small cubes wliich it is 
tdmost impossible to distinguish from the wackds. Where the 
Vienna sandstone and the clialky limestones are in contact with the 
(774) H 2 



1 

« 



110 OTPRUS. 

« 

wack&si, they are in a scbistose state, are veined with quarts, and 
of a greenish-grey colour. 

5. The ooano 5. The upper tertiaiy formation is found in the Karpas district 
mT^nd ^ several places ; at Bogasi, it is a white limestone containing 
fnarl! o^f ^ edviina ; at Hai Theodore it is a coarse marly limestone ; 

near ^ai Simeon it is a coarse limestone containing lai^e speci- 
mens of the pecttmcuiiis ; near Caleboumou it forms a hi^ hill of 
sand and soft limestone containing sevei^ fossils ; it also appears 
at Ghilanemo, Bhizo Carpasso and Yaloussa. The formation is 
also found in the Cerinea mountains at Clepini, Lapethus, Vasilia, 
and other places; it here much resembles the miocene marls. 
It covers with yellow sand the southern edge of the Messaria plain 
from Yisatchia to Athienou, where the hills have a base of white 
miocene marl, but their upper part is an upper tertiary formation 
of fine fossiliferous sand. 

The formation again appears at Cape Pyla, and at Mavrospilios 
in the south-eastern part of the island ; here the rock is chiefly a 
coarse marly limestone, containing numerous fossils, such as 
pecUn, pectunculus, tellina, ostrea, spatangtts, ecJiinolampas, Jkc 
Alpng tne southern coast of the island are bands of conglomerates, 
sands, and coarse limestones, lying on miocene beds, but it is 
difficult to determine whether they are of the pliocene or the 
quaternary period. 

6. Sandf and 6. A conlon of rocks of quaternary formation borders the coast of 
memtot Cyprus almost throughout, and its continuity renders the study of 

it comparatively easy. 

The components of this cordon are coarse yellowish limestones, 
grey or yellow sands full of foraminifera, and conglomerates which 
are sometimes hard, sometimes friable. At Cape St. Andrea the 
marine conglomerates appear to be of quite recent formation. 
The whole of the north coast from Cape St Andrea to Cape 
ICormakiti is composed of coarse limestones, slightly glauconitic, 
and of the same character as those of Hagia Napa on the south 
coast. Generally the beds are horizontal, but near Yaloussa^ they 
incline slightly to the south. The following fossils are amongst 
those found on the north coast: — iHssoa, trochtia, cyprcsa, convA^ 
eclumhdla^ cerithium, lucina, vectunculics, area, and ostrea. The 
shore of the west side of the island is formed of coarse limestones 
alternating with sandy conglomerates containing aphanite. These 
rocks simply border the sea, and do not extend any distance 
, inland ; they lie horizontally on masses of apanite and ophite. 

The southern coast of the same character ; its rocks are of the 
pliocene and quaternary periods. 

The peculiar character of the conglomerate hills inland has 
been noticed by Drs. Unger and Kotschy and many other writera 
They occur notably along the road between Lamaca and Nicosia, 
as it enters the plain of Messaria, in numerous conical and table- 
shaped heights, with intervals between them which are evidently 
the result of erasion. The conglomerate is chiefly composed of 
diorite pebbles, and generally appears in two beds separated by a 
layer of sand ; it rests upon the tertiary marl and must once hay^ 
be^ a continuous layer. 



GEOLOGY AND MlNEKALOGY. lH 



**• 



GENEBAL C0N0LUSI0N8. 

Accepting for the present Gaudr/s assertion that the compact 
limestones are of the secondary, or cretaceous, epoch, and putting 
aside the doubt as to whether the pseudo-plutonic rocks may 
possibly be older formations which have undergone a process 
of metamorphism, then, although the absence of fossils m this 
limestone prevents its exact age from being known with certainty, 
iKre may consider it to be the oldest formation in the island ; and 
from its fine grain and homogeneous texture and colour, extending 
over a large area, where not modified by the contact of eruptive 
rocks, we may further assume that it was deposited beneath a very 
deep and tranquil sea. 

The sandstones which overlie this formation were also formed 
beneath the sea, but under different conditions and in shallow 
water; for their remarkable tabular appearance, and their very 
changeable texture, being in some places very hard and in others 
quite friable, seem to indicate the existence of strong under-currents, 
as well as subsequent pressure, and variable cementation. 

That the marls which succeed were formed in deep sea appears 
evident from their fine texture and the rarity of fossils ; probably 
no violent commotion or sudden change of circumstances sepa- 
rated this formation from that below it. The miocene age (accord- 
ing to Gaudry) closed with an upheaval of the island from the 
bottom of the sea, and the two great systems of mountains existing 
at present, then first appeared auove the water, the northern chain 
which is less lofty than the other, being perhaps at this period 
separated into several small islands. Whether this upheaval arose 
from vertical or lateral pressure is difficult to determine, and the 
question as to the true age and formation of the greenstone, diorite, 
and other plutonic (or perhaps metamorphic) rocks, must for the 
present be left in abeyance. 

Drs. linger and Kotschy remark that the dislocations and dis- 
turbances of the strata, which are perceptible in the older rocks, 
appear to have a local character, and do not seem to have been 
coeval with the general up-lifting of the island, and they consider 
that the eruption of trachyte, though small, may have had no small 
share in these disturbances. The portion of the island left sub- 
merged in comparatively shallow water was now covered by the 
pliocene fossiliferous deposit, after which a slight upheaval took 

J>lace, and the quaternary conglomerates and sands were next 
brmed. Lastly, the whole island was raised by an extensive 
upheaval of about 500 feet, and it then assumed its present form 
and relief ; it is believed that this alteration of level was preceded 
by violent storms which had the effect of washing away a great 
portion of the conglomerate deposit. The littoral cordon, which 
contains numerous fossils almost identical with living species, is 
similar to tibat which appears on nearly all the eastern snores of the 
Mediterranean ; its formation is therefore due to something more 
than a local occurrence, and has been attributed to a general fall in 



^18 OTP&U& 

the level of the water of the Mediterranean, and it ia very possible 
that this is the true solution. These changes do not seem to be by any 
means at an end, for in both pre-historic and in historic times, and 
even up to the present day, they have continued under the form of 
earthquakes and alterations of level, of greater or less force and 
extent. 

Drs. Unger and Kotschy consider that the upheaval by which 
the marine sedimentary strata of the island were raised above the 
level of sea, probably established a land communication wiUi Syria ; 
this supposition alone may account for the concordance of the 
Cyprian fauna and flora with those of the neighbouring continent 
The connection, if not removed by ordinary erosion, may have 
been taken away by the sinking of the isthmus shortly before the 
historic period, in consequence of one of the commotions alluded 
to above. 

■ 

THE METALS OF CYPRUS. 

Cyprus has contained, and very probably still possesses great 
metallic wealth; the working of the mines in ancient days is 
proved by the unanimous testimony of all authors to have been a 
source of great riches; the positions of the mines are still visible, 
and the accumulations of scoriae which are found in many spots 
show the existence of the foundries. The district which appears 
to have been most worked is that round lisso, a village situated 
near the Western extremity of the Olympus rai3|ge> in the midst of 
porphyritic ix)cks aboimding in minemls. At fijinhoussa in the 
same neighbourhood the remains of ancient mines and galleries are 
very distinct. Near Poli-tou-Khrysokho, on the coast, are three 
large mounds of scoriae, and from its situation, this place appears to 
have once been a busy mining centra Near lithrodonda there 
ai*e also tiuces of mining operations on a large scale, and 
evidences of extensive excavations are appai'ent at Tamassus, 
Lefcam, Pliinicai^a, Arediou, Como, and Soli. 

As all mining operations in Cyprus have long since been 
abandoned, information regarding the various metals supposed to 
exist in the island can only be gathered from ancient writers, 
and from the above-ground observations of geologists and traveUers. 
1. Gold. 1. The authors of ancient times appear to make no mention of the 

existence of gold in Cjrprus, but Etienne de Lusignan, writing in 
1680, says that Cinyius found a mine of gold ; he does not, however, 
mention fix)m what source he obtained tliis information. Pliny 
tells us that Cinyras discovered copper in the island, but he says 
nothing about gold. Porcacchi da Castiglione, a contemporary of 
Etienne de Lusignan, speaks of gold, and goes so far as to assert 
that a vein of ^his metal existed at Poli-tou-Ehrysokho ; it is true 
that this name certainly does mean a "town in the land of 
gold," but Gaudiy, having carefully examined the locality, has come 
to the conclusion that veiy probably some sparkling substanceSi 
such as copper- or iron-pyrites, or even mica^ may have been 
mistaken for gold by persons unleai*ued in minerdogy. It is, 
however, quite possible that in the quaitz and in the pyrites there 



dkOLOGY AND AftlNEBALOaV. Il9 

may be traces of gold, but no competent authority has yet pro- 
claimed the fact. 

2. Strabo, on the testimony of Eratosthenes, mentions the 2. SflTurand 
existence of silver mines in Cyprus, and in the history of Pliny we ^^^ 

read of molybdenite and silver being found at Cape Zephyrium, near 
PaleB Paphos. Dr. Pococke wiites that the Monte S. Croce contains 
lead mines, but no traveller in Cyprus has in modern times actually 
seen either the silver or lead. Qaudry says that he searched both the 
localities above mentioned, and could find no trace of either metal> 
but he still considers it quite possible that the Cyprian sulphide of 
copper, may, as is generally the case, contain traces of silver. 

3. Copper mining in Cyprus dates from very ancient times; S. Copper. 
Pliny states that the first discovery of the metal was made in this 

island. Aristotle, Strabo, and G alien expatiate upon the extreme 
richness ef the copper mines at Tyrria, Tamassus, and Soli. In more 
modem times, copper was still the most renowned metal of Cjrprus, 
and in 1676 testimony of this fact is borne by Porcacchi da Castig- 
lione and by Etienne de Lusignan. Various minerals of copper such 
as malachite, chrysocolla, chalcopyrite, &c., have been found in the 
island. The working of this metal has undoubtedly been .both an 
important branch of industiy and source of wealth in Cyprus, but 
later min^s have been entirely neglected. The quality of the 
Cyprus copper was famous, the "ses cyprium" was considered 
superior to any other. 

4. Gaudry says that ho discoveix)d no xinc in Cypnis, and tliat i. Zino. 
the presence of this metal could not be detected in any of the scorias 
subjected to analysis by M. Terreil ; but the latter fact is, however, 

no proof of its previous non-existence in the rock, for it is well known 
that zinc volatilizes and rarely leaves any ti^aces in scoriee.. Ancient 
authors, Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galien write positively concerning 
the excellence of the pompholyx and the calamine of Cyprus, and 
these minerals are respectively the oxide and carbonate of zina 
They, appear to have been worked at SolL 

According to Gaudry, iron abounds in Cjrpnis, both in the state 6. iron, 
of sulphide and hydrous oxide ; it is to be found at Monte S. Croce of 
excellent quality in the form of scaly crystals. The metal does not 
appear to have been worked in either ancient or modem times, and 
t£e above author considers the statement of Sonnini that iron mines 
are scattered over the island, to have been based upon false in- 
formation. 

6. The peroxide of manganese is abundant ; it is found in various e. MDngAnew. 
conditions, sometimes it is in a pulverulent state, and sometimes 
hardened by silex. It occui's in thi^eads, or else disseminated 
throughout the igneous rocks near their line of contact with the 
sedimentary formations. This substance was known to the ancients 
as black manganese, and it is consequently strange that no mention 
of its occurrence in Cyprus is made by the historiuis of the island, 
as it is found not only in the rocks, but also in great quantities in 
the scorixa 



126 bv^Rui^. 



iM» 



BUILDING MATEBIALa 

{.imeiloiiM Cyprua is rich in excellent building materials. The compact 

ll^f^i^d- limestone of the Cerinea range is a good and durable stone, it is 
' ^^^ especially suitable for the capitals of pillars, for fiiezes, and for any 

Kxt of a building which requires carving ; still this rock rarely has 
e grain of marble, nor is it entirely eiUier black or grey, but of 
varied tints. Much of the formation being in contact with the 
plutonic rooks has become cracked or schistose^ and solid blocks of 
large dimensions are not easily obtained. Cyprus possesses no true 
marbles, and it is probably on this account that the monuments of 
antiquity have nearly disappeared, and that the art of sculpture 
was not more cultivated. For constructions where the stones 
should be huge, but are not required to be built up to any very 

Siat height^ the lower tertiary sandstones (the "macignos" of 
udry» and the Vienna sandstone ''of linger and Kotschy") 
may be used with advantage. They consist of alternate bands of 
hard and friable sandstone, and the hard parts are very easily 
aejparated from the friable beds, so that the stone can be worked 
without great labour. At Florence a similar stone has been used 
for the construction of several fine buildings. Tlie most generally 
useful building stones of the island are, however, the ooane lime- 
atones of the littoral cordon. Tliese pliocene and quaternary 
limestones are very like the coarse eocene limestone of Flaris. 
The beds are very thick and i^gidar, consequently stones of huge 
dimen.siare> can be cut frxon them. They may be wori»d on the 
surface of the ground close to the shore almost iJl round the island ; 
and« as they can be shipped at once, their transport is both easy and 
cheap. The stone is generally not so hazd as to make the working 
of it at all difficult, and it forms the usual building stone of the 
island. A curiousexample of its use is shown at Bufikvento; here 
the castle actually stands on the oom p act limastnne at a lieight of 
over ^OvH) feet^ but instead of using the lauer mat»*ria], it was 
pi>efeiT^ to imiss to this height, blocks of the limest^^iie of the 
LttOTil coidaa. 

The gypsum of Cyprus was held in great e^aem by the ancientB ; 
it is of renr pun» quality, and is fcmiKl in gnsat abundance amongst 
the whit« ]uiv»ene mark all over the inland, frvm Karpas in ttie 
tsaac to Diimou near the western extD^mitv. The beds amongst 
the hiUs to the nonh west of Lsmaoa, along the load leading from 
that tc^wn to Dali have been Ui^c^lv wvakea It is k4ind in aeveial 
TaneMs; SKist &>equenilT it is in a grftnulaied fonn, but it also 
«c«ira alsKkSt <v)m}>acf s and can then be iai»l in large aheeta^ 
T^i$ liTps^om tonus an ej^oeljent material for the pavii^g gf looms^ 
aiad tor sobm iusenor Ok>uxt-Tsx\is. 



OBOLOGT AND MINERALOOT. IM 



OBKAMENTAL STONES USED IN JEWELLERY. 

Kook-cTjstal is very common amongst the porpbyritic rocks of Bobk-eiTitiL 
the mountains of Cyprus, and is particularly plentiful where these 
rocks have passed into the wackd condition. Pliny makes men- 
tion of the amethysts of Cyprus. Gaudry says that he could not 
find any amethystine quartz in the island, but crystals aboundiuff 
amongst the ores of iron and manganese are frequently tinged 
with these substances and have the appearance of amethysts. 

The jasper of Cyprus is of remarkable beauty, and may be Jasper, 
found in sufficient quantity to repay the labour and expense of 
working. Theophrastes, Pliny, Etienne de Lusignan, Mariti, and 
Sonnini have all testified to its merits. The colours are generally 
preen, yellow, purple, red, or black, but it is also sometimes found 
in bands of well defined and various colours. The best specimens 
are to be found at Platanisso, Hagios Andronicos, Mavro-vouni, 
Yisatchia, Acoutzo, and Moni. 

Pliny mentions the existence of agate in Cyprus. On the Agate, 
northern slope of Olympus, near Hai Herakliti, the green and red 
jaspers are somewhat translucent, and Gaudiy thinks it not impos- 
sible that fine agates and bloodstones might be found in this 
locality. White chalcedony abounds on the southern slope of this 
mountain range at Pentacomo and Moni, in the white siliceous 
marls of the miocene age. 

According to Pliny, varieties of the opal, which he calls paideros Opd. 
and sangenon were foimd in Cyprus, but Gaudry was unable to 
discover any true opals in the island. 

The substance which ancient writers have called the " diamond Analoima. 
of Cyprus " is probably analcime, a silicate of alumina ; this sup- 
position is to a certain extent borne out by the fact that in the 
localities where the presence of the " diamonds " is indicated, large 
quantities of very fine analcime crystals have been found. In the 
caverns near BsJTo, crystals of this substance are found in large 
numbers and of great beauty. 

Several ancient authors have mentioned the emeralds of Cyprus, l^nf>^lil^ 
Theophrastes says they are found in the copper mines. Pliny 
speaks of the sreen colour of the Cjrprian emeralds being often 
unequally distributed in the same stones. Porcacchi da Castiglione, 
Etienne de Lusignan, Le Pieux Pelerin, and Sonnini all allude to 
the emeralds found in the island, but probably only on the authority 
of the above-named writers. 

Gkiudry does not credit their assertions, but thinks that the 
name of emerald has been given to some copper mineral, or perhaps 
to quartz-prase, which has a green tint 

Morion is a black quartz. Pliny mentions a substance which he itdrioa. 
calls morion, as existing in Cyprus, but says it resembles the colour 
of sardonyx. Gaudry did not discover any true morion, but» 
amonflst the minerals that he found, that which most accords with 
Flings description, was an opaque flesh-coloured hydrolite» 



132 cYPBds. 



MINERAL BUBSTANCBS EMPLOYED IN THE ABTS AND INDUSTRIES. 

Okj uid The days and marls of Cyprus have been used for brickmaking 

"^'^' since the earliest ages until now. The bricks are made chiefly in 

the southern part of the island in the vicinity of Mazoto and 
Arpera ; lime, or fine white sand, is spread over the ground, and on 
this the bricks are dried by the heat of the sun only. Most of the 
houses in Lamaca, limasol, and the villages, are built of these 
bricks. There are several potteries: earthenware articles for 
domestic use and laige wine jars are made at Lamaca^ limasol, 
Lapethus, Yaroschia, and Corno. The potteiy is porous, veiy 
fingile, coarse, and without any el^nce in form. On the site of the 
ancient Idalium, statues and terra-cotta vases have been found,the 
nain of which is less coarse than that of the present nottexy. 
Beally cood potteiy day is, according to Gkiudiy, scarce in Cyprus ; 
the sanay marls have not suffident consistency, but, in the vicinity 
of the plutonic rocks, the sedimentaiy beds have in some cases been 
partially altraed into argillaceous rocks, which supply a &r 
better material ; this is the case paiiiculariy at Ghilanemo in the 
Kaipas, but the beds appear scarody suffidenlly extensive to be 
worked with profit. 

Umber, or terra d^ombra, was undoubtedly woriced by the 
andents in Cynrua, and formed an artide of export. It is a true 
odire composed chiefly of hydrous oxyde of iron, and is a schistose 
and somewhat finable substance. The Cyprian umber is of excellent 
quality and well worthy of its high reputatioa ; it is much used by 
painteia It is generally of three shades, light brown, veiy dark 
brown, and brownish yellow. The substance has been analysed by 
Klaproth, with the foUowing result : — 



Ozydeol iron 


— 4S 


Oxyda of nuungaDeM 


_ a) 


SUkseMd ^ 


^ 13 


Ahunina 


-. 5 


Water .«. -^ 


-- 14 



ICO 

It is found in the day-diite at a hiU about seven mfles north 
of laroaea^ near Stroullus and If sTTO-TounL It can be dug on 
the suriboe of the ground, and is sient into Lanuhca in small carta 
The greater pan is exjKirted to Hciland 

A gneen earth is found in Cyprus^ chiedv on the ni»them slopeB 
of Olympca.. in sui£cient quanuir to p*T for working it This 
£9^bstajx>s is the product of the decooiposiu.^ of igneous rocka 
irxc^h hibS aud^nsied it as fclio^ff^s : — 






GEOLOOV And ^iNERALOOt. l23 

It is used by painters, and a green dye can also with very 
little preparation be made from it ; it is employed for colouring 
the walls of rooms, &c. A small quantity is exported to Holland. 

This substance is found in Cjrprus, and was an article of export Coppens, or 
in the seventeenth century. ^*"« TiirioL 

The asbestos (or amianthus) of Cyprus has been highly praised XMhe^UM. 
by ancient writers, but it is of no great value in the arts, and does 
not appear to have been much used in former times. Dioscorides, 
Dyscolus, and Etienne de Lusignan (1580) notice it in their works. 
It is chiefly found in the country between limasol and Baffo, also 
in the hills above Soli, and is described as of superior quality, 
being very white and silky, with a delicate fibre. It is no longer 
worked in Cyprus. 

It has been stated that emery is to be found in Cyprus, but Bmeiy. 
Gaudry thinks this is a mistake, and that some black sandstone of 
extreme hardness, which is found near the extremity of the 
Acamas peninsula has been mistaken for this substance. 

Ancient writers say that both black and white alum exist in Alum. 
Cyprus. 

Soda was once an article of export from Cyprus. M. De Mas Soda. 
Latrie savs that the village of Kalopsida in the Messaria, was one 
of the places where it was chiefly collected. To the south of 
Tricomo, Gaudry noticed the plain covered with efflorescences of 
sulphate of soda which appeared like snow. It was analysed by 

M. A. Damour, and found to contain the following substances : — 

• 

Sulphate of soda 0*0587 

Sulphate of potash 01)036 

Sulphate of magnesia .... 0'1814 

Chloride of sodium .... 0*0^36 

Water 0*0988 

Insoluble eurthy substances 0*0890 

0*9991 

It is frequently stated that coal exists in Cyprus, but it is cbaL 
certain that it has never been worked, and scarcely anything is 
known as yet regarding either the position or extent of the beds. 
Mr. Lang, who was for some years British Consul in Cyprus, states 
positively in a paper contributed by him to Macmillan's Magazine 
m August 1878, tnat he has some specimens of coal which were 
found near the ancient Soli. 

The salt lakes of Cjrprus are worked, and afford an important 8ali. 
source of local revenue. These lakes, or lagoons, occur in two 
places ; near Lamaca they extend along the coast in a southerly 
direction for about five miles towards Cape Eiti ; and to the westr 
ward of Limasol on the Akrotiri Peninsula is another lake : both 
occur amongst rocks of quaternary formation. The Lamaca hkea^ 
according to the dimensions given them by Etienne de Lusignan 
and by Mariti, appear to have recently diminished in extent. The 
Lamaca salt is the whitest, but that of Limasol is considered the 
most pungent. Gaudry says that the lakes are supplied in the 
following manner : in winter, when strong south and (south-west 
winds blow, the sea rises along Uie shoi'e slightly above its natural 



iH OYPBtJB. 

level ; 0ie salt water then penetrates the unconsolidated qnarter- 
naiy sands which border the coast, and salt lakes are consequently 
formed in the neighbouring low ground. He mentions the popular 
idea of the Cypriotes concerning the supply of salt, but considers 
it erroneous : they say that during the riiiny season, water runs 
down from the mountains and fiUs the lakes with fresh water, 
which the |ieat of summer evaporates, and the soil being strongly 
impregnated with salt which combines with the fresh water a 
crust of pure salt is then left on the surface of the ground. This 
opinion is based upon the fact that the more rain tlmt falls in the 
winter, the greater is the yield of salt. Graudry answers this by 
showing that the rocks over which the rain-water flows are white 
marls, calcareous sands, and aphanites, which contain scarcely any 
choride of sodium, and that the simple reason why more salt is 
collected after a rainy season, is that the surface of the lake is 
enlarged, and the deposit of salt covers a larger space, so that 
although the total mass remains the same, a larger quantity can be 
gathereid up. It is, of course, not impossible that rock-salt mav 
exist (as is often the case) in the vicinity of the gypsum which 
abounds not very far off, but the formation of the salt lakes does 
not appear to be due to water flowing from any such beds. 

Sometimes there is too much water in the lakes for the whole of 
it to be evaporated ; in ancient times drains were cut so that the 
overplus might be got rid of, but these are now choked up, so that 
often the salt cannot be collected from a great part of the lakes. 

Salt has for a long time been exported from Cyprus with 
profit ; it was an important source of revenue in the time of the 
Lusignans, and during the rule of the Venetians seventy vessels 
are said to have been loaded annually for export Salt now forms 
a government monopoly, and its importation from other countries is 
strictly prohibited. The salt lagoons appear to be able to provide an 
almost unlimited supply, but the fiscal policy of the Turkish govern- 
ment is so unwise, that the profit is veiy much less than it would 
be under better management Until 1863, the lakes were farmed 
out for sums varying from 200,000 to 300,000 piastres per annum 
(£1,800 to £2,700), but this system was then abandoned, as it was 
found that the quantity of salt yielded in one year was, allowing 20 
per cent for loss, about 20,000 tims, which, at Uie government rate of 
500 piastres the araba, gives about £72,700. This quantity cannot, 
however, at present be always sold in one year, so the salt is heaped 
up in large mounds by the sides of the lakes, and the produce of 
the former year must be sold before that of the new year can be 
touched. The salt is collected in August, so that it may be heaped 
up before the autumn rains ; the mounds then become very hard, 
and remain uninjured throughout the winter. No attempt is made 
to refine the salt Consul Lang remarks that it was hopeless to 
expect efforts of improvement from the Turkish govenmient, but 
if made by British enterjnise, they are ceitain of succesa In 
the hope of raising the rev^ue, the government some years ago 
increased the price of salt ; it was then immediately found that 
Syria, which previously had drawn nearly its whole supply of this 
vriide frtnn Cypni% ooold be supplied at a cheaper rate from 



6E0L0GT AKB MINERALOOT. 126 

Benghazi, consequently the price was lowered again, but the mis- 
chief was then done, and, in spite of the cost of sea carriage, Syria 
is still largely supplied with Barbary salt, and receives only a 
comparatively small poition of the annual consumption from 
Cyprus. 

Consul Biddell, writing in 1873, says that the tariffed price in 
Cyprus is 20 paras per oke (say about a penny for 2} lbs.), and at 
Benghazi, salt is sold for 17 paras the oke, with, it is ^eged, better 
weight Hence it is evident that if the price were now lowered 
2 or 3 paras per oke, the Barbary traders, who at present make 
only bare profit, would have to abandon the Syrian market, and 
the salt revenue of Cyprus would be largely increased. 

Consul Watkins in his report dated March 1878, says : " Thd 
salt lakes of Larnaca, which oelong to the government, can pro- 
duce salt to the extent of 20,000,000 of okes per annum. It is 
collected in the autumn, and sells at 20 paras per oke in caimd 
In 1877, the quantity exported, principally to Sjrria, (unounted to 
3,734,000 okes, and that for internal consumption is estimated at 
729,000 okes, making a total of 4,463,000 okes. 



186 OVPBUB, 



CHAPTEB X, 



Population, Inhabitants, &c. 

?opuUUon. Thb population of Cyprus, as shown by the estimates given below 
lias vaned very considerably at diflferent epoclia in the histoiy of 
the island. 

• 

In ancient times it waa stated to be .... 8,000,000 

In 1571, at the date of the Tarkiah Conquest 400,000 
In 1791 according to Mariti it was .... .... 40,*000 

In 1801 „ Sonnini e0,'000 

X ^2i5 " JP*"- ^^^« 60,000 

In 1840 „ Consular Reports 100,000 

In 1841 a census was ordered to be taken by the Governor, 
Talaat EflTendi ; the figures obtained were not very exact, but they 
showed a total population of 108,000 to 110,000; of these 75 000 
to 76,000 were Greek Christians, 32,00Q to 33,000 Turks, 1 200 to 
1,800 Maix)nite3, 600 Roman Catholics, and 150 to 160 Armenians 
The population of Nicosia was then 12,000, consisting of about 
8,000 Turks, 8,700 Gi-eeks, and a few Armenians and Maronites. 
In 1854-68, consular reports stated that the population had risen 
to 180,000, consisting of 26,514 families, of which 7,299 famUies 
were Turkish, and 19,215 Christians. 

The population of Greek Christians was then described as in- 
owasinff, and in 1867 the population was reported to amount to 
200,000 inhabitants, of whom no less than liree-quarters were 
Christians of the Orthodox Greek Faith. 

The last oflScial report we have is that of Consul Watkins, who 
wvitinfl in March, 1878, says that of the estimated present popula- 
tion of 200,000, about two-tliirds are Greek, and the remainder, 
with but few exceptions, Moslems. Since the cession of the island' 
to Great Britain, several estimates, varying considerably in their 
figures, have been made concerning the present population, but the 
best authorities consider that there are now about 220,000 people 
in Cyprus, three-fourths of whom are Christiana 

The causes of the sudden and rapid increase of the population 
since 1840, have been assigned to the disappearance of the plague, 
which was always a source of considerable mortality in Cyprus • 
the introduction of vaccine, and consequent comparative freedom' 
<Vi)itt small-pox ; and to the somewhat improved system of govem- 
inuiit which has been adopted since that date. 
<r.^fiMM*«U 'i'l»« Inhabitants consist of the native C^riotes who form the 

jjrtsttl bulk of the population, for the Turks, though governing the 
♦iMilutiy, are quite in a minority j moreover, amongst those who are 



POPULATION. INHABITANTS, KTO. 12^ 

considered Turks, and in outward appearance might be taken for 
Mahomedans, many are not so in reality ; the greater part of these 
are the descendants of converts, ana would go back to tibeir 
original faith if they could, others are of the sect known as 
Linobambaki, which is described a few pages further on, and are 
the descendants of forced converts ; they are unwilling followers 
of Islamism, and have little or no sympathies in common with the 
true Turks. 

The Armenians, Maronites, Europeans, and other nationalities in 
the island form but a very small fraction of the total population. 

The inhabitants of Cjrprus are often included in a general 
classification as Greeks, but this is evidently incorrect, for, f^m the 
earliest days up to the present time, not only have the characteris- 
tics of the people been essentially difierent from those of the true 
Greeks, but it must also be remembered that ethnologically the 
Cypriotes, belonging to the old stock of the island, which has been 
aptly called "protc^Hellenic,*' are quite a distinct race from the * 
Greeks, with whom, indeed, almost the only connecting link lies in 
tlie fact that the majority of inhabitants of Cyprus are Christians 
of the orthodox Greek faith, and it would appear that it is on this 
account alone that they have been considered to be Greeks. The 
number of real Greeks by birth now in the island is stated to be 
not more than a few hundreds. . 

In character the Cypriotes are deficient of the liveliness and ner- Ghanuster. i . 
vous activity of the Hellenes, and do not possess anv Hellenic ;^ ^^ 
aspirations ; their leading traits are a quiet and docile aisposition, > 

combined with frugal and careful habits, and considerable cunning 
in business transactions. The natives are said to be very sociable 
and hospitable, and are remarkably fond of pleasure, but, although 
wine is Both abundant and cheap, the^ are as a race considered very 
sober ; still they waste much of their time in the cafi^, are great 
frequenters of the fairs which are often held in difierent parts of 
the island, and are devoted to all amusements. The climate of the 
island does not promote industry, and the Cypriotes, as a rule, are 
very averse to hard and continued labour ; the extreme simplicity 
of their mode of living, and the iuexpensiveness of the necessaries 
of life, enable the labouring classes to indulge in idle and la^ 
habits, which in most other coimtries would inevitably lead to 
ruin. This love of ease is, however, combined with saving habitdi 
and it is said that the natives are often very niggardly and avari- 
cious, so that althougli, on the one hand, they do not care to work 
and make money, on the other hand what little they do earn is 
hoarded up, and made to last a long time ; no expenditure that can 
possibly be avoided is ever incurred, and in food and living 
generally, they are particularly temperate and frugal. Coarse bread, 
cheese, olives, and vegetables, with now and then salt fish or salt 
pork, form the ordinary food of the peasantry, and all these articles 
can be procured at extraordinarily low prices. 

The Cypriotes are very easily governed, anything like bri^^- 
dage is uxiluiown in the island, and burglaries and assassinations 
are very rare, though, by recent accounts, it appears that the uike of 
the knife in quarrels, paiticularly in the BalTo district, is by ho 



12Q 07PBU8. 

mewciB uncommon. Political agitation, or opposition on the part of 
the people to (he constituted authorities is unknown, although the 
country has had hard things to bear at the hands of her Turkish 
Tulers, ai^d it is generally remarked that patience and docility are 
amongs^ the marked features of the national character. At the 
same time the sljrness and cunning of the Cypriotes are noted, and 
^ pyer the Levant they have a reputation for keenness in business 
which includes efforts to over-reach and cheat whenever it is 
possible, knavery and lying being freely employed in order to gain 
the required object. The Mussmmans of Cyprus have liUle of the 
fanatical spirit and bigotry which characterize the Arab Mussul- 
man. They generaUy live in harmony with their Chiistian neigh- 
bours in town and country ; this is usually found to be the case 
wherever the Mussulman element is in the minority, and only 
in Nicosia, where they form the majority of the population, do 
they evince any desire to assert a superiority. The Christian 
population is far more industrious and zealous in the acquisition of 
wealth than the Mahomedan, and for many years past in the sales 
of land, the latter have generally been the sellers, and rarely the 
purchasers. The Turk is also seldom an intelligent agriculturist 
Qo \t cas\ scarcely be wondered at that in Cyprus, the Chrisdana 
have acquired considerable ascendancy. 

The Cypriote love of home and family is very strongly 
evidepced, and is noticed by nearly all writers. It has often 
been found difficult to induce men to leave their native village 
even for considerable pecuniary advantages. The continual 
care of parents is the settlement for life of their children, and, with 
this object, they will often despoil themselves of their whole 

Property, and settle it upon the younger members of the family, 
lonsul Lang, General di Cesnola, and others, mention cases of 
this being done, and it points out in a most decisive manner not 
only the self-denial, but the striking affection of the parent 
towards his children. It is very commonlv supposed that the 
morals of the Cypriotes are loose, but Consul Lang, speaking with 
a thorough knowledge of the island, declares diat this is an entire 
mistake, and that the morals of the peasantry will bear most 
favourable comparison with the same class in England and Soot- 
land, 

The marriage customs of the Greek and Catholic inhabitants 
are governed by the rules of the Greek and Boman churches, and 
do not differ in any essential points from those in force elsewhere. 
The Turks, in all religious rites, follow the precepts of the 
Koran. 

During the Lenten fast, and on Fridays throughout the year« 
the religious Cypriote lives on bread and olives, and will not even 
touch &h, or anvthiug that has breathed. Various superstitions 
exist in the ialand, the origin of which may be traced to the old 
rites of Aphrodite ; such, for example, is the custom of offering 
doves to the priests. The " evil eye " is much dreaded throughout 
the island, and curious precautions ai-e taken by the natives in 
order to avoid its influence. The ladanum plant is believed to 
havQ magical properties, and the peasants carry it in their hands. 



POPUL^VTION, INHABITANTS, ETC. 129 

and smell it, under tlie belief that it will chann away diseaiSe. 
The patron saints of the island are St George, St Lazarus, 
St. Barnabas, and St Andrew. At Whitsuntide the Cypriotes hold 
a curious ceremonial called the water fiU; it appears to be a 
celebration of the anniversary of the rising of Venus from the 
waves at Paphos. Gkiudry witnessed this ftte^ at Lamaca, and 
describes the great crowd which marched in procession to the sea 
shore, and the various ceremonies which took place. At the birth 
of an infant, a vessel of wine is buried, and is not dug up, or 
touched, until the child is grown up and married, but whatever 
may be the fate of the child tlie wine is never used in commerce. 

As regards physique, the Cypriote males are generally described 
as a tall, fine looking, and broaid shouldered race ; Mariti especially 
praises their personal appearance. The women are said iiot to retaift 
their ancient reputation for beauty, but their domestic qualities are 
highly praised by all who are weU acquainted with the island. 

From the position of Cyprus there has necessarily been a greai LiagoAge. 
mixture of Semitic, Aryan, and African races, their languages must 
also have been to some extent mixed, and some of them, as far as the 
island is concerned, lost. During Uie Venetian rule the pertinacity 
of the Greek element maintained their language, though it become 
more or less corrupted, particularly in pronunciation, by Italian. 

The Cypriote language is now a Greek dialect with a Doric ten- 
dency, and words of Semitic origin prevail extensivelv. The pecu- 
liarities of the dialect are such that a knowledge of orainary Romaic 
is often of little use in the villages. Mr. Stuart Poole advises any 
one who wishes to become thoroughly acquainted with the 
Cypriote language, to supplement a good colloquial knowledge of 
Eomaic with a careful study of Professor Mullach's " Grammatik 
der Griechischeu Vulgarsprache," in relation to Cypriote. 

It is said that the Italian language is much used in Cyprus in 
commercial transactions, and both it and Turkish are spoken com- 
monly by the better classes. GrientaLs acquire a knowledge of 
Italian with much neater facility than any other European 
lanffuage. Greek, or tiie Cypriote dialect of it, is much used by 
Mahomedans as well as Christians, and there are many villages 
where the Mahomedan inhabitente are quite ignorant of Turkish. 
French is very little spoken in the island. Official communications 
must now be couched either in English or Turkish. 

RELIGION. 

Commencing with the earliest ages, we find but little informa- ^ty 'ormi 
fcion r^arding the religion practised by the first inhabitants of ®f ^^"^*P- 
Cyprus, but it is probable that in the almost savage life led by the 
early settlers, the religion derived from Uieir forefather Japhet 
gradually died out, and that when the Phoenician and Cilician 
colonists arrived, they found nothing but fetishes. 

The worship of Aphrodite, the early form of Venus, was then 
introduced, and Kinyras, who established himself in a regal and 
priestly position at Palro Paplios, was tlie founder of the priesthood 
(774) I 



180 



CYPBUS. 



Introduotiou 
of Ohrif 






littolMnWii. 



of the Einyradn. The Tamaridae family held the priesthood of 
ihe Oilician worship, and maintained with Babylonian rites the 
worship of the goddess Mylitta. 

To these two forms of worship was added that of Jupiter^ 
which was introduced by Teucer, the son of Telamon. Afterwards, 
colonists from otl\pr countries arrived^ and to the above prevailing 
«V8tems new practices were introduced, but as they all involved 
tne same general principles and customs, it appears that all worked 
smootlily together. 

These idolatries continued undisturbed until about ▲.D. 45, 
when Paul and Barnabas in the coui-se of their missionary tour 
iarrived in Cyprus ; they landed at Salamis and travelled through 
the island to Paphos, where they converted the pro-consul SSr- 
gius Paulus by their preaching, and performed the miracle upon 
Elvmaa the Sorcerer, as related in the Acts of the Apostles. At 
this time the Jews formed a large and important element of the 

ropulation of Cyprus, but after the revolt and massacre of A.D. 
15, mentioned in Chapter I, they were expelled from the island, 
And have never since recovered their influence there. 

The conversion of the island to Christianity progressed rapidly, 
HuUiOrous bishoprics were founded, and we learn that Epiphanius 
was Bishop of Salamis in the fourth century ; afterwards, religion 
in Cyprus deteriorated, as was the case for a time throughout the 
whole Church. At present it is said that about two-thirds of the 
population belong to the Orthodox Greek Faith, but have several 
rites and cei^moniala peculiar to the island. 

Of Uie remaining one-third, the greater part profess the religion 
of Islam, but of tliese the true Mussulmans are chiefly confined 
to the Turks of Nicosia^ Famagusta, and Paphos, who alone are 
really Osn\anlis ; the remainder, who have been designated as neo- 
Mttslims, are of Gr^^k origin, tl)ey are the descendants of converts to 
Mahomedanism, and aie by no means zealous adherents of that faith. 

A somewhat diflVivut sect also exists in the island, the mem- 
bers of which have l^een nicknamed '* Liuobambaki/ that is linen 
and cotton, a tigumtive expression meaning a mixture of Christian 
and Massulman, These people do not number more than about 
1.S00; tliey are distrilMited chiefly near Nicosia, Famagusta, 
limasot and in a village called Leo>Pecrx\ situated at the south- 
<«sl exireiuitv of tlie island l^ween Capes Pila and Greco. In 
outward ap{xvi4nuioe the meml^ers of this sect lesemUe Turfcs^ and 
ar^ recxvui^vl as such by the authvuiiies. but in reality they are 
Chrisiians wIk^s^* Anoec>u\rs were foivxvi, dfxex the Turkish conquest 
in 157K to J^vIaiv il.cnvs^lvos Muss;;li:.Aiis^ and embrace the faith 
of Islam in oivier to s^>e their li>^es and pTv^^ferty. Tlieir ancestors 
wvie uKu;Krs v4f the l^::u Church, aiid it is ix w a matter of dispute 
ly< wen the v»:v<k bishv^it? a:.d the L*;ii: p:>essi&. as to which of tliese 
Churvhoe ihcy rvNAUy 1x1.,:;^:. 



oach 



K'i.u: desdivx2s of claiming 



th<n\ Oa ax\\v;;v,t ci ihcir *:;v.v..aIv<*s |x>scUvja« the linohambald 
lifcxv x\v>;;KiU s\ »V,c;/.Un* v ih i^e Tv,:V.5^i JtuUx^iuos with r^ard 
tv> tvlv^v-sv$ r.;cc5v v\.;;$^.:.^^ui',. vie.* 






0«9s&Stt s * C>rpna, iU 



POPULATION, INHABITANTS, ETC. 131 

There are in Cyprus some Armenians, descendants of refugeds Ann«iiaiML 
who settled here, and these practise their own form of Ohristianity, 
residing chiefly in Nicosia. 

The Maronites also have a colony in Cyprus, and are said to MJuooite?. 
number about 2,800.* They belong to a tribe of people who 
inhabit the western slope of Mount Lebanon, and figure in history 
as a sect of Christians. By adopting the Monothelitic doctrine 
soon after it had been condemned in A.D. 680, by the Council of 
Constantinople, they came to be distinguished as a distinct religious 
party, and having as their first bishop, a certain monk, John Marc, 
tliey received the name of Maronites. Maro assumed the title of 
''Patriarch of AntiocV he asserted the ecclesiastical indepen- 
dence of the tribe, and its members defended their freedom against 
the Greeks, and afterwards against the Saracens. At len^h in 
1182, they renounced the opinions of the Monothelites, and were 
readmitted within the pale of the Romish Church, but are only 
united to it by the single tie of the acknowledgmeni of the 
supremacy of the Pope. 

The Maronite monks of Cyprus live in monasteries scattered 
amongst the mountain regions, and most of the members of the 
sect occupy the country near Cape Kormakiti. 

St Andrew is said to be the chief patron saint of the island, Pafc»on mmu 
and on Palm Sunday and at Easter the usual ceremonies of the 
Eastern Church are performed. In tlie early days of Christianity, 
Cyprus became a land of saints, and numerous names stand in the 
calendar as belonging to the island, such tm Barnabas, Lazarus, 
Epiphanes, Hilarion, Spiridion, Catherine, Acona, Maura, &c. 



EDUCATION. 

The education of the people was formerly much neglected under School*, 
the Turkish administration, but there are now school at Nicosia, 
Lamaca, Limasol, Morpho, and at a few of the larve villages. 
Herr Von Loher remarks that " until thirty years ago scnools were 
strictly prohibited, whereas now every town has its training school, 
whilst in three of the chief towns, Lamaca, Nicosia, and Limasol, 
these are of three grades, and in them are taught history, geo- 
graphy, and Grecian literature, even to the reading of Homer and 
Xenophon. The prices for these classes are from 100 to 300 marks. 
Anything over and above this charge is covered by the bishop, and 
a toll upon the exports and imports of the towns." 

In the grammar school at Nicosia, ancient Greek, French, 
mathematics, history, and geography are taught ; this school is 
supported partly by the bishops, partly by the aid of subscriptions^ 
and partly by the payments of the pupils. There are (Jso in 
Nicosia two free schools of mutual instruction on the Lancasterian 
system, and a, school for girls. In Lamaca tliere is a grammar 

* See Mn. Jojner*straiiBlatioii of Herr Yon LOkor*s work on Oj^tub ; Appendii^ 
mm 296. 

(774) I 2 



4 



132 CYPRUS. 

•obool, a Lancaaterian scliool, a girls' school, and a school capable 
of holding 600 pupils, under me superintendence of the nuns 
of the Older of St Joseph. 

limasol has one grammar school, one Lancaaterian school, and 
one girls' school. Last year, according to Herr Yon Loher, there 
yrere about twenty scholars in the higher school, and in the lower 
upwarda of a hundred; their number is said to increase rapidly 
from one half-year to another. Baflfo has a school on the Lancaa- 
terian ayatem ; there ia also a school at Morpho, and at one or two 
of the oUier villages, but beyond these there is but little provision 
for general instruction. 

The Greek bishops are generally men of culture, but a great 
proportion of the village priests and monks are very ignorant and 
un^ucated ; they cannot even instruct the peasants amongst whom 
they live, and teachers for the schools have, as a nue» to be 
obtained from Athens. 

Such education as there is in Cyprus is confined almost entirely 
to the Greek Christian portion of the inhabitants; the Mahomedans 
are generally quite uneducated. Toung men who have studied for 
aqme time in tne grammar schoob in Cyprus^ not unfrequenlly go 
to Athena to oomj^ete their education. 



INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 133 



CHAPTEB XL 



Internal Administration. 



From time to time reports concemins the government of Cyprus Ci 
have reached us through Her Majesty s Consuls in the island, and ^' 
they have invariably described it as most unjust and corrupt 
In 1846, it was stated that the government was administered by a 
Pasha from Constantinople, who was changed every year, that 
embezzlement and oppression prevailed in every form, that the 
rapacity of the government officials, and even of the Greek clergjr, 
knew no boun(U, that the entire administration of the island 
deserved the strongest condemnation, and that Cyprus was con- 
sidered to be the most oppressed part of the Ottoman -dominions. 
In 1854-58 some improvement was reported. The administration 
was then stated to be on a more satisfactory footing, and the presence 
of the European Consuls was considered to have contributed towards 
a more equitable mode of government. 

It IB, however, more with the character of the government at 
the time of the occupation by Great Britain that we have here to 
deal. It appears that the island has lately been governed by an 
official called the "Mutessurif," who is sent from Constantinople, 
and is generally of the rank of Pasha. The Mutessurif is president 
of the central " Mejlis " or council, which holds its sittings at Nicosia, 
being assembled whenever summoned by the Pasha, and always 
once a week ; it is the highest civil and criminal Mbunal, and 
its decisions are embodied m documents called " musbata," which 
are signed by all the members present The council is composed of 
thirteen members besides the Pasha, of these, nine are Mussulmans 
and four are Christians ; of the former, six sit in virtue of their 
office, viz. : — * 

The CadL 

Tlic Mufti, or highest Mussulman religious authority. 
Tlie Mal-i-Mudiri, or treasurer and financial agent. 
The Administrator of Mortmain property. 
The Administrator of Crown Lands. 
The Public Begistrar. 

The number is made up by three Mahomedan repicsentatives 
of the town. 

* This list is from the reports of Consuls White and Sandwith ; Mr. Lang in a 
recent contribution to MacmiUan's Magazine giTes a tlightlj different composition 
as follows : — ^Tho Pasha ; the Multi, the Greek Archbishop ; the Finandaf agent ; 
the Ercaf 'nazir, or administrator of Mussulman religious property ; three Massmmaa 
and two Christian notables, making onXj ten in all. 



CiTil adminiso 
tratioh. 



184 



CYPRUS. 



The Christian members of Uie council are : — 

The Archbishop of Cyprus, who sits ex-^ffido. 
Three Christian elected representatives. 

This court takes cognizance of all matters of an administrative 
or financial character connected with taxes, tithes, and customs 
duties, also such civil suits as do not immediately concern questions 
of inheritance, as these fall within the Cadi's jurisdiction, or, in the 
case of Christians, are managed by their own ecclesiastics ; it further 
considers appeals made from the district courts of the island. 

The island has been hitherto divided into six districts which 
are governed by " Kaimakams," who are aided by councils, and 
who report to the governor. There is a further subdivision of the 
island into sixteen minor districts, or ** cazas," of which the chief 
functionaries are called *' mudirs.'' 

The following are the names of the districts and sub-districts : — 



KaifnakamUks, 



Niooda 

Famagufita ... 
Lamaca 



{ 



Beat of the Muteuur^. I Uj^^^j 



NICOSIA. 



Baffo 



Cerinea 



Ocuots. 

K^hrcea. 
Orini. 

IKarpaa. 
Larnaca. 
rLimaaol. 
i Ej^iacopL 
lEjlani. 

{Boffo. 
Elbrysokho. 
Avdimu. 
Euklia. 
r Cerinea. 
< Lefca. 
[ Moq)ho. 



It is reported that the administrative and judicial affaira of the 
Kaimakamliks are managed by two courts, viz., the Mejlis Idari 
and the Mejlis Davi; the former is the administrative council, 
and is composed of eight members, of whom five are Mussulmans 
and three are Christians, as follows : — the Kaimakam as president, 
the Cadi as judge, the Christian Bishop of tlie district, three 
Mussulmans and two Christians elected by the people. Tlie 
Mejlis Davi has five members, viz., the Cadi as president, two 
Christians and two Mussulmans. This tribunal disposes up to the 
sum of 5,000 piastres, and can inflict punishment for a period not 
exceeding three months. The Mejlis of Tidjaret, or commercial 
tribunal, sits at Larnaca, and has six Turkish and six European 
members. 

From the large Mussulman majority in the council of the 
Mutessurif, it is very evident that no initiative can be taken bv the 
Christian members, and as the Pasha had power, if dissatisfied 
with the selection of any particular elected repi-csentative member, 
to compel him to resign his seat, and can appoint another in his 
place, any member who makes himself obnoxious by voting 



INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 185« 

against the Mussulman majority can easily be got rid of. The 
subservience of the members to the wishes of the government is 
further increased by the fact tliat the salaries which they draw ar^ 
distributed by the Pasha, consequently the council has proved to 
be no protection whatever against the evils of an inactive 
administration, for not only are the Christian representatives iH 
reality, though not avowedly, the choice of the governor and the 
Eaimakams, but, should any of them maintam an independent 
attitude by checking abuses, they would inevitably be deprived of 
their seats. Thus, m the council where all the most important 
interests of the country are adjudicated, and which is the tribunal 
at which all appeals from inferior courts are finally decided, there 
are nine members to represent the Mussulman element and 
interests ; viz., one-fourth of the population and one-sixth of the 
property ; whilst only four members guard the interests of the re- 
maining important majority, wliilst over all a Mussulman functiotlary 
of the highest rank in the island exercises his important influenca 
Consul Sandwith, in a report of 1867 upon the condition of 
the Christinns in Cyprus, notices these facts, but says that it would 
not, however, be fair to draw the conclusion that justice is alwavs 
denied to Christians, though such an inference might appear to be 
justified by the constitution of the several courts, and also from the 
fact that the rejection of the evidence of Christians is one of the 
fundamental Mussulman laws. The following quotation fi*om his 
report indicates clearly the position in which the Christians in 
Cyprus have hitlierto been situated as regards the administration 
of justice. 

" It must not be forgotten that the memberB of the Courts are open to 
bribery, and tlie rich Christian suitor is often more than a match for his poor 
Mussulman adversary. Tlie civil disabilities, too, under which the Christians 
lie are materially mitigated by the important circumstance that tliey are the 
wealthiest class in the island, being the principal landowners, and, in irade, 
no leas than in agriculture, possess a pre-eminence over the Mahomedans. 
^jo^ing thus the many advantages which accrue from the possession of 
superior wealth as well as inteUigence, they are not unfrequently able 
to induce the local Councils to accept their evidence against Mahomedans. 
This is espedally the case in places where the latter are few and poor, and 
dependent) it may be, on the Christians for their means of living. In sach 
cases, it may truly be said tliat the Christians get justice for themselves, and 
in spite of the spirit of the institutions provided tor that purpose by €k>TBm- 
ment It is in tue capital, where the most important causes are heard, that 
they labour under the greatest disadvantages, for there alone is observable 
any spirit of Mussulman fanaticism, the rest of the country being singularly 
free from its baneful influence. The Mussulmans having there been long in 
the ascendancy, in tlie possession of considerable property, and their ezclusiye 
spirit kept alive by the presence of the Qovemment) which is more or less 
animated by jealousy of Cliristian influence, and the members of which are 
constantly recruited fix>m Constantinople, a certain hostility to the Greek 
population displays itself, the more remark<ible from its absence elsewhere. 
It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the Medjlis which holds it 
sittings there, should fairly represent the interests of all p.'U'ties in the island, 
its members being chosen from its several districts, instead of, as at present, 
from the town itself, and provision should be particularly made that it be not 
overweighted by the presence of so many na seven irremovable Turkish 
functionaries. 

"The tw^o Courts where Cliristian evidence is received, are, first, the 
Medjlis el Tahkik, where the more important criminal and police cases are 



136 CYPBUS. 

triad, the mamban of which ai*e both Ohratiass and Muaaiibnaiia, and which 
bolda itaaittinga at Nicoeia, the capital of Cjpma; and, aeooudlv, the Medjlia 
el TiJAret^ Bitting at Laniaca where commercial auita are heard, the memben 
of which oonaist of equal nambera of Europeana and nativea, each important 
Cooaulate aendinja^ a delegate, and the nativea being half Christian and half 
Mnaaolman, making a total of twelve. Thus fair guarantees of justioe are 
afforded to the population of this commercial town, where, too, the several 
Consulatea are able to watch the proceedings of the Court At the capital 
the Medjlia el Tahkik cannot adequately attend to the criminal luriadiction 
of the whole island^ the majority of cases being disposed of by tne District 
Qoorts where Christian testimony is inadmissible. 

<< Another ffrievance of which the Greeks have to complain is the unequal 
distribution of the personal tax called ** verghi," of which they pay in inost 
villages more than their fair share ; but this is an evil which would be quickly 
remedied could thev make themselves heard in the Centnd Medjlia. 

^Though they nave just cause then to complain of the inferior position 
which they hold in the eye of the law in the instanoes alreadv mentioned, 
both Mussulmans and Christiana liave equal cause to be dissatisfied with the 
mal-administration which, in these days of commercial activity, arrests the 
development of the resources of the island. Hie government derives a 
revenue of £230,000 from Cyprus, and the expenses of administration amount 
ai most to ^£30,000, tlie aurplus of £200,000, finding its way to the Treasury at 
Constantinople. Nothing wliatever ia sjpent on the improvement of the 
oountiy, no roada are conatructed, no oridges thrown across the winter 
torrents. But these and other instances of a careless or vicious administra- 
tion which could be enumerated are not exclusively detrimental to the interests 
of the Greek population, and, therefore I refrain from dwelling on them here. 
But I think tnat there can be no doubt that the evils whidi press equally 
upon Turks and Greeks are more intolerable than those of which the Greeks 
alone have cause to comphun." 

Consul Lang, during Lis nine years' residence in Cyprus, appears 
to have gained considerable knowledge of the working of the admi- 
nistration ; he considered that the representatives of the people were 
assigned an important position in the councils of the island, and that 
it was partly from servility and partly from incapacity on the part 
of the elected members, that so little advantage was reaped by the 
people, but this was a defect, not in the system, but in its execution. 

It seems that in Cyprus, it is not so much the laws themselves, 
but rather the administration of the laws which needs reform. The 
Ottoman Government is noted for publishing innumerable firmans, 
laws, and ordinances, which leave but little room for improvement 
as regards either completeness or natural equity ; and it has been 
either the disregard or the mal-administration of these laws, which 
has done so much injury in the countiy. 

It is said that there is a code of commercial law based upon 
the Code NapoUon ; also that the criminal code is both comprehen- 
sive and sensible ; the property laws appear to be somewhat com- 
plicated, but it is believed that when they have been thoroughly 
investigated, a clear system will be found to pervade them. 

The foundation of Turkish law is the ^uri, a religious com- 
pilation comprising the Koran and a series of maxims. This law 
cannot be altered by Uie secular power, but supplementary and 
elucidatory enactments suited to modem requirements, may be, 
and have been, added ; these are known as the destatir, or Ottoman 
secular law. 

The annex of the recent convention between Great Britain and 
ImmI t^oorv. Turkey {see page 27) seems to recognise four different ownerships 



INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 13T 

of land — State land, Crown land, Church land, and private land ; 
the le^l distinctions between these various tenures will have to be 
investigated by the land commission, a task which will probably 
require some delicacy of perception, for it appears that the distinc- 
tion between State and Crown lands is scarcely su£Bciently defined 
or universally accepted; moreover, under a despotic . power like 
Turkey, it may be difficult to say what constitutes ihe personal 
property of the Sovereign, and what belongs to the State. All 
barracks, police crounds, lighthouses, custom-houses, police, sta- 
tions, and such Uke, are clearly State property, also all lands 
affected for the pay of salaries and the maintenance of revenue, 
these go therefore with the proprietorship of the island. 

Mr. Haddan says that the Mussulman law invests all freehold 
rights in the head of the State, and no subject can hold landed 

Property in his own right ; further, the tenure of land is entirely 
ependent upon cultivating, or otherwise rendering productive, the 
property in occupation, and all holdings n^lected for three years 
lapse ipso faeic to the State. The 10 per cent, tax upon the 
produce may therefore be considered merely as a rental, the non- 
payment of which is punished by ejectment. Thus Mr. Haddan 
considers that Uie greater part of Cyprus, being unoccupied and 
uncultivated, is at the entire disposal of the British Government. 

The wording of Article IV of the Annex of the Convention* 
does not show what land is to be considered as belonging to the 
Sultan personally, and the State property scarcely seems to be 
separated from the Crown property, but thoro can be no doubt that 
the two are distinct, and will be so dealt with.t 

As rogards the ecclesiastical, or vakouf, lands, and the private 
lands, thero will probably not be so much difficulty, as the laws 
with regard to these are tolerably clear. At Nicosia a register book 
has been kept containing the names of all owners of land, with an 
alphabetical index. All transfers and sales aro noted in this book, 
and a certificate of registration called a hodfet is given to the bu ver ; 
this document, together with the registry, constitutes a legal title 
to the possession of the land. 

The Zaptiehs, or Turkish policemen, in the island are said ^o)k9toK9. 
to number about 275 ; one of their chief duties hitherto has been 
to assist the persons who farm the taxes to collect their dues, and 
also to exact those to be paid direct to the government It appears 
tliat this duty has in very many cases been performed by the 
Zaptiehs in a most arbitrary manner, and has often been accom- 
panied by acts of needless severity, and even brutality; con- 
sequently the police force is very generally unpopular amongst the 
Cypriotes, and the bitter feeling which exists has sometimes cul- 
minated in reprisals. 

Tliis force being now under English control, will be brought 
under a stricter discipline, and its members taught to respect the 



* IV. That ihe Sublime Porto maj freelj sell and lease all lands and other 




the " Times '* corrojtpondent in Cjprosi contained in the issues of that newspaper of 
September OUi, and October 9th, 1878. 



138 



CYPRUS. 



Administra- 
tion of the 
British 
Goyenunent. 



la^ of which they aie the inatruments. They will have to be pro* 
perly clothed and fairly paid, so that their position may be raised 
m the estimation of the natives. It is believed that amongst the 
Ziaptiehs are to be found the materials for the formation of an 
excellent police force, which will naturally now be thrown open to 
Christians^ instead of being, as hitherto, confined only to Mussul- 
Q^ans. 

The following Order in Council, dealing with the administration 
of the government in Cyprus imder Bntish rule, has been pio- 
mulgatecL 

•'At the Court at Balmoral^ the 14th day of J3ej)tember, 1878. 

PRESENT, 

The QUEEN'S Moat Excellent Maiesty. 

HiB Bojal Highness Prince LeopolcL 

Marauis of Lome. 

Mr. Secretary Cross. 

Sir Thomas Myddelton-Biddulph. 

^ Whereas it is expedient to make jproyision for the exjsrcaab of the power 
and jurisdiction vested by Treaty in Her Majesty the Queen in and over the 
Island of C jpros : 

^' Now, therefore, Her Majesty, by virtue of the powers in this behalf b^ 
the Fpreign Jurisdiction Acts, 1^ to 1878, or otherwise in Her vested, u 
pleased by and with the advice of Her Privy Council to order, and it is 
ordered, as follows : — 

'' I. There shall be a High Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief (here- 
inafter called ' the Hiffh Commissioner') in and over the said Ishind of pypms 
(hereinafter called ' tne said island '), and the person who shall fill the said 
office of Hifi^ Commissioner shall be from time to time appointed by Commia- 
sion under Her Majesty's Si^-Manual and Signet. 

" 11. The High Commissioner shall administer the government of the said 
Island in the name and on behalf of Her Majesty, and shall do and execute in 
due manner all things that shall belong to his said command and to the trust 
thereby reposed in him, according to the several powers and authorities 
granted or appointed to him by virtue of this Order, and of such Commisuon 
as may be issued to him under Her Majesty's Sign-Manual and Signet, and 
according to such instructions as may from time to time be given to him, 
under E^ Maiesty's Sign-Manual and Signet, or by Order of Her Majesty in 
Council, or by Her Majesty through one of Her Prnicipal Secretaries of State, 
and according to such Laws and Ordinances as are or shall hereafter be in 
oroe in the said Island. 

"III. The High Commissioner shall have an Official Seal bearinff the 
style of his office, and such device as one of Her Majestys Principal Secre- 
tanes of State from time to time approves, and such seal shall be deemed the 
public seal of the said Island, and may be kept and used bv the High Com- 
missioner for the sealing of ail thines whatsoever that shall oasa the seal of 
the said Island. And until a public seal aha\\ be provided for the said 
Island, the seal of the Hiffh Commiasiouer may be used as the public 
seal of the said Island for sealing all things that shall pass the said seaL 

" IV. There shaU be in the said Island a Legislative Council, constituted 
as hereinafter mentioned. 

" v. It shall be lawful for the High Commiasioner, with the advice of the 
said Legislative Council, to make all such Laws and Ordinauocs, as may fixim 
time to time be necessaiy for the peace, order, and good government of the 
said Island, subject, nevei^tlielcss to all such instnictions as Iler Majesty may 
from time to time issue under Her Sign-Manual and Siflmet for the ^idanoe 
of the High Commissioner and of the said Legislative Council therein : Pro- 
vided, nevertheless, that full authority is hereby i-eserved to Her Majesty^ 



INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 189 

ihroiiffh one of Her Principal Secretaries of State, to confirm or disallow Sny 
sudi Laws and Ordinances as aforesaid in the whole or in part, and to make 
and establish from time to time, with the advice of Her Privy Council, all 
such Laws or Ordinances as may to Her appear necessary for the peace, order^ 
and good government of the said Island as ndly as if this Order has not been 
made. 

" YI. The Legislative Council for the said island shall consist of the High 
Commissioner for the time being, and of such other public ofiioers and persooB 
within the same, not being less tnan four or more than eight in number, as 
shall be named or designated for that purpose by Her S&jesty, by any in*- 
struction or instructionsi or warrant or warrants, to be by Her for that pur'' 
pose issued under Her Sign-Manual and Signet ; or sliall be provisionally 
i^pointed, subject to Her Majest^^s wiU ana pleasure, b^ the High Com- 
missioner, in pursuance of any instruction or instructions, warrant or 
warrants, under such Sign-Manual as aforesaid : Provided always Uiat one 
half of the members of the said Council, other than the Add High Commi»» 
sioner, shall be persons holding public offices in the said Island, who shall b6 
styled 'official members/ and the other half shall be inhabitants of the said 
Island^ who sliall be styled ' unofficial members,' and shall hold their seats at 
tlie said Council for a period of two years only, subject to reappointment tot 
a like neriod as from tune to time may seem nt 

" vll. In case any member of the said Council shall be temporarily absent 
from the said Island, or ina^ble of actinff in the exercise of nis office, or in 
case he shall die, or from anv cause shall cease to be a member of the said 
Council, it shall be lawful for the High Commissioner by any instrument 
under tne seal of the Island to appoint provisionally any fit person to be aa 
official or unofficial councillor (as the case mav be) in the place of such 
member ; and in all cases where such provisional appointment shall be made 
by reason of the temporary absence or inci^iacity ot such member, so soon ae 
he shall return to the said Island, or shall be declared by the High Commis- 
sioner capable of exercising his office of legislative councillor, the iwrson so 
provisionally apiiointcd shall cease tolns a niembor of thcsaid c5imncil. Every 
such provisional np[x)intment may be disallowed by Her Majesty, through one 
of Her Principal Secretaries of state, or may be revoked by the High Com- 
missioner, by such instrument as aforesaid. 

"VIII. £very legislative councillor shalL notwithstanding anything here- 
inbefore contained, hold office during Her Majesty's pleasure, and whenever a 
Councillor shall from an^ cause cease to hold office, the said Council may 
continue to transact business, and its proceedings shall be valid, notwith- 
standtDg that the proportion between the official and unofficial members may 
be temporarily altorea, pending the appointment, provisionally or otherwise, 
of a new member in the place of the Councillor ceasing to hold office aa afore- 
said. 

^ " IX. Tlie oflicial members of the Council shall take precedence of the 
unofficial menil>cr8, and Bhall take rank among themselves in the order of 
prece<1ence of their respective public offices, or, in case of any doubt, as the 
High Cororoissioner shall direct. The unoliicial members shall take rank 
acconiing to the date of their appointment, or if appointed by the same in- 
strument, according to the order in which they are named tlierein, unless the 
High Commissioner slhiU, in any case^ otherwise direct 

"X. The High Coiumissioiicr, or iii his absence any member of the CouncU 
appointed by him in writing, or in default of such appointment the member 
present who shall stand first in order of precedence, sliall preside at every 
meeting of the said Council. AW questions brought before the Council shaR 
be decided by the niajority of the votes given, and the High Commissioner 
or Presiding Member shall have an original vote on all such questions, and 
aleo a casting vote if the votes shall be equally divided. 

i ** XI. Until otherwise provided by the Council no business ^except that of 
adjournment) shall be transacted, unless there shall be present tliree Members 
of Council besides the High Commissioner or Presiding Member. 

** XII. The Council shall in the transaction of business and passing of lawB 
conform as nearly as may be to Huch instructions under Her Majesty's Sign- 
Manual and Signet as may hereafter be addrersed to the High Commissioner 
in that Ijehaif. 



«. ■' 






140 CYPRUS. 

f' XIIL Subject to such instructioiiB the Council may make standing mlee 
and orders for the regulation of their own proceedings. 

" Xiy. If any CouncUlor shall become bankrupt or insolvent, or shall be 
oonyicted of any criminal offencci or shall absent himself from the said Island 
for more than uuree months without leave from the Hig^ Commissioner, the 
High Commissioner may declare in writing that his seat at the Council 
is yacant, and immediately on the publication of such declaration, he shall 
cease to be a Member of the CouncU. 

« XY. The High Commissioner may by writing under his hand and seal 
suspend any Councillor from the exercise of his office, proceeding therein 
in such manner sa may from time to time be enjoined by such instructions 
under Her Majesty^i Sign-Manual and Signet sa may m addressed to the 
High Commissioner in tluit behalf. 

'^ XVT. Any unofficial Councillor may resign his office by writing under 
his hand, but no such resignation shall take effect imtil it be accepted in 
writing by the High Conmiissioner, or by Her Majesty through one of Her 
Principal Secretaries of Staie. 

" XYII. No Law or Ordinance made by the Hisii Commissioner with the 
advice of the said Legislative Council shall take effect until the Hiffh Com* 
missioner shall have ussented thereto in the name of Her Majesty andon Her 
behalf, and shall have signed the same in token of such assent 

" ^VIII. Notwithstanding anything in this Order contained, it shall be 
lawful for the High Commissioner, in cases of emergency, to make and 
proclaim, from time to time. Ordinances for the peace, order, and good 
government of the said Island, subject however, to the disallowance of the 
whole or any Pftrt thereof by Her Majesty through one of Her Principal 
Secretaries of State ; and every such Oitiinance shul have like force of law 
ifith a^n Ordinance made by the High Commissioner with the advice of the 
said Tiejgislative Council sa by this Order provided, for the space of not more 
than six months from its promulgation, unless the disallowance of such 
(h4inance bvHer Majesty shall be earlier signified to the High Commissioner 
by one of Her Majest/s Principal Secretaries of State, or unless such 
Ordinance shall be controlled or superseded by a Law or Ordinance made by 
the ^^gh Comnussioner with the advice of the said Legislative CouuciL 

'' 23X. Any Law or Ordinance, or any part thereof, made by the High 
Commissioner, with the advice of Uie said Le^slative Council, or of his own 
authority by Proclamation as aforesaid, which shall be disallowed by Her 
Majesty under the provisiona hereinbefore contained, shall cease to be of 
any force or effect so soon as the disallowance thereof shall be published 
in the said Island bv the Hi^h Commissioner. 

'' XX. The High Commissioner may make and execute in Her Majesty^ 
name and on Her behalf, under the public seal of the said Island, grants and 
dispositions of any lands which may be lawfully granted or disposed of by 
Her Majesty within the said Island. 

" XXL The Hiffh Commissioner may constitute and appoint all such 
Judges, Justices of the Peace, and other necessary officers in Uie said Island 
sa may lawfully be appointed by Her Majesty, all of whom shall hold their 
offices during Her MaiesW's pleasure. 

^'XXn. The High CJommissioner may, sa he shall see occasion, in Her 
Majest^s name and on Her behalf, grant to any offender convictea of any 
crime m any court, or before any Judge, Justice, or Magistrate within the 
said Island, a free and unconditional panion, or a pardon subject to such con- 
ditions sa may at any time be lawfully thereunto annexed, or any respite of 
the execution of the sentence of any such offender for such period as to him 
may seem fit 

*' XXIII. The High Conmuasioner may, as he shall see occasion, in Her 
Majesty's name and on Her behalf, remit any fines, penalties, or forfeitures 
which may accrue or become payable to Her, provided the same do not exceed 
the sum of fifty pounds sterling in any one case, and may suspend the pay« 
ment of any sucn fine, penal^, or forfeiture exceeding the said sum of fifty 
pounds, until Her Majesty's pleasure tlieroou shall be made known and 
signified to him. 

'^XXIV. The High Commissiouer may, upon sufficient cause to him 
appearing, suspend from the exercise of his office within the said Island any 



INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 141 

peTBon exercisinff the same, which siupension shall continue and have effect 
only until Her Majesty's pleasure therein shall bo made known and signified 
to the High Oommissioner. And in nroceeding to any such suspension, he is 
to observe the directions in that behalf gi^en to him by any such instructions 
under Her Majesty's Sign-Manual and Signet as may be hereafter addressed 
to him. 

''XXY. There shall be in the said Island, for the purpose of advising tho 
High Commissioner, an Executive Council, which shall be composed of such 
persona and constituted in such manner as may be directed by any instruc- 
tions which may from time to time be addressed to the High Commissioner 
bjr Her Majesty, under Her Sign-Manual and Signet, and all such persons 
shall hold their places in the said Council during Her Majestv's pleasure ; 
and the said Executive Council shall observe such rules in the conduct of 
business as may from time to time be contained in any such instructions 
as aforesaid. 

" XXVI. In the event of the death, incapacity, removal, or absence from 
the said Island of the High Commissioner for the time beinff, all and eveir 
the powers and authorities herein |;ranted to him shall, until Her Majesty s 
furtner pleasure is signified therem, be vested in such person aa may oe 

Sppointed to administer the same by any instrument under Her Majesty's 
ign-Manual and Signet; or if there be not in the Island an^ person so 
appointed, then in the senior military ofl^cer for the time being m command 
ot Her Majesty's regular troops in the said Island. 

*' XXVII. The following Orders of Her Majesty the Queen in Council 
that is to say : the. Order of the 12th day of December, 1873, for the Regula- 
tion of Consular jurisdiction in the Dominions of the Sublime Porte S the 
Order of the 13th day^ of May, 1875, for the Bq^ulation of Hospital Dues 
levied on British Shipping within the said Dominions ; and the Order of the 
S6Ui day of Octobtf. 1875, amending the said Order of the ISth day of 
December, 1873, shall cease to have any force and effect in the Island of 
Cyprus from and after a day to bo named in a proclamation to be issued 
in the said Island by authority of tho High Commissioner, with sudi saving 
and exceptions ^any) as may be contains in such proclamation. 

" XX y III. This Order shall commence and have effect as foUows :— - 

** (a.) As to the appointment of the High Commissioner, and the Issue of 
any instructions immediately from and after the making of this 
Order. 

^ (6.) As to all other matters'and provisions comprised and contained in this 
Order immediately from and after a dav to be named in any Pro- 
clamation to be issued in the said Island by authority of the High 
Commissioner. 

"And this Order shall remain in force until the same shall be revoked or 
altered bv Her Majesty with the advice of Her Privy CoundL 

"And the Most Honourable the Marquis of Salisbury and the Bight 
Honourable Viscount Cranbrook, two of Her Majesty's Principal Seotitanes 
of State, and the Lords Conunissioners of the Treasury, are to give the necea- 
■ary directions herein as to them may respectively i^pertain. 

"CKPbel." 



ECCLESIASTICAL ADMINISTRATION. 

The ecclesiastical division of the island is into an Aich- Dioccms. 
bishopric and three Bishoprics. The Archiepiscopal diocese is that 
of Nicosia, and comprises the Famagusta and Eatpas districts. 
The dioceses of the three bishops are Lainaca, Baffo, and Cerinea. 
The number of the Christian clergy in Cyprus is said to exceed 
1,700. The' incomes of the archbishop, bisnops, and the cleigy, are 
derived from the people on the voluntary system, and are therefore 
fluctuating. Consul White, in his report of 1863, says that the 



U2 



OYPKUS. 



Independence 
of Uie (}reek 
•Ghuxohof 



Church of 
England. 



income of the archbishop is generally above jE2,000 per annum, and 
those of the bishops vary l^iween ^6800 and £1,500 per annum, 
the diocese of Baffo being the wealthiest, and that of Cerinea the 
poorest. 

From the earliest times the Oreek Church of Cyprus has 
enjoyed ejx especial degree of independence ; in the reign of the 
Emperor Zeno, a.d. 473, exceptional privileges were conceded to 
the Archbishop of Cyprus, who, although he owns the supremacy 
of the Patriarch of Constantinople over the Orthodox Greek Church, 
claims to be entirely independent of him as regards church disci- 
pline ; he wears purple, carries a gold-headed sceptre, has the title 
of Beatitude, signs in red as the Greek Emperors were wont to do, 
and uses a seal bearing a two-headed imperial eagle. It is said 
that these dignities were conferred in consequence of the fortunate 
discovery, at Salamis, of the body of St. Barnabas, with a copy 
of the Gospel of St. Matthew, which precious relic was sent to 
Constantinople, and in return the Emperor confirmed the Church 
of Cyprus in its absolute independence, and gave the archbishop 
the above privileges. The archbishop is nominated from amongst 
the bishops, and the bishops are elected by the congregations from 
amongst the monks, who are unmarried ; the rest of the cleigy are 
fdlowed to marry ] it is said that their stipends are very small, and 
many of them are in miserable circumstances, they are almost 
entirely uneducated, and often have to work in the fields, or adopt 
other kinds of manual labour, in order to support their families. 

From the writings of several travellers in Cyprus at the 
beginning of this century, we gather that the rapacity of the Greek 
Archbishop and his subordinate clergy, was then so great that the 
peasants were plundered in the most infamous manner, in order to 
provide money for the support of the churches and convents, and 
that having to beai* this tax in addition to those exacted by the 
Turkish Government, the condition of the Cypriotes was indeed 
pitiable; Mariti writes in very strong terms upon this subject. Of 
late years there appears to liave been an amendment in this respect, 
and Consul Lang speaks of the Greek Archbishop who was in office 
during his residence in the island, in the highest terms of commenda- 
tion, both as regards his personal character, and his management of 
church affairs. He describes him as a most enlightened man, and an 
exemplary and devout Christian, and further states that not only is 
no impediment put by the Greek Archbishop upon the free dis- 
semination of the Bible throughout the island, but that the Arch- 
bishop has expressed a lively interest in its distribution. 

It is reported that the position and dignity of the archbishop 
and bishops are respected by the Turkish Government, and that the 
Christians generally have of late yeai-s been in enjoyment of both 
civil and religious freedom. 

In the Greek schools attached to the convents, the standard of 
education is low, and it is a mark of the deficiency of education, that 
the archbishop assigns as an excuse why no registers of births, 
deaths, and marriages are kept in the parislies, that the great part 
of the rural clergy can neither i*ead nor write. 

It has been arranged by the Foreign Office that the Bishop of 



INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 143 

Gibraltar shall have the episcopal superintendence of any congre- 
gations, cliurches, and clergy of the Churcli of England in Cyprus. 
The Biglit Eeverend Dr. Sandford is tlie present Bishop of 
Gibraltar. 

This bishopric was especially founded for the superintendence 
of British congregations, not only at Gibraltar and Malta, but on 
the shores and in the islands of the Mediten*anean Sea. 

The Turkish garrison of Cyprus is an insignificant force con- Militarjfonoc. 
sisting of not more than about 100 artillerymen, about 300 nizams^ 
or regulars, and a small number of redifs or militiamen. 

The Zaptiehs, or police, are said to number about 276. 

The guns of the artillery are almost useless, and the whole force 
is in a disorganized state ; the clothing and equipment is very bad, 
and the pay has been very irregular. In aU probability anew local 
force will be organized under British auspices. 



m 



CTTRUS. 



CHAPTER Xll. 



Printing 
oaliooM. 



^oroooo 
leitUior. 



SUki. 



Smbioiderief. 



Ck>tU>ny 
woollen, And 
linen stuib. 



Boap. 



Pottery. 

BitUllorioty 
fto. 



Manufactures and Industry. 

The manufactures of Cyprus are inconsiderable, and are in a back- 
ward state. 

Formerly there was a large trade carried on at Nicosia in print- 
ing British calicoes in bright colours for divan and quilt coveis, 
window blinds, &c. ; these were exported in great quantities to 
Syria, Smyrna, and Constantinople. 

In 1846^ the establishments carrying on this business were 
numerous, but of late years the trade has much fallen off^ and in 
1863 it was reported by Consul White that not more than five or 
six of these houses were then open, and it was believed that Uie 
high exportation duty charged upon the articles was the main 
reason of the decline of this brancn of industry. 

Good Morocco leather is prepared at Nicosia and in the neigh- 
bouring villages ; the workmen pretend to have a particular pro- 
cess which they keep a secret, but, however this may be, their 
leather is generally softer, more brilliant in colour, and better 
dressed than in other parts of Tm*key ; very fine blue, yellow, and 
red leathers are made for Turkish shoes and slippers, a considerable 
quantity of which are annually exported to Alexandria. 

Some very pretty light silk stuffs are manufactured at Nicosia 
for dresses, scarfs, shirts, mosquito nets, and pocket-handkerchiefs ; 
the latter are especially good, and are considered equal to any made 
in France. 

The Greek women in some of the towns and villages work 
beautiful embroidery, and make silk net which will bear com- 
parison with fine European lace ; the gold and silver embroidery 
worked in Nicosia is greatly admired. 

Some common cotton, woollen, and linen fabrics, the latter 
chiefly sacking, are woven in the island, and a branch of domestic 
industry whi^ may be noticed is the manufacture from coarse 
woollen stuff, of the gregos, or capotes, so much used in the Levant 

It was reported in 1863, that three soap factories had recently 
been opened at Larnaca, where tliis article is made for home con- 
sumption. 

Pottery, sufficient for home consumption, is made at Larnaca, 
limasol, Lapethus, Yaroschia, and Como (see page 122). 

On the west side of the island, the peasantry distil rose, orange, 
and lavender water, and prepare myi^tle and ladanum oil. Vege- 
table resins, such as mastic, and stomx ('' liquid amber ") are &q 
collected ; the former is used as an astringent, an aromatic, and an 



MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRY. 146 

ingredient in drying varnishes ; the latter lias medicinal properties 
and is also used for incense. 

Drs. Unger and Kotschy, in Chapter VI, of their joint work 
upon Cyprus, describe these last products and manufactures in 
detail. 

Our latest authentic account of the present state of the manu- indiutries in 
factories and industries of Cyprus, is contained in Consul Watkins' Ojjama 
Eeportforthe year 1877, dated March 31st, 1878. He writes: d"^«l877. 
" Tanning is one of the chief industries. The tanneries at Nicosia 
turn out from 1,500 to 2,000 bales of leather per annum. The 
manufacture of silk stuffs is produced by women at Nicosia to the 
extent of about 10,000 pieces yearly for dresses, besides handker- 
chiefs and sashes. The printing of English grey cloth for divans 
and coverlets is also carried on. Building and carpentering are 
entirely done by Greeks, who also make good tailors anddioe- 
makers. The trades followed by Turks are those of barlbers, 
butchers, calico printers, shoemakers and saddlers." 

Sponge fishing commences in May, and ends in August The Bpoofe 
fishers are Greeks from the island of Hydra and Castelrossa. fiihtrwi. 

About 40 boats, in all, were employed in 1877, each boat 
manned by a crew of from eight to ten. Operations extend from 
Baffo to Caravostassi on the south-west and west coasts, and from 
Famagusta to Cape St. Andrea on the east coast. The quantity 
taken last summer amounted to about 2,500 okes, the sponges were 
of all sizes and qualities, but chiefly of the more common kind : 
600 okes were sold to Syrian buyera at 20 francs per oke, ana 
the remainder were taken away.* 

The agricultural industries, the manufacture of wine, the work- 
ing of the umber and gypsum beds, brick-making, the collection of 
salt from the lagoons near Larnaca and Limasol, and all the other 
miscellaneous occupations of the inhabitants of Cyprus, have been 
reported upon in preceding chapters. 

The present industrial condition of Cyprus does not compare 
favourably with the records handed down to us concerning its 
former state in tliis respect At one time the forests of the island 
were able to supply trees suitable for ship-building on a large scale, 
and at that penod we have every reason to believe that they were 
turned to good account ; again, in olden times Cyprus was, perhaps 
more famous for its minerals and for the activity with which they 
were worked, than for any other of its productions or industries. 
The copper mines were especially rich, and the copper which they 
yielded, the " (C8 cvprium ' of the ancients, was considered superior 
to any other. Whether these mines are exhausted or not, is at the 
present moment unknown, for no mining operations have been 
undertaken for a long period, and this profitable occupation has 
been entirely neglected. The fisheries on the shores of Cyprus 
are much neglected, but it is not improbable that, if properly 
managed, appreciable profits might be made by them. Should the 
Maltese come to Cyprus in any numbers under the new rule, they 
may perhaps turn their attention to this branch of industry. 

* From Ooniul Watkini* Beport for the yaur 1S77. 

(774) K 



^46 CYPBUS. 

CtongnUir re- A report upon the Industrial Classes of Cyprus was furnished 

JSia^ by Consul Lang in Februaiy, 1872, the substance of which is as 
eiB886t of follows : — 

Cfpnu. The industrial classes in this island may be divided into three 

categories : — 

I. Tiolor^, shoofnakers/ carpenters, masons^ blacksmiths!, cart- 
wrights, and such like. 

^ labourers, inhabitants of towns, such as porters, boatman, 
domestic servants, &c. 

3. Agricultural labourers. 

'13ie workmen of the first category supply solely, in their respeo- 
live departments, the requirements of the population of the island. 
Their work is of the simplest character, but suitable to the wants 
of a people having few luxurious tendencies, and unwilling as well 
as unable to pay for a higher quality of work. Their earnings 
range from 3& to 5& per diem, varying according to the intelligence 
and activity of the workman. 

The labourers of the second category are lower in the social 
scale than those of the first, and little or no intelligence is required 
of them in the dischaige of their occupations. Their earnings^ 
frequently yery nncertain, vary from la. 6d, to 2s, 6d, per diem. 

Agricultural labourers are the most numerous class in the 
isjland. Their earnings v^ury according to the work upon which they 
f^re employed. 

During, harvest time they may perhaps receive as much as 
3^. per diem, but the average of the rest of the year is about 11^. to 
la, 3cl, per diem for male labourers, and about half as much for 
females. 

Evidently, when this was written, there was no opening for 
European labourers, even in the class of occupations comprised in 
the first category, for the superior work of European tradesmen would 
not recjBive its equivalent value, the people being quite contented 
with second rate articles at low prices. A European labourer 
would, moreover, find it difficult and iiksome to lead the intensely 
simple Ufe, possessing few comforts and no luxuries, to which 
Orientals are accustomed. 

There is at present but little scope for ambition among the 
working classes, and the nature of the climate causes the labourers to 
be little disposed to exertion, but rather on the other hand to be 
inclined to a life of ease. Native labourers do not perform, nor 
ar^ they expected to perform, half the work that would be done by 
a European. 

The simplicity and inexpensiVeness of the necessaries of life 
are greatly in favour of the industrial classes in Cyprus ; the com- 
forts of a dweUing-house are a secondary consideration with a 
people accustomed to spend nine months of the year, day and 
mght, in the open air, and the food on which the peasantiy sub- 
sist, consisting chiefly of bread, olives, onions, oil, cheese, and salt 
- fish, can be procured at an exceedingly low rate. 

Consul Lang at the time when this Beport was written, con- 
sidered that the only opening that the island afforded to Europeans^ 



MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRY. l4V 

\va8 as farmers. He based his opinion upon tlio following facts, 
▼iz. : the soil is fertile, and may be had, either by purchase, or on 
lease, at most moderate prices : the cultivation of grain, vegetables 
and fruits of all sorts is largely profitable where economy and a 
moderate capital are combined with diligent effort ; perfect security 
to life and property is an advantage possessed to a greater degree 
in Cyprus in anv other part of Turkey. 

This being the case in 1872, it may fairly be considered thafc 
the British occupation being now an accomplished fact, still greater 
opportunities are at present offered for success in agricultural pur- 
suits, and there can be little doubt that capital so embarked, and 
administered with practical knowledge and economy would soon 
bring in handsome returns. 

The Cypriotes dd hot b,pp^t to have ex6elled in dtt ; Still, some Art and 
few names have beeil presetVed, aiid it is probable that lUrthet litentoraw 
researches will discover Others. 

A sdulptor named Styppax id known to a contetii]por&ry of Reti- 
cles ; Simos, another sculptor, Wfts & native Of SalamiS, as alsO Was 
Onasiphon, whose name, with that of Epichartnos of - Soli, is On an 
inscription at Rhod^. On^ Zenodotes is mentioned in ti tablet at 
Nea PftphoS. 

It has been already described how the use of the Soft Cyprian 
marble, or limestotie, was fatal to the production ot high ftk in 
sculpture. 

Embroidery Se^ms almost to ha^e be^n carried to thd tk)sition 
of a fine art. It is called Assyrian work by PausaniaS. 

As regards literature, Euclus, one of the earlier iitOpheti6 
singers, was a liative of Cjrprus, and some of his verses sxisted in 
the time of Pausanias. The author of the Cyprian Iliad Or iKypria, 
Btasinos, was bom in Cyprus, tod wrote this t>oem in col^'tinction 
with Hegesias ; its subject is the events Which led to the Si^e Of 
Troy. Cleon of Eurium is alleged to have written k po^ni On th6 
Argottduts ; amongst other writers WerO the lyric poet HArmi^us of 
Curium, and Sopatros, the author of somo comediod. Of proS^ 
writers thers was Cleatehus of Boh, who wrotd biogrtt^hiib, and t 
Work callfed Qerdthos. 

j^no, the philosopher, was bom in Citltmi. 



(V74) K 2 



148 ' CYFKUS. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



Trade and Ebvbnub. 



TfBde. Cyprus has an excellent geographical position for commerce, it 

lies within easy distance of all the great ports of the eastern 
Mediterranean, and is almost in the direct route between them. It 
also holds the key of the Gulf of Scanderoon, which may in course 
of time become one of the greatest emporiums of the commerce of 
the Levant. The trade and resources of the island have probably 
neyer yet been fully developed, though perhaps they were most so 
during the periods of the Lusignan and Venetian governments. 

A very close connection exists between the commerce of 
Cyprus^ and its products, vegetable, animal, and mineral; the 
foregoing chapters contain fiul details concerning the various 
influences which annually cause fluctuations in the amount and 
quality of the numerous products, and which have been explained 
to be due to either ignorance of the art of high cultivation, want of 
proper agricultural implements, droughts, mistaken fiscal policy on 
the part of the government, combmed with oppressive and ill- 
adjusted taxation, or last, though perhaps not least, if the neglected 
mineral wealth of the island be considered, the lethargic character, 
and want of enterprise of the inhabitants; these influences must 
therefore be borne in mind whilst reviewing the trade statistics 
now eiven of the last few years. 

Tne present infusion of British energy and capital, together 
ynth the mtroduction of modem science and a good admiiustration, 
all of which will be the natural results of our occupation of the 
island, will soon take effect, and the evils above alluded to may be 
expected to disappear on the removal of the paralysing effects of 
Turkish rule. 

We hear that the immediate result of the Anglo-Turkish 
Convention has been to quicken Mediterranean business in our 
leading sea ports and to give great activity to freights. Hitherto 
British merchant ships have been almost invariably sent to Cyprus 
in ballast (as the table below shows), or else at prices for cargo 
almost eauivalent to ballast; consequently there has been no 
special inducement to embark in direct trade with the island, and 
but a small proportion of exports have been shipped direct to 
England in British vessels. Consul Biddell remarks upon this 
fact in his Beport for 1872, as follows: — 

'' The want of more frequent opportunities for direct ahipment to Qreit 
Britain operates seriously against tiie extension of trade, yet it is easier to 
state the fact than propound a remedy. The volume of the exports from 



TBACE AND BETEMUK. 



149 



Cyprus cannot be considered, comparatively, of the first importance in Europe 
ana although tlie products are numerous the actual production of any single 
article is not large. The Liverpool steamers trading with the ports of Syria 
and Egypt do not, it appears, find it remunerative to touch at Larnaca, except 
only at long intervals, when a sufficient amount of produce for shipment can 
be guaranteed. Owing to this want of frequent and reliable opportunities, the 
exporter prefers to avail himself of the Austrian maU steamers calling nere 
fortnightly^ and taking produce for all the ports of Uie Mediterranean, to 
send oflT nis purchases to some of these ports than to hold them over inaefi- 
nitely, even though convinced that, with immediate shipment, he would 
realise a better result by sending the produce to English markets. How this ia 
to be successfully brouffht about I am unable to suggest, but it is evident that 
until more frequent ana regular opportunities of steam conveyances to English 

S)rts can be procured, and relied upon, the volume of exports from CyvmB to 
ngland can iiardly increase, and mudi will continue to oe forwarded to Oon- 
tinental ports which otherwise would go to those of Qreat Britain." 

The occupation of the island by Great Britain affords the 
remedy here sought for, and it is to be expected that the direct trade 
will now largely increase. 

The Larnaca statistics of the last four years show the following 
figures : — 

BBTUBK OP BRITISH SHIPPING AT THE POBT OF LABNAGA. 



Cliaud. 



Tear. 




1 



1874 
1876 
1876 
1877 



16 

18 

7 

a 



i! 



16 
18 

10 

8 





8,600 



16 
17 
10 

8 



1 



Si 



i 



16 
17 
10 

8 




a 

tf^OCO 

40,676 

86»00O 

1,000 



In the tiiree first years above mentioned/ nearly the whole of 
the cargoes sent to England consisted of wheat ana barley, but in 
1877i owing to the failure of the grain crop on account of the 
continued drought during the months of January, March, and April, 
and also in a considerable degree to the influence of the war, tnere 
was a general depression of trade, which showed itself in a marked 
manner with regard to the direct commerce between Larnaca and 
England, for in that year the whole of the exports from that town 
to Great Britain, in vessels of all countries, amounted only in £3,007, 
whereas the year before, vessels of all countries conveyed there the 
produce of the island to the value of £43,800. It is however, 
worthy of notice that the exports to England from limasol did 
not decline last year; their value amounted to £28,650, whilst 
in 1876 their total was but £8,150. This great increase is to be 
attributed to tlie recent large demand for locust-beans, of which no 
less than £28,600-worth was sent to England from Limasol in 
1877. 

Statistics of the whole trade of Cyprus are given ; these are 
taken from tlie Consular Keports, but in a country where no 
public accounts are kept, there is nothing upon which the figures 



}flO CYPBU8. 

pan be base4 vitlx certainty, and Consul Biddell, writes, April, 
1-87Q V — ** As no accurate statistics of the annual trade are accessible, 
if indeed auy be recorded in tl^Q different government departments, 
tl^e basQS of valuation and estimation bave to be obtained as best 
tb^y can tbrougb the agency of local traders, and cannot therefore 
^mo^nt tQ niore than approximate accuracy." The totals of the 
fqUotwing tables may therefore not be absolutely correct, but they 
fltJU have a considerable value inasmuch as they show the variations 
of the last few years, and the increase or decrease of each may 
Invariably be traced directly to the removal or the occurrence of 
one or more of the variou^, influences which have been enumerated 
as affecting the prosperity of the tradQ of the island ; consequently 
highly important information for the future regulation of taxes, 
^porjli duties, &c., may be deduced therefrom. 

For instance, the decrease of the total value of exports from 
Lamaca in 1876 and 1877> was due to long intervals between the 
raii^Si during which periods northerly and easterly bleak cold winds 

f)revailed, to the manifest injury of the growing crops ; whereas the 
ai^e exports of 1874 and 1875 are to be attributed to the excellent 
crops of wheat and barley obtained in that year. 

The decrease in the quantity of salt exported lately is due tQ 
the mistaken policy of the government with regard to the sale of 
this monopoly. 

The increase in the quantity of tobacco now aimually imported 
is, beyond a doubt, to be attributed to the exorbitant taxation to 
which the grower of the plant in Cyprus is subjected ; otherwise 
the island could now, as it formerly did, provide for its own wants, 
and if it is a true saying that tlie prosperity of a country may be 
gauged by the excess of its exports over its imports, the measures 
which in Cyprus oppress the tobacco and vine growers, and which 
prevent the exportation of live stock cannot but be ill-advised. 

In the same manner each falling off in the products, and con- 
sequent diminution of both trade and revenue, may be traced with 
certainty to a definite source. 

To all who are interested in the welfare of Cypnis it is, how- 
ever, a reassuring fact that the various causes of decline arise fix)m 
influences which are clearly capable of removal ; the art of proper 
cultivation may be taught, proper agricultural implements intro«- 
duced, harbours with improved means and facilities for shipment 
constructed^ the custom-house annoyances and delays, noticed by 
Consul Watkins in his Eeport for 1877, can be prevented, thosQ 
taxes which are found to be inappropriate and oppressive can be 
re-adjusted, and a commercial spirit encouraged instead of stifled ; 
under the influence of such reforms the great natural advantages of 
the island would develope, and its financial and commercial 
importance be fully realized. 

In the following tables the trade statistics of 1877 ar^ given in 
detail, and each table is briefly compared with the con^esponding 
totals of the three previous years, so tliat the gain or loss may be 
■seen at a glance. 



TRADE Aim BETENUE. 



BBTOBtt OF TBI BXPOBn PBOlt THK FORT OF URHACA IH THE TUB II 

























AtuW... 


Italj. 




rork»7 












4 


• 


A 




































asins. ::: 




itoo 






... 






















































































SS,»i«^- :: :: 


1,W0 


i;on 


... 


1,000 


... 


17,000 


i'Ji 


















































































































asE™ ::: 


ioo 


too 


sst 


'«0 


::; 


i;too 


SIS 
I.IMO 


Total nlna 


t,<m 


U,SH 


IfOlB 


IO.MO 


... 


H,900 


iM^ie 



The largo totals of 1874 and 1875 were due to the Rood crops 
of those years, which enabled upwards of £175,000-worta of wheat 
and barley alone to be exported each year. 



BEfDRN OF rni eXFOBTS FBOK THK rOBT OF UUASOI. IH TBE TKAB IITT. 



MuwofAnklH 




To 


To 














Entlutd. 


Fr«l», 


AnMrta 


lUtf. 












4 


t 


' 


A 


* 


A 
00 


n 


H 


Umr^nAtotMni 




no 


'in 




- 


■- 
















































































te,ooo 


1,700 




1100 


1,100 




































... 








TMii .„ 


s»,m 


1.M0 


e..iB 


0,140 


t,>00 


1,»0 


4VW 


n,m 



... tt,«oo 

.'■' It« ,',' .7 « ".'.'. M^MO 

The year 1875 showed an increase on nearly all the articles of 
export, and a particularly large quantity of the common black wine 
was sent to Turkey. In 1877 the value of the locust beans exported, 
viz., £41,200, was about double what it hod been in any previona 
year ; there was also a marked increase in the value of the raisiiiB 
exported. 



m 



CYPRUS. 



BSTUBN OF TBS IMPOBTS AT THE FOBT OF LABNAOA IN TUB TKAB 1877. 



NAUiMofAztidM. 


Vroon 
Tttikax* 


From 
Anatria 

and 
Omnnanj. 


FroBB 
Fimnoa. 


From 
***8;!fnd 


Flrom 
Ital7. 


FnMB 
Graaea. 


Total 
Valoa. 


Ootftoo mannftiiilart •.• «,• 
SMwVsn..* ■••• ••• •„ 

QlMt «Bd potleiy mn 

AM^BVHVA ••• ••• «•• i«# 

TobMOO ••• ••• •«• ••• 

do^P ••• ••• •«• ••• 

OttHV* ••• ••• •■• t«« 

^B^wmwB •»« ««» «at ••• 

Ocdoniak 

Iran, wrouftat and onirrongbt 

• w Wwl^ttHl ••• ««• •«« 
AI^V «■« •«« ■•« 

Mt fldi and dryMltMiw 

Skint, <n and caoMl 

(MItv oO ... ... ... ... 

^mhd, so. ... .»« .*« 

•*ax «•. .«. ... ... 

woppar ... •.• .M ... 
Oialn and floor 

^USWUBDWIVB ••• ••■ ••• 


« 

•*• 

•*• 

••• 

••• 
17.000 

8,800 
860 

••• 

... 

... 

1,000 
400 
400 

9,486 

1,706 

••• 
• •• 

800 
8.000 

2.800 


d 
14,000 
8.000 
800 

••• 
••• 
••• 

••• 

480 
1,800 

• •• 

• •« 

100 

• •• 

••• 

400 
848 
876 

600 


d 

• •• 

1,000 

700 

8.600 

••• 

• »• 

• •• 

••• 

8,000 
700 

• •• 

8,000 
860 

• •• 
•♦• 

860 

••• 

• •• 

8J8 

800 


d 
22,000 

... 

.*• 
..• 

•*• 
... 
..• 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
260 

••m 

• •• 

• •• 
••• 
••• 
••• 

200 


— • 

••• 

100 
60 

••• 

... 

.*• 

•.• 

■.• 

... 

... 

800 

800 

• •• 
••• 
•«• 

••• 

• •• 

• •• 

100 


£ 
... 
.•• 
... 
8,000 

■ •• 
••• 

• •• 
••• 

••• 

• •• 
••• 

■ •• 

260 

• a. 
... 
.•« 

• •• 

• «. 
... 

800 


d 
86,000 
4,000 

1,700 

8.660 

17,000 

8,200 

860 

480 

8,000 

2.000 

1,800 

8,200 

1,880 

9,480 

1,708 

760 

6a 

978 
8.888 

8.800 


TMal 


88,941 


21,960 


10,088 


22,460 


1,860 


8,660 


108,2n 



In 1874 Uia importa nceiTod at Taniaca wtra t 


aim 


ft }W8 „ „ 


ft 


It 1878 „ „ 


If 



d 

... 100,262 
... 162,228 
... 160^480 



The value of the cotton manufactures, which are the chief 
articles of import, have decreased since 1876, when they amounted 
to about £81,000 ; in 1876 they fell to about £63,000, and last year 
to but little more than half that amount, as shown in the table 
above. 



BBTUBN OF THE I1IF0BT8 AT THE POBT OF UM A80L IN THE TEAB ISH. 



lI*mAa Af Art^l-* — 




From 


From 


From 


From 


From 


From 


Total 


fianiaB w ath 


V1C«« 




Turkay. 


Auatrla. 


Fnnca. 


England. 


Italf. 


Qreaca. 


ValiM. 








d 


d 


d 


d 


d 


M 


d 


Oraia . 


• ■• 


• •• 


2,600 


••• 


• •• 


... 


a«» 


••• 


2,600 


Tobaooo ... ... 


• •■ 


• •■ 


8,000 


• •■ 


••• 


... 


••• 


••• 


8,000 


Bottar ... 


■ •• 


• •• 


1,100 


• •• 


••• 


... 


• •• 


•■• 


1,100 


Saltflah 


••• 


••• 


180 


• •• 


••• 


• a. 


800 


420 


800 


Soap 


••a 


••• 


260 


a»* 


••• 


... 


• •• 


••• 


260 


Matcbaa 


• •• 


• •• 


40 


200 


40 


... 


10 


• •• 


286 


Glaaawara 


••• 


• •• 


600 


260 


800 


400 


... 


••• 


1,460 


Xanttfactnred gooda 


• •• 


a*« 


12,000 


••• 


1,000 


«•• 


... 


»•• 


18,000 


Ooffea 


••• 


aaa 


666 


aa» 


700 


••• 


... 


180 


1,4a 


Sugar 


• •• 


• •• 


660 


• •• 


800 


• ■• 


... 


400 


1.780 


Leattaar ... 


• ■• 


• •• 


• •• 


a*a 


660 


■ •« 


... 


1,000 


1.680 




»•• 


• •• 


• •■ 


a«« 


••• 


760 


460 


400 


1.600 


Petrulttiun 


••• 


• •• 


800 


• •■ 


• •• 


• •• 


80 


... 


880 


Hardwara 


■ •• 


••a 


60 


80 


160 


160 


200 


60 


680 


Bondriaa 


• •• 

••• 


a*« 


7,000 


200 


800 


400 


60 


600 


a460 


Total 


81,666 


680 


8,940 


1,700 


1,086 


2,960 


41,980 



In 1874 tha Importa racdred at Umaaol wera valued at 



It 
If 



1876 
1876 



ff 
It 



ft 
ft 



tf 
ft 



46.830 
47.826 
60,020 



Tlie trade of Limosol, though by no means so great as that of 
Larnaca, appears both as regards oxpoits and imports, to fluctuate 
but little ; the decline last year showed a greater difference than 



TRADE AND REVENUE. 



15S 



has existed for some years, but this is fully accounted for by the 
depression of trade resulting from the war ; the fall was chiefly in 
cotton manufactures, tobacco, and hardware. 

The two last tables show clearly the nature of the imports which 
are received in Cyprus; in order of importance, as regards the 
quantities annually required, they may be named as follows: — 
Cottons, and manufactured goods ; tobacco ; colonials (cofifee, sugar, 
rice, &c.); ox and camel skins; leather; hardware; soap; glass; 
salt fish and drysalteries ; petroleum ; iron, wrought and unwrought ;' 
butter, &c. 

The following shipping return shows that the greater part of 
the trade is carried on by Austrian merchant vesseb, for alUiough 
the Ottoman ships greatly exceed them in number, the latter are 
chiefly coasting craft of small tonnage. 

BETURN OF SmPPINO AT tHE PORT OF LABNACA IN THE TSAR 1877. 









WlthCftrgoM. 


InlteUut. 


Total. 


Vftlno 

of 
Otfgoai. 


NatfoMllty 






















of V« 


"•"• 




i 




d 


i 




^ 


1 




d 








i 


Tons. 


E 


i 


Tom. 


fi 


1 


TODf. 


E 










? 




^ 


f 




« 


s 




^ 




























« 


Britldi ... 


»•• 


••• 


... 


• •• 


••• 


3 


820 


29 


8 


820 


29 


... 


FfOBCB ... 


• V* 




s 


767 


38 


... 


• •• 


... 


9 


767 


38 


1,153 


Awtrisa 


• •• 




B6 


60,385 


2,624 


4 


M77 


38 


60 


60,562 


2,669 


73,444 


Italiui ... 


••• 




2 


306 


17 


24 


7.747 


253 


28 


8,058 


970 


2.049 


WfCCK «.. 


••• 




11 


624 


60 


17 


1016 


138 


28 


9,510 


907 


2,339 


Ottonui 


• »• 




113 


3.516 


727 


281 


10,086 


1,786 


394 


13,632 


2,513 


98,259 


Dntch ... 


• •• 




... 


... 


»•• 


I 


192 


8 


1 


192 


8 


... 


Ametlcra 


••• 
••• 




•*• 


... 


••« 


I 


247 


10 


1 


247 


10 


... 


Totel 


184 


65,527 


3,475 


331 


22,285 


9,262 


515 


91,819 


6,737 


107,928 



CUUBSD. 





With Cargoea. 


• InBallaat. 


Total. 


Vahm 
of 


NatioBallty 




















ofVewelt. 


1 


Tona. 


1 


1 


Tona. 


• 


1 


Tona. 


1 


OargoaiL 




















A 


Britlih ... ... 


3 


820 


29 


... 


• •• 


... 


3 


820 


29 


1,000 


Frofich ••. •«• 


9 


767 


38 


... 


• •• 


... 


9 


767 


98 


5,133 


Anairiui 


59 


65,221 


2.652 


I 


341 


10 


60 


65.569 


2.689 


lS*Vi 


Italian 


23 


7.046 


237 


8 


1,006 


33 


26 


8.068 


970 


30,487 


Oreak 


16 


1,762 


119 


12 


778 


88 


28 


2.510 


907 


9,625 


Ottoman 


319 


10.793 


2.031 


75 


2.839 


482 


394 


'•»S5 


2,513 


30,991 


Dntch 


1 


192 


9 


• M 


... 


•«• 


1 


192 


9 


550 


American 


1 


247 


10 


... 


... 


• •• 


1 


247 


10 


800 


Total 

• 


424 


86,848 


5,124 


91 


4,964 


613 


515 


91,812 


5,737 


148,870 



Comparing this return with the corresponding one of the pre- 
vious year, we find that during 1876 the number of vessels which 
entered was 457, and the vaJue of their cargoes £154,630, or about 
one-half more than in 1877. 

The number of vessels which cleared was 483, and the value of 



^4| CYPRUS. 

tli^ caiRoes £207,900 ; about £60,000 more thau iu 1877. Tho 
^ipcr^Q^elast year waa chiefly in Britiah and Austrian ships. 

It is stated that the small cr^ft which ply between Cyprus and 
Beyiout can afford to transport merchandise at & cheaper rate than 
Ullgec Yease]s. 

REYXNUE. 

In 1845 the revenue was 4,431,650 piastres or £40,657, and the 
agcmual expenditure 600,000 piastres or £5,504 

In 1863 Consul White in his Beport gives the following table^ 
dirawn up from data which he believed to be correct, showing the 
reYenue of the island at that time. 



T)irect Oontributions.... .... 3,300,000 

l^ihe of Agricultural Produce bfiOOfiOO 

CustoiDB and SOk Tithes 2,600,000 

Salt Lakes 6,000,000 

Exemption from Military Service 750,000 

Internal Duty on Wine 700,000 

Duty on Transfer of Property .... 300,000 

Qoat and Sheep Tax ^ .... 600,000 

Stamp Paper ... *>.... .... ... .... .... .... 60,000 

Monopoly of Weighing and Measuring 200,000 



Total 21,610,000 

Independently of these sources of revenue, some fresh taxes 
were imposed during 1862, such as an excise duty on tobacco, and 
licenses to b^ taken out by owners of wineshops, and it was not, 
known what sums they would produce. 

This revenue gives an amount of 107 piastres per head, which 
is far ^bove the average of the other possessions of the Porte, for 
the taxation of the whole Turkish Empire produces only 45 piastres 
per head. 

Consul Biddell reports that the net revenue of Cyprus during 
the financial year ending March 1876, is '' with presumably toler- 
able accuracy computed at over 20,000,000 piastres, all of which is 
drained from the island to help Imperial necessities at the capital." 

In the next year Consul Pierides reported that owing to bad 
crops the revenue of the financial year ending March 1877 would be 
much below that of the two previous years : only a portion of the 
dimes was farmed out, the most important districts being admi- 
nistered by government ofiicials. 

The last report is that of Consul Watkins, dated March 1878 ; 
he states that the revenues of last year are considerably under 
those of the year before, in consequence of the unfavourable re- 
turns of the crops. The tithes were administered by government 
officials, with a view to remedy certain abuses complained of by 
the peasants ; but the experiment, so far, has not benefited either 
them or the government. 

Of the dimes in grain, 120,000 kilos of barley were sent to Con- 
stantinople for the requirements of the army, and about 30,000 
kilos of wheat were given to the poorer of Uie peasants for sowing. 

There can be little doubt that the island was overtaxed by the 



TRADE AKD REVENUE. 16$ 

Turks, although, perhaps, different and more appropriate taxes might 
have yielded a larger revenue without bearins so heavily upon the 
inhabitants. Over-taxation has kept down uie population, and is 
responsible, in combination, with extortion and corruption,, for the 
decay and ruin which is everywhere apparent. It is generally be- 
lieved that the Turkish government cdUected in Cyprus an. annual 
revenue of about £400,OnOO, of which sum not more than £30,000 
was expended in the island in salaries, maintenance of establish- 
ments, and so forth. The number of the taxes is legion ; there are 
tithes upon every article of produce, some of which have already 
been shown to be excessive, besides beins levied in a manner par- 
ticularly injurious to the farmer ; of all live stock 13 per cent, are 
taken by the tax collector; a custom duty of 8 per cent, ad valorem 
is charged upon all exports, and 1 per cent upon all imports ; there 
is a land tax upon all land let at a yearly rental ; an exemption tak 
from military service which is exacted from all Christians ; excise 
duties which comprise taxes upon all sales (2^ to 6 per bent.)> 
transfers, and leases of property, real and personal; a stamp tax t 
a tax upon the slaughter of cattle ; the monopoly of weighing and 
measuring, and numberless other small exactions which weigh upon 
an impoverished peasantry. 

Herr Von Loher, during his visit to Cyprus, endeavoured to ob- 
tain some information regarding the revenue. He found great diffi- 
culty in getting exact figures, but he gives the following table as 
an approximate estimate which is probably very near the truth. 

PiartrM. 

Tithes upon all income 7,000,000 

Tithes upon land 400,000 

Percenlnge of producta 6,000,000 

Military taxes upon Christians 650,000 

Poll tax upon live stock 700,000 

Weighing taxes upon sales ^ 300,000 

Customs upon salt 1,600,000 

Customs upon wines .... .... .... .... .... 1,000,000 

CHistoms upon exported silk ..... 200,000 

Customs upon exported fish ^ 20,000 

Total 16,670,000 

The latest estimate that we have of the revenue of Cyprus, is 
one contained in a paper contributed to Macmillan's Magazine of 
September 1878, by Mr. Lang, who had a long and thorough expe- 
rience of the island, and wlio, in his official position as British 
Consid, was in a position to get as good information as it was JfoS- 
sible to obtain. 

He divides the revenues under three heads, viz. : — 

1. Revenues resulting from the administration of property be- 

longing exclusively to the State. 

2. A royalty upon the produce of all lands. 

3. Taxes, direct and indirect 

The general budget of receipts may be estimated as follows : — 



166 CTPBUS. 

£ 
1. Salt monopol V 40,00() 

5. Titbe9of land 70,000 

3. Ciiatoins and excise -.. 23,000 

4. Monopoly' of weighing and measuring .... 2,300 

6. Stamp duties ana transfer of property .... 3,300 

6. Tobacco monopoly 7,000 

7. Direct contributions (Verghi) 30,000 

9- Tax on sheep and ^oats 6,000 

9. Exemption from lulitary service 7,000 

Total jei88,600 

Comparing this estimate with those already quoted which were 
famished by Ck)nsul White and by Herr Von Loner, and which are 
both calculated in piastres, we find that Consul Lang's total is far 
the highest, for taking the Turkish lira to be equivalent to I85. and 
to contain 160 piastres (the present current rate), Consul White's 
estimate is but £121,000, and Herr Von Loher's amounts only to 
£94,000. To account for this difference, probably the current rate 
has altered considerably, or the Turkish lira was in these calcula- 
tions valued at the bank rate. 

Often the taxes are farmed out for certain sums, and then the 
tax gatherer tries to make as much profit as he possibly can upon 
the transi^ition, to the great disadvantage of the payers of the taxes. 

At other times the government has tried to collect the taxes by 
means of its own officitds, but these have generally been found un- 
equal to the task, and then vacillation and cross-purposes have 
ensued, and nearly every year has produced alterations in the 
system of taxation. 

Non-oiBcially we hear that the tithe tax lias of late years pro- 
duced the following sums : — 

In 1878 7,220,023 piastres (most of the taxes farmed out). 

„ 1873 3,480,716 „ (collected by government agents). 

„ 1874 9,204,295 „ (most of the taxes farmed out). 

n 1876 1,257,066 „ fa famine year). 

„ 1876 1,168,380 „ (again a famine year). 

,,1877 1,234,595 „ (crops slightly better, the tax was collected 

in kind, and most of the wheat and barley not required for govern- 
ment purposes on the island was shipped to Syria and other parts of 
the Empire, wheat at 80 piastres, and barley at 40 piastres per kilo). 

The last return was not such as to encourage a maintenance of 
the system of exportation of the tax coUected in kind. 

The tithe tax for 1878 has been estimated at 8,376,400 piastres, 
the Famagusta and Nicosia districts, which comprise the grain- 
growing plain of the Messaria, contributing together about three- 
quarters of this total. 

According to all accounts the taxation of the inhabitants of 
Cyprus has, under Turkish administration been carried out in a 
most severe and oppressive manner, and the imposts upon certain 
articles of agriculture and commerce have been so heavy, that their 
culture and export has in some cases been almost abandoned ; yet 
it is said that the i-esources of the island aix) entirely undeveloped, 
and that under an able and generous government the revenues 
might be very materially increased by an equitable adjustment of 



CURRENCY, ETC. t67 

the taxes, which would then give higher returns, whilst the pressure 
upon individuals would be lessened. It behoves us therefote to 
pass in review some of the items of taxation which form the revenue, 
and with regard to which amendments have been suggested. 

Tlie cultivation of vines for the manufacture of wine has been 
80 heavily and unjustly taxed, that a great part of the vineyards 
have of late years been turned to other and more profitable 
purposes, or else have been abandoned, and consequently a branch 
of agriculture for which the island is especially suited, and a 
remunerative article of commerce, is neglected and aJlowed to 
decline. An extensive development of vinevards and manufacture 
of wine should be encouraged, and with this object it has been 
suggested that it might be wise to free this production from all 
except export duty. 

Tobacco is undoubtedly a valuable culture, and might be made 
of great profit to the State, but, according to the consular reports 
quoted in Chapter YIII., the mistaken fiscal policy of the 
authorities in raising the tax upon this article, until at last it 
reached the exorbitant sum of six piastres per oke upon the most 
inferior qualities, has caused the production to fall below a tehth 
part of the consumption of the island, whereas not many years 
ago more than a sufficiency for the wants of the population was 
grown. To restore this culture to its former importance will 
doubtless be the care of the new government, and an alteration in 
the present burdensome tax will probably be the easiest solution of 
the difficulty. 

Allusion has already been made to the injurious effect of the 
collection of the tithe upon cotton at the time when the crop is 
gathered, instead of at the time of shipment, and it has Been 
explained how the former method prevents the farmers from 
crowing the best and most remunerative varieties of the plant ; this 
IS a matter which requires the attention of the authorities when the 
re-adjustment of the taxes is considered. 

The salt fields of the island can, under judicious management, 
be made infinitely more valuable, and the preceding cnapters 
indicate other methods in which tlie resources of Cyprus may be 
developed, so tliat while some taxes might with advantage be 
either lowered or remitted, the gain which will, accrue from a wise 
and enlightened administration, will, even in a pecuniary sense, 
infinitely exceed the possible dhninutions of certain items of the 
revenue. 

An alteration will, for instance, have to be made in the 
indemnity paid by the Cliristian population for exemption from 
military service, for as under the present rule, both Christians and 
Mussulmans will be exempted from service, the tax must either be 
extended to the Mussulmans, or else abolished. The " Veighi " is 
the personal tax levied upon all householders and bread-winners in 
the island. Each village has to contribute a fixed amount, 
according to the number of its tax-payers, and the villagers as a 
whole are responsible for the sum, but the notables of the village 
apportion the quantum of the tax to each man as they consider 
just, and, as may be imagined, absolute justice is not always meted 



158 OTPRUS. 

out; the Mohamedan pioprietors are especially dealt with easily, 
but with more accurate statistics regaroinj^ the property of each 
taxpd.yer, the burden might be more equitably adjusted. It is 
belieye4 that there are now 69,461 males in tne island who pay 
taxes. 

The reyenue upon stamps and the transfer fees will be certain to 
increase with the commercial facilities and general prosperity of the 
island. 

.M. Capitaine in an article in " L'Exploration du Globe" of 
July, 187^, giyes an estimate of the cost of the Turkish goyemment, 
and the expenses incurred in the adminstration of the island as 

IbllowB : — 

£ 

Salarjr of Qoyemor (General 1,620 

Admmistratiye expeDsea .•• *.- 2,880 

Fmandal services .... 3,240 

Samtary services 480 

X^UUOO ••«. ..•« •••• .••• •••• •••• 4,OZv 

Military force 4,480 

Total ^17,620 

Bnfosh administration will certainly be more costly than that 
of the Turkish Goyemment, but it appears equally certain that there 
will be an enlarged income. The estimates that haye been quoted 
show tihat the present rey^ue amounts to about £180,000, and that 
a large proportion of this is deriyed from the salt lakes^ a property 
b^onging exclusiyely to goyemment, and which does not inflict 
f^ny bu»|en upon uie inhabitants. On the whole there seems 
to 1)0 much cause for satisfaction as regards the prospect of 
pecuniary profit to be deriyed from Cyprus, in addition to the 
political and strategic adyantages which result from its possession 
]>y Great Britain. 



CUERtiNOY, ETC. 159 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Currency, etc. 

From Consul White's Eeport for 1863 :— 

" New r^ulationa concerning the currency came into operation in Atigtui 
1863. The English sovereign which was current at 154 piasii^ was men 
reduced to 1 10. Opposition was raised by some of the merchanis to ftoB 
ffreat and sudden reduction, but the authorities succeeded in enforointt ii 
Local and other causes, however, prevented the price of labour and provisions 
being lowered in the same proportion as the coin, and the high price of provi- 
sions, especially of butchers' meat was felt by the poorer classes. 

" The rates of exchange upon England during 1863 varied from January to 
August between 148 ana 15 1| piastres, old currency ; from September to 
December it varied between 108| and 105} piastres, new currency. 

From Consul Eiddell's Eeport for 1873 :— 

" During the year 1873 the current ralue of money In Cypms greatly in- 
creased, owing mainly to a large importation of copper money. 

The Imperial Ottoman Bank Agency here mamtains a fixed rate of cur- 
rency, the j£ sterling being 114 piastres, and but for the check which this 
establishment exercises upon the currency it is impossible to guess to what 
abusive rates the coins in circulation might attain. At the beginninff of tha 
y«ar, gold coins circulated in commerce at an affio of only 1 per cent to S pet 
cent, on the bank rates, wliilst the Beshlik (or Base) current was at oar. At 
the close of the year the difference had risen to nearly 20 per cent — ^the pound 
sterling circulatmg at 130-134 piastres. 

" llie depreciation in the value of landed and other real property which 
arises when transactions are conducted in piastres is very obvious. 

"For a time (but only for a time) the change operates in favour of exporters 
who effect the purchase of produce in piastres with the pound sterling at 190 
piastres, in lieu of 114 piastres ; but is manifestly against the imp^er who 
must also sell in piastres and be paid at the same rate, whilst he has to remit 
tlie cost of his goods in sterling value—in other terms, the rate of aziohange 
which at the beginning^ of the year was about 114 piastres per Ji sterling 
is now at 130 piastres, without anything nearly approximative in the cttrrancy 
price of the imported articles. Apply this to aeDts and obligations due in 
piastres and entered into long previously, but which must now be liquidated at 
current rates^ and the ruinous consequences to the creditor becoaia essilj 
apparent 

In 1874 the " ruinons state ' of tlie currency in the island is 
again alluded to in the Consular Report^ and bo far from having 
ameliorated, it is described as having continued to go from bad to 
worse, apparently without check or hindrance. The poimd sterling 
which a year previously was current at 130 piastres, circulate 
freely throughout the island during 1874 at 150 piastre 

From Consul Pierides' Report for 1876 : — 

Writlnff in January 1877, Consul Pierides mentions that **go\A was 
^^_roe at that time, and the English sovereign was circulating at 167 piaatrsi^ 
and the Turkish lira at 145 piastres. It was expected that the forthcomiiig 



160 



CYPRUS. 



WeigbU. 



HeMuret for 
gnun. 

LoDgmeMore. 



Square 
mdMure. 



imie of caiin6, or paper money, would itill fui-ther raise the prioes of coins in 
good alloy to the manifeet prejudice of commerce, and would alio give rise to 
many di4>uteB in the settlement of old debts." 

The last information concerning die currency previous to the 
British occupation was as foUows : — 

One Po^nd Sterling was equal to 114 piastres at bank rate, and 176 at 

current rate. 
One Napoleon was equal to 91 piastres at bank rate and 140 at current 

rate. 
One Turkish lira was equal to 104 piastres at bank rate and 100 at current 

rate. 

Banks and banking operations have hitherto been ahnost 
unknown in Cyprus, and cheques are never seen. It has now be^i 
reported that several banking agencies are in course of establish- 
ment. 

Coinage, 

40 paras — 1 piastre. 
100 piastres - 1 Turkish lira. 
600 piastres — 1 kte, or purse. 
100 kte — 1 yuk, or load. 

The copper coins are 6, 10, and 20 paras. 

T^e silver coins are 1, 2, 6, 10, and 20 piastres. 

The 20-piastres piece is called the silver medjidie. 

The gold coins are 25, 60, and 100 piastres. 

The Turkish lira, or pound, is equivalent to about 18^ 2d,, and 
the silver medjidie is equivalent to about 3«. 7d. It must be 
remembered that although the lira really contains only 100 
piastres, the current rate is now 160 piastres to the lira, and it 
18 according to this rate that calculations should be made. 

WeiffhU and Meanurei, 



1 oke < 
44 okes < 
180 okes 
1,000 okes 



400 drams « 2| lbs. ay. English. 
1 cantar. 

1 cheki, or Aleppo cantar. 
1 araba « i^ tons 



Food. 



liquids are generally sold by weight as above, but there is a 
measure for wine called the Cuse. 

1 cuse B 8 okes — 3^ gallons. 
' The litre is equivalent to about 2^ okes. 
The rottolo is equivalent to about 2^ British Imperial oints. 
The measure called the killo is equivalent to about 66 lbs. weight 
1 bushel of Cyprus wheat >■ 56 to 68 lbs. 
1 bushel of Cyprus barley -■ 43 to 46 lbs. 
The arshin « 28 English inches, is used for silk, broaddoth, &a 
The endaze — 26 English inches, is used for carpets^ linens^ &a 

The usual, measure for land is tlie scala, or skali, which is about 
60 paces square. 

PRICES. 

* The prices of household necessaries have considerably increased 
qinfe the British occupation, and they liave probably not yet 



161 

Die of tlie prices 
August, 1878. 
inme (2^ lbs.). A 
t sells for about 85. 
■ for 14«. 

pany of 80 men can 

^, tomatoes, vegetable 

umbers sell at a half- 

10 English or Maltese, 

1)out 58, per cwt. 

and turkeys vary from 

, and the standing price 

f^nitty from the mode of 
re, however, some steam 

<^ purchased at very cheap 

!< Titiful, and grapes can be 

2 J- lbs. English). 

about the size of a small her- 

^ale, and varies from 3^. to is. 

1 sweet, is sold at from one and 

Axe white, or new Cammanderia 

•Y oke. 

irl much hicher prices, such as 

1)1 always to be procured. 

1 n variably good ; but in each town Hou«m. 

\ buildings. Both rents and land 

nisly since the cession, several 

up to ten times what was formerly 

• at present somewhat iK^troe, and Fad and 

ively high prices. Forage. 

Id in (^rus and are attended by the Tmtn, 
libers both for pleasute, and for the 



'u 



s are :— 

>h June. 
ith Juna 



>bacco, and oxen^, 14th September, 
1 sary of the birth of Venus). 



162 0TFBU8. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES UPON CYPRUS WHICH HAVE 
BEEN USED IN THE COMPILATION OP THIS 
WORK.* 

Enollis, Riobaad. The General HiBiory of the Turks. Third Edi- 
tion. London, 1638. (Usef al for the hiatory of the Turkish 
Inyasion of Gjpras in 1570-71.) 

Pocoon, Dr. R. A Description of the East and some other Ooon- 
tries. 2 Vols. London, 1743-45. (A fair account of Oyprus 
at that time.) 

MiBiTi, G. F. Travels in the Island of Cyprus, &o., in 1760-68. 
English Edition. 3 Vols. London, 1791. (A good descrip- 
tion of the inhabitants and their manners and oustoms at that 
time.) 

SONNINI, 0. 8. Voyage en Grece et en Turquie. Paris, 1801. 
English Edition. London, 1801. (Good description of Oyprus.) 

Ali Bit. Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Oyprus, Egynt, Arabiai &o., 
between 1805 and 1807. 2 Vols. liondon, 1816. (A good 
description of his Travels about the south of the island.) 

Olabki, Dr. E. D. Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and 
AiHca. Fourth Edition. London, 1817. (Chiefly Antiquities 
and Botany.) 

LiaBT, Capt. H., tt-A. Travels in Eg^t, Ao. and Cyprus. London, 
1818. (Captain Light only visited Lamaoa and its neighbour- 
hood.) 

KiNNBiB, J. M. Journey through Asia Minor, Ac., in 1818-14. 
London, 1818. (JSot much about Cyprus, but what there is is 
useful.) 

Rbbb, a. CyoloptBdia. Tenth Volume. London, 1819. (A good 
article on Cyprus.^ 

TU|UI9B, W. Jounud of a Tour in tbe Levant. 3 Vols. London, 
1820. (Not much about Cyprus, but contains a few useful 
facts.) 

Von HimiiB, J. Histoire de L'Empire Ottoman. French Edition. 
18 Vols. Translated from the German by J. Hellert Paris, 
1836. (An excellent history of the events of 1570-71.) 

Engbl, W. H. Eypros. Eine Monographic. 2 Vols. Berlin, 1841. 
(A compOation concerning the Geography, History and Mytho- 
logy of the island.) 

Ebiobtlbt, T. The Crusaders. London, 1847. (An account of the 
capture of Cyprus bv Richard Codur de Lion.) 

Chisnbt, Lt.-Col., K.A. Expedition for the Survey of the Euphrates 
and Tigris. 2 Vols. London, 1850. (Geographical and his- 
torical notice of Cyprus^ 

EniQHT, C. The English CJyclopsDdia. Vol. II. London, 1854. 
(Contains a good article on Cyprus.) 

Blioxib, W. G. The Imperial Gazetteer. Vol. I. London, 1855. 
(Contains a fair article on Cyprus.) 



* The arrangement is chronological. 



\}|^ > ^'^^.T^ ^■^ ^ST OF AUTHOBITIES. lB3 

'v! A ^^ ^y\w^^^^::^^^^^**^°*^ ^^ Greek and Roman Oeography. 




' i^^'H-r . ^>^^5^ ^ * 1867. (A good aridcle upon ihe Ancient Hie- 



P^olo^x^^^^^.^ — T^^Vierches Scientifiqnea en Orient J)endant lea 
^^^^f^l^ti^,^ ^^^^ "^-^ (A very valnable work, bontainin^ the beat 



. '^ne\x^ Q^ ^^^ ^^^^ption of the island hitherto published.) A 

i)VY 'V^^^^- ^^^""^X. c^^^® ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ made in the Intelligence 
.}^'^\'T\^Yvi^ "^^.'b Department, and will be published imme- 

^ ■ ^"i ^ Vt t^r^X ^"^^^«cle in the " Revue des Deux Mondes." Vol. 36. 

^^^\XH\:v\ ^^^ ^ ^' Histoire de L'lle de Chvpre sons le r^gne 

^\x^\^ ^ ^^>X^^^ ^* Maison de Lnsignan. Pans, 1861. (Contains 

^\^,^^^^^Tv^ detailed information concerning Cyprus under the 

^OTK^B.^^ ^^^'^^^^^'l^® ^?^^ ^ ^^ conquest by Richard Coeur de Lion; 

i^Y^V,\ ^ " "» ^^ particulars regarding the Venetian rule.) 
"^^'^vt^^ '\^^^^ \xx *^ ^^iBo nach Cypcrn und Klein- Asien, 1869. (An 
^w^ '^^^^^A^^^^termann's Mittheilungen.) Gk>tha, 1862. 
^Y^'^^iiV^ \?^^til. A General and Statistic Report on Cyprus. 

^^Q^K^i^'^V.4; ^**^^ *^® Commercial Reports of H.M.'s Conf nls. 

*^ Xi-^j^^ -^'' much valnable information about the Island.) 

^^^* * M and KoTSCHT, Cr. T. Die Insel Cypem. Vienna, 
^^^1^ ^^^»^* CThe bcRt botanical description of the Island, and a very 

^^-k Ti **«count of its Geology.) 
\^^^ ^^ ^\^ ^* Die Insel Cypem einst and jetzt. Vienna, 1866. (A 
^Xix^^^'^t pamphlet treating chiefly of Archeology.) 
^. 'r ^^B,J. R. Geographical Dictionary. Vol.11. New Edition. 

^^^Xi^ Jl^'ixdon, 1866. 

7^9 Vice- Consul. Report upon the Condition of Christians 
^^ CJyprus. London, 1867. (Explains the Turkish law with 
**K>s^^ ^^gard to Christians.) 

^ C/onsul. Report upon the Industrial Classes in Cyprus. 

^ebruniy, 1872. Blue Book. London, 1872. (Contains in- 

"{k. formation regarding Labour.) 

^^X*ll«80N, Gborgi, M.A. The Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern 

World. 2 Vols. London, 1872. (Facts relating to the Andent 

History of Cyprus.) 

S^IFT, Julius. Reiscn in der Asiatischen Turkei. Leipzig, 1875. 

(A good descriptive chapter on Cyprus.) 
BuKBURT, E. H. Article in the Encyclopfleidia Britannica. Ninth 
Edition. Vol. VI. Edinburgh, 1877. (A good account of 
Cyprus.) 
Mbditbbraviah Pilot, The. Vol. II. Published by order of the 
Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. London, 1877. (De- 
scribes the Coast, Roadsteads, Harbours, &c., of Cyprus.) 
Latjbib R. H. Mediterranean Directory. Part II. London. (De- 
scribes the Coast, Roadsteads, Harbours, Ac, of Cyprus.) 
Di Cbsnola, General, L. P. Cyprus : its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and 
Temples. London, 1877. (The best archssological description 
of Cyprus.) 
Cbbast, Sir E. S. History of the Ottoman Turks. London, 1877. 

(Contains historical information regarding Cyprus.) 
Collbn, Capt. B. H. H. A Report on Cyprus, based on information 
obtamed chiefly from Consular Reports, 1845-1877. Intelli- 

fence Branch, Quarter-Master-General's Department. May, 
878. 

(774) ^ 2 



^6>4 CYPRUS. 



MuBBAT, J. Handbook of Turkey in Asia. London, 1878. (OontainB 

ft njBefal Guide to Travellers in Oypms.) 
OoHSULAB BiPOBTB bv Measrs. Lang, Riddell, Pierides, and Watldna, 

1869-1878. (These Reports contain a larffe amount of veij 

yaluable statistical information concerning Cyprus.) 
Yov liOHBB, Frans. Cyprus. Stiittgart, 1878. (A good description 

of the island.) 
Since the ce$$ion of Oypnu to Oreat Britavn^ a quaniUy of hooks mid 
jpa/mpMeta compiled chiefly from the above Bourcea ha/ve been piAblished^ 
and 'some original articles have appeared in the Magasines ; c/ these the 
following have been referred to — 
Lang, donsul. Articles on Cyprus in Macmillan's Magazine, August 

and September, 1878. (These articles contain much highly 

useful information.) 
Pools, B. Stuibt. Articles in the Contemporary Review. January 

and Augnat, 1878. (The first is archaological, the second 

general ; both contain useful information.) 
FiSHBB, F. H. Cyprus, our New Colony. Routledge and Sons. 

London, 1878. 
Robinson, P. Cyprus. W. Clowes and Sons. London, 1878. 
HiBBis, CowPBB, B. Cyprus : its Past, Present, and Future. London, 

1878. 
LiEB, J. J. Ceded Cyprus. London, 1878. 

Otpbus : its Value and Importance to England. Diprose and Bate- 
man. London, 1878. 
Hbllb yon Saxo, a. The Vilayet of the Islands of the White Sea. 

Vienna, 1878. Tranalated in the Oeographical Magazine of 

July and August, 1878. (Good statistical information.) 
Jotnbb, Mrs. Batson. Translation of Von Lober's " Cyprus," with 

an additioniJ Appendix. Allen and Co. London, 1878. 
CiPiTAiNi, M. H. Article on Cyprus in " L'Exploration du Olobe.*' 

No. 80. July, 1878. 9 Rue Lamartine, Paris. 
Qboobaphioil Maoazinb. Article on Cyprus, in the number for 

August, 1878. 
The above are the authorities which have been consulted in the 
compilation of this work ; the list does not contain quite the whole of 
the authors who have written upon Cyprus, but in it will be found all 
the best modem works. 

The '* Bookseller " of August 6th, 1878, contains a bibliography, 
which, however, does not protess to be complete, of the principM works 
on C^rus, or of which Cyprus forms a greater or lesser portion of the 
subject. The arrangement is chronologrical. Several very old works 
pre mentioned. At the end of Drs. linger and Eotschy's " Die Insel 
Oypem,*' another list of authorities upon the island will be found. 

The letters and telegrams from Cyprus of the Special Correspon- 
dents of the daily newspapers have been much referred to. 



THE CARTOGRAPHY OF CYPRUS. 165 



THE CARTOGRAPHY OF CYPRUS. 



1562. Vonetian Map, engraved by Bbrtklli, Rome. 

1570. Map in the Atlas, oy Ortelius. 

1595. „ „ „ „ Mercator. 

1635. „ „ „ „ Bleau. 

1688. Map in Dapper's Work. 

1696. Map in the Atlas, by Coronblli. 

1726. „ „ „ „ Db Lisle. 

1743. Map to illustrate the Travels of Dr. Pocockb. 

1764. „ „ „ „ „ Drummond. 

1816. „ „ „ „ „ Ali Bet. 

1844-7. Map by M. Marcrl Grrruti, Sardinian Consul at Lamaca. 
Unpublished and in MS. 

1849. Admiralty Chart, No. 2074 (Mediterranean). Compiled from 
Surveys by Capt. T. Orates in 1849, and republished with cor- 
rections up to 1874. 

1855. Map in "Recherches Scientifiques en Orient, Ac., 1853-4," by 
M. Albert Gaudrt. 

1860. The same Map, geologically coloured, is in the " M^moires de 
la Soci6te Geologique." Second Scries. Seventh Volume. 

1862. Carte de L'llo dc Ghypre, by M. de Mas Latrie, in his History 
of the House of Lusignan. Scale i tt^Vitt;- (The mapa of 1855 
and 1860 vtere based upon this map, then unpublished.) 

1862. Plan of Famagusta Harbour, by A. Mottez. 

1866. In Unqbr and KoTScnr's ** Die Insel Cypern " is a reproduc- 
tion of the geological map of 1860. 

1873. Map compiled by Mr. G. H. Goote, of the British Museum, for 
the use of the late Mr. Thomas Lewin. This map was after- 
wards used for making the smaller one inserted iu Mr. Lewin's 
" Life of St. Paul." Vol. I, page 120. 

1877. Two Maps in General di Cesnola's " Cyprus, its Cities, Ac." The 

first is a reduction of the Admiralty Chart, the interior being 

filled up by Drs. Scuroeder and Kiepbrt of Berlin. The second 

shows General di Gesuola*s Itineraries. 

tSince the cession of Cyprus to Great Britain a large quantity of maps 

of the island hare hecn inthlished : of these the best are the following ^ 

viz. : 

Stanford's Map of Cyprus. Scale 6i miles to 1 inch. It shows the 
harbours on a larger scale, and has small geological and agricul- 
tural maps. 

Wtld^s Map of Cyprus. Scale about 4} miles to 1 inch. 

KiEPBRT*s Map of Cyprus. Scale T?rTj\nny 

Admiralty Mediterranean Charts — 

No. 846. Limasol, t^Ito' 
No. 847. Famagusta, rrorr- 
No. 848. Lamacai rrlro* 



1 66 OTPRUS. 



Maps ol the ifilftnd haTe also been inserted in seTeral of the reoent 
buoktt u|Mn the Island. The " Oeographical Magazine " haa a good map 
in it4 Augufi^ namber. The same appears in Mis. Bateson Jojner's 
tnui^atiou of Von L5her*B work ; bnfc all these are compiled from the 
tua|M which have been mentioned, particnlarly from those by Captain 
Umvee and M. de Maa Latrie. Perhaps the oldest map of the island 
u| uM« iu a MS. of the thirteenth centnrj, to be f onnd in Segment YII 
of th# ** Pentinger Tables,*' preserved in the Imperial Library at 



167 



IN3DE1X. 



A. 

Aoacis treo«f 91. 
AoaiDM, 85, 118, 114^ 183. 
Acanthou, 84, 85. 
Adelphi, Mount, 36. 
Administration, 188, 188. 
Agate, 121. 
Agriculture, 97. 
Akrotiri Bay, 34, 68. 
Aletbriko, 73. 
Alexander the Great, 8. 
Alum, 123. 
AiiinthuB, 6, 8, 60. 
Animals, domestic, 82. 

, vild, 86. 

Analcime, 121. 

Anchorages, 65, 70. 

Antiquities, 61, 62, 53. 

Aphandia, 69. 

Aphrodisium, 63. 

Aplirodite, 6, 47, 62, 128, 129. 

Apricots, 92. 

Arab iuTasion, 10. 

Aradippo, 61, 66, 62. 

Arohiteoture, 41, 42, 62. 

Area of Cyprus, 83. 

Armenia, &ing of, 14. 

Armenians, 126, 131. 

Amauti, Cape, 84, 69, 86. 

Arpera, 87, 60, 122. 

ArsinoS, 8, 68. 

Artesian borings, 46, 114. 

Arts, 122, 147. 

Asbestos, 123. 

Ascberita, 69. 

Ascbia, 69. 

Asps, 86. 

Asses, 82. 

Assyria, subject to, 6. 

Atbienou, 60, 66, 88. 

Autboritios upon Cyprus, 162. 

ATidimu, 19, 62. 



B. 



Baffo, 19, 47, 62, 68. 
Barley, 100, 151. 
Barnabas, 9. 180, 
Barometer, 73, 76. 
Bees, 88. 
Beyrout, 68, 64. 
Bianco> Cape, 84, 68. 
Birds, 86. 
Brngndino, 22. 
Bribery, 186. 
Brick luakiuff, 122. 
Buffayento, 12, 84. 
Building materials, 120. 
Byzantine Bmpire, 10. 



C. 



Calicoes, printing of, 144. 

Camels, 82. 

Carob trees, 108. 

Carp«s80, 19. 

Carriage rood, 54. 

Carmbiere, Cape, 34, 64. 

Cartography of Cypras, 165. 

Carts, 82. 

Cathedrals, 40, 42. 

Catherine de Lnsignan, 16. 

Cattle, 83. 

Casas,184. 

Cerinea, 6, 18, 19, 48, 68, 09. 

Cesnola, General di, 49, 51, 58« 

Character of inhabitaati, 127. 

Christianity, 9, 180. 

Christians, 60, 126, 185, 167. 

Chytri, 6. 

Citium, 6, 51. 

Clays, 122. 

Climate, 71-81. 

Goal, 188. 

Coast, 65-70. 



m 



vmtx. 



OofflMf 95« 

Oomage, 100. 

Ooint, ancient, 68. 

OdkKTnlh, Oi. 

Ooloniito, 6. 

Oonmumderia. 61, 106, 107, 106, 161. 

OomiiMrod, 148. 

OonrimiiTiimHom, 64-64. 

Oonglomentas, 116. 

CoDfulAr repoiti, 99. 

Copper, 119. 

Ooppene, 128. 

Oonuuo, familY of, 16, 17, 18. 

Ootton, 28, 102. 

OultiTated land, 9a 

Ourrencj, 169. 

Ourium, 6, 62, 86. 

Cuftoms of inhabitants, 128. 

pjrpriotea, 127. 

C^rus, bist<nT of, 6-82. 

, King! of, 6, 7, 8, 14. 



D. 



DaU, 84; 60, 62, 62, 180. 
Datea of Qjprut lustory, 82. 
Dereai, Hirer, 86, 60. 
Dikomo, 68. 
Dioceses, 141. 
Diarisos, Rirer, 87. 
Diseases, 74, 80, 81. 
Distilleries, 144. 
Donkeys, 88. 
Drainage, 41, 48, 80. 
Drepano, Oape, 88, 84. 
Drimou, 114, 120. 
DroughU, 77, 78. 



B. 



Education, 181. 

Ecclesiastical administration, 141. 

Egypt. 7, 16, 24. 
EUBa, Oape, 66. 
Elias, Mount, 84. 
Embroideries, 14*1. 
Emeralds, 121. 
Emery, 128. 

Enfflimd, Church of, 142. 
Episoopi, 61, 61. 
Eucalyptus, 79, 91. 
ETafforas, 7. 
Emkoa, 60, 68. 
Excarations, 61. 
Exports, 161. 
Ezusa Birer, 87. 



F. 



Fairs, 127, 161. 

Famagusta, 16, 18, 22, 42, 67, 60, 66, 76. 

Ferula G-raca, 96. 

Perers, 46, 71, 77. 



Fish, 86, 28, 146. 

Fisheries, sponge, 146. 

Flora of Cyprus, the, 96. 

Food, 84^ 86, 187, 161. 

F6rage, 91, 96, 161. 

Forests, 88, 9SL 

Fortiflcations, 21, 41, 48, 46, 47, 48. 

Fossils, 118, 114, 116. 

Fmita, 98, 93. 

Fuel, 91, 161. 



a. 

aalata,68. 
Game, 86. 
Gardens, 66, 69. 
Garili Birer, 86. 
Garrison, British, 81. 
Gata, Cape, 88, 84^ 68. 
Gaudry, Albert, 118, 123. 
Genoese, 16. 
Geograj^y, 88. 
Geology, 112. 
ahiUnemo, 116, 116, 122. 
GoaU, 88. 
Gold, 118. 
Qhnan crops, 100. 
Grapes, 92. 

Greco, Cape, 34, 66, 66. 
Greek Chuich, 142. 
Greeks, 7, 126, 127. 
Green earth, 122. 
Guy do Liittignan, 11-14. 
Gypsum, 11^ 120. 



H. 



Harbours, 66, 70. 

Heat, 74, 76. 

Hidott, trade in, 88. 

Hierokipos, 87, 62. 

History, ancient, 6. 

History of Cyprus, 6-32. 

Horses, 82. 

Horticulture, 92. 

Household necessaries^ prices of, 160. 

Houses, 45, 161. 



I. 



Idaliu, Kivor, 36, 60, 69. 
Igneous rocks, 114. 
Imbatto, 77. 
Imports, 152, 153. 
Industrial classes, 146. 
Industries, 122, 145. 
Inhabitants, 126. 
Insects, 86. 
Insurrections, 7, 9, 24. 
Inundations, 20, 86, 88. 
Ii-on, 119. 
Irrigation, 08, 102. 
Isaao Comncnus, 10, 11, 12. 



IKDEX. 



168 



J. 



Jacques 11, King, 16, 16. 

Janus, King, 15. 

Jasper, 121. 

Jemsftlem, King of, 11, 12, 14. 

Jews, insurrection of| 9. 

Ji^ube oil, 96. 



K. 



Kaimakains, 184. 

Kolopsicla, 69, 128. 

KanUra, 12. 

Karaya, 87. 

Kax^MM Mountains, 84, 118, 114, 115, 

116. 
Kerjnia, 48. 
Khapotamus, 87. 
Khrjsokho Ba^, 84, 69. 
KhrvsoToghiatissa, 87. - 
Kikko, 85. 

Kingdoms of Cjprns, ancient, 6. 
Kiti, Cape, 84, 67, 123. 



Kniffhts Templar, 12, 61. 
Kokkino, Cape, 
Kolossi, 11, 61. 



Cape, 88, 69. 



Kormakiti, Cape, 88, 69, 181. 

Kotschj, Dr., 96, 112, 118, 145. 

Ktima, 84^ 48, 62. 

Kuklia, 49, 69, 62, 86. 

Kypros, 5. ' 

Kythrasa, 6, 84, 86, 87, 106. 



Labourers, 146. 

Ladanum oil, 95. 

Lakes, 88, 123. 

Lala Moustapha, tO, 21. 

Land tenure, 186. 

Land, ralue of, 97. 

Lang, Consul, 45, 78, 98| 146, 155. 

Luiguage, 129. 

Lapethns, 6, 8, 87, 116, 122. 

Lamaca, 11, 84, 88, 44, 65, 57, 60, 67, 78, 

77, 151, 162. 
Latakieh, 88, 64. 
Laws, 186. 
Lead, 119. 
Lefca, 50, 98. 
Lefoo8ia,40. 
Limasol, 11, 12, 19, 84, 88, 46, 61, 68, 

151, 162. 
Inmestones, 118, 114, 116, 120. 
Linobambaki, 180. 
LisM>,118. 
Literature, 147. 
Lithrodonda, 84, 51, 118. 
Looust-beans, 108, 109, 149, 151. 
Locusts, 87, 88, 108. 
Luaignan djnastj, 14. 
Inisignaii, Qvj de, 11, IS, IS. 
Ljooi, BlTer» 87, 61. 



it. 



Madder-roots, 97, 104. 

Mahoraedans, 180. 

Makhera, Mount, 85, 8^, 60. 

Malaria, 77. 

Manganese, 119. 

Manufactures, 114. 

Manure, 97. 

Maoussa, 42. 

Maratassa, 86, 106. 

Marina, 44, 45, 67. 

Maritime communications, 6S. 

Marium, 6. 

Marls, 114, 116, 122. 

Maroni, 60. 

Maronites, 126. 

Marshes, 46, 77. 

Mastic, 95. 

Mattel, M. 88. 

Masoto, 19, 60, 122. 

Measures, 160. 

Mehemet Ali, 24. 

MejUs, 188, 184. 

Melons, 98. 

Messaria, 11, 19, 20, 88, 97, 114. 

Metals, 118. 119. 

Meteorological Societj, Scottish, l71« 

Military force, 148. 

Mineralo^, 112. 

Monasteries, 181. 

Moni, 86. 60, 121. 

Monks, 181, 142. 

Morion, 121. 

Morpho, 84^ 40, 68. 69, 114. 

Morocco leather, 144. 

Moufflon, 85. 

Moulia rocks, 68. 

Mountains. 84, 85, 116« 

Mulberrj trees, 98. 

Mulos, 82. 

Mussulmans, 50, 126, 128, 180, 185, 167. 

Mnteesurif, 188. 



N. 



Names of Cjpruf, 5. 
Natural Histoiy, 82-96. 
Nea Paphos, 6, 4/7. ^ . 

Nicosia, 12, 21, 40, 66, 57» 69, t«, 1S8, 
144,145. 



O. 



Olire oil, 98, 158. 

OliTe trees, 98. 

Oljmpus, 85, 7% 85, IIS, US, 118, ISl 

122. 
OmodoB, 84,68. 
Op^lSl. 
Oimidia, 89, 57. 
Ornamental stooMf ISl. 
Ormithi, 69. 
Oxen, 8S» 



■.6.40. CL 
^tk. la, 1Z3, U4. UCl 
■M, lis, UO. 
^ CoomI. 78, UL 



Stuping, la. 

gf tyinc Bntub, 14S. 

^iCi, luS, 10^ lU. 

S)tT«, 119. 

Sbw, tnda i>, SL 



i.lit 

SuTTOT.-iOEi. S&. 

3c««<»« »4- 
3.is>f. »4. 151- 

SjTW. tt, U^ UK. 



li&U*. 
lU. lU, u« 




) T>.vii.» V..ji K^ (3, 8L lU. 
1 TJ^I^ 



I \ .vw ;\ A M. «4. uiiu. la 



INDEX. 



171 



V. 

YaloiUA, 91. 

Varoschift, 84, 48, 69, 106, 122. 

TtflM, 62, 122. 

ya8ili^ 116, 116. 

Yatili, 88, 69. 

Vegetables, 94^ 161. 

Tenetiaii Bepublic, 18, 19, 20, 89. 

ViUages, 84, 60. 

Vinei, 107, 157. 

Viiatchia, 116, 121. 

Ytscontado, 19. 

Yon Ldher, 90, 181, 165. 



W. 

Wack^, 116. 

Water, 79, 80, 98, 114. 

Weights, 160. 

Wheat, 88, 97, 99, 161. 

White, Consul, 60, 164, 169. 



Winda, 78, 75, 77. 
Wine, 106, 107, 108, 161, 167. 
Wolaeley, Sir Oamet, 81. 
Woods, 88, 89, 90, 98. 
Wool, trade in, 84. 



Xerophano, Rirer 87. 



r. 



Yalousaa, 116. 



Z. 



Zaptiehs,24, 187,188,148. 
Zophgan, Gape, 84, 68. 
Zephjrinm, Cape, 119. 
Zinc, 119. 



^' 



'^1^ 



1 



170 

p. 

Mmi, 0$. 
IH^I^ios, 0, 8, 61, 62. 
IVmUmni, I^ke, ^H. 
IHuriridgM, 86. 
lHkul« 0» 47, 130. 
IViU i>ki>«» 84. 
IViiM, UiTor. 85, 57. 
|VuUd«ot><lon, 84, 113. 
lVi>l«tfi», 19. 81. 
IV>l«Miuo, Kivor. iU>. •:-• 
IVnM, •urrviuU'i- U\ 7. 
VU^v^iiomu*, 5, i>, 6b. 
ISl»,l\iV>*, 81. 07. 

ISivv^n. 87. 

IMwKMMo tvvks. Hi 
|\\li tou Khv\- 
IVjn;U,\ou. l..r> 

l\t..v..> l.J • ^ 






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