Dai Nippon, the Britain of the East; a study in national evolution

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University of California.

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DAI NIPPON

DAI NIPPON

THE BRITAIN OF THE EAST

A STUDY IN NATIONAL EVOLUTION

BY

HENRY DYER, C.E., M.A., D.Sc.

EMERITUS PROFESSOR, IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO

FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF AND PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING IN THE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING, TOKYO

LIFE GOVERNOR, GLASGOW AND WEST OF SCOTLAND TECHNICAL COLLEGE

ETC., ETC.

LONDON
BLACKIE & SON, Limited, 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C.

GLASGOW AND DUBLIN
1904

3 ■

I DEDICATE THIS BOOK
TO THE STUDENTS OF THE KOBU-DAIGAKKO

WHO HAVE DONE SO MUCH TO MAKE

MODERN JAPAN

Not only as a memorial of past work, but also in the hope
that they may find it helpful in the solution of the problems
which lie before their country in the future.

PREFACE

MY object in the following pages has not been to give
a history of modern Japan or detailed statistics of recent
developments — to do that adequately would require at least
a volume for the treatment of each of the main subjects
mentioned in the different chapters — it has rather been to
indicate the forces which have been at work in bringing
about what is admitted to be the wonder of the latter half
of the nineteenth century ; namely, the rise of Japan as a
member of the comity of nations, and to note some of the
chief results. Historical details are therefore omitted and
the use of statistics has been limited to such figures as
seemed necessary in order that a fairly complete picture
might be given of the different aspects of national life which
have gone to make modern Japan. As one who took an
active part in the educational and engineering works which
have been among the main factors in producing the great
changes that have taken place, I have naturally given
special attention to these and to their direct results on the
national life, but at the same time I have endeavoured to
take a wider view of the subject, and have at least indi-
cated, I admit imperfectly, the inner forces which, after all,
have been most powerful. It is well to remember that
" cause " means the sum of the conditions which produce a

vii

viii Dai Nippon

phenomenon. I have noted what have seemed to me to be
the chief conditions which have brought about the great
developments that have taken place in Japan, but national
evolution is such a complex phenomenon that it is difficult
either to state exactly the nature of the conditions or to
estimate their relative importance. One thing, however, is
clear, and that is, the fact that the impulse came from
within accounts in great part for the rapid progress which
Japan has made in Western methods.

In Japan, as in other countries, the developments of
industry and commerce have started forces which are causing
many serious problems, not only of an economic but also
of a social and moral nature, which will require very careful
consideration. Lovers of Japan are somewhat dismayed at
the disintegration of taste and ideals which is coming about
in consequence of modern competition, and which is having
very serious effects not only on the national life but also
on international relations. My satisfaction at the great
success which has attended the work of the students of the
Imperial College of Engineering has been damped when
I ponder over the problems which lie before Japan, but my
consolation has come when I recognise that without that
work Japan as a separate nationality would probably have
disappeared under the aggression of Foreign Powers. The
world cannot afford to lose such a unique nationality, not
only because of its special qualities but also because it is
the chief progressive force in the Far East. Although she
is confronted with many difficult problems, Japan is now
strong and determined not only to maintain her independ-
ence but to be a very important factor in the evolution
which is rapidly transforming economic and political con-
ditions in the Pacific area.

Without attempting the role of a prophet, I have in

Preface ix

the concluding chapters glanced at some of the political,
economic, and social results of modern developments, and
have indicated some of the problems which I believe lie
before Japan. On these subjects there will of course be
great differences of opinion, and what I have said must be
taken only for what it is worth ; but having a fairly intimate
knowledge of the affairs of the country during the whole of
the period of modern development, I venture to hope that
I have at least suggested points which are worthy of the
attention of all who are interested in the future of Japan.
My own ideas with regard to that future are decidedly
optimistic, and I believe that in material, intellectual, and
moral influence Japan will fully justify her claim to be
called the Britain of the East.

Instead of burdening the pages of the book with
numerous notes and references to authorities, I have, at the
end of each chapter, given the names of the most important
books and documents I have consulted on the subjects of
that chapter, and in the Appendix I have added a list of
books and other publications which will be useful to those
who wish detailed information on the important develop-
ments in Japan of which I have been able to give only a
broad outline. I owe so much to my numerous friends in
Japan, that it is impossible to name them all, but there are
two who must be specially mentioned. Dr. Sakatani, the
Vice-Minister of Finance, has kept me supplied with all the
most important Government publications, and to him I am
very grateful. The files of the Japan Daily Mail, of which
my old colleague Captain Brinkley is the editor, are mines
of information not only for the details of current history but
also for able and important discussions on all things Japanese.
I receive the journal weekly from Japan, and it has been of
great service to me. Captain Brinkley's monumental book

x Dai Nippon

on Japan and China should be carefully studied by all who
wish to know Japan. It deals with history, manners and
customs, religion, art, politics and modern conditions, and
gives full information on many points which I have been
able only to touch. I have repeatedly quoted Captain
Brinkley when dealing with subjects on which he is a special
authority. My students in all parts of the country have
not only kept me informed with regard to their work but
have also discussed with me many of the questions on which
I have touched in this book. Its plan renders necessary a
certain amount of repetition of some of the main facts of
modern Japanese history, so that my readers may under-
stand their connection with the subjects directly under
discussion, and logical arrangement has, to a certain extent,
been sacrificed to the convenience of general readers.

Dowanhill, Glasgow,
September 1904.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

Introductory

The Imperial College of Engineering — Work of the College — Courses of
study — Success of students — Departure from Japan — Results of work
of College — -Observations on the Continent and in Britain — Social
Problems in Britain — Social Problems in Japan

CHAPTER II

Fall of Feudalism

Early Japanese history — The Emperor always the source of power and
honour — Orders in the State — Forces causing downfall of Shogunate —
Early relations with foreigners — Some Japanese educators — Conditions
on the arrival of foreigners in Japan — Fall of the Shogunate — Young
men who became leaders — Embassy to foreign countries — Conversion of
Mikado's Court — Fall of feudalism ..... 14

CHAPTER III

The Japanese Mind

Mistaken ideas about Japan — Motives of the Japanese — Necessity for a strong
Japan — Oriental and Occidental thought — Constituents of Japanese
thought— Resultant thought — Hara-kiri — Duty to State always first —
Commercial morality — Japanese mental characteristics — Eastern people
and Western thought — Results of European action — Personal experi-
ence of Japanese students — Charge of want of originality — Disproved
by recent history — The spirit of the Revolution . . 31

xii Dai Nippon

CHAPTER IV
Transition

PAGE

Problems of the Revolution — Men of the Revolution — Central Govern-
ment — Deliberative Assembly — Attitude towards foreigners — Lines of
progress — Embassy to United States and Europe — Signs of trouble —
Relations with Korea — Japan and Russia — Saghalin exchanged for the
Kurile Islands — Results on Japanese affairs — Liu-Kiu and Formosa —
Satsuma Rebellion — Agitation for representative institutions — Develop-
ments on Western lines — Difficulties with Korea — War with China —
Treaty of Shimonoseki — Aggression of Russia and Germany in China —
Results on Japanese policy — Results in China — Alliance with Great
Britain — Extent of Japanese Empire ..... 51

CHAPTER V
Education

Education in Old Japan — Beginning of foreign schools — Primary education
— Secondary education — Training of teachers — Higher secondary
schools — University education — Technical education — Art and music
education — Special schools — Summary of educational statistics —
Miscellaneous organisations — Private educational institutions — Moral
education — Results of education . . . 78

CHAPTER VI

Army and Navy

Army and navy as factors in the national evolution — Reorganisation of
fighting material — Causes of recent developments— The army under the
feudal system — New system introduced — Factories — First fighting of
new army — Foundation of modern Japanese navy — The Naval College
in Tokyo — Development of Japanese navy — Oversea wars — War with
China and its results — Present conditions of Japanese navy — Training
of Japanese naval officers — Japanese soldiers in the Boxer troubles —
Japanese power as factors in the Far East .... 109

CHAPTER VII

Means of Communication

Necessity for improved means of communication— Communications under
the feudal system — Roads — Railways — Outline of history of railway
construction — Working and financial returns — Railway legislation —
River improvements — Shipping — Beginning and development of
modern Japanese mercantile marine — Open ports and harbours —
Lighthouses — Telegraphs — Telephones — Postal services . .129

Contents xiii

CHAPTER VIII

Industrial Developments

PAGE

Introduction of foreign industries — Conditions of native industries —
Methods of native industries — Change of conditions — Supply of timber
— Modern improvements in Japanese forestry — Mining and metallurgy
— Civil and mechanical engineering — The Imperial Mint — Shipbuilding
and shipping — Subsidies for shipping and shipbuilding — Cotton-
spinning — The silk industries — Value of output of textile industries —
The printing industry — Chemical and miscellaneous industries — The
building industry — -Government factories — Manufacturing establish-
ments — Working-hours, wages, etc. — Industrial training — Technical
associations — Patents, trade marks, etc., inventions — Industrial ex-
hibitions — Industrial legislation — Combinations of employers and
workers — Foreign advisers — Status of foreigners under Japanese
industrial laws — Japanese ambition regarding the future of commerce
and industry . . . . . . . .151

CHAPTER IX
Art Industries

Importance of art in Japan — Art in Old Japan — Characteristics of Japanese
art — Western influences — Foreign school of art — Japanese Art Society —
Criticism of foreign art — Renewed ideals — Modern conditions — Eastern
ideals — Art and economic conditions— Present conditions in Japan —
Comparison with India — Future of Japanese art industries . . 204

CHAPTER X
Commerce

Commerce in Old Japan — Results of new conditions — Development of
foreign trade — Exports and imports — Distribution of Japan's foreign
trade — Balance of trade against Japan — Current prices of the chief
articles of merchandise — Provisions for encouraging commerce — Com-
mercial and industrial guilds — Tariffs — Social position and commercial
morality of Japanese merchants — Position of foreign merchants in
Japan ......... 219

Dai Nippon

CHAPTER XI

Food Supply

PAGE

Population and food supply — Agriculture in Old Japan — New conditions —
Improvements in agriculture — Cultivation of tea — Sugar, sake, beer,
tobacco, etc. — Capital and labour employed on the land — Means for
encouraging agriculture — Agricultural legislation — Fish and other
marine products — Government encouragement to fisheries — Importa-
tion of food ........ 238

CHAPTER XII

Colonisation and Emigration

Pressure of population — Department of Kaitakushi — Military colonies —
Agriculture and marine products — Railways, mining and other
industries — Immigration and population — Formosa — Japanese popula-
tion in Formosa — Administration — Education, justice, and sanitation-
Means of communication — Products and foreign trade — General effects
of Japanese occupation of Formosa — Emigration to Korea and China
— Emigration to other foreign countries . . . .251

CHAPTER XIII

Constitutional Government

First principle enunciated by the Emperor — Tempered autocracy — First
attempts at representative government — Evolution in direction of
representative government — Agitation led by Itagaki — Edict announ-
cing national assembly — Legislative and administrative reforms — New
orders of nobility — Marquis Ito and the Constitution — Difficulties in
working Constitution — Personal elements — Legislation . . 269

CHAPTER XIV

Administration

Problems of administration after the Restoration — New central Government
— Changes in Government — Functions of the Cabinet — Privy Council
and other advisory and administrative bodies — Administration of
religion — Administration of justice — Officials — Local government . 280

Contents

CHAPTER XV

Finance

xv

PAGE

Financial position at the time of the Restoration — The old and the new
taxation — Problems before the new Government — Financial adminis-
tration — The land tax — Other sources of revenue — The burden of
taxation on the people — National debt — Local finances — Banking
systems — Present financial conditions ..... 292

CHAPTER XVI
International Relations

Motives of Japanese — First treaty with a foreign power — New treaties —
Feelings of Japanese with regard to the treaties — Foreign consular
tribunals — Discussion on extra - territoriality — Captain Brinkley's
opinions — Attempts at treaty revision — Opinions of Sir Harry Parkes
— Conferences on treaty revision — Negotiations renewed — Japanese
aims — Approaching a settlement — Treaty with Great Britain revised- -
Followed by other Powers — Imperial Rescript — Alliance with Great
Britain — Remarks on treaty revision — Laws specially affecting
foreigners — International business relations — -Geographical advantages
of Japan — Industrial competition with foreign nations — Japanese
industrial influence in the Far East — Japanese industrial influence in
the West . . . . . . . .311

CHAPTER XVII
Foreign Politics

Economic forces — Ambition to become the Britain of the East — Diplomatic
action — Japanese ideas on foreign policy — Chinese opinions and ideals
—Japanese influence in Japan — Japan and Korea — The case for Russia
— Russian ideas — Expansion of Russia — Reasons which dominate the
foreign policy of Japan . . . . . . .341

CHAPTER XVIII
Social Results

The fundamental question — Life in Old Japan — Modern conditions — Life
of the well-to-do classes — Life of the common people — Economic con-
ditions of farmers and labourers — Home life and the position of women
— Factory work of women and children — National health— Intercourse
with foreigners — Labour and social problems .... 365

xvi Dai Nippon

CHAPTER XIX
The Future

PAGE

National ideals and economics — Confucian philosophy of life — The task
of Asia — Future financial and fiscal policy of Japan — Manufacturing
industries — Effects on foreign policy — Ultimate solution of the problems
of foreign policy — Future of constitutional government in Japan— Japan
in Asia — The so-called "Yellow Peril"- — Future of combinations of
capital — Future of ethics in Japan — Future of religion in Japan . 381

CHAPTER XX

Recent Events

The methods of history — The making of Japanese history — War begins —
Japanese proclamation of war — Justification of Japanese action — Events
of the war — Behaviour of Japanese troops — Japan in war-time— The
secret of Russia's failure — The secret of Japan's success — Lessons for
Great Britain — Lessons for the nations of the world . . . 404

APPENDICES

Appendix A

Japanese weights, measures, and moneys, with English and French

equivalents ........ 437

Appendix B

Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain ..... 438

Appendix C
Some of the more important recent books, etc., on Japan . . . 443

INDEX ......... 447

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

IN my preface I have briefly indicated the object of this
book, but in order that my readers may understand my
point of view and the trend of thought which runs through
its pages, it is desirable that I should give a few preliminary
explanations which will help to bring them, to a certain
extent, within the sphere of my mental environment. The
writing of even the simplest history necessitates rethinking
it, and in that process the introduction of the personal
equation is inevitable. A study of national evolution is
much more complicated than a mere record of facts, and when
an attempt is made to estimate the chief forces which have
been at work, and not only to state their results in the past
but also to indicate what they are likely to be in the future,
it is evident that the value of the opinions expressed must
depend, to a very large extent, on the personal experience of
the writer. I have no intention, at present, of attempting to
write my own natural history, and in making a short state-
ment of some of the facts of my experience I do not put
it forward as an apology for any of my shortcomings in my
treatment of the subjects discussed in the book. I shall be
content if it be accepted as an explanation.

When the embassy from Japan of which Iwakura, the
Junior Prime Minister, was the head, came to Britain at
the end of 1872, I was offered, through Professor Rankine
of Glasgow University and Mr. H. M. Matheson, the agent

(b 207) -g

2 Dai Nippon

of the Public Works Department of Japan in London,

the position of Principal of the Engineering College which

The imperial ** was P ro P ose d to found in Tokyo. Mr. lto

College (now Marquis lto), one of the ambassadors,

ngineenng. wag \7"i ce _]\/[i n j s t er D f Public Works, and it was his
wish that a College should be organised which would train
men who would be able to design and superintend the works
which were necessary for Japan to carry on if she adopted
Western methods. Fortunately, for some time previously
I had made a special study of all the chief methods of
scientific and engineering study in the different countries
of the world and of the organisation of some of the most
important institutions, with the intention of devoting
myself to the advancement of engineering education in
Britain, so that I had fairly definite ideas both as to what
was desirable and what was possible. I little thought that
my first experiments would be made in far Japan, a country
which, at that time, was almost unknown to foreigners, but
which is now leading the way not only in education but also
in many of the arts of peace and war.

Mr. lto was kind enough to arrange that his private
secretary, Mr. Hayashi (now Viscount Hayashi, Japanese
Minister in London), should accompany me to Japan, and we
sailed from Southampton early in April 1873. My time on
the voyage was chiefly occupied in writing a draft of the
Calendar of the proposed College, and on my arrival in Tokyo
I was able to present it complete to the Acting Vice-Minister
of Public Works, and it was accepted by the Government
without change of any kind.

I was pleasantly surprised to recognise in Mr. Yamao, the
Acting Vice-Minister of Public Works, a man whom I had
seen as a student in the evening classes of Anderson's
College, Glasgow (now incorporated in the Glasgow and
West of Scotland Technical College), when he was learning
the practice of shipbuilding in Napier's yard. I did not
make his personal acquaintance during his stay in Glasgow,
but his connection with that city gave us much in common.

Introductory 3

I wish to bear testimony to the whole - hearted support
which he gave to all my proposals for the education of
engineers, and to his personal kindness on every possible
occasion. To his efforts much of the success of the
College was due. Mr. Hayashi became Chief Commis-
sioner of the College, representing the Department of
Public Works and managing the finances and the adminis-
trative staff, while I, as Principal, was responsible for the
educational arrangements. After seeing the College fairly
started and rendering it most effective service, Mr. Hayashi
entered the wider administrative departments of the Govern-
ment and became Governor of one of the southern provinces.
Later on, he became a member of the diplomatic service.
After representing his country for several years in China, he
acted as Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs during the war
with China, and for his special services he was raised to the
peerage under the title of Baron Hayashi. He next went to
St. Petersburg as Minister Plenipotentiary for Japan ; he is
now, as Viscount Hayashi, in a similar position in London,
and he will be remembered in history as the diplomatist who
carried on the final negotiations which resulted in the
alliance between Great Britain and Japan.

While fully recognising the services of the representatives
of the Japanese Government and the liberal support of the
Government itself, it must of course be admitted work of the
that the success which attended the work of College.
the College was chiefly due to the enthusiastic manner in
which the various members of the staff entered on their
duties. We were, for the most part, young men without
much experience, and in looking back I now recognise the
risks which were run in placing us in such responsible
positions. No doubt we made mistakes, but even our most
severe critics admit that the College was the most successful
educational institution in Japan. The subsequent careers of
the members of the staff have proved the wisdom which
was shown in their selection. The original professors of the
College were W. E. Ayrton, Natural Philosophy ; D. H.

4 Dai Nippon

Marshall, M. A., Mathematics; Edward Divers, M.D., Chemistry ;
Edmund F. Mondy, A.R.S.M., Drawing ; and William Craigie,
M.A., English Language and Literature ; while George
Cawley, Robert Clark, and Archibald King took charge of
the practical parts of the instruction in engineering.
Almost all these names are now well known in the world of
science and education, and the bearers of them have not only
distinguished themselves by their researches, but from their
experience in Japan they have been able to exercise great
influence in moulding the conditions of scientific and
engineering education in this country.

Additions were made to the staff of the College as its
work developed. John Milne, F.G.S., became Professor of
Geology and Mining and made himself a world-wide repu-
tation by his investigations in seismology ; John Perry, B.E.,
A. W. Thomson, B.Sc, Thomas Gray, B.Sc, and Thomas
Alexander, C.E., as Professors in the Engineering Department,
developed the methods of instruction and began the re-
searches which have made them famous ; and Josiah Conder,
A.R.I. B.A., became Professor of Architecture and still remains
in Japan in the practice of the profession by which he has
done so much to meet the modern requirements of the
country. Captain Brinkley, R.A., the distinguished Japanese
scholar and authority on everything Japanese, was for some
time Professor of Mathematics. To Captain Brinkley's
writings I am specially indebted for information on many
of the points discussed in the following pages. Our first
Professor of English, Mr. Craigie, was compelled to return to
Scotland after a few years on account of his health, and his
colleagues received the news of his death shortly afterwards,
with great sorrow. He was succeeded by W. Gray Dixon,
M.A., and he in turn by his brother, James M. Dixon, M.A.,
both of whom did excellent work in their own department.
We soon gathered round the foreign staff of the College a
number of Japanese assistants, who in a comparatively short
time were able to render very efficient service.

With such an able staff, all enthusiastic in the work, the

Introductory 5

College was certain to be a success if all the other conditions
were favourable. The Japanese authorities did all in their
power to bring about that success. Within five years from
its institution, handsome and commodious buildings had
been erected and the most improved appliances of all kinds
supplied for teaching purposes. The general arrangements
which I made for the course of training were such as to meet
the requirements of the country. It extended over six years,
the first and second of which were devoted to

. . . Courses of study.

the general training required for all depart-
ments of engineering. At the beginning of the third year the
students selected the special departments which they wished
to follow. The technical courses were — {a) Civil Engineering,
ib) Mechanical Engineering, (V) Telegraphy, (d) Architecture,
(e) Practical Chemistry, (f) Mining, (g) Metallurgy. Naval
Architecture was added a few years later. One-half of the
third and fourth years was spent at College, and the other
half at practical work. The last two years of the course
were spent entirely at practical work.

In this way the students obtained a fair introduction
to the theory and the practice of their profession, and there
can be no doubt that the success which has attended their
work has been, in great part, due to the method adopted in
their training. In the College itself mere book-work was
made of secondary importance, and by means of drawing
offices, laboratories, and practical engineering works the
students were taught the relations between theory and
practice, and trained in habits of observation and original
thought. The College being in the Department of Public
Works, the students had the run of all the engineering
establishments and public works under its control, and in
this way they had exceptional advantages. I do not
propose to enter into further details of the work of the
College, my present object being simply to give a general
sketch of the methods employed.

Some of our first graduates were sent over to Universi-
ties and Colleges in Britain, and without exception they

6 Dai Nippon

distinguished themselves in their classes, not infrequently
taking the first place. The best proof, however, of the
Success value of the training which they received is
of students. t i ie excellent work which the students have
done since they left College, as there are few engineering or
industrial works in Japan in which they are not to be found
taking an active part in the management.

Having been about ten years in Japan and seen the
College firmly established, for personal and family reasons
Departure I resigned my position, and on my suggestion
from japan. j) r Ed war cl Divers was appointed Principal
of the College, and instructions were sent to the agents in
London to select a man who would take up my work as
Professor of Engineering. Charles Dickenson West, M.A.,
University of Dublin, was appointed, and he still continues
to occupy the Professorship of Mechanical Engineering
in the Engineering College of Tokyo University. As marks
of appreciation of my services the Emperor bestowed on me
the Order of the Rising Sun (Third Class), the highest
honour of the kind given to any foreign employe up to that
time, and the Government conferred on me the title of
Honorary Principal of the College. Since the Engineering
College was made a College of the University of Tokyo, I
have been appointed Emeritus Professor of that institution.
My students have taken an active part in the formation and
carrying on of many associations and societies in connection
with engineering and science, and they have elected me an
Honorary Member of the most important of these, and I
receive frequent communications from them informing me
of their work. The former students of the Imperial College
of Engineering (Kobu-Daigakko) are now to be found not
only in all the most important engineering and industrial
undertakings in Japan, but a considerable number of them
are actively engaged in China and Korea ; so that the
College has been a most important factor in bringing about
the changes in Japan and in influencing conditions in the
Far East generally.

Introductory 7

The extent of these changes and the amount of that
influence will be indicated very plainly in the following
pages, and I might quote from contemporary Results of work
journals and subsequent observers to show the of Colle g e -
place which the College took in the national evolution of
Japan, but space will allow me to mention the opinions only
of a few who were able to judge of the actual results. On
the occasion of his last visit to Britain, Marquis Ito was
unable to visit Scotland as he had expected to do, as
events called him back to Japan, but Viscount Hayashi wrote
stating that the Marquis had expressed his high appreciation
of my services in Japan, saying, " That Japan can boast to-
day of being able to undertake such industrial works as the
construction of railways, telegraphs, telephones, shipbuilding,
working of mines, and other manufacturing works entirely
by the hands of Japanese engineers is mainly attributable
to the College so ably established and set in motion by
you." The Marquis had previously expressed similar
opinions to Mr. Alfred Stead, who records that in the course
of an interview with him he said, " When I was in London,
engaged in my work of preparing the Japanese Constitution,
I was approached on the subject of forming a special
Engineering College in Japan. It was pointed out that the
advantages would be very great for the country, and that
such a scheme of engineering education had never been
carried out in any other country. Accordingly I established
the College, and brought many foreign Professors to Japan
for that purpose. The Japanese engineers who are now
running the most important concerns in Japan were trained
in the College and can dispense altogether with foreign aid." x
The opinions of the Marquis have been confirmed by many
of the leading men in Japan and by others who have had
opportunities of judging.

In his interesting and valuable book, Japan in Transition,
Mr. Stafford Ransome, M.Inst.C.E., who spent considerable
time in Japan as the special commissioner of the well-known

1 Stead, Japan, Our New Ally, p. 57.

8 Dai Nippon

journal, The Engineer, says : " Although the higher branches
of modern technical training had been experimented with in
Japan at a somewhat earlier period, it was not until 1873,
when Mr. Henry Dyer was engaged by the Japanese
Government, that a solid system of technical education was
inaugurated." In his review of the circumstances which
led to "Japan's Accession to the Comity of Nations,"
Baron Alexander von Siebold says : " After the Restora-
tion of the monarchy the first attempts were made with the
help of English and American teachers, to introduce some-
thing like unity into the system of public instruction. Of
these endeavours the immediate result was the establishment
of the ' Imperial College of Engineering,' which had reached
a flourishing state by the year 1875. The founding of this
Polytechnical College was a particularly happy idea of the
Japanese Government, aiming, as it did, simultaneously with
the introduction of railways and telegraphs, and the training
of a native staff of experts to work them. That institution
has already borne rich fruit. The whole of Japan is now
covered with a network of railways, which are being con-
stantly extended."

Many of the scientific and technical journals contained
descriptions of the work of the College and its results, but
meantime it would be out of place to enter into these,
although a full account may be published in the future.
The only other opinions to which I will refer are those of
Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., who was Professor of Chemistry
in the Imperial College of Engineering from its foundation,
and who succeeded me as Principal. A discussion had
arisen in The Engineer in connection with a series of articles
which had been written by Mr. Stafford Ransome, the special
correspondent already referred to, who had been sent to Japan
to give an account of the development of engineering in that
country. In such matters differences of opinion are certain
to exist, and I would prefer not to enter into the discussion
at all, but as a matter of history it cannot be ignored.
A very fair statement of the facts of the case were given by

Introductory 9

Dr. Divers in a letter to The Engineer} and to this I would
refer for details. Meantime I shall quote only a few sentences.
After sketching the early history of the Imperial College of
Engineering, Dr. Divers says : " While, as will have become
plain, there are many engineers who may claim to have each
done something in Japanese training — and, in individual cases,
sometimes very much — there is, it may truly be said, one to
whom, almost alone, Japan owes its well -organised and
elaborated system of engineering education, namely, Dr.
Henry Dyer of Glasgow, one of the Governors of the
Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, whose
latest act in connection with it has been the selection this
year of a Professor of Naval Architecture as colleague to Mr.
Miyoshi, Professor of the same subject. Dr. Dyer came to
Japan in 1873, not as a Professor of Engineering only, but
to found and organise in all its details, large and small, an
institution for the education of engineers in Japan. He was
given a salary proportional to his double duties, and an
extent of power in the control of affairs quite exceptional
for a foreigner in the Japanese service, whether then or since.
The result of his work was the College of Engineering, the
first school of engineering of any kind in the country, and
such as could hardly have been developed under less
favourable circumstances. Its magnitude of plan and
completeness of execution soon made it far and away the
most prominent educational institution in Japan. It attracted,
too, the particular notice of the foreign — British and other —
community in Tokyo and the Treaty port of Yokohama,
some of whom dubbed it ' Dyer's ' College, and in con-
junction with some wealthy Japanese notables endowed it
with a very respectable fund to provide annual prizes for the
cadets."

Dr. Divers enters at some length into the changes in the
administration which took place (and which will be noticed
in a following chapter), and then says : " There is only left
me, in order to complete this long account of the foundation

1 May 6, 1898.

io Dai Nippon

and growth of engineering education in Japan, to show in
what estimation Japanese engineers and the Imperial
University hold the services of Dr. Dyer. With the one
exception of the Geographical Society, the Engineering
Society of Japan is the most influential learned society in
the country. It has a journal of its own, and a very long
roll of members, of which only three are foreigners. Of
these three, again, but one is an engineer, and he is Dr. Dyer.
Again in the 'Historical Summary' — Chronology would be
more correct — of the Imperial University contained in its
' Calendar ' no one is mentioned at all except its successive
Presidents and Mr. Henry Dyer, the first Principal of the
College of Engineering. It is not customary in Japan to
refer to individuals in official-so-called histories of institutions.
The honour to Dr. Dyer is therefore especially great that he
is not only named but the value of his services acknowledged."
As the fact connected with my departure from Japan has
already been noted it is not necessary to quote Dr. Divers
further.

In the years immediately following the Restoration, it
must be admitted that there was in Japan a certain amount
of overlapping in the work of the different Departments of
Government. The Minister of Public Works was anxious to
train men who would be useful in carrying out engineering
works, and he therefore arranged that the Imperial College
of Engineering should be in his Department, so that the
students might have the advantage of experience on practical
works. On the other hand, the authorities of the Education
Department were anxious to have all the educational
institutions in the country under their control, and when they
could not manage this they sometimes started duplicate courses
of their own ; but the connection of the Imperial College of
Engineering with the Public Works Department gave it a
great advantage, and the majority of engineering students
attended it. Some years after I left Japan the Public Works
Department was absorbed in some of the other Government
Departments and the Engineering College became a College

Introductory 1 1

of the Imperial University of Tokyo, but this and other facts
will be noted when we are dealing with education in Japan.
Meantime, therefore, it is not necessary to enter into further
details of the history of the Imperial College of Engineering,
my present object being, as I have said, to bring 0bservations on
my readers within the sphere of my mental the Continent

, , i 1 , , • • . and in Britain.

environment and thus help to explain my point
of view in the following pages, but a very imperfect idea of
that would be given if I did not briefly indicate my ex-
perience since I left Japan. The greater part of the first
year after my return was spent on the Continent of Europe
in the study of educational institutions and the inspection of
engineering works. Hitherto my attention had been chiefly
confined to the scientific aspect of my work, but personal
knowledge of social and economic conditions in Europe
soon showed me that engineering education was only a small
part of the problem of education, and indeed that undue
attention to it might help to intensify social problems.

A very active share in the organisation and manage-
ment of educational institutions in Glasgow of all grades,
and an increasing interest in social problems, have kept me
in close touch with the actual conditions, and this has been
supplemented by the study of reports of all kinds from all
parts of the world. An interesting fact in the history of
education is to be found in the organisation of the Glasgow
and West of Scotland Technical College. When that
College was formed by the amalgamation of existing
scientific institutions in Glasgow, I was able to transfer from
Japan the programme of studies of the Imperial College of
Engineering to the Glasgow institution which is the suc-
cessor of the College in which the Vice-Minister of Public
Works and I studied as apprentices in the evening classes.

There can be no doubt that a lengthened absence from
Britain enables one, on his return, to observe British social
conditions from a detached and comparative social problems
point of view which was not before possible, in Bntam -
and he finds much in these conditions to excite the most

1 2 Dai Nippon

painful anxiety, which may result either in deadly pessimism
or in an active determination to devote himself to efforts which
tend to improvement. The ever-widening extremes of poverty
and wealth, the conditions of life of our poorest classes, the
production on a large scale of degenerates who are physic-
ally, mentally, and morally unfit for a fair share of the duties
of citizenship, the uncertainty of employment, the growth
of monopoly which is placing the conditions of the people
at the mercy of a comparatively small number of capitalists,
and the immense armaments which are sucking the life-blood
of the nations, are all factors which give rise to very serious
thought. The brutal materialism which pervades all classes
of the community makes true art almost impossible, while
the soul-destroying ennui of the leisured on the one hand
and the restlessness of the middle and poorer classes render
their intellects, their hearts, and their consciences almost in-
accessible. An increasing number of all classes do not even
make a profession of religion, but content themselves with
the pursuit of self-centred individualism and refined sensualism
which blinds them to the importance of the great social
problems with which every industrial country in the world is
now confronted.

Those who return from Japan, especially if they have
known it under the old regime, may well doubt whether the
Social problems importation of Western civilisation is likely
in japan. ^o b e an unmixed blessing to the people,
although they will admit that it was necessary to save Japan
from foreign aggression. Fortunately, the most thoughtful
among the Japanese are recognising these facts, and they are
becoming more and more impressed with the necessity for
attention being paid to the social and economic conditions
of the people and to the problems arising therefrom. My
friends in Japan keep me 'supplied with many of the more
important journals and official reports, and long conversations
with those who visit this country prove to me that the most
thoughtful minds in Japan fully recognise the difficulty of the
problems with which they are confronted. They see that

Introductory 1 3

the engineer is the real revolutionist ; for his work changes
social and economic conditions and brings forces into action
which are more powerful than anything which can be done
by mere legislation. The students of the Imperial College
of Engineering are the men who, to a large extent, have
been the means of developing engineering and industry
in Japan, and it seems appropriate that a study of that
remarkable evolution which has made that country a world
Power should be preceded by an outline of the circumstances
in which the College was founded and an indication given
of the results which have followed from that evolution.
Some of these results have no doubt diminished the charm
which Old Japan had for lovers of nature and art, but it
cannot be doubted that if the Japanese had not taken
advantage of Western science and methods for the develop-
ment of their resources, in order that their country might
become strong, it would probably ere this have been
dominated by a Western Power. The problem of the future
is : — How best to take full advantage of all that is good in
Western civilisation while retaining the special characteristics
of Japan and bringing them into organic harmony with
those of other nations. On the solution of that problem
depends the welfare of Japan.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

For details of the institutions referred to in this chapter,
reference should be made to the Calendar of the Imperial College
of Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, 1 873-1888, and to the Reports of the
same College. For recent developments the Calendar of the
Imperial University of Tokyo should be consulted. The Calendar
of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College shows the
application of the experience of Japan to a Scottish College.
Existing social and economic conditions in Britain should be studied
in such books as Booth's Life and Labour of the People in Lofidon
and Rowntree's Poverty, a Study of Town Life, and in other countries
in similar books. The literature which has been published in
recent years on industrial, social, economic, and political subjects is
very extensive, and reference should be made to special catalogues.

CHAPTER II

FALL OF FEUDALISM

Notwithstanding all that has been written about Japan
in recent years, a very common impression in Europe and
America seems to be that feudalism was put an end to in
Japan by a stroke of the pen of the Emperor, and that the
cause of the change was the advent of foreigners in the
Land of the Rising Sun. Although there is an element of
truth in the impression, it is so imperfect that it is desirable
to indicate, in outline, the causes leading to the revolution
which inaugurated the great developments that have taken
place in Japan during the latter half of the nineteenth
century, so that these developments may be better understood.
To do so completely would involve a study of Old Japan in
its many aspects ; all that we can attempt is a sketch which
will indicate the chief forces which were at work.

It is not necessary to enter into an examination of the
origins of Japanese history. It is sufficient for our purpose
Early Japanese to say that the Emperors (Mikados) of the
history. present dynasty have been the dejure sovereigns
of Japan since the legendary era, the first Mikado, Jimmu
Tenno, dating from 660 B.C., but according to recent
historical researches the first date to be considered trust-
worthy in Japanese historical annals is a.d. 461. The
earliest records show that the sway of the Emperors was
absolute over the whole empire, and that its influence in the
government of the country was limited only by the defective
state of the means of communication, which necessarily left

14

Fall of Feudalism 1 5

a good deal of discretionary powers in the hands of the local
chiefs. The amount of these powers in the various cases
would depend to a large extent on geographical position and
local circumstances, and no doubt also on the individualities
of the persons concerned, but it can easily be seen that this
state of affairs contained the germs of the feudalism which
grew to perfection in after -years, when the local chiefs
became for many purposes practically independent. The
work of the engineer, by annihilating distances, not only
welds countries together, but for economic purposes makes
the whole world one, and, as we shall see, it did much to
hasten the course of events in Japan.

Towards the end of the seventh century the hereditary
Ministers of State, the Fujiwara families, began to encroach
upon the power of the Emperors, and from that time up till
the revolution in 1868 the Emperors reigned but did not
rule. The conversion of the nation to Buddhism in the
sixth and seventh centuries was the most important event
in Japanese history. For a century or two before that,
Chinese civilisation had been slowly gaining ground in
Japan, but when the Buddhist missionaries crossed the water
all Chinese institutions followed them with a rush. Science,
of a kind, began to be cultivated and books began to be
written, so that Chinese thought had a great influence on
the Japanese mind. The custom of abdicating the throne
in order to spend old age in prayer was adopted, a custom
which, more than anything else, led to the effacement of the
Mikado's authority during the Middle Ages.

The Fujiwara family engrossed the power of the State
from A.D. 670 to 1050, and monopolised all the great posts
of the Government. Discontent arose from this state of
affairs, and civil war ensued in consequence of the abuses
which had arisen, and the Fujiwara family lost the influence
and power which it had so long enjoyed. A successful
soldier, Yoritomo, while nominally supporting the Emperor,
ousted the families of the hereditary Ministers from their
positions and aggrandised himself. Instead of restoring the

1 6 Dai Nippon

real power to the Emperor he caused himself to be
appointed the head of the feudal families and generalissimo
(Shogun) of the Empire ; a fact which was remembered
in the revolution of 1868, when it was thought by the
supporters of the Shogun of that time that the action of the
larger clans was due not to loyalty to the Emperor but
to jealousy of the Shogun.

It is easy to understand how the state of affairs which
existed led to the belief among foreigners that there were
two Emperors in Japan, one who attended to spiritual
matters and the other to the administration of the country.
This belief was entirely wrong, as the Emperor remained
the source of all power and honour, while the Shogun
utilised his position as commander-in-chief to concentrate
the affairs of the nation under his control. Discontent,
however, frequently arose among the feudal chiefs, who
understood the real position of the Shogun ; and when abuses
became oppressive, civil wars ensued and several changes took
place in the Shogun family, the position being seized from
time to time by a new military chief who had the ability to
arrogate the power to himself and his family. In this way
one family succeeded another until that of Tokugawa
assumed power in 1603 and retained it until the revolution
in 1868.

The point to be distinctly remembered is, that in all

these changes the position of the Emperor was never called

in question, and in fact when the Shoguns

The Emperor , . . . , ,

always the source abused their power the plea put forward by
of power and those who wished to displace them was that

honour.

they were supporting the cause of the Emperor
against the presumptuous arrogance of the man who wrongly
had assumed a great part of his power. They did this not
only because it was politic to do so, but also because, no
doubt, they believed it to be a duty which they owed to
loyalty. For not only is the very antiquity of the Imperial
line the cause of the awe and veneration entertained for the
Emperor by his people ; but the fact that, while he was

Fall of Feudalism 1 7

looked upon as the source of all power in the State, he yet
confined his activity to the bestowal of titles and honours,
brought it about that, while he thus did not give the slightest
cause for complaint, at the same time he earned a great deal
of gratitude from what human vanity holds most dear.
The Emperors, therefore, were held in most loyal adoration
in all ages throughout the Empire. The maintenance of
the Emperor was essential to the power of the Shoguns, and,
his sovereignty acknowledged, the very aloofness made it
easy for them to appear not the usurpers, as they in fact
were, but as trustees of the throne. It is easy to understand
how the Shogun came to be described by the representatives
of other nations who came in contact with Japan in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as the real sovereign of
the realm, and how that, in modern times, he was described
in British treaties (the Convention, for example, of October
1854) as " His Imperial Highness the Emperor," in the
British treaty of August 1858 as "His Majesty the Tycoon,"
and also in the Prussian treaty of 1861 as " Seine Majestat
der Taikun." As a matter of fact, " Tycoon " was not a
Japanese title at all, but was probably adopted from the
Chinese when the treaties were being arranged to mask the
defective political status of the Shogun.

The three political orders in the State were the Kuge or
nobles of the Emperor's Court, who were chiefly offshoots
of the Imperial Family ; the Daimyos, or feudal Orders in the
chiefs; and the Samurai, their two-sworded re- State -
tainers, who formed the military strength of the nation and
were at the same time its most educated class. They con-
sequently came to the front, in the affairs of the nation,
after the revolution. The first of these orders numbered
about 150 families, the second 268, and the third about
400,000 households. Below them was the agricultural,
artisan, and merchant population, numbering over thirty
millions and called Heimin ; who were without political
status, but who nevertheless were allowed considerable
freedom in the management of their own affairs. So

(b 207) p

*

1 8 Dai Nippon

far as the details of administration were concerned, the
territorial extent over which the powers of the Govern-
ment of the Shogunate were operative was limited to the
domains under the direct sway of the Shogun himself.
The territories under the control of the Daimyos enjoyed
almost complete autonomy. Such measures as were
necessary to control the feudal lords and to prevent them
from acquiring dangerous independence were enforced by
indirect methods rather than openly, but otherwise they
enjoyed in their respective domains the rights and pre-
rogatives of independent sovereignty. They could not
declare war, conclude peace, or coin money, but they
exercised autonomous control in almost all other important
matters pertaining to the executive power of a State. This
system of semi-independence extended also to other classes
of the population. The predominant influence acquired in
the course of time by the military order became a very
marked feature in Japan, but with it all, the farmer, the
merchant, the craftsman, and others of the common people
enjoyed under the law, rights and privileges, lesser in degree
and in extent, but equally well recognised and respected.
The commercial and municipal systems established from
early days afford an example of this. Within certain limits
the people of the cities, towns, villages, and rural neighbour-
hoods controlled their own local affairs, and while there
were no rich men in the modern sense, there was little
actual poverty and no degradation such as is to be seen in
modern industrial towns in all parts of the world.

The line of the Tokugawa Shoguns held their power
for a period of nearly two hundred and seventy years, and
Forces causing during that time the country was at peace and
downfall of the dual form of government seemed to be
fixed on a stable basis. As Japan was self-
contained as regards resources, and commerce and industry
in the modern sense were unknown, and also because the
people seemed to be united in religion, the forces which
undermined feudalism in Europe were absent, but notwith-

Fall of Feudalism 1 9

standing the apparent calm there grew up a strong current
of discontent with the existing state of affairs, and this
increased with every blunder made by the Government of
the Shogun.

Sir Ernest Satow has expressed the opinion that the
real author of the movement which culminated in the
revolution of 1868 was the second Prince of Mito, who
was born in 1622 and died in 1700. With the help of
a number of the most distinguished scholars in Japan he
wrote the Dai Nihon Shi or " History of Japan," a work
which fills two hundred and forty-three volumes. It, how-
ever, remained in manuscript, copied from hand to hand by
eager students, until 1851, when the wide demand for it
caused it to be published. The tendency of this book, as
well as of others which appeared, was to direct the minds
of the people to the Mikado as the true and only source of
authority, and to make clear the historical fact that the
Shogun was in fact a usurper. All this caused an in-
creasing wish on the part, not only of serious students of
history, but also of others to whom they had communicated
their knowledge, that the Mikado should be restored to his
ancient authority, and this would in itself have brought
about a revolution in due time. Events, however, were
hastened by the demands which the representatives of
foreign countries were making upon the Japanese for the
conclusion of treaties of trade and commerce between Japan
and the countries which they represented. Before, however,
dwelling on these comparatively recent events, it will be
useful to note some of the earlier relations of Japan with
foreigners.

So far as is known, Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese
adventurer, seems to have been the first European who
landed on Japanese soil, and the wonderful Early relations
stories which he told about the country excited vvith forei s ners -
a great amount of curiosity ; hundreds of Portuguese of
all classes were attracted to Japan, where they received a
ready welcome from the people and from the feudal chiefs,

20 Dai Nippon

who wished to take advantage of their knowledge and
appliances and especially of the foreign implements of war.
Merchants were followed by missionaries, among whom was
St. Francis Xavier, whose preaching was attended with such
success that it is said that in i 5 8 1 there were two hundred
churches and one hundred and fifty thousand native
Christians. Towards the end of the sixteenth and the
beginning of the seventeenth century the political intrigues
of the Jesuit missionaries and their interference in the affairs
of the country became so audacious and obnoxious to the
authorities that they determined that a policy of exclusion
from the outside world was the only way of avoiding im-
pending dangers ; accordingly all the missionaries and
converts were either expelled from the country or executed,
and all intercourse with foreigners was prohibited under pain
of death. So thoroughly was the work supposed to be done
that Christianity was said to have been extirpated in Japan,
but after the revolution of 1868 it was found by the French
missionaries that there were villages in which numbers of
the people retained fragments of the beliefs which had been
implanted by the Jesuits.

The only exceptions to foreign intercourse were in favour
of the Dutch and Chinese, who were allowed to carry on
trade at Nagasaki under the strict surveillance of the
Government. Preference was shown to the Dutch because
they were not of the same religion as the Spaniards and the
Portuguese ; at least, it was thought that their form of
Christianity was not likely to cause them to take part in
political intrigues. Nagasaki, however, seemed to have a
fascination for foreigners of different nationalities ; no doubt
in great part due to the mystery which surrounded the
Japanese nation, and the desire not only to gain information
but also to share in the reputed wealth of the country, of
which fabulous accounts were given. On the other hand,
many Japanese were eager to extract as much information
as possible from the foreigners ; so that in course of time
many European ideas filtered from Nagasaki throughout

Fall of Feudalism 2 1

the country and an elementary and somewhat debased
knowledge of Western science was propagated. The Dutch
physicians especially imparted to a considerable number of
Japanese a knowledge of European medical theory and
practice.

During the fifth Tokugawa Shogunate, Arai Hakuseki
(Chikugo- no-Kami), one of the greatest scholars Japan has
ever produced, was so impressed with the some Japanese
necessity for a wider education on the part of educators.
his countrymen that he made the acquisition of Western
knowledge the pursuit of his life, and he gained the con-
fidence of the sixth Shogun and induced him to endeavour
to realise some of his political ideals. He continued to be
influential in the time of the seventh Shogun, who was a
minor, but retired when his successor came into power. He
was a voluminous writer, and his historical works were much
read and esteemed and were a source of inspiration to many
thinkers and men of action in subsequent times.

Arai was also a diligent collector of information from
the Dutch who were in Nagasaki, some of whom periodic-
ally visited Yedo, and his influence was no doubt great in
obtaining the withdrawal of the prohibition of the study of
Dutch books and of other scientific and technical works.
Several Shoguns, in succession, appointed to honourable
posts those who had a knowledge of the arts and sciences,
such as astronomy, medicine, mathematics, and gunnery.
The Dutch language was studied by considerable numbers
so that they might be able to make themselves acquainted
with the most recent publications. The want of teachers
and the difficulty of obtaining foreign books prevented much
progress being made. European ideas, however, began to
make themselves felt on political subjects to such an extent
that the Shogun's Government took steps to repress them,
as no doubt those in power foresaw that their development
would render their positions impossible.

The memory of some of the men who took a leading
part in the education of public opinion is now held in venera-

2 2 Dai Nippon

tion by their countrymen. Among them one of the most
notable was Sakuma Shozan, a samurai of the province of
Shinano, who was influential in introducing several branches
of Western science, especially those relating to military
practice and tactics. In i 848, five years before Commodore
Perry came to Uraga, he gave instruction in gunnery
according to Western methods, and from accounts in a Dutch
book he constructed artillery and otherwise did much to
pave the way for the introduction of Western culture and
ideas in general.

Probably, however, the most popular hero of the time was
Yoshida Shoin, a Choshu samurai, who by his work as an
educator had great moral and spiritual influence on the
young men of his clan, and from among his disciples came
many of the leaders who brought about the abolition of the
feudal system and the establishment of the new government
on a firm basis. A popular although not very exact account
of this remarkable man has been given by R. L. Stevenson
in his Familiar Studies of Men and Books, who describes him
under the name of Yoshida Torajiro, the Japanese pro-name
being subject to change during the lifetime of the bearer.
Yoshida paid for his zeal for reform with his life, and the
story of his career is still an inspiration to his countrymen.
His last scene was of a piece with his career, and fitly
crowned it. When being examined before the Court, " he
seized on the opportunity of a public audience, confessed and
gloried in his design, and reading his auditors a lesson in the
history of their country, told at length the illegality of the
Shogun's power and the crimes by which its exercise was
sullied. So, having said his say for once, he was led forth
and executed, thirty-one years old."

It is evident that the influx of Western ideas was not by
any means the chief cause of the fall of the feudal system.
That had its origin in a return to the old ideal when the
Emperor was not only the source of power, but also the
head of the actual Government, and in a strong desire for
national unity. The feudal system and the authority of the

Fall of Feuda lism 2 3

Shogun were opposed to this ideal, and their overthrow
became a necessity before the nation could be consolidated
under a strong centralised Government, which would be able
to take advantage of the Western ideas taught by Arai,
Sakuma, Yoshida, and others.

Some of the most powerful feudal chiefs in the south of
the Empire, notably those of Satsuma and Choshu, were not
slow to perceive the advantage which Western Conditions on the
arms and science would give them in any arrival of foreigners
struggle they might have with the Shogun, and m JapaE

had been long making preparations for an armed conflict, and
only wanted the opportunity and the excuse for striking.
This they found in the negotiations which the Shogun had
entered into with the foreign representatives, who came with
the demand that the country should be opened to them, and
which they had backed with a force which he knew he could
not resist. When Commodore Perry of the American Navy
steamed into the Bay of Yedo in 1853 he found a Govern-
ment tottering to its fall ; although no doubt many of those
who were opposed to it cared less for the rights of the
Mikado than for the opportunity of aggrandising themselves
at the expense of the Shogun.

The Shogun yielded to the demands of Perry and of the
representatives of the other foreign Powers, Britain, France,
and Russia, who quickly followed him, and consented to
open Yokohama, Hakodate, and certain of the other ports
for trade and commerce (1857-59). In order to gain time
and collect information he sent embassies to the United
States and to Europe in i860 and 1861 ; for even with their
very limited knowledge of the resources of the foreign Powers
the Shogun and his advisers had come to the conclusion that
it were vain to refuse what they claimed. The advisers of
the Mikado, however, had practically no knowledge on the
subject, and they determined that the " land of the gods "
would not be polluted by outsiders, and that at all hazards
the ports would be closed. Some of the rash adherents of
the anti-foreign party attempted to give effect to the policy

24 Dai Nippon

which they advocated by firing on foreign ships and by
assassinating foreigners. When matters were in a critical
position they were brought to a crisis by the Prince of
Choshu causing some ships belonging to France, Holland,
and the United States to be fired upon by the forts at
Shimonoseki, and this led to the bombardment of that place
by the combined fleets of those countries at that time in
Eastern waters, together with that of Great Britain, which
espoused their cause on the ground of the solidarity of all
foreign interests in Japan, and an indemnity of 3,000,000
dollars was exacted. The resistance which the Choshu clan
offered to the assault of the foreign Powers, and the offensive
action which it took against the Shogun, proved that for
years it had been taking advantage of foreign arms and
methods of war, and preparing for the struggle which had
now come. The Shogun attempted to punish Choshu for
the humiliation which had been brought on Japan, but his
forces were defeated, and shortly afterwards he himself died.
A few months later the Mikado also died, on the 3rd of
February 1867, his son Matsuhito, then in his fifteenth
year, succeeded him, and is now the reigning Emperor, the
one hundred and twenty-first of the line. The Court of
Kyoto, prompted by the great Daimyos of Choshu and
Fail of the Satsuma, suddenly decided on the abolition of
Shogunate. ^ e Shogunate, and the new Shogun submitted
to the decree which was issued. Some of his followers
offered an ineffectual resistance, but after a short time they
capitulated.

The government of the country was reorganised during
1867-68, and was nominally an absolute monarchy, with the
Mikado as the sole source of authority, both legislative and
executive, and the dreams of the literary party were
realised. The Shogunate which had made treaties with the
hated foreigners had been swept away, and they hoped that
Japan would go back to the conditions of primitive ages,
when it was really the " land of the gods," but they little
reckoned with the forces which had been called into action

Fall of Feudalism 2 5

in the conflict. Western ideas, methods, and arms had over-
thrown the Shogunate, and now, in turn, they were to con-
vert the followers of the Mikado. These wished to ignore
the existence of foreigners and drive them from the country,
but some of the leaders of the southern clans, prompted by
younger men who had been to England and knew something
of the resources of the foreign Powers, did all in their power
to oppose these proposals which they knew would be futile,
and they were successful in convincing the advisers of the
Mikado that it was desirable to come to terms with the
foreigners.

The story of the young men who were able to exercise
influence in the manner indicated is one of the most romantic
in the history of Japan, and a short space may Young men who
be devoted to a sketch of it. Soon after the became leaders -
Shogun had concluded the treaty of peace, friendship, and
commerce with Lord Elgin, the Daimyo of Choshu expressed
a great desire to send some of his young men to England in
order that they might study the science and industries of the
West with a view to the advancement of their country. It being
still illegal for any one to leave Japan, he arranged that five
young men from his province should be quietly put on board
a vessel belonging to Jardine, Matheson, and Co., and that
through that firm the necessary funds should be supplied for
their support in Britain. On their arrival in London they
were placed under the care of Mr. H. M. Matheson, who
made arrangements for their education. Their names were
Ito, Side, Yamao, Nomura, and Endo. About two years
after their arrival Ito and Side asked leave to return to Japan,
as they knew that stirring events were going on, and they
were able to influence affairs to a considerable extent, Endo's
health was not good, and he returned shortly after. The
two who remained, Yamao and Nomura, made good progress
in the study of the principles of science and also obtained
some practice in their industrial applications. Yamao came
to Napier's shipbuilding yard, and, as I have mentioned,
attended the evening classes in Anderson's College, Glasgow,

26 Dai Nippon

at the time when I was a student in them, and on my arrival
in Japan I found him Acting Vice-Minister of Public Works.
He is now Viscount Yamao, Controller of an Imperial
Household and President of the Institution of Engineers
of Japan. Ito is now Marquis Ito, several times Prime
Minister and the most distinguished statesman in Japan.
Side is Count Inouye, who has held several Ministerial
portfolios and is also a very distinguished statesman.
Nomura is Viscount Inouye, late Director-General of Imperial
Railways in Japan, while Endo became Master of the Mint,
but died some time ago. A year or two later other
young Japanese began to come to Britain, as well as to the
Continent of Europe and to America, and the stream has
gone on ever since. Foreign travel or residence is now
looked upon as an essential part of the education of every
Japanese who is ambitious of taking an active part in public
affairs in Japan.

As a result of the influence which was brought to bear
on the advisers of the Mikado, an embassy with an Imperial
Embassy to Prince at its head was sent to give the Mikado's
foreign countries. CO nsent to the treaties which had been made with
the representatives of the foreign Powers. It has been con-
tended that neither constitutional law nor practice prohibited
the Shogun from entering into treaty relations with other
Powers, but it is probable that there was no law on the subject
as such an event was not anticipated, while if certain events
in practice seemed to justify the contention, they only proved
that the Shoguns had successfully kept the Mikados in the
background in any such arrangements. There can be no
doubt that in preparing and carrying out the restoration the
Mikado's party held that the Shogun's assumption of the
right of making treaties with foreign Powers was just as
much a usurpation on his part as was his exercise of
authority in purely internal affairs. In order to emphasise
this view of the matter the foreign Ministers were invited to
an audience with the Mikado in Kyoto. The British and
Dutch Ministers accepted the invitation, the others declined.

Fall of Feudalism 2 7

The train of the British Minister, Sir Harry S. Parkes, was
attacked by fanatic assassins and his life was saved by Goto,
who by a sweep of his sword cut off the head of the assailant.
The conversion of the Court of Kyoto was conversion of
instantaneous, and they became good friends Mlkado ' s Court.
with the men whom they had looked upon as unworthy to
be in Japan. The action of Sir Harry Parkes on this
occasion did much to bring about this happy result. It was
determined, not only that foreign intercourse should be
encouraged, but that Chinese customs, which had hitherto
been the sole foundation of Japanese civilisation, should
give way to European, and that European science
and arts should be studied so that Japan might become
a member of the comity of nations on terms of perfect
equality.

Hitherto the Emperor, while looked upon with the
greatest veneration by the people, had lived apart from all
his subjects except a few court nobles, but it was resolved
that in future he should take an active part in the govern-
ment of the country and be as accessible as European
sovereigns ; and to emphasise the change, Yedo, the capital
of the Tokugawa Shoguns, became the new capital of the
Empire, instead of Kyoto, the old seat of government,
and its name was changed to Tokyo, meaning " Eastern
capital." The Emperor was supported by those statesmen
of both parties whose intellectual superiority had caused them
to be recognised as leaders, and they united in adopting
the modern progressive policy which ever since has guided
the Japanese Empire.

On March 14, 1868, the Emperor, soon after his
accession to the throne, proclaimed on oath the five principles
that were to guide the Government newly established. 1

First. — Deliberative assemblies shall be established on a
broad basis, in order that Governmental measures may be
adopted in accordance with public opinion (taken in the
broad sense).

1 Viscount Hayashi's translation.

28 Dai Nippon

Secondly. — The concord of all classes of society shall
in all emergencies of the State be the first aim of the
Government.

Thirdly. — Means shall be found for the furtherance of
the lawful desires of all individuals, without discrimination
as to persons.

Fourthly. — All purposeless precedents and useless customs
being discarded, justice and righteousness shall be the guide
of all actions.

Fifthly. — Knowledge and learning shall be sought after
throughout the whole world, in order that the status of the
Empire of Japan may be raised ever higher and higher.

In the same year a deliberative assembly was called
together as a first step in carrying out the policy which had
been adopted. It was composed of persons representing
each of the Daimiates, who were chosen for the position by
the Daimyos, and was intended to give advice to the Imperial
Government. The inexperience of the members, however,
rendered it of little use, and it resolved itself into a peaceful
debating society of a very conservative character, and after
a short and uneventful career it was dissolved.

Meantime it had become evident to the moving spirits
of the revolution that national development and peace could
Fail of never be secured while feudalism existed, as the
feudalism. c i an S y S tem was fatal to national unity, and they
recognised the necessity for a reconstruction of the machinery
of government and administration. With few exceptions
the hereditary princes of the provinces had come to be
merely formal chiefs of their Daimiates, and the real power
was in the hands of the energetic and capable samurai who
were employed to manage their affairs. These latter were
not slow to recognise that any scheme for the transference
of the political authority of the Daimyos to the central
Government would render more important their services, and
no doubt these motives prompted them to support a plan
which at the same time advanced their interests and could
be commended on patriotic grounds.

Fall of Feudalism 2 9

Matters were brought to a point by the presentation to
the Emperor of an elaborate memorial signed by the
Daimyos of Choshu, Satsuma, Tosa, Hizen, Kaga and others
offering him the lists of their possessions and men. This
memorial appeared in the official Gazette, March 5, 1869.
Its preparation is attributed to Kido Takayoshi and bears
supreme evidence to his learning and statesmanship. The
example thus set was followed rapidly by others, and in
the end only a small number remained who had not so
petitioned. The Emperor accepted the offer thus made, and
on the 25th of July a decree was issued, which stated that
His Majesty, from a desire to assimilate the civil and
military classes, and to place them on a footing of equality,
abolished the designation of Court nobles (Kuge) and terri-
torial princes (Shoku, more commonly called Daimyo) and
replaced them by that of noble families (Kwazokit). By
another decree the Government reserved to themselves the
approval of all appointments or offices held under the late
Daimyos, another obvious step towards the subordination of
all the local administrations to that of the central Government.
Thus, at almost one stroke, the whole institution of feudalism
which had flourished for many centuries was cut away,
although the forces which brought it about had been at
work for a considerable time. In the sequel we shall see
that adherence to the principles enunciated by the Emperor
has within the short space of one generation brought Japan
from conditions of feudalism to a strong position of con-
solidated military power, able and determined to make its
influence felt among the nations of the world, especially in
all matters affecting Far Eastern policy ; while in industry
and commerce she has already made sufficient progress
to ensure that she will be a most important factor in the
evolution which will take place in all the countries bounded
by the Pacific area.

Dai Nippon

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The complete study of the subjects mentioned in this chapter
involves the whole of Japanese history, and that can only be done
by those who are able to read Japanese books. Some of the more
recent of these are very good and follow scientific methods. Some
very interesting and important papers appear in the Transactions of the
Asiatic Society of Japan, but general readers are likely to be content
with the works of Murray, Griffis, Rein, Black, Adams and others.
The official report of Perry's Expedition, Griffis's books on Townsend
Harris and Perry, and those by Laurence Oliphant and Sir
Rutherford Alcock on the early days of foreign intercourse with
Japan, are all interesting in their way. Captain Brinkley's monu-
mental work should be in the possession of every real student ot
Japan and Japanese history.

CHAPTER III

THE JAPANESE MIND

The facts mentioned in the preceding chapter indicate the
forces which brought about the fall of feudalism in Japan,
and their study should help to dispel some of Mistaken ideas
the mistaken ideas which prevail on the subject. about J a P an -
Before proceeding further, however, it is necessary that we
should form, at least, an approximate estimate of the mental
and moral qualities of the Japanese, or what may be roughly
called " the Japanese mind " ; for, after all, these qualities
form the chief determining factors in the progress of the
nation. Japan is still looked upon by many people as a
very interesting country for the globe-trotter and the curio-
hunter, but few as yet have admitted the serious purpose
which has guided all the changes of the last half-century, and
fewer still have realised the extent of the developments
which have taken place or the importance of the position
which Japan now holds among the nations, as a factor in
all the problems which affect Far Eastern politics.

In endeavouring to form an estimate of the Japanese
mind it is evidently of the highest importance that we
should ascertain, as far as that is possible, what Motives of the
were the chief motives which urged them on Japanese.
when they determined to give up feudalism and to replace it
by constitutional government and Western science, industries,
and commerce. No doubt, at first these motives were some-
what indefinite and probably considerably mixed, but those
who know the history of the past fifty years will admit that

31

3 2 Dai Nippon

Dr. Inazo Nitobe is near the truth when he says : "In a
work of such magnitude various motives naturally entered ;
but if one were to name the principal, one would not
hesitate to name ' Bushido.' When we opened the whole
country to foreign trade, when we introduced the latest
improvements in every department of life, when we began to
study Western politics and sciences, our guiding motive was
not the development of our physical resources and the in-
crease of wealth ; much less was it a blind imitation of
Western customs. The sense of honour which cannot bear
being looked down upon as an inferior Power — that was the
strongest of motives. Pecuniary or industrial considerations
were awakened later in the process of transformation." 1 The
mental attitude of the Japanese with regard to material
subjects is well illustrated in another passage by the same
author : " It has been said that Japan won her late war
with China by means of Murata guns and Krupp cannon ;
it has been said that the victory was the work of the modern
school system ; but these are less than half truths. Does
ever a piano, be it of the choicest workmanship of Erhard
or Stanley, burst forth into the Rhapsodies of Liszt or the
Sonatas of Beethoven without a master's hand ? Or if guns
win battles, why did Louis Napoleon not beat the Prussians
with his Mitrailleuse, or the Spaniards with their Mausers
the Filipinos, whose arms were no better than the old-
fashioned Remingtons ? Needless to repeat what has grown
a trite saying, that it is the spirit that quickeneth, with-
out which the best of implements profiteth but little.
The most improved guns and cannon do not shoot of their
own accord ; the most modern educational system does not
make a coward a hero. No ! What won the battles on the
Yalu, in Korea and Manchuria was the ghosts of our fathers,
guiding our hands and beating in our hearts. They are not
dead, those ghosts, the spirits of our warlike ancestors. To
those who have eyes to see, they are clearly visible. Scratch
a Japanese of the most advanced ideas and he will show a

1 u Bushido" The Soul of Japan, p. 117,

The Japanese Mind 33

samurai. If you would plant a new seed in his heart, stir
deep the sediment which has accumulated there for ages, — or
else, new phraseology reaches no deeper than his arithmetical
understanding."

The secret of the developments which have taken place
in Japan is to be found in the fact that the Japanese have
a high sense of personal and national honour, which their
critics not unnaturally put down to conceit and vanity.
From the time that the first treaties were made with
foreigners, they felt that some of the conditions were such
that they were placed in a position of inferiority which they
could not endure. I can recall the bitterness with which
some leading Japanese spoke to me of the presence of a
British regiment in Yokohama for the purpose of protect-
ing the foreign settlement. They felt it as a national dis-
grace which ought to be got rid of as soon as possible,
although they recognised its need for some time after it came.
The terms of the treaties by which foreigners were placed
under the jurisdiction of their own national authorities were
considered humiliating to Japan. The responsible statesmen,
of course, recognised that such arrangements were necessary
until Japan had brought herself somewhat into line with
Western nations as regards the methods and the administration
of the law, but all classes of the community felt that the
arrangements should not continue for any length of time.
Their educational system was reorganised in order that men
might be trained who would be able to discharge the national
duties ; legislation and administration were brought into
harmony with Western ideas so that their claims for re-
cognition as equals might be admitted by the other Powers.

The Japanese, however, were not long in learning that

foreign Powers were more amenable to the arguments to be

drawn from a large army and a powerful navy Necessity for a

than those to be drawn from improvements in stron sJ a pan.

education and administration, and they determined to make

themselves a strong military nation. The sound of the

cannons at the Yalu River really awakened Europe and
(b 207) ^

34 Dai Nippon

America to a knowledge of the fact that a nation had been
born in the Far East which had not only brought itself
up to a considerable degree of Western culture, but had
developed its administration to such an extent as to give it
a strong claim for entrance to the comity of nations on terms
of perfect equality. The effective action of the Japanese
army and navy during the war with China, moreover, proved
that they were able to enforce their rights with something
stronger than mere arguments. Fortunately nothing more
was needed.

One almost requires to have lived in Japan to understand
what Dr. Nitobe means by saying that it was the ghosts
of their fathers guiding their hands and beating in their
hearts which won the battles on the Yalu, in Korea and
Manchuria. In the absence of that experience no better
guide can be found than Dr. Nitobe himself, and in what
follows I shall be greatly indebted to him, Mr. Lafcadio
Hearn, and Captain Brinkley. Probably some of the
opinions of these writers may seem to be overdrawn and to
a large extent sentimental, but I shall, for the most part,
confine myself to an outline of those which I can confirm by
my personal experience.

The distinguishing idea which differentiates Oriental

from Occidental thought is that of Pre-existence, to under-

_ . . stand which aright one requires to have lived

Oriental and & *

Occidental for some years in the real living atmosphere
thought. of B U( jdhism. It shapes every thought and
emotion, and the term ingwa or innen, meaning Karma as
inevitable retribution, comes naturally to every lip as an
interpretation, as a consolation, or as a reproach. It is very
curious to note that Western philosophers have scarcely as
yet recognised that the modern intellectual movement of
science and philosophy is strangely parallel with Oriental
thought, and that Buddhism and Science are more nearly at
one in their view of the universe than the conventional form
of Western theology. To the Buddhist mind expressions
and thoughts which seem to require long psychological

The Japanese Mind 35

explanations to our minds, are matters of common experience
and axioms of everyday life.

A complete study of what we have somewhat roughly
called " the Japanese mind " would take us into many
departments of Confucian philosophy and of Constituents ot
Buddhist and Shinto religions. From the two Japanese
former the Japanese were furnished with a oug

sense of calm trust in Fate, a quiet submission to the
inevitable, a stoic composure in sight of danger or calamity,
and even a disdain for life and a friendliness with death. A
soldier inspired with this spirit does not know the meaning
of fear. A nation inspired with the spirit of Buddhism is
continually striving to bring itself into harmony with the
Absolute. The tendency of such a spirit is to lose itself
in contemplation, and to become very indistinct ; hence
the neglect of material conditions which are necessary for
moral and physical welfare. In the case of the Japanese,
however, Shintoism supplied a corrective, to a considerable
extent, for it brought into prominence the national as
distinguished from the moral consciousness of the individual.
As Dr. Nitobe puts it : " Its nature-worship endeared the
country to our inmost souls, while its ancestor-worship,
tracing from lineage to lineage, made the Imperial family
the fountainhead of the whole nation. To us the country is
more than land and soil from which to mine gold or to reap
grain — it is the sacred abode of the gods, the spirits of our
forefathers ; to us the Emperor is more than the Arch-Con-
stable of a Rechtsstaat, or even the Patron of a Culturstaat
— he is the bodily representative of Heaven on earth, blend-
ing in his person its power and its mercy." 1 The two
predominating features in Japanese national life are therefore
patriotism and loyalty, and these to a large extent explain
the circumstances which led to the overthrow of the Shogun
and the restoration of the Emperor as the centre of executive
authority in Japan. They also explain the national char-
acter of all the movements which have taken place since the

1 Bushido, p. 9.

36 Dai Nippon

Restoration. When once their meanings were fully grasped
by some of the leading spirits, they rapidly spread through-
out the nation, and even the poorest in the land felt that
they had to take a part in them and that the ghosts of their
fathers were guiding their hands and beating in their hearts.
Another point to be noted is that the real nature of the
religious and national life of Japan has been and still is
predominantly communal, and that individualism has only
had a minor part in forming the nation. The combination
of Shintoism, Buddhism and Confucianism which constituted
the Japanese religion and philosophy was therefore not a
mere mechanical mixture ; it was of the nature of a chemical
compound which was very different from any one of its
elements ; and this accounts not only for the essential
difference of the Japanese mind from that of other Eastern
nations, but also for the social order and in great part for
the changes which have taken place in recent years in Japan.
It would take us far beyond our present limits if we
examined in detail the nature of the compound which was
Resultant produced by the amalgamation and evolution
thought. f j-^ various factors in Japanese religion, but
a few notes are necessary in order to understand some of the
features in the national character. Buddhism, in the process,
became very much modified and simplified. The immeasur-
ably deferred hope of the Indian Buddhist was brought
down to everyday life by the prospect of immediate
admission, after death, to the ranks of the deities, and its
practical morality was condensed into five negative precepts
and ten positive virtues, which are to be found in all the
moral codes of the world. The former were — not to kill, not
to be guilty of dishonesty, not to be lewd, not to speak
untruth, not to drink intoxicants ; the latter were — to be
kind to all sentient beings, to be liberal, to be chaste, to
speak the truth, to employ gentle and peace-making language,
to use refined words, to express everything in a plain
unexaggerated manner, to devote the mind to moral
thoughts, to practise charity and patience, and to cultivate

The Japanese Mind $7

pure intentions. The practical Japanese mind could not
accept the negation of all interest in the affairs of this world
as necessary to the way of salvation, and while not
neglecting meditation, it found scope for its religious zeal
in the exercise of a charity which, if it had been practised
as prescribed, would have made the devotees very good
Christians. " It included the digging of wells, the building
of bridges, the making of roads, the maintenance of one's
parents, the support of the Church, the nursing of the sick,
the succouring of the poor, and the duty of recommending
these same acts to others. There were further noble
precepts, and there was also an elaborate system of daily
worship and prayer. All idea of abstention from the affairs
of everyday life disappeared, and the hereafter became, not
a state of absolute non-existence (nirvana), but the ' infinite
perception of a beatific vision '; a condition in which each
of the saved formed one of a band of great intercessors,
pleading continually for their ignorant and struggling
brethren upon earth that they might attain to the same
heights of perfect enlightenment and bliss." 1

The latest developments of Buddhism in Japan made a
still further approach to the Christian ideals. Nichiren is
one of the noblest and most picturesque of the Japanese
saints, and his teachings included the conception of a God
in whom everything lives and moves and has its being ;
an omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient deity. All
phenomena, mental and material, in all time and space, were
declared by him to have only subjective existence in the
consciousness of the individual. To the enlightened Buddhist
all worlds were equally beautiful. " Hence, to proclaim the
identity of this evil or phenomenal world with the glorious
underlying reality, or noumenon ; to point out the way to
Buddhahood ; to open the path of salvation ; above all, to
convince the people that one and all of them might become
Buddhas, here and now — that was the mission of the sect of
Nichiren." Captain Brinkley sums up the results of all the

1 Brinkley, Japan, vol. v. p. 146.

38 Dai Nippon

changes which took place in these words : " Thus the
colours that Buddhism took in its transmission through the
Japanese mind were all bright hues. Death ceased to be a
passage to mere non-existence and became the entrance to
actual beatitude. The ascetic selfishness of the contemplative
disciple was exchanged for a career of active charity. The
endless chain of cause and effect was shortened to a single
link. The conception of one supreme, all-merciful being
forced itself into prominence. The gulf of social and
political distinctions that yawned so widely between the
patrician and the plebeian, and all the other unsightliness of
the world, became subjective eidola destined to disappear at
the first touch of moral light. The Buddha and the people
were identified." * Captain Brinkley adds : " Buddhism in
the comparatively bright and comfortable garments with
which Japanese genius clothed it, is the faith of the masses,
but the scholar proposes to himself a simpler creed, an
essentially workaday system of ethics. To be moral,
honest, and upright ; to be guided by reason and not by
passion ; to be faithful to friends and benefactors ; to
abstain from meanness and selfishness in all its forms ; to
be prepared to sacrifice everything to country and king, — that
is the ideal of the cultured mind, and in the pursuit of it
no priestly guidance is considered necessary. If a Japanese
be asked to define the much-talked of Yamato damasJiii —
the spirit of Yamato — he will do so in the words set down
here." 2 There can be little doubt that they express the con-
ditions of the Japanese minds which exercised the greatest
influence in the country since the adoption of Western
methods and the introduction of Western arts, sciences,
and religion. Confucian ethics, in Japan as in China, was
the basis of the philosophy of life to the educated classes, in
so far as they had a philosophy of life, and the Confucian
teaching only strengthened, deepened, and gave form and
outline to the sentiments of the Shinto religion. Farther
on we will consider some of the changes which have taken

1 Brinkley, Japa.71, vol. v. p. 151. 2 Ibid. p. 159.

The Japanese Mind 39

place in recent years in consequence of the developments in
education and in social, economic, and political conditions.

Nothing illustrates the spirit of Old Japan so much as
the institutions of suicide {hara-kiri) and redress {kataki-
uclii), and they show, in a very clear manner, some
of the characteristics of what we have called the
Japanese mind, even of the present day ; for although they
are not carried out as in former days, they indicate the
attitude which the great body of the people still assume
when there is any question either of national or individual
importance under discussion. When a question of honour
was involved, death was accepted by a samurai as a key to
the solution to many complex problems. Redress did not
descend to mere personal revenge, for it was justified only
when it was undertaken on behalf of superiors and bene-
factors. " One's own wrongs, including injuries done to wife
and children, were to be borne and forgiven. A samurai
could therefore fully sympathise with Hannibal's oath to
avenge his country's wrongs, but he scorns James Hamilton
for wearing in his girdle a handful of earth from his wife's
grave as an eternal incentive to avenge her wrongs on the
Regent Murray." l The recognition of this spirit helps to
explain many of the features connected with Japanese
history, not only under the old regime, but also during the
transition period since the country had intercourse with
foreigners.

In some respects the Japanese samurai resembled the
ancient Greeks in that they always placed loyalty and duty
to the State before self-interest, and their most
popular literature abounds in illustrations of ^Vs first* 6
this. Viscount Hayashi has given English
readers an excellent example of the ancient spirit of the
Japanese in his book For His People, and the perusal of
this and similar books will do far more to make people
acquainted with the manners and thought of the Japanese
than formal disquisitions on ethics and psychology, and to
1 Nitobe, Bushido, p. 86.

40 Dai Nippon

such books we must refer our readers, as our space will allow
us only to touch on those parts of the subject which have
an immediate bearing on the chief aspects of modern
Japanese life, with which we propose to deal. A very
competent writer has made the following remarks on the
feature in the Japanese character we have been considering,
and they explain a great deal which to the ordinary foreign
mind is not apparent : " Something more than a profound
conception of duty was needed to nerve the samurai for
sacrifices such as he seems to have been always ready to
make. It is true that Japanese parents of the military class
took pains to familiarise their children of both sexes from
very tender years with the idea of self-destruction at any
time. The little boy was taught how the sword should be
directed against his bosom ; the little girl, how the dagger
must be held to pierce the throat ; and both grew up in
constant fellowship with the conviction that suicide must be
reckoned among the natural incidents of everyday existence.
But superadded to the force of education and the incentive
of tradition there was a transcendental influence. Buddhism
supplied it. The tenets of that creed divided themselves,
broadly speaking, into two doctrines, salvation by faith and
salvation by works, and the chief exponent of the latter
principle is the sect which prescribes ' meditation ' as the
vehicle of enlightenment. Whatever be the mental pro-
cesses induced by this rite, those who have practised it
insist that it leads finally to a state of ' absorption ' in which
the mind is flooded by an illumination revealing the universe
in a new aspect, absolutely free from all traces of passion,
interest, or affection, and showing, written across everything
in flaming letters, the truth that for him who has found
Buddha there is neither birth nor death, growth nor decay.
Lifted high above his surroundings, he is prepared to meet
every fate with indifference. The attainment of that state
seems to have been a fact in the case both of the samurai of
the military epoch, and of the Japanese soldier of to-day,
producing, in the former, readiness to look calmly in the face

The Japanese Mind 41

of any form of death, and in the latter, a high type of
patriotic courage." With a spirit of this kind even very
imperfectly developed fear of death disappears, and deeds of
daring are possible which astonish the outside world.

Amidst all the intellectual and material changes which
have taken place in Japan there have naturally been great
changes in the religious ideals of large numbers of the people.
One thing, however, has not changed. Shinto remains the
unique creed of the Imperial house, and as this fact is of
great national importance it is necessary to dwell on it a
little in detail. Appended to the Constitution, by which
freedom of conscience was unequivocally granted to the
people, were three documents — a preamble, an Imperial oath
in the Sanctuary of the Palace, and an Imperial Speech —
every one of which contained words that left no doubt of
the Sovereign's rigid adherence to the patriarchal faith of
Japan. In the preamble His Majesty said : " Having, by
virtue of the glories of our ancestors, ascended to the throne
of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal ; desiring
to promote the welfare and to give development to the
moral and intellectual faculties of our subjects who have
been favoured with the benevolent care and affectionate
vigilance of our ancestors ; and hoping to maintain the pro-
sperity of the State in concert with our people and with
their support, we hereby promulgate," etc.; in the Imperial
oath he said : L< We, the successor to the prosperous throne
of our predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the
Imperial founder of our house and to our Imperial ancestors
that, in consonance with a great policy co-extensive with
the heavens and with the earth, we shall maintain and secure
from decline the ancient form of government. . . . These
laws (the Constitution) contain only an exposition of grand
precepts for the conduct of the government, bequeathed by
the Imperial founder of our house and by our Imperial
ancestors. That we have been so fortunate in our reign
... as to accomplish this work, we owe to the glorious
spirits of the Imperial founder of our house and of our other

42 Dai Nippon

Imperial ancestors"; and in the Imperial speech he says:
" The Imperial founder of our house and our other Imperial
ancestors, by the help and support of the forefathers of our
subjects, laid the foundation of our empire upon a basis
which is to last for ever. That this brilliant achievement
embellishes the annals of our country, is due to the glorious
virtues of our sacred Imperial ancestors and to the loyalty
and bravery of our subjects, their love of country, and their
public spirit." The sentiments embodied in these words
represent a force in the national life of Japan which
those who have not lived in the country cannot realise,
and its existence may bring about a combination of
Imperial and democratic power which may probably throw
a new light on the political and social problems of the
future.

At the same time it must be admitted that there has
been a great development of purely materialistic ideas. A
large proportion of the younger men may be said to belong
to the school of scientific agnostics, and their religion resolves
itself into a system of practical ethics, and is in fact a return
to the " Bushido " of the samurai. It may be said that the
code of moral principles embodied in that system was to a
large extent ideal and had little effect on real life, but I
venture to affirm that its principles entered more deeply
into the national life of Japan than do those of the
religion we profess into Western civilisation, which in
many respects is directly opposed to the spirit of
Christianity. The true samurai insisted on justice in all his
dealings with his fellow-men, and courage was not esteemed
unless it was exercised in the cause of righteousness, while
benevolence, magnanimity, sympathy and pity were ever
recognised to be supreme virtues, the highest of all the
attributes of the human soul. The courtesy and politeness
of the Japanese were simply the outward symbols of the
inward spirit which was the mark of the cultured man ; who,
however, never allowed mere outward form to interfere with
the standard of veracity and conduct which was demanded

The Japanese Mind 43

by his social position. The word of a samurai was sufficient
guaranty of the truthfulness of an assertion.

Foreigners who have had commercial dealings with
Japanese may find it difficult to reconcile these high ideals
with the practice which they found to prevail, but commercial
it must be remembered that the social position of morallt y-
the samurai demanded a loftier standard of veracity than
that of the tradesman or the peasant. It cannot be denied
that Japanese merchants gained a bad name by their want
of commercial integrity, especially in the early days of
foreign intercourse, but under the feudal system none of
the great occupations of life were further removed from the
profession of arms than commerce. The merchant was
placed lowest in the category of vocations — the knight, the
tiller of the soil, the mechanic, and the merchant. Com-
mercial development was not possible to any great extent
in feudal Japan, and the obloquy attached to the calling
brought within its pale many who did not care for social
repute. The initial consequence was that, while those
belonging to it had a code of morals which guided them
in their transactions with each other, in their relations with
people outside their vocation their actions were in accord-
ance with the low reputation which their class had acquired.

Such being the case, it can easily be understood that
when the country was opened to foreign trade, the most
adventurous rushed to the open ports to take part in the
scramble with foreigners for their share of the wealth which
was the main object of life at these places. Some of the
samurai, and even of the nobles, went into trade, but their
inexperience and their sense of honour led the majority of
them into bankruptcy ; the Japanese side of trade was thus,
for the most part, left in the hands of sharp, unscrupulous
persons, to whom the spirit and teaching of " Bushido "
were either unknown, or if known, altogether ignored,
and their actions brought the whole Japanese nation into
disrespect ; for foreigners are apt to generalise regarding
Eastern peoples from their experience of those with whom

44 Dai Nippon

they come into contact, and who are seldom, if ever, the
representatives of the highest types. Under the old
regime money and the love of it were ignored, and a man
was honoured on account, not of his possessions, but of
his social position, his character, or his wisdom.

We have hitherto dealt chiefly with the ethical aspects of
Japanese character, but it will be necessary to glance at
Japanese mental some of their mental characteristics in order
characteristics. \fodX we may better understand the wonderful
progress which has been made. The common impression is
that the Japanese have wonderful powers of imitation but
little or no originality. This impression, however, is as
superficial as many others which have been formed of
Eastern peoples. The Japanese samurai, and to a very
considerable extent all the other classes in the country, were
fairly well educated, but it was not for the purpose of
enabling them to pass examinations or to make money but
to build up character. Intellectual superiority was of course
esteemed, but with them intellectuality meant wisdom in the
first instance and only knowledge in a very subordinate sense.
The framework of " Bushido " was composed of Wisdom.
Benevolence, and Courage, but in erecting this framework
the mind was trained in such a manner that it obtained the
capacity to undertake any study to which it was directed.
When, therefore, Western learning and science were intro-
duced they found a field well cultivated for their reception,
and characters prepared to take full advantage of them.
As, however, a very thoughtful writer has said, " although the
' occidentalization ' of Japan is a fact unique in human
history, what does it really mean ? Nothing more than
rearrangement of a part of the pre-existing machinery of
thought. Even that for thousands of brave young minds
was death. The adoption of Western civilisation was not
nearly such an easy matter as unthinking persons imagined.
And it is quite evident that the mental readjustments,
effected at a cost which remains to be told, have given good
results only along directions in which the race had always

The Japanese Mind 45

shown capacities of special kinds. Thus the appliances of
Western industrial invention have worked admirably in
Japanese hands — have produced excellent results in those
crafts at which the nation had been skilful, in other and
quainter ways, for ages. There has been no transformation
— nothing more than the turning of old abilities into new
and larger channels. The scientific professions tell the same
story. For certain forms of science, such as medicine,
surgery (there are no better surgeons in the world than the
Japanese), chemistry, microscopy, the Japanese genius is
naturally adapted ; and in all these it has done work already
heard of round the world. In war and statecraft it has
shown wonderful power ; but throughout their history the
Japanese have been characterised by great military and
political capacity. Nothing remarkable has been done,
however, in directions foreign to the national genius. In
the study, for example, of Western music, Western art,
Western literature, time would seem to have been simply
wasted. These things make appeal extraordinary to
emotional life with us ; they make no such appeal to
Japanese emotional life. Every serious thinker knows that
emotional transformation of the individual through education
is impossible. To imagine that the emotional character of
an Oriental race could be transformed in the short space of
thirty years by the contact of Occidental ideas is absurd.
Emotional life, which is older than intellectual life, and
deeper, can no more be altered suddenly by a change of
milieu than the surface of a mirror can be changed by
passing reflections. All that Japan has been able to do so
miraculously well has been done without any self-trans-
formation ; and those who imagine her emotionally closer
to us to-day than she may have been thirty years ago
ignore facts of science which admit of no argument." l

This line of thought might lead us into many interest-
ing discussions on the relations of European and Asiatic
thought and into a consideration of the belief which is often

1 Hearn, Kokoro, pp. 9-1 1.

46 Dai Nippon

expressed, but as often forgotten in practical action, that the
East is separated from the West by a chasm that nothing

Eastern people can brid g e and is altogether impervious to
and Western influences from without, but meantime these
must be postponed. The quotations which we
have given indicate the lines on which an Eastern people
may be influenced by Western thought and the limitations to
that influence. The forces acting on Japan from without have
been co-operating with those which acted from within and
have merely changed their direction ; they have created little
that is new. If we compare her case with that of China,
we at once see the cause of the differences of results. It
is customary to speak of China as having stood still for
centuries, but if we examine her history we find that she
developed on her own individual lines from age to age up to
the time of the coming of Europeans, and since then she has
slowly but surely retrograded ; because, as an experienced
Eastern official in the British service has put it, " the external
influence brought to bear upon her has been one essentially
Results of antagonistic to her whole spirit and genius, and
European action, ^as served to make development of a kind
which was natural to her, and which was something wholly
unlike, and far more subtle than the progress of modern
Europe, an impossibility." The same writer points out that
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and later the
Chinese were remarkable among all the nations for the
extraordinary care which was taken by high and low to
secure the safety of the persons and property of strangers,
travellers, and foreign merchants, and religions of all kinds
were tolerated. What has wrought this complete change in
China, the reputedly unchanging and unchangeable ? The
writer from whom I have quoted says : " The answer, let us
blind ourselves to it if we can, does not admit of a doubt.
It is due solely and entirely to the influence of Europe, to
the aggressive spirit which animated, and to a certain extent
still animates, the white men in Asia ; the spirit which,
coming into rude contact with that of the East, threw the

The Japanese Mind 47

latter violently back upon itself, stayed the tide of its
natural development, and since the civilisations of Asia
were thus prevented from advancing in their own fashion,
and the law of Nature forbade that they should stand
still, compelled them to retrogression." l The present con-
dition of China is a disgrace to the Western Powers and a
complete justification of the independent position which the
Japanese have always taken in matters affecting the internal
development of their country.

My own experience with Japanese students has always
been, in every way, most pleasant. Eager and persevering
in their studies, and with abilities which compare

.... - . - Personal

favourably with those of students in any part of experience oi
the world, they retained a great part of their Japanese

' * or students.

native politeness and gave no trouble to teachers
in the course of their work. If occasionally one of the more
boisterous spirits forgot himself, a word reminding him of
the behaviour which was expected of a Japanese gentleman
was sufficient to recall him to a sense of his duty, and during
all the time I was in Japan no question of College discipline
ever arose. The only change made in the Calendar of the
Engineering College as I drafted it was the addition, on the
suggestion of the Japanese authorities, of certain regulations
with regard to discipline, but these were found to be un-
necessary, and they appeared only in the first edition of that
publication. In recent years, however, it is evident that a
turbulent spirit has shown itself among certain classes of
students, but this no doubt arises from the disorganisation
of Japanese ideals and methods and the want of anything
better to take their place, and indicates the necessity for the
cultivation of " Bushido " suitable to modern conditions.

The charge of want of originality on the part of the
Japanese is, as I have said, superficial and charge of want
unfair. How could originality be expected of originality.
under a feudal system which penalised it in every form ? I

1 Hugh Clifford, C.M.G., "The East and West," The Monthly Review,
April 1903, p. 133.

48 Dai Nippon

remember my apprentice master, Alexander C. Kirk, LL.D.,
writing to me when in Japan warning me not to expect too
much in the way of science and engineering from the present
generation of Japanese, for, as he said, " such things had to
be bred in the bone." In the course of little more than a
generation the Japanese have shown that they are not only
able to adapt Western science to Japanese conditions, but to
advance its borders by original investigation. The memoirs
and papers published by Japanese students, both on scientific
and literary subjects, will bear very favourable comparison
with those of any other country, and while no Japanese
Newton, Darwin, or Kelvin has yet arisen, there are men
connected with Japanese universities and colleges of whom
any learned institution in the world would have no reason
to be ashamed. In the course of our investigations we shall
have an opportunity of noting the practical work which has
been done in engineering, industry, and commerce, and a
mere outline will be sufficient to show that the Japanese are
not simply book students, but are able to apply their
knowledge to the practical affairs of life. As conditions
develop, the opportunities for originality will increase, but we
must remember that what we call originality is only another
name for the resultant of the experience and spirit of the
age ; genius simply translates that into language which can
be understood.

It is too late in the day to continue to repeat what was
a very common saying thirty years ago ; namely, that the
Disproved by Japanese were very clever imitators but that
recent history, they had neither originality nor perseverance
to accomplish anything great. Their whole history in the
interval has disproved the charge. Their ardent patriotism,
their high sense of personal and national honour, their
keen intelligence have enabled them to work what is
admitted to be the political miracle of the latter part of the
nineteenth century. Early in their new career they formed
very clear ideas of what they wished to attain. They made
their plans with deliberation, they carried them out with

The Japanese Mind 49

skill, and by their adaptations of Western methods to their
national institutions they have created a new Power which
will influence conditions in all parts of the world and
especially in those countries bounded by the Pacific area.
To show how they accomplished this will be our task in the
following chapters.

A complete study of the mental and moral qualities of
the Japanese — which have influenced the Revolution that
has taken place in their country — would take The spirit of
us into many psychological and metaphysical the Revolution -
problems. Enough has been said to show that the spirit
which dominated that Revolution is of a very complex
nature. What has been called "the Soul of Japan" has
been a very important factor in it ; but, unlike other Easterns,
the Japanese have brought the soul under the control of the
brain, and each successive step in their evolution has been
guided by an appeal to reason, which has enabled them to
combine many of the qualities of the East and the West.
What these qualities really were will be best understood, not
by abstract discussions, but by a study of the results which
have followed from their efforts. ' The advent of Christianity
in its various forms in Japan has had the result of imparting
new life to Buddhism and in many respects causing it to
approach still more nearly to some of the Christian ideals.
On the other hand, Christian missionaries now understand
much better than they did the conditions of the Japanese
mind and are not so disdainfully aggressive as they were,
and, consciously or unconsciously, they are imbibing Eastern
ideas which are causing them to modify the forms of pre-
senting some of their Western theological doctrines. How
far this process will go on is one of the problems of the
future.

If I were attempting to sum up briefly the qualities of
the Japanese which have enabled them to make such
wonderful developments in such a short time, I would
mention as the most important factor the intense loyalty of
the people, which compels them to make any sacrifice — even

(b 207)

50 Dai Nippon

life itself — when they consider it necessary for the honour of
their country. This, combined with their great intellectual
ability, enables them to take full advantage of the modern
science and organisation necessary for the attainment of the
objects of their ambition. Their great power of foresight
prepares them for all their enterprises, both of peace and
war, with an exact and scientific prevision not excelled by
any other nation. While they are permeated by Eastern
ideas they have been able to appropriate much that is best
in Western thought, and thus they unite many of the best
qualities of the East and the West.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The Japanese mind is not to be understood from books alone.
A lengthened residence in Japan and a careful and sympathetic
study of the subject are necessary even for its approximate under-
standing. Still some books which have been written will be found
useful, such as Dr. Nitobe's Bushido, The Soul of Japan, Lafcadio
Hearn's Kokoro and other works, some of the chapters in Captain
Brinkley's large work, and Professor Chamberlain's Things Japanese.
Gulick's Evolution of the Japanese, Social a?id Psychic, contains a great
deal of interesting but some of it debatable matter. Probably such
books as Mitford's Tales of Old Japan or Viscount Hayashi's story
For his People are more useful to general readers than formal
psychological treatises.

CHAPTER IV

TRANSITION

The formal abolition of feudalism in Japan was only the
beginning of a long period of transition during which the
government and the institutions of the country were fitted
to the new conditions, and before entering on a description
of the chief developments in the various departments of
national life, it will be convenient to give a sketch of the
more important events that occurred during the period of
rapid change which we may consider to have ended with the
war with China in 1894-5 — a war which was the means of
causing the strength of Japan to be recognised by the other
nations of the world. Changes have, of course, been going
on since that date, the more important of which will be
noted under their appropriate headings ; but during the
period mentioned the foundations of the institutions of
modern Japan were laid and their superstructures sufficiently
developed to allow us to give an outline which will be of
use in co-relating them to each other and to the general
course of events in Japan. The task before the country
and the people was a difficult one; and it is Problems of the
not surprising that mistakes were made, and Revolution.
that troubles arose which sometimes threatened serious
results to the nation ; but, on the whole, it is admitted even
by their most severe critics that the Japanese have per-
formed their task in a manner which, in many respects,
affords an object lesson to the world.

On the publication of the decree abolishing feudalism

51

52 Dai Nippon

the ex-Daimyos returned to their provinces and assumed the
functions of governors of their clans, and each provincial
government received a uniform constitution. It was soon
found, however, that the hereditary princes were, as a class,
utterly unfit for the chief executive offices of their old
provinces, and as vacancies occurred they were replaced by
other more competent persons. The actual leaders in the
central Government, after the Revolution, did not number
among them a single Daimyo, although two or three were
Men of the Kugt or Court nobles. Among the men who
Revolution, have made modern Japan, the names of Okubo,
Kido, Iwakura, Sanjo, Goto, Katsu, Okuma, Ito, Inouye,
Soyejima, Oki, Saigo, and Yamagata deserve to be specially
recorded, although many others who will be mentioned later
on did much in their own departments to consolidate the
new regime. Captain Brinkley, a very competent authority,
has said : " Of the fifty-five men whose united efforts had
compassed the fall of the Shogunate, five stood conspicuous
above their colleagues ; they were Iwakura and Sanjo, Court
nobles ; Saigo and Okubo, samurai of Satsuma ; and Kido,
a samurai of Choshu. In the second rank came many men
of great gifts, whose youth alone disqualified them for
prominence — Ito, the constructive statesman of the Meiji
era, who inspired nearly all the important measures of the
time, though he did not openly figure as their originator ;
Inouye, who never lacked a resource or swerved from the
dictates of loyalty ; Okuma, a politician of subtle, versatile,
and vigorous intellect ; Itagaki, the Rousseau of his era ;
and a score of others created by the extraordinary circum-
stances with which they had to deal. But the first five
mentioned were the captains, the rest only lieutenants." If we
were studying the history of the time we would of course enter
into the examination of the share which individuals had in
public affairs, but, as already explained, our object is rather
to give a broad outline of the national evolution, and therefore
we can touch on the careers of individuals only in so far as
their work bears directly on the subjects under consideration.

Transition 53

The Emperor was the source of all authority, but the
actual work of the Government was carried on by the
Daijokwan or Privy Council, composed, for the central
most part, of the leaders of the Revolution. Government.
Under the Daijokwan were the Ministers of the different
departments, who were called to take part in the Cabinet
Councils of the Government when any questions relating to
their department were to be discussed. The composition of
the Privy Council from time to time caused serious dis-
content among the members of the more powerful clans, who
were dissatisfied with the share which they had obtained in
the Government. Satsuma especially was troublesome, as
the members of that clan looked upon themselves as the
principal agents in the Revolution which had been the means
of restoring the governing power into the hands of the
Emperor, and their discontent came to a head in a very
serious rebellion a few years later.

The first deliberative assembly having proved a failure,
another attempt was made in 1870 but with almost equal
want of success. The House was opened with some
ceremony on the 26th of June, but it was found Deliberative
that the members were so deficient in the informa- Assembly,
tion necessary for the transaction of business and so much
given to irrelevant discussion that they were eventually sent
home, with the object of qualifying themselves for the task
they had set to perform.

From time to time attacks were made on foreigners by
Japanese who thought that their country was going on a
wrong course by the adoption of foreign Attitude towards
customs, but in many cases these attacks were foreigners,
provoked by the imprudence or misconduct of the persons
who suffered. On the whole, however, the anti- foreign
policy was being abandoned, especially by the high officials
of the clans, and by 1 87 1 it was evident that a very
important change was coming over the spirit of Japan.
The people recognised that any attempt to return to
the old system of isolation was impracticable, and they

54 Dai Nippon

agreed with the Government in its resolve to respect the
treaties and to encourage friendly relations with foreign
Powers.

Public opinion changed very rapidly. On the one hand
there were those who wished to adopt all kinds of foreign
arts and inventions at once and to plunge into Western
civilisation, and on the other those who, while recognising
the necessity for an approximation to the methods of
European countries, were anxious to retain what was good
in Japanese customs and methods and to preserve the old
institutions of the country. When opportunity arose I
always took the side of the latter, and impressed on those
with whom I came in contact that a nation which forgot its
past was not likely to have a great future. N While anxious
that the Japanese should be assisted in every way to become
a strong nation, I felt that if too great haste were dis-
played disastrous results would follow. For some years it
was difficult to prevent the beginning of schemes which were
doomed to failure, but as experience was gained more
caution was shown, and gradually there occurred what many
foreigners called a reaction against things European, but
which, in reality, was only a recognition of the claims of
things Japanese, and a clearer recognition of the conditions
of real national progress.

Many young men and a considerable number of young
women were sent to foreign countries in order that they
Lines of might obtain a knowledge of foreign methods and
progress. fo Q instructed in Western arts and sciences, but as
they were quite unprepared to take full advantage of what
they saw and heard, the results were, in the majority of
cases, very unsatisfactory. Those, however, who settled
down to a systematic course of study, as a rule, did well, and
on their return to Japan were able to do very efficient work.
It was, however, felt that it was absolutely necessary that
arrangements should be made for a sound preliminary training
being given in Japan to those who were likely to go abroad,
so that they might be fitted to take full advantage of the

Transition 55

opportunities which they had for the study of Western arts
and sciences.

Frequent changes and developments took place both in
the central and local Government with the object of meeting
the new conditions which were arising. The most important
of these we will note in subsequent chapters. The
administration of the law was improved, the Department
of Education was established and a beginning was made
with the organisation of national education and of public
works which have been the means of changing to a large
extent the general conditions of Japan. The various public
works were united in one department, the Kobusho, under
which a few years later was placed the Imperial College of
Engineering. A telegraph was soon in working order
between Yokohama and Tokyo, and the construction of a
railway between these two points was begun. In order that
navigation might be rendered safer, lighthouses were con-
structed at different parts of the coast under the super-
intendence of Mr. Brunton, a British engineer, and in short
a beginning was made in a great many departments of
national activity, all of which have had very important
developments, to be noticed later on.

Those in power, however, felt that more complete informa-
tion was required before a systematic attempt was made to
reorganise thoroughly the national institutions, Emba
and accordingly it was determined by the Cabinet United states
that an embassy should be sent to the United and Europe>
States and Europe on a tour of observation, for the
purpose of learning the nature of the institutions of other
countries and for gaining a more precise knowledge of their
laws, commerce, and education as well as their naval and
military systems.

In addition to these reasons, however, there was another
which probably had more direct effect in causing the
appointment of the embassy. The Japanese Government
and the people generally had all along felt that in the treaties
with the foreign Powers the clauses which placed those

56 Dai Nippon

of their nationality who were resident in Japan under the
direct jurisdiction of the representatives of these Powers, were
derogatory to the dignity of Japan, and that they should be
altered as soon as possible. The date fixed for the revision
of the treaties was 1st of July 1872, and it was recognised
that an important epoch was approaching. The members
of the Cabinet felt that it was their duty to make the
Governments of the Treaty Powers acquainted with the
changes which had taken place in the country since the
treaties were signed, and explain the existing conditions and
the policy which it was intended to carry out.

The chief of the embassy was Iwakura, the Junior
Prime Minister, and with him with the title of Associate
Ambassadors were Kido, Sangi ; Okubo, Minister of Finance ;
Ito, Vice-Minister of Public Works; and Yamaguchi, Assistant
Minister for Foreign Affairs. There were in addition a
number of secretaries, commissioners, and other officials ; so
that the embassy attained considerable dimensions, as was
becoming, considering the importance and variety of the
functions which it was expected to perform.

The embassy did not succeed in bringing about the
revision of the treaties, but it collected a great deal of
information on many points relating to government and
national institutions which no doubt has been largely used
in shaping the policy which has since been followed.
Personally I am interested in the embassy and its work,
because, as I have mentioned, when it visited Britain Mr.
Ito, one of its members (now Marquis Ito) arranged for the
institution of the Imperial College of Engineering, of which
I became Principal. On my arrival in Japan in June 1873
I collected, with difficulty, about fifty students from the
small schools and classes which had been started in con-
nection with various departments, and we made a beginning
with the College, using as temporary premises the yashiki
or residence of an ex-Daimyo. In order to provide properly
prepared candidates for entrance to the College I started a
large preparatory school, which was carried on with success

Transition 5 7

for some years until the work of the Education Department
was more fully organised, when it was discontinued. What
ultimately became the University of Tokyo was also being
rapidly developed, and a national system of education was
being organised, but these and other matters connected with
education will be noticed more fully in the next chapter.

Beneath the surface of the apparent calm in the country
there was still a large amount of latent discontent, especially
among the members of the Satsuma clan. As

, T,i ,.ii 1 1 Signs of trouble.

has already been explained, that clan took a
leading part in the Revolution which brought the Emperor
back to power, but its members were, as a rule, animated by
a great dislike to foreign customs and methods, and indeed
they made the action of the Shogun in favouring foreigners
and making treaties with them the main reason for working
for his overthrow. The Satsuma leaders were therefore
justified in thinking that under the new order of things their
services would be remembered, and that they would have
a large share in the Government. Probably they were dis-
appointed that they did not get as much as they expected
in this respect, but subsequent events seemed to prove that
some of them aimed at acquiring for themselves the executive
authority of the extinct Shogunate, without its name, rather
than at making the Emperor the real and effective depositary
of supreme power. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to
estimate men's motives, but there can be little doubt that
these reasons and the contempt which they had for foreigners
and their methods explained the action of many members
of the Satsuma clan during the years which immediately
followed the Revolution.

The story is a long one, and we can notice only those
points in it which bear on the national evolution. Among
the Satsuma men who had rendered good service at the
time of the restoration of the Emperor was Saigo Takamori,
and on the formation of the new Government he was
appointed to an important post in the Ministry of War.
Other members of the Satsuma clan had also received

58 Dai Nippon

influential appointments, and amongst those was Okubo
Toshimitsu, whose name is associated with all the more
important changes carried out by the Mikado's Government
in its early years. In November 1870 the members of
the Satsuma clan who were then in Tokyo began to show
signs of discontent ; Shimadzu Saburo, the acting head of
the clan, and Saigo presented a petition to the Emperor
asking to be relieved from their service in Tokyo as part
of the guard for the central Government. Okubo and
Terashima, the two other members of the clan in the
Government, did not support the petition, and there can be
little doubt that the real grounds of the request which it
contained were the discontent and disappointment of the
two former statesmen at finding that the part in the
government of the country allotted to them was infinitely
less than what they considered they had a right to expect.
These feelings were shared by the troops and the majority
of the clan. Various unsuccessful efforts were made to
appease them. Shimadzu and Saigo returned to their
province, and under the name of a " private school " they
carried on an establishment which was essentially a military
training institution ; all their resources were employed in
the maintenance of armed forces, and as many as 30,000
men were being constantly drilled and exercised. They
had a large arsenal, and connected with it were a cannon
foundry and powder mills which were able to turn out
considerable amounts of the munitions of war. They also
held the fortifications which commanded the harbour of
Kagoshima. In short, Satsuma was practically as feudal
as ever, and all Satsuma men obeyed the orders of
Shimadzu and not of the central Government.

An open breach, however, did not occur for some time,
and in April 1873 the Government, after much negotiation,
prevailed on Shimadzu to visit Tokyo, and he was offered
high official position if he would modify his opposition to
the projected changes. Shimadzu arrived in the capital
about the end of April, accompanied by several hundred

Transition 59

armed retainers, all wearing the old costume of the country
and carrying their two swords, and their appearance in
Tokyo caused no little sensation, where the samurai had
already availed themselves of the permission granted them
to lay aside their weapons. I arrived in Japan in the
beginning of June of that year, and I can recall the Satsuma
men with their swaggering gait and sometimes scowling
aspect, and one was thankful when one got safely past them
in the streets ; for there was no saying what an angry samurai
might do on the spur of the moment. In order to conciliate
him, Saigo was named commander-in-chief of the Emperor's
land forces, but neither he nor Shimadzu modified their
opposition to the progressive measures of the Government,
and the latter, finding his advice unheeded, asked leave to
return home. The Emperor refused his request and ordered
him to remain in the capital until the return from Europe
of Iwakura and the members of his mission. This took
place in September of the same year, and shortly after a
split took place in the Cabinet ; the reason which was given
being a question arising out of the state of Japanese relations
with the Kingdom of Korea.

These relations go back to the almost prehistoric times
of the Empress Jingo (a.d. 201-269), but it is not till 1592
that we have exact historical records. In that Relations with
year a Japanese army under the Regent Korea.
Hideyoshi, a man with great warlike ambitions, landed in
Korea and conquered it, and although the Japanese army
was withdrawn after the death of Hideyoshi, the Koreans for
more than two centuries sent tribute to the Tokugawa
Shoguns. After the Restoration, however, they had refused
to acknowledge the Mikado as Emperor of Japan or to have
any official relations with his Government, which had given
so much encouragement to Western barbarians. This caused
great irritation to some sections of the Japanese, who held
that the conduct of the Koreans deserved severe chastisement.
On the other hand, Iwakura, the head of the embassy which
had just returned from Europe, became the chief of the

60 Dai Nippon

peace party which declared that the country was unprepared
for war and that financial ruin would be the result of
attempting it, and the counsels of that party prevailed.

The relations between Japan and Russia are at the

present time the most important political questions in the

japan and Far East, but a glance at history shows that

Russia. they are of very long standing. The present
policy of Russia is only a continuation of the policy she
has carried on for generations. Towards the end of the
eighteenth century, Russia made several attempts to open
up communications with Japan, but in vain. In the early
years of the nineteenth century several raids were made by
Russians on the northern parts of Japan, and their actions in
burning, pillaging, and taking prisoners raised Japanese
feeling very strongly against them. One of the prisoners was
entrusted with a letter ending with the sentence : " If you
comply with our wishes [to make a treaty of commerce] we
shall always be good friends with you ; if not, we will come
again with more ships and chase you about" — a communica-
tion which was not calculated to increase the friendship
between the parties.

Among the students who about this time tried to obtain
a knowledge of Western countries through the Dutch who
were settled at Deshima was one Ono Kinshihei, and he,
like all others who infringed the laws on these matters, soon
had to make a difficult choice. He had collected information
regarding the manners and customs as well as the military
and naval organisations of Western States, and he had to
choose between concealing information which seemed essential
to his country's safety and revealing it at the certain cost of
his own safety. He chose the latter, and published a
book in which he not only gave all the information he
thought would be useful, but warned the authorities that the
Russians would one day show themselves in the north of
Japan, and urged the advisability of building a fleet and
constructing coast defences. His patriotism was rewarded
by imprisonment and the confiscation of his publication.

Transition 6 1

Before he was five months in prison, events vindicated his
wisdom ; the Russians appeared and attempted to carry
out their objects by force, and their depredations impressed
themselves in bloody letters on the memory of the Japanese.
The great struggle which was going on in Europe at the
time diverted the attention of Russia from the Far East,
except for an occasional visit. In 1 8 1 1 the Russian ship
Diana was sent to survey the Kurile Islands, and by a
stratagem the captain and a number of his officers were
seized and kept prisoners by the Japanese for two years and
treated with considerable cruelty. An interesting account
of the experiences of the Russians was written by Golovnin,
the captain, which gives some insight into Japanese ways
and thoughts.

Gradually as the colonisation of Saghalin by the Russians
from the north and that of the Japanese from the south came
into contact, friction arose, and in 1854 Count Pontiatine
endeavoured to arrange a boundary line, but without success.
Then, as now, however, Russia combined silent but aggres-
sive action with her diplomacy, and in 1857 she attempted
to include the island of Tsushima among her colonies —
Tsushima, which lies within sight of Japan on one side, of
Korea on the other, and commands the principal entrance
to the Sea of Japan. In 1864 the Government of the
Bakufu (Shogun) sent a special envoy to St. Petersburg to
discuss the questions at issue, and a sort of joint occupation
was agreed to, which, however, was found to be unsatis-
factory, and in 1869 trouble again arose. In one of his
letters 1 Sir Harry Parkes thus alludes to the subject :
" What a day I have had ! A very important question has
occurred in Saghalin to the north of Yezo, which if not
carefully treated by the Japanese Government may occasion
a rupture between them and the Russians, in which case the
former would go to the wall. The Russians are reported
to be concentrating 1200 men at the extreme south of
Saghalin, with the object, I think, of taking Yezo if the

1 Life, vol. ii. p. 239.

62 Dai Nippon

Japanese give them the chance. Yezo would be a most
serious loss to the Japanese and a great gain to the
Russians. I have advised the Japanese to throw force
into Yezo, and not to quarrel about Saghalin, to which
they have only a questionable right. In a weak moment,
some years ago, they agreed with the Russians to a joint
occupancy, which means of course that the whole island
will be appropriated by the Russians. This cannot be
helped, I fear, but Yezo may be saved."

In a recent letter to the Times 1 Sir Robert K. Douglas
says : " It is interesting to observe the identity of the
methods by which Russian diplomatists work out their
political ends. Some years ago Russia began to cast
longing eyes on the island of Saghalin, the most northerly
island of the Japanese group, and, taking advantage of its
detached position, utilised it as a convict station. The
Japanese very naturally raised objections to this appro-
priation of their territory, and in reply Russia brought
forward a proposal that the two empires should enjoy a
common possession of the island, just as she now proposes
that they should enjoy a common possession of Korea, only,
in this instance, she substitutes ' spheres of influence ' for
' common possession.' They mean the same thing in the
Russian sense. When Russia made this proposal Japan
was in her callow days and yielded the point, only to find
shortly after that ' common possession ' meant ' full possession
by Russia.' Again, in 1867, Japan had occasion to protest
against the continued encroachments of her northern neigh-
bour in the administration of the disputed island and
Russia answered her protest by the suggestion that in
exchange for the full possession of Saghalin — an island
containing 47,500 square miles — she should accept four
insignificant islets in the Kurile group. This suggestion
Japan refused to entertain and the two Powers returned to
the pre-existing arrangement. Matters, however, did not
work smoothly, and in 1875 Russia came forward with a

1 February 3, 1904.

Transition 63

more liberal offer. She proposed to yield to Japan, in
exchange for Saghalin, the eighteen islands which form the
Kurile group, stretching between Kamtchatka and the
Japanese island of Yezo. To this transfer Japan deemed
it wise, in the existing circumstances, to consent, and
Russia thus became legally possessed of Saghalin, just as
she would surely become the owner of Korea if Japan
were weak enough to fall in with her present proposal.
But Japan has learnt her lesson." In the interval, however,
she has had to pay dearly for her experience.

The outcome of the negotiations was that Saghalin was
surrendered to the Russians and the Japanese received, as
compensation, the Kurile Islands. The shame Sakhalin

of the cession, unavoidable though it was, was exchanged for the
deeply felt by the samurai, and it has sunk
deeply into the hearts of the Japanese. One of the last
instances of liarakiri — exclusive of the wholesale harakiri
that followed the suppression of the Satsuma rebellion —
was that of Ohara, a Yezo militia lieutenant, who dis-
embowelled himself in 1889 before the tombs of his
ancestors in Tokyo, driven to suicide by brooding over
Russian encroachments. The surrender of Saghalin added
to the discontent of the samurai, who thought that the
Government had already made too many concessions to the
demands of foreigners.

All these events had very important results on the
national evolution of Japan. The decision that Japan would
not go to war with Korea did not simply involve Results on
a question of peace or war, but the much wider Japanese
question whether the country should halt or airs '
advance on its newly adopted path of progress. It was
recognised that Japan must be made strong, not only that
she might be able to resist foreign aggression, but also that
she should be united. A conscription law was therefore
passed making service in the army or navy obligatory on
the adult males of all classes of the population. The object
of this was not only the formation of a strong national

64 Uai Nippon

army and navy ; it was also intended to destroy all clannish
feeling, cohesion and power, and to result eventually in the
disarmament of all the samurai. This was another cause
of offence to Shimadzu and Saigo, who saw that it would
be the means of decreasing the influence of the samurai
in the affairs of the Government.

Saigo and other officers left Tokyo and returned to their
respective provinces. About the same time disorders broke
out in Hizen, and shortly afterwards, in January 1874, an
attempt was made to assassinate Iwakura, but which was
unsuccessful. As soon as peace was restored in Hizen the
Government became anxious to have Shimadzu and Saigo
back in the capital, as it was felt that their presence would
be a guarantee for the good behaviour of their clan. Saigo
refused the invitation, but Shimadzu, after parleying for three
weeks with the Imperial envoy, obeyed the summons. He
was given the title of Sai-daijin, the second in point of rank
in the Government, although his opinions with regard to
the policy which ought to be followed by the Government
do not seem to have been much modified.

The Liu-Kiu (Loo-Choo) Islands had a shadowy con-
nection with Japan, and received an annual visit of one junk
Liu-Kiu and from Satsuma to obtain the marks of nominal

Formosa. vassalage, while the island of Formosa was to
the Japanese a far-off land of fairy tales and adventure, in
which, centuries before, Japanese buccaneers had won fame
and glory. Indeed, in earlier historical times Japanese
pirates had made themselves unpleasantly known in the
Chinese seas generally. It was therefore not to be won-
dered at that a proposal to send a warlike expedition to
Formosa should not only raise the enthusiasm of the fiery
samurai, but also that the Government should take the
opportunity of using it as a safety-valve for the purpose of
cooling their warlike aidour. On more than one occasion
shipwrecked Japanese and Liu-Kiuns who had been cast
on the shores of Formosa had been murdered by the wild
aboriginal tribes, and in 1874 an expedition was sent to

Transition 65

Formosa for the purpose of chastising these tribes and
acquiring guarantees for the future security of Japanese ships
and seamen. No doubt it was also intended as a means of
outlet for the discontent of the samurai, especially those of the
Satsuma clan, and of directing their attention away from
home politics. The central Government also saw in it an
opportunity for increasing the regular army, and thus of
strengthening their position and controlling the samurai class.
The expedition was placed under the command of a younger
brother of Saigo, who had distinguished himself during the
war of the Restoration, and it was completely successful
in its object. The Formosan tribes were defeated, the
Japanese troops returned in triumph in December 1874,
and an indemnity was obtained from the Chinese Govern-
ment for the expense incurred by Japan.

As has been mentioned, the decree of September 1871
made the custom of wearing two swords optional, and its
effect was soon observed by the numbers which gave up the
custom. In March 1876 the Government thought that the
time was ripe for prohibiting the practice of wearing swords
and limiting to the regular forces the right of bearing arms.
This caused further irritation among the samurai, especially
those of the Satsuma clan, which went on steadily increasing
its military preparations. Meantime, however, the central
Government was also consolidating its position and augment-
ing its army and navy. The postal and telegraph services
were extended, and as they were of great use in directing
the operations of the military and naval forces, they added
to the strength of the Government.

At last, in the beginning of 1877, matters came to a
crisis, and civil war broke out between the forces of the
Emperor and those of Satsuma, the first overt act Satsuma
being by pupils of the " private schools " breaking Rebelli on.
into the arsenal at Kagoshima and carrying off as many rifles
and as much powder as they could remove. On the 5 th of
February the Emperor had gone south for the official open-
ing of the railway recently constructed between Osaka

(b 207) p

66 Dai Nippon

and Kyoto, the representatives of the foreign Powers had
accepted invitations to be present and the former capital
was in festive garb for the occasion, when the news of the
outbreak at Kagoshima arrived. Although these were con-
sidered grave, the ceremony was carried out as originally
arranged, but, immediately after, a Cabinet Council was held
and Admiral Kawamura despatched to Kagoshima to en-
deavour to arrange matters. The leaders of the Satsuma
men, however, had decided that the time for action had
arrived, and civil war was carried on in real earnest. The
struggle was long and severe, and for some time the issue
was doubtful. Both parties exerted themselves to the
utmost. Among other things which were done, the engineer-
ing workshops which we had organised in connection with
the Imperial College of Engineering were utilised for the
provision of the munitions of war. Ultimately the resources
of the Government told, and the Satsuma men were totally
defeated. The final act was very characteristic of the
Japanese nature. Saigo wounded by a bullet in the thigh,
one of his lieutenants performed what samurai consider a
friendly act. By one blow of his heavy sword he severed
his chief's head from his body in order to spare him the
disgrace of falling alive into his enemy's hands, and after
handing the head to one of Saigo's servants for concealment,
he committed suicide. The rest of the rebels who took part
in that fight were either very severely wounded or killed.
Admiral Kawamura, in the spirit of a true samurai, rever-
ently washed Saigo's head with his own hands as a mark of
respect for his former friend and companion in arms.

An Imperial Notification was issued on 25th September
that the rebels had been overcome and peace restored. The
news was received without much demonstration, but with a
feeling of relief mingled with admiration and regret. The
rebellion had the effect of causing the strength of the
Government to be greatly increased. Fully 65,000 troops
were employed in its suppression, and the naval forces and
ships of transport were considerably increased in number ; so

Transition 67

that the troubles in Satsuma had the effect of consolidating
the power of the Government, which immediately applied
itself to various developments in administration and to the
rearrangement of financial affairs, such as the land tax,
pensions, etc. Satsuma was placed under the same system
of government as the other provinces, and the " private
school " system was replaced by a garrison of Imperial troops
at Kagoshima. The civil administration was placed in the
hands of Imperial officials, selected without regard to the
place of their birth, and the taxation was put on the
same footing as elsewhere in the country. A final act in
the tragedy must not be forgotten. On the 14th of May
1878, Okubo Toshimitsu, the Minister of the Interior, was
assassinated as he was driving to attend a Cabinet Council
in the Emperor's palace, being cut down by two men who
thought him a traitor to his country and who were deter-
mined to revenge the death of Saigo. I can well recall the
place where the event occurred, as it was one of my favourite
walks. It has been described as " a sylvan dell, bounded on
each side by grassy slopes, crested with grotesque old pine-
trees, and studded here and there with bamboo groves — a
dell where the philosopher might think undisturbed, and the
painter find worthy studies for his canvas." As if to com-
plete the tragedy, the remains of the murdered man were
found by General Saigo (a brother of the Satsuma leader),
who happened to drive past shortly afterwards, and were by
him conveyed to Okubo's house.

Now that the troubles with the samurai were largely got rid
of, the attention of the people was directed to political affairs,
and a demand arose for the establishment of . ., .. ,

Agitation for

representative institutions. The agitation was representative
led by Itagaki Taisuki, the chief man of the
Tosa clan, and to this day an active worker in the fields
of philanthropy and social politics. In July 1877 a
memorial was addressed to the Emperor giving reasons for
the proposals, and reminding him that in 1868, before the
assembled Court and Daimyos, he had promised that a

68 Dai Nippon

deliberative assembly should be formed and that all measures
should be decided by public opinion. We will trace the
history of representative government in Japan later on, but
meantime note that on July 22, 1878, a notification was
issued by the Prime Minister stating that the Emperor had
decided on the establishment of elective assemblies in all the
provinces of the Empire. This, however, was only the
beginning ot a movement which led in 1881 to the promul-
gation of an edict announcing that a national assembly would
be convened in 1891, and that a Constitution would be
framed which would give the people a direct voice in the
government of the country.

In the interval, however, great developments took place
in education, administration, public works, industry, and corn-
Developments on merce, and for some time there raged what
Western lines. ^as been called the great "foreign fever,"
when Japanese society was literally submerged in the flood
of European influence. Speculative companies of all kinds
were formed for the purpose of carrying on public works and
industrial undertakings, many of which came to grief through
the inexperience of the promoters and the insufficiency of
financial resources. The rude lessons of experience brought
a reaction, and greater care was exercised in attempting to
carry out new proposals. The methods of administration
of the Government were reformed, and the excessive number
of officials reduced. The laws were codified, and the ad-
ministration of justice brought into harmony with Western
ideas, with the result that in 1894 the long attempt at
treaty revision was successfully carried out by the conclusion
of a new treaty with Great Britain and a few months later
with the United States of America. These, and other
developments we will consider more at length in the special
chapters devoted to them.

Among all the developments which had taken place in
Japan, the most important, from the point of view of national
evolution, was the growth of an army drilled and equipped
in foreign style and a navy of considerable size and of great

Transition 69

efficiency. In the summer of 1894 these were employed in
a manner which showed that the Japanese had profited
by the instruction they had received, and, moreover, that
they had realised the nature of the arguments which had the
greatest weight with the foreign Powers.

The early relations of Japan and Korea have already
been mentioned. The irritation caused by the conduct of
the Koreans after the Restoration was never Difficulties with
allayed in Japan, although for some years Korea.
Korea was left in her hermit-like seclusion. The Japanese
maintained a small settlement at Fusan, the most southern
port, but they knew little of what was being done in the
interior of the country. Rumours, however, were current
that the Russians were attempting to establish themselves
in Korea. In 1875 an incident occurred which was
the immediate cause of the opening of Korea to the world.
A gunboat belonging to the Japanese, while surveying
the coasts, was fired on by a small fort. The fire was
promptly returned, the fort destroyed, the arms, banners,
and other trophies were brought to Tokyo and exhibited in
the military museum. The punishment which had been
meted out to the Koreans did not satisfy the national
pride of the Japanese, who now felt that they were in a
position to impress their will on such a Power as Korea.
An expedition was sent out to Korea, but fortunately
matters were arranged without having recourse to war, and a
treaty was concluded by the terms of which two ports were
opened to the trade and residence of Japanese subjects.
The other foreign Powers were not slow in following the
example of Japan, and Korea was at length open to the
world.

In the negotiations which were carried out Korea was
treated by Japan and the other Powers as an independent
nation, with which diplomacy was to be conducted on terms
of perfect international equality. But although Korea had
broken off the slight bonds of her vassalage to Japan, she
still clung to China's suzerainty, and China retained a con-

jo Dai Nippon

trolling influence in her affairs, both foreign and domestic,
and this was always exercised in the direction of obstruction
to improvements and of conservatism generally. The
Japanese, on the other hand, wished to. see developments
in commerce and industrial undertakings and in all that was
necessary to make them successful. They were not always
fortunate in their methods or in those who represented them.
Unscrupulous men in search of fortunes, without regard to
the means they employed, treated the natives in a very
offensive manner, with the consequence that the traditional
hatred of the Japanese was revived, and in 1882 the
Japanese Legation at the capital was attacked and burned
by a mob ; the Minister and his staff escaped with diffi-
culty to the coast, twenty miles distant, where they were
rescued by a British man-of-war which happened to be
surveying in the neighbourhood. The Legation was very
soon rebuilt, but from that time Japan claimed and exer-
cised the right of maintaining a force of troops in the
capital. This right was recognised by China, and in 1885
a convention was arranged between the two countries by
which it was agreed that both should have the privilege of
stationing troops in Korea, but that due notice should be
given by each to the other of any intention to exercise it
whenever it became necessary.

For nine years there were constant difficulties between
Japan and China, for which it is impossible to apportion the
responsibility. Matters were brought to a crisis in 1894,
when a serious insurrection broke out in Korea, and the
Government was unable to cope with it. The Japanese
Government saw that it was necessary to put an end to the
misrule and corruption which rendered Korea a scene of
constant disturbance, and offered invitations to foreign
aggression, which, if carried out, would be a source of
danger to Japan. Russia especially was to be feared, and
the Japanese recognised that if that Power got possession of
Korea, the narrow straits which divided their country from
Korea would not be sufficient protection from the further

Transition y i

aggression of the great northern Power, of which they had
already reason to be afraid.

I do not propose to enter into all the political or other
questions involved, or even to attempt to defend the Japanese
on all points from an ethical point of view, war with
European Powers are not in a position to criticise China.
their action, as nearly all they do in the Far East is dictated
by pure selfishness — national or personal — which is gener-
ally prompted by the ambition of their representatives, who
recognise that an active policy, if successful, leads to official
promotion. Even the autocracy of the Czar is powerless
before the influence of the Russian bureaucracy. The
Imperial Rescript issued by the Emperor of Japan on
declaring war with China intimated that while Korea was
an independent State she was first introduced into the family
of nations by the advice and under the guidance of Japan,
but that it had been China's habit to designate Korea as her
dependency, and both openly and secretly to interfere with
her domestic affairs. On account of disturbances in Korea,
China despatched troops thither, alleging that her purpose
was to afford succour to her dependent State, and in virtue
of a treaty concluded with Korea in 1882 and looking to
possible contingencies, the Japanese sent a military force to
that country. The Japanese Government invited that of
China to co-operate with them in the maintenance of peace,
not only in Korea but in the East generally, but China,
advancing various reasons, declined Japan's proposals.

We need not follow the details of the negotiations or
even inquire into the sufficiency of the reasons given by
Japan for her action, for, as Professor Chamberlain remarks,
" though Japan evidently lacked moral justification for her
proceeding, the science of statecraft, as understood in the
present imperfect stage of human culture, must approve her
action." No doubt the Japanese saw that it was necessary
that they should show their strength, and their quarrel with
China afforded the opportunity. On this subject Captain
Brinkley says : " The approximate cause of the war is

7 2 Dai Nippon

readily discernible. China's attitude towards Korea, her
fitful interference in the little kingdom's affairs, her exercise
of suzerain rights while uniformly disclaiming suzerain
responsibilities, created a situation intolerable to Japan, who
had concluded a treaty with Korea on the avowed basis of
the latter's independence. A consenting party to that
treaty, China nevertheless ignored it in practice, partly
because she despised the Japanese and resented their
apostasy from Oriental traditions, but chiefly because her
ineffable faith in her own superiority to outside nations
absolved her from any obligation to respect their conventions,
and the struggle was therefore between Japanese progress
and Chinese stagnation. At the same time, Japan's material
and political interests in Korea outweighed those of all other
States put together. In asserting her commercial rights
she could not possibly avoid collision with a Power behaving
as China behaved. But there was another force pushing the
two States into the arena ; they had to do battle for the
supremacy of the Far East. China, of course, did not regard
the issue in that light. It was part of her immemorial faith
in her own transcendence that the possibility of being chal-
lenged should never occur to her. But Japan's case was
different. Her position might be compared to that of a lad
who had to win a standing for himself in a new school by
beating the head boy of his form. China was the head boy
of the East-Asian form. Her huge dimensions, her vast
resources, her apparently inexhaustible " staying power,"
entitled her to that position, and outside nations accorded it
to her. To worst her meant to leap, at one bound, to the
hegemony of the Far East. That was the quickest exit from
the shadow of Orientalism and Japan took it. This is not
a suggestion that she forced a fight upon her neighbour
merely for the purpose of establishing her own superiority.
What it means is that the causes which led to the fight had
their remote origin in the different attitudes of the two
countries towards Western civilisation. Having cordially
embraced that civilisation, Japan could not consent to be

Transition 73

included in the contempt with which China regarded it ; and,
having set out to climb to the level of Occidental nations,
she had to begin by emerging from the ranks of Oriental
nations."

We cannot enter into details of the war which followed.
Both the Japanese army and navy did splendid work. The
skill of the generals, the bravery of the soldiers, and the per-
fection of all the arrangements for the supply of materials,
combined, no doubt, with the unprepared state of the Chinese,
led to easy victories by the Japanese, in which the navy took
a prominent part. Within a year the Chinese saw that it
was useless to continue the struggle, and on April 17,
1895, a treaty of peace was signed by Li Hung Chang and
Li Ching Fong on behalf of China, and by Marquis Ito, the
Premier, and Count Mutsu, the Minister of Foreign Affairs,
representing Japan, at Shimonoseki. By this Treaty of
treaty, among other things, the complete Shimonoseki.
independence of Korea was declared, the province of
Liao-tung and the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores
were ceded to Japan, and it was arranged that a war
indemnity of 200,000,000 Kuping taels should be paid
by China. Further additional commercial privileges were
provided for, as well as a commercial treaty similar to
those concluded by China with European Powers. While it
was the sound of the Japanese cannons at the mouth of the
Yalu River which awoke the nations of the world to a sense
of the military and naval power of Japan, it was the terms
of this treaty which impressed them with the political signi-
ficance of that Power. Russia was busy constructing her
Trans-Continental railway and was intent on obtaining a free
opening on the Pacific, and both France and Germany had
their own plans of aggrandisement. These three Powers lost
no time in presenting a joint Note to Japan, suggesting that
she should forgo her claim to the territory ceded to her on
the mainland, since its retention would not make for the
lasting peace of the Far East. Although this Note was quite
polite, there could be no mistaking its meaning, and the

74 Dai Nippon

suggestion was meant to have the force of a command. It
says a great deal for the self-restraint of the Japanese that
they received the Note as they did, but it must have been a
severe blow to their national pride. An Imperial Rescript
was published, simultaneously with the ratified treaty, in
which the Emperor, proclaiming his desire to do all that in
him lay to serve the cause of peace, " yielded to the dictates
of magnanimity, and accepted the advice of the three Powers."
Subsequent events threw a lurid light on the disinterested-
ness of these Powers, and are illustrations of the morality
which guides them in their dealings with Eastern peoples.
Their actions, however, reacted on themselves, and had a pro-
found influence on Eastern opinion ; for while Japan was
denied a large part of the results of her conquests, the action
of the European Powers was the cause of raising in her the
larger ambition to become the champion of the down-trodden
countries of the East, and by her counsel and, if necessary,
her assistance enable them to obtain the same measure of
independence and power as herself.

Under a pretext of " leasing," Germany seized Kiao-

chow and asserted her claim over the greater part of the

Aggression of Shantung province, and Russia practically

Russia and annexed the Liao-tung peninsula; so that

Germany in China. .,, . c c .1 .• ri 1 ■

1 within four years from the time of her expulsion

from the territories belonging to her by right of conquest,

Japan saw those territories appropriated by the very Powers

that expelled her. The immediate result of the arbitrary

conduct of Russia, France, and Germany in China was an

Result on i ncrease i n the belligerent force of Japan and a

Japanese determination to make the army and navy strong

po lcy ' enough to assert the rights of the country. The

indemnity received from China as well as the revenue

from increased taxation was spent on what was called the

post-bellum programme, which provided alike for warlike

and peaceful developments. The principal features in

that programme were — {a) the expansion of military and

naval armaments ; {p) the establishment of an Imperial

Transition 75

University at Kioto ; (c) the improvement of rivers for
purposes of internal navigation ; (d) the colonisation of
Hokkaido ; (e) the improvement of railway lines and the
extension of the telephone service ; (/) the establishment of
experimental farms and institutes for training in all branches
of the silk industry ; (g) the encouragement of foreign trade ;
and (//) the establishment of a Government work for the
production of iron and steel. We shall note some of the
chief results of this programme in the sequel.

The Japanese recognised that something more than
peacelul progress in Western industries and methods of
administration was necessarv to win respect

. Results in China.

from the nations of Europe and America, and
a large part of their energy and their money was devoted to
the development of their army and navy. Even the spirit
of the Chinese Court was roused when they saw their
territories being filched from them, piece by piece, but the
great body of the people were apathetic. Steps, however,
were taken to form volunteer associations for the purpose
of resisting foreign aggression. From the want of proper
control, these rapidly assumed the form of an anti-foreign
rebellion, which led, in 1900, to cruel excesses in the
provinces of Shantung and Chili, and placed the foreign
communities in Tientsin and Peking in positions of extreme
peril. During the troubles which ensued, the Japanese won
increased respect among the nations of the world and proved
that they were able to bear themselves under very trying
circumstances in a manner which compared favourably with
that of the representatives of other nations. When the
foreign Legations in Peking were defending themselves
against overwhelming odds, the Japanese contingent of the
foreign troops in China came to their rescue and won the
admiration of the world by their bravery, skill, and good con-
duct. It has been truly said that " when all alike were tried in
the same fire, the peoples of Europe learned to their humilia-
tion that the largest measure of restraint was exercised, not
by white men, but by the soldiers of an Oriental Power."

j 6 Dai Nippon

All who have made themselves acquainted with the
history of events in Japan during the past half-century will
Alliance with agree with Professor Chamberlain that " what-
Great Britain. ever troubles Japan may have in store for her,
— troubles financial perhaps, complications with foreign
Powers, troubles arising from the constant yearning of small
but influential sections of her people for radical changes in
government, — one thing is certain ; — the whole trend of
recent events has made for stability and for safety, for
increased commerce, increased influence, and national self-
respect. New Japan has come of age." Her coming of
age has been fitly recognised, not only by her admission as
a member of the comity of nations on terms of perfect
equality, but also by a political alliance with the Britain
of the West.

During what we have called the transition period

territorial expansion has been a feature in the history of the

Extent Japanese Empire, and it now includes the long

of Japanese chain of islands extending from Kamtchatka

mpire ' on the north to and including Formosa in the
south. In that chain there are five large islands and about
six hundred small ones. The most northerly latitude is
50 56', and the most southerly 2i 48', so that the variety
of climate is considerable. Its position has enabled it to
become a focus of navigation routes in the Pacific and a
great market in the Far East, as well as a naval power
which will have a dominating influence in the whole of the
Pacific area. In 1872 the registered population of Japan
consisted of 16,796,143 males and 16,314,650 females, or a
total of 33,1 10,793 ; while in 1900 it was 22,608,1 50 males
and 22,197,806 females, or a total of 44,805,937. In
addition the population of Formosa, which was ceded by
China to Japan in 1895, was, at the latter date, 2,621,158.
During recent years the population of Japan proper has
increased at the rate of nearly half-a-million a year ; a fact
which must be kept in mind when the foreign policy of
Japan is being considered.

Transition yy

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

A standard history of Japan for the period covered by this
chapter has still to be written. The students of the subject must
consult Government Reports and Blue Books, the files of the daily
newspapers, and other contemporary publications. General readers
may obtain a fairly good idea of the history of what I have called
the Transition Period from some of the books which have been
written, although these are usually of a somewhat superficial and
one-sided nature. The following will be found useful : — Black, Young
Japan; Adams, History of Japan ; Griffis, The Mikado's Empire;
Murray, The Story of Japan ; Mounsey, The Satsuma Rebellion ;
Yamawaki, Japan in the Beginning of the Twentieth Century ;
Norman, The Real Japan ; Stead, Japan, our New Ally ; Didsy, The
New Far East; as well as others mentioned in the Appendix. The
best condensed account of the history of modern Japan is that given
by Captain Brinkley in his articles on Japan in the supplementary
volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. His large work, especially
volumes v. and vi., should be carefully studied.

CHAPTER V

EDUCATION

" KNOWLEDGE and learning shall be sought after through-
out the whole world, in order that the status of the Empire
of Japan may be raised ever higher and higher. " In
these words, the Emperor, soon after his accession to the
throne, when announcing the principles of the progressive
policy which would in future guide the Government, not
only stated the object which would be kept in view, but
also indicated the means which were to be adopted for its
attainment. That object was the raising of the status of the
Empire of Japan among the nations of the world, and the
chief means by which that was to be attained was by
taking advantage of Western knowledge and experience.
At first, no doubt, the ideas of those in power were very
limited, as regards the nature and extent of the knowledge
required, but, as is the case in all national movements,
these ideas developed as the work progressed, until it was
recognised that Japan could rise to her true position only
through a system of national education conducted on the
most approved methods. The development of education in
Japan during the last quarter of the nineteenth century is,
without doubt, the most striking example in the history of
the world of the influence of education in changing the
economic, industrial and social conditions of a country. We
can only note its most important features ; details of organisa-
tion and of the work of special institutions may be studied
in the publications mentioned at the end of this chapter.

78

Education

79

Under the old regime, education in Japan was carried
on strictly on Chinese lines. As has already been indicated,
the samurai, consisting of about one-fifteenth of Education in
the population, were highly cultured according Old japan,
to the ideas of the country and were characterised both by
uprightness and by devotion to duty. The most important
part of knightly pedagogics was the building up of character,
and the subtler faculties of prudence, intelligence, and
dialectics were left in the shade. Intellectual superiority
was, of course, esteemed ; but the word Chi, which was
employed to denote intellectuality, meant wisdom in the
first instance and placed knowledge only in a very
subordinate position. The tripod that supported the frame-
work of Bushido was said to be C/ii, /in, Yu, respectively
Wisdom, Benevolence, and Courage. A samurai was
essentially a man of action. Science was out of the pale
of his activity. He took advantage of it in so far as it
concerned his profession of arms. Religion and theology
were relegated to the priests ; he concerned himself with
them in so far as they helped to nourish courage.
Philosophy and literature formed the chief part of his
intellectual training ; but even in the pursuit of these, it was
not objective truth that he strove after — literature was
pursued mainly as a pastime, and philosophy as a practical
aid in the formation of character, if not for the exposition
of some military or political problem.

The curriculum of studies according to the pedagogics
of Bushido consisted mainly of fencing, archery, a knowledge
of anatomy required for purposes of offence or defence,
horsemanship, the use of the spear, tactics, caligraphy, ethics,
literature and history. Finance and commerce and every-
thing connected with them were regarded as low pursuits
compared with moral and intellectual vocations. Money
and the love of it being thus diligently ignored, Bushido
itself could long remain free from a thousand -and -one
evils of which money is the root. People whose minds were
simply stored with information found no great admirers.

So Dai Nippon

Of the three great services of studies that Bacon gives, — for
delight, ornament, and ability, — Bushido had decided pre-
ference for the last, where their use was "in judgment and
the disposition of business." Whether it was for the
disposition of public business or for the exercise of self-
control, it was with a practical end in view that education
was conducted. " Learning without thought," said Confucius,
" is labour lost ; thought without learning is perilous."

In the matter of science and of the outside world the
higher- class Japanese were in a state of almost absolute
ignorance, while the education of the common people,
for the most part, consisted of varying degrees of know-
ledge of the Chinese classics, got up by mere force of
memory, and of Japanese history and Government edicts,
together with the ability to write and to reckon on the
abacus. It was curious to note how much the people were
the slaves of mechanical methods in their mental training.
The abacus, for instance, was used for the most simple
calculations which any fairly well-educated person could
perform mentally or with a pencil and a slip of paper.
Still, intelligence was very widely diffused, and few were
unable to read and write, at least in the ordinary Japanese
characters, although their knowledge of Chinese might be
very limited or altogether nil. Learning by heart and
copying constituted the greater part of the education of the
Japanese youth, and the teacher did nothing to stimulate
original thought. The schools were small and the scholars
in each class seldom exceeded six ; so that the personal
character of the teacher was a very important factor. There
were three grades of schools — Sho, Chin, and Dai-Gakko ; or
small, middle, and great schools. The latter, however, were
found only in a few localities. The chief centres of learning
were at Kyoto and Yedo (now Tokyo), where the highest
educational institutions had something like university rank.
Kyoto was the seat of ecclesiastical and aesthetic learning,
while Yedo was the highest seat of Chinese learning in the
land. In nearly every daimyo's provincial capital there was

Education 8 1

a school for the instruction of the sens of the samurai.
Etiquette and good manners, for which the Japanese in
olden times were so marked, were taught with special care.
Under the forms of politeness, however, there were concealed
many of the results of Eastern philosophy. As a well-known
exponent of the best-known school put it : " The end of all
etiquette is to cultivate your mind that even when you are
quietly seated, not the roughest ruffian can dare make an
attack on your person." Or as Dr. Nitobe has said : " It means,
in other words, that by constant exercise in correct manners,
one brings all the parts and faculties of his body into perfect
order and into such harmony with itself and its environment
as to express the mastery of spirit over the flesh." Japanese
politeness was therefore not the superficial matter foreigners
usually took it to be.

During the long peace which prevailed under the
Tokugawa Shoguns considerable encouragement was given
to literature and arts. There was a good deal of specula-
tion and several systems of philosophy were produced ;
sciences and arts began to emerge from the narrow sphere
of Chinese philosophy, and to be gradually permeated with
the influences of Western civilisation. As I have already
indicated, there slowly filtered throughout the country, from
Nagasaki, where the Dutch had their settlement before
foreigners were generally admitted to the country, a certain
amount of European science and literature ; but nothing of a
systematic nature was done until the representatives of the
Foreign Powers were forcing themselves on Japan and
demanding treaties of commerce, when the Government of
the Shogun recognised the necessity of training men in
European languages and methods ; and in order that they
might more successfully carry on negotiations, they instituted
a school in Yedo with an English and a French depart-
ment, which ultimately developed into the University of
Tokyo. The missionaries who had arrived in Beginning of
Japan in considerable numbers did excellent forei s n schools.
pioneer work in education, and among them the name

(B 207) Q

82 Dai Nippon

of the Rev. Guido Verbeck deserves to be specially
mentioned. He began his work in Nagasaki early in the
sixties, and there he influenced men who afterwards took a
leading part in the government of the country. After the
Restoration he was invited to Tokyo to take charge of the
school which had been instituted by the Shogun, and for
some years he acted as its Principal. Thereafter he became
adviser in general matters to the central Government, and
during his later years he returned to purely missionary work,
at which he continued till his death, in 1898. His name
deserves to be held in remembrance by the Japanese, as he
rendered good service to their country at a very critical
period of its history.

After the Restoration, in 1867, as we have already seen,
great changes took place in the administration, and the
Government soon turned its attention to the improvement of
education. In 1869 regulations relating to universities,
middle schools and elementary schools were promulgated by
Imperial decree. In July 1871 the Department of Educa-
tion was established, and all affairs relating to general
education were brought under its control. In August 1872
the Code of Education was promulgated. An Imperial
Rescript was then issued indicating the course to be pursued
by the people in general. The purport of the said Imperial
Rescript was briefly as follows : —

" The acquirement of knowledge is essential to a
successful life. All knowledge, from that necessary for
daily life to that higher knowledge required to prepare
officials, farmers, merchants, artisans, physicians, etc., for
their respective vocations, is acquired by learning. A long
time has elapsed since schools were first established. But
for farmers, artisans, and merchants, and also for women,
learning was regarded as beyond their sphere, owing to some
misapprehension in the way of school administration. Even
among the higher classes much time was spent in the useless
occupation of writing poetry and composing maxims, instead
of learning what would be for their own benefit or that of

Education 83

the State. Now an educational system has been established
and the schedules of study remodelled. It is designed,
henceforth, that education shall be so diffused that there
may not be a village with an ignorant family, nor a family
with an ignorant member. Persons who have hitherto
applied themselves to study have almost always looked to
the Government for their support. This is an erroneous
notion, proceeding from long abuse, and every person should
henceforth acquire knowledge by his own exertion."

In the Code of Education above mentioned various
regulations were prescribed in regard to the grand, middle,
and elementary school districts, school district committees,
bureaux of inspection, the appointment of special school
officials in the local Government offices, the subjects of study
to be pursued in universities, middle schools, and elementary
schools, school teachers and normal schools, pupils and
examinations, students in foreign countries, school funds,
tuition fees, etc. Rapid progress was made in carrying out
the objects of the Education Code. For some years Dr.
David Murray, a Scotsman by birth, but an American by
education and experience, was engaged as adviser to the
Department of Education, and he introduced some features
of the American system into the elementary and secondary
schools of Japan. The colleges were to a large extent
staffed by men of different nationalities, and they of course
caused them to be moulded, to a certain extent, on lines to
which they had been accustomed. The staff of what has
now become the Literature and Science Colleges of the
Universities had representatives of almost all Western
countries ; that of the Engineering College was British, and
largely Scottish ; the Naval College was British ; the Medical
College, German ; the Military College, French ; the Agri-
cultural College, British ; the School of Art, Italian. In
education, as in other departments, however, the Japanese
have not been content to copy any system ; they have
observed what they believed to be the good points in all
systems, and they have now evolved an organisation of their

8 4

Dai Nippon

own, which is very complete and well suited to the require-
ments of the country. It begins with the common school
course, comprising a primary department covering four
years, to which children at the age of six are admitted, and
a secondary or higher grade covering another four years.
Above this there is the middle-school course of five years for
boys, and the high-school course of four years for girls, to
both of which those who have been two years in the higher
department of the common school are admitted. Above
the middle school stand the higher schools, of which there
are six in the country, and which provide three years'
preparatory course for the Imperial University, mostly in
languages and mathematics, as well as, in the case of some
of them, four years' special training in medicine, law, or
engineering, instruction being given in the vernacular. Only
the graduates of the middle school are admitted to the
higher middle school, through competitive examination.
Lastly, at the head of all stand the two Imperial Universities
of Tokyo and Kyoto — the former consisting of the colleges
of law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agricul-
ture ; the latter of the colleges of science, and engineering,
medicine, law, and literature. There is a provision made for
the post-graduate studies, called Daigaku — to which only
graduates of superior scholarship are eligible. The system
as tabulated stands as follows : —

Common School — 8 years

Primary
department —
4 years

Higher
department —
4 years

Girls' High

School — 4 years

Normal School
— 4 years

Higher Normal
School — 4 years

Middle School
—5 years

Higher School
—3 years

Imperial University
— either 3 or 4 years

Education 85

Supposing a scholar enters the elementary school at six
years of age, and follows this complete course, he will be
twenty-two when he enters the university.

The object of the elementary schools, as defined in the
Imperial Ordinance, is as follows : — " Elementary schools are
designed to give children the rudiments of moral Primary
education, and of education specially adapted to educatlon -
make of them good members of the community, together
with such general knowledge and skill as are necessary for
practical life — due attention being paid to their bodily
development." This object is explained more fully in the
regulations relating to the elementary school course, in which
the principles of teaching are defined and the chief points to
be attended to in education are indicated. (1) In teaching
any subject of study, special attention should be paid to those
topics which are connected with moral education and with
education specially adapted to make of the children good
members of the community. (2) As regards the knowledge
and skill to be imparted to children, those facts the know-
ledge of which is most necessary in daily life should be
selected and taught, so as to enable them, by repeated exer-
cises and study, to apply intelligently and practically what
they have learned. (3) In order to ensure the sound and
healthy development of the body, instruction in any subject
shall be so regulated as to conform to the degree of growth,
both mental and physical. (4) In teaching children, careful
discrimination shall be made as to their sexes, so that educa-
tion thus imparted might be best adapted to their respective
characteristics as well as to their future life. (5) The
instruction in different subjects of study shall be so conducted
that they may be beneficially influenced by one another, the
true object and the best methods of instruction being steadily
kept in view at the same time. It is quite evident from
these sentences that the Japanese do not make the mistake,
which is so common in this country, of confounding instruc-
tion with education, and that the training in character is the
chief object kept in view.

86 Dai Nippon

The number of ordinary elementary schools in Japan is
18,871, and of higher elementary schools, 8238, or a total of
27,109, showing a proportion of one elementary school for
1685 heads of population. Supplementary courses extend-
ing over two years are provided in 2136 ordinary elementary
schools, and in 224 higher elementary schools for those who
carry their education beyond the ordinary course. The local
administration of the schools is almost entirely in the hands
of the local authorities, a general supervision being exercised
by the central Education Department. In city, town or
village elementary schools tuition fees have hitherto been
levied as a rule, but, according to the revised Imperial
Ordinance relating to elementary schools, no tuition fees are
to be levied in ordinary elementary schools. In special cases
the local governor may allow fees to be charged, not to
exceed 20 sen a month in cities, and 10 sen in towns or
villages and in town and village unions. Almost the whole
expenditure on elementary schools is borne by the city, town
or village in which they are situated ; but as the expense of
education is increasing from year to year, the difficulty of
obtaining the requisite funds is becoming greater, and grants
are given by the Central Department for the purpose of
lessening the local burdens. All the indemnity received
from China on the conclusion of the war of 1894-5 was not
spent on the army and navy or other warlike purposes : a
considerable part was devoted to industry and education.
The sum of 10,000,000 yen was reserved as an educational
fund, the interest of which is distributed among the schools
in proportion to the attendance.

I must refer to special publications for details of the
courses of study and of the organisation of elementary schools.
These will be found to cover every part of elementary educa-
tion, and to contain much information which is worthy of the
attention of educationists in any country in the world.

The same remark applies to secondary education in all
its aspects. It has been arranged that there shall be, at least,
one secondary school in every town and province. Since

Education Sy

the Japan-China war the desire for learning has become so
great that the increase and extension of secondary secondary
schools has during the last ten years been educa t'on.
remarkable. In 1893 there were 53 public and 15
private secondary schools, with 5 branches ; while at the
end of 1902-3 there were 207 public and 35 private
secondary schools, with 22 branches; which shows an
increase of four times in the aggregate. As to the size of
the schools, the expenditure, the number of pupils, etc., the
increase has been even more rapid. The subjects of study
are — morals, Japanese, Chinese classics, foreign languages,
history, geography, mathematics, natural history, physics,
chemistry, law and economics, drawing, singing, and gym-
nastics. In some cases a few of these subjects are optional.
The establishment and closing of schools of this class require
the approval of the Minister of State for Education, but the
expenses are borne by those who establish them. In public
secondary schools tuition fees are charged, except in
particular cases, but with private schools this matter is left
to the will of the proprietor. The greater number of the
private schools are supported by the tuition fees, which are
usually higher than in public schools, and vary from one to
three yen per month.

Special schools have been instituted for the purpose of
affording the higher general education necessary for girls.
In Japan, however, the women are in the minority, and the
consequence is that almost all of them get married at about
twenty years of age, and the demand for higher women's
education has not arisen to any great degree. The objects
kept in view in the girls' high schools is therefore the forma-
tion of character in women and the imparting of knowledge
well calculated to make good wives and wise mothers, able
to contribute to the peace and happiness of the family into
which they wed.

Very complete arrangements have been made for the
training of teachers for the various classes of schools, in
the higher normal schools, the Higher Normal School for

SS Dai Nippon

Girls, the Teachers' Training Institute, the Tokyo Fine Art
Training of School, and the Tokyo Academy of Music.
teachers. These schools are all Government establish-
ments, and the expenditure for their maintenance is kept
distinct from the general items of expenditure of the
National Treasury. By the accumulation of their yearly
balances it is hoped that, in time, those schools may
become independent and self-supporting.

In addition to the ordinary secondary schools there are
others called Kotogakko, or higher schools, which prepare
Higher secondary students for entrance to the universities.
schools. There are now eight such schools, and they

are situated in Tokyo, Sendai, Kyoto, Kanazawa, Kumamoto,
Okayama, Kagoshima, and Yamaguchi. They are all
Government institutions and are supported in the same way
as the higher normal schools, with the exception of the one
at Yamaguchi, which is supported by donations. The
courses of study are divided into three sections, each ex-
tending over three years. In the first section are taught
those who wish to enter the College of Law or the College
of Literature ; in the second, those wishing to enter the
College of Science, the College of Engineering, the course of
pharmacy in the College of Medicine, or the College of Agri-
culture ; and in the third section, those intending to enter
the course of medicine or the course of pharmacy in the
College of Medicine, — and they each give a very complete
preparation for the work of the universities.

The Imperial universities of Japan are stated to have
for their object the teaching of such arts and sciences as are
University required for the purpose of the State, and the
education. prosecution of original researches in such arts
and sciences. Each Imperial university consists of a
university hall and colleges ; the university hall being
established for the purpose of original research, and the
colleges for that of instruction, theoretical and practical.
At present there are two universities, namely, the Imperial
University of Tokyo and the Imperial University of Kyoto.

Education 89

The latter is of very recent origin, having been established
in 1897, while the former dates almost from the Restoration.

After that important event the Imperial Government
revived an institution known in the Tokugawa period as
Kaiseijo, and in the following year it was designated
Daigaku Nanko ; and from this originated the present
University of Tokyo. In 1873 the name was changed and
the institution was called Kaise'i Gakko. In 1877 it was
combined with the Tokyo Igakko, or Medical School, to
form the Tokyo Daigaku, or Tokyo University, with the four
departments of law, medicine, literature, and science.

In so far as the Kobu-Daigakko, or Imperial College of
Engineering, is concerned, I shall quote verbatim from the
last edition of the Calendar of the Imperial University of
Tokyo, which says : " As at present organised, the Tokyo
Teikoku Daigaku, or Imperial University of Tokyo, is of no
very great antiquity, for it came practically into existence in
March 1, 1886, when an Imperial Ordinance fused the two
independent institutions of the Tokyo Daigaku and the
Kobu - Daigakko into one, under the title of Teikoku
Daigaku, or Imperial University." After giving a some-
what detailed account of the various developments of the
first named of these institutions, the account proceeds :
"The history of the Kobu-Daigakko (Imperial College of
Engineering), the second component factor in the Imperial
University of Tokyo, is much shorter and much less com-
plicated than that of the Tokyo Daigaku (Tokyo University).
Originally known as the Kogakko, it was established at
Toranomon-uchi, in connection with the Bureau of Engineer-
ing in the Public Works Department of the Imperial
Government. In 1872 it was divided into the College
proper and the Preparatory School (which latter opened in
Yamato-Yashiki, Tameike, in 1874), and m 1876 an Art
School was established in connection with the College.
[This Art School was discontinued in 1877.] In 1877
the Bureau of Engineering was abolished, and the College,
now established in its new buildings at Toranomon, was

90 Dai Nippon

officially named the Kobu-Daigakko (Imperial College of
Engineering). The abolition of the Department of Public
Works in 1885 caused the Kobu-Daigakko to be trans-
ferred to the control of the Department of Education. And
on March 1, 1886, Imperial Ordinance No. 3 was pro-
mulgated for the organisation of the Teikoku Daigaku or
Imperial University, and the Kobu - Daigakko and the
Tokyo Daigaku were merged in the new institution. Two
years later (July 1888), the College of Engineering was
removed from Toranomon to the new brick building then
completed for it in the Kaga Yashiki grounds at Hongo."
The professors and students of the Kobu-Daigakko were
transferred to the new buildings, and the work of the
Engineering College has been carried on with success,
although there are not now the same opportunities for
practical work as when it was in the Department of Public
Works. The students have now, for the most part, to
depend on private undertakings and on visits to Govern-
ment establishments. In the interests of the students and
indeed of Japan more complete arrangements are required
for practical training.

In June 1890 another college, that of Agriculture, was
added to the Imperial University as the result of two
Imperial Ordinances. That college had been instituted in
1874 by the Agricultural Bureau of the Department of
Agriculture and Commerce, and the buildings are still on
the original site at Komaba, at a considerable distance from
the other university buildings ; a fact which, of course, does
not prevent it from being an integral part of the university,
which now consists of the six Colleges of Law, Medicine,
Engineering, Literature, Science, and Agriculture. The build-
ings of the first five of these institutions stand within the
grounds of the old Kaga Yashiki, on the north-eastern slope
of the Hongo plateau.

The following figures from the latest published Report
of the Minister of Education give the numbers of professors,
instructors, and students in the different colleges : —

Education

9i

No. of Professors and
Assistant Professors.

Students and
Pupils.

Graduates.

fi

17

23
20
12
18
14

1 1

£

3

7

14

4

5

18

to

9

4

23

22

5
9

tup O
Ph

4
1

2
7

4

H

V

3

c/5

'3.
3
Pi

B

H

c

13
3

'H.

3

Oh

H

University Hall .
College of Law
College of Medicine
College of Engineering .
College of Literature
College of Science
College of Agriculture .

33
35
59
45
28

45

467
969
398
421
285
65
65

2,6

124

6

17

3

275

45i

467

995
522

427

302

68

340

*44
106

97
98

7i
19

15

2
133

5
3
1

37

44
108
230
103

74
20

52

Total

IO4

5i

72

18

245

2670

3121

406

*44

181

6 3!

* Students whose term of study in University Hall had expired.

The Calendar of the University gives very complete
information regarding the courses of study in the various
colleges ; that publication must be referred to for details,
and its perusal will show that the youth of Japan have now
opportunities for higher education which will compare very
favourably with those of almost any other country in Europe
or America. Besides the colleges, there are several other
organisations which add to the completeness of the arrange-
ments, such as the Library, the Institute for Natural History,
the Hospital, the Institute of Botany, the Astronomical
Observatory, the Seismological Observatory, experimental
farms, etc. Each of the colleges is well equipped with
laboratories for experimental work, so that the teaching is
made thoroughly practical and encourages original thought
and not mere book-learning.

The courses of study extend over three years, with the
exception of those of law and medicine, which extend over
four years, and on satisfying the examiners, the graduates
receive titles indicating the courses which they have followed.
The total number of graduates of all classes up till September
1903 was 5459, and of these 391 had died.

The Imperial University of Kyoto, though of very recent

9 2

Dai Nippon

establishment, being scarcely seven years old and conse-
quently far from complete in its equipment, seems to be
satisfying the expectations of the students belonging to the
various colleges. It is developing rapidly, and thus laying
a foundation for larger usefulness in the future. At present
it consists of the University Hall and the Colleges of Law,
Medicine and Science and Engineering. The following
table shows the number of professors, instructors, and
students for the year 190 1-2, and is taken from the last
published Report of the Minister of Education : —

No. of Professors and
Instructors.

Students and
Pupils.

Graduates.

ig

£

[«
<?

bl

. 0< o

"3

H

c

V

•a

t/2

"S.

3

"2

H

c

3
w

'H.

3

Ph

H

University Hall
College of Law
College of Medicine
College of Science and
Engineering

10
12

21

2
4

14

4
2

12

I

16
18

48

30

157

71

202

15

9
7

SO
172

So

209

39
39

I

40

Total .

43

20

18

I

82

46O

3i

491

I

40

Not only are the teaching arrangements becoming more
complete, but the external organisations which are connected
with the University of Kyoto are developing, and there can
be little doubt that she will emulate the example of her
elder sister in Tokyo. The Government proposes to estab-
lish another university in some other part of Japan as soon
as circumstances permit, with a view of realising more fully
the aspirations of those numerous students who are eager to
pursue the highest course of study in Japan.

All the expenses of university students are defrayed by
themselves. Each student is required to pay a fee of 2 yen
for admission, and 25 yen annually for tuition fees. An
incidental fee of 10 yen for each academic year, to cover
the cost of materials used, is also required of each student
in the Colleges of Engineering and Science. To help those

Education

93

who have not the means of meeting the necessary expenses,
a system of Loan Scholarships has been established in the
University of Tokyo, and these have been of considerable
advantage to the class of students for whom they were
intended.

The higher branches of technical education are of course
important in the colleges of the Imperial universities, but
in order to give a fairly good training in both Technical
theory and practice to those who will be in charge educatlon -
of the more practical aspects of industry and who cannot
proceed to the universities, numerous technical schools
have been established. Since the Japan-China War the
Japanese Government has put much weight upon technical
education, and during the past ten years it has made very
rapid progress. There are at present the three higher
Technical Schools of Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto, and a large
number of others of a more elementary and practical nature.
The following table shows the increase in the number of
technical schools, public and private, since 1892 : —

Kind of Schools.

[3 •
5?

"3

UT./3

<

."5
Ij

otfl

"3 hi

.a -3

§■5

'11
<

a

c w
§"3

c

u Xi

■&«

3
W

H

1-1

^ pi, /Number of schools

°££\ ,, ,, scholars
■ — ■ vn

5

12

II

?

?

28

7i4

191

1629

?

?

2934

H

g >,/ Number of schools

2"H \ j) >> scholars

•— co

CO

u

18

56

3S

4

22

I50

288

1605

504O

8269

319

1642

885O

25,725

q >,f Number of schools

21

79

41

5

25

221

392

S"-S I >> >> scholars

CO

1993

7778

9842

533

1528

12,992

34,666

H

g S^/ Number of schools
S^-S \ >> >) scholars

— - i_n

CO

25
2590

102

9847

50
",370

7
7i5

32
2192

629

3o,SS2

845
57,596

94

Dai Nippon

An adequate description of the different kinds of schools
and of the work done in them would require a large volume,
but the following statistics for last year give an approximate
idea of the extent of the movement for technical education
in Japan : —

j!

i

>>

Number of Schools.

'5.

3

4)

3

3

3

5

J§3

Kind of Schools.

O

O

-3

C

■sf

H

3

s

3
S25

Yen.

Yen.

Industrial Schools

23

2

25

2590

417

508,700

62,330

Apprentices' Schools .

3i

I

32

2192

469

125,799

29,230

A-class Agricultural

Schools

55

2

57

7146

1919

1,031,697

)

B-class Agricultural

J- 1 IO.090

Schools

47

2

49

2701

572

154,435

J

A-class Commercial

Schools

34

7

41

9882

I02I

611,300

| 53.2IO

B-class Commercial

Schools

16

1

17

1488

573

48,395

A-class Nautical

Schools

7

7

715

93

83,407

13,820

frl

Industrial .

42

1

43

3042

479 ,

gen

Agricultural

482

21

503

*2,933

1804

!•!■

17,564

16,573

Commercial

69

13

82

4880

501

t— i

^ Nautical .

1

1

26

6.

Sum .

807

5°

857

57,596

7854

2,739,297

285,253

The courses in these schools include the subjects which
are indispensable to artisans and others engaged in industrial
and commercial occupations. The programme includes
morals, arithmetic, geometry, chemistry, and drawing, to-
gether with those subjects directly connected with handicrafts
and practical work. When convenience requires it, any
subject except morals may be left out or taught simply as
an elective subject. The length of the course is from six

Edtication 95

months to four years ; the season for teaching may be fixed
according to the convenience of the locality, and lessons
may be given on Sundays or at nights. Very complete
arrangements have been made for the training of teachers
for technical schools. Special institutes for this purpose are
attached to some of the colleges of Tokyo University,
and various independent training institutions have been
established.

The events at the Restoration upset all the arrangements
for the teaching and practice of art ; for some years purely
Japanese art suffered a check and many of Art and music
those who practised it were reduced to very education.
great straits. What was formerly done from love of art and
in conformity with Japanese ideals had now, very often, to be
done to obtain a bare living, and to conform to what were
supposed to be the tastes of the foreign purchasers. Gradually,
however, a revival took place, and facilities were given for the
culture of art by various educational institutions and societies.

In a future chapter the subject of art industries will
be considered ; so that meantime a few notes on existing
institutions are all that is necessary. After various attempts
had been made to re-establish art training on a proper basis,
none of which turned out very successful, a commission was
sent in 1886 to Europe and America to study the methods
and organisation of art education ; on its return to Japan
in 1888 a new institution was founded under the name
of the Tokyo Fine Art School. Several changes and
improvements have since been introduced into the constitu-
tion of the school, and it has now reached a remarkable
stage of development and progress and is the chief centre
of art education in the empire. The school gives instruction
in painting, designing, sculpture, architecture (omitted for
the present) and industrial arts, with the object of training
youths as professional artists or teachers of drawing. Each
course of study extends over four years, besides one year
of preparatory work. For details of which, however, reference
must be made to special publications.

96 Dai Nippon

There is a considerable number of private institutions
connected with artistic education, the most important of
which is the Bijitsuin, of which the leading spirit is Mr.
Kakasu Okakura, to whom frequent reference will be made
in subsequent chapters. The object of this institution is to
endeavour to keep art more closely in touch with Japanese
ideals than is done in the Government institution, while at
the same time allowing it to develop to a considerable extent
on Western lines. This is a very difficult task, and we need
not be surprised to learn that it has not been altogether
successful. There are now many private studios in which
pupils are taken ; and as regards painting, we find the
original Japanese school, the European school, and a
mixture of both, so that a most interesting development is
now going on, and it is probably in art that we will first
see a combination of the ideals of the East and the West.
Instruction is now given in many institutions, both public
and private, in the applications of fine arts to industry.
Art in Japan enjoys the enlightened patronage and power-
ful support of the Court, and the official recognition of
distinguished artists by the Imperial Household has greatly
stimulated progress. •

Music in Japan goes back to the remotest antiquity
and has taken its development from various sources. In
1879 the Department of Education began to take an interest
in musical education, and sent a Commission to Europe and
America for the purpose of investigating the subject. A
school was established in 1883, and the curriculum was
constituted as follows : — Morals, Singing, Pianoforte, Organ,
Koto, Kokyu, Special Instruments, Harmonics, Theory of
Music, History of Music and the Methods of Teaching
Music. After undergoing various modifications the Tokyo
Academy of Music took its present form. The school
provides five courses — the Preparatory, Principal, Post-
Graduate, Normal, and Elective Courses. The principal
course is not by any means confined to music in the narrow
sense of that term, but gives a very complete education,

Education 97

through music and its allied subjects and the other courses
allow a considerable choice for special study in any depart-
ment. Outside the Tokyo Academy of Music there is
no school, either public or private, for systematic musical
education. There are, however, many musical societies and
associations with different objects, with which the fellows
of the Tokyo Academy of Music are mostly connected, so
that there are opportunities for musical education apart
from the formal training of the Academy. There are,
besides, special institutes of musicians, such as the Board
of Musicians which takes charge of affairs relating to music
in the Imperial Court, and to that of the army and navy.
In recent years much more attention has been paid to
musical education in the higher circles of society, and in
almost all the schools singing and music are taught as a
part of general education.

There are many schools in various parts of Japan
for special purposes, which cannot be strictly classified
under any of the preceding headings ; such as

J * ° r. 1 1 1 Special schools.

the Tokyo Foreign Language School, the
Nautical College, the Higher Commercial School, and the
institutions connected with the army and navy, some of
which will be mentioned later on. Considerable attention
has been paid to the education of the blind and of the deaf
and dumb, and the Institution in Tokyo which was started
so far back as 1874 has rendered very effective service to
an afflicted part of the community. The subjects of study
in the ordinary course for the blind are Japanese, Arithmetic,
Conversation, and Gymnastics ; and those in the industrial
course, Music, Acupuncture, and Massage. The ordinary
course for the dumb includes Reading, Writing, Composition,
Arithmetic, Written Conversation, and Gymnastics ; and the
industrial course, Drawing, Carving, Joinery, and Sewing. A
similar institution has been in existence in Kyoto since 1878,
and the subsequent careers of those who have passed through
these two schools show that they have been fitted to earn
their living in an honourable manner.

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V)

Education

99

A very imperfect outline has been given of the educa-
tional organisation of Japan ; to do it justice much more
space would be required than can be given to Summary of
it in this chapter. The preceding summary, educational
however, gives a good idea of the extent of
the work which is done. The figures refer to the year
1 900- 1 90 1, the latest published.

The Government schools are those directly under the
control of the Education Department ; the public schools are
those which are managed by the local authorities, subject to
the general supervision of the Department ; while the private
schools are those which are instituted and carried on by
private persons with the authority of the Education
Department.

Space will not allow a detailed account of all the
financial arrangements in connection with the organisation of
education, but the following figures showing the main items
of expenditure for the year mentioned will be found
interesting : —

Regular

Special

Total.

Expenses.

Expenses.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

The Department Proper

392,813

I, 377,612

1,770,425

Earthquake Investigation Committee .

28,094

28,094

International Geodetic Committee

14,333

14,333

Central Meteorological Observatory .

36,9IO

36,9IO

Observatory for measuring Latitudes .

4,898

4,898

Dependent Institutions

2,027,398

2,027,398

Salaries for the Directors of fit and

53.167

53.167

Ken Normal Schools

Local School Inspection

161,469

161,469

Grant for Technical Education .

249,984

249,984

Grant for Elementary Education

1,487,637

1,487,637

Total ....

4,456,703

1,377,612

5,834,315

The following table shows the expenditure for the same
year on the institutions named : —

IOO

Dai Nippon

Regular

Special

Total.

Expenses.

Expenses.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

Imperial University of Tokyo ....

882,167

67,062

949,229

Imperial University of Kyoto .

3 2 6,342

101,253

427,595

Higher Normal School .

157,287

157,287

Higher Normal School for Females

83,824

4,932

88,756

Supporo Agricultural School .

58,737

2,500

6l,237

Higher Commercial School

54,346

54,346

First Higher School

127,581

127,581

Second Higher School

83,721

2,659

86,3So

Third Higher School

103,473

*°3,473

Fourth Higher School

78,673

7S,673

Fifth Higher School

I22,76S

13,713

136,481

Sixth Higher School

20,041

10,000

30,041

Yamaguchi Higher School

37,830

3,083

40,913

Tokyo Technical School .

85,286

36,392

121,678

Tokyo Foreign Languages School

55-574

55,574

Tokyo Fine Arts School .

57,704

57,704

Tokyo Academy of Music

29,010

29,010

Osaka Technical School .

5o,377

7,000

57,377

Tokyo Blind and Dumb School

12,255

1,498

13,753

Imperial Library

23,577
2,450.573

23,577

Total

250,092

2,700,665

These figures prove that the Japanese believe that money
spent on education is a good national investment.

There are many organisations in Japan which, although
not directly educational, all help the progress of education.
Miscellaneous Educational societies exist in almost every
organisations, locality for the purpose of diffusing and develop-
ing education and interesting the people in it. They organise
discussions and lectures on educational subjects ; their pro-
ceedings are published in journals and thus they are able
to make their opinions known. They are also engaged in
the compilation of school books, the establishment of teachers'
institutes and the organisation of educational exhibitions.
There are now numerous scientific and technical societies
(the most important of which will be mentioned in a sub-
sequent chapter) which are devoted to the interests of special
departments of science and industry and the transactions of
which testify to the ability of the members. The scientific
memoirs issued by the members of the universities will bear

Edtication 101

favourable comparison with those issued by European and
American universities. Libraries of considerable extent are
now to be found in many parts of the country, and new
books published in Europe and America are eagerly
purchased. The Tokyo Academy, somewhat on the lines of
the French Academy, was established, under the control of
the Minister of State for Education, for the promotion of
science and arts, with the view of exercising a beneficial
influence on education in general, and is composed of
members selected from among old and venerable men of
learning ; the number of members is limited to twenty-
five. One was selected by His Majesty the Emperor,
while the others were elected on the recommendation of the
members. Addresses are delivered by the members of the
departments of learning in which they are interested, and
these are published in a magazine. Among the contribu-
tions made to the Academy during the last year for which
a report has been issued were 10 volumes of books, 378
copies of magazines and 40 copies of catalogues or reports.

The figures which have been quoted show that there is,
in Japan, a considerable number of private educational
institutions of all grades. The demand for D . ,

•=> Private

education in recent years has been so great that educational
the capacity of the Government and public
institutions is too limited to meet it, and consequently part
of the educational work has been undertaken by private
individuals. Some of the more important private institu-
tions have been started by men who wished to have greater
freedom in the choice of subjects and methods than was
possible in the official institutions, and in my opinion such a
line of development ought to be encouraged, not only to give
variety in the educational arrangements and methods, but
also to induce a healthy rivalry in the training of men and
women of high character and ability. The most important
of these private institutions are the Keio Gijiku, the Waseda
University in Tokyo, and the Kyoto Doshisha, each having
its characteristics derived from its founder, its origin or its

i o 2 Dai Nippon

methods of instruction ; and these institutions are entitled,
side by side with the Government special schools of various
descriptions, to the credit of having been pioneers in the
advancement of civilisation of the country.

The Keio Gijiku, as its name shows, was established
during the Keio Era (previous to the Restoration of Meiji),
and is consequently the oldest establishment of all the
special schools, public or private, now in existence. Its
founder, Yukichi Fukuzawa, was one of the most prominent
characters modern Japan has yet produced, and his name
will be long remembered not only as an educationist, but
also as a writer and philosopher, who did more than any
other man to promote the introduction of Western ideas
into Japan. His life and his writings should be carefully
studied by all who wish to understand the current of events
in modern Japan. The institution which he founded has
trained a great many of the politicians and public men who
now occupy very important positions, and it has thus been a
most important factor in the national evolution. It is now
provided with a university course, an ordinary course of the
standing of a middle school and a primary school course.
The university comprises four departments ; namely, those
of Political Economy, Law, Politics, and Literature. At
present the number of students and pupils is over 2000, and
it has sent out 3318 graduates.

The Waseda University was established in 1882 by
Count Okuma, one of the most distinguished statesmen in
the country, and some of his followers. It consists of a
university course, a special course, and a higher pre-
paratory course. The university course embraces three
departments ; namely, those of Political Economy, Law, and
Literature ; while the special course consists of six depart-
ments, namely, those of Politics and Economics, Law,
Administrative Law, Japanese Language and Chinese
Classics, History and Geography, Law and Economics,
and English. In addition, it is provided with a post-graduate
course. The number of graduates of the special course

Education 103

has already exceeded 2000, and the number of students and
pupils is at present over 3000.

The Doshisha, in Kyoto, was established in 1875 by Jo
Niijima, who had received a Christian education in America.
At first it was called the Doshisha English School. Later
on, a theological seminary, a girls' school, and a preparatory
school were added to it. In 1883 the courses were much
enlarged and the institution was about to become the
Doshisha University — a scheme, however, which was not
realised owing to the lamented death of its founder. At
present the Higher School Course of the Doshisha is treated
as a Special School. It consists of the Harris Science
School, the department of politics and law, and the depart-
ment of literature. In addition, this institution is provided
with a theological seminary, an ordinary school, and a girls'
school of the standing of a middle school, together with a
library, a school of nursing, and a hospital. The graduates
of the departments number about 1000, some of whom have
become exemplary Christians, having no doubt been inspired
by the noble and self-sacrificing spirit of its founder, while
others have made themselves conspicuous in other fields, such
as politics and literature.

Besides the foregoing Special Schools, there are others
which provide courses in Law, Political Economy, and
Politics ; such as the Meiji University, the Hogakuin
University, the Hosei University, the Nihon University,
the Senshu Gakko, etc., as well as special schools of
medicine, science, and pharmacy. Among the institutions
devoted to instruction in literature and pedagogics may
be mentioned the Kokugakuin and the Tetsugakkwan.
Two universities have been established by the Buddhists,
the East Honganji and the West Honganji, and they
are noteworthy, not only as regards their design and
equipment, but also because they are indicative of the
religious and intellectual revival which has taken place in
Buddhism.

No notice of the educational developments which have

1 04 Dai Nippon

taken place in Japan would be even approximately com-
plete unless due praise was given to the work of Christian
missionaries. The Doshisha in Kyoto has already been
mentioned, but in the early days of foreign intercourse many
of the missionaries devoted a great part of their time to the
work of teaching. Now that the educational work of the
country has been organised, this is not necessary to the
same extent, but still there are a good many who are engaged
in teaching, and their influence over numbers of the students
has been considerable. Some of these have become profess-
ing Christians, but many others have had their ideals of life
and conduct moulded by Christian principles.

In educational institutions of every grade in Japan the

teaching of " morals " has a place in the curriculum,

but except in those which are conducted

Moral education. . . ...

by religious organisations, nothing is taught
in the shape of religious dogma. The subject, however, is
very much discussed both in newspapers and in books, and
a very great variety of opinions is expressed. The following
paragraphs from an article on the subject by Mr. Tokiwo
Yokoi, one of the most thoughtful men in Japan, indicate its
present position and are sufficient for our purpose : —

" The ethical teaching in the schools remains still the
most important unsolved problem with the educators of the
country. The various methods that have been tried during
the past fifteen or more years, such as the use of Confucian
classics, or the worshipping of the letter of the Emperor's
Rescript on morals, have all proved inadequate to solve the
great problem with which the nation is confronted. The
greatest difficulty in the way of its solution is probably
caused by the presence of two factors which must be taken
into consideration. These two factors are the relation of
religion to education, and the bearing of the changed social
conditions of the country on the kind of ethics to be taught
in the schools."

" Secular education in its barest form is the system that
has been in vogue ; but it is a question which, I believe, is

Education 105

now beginning to engage the serious attention of many of
our leading educational thinkers whether education in order
to be secular must necessarily be so completely detached
from religion — or anti- religious — as has been the case
hitherto. To Viscount Mori is attributed, whether rightly
or wrongly I know not, the dictum which has ruled the
educational world of Japan for past years, that the minds of
the pupils must be kept completely blank as far as religious
ideas are concerned, until they attain to years of discretion.
It is questionable, however, whether young minds can be
kept entirely blank and free from religious bias for many years.
Weeds grow and fill up gardens if useful plants are not
cultivated. The actual result of this policy seems to be that
the gain in the form of freedom from bigotry or superstition
is counterbalanced by a lack of ethical ideals and intellectual
depth among the educated people. Secularism in education,
as emphasised by the Japanese authorities, seems to go hand
in hand with shallowness and worldliness. When there is
no sense of the eternal that maketh for righteousness, when
no great and ennobling ideal pervades the thought, when
martial glory and national splendour are all that call forth
the ambition of youth in a country, who can expect great
results from the teaching given in the schools ? I am far from
thinking that education in Japan should be given over
entirely to Buddhist priests or Christian missionaries, or that
endless disputations should be brought into the lecture-room.
I believe in secular education in the sense of its separation
from sectarian religious systems or bodies. But secularism
does not necessarily imply anti-religion, or hostility towards
any one form of religion." These opinions and the discussions
which take place in the newspapers and elsewhere prove that
the exclusion of religious teaching from the schools has not
by any means settled the question, and its future development
will be watched by many educationists in all parts of the
world. How far Eastern and Western religious thought will
approximate to the same ideals is one of the most interesting
and important problems of the future.

1 06 Dai Nippon

The outline which has been given of the educational
organisation in Japan shows that the recent developments
Results of which have taken place in that country have been
education. j a j^ on a so \ x ^ basis of national education. The
Government has taken the lead in encouraging and support-
ing educational institutions of all kinds, and the people have
eagerly responded to the facilities which have been offered
to them. All classes were quick in perceiving that from
a personal and national point of view it was their duty
to equip themselves in such a manner that they might be
able efficiently to discharge the duties which the new con-
ditions would place upon them. Moreover, higher education
in Japan, as in Germany, is encouraged by the fact that the
graduation certificate of a common middle school not only
carries considerable weight as a general qualification, but it
also entitles a young man to volunteer for one year's service
with the colours, thus escaping two of the three years he
would have to serve as an ordinary recruit.

The results of the educational arrangements which have
been made in Japan will be evident from a perusal of
the following chapters, dealing with the most important
national developments. The Japanese have not been
content merely to absorb Western learning, but they have
also, by original researches, extended its boundaries and
have engaged in scientific, historical, and philosophical
investigations of great interest and value. During a stage
of such rapid transition, however, as has taken place in
Japan, it was only natural that at first the new learning
should be sought for chiefly for its practical applications in
national affairs, and especially in the development of the
natural resources of the country. At the Southport meeting
of the British Association last year, the President, taking
as his subject " The Influence of Brain-Power on History,"
traced convincingly and conclusively the intimate relation
that exists between the provision made by a nation for the
higher education of its people and the position taken by
that nation in the ceaseless competition between the great

Education 107

countries of the world. After a searching comparison
between the facilities for university education in this country
on one hand and in the United States and in Germany on
the other, Sir Norman Lockyer said : " But even more
wonderful than these examples is the ' intellectual effort '
made by Japan, not after a war, but to prepare for one.
The question is, Shall we wait for a disaster and then imitate
Prussia and France ; or shall we follow Japan and thoroughly
prepare by ' intellectual effort ' for the industrial struggle
which lies before us ? " I have given an outline of the
earnest and thorough attempt which the Japanese have
made to establish a complete system of education, and in
succeeding chapters evidence will be given of the profound
and comparatively immediate effect which a well-considered
scheme of education can have on national prospects.

The study of law, economics, and politics has had great
attractions to large numbers of Japanese, no doubt in order
that they might fit themselves to take part in the govern-
ment of the country. In a recent official report it is stated
that " the prevalence of a desire for such abstract forms of
learning as law and politics in this country is no doubt due
to the fact that people have become aware of the importance
and necessity of pursuing these studies, since they live under
a Constitutional Government ; but for this state of things
another reason is assignable at least, as powerful as the one
just given. Great importance is attached by our country-
men to what is called governing a country and saving its
people — an idea which has been implanted in the mind of
the nation by the study of Chinese literature. So deeply
rooted is this idea in their minds that it has come to be
almost a hereditary trait of Japanese character. This senti-
ment it is which impels the most promising young men to
give themselves to the study of law, politics, and the like." It
is now, however, being recognised that any attempt to govern
a country and save a people by too close attention to
technical education and material ends only sharpens the tools
which may possibly drive them to destruction, while the

io8 Dai Nippon

training of an official class which is content with the
machinery of government altogether overlooks the higher
elements necessary for real national welfare. As a dis-
tinguished Japanese author put it a short time ago: "No
system of education which is not based on sociological con-
ditions can ever be thoroughly successful, and therefore a
study of ethnology, sociology, and of evolution generally is
absolutely essential to a thorough understanding of the
educational questions awaiting solution." The Japanese are
now face to face with many of the problems which confront
all industrial nations, and it is to be hoped that, having
organised their education generally and in some respects
given an example to Western nations, they will go a step
farther and show that it is possible to combine industrial
development with the welfare of all classes of the community.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The subject of education in Japan is touched upon in almost all
the recent books on Japan, but usually in a very imperfect and
superficial manner. A very complete official account of it has
recently been published by the Education Department for the St.
Louis Exhibition. The annual Reports of the Minister of Education
should be studied in order that the progress made from year to year
may be known. Details of the various institutions must be got from
the Calendars, Prospectuses, etc., which they publish. The Life and
writings of Yukichi Fukuzawa, the speeches and writings of Count
Okuma and others who take a special interest in education, and the
discussions which appear in the newspapers and journals must be
studied in order that the opinions of the Japanese on the national
aspects of education may be understood.

CHAPTER VI

ARMY AND NAVY

FOR our present purpose it is sufficient to consider the
Japanese army and navy as factors in the national evolution,
and it is not necessary to enter into details of

. . . 111 r •! Army and navv

their organisation, although a few particulars a s factors in
will be given regarding them. As in other the natlonal

& r _ evolution.

departments, the ideas of the Government on
the subject of national defence developed with the changes
of conditions, both internal and external. The existence
of the samurai had accustomed the people to the idea of a
class whose chief object in life was to do the fighting which
was required, and after the Restoration the problem that
presented itself was to consolidate, under the control of the
central Government, all the fighting material D

a & Reorganisation

in the country. At that time foreign politics of fighting
did not to any great extent affect the action of matena •
the Government ; therefore the army received the greatest
attention ; and it was not until the relations with other
Powers became considerable that a powerful navy was
considered essential. Even at the outbreak of the war with
China the Japanese had no battleships, but the action of
some of the European Powers after that war showed them
very clearly that if they were to receive the respect which
was their due they must be strong enough to command it.
They soon recognised that a complete system of national
education by itself would not do this, and that if their
country was to obtain a position of equality with the foreign

109

1 1 o Dai Nippon

Powers, the most effective arguments were a strong army
and navy, which could be depended upon to enforce their
claims, if that were necessary.

This, in great part, accounts for the developments which
have taken place, especially in recent years, in the military
Causes of recent and naval resources of the Japanese. They
developments. were not animated by any desire for territorial
expansion, or even for warlike glory, but they were deter-
mined to claim their full independence and the position
which was due to them among the nations of the world,
while at the same time they took full advantage of Western
arts, sciences, and industrial arrangements. It is a sad
commentary on Western civilisation when we find that an
Eastern Power could not qualify itself for entrance to the
comity of nations without, in the first place, spending a
large part of its revenue on the appliances of destruction,
and which could have been used to far greater advantage in
improving the general conditions of the people. Recent
events in the Far East have clearly proved that if the
developments in national strength which have taken place
in Japan during the past quarter of a century had been
neglected, the national existence of the country w r ould have
been in danger. Moreover, Japanese statesmen have re-
cognised that not only is the centre of importance of the
commerce of the world moving in the direction of the Pacific
area, but also that that area is destined to be the scene of
great political events in the not very distant future, and
therefore that Japan must be prepared to take her due share
in the working out of the great changes which will pro-
foundly affect conditions in all the countries bounded by
that area.

Under the feudal system each daimyo had his own

fighting men — the samurai — and although peace reigned in

The Arm ' J a P an f° r two and a half centuries before the

under the Restoration of 1 868, all the military forms of

feudal system. i • • j i <-p,

3 an earlier period were kept up. 1 he events

accompanying the Restoration caused these to be shattered,

Army and Navy 1 1 1

and made a new military system a national necessity. The
Emperor's Government rested chiefly on the reverence
inspired by his sacred name. This moral force had been
assisted by the actual support of the three great clans of
Satsuma, Choshu, and Tosa, whose chiefs had taken the
lead in surrendering their possessions and men to His
Majesty, but under the changed conditions it became
absolutely necessary that an Imperial army should be formed,
which would give stability to the new Govern- New system
ment. It was therefore arranged that the introduced.
three clans named, who were the most powerful from a
fighting point of view, should furnish the central Govern-
ment with a certain proportion of troops who were to be
transferred to Tokyo and entirely handed over to the
Sovereign for the purpose of forming the nucleus of an
Imperial army. Contingents from the other clans were to
be added subsequently. Foreign officers were engaged to
teach the Western methods of drill and tactics, and before
long the Imperial Government had a considerable number of
troops who were armed and drilled in foreign style.

It was, however, soon perceived that something more
complete was necessary to consolidate the Government and
to do away with the feeling that it was to a large extent
the creation of the three most powerful clans and mainly
supported by them. In 1873 the conscription system was
therefore introduced. This, indeed, was only a return to
what existed in the early days of Japan, when every man
was a soldier and when civil duty was not differentiated from
military. This measure practically put an end to the
dominance of the samurai class, and no doubt it was one of
the causes of dissatisfaction which arose among the samurai,
and which came to a point in the Satsuma rebellion, noticed
in a previous chapter.

That rebellion, although it was the means of causing
great hardships — financial and warlike — on the country, had
the effect of strengthening the Imperial army and making it
a truly national institution including all classes of the people.

1 1 2 Dai Nippon

It was thought that the farmers, artisans, and tradespeople,
after centuries of exclusion from the military pale, would be
found to be deficient in the military spirit, but subsequent
events dispelled this fear. At twenty years of age every
male Japanese becomes liable for conscription, and the con-
duct of the Japanese troops in the war with China and in
the more recent disturbances in that country showed that
they may be trusted to fight their country's battles both at
home and abroad.

When the new system was introduced French officers
were engaged to assist in organising the army and elaborat-
ing its system of tactics and strategy, and they rendered
most valuable aid to the Japanese. A few British officers
were employed in special departments and latterly some
German officers, but ultimately all foreign services were
dispensed with, and now Japan sends her picked men to
Europe to complete their studies ; on their return they
are appointed to positions in which they are able to intro-
duce the latest improvements, and it cannot be doubted that
in organisation and efficiency the Japanese army will compare
favourably with any other army in the world, while the spirit
which animates it makes it a weapon, both for offence and
defence, which is far more formidable than its numbers
would seem to indicate.

As I have already stated, for our present purpose it is
not necessary to enter into details of the organisation of all
departments of the Japanese army ; our object is not to
look at it as an end in itself, but simply as one of the
factors in the evolution which has taken place in Japan.
Still, a few particulars may be given. There are four
principal kinds of service ; namely, service with the colours
(genyeki) for three years ; service with the first reserves
(yobi) for 4^ years ; service with the second reserves (gobz)
for five years ; and service with the territorial troops
(kokuminhci) up to the age of forty. There are also two
bodies of supernumeraries (hoju). The first consists of men
who, though liable for conscription and medically qualified.

Army and Navy 113

have escaped the lot for service with the colours. The
second consists of those similarly liable and qualified, who
have escaped not only the lot for service with the colours
but also the lot for service with the first supernumeraries.
The period for the first supernumeraries is 7^ years, and
that for the second 1^ years ; after which both pass into the
territorial army. Their purpose is to fill vacancies in the
troops with the colours, but in time of peace that liability
devolves upon the first supernumeraries alone, and during
the first year after conscription only. After reaching the
territorial army a man is relieved from all further training.
The total number of youths eligible for conscription each
year is over 430,000, and over 60,000 are taken for service
with the colours, and fully 130,000 are drafted into the
supernumeraries. When the scheme of army organisation
adopted in 1896 after the war with China is completed in
1905, the strength of the army on a peace footing will be
150,000 of all ranks, with 30,000 horses, and the strength
on a war footing, 500,000 men, with 100,000 horses.

The Emperor is the Commander-in-Chief of the army,
and theoretically the sole source of military authority, which
he exercises through a general staff and a war department,
with the assistance of a board of field -marshals. The
officers of all ranks are kept in a high state of efficiency,
and there are several schools for their education. The most
important of these institutions is the Rikugun Daigakko, or
Army College, where officers are prepared for service in the
upper ranks and for staff appointments, and there are other
schools for special departments of training. Captain
Brinkley, a very competent authority, says : " The Japanese
officer is one of the strongest features of the army. His
pay is small, according to European standards, but his
mode of life is frugal. Quarters are not assigned to him in
barracks. He lives outside, frequently with his own family,
and when duty requires him to take his meals in barracks,
food is brought to him in a luncheon-box. His uniform is
plain and inexpensive, and he has no desire to change it for

(b 207) T

H4

Dai Nippon

' mufti,' as so many Occidental officers have. Being thus
without mess expenses, contribution to a band, or luxuries
of any kind, and nearly always without private means to
supplement his pay, his habits are thoroughly economical,
and a campaign involves comparatively few privations for
him. He devotes himself absolutely to his profession,
living for nothing else, and since he is strongly imbued
with an effective conception of the honour of his cloth,
instances of his incurring disgrace by debts or dissipation
are exceptional."

At the beginning of 1902 the following were the figures
for the strength of the commanding staff on peace footing: —

Kind of Service.

Active
Service.

First
Reserve.

Land-
wehr.

Total.

Generals and non-combatants of

110

27

IO

147

equivalent rank

Gendarmes .....

91

54

27

172

Infantry .

4427

1654

873

6954

Cavalry .

421

95

28

544

Artillery .

1519

239

98

1856

Engineering

474

98

42

614

Commissariat

252

73

34

359

Paymaster

712

3°7

168

1187

Surgeon .

932

526

128

1586

Veterinary Surgeons

148

45

27

220

Band

7

7

9093

3118

1435

13,646

Factories.

Large and very completely equipped arsenals, for the
manufacture of small arms, cartridges, and the implements
and tools pertaining to small arms, are situated in
Tokyo and Osaka, and turn out highly efficient
work. There are powder factories at Meguro, Itabashi, and
Iwahana, and the powder manufactured has very special
qualities. The Osaka arsenal undertakes the manufacture
of guns, cannon-balls, and other munitions of a like nature,
and it maintains the powder factory at Uji and the arms
workshop at Moji. Attached to the War Department there

Army and Navy 1 1 5

is a large factory at Senju, near to Tokyo, which manufac-
tures woollen goods for the clothing of the army.

The Japanese army under its new organisation had its
baptism of fire in the suppression of the Satsuma rebellion
(which we have mentioned in a previous First fighting
chapter), and its behaviour showed that a con- of new arm y-
script army could overcome the elite of the samurai. It
however proved its efficiency still more strikingly in the
three over-sea wars in which Japan has been engaged since
the abolition of feudalism. In each of these the naval
forces were also engaged, and therefore before noticing them
briefly, it will be advisable to give a few particulars regarding
the Japanese navy.

Although the modern navy of Japan only dates from
the last days of the Shogunate, the Japanese are not without a
long naval history which proves that in the early Foundation of
days they were bold and adventurous seamen, modem Japanese
For more than 200 years the policy of national navy '

seclusion enforced by the Shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty
stifled all maritime enterprise. As far back as 11 85 there
are records of naval battles between the rival factions in
Japan for national supremacy, and later on, in the Middle
Ages, battles at sea more than once decided the final issue.
The Japanese made many piratical descents on China and
Korea, culminating, in 1594, in the great invasion of Korea
under the Shogun Hideyoshi, by, according to the native
annals, a military force of 500,000 men. Even when
rigidly confined to their own shores by the most drastic
penal sanctions, the fishermen and coasters were bold and
adventurous sailors, and showed that they were capable of
furnishing material which required opportunity only and
training to develop into ocean seamen of the best type of
efficiency.

The advent of foreigners was the immediate cause of the
foundation of the modern Japanese navy. When the Shogun
was carrying on the negotiations in connection with the first
treaties, he soon recognised the necessity for the possession

1 1 6 Dai Nippon

of a navy, if Japan was to hold her own with the foreign
Powers, and, as a preliminary, he despatched a few young
men to Holland for instruction, and among them was one
who afterwards became well known as Admiral Enomoto.
At the same time the foundations of the present great Naval
Arsenal at Yokosuka were laid by French engineers, and the
services of British naval officers were obtained for the
organisation of a naval school. The chief of these officers
was Commander, now Admiral Sir R. Tracey. The troubles
at the time of the Restoration prevented this school from being
organised, and after a short time the officers returned home.
The first steamship owned by Japan was a small yacht of
400 tons, named the Emperor, which was presented by Lord
Elgin to the Shogun, on behalf of Queen Victoria, when he
negotiated the first treaty in 1858. When the Japanese
students were in Holland, a wooden frigate of 2000 tons
and 26 guns, with engines of 400 horse-power, which was
named the Kayo Maru, was ordered in Holland, and in
it the students returned to Japan. On his return from
Holland Enomoto was appointed to the command of the
ships belonging to Japan ; which besides the vessels I have
named consisted only of one obsolete vessel of war (a wooden
paddle-ship, which had been originally known as the Eagle
in the British Navy and had fought in the Crimean War),
and of some half-dozen equally obsolete merchant steamers.
Enomoto being an adherent of the Shogun, made a stand
for his master in the struggles of the Restoration, and in this
he was ably assisted by two men who afterwards became my
colleagues in the Imperial College of Engineering, and who
since that time have rendered high service in many ways to
the Government of the Emperor ; namely Viscount Hayashi,
now Japanese Minister in London, and Baron Otori,
formerly Japanese Minister in Korea. My first lessons in
Japanese history were from Viscount Hayashi when he was
my fellow-passenger to Japan in 1873, and his accounts
were most interesting. Into these, however, we cannot at
present enter ; it is sufficient to say that he and his friends

Army and Navy 117

fought for the Shogun, not because they were opposed to
the Emperor becoming the head of the actual Government,
but because they believed that those who were fighting
against them were animated by selfish motives and wished
to displace the Shogun in order that they themselves might
assume the executive power. The issue is well known ; the
Imperialists had purchased from the United States Govern-
ment the Stonewall Jackson, an ironclad ram, which though
only of 1 200 tons burden, carrying one ten-inch and other
guns, was in those days a powerful ship, and were thus able
to overpower Enomoto and his colleagues and bring the
struggles of the revolution to a close.

On the restoration of peace the Government directed its
attention to the creation of a national navy, and the first
step was the establishment, on a large scale, of The Nav ,
a Naval College and barracks, in Tokyo. A College in
few months after my arrival in Japan, Com- ° y0#

mander (now Admiral Sir Archibald) Douglas, assisted
by a staff of British naval officers, took charge of the
instruction in the College, and for some years did excellent
work in the training of officers and men, and their students
are the admirals and senior officers in the Japanese navy at
the present time, many of whom have distinguished them-
selves in active service. A few years later Commander
L. P. Willan and Lieut. T. H. James (now of the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha, London) joined the staff of the college, and
these officers first took charge of Japanese ships of war on
distant cruises to Australia and India ; their work gave
the Japanese confidence in their own powers, and now
Japanese ships of war have no difficulty in finding their way
to any port in the world. Another name which must be
mentioned in this connection is that of Lieut. Hawes, who
organised a corps of marines whose smart appearance
won for them good opinions wherever they were seen, and
who initiated that state of efficiency which has made the
men in the Japanese Navy the acknowledged equals of
those of the best navies of the world.

1 1 8 Dai Nippon

For some years the development of the Japanese navy
was slow, as those in authority recognised that their first
Development of duty was the training of officers to take charge
Japanese navy. Q f t h e sn jp S and men to work them, and it was
not till 1877 that the Government seriously entered on the
acquisition of modern fighting ships. In that year the first
ship specially built for them in England, a broadside central
battery ship of 3700 tons, designed by Sir Edward Reed,
was launched on the Thames, and she was soon followed by
several small but powerfully armed ironclads. Still, when
the war with China broke out, the navy of Japan was by no
means strong, as it did not contain a single battleship. It
had, however, a considerable number of fast and heavily
armed cruisers, and it was with these that she won the great
naval battle of the Yalu, though fighting against armoured
battleships ; thus proving the high efficiency of the officers
and men and the skilful manner in which they conducted
their operations.

The three over -sea wars in which Japan has been

engaged since the abolition of feudalism have already been

mentioned in Chapter IV., when we were con-

Over-sea wars. ....

sidermg the most important events in recent
Japanese history. The first of these was the expedition in
1874 to Formosa, the second the war with China in 1894,
and the third was on the occasion of the anti-foreign and
anti-dynastic rebellion, which broke out in China in 1900.
On each of these occasions the arms of Japan were dis-
tinguished for bravery, efficiency, and skill. We must refer
to special histories for detailed accounts of these expeditions ;
all that we can do meantime is to note some of their
results on the national evolution, and the effect they had in
causing the other nations in the world to recognise the
advance which had been made by Japan, not only in
western methods of war, but also in all those departments
of national life which were necessary to enable her to claim
a position of equality in the comity of nations.

The expedition to Formosa was undertaken at a time

A rmy and Navy 1 1 9

when, as we have seen, the affairs of the nation were in
a very critical condition. The steps which were taken had
the effect of consolidating the army, and of adding to the
strength of the navy. Moreover, they gave a great impetus
to the Japanese mercantile marine, which rapidly became
important in itself, and a very necessary adjunct to the
navy for purposes of transport. The success which attended
the expedition to Formosa should have taught the Chinese
authorities that Japan was not to be despised ; but that she
was able and determined to take any measures which were
necessary to maintain her national dignity. Fortunately,
through the good offices of the British Minister in Peking,
the war which was threatened between the two empires was
avoided, and the matter was settled by Japan agreeing to
withdraw from Formosa, and by China indemnifying her to
the extent of half a million dollars (about ;£ 100,000) on
account of the expenses of the expedition.

The war with China in 1894-5 marked a most important
epoch in the history of Japan and gave a great impetus to
every department of its national life. The war with China
circumstances under which that war broke and lts results «
out have already been noted, and reference must be made
to special books for its details. Even Japan's best friends
had doubts as to the ultimate issue when they considered
the immense numbers and resources of the Chinese ; but in
modern warfare mere numbers are powerless before efficient
equipment with the most improved appliances and methods.
The Chinese cannot be accused of want of bravery, or rather
of the fear of death. If they were properly armed and led,
they could face any troops in the world ; a fact which has
been certified by such an eminent authority as Lord
Wolseley. On land the war was a succession of triumphs
for Japan, and the great naval battle which took place on
September 17th, 1894, near the mouth of the Yalu river,
that forms the northern boundary of Korea, not only
showed that the Japanese could make good use of their
navy, but it also awoke the nations of the world to the fact

120

Dai Nippon

that a new Power had arisen in the Far East, which in
future would require to be taken into account when any-
political problems arose. The Yalu victory practically gave
Japan the control of northern China, and before long the
Chinese authorities recognised the hopelessness of the
struggle and agreed to the terms of the treaty already
mentioned.

Besides a large addition to the "ordinary" expenditure
on the army and navy the post-bellum programme included
the following items for " extraordinary " expenditure : —

A. Military Expansion Scheme: —

Construction of coast batteries
Furnishing arms, repairs, etc.
Manufacture of arms
Extension of arsenals
Buildings

B. Naval Expansion Scheme : —

Construction of war-vessels
Manufacture of arms
Buildings

Yen.
14,071,893

i7)334,89o
8,486,766

2,949> io 5

479,577

43>3 22 , 2 3 I

Yen.
47,154,576

33.75 1 * 162

i3, 8 7°,5° 6

94,776,244

The spending of these sums was spread over five years,
but before the first programme was completed, the " Second
Period Expansion Programme " was initiated, and again the
chief features were concerned with the expansion of the
army and navy. The following were the military and naval
parts of the second programme : —

A. Military Expansion ; —

Yen.
i 6,460,520

Coast batteries
Barracks, etc. .
Manufacture of firearms
Making up deficits .

19,363,746
9,854,538
2,679,790

38,358,594

Army and Navy

121

B. Naval Expansion ; —

Construction of war-vessels
Manufacture of arms
Various building purposes

Yen.

78,893,399

33,176,329

6,254,99°

118,324,718

Adding together the amounts for military and naval
expansion included in the two programmes, and including
the addition to the ordinary expenditure, we arrive at a
total expenditure for naval expansion of 360,000,000 yen.
In some cases, however, the estimates were exceeded, and the
total amount of expenditure for army and navy expansion by
Japan, consequent upon and subsequent to the war with China,
has been estimated at 400,000,000 yen, or ^40,000,000.

Both programmes have practically been carried out, and
Japan has now a navy which is, in offensive and defensive
armament, in steaming capacity, both in speed p rese nt
and distance, and in homogeneousness, equal conditions of
to any in the world of the same size. The J a P anese nav y-
majority of the ships have been built in Britain — on the
Thames, the Clyde, the Tyne, and at Barrow-on-Furness —
and the construction of the most of them has been
superintended by my former students of the Imperial
College of Engineering, and whom I had often the pleasure
of meeting when they were in this country.

The following figures give the personnel of the Navy at
the beginning of the year 1902 : —

Kind of Service.

Active
Service.

First
Reserve.

Second
Reserve.

Total.

Admirals and non-combatants of

equivalent rank ....

47

22

14

83

Senior Officers

639

22

60

721

Tunior Officers

1,060

2 3

70

1,153

Cadets

330

330

Special Warrant Officers

631

10

54

695

Warrant Officers

5,802

163

5,965

Seamen .

22,036

4036

1793

27,865

Students .

S34

834

31,379

4276

1991

37,646

122

Dai Nippon

The latest published returns, those for 1902, give the
total tonnage of ships in commission or reserve as 252,180
tons, with an indicated horse-power of 459,599, distributed
as follows : —

Tons.

6

First-class battleships

86,399

2

Second-class battleships

11,112

6

Armoured cruisers .

58,778

9

Second-class cruisers

38,518

5

Third-class cruisers .

14,078

10

Coast-defence vessels

18,215

2

First-class gunboats

3,557

14

Second-class gunboats

8,013

13

Destroyers

3,957

The remainder is made up of despatch vessels, tenders, etc.
In addition there were over sixty torpedo-boats of various
sizes, with a tonnage of 4675, and this number has been
considerably increased since the returns were published.

The Japanese navy is well supplied with dockyards and
arsenals, there being four first-class naval stations. The
oldest is that at Yokosuka near Yokohama, which was
started over forty years ago by French engineers and naval
architects, but has since been greatly extended. The most
important station is Kur6 on the Inland Sea, which, in
addition to a well-equipped dockyard and a magnificent
harbour, possesses a fine arsenal for the manufacture of large
modern breech-loading steel guns, and also of large-calibre
steel shell. Sasebo (or Saseho), in Kyushu, is rapidly
becoming of great importance, and its position, in the south
of Japan and near to the coast of China, would make it of
great use in case of hostilities. The fourth station at
Maizuru, on the Sea of Japan, was opened only in 1901,
but it is also being developed. There is also a very
complete arsenal in Tokyo for the manufacture of
appliances required in the Navy, and the Shimose powder
factory supplies ammunition of very high explosive power.

A rmy and Navy 123

A survey of the resources of the Japanese navy shows that,
for its size, it is the most thoroughly equipped navy in the
world ; while the bravery and efficiency of its officers and
men will enable it to give a very good account of itself
should it be required to defend the rights of Japan.

As an illustration of the thoroughness with which
the Japanese make their plans, of the completeness with
which they carry them out, and also of their Trainin of
power of adapting arrangements to their own Japanese naval
conditions, a sketch may be given of the
training of Japanese naval officers. That training was,
as we have seen, founded on the British system, but in
some respects they have improved on that system. It
may be divided into the following sections: — (1) Entrance
of cadets and their education in the Imperial Naval
College at Yetajima ; (2) education of midshipmen ;
(3) education of sub-lieutenants and lieutenants in their
respective duties afloat and ashore ; (4) education of officers
in the Imperial and Higher Naval College at Tokyo ; and
(5) education of officers in the torpedo and gunnery schools
at Yokosuka. In each of these sections the course is very
complete. The whole expense of training, food, and cloth-
ing is provided out of Government funds. The cadets are
selected after a physical examination of the candidates, as
well as one testing the state of their education in those pre-
liminary subjects which are necessary for naval officers. The
course extends over three years, and the instruction is given
partly in college and partly in the tenders attached to the
college. It includes the physical sciences and their applica-
tions to engineering, navigation, gunnery, and the other
departments of the duties of naval officers. In addition,
elementary courses of international and civil law and naval
history are provided. When the cadets pass the final
examination they are promoted to midshipmen.

The education of midshipmen is divided into training in
the special training ships and training in the ships of the
standing fleet, the object being to show them how to apply

124 .£W Nippon

practically what they had been taught in the college and to
give them the foundation of the experience necessary to per-
form their duties as junior officers. After the completion of
the course the midshipmen are distributed among the ships
in commission — almost invariably to the ships of the stand-
ing fleet, where there is no regular course. They perform
junior officers' duty under the supervision of the superior
officers, but it is, as a rule, the custom for the captain of
the ship to choose a very competent officer to take charge
of them, besides giving orders to the gunnery, torpedo, and
navigating officers to instruct them in their own special
branches. As sub-lieutenants and lieutenants their studies
are continued, although not according to any fixed pro-
gramme, but it is the practice of the captains to set each
officer a subject for a " yearly essay " on either theoretical or
practical questions of naval interest. The subject varies
according to the officer's rank, special duty, and capacity.
After being criticised by the superior officers, these essays
are printed in book form and distributed throughout the fleet
and naval barracks. Special lectures are from time to time
given on recent developments of naval science and practice.

The courses in the Higher Naval College in Tokyo are
provided for those who have shown special ability ; their
nature and extent depend on the object in view, and
they are very similar to the special courses given at
the Royal Naval College at Greenwich. Besides all this,
there are special schools for instruction in gunnery
and torpedo practice ; moreover, when some new weapons
had been introduced, or some new scientific discovery
had been made, or drills had undergone changes, a number
of officers were summoned from various parts to bring
themselves up to date in such matters and to teach their
comrades or those under their command what they had
themselves just acquired. The success of the Japanese navy
is evidently not of a haphazard nature, but is the result of a
long, systematic training, combined, of course, with the fear-
less bravery of the officers and men.

A rmy and Navy 125

The share which the Japanese forces took in the opera-
tions which were carried on in China in 1900 by the
Foreign Powers was the means of still further , ...

directing attention to the efficiency of the in the
Japanese army. On account of the troubles
with the Boxers, the foreign communities of Tientsin and
Peking were placed in situations of extreme danger, and it
was impossible for any European Power or the United States
of America to organise efficient and prompt measures of
relief. On the other hand, Japan was near, with a well-
equipped army and a powerful navy ; but, knowing the
suspicion of the Foreign Powers in such matters, she hesitated
to intervene, and it was not until Europe and America made
it quite plain that they needed and desired her help that she
sent a division (21,000 men) to Pechili, and it was admitted
by all competent observers that they practically saved the
situation. Their coolness and bravery under very trying
circumstances won the admiration of all who saw them, and,
fighting side by side with European and American soldiers
and under the eyes of competent critics, they acquitted them-
selves in such a manner as to establish a high military
reputation. Probably most important of all, the conduct of
the Japanese soldiers was in every respect worthy of com-
mendation and in some ways worthy of emulation by their
foreign comrades. The Government of Japan acted in har-
mony with all the other Governments, and sought no special
advantages, on account either of the part their troops had
taken in the operations in China, or of the special interests
which they had because of their proximity to that empire ; thus
showing that there were no grounds of any kind for the sus-
picion with which they had been regarded in some quarters.

A mere statement of the facts connected with the
Japanese army and navy is sufficient to show their
importance as factors not only in the develop- Japanese power
ment of Japan, but also in that of the Far as factors in
East generally. In many respects Japan
closely resembles Great Britain. Both countries consist of

126 Dai Nippon

a group of islands, with almost similar area and population,
and the one has the same geographical position relatively
to Asia that the other has to Europe. The Pacific area is
destined to become the most important commercial area in
the world, and Japan is nearer that centre than Britain. The
Japanese were not slow to recognise that the circumstances
which had led Great Britain to rely for trade on a great
mercantile marine, and for defence mainly on her fleet,
applied in her own case with almost equal urgency, and
for some years they have been rapidly building up their
commercial power by means of a great mercantile marine,
which now trades with all the chief countries of the
world ; at the same time they have been adding to their
fighting strength by means of a navy which is now a
very important factor in the political forces in the Far
East. Their army is relatively large, well equipped, well
organised, and capable of doing very effective work if
required. The expenditure on the naval and military
forces bears a considerable proportion to the total national
income, and one of the problems before Japan is how best
to provide for the defence of the country without crippling
its financial and industrial resources.

It must be recognised that this expenditure is part of
the price which Japan is paying for her membership of the
comity of nations, and it is very sad that it should be so.
Captain Brinkley has truly said that " no one who should
tell the Japanese to-day that the consideration they have
won from the West is due solely to their progress in peaceful
arts would find serious listeners. They themselves held
that belief as a working incentive twenty years ago, but
experience has dissipated it, and they now know that the
world took no respectful notice of them until they showed
themselves capable of winning battles. At first, they
imagined that they might efface the Oriental stigma by
living up to civilised standards. But the success they
attained was scarcely perceptible when suddenly their
victorious war with China seemed to win for them more

Army and Navy 127

esteem in half a year than their peaceful industry had
won for them in half a century. The perception of that
fact upset their estimate of the qualifications necessary for
a place in the ' foremost files of time,' and had much to do
with the desire they henceforth developed for expanded
armaments." While the expenditure may be regretted, it is
not difficult to give sufficient reasons for the policy which
was adopted, and looked at simply from an offensive or
defensive point of view even their most severe critics admit
that the Japanese army and navy are in a high state of
efficiency. Professor Chamberlain gives the opinion of all
who have had opportunities of observing the powers of the
Japanese army and navy when he says : " We cannot help
expressing our admiration of and belief in the Japanese
navy, and of Japan altogether as a military power. Though
it may not be for us to judge of the technical excellences
of ships and docks, it is perhaps given to an old resident
who has travelled widely, and read a great deal, and mixed
much with all classes, to appreciate the existence of those
qualities of intellect and morale which go to make a good
fighting man, whether on land or sea. To our thinking, any
foreign Power that should venture to attack Japan in her
own waters would be strangely ill-advised." The high state
of efficiency to which the Japanese army and navy have
been brought has proved not only that the Japanese are
able to take advantage of all the applications of Western
science to military and naval matters, but also that all classes
of the people are now animated by the true samurai spirit
which knows no fear and which prefers death to either
personal or national dishonour. Modern military and naval
appliances are merely the tools which are used ; the " Soul of
Japan " which animates those behind them is the source of
the strength of the army and navy.

128 Dai Nippon

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

An excellent account of the Japanese army and navy is given by
Captain Brinkley in his articles on Japan in the supplementary
volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and an interesting sketch
of the Growth of the Japanese Navy by Mr. Longford, late of the
British Consular Service in Japan, appeared in the Nineteenth
Century for September 1903. The Imperial Japanese Navy, by
Fred T. Jane, gives plans, photographs, and full descriptions of all the
ships in the navy, of the Japanese dockyards and arsenals, as well
as official reports on the Japan-China war. H. Yamawaki'sy^tfTz in
the Beginning of the Twentieth Century contains statistics of the army
and navy, with an outline of their history and organisation. Heroic
Japan, by Eastlake and Yamada, records the doings of the army
and navy in the war with China. Many books and reports on this
war have been published, which must be consulted for details.

CHAPTER VII

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

As soon as the Japanese had determined to introduce
Western methods of national life into the country, they
recognised that one of the first necessities, not

Necessity

only from an industrial but also from a political f or improved
point of view, was improved means of com- means of

1 . ■*• communication.

munication, and that of these the most im-
portant was a national system of railways. When I went
to Japan in 1873 the on ty railway in the country was the
short one of eighteen miles between Tokyo and Yokohama,
which had been opened with considerable eclat by the
Emperor a few months previously, and the illustrations of
that event published in the Illustrated London News were
the first things which specially directed my attention
to Japan. Little did I think that in a short time after
reading the account of the opening of the first railway
in the country I would be at the head of an institution
which was to be the chief means of developing not only the
railways and other means of communication, but also all
the other industries of Japan. Students of the Imperial
College of Engineering (Kobu Daigakko) are to be found in
important positions in almost all the undertakings which
have caused so great a change in the economic, industrial,
and political conditions of Japan, and it would be interesting
to enter into some details regarding their work, but these
must be reserved for another occasion. Meantime I can
only briefly sketch the developments which have taken place

(b 207) T ,

" 129 K

1 30 Dai Nippon

and which have enabled Japan to rank as an equal in the
comity of nations. It may be thought that in some respects
she has paid very dearly for this position, but there can be
little doubt that if these developments had not taken place,
she would have fallen under the domination of one or other
of the foreign Powers which are so anxious to extend their
influence in the Far East.

Under the feudal system the means of communication
were very imperfect ; indeed those in authority deliberately
Communications ^P* them so. Each province was to a large
under the extent self-contained, both economically and
system. p ij t j ca Hy ( anc j ^he central Government did not
exercise much control over ordinary affairs. The Tokugawa
Shoguns and the feudal nobles took care that the highways
leading to the capital should cross deep defiles and bridgeless
rivers, where all passage might be barred by a small force.
Thus one of the main thoroughfares from Kyoto to Yedo
was led over the Hakone pass and the other over the Usui ;
and any one taking a circuitous route so as to avoid the
guardhouses at either of these precipitous places was liable
to be put to death. At the same time the feudal chiefs
were required to keep the roads and bridges within their
territories in fairly good order and to provide post-horses and
ferry boats within the limits of their provinces.

There were, indeed, a number of Imperial roads, some-
what like the old coach roads in Britain, and those were
largely used by the Daimyos and their retainers when they
made their visits to Yedo to pay their respects to the
Shogun. Of these the two best known are those already
mentioned ; namely, the Tokaido, or Eastern Sea Road,
running along the sea-shore between Kyoto and Tokyo, and
the Nakasendo, or Central Mountain Road — so named in con-
tradistinction to the Tokaido and the comparatively unim-
portant Hokurokudo, or Northern Land Road, in Kaga and
Etchu, between which it occupies a middle position. There
were several other main roads of less importance, all provided
with lionjin or specially fine hostelries, for their lordships and

Means of Communication 131

their retainers to sleep at. The changed conditions have
caused the glories of these institutions to depart.

About the beginning of the seventeenth century a regular
transport service was organised between Yedo and Kyoto, and
a scale of charges for coolies and pack-horses was fixed by
law ; later on the merchants of Osaka organised a land
transport service to Yedo, and gradually the system was
extended to other parts of the country for the carriage of both
goods and letters. A considerable maritime carrying trade
was organised between the most important sea-ports, and
this fell into the hands of guilds, which obtained a practical
monopoly. At the Restoration, however, the means of
communication were still in a comparatively primitive con-
dition, and it was determined to improve them not only in
order that the country might be welded into one organisa-
tion, but also that full advantage might be taken of its
economic possibilities. Not only improved roads but also
railways, telegraphs, steamships, and other means of com-
munication were therefore the natural results of the new
conditions brought about by the Restoration, and the
demand for them was the immediate cause of the institu-
tion of the Imperial College of Engineering. For some
years a considerable number of foreign experts were engaged
by the Public Works Department, but as the graduates of
the College and other Japanese trained in other institutions
and in foreign countries gained experience, the work to a
large extent fell into their hands, and a very large part of
the civil engineering undertakings have been carried out
entirely by Japanese. No doubt many mistakes have been
made, but no unbiassed critic will deny that the develop-
ment which has taken place in Japan in the ways and
means of communication has been wonderful.

In feudal times the only methods of travelling were on
foot, on horseback, or in kago. The latter is a kind of
basket made of bamboo, with a light roof atop,
and swung on a pole which two men — one in
front and one behind — bear on their shoulders, and it is

132 Dai Nippon

still used in mountainous districts. The old norimono of
the towns, which was largely used in the Daimyos' pro-
cessions and by rich people, was simply a glorified kago.
The jinrikisha, which is now so well known and so much
used, rapidly displaced the kago. The origin of this useful
little carriage is sometimes attributed to an American
missionary, named Goble, although it is also traced to
several Japanese sources. After the Restoration the neces-
sity for better means of communication between the different
parts of the country caused attention to be directed to the
roads. The old thoroughfares were repaired and improved
in many ways and bridges were built over rivers which
formerly had to be forded ; so that the more important
roads were made available for carriage and bullock-cart
traffic as well as for jinrikishas with passengers. The local
authorities being responsible for the cost endeavoured to be
as economical as possible. Although improvements and
developments have been made during recent years, many of
the roads in Japan are still in a very unsatisfactory con-
dition. The developments which have taken place in the
railways and shipping have probably been the cause of
attention being directed from the ordinary roads, as they
have now become of secondary importance in the carriage
of goods. The advent of the cycle in its various forms
and of the motor car for all sorts of purposes will no
doubt lead to an improvement in the roads and to their
extended use as feeders to the railways.

The initiative in the construction of railways in Japan
was undertaken by Mr. Horatio Nelson Lay, who in 1 869
arrived in Tokyo with proposals to offer a loan
ways. ^^ ^ e Government on behalf of certain British
capitalists to be used for the formation of a railway between
Tokyo and Osaka, with a branch to Yokohama. The
amount of the loan was one million pounds sterling at
twelve per cent interest, the capital being repayable in
twelve years. The railway was to form part of the security
to the lenders, who were further to have a lien on the

Means of Communication 133

customs duties arising from the foreign trade at the open
ports. Mr. Lay had stipulated that he was not only to be
the chief commissioner of railways, but that he was also
to have the appointment of all the engineers and other
foreigners whom it would be necessary to employ, and the
ordering of everything that had to be imported. Mr. Morel,
a gentleman of experience and ability, was engaged as
engineer- in -chief, a considerable number of subordinates
were appointed and they at once set to work to make the
necessary surveys. It was determined to make a start with
the line between Yokohama and Tokyo, and before the end
of 1870 the work had fairly commenced.

It is not necessary to enter into the details of Mr. Lay's
financial arrangements ; it is sufficient to say that they fell
through, and that the business was taken in hand by the
Oriental Bank, and for some years the financial arrangements
of the railways were under the supervision of the Bank — Mr.
W. W. Cargill, acting as director of railways on behalf of the
Bank, and Mr. R. Vicars Boyle, C.S.I., becoming engineer-in-
chief, with Dr. William Pole, F.R.S., as consulting engineer
in London. For some time the work of railway con-
struction proceeded at a comparatively slow rate, partly on
account of financial reasons but also because the Japanese
Government had determined to use the construction of
railways as a practical training school for Japanese engineers.
At first fully two hundred foreigners were employed in rail-
way construction, but the services of these were gradually
dispensed with as students of the Imperial College of
Engineering and others, trained partly at home and partly
abroad, were able to undertake the work, and now very few
foreigners remain in the railway service.

As already mentioned, in 1872 the only line of railway
in Japan was that between Tokyo and Yoko- n ,.

. • • 1 Outline of

hama, a distance of eighteen miles. The original history of
intention of the Government was to construct a railway

construction.

trunk line from Tokyo to Kobe and Osaka and

Kyoto by way of the Nakasendo, or Middle Mountain Road,

1 34 Dai Nippon

but it was found that this would involve great labour and
expense, on account of the mountainous district through
which it passes ; it was abandoned, and the Tokaido
route adopted instead. The part between Kobe and Kyoto
was proceeded with slowly, under the superintendence of
foreign engineers. The construction was under the control
of the Department of Public Works, the railways at first
being entirely State undertakings. In 1885 the Department
of Public Works was abolished, and the Railway Bureau was
then placed under the direct management of the Cabinet.
In 1890 the Railway Bureau changed its name to Railway
Board, and it was at the same time affiliated to the Home
Office. This connection with the Home Office came to an
end in 1892, when the Department of Communications was
created, and the Railway Board, which had restored to it its
old designation of Railway Bureau, was brought under the
control of the new Department.

The main line between Tokyo and Kyoto via the
Tokaido proceeded slowly. The people of Japan were
quickly appreciating the importance of railways in the
development of the country, and as Japanese engineers were
being found qualified to undertake the work, it became
necessary to devise a more rapid means of extension, and
permission was given to private companies to undertake the
work. The pioneer of private enterprise in Japan was
the Nippon Railway Company, which in November 1881
obtained a charter for laying the Tokyo-Aomori line. As
it was impossible to form any exact estimates of cost or
expenditure, far less to calculate the probable amount of
traffic and the consequent return on the capital invested, the
Government undertook to guarantee its profit within a certain
limit, and moreover gave it every facility for carrying on the
work. In a short time the work was begun and carried on
with great zeal and activity, and the period of private railway
work was ushered in. Since then it has developed at a
rapid rate. Indeed, in 1896 and 1 897, immediately after
the war with China, there was something .approaching a

Means of Communication

135

railway mania, like that in England during the early days
of railways ; numerous schemes were proposed, many of
which came to nothing practical, as they issued from the
brains of speculators, whose object was not to construct
railways but to make money out of the unfortunate investors.
Since that time the greater part of railway construction in
Japan has been carried out by private enterprise, although
the Government completed and has still retained the
management of the first lines which were designed. It has
also carried out extensive railway developments in the
Hokkaido, in order to encourage the promotion of industry
and agriculture in that rather inhospitable part of the
Japanese Empire. No doubt political and military reasons
have also had considerable weight. The question of the
sale of the Government railways to private companies has
often been discussed in Japan, but as yet no definite pro-
posals have been made on the subject. So far as can be
gathered from the opinions expressed in the newspapers,
there is a strong feeling that the railways ought to be
directly under Government control, not only for military
reasons, but also that they may serve, to the greatest
advantage, the general wants of the country.

It is not necessary to enter into details of the various
railways in the country, but the following figures show their
distribution throughout the Empire : —

Area
sq. miles.

Population.

Railway

Mileage.

Mileage

per 100

sq. miles.

Mileage
per 10,000
Inhabitants.

Honshu .
Kyushu
Hokkaido
Shikoku .

86,329

13,771

30,123

6,858

34,196,471
6,586,682
1,003,751
2,961,714

3165

425
360

75

3-67
3-07
1.16
I.08

O.74
O.52
3-48
0.20

Total .

I37,o8l

44,748,618

4026

2.75

O.72

The following table gives the rate of construction for
State and private railways since 1872 : —

136

Dai Nippon

Mileage open

to Traffic.

Year

State Railways.

Private Railways.

Total.

Miles.

Chains.

Miles.

Chains.

Miles.

Chains.

1872 . .

18

O

18

1873 . .

IS

O

18

O

1874 • •

38

27

38

27

1875 • •

38

27

38

27

1875-1876

38

27

38

27

1S76-1877

65

II

65

II

1877-1878

65

II

65

II

1878-1S79

65

II

65

II

1879-1880

73

22

73

22

1880-1881

76

37

76

37

1881-1882

100

38

100

38

1 882- 1 883

114

63

114

63

18S3-1884

125

5i

63

OO

188

51

1884-1885

!25

5i

So

63

206

34

1885-1886

I67

62

129

76

297

58

1886-1887

208

64

165

77

374

61

1887-1888

244

40

293

24

537

64

1888-18S9

445

19

406

38

851

57

1 889- 1 890

550

49

525

22

1075

7i

1890-1891

55o

49

848

43

1399

12

1891-1892

550

49

1 166

40

1717

9

1892-1893

55°

49

1320

26

1870

75

1 893- 1 894

557

49

1367

77

1925

46

1894-1S95

580

69

1537

33

2118

22

1895-1896

593

22

1679

75

2273

17

1896-1897

631

62

1800

9

2431

7i

1897-1898

661

65

2282

37

2944

22

1S98-1899

768

37

2642

57

34"

14

1 899- 1 900

833

72

2802

49

3636

41

1900-1901

949

69

2905

16

3855

5

1901-1902

1059

48

2966

48

4026

16

1 902- 1 903

1226

64

3010

64

4237

48

We cannot enter into details either of the working of

the railways or of their financial arrangements, but a few

Working and of the main figures may be given. The

financial regulation gauge of the railways is 3 feet

6 inches, but for light railways it is 2 feet

6 inches. The details of rolling stock vary considerably,

the capacity naturally advancing with the progress of

railway business. The ratio of vehicles to mileage under

traffic is, according to the latest returns, 33.5 locomotives,

1 12.5 passenger cars, and 492.3 waggons per 100 miles.

Means of Communication 1 3 7

The actual capital invested at the beginning of 1902

was as follows : — „

Yen.

Government Railways . . . . 127,167,852

Private Railways 219,709,432

346,877,284

The dividends paid on the capital have, as a rule, been
very good, those on the larger railways being from 1 o to 12
per cent per annum, and very few being below 5 per cent.
The net earnings of the Government Railways in 1 90 1 were
8,418,128 yen, and of the private railways 16,547,242 yen,
or a total of 24,965,370 yen. Both the passenger and the
goods traffic have increased at a rapid rate, but there is still
great room for development. The latest statistics show that
the number of persons, per head of population, per annum
who travelled was only 2.39, and that the distance travelled
was only 40.5 miles, while the number of tons of goods
carried per head of population was only 0.30 tons and that
only for a distance of 16.4 miles. Mr. K. Inuzuka, Director
of the Railway Bureau, after an examination of these figures,
says : " These analyses impress on the mind of one that the
benefit taken of the railway by our people is still in a state
of infancy " ; and he adds : " To afford a more enlightened use
of the facilities by railways at the minimum cost of perform-
ing the service, it is necessary on the one hand to accomplish
a more direct communication, and on the other to adopt all
the most important modern improvements in railway appli-
ances and methods, so as to induce the public to enjoy the
benefit of railway travelling." It is evident therefore that
great as has been the development of railway construction in
Japan in the past, we may expect a considerable develop-
ment in the future.

Various legislative measures relating to railways have
from time to time been passed, but it is not necessary to
enter into details of these. A few of the main Railway
points, however, may be noted. In 1872 the legislation.
first measures were published, and they provided general

138 Dai Nippon

rules about railway work ; these were amended and ex-
tended from time to time. In 1879 an< ^ 1883 the general
and punitive rules which had been issued for Government
railways were made applicable also to private railways.
From time to time special regulations relating to loans and
the construction of special lines were issued, and in 1900
the laws relating to private railways were codified. The
following are the points in these which deserve special
notice : —

1. Shares of the capital must not be acquired except
by the payment of money.

2. Unless in virtue of a decision arrived at by a general
meeting of shareholders and with the sanction of the minister
concerned, no railway can be chartered or hired or its
management entrusted to others.

3. Unless with the sanction of the minister concerned, and
after not less than one-fourth of the share capital has been
paid up, a railway company must not issue debenture bonds.

4. With the approval of the minister, a company may
contract a loan by mortgaging its railway with accessories,
but they must not be used as objects of right of mortgage.

5. The debenture bonds and loans together must not
exceed the total sum of the paid-up capital.

6. No company must declare dividends unless after the
principal and interest of the bonds and loans payable every
year have been subtracted from the proceeds.

7. Except in cases specially approved of, the gauge must
measure 3 feet 6 inches.

8. The minister concerned may order an alteration of
tariff rate, when such alteration is judged necessary in the
public interest.

9. The tariff rate of third-class passengers must not
exceed 2 sen per mile.

10. A company shall be held responsible to offer its
lines in accordance with the provisions determined by law or
ordinance for the use of the army or the navy either in time
of war or in time of peace.

Means of Communication 139

1 1. The Government reserve the right of purchasing the
line with all its appurtenances after full twenty-five years
from the time of granting a permanent charter.

The Japanese Government has paid considerable attention
to the improvement of the rivers of the country and have
spent large sums of money on the work. For Ri ve r
instance, in the last Budget, there appeared the improvements.
sum of 3,220,000 yen for river engineering works. The
rivers of Japan are peculiarly difficult to keep in order, and
their beds are subject to sudden changes which often cause
floods of a very serious nature. The engineering works are
chiefly for the purpose of preventing such floods, but the
improvements which have taken place have made many of
them much more useful as a means of communication for the
transportation of goods and passengers, and the traffic on
some of the larger of them is of considerable and increasing
importance.

The early records of Japan show that a considerable
maritime trade was carried on not only between the ports of
Japan but also with foreign countries ; but in

/ r , 7. ...... , Shipping.

10 1 4, on account of the political intrigues of the
foreigners who had settled in Japan and the fanaticism excited
by the ill-judged measures of the propagandists of Christianity,
Iyeyasu, the then Shogun, issued a proclamation ordering the
banishment of the propagandists and leaders of Christianity
and the destruction of their churches and the compulsory
recantation of their doctrines. A period of persecution
followed, which culminated in the imprisonment of the Dutch
at Deshima in 1641 by the grandson of Iyeyasu, the third
Tokugawa Shogun. In order to make his edict more effec-
tive he ordered that all vessels of sea-going capacity should
be destroyed and that no craft should thenceforth be built
of sufficient size to venture beyond home waters. Some
vessels were built for coast defence, but their design was very
crude and they were utterly useless for the purpose for which
they were intended, while the trading junk, as modified by
official instructions, was as little capable of navigating the

1 40 Dai Nippon

high seas as of fighting, and the Japanese remained without
anything that could be called a mercantile marine until
after the advent of foreigners and the signing of treaties of
trade and commerce with the representatives of the foreign
Powers.

After the restoration of the Emperor to power, in 1869

and 1870, the Government made repeated announcement to

the effect not only that any person might keep

Beginning and a number of ships of foreign type, but also

development J r ° J r '

of modern that liberal protection would be afforded to him
iaTtiirmarine. in his undertaking. For some years^ a con-
siderable number of antiquated and in some
cases worn-out ships were sold to the Japanese, who, how-
ever, soon found that what seemed cheap bargains were, in
the end, very expensive, and they determined to build up a
mercantile marine on sound business methods. In 1872
the Nihonkoku Yubin Jokisen Kaisha (Japan Mail Steam-
ship Company) was organised, which was superseded five
years later by the Yubin Kisen Mitsubishi Kaisha (Mit-
subishi Mail Steamship Company). Afterwards the Kyodo
Unyu Kaisha (United Shipping Company) and the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha (Osaka Merchant Steamship Company) were
created in 1882 and 1884 respectively, both of them being
supported by the subsidies of the Government. In 1885
the Mitsubishi Kisen Kaisha and the Kyodo Unyu Kaisha,
after a desperate competition, were united into one company
under the title of Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japan Mail Steam-
ship Company), the greatest navigation company in Japan
ever since. After the war with China, and in consequence
of the encouragement and assistance given by the Govern-
ment, shipping and shipbuilding made very rapid progress.
In 1896 the Toyo Kisen Kaisha (Oriental Steamship
Company) was established. The success which has attended
the efforts of the Japanese to build up a mercantile marine
is one of the factors which establishes the claim of Japan to
the name of the Britain of the East. The following table
shows the development of Japanese shipping since 1870 : —

Means of Communication

141

Steamers.

Sailing Vessels.

Total.

Japanese Junks.

At the
end

of—

No. of

Gross

No. of

Gross

No. of

Gross

No. of

Gross

Ships.

Tonnage.

Ships.

Tonnage.

Ships.

Tonnage.

Ships.

Tonnage.

Koku.

1870

35

?

II

?

46

?

?

?

1871

71

?

31

?

I02

?

?

?

1872

96

?

35

?

131

?

18,640

3,3I2,28l

1873

no

?

36

?

I46

?

22,693

3,835,402

1874

118

?

41

?

159

?

22,673

3,766,221

1875

149

?

44

?

193

?

21,260

3,577,853

1876

159

?

51

?

2IO

?

19,919

3,397,183

1877

183

?

75

?

258

?

18,964

3,251,425

1878

195

?

123

?

318

?

19,135

3,333,406

1879

199

?

174

?

373

?

19,285

3,254,759

lS8o

210

?

329

?

539

?

19,092

3,273,709

l88l

298

?

379

?

677

?

17,638

3,032,345

1882

344

?

428

?

772

?

17,331

2,930,842

1883

390

?

419

?

S09

?

16,149

2,655,763

18S4

412

?

402

?

814

?

16,427

2,798,7So

1885

461

95,975

509

57,292

970

153,267

17,006

2,854,632

1886

460

100,112

688

60,328

1 148

160,440

16,757

2,786,818

1887

486

"5,395

798

64,416

1284

i79,7Si

17,194

2,851,247

1888

524

129,836

896

67,529

1420

197,365

17,878

2,969,695

1889

563

141,805

843

57,624

1406

199,429

18,796

3,216,158

1890

585

150,058

865

54,989

H5o

205,047

19,375

3,302.385

1891

607

154,749

832

53,387

1439

208,136

18,589

3,I53,2IO

1892

642

165,764

780

49,085

1422

214,849

18,205

3,069,816

1893

680

176,915

746

48,303

1426

225,218

17,209

2,878,462

1894

745

273,419

722

46,959

1467

320,378

17,300

2,876,131

1895

827

341,369

702

44,794

1529

386,163

I7,36o

2,960,887

1896

899

373,588

644

44,055

1543

417,643

17,612

3,066,128

1897

1032

438,779

715

48,130

1747

486,909

19,097

3,320,284

1898

1 130

477,43o

1914

170,894

3044

648,324

19,099

3,049,035

1899

1221

510,007

3322

286,923

4543

796,930

iS,479

2,713,646

1900

1329

543,365

3850

320,571

5179

863,936

18,796

2,785,114

1901

1395

583,532

4020

336,436

5415

919,968

19,758

2,921,565

Statistics relating to the gross tonnage for the years prior to 1884 inclusive are
inaccessible. Only Japanese junks, the capacity of which are over 50 koku. are taken
into account in this table.

A few particulars may be given of the three great
steamship companies which now carry on the ocean-carrying
services of Japan. At the time of the amalgamation which
resulted in the formation of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha the
foreign trade carried on in Japanese-owned vessels was of
a very limited nature, the only foreign services opened
being between Yokohama and Shanghai, Nagasaki and
Vladivostock, and Kobe and Inch-'yen. The new company

142 Dai Nippon

opened regular services to Niuchwang and Tientsin, and in
1892, in order chiefly to bring a supply of Indian cotton
for the rapidly developing cotton industry, the line to
Bombay was opened. When the war with China broke
out in 1894 the company furnished fifty-seven transports
with over 130,000 gross tonnage for the use of the Govern-
ment for military purposes, and thus helped materially in
the victory over China. After the war, a great extension
took place in the foreign services of the company, and as a
first step its capital was increased to 22,000,000 yen and
a considerable number of new ships were constructed in
Britain for its trade. In March 1895 one of its ships
made its first voyage to Europe, as an experiment, and the
result was so satisfactory that a regular service was instituted
between Kobe and Europe. In August and October 1896
a similar service was started to America and Australia
respectively. The four lines, namely the European, the
American, the Australian, and the Bombay lines are the
prescribed routes specially ordered by the Government.
In the two former the vessels are despatched fortnightly
and in the latter monthly. In addition the company has a
regular service to all the chief ports of Japan, China, and
Korea, the total length of lines on which the company is
now running regular steamship services is 44,418 miles.

The necessity of connecting the city of Osaka, the
centre of trade of the western part of the Empire, with the
most important trading ports such as Kobe and Nagasaki
and Shikoku, Kyushiu, and many other islands lying to the
west of Osaka, induced a number of large shipowners, in May
1884, to combine and establish the Osaka Shisen Kaisha.
At the time of the combination their trade was confined to
coast service, but in 1891 and 1892 the Osaka-Fusan and
the Osaka-Inch-'yen services were respectively opened. In
1896 the company began a regular service to Taiwan
(Formosa), one to the Yangtze in 1898, another to south
China in 1899, and others to various ports in Korea in
subsequent years ; thus facilitating the means of communica-

Means of Communication

143

tion between Japan, China, and Korea, and between Japan
proper and Formosa, and at the same time improving the
coast services ; so that the company is now considered one
of the most important shipping companies in the Far East.
During the war with China in 1894-5 it furnished the
Government with thirty or more transports with a gross
tonnage of 12,500 tons. The total length of lines on
which the company is now running regular services is
19,727 miles.

The Toyo Kisen Kaisha, which came into existence as
one of the post-bellum undertakings, was established in 1896
but did not begin actual operations until the end of 1898.
The original plan of the company was to open a regular
service to New York and Batoum, but changing it sub-
sequently, the company selected the route to San Francisco
via Shanghai and Hongkong, the steamers being now
despatched once or twice a month.

The following shows the development of the Japanese
mercantile marine in the larger size of ships during the
years 1892- 1902: —

From

From

From

From

From

No. of
Ships.

1000 to

2000 to

3000 to

4000 to

5000 to

Total Tonnage.

2000 tons.

3000 tons.

4000 tons.

5000 tons.

6000 tons.

1892

39

IO

2

51

8,645,912

1893

43

11

2

56

9.574,843

1894

46

29

9

2

87

18,367,228

1895

58

40

13

2

114

24,291,045

1896

64

45

14

2

126

26,569,602

1897

69

47

14

2

I40

32,197,885

1898

68

44

16

2

I44

35,708,600

1899

65

47

17

3

I48

38,239,974

1900

70

52

17

3

156

41,053,741

1901

74

56

17

3

2

170

44,372,346

1902

81

60

17

4

2

182

46,995,000

A survey of the growth of the Japanese mercantile marine
shows that it has been one of the most striking features in the
national evolution, and its past history makes it quite clear
that Japan means to follow the example of the Britain of the
West and become a great maritime nation.

1 44 Dai Nippon

At present there are thirty ports open to foreign trade ;
namely, Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, Ebisu,
Open Ports Osaka, Shimizu, Taketoyo, Yokkaichi, Itozaki,
and Harbours. Shimonoseki, Moji, Hakata, Karatsu, Kuchinotsu,
Misumi, Izuhara, Sasuna, Shikami, Naba, Hamada, Sakaye,
Miyazu, Tsuruga, Nanao (southern basin), Fushiki, Otaru,
Kushiro, and Muroran. With the object of maintaining
order in these ports having much shipping traffic, in 1898
an Imperial Ordinance was issued containing Harbour
Regulations, and the ports of Yokohama, Kobe, and
Nagasaki were at once placed under this legislation, which
was extended two years later to Moji.

In May 1864, while the Shogun's Government was still

in existence, Japan agreed, in accordance with Article XI. of

the Tariff Convention concluded with Great

Lighthouses. . . . „ .

Britain, France, United States of America, and
Holland, to construct lighthouses and other nautical signals
in foreign style and in the vicinity of the open ports. Sir
Harry Parkes, the British Minister, took much interest in this
matter, and having referred it to his Government, the Board
of Trade undertook to procure the lighthouse apparatus
required by the Japanese Government ; to appoint and
send to Japan suitable persons to erect the lighthouses and
to organise an efficient lighthouse system. The Board of
Trade engaged the services of Messrs. D. and T. Stevenson,
engineers to the Commissioners of Northern Lights,
Edinburgh, and these gentlemen designed and superintended
the construction of all the apparatus which was sent to Japan.
They also selected the chief engineer, Mr. R. H. Brunton,
and the artisans and lightkeepers who were sent out, the
Board of Trade in each case approving the selection and
making the appointment.

Mr. Brunton arrived in Japan in August 1868, and a
Lighthouse Engineering Department was established at
Benten, Yokohama. Mr. Brunton remained in the service
of the Japanese Government for eight years, and during that
time he superintended the construction of a large number of

Means of Communication 145

lighthouses and other signals at the most important parts of
the Japanese coast, and thus made navigation comparatively
sa'fe. Since that time the number has been considerably
increased and the Japanese coasts are now well lighted.
The nautical signals of Japan are divided according to
construction and method of maintenance into three classes ;
namely Government, communal, and private. At the end of
1 90 1 there were 162 Government signals of various kinds,
51 communal, and 16 private, or a total of 239.

Among the Western apparatus presented by Commodore
Perry to the Shogun in 1853 were two sets of telegraph
instruments, but they were never used for any

Telegraphs.

practical purposes. The Shogunate was, as we
have seen, in the midst of very serious troubles, which ended
in its disappearance, the officials or people had no time
to study telegraphy and the instruments were left to mould
and decay in a storehouse.

It was not until after the Restoration that Japan had its
first line of telegraphs, when in 1869 under the super-
intendence of Mr. Brunton, the engineer of the Light-
house Department, Tokyo and Yokohama were connected by
telegraph wires. For some time the pioneer line suffered
from the ignorant masses, who looked upon the telegraph as
a species of witchcraft and frequently broke down the line ;
so that the guarding of it was no easy matter. The Govern-
ment, however, was firm in its determination to maintain the
service, and spared no trouble to extend and improve it ;
the people were soon convinced of its utility and gave up
their attempts to destroy it.

The system was slowly extended to other parts of the
country, but without any definite plan and with very
imperfect construction and appliances, and breakdowns were
frequent. Soon after my arrival in Japan I impressed on
the Vice-Minister of Public Works the desirability of a more
complete organisation, and on my suggestion Mr. Edward
Gilbert of the North British Railway Company's service was
engaged, along with a competent staff of assistants, to

(b 207) k

1 46 Dai Nippon

organise and develop the system. In a comparatively short
time considerable extensions took place and the service was
placed on a proper basis. Its importance and utility were
fully demonstrated during the civil war in Kyushu, and its
use gave the Government troops a great advantage over the
rebels. In the following year the Emperor made a tour
round Japan and many telegraph offices were opened ;
shortly afterwards the country joined the Telegraph Union,
and thus both internally and externally the telegraph service
was placed on a fair road to satisfactory development. That
development was hastened by the work of the graduates of
the Imperial College of Engineering and by the operators
and workmen who were trained under their superintendence.
In a recent report it is stated that " in short, the technical
knowledge possessed by Japan in the work of constructing
lines and apparatus has been advanced to a state of efficiency,
and both in respect of applying the latest developments of
science and art and of training the staff of operators and
experts, our telegraphic service can well stand comparison
with that of Western countries " ; and there can be no
doubt that this claim is well founded. Besides the offices
maintained in the interior, the Government also possesses
telegraph offices at Fusan, Seoul, and Jinsen, all in Korea.
There are now about 2200 telegraph offices throughout
Japan, and they are being increased as the demand arises
for them as quickly as means will allow, and it is expected
that before long all the post offices in Japan will be con-
nected by telegraph lines. In the more thickly populated
districts of Japan proper, that is in Kyushu and Shikoku,
the offices are at the rate of one per nine square ri approxi-
mately. The latest developments of electrical science and
the most improved appliances have been fully utilised in the
telegraph system of Japan.

The following table shows the development of telegraphs
in Japan since 1869 : —

Means of Communication

147

Telegraphs.

Number of

Length

Length

Number

Offices open

of

of

of

to the Public.

Lines.

Wires.

Messages.

Ri.

Ri.

1869

2

8

8

?

1870

4

19

19

?

1871

4

19

19

19,448

1872

18

160

185

80,639

1873

28

354

536

186,448

1874

34

433

1.325

356,539

1875

47

637

I.590

525,930

1876

5i

672

1,626

690,162

1877

68

947

1,946

868,970

1878

97

1310

2,828

1,037,884

1879

112

1518

3,211

1,659,702

1880

155

1722

4.037

2,041,372

1881

169

1871

4,666

2,585,663

1882

185

1990

5,116

2,978,763

1883

*95

2056

5,496

2,678,860

1884

213

2216

5,803

2,723,613

1885

216

2243

5,921

2,670,311

1 886

219

2265

5,948

2,540,928

1S87

231

2346

6,209

2,647,536

1888

251

2452

6,723

2,842,331

1S89-

189c

> 3"

2574

7,275

3,675,802

1S90-

1891

408

2900

8,218

4,316,366

1891-

1892

524

3244

9,245

4,728,728

1892-

189;

633

3557

10,052

5,466,095

1S93-

189/

!• 716

3S36

10,388

6,556,109

1894-

189 =

762

3983

11,670

8,359,774

1895-

iSgfJ

787

4044

12,408

9,410,985

1S96-

189;

' II2S

4903

15,659

11,099,150

1897-

1895

i 1259

5872

19,158

14,296,378

1898-

189c

1272

6127

2 1 , 500

15,188,008

1899-

1 90c

> I450

6534

25,302

14,496,130

1900-

1901

I65I

6999

28,606

16,789,543

1901-

1902

! 1S56

736i

3i,i7o

16,596,806

1902-

190:

2198

7628

33,584

17,635,461

Telephones.

Some time in 1877 I had a set of telephone instruments
sent out from London, which were the first in Japan, and
having connected my office in the Engineering
College with that of the Public Works Depart-
ment, they were shown in operation to a large number of
visitors. Other instruments were gradually introduced and
used for short distances, but it was not till some years later
that telephones became largely used as public means of

148 Dai Nippon

communication. The first long line was constructed in 1888
between Tokyo and Atami. The scope of operations was
next extended as far as Shizuoka, and then to Osaka, and
with success in both cases. During the past ten years
especially great progress has been made in telephonic com-
munication in Japan, and it is now being used freely, not
only for business purposes, but also for social intercourse.
Reference must, however, be made to special reports for
details.

Among the methods of communication which have been
the means of causing great changes in Japan, a prominent
Postal place must be given to the postal services, that
services, have now attained a high standard of efficiency.
From an early period a very rudimentary form of postal
service existed in Japan. As I have already mentioned,
early in the seventeenth century a service was established
by the Tokugawa Shoguns. At first this was limited to
official uses, but later on it was imitated by business men.
The intervals, however, between the despatches were con-
siderable, and the methods of delivery crude and uncertain,
but for more than two centuries this primitive system of
postal service was in vogue.

The great changes which took place in the country after
the Restoration convinced the Government that the postal
services could not be carried on with efficiency and benefit
as private enterprises, and it was decided to run them as
official undertakings. In January 1871 the new Postal
Service System was promulgated, and it was put in force by
way of trial between Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto in March of
the same year, and very soon developments took place all
over the country.

In June 1877 Japan joined the International Postal
Union, and from that date every effort was made to keep
the arrangements of the Post Office Department up to the
standard of Western countries. On June 20, 1902, on the
occasion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the admission of
Japan into the Union, a great celebration was held to mark

Means of Communication

149

the occasion and to recount the work done. For some time
Japanese letter postage was the cheapest in the world, being
based on a silver standard which naturally shared in the
universal depreciation of that metal. Inland letters went
for 2 sen, that is about a halfpenny ; post-cards for half that
sum. In 1899 these rates were raised fifty per cent ; so that
domestic letters now cost 3 sen (for \ oz.), post-cards 1^ sen.
Foreign postage to all countries included in the Postal Union
is 10 sen (2^d., though originally intended to be equivalent
to 5d.). There is an excellent system of postal savings-
banks which at the end of the year 1902 had 27,196,802
yen in deposit in the names of 2,363,335 individuals. The
money orders and parcel post are largely made use of. The
following figures show the increase in ordinary mail matter
in ten years : —

Year.

Letters.

Post-cards.

Newspapers and
Magazines.

1892
1897
1 9OI

74,991,639
148,254,148
190,951,188

133,260,804
287,069,246
436,673,345

50,829,871

88,266,273

139,116,263

The dead-letter office in Japan has very light work, as it
is the universal custom for correspondents to put their own
name and address on the back of the envelope ; a custom
which is now becoming somewhat common in other parts of
the world. A detailed study of the work of the Post Office
Department of Japan affords a very good index of the
national progress in many of its aspects.

The sketch which has been given of the development of
the means of communication shows most distinctly that they
must have been very important factors not only in the
formation of Japan into an organic unity instead of a group
of isolated feudal clans, but also in the promotion of national
and international industry and commerce in all their depart-
ments. Some of the most important of these we will now
proceed to consider.

1 50 Dai Nippon

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The Reports of the Public Works Department and of the
Departments of Communications give statistics of the development
of the means of communication in Japan. A very complete resume
is to be found in the Financial and Economical Annual issued by the
Department of Finance, and in another annual issued by the Imperial
Cabinet, namely the Resume Statistique de P Empire du Japan.
Chapter vii. of H. Yamawaki's Japan in the beginning of the Twentieth
Century gives the most connected account which has been published.
The British and American Consular Reports have noted the pro-
gress which has been made from year to year, and several special
reports have been issued on the railways and shipping. Almost all
the recent foreign books on Japan contain an outline of the arrange-
ments and extent of railways, shipping, telegraphs, etc.

CHAPTER VIII

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENTS

FOR some time after the fall of feudalism the progress
of Western industries in Japan was comparatively slow.
The attention of the new Government was too T . ,

Introduction

fully occupied with problems of administration of foreign
and finance to allow them time to consider the industnes -
reorganisation of industry, and few among the people had
either the capital or the knowledge to enable them to make
industrial developments on Western lines. As affairs settled
down in the country, however, considerable numbers of
foreign experts were engaged to superintend the working
of special industries, but the success which attended their
operations was not great. Some of these industries were
started under the superintendence of the Public Works or
some other department of the Government, while others were
undertaken by private individuals. In many cases the
Japanese had to pay somewhat dearly for their experience.
Not infrequently they were unfortunate in the selection
which they made of their foreign employees, and occasionally
the unsuitable economic conditions of the localities selected
for the works brought about failure. Sometimes the want
of success was due to an attempt to carry on the works
entirely by Japanese before they had gained the requisite
experience. Withal, progress was made, and especi-
ally when men who had been educated in the colleges
in Japan, and who had supplemented their training by
experience in Europe and America, returned to their native

151

152 Dai Nippon

countiy. From about 1880 onwards, the progress has been
wonderful, and for some years there was quite a boom in
industrial undertakings, some of which, however, were of
too speculative a nature to be successful financially. The
war with China in 1894-5 marked an epoch not only in
the political history of Japan, but also in its economic and
industrial history, and its successful termination gave an
impetus to every department of national activity ; which had
a great effect on industrial development.

While that development has been very great, especially
in the neighbourhood of large towns, it must not be imagined
Conditions of that all the industries of old Japan have dis-
nauve industries, appeared or changed their methods to any
great extent. Mr. Stafford Ransome has truly said : " Any
one whose business it might be to visit the modern factories
in the Japan of to-day, and who afterwards might pick up
Rein's Industries of Japan, thoughtful and excellent in
every way as is that work, might well imagine that what he
had seen and what he reads in that book had to do with
two absolutely different countries. This does not mean that
the industrial Japan described so ably by Rein has ceased
to exist, but that during the last few years, side by side
with the picturesque, effective, and time-honoured native
handicrafts, there have sprung up into being the essentially
progressive but inartistic factory chimney, and its accompany-
ing and still more hideous workshops, built on the most
approved-of European and American designs. My advice
to the visitor to Japan, who wishes to enjoy himself and
improve his mind, is to study the industrial Japan depicted
by Rein ; for though less obtrusive, it still remains, and is
far more interesting than its modern congener. Let him see
the making of cloisonne ware, embroidery, rice-mats, and
carving, and admire the curios, toys, hand-weaving, and
painting, while those are arts still to be seen as now carried on ;
for my conviction is that, if the old Japan is destined to die,
as we are so often told is to be the case, mortification will first
attack its native industries."

Industrial Developments 153

I shall discuss the probable future of the artistic in-
dustries of Japan in a future chapter, but as native industries
are still carried on to a considerable extent Methods of
and as their products still form a large part natlve industries -
of the industrial output of the country, a few notes regard-
ing them will meantime be convenient.

During the Tokugawa period, extending over two
hundred and sixty years, Japan was in a state of perfect
tranquillity, and the feudal chiefs did a great deal to encourage
and protect manufacturing industry, especially that of an
artistic nature. The energy which was formerly spent on
internecine war was expended in friendly rivalry in the
industrial arts, and the consequence was that a very high
standard of excellence was attained. The best work was
not made for sale, but for use or presentation ; time was not
money, and the artificers and artists threw their personalities
and all their skill into their work. Both artists and work-
men were free to work when they felt in the mood to do
justice to their objects, and equally free to seek repose the
instant fatigue notified them of their failing powers. They
therefore had real pleasure in their work, and each of the
products was a distinct specimen of skill, perfect, novel, and
idiosyncratic. Nothing short of what they considered
perfection was allowed to pass ; for their honour as craftsmen
and artists was at stake. Usually they worked by them-
selves in their own cottages, or else with a few sympathetic
associates, on such branches of art as had been perfected by
many generations of their ancestors through the fostering
care of their feudal lords. Skill passed from fathers to sons
or adopted sons, and surrounded by their own domestic circle
they carried on their work under conditions which were
almost perfect from an artistic point of view. Qualified
critics and fellow -workers kept up a spirit of healthy
emulation, and the worker unconsciously imbibed in a more
or less degree some of the purity, poetry, and refinements of
the motives which actuated his art.

It cannot be wondered that the specimens of Japanese

154 Dai Nippon

industry which found their way to Nagasaki, and from there
to Europe, when the Dutch were the only people who had inter-
course with the Japanese, are still looked upon as the best
specimens of Japanese art work, and that the Tokugawa
period is considered the golden age of Japanese art. Some
of the best products of the period are now better represented
in European museums than in Japan. The industries were
fairly well diffused over the country, although naturally
certain districts became specially noted for their products.
Textile fabrics in silk, hemp, and cotton were produced in many
parts of the country 7 , and porcelain wares in those districts in
which clay of good quality was to be found.

The economic and social changes which took place on
the fall of the feudal system played havoc with all the
Change of Japanese art industries, even with those of a
conditions. purely mechanical nature, and great hardships
were inflicted on the workers. Many were reduced to
poverty, and others were compelled to undertake work of a
menial kind. As affairs settled down production for sale
and profit took the place of production for use and enjoy-
ment, with a consequent debasement of taste and workman-
ship, and the art products were made to suit what were
believed to be foreign tastes. In recent years, however,
great improvements have taken place, and it is now possible
to obtain specimens of Japanese art workmanship, which
are of a high standard of excellence but with modified
ideals of art and under conditions approximating to the
factory as distinguished from the domestic system. The
modern factory system as applied in all the chief industries
is crushing out many of the smaller trades of a domestic
nature, although the combination of industries of various
kinds with agriculture still prevails to a large extent. The
spare time of the farmers and of their wives and families is
utilised in those domestic industries, and in this way they do
not compete directly with the large factories. They are
thus likely to exist for a considerable time, although as
industry and commerce are more organised and specialised

Industrial Developments 155

they are certain to become of less importance and probably
ultimately to disappear.

The factory system has made remarkable progress in
Japan ; modern industries are now dotting themselves
about all over the country, and many of the larger towns
have become industrial centres of considerable importance.
Even Tokyo is becoming distinguished for its high chimney-
stalks and manufacturing establishments, but being spread
over a great area they are not so self-evident as in other
parts of the country. Osaka is rapidly developing into an
industrial city pure and simple, and Englishmen sometimes
call it the Manchester, Scotsmen the Glasgow, Frenchmen
the Lille, Germans the Hamburg, and Americans the Chicago
of Japan ; but, as Mr. Stafford Ransome has truly remarked,
while one " of course sees the idea which gave birth to these
respective similes, yet Osaka is not in the least like any
one of the cities mentioned, and never will be ; for the
individuality of the Japanese will always be strong enough
to prevent the possibility of their adopting any of our
Western methods in their entirety, even in the carrying out
of their modern industries."

The changes which have taken place in the life and
industry of Japan have caused a very largely increased
demand for wood for manufacturing, engineer- supply of
ing, and other purposes. Moreover, large timber.
quantities have been exported to China and Korea. This
has caused greater attention to be paid to the forestry
industry. Not only has the Government taken steps to
prevent the destruction of existing forests, but also to
introduce the most improved methods, so that the natural
capabilities of the forests may be developed and the
demands of the new conditions of the nation more fully
met. The Forestry Department has issued very complete
reports on the subject, but meantime we can do little more
than mention it. According to the Government statistics
for 1 90 1 (which are the latest published) the area of the
forests of Japan is 23,087,365 cho, that is over 59 per cent

2 1 per c<

;nt

25 „ ,

>

45 » ■

,

9 » .

'

100 „

»

156 Dai Nippon

of the area of the whole country, and of these 13,125,320
cho are State forests, 2,091,755 cho imperial forests, and
7,870,260 cho people's forests, and the variety of woods is
very considerable, depending on the nature of the soil and
the climate. The different classes of forests are in the
following proportions in the forest areas of Japan . —

Conifer forests ....

Broad-leaved forests ....
Conifer and broad-leaved forests
Thinly-stocked or blank areas, etc.

The great demand for wood which has arisen for

purposes of construction and industry caused a large amount

of thoughtless deforestation ; in recent years

Modern , _ fa , J , .

improvements the Government has taken steps to prevent this,
m Japanese definite regulations have been drawn out which

forestry. °

are now rigidly enforced, and when they have
been in operation for some years they will revolutionise
the conditions of the forests, and greatly develop their pro-
duction. According to the existing system, the Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce has the supreme supervision of all
matters relating to State forests and to forests at large, and,
subject to his control, the Forestry Bureau takes charge of
all matters relating to the administration and scientific
treatment of forests. Under this supervision many marked
improvements have been made in recent years.

These improvements are, to a very considerable extent,
the result of the developments which have taken place in
arboricultural education. Not only is very complete instruc-
tion given in the College of Agriculture of the Imperial
University of Tokyo, but higher courses are given in the
Sapporo Agricultural College and the High Agricultural
and Dendrological School at Iwate. In each of these
institutions attention is paid to the training of specialists
who are to combine adequate scientific and practical

Industrial Developments 157

knowledge of forestry, and who on leaving are qualified to
attend with efficiency to the duty of managing and im-
proving the forests. The Government is giving special
encouragement to the study of this useful science, by
offering to the graduates comparatively good posts. For
the subordinate posts there are secondary schools where
special courses are given in the practical sides of the work.

A considerable number of Laws and Ordinances have
been issued with regard to the regulation of forestry con-
ditions, and altogether the work which has been done in this
Department is not the least noteworthy of the national
developments which have taken place in Japan. The
Japanese have always been distinguished for their love of
forests, and many are inclined to think that they owe
much of their patriotism and aesthetic sense to the influence
the forests have exercised upon them.

The people of Japan were not slow to recognise the
fact that the Britain of the West in great part owed its
predominant position among the nations of the Mining and
world to its abundant mineral resources, and metallurgy,
especially those of coal and iron, which enabled it to carry
on all kinds of manufacturing industries, and they determined
to develop the mineral resources of their country as rapidly
as possible. In some respects the mineral resources of
Japan are limited, but some of the most important harbours
are very conveniently situated for trade with China, from
which abundance of raw materials can be obtained at a
cheap rate.

Nothing accurate is known about the origin of the
mining industry in Japan, but history records that, as early
as the seventh or eighth century, gold, silver, copper, iron,
coal, and petroleum were produced in various parts of the
country, but the operations were carried on on a small scale.
Since the Restoration, however, great progress has been
made in almost every department of mining. The following
table shows the production in the more important depart-
ments since 1886 : —

Dai Nippon

i-

cm

NO

M

CO

t-^

o

NO

NO

O

CO

o

CO

NO

NO

00

NO

NO

CM

CM

CO

NO

in

t^

r^

t^

CO

ON

1^

T"

<*

r>.

CO

in

<*

NO

CO

CM

CO

CO

<*

m

00

ON

o

ON

CO

CM

*fr

t-^

T(-

CO

NO

CN!

CN)

"*

o

ri-

o

in

NO

ON

■*

^r

in

00

NO

CO

o

NO

NO

CO

X

r-

o

NO

-3-

Tf

in

00

CN)

CO

CO

NO

CN)

o

o

in

3

CO

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rC

r-^

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NO

■<$•

ON

in

o

CN)

t^

t^

■<*■

r^

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CO

CM

co

co

CO

CO

CO

CN)

c-l

CN)

CN!

CNl

co

co

in

_

ON

CO

CO

in

NO

t^

O

O

CM

NO

N

On

B

O

O

r^

ON

00

On

•*

CO

ON

o

CN)

■*

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ON

CN

3

co

NO

00

CO

ON

00

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Tt-

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t^

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t^

o

O

O

ON

in

■*

in

CN)

rh

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00

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t-^

co

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W

■*

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in

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r^

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m

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CO

t^

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CJ

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CN)

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NO

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t>.

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in

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0)

CN!

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00

NO

NO

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r^

<*

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c
o
H

o
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•<*■

NO

M

OO

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in

in

ON

00

N

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00

NO

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in

r^

rf

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o

r^

r^

NO

r^

00

CN

M

CN)

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*«

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C-)

t->.

o

w

NO

t^

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"

w

CM

CM

C-)

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CO

CO

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■*

in

in

NO

NO

r^

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in

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■*

„.

_,

in

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in

ON

„

t^»

NO

CO

o

NO

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r^

ON

CO

CO

CM

in

CO

NO

NO

CN

M

*

N

CO

1-*.

CI

r^

O

r^

t^

t-^

o^

CN)

rf

co

•rr

in

CO

c

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t^

00

NO

ON

CM

CO

i-^

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CO

CN)

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ri-

in

r;

s

NO

tT

o

t^~

NO

CO

rt-

CN)

ON

o

NO

ON

00

G

no

m

co

in

CO

CO

co

t^

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in

CO

r^

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CO

CO

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HI

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in

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in

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oo

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CN)

CN)

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CN)

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co

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CN

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r^

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t^

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CN)

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co

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CM

CM

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CN)

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CN)

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NO

in

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■*

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co

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C3

m

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CN)

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r^

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NO

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in

CN)

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r^

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M

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r~»

in

r^

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rf

CNl

CN

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CNl

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cu

u:

ON

CO

ON

ON

On

CM

Tt-

CN)

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in

NO

CO

CO

in

CO

in

o

cm

■3-

CM

o

t^

in

o

00

n-

ON

o

rj-

NO

O

NO

oo

CM

t--.

O

•*

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CO

CO

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in

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f^

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t^

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in

CN)

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r^

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co"

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r^

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Industrial Developments

159

Taking the last of these years, the following table gives
an approximate estimate of the value of the more important
of the mineral products : —

Kinds.

Units.

Quantity.

Value.

Gold ....

Momme

652,356

Yen.
3,261,780

Silver

,,

14,174,489

2,055,301

Copper .

Kin

45,652,927

16,252,442

Lead

,,

3,004,983

246,409

Pewter .

,,

23,422

13,749

Iron

Kwan

18,680,043

2,947,684

Pig Iron

,,

14,686,801

2,041,465

Matte

,,

335,551

32,884

Wrought Iron

,,

412,246

172,319

Steel .

,,

3,245,445

70I,Ol6

Sulphate of Iron

,,

4,690,270

27,782

Silica

Kin

17,187

1,633

Quicksilver

>s

1,250

1,688

Antimony

,,

911,462

13,814

Refined

,,

714,276

117,856

Sulphate .

,,

197,186

16,958

Manganese

,,

27,115,884

108,464

Coal

Ton

8,945,939

30,592,971

Bituminous

,,

8,811,903

30,207,203

Anthracite .

,.

S6,554

230,407

Natural Coke

,,

47,482

i55,36i

Lignite .

,,

9,740

16,343

Petroleum

Koku

9^3,799

2,278,418

Sulphur .

Kin

27,580,478

386,127

Black-lead

M6,495
Total Value

17,433

58,343,038

In feudal times the operations of mining and metallurgy
were carried on in very primitive methods, but now full
advantage is taken of all the latest appliances. In the
latter days of the Shogunate, that is in the year 1867, an
Englishman, Erasmus Gower, introduced into the country
the use of explosives, which he employed in the silver-gold
mine in Sado, and about the same time an American,
Raphael Pumpelly, also used an explosive in the Yurap
lead mine in Hokkaido. In 1868 the feudal lord of Saga,
in conjunction with a Scotsman, Thomas Glover, sank a
shaft in European style at Takashima, and this was the
beginning of the development of the now celebrated coal

1 60 Dai Nippon

mines of that district, which supply with coal many of
the ships that visit Japan.

At the Restoration the new Government undertook the
mining business itself, and placed the Sado, Ikuno, Muoi,
Ani, Kosaka, Kamaishi, and Okuzu metal mines, as well as
the Takashima and Miike collieries, under its direct control.
Foreign engineers were employed and Western methods
adopted in carrying on the work. As the graduates of the
Imperial College of Engineering and others who had studied
in foreign countries were able to take charge, very rapid
developments took place, an example was set to private
mining companies and many of these were started. They
were not always successful, but on the whole good progress
was made. Gradually the Government handed over their
model mines to private companies, and mining in Japan is
now almost entirely carried on by private enterprise. For
details, however, we must refer to special reports.

Japanese copper is of high quality and free from
impurities, and thus of great value for electrical purposes ;
already it has been the cause of a wide application of
electrical power for manufactures and to the development
of industries connected with electricity. Gold and silver
mining, as will be seen from the figures quoted above, is
attaining considerable importance. The production of
sulphur is large and finds many applications in the chemical
industries. The petroleum industry is developing. At
first the sinking of wells was done by manual labour, but in
1890 the Japan Petroleum Joint-Stock Company introduced
American oil-well boring machines with success, and this,
with other improved appliances, is rapidly causing an
important industry to be built up.

As will be seen from the figures which have been given,
the production of coal has increased at a rapid rate, and it
is capable of great development — a fact which is of great
importance from an industrial point of view.

Still more important is the production of iron and steel,
as it forms the basis of engineering in all its forms.

Industrial Developments 1 6 1

Although the deposits of iron ore in Japan are considerable,
they are not in themselves sufficient to allow a great
development of the iron and steel industries, and the
recognition of this fact has already led to arrangements
being made for the supply of iron ore from China, where the
supplies are very large. In this as in other departments
of industry a close connection between Japan and China is
necessary, not only for the supply of raw materials, but also
for the disposal of the manufactured products.

The Government has established large steel works near
Wakamatsu, an excellent harbour in the north - western
corner of the island of Kyushu, ten miles distant from the
important port of Moji. They are connected by a branch
of the main line of the Kyushu railway, are in the immediate
vicinity of the most abundant and cheapest coal-producing
districts of Japan, and have an abundant supply of excellent
water conveyed from the river Itabitsu, and amounting at
the ordinary water-level to nearly 2,000,000 gallons per
diem. They are divided into three principal departments —
(i) pig-iron, (2) steel, and (3) rolling mills. The first is
fitted with coke ovens and blast-furnace plants, the second
has mixed Bessemer and open-hearth plants, and a steel
foundry, and the third, blooming rail mill, large, middle, and
small bar-mill, sheet-mill, middle and large plate-mill plant.
In addition there are a central pumping station, an electric
central station, repair shops, iron foundry, pattern and boiler
shops, smithy, and chemical and mechanical laboratory.
Every one of these is provided with a complete outfit of all
the necessary machinery and appliances, all of the most
modern and efficient types of German manufacture.

The works have evidently been designed on an extremely

comprehensive and ambitious scale, but unfortunately due

regard has not been paid to the financial conditions

necessary for success. Their cost has far exceeded the

estimates, and although a beginning has been made in the

production of iron and steel, the cost is much greater than

that of imported material. The Government would have
(b 207) M

1 62 Dai Nippon

been well advised to have started the works on a much
smaller scale and developed them as experience was gained.
Although a mistake has been made in this respect, there
can be no doubt that these works will ultimately have a
very important influence on the industrial development of
Japan. Their excessive cost is part of the price which
Japan has had to pay for her experience.

The record given in the preceding chapter proves that
in all the ordinary branches of what are usually called civil

„. .. , engineering construction the Japanese are
mechanical now able to carry on the work entirely on
engineering. ^ e [ r own responsibility. They can construct
their roads, railways, bridges, docks and harbours all in
very good style and at moderate cost. In all these depart-
ments they are continually sending their most promising
young men to foreign countries to learn the most improved
methods, and to make themselves acquainted with the latest
design, so that there is little danger of the various works
falling behind the times. The Japanese keep a very sharp
look-out on all that is done in Europe and America.

Considerable progress has been made in the various
departments of mechanical engineering. When I went to
Japan in 1873 comparatively small mechanical engineering
establishments were found in Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe,
and Nagasaki, but they were inadequate for the proper
training of students, and large works were started under
my management in connection with the Public Works
Department at Akabane, Tokyo, in which the majority
of the students of the Imperial College of Engineering spent
considerable time, and they were of great use in the practical
training of the students. I insisted on all the students of
the various departments of engineering spending some time
in the workshops before they took up their special work,
and they found this preliminary training of the greatest value.
I wish to record my high opinion of the efficient service
rendered by George S. Brindley, the superintending foreman
at the Akabane works.

Industrial Developments 163

There are now in connection with the railways, the
shipbuilding and shipping companies, the navy and the
army, as well as other departments of the Government,
a considerable number of well -equipped workshops, all
turning out on the whole fairly good work, while private
establishments of all grades of size and efficiency are to be
found in many parts of the country. These are now able
to turn out all the ordinary machines and mechanical
appliances, as well as the land engines and boilers for
factories, electric lighting and pumping. Almost all the
marine engines and boilers for the home-built boats are
made in Japan ; in some cases the designs have been
got from abroad, and the work done in the Japanese work-
shops ; they also make their own dynamos and electric
motors and electric fittings of all kinds. The number of
electric tram-roads is increasing steadily throughout the
country. Some of the tramcars are imported, some have
parts imported and the rest made in Japan. A considerable
number of machines and appliances of all kinds are still
bought abroad, especially if they are wanted in a hurry,
but if not pressed for time, they are usually made in the
workshops in Japan.

The railway workshops are mostly confined to repairs,
but at Kobe several new locomotives have been constructed,
and there is a private locomotive building establishment in
Osaka which has built a number of locomotives and a
considerable quantity of general rolling stock. An Anglo-
Japanese Locomotive and Engineering Company has been
formed, and plans have been made for the erection of a
large establishment in Yokohama which will undertake the
manufacture of locomotives and all other kinds of railway
rolling stock. The value of the machinery made in Japan
in the year 1899 (the latest for which returns have been
published) is given as 4,175,144 yen.

One of the earliest Western industries to be introduced
into Japan was the coinage of money, and it has been one
of the most successful. Article VI. of the Convention

1 64 Dai Nippon

signed at Yedo on June 25, 1866, between a Minister of

Foreign Affairs in Japan and the representatives of Great

The imperial Britain, France, the United States of America,

Mmt - and Holland stipulated for the establishment of

a free mint on certain conditions. The Japanese Govern-
ment purchased from the British Government a mint which
had been established at Hong-Kong, but which the latter
had resolved to discontinue. Major Kinder and a staff of
officials were engaged to superintend the operations which
were begun in Osaka in 1869, and the establishment was
completed and opened with great ceremony on April 4,
1 87 1, the foreign representatives having been invited to be
present. Among the members of the staff the best known
were Mr. E. Dillon, B.A., F.C.S., technical adviser and
assayer, Mr. W. Gowland, F.C.S., Assoc. R.S.M. (now
Professor of Metallurgy at the Royal College of Science,
London), technical adviser, chemist, and metallurgist,
and Mr. R. MacLagan, engineer ; all these gentlemen
rendered very efficient service to the establishment. The
latest report of the director, that for the year ending
March 31, 1903, shows that the work is being carried on
in a very satisfactory manner. The coinage during that
year consisted of 10 yen gold and 50 sen silver coins,
amounting to 5,351,126 pieces of the value of 38,300,563
yen, against 21,354,919 pieces of the preceding year valued
at 15,903,726 yen, in six denominations of gold, silver,
nickel, and bronze coins. In addition to these, 668,782
pieces of silver yen were struck during the year for the
reserve fund of the Taiwan Ginko (Bank of Formosa). On
the whole the Imperial Mint has been one of the most
useful establishments in Japan. In this connection it may
be mentioned that there is a large Government establishment
in Tokyo for the printing of bank and other notes, so that
Japan is thoroughly well equipped for the provision of all
that is necessary for the currency.

In Chapter VII. the rise and progress of the modern
Japanese mercantile marine has been sketched, so that

Industrial Developments 165

meantime it will be sufficient to give a few details regarding
the shipbuilding industries and those otherwise directly-
connected with shipping. The following returns shipbuilding
of the shipbuilding output for last year, as and shl PP' n g-
supplied by the special correspondent of the Glasgow Herald,
gives a good idea of the present condition of the industry : —

Steam. 1902.

<- ' -.

Ves. Tons. Tons.

Yokosuka Dockyard ....... 5 3,940 4,413

Kure Dockyard 8 1,710 3,420

Sasebo Dockyard ........ 3 270 270

The Mitsu Bishi Works . ...... 6 14,940 14,561

Kawasaki Dockyard Company ..... 8 5, 218 3,280

Osaka Ironworks ........ 5 3,518 1,582

Owaki's Shipyard ........ 1 1,628 1,526

Fuginagata Shipyard ....... 3 1,382 523

Other firms *20 2,805 5,457

* Includes 1 1 sailers of 640 tons. 59 35,411 35,032

Vessel.
Otowa
Hayatori .
Asagiri
Two vessels

DOCKYARD,

YOKO

SUKA.

Type.

Displt.

I.H.P.

Registry.

3rd cl. cruiser

3000

10,000

Jap. Govt

T.b.d.

380

6,000

Jap. Govt

T.b.d.

380

6,000

Jap. Govt

T.b.'s

180

2,400

Jap. Govt

3940 24,400

THE IMPERIAL DOCKYARD, KURE.

Vessel.

Type.

Displt.

I.H.P.

Kari . . . . .1st class t.b.

152

4,200

Uji. .

Gunboat

646

I,O0O

Aotaka .

1st class t.b.

J 52

4,200

Hato

1st class t.b.

152

4,200

Tsubame

1st class t.b.

152

4,200

Hibari .

1st class t.b.

152

4,200

Kiji

1st class t.b.

152

4,200

Sagi

1st class t.b.

152

4,200

Registry.

Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.
Jap. Govt.

1710

30,400

THE IMPERIAL DOCKYARD, SASEBO.

Vessel. Type. Displt. i.h.p. Registry.

Three vessels T.b.'s 270 3600 Jap. Govt.

Also a caisson for new dry dock to take 1st class battleships.

1 66

Dai Nippon

THE MITSU BISHI WORKS, NAGASAKI.

Vessel.
Kojima Maru .
Tamamo Maru
Niigata Maru .
Yeiko Maru
Nikko Maru .
Ceylon Maru .

Type.
Ferry t.s.s.
Ferry t.s.s.
Cargo s.s.
Passenger s.s.
Passenger s.s.
Cargo s.s.

Tons.
220
220
2IOO
I900
5.SOO
5000

I.H.P.
320
320

I200
I500
65OO
^?200

Registry.
Shimonoseki.
Shimonoseki.
Tokio.
Tokio.
Tokio.
Tokio.

14,940 13,040

KAWASAKI DOCKYARD COMPANY (LTD.), KOBE.

Vessel.

Type.

Tons.

I.H.P.

Registry.

Heijo Maru .

Spardeck s.s.

I208

Il85

Osaka.

Kagawa Maru

Spardeck s.s.

614

949

Osaka.

Yehima Maru

Spardeck s.s.

614

955

Osaka.

Two vessels .

. T.b. (2d class).

178

2400

Jap. Govt.

Otori .

. T.b. (1st class).

152

35oo

Jap. Govt.

Hashitaka

. T.b. (1st class).

152

35oo

Jap. Govt.

Taisei Maru .

. Aux. t.s. barque.

23OO

900

Tokio.

T.b.'s are displacement.

521J

OSAKA IRONWORKS AND DOCKYARD.

Vessel.

Type.

Tons.

I.H.P.

Registry

Tensho Maru

. S.s.

528

350

Osaka.

Korin Mara

. S.s.

75°

500

Osaka.

Siang Kiang Maru

. T.s.s.

935

750

Tokio.

Yuen Kiang Maru

. T.s.s.

935

75°

Tokio

Reibun Maru

. S.s.

370

300

Otaru.

3518 2650

OWAKI'S SHIPYARD, SHINAGAWA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Kwannon Maru, No. 26 . . . Wd. s.s. 1628 1500 Shinagawa.

FUJINAGATA SHIPBUILDING YARD, OSAKA.

Vessel.
Nagata Maru, No.
Kaishun Maru .
Ikuta Maru

13

Type.

Tons.

I.H.P.

Registry.

W.d. s.s.

580

450

Not stated

W.d. s.s.

112

85

Not stated

S.s.

690

500

Not stated

1382 1035

Vessel.
Kyodo Maru, No. 7

ONO'S SHIPYARD, OSAKA.

Type.
Wd. s.s.

Tons.
548

I.H.P.
44O

Registry.
Tokushima.

Industrial Developments 167

SORA SHIPBUILDING YARD, OSAKA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Uwajima Maru Wd. s.s. 464 482 Not stated

KISHIMOTO SHIPBUILDING YARD.

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Shin-Yu-Maru Wd. s.s. 415 330 Kishiwada.

CHUJIO'S SHIPBUILDING YARD, TOSA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. Registry.

Juho Maru ...... Wood sailer 147 Kochi.

Kaitsu Maru Wood sailer 159 Kochi.

306

THE URAGA DOCK COMPANY (LIMITED).

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Uraga Maru, No. 2 . . . Tug s.s. 173 200 Uraga.

One vessel Dredger 14 50 Uraga.

Two vessels ..... Hopper barges 52 — Uraga.

239 250

MIYAGAWA SHIPBUILDING YARD, OSAKA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Teshiogawa Maru W.d. s.s. 180 150 Osaka.

THE ISHIKAWAJIMA S. & E. CO. (LTD.), TOKIO.

Vessel. Type. Tons. Registry.

One vessel P.s. gl Not stated.

Six vessels Barges. 122 J

174
NAKAMURA'S SHIPYARD, OSAKA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Taisei Maru Wd. s.s. 164 130 Not stated.

OKUBO SHIPBUILDING YARD, OSAKA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. Registry.

Shoun Maru ..... Wood sailer 160 Osaka.

FUKUI SHIPBUILDING YARD, OSAKA.

Vessel. Type. Tons. i.h.p. Registry.

Kanei Maru Wd. s.s. 155 200 Kobe.

1 68 Dai Nippon

YOKOHAMA DOCK CO. (LTD.),

have docked and repaired about ioo vessels, and repaired a large number out
of dock.

MARINE ENGINEERING.

The following table summarises the Japanese marine engineering of
the year, details of which appear in the shipbuilding returns : —

Total 1902.

I.H.P. I.H.P.

Kure Dockyard ......... 30,400 10,000

Yokosuka Dockyard 24,400 25,075

Sasebo Dockyard ......... 3,600 3, 600

Kawasaki Dockyard Company 13,389 4,450

The Mitsu Bishi Works 13,040 12,265

The Osaka Ironworks ........ 2,650 2,688

Owaki's Shipyard . 1,500 1,100

Fuginagata Shipyard i>°35 280

Other firms 1,982 4,662

91,996 64,120

The most important shipbuilding establishment in
Japan is that of the Mitsu Bishi Company at Nagasaki ;
it is now able to turn out vessels of 6000 tons, which
as regards design and workmanship will bear favourable
comparison with those built in Europe. The works are
thoroughly well equipped in every respect, and the docks
capable of taking in the largest steamers which go to the
Far East. The other important private shipyards are the
Kawasaki works at Kobe, the yard connected with the
Osaka Ironworks, and the establishments belonging to the
Ishikawajima Company at Tokyo, and the Uraga Dock
Company near the entrance of the Bay of Tokyo, all of
which are now turning out good work.

The three most important Government dockyards are
(1) Yokosuka, in the Bay of Tokyo ; (2) Kure, in the Inland
Sea ; and (3) Sasebo, on the west side of the island of
Kyushu. They are all equipped for repairs rather than for
new work, and in this respect form a contrast with the
private yards. Third-class cruisers have been built at
Yokosuka and Kure, but all the larger vessels in the
Japanese Navy have been built abroad, chiefly in Britain.

Industrial Developments 169

All these three Government establishments, on the other
hand, have magnificent graving docks and all the appliances
necessary for repairs in time of war, and in that contingency
they would be able to render very effective service.

All these establishments, both private and Government,
naturally involve a large number of subsidiary industries of
all kinds, but into details of these we cannot enter.

After the war with China the Government of Japan
resolved to encourage both the shipping and the shipbuild-
ing of the country, and in March 1896 the subsidies for
Navigation Encouragement Law was promul- shipping and
gated, which provides that any subject of Japan
or any commercial company, the partners or shareholders
of which are Japanese subjects, engaging themselves in the
conveyance of passengers or goods between the empire and
foreign countries or between foreign ports, with their own
vessels of 1000 tons or more, registered in the shipping list
of the empire, shall be granted subsidies in proportion to
the distances traversed and the tonnage of the vessels used
for the lines concerned, as is prescribed in the law. At
the same time the Shipbuilding Encouragement Law was
enacted, by which bounties were granted for the construction
of vessels above 700 tons to any subject of the empire or
any trade company engaged in shipbuilding, the partners
and shareholders of which are Japanese subjects. Since
these laws were passed the shipping and shipbuilding
industries have made rapid progress. In a paper read by
Mr. K. Uchida (Director of the Marine Bureau), before the
Institution of Naval Architects in Japan, it was stated that
under the shipbuilding law there had been built, up till the
end of 1902, a total tonnage of 86,000 (gross) and 71,000
indicated horse power. The following are the amounts
paid to the steamship companies mentioned in Chapter VII.
for their most important lines.

The routes run by the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, and the respective
subsidies, are as follow : —

Yokohama to Melbourne, employing three steamers of 3500 tons

1 70 Dai Nippon

and above : speed, 16 knots and above. A monthly service. Subsidy
,£53,600. Contract runs from April 1901 to March 1906.

Yokohama to Bombay, employing three steamers of 3000 tons and
above; 10 knots and above. A monthly service. Subsidy, ,£18,200.
Contract runs from April 1901 to March 1906.

European line, employing twelve steamers of 6000 tons and above ; 1 4
knots and above. A fortnightly service. Subsidy .£272,800. Contract
runs from January 1900 to December 1909.

Hong-Kong to Seattle, employing three steamers of 6000 tons and
above ; 1 5 knots and above. A four weeks' service. Subsidy,
,£66,700. Contract runs from November 1901 to December 1909.

Also mail routes : —

1. Yokohama to Shanghai, employing three steamers of 2500 tons
and above ; 14 knots and above. A weekly service.

2. Kobe to North China, employing three steamers of 1400 tons
and above; 12 knots and above. A weekly service, except in winter.

3. Kobe, Korea, and North China, employing one steamer of over
1400 tons : speed, over 12 knots. A four weeks' service.

4. Kobe to Vladivostock, employing one steamer of over 1400 tons
and 12 knots. A four weeks' service.

5. Kobe to Otaru, employing twelve steamers of 1400 tons and
above ; 1 4 knots and above. Two routes : eastern, ten times a month ;
western, weekly.

6. Aomori to Mororan, employing three steamers of 700 tons and
above, 10 knots and above. A daily service.

The joint subsidy for the foregoing six mail routes is .£56,100.
Contract runs from October 1900 to September 1905.

The Toyo Kisen Kaisha have the following route and subsidy : —

Hong-Kong to San Francisco, employing three vessels of 6000 tons
and above, and 17 knots and above. A four weeks' service. Subsidy,
,£103,400. Contract runs from January 1900 to December 1909.

The Osaka Shosen Kaisha have the following : —

Shanghai to Hankow, employing three steamers of 2000 tons and
above ; 1 1 knots and above. A bi-weekly service ; in winter, three
times a fortnight. Subsidy, .£25,000. Contract runs from January
1898 to December 1907. Hankow to Ichang, employing two vessels
of 1500 tons and above; 10 knots and above. Service, six times a
month; in winter four times. Subsidy, ,£11,200. Contract runs from
January 1899 to December 1907. Kobe to Korea, employing two
steamers of 700 tons and above ; 10 knots and above. A three weeks'
service. Subsidy, .£3100. Contract runs from October 1900 to
September 1905.

The first two of the other companies mentioned run services on

Industrial Developments

171

Chinese rivers and on the Japanese sea respectively, and receive
subsidies, the one of ^5900, the other of ,£14,000.

The total annual payments on account of the special services
above detailed amount to .£630,000.

The cotton-spinning industry is the one which has made
the most rapid development, and which appeals cotton-
most directly to British manufacturers, as its pro- spinning.
ducts compete with them. The following table shows its
growth and extent : —

Year.

Number

of
Cotton

Gross

Amount of

Capital

Average

Number of

Spindles

Quantity of
Raw and

Ginned

Cotton

demanded.

Total
Production
of Cotton

Waste

Cotton.

Waste

Cotton

Yarn.

Mills.

invested.

used daily.

Yarn.

Yen.

Kwan.

Kwan.

Kwan.

Kwan.

I88S

24

?

113,856

1,807,066

1,593,103

140,986

16,025

1889

2S

?

215,190

3,859,464

3,358,042

3",97I

51,971

1890

3°

?

277,895

5,962,484

5,132,588

598,651

88,565

189I

36

8,7I5.5IO

353,980

8,995,293

7,689,938

823,003

232,371

1892

39

9,103,237

403,314

12,240,788

9,997,20s

906,116

304,851

1893

40

11,271,005

3 Si, 7 8i

",53I,307

10,666,744

1,178,059

298,466

1894

45

I3o08,030

476,123

17,179,774

14,620,008

1,816,333

191,017

1895

47

16,392,058

518,736

21,771,346

18,437,011

2,423,361

251,879

1896

61

22,860,709

692,384

24,803,618

20,585,485

2,915,950

328,159

1897

74

36,414,728

768,328

32,068,243

26,134,120

3,706,510

1,177,099

1898

77

42,342,080

1,027,817

42,544,656

32,163,239

4,980,687

558,409

1899

83

33,023,317

1,170,327

42,962,406

43,052,402

4,923,207

587,343

1900

So

35,908,512

1,144,027

38,323,770

32,419,641

3,889,848

786,457

I90I

81

36,690,567

1,181,762

38,681,886

33,115,829

4,092,460

477,364

The distribution of the cotton -spinning industry in
different parts of the country is shown by the following
figures, which give the latest published returns of the value
for the year of the yarn produced in the various districts : —

Yen.

Yen.

Tokyo

2,278,953

Okayama

3.743,899

Kyoto

821,880

Hiroshima

912,591

Osaka

12,264,578

Wakayama

791.763

Hyogo

4,954,7 6 6

Kagawa .

363,557

Nara

1,114,763

Ehime

704,740

Miye

2,380,858

Fukuoka .

1,681,073

Aichi

2,242,658

Cotton-spinning in Japan was started by the Daimyo
of Satsuma at Kagoshima in 1865. The machinery came

172 Dai Nippon

from England and consisted of 6000 spindles. A few
years later another factory was opened in Sakai, Idzumi
province. In 1870 Mr. Kajuna Manbei started a similar
factory, near Oji in the vicinity of Tokyo, and these were
the only establishments of the kind in the country when
I went to Japan. After some of the graduates of the
Imperial College of Engineering, who had been to Britain
and studied the construction and working of cotton-spinning
machinery, had returned to Japan there was quite a boom
in the erection of cotton mills ; the progress made was
most remarkable, and many of the cotton mills in Japan
will now bear favourable comparison with the best of those
of England in organisation, equipment, and extent. They
have as a rule been successful financially, many of them
paying from 10 to 20 per cent per annum. On the other
hand, some have not been so successful, partly on account
of extravagant financial arrangements and partly because
of excessive production before the markets were prepared.
The latest published returns give the average rate of
dividend of each company at 6.2 per cent for the first
half of the year, and 3.5 for the second half; but averages
in such cases do not give much information, as so much
depends on management and on local and other conditions.
The question of the supply of raw cotton for Japan is
one of great importance and is receiving considerable atten-
tion from those who are interested in the industry. It is a
somewhat remarkable fact that the cultivation of cotton in
Japan has gradually but steadily declined. The principal
cause seems to be found in the fact that the native cotton
is of much shorter fibre than the imported, and consequently
not nearly so well adapted for spinning purposes. The chief
supply of raw and ginned cotton comes from British India,
China, Dutch India, Egypt, and the United States, with
small quantities from other Eastern countries. The variations
in the price brought about by the action of speculators and
other causes are very troublesome, and have directed attention
to the necessity of improving the cultivation .of cotton in

Industrial Developments 173

Japan. In recent years Japanese farmers have been
devoting their attention to the introduction and cultivation
of American upland cotton, with considerable success. The
area available for this purpose is not great, and it is not
improbable that the Japanese may turn their eyes to various
parts of the world in order that they may have a more secure
supply of the raw material for what has proved to be their
most important manufacturing industry.

A full discussion of the economic conditions and the future
prospects of that industry would require much more space
that can at present be spared, but sufficient has been said
to show the rapid progress which has been made and the
important place which it has taken in the national economy.

Sericulture, or the art of rearing silk-worms, in Japan is
said to date from the " Age of the Gods " ; since then it
has always been of importance, and has shared The silk
in the modern developments consequent on the industries,
introduction of Western science and appliances, and a great
deal might be written about it, if space allowed. The
following is a resume of the industry in 1901 : —

Silk-worm raisers (families engaged) . . 2,475,819

Egg-cards (number manufactured) . . . 3,856,683

Cocoons (in kokii) . ..... 2,526,181

Egg-card manufacturers (families) . . . 18,138

Raw Silk manufacturers (number of) . . 421,941
Raw Silk output (in kin) . . . .10,972,981

Raw Silk exported (in kin) .... 8,697,706

Thus it will be seen that silk-producing forms one of the
most important industries of Japan. Indeed, silk comes close
after rice in importance as an article of domestic production,
while as an article of export it has no compeer. It may even
be said that silk holds the balance of Japan's foreign trade.

Under feudalism the reeling of raw silk was carried
on in the domestic system as subsidiary to agriculture, and
the appliances were of a somewhat elementary nature, but
in 1 870 the Government erected a model filature at Tomioka,
Joshu, and engaged a French expert as superintendent.

174

Dai Nippon

Since that time numerous other establishments of a similar
kind have been started which have brought about a large
increase in the production. The industry is not, however,
by any means confined to large factories, as even those who
were formerly contented with hand-reeling now took up
frame- reeling, and adopted the practice of selling their
product jointly by unifying its quality. According to the
official returns for 1900, the output by machine-reeling was
6,193,869 kin, as against 4,7 79, 57 5 kin by frame-reeling.
The number of machine -reeling factories was 2072,
employing 122,1 16 pans, and of frame-reeling establishments
597, employing 55,022 pans, the figures being in each case
for factories which employ ten workers or more.

The following table gives the value of the out-
Value of output of put in the principal textile industries for the
textile industries. y ear ICj00 , and it is sufficient to give an
idea of their relative importance : —

Yen.

Silk, raw
Silk Yarn .
Cotton Yarn
Silk Fabrics, etc.
Silk Handkerchiefs
Cotton Fabrics, etc.
Silk-cotton Fabrics
Hempen Fabrics .
Woollen Fabrics .
Various (about) .
Allied Industries —
Straw Plaits .
Hats and Caps
Umbrellas (European)
Matting; for Floor

86,233,957

4,296,883

73,619,589

166,936,604

4,3*8,553

122,652,764

20,275,823

2,851,981

5>°34,7 2 °
20,000,000

2,926,127

424,321
2,918,085
3,039,795

The printing press has been one of the most powerful

factors in the evolution of modern Japan ; for it has been the

The printing means not only of spreading useful knowledge

industry. fo U £ a j so Q f educating public opinion on all

matters affecting the national welfare and uniting the country

for purposes of education, industry, and commerce, as well as

Industrial Developments 175

of defence. Printing is now one of the most important
modern industries in Japan, the latest returns showing that
there were 108 companies engaged in it, with a capital of
2,121,956 yen, and the number of newspapers, journals, and
books which are printed is now very large.

The rapid growth of journalism is one of the facts that
forces itself on the attention of every one observing Japan's
modern career. When it is remembered that little over
thirty years ago it was practically non-existent, and that now
there are probably more than 1000 newspapers, magazines,
etc., published in the empire, we can form an idea, not only
of the extent of the printing industry but also of the
influence of the press. The daily papers cost from 25 to
50 sen per month. Many of the journals are of a high
standard, both as regards the quality of their matter and
their tone, but others pander to tastes that are demoralising,
and indulge in language which is far from creditable. In
Japan, as in other countries, newspapers are made to sell,
rather than to instruct and elevate. Captain Brinkley says :
" Already the press occupies a very low place in the estima-
tion of educated Japanese. They recognise its political
capabilities, but regard journalism, on the whole, as a low
calling. Public opinion does not help ; its restraints are
practically inoperative in Japan. People uncomplainingly
endure many things besides journalism." Still, after every-
thing has been discounted, there can be little doubt that
modern Japan would not have been in its present condition
if it had not been for the press.

In the early days of the open ports the foreign
journals which were there published were often marked
by a narrow, selfish spirit, and were very unfriendly to the
Japanese, although there were some honourable exceptions.
Examples might be given of writing which appeared in them
at very critical times in the history of Japan which in any
other country would have caused the suppression of the
paper and the expulsion of those responsible for it. Now,
a more reasonable spirit prevails, much of the captious

176 Dai Nippoii

criticism no longer appears, and while not hesitating to
criticise when that is necessary, they are sympathetic to
the Japanese and appreciative of the progress which they
have made.

Not only are many journals and books written and
published in Japan, but many of the best books of Europe
and America are translated into Japanese, and the book-
sellers freely import books of all kinds ; so that the Japanese
have now every opportunity of making themselves acquainted
with the latest developments in every department of thought
and action. Japanese engineers and scientific men are often
found better informed regarding the contents of British
journals than are many in this country.

The number of chemical and miscellaneous industries

now carried on in Japan is very large, and the majority of

„. . , . them have, on the whole, been very successful.

Chemical and ' J

miscellaneous Among those of a chemical nature may be
mentioned the manufacture of sulphuric acid,
sulphate of potash, phosphate of soda, soap, matches, brewing
and distilling, tanning, sugar-refining, tobacco-manufacture,
glass, cement, and brick-making. Those of a mechanical
nature, in addition to what is usually included under
mechanical engineering, are very numerous, including clock-
making, the appliances connected with electric-lighting and
motor work, telephony and telegraphy, and the numerous
appliances connected with the larger industries which have
been mentioned. The manufacture of foreign clothing, boots
and shoes and furniture, has now assumed considerable im-
portance. In short, it would be difficult to name any
department of foreign manufacture in which something has
not been done with more or less success, the ambition of
the Japanese evidently being not only to supply their own
wants but also to become a manufacturing nation like the
Britain of the West, and thus not only provide for its rapidly
increasing population but also claim its share in the markets
of the world, especially in those of the Far East. Mean-
time space will allow only the following figures from the

Industrial Developments

177

latest returns showing the value of the annual output of
some of the more important industries : —
Yen.

Sulphuric acid
Soap .
Matches

Sulphate of potash
Phosphate of soda .
Paper (European) .
Paper (Japanese) .
Leather or Hide .

559>49 2
794,823

5,886,388
260,968
867,910

7,001,1 1 1

i3>9 8 5>437
2,592,412

Glass ware .
Cement (Portland)
Bronze and Copper

ware
Porcelain and

Earthenware
Shippoki
Glass ware .

Yen.
1,493,044
2,372,266
1,106,907

6,873,693

3i5. 6 76

i,493>°44

Manufactured articles used for food will be mentioned in
Chapter XI.

The changes which have taken place in every depart-
ment of national life have naturally caused great develop-
ments in the building industry, as applied not The building
only to engineering and industrial purposes but industry.
also to public institutions, commercial houses, and domestic
residences ; and as is always the case in transition periods
there has been a great mixture of styles. In fact, it has
been remarked that what is termed the " foreign style " of
building is so named because it is foreign to all the known
styles of architecture. Some of the public buildings are
handsome and do credit to their designers ; some of the
industrial establishments are substantial and well adapted to
the purposes for which they are intended, and a few of the
main streets of the larger towns have been Europeanised,
with, however, a considerable number of Japanese modifica-
tions. A comparatively small number of rich men have
houses in foreign style (although always with Japanese
annexes), but the greater number of the buildings are still of
an unsubstantial nature ; a fact which is explained partly by
the frequency of earthquakes and partly by the want of
means to erect them in a more substantial manner.

The following list of Government factories gives a
convenient resume of the most important Government
manufacturing establishments directly under factories,
the Government : —

(B 207) £j

1 7 3

Dai Nippon

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Industrial Developments

179

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Dai Nippon

Instead of going into further details of special depart-
ments of industry, it will be sufficient for our present purpose
Manufacturing if we take a general view of the manufacturing
establishments, establishments in Japan. Appended is a table
showing the number of workshops (employing not less than
ten workpeople) and of manufacturing companies : —

Year.

No. of Workshops.

Total.

No. of

Companies.

With

Motor.

Without
Motor.

1899
1898

1897

1S96

2763
2003
1971
1967

3788
4067
4346
4403

6551
6070

6317
6370

2253

2164
IlSl
1367

The falling off in the number of establishments without
motors in 1899 as compared with the preceding year was
because the workshops engaged in mining were withdrawn
from the total, and no doubt also that many which were
without motors supplied themselves with them. The
following table shows the number of manufacturing com-
panies, their aggregate amount of capital, the amount paid
up, and the reserves : —

Year.

No.

Aggregate Capital.

Paid-up Capital. Reserves.

1

I900
1899
1898

1897
1890

2554
2253
2164
1881
1367

Yen.
216,766,903
222,673,634
183,657,046
165,232,633
143,617,530

Yen. Yen.
158,851,730 17,697,540
147,783,280 13,467,802
122,066,653 11,642,993
105,381,106 7,581,535
89,900,900 7,404,980

Those figures show a very rapid rate of increase.
The workshops may be broadly analysed into the
following kinds : —

1. Fibre workshops (raw silk, spinning, weaving, cord-
making).

Industrial Developments

ibi

2. Machine shops (machine - making, shipbuilding,

furniture-making, casting).

3. Chemical workshops (ceramics, gas, paper mills,

lacquering, leather - making, explosives, drugs,
manures, etc.).

4. Miscellaneous workshops (brewing, sugar - refining,

tobacco manufacture, tea - curing, cleaning of
grains, flour mills, lemonade, mineral water, con-
fectionery, preserved fruits and vegetables, print-
ing and lithography, paper -work, wood and
bamboo ware, feather ware, reeds and straw plait
ware, lacquer ware, etc.).

5. Special workshops (electricity and metallurgy).

The following are the figures relating to each of these

classes : —

A. Run by Motors : —

Workshops.

Horse Power.

Workpeople.

Fibre ....

Machine.

Chemical

Miscellaneous .

Special ....

Total .

1921

208

190

348

36

32,094
4,274
8,349
5,220

12,194

196,723
18,412
12,966
18,425
33,766

2763

62,131

288,292

B. Not rim by Motors :-

Workshops.

Workpeople.

Fibre ....
Machine ....
Chemical
Miscellaneous .
Special ....

Total .

1803

157

650

IO65

"3

5°, 394

4,205

25,625

27,391

5,002

37SS 112,617

The ordinary working-hours of operatives are 1 2 hours

1 82 Dai Nippon

per day, but sometimes they extend as long as 16 or 17
hours. In cotton mills 1 2 hours are the standard, for
Working-hours, both day and night workers, in filatures the
wages, etc. regular hours are 13 to 14, and in power-loom
factories 12. In hand- weaving workshops a great diversity
prevails, the general rule being 1 2 to 15, according to the
season, though in some rare cases the hours are as long as
from 16 to 17. In the larger establishments, such as ship-
building yards, vehicle and machine shops, the working hours
are far more regular, being in general 10 hours, occasionally
with one or two hours of overtime.

Wages are usually paid by the day, although payment
by the month also prevails to some extent. Usually the
amounts are settled once or twice a month, though in some
cases they are settled every six months or once a year. In
filatures, payment is made according to the amount of work
done and by the month, though in some cases a yearly
account system prevails. In cotton mills those who receive
daily wages constitute about 40 per cent of the whole, and
those who are paid by piece-work about 60 per cent. In
such establishments as shipbuilding yards and machine and
other similar shops day's-wages are usual, although at times
a piece of work is given out on contract to one or more
artisans. In match workshops the payment is by piecework,
and in general this method of payment is becoming common
where the amount of work done can be definitely computed.

The rate of wages for adult males employed in cotton
mills and weaving-shops is about 30 sen per day, while that
of females is about 20 sen. In shipbuilding yards and
machine shops the rate is usually about 50 or 60 sen per
day, but skilled artisans are paid more than one yen. In
match factories the rate is only from 12 to 20 sen for
ordinary female operatives, and from 5 to 1 3 sen for little girls.
In tobacco factories and printing shops, ordinary females get
about 20 sen, and males from 40 to 50 sen. The following
table gives the average wages of workers in the years 1887,
1897, and 1 90 1 : —

Industrial Developments

Kind of Labourers.

18S7.

1S97.

1901.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

Carpenter .....

O.224

0.434

o-593

Plasterer .....

O.225

O.436

0.590

Stone Mason ....

O.250

0-474

0.670

Sawyer .....

O.205

O.43O

0.580

Shingle Roof Thatcher

O.205

O.42O

0.540

Tile Roof Thatcher .

O.243

O.469

0.640

Brick Maker ....

?

O.483

0.440

Mat Maker .

O.218

O.387

o-Sl3

Maker of Doors, Screens, etc.

0.2I I

O.396

0.560

Paper-hanger ....

O.215

O.380

o.535

Joiner .....

O.209

O.3S8

0-553

Wooden Clog Maker .

?

O.318

0.420

Shoemaker ....

?

O.384

0505

Carriage-builder

?

O.352

0.498

Tailor (Japanese Clothes) .

O.189

O.305

o.453

Do. (Foreign Clothes)

0.399

O.461

0.620

Dyer

O.I73

O.287

0.305

Blacksmith

O.217

o-394

0.488

Lacquerer .

O.205

0.362

0.503

Tobacco-cutter

0. 171

0-353

0-473

Compositor

O.223

0.287

o.395

Gardener .

?

0.404

0.568

Male Weaver

O.127

0.225

0.293

Female Weaver

O.074

0.150

0.193

Day Labourer .

O.160

0.290

o.399

These figures show a rapid rate of increase and indicate
the tendency for wages of the same class to approximate to
the same amounts in all industrial countries, and as in-
dustrialism in all its aspects becomes more and more inter-
national this tendency will become more pronounced.
Moreover, it must be remembered that the rate of wages is
not by any means an accurate index of the cost of produc-
tion. High wages are, as a rule, economical, as they indicate
a high state of intelligence and therefore of efficiency on the
part of the workers ; a fact which ought to be kept in mind
when the fear is expressed of undue competition of Eastern
countries in the markets of the world.

The general arrangements for education have been
described in Chapter V. Every part of it has had a more
or less direct effect on the industrial development industrial
which has taken place in the country. In recent tramin g-
years especially, great attention has been paid to those

1 84 Dai Nippon

subjects bearing directly on industrial occupations, and the
colleges in the Imperial Universities and the higher technical
schools have trained many of the men who are now in charge
of the most important undertakings.

As, however, already stated, with the object of still
further diffusing technical knowledge and imparting a general
idea of science to apprentices and young mechanics, the
Government has made liberal grants to special technical
schools in different parts of the country, and these efforts
have been supplemented by local authorities and private
individuals. Attached to a considerable number of the
primary schools, for the benefit of those who cannot attend
school in the daytime, are commercial and supplementary
schools somewhat similar to the continuation classes in this
country, and they are beginning to occupy an important
place in the educational system in Japan.

All these arrangements have caused the apprentice system
which formerly prevailed almost to disappear. It retains any
semblance to its former status only in such departments as
hand-loom weaving, pottery, and dyeing. In some of the
larger factories and in the engineering establishments and
shipbuilding yards the foremen take a number of the boys
under their special supervision for the purpose of instructing
them in the methods and details of their trades. In Japan,
as in other parts of the world, however, the system of division
of labour, especially in the mechanical industries, is rapidly
causing the old, all-round system of training formerly
given to apprentices to be superseded by a course of train-
ing in a technical school, supplemented by such practical
experience as can be picked up in the factory or workshops.
The want of more thorough training in the practical side of
the work, however, places the young men, for a considerable
time, at a disadvantage. A due combination of theoretical
and practical training is one of the problems which have still
to be solved for those who are intended for industrial
occupations.

In addition to what are usually considered educational

Industrial Developments 185

institutions, there has grown up in Japan a considerable
number of scientific associations which have had great
effect on the progress of industry. The first Technical
of them was the Institution or Society of associations.
Engineers, which I inaugurated when the first set of
graduates left the Imperial College of Engineering. I
drafted the regulations somewhat on the lines of the British
Institution of Civil Engineers, and the Institution of
Engineers and Shipbuilders of Scotland, making, however,
modifications and improvements where I considered them
necessary. My friend Viscount Yamao became the first
President, — I am glad to say that he still occupies that
position, — and in the interval he has rendered great service
not only to engineering but also to industry generally.
Although Viscount Yamao's name will not figure to any
great extent in political history, he deserves to be re-
membered as one of the men who did good service to Japan
in a quiet, unobtrusive manner, and also as a good friend
of all who were working for the progress of the country.

I arranged for the Engineering Society to have sections
representing the various departments of the Imperial College
of Engineering, and it still includes engineers of all types ;
but in Japan, as in Britain, the tendency has been to start
societies for special departments, and there are now
Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Chemical
Engineering, and Shipbuilding Societies, all in a flourishing
condition and each publishing valuable transactions. There
are, in addition, a considerable number of societies, each
devoted to a special department of industry, and all per-
forming very useful functions, not only in collecting and
distributing information with respect to their special interests,
but also in cementing the bonds of friendship between those
engaged in them.

After the Restoration the Japanese were not slow in
recognising the necessity for encouraging Patents, trade marks,
invention and originality in design. In eta - inventions.
1 87 1 a measure was passed for protecting inventions,

1 86 Dai Nippon

but the difficulty of carrying it out was so great that it
was rescinded in the following year, and for about fourteen
years from that time Japanese inventors were left unpro-
tected, although encouragement in various ways was given
to them. In 1884 the regulations protecting trade marks
were enacted, and in the following year those relating to the
protection of patents.

According to the existing system all matters relating to
patents, designs, and trade marks are controlled by the
Patent Bureau of the Department of Agriculture and
Commerce, which adopts the regular system of examination
before granting a licence, and patent agents are subject to
the control of the Patent Bureau. The number of agents
duly registered at the end of the year 1902 was 193. Up
till that date 24,412 applications for licences had been
made, and of these 5500 had been granted for patents,
while for designs there had been 4694 applications and
1277 granted, and trade marks 28,925 and 18,200 granted.

Reference must be made to special publications for details
of the regulations, which on the whole follow more closely
those of America than those of Britain. When a foreigner,
not residing in Japan, wishes to secure a letter patent or to
have his design or trade mark registered, he must file an
application through his attorney appointed from among
those in Japan, and must further appoint, when his applica-
tion has been accepted by the Patent Bureau, an attorney
to represent him in all dealings with the Bureau and in all
possible civil or criminal actions. The neglect to appoint
such an attorney without justifiable reason within six
months will invalidate the efficacy of his patents or registra-
tion. A patent must be worked within three years from
the time the licence is granted, and if this is not done or if
the patentee refuses without justifiable reason to assign or
permit the use of the patent under reasonable conditions by
a third party who has applied to him for such assignment
or permission, the patent is liable to be revoked.

The figures which have been given are sufficient to

Industrial Developments 1 8 7

disprove the statement that the Japanese have no original
ability. In mechanical engineering all over the world the
designs of almost all the principal machines are essentially
the same, the variations being in details to suit special
conditions, and in this respect Japanese engineers have not
shown themselves deficient. Not only have they modified
Western designs to suit the conditions in Japan, but they
have in many respects shown decided originality.

It would take up too much space to enter into details
of this subject in the various departments of engineering,
but what the Japanese have done in connection with
appliances for military and naval purposes is sufficient
to prove their ingenuity. The ships of their navy are
probably the best illustration of the Japanese method of
procedure. In naval matters they accepted all the guidance
the Western world could give them, but at the same time
they struck out a line of their own, and the fleet which
they have created is unique in the character of its units.
British designs have, in many respects, been improved upon,
with the result that they have obtained in their latest ships
many features which have won the admiration of the world.
Among the inventions which have added materially and
conspicuously to the fighting efficiency of the navy may
be instanced the gun-rack of Rear-Admiral Yamanouchi,
the water-tube boiler of Engineer- Admiral Miyabara, the
smokeless powder of Dr. Shimose, the percussion cap of
Vice-Admiral Ijuin, the floating mine of Commander Oda
and Captain Taneda, and several others which might be
mentioned ; all of great practical utility in real warfare, and
the use of which may revolutionise the methods of war in
the future. In the army the Japanese have shown them-
selves masters of tactics, not merely copying Western
methods but introducing many of their own. The Murata
rifle was an improvement on those of Europe, but that has
been displaced by a still better weapon of Japanese invention,
the Arisaka rifle. Not only in the arts of peace but also
in those of war have the Japanese shown that they are

1 88 Dai Nippon

able to think and act for themselves. The discoveries of
Dr. Jokichi Takamine in the department of chemistry, and
of Dr. Kitazato in that of bacteriology, and of many others
who might be named in other fields of investigations,
prove that the Japanese are able not only to apply existing
knowledge but also to extend its boundaries. I am proud
to add that Dr. Takamine and Dr. Shimose are graduates
of the Kobu Daigakko. Dr. Kitazato is a graduate of the
Medical College.

In a recent letter which I had from Professor C. D.
West, of the Engineering College of Tokyo University, he
says : " I suppose it is necessary to say something with
regard to the inventive power of the Japanese ; this is a
much vexed subject. Some people assert that they have no
inventive power at all, but I don't think this is so. It must
be remembered that the power of making absolutely new and
original designs is confined to very {qw people indeed ;
' Inventor nascitur, non fit,' like the poet. Almost any one
with good abilities can be trained to design, and this the
Japanese certainly can do ; but between inventing, pure and
simple, and designing, there is no hard-and-fast line ; there
is room for all intermediate grades of inventive capacity.

" It is to this intermediate capacity of designers that
almost all our machines are due, even the most complicated,
by a process of gradual improvement and development. I
see no point in this designing process at which the Japanese
must necessarily stop short, and I know of several things
they have produced that must come under the head of
inventive designing." If we remember the conditions which
existed in old Japan, when originality of all kinds was
severely repressed, and consider what the Japanese have
already done, we must admit that they have all the qualities
which are necessary for the success of a great industrial
nation.

As a means of encouraging the progress of industry and
manufactures, the Japanese Government has, at various
times, caused exhibitions to be organised at home, and

Industrial Developments 189

has also taken part in those opened abroad. The first
Domestic Exhibition was held in Tokyo in 1878, and I
arranged a machinery department in which were industrial
shown some of the machines and appliances exhibitions,
made at Akabane (the works which were connected with the
Engineering College), as well as a few from private estab-
lishments ; but at that time comparatively small progress
had been made in mechanical engineering. Two similar
exhibitions were held in Tokyo later on, which showed
considerable developments in Western arts. The fourth
exhibition was held in Kyoto in 1895, ar >d the fifth in
Osaka in 1903. This last was the most complete illustra-
tion of the progress which had been made in Japan in
Western arts and manufactures, and attracted a considerable
number of visitors from all parts of the world. It was
international to a certain extent. Of course very large
exhibits were not to be expected from Europe and America,
but many of the foreign manufacturers who are in the habit
of sending goods to Japan exhibited specimens. The
following, from a report which was published at the time of
the exhibition, not only gives a good idea of its contents,
but also serves as a resume' of the developments which have
been made : —

" Considering that only thirty years ago Japan had no
such institution as a factory, and knew nothing whatever of iron
foundries or machine shops, the Japanese-made machinery
display at the exhibition at Osaka is astonishing. There we
find silk-weaving and mat-making machines, electrical motors
and generators, gas and oil engines, locomotives, electrical
fittings, tools, beltings, match-making machine, fire-brigade
appliances, rice-cleaning machines, huge steam navvy, oil
tanks, soap-making machines, printing machines, massive
hoisting engine, tea - refining machinery, heavy mining
machinery, and many other smaller machines ; all of Japanese
manufacture, admirably made and well adapted to the
purposes designed.

" In general manufactures the empire makes a good

1 90 Dai Nippon

showing in certain lines. Straw braid in all conceivable styles
and uses ; shibori, a beautiful dyed stuff, making pretty dress
material ; woollen serges and woven silks, cheap and good
cotton blankets, Japanese towels, artistic designs in tiles and
roofing materials, drain-pipes, fire-proof bricks. In drinkables,
also of home manufacture, there is beer by the cart-load, sake,
the famous native drink, enough to quench the thirst of an
army.

" One of the best exhibits is in clocks, some of them
very handsome and very cheap, made by one or other of the
twelve Japanese clock companies. The porcelain exhibition
is good, consisting of beautiful vases, artistic porcelain
trays, basins, tea-cups, etc. The exhibit of Japanese-made
shoes is quite creditable. Other native manufactures
exhibited are bamboo furniture, whatnots, overmantels,
fire-screens, shell buttons, paper lanterns, fine silken rugs,
shawls, paper, camphor, oils, soap, all kinds of sauces and
relishes, silks of every hue and description, silk lace, gold and
silver thread, linen, duck, tent cloths, ivory work, hinges,
lacquer and silver work, surgical instruments, pianos, organs,
and other musical instruments, bicycles, gymnastic and
athletic goods, microscopes, cameras, barometers and almost
every kind of educational apparatus.

" The natural products of the country are exhibited to
good advantage. Rice, tobacco (manufactured and raw),
silk-worms, various varieties of silk cocoons, tea, huge
oranges, sugar, furs, woods, pearls, coral, fish (dried and
salted). Mushrooms are a special exhibit of one prefecture,
tea of another, and so on. The whole section of the
agricultural experiment station is complete and admirable
in every way." l Besides the national exhibitions, Japan
has also participated in the World's Fairs held in Vienna,
Philadelphia, Chicago, Paris, St. Louis, not to speak of
various other exhibitions of limited scope.

All matters relating to manufactures are under the
control of the Bureau of Commerce and Manufactures,

1 From Japan and America, by Walter J. Ballard.

Industrial Developments 191

and are in direct charge of the Section of Manufactures,
which forms part of the Bureau. The Section in question
deals with matters relating to experiments industrial
made with the view of improving manufactures legislation.
and manufactured goods, the position and construction of
workshops, the control of boilers, the employment and
engagement of operatives and apprentices, together with their
relief, education, etc. In consequence of the rapid develop-
ment of the factory system and of the problems arising
therefrom, a temporary Factory Committee was created in
the Section of Manufactures for the purpose of inquiring
into matters concerning factories and operatives. Various
draft measures have been put forward for factory regulations,
but as yet none of any importance has been passed into
law. The first legislative measure enacted bearing directly
on manufactures was that issued by the Department of
Agriculture and Commerce in 1884, relating to the formation
of guilds, the object of which was to encourage different
interests to form themselves into guilds and to provide
against the provision of shoddy goods. The regulations
relating to these guilds have been improved and extended
from time to time. The provisions regarding trade marks
and patents for inventions have already been noticed. In
February 1901 rules were issued relating to the establishment
of local and commercial industrial experimental laboratories,
or manufacturing training schools ; the object of the enact-
ment being to encourage the improvement and progress of
manufacture. It was arranged about the same time that
matters relating to the control of boilers, factories, and
operatives be left in charge of the respective local offices.

Not only has the formation of limited liability companies
for commercial and industrial purposes been largely developed
in Japan, but the practice which is now so Combinations *
common in other industrial countries for the employers and

1 • ,. c c • 1 workers.

combination 01 groups of companies and in-
dividuals having common interests in any given branch of
manufacture or industry is now a feature in the organisation

192 Dai Nippon

of the country. The first step in this direction in connection
with Western industries was the formation in 1882 of the
spinners' union, which exists to-day in a somewhat modified
form. It undertakes all matters which are supposed to
further the common interests of the members ; it despatches,
for instance, merchants or experts to Bombay to inspect the
condition of the cotton market or of the cotton crop, and
enters into contracts with the Nippon Yusen Kaisha (the
Japan Shipping Company) for the import of raw cotton from
Bombay. Agreements are also made as to the rates of
wages and the general conditions of work in connection with
the industry, so that there may be no unfair competition
between the members. Almost every industry of any
importance has some form of combination or guild for the
protection of its interests, and the latest returns show that
there were nearly 200 such guilds in existence, which seem
to have in them the germ of what may lead to an organised
system of industry, the evolution of which will be watched
with interest.

Meantime the workers are also beginning to organise for
the protection of their interests ; for they have not been long
in finding that when all the organisation is on the one side,
the other is certain to be subjected to unfair conditions.
Under the feudal system, as already mentioned, guilds
existed in the various trades, and these have now been
transformed into something like Western trade unions.
Strikes are by no means uncommon, and many of the labour
problems of Europe and America are now to be found in
Japan. The labour unions on Western lines include the iron-
workers, the ship carpenters, the railway engineers, the railway
workmen, the printers, and the European-style cooks, and
some of these organisations have become so strong that they
have in some disputes been able to dictate their own terms.
The supply of workmen trained in foreign style being still
rather limited, it can easily be seen that the labour
organisations have a great advantage in Japan. Their
members, however, are beginning to look beyond mere trade-

Industrial Developments 193

union efforts and to think of the possibilities of a system
of co-operation which would make strikes impossible. Co-
operative stores are to be found in various parts of Japan,
while whose who study the problems involved recognise the
possibilities of co-operation, both in production and dis-
tribution. The progress of the labour movement in Japan
is largely due to the efforts of a young man, Mr. Katayama
Sen, who has spent ten years in America and made a special
study of social problems. He is the head of Kingsley
Hall, a social settlement in Tokyo, similar to the settle-
ments now somewhat common in this country, and which
are the centres of varied social activities and investigations.
He is also the editor of the Labour World, which is looked
upon as the special organ of the working classes, and which
should be studied by those who are interested in social
problems in the Far East. These problems are part of the
price Japan has paid for her use of Western methods, and it
will be interesting to watch the attempts which are made
at their solution.

While it is admitted that the progress made by the
Japanese in many departments of industry has been remark-
able, and that their aptitude for Western manu- Foreign
factures is very great, even their greatest admirers advisers.
think that in many cases they have paid too dearly for their
experience by dispensing with their foreign advisers and
assistants before they were able to replace them by fully
qualified natives. While a love of independence is to be
admired, it should be remembered that it involves neither
personal nor national loss of honour to employ foreigners who
have had special experience in any new development of
industry, and if the right men be selected, they will be worth
their salaries many times over. Captain Brinkley, who
cannot be suspected of being unfriendly to the Japanese,
says : " A visit to Japanese factories often shows machinery
treated carelessly, employes so numerous that they impede
rather than expedite business, and a general lack of the pre-
cision, regularity and earnestness that characterise successful

(b 207) O

194 Dai A J ippon

industrial enterprises in Europe and America. Achievement
in one direction and comparative failure in another, although
the factors making for success are similar in each, indicate,
not incapacity in the latter case, but defects of standard and
experience. The vast majority of the Japanese have no
adequate conception of what is meant by a highly-organised
industrial or commercial enterprise. They have never made
the practical acquaintance of anything of the kind, nor even
breathed a pure business atmosphere." He emphasises his
criticism by referring to the railways and the posts. He
says : " The Japanese have long been able to survey, plan
and build their own lines of railways, to run the trains and
to manage the traffic. For these achievements they deserve
much credit. But their arrangements for handling, forward-
ing and delivering goods are very defective, when judged by
good Occidental standards, and their provision for the
comfort of passengers leaves a great deal to be desired. So,
too, their postal service invites criticism in some very
important respects, if it merits praise in others. All such
defects would soon be corrected if free recourse were had to
the assistance of foreign experts, who have the advantage of
familiarity with higher standards. It is unfortunate that a
people so liberal in their adoption of the best products of
Western civilisation should hesitate to avail themselves of the
best means of learning to utilise them."

Surprise may be expressed at this state of affairs after we
have seen the high state of efficiency and organisation in the
army and navy, but, as Captain Brinkley points out, for
elaborating their military and naval systems they have had
access to foreign models, every detail of which could be care-
fully scrutinised, and they availed themselves freely of the
assistance of foreign experts — French, German, and British ;
but in the field of manufacture and trade their inspection
of foreign models is necessarily superficial, and they are
without the co-operation of foreign experts. He thinks that
the Japanese attitude in these matters is to be explained
by two considerations — one legal, the other sentimental.

Indzistrial Developments 195

The treaties forbade foreigners to hold real estate or engage
in business outside the limits of the settlements ; thus render-
ing it impossible for them either to start factories on their
own account or to enter into partnership with native
manufacturers ; and an almost morbid anxiety to prove their
independent competence impelled the Japanese to dispense
prematurely with the services of foreign employes. The
unsympathetic treatment which Japan received from Western
Powers in the matter of treaty revision prejudiced her against
foreigners in all capacities, and the opportunity was lost of
co-operating with Japanese in matters of industry. Captain
Brinkley believes that there is clear evidence that this sus-
picious mood on the part of Japan, which is so injurious to
her own interests, is being replaced by more liberal sentiments,
but in the meantime she has been induced to stand aloof
from alien aids at a time when they might have profited her
immensely, and to struggle without guidance towards
standards of which she has as yet only a dim perception.

As the status of foreigners under Japanese law, especially
in matters affecting industry, is a subject of growing practical
importance, the following extracts from Status of foreigners
an address delivered by Dr. Masujima under Japanese
before the New York State Bar Association
in January 1903 will be read with interest, as they touch
on the most important points : — " The cases in which
foreigners are restricted in the enjoyment of private rights
are the ownership of land and Japanese ships, the right to
work mines, to own shares in the Bank of Japan or the
Yokohama Specie Bank, to be members or brokers of
exchanges, to engage in emigration business, or to receive
bounties for navigation or shipbuilding. Any company
must, in order to own Japanese ships, have its principal office
in Japan, and all its members in case of a Gomei Kaisha,
all unlimited liability members in case of either a Goshi
Kaisha or Kabushiki Goshi Kaisha, and all directors in case
of a limited company, must be Japanese subjects. Otherwise
foreigners are as free as Japanese to own shares in any

1 96 Dai Nippon

Japanese commercial companies organised by themselves
alone, or in combination with the Japanese, or to engage in
any manufacture or other commercial operations.

" Foreigners may hold a long lease of land to plant trees
or erect permanent structures, which may be arranged for
an indefinite term almost perpetual, such as one thousand
years, or as long as may be agreed upon. Such a holding is
called ' superficies,' and it is very much like a long English
lease, the only difference being that trees or buildings do
not at the end of the term revert to the landlord, his right
being only that of pre-emption at current valuation. The
most advisable way for the enjoyment of the actual and per-
manent holding of land is for a foreigner to buy land himself
through a Japanese, as bare trustee, and to secure its super-
ficies for the period of as long a term as may be desirable for
his purposes."

" Although no foreigners may work mines individually,
they may be taken on mortgage, and a company registered
as a Japanese organisation is entitled to engage in mining ;
the theory is that foreigners as members may merge
themselves in the entity of a Japanese corporation, although
it may be composed of foreigners exclusively."

" No railway or tramway business is allowed to be carried
on unless by a limited company, and a concession for such
purpose has to be secured from the proper authorities. No
such railway can be pledged, but it may be hypothecated.
Japanese pledge corresponds to English mortgage, differing
therefrom, in that immediate transfer of possession and
holding the pledged property absolutely is essential.
Hypothecation does not carry possession or the right of
entry. This condition of Japanese railway law has not
satisfied capitalists as not affording sufficient security to
induce investment by them. There has been some attempt to
have this law altered, but it has not yet been accomplished."

" Banking, insurance, shipping and all other kinds of
commercial business may be carried on in Japan by foreign
companies by observing the treaties and certain regulations,

Industrial Developments 197

such as the registration of their branch offices, their
representatives, or other matters prescribed by law."

" There are two kinds of civil corporations, the one
consisting of persons associated together and the other an
estate of aggregate property somewhat like a trust in
English law, formed or established for the purpose of
religious worship, teaching, art, charity, education, or any
other object of public benefit, not aiming at the making of
a profit. Such a corporation can come into existence only
with the permission of the competent authorities, while
Japanese commercial corporations may be formed without
it. No foreign association of persons or trust property is
accorded the same rights and privileges as are enjoyed by
similar Japanese corporations ; such a foreign corporation has
no standing whatsoever in the Japanese courts, and the only
way in which it could obtain protection would be to appear
in the individual names of its members, just as used once to
be the case in partnership actions."

" If foreigners wish to do business in combination with
the Japanese, the best way would be to form a GosJii Kaisha,
or limited partnership, they themselves carrying unlimited
liability. To control a Kabushiki Kaisha, or limited
company, they should own more than half the amount of
capital, either by holding themselves or through their
nominees, and shares should be tied up so as not to allow
their transfer without the consent of the board of directors.
The advantage of any business being organised as a
Japanese corporation consists, as the law now stands, in
owning land and having the full rights of Japanese subjects."

The question of the employment of foreign capital in
Japanese industrial enterprises is one which is at present
receiving considerable attention. The Japanese have sunk
a great part of their floating capital in engineering and
industrial enterprises, and as a natural consequence they find
themselves in want, not only of working capital, but also of
what is required for further natural developments, and
various proposals have been made for the purpose of

198 Da i Nippon

inducing foreign capitalists to invest in Japanese under-
takings. Some have done so, but as yet the number is
limited.

The introduction of foreign capital into Japan is a
matter which requires very careful consideration. Capitalist
domination is becoming one of the features in every in-
dustrial community in the world, and in many respects it
leads to conditions which are worse than those of the feudal
system from which Japan has freed herself. Herbert Spencer
in a letter to a Japanese correspondent, written some years
before his death, was very emphatic on this subject, and said :
" There should be not only a prohibition of foreign persons to
hold property in land, but also a refusal to give them leases,
and a permission only to reside as annual tenants. I should
say decidedly prohibit to foreigners the working of the mines
owned or worked by Government. Here there would be
obviously liable to arise grounds of difference between
the Europeans or Americans who worked them and the
Government, and these grounds of quarrel would be followed
by invocations to the English or American Governments
or other Powers to send forces to insist on whatever the
European workers claimed, ' for always the habit here and
elsewhere among the civilised peoples is to believe what their
agents or sellers abroad represent to them.' In the third
place, in pursuance of the policy I have indicated, you ought
also to keep the coasting trade in your own hands, and
forbid foreigners to engage in it. The distribution of com-
modities brought to Japan from other places may be
properly left to the Japanese themselves, and should be
denied to foreigners, for the reason that again the various
transactions involved would become so many doors open
to quarrels and resulting aggressions." The policy in-
dicated in these lines is, in my opinion, too drastic, as
I believe that it is quite possible to find many oppor-
tunities for the investment of foreign capital which would
not only be advantageous to Japan but also offer safe
and sufficient returns to the capitalists. Whatever

Industrial Developments

199

opinions we may hold as to the future relations of capital
and labour, the present time is one of transition, and no
sudden change can be made in the methods adopted.
The welfare of the people, not the returns to the capitalists,
should be the chief object kept in view, and as the social
spirit develops we may expect many radical changes in
the methods of owning property of all kinds. Municipal
and State ownership and control are rapidly extending, and
it will be very interesting to note how the Japanese face the
problems which are now engaging the attention of thoughtful
men in all countries of the world. Before any criticism is
offered of their action, we ought to put ourselves in their place
and consider how we would act under the same conditions.
They are likely to take to heart not only the lessons to be learnt
from social and economic conditions in Western countries,
but also those from their own past history. A return
recently published by the Nichi Nichi Shimbun gives the
following figures as the amounts invested by foreigners in
undertakings established and conducted by themselves in
Japan : —

Capital.

Amount paid up.

Yen.

Yen.

Breweries ....

600,000

450,000

Machine Companies

2,290,000

229,000

Kerosene ....

24,000,000

16,500,000

Raw Silk ....

1,850,000

1,850,000

Carrying Companies (land

and sea)

132,340,000

130,400,000

Miscellaneous

2,401,000

2,401,000

Agencies (commission) .

50,000

50,000

Purveyors ....

1,500,000

1,300,000

Banks .....

23,750,000

23,750,000

Commercial companies

17,245,000

17,245,000

Insurance ....

5,000,000

3,750,000

Newspaper and printing

227,OCO

227,000

Wholesale dealers

780,000

780,000

In addition to these sums foreign capitalists and even
small investors have considerable amounts in Japanese
undertaking's and stocks of various kinds.

200 Dai Nippon

The facts and figures given in the preceding pages show

the great progress which has been made in Japan in industry

Japanese ambi- during a comparatively short time, but it is

tion regarding evident that past developments are far from

the future of . . . , , . . . , _ . ,

commerce and satisfying the ambition ot the J apanese. A short
industry. time ago one of the leading journals, the Jiji
Shimpo, which takes a great interest in industrial and economic
subjects, had an article of which the following is a translation
of the more important parts: — "The talk about Japan having
become a commercial and industrial country has in recent
years been on everybody's lips. In reference to the question
of what is the best economic policy for us to follow in future,
with the exception of that small section of the community
engaged in agriculture, everybody recognises the necessity of
our making commerce and industry the foundation of the
country's wealth. It would seem at first sight as though as
a country we were very favourably situated for pursuing this
policy. But the question is, how far have we actually
followed it ? Though various differences appear in countries
owing to their adoption of diverse economic systems, there
are three unmistakable signs of commercial and industrial
countries; which are (i) that the raw produce imported
from foreign countries should be utilised for manufacturing
purposes ; (2) that imported food should go to support the
people of the home country ; and (3) that the interest of the
money sent abroad and the profits derived from general
business should be received in the form of imports, which
should always be in excess of exports. We observe by the
British Trade Report for 1901 that the value of food, liquor,
raw produce, and manufactured articles imported and exported
by England was as below : —

Imports.

(1) Articles of food and liquors . . . . ^224,763,000

(2) Raw produce 137,355,°°°

(3) Manufactured articles . . . . 93,609,000

(4) Other miscellaneous articles . . . . 66,511,000

. ^522,238,000

Industrial Developments 201

Exports.

(1) Articles of food and liquors . . . . ^15,626,000

(2) Raw produce ...... 33>777>°°o

(3) Manufactured articles ..... 207,966,000

(4) Other miscellaneous articles . . . . 20,976,000

^348>345.° 00

Percentage of the Exports as compared to the Imports.

(1) Articles of food and liquors . .... 6.9

(2) Raw produce ....... 25.0

(3) Manufactured articles . . . . . . 222^0

We see then that the proportion of food-stuffs, liquors, and
raw produce imported by England corresponds to over three-
fifths of the total value of her imports ; and that, on the other
hand, the proportion of manufactured articles exported has
reached two-thirds of the total value of her exports. It appears
that in the case of food-stuffs and liquors the total value of
the imports is about fifteen times that of the exports. It is
quite natural that when a country is manifesting signs of
making commerce and industry, instead of agriculture, its
economic foundation, its imports and exports should take
this course.

" When we come to inquire how our country stands
to-day in reference to the above-named points, though our
tables, being very incomplete and failing to distinguish
between raw material and manufactured articles, do not
allow of accurate comparison with the English tables, they
suffice to give a general idea of our economic situation.
According to last year's (1901) returns the total value of
exports was 252,349,000 yen ; and the total value of
imports, 214,929,000 yen. Out of this the value of food
exported was 28,125,000 yen, and that imported 7,502,000
yen; that is, food bore the proportion of 11.1 of the total
exports and 3.5 of the total imports. This one thing of
itself is enough to make it clear that Japan has not yet

202 Dai Nippon

given up the economic principle of supporting herself on
agricultural products. But, moreover, when we come to
consider a variety of other articles of commerce this
becomes still plainer. The total value of the exports of
our four principal commodities, namely, refined copper, raw
silk, woven silk, and coal, is put down at 100,270,000 yen ;
that is, they constitute about one-half of the total exports
of the country. On the other hand, as to the import trade,
with the exception of ginned cotton, valued at 50,000,000
yen, it would seem that the imported articles consist mostly
of railway locomotives, iron, steel, things made of iron, and
kerosene ; which means that we still are in the condition of
a country which exports raw produce and imports manu-
factured articles ; that is, that our position is the exact
opposite of that of England, which may be regarded as a
model type of a commercial and industrial country. Though
our circumstances bring us into connection with those
products which form the basis of commerce and industry,
despite the fact that the necessity of our becoming a
commercial and industrial country is pressed home upon us
by so many writers and speakers, we cannot but acknow-
ledge that the real truth is that we are still a very long way
from attaining to that position." It is to be hoped that in
the best interests of Japan she will not attempt to
follow the analogy of the Britain of the West too closely,
and that above all she will ponder " whether, among
national manufactures, that of Souls of good quality
may not at last turn out a quite leadingly lucrative
one." Modern conditions in Western countries do not
seem favourable either for the production of souls of
good quality or for the attainment of physical and
intellectual excellence. The economic conditions at the
beginning of the twentieth century are very different from
those which existed at the beginning of the nineteenth, when
Britain began her industrial career, and the social and
economic problems with which Western countries are
confronted should cause Japan to recognise that the

Industrial Developments 203

inordinate pursuit of merely material ends will not lead to
the highest national welfare.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The literature on the subject of purely Japanese industries is
very extensive, but Professor Rein's book on the Industries of Japan
will be found sufficient for ordinary readers. No systematic account
has yet been published on the development of Western industries
in Japan, and information must be sought in the Reports issued
by the various Departments of Government, in the British and
American Consular Reports, and in the files of the newspapers printed
in English in Japan. H. Yamawaki's Japan m the Beginning of the
Twentieth Century is most valuable for the statistics of the subject,
as are also the Annuals issued by the Department of Finance and
the Imperial Cabinet. J. Stafford Ransome's Japan in Transition
contains an interesting and readable account of modern develop-
ments. Those interested in technical details should consult the
articles by the same writer which appeared in The Engineer
(1897-8). Clement's Handbook of Modern Japan contains a great
deal of useful information on the subject. Practical details are not
to be found in ordinary books. These can best be got by personal
inspection, or from men connected with the various undertakings,
supplemented by a perusal of the scientific journals and the
transactions of engineering and other societies.

CHAPTER IX

ART INDUSTRIES

All real lovers of Japan, while admiring the energy and
ability which have been displayed in the application of
importance of Western knowledge and experience to industry
Art in japan. anc j commerce, and to the arts of war, would
regret if, in the changes which are taking place, it lost
those artistic qualities which have given it a unique position
among the nations of the world. That world would be
a very dreary place if everything in it were reduced to
the level which is the inevitable result of the competitive
struggle for existence. Europe paid too dearly for its
industrial development by the decay of art, and it is only
in recent years that attempts have been made to retrace the
backward steps. Whether a complete revival is possible
under present social and economic conditions is one of the
problems which must be faced before real individual or
national life can be attained.

Under the old regime in Japan all the workers were
artists to a greater or less degree ; that is to say, each one
Art in impressed on his work his own individuality.
Old japan. This was true even of mechanical trades, but
it was strikingly true of all artistic crafts, and was to a large
extent the direct result of the social and economic con-
ditions existing under the feudal system. In the early days
of the Shogunate each daimyo based the reputation of his
clan on its martial prowess ; but during the long peace of the
Tokugawa period, art and industry were the. distinguishing

204

Art Industries 205

features of the different parts of the country, between which
there was always a certain amount of friendly rivalry for
excellence in their productions. Not only did the daimyos
exchange with their friends objects of art as compliments,
but some of the best specimens were periodically sent to
the Shogun's court in Yedo and to the Emperor's court in
Kyoto. The daimyos therefore became liberal patrons of
art, and the artists and workers were usually attached to
their households as pensioners. These latter could never
become rich men, but the wish for wealth never entered
their minds. They found their happiness in their work, and
they had a sufficient allowance to meet their small personal
wants. In those days time was not money, the artists
were able to work in a leisurely manner and give full play
to their genius, and all their products had the marks of
their own individualities ; and these again were fashioned to
a large extent by the spirit and conditions of the country.

One requires to have lived in Japan, and to have
breathed its atmosphere, before he can appreciate its art.
A Japanese painting is not a picture in the ~, . .

J * r a r Characteristics

Western sense of the term ; it is rather a poem of Japanese
which portrays an emotion called up by a
scene, and not the scene itself in all its elaborate com-
plexity, and Japanese connoisseurs value simple works far
more highly than those which are full of details. The artist
therefore omits all that is irrelevant to the particular emotion
which he himself feels, and which he wishes to draw out from
those who look at his art. A very capable writer on the
subject has truly said that a Japanese painting is " the
expression caught from a glimpse of the soul of nature by
the soul of man ; the mirror of a mood, passing, perhaps, in
fact, but perpetuated thus to fancy. Being an emotion, its
intensity is directly proportional to the singleness with which
it possesses the thoughts. The Far Oriental fully realises
the power of simplicity. This principle is his fundamental
canon of pictorial art. To understand his paintings, it is
from this standpoint they must be regarded ; not as soulless

206 Dai Nippon

photographs of scenery, but as poetic presentations of the
spirit of the scenes. The very charter of painting depends
upon its not giving us charts. And if with us a long poem
be a contradiction in terms, a full picture is, with them, as
self-condemnatory a production. From the contemplation of
such works of art as we call finished one is apt, after he has
once appreciated Far Eastern taste, to rise with an un-
pleasant feeling of satiety, as if he has eaten too much at
the feast."

We cannot, of course, enter into a lengthened dis-
quisition on the characteristics of Japanese art, but what has
Western been said should be remembered as applying
influences. j n a greater or less degree to art work of all
kinds, whether painting, porcelain, lacquer, bronze, or silk.
Many of the most elaborate specimens in each of those
departments which have in recent years been sold to
foreigners, while good in their way, have really been pro-
duced for the foreign market, and the designs are not truly
Japanese, but have been made to suit what are supposed to
be Western ideas. The influence of Japanese art has been
much felt in Europe and America, especially in the depart-
ment of ornament, and on the whole that influence has been
in the direction of improvement, but the same cannot be
said of the foreign influence on Japanese art. The ideals
are essentially different, and, while Western ornament with
a tinge of Japanese may be passable, any attempt to
Westernise Japanese art simply takes all the soul out of it.

On the downfall of the Shogunate the halcyon days of
the art workers disappeared, and many of them were thrown
on their own resources, and as the native market was
entirely disorganised during the troublous times following
the Restoration, they were compelled to adapt themselves
to the supposed requirements of the foreign markets. It
has been truly said that this was the Brummagem period of
Japanese art, and it is responsible for the gaudy, vulgar
specimens which form the chief points of some foreign
collections.

Art Industries 207

For a year or two after I went to Japan my time was
so fully taken up with the Imperial College of Engineering
and the industrial establishments connected Foreign School
with it, that the art side of Japanese life to a of Art.
large extent escaped my attention. I was led to take an
interest in it by a proposal on the part of the Government
to start a School of Art, in European style, in connection
with the College. All the more important foreign Powers
were anxious to have a hand in what they were pleased
to call the " civilising " of Japan. The Americans were
influential in general education, the British in the navy and
public works, the French in the military service, and the
Germans in medicine. The Engineering College repre-
sented the United Kingdom, as we had on our staff
graduates of English, Scottish, and Irish universities. The
Italians thought that their special sphere was that of art,
and they were anxious that there should be a School of
Art in which they could impart the methods and ideals of
European art. To please them the Government established
such a school, which was, for convenience, connected with
the Engineering College. I remarked that while I could
not object to the arrangement and to the introduction of
European art into Japan, I sincerely hoped that something
would be done to prevent all that was good in Japanese art
from disappearing. My old friend Mr. (after- Japanese
wards Count) Sano took up the matter very Art Societ y-
keenly, and he formed a society for the purpose of culti-
vating the different departments of Japanese art ; to him
and his friends the country owes a debt of gratitude, as
through their efforts, and those of others who have followed
in their steps, there are now many artists in the different
departments who produce work which will compare very
favourably with the best of former days, and all that is
wanted is suitable economic and social conditions for their
encouragement. There has been a certain amount of
westernisation of style, but in recent years the great aim
of all the artists worthy of the name has been to return, as

208 Dai Nippon

far as possible, to the canons of Japan, and to the methods
and designs of the days of feudalism.

A Japanese artist and scholar, Mr. Kakasu Okakura,
who has done a great deal to revive the old spirit in
Criticism of Japanese art, and who has written a very
Foreign Art. interesting book 1 on the subject, speaking of
the attempts to introduce European art into Japan has
said : " The art which reached us was European at its
lowest ebb — before the fin-de-siecle aestheticism had redeemed
its atrocities, before Delacroix had uplifted the veil of
hardened academic chiaro-oscuro, before Millet and the
Barbizons brought their message of light and colour, before
Ruskin had interpreted the purity of pre-Raphaelite noble-
ness. Thus the Japanese attempt at Western imitation
which was inaugurated in the Government School of Art —
where Italian teachers were appointed to teach — grovelled
in darkness from its infancy, and yet succeeded, even at its
inception, in imposing that hard crust of mannerism which
impedes its progress to the present day. But the active
individualism of Meiji, teeming with life in other cycles of
thought, could not be content to move in these fixed grooves
which orthodox conservatism or radical Europeanisation
imposed on art. When the first decade of the era was
passed, and recovery from the effects of civil war was more
or less complete, a band of earnest workers strove to found
a third belt of art-expression, which by a higher realisation
of the possibilities of ancient Japanese art, and aiming at a
love and knowledge of the most sympathetic movements in
Western art-creations, tried to reconstruct the national art
on a new basis, whose keynote should be ' Life true to
Self.' "

I feel that Mr. Okakura's condemnation of the methods

adopted for the teaching of European art is fully deserved,

and it is satisfactory to find that the danger of

Renewed ideals. , . , , . . , .

the native art being entirely swamped is now
past. The problem now is to evolve economic conditions

1 The Ideals of the East. London : John Murray* 1903.

Art Industries 209

which will make true Japanese art possible. In a preceding
chapter I have mentioned the arrangements of the Govern-
ment School of Art at Uyeno, Tokyo, and of the Nippon
Bijitsuin at Yanaka, in the suburbs of the city ; but, after all,
Japanese artists are not so much trained in schools as under
the eyes and direction of the masters, who do all they can
to develop the powers of their most promising pupils. The
biennial exhibitions of the Nippon Bijitsuin reveal clearly
the vital element in the contemporary art activity of the
country. Mr. Okakura, who takes an active part in the
work of the institution, says : " According to this school,
freedom is the greatest privilege of an artist, but freedom
always in the sense of evolutional self-development. Art
is neither the ideal nor the real. Imitation, whether of
nature, of the old masters, or above all of self, is suicidal to
the realisation of individuality, which rejoices always to play
an original part, be it of tragedy or comedy, in the grand
drama of life, of man, and of nature." Those who wish
to make themselves acquainted with the spirit which now
animates the best work in Japanese art cannot do better
than read Mr. Okakura's book from which I have quoted.

Our present object is to enter into details neither of the
ideals of Japanese art nor of the manufacture of the different
kinds of art products, but rather to look at the Modern
social bearings of the subject, and to consider the conditions,
possibility and probability of real art, and all that it means
in the national life, surviving amid all the changes which
are going on in Japan. Mr. Okakura truly says that
" The simple life of Asia need fear no shaming from that
sharp contrast with Europe in which steam and electricity
have placed it to-day. The old world of trade, the world
of the craftsman and the pedlar, of the village market and
the saint's -day fair, where boats row up and down great
rivers laden with the produce of the country, where every
palace has some court in which the travelling merchant may
display his stuffs and jewels for beautiful screened women
to see and buy, is not yet dead. And however its form

(b 207) -p

2 1 o Dai Nippon

may change, only at a great loss can Asia permit its spirit
to die, since the whole of that industrial and decorative art
which is the heirloom of ages has been in its keeping, and
she must lose with it, not only the beauty of things, but the
joy of the worker, his individuality of vision, and the whole
age-long humanising of her labour. For to clothe oneself
in the web of one's own weaving is to house oneself in one's
own house, to create for the spirit its own sphere." 1

He insists that it was some small degree of self-recogni-
tion that re-made Japan and enabled her to weather the
storm under which so much of the Oriental

Eastern ideals. . . . .

world went down, and he generalises, that it
must be a renewal of the same self-consciousness that shall
build up Asia again into her ancient steadfastness and
strength. The opening paragraph of Mr. Okakura's book
gives the key to the whole position. He says : " Asia is
one. The Himalayas divide, only to accentuate, two
mighty civilisations, the Chinese with its communism of
Confucius, and the Indian with its individualism of the
Vedas. But not even the snowy barriers can interrupt for
one moment that broad expanse of love for the Ultimate
and Universal which is the common thought-inheritance of
every Asiatic race, enabling them to produce all the great
religions of the world, and distinguishing them from those
maritime peoples of the Mediterranean and the Baltic who
love to dwell on the Particular, and to search out the means,
not the end of life." These somewhat mystic words reveal
the fundamental differences between the Eastern and the
Western minds, differences which must be remembered when
we are trying to explain the past, to understand the present,
or prognosticate the future. As a rule, Eastern peoples
have a religious spirit (in the broad sense of that term) and
try to live up to their beliefs. Western minds are essentially
materialistic (although there are some exceptions) and the
majority of people spend their energies in searching for
the means of life and forgetting the end. The answer to

1 Ideals of the East, p. 236.

Art Industries 211

the first question in the Shorter Catechism, What is the chief
end of man ? has become largely a form of words which
has no bearing on practical life. Six days of the week
spent in the worship of mammon, an hour or two on
Sundays in church, and a few subscriptions to philanthropic
institutions designed for the benefit of our social failures
constitute the religion of the majority of well-to-do people
in Europe and America. Some of them have picture
galleries, but these are looked upon either as A and
safe financial speculations, or are used chiefly to economic
gratify their vulgar vanity and love of display. condltIons -
Under such influences true art is almost an impossibility.
No doubt some artists of strong personality are able to
develop their powers under the demoralising system of
modern competition, but it requires a very strong man to
resist the temptation to prostitute his talents in reproducing
the figures of rich nobodies at .£1000 apiece.

It may be asked, What has all this to do with Japanese
art ? Simply to show that national art depends largely on
social and economic conditions and on the ideals which
animate the lives of the people. Artists and art workers of
all kinds should therefore have a special interest in social
reform, so that they may be free to develop their own
individualities, without which there can be no true art.
Japanese art must degenerate unless conditions are evolved
which allow the artists the same freedom which existed
under the feudal system, and unless the ideals of national
life are kept clearly in view. These indeed are the two
great problems which lie before Japan. We will consider
them a little further on, but meantime, looking at the subject
from an economic and artistic point of view, I would insist
on the necessity for the Japanese maintaining their individu-
ality in art and art products. Their artistic ability has won
for them a unique position, and while I would repel the
suggestion that they should confine themselves to the role of
curio-makers to the other nations of the world, I believe
that they have a wide sphere of usefulness in supplying the

2 1 2 Dai Nippon

artistic elements in their own national life and in supple-
menting those of foreign countries.

Notwithstanding the high ideals of Mr. Okakura and the
practical efforts of the Bijitsuin, it cannot be said that
Present condi- modern Japanese artists have yet been able to
tions in japan, translate their ideals into their works. They
seem to be struggling between the ideals and methods of the
East and those of the West. Writing of a recent exhibition
held in Tokyo, a competent critic in the Japan Daily Mail
says : " There are many pictures of considerable merit, but
one carries away from the display a strong impression that
no progress has been made since last year, and that there are
even signs of retrogression. It should be premised, perhaps,
that these are not pictures in the pure Japanese style. They
represent an effort to wed the arts of the West and of the
Far East ; an effort which has been watched with much
interest for several years. Hence, when progress is spoken
of in this context, the reference is to evidences that the
marriage can be effected successfully and that its offspring
will be attractive. We begin to entertain doubts. It
appears that the Japanese artist has not yet ' found ' himself
in such work. He is still groping after an undiscovered
something. Fine ideas visit him : delicate ideas, romantic
ideas, and even poetical ideas. But he can neither express
them nor fix them so as to make them speak clearly from
the canvas. He is living in a land of haze. His aspirations
end in mist, and his struggle to be large finds no resource
except the expanse of his canvas. Sometimes where his
drawing is admirable, his composition well balanced, and his
subject impressive, he fails in monotony of tone, in dreary
absence of centralisation. Sometimes when he carries the
spectator into an ethereal region where the impression of
breadth and atmosphere is almost overpowering, he spoils
everything by outlines that recall the studio of an immature
observer. Yet there is in these pictures an indefinable some-
thing that suggests a noble idea in embryo. Several steps
of development are necessary, however. Their nature, of

Art Industries 213

course, cannot be accurately described. If it could, achieve-
ment would not be still distant. But hope remains though
in the presence of considerable disappointment. The exhibi-
tion ought to be visited by every one that has any concern
for the future of this school of Japanese artists, or, indeed,
for the future of Japanese pictorial art. We do not allege
that there are many striking pictures, or even many that rise
above the level of mediocrity, but certainly there are many
that offer much food for thought."

The standard of modern art metal work in Japan has
been well maintained and many interesting developments
have taken place, but it is still in a transition stage.
Cloisonne enamel is a branch of applied art which may be
considered of essentially modern development in Japan ;
indeed it was only during the last quarter of the nineteenth
century that it emerged from a condition of crudeness to
one of unparalleled excellence. Captain Brinkley, a high
authority on the subject, says : " There was no reason to
anticipate that the Japanese would take the lead of the world
in this branch of applied art. They had no presumptive
title to do so. Yet they certainly have done so." In the
department of pottery, although modern productions cannot
yet equal the best porcelains of Hizen and Kutani and the
faiences of Satsuma and Kyoto in the feudal times, still very
good work has been done in recent years. For some time
after the revolution a great deal of what was made was
supposed to be designed to suit the tastes of foreigners, and
much of it was utterly opposed to the canons of Japanese
art, but in recent years there has been a return to Chinese
ideals and a consequent improvement in the standard both
of execution and of taste. Lacquer work of good quality
can still be obtained, although the demand in Europe and
America for cheap imitations of the old methods and designs
has made it difficult to keep the standard of excellence up to
the level of bygone days. In no department of applied art
have the Japanese shown so much progress in recent years
as in that of textile fabrics, and many examples are produced

214 Dai Nippon

which are remarkable both for workmanship and for combina-
tion of colours. Although not much attention is now paid
to the carving of netstikes, which attained a high standard of
excellence in feudal days, the glyptic artists of Japan now
devote their time to the production of works of greater
importance, which are in many respects on a higher plane of
excellence than the old work. Engraving in its several
departments, work in gold and silver and many other appli-
cations of art to the articles of everyday life, all prove that
it is possible for Japanese art productions to maintain some-
thing like their old standard of excellence, notwithstanding
the great developments of Western industry and trade.
While it is both desirable and necessary that these develop-
ments should continue in order that the standard of life in
the country should be raised in all departments, all who
really know and love Japan will agree with Captain Brinkley
that " it would be an everlasting pity if the chief endow-
ment of her people, their wonderful artistic instincts and
their not less wonderful facility in expressing them, were left
unutilised, because a party of fanatical radicals deemed it
necessary to commit national suicide in order to be re-born
into the comity of Occidental Powers." Japan has now been
admitted a full member of the comity of nations because of
the wondrous progress which she has made in every depart-
ment of national life, and it is to be hoped that she will
always retain those characteristics which have given her a
special place among the nations of the world.

Sir George Birdwood in his book on The Industrial Arts
of India says a good deal which applies with considerable
Comparison force to the conditions of Japan, and his
with India, remarks should be carefully studied by all who
are able to exercise any influence on the future of Japan.
Space will allow only of the following extracts : — " What is
chiefly to be dreaded is the general introduction of machinery
into India. We are just beginning in Europe to understand
what things may be done by machinery, and what must be
done by hand-work, if art is of the slightest consideration

Art Industries 215

in the matter. But if, owing to the operation of certain
economic causes, machinery were to be gradually introduced
into India for the manufacture of its great traditional handi-
crafts, there would ensue an industrial revolution which, if
not directed by an intelligent and instructed public opinion,
and the general prevalence of refined taste, would inevitably
throw the traditional arts of the country into the same
confusion of principles, and of their practical application to
the objects of daily necessity, which has for three generations
been the destruction of decorative art and of middle-class
taste in England and North -Western Europe, and the
United States of America.

" The social and moral evils of the introduction of
machinery into India are likely to be still greater. At
present the industries of India are carried on all over the
country, although hand -weaving is everywhere languishing
in the unequal competition with Manchester and the
Presidency mills. But in every Indian village all the
traditional handicrafts are still to be found at work." After
describing some of the general methods of some of these
handicrafts, he concludes as follows : — " I do not mean to
deprecate the proper functions of machines in modern
civilisation, but machinery should be the servant and never
the master of men. It cannot minister to the beauty and
pleasure of life, it can only be the slave of life's drudgery ;
and it should be kept rigorously in its place, in India as
well as England. When in England machinery is, by the
force of cultivated taste and opinion, no longer allowed
to intrude into the domain of art manufactures, which
belongs exclusively to the trained mind and hand of
individual workmen, wealth will become more equally
diffused throughout society, and the working classes,
through the elevating influence of their daily work, and
the growing respect for their talent and skill and culture,
will rise at once in social, civil, and political position, raising
the whole country to the highest classes with them ; and
Europe will learn to taste of some of that content and

2 1 6 Dai Nippon

happiness in life which is still to be found in the
Pagan East, as it was once found in Pagan Greece and
Rome."

The determination of the proper functions of machinery
in modern life is one of the problems which faces every
industrial country. Many of the social evils of the Western
world arise from the dull dead monotony of the work of the
people, and from the low, material, sensual ideals which large
numbers of all classes have of the meaning and object of
life. In Old Japan there was not only variety in the work,
but interest and pleasure in a great deal of it, and certainly
in all that which was of an artistic nature. Time was not
money and the feudal patrons encouraged the highest

Future of excellence in every department of artistic work.

Japanese Under present conditions the foreign market
has to a large extent taken the place of feudal
patronage, but its demands are fitful and its tendency is to
reduce even the best artists to the production of pot-boilers
of little artistic value. The true spirit of Japanese art is
prostituted to the promptings of gain, and foreign tastes
have more influence than Japanese canons. A most essential
step is the organisation of the art workers in such a manner
as to ensure not only good payment for first-class work, but
also the maintenance of that standard of excellence and
purity without which all their efforts are for the most part
wasted. They must, however, be assisted by the men of
means who are becoming somewhat numerous in Japan.
They, like true patriots, should see it to be their duty to
take the place of the ancient daimyos in the encouragement
of art, in a truly national spirit, and under such conditions
of freedom as to allow the artists to develop their own
individualities. In addition the municipalities and other
local bodies as well as the central Government should give
every encouragement to artistic genius in the decoration of
public buildings ; for, after all, the highest forms of art have
always been developed under some form of communism.
The temples and tombs of Japan and the churches of the

Art Industries 217

Middle Ages in Europe are illustrations of the results of
such conditions.

In this way there would grow up a body of men who
were free from the anxiety of earning a mere living, who
would exercise a great influence not only on the national
art, but also on the art products which are exported to
Europe and America. Paintings and picture books are
likely to be appreciated only by those who have been to
Japan and who are really artistic in their nature and under-
stand the motives and ideals of the artists, but there is a
great field for the production of artistic articles which are
intended partly for ornament and partly for use. The pro-
duction of works in lacquer, pottery, bronze, silk and other
materials is capable of immense development, and for these
Japan might find a ready market in almost every country in
the world. My past associations with Japan naturally make
me anxious to see her take full advantage of the applications
of Western science and machinery for the production of the
requirements and conveniences of modern life, but it would
be a disaster to the country if in the competitive struggle it
lost its art and individuality. Other countries will be able
to compete successfully with it in the manufacture of textile
fabrics, engineering appliances, and chemical products, but I
know of none which can take its place in art productions.
If Japanese art be guided on right lines, it may interest
every country in the world, not only from an artistic point
of view, but also lead to that blending of Eastern and
Western thought which, in my opinion, is necessary for the
true progress of the world.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

A considerable number of books have been written in English
and other foreign languages on the art industries of Japan. In
Professor Chamberlain's Things Japanese will be found useful short
articles on the different departments of Japanese art industries, with
references to the most important books on the subject. Captain

ITY

2 1 8 Dai Nippon

Brinkley's article in the supplementary volumes of the Encyclopedia
Britannica is the best condensed account which has been written.
Clement's Handbook of Modern Japan (chap, xvi.) gives a very good
outline, with a useful list of books on the subject. Of these the
following may be noted : Rein, The Industries of Japan ; Anderson,
The Pictorial Arts of Japan ; Brinkley, Japan, Its History, Art, and
Literature, and Japan and China (12 vols.); Audsley and Bowes,
Keramic Art of Japan ; Huish, Japan and its Art ; and Conder,
landscape- Gardening in Japan. The Ideals of the East, with special
reference to the art of Japan, by Kakasu Okakura, should be care-
fully read, as it contains a great deal of useful and interesting informa-
tion about Japanese art, and also indicates its relations to Japanese
life and thought.

CHAPTER X

COMMERCE

THE history of commerce in Old Japan has many features
of an interesting nature, but for details of these I must refer
to special books on the subject. It will, however, be useful
to note a few points which have considerable bearing on
present-day conditions.

The earliest existing records of Japanese commerce take
us back to the third century of the Christian era, at which
early date things were in a very primitive commerce in
condition. Under feudalism there was always old J a P an -
a tendency to the multiplication of regulations and the
increase of officialism, which prevented the free development
of commerce. Some of the regulations were as quaint as
they were absurd. They were for the most part based on
the doctrine that the people's reward for the products of
their labour must be regulated primarily with regard to the
convenience of the ruling classes.

The commercial intercourse with China and Korea dates
from a very early time, and a study of the relations which
existed at different periods is very interesting in the present
state of affairs. Such a study is necessary in order to under-
stand the Japanese point of view. All the arrangements
were controlled by officials who valued the merchandise as it
arrived, and sales were afterwards made at greatly increased
rates to the people, the difference going to the Treasury ; so
that in a sense the Government was the only wholesale
foreign merchant.

219

220 Dai Nippon

A very important feature in the internal commerce of
Japan was the system of guilds or trusts, which practically
controlled all departments of trade. The merchants,
especially those of Yedo and Osaka, working under these
trusts, gradually acquired great wealth and fell into luxurious
habits, and they often resorted to arbitrary measures which
caused great hardships and consequent discontent. In 1841,
by the authority of the Shogun, the licences of the guilds
were withdrawn and they were dissolved, and liberty given
to all who wished to engage in commerce without let or
hindrance. This sudden change, however, led to great
inconvenience, as no other adequate arrangements had been
made to take the place of the guilds, and after about ten
years it was seen that a modified form of the old system
would conduce to the public interest. Modified regulations
were therefore made ; the guilds were re-established and
they remained until the beginning of the Meiji period (1 867),
when they shared the cataclysm that overtook all the
country's old institutions. It will be interesting to note
how far modern conditions will lead to a renewal of an
organisation something like the guilds of former days. In
Japan, as in every other industrial country in the world, the
tendency is towards combination and monopoly.

The early days of foreign trade in Japan, under the
conditions brought about by the events connected
Results of new with the Restoration, were marked by great
conditions, embarrassments, resulting from the difference
between the silver price of gold in Japan and its silver price
in Europe, at the time when the trade was opened. The
difficulties were increased by the extraordinary appreciation
of the prices of all the ordinary articles of commerce, in
some cases amounting to as much as four hundred per cent,
and seldom less than three hundred per cent. Such an
increase inflicted great hardships on the consumers, who
naturally attributed it to the advent of foreigners and the
opening of new markets. On the other hand, the producers
made large profits, as they obtained from foreign buyers

Commerce 221

such prices as they had never before realised. Marine
products, raw silk, and tea were at first the chief articles of
export, and notwithstanding the difficulties which he had to
overcome, the foreign merchant frequently made a profit of
from forty to fifty per cent. The failure of the silk crop in
France, owing to a novel disease of the silk-worm, gave the
silk trade in Japan a good start, while Japanese tea appealed
so strongly to American tastes that a large demand at once
arose for it, and it still continues the most important export
to America.

For some years the increase in the foreign trade of
Japan was comparatively slow, but as improvements took
place in the administration of the country, and as develop-
ments were made in the means of communication, and the
applications of Western methods to industry, the increase
became very rapid. No great increase in the foreign trade
of the country could be expected so long as it consisted
chiefly in the importation of foreign goods. These had to be
paid for, and the trade could not possibly continue unless a
corresponding quantity of goods of a different kind was
exported. Agricultural products and other raw materials
were, as already stated, at first, the only exports, and
they still form a very considerable part, but now goods
manufactured not only in Japanese but also in foreign
style are, as we have seen, assuming a position of im-
portance.

The rapidly improving financial position of the country,
and especially the resumption of specie payments in 1885,
had very marked effects on trade. We will notice some of
the financial measures in a subsequent chapter ; meantime it
is sufficient to note here the inconvenience to the import
merchant who purchased his goods with gold which not only
appreciated constantly in value relatively to silver, but also
the silver itself appreciated rapidly and sharply in relation to
the notes paid by the Japanese consumers. Commercial
operations became in great part a gamble, and it was not
until the cause of the uncertainty was removed that the

222

Dai Nippon

foreign trade was placed on a healthy basis, and developed
with increasing rapidity. The natural resources of Japan
have ample room for growth, while the growing intelligence
of her people with regard to foreign countries will, no doubt,
inspire the rising generation with a stronger desire to open
up closer trading relations with the outside world. Some
commercial men in Japan even think that in a comparatively
short time their country will become the centre for the
carrying trade of the Far East, and the geographical position
of the country, as well as recent economic developments,
justify their hope.

The development of the foreign trade of Japan since the
Development of Restoration has been most remarkable, as is
foreign trade, shown by the following table, which gives the
amount of imports and exports during that period : —

Year.

Exports.

Imports.

Total.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

1868

15,553,437

10,693,072

26,246,545

1878

26,988,140

32,874,834

58,862,974

1888

65,705,510

65,455,234

131,160,744

1892

91,102,754

71,326,080

162,428,833

1897

163,135,077

219,300,772

382,435,849

I9OI

252,349»543

255,816,645

508,166,188

I903

289,502,442

317,135,517

606,637,959

The principal exports are raw silk, hafaitaye, cotton

yarns, matches, fancy matting, tea, camphor, marine products,

Exports and copper, coal, etc. Of these, raw silk and

imports. habutaye stand out conspicuous in volume and
value, and have in the United States of America and France
their best customers. Cotton yarns go mostly to China,
Hong-Kong, and Korea ; matches and coal to China, Hong-
Kong, and British India ; fancy matting to the United
States of America, etc. ; marine products to China and
Hong-Kong ; copper to Hong-Kong, England, Germany, etc.
The following table gives the total value of classified
commodities exported from Japan for the three years
1 901-3 : —

Commerce

22

1903.

1902.

I90I.

Beverages and Comestibles : —

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

Part I. (Tea)

i3>935-252.7io

10,484,017.060

8,854,326.700

Part 2. (Grains) .

5,170,066.600

6,822,574.610

7,037,432.000

Part 3. (Marine products) .

7,073,322.690

6,200,083.770

6,983,959.I70

Part 4. (Others) .

Total .
Clothing and accessories .

6,254,803.110

5,222,l6l.l50

5,250,132.880

32,433,445.110

28,728,836.590

28,125,850.750

3,473,566.740

2,860,393.640

2,442,764.280

Drugs, medicines, chemicals,

7,323,165.520

6,150,748.920

6,576,367.390

dyes and paints

Metals and metal manufactures

18,329,564.350

12,796,450.650

15,821,272.720

Oils and waxes

2,387,970. 170

2,486,913.710

1,709,550.980

Paper and paper manufactures .

2,053,337.120

1,785,588.030

1,659,300.540

Skins, hair, shells, horns, etc. .

1,645,231.420

1,106,701.480

1,035,811.050

Tissues, yarns, threads, and

raw materials thereof : —

Part I. (Silk) .

ii3,7oi,393-8oo

II3,954,I08.230

I09,I37,I39.330

Part 2. (Cotton) .

39,928,259.470

27,110,732.590

28,029,194.550

Part 3. (Others) .

Total
Tobacco ....

i,475.576.26o

I,333,975-250

1,186,072.560

155,105,229.530

142,398,816.070
2,365,792.830

138,352,406.440

2,127,580.380

1,748,492.520

Miscellaneous

Grand total .
Re-exports ....

Total exports

61,092,533.010

54,994,774.570

51,943,691.350

285,971,623.350

255,675,016.490

249,415,508.020

3,530,819-160

2,628,048.380

2,934,035.080

289,502,442.510

258,303,064.870

252,349,543.100

The imports into Japan are of a very miscellaneous
nature, the most important items being machinery, iron
ware, petroleum, sugar, raw cotton, cotton fabrics and
woollen goods. Iron ware comes from the United States
and Russian Asia ; sugar from China, Hong-Kong, and
Germany ; ginned cotton from the United States, Hong-
Kong, and British India ; cotton goods from England and
Germany ; woollen goods from England, Germany, Belgium,
and France. Under machinery the most important items
are locomotives and cotton-spinning machinery, the former
coming from Britain and the United States and the latter
from Britain. In the requirements of the dockyards, both
Government and private, British manufacturers still have
most of the trade. The United States supplies a large part

224

Dai Nippon

of the electrical machinery. The following table shows the
total value of classified commodities imported into Japan
during the three years 190 1-3 : —

1903.

1902.

1901.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

Arms, clocks, watches, instru-

13,219,740.010

12,114,322.790

16,738,946.870

ments, tools, and machinery

Beverages and comestibles

i5» I 57,962.48o

8,713,970.720

7,505,181.240

Clothing and accessories .

i,374,489-7io

I,3 2 7,499-860

I,35I,432-230

Drugs, chemicals, and medicines

6,712,050.930

7,183,082.870

5,527,045.170

Dyes, colours, and paints

7,728,656.240

6,682,354.930

5,358,605.680

Glass and glass manufactures .

1,424,995.190

1,836,906.610

I,395,458-08o

Grains and seeds

67,"3>444-9 I °

26,223,165.350

18,797,209.960

Horns, ivory, skins, hair, shells,

etc.
Metals and metal manufac-

3,271,610.660

3,076,050.940

2,977,177.620

tures : —

Part 1. (Iron, steel)

21,918,767.650

18,768,763.120

19,998,203.560

Part 2. (Others)
Total .
Oils and waxes

5,822,309.940

5,o67,933-76o

5,416,198.190

27,74i,077-590

23,836,696.880

25,414,401.750

13,929,044.240

16,699,976.120

16,361,561.670

Paper and stationery

4,855,425.630

4,947,869.610

3,216,852.810

Sugar .....

21,005,629.870

14,486,234.750

33,527,463.440

Tissues, yarns, threads, and raw

materials thereof : —

Part I. (Cotton)

81,371,230.990

96,949,588.480

74,798,478.790

Part 2. (Wool)

16,316,073.550

I4,304,534-090

11,848,457.500

Part 3. (Silk) .

i,940,493-590

2,456,977-790

1,542,489.040

Part 4. (Hemp)

2,072,927.240

2,102,936.890

1,665,692.750

Part 5. (Others)
Total .
Tobacco ....

1,203,269.520

1,055,722.610

844,803.440

102,903,994.890

116,869,759.860

90,699,921.520

1,117,858.340

995,976.250

121,090.750

Wines, liquors, and spirits

769,236.900

695,790.140

698,243.180

Miscellaneous

Grand Total
Re-imports ....

Total imports

28,302,362.380

25,629,785.280

25,784,684.120

316,627,579.970

271,319,442.960

255,475,276.090

507,937.950

411,815.590

341,368.610

3i7,i35,5i7-920

271,731,258.550

255,816,644.700

The following table gives the total value of commodities
Distribution of exported to and imported from the various
japan's foreign trade, foreign countries for the year 1903 : —

Commerce

225

Exports.

Imports.

Total.

Asia —

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

China ....

64,994,I79-640

45,458,057.420

110,452,237.060

British India .

8,086,798.150

69,894,197.280

77,980,995.430

Hong-Kong .

29,724,694.190

1,739,726.910

31,464,421.100

Korea ....

11,761,494.010

8,912,151.230

20,673,645.240

Annam and other French

197,776.140

15,579,626.870

I5,777,403-OIO

India

Dutch India .

912,419.440

10,842,779.850

",755,I99-290

Russian Asia .

2,239,986.850

8,267,652.090

10,507,638.940

British Straits Settlement

7,108,700.780

1,323,441.260

8,432,142.040

Philippine Islands .

1,675,519.180

3,421,553.530

5,097,072.710

Siam ....
Total
Europe —

73,625.930

3,726,279.770

3,799,905-700

126,775,194.310

169,165,466.210

295,940,660.520

Great Britain .

16,544,523.980

48,736,758.130

65,281,282.110

France .

34,279,ii5-90o

5,107,913.280

39,387,029.180

Germany

5,185,658.490

26,958,976.670

32,144,635.160

Italy

11,003,607.190

311,020.990

11,314,628.180

Belgium .

487,173.130

7,578,590.990

8,065,764.120

Austria-Hungary

981,290.360

3,676,995-080

4,658,285.440

Switzerland

264,738.220

2,187,954.190

2,452,692.410

Russia .

1,125,250.840

291,558.700

1,416,809.540

Holland .

224,043x00

8l4,705-930

1,038,748.930

Sweden .

518.000

290,697.190

291,215.190

Spain

67,593-5So

101,191.430

168,785.010

Turkey .

io5,959-370

2,044.520

108,003.890

Denmark

29,447.710

18,002.120

47,449-830

Norway .

1,727.560

19,804.990

21,532.550

Portugal . .

998. Soo

17,999.260

18,998.060

Total

America —

70,301,646.130

96,114,213.470

166,415,859.600

United States of America

82,723,985X10

46,273,870.930

128,997,856.540

Canada and other British

2,923,539-730

499,039-860

3,422,579.590

America

Mexico ....

72,222.270

1,638.950

73,861.220

Peru ....

Total
All other —

12,012,180

18,088.840

30,101.020

85,73i,759-790

46,792,638.580

132,524,398.370

Australia

3,352,465.570

1,199,935.250

4,552,400.820

Egypt ....

322,664.420

2,401,598.460

2,724,262.880

Hawaii ....

Total
Other Countries

2,253,782.630

6,218.480

2,260,001. no

5,928,912.620

3,607,752.190

9,536,664.810

486,791.180

782,185.320

1,268,976.500

Unknown

Grand Total

278,138.480

673,262.150

951,400.630

289,502,442.510

3i7,i35,5i7-92o

606,637,960.430

(B 207)

n

226 Dai Nippon

If we examine the shares of the principal Western
countries which supply Japan's requirements, we find that
in 1883 more than one-half of the total imports came from
the United Kingdom; in 1890, about one-third; in 1898,
considerably less than one-fourth ; in 1899, little more than
one-fifth ; and in 1 900, one-fourth. Taking the three last
mentioned years, the aggregate import trade of the whole
British Empire bears a less favourable ratio to the whole
import trade of Japan than did that of the United Kingdom
alone in 1883. The trade of Germany has in the same
period advanced from about one-twentieth to one-tenth of
the whole, and of the United States (including Canada in
1883) from about one- ninth to over one- fifth. German
trade is and has always been exclusively in articles which
compete directly with British productions. It is only in
very recent years, on the other hand, that the United States
has become a competitor with the United Kingdom, the
trade of that country having, until 1896, been almost
entirely in such products as kerosene oil, flour, leather, and
tobacco ; whereas it now includes machinery of all kinds,
scientific and other instruments, metal manufactures, rails,
railway and bridge materials, boots, clothing, cotton tissues,
and even coal, etc., the supply of all of which was formerly
considered under the exclusive control of the United
Kingdom. The principal item in French trade, representing
perhaps five -eighths of the whole, is the woollen staple
mousseline-de-laine, the production of which is not seriously
attempted by British manufacturers, and trade rivalry with
France can therefore be said to exist only to a small extent.

While the trade of the United Kingdom has in the
period referred to increased less than one-and-a-half fold,
that of Germany and of the United States has, in each case,
grown more than ten-fold. Not only is this the case at the
present, but the most strenuous efforts are being made in
both the latter countries to prepare the way for very
considerable extensions in the future. I cannot enter into
a detailed discussion of this aspect of the subject, but

Commerce 227

the following opinion by Mr. Consul Longford should be
noted : — " While much of the success of Germany and the
United States must be ascribed to the willingness of the
manufacturers of both countries to cater specially for the
requirements of the Japanese, to advertising, and to the
energy and vigilance of agents, some of it, and not the
least part, is undoubtedly due to facilities of through
transport from the seat of production in both countries to
the destination of the goods in Japan."

The most marked feature, however, in the foreign trade
of Japan is the growth of that trade with the Asiatic
Continent. In 1881 Europe stood at the head of the list
in the volume and value of its exports, followed by America
and Asia. Twenty years later, in 1901, the relative positions
of these great divisions of the globe were reversed, and in
the exports Asia came first, followed by America and
Europe. In imports also Asia occupied the same position,
after which came Europe and America. In the interval
between the years mentioned Asia advanced by over seven-
teen-fold in the value of her exports, Europe by 460 per cent,
America 680 per cent, Australia and others by over 325
per cent. In imports the rate of advance for the same
interval was over fourteen-fold for Asia, over 450 per cent for
Europe, over 2360 per cent for America, and over 5680 per
cent for Australia and others. The importance to Japan
of freedom to develop its trade on the Continent of Asia,
and especially in China and Korea, is therefore evident, and
this has a very important bearing on its foreign policy.

Since the opening of foreign trade the imports have
exceeded the exports in value by a very considerable
amount, and there can be no doubt that Japan's Balance of trade
foreign trade is, at present, causing an outflow a s ainst Japan.
of her specie. Much of her floating capital has been in-
vested in works which as yet are only partially productive,
and is thus not meantime available for further developments.
Still the balance of trade against Japan is not so great as it
is sometimes made to appear. After the war of 1894-95

228 Dai Nippon

Japan received from China an indemnity of thirty-two
millions of pounds, out of which she brought eighteen and
two-third millions into the country. Further, in 1898 she
sold bonds to the value of four and one-third millions in the
London market and caused the money to be sent to Tokyo.
Moreover, there are other sources of income which are not
apparent in the ordinary returns. Her merchant marine
brings in a large sum. She is selling coal and other ships'
stores in her ports to foreign vessels, the value of which is
not entered in the trade returns, and her 70,000 emigrants
are bringing or sending their savings home. In addition
to all this there is what may be called the foreign tourist
industry. It is estimated that each foreign visitor spends on
an average about £200 ; so that taking all these items into
account the apparent debit balance is very considerably
reduced. In the future the gross amount of that balance is
not likely to be nearly so large as in the past, as much of
the imports were designed to increase the exports and thus
cause the balance to decrease.

The developments of all kinds which have taken place
in Japan have caused a great increase in the prices of
Current prices of commodities in ordinary use, and this fact must
the chief articles be taken into account when the effects on wages

of merchandise. , . , .... , . , , T

and social conditions are being considered. It
should also be remembered when the future of competition
with Eastern countries is being discussed. The work of
the engineer has caused economic conditions in all industrial
countries to approximate to the same standard. The actual
cost of production, not the rate of wages, is the proper basis
of comparison. Skill, organisation, and the utilisation of the
latest developments of science and machinery are the most
important factors in modern industry. The following table
gives the average prices of commodities throughout the
country for the years named, from which it will be seen that
rice, sake, coal and fuel have more than doubled in price in
the interval considered, and other commodities have also
greatly advanced in price : —

Commerce

229

Kind of Commodities.

Unit.

18S7.

1892.

1897.

1901.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

Yen.

Rice .....

Per 1 koku

4.710

7.OOO

II. 8lO

II.47O

Barley .

>!

2.360

3.3IO

4.8S0

4.070

Soja-beans

,,

4.070

5.060

7.920

7-43°

Table-salt

,,

1. 190

I.460

3.I70

2.010

Soy

,,

8.290

9.380

I3.330

18.120

Saki

,,

I3-930

I4.24O

24. 200

31.480

Tea

Per 100 kin

26.090

28.660

35-520

38.650

Leaf- tobacco

,,

8.480

IO.9IO

17.880

35.080

Japanese white sugar

,,

8.770

9.260

12.550

12.470

Foreign ,, ,,

,,

7-750

8.070

IO.OOO

10.760

Japanese brown sugar

>»

6.180

6.47O

9. IIO

9-370

Foreign ,, ,,

?»

5.020

5-570

6.670

8.120

Japanese ginned cotton .

>>

18.520

18.89O

23.870

27.550

Foreign ,, ,,

) ?

16.640

I7.750

21.460

25.740

Japanese cotton yarn

j»

31.040

26.950

31.080

57.000

Foreign ,, ,,

,,

30.830

28.580

37-5!o

54.480

White cotton cloth .

Per 1 tan *

.310

.310

• 37o

•380

Foreign grey shirtings

Per 1 kamaf

?

2.480

3.100

4.030

/"Superior quality
Raw silk -J Average .
(inferior .

Per 100 kin

?

?

?

?

j >

?

?

682.000

706.000

?

?

?

?

Kaiki (silk tissues) .

Per 1 tan

2.580

2.800

4.460

4.500

Hemp .....

Per 100 kin

20.450

19.660

27.990

30.270

Japanese pig-iron .

Per 1 kwan

.230

.260

.420

.500

Foreign ,, ,,

5 J

?

?

•330

.320

Kerosene or petroleum oil j

Per box con-
taining 2 cans

2.020

1. 8lO

2.310

2.860

Coal

Per 1 ton

3-360

3.860

6.910

6.810

Fuel

Per 10 kwan

.IIO

.130

.240

.250

Charcoal . . . .

. .

.290

.380

•73o

.840

f Dried sardine .

,,

I.580

I.74O

3.080

3.260

Manure -! Residue of herring oil

?

2.24O

3.220

3-550

(Rape-seed oil-cake .

"

?

?

1.850

1.820

1 Tan varies from about 9 to 10 yards.

t 1 Katna contains 40 yards.

The Japanese have taken full advantage of the organisa-
tions for facilitating and encouraging business to be found
in Europe and America. Though the custom Provisions for
of using commercial bills in trade existed long encouraging

• . 1 ., , 1 commerce.

ago, it was only in recent years that clearing
houses modelled on the Western system were established in
Japan. The Osaka Clearing House, opened in December
1879, was the pioneer institution of this kind in Japan.
Then followed the Clearing Houses of Tokyo, Kobe,
Yokohama, and Kyoto. All these establishments partly
partake of the Houses of London and New York in their

2 30 Dai Nippon

organisation and working-, and they have been of great service
in facilitating commercial and financial business.

Commercial and industrial bodies discharging the
functions of regular Chambers of Commerce existed in
Japan in feudal times, but it was only in 1890 that they
were organised on modern lines. Since that time fifty- eight
Chambers have been established throughout the country, and
they undertake all the usual functions of such institutions for
the encouragement of commerce and industry. Besides the
Chambers existing in Japan, the Japanese subjects residing
in the various parts of Korea, as Seoul, Fusan, Mukpho,
Gensan, and Jinsen have Chambers of their own.

In 1896 the Government established the Higher Council
of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry for the purpose of
devising measures for encouraging foreign trade, and in
1897 its organisation was amended so as to allow it to
deliberate as well on matters relating to domestic trade,
and a large number of measures have been passed on its
initiative. For a number of years the Government has been
despatching officials and commissioners to foreign countries
for the purpose of investigating the conditions of trade, and
especially with the object of promoting direct export trade
by Japanese merchants. Besides Government officials,
student commercial agents, student manufacturers and
private individuals experienced in respective lines of trade
have been despatched on similar missions, the Chambers
supplying them with either the whole or part of their
travelling expenses. There are thirty-eight Commercial
Samples Museums in various parts of Japan, and these
institutions have been of great service in promoting
commerce and industry. Similar establishments have been
attached to some of the Japanese Consulates in foreign
countries. The Department of Agriculture, Commerce, and
Industry issues valuable Reports on industrial subjects,
especially in their bearing on foreign markets and the
conditions of production in Japan. In addition the Reports
forwarded by Japanese Consuls, student commercial agents

Co7?imerce

2*1

and manufacturers, and also reports embodying the result of
investigations made either at home or abroad on industrial
and commercial matters have been published.

Mention has been made of the guilds which existed
in feudal times. Some of these have been revived and
extended to meet the requirements of modern commercial
trade and industry, and they now exercise great and industrial
influence on existing conditions. The latest g lllcs -
returns give the number of agricultural guilds as 112. In
1897 a law was passed for the regulation of such guilds,
and it marked a new and important departure in legislation
of this kind. It was rendered necessary owing to the pro-
duction and export of an inferior class of goods and to the
consequent injury done to the prosperity of the various
branches of trade. Three years later the scope of the law
was expanded to the shape in which it now exists. A very
large number of guilds have been formed in connection with
the modern developments of commerce and industry, and
their chief object is to protect the interests of their members
and advance the special trade or industry with which they
are connected. Like other similar organisations in other
parts of the world, while in many respects rendering use-
ful service, they not infrequently are led to acts of an
individualistic or selfish nature and contrary to the interests
of the general community. These guilds, however, are
destined to take a very important part in the future evolu-
tion of Japan, and their development should be carefully
watched by all who are studying the subject.

In another chapter will be given an account of the
negotiations connected with tariffs. The tariff on imports
was originally fixed on a ten per cent basis ; but
in 1865 Japan consented, under heavy pressure
and even armed menace, to reduce the rate to five per cent.
This, too, was only nominal, for the conversion of ad valorem
duties into specific was managed in such a manner that the
sum actually levied on imports did not average as much as
two and a half per cent of their value at the port of ship-

232 Dai Nippon

ment. Under the revised treaties it was arranged that Japan
should recover tariff autonomy after a period of twelve years,
and that in the interval a greatly increased scale of import
duties should be applied.

The system promulgated in 1897 divided imports into
three main classes, namely — dutiable goods, non-dutiable
goods, and prohibited goods. The tariff for dutiable goods
ranged from five to forty per cent, ad valorem, divided into
sixteen grades. The schedule has as a standard rate, so to
say, twenty per cent for ordinary refined goods, to decrease
in one direction but to rise in another. Natural products,
scientific instruments and apparatus, and raw materials,
machinery, half- manufactured materials, and articles of
ordinary consumption occupy the decreasing side of the
schedule, while articles of luxury and liquors and tobacco
occupy the other extreme. The new tariff was put in force
in January 1899.

Since that time it has received several amendments,
either in the interests of the inland revenue or with the
object of encouraging home industries. Tobacco and
liquors of all kinds are now made to pay very heavily, and
the raw materials required by the State monopolies and
match-making were relieved from all duties, as were also
artificial and natural fertilisers. The regulations connected
with the tariff were embodied in a law which was passed by
the Imperial Diet in 1899. The passing of this law may
be said to have ushered in a new era in the history of the
Japanese tariff system, as it marked the introduction of
Japanese tariff autonomy, and many matters which formerly
led to diplomatic interference were henceforth transferred to
the domain of ordinary administrative affairs.

When we recall the position merchants occupied in
feudal Japan — the lowest in the social scale

Social position , . . , . . rr . . . , , .

and commercial — we have little difficulty in understanding
morality of fa e opinions which were held by foreigners

Japanese merchants. * .

in the early days of foreign trade with
Japan regarding the commercial morality of the Japanese

Commerce 233

trading class. These opinions were the results of experience
with the sharpest and most unprincipled among the Japanese
merchants who rushed to the foreign settlements in the
hope of enriching themselves, and some of whom did suc-
ceed in amassing a considerable amount of wealth. Great
improvements have taken place in recent years, and
commerce and industry are now engaged in by men of high
rank and honourable character, who are exercising all the
influence in their power to raise the standard of commercial
morality of their fellow-men. The bad reputation of former
days, however, has left its mark, and many foreigners still
hold the opinion that all Japanese merchants are untrust-
worthy, and in many cases they are able to support their
opinions by examples from their own experience. Exceptions
to honourable dealing are still to be found, but I doubt if
they are more common in Japan than in other commercial
countries, and I have no hesitation in saying that, if the
caution and prudence which should mark all commercial
dealings is exercised, there should be no more difficulty in
carrying on trade with Japan than with any other part of the
world. A well-informed writer in the Quarterly Review 1
recently said : " The Japanese nation, as a whole, is not dis-
honest. The Government has always scrupulously observed
every engagement made by it, and even when, as not
infrequently happened in its early days of inexperience,
shamelessly tricked, it invariably fulfilled the obligations it
had inadvertently assumed. There are old-established mer-
cantile firms of which the same may be said — firms to which
credit may be and is constantly given with the same con-
fidence as to British firms of the best standing. The writer,
throughout a long experience, has found the Japanese
tradesman compare favourably with the English, and has
met with many striking incidents of honesty in its best form
on the part of domestics, artisans, and labourers. A Japanese
policeman is absolutely incorruptible, and a railway guard
or a postman would look upon a ' tip ' as an insult." Com-

1 October 1902, p. 557.

234 Dai Nippon

mercial morality, even at its best in any country, is not much
to boast of, and the worst sinners are not always those whose
shortcomings are made public, but the prudent, respectable
people who keep themselves within the four corners of the
law, and are still able to enrich themselves at the expense of
their more scrupulous competitors.

The position of foreign merchants in Japan is one of
great interest. It must be admitted that it was chiefly

Position of through their exertions that the foreign trade
foreign merchants of the country was built up. They acted as

m japan. a g en t s both for the Japanese producers and for
the foreign purchasers. Both as importers and as exporters
their knowledge, experience, and capital were of great service
in developing the trade of the country. For some years
fortunes were rapidly made (and very often as rapidly lost),
but as things developed the competition of the foreign
middlemen with each other enabled the Japanese to obtain
the very best terms, and profits were cut down to a very
small margin. The foreign merchants were, however, always
in a position of unstable equilibrium, and as education
developed in Japan and experience was gained in foreign
methods of business, naturally the Japanese got more and
more of the trade into their own hands. All reasonable
people will agree with Captain Brinkley in saying that " In a
measure the ambition (to manage their own trade) is quite
natural. If a community of aliens settled down in the
United States or in England, and obtained a dominant place
in the management of the country's foreign trade, Americans
and Englishmen would certainly endeavour to wrest the
business from their hands. Every nation must desire to
carry on its own commerce independently of foreign
assistance, and since a community of strangers is not to be
found discharging similar functions in any Occidental land,
the Japanese would prefer that their land should not be
exceptional in that respect." Statistics show that the efforts
made by Japanese merchants to get the foreign trade into
their own hands have been tolerably successful ; for whereas,

Commerce 235

in 188S, their share was only twelve per cent of the total, it
rose to twenty-five per cent in 1899. Yet Captain Brinkley
thinks that there are strong reasons to doubt whether
such a rate of change will be maintained in the future. He
believes that the day is still distant when the Japanese
tradesman can hope to establish with the Occident relations
of such mutual intimacy and confidence as will enable him
to take the place now occupied by the foreign middle-
man.

Formerly the attitude of the Japanese in their employ-
ment of foreigners for any part of their work was very
severely criticised and especially by the foreign press in
Japan, but now a more reasonable view is taken of the
subject, and the legitimate ambitions of the Japanese are
recognised as the natural results of the developments which
have taken place. One of the oldest foreign journals l in
Yokohama writing on the subject, after noting the changes
which had been going on for years, expressed the following
opinions, which on the whole may be taken as representing
a reasonable view of the position : — " The underlying germ
of truth is only misleading if the rest of the facts are not
duly taken into account. In the first place, the growth of
Japanese manufactures is accompanied by an immense
increase in Japan's own requirements ; and they will continue
to increase, because the law of supply and demand is always
directly influenced by the law of progressive civilisation,
which develops ever-increasing wants and is never satisfied.
Where a Japanese fifty years ago would regard half-a-dozen
kimonos as sufficient for a lifetime, he now has that number
in a year. Where he used to go from Yokohama to Tokyo
on foot, once a year, wearing out a few cents' worth of waraji,
on bare human hoof, he goes now every month, and helps to
wear out an infinity of things ; he does it because it pays
him, for the outlay returns now vastly quicker than it did.
So, consumption of everything is increasing and always
will ; and Japan can no more live without imports than the
1 Japan Gazette, May 20th, 1903.

236 Dai Nippon

United States can. True, the character of the trade changes,
and that is where, in a certain sense, some foreigners are
being and will be crowded out by the Japanese and gradually
deprived of their livelihood ; or deprived of one line after
another, but only to develop new lines all the time, and it
hurts only those foreigners who are unadaptable, unprogres-
sive, unforeseeing, and unenterprising. It is true that one
old-established firm after another has had to close its doors
and wind up its business ; but this proves only that those
firms lacked enterprise and business activity. Such things
happen all the world over, but they do not prove that it is
becoming impossible to live.

" It is by no means impossible for European firms to
flourish in India, though India also is building up her own
industries even more than Japan. India has entirely ceased
taking certain lines of cotton from Lancashire, but instead
takes machinery, and develops a demand for finer grades of
textiles which only Lancashire can make ; and the country
is as far as ever from being closed against the white trader.
There are British firms which flourish and prosper in France,
Belgium, Germany, in every country ; and there are firms of
every nationality doing a fine business in England. There
is of course little or no scope in any country for alien
competition in the commoner and simpler lines of trade,
and it is not creditable on the part of foreigners in Japan to
moan and groan about the bread being taken out of their
mouths. The elementary branches of trade of course
belong in the natural order of things to the people of the
country, and if they have for a time been in the hands of
aliens, this could not be expected to continue. The only
excuse for business people to be in a country not their
own, is that they conduct some business which the natives
cannot do so well. If there is anything in the claim of
superior abilities on the part of the white man, he should
never have any uneasiness on the score of any other race
cutting into his business. If it is a business which the
Japanese are able to do, and do so well as to compete with

Commerce 237

the foreigner, then it is time for the foreigner to give effect
to his business superiority, by developing a line in which
they may follow at a distance but cannot catch up with him.
It is unworthy of the foreigner to cling desperately to any
line which can be quite satisfactorily handled by Japanese."

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Much interesting information is given regarding the conditions
of commerce in Old Japan in Brinkley's Japan and China, and in
Dr. Yetaro Kinosita's The Past and Present of Japanese Commerce.
H. Yamawaki's Japan in the beginning of the Twentieth Ce?itury
(Chap, v.) gives very complete statistics of the development of the
foreign trade of Japan, as does also the Annuals issued by the
Department of Finance and the Imperial Cabinet. British and
American Consular Reports should be carefully studied by all who
are interested in the commerce of Japan. Some of the special
Reports are very valuable and give a useful resume of the
departments which are taken up. The volume in Harper's
International Commerce Series by J. Morris on Jap ait and its Trade
will be found useful. All books and reports on this subject,
however, soon get out of date, and only the latest editions should be
depended on for information regarding present conditions. The
daily newspapers should also be read, as they notice all the most
important developments which take place and discuss the conditions
affecting trade.

CHAPTER XI

FOOD SUPPLY

Amid all the industrial and commercial developments which

are taking place in Japan, it is satisfactory to find that due

Population and attention is being paid to what is the oldest

food supply. anc j after all the most important industry ;
namely, agriculture. Through the improvement of agri-
cultural education, and consequently of the methods of
farming, the increase per annum in the agricultural produce
has kept up very closely with the increase of population.
When from any cause there is a failure of the crops in any
part of the country, or even when there is speculation on the
part of the merchants and farmers, considerable quantities
of food products require to be imported, but in ordinary
circumstances the amount of the staple articles of food of
the common people which is imported is nearly balanced by
that exported. Moreover, as it is found that the allowance
of rice per head of population of those above five years
of age has also increased, as well as that of the other
agricultural products, we infer that the average standard
of living has improved.

It is very interesting to note the various influences which
have been at work in causing attention to be paid to

Agriculture in agriculture in Japan. When, at the beginning
Old japan. Q f j^e seventeenth century, the policy of seclusion
was decided upon, the Government was confronted with the
problem of supplying a large and rapidly increasing popula-
tion from a comparatively small cultivated area. Not only

238

Food Supply 239

were emigration and the exchange of the products of other
countries forbidden, but the profound peace which lasted
for two and a half centuries completely did away with
the check to over-population furnished by the wars thai
had been so common. The result was, that great attention
was paid to the art of cultivation, and the farmer class rose
in the social scale, being placed next to the samurai, and
above the tradesmen and merchants, the latter being the
lowest in the scale. Individuality, independence, and skill
were assiduously developed. The rural districts had a large
amount of local self-government, and the consequence was
that not only did they enjoy a fair amount of economic
welfare and simple enjoyment of life, but they also displayed
a loyal affection towards the central Government on account
of the consideration which was shown to them by the
authorities. It is said that the farmers took a positive pride
and delight in the payment of the taxes. " Taxation, as
understood or felt by the people of most countries, is a
burden imposed, a kind of robbery of the hard-earned means
of the people. But it was, as a rule, quite differently
regarded by the people of Japan. The payment of taxes
did not seem to be considered by the peasantry as a burden,
but as a loyal duty in which they took more or less pride.
The time of the annual payment of the rice at the collectors'
storehouses, where each farmer's rice was submitted to
inspection, instead of being an occasion of sorrow and
irritation, was more like a fair where each vied with the
other in presenting for official inspection the best return of
rice. It was always a source of mortification for any one
when his rice was rejected or declared improperly cleaned
for market. Prizes were awarded for the best quality and
yield, which stimulated the farmers in its production. The
tax-rice was regarded as a precious thing not to be defiled." 1
This quotation is an illustration of the manner in which the
spirit of " Bushido " permeated even the common affairs of
Japanese life ; everything was done in a spirit of loyalty to

1 Knapp, Feudal and Modern Japan, vol. i. p. 84.

240 Dai Nippon

the country, and not simply with a view to personal
considerations.

The rapid increase of population since the Restoration
and the introduction of Western industries intensified the

New difficulty of the food problem, and it has even
conditions. b een stated by some foreign writers that Japan
was being rapidly transformed from an agricultural to an
industrial country and to a large extent (like Britain)
becoming dependent on other countries for its food supplies.
There is a considerable element of truth in this statement,
but the statistics of the Agricultural Department to which I
have referred prove that the pressure is not yet very great.
The authorities have wisely recognised the necessity of
making the most of the land, and they have done this not
only for social and economic reasons, but also no doubt
from that spirit of patriotism (foreigners are very apt to
call it exclusiveness and selfishness) which we have already
recognised as the chief motive in all the national movements
in Japan ; namely, a love of independence and a determination
to stand in a position of equality with the other nations of
the world. At the same time, not only the increase of
population but the growth in general prosperity and the
distribution of wealth among the poorer classes of the people
have led to an increased demand for food products. Many
who were formerly content with barley and millet now
regard rice as an essential article of food, and the time is not
far distant when large supplies of this cereal will have to be
drawn from abroad. The same is true of timber, which the
development of engineering and other works of construction
has already made inconveniently scarce. The cotton and
woollen industries have, as we have seen, in recent years
attained considerable importance in Japan, but all the raw
materials require to be imported. The growth of these and
other industries has led to a great increase in that part of
the population which is not engaged in the production of
food, and therefore to the need for supplementing, by
importation from other countries, what is supplied in Japan.

Food Supply 241

The area of Japan proper (exclusive of Formosa) is
24,794 square ri, or 38,555,229 cho, but of this only
6,120,519 cho is arable land, the remainder improvements
being hills or mountains not available for pur- m agriculture.
poses of agriculture, so that the arable land is only about 15.7
per cent of the whole area of the empire. Rice being the
most important article of food in Japan, the greater part of
the arable land consists of rice-fields, which are usually in
low and wet localities not suitable for other crops. The
religious beliefs of the Japanese led them to avoid animal
food, while the configuration of the country made it necessary
to conduct farming operations on a small scale. In Japan
agriculture is essentially tillage and has little to do with
stock-farming.

During recent years full advantage has been taken of the
applications of Western science and methods to agriculture,
and as already indicated there has been a considerable in-
crease in the amount of the products. That increase, how-
ever, is partly accounted for by the additional land which
has been placed under cultivation, and also by the more
efficient use of that already cultivated, through a re-arrange-
ment of the fields and of the irrigation canals. In recent
years there has been a tendency to an increase in the
size of the holdings, and a consequent greater amount of
co-operation in the irrigation and other arrangements. The
great variety of climate in the Japanese Empire, extending
as it does from the nearly Arctic regions of Yezo to the
tropical climate of Formosa, makes a great diversity
of agricultural operations necessary ; conditions which are
advantageous from a national point of view. While rice and
other articles of ordinary food are the most common agri-
cultural products, some districts are most suitable for
sericulture, others for tea and others for sugar. Stock-
farming is never likely to become very important in Japan,
as the development of railways, tramways, shipping and
other means of communication has, to a large extent,
rendered unnecessary the raising of animals for draught

(b 207) .„

242

Dai Nippon

purposes, and the great majority of the people are likely to
be content with vegetable products and fish as their chief
articles of food. Agriculture and fishery will therefore
in the future, as in the past, always be very important in
Japan. The following table giving the amounts of the chief
agricultural products for the years named shows the increases
which have taken place : —

Year.

Rice.

Barley.

Soja-beans.

Potatoes.

Sweet Potatoes.

Koku.

Koku.

Koku.

Kwan.

Kwan.

1886

37,191,424

16,033,960

?

?

?

1887

39,999.199

15,852,044

3,253,790

28,382,572

561,407,587

1888

38,645,470

15,311,658

?

?

?

1889

33,007,566

15,316,897

?

?

?

1S9O

43»037>S09

10,723,107

?

?

?

1891

38,181,405

18,098,471

?

?

?

1892

41,429,676

15,951,146

3,110,665

40,491,431

568,371,606

1893

37,267,418

16,636,588

?

?

?

1894

41,859,047

19,822,000

2,943,478

49,752,903

495,948,701

IS95

39,960,798

19,537,840

3,163,683

44,273,903

711,813,132

1896

36,240,351

17,340,466

2,999,490

44,220,605

725,942,023

1897

33,039,293

18,005,490

3,IOO,973

58,528,287

663,391,590

1898

47,387,666

20,462,053

3,108,708

34,088,550

716,956,146

1899

39,698,258

19,335,952

3,410,693

64,594,705

661,444,862

1900

41,466,734

20,391,673

3,562,176

71,775,433

756,935,532

1901

46,914,943

20,640,207

4,069,619

73,682,653

7",639,5I9

The cultivation of tea has always received great attention.
For a long time, however, the use of tea was confined to the
Cultivation wealthier classes and to the priests. In course of
of tea. time the custom of tea-drinking began to wear
an aspect of something like a ceremony, with nice and
strict canons of etiquette surrounding it, and the ceremony
finally came to play an important part in society as a
regulator of social etiquette and as a means of promoting
friendship.

Almost as soon as Japan was opened to foreign trade a
great demand for Japanese tea came from America, and at
the present time the United States and Canada take most
of the teas which are shipped abroad, while Russian Siberia
takes a small quantity of black tea and brick tea. The

Food Supply

24;

following figures give the amount (in catties) exported and
consumed at home in the years 1891 and 1900 : —

Total Output.

Import.

Total.

Export.

Home
Consumption

1891

1900

44,352,488
47,576,175

65,618

"3,9S5

44,418,106
47,576,175

39,923,999
32,240,147

4,494,107
15,449,963

For some years past there has been a tendency to a
decrease not only in the total output but also in the amount
exported. This arises from the increase of rivals in the
foreign markets. On the other hand, there has been a
marked increase in the amount of home consumption, which
indicates an improved economic condition on the part of the
population generally. The Government has been doing its
best to promote the tea industry, and besides granting a
subsidy has adopted measures for the improvement of the
quality, and for keeping those interested well posted with
regard to the state of the markets in foreign countries. The
local authorities follow the example set by the central
Government and are supplementing the efforts of the tea-
growers and manufacturers in endeavouring to advance the
prosperity of the industry.

The increased consumption of tea and of rice is not the
only sign of an improvement in the dietary of the Japanese,
there is now an increasing use of what may be Sucrar ,.
considered food luxuries, such as sugar, sake, beer, tobacco,
beer, tobacco, etc. Meantime we can give the
figures for the value of the output of these only for the year
1900.

Yen.

Sugar ...... 6,216,206

Sake (liquor) .
Soy (sauce) .
Beer

Tobacco (cut)
(cigars)

108,328,650

23,782,840

2,809,874

i35. I22 >893
5,528,600

244 Dai Nippon

The cultivated land covers about 5 million c/10, yielding
d 1 b ur a bout 1000 million yen worth of crops every

employed on year. Of that sum rice constitutes about
400 million yen in value. The value of
the cultivated land is estimated at 7000 million yen.

The capital required in agriculture is invested in farm
buildings (which are not expensive), in the tools and imple-
ments required for the work, in live stock, and in manure and
fodder. The Japanese have always been very economical in
the use of their manure, and apply it with great skill to theii
lands. Night soil and stable manure play a most important
part as fertilisers, but in recent years considerable attention
has been paid to other kinds of fertilisers, which are either
made at home or imported from abroad. No department of
chemical industry has been so active as that for the produc-
tion of chemical fertilisers, and especially the manufacture of
superphosphate of lime and other phosphate and nitrogenous
manures.

In Japan, as elsewhere, there is a tendency for the
wealthier classes to increase in all spheres of activity at the
expense of the poorer classes, and the consequence is that
farmers of limited means are in danger of having even these
absorbed by manufacturers or merchants of larger resources.
Special banks have therefore been instituted for supplying
capital, under proper conditions, to farmers who wish to
develop the resources of their land or otherwise improve their
conditions. The Japan Hypothec Bank was started in 1896
for the express purpose of supplying the funds required for
the development of agriculture and industry ; and in the
same year local Hypothec Banks were started in each of the
administrative localities for the purpose of supplying funds to
farmers of the middle and lower classes, and even of making
loans to organised bodies. For smaller loans there are
Credit Guilds, somewhat after the style of the People's Banks
in Germany, and all these institutions have been very useful
in assisting the development of agriculture.

Exact returns are not obtainable for the farming popula-

Food Supply 245

tion of Japan, but in 1900 it was estimated approximately at
28,000,000, with 4,800,000 households ; in other words, the
farming population constitutes a little over 60 per cent of
the whole population, and the number of farmers' house-
holds is a little less than 60 per cent of the total number of
households.

In addition to the Agricultural College of the University
of Tokyo and the other institutions for agricultural education
mentioned in Chapter V., there is a considerable Means
number of special organisations designed to en- for encouraging

1, , , , c agriculture.

courage agriculture, such as experimental farms,
local training schools for the purpose of imparting to farmers'
sons and to farming people generally some elementary
knowledge of the principles of agriculture, surveying, meteoro-
logy, physics, chemistry, natural history, veterinary science,
horse-shoeing, etc., local lectures in agriculture, sericultural
training schools, experimental tea farms and laboratories for a
variety of special investigations. Special attention has been
paid to the breeding of horses, not so much for agricultural
as for military purposes. Stock-breeding generally has also
made some progress, but for the reasons already given it is
not likely to become of much importance. Attention has
been paid to the training of veterinary surgeons and farriers,
to dairy-farming and meat -preserving, to the rearing of
poultry and the keeping of bees ; in short, it is difficult to
name a department of agricultural industry which has not
in recent years been greatly developed by the Japanese.
Arrangements have even been made for utilising the spare
time of the farmers in subsidiary work of different kinds, so
that in some cases they divide their time and labour almost
equally between those " odd jobs " and their regular farming
work ; being, therefore, partly farmers and partly manu-
facturers of goods, which, however, do not compete with those
made in factories.

The Government has done a great deal by means of legis-
lation to encourage agriculture. For instance, in 1899 the
Law of Agricultural Societies was promulgated with the

246 Dai Nippon

consent of the Diet, and the Rules of Operation of the same
in the following year, the legislature providing, among
Agricultural other things, a grant of not more than 1 50,000
legislation. y en ever y year to the societies established in
conformity with the law. A large number of such societies
have been established in the various prefectures, and in
addition numerous sub-societies in rural districts or cities and
in towns and villages, and these are certain before long to
have a very great result on the agriculture of the country.

In 1900 a law was promulgated relating to Credit Guilds,
but as it has been in operation only for a short time, it is
still too early to speak of its results ; but there can be no
doubt that the provision will be extremely useful. Even
before the passing of this law there were considerable
numbers of such guilds in existence, some of which were
established as far back as 230 years ago on the rules laid
down by the celebrated economist and moralist Ninomiya.
Sufficient has been said to show the great interest which,
under the new conditions existing in their country, the
Japanese have taken in every department of agriculture.

Fish and marine products have always been very
important parts of the food supply of the Japanese. Owing
Fish and other to its geographical position, to the direction of
marine products. fa e marine currents in its vicinity, and also to
the abundance of suitable indentures along the well-wooded
coast which can be used as harbours of refuge in the case of
storms, Japan is an ideal country for fishermen. It is not
surprising, therefore, that there are 900,000 families of
fishermen or of persons engaged in the marine industry, or
over 3,000,000 individuals, and that the number of fishing
boats is over 400,000. With the steady increase of
population and the development of the means of com-
munication in the interior, the demand for fishing products
has begun to show a striking advance — an advance which
has been accelerated by an increasing demand from abroad.
The following Tables give the values of raw and manu-
factured products during recent years : —

Food Supply

247

Q.

B

A

to

ro mi c-1 mOO m O 00

. On O ONOO "h ■* M in

>< On ON ^f O r-N On tJ-OO
■>*■ u-ivO 00M O MM

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of Sea-bream.)

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(Kind of
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. mmn rooo romm

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(Bonito.)

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Residue of

Fish-oil.

(Herring and

Sardine.)

inNO mo ono nio
no Ml u-)no tj-n^m in

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£~o°

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>iinM ONr^inr^tNO Tf

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m m m N N cO*C!

it

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.OnO "*nO cnioo rN.ro

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CO

mi 00 I-n.00 O ro ro ro
.00 in-^-MO MOOO
c O in 1-n.oo On Onno r-~.

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O ON00 mi 00 no *d- in

inNO NO NO O CN ON fN.

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248 Dai Nippon

The average value of the seaweeds which are used for
food or for industrial purposes has in recent years been
about 850,000 yen, and of the whales caught in Japanese
waters about 220,000 yen. Sea-otters are caught in the
Kuriles, and fur-seals in the Northern Pacific and the Sea of
Japan. Formerly these fell mostly into the hands of foreign
sealers, but of late, owing to the encouragement given by
the Government, the capture of these valuable fur animals of
the sea by Japanese fishermen has become quite satisfactory.
Modern scientific methods have been applied by the
Japanese to their fishing industry ; fish culture is now ex-
„ . tensively carried out in both fresh and salt

Government J

encouragement water, and the Government has given encourage-
ment and assistance in various ways. Under
the feudal system certain fees were charged the fishermen
for the privilege of the exclusive use of shores, while fisher-
men eligible for the maritime service of the Government were
given similar privileges.

After the Restoration the practice of exacting fees was
abolished and the seas were declared to belong to the State.
In all other respects the Government left the matter to be
regulated according to existing usages and customs. In
1886 fishery guild regulations were enacted, but soon these
simple regulations proved inadequate to deal with troubles
constantly arising among fishermen, until in 1902 the
Government put in force a law regulating fisheries. In
1897 a law was passed for the purpose of giving encourage-
ment to deep-sea fisheries, and State aid is now granted
according to the tonnage of the ships employed in the work
and to the number of the crew, provided such ships, whether
steamers or sailing ships, engage in specified kinds of
fishery approved by the Government. The latest returns
show that the number of ships engaged in deep-sea fisheries
was 22, with a total tonnage of 2042, and that the
sum given during the year as State aid was 28,035 y en «
Japanese fishermen were employed in fishery in Korean
waters even before the Restoration, and since that event

Food Supply 249

their numbers have largely increased. In 1883 and 1890
the Japanese Government made special arrangements with
the Korean Government for their protection. In 1 897
these fishermen established their own association at Fusan,
and from 1900 the Government has given an annual grant
in aid of its funds.

The progress of fishery education has been very slow
compared with that of agriculture and commerce. In 1889
a course of instruction in fishery was arranged in the
Agricultural College at Komaba, but it was shortly after
discontinued. The Fishery Training School of the Japan
Fishery Association did much to diffuse knowledge with
regard to this important subject, and its work is being
continued now as a Government institution. There are
various associations and public bodies interested in fishing,
some of a national and others of a local character ; all of
which are useful in promoting the fishing industry and regu-
lating its financial and commercial interests.

Notwithstanding the efforts of the Agricultural Depart-
ment to improve farming operations and to increase the
amount of the agricultural products, the supply importation
of food will evidently soon become a pressing of food.
problem, as is seen from an examination of the trade returns
for last year. The rice crops for that year were excellent,
as were also the most of the other crops, and it was
anticipated that there would have been sufficient food for
the nation without purchasing much from abroad. The
farmers, however, were anxious to recoup themselves for bad
preceding years, and refused to sell until the price of rice
had risen, and thus large amounts had to be imported from
British and French India, Burmah, Siam, and Korea ; but rice
cannot be kept stored in bulk in Japan for any length of
time as it spoils very rapidly in the damp weather. With
the free importation of rice the Japanese farmers find them-
selves face to face with a competition similar to that which
has placed the landowners and the farmers of Britain in a
difficult position. Still a certain amount of speculation on

250

Dai Nippon

the part of the farmers and the merchants is possible, and it
must be taken into account when studying the food supply
of Japan in the future. Moreover, the Japanese are now
using a considerable amount of foreign food materials which
are not likely to be produced in Japan for some time, and
they all, more or less, affect the question of food supply.

The following table shows the values of the grains and
seeds imported last year : —

Beans, peas, and pulse —

Beans, soja

Others .
Rice

Seeds, cotton
Seeds, sesame
Wheat .
All other grains and seeds

Total

Yen.

6,369,081

1,624,331

51,960,272

829,017

373, XI 3
4,767,838
1,189,789

67,n3,44i

Sugar was imported to the value of 21,005,629 yen, and
in addition there was a long list of beverages and comestibles
of foreign manufacture to the value of 15,157,962 yen,
besides a considerable number of miscellaneous products
used for food or drink. Evidently the problem of food
supply must be taken into account when we are considering
the forces which are likely to influence the foreign policy of
Japan in the future.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The Reports of the Agricultural Department showing the
developments which have taken place in agriculture in Japan should
be studied. A very good synopsis of the subject is given in Part II.
of H. Yamawaki's Japan in the beginning of the Twentieth Century,
as well as of the fishing industries. A large number of special
articles and reports have been published in Japan on these subjects
and will be found of great interest by specialists. The volumes
prepared for the Paris Exhibition of 1900 may be specially mentioned.
The Annual Returns of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of Japan
issued by the Department of Finance should be studied for details
of food imported and exported.

CHAPTER XII

COLONISATION AND EMIGRATION

Notwithstanding the improvements in agriculture and
fishery, as we have seen, the population is beginning to press
on the supply of food produced in Japan. The Pressure
Britain of the East is now passing through the of population.
same stage as did the Britain of the West in the earlier part
of last century. Modern sanitary, social, and economic
conditions have been the chief causes of the rapid increase
of population in recent years. For some time past that
increase has been between four and five hundred thousand
per annum, and the Japanese Government has in con-
sequence been compelled to consider the problems which
have arisen. As an influential Japanese writer recently put
it : " Of her habitable dominions Japan has made the best ;
not a jot of land has been left uninhabited. Still she finds
herself obliged to make some further arrangements. What
by necessity and what by policy she is prompted to take,
not as heretofore a stay-at-home policy, but to push forward
and neglect no opportunity in planting settlements in any
places of the earth not yet occupied by others, and favoured,
even in a moderate degree by nature in productions and
climate." He supported his arguments by pointing to the
examples of other nations, but of course it is evident that
such proposals are only of limited application. After all,
there is not a very large part of the surface of the globe
unoccupied or at least unappropriated, and if all nations
followed the same policy, every inch would soon be taken up.

251

252 Dai Nippon

As yet, however, the population problem has not pressed
very hard on Japan, and indeed the development of industries
has to a large extent provided for the increase of population,
and has even, in some districts, caused a dearth in agricultural
and other labour. No doubt these industries will increase in
number and size, and Japan, like Britain, may be made to
sustain a very large population, which may be to a con-
siderable extent supported by the food imported from other
countries. This policy also has its limits, and it is doubtful
if it is wise, from a national point of view, to follow it too
far. We have seen that the Japanese authorities recognise
the problems involved, and have been improving their
methods of agriculture, and bringing more land under
cultivation. The belief, however, prevails that Japan, like
Britain, must become a great manufacturing country, which
would send her products to the markets of the world, and
especially to those in the Far East. Hence the attention
which has been given in recent years to colonisation,
to the outlying parts of the Empire, and to emigration to
foreign countries, especially to Korea and China, and the
influence which this has had on the foreign policy of the
country.

In the strict sense of the term Japan has no colonies,
for all the so-called colonial settlements are within the
empire and under its central Government. What has
been attempted is not colonisation, but immigration from
one part of the empire which had a surplus population to
another part which was comparatively unoccupied. There
are Japanese settlements in China, Korea, Hawaii, and to a
smaller extent in Siam and other parts of the world, which
are sometimes called colonies, but which are simply con-
cessions from the respective Governments on terms similar
to those of other nations. The administration of those
parts of the Japanese Empire in which immigration has
taken place is in some respects special, and we will therefore
note some of the measures which have been taken to advance
the objects in view and to develop their natural resources.

Colonisation and Emigration 253

While the annual increase in the population in Japan
was still small, and chiefly for political reasons, one of the
first undertakings of the new Government was Department of
the institution of a special department, called Kaitakushi.
Kaitakushi, for the encouragement of emigration to the
island of Yezo, and for the development of its resources.
The Ainos (or Ainu), the aboriginal inhabitants of Yezo,
are supposed to be the remnants of the people which
formerly spread over the whole of the Japanese archipelago,
and on the arrival of the Japanese proper from the north-
west, they were gradually pressed towards the east and
north. Early in the eighteenth century they were completely
subjugated and confined to the northern island of Yezo.
Japanese colonists had, however, proceeded in considerable
numbers to that island, and up till the time of the Restora-
tion its affairs were administered by officers of the Shogunate.
During the troubles of 1868 Admiral Enomoto took the
Shogun's fleet to Yezo, captured Hakodate, and proclaimed
a republic, but in the following year he was compelled to
capitulate. Soon after Yezo was placed under the special
department of the Government already mentioned and called
the Kaitakushi (Colonisation Commission), and the island
became part of Japan proper, receiving the designation of
Hokkaido, or North Sea Circuit. It was divided into ten
provinces, and arrangements were made for the development
of its resources.

Up till that time Yezo was chiefly important for its
fisheries, but of course its position gave it great political
importance. Its possession gave a command of the Eastern
seas, a fact which even then had been recognised by the
Russians, who endeavoured to obtain a footing in the island,
but the opening of Japan to foreign intercourse nipped this
encroachment in the bud. These and similar actions by
the Russians were, however, not forgotten by the Japanese.
Their earlier attempts at colonisation in Yezo had therefore
a significance of a political nature, and cannot be judged
entirely from their financial results.

254 Dai Nippon

A considerable number of Americans, with General
Capron at their head, were engaged by the executive for
the purpose of developing the agriculture of the island.
Large sums were expended on model farms and public
works, but it was soon recognised that a strong navy would
be far more useful, from a political point of view, especially
as it was found that many of the agricultural and colonisa-
tion experiments had a very limited success, and in 1881
the Kaitakushi was dissolved. Since that time the Govern-
ment of the island has undergone repeated reorganisation,
into the details of which, however, we need not enter. One
Military attempt at increasing the population may, how-
Coiomes. ever) be noted. In the year mentioned the
Government resolved to found military colonies, in which
it was intended that the soldiers should at the same time
engage in agricultural cultivation ; but the combination was
found to be inefficient, both from the point of view of
soldiering and of agriculture, and after some time the
experiment was abandoned. In order to guard against
Russian aggression, an army corps is now always stationed
in the island, and emigration, agriculture, fisheries, and other
industries are allowed to develop in a natural manner.

An Agricultural College was instituted in Sapporo in
the early days of the Kaitakushi, and it has been of con-

, . . siderable service in training men who have

Agriculture a

and marine improved the methods of agriculture. More-
over, many of the chief agricultural officials
have been educated in the Agricultural College of Tokyo
University, and in addition have visited foreign countries for
the purpose of observing operations which are likely to be of
use in Yezo. Although the climate is somewhat against the
agricultural development of the island, great improvements
have taken place both in the cultivation of the land and in the
fisheries. The tinned-fish industry has assumed considerable
importance. Other marine products have also been largely
increased, and their annual value now amounts to a consider-
able sum.

Colonisation and Em igration 255

The Government has laid out a very complete system of
railways which will open up the resources of the Hokkaido,
and a considerable part of it has been con-

• r - Railways,

structed under the superintendence of my friend mining,
and former student Dr. Tanabe Sakuro, now . a ° d other

industries.

Professor of Civil Engineering in the University
of Kyoto. The Tanko Tetsudo Kaisha (the Coal Mining
Railway Company) has done a great deal to develop the
mineral resources of the island and it now does a very
large and prosperous business. The island has not only
very large deposits of coal but has also a considerable
number of other mineral resources, including silver, manganese,
sulphur, petroleum, some of which are capable of offering
employment to large numbers of people. Industries of
various kinds have been started and carried on with con-
siderable success. Sapporo beer has been favourably known for
nearly thirty years, the paper industry is being developed, and
many smaller industries have been started, especially those
connected with fisheries and marine and agricultural products,
and in order to meet the requirements of the shipping a
dry dock has been constructed at Hakodate and other
facilities for the encouragement of trade have been given.
In short, Hokkaido will in future be treated like the other
parts of Japan ; that is to say, its resources will be developed
without artificial support or assisted emigration, and its
success will depend on its economic conditions and the
manner in which these are taken advantage of.

Notwithstanding the encouragement which has been
given by the Government, the attempts to settle a consider-
able population in Hokkaido have not been immigration and
very successful. This is accounted for, no doubt, population.
to a great extent, by the inhospitable climate in the winter
time and the comparative isolation of the island from the rest
of Japan. As, however, the means of communication are
improved and the industrial resources are developed, there is
certain to be a large increase in the number of settlers.
The following figures show the population since 1868 : —

256

Dai Nippon

Year.

Population.

Year.

Population.

1868

58,467

1895

678,215

1872

111,196

1896

715,172

1877

191,172

1897

786,211

1882

239,632

1898

853,239

1887

321,208

1899

803,413

1892

509,609

1900

8lO,III

IS93

559,959

1901

800,102

1894

616,650

Formosa.

The island of Formosa (called Taiwan by the Japanese)
came under the control of the Japanese Government on the
termination of the war between Japan and
China in 1895, being ceded as one of the con-
ditions of peace between the two nations, and in consequence
the Japanese found themselves face to face with some very
difficult problems. Although they cannot as yet be said to
have solved all these problems, they have by their tact, good
sense, and, I may add, unselfishness, gone a long way towards
making Formosa an integral part of the Japanese Empire,
not only politically but also in every other respect.

The past history of Formosa is very interesting, but for
it I must refer to other books, and notably to that by Mr.
James W. Davidson, formerly the Consul of the United States
of America in Formosa, now of Antung, Manchuria ; all
meantime that I can attempt is a short outline of the work
which has been done by the Japanese since they obtained
possession of the island.

It is very rich in tea, camphor, sugar, fruits, and
vegetables of every kind, while its mineral resources are
considerable, although these have, as yet, not been fully
investigated. The Japanese did not enter into peaceful
possession. A large part of the island is inhabited by
aborigines of a savage nature, who have to be brought
under control ; while many of the Chinese in the island,
animated in some cases by patriotism, and in others by real
or fancied grievances, have given great trouble. The
difficulty of finding men who were capable of undertaking

Colonisation and Emigration 257

work of such an intricate and novel kind would have been
found great by any country in the world, and the Japanese
Government has had trouble from the inefficiency and
misconduct of some of its officials ; but this is now being
overcome, and under the administration of Lieut-General
Baron Kodama, Governor-General, and of Dr. Shimpei
Goto, Civil Governor, efficiency is rapidly being attained and
misconduct is disappearing ; so that now even the most
severe critics have nothing but praise for the work of the
administration.

Previous to the occupation of the island by Japan in
1895 there was not a single Japanese resident in Formosa.
The first civilian arrivals were not a very Japanese popuia-
desirable class, being, for the most part, tion in Formosa,
adventurers, and they led to considerable trouble. Many
died from the effects of the climate, combined with in-
sanitary conditions and their own bad habits, and many
more were glad to return to Japan on the first opportunity.
After the restoration of order a better element arrived.
Merchants in Japan sent representatives to report on the
prospects of trade ; scientific and professional men visited the
island for the purposes of research and the investigation of
its resources, while shopkeepers and tradesmen of various
kinds established themselves in the cities with the object of
carrying on business. At first the mortality among the
Japanese residents was very great, on account of the bad
sanitary conditions, but with better houses and attention
to sanitation, matters have greatly improved. Mr. Davidson
says : " Given a sanitary neighbourhood, upper-storeyed
quarters, plenty of fresh air and light, good food and
protection for the head when exposed to the sun's rays, and
life can be made quite as healthy as can be expected in a
warm climate. The author's experience of six years in the
island without a single day of sickness entitles him to speak
with some authority on this point."

In 1900 the Japanese population of the island was
about 40,000, being an increase of nearly 8000 during the

(b 207) g

253

Dai Nippon

year; the total population being 2,690,387. The following
table shows the occupations of the Japanese population : —

Males.

Females.

Total.

Officials ....

5 2I 4

697

59"

Educationists .

116

30

146

Agriculturists .

54

II

65

Manufacturers .

2255

230

2485

Merchants

4458

3597

8055

Labourers

1260

146

I470

Possessing no regular trade

165

84

249

Miscellaneous .

3912

2832

6743

With the exception of some wealthy firms, who are
interesting themselves in plantations, the Japanese do not
take to agricultural employment, and they are not likely
ever seriously to compete with the Chinese in this depart-
ment, who are not only accustomed to the work, but have
also great powers of endurance under a hot sun. Formosa
is not therefore likely to offer much scope for the influx
of a large number of Japanese agricultural workers, not
only for the reasons mentioned, but also because the greater
part of the cultivated land is already in the hands of Chinese.
For artisans, overseers, and shop assistants, and for general,
professional, and skilled labour there is, however, an opening.
The present Japanese population is therefore found scattered
throughout the cities and villages. During the early days
of the Japanese occupation wives and children were rarely
brought to the island ; now family life is more in favour, and
the number of Japanese females is consequently on the
increase, although even yet the males outnumber them by
3 to 1. Taking into account the increase of Japanese
population and its general welfare, Mr. Davidson says : " All
things considered, it would appear that the Japanese are
finding life in Formosa worth living."

The administration of Formosa and of the neighbouring
islands is wholly under the central Government of Japan,
there being no local representation. The laws of Japan do

Colon isation and Em igration 259

not apply to Formosa unless special provision to that effect
has been entered in the law itself. The supreme executive
authority is vested in the Governor- General,

. Administration.

who has as his immediate advisers the Chief
of Civil Administration, Chief of Military Staff, and the
Chief Councillor, who have power to issue ordinances for
the government of the island, which come into force after
they receive the sanction of the Emperor. Under the
Department of Civil Administration are the Section of
Police Affairs and the following Bureaux : — General Affairs,
Finance, Communications, Agriculture, and Industry and
Public Works, each with an adequate staff of officials.
Local administrative offices or cho (as in Japan) have
been established at a sufficient number of points, and the
work of administration generally is approximating to that of
Japan proper.

Under the Chinese Government education in Formosa
was almost entirely neglected, there being only two missionary
schools, confined almost exclusively to the Educat i on
children of well-to-do parents who could afford justice, and

c 'a. ti t n i. u sanitation.

to pay for it. lhe Japanese Government have
been doing a good deal to encourage education, and there
are now 120 Government public schools scattered throughout
the island, many of them in buildings specially built for the
purpose. Progress must of course be slow, but it is intended
to have the same system as in Japan. In addition to the
primary schools which have been established the Government
supports a number of special schools. First in importance
comes the Medical School attached to the splendidly
equipped Central Hospital at Taihoku, the chief city in the
island. An agricultural school has been established in con-
nection with the Taihoku Prefecture agriculture station and
a number of other special schools of an industrial nature.
In addition nearly every village possesses a school on the
old Chinese style, with which the Government does not
interfere.

For many years much good educational work has been

260 Dai Nippon

carried on by the missionaries of the Canadian and English
Presbyterian Churches, for details of which, however, reference
must be made to special publications. Among the latter
my old fellow-student the Rev. Thomas Barclay, M.A., has
since 1874 been taking a very prominent part. Courts of
justice have been established over the island and law and
order now prevail where formerly there were crime and
disorder. Considerable attention has been paid to sanitation,
with the consequence, as already indicated, that public health
has much improved.

The Japanese have greatly developed the means of
communication in Formosa. New roads have been made
Means of and the old ones repaired, and at the present
communication, time over a thousand miles are in process of
construction at a very considerable cost. The first railway
in Formosa was built by the Chinese Government and was
completed in 1893. On the arrival of the Japanese, some
62 miles in length came into their possession, but it was
found to be in such a wretched condition that a satisfactory
train service could not be maintained, and the rolling stock
was very limited and entirely unsuited to the requirements.
The greater part of the line was reconstructed. At first the
railway was under the control of the Military Department,
but in 1897 it came under the control of the Civil Depart-
ment. A private limited liability company was organised
for the purpose of completing the Formosa railway system,
but it failed to obtain the financial support of the public, and
in 1898 the Formosan Government announced its intention
of carrying on the work itself. Under the able direction of
Chief Engineer Hasegawa, and of the Assistant Engineer
Mr. S. Niimoto, the plans were soon arranged; in 1899
work was commenced on the southern line from Takow
north to Tainan, a distance of 28 miles, and it was com-
pleted in November 1900. The Kelung and Shinchiku
(Teckcham) lines were repaired, much rolling stock was
added, and in the autumn of 1900 work was commenced on
the short branch line from Taihoku (Taipeh) to Tamsui

Colonisation mid Emigration 261

(Hobe), which was completed in June 1901. Over 200
miles of narrow-gauge tramway have been constructed in
the island, primarily for the transport of military supplies,
but it is also used for general freight and passengers. The
main line runs from Shinchiku (Teckcham) in the north to
Tainan in the south, a distance of 140 miles, and there are
two branch lines. In order to meet the cost of improving
the existing railway and extending it to form a complete
trunk line, as well as to construct a harbour at Kelung,
erect Government offices, and make a cadastral survey, the
Diet authorised the Colonial Government of Formosa to
raise loans to the amount of three and a half millions
sterling, the principal and interest to be paid out of the
revenue of the islands. Formosa now possesses twelve open
ports, though only four — Kelung, Tamsui, Takow, and
Anping — are utilised by merchant steamers engaged in
foreign trade. The remaining ports are visited by coasting
vessels and by Chinese and native-owned junks engaged in
the China and Formosa trade.

There are now considerable facilities for steamship
communications between Formosa and Japan and China,
encouragement being given by the Japanese Government in
the shape of subsidies. The chief line of steamers trading
to Formosa is the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, although the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha, the most important steamship
company in Japan, has also some traffic with the island.
Unfortunately, Formosa possesses no good natural harbours,
and plans have been made out for considerable engineering
works for harbour improvement. The large mail steamers
running between the island and Japan have Kelung as their
Formosa terminal, which is in fact the only harbour for big
ships in the island. The steamers destined for Hong-Kong
and other China ports sail from Tamsui and Anping.

The Japanese have instituted a very efficient post-office
and telegraph service in Formosa. Every village has now
a post office, and mail matter is delivered to any city in the
island at the regular rate existing in Japan proper. The

262 Dai Nippon

telegraph is under Government control and is run in
connection with the posts. Over 2000 miles of telegraph
and 600 miles of telephone wire, with cables between
Formosa, the Japanese mainland and the Pescadores, have
been laid.

The chief agricultural products of Formosa are rice, tea,
sugar, cane, sweet potatoes, ramie, jute, turmeric. The value
Products and of the marine products, although it is increasing,
foreign trade. j s no j- ve t ver y great. The mineral resources
are being developed, gold to a considerable extent, while
the output of sulphur is now of importance, and the output
of coal is rapidly increasing. Camphor is a Government
monopoly and yields a revenue of about ^400,000 a year.

There has been but little increase in the value of the
exports from Formosa since it was ceded to Japan in 1895.
But the Japanese occupation has had a stimulating effect
on imports, which now include many of the products of
Western civilisation. Formosa, however, being an integral
part of Japan, there is a rapidly growing trade with and via
Japan, and therefore the outline of the foreign trade of the
empire which we have given in a previous chapter will be
sufficient for our present purpose.

Mr. Davidson says that " the Japanese occupation will

improve the position of the masses throughout the island ;

of this there can be little doubt. It will bring

General effects . ..... . r .

of Japanese thousands within the reach 01 modern con-
occupation of veniences, the railway, improved shipping
facilities, good roads, etc. It will afford them
modern medical treatment, the advantages of modern
education, and will offer encouragement to the development
of the island's resources and the utilising of machinery and
other improved methods of manufacture." It is yet too
early to attempt to tabulate definite social and economic
results, but already a considerable part of the population
finds its wages doubled, and the farmers obtain higher
prices for their products ; a fact which reduces somewhat
the actual value of the wages. Still the purchasing power

Colonisation and Emigration 263

of the masses has been considerably increased, with a
consequent increase of comfort and welfare.

Dr. Shimpei Goto, the Civil Governor, thus summarises
the reforms which have been introduced : — (a) The adminis-
trative system, for which General Baron Kodama is at present
responsible, has since 1898 answered all requirements, and
has given contentment to a population which is composed
of many elements inclined by nature to be more or less
antagonistic to one another, {b) As to sanitation, whereas
the Chinese had paid no heed whatever to such matters, and
the death-rate was extraordinarily high at the time when
the island became the property of Japan, steps were at once
taken by the new owners to remedy the defective drainage
of the towns, to supply pure drinking-water by boring
artesian wells and establishing water-works, and to reduce
the number of mosquitoes and other noxious insects, which
previously were veritable plagues. Hospitals were in-
dispensable to the fulfilment of the scheme, and no fewer
than eleven of these institutions are now rendering excellent
service, (c) The cadastre, upon which the land tax is
collected, is being pushed forward, and its effects, as ex-
hibited in a largely enhanced revenue from this source, are
already plainly visible, though the work is necessarily one
which demands time for its complete accomplishment, (d)
The educational measures adopted are far-reaching and are
certain to be effective, (i) Public works, in the direction of
lighthouses, railways, and telegraphs, and the improvement
for the accommodation for shipping at various ports, are all
receiving their due share of attention. (/) The banking
affairs and monetary system of the colony have been placed
upon a satisfactory footing. With all this Dr. Goto claims
that already Formosa is no longer a financial burden to the
central Government, and he justly claims this as proof of a
vitality and of capabilities in general that are indubitably
above the average. He believes that its future is eminently
hopeful, as it is based upon rich agricultural and mineral
resources which will form valuable adjuncts to those of

264 Dai Nippon

Japan proper, and the development of which will not only
give a considerable outlet for the surplus population but also
add greatly to the wealth of the empire.

One very interesting item in the action of the Japanese
in Formosa is their treatment of the opium problem. When
they took possession of the island they found there a
population more or less addicted to the drug, and it was
decided to abolish the practice by degrees. Only those who
have already suffered from its effects to the extent that it
occasions them intense pain to deprive them of the pipe are
now permitted by a special warrant which they are obliged
to procure to continue the use thereof. It is strictly for-
bidden to begin the practice, under severe penalties, and in
order that the Government might have full control, and also
to facilitate the final extinction of the habit, it has retained
the sale of opium in its own hands. The revenue derived
from the monopoly amounts to about ^400,000 a year.

The rapidly increasing population of Japan has com-
pelled the Japanese to look beyond the boundaries of their
~ . t . , own territories for outlets for their surplus

Emigration to "

Korea and people, and naturally Korea and China have
been looked upon as the most eligible countries,
not only on account of their proximity, but also because of
their historical associations. Mr. T. Nakahashi, a well-
known Japanese politician, has said : " It admits of no
doubt that nothing is more urgent for Japan at the present
time than to find and develop the resources of new districts
beyond the sea, with a view to the increase and prosperity
of her own race in the world. In fifty years or so the
number of the people will be nearly thrice as large as it is
now. The number has been increasing yearly by four or
five hundred thousand. As the increase is made invariably
in regular advance it may be safely inferred that in a few
score years the Japanese people will number a hundred
millions.

" Granted that the Japanese should in every possible way
be encouraged to emigrate to some convenient countries with

Colonisation and Emigration 265

a view to their future greatness, then Korea and Manchuria
are the very places, and their next step should be to open
and develop the means of communication with the proposed
colonies.

" By an expenditure of sixty million yen spread over
twenty years, two or three millions of Japanese settlers could
be sustained in Korea and Manchuria. However great may
be the number of emigrants from Russia, that Power will find
herself always outdone by Japan.

" Japan must work out her own greatness, if necessary,
in spite of her allies. Friendship is one thing, self-
aggrandisement another. Even at the risk of peace, her
colonisation policy must be carried out according to the plan
she thinks best. Not a few collisions with the interests of
the various nations may arise as a consequence of this
struggle for existence. But each must carry out her
respective international policy in spite of all obstacles."

These sentences prove that the modern Imperial spirit
which has shown itself in almost all other parts of the world is
not unknown in Japan, although they cannot be looked upon
as in any way representing the policy of the Government.
Still their existence cannot be overlooked, as their influence
is certain to be felt in a greater or less degree. All that the
Japanese ask, at the present time, is freedom of trade and of
reasonable settlement ; in short, that their countrymen in
Manchuria and Korea shall have fair-play, and that there
shall be "the open door" for commerce. The official
returns show that at the end of 1901 the numbers of
Japanese in China were 5686, in Korea 4843, in Siam 16,
in Hong-Kong 371, in Manilla 150, in Singapore 173, and
India 42.

The emigration of Japanese to other countries, especially
to North and South America and Australasia, is certain to
cause a certain amount of discussion, if not Em j grat i on t0
more serious trouble, in the not very distant other foreign
future. The dislike of these countries to
crowds of Chinese is well known, and drastic legislation has

266 Da i Nippon

been passed to prevent their arrival. Such legislation
equally affects the Japanese, but in many respects their case
is different from the Chinese. In the first place, their
numbers are never likely to be very great, as the majority of
those who wish to emigrate will naturally give a preference
to countries nearer home ; and in the second, those who do
leave Japan will, as a rule, not be of the labouring classes,
but rather have special qualifications as merchants, engineers,
or craftsmen. The latest published returns show that there
were over 9000 in the United States or their colonies. A
good many of these were in Hawaii, which at the time they
settled there was an independent kingdom, and the climate
and industrial conditions of which are very suitable for
Japanese. Of the number mentioned 554 were students, and
2851 were engaged in trade. In Britain and British colonies
the same returns show that there were 8215 Japanese,
while Russia and Russian colonies had 3953. The other
countries, apart from Korea and China, had only insignificant
numbers ; so that the question of Japanese emigration with
them is not as yet of practical importance.

In Britain proper it is never likely to become a burning
question, as its geographical position makes it unlikely that
large numbers of Japanese will ever settle there. Moreover,
the economic conditions are against such a probability. In
Australasia and Canada, however, the cases are different,
and the same laws apply to Japanese as to Chinese, and it
will not be surprising if the subject becomes one of general
and diplomatic discussion. It is to be hoped that it will
be settled in a common-sense manner, and that in British
territories at least Japanese will be welcomed as likely to
advance the welfare of the communities in which they settle.

In this chapter I have confined myself to a description
of what has been attempted by the Japanese in the way of
colonisation and emigration, but, after all, such methods of
solving the population question can have only a very limited
result. The solution of the real problem lies much deeper,
and it is to be hoped that the Japanese will recognise that

Colonisation and Emigration 267

their influence in the world will depend much more on the
quality of the people in their own country than in the
numbers scattered over the other countries. It is further
to be hoped that their national pride will not allow them
to become hewers of wood and drawers of water to the
other peoples of the world. Japan, like other industrial
countries, is now face to face with many economic and social
problems, and a resort to emigration on a large scale only
results in the postponement of the solution of these problems.
When free immigration is allowed in any country it has two
bad effects. In the country to which immigrants are
admitted it blinds people to the real causes of unemploy-
ment and starvation in the midst of superfluous wealth,
while in the country from which the emigration takes place
it, to some extent, relieves the pressure of competition and
enables both the Government and the people to shut their
eyes to the real causes of the evil.

While anything in the shape of what may be called
artificial or forced emigration should be discouraged, natural
emigration, depending entirely on economic considerations,
should not be interfered with. Each nation should be
expected to solve its own social problems, and economic
conditions determine to a large extent how this is to be
done. The Japanese are never likely to send great numbers
to any parts of the world, except probably to neighbouring
countries in the Far East ; and Europe, America, and
Australia must recognise that unless they receive on
favourable terms those who go to them on legitimate
business or work, their conduct may lead to measures of
retaliation which would not only be unpleasant but also
probably result in great financial loss. Already some
questions have been raised, and it is to be hoped that they
will be considered fairly and in all their aspects by the
nations concerned, and that arrangements will be made
which will conduce to the peace and welfare of the world.

268 Dai Nippon

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

There is not much literature dealing directly with the subjects
of this chapter. Many of the books on Japan, however, touch on
it incidentally. Government Reports and the files of the daily
newspapers are the chief sources of information. Mr. Davidson's
large book on Formosa deals fully with the history, resources,
government, etc., of that island. Chapter xiv. of Stafford
Ransome's Japan in Tra?tsition, and Chapter vi. of M. Dumolard's
Le Japon, politique, economique et social, contain some useful
information on the subject. On the more general question of
colonisation and emigration there are no special books, although
there has been a great deal of discussion on it in the newspapers.

CHAPTER XIII

CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT

The first of the principles enunciated by the Emperor soon
after his accession to the throne, and which were to guide
the actions of the Government, was to the following effect : —
" Deliberative assemblies shall be established -. . . . ,

tirst principle

on a broad basis in order that governmental enunciated by
measures may be adopted in accordance with l e mperor -
public opinion." For some years before these words were
spoken there were in Japan a considerable number of
students of constitutional government as it existed in Europe
and America, but probably those in authority had little idea
of the actual shape which the measures proposed in Japan
would take. In this, as in other matters, their ideals
developed as they gained information and experience.

The Government of Japan under the Shoguns, while
nominally an autocracy, was tempered to a considerable
extent by various influences. The local autonomy enjoyed
by each fief was not exercised by the daimyo himself but
by his leading vassals, and even the nominal
powers of the Shogun were wielded by a large ^^acy 1
body of ministers and councillors. Although
there was no direct representation from the other clans,
still the more powerful among them exercised a considerable
amount of influence in a more or less indirect manner,
as they were jealous of the practical absolutism which
had been developed by a family which legally was in pre-
cisely the same position as themselves. On the arrival

269

270 Da i Nippon

of the American fleet under Commodore Perry, the Shogun
thought it politic not only to inform the Emperor of the
demands of the Americans but also to summon a council
of the feudal chiefs in order that they might consult as to
the steps to be taken under the circumstances. No doubt
he saw that it was impossible to refuse the demands which
were being made, but at the same time he felt that to grant
them was a dangerous step to take on his own responsibility.
The opinions of the daimyos were by no means unanimous
on the subject. Some were inclined to open the country to
foreign commerce on account of the profit which would
result, others were prepared to resist the demands of the
foreigners, even at the risk of war. The position of the
latter was strengthened by the attitude of the Emperor
Komei (the father of the present Emperor), who, being
absolutely ignorant of political affairs in the exterior world,
looked upon the arrival of the American squadron as a
foreign invasion, sent letters to the dignitaries of the
Buddhist and Shintoist priesthoods asking their prayers for
the expulsion of the foreigners, and in this position was
supported by the whole of the Imperial Court.

The first attempt at representative government in Japan
therefore came to naught, and it was evidently made more
for the purpose of appeasing the jealousy of the larger clans
than of obtaining the opinions of the body of the people.
That jealousy brought about years of agitation and many
assassinations until the death of the Emperor Komei in 1 867,
and shortly afterwards the Shogun, Keiki Tokugawa, re-
signed his powers into the hands of the present Emperor.

During the next year a Kogisho or Parliament was called

together, and great hopes were entertained of its usefulness.

. It was composed (1) of representatives of the

First attempts at i- \ / jt

representative daimyos, (2) of functionaries of the depart-
govemment. ments of the central Government, and (3)

representatives of the higher schools in Tokyo. It turned
out a peaceful debating society, whose function was to
give advice to the Imperial Government. Moreover, it

Constitutional Government 2 7 1

was decidedly conservative and adhered to all the old
customs of the country, as was shown by the practically
unanimous votes against the proposals to abolish the
privilege of hara-kiri and the wearing of swords. After a
short and uneventful career the meeting was dissolved in
the autumn of the same year, never to reassemble, as it was
very evident that the country was not yet ripe for anything
which was really worthy of the name of Parliamentary
government.

Although the first attempt at a representative assembly
in Japan was a comparative failure, still the evolution pro-
ceeded in various ways. The modifications

1 11 -i 1 • r * 1 Evolution in

that took place in the machinery of the direction of
central Government (and which will be representative

x 1 • 1 government.

noticed in the next chapter) were all in the
direction of widening the influences which were brought to
bear on the executive, and, although these influences were
indirect, still they were by no means to be neglected.
Public opinion, in many ways, was able to make itself felt,
and these rapidly developed a demand for a representative
assembly composed of members directly elected by the
people. In April 1875 an Imperial Decree was issued
which, in addition to certain administrative developments,
ordered that an annual meeting of provincial governors
should be held, so that they might discuss the affairs of their
own districts and of the country generally. The Satsuma
rebellion and other troubles, both internal and external,
occupied public attention for a considerable time, and the
agitation for constitutional government subsided. Meantime
the Government slowly developed representative institutions
in the various prefectures and cities (as will be explained
more fully in the next chapter), but these steps did not
satisfy the leaders of the agitation, as their purpose was to
overthrow the clique of clansmen who, holding the reins of
administrative power, monopolised the prizes of officialdom,
and the development of local government did nothing to
attain this end.

272 Dai Nippon

In 1879 the agitation was renewed, chiefly on the
initiative of Itagaki Taisuke (now Count Itagaki), a Tosa
Agitation led by samurai who had taken a prominent part in

itagaki. foe movement for the Restoration, and meet-
ings were held in many parts of the country for the purpose
of discussing the question. In March 1880 a general
meeting of the leaders of the movement was held in Osaka
and a new organisation was formed for the purposes of
active propaganda. Under the leadership of Itagaki there
was formed an association called Jiyuto (Liberals), which was
the first political party in Japan, and was composed not
only of men who held advanced opinions, but of many
others who had or thought they had personal grievances
against the Government, through their loss of office. The
words and even the actions of some of these men were
sometimes very violent, and in order to restrain them the
police were entrusted with certain powers of control over the
press and the platform. The somewhat drastic use of
these powers enabled the Liberals to pose as victims of
official tyranny, and prosecution (or persecution as some
might call it) had its usual result ; the movement grew
in popularity and political agitation spread rapidly. In
1 88 1 Okuma Shigenobu (now Count Okuma), who had held
high position in the Government and was an authority on
financial matters, seceded from the administration, and with
his adherents organised an independent party calling them-
selves Shimpoto (Progressists), who not only stood aloof from
Liberals but even assumed an attitude hostile to them ; a
fact which proves that the first political parties in Japan
were grouped not about principles but about persons.
However, it is not necessary meantime to enter into details
of party politics or of constitutional and legislative enact-
ments. For our present purpose it is sufficient to note the
chief points which seem to have a direct bearing on the
national evolution.

As already mentioned — the outcome of the agitation
which was carried on — in 1881 an edict was published

Constitutional Government 273

announcing that a national assembly would be convened
in 1 89 1. It was naturally supposed that this would have
stilled the agitation, and that the Japanese Edict announcing
spirit of patriotism would have caused merely natlonal assembly.
personal considerations to be put aside and united all parties
in their efforts to make constitutional government a success.
Unfortunately this was not the case ; for having seemingly
attained what was stated to be their object, the leaders of
the movement directed their energies to the dissemination of
anti-official prejudices among the future electors, somewhat
after the manner of party politicians in every country in the
world, and for ten years a very active anti-Government
propaganda was carried on, both on the platform and in the
press, and not infrequently scenes of violence occurred, pro-
ceedings which did not augur well for the smooth working
of the future Parliament.

Meantime the statesmen in power resolutely pursued
their path of progressive reform. Captain Brinkley has
summarised their work during this period in Le gi s iative and
the following paragraph, which is a model of administrative
condensed information : — " They codified the
civil and penal laws, remodelling them on Western bases ;
they brought a vast number of affairs within the scope of
minute regulations ; they rescued the finances from con-
fusion and restored them to a sound condition ; they recast
the whole framework of local government ; they organised a
great national bank, and established a network of subordinate
institutions throughout the country ; they pushed the work
of railway construction, and successfully enlisted private
enterprise in its cause ; they steadily extended the postal
and telegraphic services ; they economised public expendi-
tures so that the State's income always exceeded its outlays ;
they laid the foundations of a strong mercantile marine ;
they instituted a system of postal savings banks ; they
undertook large schemes of harbour improvement and road-
making ; they planned and put into operation an extensive
programme of riparian improvement ; they made civil

(b 207) -p

2 74 Dai Nippon

service appointments depend on competitive examination ;
they sent numbers of students to Europe and America to
complete their studies ; and by tactful, persevering diplomacy
they gradually introduced a new tone into the Empire's
relations with foreign powers. Japan's affairs were never
better administered."

As a step towards providing some of the machinery

required by the new constitution, the Emperor, on the advice

New orders of of Mr. Ito (afterwards Marquis), instituted five

nobility. orders of nobility (apart from the princes of
the blood), the English equivalents of which were princes,
marquises, counts, viscounts, and barons. The greatest of
the territorial nobles received the title of prince, the smallest
that of baron, and titles of various degrees were bestowed on
men who had rendered service to the country as statesmen,
soldiers, sailors, or scholars, without regard to their original
social status. In 1900 the princes numbered 11, the
marquises 33, the counts 89, the viscounts 363, and the
barons 280. The Japanese have been sneered at for this
imitation of foreign customs, but they only followed the
national evolution from feudalism to a constitutional
monarchy and gave modern names to those who either by
birth or service were entitled to recognition in framing a
Constitution.

That Constitution was promulgated in 1890 with
imposing ceremonies. Marquis Ito had been entrusted with
Marquis ito and the duty of framing it, and his name will live
the Constitution. j n history not only for his great services to his
country as a statesman and administrator, but also as the
chief author of a measure which gave Japan a constitutional
Government ; and the Japanese people point proudly to his
work as the only charter of the kind voluntarily given by a
sovereign to his subjects. Although, as we have indicated,
there was a certain amount of agitation, there were none of
those long struggles between ruler and ruled which marked the
rise of constitutional government in Europe. Marquis Ito
studied parliamentary institutions in Europe and America,

Constitutional Government 275

noted their methods, and his proposals were of a very
cautious or even conservative nature, and the actual Constitu-
tion was fashioned more after that of Germany than of
Britain. The minimum age of the electors and of the
candidates was fixed at twenty-five, and the property
qualification at a payment of direct taxes to the amount of
15 yen (30 shillings) annually. The result was that only
460,000 persons were enfranchised out of a population of
42 millions. As is usually the case in constitutional govern-
ments the two-chamber system was adopted for the Diet, the
Upper House being in part elective, in part hereditary, and
in part nominated by the Sovereign ; the Lower consisting
of 300 elected members. By a subsequent development the
qualification of electors was reduced to 1 o yen annually, the
number of franchise-holders being thus raised to about
800,000, and various modifications were at the same time
introduced into the machinery and methods of election.
The Constitution guaranteed freedom of conscience, of
speech, and of public meeting, inviolability of domicile and
correspondence, security from arrest or punishment except
by due process of law, permanence of judicial appointments ;
in short, all the essential elements of civil liberty as found in
free countries. The Diet was given full legislative authority
and control of taxation and financial matters except the
payment of the salaries of officials, which the Sovereign
reserved the right to fix at will. In the Emperor were
vested the usual prerogatives of a constitutional sovereign,
such as the power of declaring war and making peace, of
concluding treaties, and of appointing and dismissing
officials, of approving and promulgating laws, of issuing
urgency ordinances to take the temporary place of laws, and
of conferring titles of nobility.

The provision, however, round which has centred the
chief difficulties in the working of the Constitu- Difficulties
tion is that which made the Cabinet's tenure of in working
office to depend solely on the Emperor's will, Constitution -
and causes it to take its mandate from the Throne and not

276 Dai Nippon

from Parliament. The Diet was not long in existence till
these difficulties appeared. Loyalty to the Emperor com-
pelled all parties to accept as a tenet which was not to be
disputed that the sanctity and inviolability of the Imperial
prerogative was to be observed ; but the most radical among
the Members of Parliament soon showed that they were of
opinion that a Cabinet not acknowledging responsibility to
the Legislature was virtually impotent for law-making
purposes. The authors of the Constitution, no doubt,
thought that the transition from an oligarchy to full
Parliamentary government was too sudden a transition
and was likely to be attended with danger. Probably
they were right. Constitutions must develop with the
conditions of the country, and already, although the printed
words remain as at first, Parliamentary decisions have
frequently had great effect on the actions of the Govern-
ment, and have, in fact, more than once decided its fate.
The future development of this part of the Constitution is
probably the most important internal problem which faces
Japan, for on it depends the solution of many other
problems.

In addition to this constitutional question personal
elements have to a large extent influenced the action of
Personal the Japanese Parliament. The provision alluded
elements. t evidently gave the opportunity for the con-
tinuance in power of practically the same men as those
who wielded it before the promulgation of the Constitution
and of what were called the " clan " administrators. The
Government, for the most part, continued to be formed of
those who belonged to the powerful clans who had taken
an active part in the struggles of the Restoration, and while
every unbiassed critic admitted that they did their work
well, still the jealousy of the men of the other clans brought
about constant struggles in the Diet, and in fact the
opposition was directed against men, not measures, and
obstruction of a very determined kind became the weapon
of political parties. Legislation and finance were rendered

Constitutional Government 277

very difficult, and for some time it looked as if constitutional
government in Japan was not only a failure, but that it
would be the cause of serious disaster to the country.
Domestic and personal squabbles were, however, forgotten
during the war with China (1894-95), an d all parties
united to give all the support which was required to make
the war successful.

It is not necessary to follow the rise and fall of ministries
or the changes in political parties ; the broad fact is evident
that the government of Japan combines the features of an
autocracy, an oligarchy, and a constitutional government.
That the two former are still all-powerful has been made
plain by recent events, when Parliament has been repeatedly
dissolved while the same Ministry has continued to hold
office. At the same time it cannot be said that the repre-
sentatives of the people have been without influence in
many important ways. In matters of finance they have
been able to influence the Government proposals to a very
great extent, in general legislation they have broadened the
foundations of many public institutions, and in both domestic
and foreign politics they have made their opinions felt in a
very marked manner.

Making a survey of all that has happened since the
promulgation of the Constitution, we must agree with
Marquis Ito, its chief author, not only that there has been
the experimental period, but also that excellent results have
thus far been obtained, when it is remembered how sudden
has been the transition from feudalism to representative
institutions. However able the framers, no Constitution
can be turned out which is perfect, and it must be modified
to suit the changing conditions. As the Japan Mail put it,
" it would be altogether extravagant to expect that Japan's
new constitutional garments should fit her perfectly from
the first. She has to grow into them, and of course the
process is destined to be more or less awkward."

The first attempt at the compilation of a criminal code
was made in 1870 and was amended three years later.

278

Dai Nippon

This code was far from perfect, being based mainly on

ancient Japanese customs modified more or less by Chinese

laws. One of the first serious pieces of work

Legislation.

undertaken after the Restoration was the
codification of the laws of Japan on the basis of the laws
of Europe. Foreign experts were engaged to assist in the
work, and no efforts were spared to adopt the best principles
of Occidental jurisprudence without doing violence to the
customs and traditions of the country. The Civil Code,
the Code of Civil Procedure, and the Commercial Code are
modelled chiefly on the laws of Germany ; the Criminal
Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure on the laws
of France.

In 1882 the Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal
Procedure were enforced. The latter was subjected to a
thorough amendment in 1899, while the amended draft of
the former was introduced into the Diet in the eighteenth
session, but the dissolution which occurred did not allow
time for the consideration of the measure. The principal
statute laws thus far enforced are as follows : —

Imperial Constitution

Law for the Operation of Law

Law of Nationality

Criminal Code

Criminal Procedure

Civil Code .

Civil Procedure

Commercial Code

Insurance Law

Law relating to Registration of Real Estate

Law relating to Organisation of Courts of Law

Law regarding Ships ....

Law regarding Crews of Ships

1889
1898
1899
1898
1890

1896-8
1890

1890-8
1900
1899
1890
1899
1899

Reference must be made to special publications for
details of these laws. Other measures relating to finance,
public works, and administration have been mentioned in
the chapters dealing with these subjects. It was very

Constitutional Government 279

significant that one of the first Bills introduced in the Diet
in 1 891 was one for the removal of all restrictions on freedom
of speech, but on account of the opposition of the Peers,
who shared the opinion of the Government that to grant
a large measure of liberty would certainly encourage licence,
it was not until 1897 that the Bill was passed; and the
results have falsified all sinister forebodings. No doubt,
in some of the journals, the language used is sometimes
extreme, but in the majority of cases it is marked by a
moderation of tone which has made the press of Japan
a most influential instrument in the education of public
opinion, and in moulding the empire into a harmonious
unity.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The subject of this chapter is chiefly of interest to specialists,
and for general readers there is little need to enter into details.
Marquis Ito's Commentaries on the Constitution of the Empire of
Japa7i and Lay's History of Japanese Political Parties (Trans. Asiatic
Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part 3) should be studied. More
systematic history of the subject will be found in Iyenaga's
Constitutional Development of Japan and H. Furuya's Systeme
Representatif au Japon. Knapp's Feudal and Modern Japan is well
written and interesting. Chapter ix. of Clement's Ha?idbook of
Modern Japan gives a very good outline of the subject. A large
number of articles dealing with its different aspects have appeared
in British and American reviews. W. Petrie Watson, in his book
Japan, Aspects and Destinies, has several chapters on the subject
which are very clever, but he sometimes sacrifices exactness for
effect. On legal subjects many books and papers have been
published, but it is sufficient to mention Gubbins' translation of the
New Civil Code, Longford's Summary of the Japanese Penal Codes,
and other papers which appear in the Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan. Captain Brinkley's article on Japan in the
supplementary volumes of the Encyclopedia Britatmica contains an
excellent digest of the history of Constitutional Government in
Japan and its more important results.

CHAPTER XIV

ADMINISTRATION

ALTHOUGH the formal abrogation of the feudal system in

Japan seemed very rapid and simple, it was, as we have

seen, the result of forces which had been act-

Problems of ..... , . . r .

administration ing for a considerable time, and it left the new
after the Government face to face with many problems

Restoration. _ J c

of a complex and difficult nature in adapting
the institutions of the country to the new conditions. If
foreigners had not forced themselves on Japan, a revolution
would still have taken place, but in all probability it would
have stopped with the establishment of an autocratic
administration, with the Emperor not only as the source of
all honour and power, but also as the head of the actual
government. The introduction of democratic ideas from the
West, however, led to great developments of which even the
most advanced thinkers in Japan had no conception.

As I have already pointed out, those in authority were
not long in recognising that if Japan were to attain what
they believed to be her proper status among the nations, a
system of education which fitted for all the activities of
national life was an absolute necessity, so that commerce and
industry might be developed in such a manner as to supply
the means of raising the standard of life, and that a strong
army and navy were necessary to command respect. The
development of constitutional government and the recon-
struction of the laws of the country in harmony with the
ideas of Western countries broadened the basis of administra-

280

A dmin is t ration 2 8 1

tion and made the solutions of the problems which lay before
the Government more difficult. A detailed account of all
that was done to improve the national organisation is far
beyond our present scope ; all that I can do is to give an
outline of the most important steps in the development.

After the Restoration a Constitution was drawn up
detailing the various Departments of Government and the
duties of the officers in each. These Depart- New central
ments were: — 1. Supreme Administration; Government.
2. Shinto Religion ; 3. Home Affairs ; 4. Foreign Affairs ;
5. War; 6. Finance; 7. Judicial Affairs; 8. Legislative
Affairs. The work of the central Government was carried
on chiefly by the Daijokwan, or Cabinet or Council of State,
and it is interesting to note the names of those who com-
posed it in 1 869 and their former positions and clans.
They were : —

Sanjo Udaijin

(former Kuge)

Iwakura Dainagon „

Tokudaiji ,,

>>

Nabeshima ,,

(ex-Prince of Hizen)

Okubo Sangi

(Satsuma)

Soyejima „

(Hizen)

Okuma ,,

)>

Hirozawa ,,

(Chishiu)

Kido

5)

Sasaki „

(Tosa)

It is impossible to give exact equivalents of the ranks of
the various members. Sanjo was First or Prime Minister.
Iwakura, Tokudaiji, and Nabeshima were Chief Councillors
or Junior Prime Ministers, and the Sangi were Councillors.
Under the Daijokwan were the Ministers of the different
Departments, who were called to take part in the Cabinet
Councils of the Government when any questions relating to
their Departments were to be discussed. Sometimes they
were all called in to deliberate on matters of great
importance.

In 1 87 1 the Daijokwan, or Council of State, was turned

282 Dai Nippon

into Sei-In, or Chief College. It was composed of the Daijo,
Sai, and Udaijin and of the Sangi, and formed the Council
Changes or Cabinet of the Emperor. Sanjo was raised
in Government. to t h e ran k of Daijodaijin ; that of Saidaijin
remained vacant. Iwakura became Udaijin, and Saigo,
Kido, Itagaki, and Okuma — representing Satsuma, Choshiu,
Tosa, and Hizen — were the Sangi. The chiefs of Depart-
ments were constituted the U-In, or Right College or House ;
while the Left College or House, which was intended to be
of a somewhat representative nature, was composed of
members nominated by the Emperor, and consisted of a
President, Vice-President, and a number of subordinates of
different ranks. The executive part of the Government
consisted of the Ministers and Vice-Ministers of the eight
Departments — Religion, Treasury, Foreign Affairs, War,
Education, Justice, Public Works, and Imperial Household.

From time to time various changes took place in the
arrangements of the central Government. For instance, in
1885 the Department of Public Works was abolished. That
Department had been started for the purpose of initiating
public works and various branches of industry, and by the
date mentioned it was evidently thought by the Government
that sufficient progress had been made to render direct
assistance and supervision unnecessary, and that private
enterprise should be encouraged. A large number of limited
liability companies were started and undertakings of all
kinds were initiated. The functions of the Public Works
Department were distributed among the other Departments,
that of Communications taking over the Government Rail-
ways, Posts, Telegraphs, etc., while the Imperial College of
Engineering was, as already mentioned, transferred to the
Department of Education, and became part of the Imperial
University of Tokyo.

It is not necessary that we should enter into the minor
changes which have taken place from time to time ; it is
sufficient for our purpose to give an outline of the existing
arrangements. The Privy Council is the supreme advisory

Administration 283

organ of the Emperor, while the Cabinet is the central
administrative body. It has under it nine Departments of
State ; namely, those of Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs,
Finance, War, Navy, Justice, Education, Agriculture and
Commerce, and Communications. The heads of these
Departments are the Ministers of State and they form the
Cabinet, under the direction of a Minister President of State
who is Premier ; and in obedience to the Em- Functions of
peror they deal with all matters relating to the Cabinet -
administration. The principal matters to be determined by
the Cabinet are as follows : —

(a) Drawing up of projects of laws and compilation of

Budgets and settled accounts.

(b) Matters relating to treaties with foreign countries

and to international questions.

(c) Imperial Ordinances relating to official organisations

or the operation of laws.

(d) Disputes between the Departments of State as to

jurisdiction.

(e) Petitions of people sent in, either to the Emperor or

to the Diet.

(f) Disbursements not covered by the Budget.

(g) Appointments and promotion of officials of cJiokunin

rank and of local governors.
Matters of importance coming under the direct super-
vision of the Ministers of State may also be laid before a
Cabinet Council. Attached to the Cabinet is the Legislative
Bureau, which deals with matters relating to the drafting of
projects of law or of ordinances or their amendment or
revocation, whether such drafting is done at the instance
of the Cabinet or of a Department of State or at its own
initiative. It is also entitled to express its own opinion
about those matters. The Cabinet, as I have already
stated, is by the Constitution responsible only to the
Emperor, by whom each Minister is appointed and dis-
missed at will, although as we have seen Parliamentary
votes and public opinion have had considerable influence

284 Da i Nippon

in the unmaking of Ministries and on the resignation of
individual Ministers.

The Minister who has charge of a Department of State
is empowered to issue Departmental Ordinances. The
portfolios of War and the Navy are subject to ministerial
changes, but there is a growing tendency to regard them as
technical and administrative, and therefore to make their
tenure independent of the Cabinet's life. The affairs and
estates of the Imperial Household are managed by the
Household Department, under a Minister who has not a seat
in the Cabinet and is independent of changes of Ministry.
Under the control of the central administration, but not
forming part of it, are the Bureau of the Tokyo police,
the Hokkaido Bureau, the governors of prefectures, and the
staff of the Government of Formosa.

The Privy Council is the supreme advisory body of the

Emperor, and attends to (a) matters relating to the Imperial

Privy Council House Law ; (b) matters relating to projects of

and other ] aws anc [ ordinances pertaining to the Constitu-

advisory and * °

administrative tion ; {c) matters relating to a state of siege,
bodies. to t k e j ssue f ur gency ordinances to take the
place of laws when the Diet is not sitting, and to primitive
provisions of the Constitution ; (d) matters relating to
treaties and international agreements, matters relating to
the organisation and rules of the Privy Council ; {e) other
matters on which it is ordered by the Emperor to deliberate.
At the present time Marquis Ito is the President of the
Council ; so that although he is not a member of the Govern-
ment in the ordinary way, it has the advantage of his
experience and advice.

There are also a number of special Councils or Com-
missions intended to assist with advice the higher executive
bodies, — such as the Codes Investigation Commission, the
Central Sanitary Association, the Public Works Commission,
the Higher Educational Commission, the Higher Council of
Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, and the Railway
Council ; and attached to the various Departments there is a

A dm in istration 285

considerable number of special administrative offices, but
into details of these it is not necessary to enter.

Although Shintoism remains the religion of the Imperial
House, neither it nor Buddhism can lay claim to State
protection in modern times, except that a grant Administration
of 216,000 yen annually is given for the of religion.
support of Shinto shrines. No aid whatever is given to
Buddhism. Under the Shogunate there was a class of
officials whose duty it was to administer the secular laws in
all matters relating to religion, and the Church was thus
removed beyond the pale of the ordinary tribunals. The
revival of pure Shintoism during the eighteenth century
assisted so materially to re-establish the doctrine of the
Throne's divinity, and thus prepare the way for the Restora-
tion, that the new Government naturally identified itself
with a creed of such practical utility. The old officials of
religion were abolished, a new authority was created which
ranked above all the State Departments, and there can be
little doubt that the aim of the more radical reformers of the
time was the ultimate suppression of Buddhism, and the
elevation of Shinto to the rank of a State Church ; but
Buddhism had entwined its roots too strongly round the
hearts of the people to be thus easily set aside. In 1872 a
further change was made by the creation of a Department,
with the name of Kyobu-sho, of a lower status than that
which previously existed, but still very high in the adminis-
trative organisation, and from this office the priests of the
two religions received equal recognition.

The spirit of the Revolution, however, was too
rationalistic to maintain an intimate connection between
Church and State, and the attempt to identify their interests
gradually ceased to have practical force, until (in 1884) the
ranks and titles of the priests were abolished, and the various
sects were declared perfectly free to manage their own affairs.
The only official connection of the State with religion is
through the Bureau of Shrines and Temples, which administers
the grant which is given for the preservation of the sacred

286 Da i Nippon

buildings, but this is much more a matter of historical
interest than of religious importance. The last tie that
bound the Church to the State was severed when the
new Constitution was promulgated in 1889, the twenty-
seventh article of which declares that, " within limits not
prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their
duties as subjects, Japanese subjects shall enjoy freedom of
belief."

In no department of national life is the difference
between Old and New Japan so distinctly shown as in the
Administration methods of the administration of justice.
of justice. Under the feudal system those in authority
were too much inclined to visit summary and cruel punish-
ment on slight pretext. It has, however, been clearly shown l
that there was in Old Japan " a legal system, a body of clear
and consistent rules, a collection of statutes and of binding
precedents." The chief characteristics of Japanese justice
under the old regime, were the following: — (1) Making
justice " personal, not impersonal," by balancing " the benefits
and disadvantages of a given course, not for all time in a
fixed rule, but anew in each instance," and thus " to sacrifice
legal principle to present expediency"; (2) the feudal
spirit, especially in criminal law, as illustrated by the use of
torture, humiliating forms of procedure, and awfully severe
punishments ; and (3) the attainment of justice " not so
much by the aid of the law as by mutual consent," by means
of definite customs, applied, however, " through arbitration and
concession " ; so that there was " a universal resort to
arbitration and compromise as a primary means of settling
disputes," and only a dernier ressort to the process of law.
In these as in other matters it is necessary to study their
history in order that we may understand certain traits still
prominent even in New Japan.

Having codified their laws on Western principles, the
Japanese organised the machinery necessary to put them in
operation. Their judicial system is divided into four grades ;

1 Wigmore, Transactions, Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xx. Supplement.

A dm in is t ration

287

namely, the Supreme Court, the Appeal Courts, Local Courts,
and District Courts. The last is the lowest tribunal and is
conducted by a single judge, while in the Local Courts
three collegiate judges sit on a case, in the Appeal Courts
five collegiate judges and in the Supreme Court seven
collegiate judges. Public Procurators are attached to each
Court, on commission from the Minister of Justice.
Security of tenure is guaranteed by the Constitution to the
judges, and their appointments and those of the Public
Procurators are obtained by passing a regular examination.
The position of barristers is regulated by the Barristers' Law,
and strict measures are in force with regard to their
qualifications, rights, and privileges, and they are amenable
to the same disciplinary law as that enforced in the case of
judges.

The following table shows the number of Courts and
the staffs at the end of 1901 : —

No.

No. of Judges.

No. of

Procurators.

Supreme Court
Appeal Courts
Local Courts .
District Courts

1

7

49

310

25
121

399

557

7

29

I4O

159

Great improvements have taken place in the Japanese
prison system within recent years, and it will now bear
favourable comparison with that of any Western country.

The dignity of the law in Japan is most commonly seen
by " the man in the street " in the person of the policeman,
and it must be admitted that he very worthily upholds it.
The police of Japan are a very superior body of men,
resembling the gendarmerie of France. They are in reality
an excellent body of soldiers, who receive much higher pay
and broader training than do the conscripts, and are almost
without exception of high character and with a due sense of
the dignity of their office.

288 Dai Nippon

Japanese officials are divided into four classes : the first
comprising those that receive their commissions directly from

the Emperor and are entitled to report personally
Officials. , . , i ^i ^i ...

to him ; the second, those that receive their com-
missions through the Minister of a Department and have the
entree to the palace on State occasions ; the third, those
commissioned similarly to the second class but not having
the entrie to the palace ; and the fourth, those temporarily
engaged and having the status of mere employees. There
is also another classification into nine ranks, each having two
grades. The place occupied by an official in this list is
granted by the Emperor as a recognition of merit, and the
designation is prefixed to the name, like a title in official
documents. Admission to officialdom is by examination,
except in the case of candidates possessing certain duly
attested educational qualifications.

The problems connected with local government which
arose after the Restoration were even more difficult than
Local those of the central Government, as they involved
government. so m any details directly affecting the daily lives
of the people. At first the old machinery was utilised as far
as possible, but it was found utterly inadequate to the
changed conditions, and in August 1871 the daimiates were
converted into prefectures or ken. The following is a trans-
lation of the message of the Emperor, and it is interesting as
indicating the reasons for the change and the objects which
it was desired to attain : — " We are of opinion that in a time
of radical reform like the present, if We desire to give protec-
tion and tranquillity to the people at home and abroad to
maintain equality with foreign nations, words must be made
to mean in reality what they claim to signify, and the govern-
ment of the country must centre in a single whole.

" Some time ago We gave Our sanction to the scheme
by which all the clans restored to Us their registers ; We
appointed Chiji for the first time, each to perform the duties
of his office.

" But owing to lengthened endurance of the old system

Administration 289

during several hundred years, there have been cases where
the word only was pronounced and the reality not performed.
How is it possible for Us, under such circumstances, to give
protection and tranquillity to the people and to maintain
equality with foreign nations ?

" Profoundly regretting this condition of affairs, We do
now completely abolish the han and convert them into ken,
with the object of diligently retrenching unnecessary ex-
penditure and of arriving at convenience in working, of
getting rid of the vice of the unreality of names, and of
abolishing the disease of the government proceeding from
multiform centres.

" Do ye, Our assembled servants, take well to heart this
Our will."

The radical change thus announced appeared bold and
hazardous to foreigners, but the Cabinet had confidence in
the success of the new proposals, and that has been fully
justified. At first the daimyos were appointed governors of
the prefectures, but it was found that in many cases they
were utterly unfit to perform the chief executive offices of
their old provinces. Hence gradually other more competent
persons were appointed to the vacancies as they occurred,
until it was understood that fitness was to be the requisite
qualification for such appointments. As the schools and
colleges turned out graduates, they were appointed to the
subordinate positions, and these as they gained experience
proved very efficient officials. No doubt there are cases of
inefficiency, and in recent years it is much to be regretted
that cases of corruption have been painfully common, of
which, however, the most is made by both the Japanese and
the foreign journals. Still, taking everything into account,
and the rapid changes which have been made, there are no
reasons for supposing that in these respects the local govern-
ment of Japan is much or indeed any worse than many other
governments, even of some of those which are held up as
examples of efficiency and purity. As the emoluments of the
officials are increased, and as public opinion is more influential

(B 207) y

290 Dai Nippon

through the press and otherwise, there is every reason to
believe that the standard of excellence of local government
in Japan will rise in every department.

In the preceding chapter the Imperial Decree of April
1875, instituting an annual meeting of the provincial
governors, has been mentioned. The powers of that meeting
were gradually extended and representative methods adopted
in the various local bodies. In 18 So the Provincial
Assembly Regulations were enacted, followed in 1884 by
the Civic Corporation Regulations, and in 1888 the local
government system as it exists to-day was in thorough
working order.

For purposes of local administration the whole empire is
divided into 47 prefectures {ken), 653 counties {gun), 48
towns {ski) and 14,734 districts {cho or son). The three
metropolitan prefectures of Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto are
called fu, and the districts are divided into " urban " cho and
" rural " son, according to the number of houses they contain.
In each of these full effect is given to the principle of popular
representation, and the local representative bodies have
control of the financial and other important matters in the
locality. The governor of a prefecture, the mayor of a town,
or the head man of a county or district is ex officio president
of the representative bodies. The system is divided into
three grades — prefectural, sub-prefectural, or county and
civic corporations. Of these three divisions, the last one,
relating to municipal and rural communities, represents the
self-government mechanism in its most striking form ; for in
the other two higher divisions, owing to the greater part they
have to play in administrative affairs, their self-government
function does not lie so distinctively on the surface as in the
other. Both legislatively and also practically the municipal
and rural communities are bona fide self-governing bodies ; for
they are entitled by law to enjoy the rights of juridical
persons, also to incur obligations as such and to arrange all
public matters relating to their own communities. The
system of local government has now been in operation since

A dministration 291

1885 and it has been found to work well. It not only
affords a thorough method of political education for the
people, but it also gives them the opportunity of assisting
directly in promoting their collective, economic, and social
welfare. Local and municipal politics in Japan, as in other
parts of the world, are now assuming increasing importance.
The local governing bodies will have increased functions,
without, however, in any way lessening the ultimate power of
the central Government, and thus they will obey the general
law of evolution by the transformation of a homogeneous
into a heterogeneous form of government, with increased
coherence between its parts.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

A very good outline of the administrative system of Japan is
given in Part I. of H. Yamawaki's Japan in the Beginning of the
Twentieth Century. Chapter x. of Clement's Handbook of Modern
Japan has also a well-written digest of the subject. Several papers
on the subject are to be found in the Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan. A systematic history of the subject in all its
bearings, however, has still to be written.

CHAPTER XV

FINANCE

THE fall of feudalism left the finances of Japan in a state of

chaos, and one of the most pressing problems which con-

„. . , fronted the new Government was the establish-

Financial posi-
tion at the time of ment of a system of national taxation which

the Restoration. 11 <v> • . . ,1

would secure sufficient resources to carry on the
affairs of the nation, and at the same time be on such a basis
as would encourage the economic progress of the country
and not be unduly burdensome to any section of the com-
munity. The difficulty of the problem may be inferred from
the fact that during the first year after the Restoration of the
Emperor the revenue arising from taxation was little more
than one-tenth of the expenditure and that the balance had
to be met chiefly by the issue of inconvertible notes. A
detailed account of the financial affairs of Japan would
require a large volume for itself ; all that I can attempt is a
short outline dealing with some of the most important points.
A study of this, however, will be sufficient to show that the
management of the national finances has not been the least
noteworthy achievement of Japanese statesmen. The great
changes which took place involved many difficult problems,
and not infrequently the financial conditions of the country
not only caused much uneasiness among those personally
interested, but called forth predictions of disaster from out-
siders ; but by skilful management all sinister forecasts have
been falsified, and while many problems have still to be solved,

292

Finance 293

there can be no doubt that Japan has sufficient resources to
ensure her a stable financial position.

The third of the five guiding principles of the new
Government, as proclaimed by the Emperor on his accession
to the throne, was that " means shall be found The old and the
for the furtherance of the lawful desires of all new taxatl0n -
individuals without discrimination as to persons " ; which
meant that every man, even among the common people,
should be allowed to have full scope for his abilities. This
principle marked the fundamental distinction between the
conditions which were to exist under the new regime and
those that had existed under the feudal system, which was
in fact a military organisation in which the welfare of the
agricultural, industrial, and commercial classes was avowedly
and wantonly sacrificed for the maintenance of the warrior
class. The daimyos not only governed their respective
provinces, but they also held a sort of proprietary right over
their respective domains, and there was no clear distinction
between administrative powers and proprietary rights. The
rice tax was the main source of the revenues of the daimyos,
and its rate varied in different provinces, while other mis-
cellaneous duties were imposed according to the industrial
conditions of the localities. The burdens on all classes
were heavy, and, what was worse, they were uncertain, as the
people were liable to arbitrary contributions in the form of
money and personal service. The primary conditions for
individual and national welfare were therefore wanting, as
increased exertion brought no advantage to the persons
concerned.

The financial position of the central Government of the
Shogun was equally unsatisfactory. While the Shogun
exercised a supreme authority over all the clans, the respec-
tive daimyos were only to a very limited extent under his
authority. They were required, in case of need, to place
their military forces at his disposal and to render certain
other services. No tax could be directly imposed by the
central Government upon the subjects of the various fiefs,

294 Dai Nippon

although contributions not very great in amount were made
by some of the clans to the revenue of the Shogunate. Its
ordinary revenue was raised principally from the territories
reserved as its own, in distinction from those granted to the
clans.

The financial problems before the new Government were

peculiar and complicated. After the Restoration, while the

Pr biems before centra ^ authority was transferred to the Imperial

the new Government, the resources of the country were
not under its command. Before anything like
a satisfactory social and political organisation was possible,
it was absolutely necessary that the methods of the feudal
system should be completely changed, and especially that the
particularism of the clans and the undue privileges of the
warrior class should be abolished and the claims of all classes
in the community be placed on a basis about which there
could be no dispute and the amounts of which were certain.
For some time tentative measures had to be adopted and
the deficit in the revenue had to be met by the issue of
inconvertible notes. Gradually, as the administration of the
country came under the direct control of the Imperial
Government and all the feudal privileges were abolished, it
was possible to enforce uniform laws before which all sorts
and conditions of people were to stand on a footing of
equality.

Under the feudal system a great variety of paper notes
was circulated in the various districts for purposes of trade,
Financial the value of which depended on the credit of
administration, those who issued them ; and the first duty of a
centralised Government was to reform the currency and
bring something like order out of chaos. The paper money
of the fiefs amounting to 25,000,000 yen was exchanged for
Treasury notes, but the new Government was compelled to
adopt the same device as the feudal chiefs ; in five years
it had issued fiduciary paper aggregating nearly 60,000,000
yen, and the notes circulated freely throughout the whole
empire at par with silver, even commanding, at one time

Finance 295

a small premium. As public works developed and the
national organisation was improved to meet the requirements
of the new conditions, further demands were made on the
Government, which thus found itself under the necessity of
issuing more paper money, with the consequence that it
rapidly decreased in value, until in 1881, fourteen years after
the Restoration, notes to the face value of 150,000,000 yen
had been put in circulation, and eighteen paper yen could be
purchased with ten silver coins of the same denomination.

The Government fully recognised its responsibilities in
the matter, and, after various temporary expedients, in 1881
it was resolved that a determined effort should be made to
place the currency of the country on a sound basis ; first, by
reducing the volume of the fiduciary notes in circulation,
and, secondly, by accumulating a specie reserve. Reference
must be made to special reports for details of the methods
adopted. It is sufficient for our present purpose to note
that, by the middle of 1885, the volume of the fiduciary
notes had been reduced to 1 1 9,000,000 yen, and their
depreciation had fallen to three per cent, and the metallic
reserve of the Treasury had increased to 45,000,000 yen.
The resumption of specie payments was then announced
and became in the autumn of that year an accomplished
fact. Captain Brinkley, after reviewing the transactions
involved, says : " Viewed by the light of results, the above
facts constitute a fine economical feat, nor can it be denied
that the statesmen who directed Japan's finances at that
critical time showed clear insight, good organising capacity,
and courageous energy."

As early as 1 871 the New Coinage Law was promul-
gated, with the view of establishing the gold standard,
but as in those days silver was the universal medium of
exchange in the trade of the Far East, it was difficult for
Japan to maintain gold mono-metallism, and for a consider-
able time the currency system of Japan was on the basis
of bi-metallism. It was not until 1st October 1897 that
the gold standard system was put in operation. Count

296 Dai Nippon

Matsukata, who, as Minister of Finance, was directly re-
sponsible for the change, has published a detailed report
on the subject which has been officially translated into
English, and to this reference must be made for further
information. It may, however, be mentioned that one yen
in gold, which is the new unit of coinage, was made
approximately the same value as the old unit in silver, so
as to avoid an abrupt change in the price of commodities
and a disturbance of the relations between debtor and
creditor.

The economic change which took place when the
daimyos surrendered their " domains and people " to the
The land Emperor was in a sense a change from the
tax - communism of feudalism to individualism.

The new Government retained the sovereign administrative
power, according to the modern principles of public law,
while proprietary right over land was granted to private
persons. For giving up their domains the feudal lords and
their retainers were indemnified by the grant of Government
loan bonds on which they drew interest, while all occupiers
of land were at once, and without any transaction of a
personal character, recognised as owners of the respective
lands actually held by them. Probably as economic ideas
develop in Japan this will be recognised as having been a
very serious mistake, but meantime we are merely recording
the fact. Under the Shogunate the sale and purchase of
land were forbidden (though various means of evading the
law were not unknown), while the tenants were not at liberty
to use the land as they thought proper. Each clan aimed
at making itself self-sustaining as far as possible and
insisted upon a certain order of crops, without due regard
to the real capabilities of the soil. Under the new regime
the proprietors not only had perfect freedom in the cultiva-
tion of the soil, but they also had the right of selling it ;
which no doubt was an excellent arrangement for those who
happened to be tenants at the time of the change.

The Government, however, claimed a tax on the value

Finance 297

of the land held by the different proprietors. In assessing
this value the annual amount of its net produce over an
average of five years was first converted into a money
value according to its average price for the same period ;
and then this money value of the produce being considered
as interest, the amount of capital necessary for yielding it
was taken as the value of the land. A cadastral survey
of the whole country was made, the official valuation of
the land was completed in 1881, and revised in 1899
with a view to remove certain defects. The land tax was
made payable in money and its rate was fixed at a per-
centage of the legal value of the land. At the initiation of
the system it was fixed at three per cent, and in 1877 it
was reduced to two and a half per cent, at which rate it
remained until the augmentation of taxes that took place
as a part of the so-called post-bellum financial programme.
In 1 88 1, the year in which the land-tax reform was com-
pleted, the yield of the land tax amounted to 42,000,000
yen in a total taxation of 60,000,000 yen ; so that it was the
chief source of the national revenue. Writing on the subject
of the land tax, Count Matsukata, after noticing the history
of the reform, says : " Land being, after all, the basis of our
material life, there can be no question about the great im-
portance of a radical change in the system of land tenure.
It may be said, indeed, that the land-tax reform ushered in
the social conditions under which a free play of the economic
forces of the country became possible. The general prin-
ciple that the obligation of the people as taxpayers should
be regulated by proper laws was also implied in, and ex-
emplified by the land-tax legislation — a principle which
was afterwards expressly guaranteed by a provision of the
Constitution." These sentences indicate the economic prin-
ciples which guided the men who moulded present conditions
in Japan.

In order to meet the rapidly increasing wants of the
country, other sources of revenue besides the compara-
tively stationary land tax had to be found. In 1887 an

298 Dai Nippon

income tax, at the rate of from one to three per cent
was introduced as a new direct tax. A tax on
Other sources of sake, the common drink of the Japanese,
revenue. brewed from rice, had long been in force, in a
somewhat arbitrary fashion, and in 1878 it was placed on
a more exact basis, depending on the amount of sake
brewed from a given quantity of rice. Its amount has
been raised several times, and the tax now covers beer and
other similar alcoholic liquors, and is the most important
not only among the indirect taxes but among all the other
sources of revenue, whether indirect or direct, including
the land tax.

The war with China gave rise to considerable changes in
the financial conditions of Japan, and therefore it will be
useful to give here the figures showing the main items of
the national revenue in the year before that memorable
event : —

The Ordinary Revenue in 1893.

Land tax
Income tax
Sake tax
Customs duties
Other duties .

Yen.
38,808,680
1,238,763
16,637,436

5> I2 5>372
8,194,512

Total taxation ..... 70,004,763

Revenue from

Government industries and property . . . 11,743,268

Miscellaneous receipts ..... 4,135,049

Grand total 85,883,080

The termination of the war with China marked a new
epoch in the financial conditions of Japan. The post-bellum
programme of military and naval development and of
engineering and industrial undertakings caused a great
increase in the national Budget. Part of that was met by
the indemnity paid by China to Japan and part by taxation.

Finance

299

At the same time the opportunity was taken of changing
the standard of the currency from silver to gold. As China
had in any case to raise a loan in Europe, she was easily
induced to pay the indemnity in British instead of Chinese
money. Thus the sum of £32,000,000 sterling was put at
the disposal of the Japanese Government, and with a portion
of it as reserve of the Bank of Japan, the gold standard was
put in operation.

The last Budget presented to the Japanese Parliament
was that of the year ending March 31, 1903. and the
estimated revenue was as follows : —

Ordinary.

Excise (alcohol and sugar)
Land tax
Customs duties
Income and business taxes
Other taxes .

Total taxes .

Stamp duties .....

Receipts from Government undertakings and

State property (posts, railways, etc.)
Miscellaneous .....

Total ordinary revenue .

Extraordinary revenue

Total estimated revenue .

Yen.
69,882,212
46,845,971

I7>°45> 611
12,713,812

6,942,935

i53,43 ,54i

14,304,9s 1

50,814,978
6,244,570

224,795^40

48,835,836

273,630,876

The estimated expenditure was as follows : —
Ordinary.

Imperial household
Foreign affairs

Carry forward

Yen.
3,000,000
2,282,785

5.282,785

300 Dai Nippon

Brought forward
Interior .....

Finance, National Debt charges
Finance, other expenses .
Communications (post office, telegraphs,

harbour works, lighthouses, etc.
Army ......

Navy ......

Justice ......

Public instruction ....

Agriculture, industry, and commerce

Total ordinary expenditure .
Extraordinary expenditure

Total estimated expenditure .

etc.)

Yen.

5,282,785

10,583,416

39>905,495
21,858,183

21,172,977
38,43 2 >3 I 7
2i,349>°54
10,837,646
4,845,708
2,948,9 I 3

177,216,494
93,208,001

270,424,495

The extraordinary expenditure included the amount
disbursed in connection with the North China expedition
and now replaced in State reserves from which it had been
previously borrowed, large sums for railways, harbours, and
other public works, the development of the army and navy,
and of works connected therewith, besides extensions in the
Departments of Education, and of Agriculture, Industry, and
Commerce. While the post-bellum programme caused new
taxes to be introduced and old ones to be increased, certain
taxes, on the other hand, have been abolished, with a view
to simplifying the system of taxation. Since the revision
of the treaties which allowed freedom in the imposition of
import duties, the rates of duties vary from five to thirty-
five per cent ad valorem, according to the kinds of com-
modities, and also on account of the great increase of foreign
trade there has been a marked increase in the customs
duties. On this subject Count Matsukata has remarked : —
" Henceforth the customs duties may be counted as one of
the chief items of the State revenue. Moreover, the
Japanese Government has now acquired greater freedom in
regulating the general system of taxation, because import
duties on certain articles may be raised to degrees corre-

Finance 30 1

sponding to the internal taxes on similar articles, as has
already been done in the case of alcoholic drinks and
tobacco. We have thus recovered tariff autonomy, so far
as the general principle is concerned. But it is to be
deplored that the import duties on certain commodities are
still limited by our treaties with a few countries, of which I
am happy to say the United States is not one. Not that
the Japanese nation contemplates adopting a policy of
protection, and finds an obstacle to the adoption of such a
policy in the remaining restrictions on tariff autonomy.
Conventional tariffs on the basis of reciprocity may also be
welcome to Japan. All we desire — I think, justly — is the
total abolition of the unilateral obligations imposed upon us
in regard to the tariff that have been allowed to linger in
our existing treaty relations."

Notwithstanding the increase of national income and
expenditure in Japan, the burden of taxation on the people
is small. The direct taxes only come to a little The burden of
over three yen (between six and seven shillings) taxation on the
per head of population ; which cannot be con-
sidered excessive. It is evident from the figures which have
been given that the termination of the war with China
marked a most important point in the economic and
financial conditions of Japan. The country was suddenly
called upon to face the new situation which had arisen in
the Far East. Events had shown that a strong army and
navy were absolute necessities for national existence in face
of the aggressive action of some of the European Powers,
and the new position involved an increase of taxation.
Meantime, however, foreign commerce was developing at
a very rapid rate ; Western industries and engineering
undertakings were being introduced and the sources of wealth
were thus being developed, so that the increased taxation was
not very severely felt except by the poorest classes of the
community. The prices of agricultural products had greatly
increased, so that the real value of the land had at least
trebled on the average value which was assessed as the basis

302 Dai Nippon

of taxation. When therefore the rate of the land tax was
in 1899 raised to 3.3 per cent of the legal value of the
land, the real rate was hardly more than one per cent of its
actual value ; so that the increase of the land tax is only a
partial set-off to the relative reduction of the burden of land-
owners that has automatically come about since the date of
the land-tax reform. When, moreover, we remember that
the farmers entered into absolute possession of the fields they
had hitherto cultivated as mere tenants, and that in return
for being transformed into owners they were required to pay
a rent assessed on a basis of eighty years' purchase, it is
evident that the so-called land tax is only a very moderate
rent, and strictly speaking the farmers should not include it
among their taxes.

The income tax and business tax fall chiefly on those
who have benefited by the improved economic conditions of
the country. Moreover, a considerable part of the national
revenue is independent of taxation and is derived from
Government enterprises and properties (as railways, posts,
telegraphs, telephones, factories, forests, etc.) ; an item which
naturally increases with the country's prosperity. Twelve
years ago the income from this source was 8,500,000 yen ;
now it is over 50,000,000 yen. This amount is, in fact,
the dividend which is paid on the investments made in
national undertakings. Further, another considerable part
of the national revenue is derived from the taxes on sake
and tobacco, which, of course, need not be paid by any
person desiring to avoid them, as they are of the nature
of luxuries, while the customs dues are an indirect impost
scarcely felt by the buyers of imported goods. When the
whole facts of the case are considered, they do not seem to
indicate any excessive addition to the burden of taxation.

The following table shows the relative position, per head
of population, of revenue, expenditure, taxation, imports and
exports for the years 1892-3 and 1902-3 ; in the interval
a gold standard had been adopted and the figures for the
first-named year are reduced to that standard.

Finance

303

1892-3

1902-3

Yen.

Yen.

Total Revenue .

3-33

6.16

Total Expenditure

2.52

6.15

Ordinary Revenue

2.64

5.06

Ordinary Expenditure

2.09

3-8S

Taxation ....

2-15

3-32

Imports ....

2-35

5-93

Exports ....

2.98

5-64

One of the most striking features in the administration
of Japan is the fact that the greater part of the developments
which have taken place have been brought

. . , , r . 7 National debt.

about without much assistance from foreign
capital, the amounts required being, for the most part, raised
in Japan. Reference must be made to the Reports of the
Finance Department for details of the various loans. It
should, however, be noted that none of them have been used
for the purpose of making up any deficit in the ordinary
revenue of the State. They have been occasioned by the
reorganisation of national institutions, the adjustment of
finances, the construction of public works and the develop-
ment of civil and military affairs generally. The following
table shows the amount of interest-bearing debts at intervals
often years from 1871 : —

Year.

Amount.

Rate of
Interest.

Interest
per head of
Population.

1871
l88l
1891
I9OI

Yen.
4,88o,000
237,349,361
246,042,374

547,575,950

Per cent.
9.OO

6-45
5-42
5-15

Yen.
.013
.417
.328
.602

Even with the highest figures the amount of debt per head
of population is under twelve yen, or twenty-four shillings,
which is very small compared with what we find in European
countries. According to the financial scheme which has been

304

Dai Nippon

fixed, the total amount of the debt will be redeemed in
fifty years. Such schemes are seldom carried out as arranged,
as national events occur which make some alteration
necessary, but unless something very unexpected happens
the capacity of Japan to pay off her liabilities is ample,
provided her finance be well managed.

When we compare, as is done in the following table,
the amount of national debt per head of population for some
of the chief countries of the world, we find that of Japan
is very small indeed.

National Debts in 1901

Commonwealth of Australia

France

Argentina .

Great Britain

Italy

Egypt

Russia

Sweden

Mexico

Japan

£ s. d.

5 1 3 4

33 10

18 14 11

18 911

15 17 11

10 12 2

4 19 8

3 15 5
3 14 o
164

The yearly interest on the British national debt comes to
about 1 os. per head, whereas that on the Japanese national
debt is only about is. 2d. per head of population. More-
over, that amount in Japan does not all represent taxation,
as a considerable part of the national debt has been invested
in productive works which return a very large and increasing
revenue. Measured by the standard of wages, the working
classes of Japan should find it much easier to pay the interest
on her national debt than do those of Great Britain.

With the development of local government the ex-
penditure of the local authorities has been increasing at a
rapid rate. Large sums have been devoted to
useful public works, the establishment of public
institutions of various kinds and the support of education.
Less than ten years ago the prefectural and communal

Local finances.

Finance 305

revenue aggregated about 53,680,000 yen and the ex-
penditure about 44,730,000 yen, while the latest published
returns give the former as 129,300,000 yen and the latter
1 1 2,860,000 yen. The increase may be expected to continue
with the progress of the times, and the central Government
is exercising strict attention to prevent any undue expansion
of the local expenses.

To meet the expenditure a large sum is obtained from
property owned by the local administrations, and the central
treasury grants a considerable sum. The system of local
taxation is complicated, but, speaking generally, two kinds
of impost have to be paid : first, a prefectural tax ; and
secondly, a town or district tax. Some of the local taxes
are levied on the basis of the national tax, in which case
the former must not exceed a certain fixed fraction of the
latter ; some are levied independently, as taxes on houses,
vehicles, and draught animals. The same principle of
graduation is observed in the case of the house tax as in
the income tax, and in other cases a distinction is made
between the taxation of the rich and the poor ; so that the
burden decreases rapidly as the poorer classes are reached.
Before any new local tax is levied it must receive the approval
of the prefectural or city, town or village legislative council,
as the case may be. For a tax of importance the sanction
of the Ministers of Home Affairs and of Finance must be
obtained.

Prior to the Restoration the only organisations which
existed for the collective use of capital in business were the
guilds or unions and the exchange merchants .

& . Banking system.

who undertook the exchange business of the
feudal princes. The new Government lost no time in
devising measures for the promotion of foreign trade, and
very soon banks of different kinds were established which
took a very important part in the development of the
country. In 1872 the Government issued banking regula-
tions, and a number of National Banks were established.
They had the privilege of issuing convertible notes under

(b 207) X

306 Dai Nippon

seemingly favourable conditions, and these notes were
designed gradually to replace the inconvertible notes issued
by the Government. Owing, however, to the great flow of
specie from the country, the National Banks soon found it
impossible to maintain specie payments, and the Government
had to allow them to exchange their notes with Government
notes. Thus they failed to be of use as instruments for the
gradual withdrawal of inconvertible notes, and with few
exceptions their influence was small. It soon became
evident that there was need for a central bank, placed in
a supreme and commanding position, above all the others,
and in 1882 the Bank of Japan was established for the
purpose of bringing the other banks nearer together and
of facilitating the monetary circulation throughout the
country. After several alterations in the regulations
regarding the Bank of Japan, the National Banks were
ordered to give up their privilege of issue at the expiration
of their term or at their option, and to redeem their notes
with those issued by the Bank of Japan, which are con-
vertible into gold. The Government then began to work
for central and local industrial banks, in order to give
facilities to agriculture and industry, as well as to turn the
money spent for post-bellum enterprises into useful channels
by means of the debentures issued by these banks. Most
of the National Banks, after the expiration of their charters,
have been changed into private banks and are now on
the whole efficient organs of monetary circulation. The
savings-banks have been an object of particular care to
the Government, which, besides establishing the post-office
system, has made special regulations for them, so that their
business may be carried on with greater security than in
the case of ordinary banks. Their number is now 487,
* with an aggregate capital of 58,000,000 yen. The
Yokohama Specie Bank, established in 1880, with a capital
of 24,000,000 yen, at present is specially designed to
facilitate foreign exchange. The Hypothec Bank {Credit
Fonder) of Japan was established in 1 896 for the purpose

Finance

\°7

of making long-term loans at low rates of interest on the
security of real estate. To complete the organisation of
the banking system, a loan was arranged in 1900, providing
for the establishment of the Credit Mobilier of Japan,
whose chief and characteristic function will be to make
loans on the security of shares and debentures ; but owing
to ministerial changes, the state of the money market and
various other reasons, it has not yet been put into operation.
A fairly complete account of the banking system of Japan
is given by Mr. Yamawaki in his book on Japan in the
Beginning of the Twentieth Century, while Dr. Sakatani, the
Vice-Minister of Finance, has published a very elaborate
history and description of the financial conditions in Japan,
and to these and similar works reference must be made for
details.

The wealth of Japan is a subject which has not been
sufficiently investigated that it is possible to present financial
give an altogether trustworthy statement of its conditions.
amount. The following has been given as an approximate
estimate : —

Land

Mines

Live stock

Buildings .

Furniture .

Railroads .

War and merchant ships

Specie

Miscellaneous

Goods, etc.

Total

Millions of Yen.

7000

500

80

1900

400

35°
250
200
300
800

. 1 1,080

Some of these items are due entirely to developments
which have taken place in recent years ; the amounts of
the others have been considerably increased on account of
these developments, and when it is remembered that, apart
from the Chinese indemnity (a great part of which was spent

308 Dai Nippon

on the army and navy), Japan has received little assistance
from foreign capital, the increase is remarkable. The bulk
of the floating cash of the country has been sunk in various
enterprises, and as a natural consequence Japan now finds
herself, as put by the Tokyo correspondent of the Times,
" not only debarred from undertaking numerous other enter-
prises which would be lucrative, but also compelled to work
many of her existing enterprises with ruinously expensive
working capital. Investments which sound almost incredible
in English ears go a-begging in Japan. Railways offer
preferential stock at 10 per cent to complete their con-
struction ; wealthy corporations are willing to sell 6 per
cent bonds at a considerable discount for the building of
waterworks ; and banks of the highest class gladly pay 7 per
cent on fixed deposits for six months."

The real position of a country cannot be estimated
simply by looking at purely financial returns ; due regard
must be had to its general economic and industrial con-
ditions. The survey which we have made of the progress
of Japan in agriculture, fishing, and mining, and of the
development of her manufacturing industries, her railways,
telegraphs, posts and telephones, her mercantile marine, her
banks and all the organisations connected with finance and
commerce, forces us to the conclusion that her economic
progress has been far more rapid than that of any other
nation. Moreover, that progress is not by any means
superficial, but has been built on a sound basis of education,
which in some respects affords a lesson to Western nations.
The financial results which have followed from the industries
founded almost entirely by Japanese capital are proofs of
business capacity of a very high order.

Still, it must be admitted that cheap foreign capital,
introduced under proper conditions, would enable Japan to
continue her industrial and commercial development, and
hasten her national evolution. So long as the currency was
on a silver basis, Japan hesitated to contract gold debts, and
European capitalists would not lend in terms of silver.

Finance 309

Now, however, that a gold standard has been adopted, the
conditions are much more favourable. Moreover, both in
Europe and in America the Japanese are now better known
than formerly, and confidence is being strengthened in their
integrity. Foreigners have now opportunities of investigating
the conditions attached to any proposed undertaking, and of
ascertaining the value of its security and of estimating the
trustworthiness of those connected with it, and the success
which has attended existing undertakings shows that there
is a wide field for the employment of foreign capital, which
would not only afford returns advantageous to the lenders,
but also increase the wealth of Japan. On this subject Mr.
Jiuchi Soyeda, the correspondent for Japan to the British
Economic Association, says : — " Japan is just in the growing
stage ; therefore if she becomes larger it is by natural
growth, and her economic development is not as quick as it
might be, because of the deficiency of nourishing capital.
When once the due amount of capital is properly supplied,
first from the savings of her own people, and then from the
far-seeing capitalists, the progress of Japan will be much
accelerated, to the mutual advantage of herself and her
creditors. It is a great misfortune for Japan that her real
strength is not duly known and fully admitted by the world
at large. In the art of war she showed it amply, in the
China-Japanese War and the Boxers' affair. Now it remains
for her to prove that her capacity and ability are not inferior
to her fighting power, on which she is now beginning to find
out that too much stress was laid. If judgment, prudence,
and patience be well exercised hereafter, a bright future lies
before her in the peaceful works of commercial and industrial
progress, for which she possesses many natural advantages."

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The Japanese Government have always published very complete
accounts of the financial conditions of the country, and have thus
afforded every opportunity for discussion and fair criticism. The
Financial and Economical Annual, issued by the Department of

3 1 o Dai Nippon

Finance, is a model of clearness and good arrangement, and it con-
tains very complete statistics relating to financial and economic
matters. Further details are given in H. Yamawaki'sya/rt^ in the
Beginning of the Twentieth Century, a work which should be carefully
studied by all who are specially interested in financial matters in
Japan. Very full accounts of the annual Budget of the Government
are published in the newspapers, and every opportunity is thus given
for detailed criticism. The Report on the Post-Bellum Financial
Administration in Japan, 1896-1900, by Count Matsukata, the
Minister of State for Finance for the period, is a very valuable con-
tribution to the history of the subject during an important period,
while his Report on the Adoption of the Gold Standard in Japan
bears testimony to his ability not only as an administrator, but also
to his knowledge of the principles of international finance and trade.
His article on the "Financial System of Japan," in the North
American Review for May 1902, gives an excellent resume of that
system and a clear statement of conditions at that date. Chapter 1.
of vol. v. of Captain Brinkley's large work on Japan and China is
probably the most useful statement on the subject for general
readers. An exhaustive history of the financial administration of
Japan has been written (in Japanese) by Dr. Sakatani, Vice-Minister
of Finance, and it must be considered the standard work on the
subject. During the past year or two many articles on different
aspects of the financial conditions of Japan have appeared in British
and American magazines, while the daily papers published in Japan
(both in Japanese and in English) have fully discussed them ; so that
students of the subject have no difficulty in obtaining either facts or
opinions regarding them.

CHAPTER XVI

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

In the preceding chapters it has been stated several times
that the chief motive which urged the Japanese in their
adoption of Western civilisation was neither Motives of
the desire for increased wealth nor the blind Japanese,
imitation of Western customs ; it was the sense of honour
which cannot bear to be looked down upon as an inferior
Power. The new system of education was adopted in
order that men might be trained who were able to guide
the destinies of the nation under the altered conditions.
The laws and the administration of justice were brought
into harmony with Western ideas and practice that foreigners
might feel they had security for the safety of their persons
and property ; a constitutional form of Government was
adopted that its action might reflect the ideas of the
people ; the means of communication were improved that the
resources of the country might be developed and that Japan
might take her place among the commercial and industrial
nations of the world ; but in all these changes the underlying
motive was that " the status of the Empire of Japan may be
raised ever higher and higher." The story of the attempts
made by Japan to obtain what she believed to be her due
position is a long one, and in some respects does not reflect
honour on the representatives of the foreign nations con-
cerned, but still the obstacles which were put in the way
were, in a sense, blessings in disguise ; for they made the
Japanese more determined not only to attain their object,

3"

312 Dai Nippon

but also to fit themselves more adequately for the new
duties and responsibilities which would fall upon them when
they had full control of their own affairs.

On March 31, 1854, a treaty was signed by Com-
modore Perry on behalf of the Government of the United
Fir t treat States and the representatives of Japan, by
with a foreign which the ports of Shimoda, in the province of
Idzu and of Hakodate, in the island of Yezo,
were opened for the reception of American ships, to be
supplied with such articles as wood, water, provisions, and
coal. There were stipulations with respect to the treatment
of shipwrecked sailors, an article giving facilities for trading,
a favoured nation's clause and provision for the appointment
by the Government of the United States of consuls or agents
to reside in Shimoda, provided that either of the two
Governments deemed such arrangements necessary. In this
year Admiral Sir James Stirling arrived with a squadron
and concluded a convention with Japan by which Nagasaki
and Hakodate were to be opened to British ships for repairs,
supplies, etc.

On July 29, 1858, Mr. Townsend Harris, after many

delays, succeeded in concluding a fresh treaty on behalf of

the United States, and shortly after this was

New treaties. . . , .

followed by similar ones with Great Britain,
France, and other nations. The treaty with Great Britain
was signed by the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine and the re-
presentatives of the Tycoon (Shogun), and after pledging the
two countries (in the usual diplomatic fashion) to perpetual
peace and friendship and stating the arrangements for the
residence of representatives, it stipulated for the opening for
purposes of trade of the ports and towns of Hakodate,
Kanagawa (Yokohama), and Nagasaki, and later on Niigata,
and made arrangements with regard to trade and commerce.
According to Article IV. it was agreed that " All questions
in regard to rights, whether of property or person, arising
between British subjects in the dominions of His Majesty
the Tycoon of Japan, shall be subject to the jurisdiction of

International Relations 3 1 3

the British authorities." Article V. stipulated that " Japanese
subjects who may be guilty of any criminal act towards
British subjects shall be arrested and punished by the
Japanese authorities, according to the laws of Japan.
British subjects who may commit any crime against
Japanese subjects, or the subjects or citizens of any other
country, shall be tried and punished by the Consul, or other
public functionary authorised thereto, according to the laws
of Great Britain. Justice shall be equitably and impartially
administered on both sides." Trade and residence were
allowed to foreigners in the treaty ports and they were
permitted to travel without passports within a radius of
10 ri (about 24^- miles). A very low scale of import dues,
at most five per cent, ad valorem, was fixed. In 1859
regular diplomatic relations were established between Great
Britain and Japan, Mr. Rutherford Alcock arriving in Yedo
as Her Majesty's Consul-General, on June 26. Towards
the end of the year he was appointed Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, and representatives of other
nations followed in due course.

On June 25, 1866, a Convention was concluded at Yedo
between a Japanese minister of Foreign Affairs and the Re-
presentatives of Great Britain, France, the United States of
America, and Holland, whereby some modifications were
made in the tariff and some new arrangements for the en-
couragement of trade. By Article IV. the Japanese Govern-
ment undertook to establish a bonded warehouse system, for
the purpose of enabling the foreign merchants to re-export
unsaleable goods without the payment of any duty. Article
V. was intended to protect all Japanese produce on its way
to the markets of the open ports from the payment of
transit duties or any other tax, with the exception of such
road or navigation tolls as were levied equally upon all
native traffic. Article VI. provided for the establishment of
a free mint on certain conditions. By Articles IX. and X.
restrictions which were formerly placed on foreign trade
were removed and all classes of Japanese, whether merchants,

3 1 4 Dai Nippon

daimyos, or people in the employment of daimyos, were
given perfect liberty to trade or to hold social intercourse
with foreigners at all the open ports, without any inter-
ference on the part of the Government. They were also
permitted to employ foreign shipping to trade either with
the open ports of Japan or with foreign countries, and under
the provisions of a passport system they were allowed to
go abroad for purposes of study or trade and to accept
employment on board foreign ships. By Article XI. the
Government agreed to light and buoy the approaches to all
the open ports. This Convention was a great step in
advance, for, as Sir Harry Parkes states, " if its stipulations
were faithfully executed, they would enable Japan and her
people to share freely in the commerce of the world, to the
complete abandonment of their old exclusive policy."

After the Restoration these treaties were confirmed by the

Emperor, but from the very first the Japanese felt that some

of their provisions placed them in a very

Japanese humiliating position. They were made on the

with regard tacit assumption of the unequal status of the

to the treaties. . . .......

two contracting parties, civilised white men on
the one hand and on the other Japan, just emerging from
Asiatic semi-barbarism. In making treaties with Oriental
non-Christian nations, Occidental Christian nations had
always insisted that their subjects and citizens should be
exempted from the procedure and penalties prescribed by
the criminal law of the countries in which they were resid-
ing ; in short, that they should enjoy within the territories
of such countries the privilege of being arraigned before
tribunals of their own nationality and tried by judges of
their own race. In civil jurisdiction a division of functions
was arranged. These principles were applied in the case of
Japan, and no doubt, at first, their application was both wise
and expedient. It soon, however, became evident that the
Japanese were very different from other Eastern peoples in
many respects, and that their loyal independent spirit rebelled
against even the appearance of being in a subordinate posi-

International Relations 3 1 5

tion to Foreign Powers ; from the time the treaties were
signed the " extra-territorial " regulations were vehemently
condemned by all classes of Japanese, and no doubt it was
the hope of being able to remove these that was the
immediate cause for the despatch of the embassy mentioned
in a previous chapter. As there stated, the date fixed for the
revision of the treaties was July 1, 1872, and it was thought
at least by some in power that an attempt should be made
to have it brought about. Whatever may have been the
intention, the treaty revision did not take place till a number
of years later ; but although the embassy failed in its
immediate object, it was fully justified by its results. It
was the means of making Japan known to the Western
nations, and the information which was collected on all
subjects relating to national life laid the foundations of
many of the developments which have brought Japan to
its present position.

The foreign consular tribunals were in some cases very
unsatisfactory, and, apart altogether from the principle
involved in " extra-territoriality," gave just offence Foreien
to the Japanese from the nature of their con- consular
stitution, their methods of procedure, and their
judgments. A few of the great Powers, and notably Great
Britain and the United States, organised competent tribunals
and appointed expert judicial officials to preside over them ;
but the majority of the Treaty States were content to
entrust their authority to merchant consuls, who were not
only unacquainted with the details of the laws they were
expected to administer, but might also be interested,
financially or otherwise, in some of the business questions
which required their decision, and a Japanese subject might
occasionally find that the defendant in a case would also
be the judge. Still, on the whole, there were not many
abuses of power on the part of consuls, and although little
could be said in support of the system, it cannot be doubted
that during the transition period it saved the Japanese from
much trouble in which they would have been involved if

o

1 6 Dai Nippon

they had been entrusted with a jurisdiction which they were
not prepared to exercise in an efficient manner from the
want of men with the necessary experience.

As I have stated, the existence of the " extra-territorial "
system did much to spur on the Japanese to qualify them-

Discussions on selves for what is the right of every sovereign
extra-territoriaiity. State ; namely, judicial autonomy. In the two
previous chapters we have seen how they developed their
system of government, local administration, and legislation,
and how they remodelled their law courts and took steps to
equip them with a competent judiciary to administer the
new codes. During all the time I was in Japan the subject
of treaty revision was continually coming up in some
form, and strong opinions on the subject were expressed
both by Japanese and by foreigners. The impression
which was given to those who were anxious to assist the
Japanese in their efforts to raise the status of their country,
was that they received little sympathy either from the
representatives of the foreign Powers or in the foreign
press ; but as I have indicated, this may have been to the
Japanese a blessing in disguise, because it made them more
determined to bring their institutions up to a high pitch of
efficiency, and ultimately enabled them to obtain better
terms than they would have been able to get at an earlier
period.

Captain Brinkley, whose long experience in Japan and

intimate knowledge of Japanese matters enable him to give

Ca tain an °pJ mon which carries authority, has summarised

Brinkiey's the position during these years in the following
paragraphs : — " A portly volume might be filled
with the details of the negotiations that followed Japan's
proposal. Never before had an Oriental state sought such
recognition, and there was extreme reluctance on the part
of Western Powers to try the unprecedented experiment
of entrusting the lives and property of their subjects and
citizens to the keeping of a ' pagan ' people. Even the
outlines of the story cannot be sketched here, though it

International Relations 3 1 7

abounds with diplomatic curiosities, and though several of
its incidents do as much credit to Japan's patience and tact
as its issue does to the justice and liberality of Occidental
Governments. There is, however, one page of the history
that calls for brief notice, since it supplies a key to much
which would otherwise be inexplicable. The respect enter-
tained by a nation for its own laws and the confidence it
reposes in their administrators are in direct proportion to
the efforts it has expended upon the development of the
former and the education of the latter. Foreigners residing
in Japan naturally clung to consular jurisdiction as a
privilege of inestimable value. They saw, indeed, that
such a system could not be permanently imposed on a
country where the conditions justifying it had nominally
disappeared. But they saw also that the legal and judicial
reforms effected by Japan had been crowded into an extra-
ordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting
with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into
many errors. A struggle then ensued between foreign
distrust on the one side and Japanese aspirations on the
other — a struggle often developing painful phases. For
whereas the case for the foreign resident stood solid and
rational so long as it rested on the basis of his proper
attachment to the laws and the judiciary which the efforts
of his countrymen through long generations had rendered
worthy of trust and reverence, and on the equally intelligible
and reasonable ground that he wanted convincing proofs of
Japan's competence to discharge her novel functions with
discretion and impartiality before submitting himself to her
jurisdiction, it ceased to be a solid and rational case when
its champions undertook, not merely to exaggerate the risk
of trusting Japan implicitly, but also to demonstrate her
radical unworthiness of any trust whatever, and to depict her
under aspects so deterrent that submission to her jurisdiction
assumed the character of a catastrophe. The struggle lasted
eleven years, but its gist is contained in this brief statement.
The foreign resident, whose affection for his own systems

3 1 8 Dai Nippon

was measured by the struggle their evolution had cost, and
whose practical instincts forbade him to take anything on
trust where security of person and property was concerned,
would have stood out a wholesomely conservative and justly
cautious figure had not his attitude been disfigured by local
journalists who, in order to justify his conservatism, allowed
themselves to be betrayed into the constant role of blackening
the character of Japan, and suggesting harshly prejudiced
interpretations of her acts and motives. It is one thing to
hesitate before entering a new house until its fitness for
occupation has been ascertained : it is another thing to
condemn it without trial as radically and necessarily
deficient in this respect. The latter was in effect the line
often taken by the opponents of Japan's claims, and, of
course, no little resentment and indignation were aroused
on the side of the Japanese, who chafing against the obvious
antipathies of their foreign critics, and growing constantly
more impatient of the humiliation to which Japan was
intentionally condemned, were sometimes prompted to dis-
plays of resentment which became new weapons in the
hands of their critics. Throughout this struggle the
Government and citizens of the United States always
showed conspicuous sympathy with Japanese aspirations,
and it should also be recorded that, with exceptions so
rare as to establish the rule, foreign tourists and publicists
discussed the problem liberally and fairly ; perhaps because,
unlike the foreign communities resident in Japan, they had
no direct interest in its solution." l

At the same time it must be admitted that the American

attempts at treaty-making were not very successful. On

July 25, 1878, a treaty was concluded at

Attempts at Washington ( and ratified there on April 8,

treaty revision. fa \ tr j

1879) between the Japanese Minister, Kiyowari
Yoshida, and Mr. Evarts, Secretary of State. By this
instrument the question of jurisdiction was left as before,
except a provision of Article IV., which stipulated that all

1 Encyclopedia Britannica, new vols., article "Japan," p. 699.

International Relations 3 1 9

criminal cases connected with the customs should be sub-
mitted for decision to the American tribunals, — but with the
addition that the fines and confiscations in all such matters
should fall to the Japanese treasury ; an arrangement which,
from the Japanese point of view, made matters worse than
before. In Article V., however, a favourable concession was
made to Japan by which the right of the Government to
regulate the coasting trade was recognised, while Article I.
equally acknowledged the Japanese right of customs
autonomy. In contradistinction to this right, Article III.
stipulated that there should be no export duties on Japanese
products consigned to America. This convention created
considerable sensation at the time in diplomatic circles, but
as Article X. stipulated that its provisions would come into
force only after Japan had revised her treaties with the other
Powers in a similar sense, it remained a dead letter, as the
other Treaty Powers had not the slightest intention of making
the desired concessions.

A statement of what may be considered the official
British view of treaty revision in Japan will be found in
The Life of Sir Harry Parkes} and while some
of the opinions therein expressed were justified, Harry n pa°kes r
it illustrates very clearly the difference of the
points of view of the Japanese and the foreigners. The
former expected recognition of the progress which they had
made before arrangements for the administration of justice
on Western lines were fairly complete, and they were
intensely anxious to get rid of even the appearance of
foreign sovereignty. Sir Harry Parkes held that it was a
misconception on their part to consider extra-territoriality
per se as a derogation from national sovereignty. He pointed
out to them that " throughout the Middle Ages in Europe
different degrees of extra-territoriality were the rule rather
than the exception. The Jews were more or less under
their own jurisdiction, the clergy were almost wholly
independent of territorial laws, the Hanse towns had their

1 Vol. ii. chap, xxxviii. p. 313.

3 2 o Da i Nippon

privileges. Exemptions of a similar kind still exist, even in
the United Kingdom. The American States are more or
less extra-territorial in their system of law and administra-
tion, and in Old Japan the tozama daimiates enjoyed, in
practice, complete home rule. There was no surprise on the
one side nor concession on the other when extra-territoriality
was established by the treaties of 1858. The extra-
territorial system was absolutely necessary, if merely to
supplement the deficiencies of Japanese law, which did not
in truth exist at all." After further historical illustration of
the subject, he added that " in truth, in Japan, as in China
and Turkey, it was rather out of contempt — or perhaps
indifference — that the foreigner was denied the benefits of
territorial laws, of which he was not deemed a proper object."
It must have been exceedingly difficult at the time the
treaties were made to ascertain the opinions of the Japanese
on this subject, but there can be no doubt that from the
time of the Restoration their feeling was very strong against
the system of extra-territoriality. The foreign commercial
population in Japan was almost unanimous against treaty
revision on the lines suggested by the Japanese, because
they could not bring themselves to believe that either their
persons or their property would be safe under Japanese law,
and their opposition continued to the very end. Their
opinions were reflected for a considerable time by their
representatives to the Government of Japan, but ultimately
these were convinced that the demands of the Japanese were
both just and reasonable, and the majority of foreigners
in Japan would now be willing to admit that they had been
mistaken in the position which they took.

In 1883 the Japanese Government felt that sufficient

progress had been made in the reorganisation of their

national institutions and methods of adminis-

Conferences on tration t • tif formal demand that the

treaty revision. J •>

foreign powers should consider the whole posi-
tion and agree to the abolition of consular jurisdiction. A
conference was held at Tokyo of the representatives of all

International Relations 321

the Foreign Powers to determine a basis on which the
respective Governments might come to some conclusions as
to the modifications to be made in the existing treaties. On
this occasion Japan was represented by her Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Kaoru Inouye, one of the most experienced
statesmen in the country. He, of course, had come to the
conclusion that his country's only chance of procuring
international recognition of its claims was to break com-
pletely with its old system of isolation, to adopt the principle,
practised by all the European States in their relations with
one another, of the equal footing of natives and aliens in
affairs of trade and commerce. Mr. Inouye therefore, in
return for the abolition of the consular jurisdiction of the
Powers hitherto existing, offered to throw open to trade the
whole empire and to place foreigners, in their pursuit of
commerce and industry, on the same footing as the natives
of Japan. The Japanese Government, however, did not
demand that its jurisdiction over foreigners should begin at
once, but suggested a transition period of five years, during
which the Consular Courts should continue to some extent
to exercise their authority, which would then be gradually
transferred to the native tribunals. During the transition
period foreigners were not to enjoy in their entirety all the
rights promised to them in the interior later on. As a
concession to foreign feelings it was suggested that, for a
certain definite period, a number of foreign jurists should be
attached as titular judges to the Japanese tribunals. Various
other safeguards were suggested in order to guarantee as
far as possible to resident foreigners the proper and impartial
administration of justice. It was proposed that the new
treaties should be valid for twelve years, while the corre-
sponding tariffs, etc., might be subject to revision after the
lapse of eight years.

Practically nothing came of this conference. Some of
its members were opposed to the concessions asked for by
the Japanese, and did not hesitate to express their opinions

to their respective Governments, which simply shelved the
(b 207) Y

322 Da i Nippon

voluminous records of the proceedings. There can be no doubt,
however, that these served as a solid foundation for the
subsequent revision of treaties. Even in political circles in
Japan there now arose misgivings as to whether the proposal
to open up the empire to foreigners was not somewhat
premature ; and special objection was taken to the proposal
to appoint foreign lawyers to assist in the native courts, as
this seemed to be only another form of " extra-territorial "
jurisdiction, and not much improvement on the existing
system. On the part of the foreigners it was felt that the
clause giving the Japanese the right of denunciation after a
period of twelve years would enable Japan, after that time,
to claim a free hand simply on the ground of international
law. Even those who sympathised strongly with the claims
of the Japanese felt that the preparations for making and
codifying the laws were not yet in a stage sufficiently
advanced to impress the European Powers with the wisdom
of placing their subjects under their jurisdiction ; so that the
delay which occurred was, as I have indicated, really a
blessing in disguise, as it urged on the improvement of
legislation and administration which enabled more satis-
factory arrangements to be made later on.

The subject of treaty revision was allowed practically to
lie in abeyance for a period of four years. On May i,
Negotiations 1 886, a conference of the representatives of
renewed. ^hc Treaty Powers met in Tokyo. Japan was
again represented by Mr. Inouye (who had meantime been
raised to the rank of Count). The subjects of the tariffs
and of the judicial arrangements were fully discussed, and it
became evident that the representatives of the Foreign
Powers were willing to make several very important con-
cessions on the suggestions of the conference held in 1882.
The British and the German delegates on June 1 5 tabled a
project which, after expressly acknowledging the progress
made by Japan since the last conference in the field of
legal reform, offered to her Government the assumption of
jurisdiction over aliens, but without the conditions previously

International Relations 323

attached to the proposed transition period and which had
met with insuperable difficulties. This was decided testimony
to the effect that Britain and Germany recognised the pro-
gress which had been made in Japan, and that they were
willing to acknowledge her claims to equality of treatment
with other Powers. Although the representatives of the
other Powers gave a general adhesion to this position, they
were unable to agree as to the means of carrying out the
proposed changes and the guarantees deemed necessary by
some of the Powers. The conference continued to sit at
intervals till the beginning of July 1887, and meanwhile
Japanese popular opinion grew somewhat virulent against
some of the proposals, as they were thought to be derogatory
to the national sovereignty. On June 19, 1887, Count
Inouye adjourned the conference sine die, so that the
Japanese Government might be able to show what progress
had been made in the codification of the laws and in the
improvement of their administration, and thus prove that the
guarantees demanded were no longer necessary.

In 1889, after lengthy negotiations at Berlin, a treaty
was signed by the representatives of Germany and Japan,
by which Japan granted very far-reaching concessions in
respect of commerce, industry, and settlement, while Germany
agreed to the abolition of her consular jurisdiction and
recognised the complete legal sovereignty of Japan ; but
only under the condition, which was still regarded as
indispensable, that a number of foreign jurists should be
attached to the Japanese Court of Appeal. This stipulation
caused the treaty to be received with disfavour in Japan, and
Count Okuma Shigenobu, who had succeeded Count Inouye
as Minister of Foreign Affairs, was made to feel this
disfavour. He was attacked by a would-be assassin and
severely wounded, and in consequence of the feeling which
was aroused, the coming into force of the obnoxious treaty
was suspended by the Government, as well as that of the
identical agreements with Russia and the United States,
which had meantime also been concluded.

324 Dai Nippon

A review of these negotiations shows very distinctly the

determination of the Japanese to insist on complete sovereign

powers. Foreigners generally ascribed all this

Japanese aims. . ,, .

to what they were pleased to call conceit, but
which after all was only a very keen spirit of patriotism and
national loyalty. No doubt that spirit sometimes caused
them to make demands before they were in a position to
satisfy all the necessary conditions, but it was a spirit of
noble discontent which spurred them on to greater efforts to
improve these conditions and also showed clearly to the
representatives of the Foreign Powers that they were
determined to gain their point. Although the conference
brought no definite results, still it must be admitted that on
each occasion they brought the problems a step nearer
solution by causing the foreign representatives to understand
the Japanese point of view. Foreign diplomatists, as a rule,
look at Eastern problems from the outside only and there-
fore in a very superficial manner, and this ignorance of
the Eastern mind, to a large extent, accounts for all the
difficulties which have occurred with Eastern peoples, who
are governed more by ideas than by principles and statutes.
This fact should be more distinctly remembered than it is
in our dealings with our Indian Empire and with that of
China. Fortunately for Japan the Foreign Powers had to
deal with a people which did not allow them to forget it.

Xot by study but through practical experience in their
dealings with the Japanese did the representatives of these
Approaching Powers at last come to recognise that the time
a settlement. ^^ arr ived when the demands of the Japanese
Government ought to be conceded. Changes had taken
place in the personnel of the membership of the diplomatic
body in Tokyo, and the newcomers, although for the most
part profoundly ignorant of Eastern ways of thought, were
free from preconceived ideas and from opinions resulting
from unfavourable personal experiences ; they approached
the subject of treaty revision with open minds and their
common sense led them to a solution of the problems which

International Relations 325

had baffled their predecessors ; and it is satisfactory to find
that in these matters the representatives of Great Britain
took the lead. Details of the negotiations are to be found
in a well-arranged British Blue Book, 1 to which those who
wish to study the subject must be referred. That document,
to those who know the events of the previous twenty years,
contains a great deal of condensed history and diplomacy.
The Japanese representatives always seem to have retained
their native politeness, which, if report be true, was not
always returned by the foreign representatives, but on
several occasions their patience seems to have been sorely
tried. Mr. Mutsu, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, felt
himself compelled on one occasion to say that " the Japanese
Government do not consider themselves bound to acquiesce
for ever in the present position of the question or to go on
maintaining indefinitely a system of relations with Foreign
Powers which they consider to be no longer compatible with
the progress and changed institutions of the country " ; and he
added that by meeting with discouragement in London " it
might be necessary to resort to other means of asserting
what Japan believes to be her rights." Lord Kimberley,
the British Minister for Foreign Affairs, retorted that if such
language meant that Japan would set aside her treaty
obligations, it would retard rather than advance the revision
which they desire. In a carefully prepared memorandum,
which is an excellent combination of politeness, firmness,
and diplomacy, Mr. Mutsu explained that he meant nothing
offensive to the British Government, but he insisted on the
fact that consular jurisdiction as understood and practised
in Japan is incompatible with a constitutional form of
Government, and he concluded as follows: — "The con-
scientious endeavour on the part of the Imperial Government
to fulfil, in good faith, their existing conventional obligations,
coupled with their recent attitude on the subject of the strict
enforcement of Japan's treaties, are in themselves strong

1 Correspondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty Arrangements between
Great Britain and Japan (August 1S94).

326 Dai A T ippon

guarantees that the Imperial Government have no thought
of resorting to denunciation in order to free the Empire of
those treaties. It only remains for the Imperial Govern-
ment unequivocally, and without any reservation whatever,
to declare that the proposals now under consideration of
Her Britannic Majesty's Government rest solely upon their
own inherent merit. They are not supported by any
menace of denunciation, and the Imperial Government have
no wish or intention of attempting a modification of their
treaties except by the method prescribed in those treaties."

The national feeling in the matter was reflected in a
letter from Count (now Marquis) Ito to Prince Nijo, of
which the following passages appear in the above-mentioned
Blue Book : — " Those national rights which may be asserted
by the strict enforcement of the treaties should, of course,
be strictly enforced ; and, moreover, should it be necessary
to insist upon our national rights, we must labour to abolish
and amend the provisions of such treaties. . . . The
Government is convinced that it does not lie under the
obligation of willingly acquiescing in the sacrifice of
Japanese rights by submitting to the present treaties
permanently and indefinitely."

If Mr. Mutsu had had the same knowledge of inter-
national law as his successors who now represent Japan at
their own Foreign Office and in the various countries of the
world, he would not have assumed such an apologetic tone.
He would, with true Japanese politeness, have simply read
his opponents a lesson in international law and reminded
them that, as the term for which the treaties had been
concluded had expired, they could be renounced by Japan
without any question as to her legal right to do so. More-
over while we may give Mr. Mutsu full credit for writing
what he believed to be the true facts of the case and with
no intention of using a threat, it cannot be doubted that if
there had been much longer delay in the revision of the
treaties neither the Japanese nor the British Government,
nor indeed a combination of all the foreign Governments,

International Relations 327

could have prevented some other steps than those of
diplomacy from being taken, as evidence was abundant that
the patience of the Japanese people had almost reached its
limit.

Fortunately for all parties, no such steps were necessary,
as in March 1894 the question so long at issue found
definite solution in the negotiations between ~ , ...

& Treaty with

Lord Kimberley, represented by the Hon. Great Britain
Francis Bertie, Under Secretary of State on
the one part, and the Japanese Minister, Viscount Aoki, on
the other. On the 16th July the work was completed by
the signature of a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
between Great Britain and Japan. Article XVIII. of this
Treaty provides that " the several foreign settlements in
Japan, possessing extra-territorial rights, shall be incorporated
with the respective Japanese communes " ; while by Article
XX. it is stipulated that the present treaty, from the date
it comes into force, shall be substituted for all previous
conventions, " and, in consequence, the jurisdiction then
exercised by British Courts in Japan, and all the exceptional
privileges, exemptions, and immunities then enjoyed by
British subjects as a part of or appurtenant to such
jurisdiction shall absolutely and without notice cease and
determine, and thereafter all such jurisdiction shall be
assumed and exercised by Japanese courts." The Blue
Book contains memoranda by Viscount Aoki and the
representatives of the British Government explaining the
various points in the treaty. The Japanese Minister said :
" The treaty opens to Japan a new era in her foreign
relations, for it proclaims for the first time its full and
legitimate reception into the fellowship of nations. To
Great Britain it signifies free access to the whole interior
of the Japanese Empire on the usual terms of European
international intercourse."

The example given by Great Britain was gradually
followed by the other Treaty Powers, and it was agreed,
subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions, that from

28 Dai Nippon

July 1899 Japanese tribunals should assume jurisdiction
over every person, of whatever nationality, within the confines
Followed by of Japan, and that the whole country should be
other Powers, thrown open to foreigners. The foreign settlers
were, as a rule, opposed to the revision of the treaties and
to the giving up of the privileges which they had hitherto
enjoyed, but when they saw that revision was inevitable
they accepted the position and showed their willingness to
co-operate with the Japanese authorities. On June 30,
1899, an Imperial Rescript was issued in the following
terms : —

" Assisted by the surviving influence of the virtues ot
Our ancestors, it has been Our good fortune to uphold the

imperial reign of sovereign rule and disseminate the

Rescript. benefits of orderly administration, resulting at
home in the increased prosperity of the nation, and abroad
in the strengthening of Our relations with Foreign Powers.
As to the revision of treaties, Our long-cherished aspiration,
exhaustive plans and repeated negotiations have, at last,
been crowned by a satisfactory settlement with the Treaty
Powers. Now that the date assigned for the operation of
the revised treaties is drawing near, it is a matter for
heartfelt joy and satisfaction that, while, on the one hand, the
responsibilities devolving upon the country cannot but
increase Our friendship with the Treaty Powers, on the
other, it has been placed on a foundation stronger than ever.

" We expect that Our loyal subjects, ever ready to
discharge public duties, will in obedience to Our wishes,
conform to the national polity of enlightenment and progress,
and be united as one man in treating the people of far-off
lands with cordiality, and in thereby endeavouring to uphold
the character of this nation and enhance the glory of the
Empire.

" Further, we command Our Ministers of State to under-
take the responsibility of putting the revised treaties into
operation in such a manner that, by means of proper
supervision over their subordinates, and the exercise of

International Relations 329

prudence and discretion, both Our born subjects and strangers
may be enabled equally to participate in the benefits
accruing from the new system, and that the friendly relations
with the Treaty Powers may be permanently cemented."

All classes in the country united to carry out the wishes
expressed in the Imperial Rescript. The Premier and other
Ministers of State issued instructions to the effect that the
responsibility now devolved on the Government and the
duty on the people of enabling foreigners to reside con-
fidently and contentedly in every part of the country.
Probably the most significant sign of the change which had
taken place in Japanese opinion was the action of the chief
Buddhist prelates in addressing to the priests and parishioners
in their dioceses injunctions pointing out that, freedom of
conscience being now guaranteed by the Constitution, men
professing alien creeds must be treated as courteously as the
followers of Buddhism, and must enjoy the same rights and
privileges. The confidence which the Foreign Powers placed
in the good faith of the Japanese people has been fully
justified, and their relations with the Government of Japan
have been of a cordial nature. No doubt some questions
have arisen about details and some individuals may have
thought that they had some grievances, but, on the whole,
foreigners in Japan have greater freedom than and as much
safety as they would have in any other civilised country in
the world.

As Great Britain was the first Foreign Power to recog-
nise the freedom of Japan from foreign jurisdiction, she was
also the first to follow that up by a treaty of \ni ance
alliance which bound the Britain of the East with

to that of the West with more than the ties of
diplomatic friendship. 1 The advisability of such an alliance
had been gradually impressing itself on the minds both of
British and of Japanese statesmen as a very natural result of
the political developments which had taken place in the Far
East, and among others no one had recognised more clearly

1 See Appendix B.

2,2,0 Dai Nippon

than Marquis Ito that the interests of Great Britain and
Japan would be served by an alliance which, while actuated
solely by a desire to maintain the status quo and general
peace in the Far East and to secure equal opportunities for
the commerce and industry of all nations, would at the same
time ensure that the Governments of Great Britain and
Japan would co-operate in all matters directly affecting these
interests. On January 30, 1902, a treaty of alliance, defen-
sive and offensive, was signed by Lord Lansdowne and Baron
Hayashi, representing Great Britain and Japan respectively —
a step which may be looked upon as the final stage in the
recognition of Japan as one of the Great Powers of the
world.

When the true and complete history of the early inter-
national relations of Japan comes to be written, it will afford
Remarks on many interesting lessons to the psychologist
treaty revision. anc j fae moralist. I have touched on some of its
main points only. Captain Brinkley, reviewing the subject,
has said : " The most tolerant of Europeans has always
regarded the Japanese — and let them see that he regarded
them — merely as interesting children. Languidly curious at
best about the uses to which they would put their imported
toys, his curiosity was purely academical, and whenever
circumstances required him to be practical, he laid aside all
pretence of courtesy and let it be plainly seen that he
counted himself master, and intended to be so counted. If
the archives of the Japanese Foreign Office were published
without expurgation, their early papers would make a remark-
able record. Diplomatic euphemisms are the last thing to
be sought there ; and in that respect they reflect the
demeanour of the ordinary foreigner. When not a harsh
critic he was either contemptuously tolerant or loftily patron-
ising. The Japanese chafed under that kind of treatment
for many years, and they resent it still, for though a pleasant
alteration has gradually been effected in the foreigner's
methods, the memory of the evil time survives. Besides,
they neither consider the change complete nor regard its

International Relations 331

causes with unmixed satisfaction. It is not complete
because the taint of Orientalism has not yet been removed
from the nation, and the causes are unsatisfactory because
they suggest a low estimate of Western morality."

Captain Brinkley has thus summarised the privileges
conceded to foreigners under the revised treaties : — (1) They
may trade, travel, and reside in any part of L

Japan, enjoying full protection for their persons specially affecting
and property ; (2) they may use the law courts
on the same terms as Japanese subjects ; (3) they have full
religious freedom ; (4) they are exempt from any taxes
except those imposed on Japanese subjects ; (5) they are
exempt from military service, military contributions, and
forced loans ; (6) they may engage in all legitimate trades
and mechanical operations, subject to the provisions of the
law ; (7) they may enter into partnership with Japanese or
foreigners or become shareholders in joint-stock companies ;
(8) their ships and cargoes may come to all ports open to
foreign commerce without paying any higher duties or
charges than those paid by Japanese subjects ; (9) they are
exempt from all transit dues, and they enjoy equality of
treatment with Japan in regard to drawbacks, exportation
and warehousing facilities, but the coasting trade is reserved
to Japanese vessels except in the case of the existing open
ports ; (10) they may lease land ; (11) they may take mort-
gages on land. The conditions relating to the holding of
land and other matters affecting industry and commerce have
been mentioned in a previous chapter.

We have now glanced at the most important international
relations of Japan in so far as these are embodied in formal
treaties, but nowadays the engineers, manu- international
facturers, and merchants bring about conditions business relations,
which have great influence in politics. Before we can under-
stand the foreign policy of any country we must study its
business relations with other countries, and therefore it is
desirable that we should look at the industry and commerce
of Japan in their international relations and ascertain their

332 Da i Nippon

influence on political action. It has been truly said that the
engineer is the real revolutionist. He creates forces against
which the efforts of politicians are vain, and even the actions
of armies and navies are of little avail, since ultimately
economic conditions determine the fate of nations. Legis-
lation and political action may divert for some time the forces
which are moulding national affairs, but in the long run they
must yield to the economic forces which are at work. In no
part of the world has this been so distinctly shown as in the
countries in the Far East during the latter half of the
nineteenth century.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 was an event
which produced immediate and serious economic changes —
industrial, commercial, and financial — in the affairs of the
Far East. Before that time all the trade of the Western
Hemisphere with India and the Far East had been by the
Cape of Good Hope, at an expenditure in time of from six
to eight months for the round voyage, and the time and
risks involved naturally caused a vast system of warehousing,
distribution, and banking suited to the conditions. The
opening of the Canal rendered the greater number of the
sailing ships hitherto in use practically valueless, and an
amount of tonnage, estimated by some authorities as high as
two million tons, and representing an immense amount of
wealth, was virtually destroyed. New steamships specially
designed for the passage of the Canal were constructed, and
with the improvements which have been made in recent
years, the voyage from London to Bombay can now be
performed in less than three weeks, while the Far East can
be reached in a time varying from a month to six weeks,
according to the route selected.

The telegraph communication which has been made
between the Far East and all parts of the world has been
the cause of great changes in commercial methods and
results. The world has been shrunken into small dimensions,
and economic conditions tend to a uniform level. Formerly
large fortunes could be made by taking advantage of the

International Relations 2,33

conditions of local markets, and a good part of the wealth
acquired by early British merchants in China was made by
keeping swift steamers, which carried goods to markets
where there was a great demand, and selling them at prices
which were much above those ruling in the places of
supply, and from which goods did not arrive until the
high-priced stocks were disposed of.

During the past few years still further changes have
been made which will have profound effects on the commerce
and industry of the Far East. The completion of the
Siberian Railway has brought Europe within a month of
the ports of China and Japan, and has been the immediate
cause of the development of Russian progress in the
direction of the Pacific coast. The war between Japan and
China in 1894-95 awoke the Powers of Europe to a sense of
the military and naval strength of Japan, and led to those
political developments which have kept the Far East in a
state of unstable equilibrium ever since. In a sense, the
war between the United States and Spain was a sequel to
that between Japan and China ; for recent industrial and
commercial developments in America and the growth of the
imperial spirit in politics have made the United States a
power in the Pacific, and Hawaii and the Philippine Islands
were required as midway naval and military stations.
These developments will lead, before long, to the con-
struction of a Trans-Isthmian Canal either at Panama or
Nicaragua (possibly ultimately at both places), which will
have a profound effect on the commerce, not only of Japan
and China, but also of the other countries and colonies in
the East, such as Siam, Hong-Kong, Straits Settlements,
and even of India. The creation of the Australian
Commonwealth, which was rendered possible largely through
the work of the engineer, by the construction of lines of
swift steamers, of telegraph cables and connecting railways
and overland telegraph lines, have all emphasised the fact
that the Pacific area is destined to be the scene of the
struggle, not only for political but also for commercial and

334 Dai Nippon

industrial ascendency, by the nations of the world. Mean-
time we can only consider briefly one aspect of that struggle,
namely, the part which Japan is likely to take in it, in
order that we may the better understand her foreign policy.
A glance at a map of the world shows us that Japan is
placed in a peculiarly advantageous position not only for
_ , . , purposes of trade but also for military and

Geographical r r J

advantages naval defence or offence. It forms the centre
o Japan. Q ^ a jj ^ Q most important trade routes not only
of the Pacific area but also of the world, connected as she is
on both sides with Europe and America by lines of steam-
ships and railways which must concentrate in her a large
amount of trade and give her a great advantage in nearly
every market in the world.

Japan is equally well situated for every military or naval
operation which is likely to take place in the Far East, and
her geographical position would go a long way to ensure her
success should matters ever reach the terrible arbitrament of
war. The long line of the Japanese Empire from Yezo to
Formosa affords safe and convenient stations for both military
and naval purposes ; the army and navy would be near
their sources of supply and not thousands of miles away as
would be the case with the European and American Powers.
The coasts of China would thus be commanded, and the
passage of any hostile forces made very difficult. Korea is
within a few hours' sail of some of the strongest and most
convenient ports of Japan, and Hong-Kong is close to the
southern point of Formosa, the Philippines are only about
seven days' steaming from Nagasaki, while Indo-China, Siam,
and even Australasia are all within easy reach. It is evident,
therefore, that Japan, by herself, must be a very potent factor
in all Far Eastern questions. In alliance with Britain, as
she now is, she would be irresistible against any combination
which was likely to be formed. Moreover, there is another
aspect of the subject which should not be overlooked. While
I do not believe that the Japanese have any wish or intention
to follow an aggressive policy, it would be well if the Foreign

International Relations 335

Powers would recognise not only the strength of her position
but also the possibilities of a stupendous military and naval
organisation under the leadership of Japan, which would
make the peoples of the East all-powerful should the selfish
policies of European Powers drive them to an offensive
position.

As I have already stated, there are two distinct and
essentially different kinds of industries in Japan ; namely,
those which are of native or Chinese origin T ,

& Industrial com-

and which are still carried on to a very large petition with
extent in Japanese style, and those which have foreign nations -
been introduced from Western countries and are carried on
on the factory system. With the former of these there is
no competition in the markets of the world and they must
win their way through their own inherent merits. The
production of the keramic and cloisonne ware of the
Japanese, of their silk fabrics, their pictures and their
carvings, and in short, their art productions of all kinds,
must be carried on in what is essentially the domestic
system of industry if they are to retain their excellence.
Each workman is an artist to a greater or less degree, and
he revolts against being converted into a machine or the
mere attendant of a machine. He requires work which, in
itself, gives him pleasure and on which he can imprint his
own personality. There is indeed a danger, as I have
already pointed out, that the artistic capabilities of the
Japanese may be crushed out by the use of machinery, and
that they will be brought face to face with all the problems,
industrial, physical, and social, which lie heavily on the hearts
of all thoughtful men who have observed the conditions of
modern industrial nations. While all that is admitted, it
must also be recognised that mechanical and industrial
development in the production of goods to satisfy many
of the ordinary wants of life is a stage in the necessary
evolution through which nations must pass before they
arrive at a state of equilibrium in which they will endeavour
to live and not simply struggle for the means of life.

336 Dai Nippon

The industries in Japan which will have a direct effect
on her foreign policy are those conducted on the factory
system and the products of which come into direct com-
petition with those of other countries. The one which
meantime appeals most to British manufacturers is that of
cotton, which, as we have seen, has made great strides in
Japan during recent years. Not only are the products of
Japanese mills able to supply the greater part of the wants
of the people of the country, but the surplus now forms a
very important item in the trade with Korea and China.
The Statistical Secretary of the Chinese Imperial Maritime
Customs in a recent report, writing of manufactured goods,
says that Japanese productions, made of cotton, imported in
a raw state from China, are able to return to China and
compete successfully with the home-made yarns, which are
heavily taxed. In short the Japanese mills, though obliged
to pay export duty on the raw cotton, together with the
cost of two transportations between China and Japan, and
finally import duty on the yarns as they re-enter China,
can undersell the Chinese yarns in China ; a fact which
speaks well of the efficiency of Japanese workers and
organisation. It is a remarkable fact that Japan is now a
larger importer of Indian raw cotton than all the Continental
ports and the United Kingdom together. The consequence
of the development of the cotton industry in Japan is that
the trade of British yarns is practically at an end. The
problem of an increased supply of raw cotton is one which
Japan must face, in the same way as British manufacturers
are attempting to face it at the present time. What is true
of the cotton industry will also be true, before long, of other
departments, and therefore the economic relations of Japan
to other countries are a matter of great importance, not only
for the supply of raw materials, but also for the sale of the
manufactured products. China and Korea being the nearest
countries to Japan and offering the most convenient markets
are naturally those in which the Japanese take the greatest
amount of political interest.

International Relations 337

Although the development of Japanese industries has in
some cases increased the competition with British and other
foreign goods, it has at the same time given a great impetus
to the manufacture of others, especially the machinery-
required in industries and in all the accessories of modern
Western life. A glance at the list of imports shows that
the Japanese are now users to a greater or less extent of
almost all classes of foreign goods ; so that an increased
demand for these has arisen which counterbalances the loss
in special departments in which they now produce not only
for themselves but also for their neighbours in the Far East.
As the different countries in the world develop their own
resources, so must the exports of Britain and other manu-
facturing countries change their nature. Many of these
have had their origin in chance conditions which are rapidly
disappearing, and the cheap supply of raw materials and
efficient labour must in great part determine the future
of any industry. Any attempt to prevent the action of
economic forces by tariffs or otherwise must result in the
great body of the people being taxed for the benefit of a
small number of manufacturers.

The direct economic influence of Japanese industrial
development on the countries in the Far East will, no doubt,
be to disturb the conditions which have existed

• ... , Japanese

for generations ; but by itself it is not likely to industrial influ-

be very great for a considerable time, for, after e " ce J? the
„ , , . Far East.

all, the best market will be the home market ;
still as a factor in the evolution which is going on it cannot
be neglected. Japanese products are finding their way into
all the countries in the Far East, are gradually changing
the social customs of the people and leading them to the use
of Western appliances and methods, and thus again affecting
economic conditions in other departments. But probably
most important of all is the indirect and the educational
influence of the Japanese in China and Korea ; for this is
certain to tell before long on large numbers of the people,
who will be stirred up to attempt manufactures on their own

(b 207) z

338 Dai Nippon

account. If the Chinese were undertaking modern industries
with the same energy as the Japanese, they might become
the greatest manufacturing nation in the world, but they are
slow to move, not because they are either stupid or lazy,
but because they have a philosophy of life which keeps them
out of the competitive struggle. It will be interesting to
note how far they are drawn into that struggle, or whether
their philosophy will be sufficient to enable them to take
advantage of Western methods without allowing these to
dominate social and even political conditions.

The fear has sometimes been expressed that the cheap

labour of the Far East will cause a decrease in the wages of

the West and a consequent deterioration of

Japanese

industrial influ- the standard of life, but that aspect of the
en w m the SUD J ec t has been greatly exaggerated. The
tendency will be one of levelling up rather than
of levelling down, and already the wages of all skilled
workers in Western industries in the Far East have
greatly increased. Local economic advantages will, of
course, tell, but inherited skill and experience, superior
organisation and management will for a considerable time
more than balance these advantages. British manufacturers
have much more to fear from the competition of America
and Europe than from that of Japan. The start which they
had in the industrial world gave them a great advantage, but
it is now having its disadvantages ; for many manufacturers
have kept neither their machinery, their organisation, nor
their management up to the standard to be found in
many of the works of the United States and the Continent,
in which full use has been taken of the latest inven-
tions and the most improved methods. The telegraph and
the other means of communication to all parts of the world
have to a large extent made the markets of the world one,
except where they are hedged in by protective tariffs, which
not only allow the local manufacturers to accumulate large
profits but also discourage attempts at improvements in
machinery and organisation. With the constant change in

International Relations 339

conditions there must be a constant change in methods and
appliances involving not only a temporary loss of capital
but also in many cases a loss, or at any rate a change, of
employment which will inflict hardships on many of the
individuals concerned. Whether these hardships can be met
with the present individualistic social organisation is a
problem which will require to be considered in the not
distant future, and the study of such problems may lead to
very important results. Britain especially will require to
study her position very carefully and recognise the changing
conditions. It was a happy concurrence of circumstances
more than any virtue or talents inherent in us that gave
us such a predominant position in industry and commerce
during the nineteenth century, but now circumstances are
tending in the opposite direction. Not only in Japan and
China are great economic changes taking place, but in all
the countries bounded by the Pacific area we may expect
still greater changes in the near future, and these are certain
to influence not only the foreign policy of Japan but that of all
the great Powers of the world. If we look at the marvellous
Pacific coast -line of Asia, stretching from Singapore to
Vladivostock, with the vast countries of Siberia, China, and
Australia, and then turn to the Pacific coast of America
opposite, stretching from Alaska to Patagonia, with the vast
countries of Canada, the United States, South America, and
the rest, and imagine the population which will be in these
countries by the end of this century, we are almost over-
whelmed with the thought of the possibilities of the position.
Meantime we cannot discuss these possibilities, but we may
rest assured that Japan will take a very important part in
them. In conjunction with China she might not only
revolutionise economic conditions in the Far East, but also
have great effect on those of the West. The late Secretary
Seward, nearly forty years ago, made a prediction in the
Senate of the United States that " the Pacific Ocean, its
shores, its islands and the vast regions beyond, will become
the chief theatre of events in the world's great Hereafter."

34° Dai Nippon

That prophecy is now being fulfilled ; but whether these events
are to be the outcome of free economic forces, whether they
are to be guided by legislation and tariffs or whether the
competitive struggle will lead to armed combinations which
will upset all calculations and speculations, are secrets that
only the future will reveal. The direct as well as the
indirect economic influence of Japan on other countries and
especially on those which are bounded by the Pacific area,
will form a most interesting study during the course of the
present century, and attention to that study will be necessary
on the part of the men who guide the destinies of the nations
concerned, if their policy is to be carried out on rational lines.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

A history of treaty revision in Japan will be possible only when
access is given to the archives of the Japanese Foreign Office and
to those of the Foreign Powers, or when some of those who took
part in the negotiations publish their impressions and observations.
An outline has been given in Captain Brinkley's article on Japan in
the supplementary volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and
Baron Alexander von Siebold has given a fuller account of it in
his book, Japan's Accession to the Comity of Nations, although in
some parts it does not seem to be quite impartial. The files of
the daily newspapers are almost the only sources of information
available to general readers. The British Blue Book containing
the correspondence respecting the revision of treaty arrangements
between Great Britain and Japan, and the corresponding publica-
tions of the other Foreign Powers, are the only official published
documents, and from these a good deal can be learned by those
who lived in Japan at the time and thus are able to read between
the lines. With regard to international business relations, little of a
scientific nature has been written, and reference can only be made
to current publications, as the conditions are rapidly changing.
Stafford Ransome's Japan in Transition contains some suggestive
matter on the subject, and Alfred Stead's Japan, Our New Ally, will
be useful to general readers. Interesting chapters on " Japan as a
World Power " will be found in the two last-named works, also in
Clement's Handbook of Modern Japan, and Norman's Real Japan.
Conditions, however, are changing rapidly, and with them new
problems are arising.

CHAPTER XVII

FOREIGN POLITICS

We are now in a position to understand the foreign politics
of Japan. I have endeavoured to indicate the motives and
the economic forces which have been at the root of all the
great changes which have taken place ; and we cannot doubt
that the intense feeling of patriotism among the Japanese
and the determination to make their country stand in a
position of equality with foreign nations were the most
important factors in the movement which has profoundly
changed all the conditions of Japan. Such a feeling
naturally led to actions which, in many cases, had the
appearance of presumption, and no doubt sometimes the
appearance had a good deal of reality ; but in times of
transition, when old ideals of individual and national conduct
are disappearing and new ones have not yet fully taken their
place, a certain amount of eccentricity is to be expected.
However, after discounting all that even the most severe
critics have said about them, it cannot be disputed that,
notwithstanding their apparent fickleness, the Japanese have
steadily kept to the main ideas with which they started
when they decided to adopt Western methods. These, as I
have more than once stated, were embodied in the principles
proclaimed on oath by the Emperor on the occasion of his
accession to the throne.

Behind the patriotic motives there are strong economic
and political forces which have influenced the foreign policy
of Japan. The rapid increase in population and the

341

34 2 Dai Nippon

necessity for outlets not only for the surplus population but

also for the surplus industrial products, has been forcing

Economic Japanese statesmen to consider the problems in-

forces. volved, and like the statesmen of other countries
they have sought them in the settlement of numbers of their
people in foreign countries and in an extension of their
foreign markets. Korea, from her geographical position, her
sparsely peopled territory and her undeveloped resources, is
the most natural outlet. Moreover, its historical connection
with Japan gives the Japanese a first claim among Foreign
Powers for close relations and, if necessary, friendly pro-
tection. The development of industry in Japan is making
the country to a certain extent (although as yet not to a
very great extent) dependent on the produce of other
countries for the food of its population ; and as Korea is
a rich agricultural country, it is important that Japan should
be able to control it so far as to ensure a supply of food for
those of her people who are engaged in manufacturing
industries. Most important of all, however, is the fact that
the possession of Korea by a strong Foreign Power would
give her a strategetical position which would not only
dominate Japan but even threaten her national existence.
These considerations have to a large extent displaced the
ideal of a self-contained empire, by one whose influence
would be felt in the councils of the world, and especially in
all that directly affects the countries in the Pacific area.

When I arrived in Japan (in 1873) ^ ne highest ambition
of all the officials with whom I came into contact, and also
of my own students, was that their country
to become the might become the Britain of the East, and
Britain of the ^ey not infrequently got laughed at by
foreigners for what was considered their con-
ceit. During the thirty years which have elapsed since
that time they have kept their ideal steadily in view, and
few will deny that they have gone a long way towards its
realisation. They have laid a solid foundation for national
progress in a system of education which is very complete

Foreign Politics 343

in every department, and which, in some respects, affords
lessons to Britain ; they have formed an army and a navy
which cause the opinions of Japan to be considered with
respect ; they have developed their railways, their shipping,
their telegraphs and the other appliances of modern life to
an astonishing extent ; their industry and their commerce
have made wonderful developments, and the machinery of
legislation and administration has been brought into line
with those of European countries.

The geographical position of Japan gives her a mari-
time advantage relatively to Asia precisely analogous to
that occupied by Great Britain to Europe. So far as I have
been able to judge from the utterances of her statesmen, from
the opinions expressed by the press and the general ideas of
the people, the Japanese have no higher ambition than that
their country should become the Britain of the East, resting
secure in her own strength, but with no wish for territorial
expansion in other parts of the world. Whatever influence
she exercises on Asia or indeed on any other Continent,
they wish that that should be through wise statesmanship
and the peaceful methods of commerce and education. A
great part of the success of the modern movement in Japan
arises from the fact that the impulse came from within and
that the people have recognised their own powers and the
possibilities of their country. As a thoughtful Japanese
writer has said : " It was some small degree of this recogni-
tion that remade Japan and enabled her to weather the storm
under which so much of the Oriental world went down."
No doubt, believing that Asia can be really influenced for
good only by those who understand Asiatic modes of thought,
the Japanese think that they have a special role in the re-
generation of the Far East, and this idea may occasionally
lead them into what, to Western minds, may seem extra-
vagances ; but on the whole, so far as I have been able to
judge of those who have any authority in Japan, they will
be content to allow their influence to develop in a natural
way ; that is, through the intercourse of commerce and

344 Dai Nippon

industry and the results of education. It must, however,
have been evident to those who have studied the subject,
that Japanese policy, both at home and abroad, has developed
through change of conditions, and recent events in the Far East
may have enlarged the views and ambitions of the Japanese ;
or perhaps, to be more exact, they may compel them to take
steps in self-defence which never occurred to them when the
subjects were first discussed. The aggressive action of
Foreign Powers may indeed compel them to actions which
also seem aggressive, but it is to be hoped that whatever
happens, they will always be willing to grant to other
Eastern nations all the rights which they have claimed for
themselves, and chief among these is the right to work out
their own national salvation in their own way, without
foreign domination.

As we have seen in previous chapters, for a good many
years after the advent of foreigners in Japan, diplomatic
Diplomatic action was, for the most part, confined to the dis-
action. cussion of the revision of treaties, and especially
in so far as these affected tariffs and the question of extra-
territoriality, and Japan had practically no foreign politics.
Now that she has attained a position of equality with other
nations, she asks no favours, but she means to insist on her
rights. Her alliance with Great Britain was formed from a
desire to maintain the status quo and general peace in
the Far East, especially the territorial integrity of the
Empires of China and Korea, and to secure equal oppor-
tunities in these countries for the commerce and industry of
all nations. She has in many ways made it clear that she
has no wish for territorial aggrandisement, but she may be
driven to take steps to protect her interests and reach her
ideals which may seem to be opposed to the strict letter of
some of her words. If that be so, the Foreign Powers will
have themselves to thank. She is not likely to interfere
either in European or in American politics if her legitimate
rights are respected. Her task lies in the Far East, and
whatever influence she exercises in the countries of the West

Foreign Politics 345

will only be indirect. She may, however, afford those
countries many useful object lessons, and it is sincerely to be
hoped that their foreign policy will be such as will enable
East and West to co-operate in advancing the highest welfare
of both.

While it is, of course, impossible to give what may be
considered a strictly official view of Japanese foreign policy,
the speeches and writings of representative men ,

1 or Japanese ideas

who hold or have held high positions in the on foreign
Japanese Government may be taken as indicat- Pay-
ing fairly well the opinions of those who guide the policy of
the Government, and especially when it is found that the
diplomatic and political action of the Government agrees
with the ideas expressed by those from whom we quote.
The following from a paper read to the American Academy
of Political and Social Science * by Mr. Takahira, the
Japanese representative at Washington, on " The Position of
Japan in the Far East," may be taken as representing what
may be called the intelligent official view of the subject.
After dealing with some historical details, Mr. Takahira
said: "Japan has never had an intention to take advantage
of the misfortunes of her neighbours or to seek for territorial
aggrandisement, but the sincere desire of her Government
and people is to have all neighbouring countries realise that
mutual interests can best be promoted by the maintenance
of peace, the promotion of commerce and industry, and the
strengthening of the ties of interdependence. It is not
meant by this that a race coalition should be formed hostile
to the interest of other countries ; such a coalition as has
been typified in the expression ' Yellow Peril.' My meaning
simply is that a country to be truly prosperous should have
peaceful and prosperous neighbours. That naturally leads to
interdependence, not political, but social and commercial, and
establishes the surest guarantee of peace to all concerned.
Some portions of the world have been compared to an armed
camp, each country watching the others and each jealously

1 March 7, 1903.

346 Dai Nippon

apprehensive of encroachment. Under such conditions men
prosper not because of this policy but in spite of it. It is
no part of the ambition of Japan to establish such a state
of things in the Far East, least of all to combine with her
neighbours for aggression or even for defence. She wishes
them to be peaceful and prosperous, because that is the
most certain means by which her own peace and prosperity
can be assured ; and she desires them to appreciate at its
full worth the advantage of interdependence, because their
relations and their relative positions are such as to render it
an indispensable pre-requisite to mutual prosperity. ... It
is not out of place here to call attention to statements which
have appeared in different publications expressing the fears
of certain over-anxious persons regarding the modernisation
of Asiatic peoples. [Here follows a quotation from an article
written in 1893.] ^ n this group of wonderful hypotheses
may be found the only basis for the fear of a so-called
' Yellow Peril ' to which I have already alluded. The usual
corollary is that Japan has a desire to control China thus
rejuvenated, and to lead her myriads against the rest of the
world. So far as China is concerned, the best answer to
such arguments is her present condition, ten years after the
foregoing article was written. As for Japan, her conduct
throughout the Boxer troubles and the course she has
pursued since those unfortunate events, have shown the
world that she has the same cause to uphold in China and
the same interests to protect as other civilised nations. It
is therefore self-evident that so long as China maintains
a correct position towards the civilised world she will retain
Japan's friendship ; but that she cannot rely on Japan for
support when she assumes a wrong attitude. . . . While we
are thus labouring for ourselves, our most earnest desire is
that the kindred people who are our neighbours shall labour
in the same manner for themselves and endeavour, as we
have done, to raise themselves above the hardships and
miseries of their present condition. That sums up, in a
word, Japan's position among Eastern nations. We are in

Foreign Politics 347

duty bound and in interest forced to do all that lies in our
power to assist our neighbours in the path which we have
followed, and in performing this task we esteem peace and
the preservation of the kindliest and most cordial relations
with all as an essential pre-requisite to success."

Commenting on these opinions, the editor of the Japci7i
Daily Mail (Captain Brinkley, a very competent authority)
says : " These utterances have, of course, a certain
academical sound, but as an exposition of Japan's position,
coming from one of her responsible officials, they are un-
doubtedly valuable. A man's interpretation of his neigh-
bour's mood is generally a reflection of his own. There has
not been any period of the world's history since mediaeval
days when racial prejudice prevailed more strongly among
Western peoples than it prevails to-day, and naturally these
nations expect to detect the same sentiment on the side of
its Oriental victims. It is not an unreasonable expectation.
Within easy reach of Japan's hand are materials which
might be welded by her into a stupendous military machine.
No observer with any experience doubts that the Chinese
are capable of being converted into good soldiers, or that
well equipped and well led they could stand in any field.
Assuming Japan to be ambitious of imperial aggrandisement,
and assuming that the racial prejudice of the Orient towards
the Occident is as strong and effective as that of the Occident
towards the Orient, it is quite within the range of possibilities
that the Japanese should be found one day at the head of
an almost irresistible hegemony of Eastern peoples. Some
such apprehension may fairly be assumed to have influenced
Russia and Germany when they combined to expel Japan
from Manchuria, and that the same apprehension is almost
overwhelming in Russia's case seems to be the only way of
explaining her subsequent aggressions in Manchuria, which
could scarcely fail to strain Japan's patience to breaking
point. A hard task is imposed on Japan to prove herself
true to the creed that Mr. Takahira enunciated at Philadelphia.
But she is trying."

348 Dai Nippon

Many opinions have been given (very often on imperfect
knowledge and very scant experience), on the future of
Japanese policy, but the following by Lord Curzon, now
Viceroy of India, may be taken as representing the intelligent
and statesmanlike view of the subject. After criticising
some of the opinions expressed by foreign writers, Lord
Curzon says : " The critics to whom I allude had lost sight
of the part which Japan aspires to play in the Far East, and
to which her policy of expenditure and organisation has
been strictly subordinated. That part is determined by her
geographical situation. Placed at a maritime coign of
vantage upon the flank of Asia, precisely analogous to that
occupied by Great Britain on the flank of Europe, exercising
a powerful influence over the adjoining continent, but not
necessarily involved in its responsibilities, she sets before
herself the supreme ambition of becoming, on a smaller
scale, the Britain of the Far East. By means of an army
strong enough to defend our shores, and to render invasion
unlikely, and still more of a navy sufficiently powerful to
sweep the seas, she sees that England has retained that
unique and commanding position in the West which was
won for us by the industry and force of character of our
people, by the mineral wealth of these islands, by the
stability of our Government, and by the colonising genius of
our sons. By similar methods Japan hopes to arrive at a
more modest edition of the same result in the East. Like
the English, her people are stubborn fighters and born
sailors. If she can but intimidate any would-be enemy
from attempting a landing upon her shores, and can fly an
unchallenged flag over the surrounding waters, while from
her own resources she provides occupation, sustenance,
clothing, and wages for her people, she will fulfil her role in
the international politics of the future." 1

The greatest difficulties in the problems connected with
China and Korea arise from the fact that the Govern-
ments of those countries are not animated by that spirit of

1 Problems of the Far East, p. 393. .

Foreign Politics 349

patriotism which made the Japanese so jealous of every-
thing touching their independence. The conduct of European
Governments has been so unscrupulous and Chinese opinions
selfish, and the Chinese officials so untrust- and ideals -
worthy, that it is impossible for outsiders to state any
guiding principles in the foreign affairs of China. At the
same time, even an approximately correct opinion about
Japanese policy in China cannot be formed without a study
of these affairs. All that we can do, meantime, is to give
a general idea of the impression which the policy of the
Foreign Powers has left on the Chinese mind. This has
been expressed by Sir Robert Hart in the following terms :
— " We did not invite you foreigners here," they say ; " you
crossed the seas of your own accord and more or less forced
yourselves on us. We generously permitted the trade you
were at first satisfied with, but what return did you make ?
To the trade we sanctioned you added opium-smuggling,
and when we tried to stop it you made war on us. We do
not deny that Chinese consumers kept alive a demand for
the drug, but both consumption and importation were
illegal and prohibited ; when we found it was ruining our
people and depleting our treasury we vainly attempted to
induce you to abandon the trade, and we then had to take
action against it ourselves. War ensued ; but we were no
warriors, and you won, and then dictated treaties which gave
you Hong-Kong and opened several ports, while opium still
remained contraband. Several years of peaceful intercourse
followed, and then Hong-Kong began to trouble us ; it was
originally ceded to be a careening place for ships simply,
but, situated on the direct route to the new ports, it grew
into an emporium, and also, close to our coast and rivers, it
became a smuggling centre ; in your treaties you had under-
taken a certain control of any junk traffic that should spring
up, but when that traffic became considerable you dropped
the promised control and our revenue suffered. Originally
uninhabited, Hong-Kong now became the home of numerous
Chinese settlers, many of them outlaws, who dare not live

350 Dai Nippon

on the mainland ; these became British subjects, and you
gave the British flag to their junks, which were one day
British and another Chinese just as it suited their purpose ;
and out of this came the Arrow war, followed by new
treaties, additional ports, legalised opium, and fresh stipula-
tions, in their turn the causes of fresh troubles. Whether
it was that we granted you privileges or that you exacted
concessions, you have treated the slightest mistakes as
violations of treaty rights, and instead of showing yourselves
friendly and considerate, you insult us by charges of bad
faith and demand reparation and indemnities. Your
legalised opium has been a curse in every province it
penetrated, and your refusal to limit or decrease the import
has forced us to attempt a dangerous remedy ; we have
legalised native opium, not because we approve of it, but
to compete with and drive out the foreign drug, and it is
expelling it, and when we have only the native production
to deal with, and thus have the business in our own hands,
we hope to stop the habit in our own way. Your mis-
sionaries have everywhere been teaching good lessons, and
benevolently opening hospitals and dispensing medicine for
the relief of the sick and the afflicted, but wherever they go
trouble goes with them, and instead of the welcome their
good intentions merit, localities and officials turn against
them ; when called on to indemnify them for losses, we find
to our astonishment that it is the exactions of would-be
millionaires we have to satisfy ! Your people are every-
where extra-territorialised ; but, instead of a grateful return
for this ill-advised stipulation, they appear to act as if there
were no laws in China, and this encourages native lawless-
ness and makes constant difficulties for every native official.
You have demanded and obtained the privilege of trading
from port to port on the coast, and now you want the
inland waters thrown open to your steamers. Your news-
papers vilify our officials and Government, and translated
into Chinese circulate very mischievous reading ; but yet
they have their uses, for by their threats .and suggestions

Foreign Politics 351

they warn us what you may some day do, and so help us
indirectly, although that does not conduce to mutual respect
or liking. All these things weaken official authority —
therefore the official world is against you ; and they hurt
many native traders — therefore the trading classes are
indignant. What countries give aliens the extra-territorial
status ? What countries allow aliens to compete in their
coasting trade ? What countries throw open their inland
waters to other flags ? And yet all these things you compel
us to grant you ; why can you not treat us as you treat
others ? Were you to do so you would find us friendly
enough, and there would be an end of this everlasting
bickering and these continually recurring wars ; really you
are too short-sighted, and you are forcing us to arm in self-
defence, and giving us grudges to pay off instead of benefits
to requite." *

Those opinions which Sir Robert Hart puts into the
mouth of a Chinaman are becoming public opinion in
China, and they have been intensified by the events of
recent years. The so-called leases of Kiao-Chow, Port
Arthur, Talienwan, and Wei-Hai-Wei, and especially the
doings of the Russians in Manchuria, have raised very
strong feelings among the educated Chinese. The excesses
which are sometimes perpetrated in China are simply the
blind, inarticulate reaction against the feelings of injustice
which the people have with regard to the action of
foreigners. These feelings are the causes of Japanese influ-
the increasing influence of Japan in China, as ence in China,
the Chinese recognise that the Japanese understand their
ways of thought better than Europeans, and it is becoming
more and more evident that the idea is taking hold of the
Japanese that it is the mission of Japan to bring China, as
it were, into the sphere of her intellectual, moral, and social
influence. Not only, as we have seen, is the trade with
Japan increasing, but Japanese influence is rapidly extend-
ing in educational, military, and police affairs in China.

1 Hart, These from the Land of Sinim, pp. 1 19-122.

352 Dai Nippon

Many of the educational institutions throughout the country
are superintended by Japanese, and in the training of
Chinese troops Japanese have, to a large extent, taken the
place of the Europeans who were formerly employed.
Gunboats and other vessels are being built in Japan for
the Chinese service, and it is understood that arms and
ammunition are being purchased in Japan. Hundreds of
Chinese students are now in Tokyo and other parts of
Japan fitting themselves, in many ways, for their future
work in China ; so that in a sense Japan is repaying to
China the debt she owed to her for her former civilisa-
tion. We are safe in assuming that if the foreign
policy of Japan ever brings her into collision with a
European power, the real (whatever the apparent) casus belli
will be the control of China, and that not merely on account
of the commercial and industrial interests involved (which,
of course, are very great and more than sufficient to give
the controlling Power a preponderating influence on the
Pacific) but probably even to a greater extent because of
the special mission which Japan believes herself to have in
the rejuvenation of China. 1

Korea being the nearest part of the Asiatic continent to
Japan, is, of course, the part which commands the first atten-
japan and tion. The earlier relations which existed between
Korea. Japan and Russia have been briefly indicated. 2
The interference of Russia, Germany, and France to pre-
vent the Japanese permanently occupying any part of the
mainland of China was evidently prompted by jealousy
and selfish ends. Not only did Russia see that such
an occupation would prevent her progress towards the
Pacific, but probably also the representatives of the
three Powers named shared the opinion of the German
Emperor that it might lead to a combination of Eastern
forces which would threaten the safety of Europe, and

1 For an excellent and condensed account of the doings of the Foreign Powers
in China and their results reference may be made to Brinkley : s China a?id Japan,
vol. xii., and especially to the last three chapters.

2 Cf. pp. 69-73.

Foreign Politics

ODO

indeed of the world. Such a thought was entirely
unwarranted, and it had never entered the brains of any
responsible Japanese ; while the Chinese have shown by
their conduct that war will never be of their seeking, not
because they are cowards, as is frequently supposed, but
because they are philosophers and detest war.

After the war with China (1894-95), Japan was for a
time supreme in Korea, and if more prudent counsels had
prevailed, that supremacy would not have been disturbed.
It was admitted by every one who knew anything about
Korea that its Government was in a most corrupt and
decrepit condition, and that reform was a necessity before
there was any hope of the country. The Japanese ought
to have known from their own experience that real reform
was only possible when it came from within, and that it
could not be impressed from without, and that it was there-
fore absurd to present the Korean Government with a
cut-and-dried scheme of reforms as precise as their military
plan of campaign, and to insist on it being carried out as if
it were a school exercise. The programme included the
reorganisation of the finances, the reform of the civil service
and the institution of a national army, as well as educational
and judicial reforms. When to all this was added a demand
for the compulsory development of Korean resources by
mining, railway, and commercial concessions, in which would
be found a profitable outlay of Japanese capital, there was
raised not only the opposition of the Korean Government but
also that of the Foreign Powers. The hatred of the powerful
family of the Queen, the members of which found themselves
threatened with the loss not only of their offices but also
of the opportunities which these gave them of enriching
themselves, was found to be a great obstacle to the success
of the Japanese, and in 1895 a party of Korean malcontents,
accompanied and aided, if not actually led by Japanese
soldiers, broke into the palace and murdered the Queen
and a great number of her relatives. These unfortunate
occurrences had most disastrous effects on Japanese

(B 20 7 ) 2 A

354 Dai Nippon

influence. The King took refuge in the Russian Legation,
and from that time date the troubles which now seem to be
nearing a crisis. The Japanese minister who had served
his country so badly was replaced by Baron Komura, the
present Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, whose
diplomatic tact and ability was as conspicuous as was the
lack of it in his predecessor.

From that time, Japan's earnest wish has been to come
to terms with Russia, and to secure the safety and indepen-
dence of Korea by diplomacy. She has extensive interests
both commercial and industrial in the country, and has
large settlements at every port open to foreigners. Three-
fourths of all the foreign trade and shipping of Korea are in
the hands of Japanese, whereas Russia has practically no
commercial interests. Two conventions with regard to Korea
were agreed to between Japan and Russia. By the first each
Power was allowed to have in Korea a sufficient number of
troops, not exceeding 800, for the protection of its legation
and settlements, and in addition the Japanese were allowed
a certain number of gendarmes for the protection of their
telegraph line between Fusan and the capital. By the
second, concluded in Tokyo in 1898, between Baron Nishi,
the Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs, and Baron Rosen,
the Russian Minister, both Governments "definitely recognised
the sovereignty and entire independence of Korea, and
mutually pledged themselves to abstain from every direct
interference in its internal affairs " ; and that of Russia
further pledged itself " not to obstruct the development of
industrial and commercial relations between Japan and
Korea." Mr. Longford (late of the British Consular Service
in Japan) remarks that " all these undertakings of both
conventions were faithfully observed by Russia, as long as it
suited her to do so, and that period only lasted until her
military resources in the Far East reached a stage of
development which she thought would enable her to meet
Japan on equal terms."

The discussion of affairs between Japan and Russia

Foreign Politics 355

became very acute during the summer of last year, when it
was found that the Russians had taken possession of a
concession which was said to have been granted by the King
of Korea when he was a refugee in the Russian Legation in
1896, and the usual Russian methods were followed. Forts
were erected commanding the Yalu River, and a claim was
put forward that the valley of the Yalu was included in the
sphere of Russian influence. The Japanese saw that this
looked suspiciously like their methods of procedure in
Manchuria. There they had commenced with the leasing
of a small portion of the Liaotung peninsula, and they
gradually extended their military occupation over the whole
of Manchuria. They disregarded with cynical effrontery
their promises to evacuate the territory by specified dates,
and instead they steadily strengthened their military
position, giving every indication that they meant to make
their occupation permanent. The Japanese took these
lessons to heart, and determined to bring the matter to an
issue before Russia had time to make herself overwhelmingly
strong. We need not follow all the discussions and corre-
spondence which were carried on in the latter half of last
year, the following Japanese official communique plainly
states the case for Japan : —

" It is absolutely indispensable to the safety and welfare
of Japan that the independence and territorial integrity of
Korea should be maintained, and that Japan's own para-
mount interests there should be safeguarded.

" Accordingly, the Japanese Government find it impossible
to view with indifference an action endangering the position
of Korea.

" Russia, despite her solemn treaty with China and her
repeated assurances to the Powers, not only continues in
occupation of Manchuria, but has even taken aggressive
action in Korean territory.

" Should once Manchuria be annexed to Russia, the
independence of Korea would naturally be impossible.

"This must, no doubt, be acknowledged by Russia

356 Dai Nippon

herself, because in 1895 Russia expressly intimated to
Japan that the possession of the Liaotung peninsula by
Japan would not only constitute a constant menace to the
capital of China, but would render the independence of
Korea illusory.

" Under these circumstances, the Japanese Government,
being desirous of securing a permanent peace in the Far
East by means of direct negotiations with the Russian
Government, with a view to arriving at a friendly adjust-
ment of mutual interests, in both Manchuria and Korea,
where the interests of Japan and Russia meet, communi-
cated such desire to the Russian Government towards the
end of July last, and invited them to meet it. The Russian
Government then expressed their willing consent.

"Accordingly, on the 12th August last, the Japanese
Government proposed to the Russian Government, through
their representative at St Petersburg, a basis of agreement
on the subject, which was substantially as follows : —

" 1. A mutual engagement to respect the independence
and territorial integrity of the Chinese and Korean Empires.

" 2. A mutual engagement to maintain the principle of
the equal opportunity for the commerce and industry of all
nations in those two countries.

" 3. Reciprocal recognition of Japan's preponderating
interests in Korea and Russia's special interests in railway
enterprises in Manchuria, and mutual recognition of the right
of Japan and Russia respectively to take such measures as
may be necessary for the protection of the above-mentioned
respective interests in so far as the principle set forth in
Article 1 is not infringed.

" 4. Recognition by Russia of the exclusive right of
Japan to give advice and assistance to Korea in the interest
of reform and good government in the Peninsular Empire.

" 5. An engagement on the part of Russia not to impede
an eventual extension of the Korean railway into Southern
Manchuria, so as to connect with the East China and Shan-
hai-Kwan and Newchwang lines."

Foreign Politics 357

The communique then gives a detailed account of the
negotiations which took place ; it states that " the Japanese
Government have throughout the negotiations been actuated
by the principles of moderation and impartiality, and have
demanded of the Russian Government nothing more than
the recognition of a principle which has been repeatedly and
voluntarily declared by Russia herself, while the Russian
Government have persistently refused to accede thereto.
While unduly delaying to hand their reply, whenever they
had to make one, they have, on the other hand, eagerly
augmented their naval and military preparations in the Far
East. In fact, large Russian forces are already on the
Korean frontier." Enough has been said to make the
question at issue clear from the point of view of Japan.

In order, however, that we may understand the whole
position, it is necessary that we should look at it from the
point of view of Russia. When we do that we The case for
find many of the same forces at work as in the Russia.
case of Japan. In a previous chapter I have noted some of
the early relations of Japan and Russia, which showed that
the difficulties between the two countries were of long
standing.

The history of Russian expansion in its details is, of
course, beyond our present scope ; it is sufficient for our pur-
pose to notice some of its main features. Since the Crimean
war great industrial changes have taken place in Russia, and
many parts of the country are being transformed from
agricultural to industrial and the population has rapidly
increased. As the methods of Russian agriculture are
extensive rather than intensive it has become necessary to
absorb more and more territory not only for purposes of
trade but also for colonisation. These were, no doubt, the
causes, in the first instance, which chiefly led to the construc-
tion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, not only in order that
the vast resources of Asia might be developed, but also that
an outlet might be found for the rapidly increasing popula-
tion. Russian foreign policy is therefore being guided by

3 5 8 Da i A T ippon

what are believed to be the overpowering needs of the
nation, and the expansion of her territory is now being
planned on a truly imperial scale at all the borders of
the Empire. In North and South Europe, in Persia, in
North Asia, and on the borders of India we find a Russian
question which is a sort of nightmare to the countries
concerned.

That question is made very difficult by the ambitions of

the military leaders of Russia, before which the autocratic

. . although peacefully inclined Czar is nearly

Russian ideas. x t . . , - .

powerless. Ihese ambitions carry the foreign
policy of Russia far beyond the national requirements.
Internal difficulties are shelved by attracting attention to a
spirited foreign policy, and the voices of Liberalism and of
Nihilism are smothered in the universal acclamation over
the extension of Russian territory and influence. Moreover,
it must not be overlooked that the religious feeling of the
masses in Russia has always been used as a motive power
for political ends. The religious cant which is uttered in
connection with tortuous diplomacy or in justification of
aggression is sufficient to disgust all thoughtful Easterns,
whose conduct, both national and personal, is very often an
example which might well be copied by those who think
themselves their superiors in civilisation. It cannot be
doubted that the enthusiastic Russian believes that his
country has a mission in the world, not only to civilise savage
tribes but to combat and correct the diseases of Western
civilisation by means of the Orthodox Church. He distrusts
all liberal institutions as leading to anarchy and the dissolu-
tion of society, and he believes that the Russian theocracy,
religion, and such social organisations as the village com-
munity are the best antidotes to socialistic and nihilistic
agitation. It is evident therefore that in discussing Russian
as well as Japanese foreign policy we must go below the
surface and ascertain the forces which are behind it. Unless
we do this all our ideas are of a haphazard and of a generally
impotent nature. The opposition between Japan and

Foreign Politics 359

Russia arises, at bottom, from the clash of two different ideals
of civilisation.

The rapid expansion of Russia across Northern Asia is
easily explained when we look at the geographical conditions.
The Siberian steppes offer facilities for unlimited Expansion of
expansion, and the importance to a country almost Russia -
completely landlocked or ice-bound on its European frontiers
naturally drove it to the Pacific shores in search of ports
which were open to the trade routes of the world. The
construction of the Trans-Siberian railway intensified the
need for such ports. At first, its terminus was intended to
be at Vladivostock, and while it was constructed to that
port, it soon became evident that that was only a stepping-
stone to one farther south, and which was ice-free all the
year round. British statesmen have, indeed, recognised the
reasonableness on the part of Russia in taking this step, and
probably this accounts for the seeming weakness of British
policy and action. Russian diplomacy is an art which
requires long study to understand, and it is difficult to
describe it. It is not doing it any injustice to call it
tortuous, prevaricating, and insincere. This was clearly
shown in the events which followed immediately on the
termination of the war between Japan and China, which
we have briefly mentioned. The more recent doings in
Manchuria are further illustrations of the same thing. After
obtaining possession of Port Arthur by means of her clever,
if somewhat unprincipled diplomacy, Russia always protested
that she had no ulterior designs on Manchuria. On that
pretext she was allowed to occupy the country during the
Boxer rising lest her railway to Port Arthur should be cut
up. Since then she has remained in Manchuria, notwith-
standing her repeated promises not only to Japan, but also
to Britain, the United States, and China, to evacuate the
territory long ago. The official despatches of the British
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs must be read in order
to understand how difficult it is to teach Russian diplomacy
to be honest. That correspondence shows that Britain and

360 Dai Nippon

the United States are both agreed as to the necessity of
preventing Manchuria from becoming a Russian province
and preserve, but neither of these Powers seems inclined
to take up a position which would put a stop to Russian
aggression.

With them, however, the decision on the matter, while
affecting their trade, is of comparatively small importance,
but with Japan it is a matter of life and death. It is absurd
for Russia to hold that Japan has no special interests in
Manchuria as distinct from the other Powers, and therefore
that she could not enter into a discussion with her on the
subject. The Japanese recognise that if Russia is entrenched
in Manchuria she could easily collect troops and muni-
tions of war, overwhelm Korea and bring the Russian
territory up to the Pacific Ocean. Moreover, the fact that
Russia filched the results of Japan's victories in 1894-95
from her, and appropriated them for herself, gave Japan the
right to raise the question in a form which will prevent the
repetition of such a piece of deception. While willing to
recognise the special claims of Russia in Manchuria, and
especially those which arise from the construction of the
railway connecting the main Siberian line with Port Arthur,
the Japanese firmly insist on the political integrity of China
as regards Manchuria. While Russia has promised to
observe that integrity, she has shown most distinctly by her
deeds that she will never give up possession until she is
compelled to do so, and further, that she will, as soon as she
can, take steps to obtain a firm hold on Korea. Looked at
simply from a Russian point of view, and especially when
sea power is considered, the possession of Korea, with its
good harbours, most of which are open all the year round
and capable of easy defence, is of enormous value. As
Captain Brinkley puts it : " Korea is a kind of half-way
house between Liaotung and Vladivostock. It commands
the maritime communications between the two places.
Japan, holding Korea as Russia's enemy, could close the
Broughton Strait and the Tsugaru Strait to- Russian ships

Foreign Politics 361

and thus effectually isolate Vladivostock by water. Economic-
ally it is equally necessary ; for neither Manchuria nor Siberia
possesses a harbour offering first-class mercantile facilities,
whereas Korea possesses many such. In fact, to become
owner of Korea would secure for Russia the end she has so
long sought to compass, free access to open seas in a
temperate zone." When we examine the whole case for
Russia, we see, as has been stated by a well-informed writer
in the Quarterly Review} that " not only is there no real
difference between the earth appetite of the Muscovite and
that of other great colonising nations, but there is also
nothing in the policy which has enabled it to achieve such
stupendous things that differentiates it in any essential way
from the motives and methods of rival empire builders.
The enormous expansion of the Russian dominion and the
rapidity of its advance have been mainly due, not so
much to conscious statesmanship, as to ethnological and
geographical conditions. The vast scene of that expansion
is a prolongation of the mere patrie, generally analogous to
it in physical features, and peopled with races with whom
the Russian colonists easily establish terms of sociability,
if not of assimilation. In these circumstances Russian
colonisation was a comparatively natural and rapid process,
and the political consolidation of the conquests thus effected
was correspondingly accelerated." It can scarcely be doubted
that if it had not been for the rise of Japan as a strong
Eastern Power, ere this Russia would have extended her
territories to the Pacific coast, down to and including the
Gulf of Pechili, and she would not have been content until
she had obtained possession of Japan. A distinguished
Japanese statesman expressed the opinion to me that the
work of the students of the College of Engineering had been
the chief means of preventing Japan from falling under the
domination of Russia.

The gradual aggrandisement of Russia in the remote
solitudes of Eastern Asia was regarded with comparative

1 April 1904, p. 578.

362 Dai Nippon

indifference by the European Powers, but for fully a century

it has given rise to very serious apprehension in Japan.

Especially since the termination of the war

Reasons which .,„... n , . . .

dominate the with China in 1 89 5, when through the action
foreign policy Q f R US sia, France, and Germany, Japan was
compelled to relinquish a great part of the re-
sults of her victories, Japanese statesmen have watched with
great solicitude the action of Russia. They have carefully
noted the trend of events, and they determined on a simple
but clear and decided policy as regards China and Korea, in
which while recognising all legitimate international rights of
other Powers, they mean to insist on the independence and
territorial integrity of these two countries. This policy
explains the attention which they have given to the develop-
ment of their army and navy. The expenditure on these
two departments is really the price which Japan has had to
pay for her membership of the comity of nations.

With Russia they have shown every wish to be
reasonable in their relations ; in fact their self-restraint under
very difficult circumstances has been beyond praise. They
recognise not only the legitimate ambitions of Russia, but
also the economic forces which are compelling her to provide
openings for her surplus population and her manufactured
products. They mean also, however, to insist on what they
believe to be their own rights. The Czar called a conference
at the Hague for the purpose of discussing how war was to
be prevented. Deeds which lead to the peaceful solution
of international problems are far more useful than discussions
which have no practical results. If the Czar and his
Government made their policy in the Far East quite clear
and reasonable, and if they respected the legitimate interests
of other Powers, especially of Japan, there are no reasons why
there should be a collision. Instead, however, of pursuing a
reasonable policy, the Russians have not only broken their
engagements, but they have ostentatiously and defiantly
collected what they consider to be an invincible fleet, and
they are parading that fleet in Korean waters, and while

Foreign Politics 363

delaying an answer to the demands of Japan, they have
almost seemed to invite a conflict. The other Powers
interested have not taken a very noble part in the present
crisis, but have thrown on Japan the task of defending their
rights. If Britain and the United States had taken a firmer
position, the crisis with Russia would never have arisen, as
that Power never fights until she has exhausted the resources
of her peculiar diplomacy ; although it must be admitted
that that diplomacy in the Far East and the actions
following upon it, since Japan laid bare the impotence of
China, have been sufficient to provoke war many times over.
The present crisis is likely to awaken China to a sense of
her strength, and to the necessity of showing that she means
to use it if her territory or her rights are violated, and with
the help of Japan she would be able to repel any encroach-
ments by whatever Foreign Power they were made. More-
over, Russia ought to recognise that if her object is to
become the absolute and uncontrolled mistress of the Far
East, and to secure to herself and her traders a supreme
monopoly of commerce, she will have to reckon not only
with Japan but also with the other Powers which are
interested.

When Russia proposed to Japan that the latter should
not oppose Russian action in Manchuria or her acquisition
of Masampho — a port in Korea almost opposite Shimonoseki
and the dockyard of Saseho (or Sasebo) — Marquis Ito is
reported to have said to one of his colleagues : " A free hand
in Korea, with Masampho in the power of Russia, would be
like a free hand in a bag of gold, with the mouth of the bag
drawn tightly round one's wrist." If that were so with a
comparatively small concession, we may well ask what would
be the position if Korea were dominated by Russia ? The
national existence of Japan would be at her mercy, or to
be more exact, at the mercy of the first ambitious Russian
officer who thought he saw an opportunity of winning
renown for himself and adding to the already overgrown
possessions of the Russian Empire. The aim of Russia is

364 Dai Nippon

evidently predominance both naval and commercial on the
Pacific. That of Japan is not simply for additional markets
and openings for her surplus population, and certainly not
for territorial aggrandisement, but for the preservation of her
life, her national identity, and the exercise of her natural
and legitimate influence in the affairs of the Far East.
Should she be compelled to defend her rights with her army
and navy, she will bring to the contest with Russia's enormous
forces a living patriotism and a scientific completeness of
preparation which will more than compensate for the
comparative smallness of her numbers.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The foreign politics of a country cannot be understood from
books and articles alone. One requires to live in the country to
know the mind of the people and to understand existing conditions
and the economic and political forces which have produced them.
In the preceding chapters I have indicated the more important of
these forces, and while not professing to give an official statement
of Japanese foreign politics, I have endeavoured to show how the
Japanese look at the problems which have arisen. Chapter ii. vol. v.
of Captain Brinkley's Japan and China contains a clear statement
by one who is thoroughly acquainted with all the conditions, and
will be found sufficient for the majority of general readers. For
more than a year past many articles on the subject have appeared
in British and American journals, and as these have generally been
written by men who have had special experience, they are worthy of
special study, although in some cases the personal equation requires
to be taken into account. The subject of economic and political
dynamics is beginning to receive attention, and such articles as those
by Captain Mahan are very valuable. World politics is gradually
becoming a science, and when it is better understood, it will lead to
the solution of international difficulties without resort to war. As
an introduction to the subject, reference may be made to Professor
Reinsch's book on World Politics, at the end of the Ninetee?ith
Century, in the " Citizen's Library," published by the Macmillan
Company, New York, and to the list of books and papers bearing
on the subject which are mentioned by the author.

CHAPTER XVIII

SOCIAL RESULTS

The sketch I have given of the changes which have taken
place during the past half- century or so, enables us to
appreciate the economic and political signifi- The funda-
cance of the sudden rise of Japan among the mental question,
nations of the world and to form an estimate of the kind,
and even of the amount, of influence which she is likely to
exercise in the evolution which is going on not only in what
is usually called the Far East, but also in the Pacific area
generally, and indeed in the whole world. After all.
however, these developments are of small importance to the
Japanese compared with the answer to the question, Have
they been gainers by the changes ? That is to say, Has the
great body of the people been made healthier and happier
and been enabled to develop their personalities to a higher
degree than was possible under the old conditions ? All
other questions sink into insignificance beside this one, and
unless it is kept in mind at every stage of national develop-
ment, both energy and means are simply wasted, and indeed
possibly used to hasten national decay, if not destruction.

Life in Old Japan had much to commend it to the
thoughtful student of social conditions. The majority of the
people lived their own lives and did not simply Life in ow
struggle for the means of existence or for Japan.
wealth and power, as is too often the case in Western
countries. True, measured from the point of view of modern
civilisation, the outlook must have been narrow, at least so

365

366 Dai Nippon

far as the affairs of this world were concerned ; but their
religion, or at any rate their philosophy, took them beyond
those affairs and to a large extent made them indifferent to
them and thus caused them to neglect the means which
were necessary to enable them to realise their higher
personalities. Intellectual activities and material means are
however not necessarily the accompaniments of moral and
spiritual development. Moreover, Western writers in dealing
with Eastern conditions assume the truth of Western meta-
physics and overlook the fact that Eastern civilisation is in
great part built upon the idea of reincarnation (the possibility
of the truth of which was admitted by an agnostic like
Professor Huxley), which, if it be true, upsets all their
estimates, as it indicates a much higher view of the doctrines
of heredity and environment than is held in modern Western
scientific thought. The discussion of this aspect of the
subject, however, would take us far beyond our present limits,
and it is simply mentioned to show that it has not been
overlooked.

As in all feudal systems, it must of course be admitted
that the military class dominated the rest of the people,
whose welfare was made secondary to theirs. Life was held
at a low value, no doubt because its existence at any time
was considered insignificant when compared with the cycles
through which it extended. In addition to this view, there
can be no doubt that mere bravado and a domineering spirit
led to a reckless use of their swords by the samurai class.
Measured by Western standards, the lives of the majority
of the people were empty, as education in the modern sense
of the term was rare. Many, however, found pleasure in
their work, and they asked for no other blessedness. Even
the most common craft had something artistic about it which
revealed the personality of the worker. Outdoor pleasures,
which were taken advantage of by all classes and all ages
of the community, prevented tedium and maintained health ;
the absence of material wealth was not much missed,
as life was simple and wants were few. .There were no

Social Re stilts 367

great fortunes, but there was no degrading poverty ; for the
semi-communism which prevailed provided for the wants of
all without the machinery of a poor law. Children supported
their parents in their old age, and even the poorest classes
had friends or relations who supplied their wants. Modern
industry, emigration, and war had not upset the provisions
of nature, and practically all the women obtained husbands,
who were able to provide for them in some way ; so that the
woman question, as we know it, did not come to the front.

No doubt, in some respects the position of women was
very far from satisfactory, at least when measured from a
Western point of view, and they were too much the mere
subordinates of the men ; but in the great majority of cases
their lives were not unhappy, and they proved themselves
model wives and mothers. Any one who knows the con-
ditions of the lives of the poorest class of women in Britain
and compares them with what existed and still exists in
Japan, would have no hesitation in saying that the lot of the
Japanese was to be preferred. They had few who would
compare with the best type of Western women, but, on the
other hand, they had none who led the lives of the so-called
leaders of society, who sacrifice not only themselves but
also their families in the hunt for what they call pleasure,
nor had they the degradation of extreme poverty and
drunkenness.

Men's position and influence were measured by their
personal worth and not by their riches. The samurai had
their incomes secured from the revenues of the land, and
they often supplemented these by a little amateur farming.
The tiller of the soil was looked up to with respect, because
it was recognised that he, above all others, was an efficient
worker, as he produced the necessaries of life. Tradesmen,
artists, and workers of all kinds carried on their employ-
ments very much at their ease, as they had learned that
real happiness was found in giving out to their work the
best that was in them. Merchants and speculators occupied
the lowest position in the category of vocations. Conse-

368 Dai A T ippon

quently commerce did not reach a high degree of develop-
ment, and the obloquy attached to the calling naturally
brought within its pale such as cared little for social repute ;
a fact which, as I have already indicated, explains many of
the characteristics which have given Japanese merchants a
bad name among commercial men — a name which is rapidly
disappearing as education develops and as a superior class
of men enter into mercantile life.

The development of commerce and industry has had a
profound effect on social and economic conditions, and that

Modern development has been hastened by the improve-
conditions. m ent which has taken place in the roads and
by the introduction and extension of railways, steamboat
services, telegraphs and telephones. These means of com-
munication have had the effect of consolidating the empire
and causing almost the last vestiges of the feudal system to
disappear ; they have made intercourse between the people
in all parts of the country not only possible but in
the majority of cases very easy ; they have allowed its
natural resources to be developed, have thus added greatly
to its wealth and made it possible to undertake many
national functions, the most important of which we have
mentioned, and which have enabled Japan to take a position
of equality among the nations of the world. On the other
hand, as I have more than once indicated, these changes
have not been without some very serious drawbacks.

In many parts of Japan many of the old customs and
methods of life still survive, but in the neighbourhood of
large towns they are rapidly disappearing before the pressure
of modern commerce and industry and the competition which
they inevitably bring along with them. The results of that
competition, with which we are so well acquainted in Britain,
are beginning to appear, and Japan is now face to face with
many of the social problems which have been the puzzle of
Western social reformers and statesmen for several genera-
tions. Large fortunes (comparatively speaking) are being
accumulated at one end of the social scale,. while degrading

Soda I Results 369

poverty is appearing at the other, and as yet no effective

means have been devised either to alleviate or to prevent it.

The increased strain, worry, and anxiety, even among the

well-to-do classes, make not a few of the older generation

look back with regret on the conditions which existed in

the days of their youth. Some of the most distinguished

men in Japan indeed have been so impressed with the

seriousness of the position that they have given up all their

other pursuits in order that they may assist in the solution

of the social problems which lie before their country.

We are sometimes told that the Western civilisation

of the Japanese is only skin-deep, for the most part

confined to outward appearances, and that they are never

really comfortable in their foreign clothes and in the use of

foreign appliances. It is true that, notwithstanding all the

developments which have taken place, in many respects the

inner life of the people has not been much changed, and

that many of them lead a kind of dual existence, conforming

to the requirements of Western methods during the day, but

reverting to purely Japanese customs in their own homes.

Even those who have handsome houses on Western models

always have an annexe where their familiar alcoves, verandahs,

matted floors, and paper sliding doors continue to be found,

and where family and familiar life is carried on in Japanese

style. In my opinion, these characteristics are praiseworthy

rather than otherwise. All the time I was resident in Japan

I always urged that while the Japanese should take full

advantage of Western science and civilisation, in so far as

these were necessary to make their country great and their

individual lives full and complete, they should retain all the

characteristics of Japanese life and character, and maintain

their individuality not only nationally but also personally.

The seeming reaction of recent years is therefore all in the

right direction. A nation which forgets its past and gives

up all its special characteristics neither deserves nor indeed

is ever likely to attain true greatness.

The richer classes and many of the middle and working
(b 3 o 7 ) 2 B

370 Dai Nippon

classes have been able to add to the luxuries and con-
veniences of their lives, but even among the wealthy there
Life of the well- is an utter absence of vulgar display, and the
to-do classes, majority of them continue to live in a quiet,
unostentatious way, just as if they were poor. " Which of
us," asks a well-known writer who has been a long time in
Japan, " which of us knows of even one very wealthy
Japanese who makes a parade of his riches or devotes his
money to purposes of glitter and display." They have not
forgotten the social canon of Old Japan which made osten-
tation a sin. No doubt the increase of wealth has led to
luxurious habits on the part of some who have become
rapidly rich ; but almost without exception those with whom

1 have come into contact are very temperate in their manner
of living, and in some cases almost ascetic. Of course, I do
not wish to particularise, but many of the most distinguished
as well as some of the richest men in the country have, for
the most part, retained their simple personal habits, and they
look upon their wealth as a trust which they must use not
simply for their own gratification but for the good of their
country.

Notwithstanding the development of industry and
commerce in Japan, the number of men who would be
considered rich is still comparatively small, and even their
incomes are insignificant compared with those of the
millionaires of America. According to a return recently
published in a Japanese economic journal, there are only

2 men who pay an income tax on over 250,000 yen, and
there are only 1 3 men in the whole country who pay on
39,000 yen, only 67 who pay on 24,000 yen, 96 who
pay on 17,000 yen, and 140 who pay on 11,000 yen.
Out of every 1000 inhabitants there are only 7 persons
who make 2700 yen a year. Measured therefore by
income, the Japanese cannot be considered rich. According
to Captain Brinkley, careful investigations now show that
the number of men possessing property valued at .£50,000
sterling does not exceed 441. Comparing. this record with

Social Results 371

American statistics, for example, it appears that whereas
there are 3828 persons in the United States credited with
possessing, at least, £200,000, or in other words 1 for every
20,000 inhabitants, there is in Japan only 1 owner of
£50,000 for every 100,000 of the population. The contrast
is very striking. The figures which have been quoted show
that there is still considerable equality of economic conditions
among all classes of the people in Japan.

For the most part, the life of the common people
remains simple. Their staple food is rice, with fish — fresh
and dried — seaweed, beans and other fruits Life of
of the earth. Meat and poultry form but the common
a small part of their dietary. Their houses P eo P e -
are plain wooden structures, their furniture is scanty and
cheap, and their dress, both of men and women, is inexpensive.
In short, the Japanese have solved many of the problems of
life by simplifying their wants ; so that we can understand
why even those who have the means and the opportunity of
indulging in Western habits and methods prefer, as soon as
they can, to return to the simpler life of their own country.
Such a procedure is not blameworthy but rather the reverse.
They have found that the increase of possessions and the
multiplication of complex appliances lead neither to health
nor to happiness, and they have recognised, what many
foreigners have also recognised, that the simple Japanese
life is in many respects to be preferred. While not
neglecting the advantages to be derived from Western
appliances, they are coming to the Greek ideal of life, and
while keeping their personal and family wants simple, they
are determined to make their civic and national life as full
and complete as possible. We have had sufficient evidence
to show that patriotism is the dominant feature in the
Japanese character, and the aspiration of every educated
Japanese is to keep up with Western nations in the race for
progress. The problem, however, which they have to solve
is to arrive at a clear understanding as to what constitutes
real progress.

372 Da i Nippon

In reviewing the general financial position of the country-
Captain Brinkley comes to the conclusion that the tax-payer
is much more favourably circumstanced now than he was ten
years ago. People receiving fixed salaries, as administrative
and judicial officials, persons engaged in education, etc., have
had no increase of income to compensate them for increased
taxation or for the sharp appreciation of prices. But such
persons form a small fraction of the nation. All the other
classes are earning more and possess much larger property.
On the other hand, their taxes have not undergone any pro-
portionate increase, and instead of saying that the nation is
embarrassed by the payments it has to make to the State,
the truth is that it pays relatively less than it did ten years
ago.

In a previous chapter 1 figures were given which showed
that the wages of workmen, and especially those engaged in
Western industries, had in some cases nearly doubled, and
that in nearly all cases there had been very considerable
increases. We have also seen 2 that the prices of nearly all
the necessaries of life have risen, although not so much as the
wages ; so that on the whole the economic condition of the
majority of the people has improved. On the other hand,
their wants have also developed, and it is doubtful if there is
a large proportion who find themselves better off than they
would have been under the old conditions. Moreover, a
considerable number have been unable to fit themselves to
the altered circumstances, and as is the case in all com-
petitive communities they have gradually drifted down to
the lowest depths of poverty.

Some very dark pictures have been drawn of the
conditions of the poorest classes. Probably some of these
have been exaggerated, but there can be no doubt that the
problem of the " submerged tenth " is becoming as acute in
Japan as in other countries. This indeed is the problem
which confronts all industrial communities. The following
interesting comparison between the cost of living in 1889 and
1 p. 183. '- p. 229.

Social Results

373

1899 was given some time ago in the Japanese journal, the
Miyako, and it is calculated to show the monthly expendi-
ture of a family of six members — a married couple, a parent,
two children, and one servant — living with strict economy : —

Yen.

Yen.

House Rent . . . . .2.50

5.OO

Cleaned Rice

4-5°

7.OO

Soy

0.45

°-75

Salt and Miso

0.40

0.70

Oils .

°-45

0.69

Sugar .

0.60

0.90

Milk .

0.90

1. 10

Newspaper .

0.25

°-35

School Expenses

0.80

0.90

Stationery

0.60

0.90

Hair-dressing

o.34

0.69

Bath .

0.90

J -5°

Vegetables .

0.90

1.50

Fish .

1.08

1.80

Beef .

0.60

1.20

Auxiliary Foods

0.24

0.42

Tea

0.40

0.50

Fuel .

1. 00

1.80

Total .

1 7.2 1

28.20

Security money for

Rent

7.00

15.00

The above figures represent what may be considered the
necessaries of life for a superior working-class family of six
members, but when other petty expenses are included, the
total will amount to fully thirty-five yen per month.

The economic position of the agricultural classes does
not seem to have improved to any great extent. The steady
increase of population has been an important
factor in keeping rents high, as the competition
for farms has become much greater and the
consequence is that very often the share of
the profits which falls to the tenant-farmers is barely
sufficient to provide them with the means of subsistence and

Economic
conditions of
farmers and

labourers.

374 Dai Nippon

with the manure and tools required for their farms. Exact
statistics are not available, but there are about one million
and a half freeholders, about one million tenant-farmers, and
about two million who are partly freeholders and partly
lessees ; so that it is evident that the agriculturalists form a
very important part of the population, and their economic
conditions must be carefully considered when estimating the
results of the recent changes in Japan. Mr. Yamawaki, the
Private Secretary of the Minister of Agriculture and Com-
merce, states that " the farmers find it hard to keep up with
the progress of the times " ; and he adds, " Something must
be done towards ameliorating their condition, for though
individually they are comparatively insignificant, their com-
bined interests in the economy of the nation predominate
considerably over all the others put together. The farming
classes, for instance, constitute 60 per cent of the whole
population and are largely sending their surplus population
to cities and towns. In view of this circumstance, both the
Government and the general public are doing their best to
improve the mode of tillage, to encourage the use of labour-
saving machines and devices, and also to promote all the
important economic contrivances provided for the interests
of the farmers ; so that it may safely be expected that the
conditions of our farmers will become much better in the
near future than they are now."

Some time ago the editor of one of the Japanese
journals sent out a form making inquiries regarding the
lives and work of the labouring classes ; the following
are two of the family budgets which were returned, and
they throw much light on the inner life of the Japanese
workers : —

No. 1

House, 2 rooms; a family — man, 30 ; wife, 23 ; mother,
53 ; two sisters, 14 and 11 ; occupation, blacksmith.

Yen.

Working days in a month . . . 26

Working hours in a day . . . . 12

Social Results

375

Yen.

Daily Wages

• 0.52

Monthly Income

• 13-83

Monthly Expenses

• 13-65

House Rent

0.96

Rice .....

. 5-76

Fuel and Light .

. 1.08

Vegetables ....

. 0.87

Fish

0.96

Sake .....

0.24

Soy

• o-73

Tobacco ....

0.20

Hair-cutting and dressing

• 0.83

Bath

. 0.88

Pin Money

. 0.25

Sundries ....

. 0.89

No. 2

House, 2 rooms, with kitchen ; a family — man, 27 ;
wife, 25 ; boy, 6 ; girl, 2 ; business, iron-worker.

Yen.

Daily Wages . . . . .0.25

Overtime Income for one month

I.50

Monthly Income .

8.28

Monthly Expense

9.44

House Rent

°-75

Rice ....

3- 2 5

Fuel and Light .

0.41

Vegetables .

0.60

Fish ....

0.60

Soy and Miso

0.23

Tobacco ....

0.25

Hair-cutting and dressing

0.18

Bath ....

0.20

Pin Money

0.60

Sundries, including interest c

n deb

t

2-37

The family life of a country and the position occupied
by women are probably the best tests of its Home life and
civilisation. In comparing nation with nation the position of
we have no doubt in asserting that one of
the most important forces in the progress of society is

3 j6 Dai Nippon

the education which the mothers convey to their children,
and no nation can ever be truly great unless women rise
to a high plane of thought and life, and kindle and foster
similar ideas in the minds of the young. In the East the
focus of civilisation is to be found in the idea which prevails
with regard to the home. Very often that does not lead
either to physical or to moral efficiency, and this fact, no
doubt, to a large extent accounts for the impotence of
Eastern nations. In some respects Japanese home life
affords an example to Western nations. The love of the
Japanese for their children and the happiness of Japanese
childhood requires to be seen to be appreciated. In fact,
Japan has been called the paradise of children, and the
name is not altogether undeserved. No such delightful
children are to be found anywhere else in the world. It
has been said that " to the beauty and grace of childhood
they add the roguishness, the playfulness, and the gentleness
of puppies or kittens, and they are just as self-possessed.
To describe adequately the children's life in Japan, at least
as it existed under purely Japanese conditions, would require
a large volume.

When, however, we inquire into the conditions which
affect the intellectual and moral life of women, we find
much that stands in need of improvement. Under the old
regime women were entirely at the mercy of their husbands
in almost every respect, and although great improvements
have taken place, much more is to be desired. A very
competent observer has said " the woman of Japan is a
charming personage in many ways — gracious, refined,
womanly before everything, sweet-tempered, unselfish,
virtuous, a splendid mother and an ideal wife, from the
point of view of the master. But she is virtually excluded
from the whole intellectual life of the nation. Politics, art,
literature, science are closed books to her. She cannot
think logically about any of these subjects, express herself
clearly with reference to them, or take any intellectual part
in conversations relating to them. She is, in fact, totally

Social Results $77

disqualified to be her husband's intellectual companion,
and the inevitable result is that he despises her."

A great deal has been written about the sexual morality
of the Japanese, into details of which, however, I cannot
enter ; but it is very doubtful if in this respect they are any
worse than the people of other countries, although they
make less effort at concealment. In these matters, however,
improvements are taking place, and public opinion is
strengthening against some of the customs which formerly
prevailed. Women are no longer compelled to follow
prostitution against their wills, and many who had entered
on such a life have voluntarily given it up. The accounts
of this aspect of Japanese life which have been given
by foreign writers have often been grossly exaggerated,
and give an altogether false impression of the actual con-
ditions. It is a very significant fact that many of the
foreign visitors who write about Japan seem to think it
their first duty to visit the special districts licensed for
these purposes. One thing is certain ; a person may live
in Tokyo for years and not see anything to offend his
notions of propriety. So long as the most important
streets of London, Paris, and other European cities present
such scenes as they very often do, the West has no grounds
for criticising the East. Too often the pictures which are
painted represent the degradation of the open ports, where
the morals have been pared down to European requirements.
The Geisha of Japan, under good conditions, is by no means
the degraded, sensual person she is represented to be, but on
the contrary is highly intellectual and accomplished ; her
first function is to minister to purely intellectual pleasures,
and with many it remains the only function. The accounts
of the writers who gloat over the moral deficiencies of the
Japanese should be received with a great amount of caution.

A great improvement has in recent years taken place
in the position of women. Mr. Gubbins, in the introduction
to his translation of the Codes, says : " In no respect has
modern progress in Japan made greater strides than in the

378 Dai Nippon

improvement of the position of women. Though she still
labours under certain disabilities, a woman can now become
a head of a family, and exercise authority as such ; she can
inherit and own property and manage it herself ; she can
exercise parental authority ; if single, or a widow, she
can adopt ; she is one of the parties to adoption effected by
her husband, and her consent, in addition to that of her
husband, is necessary to the adoption of her child by
another person ; she can act as guardian or curator, and
she has a voice in family councils." Meantime, as we have
seen, attention is being paid to the education of women, and
already a considerable number have shown both literary and
artistic ability, and are able to discuss social and political
problems with intelligence. The most thoughtful minds in
Japan recognise that if their country is to be truly great, the
women must be educated and animated with a conscious
moral purpose which will always keep abreast of the highest
level of the existing generation.

Modern industrial conditions threaten to take away the

joy of young life in Japan, and undermine the national

„ . . health by the employment of women and

Factory work J sr j

of women and children in factories of all kinds in which the
hours are long and the conditions of employ-
ment insanitary. A great deal has been written on the
subject in Japan recently, and although the descriptions
of actual conditions have in some cases been overdrawn,
there can be no doubt that the subject is one demanding
careful attention on the part of the authorities. The
industrial development of Japan will be bought at too
dear a price if it causes the health of the rising generation
to be undermined, and destroys that joyous life which has
been so characteristic of the Japanese.

On the whole, however, it is admitted by competent

medical authorities that the physique of the Japanese

people generally has improved in recent years.

National health. % \ fe . . . , . f .

Sanitary conditions have been bettered, the
quality of the food of the majority of the people has

Social Results 379

improved, and more attention is now being paid to systematic
physical development than was the case under feudal con-
ditions, when it was for the most part confined to the
samurai class. During the past few years especially the
purely Japanese system of physical training entitled jiu-jitsu
has been very much extended in its application (and indeed
is becoming common both in Europe and America), with
the result that wonders can be performed in the way of
physical endurance. The soldiers, sailors, police, and others
in official positions go through a systematic and thorough
training. This training is in fact indicative of a great deal
that is done by the Japanese, as their knowledge of scientific
principles and their ability to apply them in an efficient
manner enable them to surprise their adversaries, even
although these surpass them in numbers and size. On
the other hand, some of the conditions of modern industrialism
tend to lower the state of the national health, and therefore
to decrease the amount of the national wealth, in the true
sense of that term.

Since the revision of the treaties and the development
of the means of communication with the Far East, the
intercourse between Japan and foreign countries intercourse with
has been greatly extended. Many Japanese foreigners.
go abroad for purposes of study, commerce, and special
investigations, and many foreigners now visit Japan, for
the most part, however, for purposes of pleasure. Indeed,
Japan is becoming somewhat like Switzerland in this
respect (for there is no more delightful country in which
to spend a holiday), and what may be called the " tourist
industry" is increasingly lucrative. It is doubtful, however,
whether it does not do more harm than good to the people
of Japan. It certainly causes prices to be raised to those
who are engaged in more serious researches, and who are of
more moderate means. Rich people who make Japan a
mere holiday resort are likely to be somewhat extravagant
in their habits, and some of them are objectionable from
other points of view ; so that their influence on the people

380 Da i Nippon

with whom they come into contact is not likely to be for
good. Even when I went to Japan, the manners of the
Japanese deteriorated as we approached a foreign settlement ;
a fact which was a somewhat sad commentary on Western
civilisation. The value of that civilisation will be estimated
not by its material advantages or its profession of religion,
but by its effects on the lives of those who represent it in
the Far East.

It is evident that the development of modern industry
in Japan has brought it face to face with those labour
Labour and problems which are to be found in Britain and
social problems. a j[ other industrial countries, and which are
the inevitable results of a transition stage of society, and
it will be interesting and no doubt instructive to note how
they are met in the Britain of the East. Meantime the
same processes are going on as in the Britain of the West.
Factory legislation is being proposed with the view of
preventing the most apparent evils, and combinations of
employers and workers are being formed for the purpose
of safeguarding their respective interests. Both, however,
are still in a very indefinite position, but the employers
have the advantage on account of their capital, and while
uniting for their own purposes, they are, as a rule, opposed
to unions for the workers, and several of the large organisa-
tions refuse to engage union men. The problems of the
relations of capital and labour are in Japan, as in other
industrial countries, the problems which are certain to attract
most attention.

While duly recognising all that has been accomplished in
Japan, as I have said, many of the most thoughtful minds in
the country look back with something like regret on the old
state of affairs, and I must confess that I share in that feeling
to a very considerable extent. What we call modern civilisa-
tion does not captivate those who have imbibed something
of the ideals and the spirit of the East. A writer from whom
I have already quoted has truly said : " There are two forms
of the cultivation of Self. One leads to the exceptional

Social Results 38 1

development of the qualities which are noble, and the other
signifies something about which the less said the better. But
it is not the former which the New Japan is now beginning
to study. I confess to being one of those who believe that
the human heart, even in the history of a race, may be worth
infinitely more than the human intellect, and that it will
sooner or later prove itself infinitely better able to answer all
the cruel enigmas of the Sphinx of Life. I still believe that
the old Japanese were nearer to the solution of those enigmas
than are we, just because they recognised moral beauty as
greater than intellectual beauty. And by way of conclusion I
may venture to quote from an article on education by
Ferdinand Brunetiere : — ' All our educational measures will
prove vain if there be no effort to force into the mind and
to deeply impress upon it the sense of these fine words of
Lamennais : " Human society is based upon mutual giving, or
upon the sacrifice of man for man, or of each man for all other
men ; and sacrifice is the very essence of all true society" It
is this that we have been unlearning for nearly a century ;
and if we have to put ourselves to school afresh it will be in
order that we may learn it again. Without such knowledge
there can be no society and no education — not, at least,
if the object of education be to form man for society.
Individualism is to-day the enemy of education, as it is also
the enemy of social order. It has not been so always, but
it has so become. It will not be so for ever, but it is so now.
And without striving to destroy it — which would mean to fall
from one extreme into another — we must recognise that no
matter what we wish to do for the family, for society, for
education, and for the country, it is against individualism
that the work will have to be done.' " l These opinions are
being shared to a considerable extent in Japan, and they are
certain to influence the future of the nation ; but the transition
which is going on is not yet sufficiently advanced to hazard
a prediction as to the probable form of social organisation
which will be the outcome. I believe that Japan will learn

1 Hearn, Kokoro, p. 38.

82 Dai Nippon

a great deal by a careful study of her former conditions, and
thus may be able to temper the extreme individualism which
is the cause of so many social evils.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

In Japan, as was the case in Britain, the social results of the
industrial revolution are being forced on the attention of the people
from the observation of actual conditions. These are freely dis-
cussed in the Japanese newspapers and also in the foreign papers
published in Japan, but as yet nothing systematic has been done
either to solve the problems which have arisen or even to record the
actual conditions. Many articles have appeared giving details of
special cases, and the conscience of the country is being awakened.
Actual observation and reference to the files of the daily newspapers
are the chief means of obtaining information, although some of the
recent books on Japan touch the subject ; none of them deals
with it thoroughly or in a systematic manner. A few years ago
an investigation was undertaken by M. Andre Siegfried and pub-
lished by the Musee Social (Paris), entitled Le Developpement
Economique et Social du Japon, which contains a good deal of inter-
esting and important information regarding the working of the factory
system in Japan. Chapter vm. of M. Dumolard's book on Japan
treats of La Question Ouvrilre et le Pauperisme, and may be read
with advantage, although some of the statements are one-sided.
Alfred Stead, in Japan, Our New Ally, also has a chapter on the
Labour Problem, and in addition gives a good deal of interesting
information on social and economic subjects. It is to be hoped that
Japanese students of sociology will deal with social problems in the
same thorough manner as scientific problems have been dealt with in
Japan, and their efforts will be watched with great interest.

CHAPTER XIX

THE FUTURE

The past history of Japan and China shows most distinctly
how the economic and social conditions of a country may
be influenced by the prevailing ideals of National ideals
individual and national life. In Japan, under and

the feudal system, everything was conditioned econonllcs -
by the fact that it had been determined that the country
was to be self-contained and self-supporting. The position
has thus been stated by a competent writer : " A population
of twenty millions at a start — that number nearly doubling
before the country was again thrown open — was to be sub-
sisted solely upon the resources which the empire itself
could supply, with only one-twelfth of its area susceptible of
cultivation. At the same time, in the face of the tendencies
to the contrary, which isolation is ordinarily sure to develop,
the people were to preserve their self-respect and live in
peace, happiness, and content with each other.

" That the policies adopted to secure these seemingly
impossible ends were successful, the condition of the people
at the present time when, after the centuries of seclusion, the
barriers have been broken down and the feudal system
abolished, is ample proof. These people are indeed
wretchedly poor, but their occupation being held in high
esteem, their access of pride is to them and to the nation
more than compensation for their poverty ; while the wonder-
ful development of agriculture under the stimulus of that
pride has made the arable twelfth of the empire more than

383

384 Dai Nippon

sufficient to support its teeming millions. And, again, the
pinching and searching economics enforced upon the masses,
having not only the law but the fashion, even in the higher
ranks of society, have resulted in that simplicity of living
and consequent freedom from superfluous cares which have
practically made the Japanese, in the best sense of the word,
the most independent people of the world." l Under these
conditions a man's value was not estimated by the amount
of his wealth, but by his worth as a soldier, a statesman, an
artist, or other useful worker, or as a citizen. The separation
between power and riches kept the distribution of the latter
fairly equable, as few thought the accumulation of wealth a
sufficient object of life. It was true that new developments
in science and industry were discouraged and that literature
was repressed ; still, on the whole, life was simple and free and
offered many compensations for what, from a Western point
of view, would be considered its imperfections, and many
thoughtful Japanese look back on the old days with feelings
of regret.

The Japanese theory of life was founded to a large
extent on Confucian philosophy, and Japan owed practically
Confucian a ^ tne cn ^ e ^ features of its civilisation to China,
philosophy and therefore it is to that country we must look if
we wish to understand the Japanese mind. My
old friends the first Chinese Ministers to Japan, Their
Excellencies Ho Ju-Chang and Chang Sz-Kwei, with whom
I very often discussed such matters, were in the habit of
saying to me that while they gave Western people great
credit for their knowledge of science and its applications to
industry, they were of opinion that the steam and the
electricity had got into their brains and that the machines
were their masters, not their servants. Thoughtful social
reformers have long recognised this fact, and have come to
the conclusion that political, economic, and social problems
are to be solved only by individuals and nations who have
realised the object and meaning of life. Eastern people, as

1 Knapp, Feudal and Modern Japan, vol. i. p. 117.

The Future 385

I have already remarked, have as a rule neglected the
means necessary to enable them to live the highest life,
whereas those of the West exhaust a great part of their
energy in the struggle for the means of life and for super-
fluities which in many cases are of no real value. The
Christian conception of life has been lost in the race for
individual riches and for personal and national ambitions,
and no country has suffered so much as China from those
who profess the Gospel of Peace.

It must not be imagined that I am placing the civilisa-
tion of Old Japan or of China before that of the West ; what
I wish to insist upon is, that the peoples of the East should
retain all that is characteristically Eastern in so far as it
helps the higher life, and adopt only those Western methods
which will enable them to live their own lives

The t3.sk of Asii

in their own way and according to their own
ideals. As a Japanese writer from whom I have quoted has
put it : " The task of Asia to-day becomes that of protecting
and restoring Asiatic modes " ; and while keeping in view the
ends of life, it should also develop the means of life in such a
manner as to make the highest life possible. Instead of
rushing into the competition for cheap production and
spending a large part of their national resources on the
materials of war, they must recognise that the production of
souls of good quality is, after all, the most lucrative one.
Ruskin was laughed at when he held up this ideal in
Britain, but the necessity for it being kept in mind is being
slowly recognised. One of the chief faults of the British
people, and to a great extent of all Western peoples
generally, is that they are so pleased with the advancement
and excellence of their own institutions that they cannot
understand why any other nation cannot be content with
what contents them, and this tactless, unimaginative charity
has been the main cause of their troubles in all parts of the
world.

Before ideals can be realised attention must be paid to
the foundations on which they are expected to rest, and

(b 207)

2 C

386 Dai Nippon

therefore economic conditions must receive careful atten-
tion. As I have already indicated, there are difficult
Future financial problems before Japan, and each of these must
and fiscal policy be studied in all its aspects. Their solution
o japan. -will depend in great part on the national policy
adopted with regard not only to home but also to foreign
affairs. The problems connected with fiscal policy are now
being very much discussed in all parts of the British Empire,
and it will be interesting to observe how they are dealt with
in Japan. The conditions of the two Empires, are, how-
ever, very different, and the arguments which apply to the
one will not apply to the other. The past history of Japan
affords lessons which will not be forgotten by Japanese
statesmen, although they are not likely to return to a
policy of seclusion. While developing their own resources
and taking advantage of the applications of science to
industry, it is to be hoped that they will retain sufficient
of their native philosophy not to allow the struggle for
the means of life to cause them to forget the ends of
national life ; namely, the highest welfare of the great body
of the people, physically, intellectually, and morally.

The financial arrangements connected with the develop-
ments which have taken place in Japan have been managed
with great skill and with comparatively little help from
foreign countries. Large sums have been spent on the
army and navy, but it is to be hoped that the policy pursued
by European Powers will be such as to render unnecessary
any great increase in that department of national expenditure,
so that the resources of the country may be developed and
prosperity increased. If intercourse with Foreign Powers
brings to Japan the curse of militarism, with all its attendant
evils, the people of the country will pay dearly for their
admission into the comity of nations.

The question of the use of foreign capital is one requiring
great care. As a rule capitalists are too intent on securing
large returns for their money to pay much attention to the
social results of their undertakings, but still, with proper

The Future 387

precautions, it would be possible to employ foreign capital
not only to the advantage of those who lent it, but also to
that of the people of Japan.

We cannot expect the Japanese to be content with
modern manufacturing industries which are just sufficient for
use in their own country. They must be able Manufacturing
to obtain whatever they require for the develop- industries.
ment of their national life, and as imports can be paid for
only by exports, they must send to other countries some
of their own productions. Not only their economic con-
ditions but also their national ambition impel them to
enter the markets of the world, and especially those of the
Far East ; but if they are wise they will subordinate their
external trade to the welfare of the great masses of their
own people and estimate their national wealth, not by the
value of their cheap productions, but by the results on the
Japanese nation and on the world. The conditions which
existed in the early days of the manufacturing system in
Britain, and some of the worst of which are being reproduced
in Japan, should be a warning against the adoption of any
policy that would degrade the conditions of the working
population. A thoughtful writer has pointed out that " the
industrial reformation for which Western Europe groans and
travails, and the advent of which is indicated by so many
symptoms (though it will come only as the fruit of faithful
and sustained effort), will be no isolated fact, but will form
part of an applied art of life, modifying our whole en-
vironment, affecting our whole culture, and regulating our
whole conduct ; in a word, directing all our resources to
the one great end of the conservation and development of
humanity." 1

This may seem too much of an ideal to be of use in
practical life, but the Japanese, above all modern nations,
have shown themselves most capable of rising to a national
ideal, and symptoms are not wanting that such a one as has
been indicated would rouse their imagination and stir them

1 Ingram, History of Political Economy, p. 246.

388 Dai Nippon

to practical action, and their example would have a powerful
influence on the nations of Europe and America.

While that ideal should be kept in mind and approxi-
mated to as rapidly as possible, a strong army and navy
Effects on will be national necessities for Japan for a very
foreign policy, considerable time, and her statesmen recognise
that fact. Gradually, however, the attempt to carry out the
ideal I have mentioned would have great effect, not only on
the home but also on the foreign policy of the country, and
would do more to strengthen Japan than doubling her army
and navy. The position of Japan in the Far East is a
matter which concerns, to a greater or less degree, every
nation in the world ; and a policy such as I have indicated
would gather allies round her whose friendship would be
sufficient to ward off the aggression of any one Power, even
if Japan felt herself unequal to the task, which I do not
believe she would. The policy of the Britain of the West
has often seemed to other nations too self-assertive, and the
increase of her naval armaments has led to great expenditure
and to a great increase in the navies of the other Powers.
Surely, if civilisation has any meaning, it should give us
confidence in the good intentions of our neighbours, or at
any rate, if these intentions prove bad, it should lead to
such action on the part of all the other nations as would
bring the troublesome party to its senses. A small inter-
national naval force, acting as a police for the Pacific area,
and under the orders of a Council representing all the
Powers concerned, should be all that was required in the way
of naval expenditure, and then the resources of the various
countries could be employed in advancing the welfare of the
people.

The real and ultimate solution of the problems of the
foreign policy of Japan, and indeed of every other country,
TTU . . , .. is not to be found in the struggle for foreign

Ultimate solution =>■=> &

of the problems markets, but in the development of the home
o oreign po icy. mar k e t anc j j n ^g improvement of the social, in-
tellectual, and moral conditions of her own people. Colonisa-

The Ftiture 389

tion and emigration can only be temporary ameliorations
of the population question, as it is evident that when all the
industrial nations of the world pursued the same policy, every
part of the surface of the globe would soon be overcrowded,
and the difficulty would be greater than ever. Poverty, in
all its forms, not only in so far as it arises from absence of
wealth, but also, much more, in the want of spirit and in a
low state of morality, combined with the severe struggle
for merely material ends, is the main cause of the rapid
increase of population. A general improvement in the
standard of comfort and intelligence would tend more than
anything else to prevent an undue increase of population,
and, there is good reason to believe, would bring about an
equilibrium between the birth and death rates. As the
world becomes wiser the waste of infant life will be much
reduced and longevity extended. In the past, Japan was
able to solve her population question, and there can be no
doubt that if, with her greater knowledge, she studies all the
factors in the problem, she will be quite able to do it in the
future, without returning to a policy of seclusion, with all its
results, or even resorting to emigration on a large scale, but
by raising her people to a high standard of intellectual,
moral, and social conditions which would make them not
only respected abroad but also prosperous at home. The
solution of this problem involves the solution of many other
social problems, and it would put an end to all troubles
connected with foreign policy.

The sketch which has been given in a previous chapter
of the development of constitutional government in Japan, as
well as the historical notes on the events of

. , . . , Future of

recent years, show that, notwithstanding the constitutional
introduction of representative institutions into government

1 in Japan.

Japan, the old principles of loyalty to the
Emperor and of implicit obedience to his will still have a
great hold on the people of the country. On several
occasions an indication of that will has quelled party spirit
and compelled Parliament to look at the questions before it

39° Dai Nippon

from a patriotic point of view. As we have seen, the
Japanese Constitution makes the Ministers independent of
Parliament and responsible only to the Emperor ; but while
that is so, it cannot be disputed that, indirectly, the decisions
of Parliament have had a great deal to do with the making
and unmaking of Ministries. The Emperor has adhered
faithfully to the terms of the Constitution, and the proofs
which he has given of his wisdom and patriotism show that
there is no danger of a return to the old state of autocracy.
Moreover, popular influence is increasing so rapidly that no
Minister of the Crown, however reactionary, dare advise a
suspension of the Constitution. As Mr. Tokiwo Yokoi has
put it : " How these two principles of the divine right of the
sovereign and the divine right of the people, which in
Europe have so often waged fierce contests for ascendency,
are to be harmonised, is the problem which is at present
taxing the efforts of the most thoughtful politicians of the
country. These politicians all see that it has been the
intense loyalty of the people which, more than anything else,
has carried the ship of state through the troubles of recent
times, and that it is the Imperial House which to-day gives
unity to the nation, notwithstanding the presence of a
hundred divisive forces. At the same time these statesmen
also see that the rights and liberties of the people are not
only to be preserved and guarded intact, so far as they exist
already, but that they must be more and more increased in
proportion as the people prove themselves capable of a larger
exercise of their powers."

The future evolution of government and administration
in Japan will form a most interesting study, and there are
many difficult problems to be faced. On the one hand,
the demand for a popular form of government, directly
responsible to the elected representatives of the people, will
become stronger, while on the other there will be great
opposition to any change which will seem to diminish the
glory of the crown and make the government less stable.
What form the government will ultimately take it is

The Future 391

impossible to say, but there are not likely to be any violent
changes. The intense loyalty to the Emperor and the
spirit of patriotism which compels all Japanese to lay aside
merely personal and party reasons, and probably also the
danger arising from the aggressive policies of some of the
great Powers of Europe, will cause the ancient " Bushido " of
Japan to reappear in a form suited to the new conditions,
and solve the difficulties which at present are appearing on
the political horizon.

It is sincerely to be hoped that Japan, in her own
interests, will continue her present policy, abstain from
any attempt at territorial aggrandisement in
Asia, and confine herself to commercial and
industrial intercourse and to guidance in the rejuvenation of
that vast continent. There are too many interests involved
to allow any one Power to obtain a dominating influence in
the Far East, and especially in China. Free intercourse,
without any sign of political aggression, is the only bond
which will bring about the brotherhood of nations. Unless
the Foreign Powers interested in China recognise this fact,
they are only transferring to China the problems with which
they are confronted in Europe. Their duty is, therefore, to
aid in the peaceful development of Asia and to give all
assistance to the Chinese and the other peoples to reform
their own Government and to take advantage of Western
methods, in so far as these are necessary for the purpose of
raising the standard of life. Whatever the result of the
contest between Japan and Russia may be, both Powers
should remember that the peoples of the countries con-
cerned have rights which should not be overlooked, and that
their object should be to raise them to a higher state of
national life. As I have frequently pointed out, this cannot
be done by imposing a civilisation on them from without ; the
impetus must come from within. Education should be
developed in all its departments so that the people of
China and Korea may learn what is necessary in order to
hold their own in the international struggle for existence.

39 2 Dai Nippon

Probably, as the representatives of the Western Powers
become wiser, they may recognise the futility of a great part
of that struggle, and decide, as many of the Chinese have
done, that the object of life is to live, and not simply to
struggle for the means of existence. Intercourse with
Western people and with the Japanese will, however,
show the slow-moving people of China and Korea that a
knowledge of science and of its applications to the develop-
ment of the national resources is necessary for the fullest
individual and national life.

All the Powers interested in the Far East may rest assured
that the civilisation of the future demands the maintenance
of strong independent nations, fearless of oppression, entering
into closer commercial and social intercourse with each other ;
that thus by the practice of material aid upon the plane of
physical life, they may lay the foundation of a higher
spiritual fellowship. Any attempt at military or political
domination simply leads to the suppression of all real
national life and hinders the cause of true world civilisation,
the object of which is, not to extinguish individual nationality,
but rather to bring it into strong organic harmony with the
life of other nations.

The bogey of the " Yellow Peril " has been raised as a
reason why Eastern nations should not be encouraged to
The so-called strengthen themselves with all the appliances
"Yellow Peril." f Western arts, both of peace and war, and the
rapid development of Japan has led to the fear that she may
place herself at the head of an Asiatic combination which
might overwhelm the civilisation of Europe. Mr. Charles H.
Pearson has drawn a gloomy picture, not only of the
possibilities but also of the probabilities of the future ; and Mr.
Meredith Townsend has argued that Asia, which has rejected
Christianity and hates the European mind, will one day
attempt to shake itself free from the Western world. If that
day ever comes, it will have been brought about by the conduct
of the European Powers, which have so long taken advantage
of the weakness of Asia. It is just possible that the ends of

The Future 393

eternal justice require such a retribution, but I believe it is
not yet too late to prevent it. To the Eastern nations the
" White Peril " is a reality, while to the Western nations
the " Yellow Peril " is only a speculation. I am inclined
to agree with the opinions of Professor E. G. Browne of
Cambridge University, who in a recent lecture said : " The
curious thing is that nobody has any idea of whether there
would be any ' Yellow Peril ' even if the other Asiatic
Powers shook off their weakness as Japan has done. For it
is to be remembered that while our civilisation has developed
very largely on military lines, that of China (which is the
dominant factor in the case) has tended away from militarism.
The Chinese despise fighting as a propensity of brutes,
beasts, or savages, and leave it to the riff-raff of the populace.
And even if, under the influence of Japan and the pressure
of European rapacity, they should organise themselves to
resist the violence of others, it does not follow that they will
embark on a career of aggression. On the contrary, it is
possible that China may yet give the world a lead in the
direction of peace." If that lead be not followed, we are not
likely to be far wrong in assuming that, if the unexpected
ability of the Japanese and the Chinese to defend themselves
against the " White Peril " means a " Yellow Peril," that
peril is certain to appear.

Meantime Japan is face to face with some of the
problems of a similar nature to those which have appeared
in Europe and America. The inevitable result Future of com-
of the developments of industry and commerce binations of
and the increase of competition has been, as capita
we have seen, the formation of large combinations of capital
which are beginning to have very important effects on the con-
ditions of the people, and one of the most important problems
of the future is : — What forms will these combinations
ultimately take and to what will they lead ? Will they
cause a return, in a modified form, to the semi-communistic
conditions of the feudal system in which the due mainten-
ance of the lives of the people was considered the first

394 Dai Nippon

charge, or will they tend to become more and more
capitalistic in their nature, and dividends for the fortunate
few be ground out of the lives of the workers ? Under
modern conditions, in all industrial countries, wealth has
increased at one end of the social scale and poverty at the
other, and already in Japan these two features have given
rise to a considerable amount of socialistic writing and
speaking. Indeed a prominent Japanese politician has
written a book in which he has pictured a socialistic
Utopia where poverty will be unknown, but he has copied
his picture too closely from Western models and has not
sufficiently considered the idiosyncrasies of the Japanese
mind. While the philosophy and former social order of
the Japanese was, to a very considerable extent, communistic
in its nature, still their genius is individualistic, and they
are not willing to sacrifice results to a rigid organisation.
What ultimate form the combinations will take it is of
course impossible to say ; but it is to be hoped that the
organisation of the future will allow the work which is done
to be representative not only of the Japanese ideals of life
and art but also embody many of the features of the new
civilisation, and in this way Japan would be able to exercise
great influence on the life and thought of every country in
the world.

The amount and nature of this influence would depend
on the moral standard in Japan. At present that is very
Future of ethics indefinite. Old ideas have to a large extent
m japan. disappeared, and during the transition nothing
very definite has taken their place, although the discussion
of ethical problems is now occupying the attention of many
thoughtful men in Japan. In a previous chapter I have
indicated some of the steps which have been taken in the
direction of arriving at an ethical basis for modern Japanese
life. Probably the process will be slow, and in the interval
many different opinions will be expressed and many experi-
ments be made. Mr. Tokiwo Yokoi, from whom I have
already quoted on this subject, says : -" The Japanese

The Fuhire 395

professors of morals cannot appeal to the authority of a
religious system. After the failure of the attempt to revive
Confucianism, no other similar project can succeed. Educa-
tion has never been, at least during the last three centuries,
in the hands of the Buddhist priests. Their ethical interests
are to-day too weak to seek to influence the policy of moral
education. Christianity is not to be thought of. It is yet
new and untried, and its position, though highly respectable,
is not commanding enough to take the lead in this work.
The only available course left to the educators of Japan is
to appeal to the sentiments of loyalty and patriotism which
lie latent in the breast of every Japanese. Such appeals
carry immense weight with the young, and go no doubt a
great way in solving the problem." He points out, however,
that they are apt to become one-sided, and to forget that
in order that efficient public service may be performed, there
must, in the first place, be men of good personal character,
and that the rising generation must not only have impressed
upon them that truthfulness, temperance, generosity, and
thrift are indispensable to those who would be loyal and
patriotic subjects of the Mikado, but that they are so im-
portant in themselves, they ought to be freed from the
domination of any other class of virtues and given in-
dependent positions. He thinks, however, that most likely
this one-sided emphasis on the importance of public virtues
to the neglect of the private is a momentary phase in the
educational development and will gradually pass away, and
with the increase of intelligence among the people and the
growth of private schools which are conducted on less
formal and more liberal lines than the Government institu-
tions, there will be evolved a system of ethics suitable to
the new conditions.

There are at present three distinct trends in Japanese
ethical thought. In the first, it is argued that the religion
and ethics of Old Japan, if maintained in their purity, are
sufficient for the wants of the future ; in the second, that the
materialistic and utilitarian philosophy is all that is necessary;

3 9 6 Dai Nippon

and in the third, that a higher development is required in
the direction of Christianity, although it may be necessary
to present it in a form different from that which is common
in Western countries.

The ideals of " Bushido " which inculcate right -doing

combined with the highest code of honour have still a great

Future of hold on the minds of many of the people of

religion in Japan. Life without honour is not worth living,

Japan. anc j death is faced without fear if either personal

or national honour is in question. Buddhism, which

permeates the thoughts of the common people ; Shintoism,

which makes the bond of personal loyalty to the Emperor

so strong ; Confucianism, which guides their practical ethics ;

and the influence of Western science, philosophy, and religion

must all be reckoned with in considering the possibilities of

the future. That future is therefore difficult to forecast.

Marquis Ito may be taken as a representative of the
spirit of the Revolution. Some years ago when a suggestion
was made that national education should be put on a
religious basis, a Japanese interviewer reported that Marquis
Ito " did not hesitate to dismiss the rumour as a baseless
fabrication. That religious votaries should endeavour to
push their evangelical efforts in every direction, educational
or political, was intelligible enough. But it would be the
height of folly for educationists to invoke the aid of religion.
. . . The modern progress of Japan was, in his opinion, due,
among other things, to the fact that all religious entangle-
ments had been wisely avoided in the domains of education
and politics. ' Look,' said he, ' look at those Oriental
countries which are still in a state of religious bondage.
Do we not observe in those countries that religious prejudice
still constitutes a fatal barrier to the introduction of an
intelligent system of administration ? Do those among us
who would have religion introduced into the field of educa-
tion desire to follow in the footsteps of the backward
countries of the East ? ' He did not mean to say that
religion should be banished altogether from society ; the

The Future 397

people were perfectly free to believe and profess any form
of religion, only .... with re-affirmation of the drastic
and sufficing efficiency of Education, pure and undefiled."
He continued : " In the view of the ruling classes, religion is
a secondary affair. The important thing is to conserve the
national morality, which inculcates love of country, loyalty
to the Sovereign, filial piety, family harmony, respect for
parents, goodwill among sons and daughters, the worship of
ancestors, etc. These are civic and family observances, not
religious. This moral system limits its aims to this world,
and its practice contemplates no celestial reward." The
religion of the Revolution is evidently not a religion in the
ordinary sense, but a civic and family morality, and seems
to be very similar to that inculcated by Comte.

On the other hand, it cannot be disputed that Christianity,
in some of its varied forms, is having considerable influence,
both direct and indirect, in Japan, but it will be presented to
the people in a form widely differing from that of Western
countries. Count Okuma has expressed the opinion that
" Civilisation does not depend upon religion. The old
characteristic civilisation of Japan has assimilated Christianity,
giving birth to something better. Japan's progress for the
last thirty years does not depend on Christianity, but upon
the peculiar attractiveness of the Japanese character. Japan
has her own philosophical system, based on Chinese ethics,
and strictly speaking she has no religion ; but she has
capacity for Western civilisation, which enables her to
assimilate the best that the Western nations possess." Mr.
Shimada Saburo, a professed Christian and a well-known
journalist and politician, writes : " The Christianity that gains
the hearts and minds of the people of Japan will be our own —
a Japanese Christianity. It will not be exactly like that of
England or of the United States. Just as we have united
the Benevolence of Confucius and the Mercy of Buddha, and
have made a product peculiar to Japan, so Christianity will
be tinged with the national characteristics." Dr. Nitobe (from
whom I have so often quoted) believes that the profit and

39$ Dai Nippon

loss philosophy of utilitarians and materialists finds favour
only among logic - choppers with half a soul ; an opinion
which is rather hard on the scientific men in Japan, who are
for the most part inclined to this way of thinking. He
explains his own position (which may be accepted as that
of many thoughtful men who have had opportunities of
studying Western thought and its results) in the following
words : " It is with ecclesiastical methods and with the forms
which obscure the teachings of Christ, and not with the
teachings themselves, that I have little sympathy. I believe
in the religion taught by Him and handed down to us in the
New Testament, as well as in the law written in the heart.
Further, I believe that God hath made a testament which
may be called ' old ' with every people and nation — Gentile
or Jew, Christian or heathen." He further believes that
before Christianity can make much progress in Japan or
in the East generally, it must divest itself of its foreign
accoutrements and the superstructure of Western metaphysics
with which it has been loaded. At a religious conference
held in Amsterdam last year, Mr. Z. Toyosaki, of Tokyo,
said that " the Japanese are usually said to be indifferent
towards religion, but this is not their real attitude. In fact,
their dissatisfaction with popular Buddhism and orthodox
Christianity has led them to stand aloof from all religions.
They have found that popular religious conceptions are
incompatible with the scientific and philosophic thought of
the present day. Yet they have come to acknowledge the
possibility of a higher religion capable of satisfying the
intellectual as well as the spiritual cravings of mankind."
Any one who keeps himself acquainted with Japanese
thought, as that is expressed in their journals and current
literature, must admit that moral and religious subjects claim
a large share of attention.

The Japanese, indeed, must find it very difficult to
ascertain what Christianity really is, as it has been presented
to them in so many different forms ranging from the
Salvation Army to the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches,

The Future 399

and all claiming to spread the true Gospel. They must
have a further difficulty in discovering where Christianity is,
when they observe the results on either the individuals or
the nations with whom they come into contact. The former
are, as a rule, more intent on the worship of mammon and
the pursuit of pleasure than the service of God and their
fellow- men, while the latter in their dealings with Eastern
peoples constantly deny the religion which they profess.
When they visit Europe and America and study the results
of Western civilisation they find many things with which
they are by no means enamoured. The effects of Christianity
in Japan must be measured, not by the number of professing
Christians, although that is now considerable, but by the
influence of Western civilisation on the national life and
thought. Modern Japan has, to a large extent, as Count
Okuma has expressed it, assimilated the best that Western
nations possess, and to a very considerable degree has
justified the opinion that the nation which has from
ancient times imbibed and assimilated the elements of
Oriental civilisation, may produce a new and strong tissue,
and this may be done not by a suddenly professed change
of religion, but by a slow process of evolution in which many
forces — economic, intellectual, and spiritual — will co-operate.
Those who are working in this direction may rest assured
that personal and national example will have more effect
on Eastern ethics and religion than formal teaching and
preaching, especially if these be conducted entirely on the
lines of Western thought.

Lafcadio Hearn says : " With the acceptance of the
doctrine of evolution old forms of thought crumbled, new
ideas arose to take the place of worn-out dogmas, and we
have a general intellectual movement in directions strangely
parallel with Oriental philosophy." The probability of the
doctrine of pre-existence is being admitted not only by
theologians but also by scientific men, and even the modern
theories of stellar evolution and dissolution seem to confirm
the general principles of Eastern cosmogonies. Changes in

400 Dai Nippon

religious thought as a rule are slow, and are usually more
the result of unconscious permeation than of deliberate con-
viction. This is strikingly illustrated by the developments
in religious thought which have taken place in the West
during the past quarter of a century. These developments,
combined with greater experience of Eastern peoples, have
led to great modifications in the methods of presenting to
them the fundamental truths of religion. Much of the crude
anthropomorphism and many of the materialistic ideas
regarding the future life which formerly characterised
Christian theology have disappeared, and have been replaced
by teaching which commends itself to the intellect and the
conscience, and many of the narrow sectarian doctrines
formerly preached are now seldom heard. Most important
of all, religious toleration has been greatly developed. A
great deal, however, still requires to be done before Western
theology can appeal to cultivated Eastern minds. It must
be admitted by all who know much of the subject that while
astronomy is no longer geocentric but heliocentric, Western
theology is still largely geocentric, and has not been much
affected by the developments of science, although there has
been a somewhat indefinite demand for a roomier universe.
If they wish their work to prosper, religious teachers must
not only take to heart the lessons of science, but they must
also free themselves from the fatal distinction and breach
between the Church and the world which is the very
negation of the central teaching and privilege of Christ.
They must not only place the doctrines of their religion on
a proper basis, but they must remember that it is not only
a creed but a life. No society has a right to call itself
Christian which lives by principles that turn the earth into
a battlefield, and in the evening summons the ambulances,
picks up the wounded and sheds tears of pity over the
dead. Intelligent Easterns will be inclined to judge of a
religion, not so much by its dogmas as by its results on the
lives of the individuals who profess it, and on the social con-
ditions of the people. On the other hand, we may rest

The Future 401

assured that they will not be content with the cast-off
theological garments of the West. The work of doctrinal
reconstruction is only beginning, but already some of the
most repulsive beliefs have been replaced by others of
a more rational nature. The old material Hell of the
theologian has practically disappeared, and a new Heaven
is being imagined which shall have at least its foundations
laid on this earth and its superstructure in similar parts of
the universe ; while Buddhism, that wondrous creed by which
every human life is the Heaven or Hell of a life which pre-
ceded it, is insensibly permeating the best thought of our
modern preachers and scientific men. If its fundamental
principles were clearly understood and acted upon, they
would have most important results not only on individual
conduct but also on social conditions.

It is gradually being recognised that if religion has any
meaning, science, industry, and commerce must not be used
as ends in themselves, but as means to raise the standard of
life of the people, not only materially but also intellectually,
morally, and spiritually. The Easterns, as a rule, in con-
templating eternity forget terrestrial realisation of individual
and social life, and consequently fall into a degraded con-
dition. The civilisation of the West is in danger of ex-
tinction through social upheavals and moral decomposition,
and faith is disappearing before the most dangerous form
of scepticism ; namely, that which arises from the doubt
of the possibility of regenerating society and making the
Kingdom of God stretch over the earth. For the highest
culture we require a combination of Eastern with Western
thoughts and methods, so that in this way may be reconciled
the forces which on the one hand make for the renunciation
of the world, and on the other for the accumulation of
wealth. Science must become religious, and religion must
become scientific, and both must be applied to the solution
of social and political problems. The most thoughtful men
in the West are beginning to recognise that these problems

are most likely to be solved by calling in the old world to
(b 207) 2 D

402 Dai Nippon

redress the balance of the new. One of them recently
wrote : " England, as the member of the Anglo-Saxon
family least possessed by the passion of industrial progress,
may then discover in her imperial position a historic signifi-
cance as yet unrealised, and having still her share of Anglo-
Saxon energy and virility, but with a more mellowed
temperament, and perhaps a more rooted hold in the past,
she will find that the fortunate accident of conquest has
called her to mediate between East and West, ancient and
modern, and so in due time to contribute no mean illumina-
tion to lessen the obscurity in which we now find ourselves.
For only a race of the highest virility can learn from the
East with profit — a race possessing the implicit faith of the
West that the Wheel of Being does not merely revolve but
moves forward. It is only some such expansion of thought
beyond racial limits that will save modern philosophy from
self-stultification." l We may rest assured that there is no
peace for the intellect and heart until science, philosophy,
and religion are not merely reconciled but are seen to be
one, as root, stem, and leaves are organic expressions of the
same living tree. Then the highest truth of reason will be
one with the highest object of faith, for only the thought
which trusts can truly indicate faith in the God which gave
it. Then, and then only, will national welfare be laid on a
solid foundation.

A new Power has arisen in the Far East which has not
only a large share of Anglo-Saxon virility, but is also deeply
imbued with Eastern thought, and it may have very im-
portant functions to perform not only in the domains of
industry, commerce, and politics, but also in the realms of
thought. The tendencies of the present day seem to show
that Eastern philosophy streaming back to the W 7 est will
produce a fundamental change in our thought and know-
ledge, and profoundly affect social and political conditions.
It has been argued with no little force that " to reconcile
the East with the West ; to be the advocate of the East

1 W. F. Alexander, Contcmporcuy Review, April 1904, p. 531.

The Future 403

and the harbinger of the West ; this we believe to be the
mission which Japan is called upon to fulfil." It will be
interesting to watch how far the Britain of the East is in
alliance with the Britain of the West, not only for political
purposes, but also how far the two Powers are able to
co-operate in the solution of the most important problems
which lie in the future, and thus promote the highest welfare
of the human race.

CHAPTER XX

{Supplementary)

RECENT EVENTS

In the original plan of this book it was intended to conclude
with the preceding chapter, but early in the present year,
The methods of war broke out between Japan and Russia, and
history. as ft w j]j mar k a most important epoch in the

history of the Japanese Empire, and probably of the world,
I propose in this supplementary chapter to indicate how far
recent events have justified the opinions expressed in the
preceding chapters, and at the same time to mention some
of the chief lessons which the Britain of the West may learn
from the experience of the Britain of the East.

As I have stated in my preface, my object is not to give
a history of modern Japan, but rather to indicate the forces
which have been at work in bringing about what is admitted
to be the wonder of the latter half of the nineteenth century,
and to note some of the chief results. Political conditions
are considered up to the end of last year, when the question
of war with Russia still hung in the balance. A systematic
history of modern Japan, and indeed of any other part of the
world, would be a sort of dramatic poem in which every scene
and person is determined not by imagination or accident
but by conditions which all lead up to the purposeful plan
of the whole. All that I have attempted to supply are
some materials for such a history by a preliminary study of
the dynamics of the subject. What Ranke designates as
the " art " of writing history consists, not simply in the

404

Recent Events 405

narration of facts, but in the arrangement of these facts in
such a manner as to show their relations in the causal and
teleological connection of an organic whole which is de-
veloped by individuals or nations acting as the conscious
organs of the general tendencies dominating their times.

For some years past the Japanese have been consciously
making history with very definite objects in view. The
events of the Restoration gave them many The making of
difficult problems to solve. The feudal system J a P anese history.
had disappeared and the whole machinery of government
had to be erected on a new basis. Administration and
education received their first attention ; but contact with
Foreign Powers soon showed that these, in themselves, were
not sufficient to enable them to attain a position of equality
with the other nations of the world. The long negotiations
in connection with treaty revision awoke within them the
consciousness of the need of a national policy which would
make them strong and cause their just claims to be con-
sidered with respect. The fear of aggression from European
Powers, especially from Russia, developed that conscious-
ness ; and the action of that Power, along with France and
Germany, after the conclusion of the war with China, almost
turned it into a passion. Without rest, but also without
haste, they strengthened their army and navy and developed
their means of communication and other appliances, and
thus made themselves a strong military Power. They dis-
claimed all intention of aggression, but at the same time
they studied carefully the trend of events and determined to
resist to the death any action by outsiders which injuriously
affected their welfare or threatened their national existence.
The doings of Russia had long been a cause of anxiety to
them, and especially those in Manchuria after the war with
China filled them with grave apprehension. They were
anxious to come to an understanding with Russia on the
subject, and their self-restraint has been admired by all
disinterested parties.

Negotiations were commenced in August of last year

4o6 Dai Nippon

with regard to affairs in Manchuria and Korea, and the
Japanese Cabinet drafted a treaty embodying its proposals
on the lines which I have indicated in a previous chapter.
They proposed to place Manchuria and Korea on approxi-
mately the same basis, and assimilated the position of Russia
in the one country and Japan in the other, and thus afforded
a clear proof of their wish to arrive at an understanding on
the subject. In order to safeguard the supposed rights of
Russia, Japan expressed her readiness to define the interests
accruing to Russia, through her railway in Manchuria, as
comprising the administration, military and civil, of a strip
of territory measuring thirty miles on each side of the line
and including the town of Harbin, situated at the junction
of the Manchurian railway with the main Trans-Siberian
line to Vladivostock. These proposals did not satisfy
Russia, and believing that Japan would not dare to go to
war, she put forward counter-proposals which clearly indi-
cated her ambitions. They limited the treaty to Korea, and
even for that, restrictions were placed on Japan, while Russia
was to be allowed to do as she pleased in China. Russia
declined to pledge herself to the policy of the " open door,"
or indeed to anything which in any way restricted her
freedom of action in Manchuria. On the other hand, she
made three further and uncompensated demands stipulating
for (i) no fortifications on the Straits ; (2) a neutral zone
exclusively Korean ; and (3) the abandonment by Japan of
all political interest in Manchuria. These demands clearly
showed that Russia did not wish a reasonable settlement.

Negotiations dragged on till the end of last year, and
on 2 1 st December Japan presented what she called her
" last amendments," the object of which was to guarantee
the independence and integrity of China by defining strictly
the position of Russia in Manchuria. About the middle of
January of the present year the Japanese Minister in St.
Petersburg was instructed to ask for an " early reply."
Meantime Russia was busily employed in strengthening
her naval and military position. Every ship that could be

Recent Events 407

spared was being sent out to the Far East, evidently for the
purpose of overawing the Japanese. On 26th January the
Japanese Minister at St. Petersburg was informed that the
Russian Government had resolved not to yield on the
Manchurian question, but to make substantial concessions
to Japan on other points. Still no formal reply had been
sent to the proposals of Japan, and it was evident that the
whole object of Russia was to gain time. On 5th February,
and not until after Russian troops had already invaded
Northern Korea, Mr. Kurino, the Minister for Japan in
St. Petersburg, was instructed to break off negotiations.

The Japanese were at once ready to strike a determined
blow, as they were well aware that the first blow counts
much. On 9th February, Admiral Togo made a
successful attack on Port Arthur, disabling seven
Russian warships. The Russian Government issued a
memorandum to their representatives abroad giving their
version of the negotiations, and complaining that Japan had
not waited for their reply and had commenced war without
a formal declaration. I shall deal with that complaint
further on, but it is evident that the object of Russia was
to gain time so that she might have a sufficient naval force
in Eastern seas to settle the matter without any operations
on land. At the outbreak of the war the naval forces of
Japan and Russia in the Far East were so nearly equal that
a very slight superiority in skill might have been sufficient
to have decided the struggle in favour of Russia, but the
Japanese showed such brilliant qualities of strategy and such
bravery that they soon obtained a practical command of
the sea.

The Russian military authorities must have recognised
the difficult position a large army would be in, at a distance
of 4000 miles from its base, and supplied only by a single
line of railway. Some time ago an eminent Russian pro-
fessor of the art of war solemnly declared that it was
" historically and philosophically impossible for Japan to
prevent Russia from fulfilling her manifest destiny in Asia."

4o8 Dai Nippon

To this it has been answered that such a saying reminds us
of Huxley's definition of Herbert Spencer's conception of a
tragedy as " a syllogism strangled by a fact." The Russian
officials, despite all their bluff, must have seen that they
were placed on the horns of a dilemma which is this : —
"The army which can be fed by the Trans-Siberian
Railway will not be strong enough to beat the Japanese ;
the army that is strong enough to beat the Japanese cannot
be fed by the Trans-Siberian Railway." It is therefore
easy to understand why the Russians were anxious, if
possible, to confine their operations to sea.

The position of Japan was clearly shown in the Imperial

Proclamation of War, which was as follows : — " We, by the

Grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on

Japanese r J r '

Proclamation the Throne occupied by the same Dynasty from
time immemorial, do hereby make Proclamation
to all Our loyal and brave subjects as follows : —

" We hereby declare war against Russia, and we com-
mand Our Army and Navy to carry on hostilities against
that Empire with all their strength, and We also command
all Our competent authorities to make every effort, in
pursuance of their duties and in accordance with their
powers, to attain the national aim with all the means within
the limits of the law of nations.

" We have always deemed it essential to Our inter-
national relations and made it Our constant aim to promote
the pacific progress of Our Empire in civilisation, to
strengthen Our friendly ties with other States, and to
establish a state of things which would maintain enduring
peace in the Extreme East, and assure the future security
of Our Dominion without injury to the rights and interests
of other Powers. Our competent authorities have also
performed their duties in obedience to Our will, so that Our
relations with the Powers have been steadily growing in
cordiality. It was thus entirely against Our expectation
that We have unhappily come to open hostilities against
Russia.

Recent Events 409

" The integrity of Korea is a matter of constant concern
to this Empire, not only because of Our traditional relations
with that country, but because the separate existence of
Korea is essential to the safety of Our Realm. Neverthe-
less Russia, in disregard of solemn treaty pledges to China
and her repeated assurances to other Powers, is still in
occupation of Manchuria, and has consolidated and
strengthened her hold upon those provinces and is bent
upon their final annexation. And since the absorption of
Manchuria by Russia would render it impossible to maintain
the integrity of Korea and would in addition compel the
abandonment of all hope of peace in the Extreme East,
We determined, in these circumstances, to settle the ques-
tions by negotiation and to secure thereby permanent peace.
With that object in view, Our competent authorities, by
Our order, made proposals to Russia, and frequent con-
ferences were held during the course of six months. Russia,
however, never met such proposals in a spirit of conciliation,
but by her wanton delays put off the settlement of the ques-
tion, and by ostensibly advocating peace on the one hand,
while she was, on the other, extending her naval and military
preparations, sought to accomplish her own selfish designs.

" We cannot in the least admit that Russia had from
the first any serious or genuine desire for peace. She had
rejected the proposals of Our Government ; the safety of
Korea is in danger ; the vital interests of Our Empire are
menaced. The guarantees for the future which we have
failed to secure by peaceful negotiations, We can now only
seek by an appeal to arms.

" It is Our earnest wish that by the loyalty and valour of
Our faithful subjects, peace may soon be permanently restored
and the glory of Our Empire preserved."

The rapid action of the Japanese in attacking Port
Arthur immediately after the negotiations were broken off,
caused the Russians to bring against them the justification of
charge of treachery. I cannot, of course, dis- J a P ane se action,
cuss all the pros and cons of this subject, but the following

4 : o Dai Nippon

are the conclusions of Dr. T. J. Lawrence, Lecturer on
International Law in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.
After sketching the course of events which preceded the
outbreak of the war, Dr. Lawrence states that " the accusa-
tion of treachery rests entirely upon the assumption that
International Law imposes upon belligerents the duty of
making to one another a formal declaration of war before
commencing hostilities. Never was assumption more
groundless. Nearly every war of the last two centuries has
been commenced without a declaration. Sometimes one
has been issued, as in the present case, a greater or less time
after the forces of the combatants have begun their work of
conflict. Sometimes there has been none from the beginning
to the end of a war. Occasionally a manifesto by a State
to its own subjects, or a diplomatic circular sent to foreign
Governments, has taken the place of a formal notice delivered
to the enemy. The constant practice has been for the
better-prepared State to strike a sudden blow at her unready
adversary, whatever form or absence of form seemed advis-
able at the moment. Nor is there in this anything that
necessarily involves bad faith. A period of negotiation
precedes a period of hostility. As relations grow more and
more strained, a prudent State prepares for eventualities.
Very often an ultimatum is presented ; that is to say, a
demand, the refusal of which will be followed by war. The
rupture of diplomatic relations is the constant precursor of
armed conflict. Unless the first blow falls, like a bolt from
the blue, in a period of profound peace, without previous
complaint and demand for redress, there is nothing in it
which savours of treachery." Dr. Lawrence illustrates his
conclusions by historical precedents and proceeds to say : —
" Unless we are prepared to maintain the ridiculous proposi-
tion that the law of nations, instead of being deduced from
the practice of nations, has no connection whatever with it,
we must acquit Japan of the charge made against her.
Instead of being guilty of a breach of International Law,
she went beyond it by giving her adversary ample notice of

Recent Events 4 1 1

what he might expect. Relations between the two Powers
had been strained for a long time. There would have been
no treachery in a sudden attack. But the note delivered on
6th February by the Japanese representative at St. Petersburg
not only broke off diplomatic intercourse — an act which is
constantly followed by immediate war — but also expressly
stated that Japan must take such measures as she thought
fit for her own safety. Its exact words were : ' The Imperial
Government reserve to themselves the right to take such
independent action as they may deem best to consolidate
and defend their menaced position, as well as to protect
their established rights and legitimate interests.' The
merest tyro in diplomacy knows what this meant. It was a
distinct warning that hostilities might be expected at any
moment, and the first blow was not struck till about sixty
hours after it had been given. As a matter of fact, Russia
was not taken unawares. She had expected war for some
time, and had prepared for it, though her preparations were
ill-conceived and badly carried out." l

On the other hand, Sir John Macdonell, C.B., LL.D., has
some doubts on the subject. He says : " On the night of
the 8th or 9th Admiral Togo torpedoed the Russian vessels
at Port Arthur. It was an attack of surprise. Was it a
treacherous and disloyal act ? The question must be put
with the knowledge that a nation which is patient may be
duped ; that the first blow counts much ; and that under
cover of continuing negotiations a country unprepared might
deprive another better equipped of its advantages. But it is
a nice question whether the negotiations had reached, on the
8th or 9th of February, a point at which discussion had been
abandoned, and both sides had accepted the arbitrament of
battle. I will only say that the recent precedent is of evil
omen, and that it is to be feared that, in future, we may see
blows struck, not merely without formal notice, but while
diplomatists are still debating. I am not expressing an
opinion on the particular act in saying that there has been

1 War and Neutrality in the Far East, pp. 27-32.

412 Dai Nippon

an unfortunate — perhaps inevitable — retrogression. Since
1870 there has been a tendency to abide by the old rule,
which regarded a war without a declaration or ultimatum as
disloyal." 1 Baron Suyematsu, a high Japanese authority,
while appreciating Sir John Macdonell's contention that no
blows should be struck without adequate warning or while
diplomatists are still debating the matters in dispute, under-
takes to prove that Japan, so far from taking her enemy
unawares, did actually do precisely as Sir John Macdonell is
anxious to show she ought to have done, and that, in the
sense of his comment on the operations, there was no room
for the Russians to be surprised in any degree whatever. I
can only give a brief resume of Baron Suyematsu's facts and
arguments ; for details the original article must be consulted. 2
He gives an outline of the negotiations which were carried
on at the end of last and the beginning of this year, and
makes it quite clear that the Japanese Government pressed
on the Russian Government the urgent necessity of accelerat-
ing the despatch of an answer to the proposals of the
Japanese Government as much as possible, because further
prolongation of the existing conditions was not only undesir-
able but dangerous. On the evening of the 31st of January
Count Lamsdorff admitted to Mr. Kurino, the Japanese
representative at St. Petersburg, that he fully appreciated the
gravity of the situation. Notwithstanding this admission,
the delay continued, and it was not until the fifth day after
this interview which Mr. Kurino had with Count Lamsdorff.
and the third day after the reply had been promised to be
given, namely, on the 5th of February 1904, at 2.15 P.M.,
that Baron Komura (the Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs in Japan) telegraphed to Mr. Kurino that further
prolongation of the existing situation being inadmissible, the
Imperial Government had decided to terminate the pending
negotiations. After a statement of the position of the
Japanese Government on the subject under dispute (and

1 The Nineteenth Century, July 1904, p. 147.
2 Ibid., August 1904, p. 174.

Recent Events 4 1 3

which was for the most part embodied in the Declaration of
War already quoted) Baron Komura's communication con-
cluded with the sentence mentioned by Dr. Lawrence,
reserving the right of the Japanese Government to take such
independent action as they may deem best to consolidate
and defend their menaced position, as well as to protect their
established rights and legitimate interests.

Simultaneously with the presentation of Baron Komura's
note, Mr. Kurino was instructed to write to Count
Lamsdorff and inform him that as the efforts of the Japanese
Government to arrive at an honourable understanding with
the Russian Government had been unsuccessful, it was his
intention to take his departure from St. Petersburg, with the
Staff of the Imperial Legation. These notes were pre-
sented to Count Lamsdorff by Mr. Kurino on the 6th of
February, at 4 P.M., and on the same day Baron Komura
conveyed a formal intimation to Baron Rosen, the Russian
Minister in Tokyo, in the sense that : — " Whereas the
Japanese Government had made every effort to arrive at an
amicable settlement of the Manchurian question with Russia,
the latter had not evinced any disposition to reciprocate
this peaceful purpose. Therefore Japan could not continue
the diplomatic conferences. She was regretfully compelled
to take independent action for the protection of her rights
and interests, and she must decline to accept the responsi-
bility of any incidents that might occur in consequence."

A perusal of these despatches should have left no doubt
on the minds of the Russian statesmen that Japan had finally,
though reluctantly, arrived at the conclusion that war was
inevitable. As Baron Suyematsu puts it : " The wording
is polite, but who can doubt that it was a clear notice of
war ? "

Those in command of the Russian fleet were evidently
quite aware that their Government were determined on war,
for as Baron Suyematsu points out : — " At the moment when
Admiral Togo actually made his attack the Russian ships
lay outside the harbour in a perfect battle array, in front of

414

Dai Nippon

the shore forts and batteries of the fortress, a position that
they had taken up on their return from their cruise to the
south-eastward. Wherein was the unpreparedness ? If the
officers of the Russian ships were caught in an unguarded
moment, blame must not be imputed to the Japanese. The
cause must rather be sought in a misconception on the part
of the Russians of the watchful strategy which the situation
demanded. The facts are, moreover, that the Russian ships
had lain under a full head of steam for days off the Port
Arthur entrance, had been continually using their search-
lights as though they apprehended an attack, the battleships
had their decks cleared for action, and the instant that the
first torpedo was launched the Russians opened fire on the
Japanese boats."

The best proof of the determination of the Russian
Government to settle the matter in dispute by the arbitra-
ment of war is to be found in its actions for a year previous
to the close of the negotiations. It had promised to
complete the evacuation of Manchuria in April 1903, but
instead of doing so, it strengthened its position as rapidly as
possible. During that year, it despatched to Far Eastern
waters

Three battleships
One armoured cruiser
Five other cruisers
Seven destroyers .
One gunboat
Two mine-laying craft

Combined Tonnage
38,488

7,727
26,417

2,45°
i,344
6,000

Seven other destroyers were sent by rail to Port Arthur
and there put together, while two vessels of the " Volunteer "
Fleet were armed and hoisted the Russian naval ensign at
Vladivostock. Considerable numbers of troops were sent to
Manchuria ; but as I have already remarked it was evidently
the intention of the Russian Government to have a sufficient
naval force in Eastern waters to settle the conflict without
any operations in Manchuria or Korea. ' How in the face

Recent Events 415

of all these facts the Russian Government could complain of
having been taken unawares is incomprehensible, and the
charge of treachery seems to have been made for the purpose
of covering the want of attention and skill on the part of
those in command of the fleet. If it had not been for the
self-restraint of the Japanese Government, war might have
broken out some months before it actually did, when the
Russians were still more unprepared than they were on the
9th of February.

The operations carried on by the Japanese in the war,
both by land and sea, have fully justified the opinions which
I have expressed in the preceding chapters. Events
Their intense patriotism has caused them to of the war -
perform deeds of daring which have won for them the
admiration of the world, their skill in strategy and in the
application of the latest scientific methods in all they have
done, has made them almost uniformly successful in their
operations. They have demonstrated the importance of the
work of the engineer. The railways which have been built
in Japan have been fully utilised to convey men and
materials and the ships to transport them oversea. The
telegraphs have been used to communicate instructions and
to keep the authorities informed regarding movements and
requirements. The dockyards and shipbuilding yards have
been ready to undertake repairs, and the arsenals and
machine shops to turn out war material of all kinds as well
as appliances which aid operations in the field. Light
railways have been laid down on the way to battlefields and
wireless telegraphy and telephones to convey instructions to
the soldiers ; in short, all the latest applications of mechani-
cal, electrical, and chemical science have been freely and
intelligently employed.

The barest notice of the events of the war is all that,
meantime, I can give, not only on account of want of space,
but also because the war has, to a large extent, been fought
in camera and the circumstances attending it are only im-
perfectly known to outsiders. The Japanese have shown

4 1 6 Dai Nippon

that they look upon war as a serious matter and not simply
as a game which is useful for the supply of interesting copy
for the newspapers. Their strategy has been most skilful,
but they did not think it part of their duty to allow
correspondents to communicate their plans to the world and
to the enemy, and it is probable that they have established
a precedent which will become of universal application. If
this be the case, the occupation of war correspondents is
gone for ever. It would be well if those responsible for
newspapers exercised some of the self-control of the Japanese
and were more careful about the news they publish. In the
absence of anything authentic, the reports of coolies or of
other equally untrustworthy persons have been telegraphed
round the world and announced on flaring bills, only to be
contradicted or ignored in the next issue of the papers. It
almost seems as if an extension of Japanese methods were
required in order to prevent the newspapers becoming public
nuisances if not public dangers.

The assaults by the Japanese forces on Port Arthur,
both by land and by sea, when accurately described will rank
among the most heroic struggles in the history of the world.
The sending of men to sink themselves and their ships in
the fairway of Port Arthur, and the storming of the heights
of Nanshan show that the Japanese military and naval
commanders are able to reckon on a national instinct which
Western peoples are scarcely able to appreciate in its full
significance. The advance on the strong position of the
Russians at Kinchau proves that Japanese soldiers do not
hesitate to sacrifice themselves in order to gain the object
they have in view. Wasteful self-immolation, however, is
no part of their programme. It is stated that the Emperor
has kept back the final assault on Port Arthur so that lives
might not be uselessly sacrificed. He has at the same time
shown a great regard for his enemies and has given orders
that non-combatants may have an opportunity of leaving
Port Arthur. The strategy of General Kuroki and the other
Japanese leaders has been carried out with all the delibera-

Recent Events 4 1 7

tion and skill of a game of chess. Military discipline and
scientific training, of course, account for a good deal of the
success which has attended the arms of the Japanese, but
they do not give a complete explanation. A national
consciousness of unprecedented intensity has enabled the
Japanese army and navy to achieve ends of incommensur-
able magnitude.

At the date of writing this, events of great importance
are proceeding rapidly. The Port Arthur fleet of the
Russians has been dispersed, the Vladivostock fleet has
been in part destroyed and the remainder badly damaged.
The final assault on Port Arthur is impending and the
operations in other parts of Manchuria are rapidly bringing
matters to a crisis. For our present purpose it is not
necessary to follow them further. Enough has been said
to demonstrate the truth of the opinions expressed in
the preceding chapters, and to show the results of the
training to which Japan has subjected itself. The sequel
must be left to another opportunity.

One of the most interesting revelations to the peoples
of the West regarding the Japanese character has been the
behaviour of the troops during war-time. Behaviour of
After referring to the absence of all attempts J a P anese troops,
to intensify racial hatred, Sir John Macdonell remarks
that : — " Not more remarkable is the swift assimilation by
Japan of the resources of military science than the assimila-
tion, rapid and complete, of the best traditions, the
courtesies and amenities of European warfare. Experience
shows that if hostilities are long continued, passions kept in
check at last break loose ; the vanquished are irritated and
desperate ; the victors become impatient at resistance
unreasonably continued. But, so far as things have gone,
one may say that a non-Christian State has set an example
to Christian nations in the conduct of war (as far as it is
possible) on the lines of civilisation. The superior prestige

of the West for humanity is gone. Touches of humanity
(B207) 2 E

4 1 8 Dai Nippon

and sympathy, never wanting in war, have abounded. The
Japanese have tended their wounded adversaries and have
resorted to no shabby subterfuges ; and on the death of
Admiral Makaroff they paid the tribute of brave men to a
fallen foe. They have paid for what they have taken.
They have made friends of the population in which they
have moved. Already the ring of European nations whose
consent has made International Law is broken in upon
by the admission of Turkey and Japan. International Law
cannot be quite what it was if it henceforth expresses the
consent of powerful Asiatic non-Christian States as well as
of European nations." l It is a remarkable fact that
although the International Arbitration Tribunal was formed
on the suggestion of the Czar, the Japanese have adhered
more scrupulously to the rules of the Hague Convention
than the Russians. In a recent interview Count Katsura,
the Prime Minister of Japan, said that he did not think that
any Government in the world at the outbreak of war ever
took such pains as the Government of Japan has taken to
emphasise to all the duty of conducting the war in strict
accordance with the principles of humanity and the usages
of International Law. Immediately upon the opening of
hostilities, communications were sent to all the Governors
of Prefectures reminding them of their responsibilities and
especially with regard to any Russians that might be residing
within their jurisdiction. Under the authority of the
Minister of Education, directions were issued by which all
the students in the empire, from the young men in the
higher institutions of learning down to the children in the
primary schools, have been instructed as to the principles
and duties to be observed. In addition to this, communica-
tions were sent to the recognised representatives of all the
religious bodies in the country — Buddhists, Shintoists, and
Christians alike — asking them to take pains to discountenance
any wrong tendencies among the more ignorant of the
people. Among the points emphasised by the Government
1 The Nineteenth Century, July 1904; p. 145.

Recent Events 419

are these : — That the war is one between the State of Japan
and the State of Russia ; that it is not waged against
individuals ; that individuals of all nationalities, peacefully
attending to their business, are to suffer no molestation or
annoyance whatever ; and that questions of religion do not
enter into the war at all.

Perhaps the best proof of the power of self-restraint of
the Japanese is to be found in the conduct of the great body
of the people during war - time. I lived in j apan - m
Japan during the Satsuma rebellion, and al- war-time.
though affairs were sometimes in a very critical condition,
there were no signs of alarm or even much to show an
ordinary observer that there was anything serious going on.
The arrangements which were made to meet the crisis were
carried out quietly. When victory at last came to the
Imperial Government there was no exultation, simply an
official announcement that the war was at an end. Similarly
in the war with China in 1894-5, there was little to show to
visitors that the country was at war, everything being done
in a quiet systematic manner.

In the present war with Russia the same calm has been
preserved. In a circular which has been issued by the chief
Chambers of Commerce in Japan, it is pointed out that none
of the arrangements for the convenience of visitors who
wish to enjoy the attractions of the country have been dis-
located, but that " on the contrary, to the many objects of
interest which invite inspection in normal years, there was
added the remarkable spectacle of an insular people preserv-
ing a demeanour of absolute calm and imperturbability while
engaged in a struggle for life or death with the greatest of
continental military Powers. Since the outbreak of this war,
as well as during the period of suspense that preceded it,
the quiet self-possessed attitude of the Japanese people has
been a theme of constant admiration and surprise to foreign
onlookers, and has been described in eulogistic terms by
foreign journalists. In truth, the country is just as it has
always been. The Japanese people are not swayed by any

420 Dai Nippon

frenzy of revenge or fired by any heat of territorial ambition.
They are fighting for what they believe to be the minimum
of their just right ; for the cause of free institutions ; the
cause of security against the spread of military despotism ;
the cause of a commercial field untrammelled for all, and the
cause of lasting peace : causes which they have fervently
embraced and for which they are ready to make any sacrifice.
Under such circumstances this war has not impaired in the
slightest degree the friendly feeling entertained by the
Japanese nation for the peoples of Europe and America.
On the contrary, it has greatly intensified that feeling, inas-
much as the crisis has elicited throughout nearly the whole
of the Occident expressions of sympathy with Japan, which
she welcomes with profound gratitude and satisfaction. She
appreciates that the purpose for which she is shedding blood
and treasure have the full endorsement of the enlightened
nations of the West, and she sees that by lending her whole
strength to the promotion of those purposes, she has drawn
greatly closer the bonds of amity between herself and the
Occident." All this goes to prove that Japan will not use
the results of the war, however victorious she may be, for
purposes of merely national aggrandisement, but that while
safeguarding her own interests and keeping in mind her
mission in the Far East, she will do nothing which will
forfeit the goodwill of Europe and America.

The most remarkable feature in the domestic situation
in Japan at the present time is the admirable reticence
observed by the influential political parties and their organs.
In view of the momentous issues at stake, all are agreed in
refraining from saying or writing anything calculated to
cause disunion or the appearance of it, and are united in
giving the Government their support in bringing the war to
a successful issue. That they are able to do this they are
perfectly confident, and the events of the war justify their
confidence. Its cost, so far, has proved to be less than was
expected, it having been carried on at an expenditure
equivalent to only two-thirds of the original estimate. They

Recent Events 421

appreciate perfectly that the war may be a protracted one ;
but if Russia is prepared to resort to the last extreme in
order to maintain her national honour, Japan will not hesitate
to sacrifice her last farthing in order to come out victorious
from a struggle involving her very existence.

The question has often been asked during the past few
months — What is the secret of the weakness which has
been shown by Russia since the beginning of The secret of
the war with Japan ? The complete answer to Russia ' s failure.
that question would involve a disquisition on the educational,
economical, social, and religious conditions of the Land of
the Czar. Dr. Emil Reich has pointed out that, " Every one
of the great Western nations has had to stand the test of a
triple trial before it could reach its actual condition. It has
had to pass through an intellectual Renaissance, a religious
Reformation, and a political Revolution. And we may
suppose that Russia will not escape the necessity of passing
through a like series of stages." Russia dare not educate
her people, and the consequence is that three out of every
four are illiterate. Hierarchy and bureaucracy alike dis-
courage the schools of the local councils. The universities
are being more and more dominated by stupid officialism,
and freedom of thought and teaching is impossible. An
attempt has been made to build up modern industries under
a system of protection which fosters artificial conditions and
perpetuates antiquated methods, and thus throws a great
burden on the agricultural classes. These latter are very
often drunken and barbarous, and their methods of work
entirely wanting in the applications of modern science. The
bureaucracy is corrupt and brutal, and there is no intelligent
public opinion to correct abuses. The most hopeless barrier
to Russian progress, however, is the Greek Church, which
has sterilised and paralysed both the intellectual and the
moral powers of the people. The Russians are, for the most
part, patriotic, for their religion is also a patriotism ; but it
is not to be compared to the burning patriotism of the
Japanese, which causes them to look upon death for their

422 Dai Nippon

country as the highest honour for which they can compete.
The Russian soldiers are no doubt brave when put in a
position of danger, but for the most part it is mere brute
courage, without that intellectual activity and scientific
knowledge which are the most important factors in modern
warfare. Many of them have been forced into the army
against their wills and have little enthusiasm for the work, a
considerable proportion indeed have a strong aversion to it.
From men like these little is to be expected. The Russian
Government has still to learn that the most powerful means
either of offence or defence in a modern State is a well-
educated enthusiastic people.

Another cause of the failure of Russia is the contempt
in which they have held the Japanese. Those responsible
for the negotiations preceding the outbreak of war seem to
have had a very inadequate idea of the developments which
had taken place in Japan and of the forces which had pro-
duced these developments. On this subject Baron Suyematsu
has remarked : " In the eyes of the Russians there was no such
Japan as they have, or rather the world has, begun to see
since the opening of the war. They trusted, no doubt, either
to be able to bluff through or crush at a blow if necessary.
Even in the battle of the Yalu, nay, even in the battle of
Kinchow, or Wafangu, they were unable to believe that the
Japanese were not after all ' monkeys with the brain of
birds ' ! Only a little time ago an eminent French states-
man told me that France understood Japan little ; Russia
still less. It was the sole cause of the present unfortunate
war. ' In that respect,' he continued, ' England was sharper,
for she understood the Far East, and, consequently, the
changing circumstances of the world, before any other
Occidental nation.' "

While the Japanese owe much to their utilisation of

Western science, appliances, and methods, the secret of their

The secret of phenomenal success in every department of

japan's success. na tional life lies in the spirit with which they

have been animated. In a previous chapter I have given a

Recent Events 423

sketch of what is involved in that spirit, but a study of the
doings in Japan of the past thirty years is its best illustration,
if not explanation. I may, however, repeat a sentence or
two of what I have quoted from Dr. Nitobe : " Needless to
repeat," he says, " what has grown a trite saying, that it is the
spirit that quickeneth, without which the best of implements
profiteth but little. The most improved guns and cannon
do not shoot of their own accord ; the most modern
educational system does not make a coward a hero. No !
What won the battles on the Yalu, in Korea and Manchuria,
was the ghosts of our fathers, guiding our hands and beating
in our hearts. They are not dead those ghosts, the spirits
of our warlike ancestors. To those who have eyes to see,
they are clearly visible." These are not simply the opinions
of a philosopher (some might be inclined to call him a
mystic) like Dr. Nitobe ; they are held even more strongly
by the practical and by the fighting men. A few months
ago Engineer-Captain Matsuo, one of my Kobu-Daigakko
students, came to Glasgow to bid me good-bye before return-
ing to Japan after he had despatched the cruisers Kasuga
and Nisshin, and in the course of my conversation I
showed him the chapter of this book which dealt with the
army and navy, and he asked me to make it quite clear that
while he valued Western ships and appliances he attached
far more importance to the spirit which animated the men in
charge of them.

The present war has shown most distinctly that the
spirit of Old Japan still lives in its modern army and navy.
I can only give one or two illustrations. When volunteers
were asked to undertake the blocking of Port Arthur, over
2000 offered themselves for the dangerous task, and some of
the applications were written with the blood of the men who
sent them in. Seventy-seven officers and men were selected,
and the farewell ceremonies which were held were of a strik-
ing and touching nature. On board the battleship Asama
Captain Yashiro took a large silver cup presented to him by
H.I.H. the Crown Prince, and filling it with water (it being

424 Da i Nippon

an old Japanese custom to drink water on the occasion of
permanent parting between near relatives), thus addressed the
volunteers : " In sending you now on the duty of blocking
the harbour entrance of Port Arthur, which affords you one
chance out of thousands to return alive, I feel as if I were
sending my beloved sons. But if I had one hundred sons,
I would send them all on such a bold adventure as this, and
had I only one son I should wish to do the same with him.
In performing your duty, if you happen to lose your left
hand, work with your right ; if you lose both hands, work
with both feet ; if you lose both feet, work with your head,
and faithfully carry out the orders of your commander. I
send you to the place of death, and I have no doubt that
you are quite ready to die. However, I do not mean to
advise you to despise your life nor to run needless risks in
trying to establish a great name. What I ask you all is
to perform your duty regardless of your life. The cup of
water I give you now is not meant to give you encourage-
ment but to constitute you as representatives of the bravery
of the Asama. A great shame it would be if our men
needed Dutch courage to go to the place of death ! I look
forward to a joyous day when I see you again coming back
with success. Submit your life to the will of Heaven and
calmly perform your onerous duty."

Among the volunteers was Commander Takeo Hirose,
who will always be remembered as one of the heroes of
the war. Before the first attempt on Port Arthur he
wrote : " How can I refuse to die as a patriotic sacrifice for
my country ? It will be a glorious death to go down with
the ship at the entrance to Port Arthur." Before the second
attempt, in which he perished, he wrote : " Knowing that
the souls of the brave return seven times to this world to
serve their country, I sacrifice with confidence this life, and
expecting now to achieve final success I will go on board
the ship cheerfully." These and similar words are now
printed on picture post-cards and sent all over Japan and
indeed to Japanese in all parts of the world. Their en-

Recent Events 425

thusiasm is thus raised to the highest pitch, and all merely
personal considerations are put aside for what is believed to
be the welfare or need of the country. This enthusiasm is
the main cause of the success of Japan, in the arts both of
peace and war, and her experience proves that a nation
becomes whatever she believes herself to be. Without
attempting to discuss all the transcendental effects of the
beliefs of the Japanese, there can be no doubt that the practi-
cal results are embodied in the rule which every one from
the highest to the lowest unflinchingly obeys, namely, that
" it is the imperative duty of man in his capacity of a
subject, to sacrifice his private interests to the public good.
Egoism forbids co-operation, and without co-operation there
cannot be any great achievement." The application of this
rule to its logical conclusion will take the Japanese a long
way and will enable them to solve many of the social
problems of the present time, the true meanings of which
are only beginning to be dimly perceived by the statesmen
of the West. The war with Russia is still in progress, and
its immediate results are uncertain, but whatever they may
be, we cannot doubt that it has opened a new chapter in the
history, not only of Japan, but of the world, and when that
is adequately written, the debt which is due to the Britain
of the East will be fully recognised.

Meantime, Great Britain should not be above learning a
few lessons from Japan. I do not propose to enter into the
lessons in military and naval administration Lessons for
and strategy, which no doubt will be taken to Great Bntain -
heart by the proper authorities, but there are matters of
more general interest on which a few remarks may be made.
Already, indeed, Lord Selborne, the First Lord of the
Admiralty, has in Parliament been directing attention to
various lessons which may be learned from Japanese
experience. He attached the greatest importance to the
quality of the personnel, and he insisted that the officers and
men were of more importance than the ships. This, as I
have tried to make clear, has long been recognised by the

426 Dai Nippon

Japanese. What is true of the army and navy is true of
every department of national life. The real measure of the
importance and even of the power of a nation is to be found
ultimately in the quality of its people.

The evolution in this country has been comparatively
slow, and many of our industrial developments are due to
conditions which are rapidly disappearing. Our supplies of
raw materials in our most important manufactures, especially
those connected with iron and steel, are becoming scarce and
therefore expensive, and many of our manufacturers continue
to use methods and appliances which are out of date on
account of recent advances of science. Other countries,
notably France, Germany, the United States, and above all
Japan, have developed their educational arrangements and
applied the results to national affairs in such a way as to
affect profoundly economic and social conditions at home
and trade abroad. We have seen that the educational
arrangements of Japan are very complete, and that those
who have had the advantage of them have been fitted to
take an active and intelligent part in the great developments
which have taken place.

Five years after my arrival in Japan I drew up a
somewhat exhaustive report on the work which we had
accomplished, and indicated some of the aims which ought
to be kept in view. I took occasion to point out that in
many respects engineering education in Great Britain was
very defective, and for this I was criticised by some of the
foreign residents and even by some of my colleagues.
Since that time, practically all the improvements which we
had adopted in the Imperial College of Engineering, Japan,
are to be found in almost all the colleges in this
country. Engineering is no longer taught as a single
subject but as a group of allied subjects, and the field which
was formerly supposed to be taken up by one professor or
lecturer is now divided among several, and engineering
laboratories are parts of the equipment of every well-
organised college. Two or three years ago, when Lord

Recent Events 427

Kelvin was inaugurating the James Watt engineering labora-
tory in Glasgow University, he reminded his audience that
the Imperial College of Engineering, Japan, was the first
educational institution which had a laboratory of this kind.
The experimental and graphical methods introduced into
every department of its course are now common in all the
colleges of this country. The method of combining
theory and practice in the training of engineers which I
introduced into Japan is now being strongly recommended
under the name of the " sandwich " system of apprenticeship.
I am not, however, so sure that the spirit which animated
the professors and students in Japan is yet very common in
Britain. The distinction between instruction — the mere
collection of facts and figures — and real education is not
sufficiently kept in mind. The Japanese students were not
crammed ; they were trained to think and to act for them-
selves, and their subsequent careers have fully proved the
success of the methods adopted. We have seen that in the
arts of peace and war they have applied their knowledge in
a manner which has surprised the world.

Probably, however, the chief lesson to be learned from
Japan is the need for a truly national spirit for the
accomplishment of great ends. The present war has shown
most distinctly that Japanese soldiers and sailors are care-
less of personal survival if they feel that they are taking
part in the accomplishment of a national aim. It is, of
course, in war that this spirit is most distinctly shown,
because in industry, trade, and political life merely personal
interests are apt to interfere, but even in these the Japanese
have shown that considerations of national welfare come
before everything else. The guiding principles enunciated
by the Emperor when he ascended the throne have always
been kept in mind, not only by himself and the Government
but also by the people, and the national policy has been
directed to the attainment of the objects in view. Educa-
tion, industry, the army and navy, foreign politics ; in short,
the national life was subordinated to the attainment of these

428 Dai A T ippon

objects. Plans were carefully drawn out in every department,
and were carried out with great deliberation. The national
life was conscious.

Can we say that this is the case in Britain ? Is it not
rather true that we have no real national policy, and that
our statesmen drift according to their own whims or to
what may be called accidental circumstances ? Our greatest
need is a conscious national aim to which all our efforts
would be constantly directed, and to which the latest
developments of science would be efficiently applied. In
this connection, however, science must not be used in its
limited sense, but include all that is essential to individual
and national welfare.

In one of his last addresses on technical education the
late Professor Huxley pointed out the dangers of a one-
sided treatment of the subject, and urged the necessity of
keeping an anxious eye upon those measures which are
necessary for the preservation of that stable and sound
condition of the whole social organism which is the essential
condition of real progress, and a chief end of all education.
He added : " You will recollect that some time ago there
was a scandal and a great outcry about certain cutlasses
and bayonets which had been supplied to our troops and
sailors. These warlike implements were polished as bright
as rubbing could make them ; they were very well sharpened ;
they looked lovely. But when they were applied to the test
of the work of war they broke and they bent, and proved
more likely to hurt the hand of him that used them than
to do any harm to the enemy. Let me apply that analogy
to the effect of education, which is a sharpening and
polishing of the mind. You may develop the intellectual
side of people as far as you like, and you may confer on
them all the skill that training and instruction can give ;
but if there is not, underneath all that outside form and
superficial polish, the firm fibre of healthy manhood and
earnest desire to do well, your labour is absolutely in vain."
Much of the time, money, and energy at present spent on

Recent Events 429

education is spent in vain because this advice is overlooked.
The applications of physical and natural science by them-
selves may simply sharpen the tools which may drive us
to destruction. The scientific method must be applied to
ethics, sociology, and politics, and above all to the training
of men and women, healthy in body, acute in mind, and
animated with high ideals of individual, civic, and national
duty. A writer in a daily paper says with a great amount
of truth, " What makes Japan particularly valuable as an
exemplar for us is, that the virtues in which it specially
excels are precisely those we most need and lack. Among
our most unpleasant traits are the worship and display of
wealth, the lack of general courtesy, the insensibility to
the charms of art, the feverish absorption in needless work,
and the consequent inability to enjoy elegant leisure."

These remarks apply to a greater or less extent to all
the nations of the world, but there are a few lessons in
what may be called world politics to which Lessons for
attention may be drawn. the nations of

The first indeed should be evident to all who
have taken any interest in Eastern peoples, and it is the
profoundly significant phenomena of history, that the West,
by itself, is impotent to exert directly a real and vital
influence upon the East. Japan, which seems a striking
proof to the contrary, is its strongest confirmation. As a
Japanese writer from whom I have quoted insists : " It was
some small degree of self-recognition that re-made Japan,
and enabled her to weather the storm under which so much
of the Oriental world went down," and he generalises that
" it must be a renewal of the same self-consciousness that
shall build up Asia again into her ancient steadfastness and
strength." Probably it will be replied that it is no part
of the plan (so far as they have any plan) of the Western
Powers to help Asia to attain this object. If this be so,
they are simply using the East for selfish purposes, and
their efforts are doomed to failure.

The second lesson which it is hoped the nations of the

43° Dai Nippon

world will take to heart is that, in so far at least as Japan,
China, and Korea are concerned, there must be a profound
change in the methods of dealing with these nations. The
days of crooked diplomacy, gunboat policy, veiled threats
and monstrous indemnities must be looked upon as past, and
all questions must be discussed and settled on a basis of
international equity. I have already expressed the opinion
that if the bogey of the " Yellow Peril " ever becomes a
reality, it will be on account of the conduct of some of the
Western Powers, whose aggressions will drive the peoples of
the Far East into militarism. Neither Japan nor China has
shown the slightest signs of aggression, they simply ask to
be treated with justice and to be allowed to develop on their
own lines. I believe Count Okuma when he says : " The
China-Japan war was the outcome of the feeling that Korea
under the suzerainty of China was a constant menace to the
future prosperity of our Empire. The same feeling is the
cause of the present war, for Korea in the possession of
Russia means the loss of our national independence. How
patient we were during the protracted and tedious negotia-
tions with Russia all the world knows. The war is not the
result of any racial hatred, or of the spirit of revenge, or of
aggressive designs. Having been forced upon us, it is purely
defensive. When the war is concluded the whole world will
be surprised to see, as after the war with China, that not
a trace of enmity or any ill - feeling exists towards our
temporary enemy. Not even towards the Russians shall we
cease to possess the feeling of amity, which comes from
confidence in our own strength, and from the fact that
through 2500 years of our history we have never known
defeat ; and as in the past, so in the future, it will be our
sole guide in our efforts to attain a high stage of Western
civilisation."

This is not merely a personal opinion on the part of
Count Okuma, it is a national sentiment which was clearly
reflected in an Imperial proclamation of 21st April 1895, in
which the following passages occur : — " We deem it that the

Recent Events 431

development of the prestige of the country could be obtained
only by peace. It is Our mission which We inherited from
Our ancestors that peace should be maintained in an effectual
way. The foundations of the great policy of Our ancestors
have been made more stable. We desire that, together with
Our people, We be specially guarded against arrogance or
relaxation. It is what We highly object to, that the people
should become arrogant by being puffed up with triumph,
and despise others rashly, which would go towards losing
the respect of Foreign Powers. Since the development of
the nation can be obtained by peace, it is a divine duty
imposed upon us by Our ancestors, and it has been Our
intention and endeavour since Our accession to the Throne to
maintain peace, so as to enjoy it constantly. . . . We are
positively against insulting others and falling into idle pride
by being elated by victories, and against losing the confidence
of Our friendly States."

The action of Russia in seizing and in some cases
destroying neutral merchant vessels because they were
supposed to be carrying contraband of war has raised some
difficult questions of International Law, which will require
very careful consideration. It is impossible to say whether
the difficulties which have arisen are due to deliberate
Russian diplomacy or to the indiscretion of Russian naval
officers ; but it is evident that the Russian Government's
declaration as to what it proposes to treat as contraband, and
therefore, subject to seizure is unprecedently wide in its
terms, and attempts to carry it out are certain to bring
Russia at once into hostility with the established law of
nations. Articles which are the common exchange of
peaceful life and commerce are by the precedents of that law
not legally attachable, unless it can be shown that they are
intended for the use of the military forces of the country of
their destination. It has been laid down as unchallengeable
by a great jurist that " to divert food from a large population
where no immediate military end is in view would be to
stop all neutral trading during a war." The action of

432 Dai Nippon

Russia has been further complicated by the use to which the
" Volunteer " Fleet has been put, not only when its position
is considered from a general legal point of view, but also
because of the special treaty obligations of Russia in con-
nection with the Black Sea. If the doings of Russia be
allowed to pass unchallenged, an end would be put to all
peaceful commerce when any two Powers happened to be at
war. Evidently the nations of the world must come to a
distinct understanding on these points, not only on account
of their bearings on the present war, but also in view of
future possibilities. Russia cannot be allowed to become a
law unto herself.

Meantime I shall only mention another lesson which
ought to be learned by the nations of the world in their
dealings with Eastern peoples, and that is the necessity of
looking from an international point of view at the political
questions which arise. As ethical philosophy is no longer
purely individualistic, so in like manner practical politics
can no longer be purely national. The engineer has shrunk
the world into small dimensions, and the social and economic
conditions of the various countries are closely connected.
Statesmen must therefore study what may be called the
dynamics of politics if they wish to carry on their work in a
rational manner. We have been told very often recently
that we must think " Imperially." I would rather put it
that we must think " Internationally," and I am convinced
that the greatest real successes will fall to those statesmen
who are international in their conceptions and not insular
and individual. In this respect the statesmen of Japan have
given an example to the nations of the world, as in all their
actions they have dealt with the other Powers with perfect
frankness. This has been the case for years past, but it has
been strikingly shown since the outbreak of war with Russia.
The British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs when he
concluded the alliance with Japan showed that he recognised
the international nature of many of the problems in the Far
East, and that alliance was the first definite, public and

Recent Events

433

intelligible measure taken to prevent chaos in that part of
the world. As a well-known American statesman put it :
" The immediate effect of the announcement of this treaty
was to bring the world to its senses. Contemporaneously
with its publication, our State Department sent a memo-
randum both to Pekin and St. Petersburg, asserting in
plain terms that the situation in Manchuria was a distinct
breach of the stipulations of treaties between China and
Foreign Powers, not only damaging the rights of American
citizens by exposing them to discriminations, but tending
also to cripple the Chinese Empire in the discharge of its
international obligations. The terms of this memorandum
indicate that it was written with the text of the Anglo-
Japanese treaty within easy reach." Even the Governments
of Russia, France, and Germany approved of the treaty, and
the Russian official press said that it contained exactly the
idea they had long cherished, a statement which may be
taken as an index of the sincerity of Russian professions.
If Britain and the other Powers named had shown a little
more distinctly than they did that they really meant what
they said, the war would not have broken out. Russia's
diplomats are too shrewd men of the world to have allowed
a conflict not simply with Japan but also with the other most
powerful nations. Meantime Japan is fighting not only her
own battle for freedom, it might almost be said for exist-
ence ; she is also fighting the battle of Europe and America
for liberty to develop international trade and intercourse, and
to bring about a closer union of East and West.

August 1 6, 1904.

(B 20 7 ) 2 p

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Japanese Weights, Measures, and Moneys, with English
and French Equivalents

Japan.

Great Britain.

■
France.

Ri ....

2.4403382 miles.

3.9272727 kilometres.

Ri (Marine) .

1. 1506873 miles.

1. 85 1 81 82 kilometres.

Square Ri

5.9552506 square miles.

15.423471 1 kilometres
caries.

Square C/io = 10 Tan

2.4507204 acres.

99-1735537 ares. !

Tsubo ....

3.9538290 square yards.

3.3057S51 metres carres.

Kokn = i o To — i oo Slid

39-7033!30 gallons. 1
4.9629141 bushels. J

(Liquid).

1.8039068 hectolitres.

R~oku = 10 70=100 Slid

(Dry).

Koku (capacity of vessel).

T V of ton.

1*5 de tonne.

R'wan= iooo Mo?nme

8.2673297 lbs. (Avoir.) \
10.0471021 ,, (Troy.) /

3.7500000 kilogrammes.

Kin ....

1.3227727 lbs. (Avoir. )\
1.6075363 „ (Troy.) /

6.0000000 hectogrammes.

Momme.

2. 1 164364 drams(Avoir.)"\

2.4113045 dwts. (Troy.)/

3.7500000 grams.

Yen =ioo Sen = iooo

2.582 shillings.

2. 5S3 francs.

Rin= 10,000 Mo.

437

APPENDIX B

Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain

Agreement betzveen Great Britain and Japan , signed at
London, January 30, 1902.

The Governments of Great Britain and Japan, actuated
solely by a desire to maintain the status quo and general
peace in the Extreme East, being, moreover, specially
interested in maintaining the independence and territorial
integrity of the Empire of China and the Empire of Korea
and in securing equal opportunities in those countries for
the commerce and industry of all nations, hereby agree as
follows : —

Article I

The High Contracting Parties having mutually re-
cognised the independence of China and of Korea, declare
themselves to be entirely uninfluenced by any aggressive
tendencies in either country. Having in view, however,
their special interests, of which those of Great Britain relate
principally to China, while Japan in addition to the interests
which she possesses in China is interested in a peculiar
degree politically, as well as commercially and industrially,
in Korea, the High Contracting Parties recognise that it
will be admissible for either of them to take such measures
as may be indispensable in order to safeguard those interests
if threatened either by the aggressive action of any other
Power, or by disturbances arising in China or Korea, and

438

Appendix B 439

necessitating the intervention of either of the High Contract-
ing Parties for the protection of the lives and property of its
subjects.

Artilce II

If either Great Britain or Japan, in the defence of their
respective interests as above described, should become
involved in war with another Power, the other High
Contracting Party will maintain a strict neutrality, and use
its efforts to prevent other Powers from joining in hostilities
against its ally.

Article III

If in the above event any other Power or Powers should
join in hostilities against that ally, the other High Contract-
ing Party will come to its assistance, and will conduct the
war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with it.

Article IV

The High Contracting Parties agree that neither of
them will, without consulting the other, enter into separate
arrangements with another Power to the prejudice of the
interests above described.

Article V

Whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain or
Japan, the above-mentioned interests are in jeopardy, the
two Governments will communicate with one another fully
and frankly.

Article VI

The present agreement shall come into effect immedi-
ately after the date of its signature, and remain in force for
five years from that date. In case neither of the High
Contracting Parties should have notified twelve months
before the expiration of the said five years the intention of

440 Dai Nippon

terminating it, it shall remain binding until the expiration
of one year from the day on which either of the High
Contracting Parties shall have denounced it. But if, when
the date fixed for its expiration arrives, either ally is
actually engaged in war, the alliance shall, ipso facto,
continue until peace is concluded.

In faith whereof, the Undersigned, duly authorised by
their respective Governments, have signed this
Agreement, and have affixed hereto their seals.

Done in duplicate at London the 30th January 1902.

(L. S.) (Signed) Lansdowne,

His Britannic Majesty's Principal Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs.

(L. S.) (Signed) Hayashi,

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleyiipotentiary
oj His Majesty the Emperor of fapan
at the Court of St. fames.

With this treaty as published (Japan, November 1902)
appeared the following explanatory letter from Lord
Lansdowne to Sir Claude Macdonald, British Minister in
Tokyo : —

The Marquis of Lansdowne to Sir C. Macdonald

Foreign Office, 30M fanuary 1902.

SIR — I have signed to-day with the Japanese Minister
an Agreement between Great Britain and Japan, of which a
copy is enclosed in this despatch.

This Agreement may be regarded as the outcome of the
events which have taken place in the Far East, and of the
part taken by Great Britain and Japan in dealing with them.

Throughout the troubles and complications which arose
in China consequent upon the Boxer outbreak and the
attack upon the Peking Legations, the two Powers have
been in close and uninterrupted communication, and have
been actuated by similar views.

Appendix B 44 1

We have each of us desired that the integrity and
independence of the Chinese Empire should be preserved,
that there should be no disturbance of the territorial status
quo either in China or in the adjoining regions, that all
nations should, within those regions, as well as within the
limits of the Chinese Empire, be afforded equal opportunities
for the development of their commerce and industry, and
that peace should not only be restored, but should, for the
future, be maintained.

From the frequent exchanges of views which have taken
place between the two Governments, and from the discovery
that their Far Eastern policy was identical, it has resulted
that each side has expressed the desire that their common
policy should find expression in an international contract ot
binding validity.

We have thought it desirable to record in the Preamble
of that instrument the main objects of our common policy
in the Far East, to which I have already referred, and in the
first Article we join in entirely disclaiming any aggressive
tendencies either in China or Korea. We have, however,
thought it necessary also to place on record the view enter-
tained by both the High Contracting Parties that, should
their interests as above described be endangered, it will be
admissible for either of them to take such measures as may
be indispensable in order to safeguard those interests, and
words have been added which will render it clear that such
precautionary measures might become necessary and might
be legitimately taken, not only in the case of aggressive
action or of an actual attack by some other Power, but in
the event of disturbances arising of a character to necessitate
the intervention of either of the High Contracting Parties
for the protection of the lives and property of its subjects.

The principal obligations undertaken mutually by the
High Contracting Parties are those of maintaining a strict
neutrality in the event of either of them becoming involved
in war, and of coming to one another's assistance in the
event of either of them being confronted by the opposition

44 2 Dai Nippon

of more than one hostile Power. Under the remaining
provisions of the Agreement, the High Contracting Parties
undertake that neither of them will, without consultation
with the other, enter into separate arrangements with another
Power to the prejudice of the interests described in the
Agreement, and that whenever those interests are in jeopardy
they will communicate with one another fully and frankly.

The concluding Article has reference to the duration of
the Agreement, which, after five years, is terminable by
either of the High Contracting Parties at one year's notice.

His Majesty's Government have been largely influenced
in their decision to enter into this important contract by
the conviction that it contains no provisions which can
be regarded as an indication of aggressive or self-seeking
tendencies in the regions to which it applies.

It has been concluded purely as a measure of precaution
to be invoked, should occasion arise, in the defence of
important British interests. It in no way threatens the
present position or the legitimate interests of other Powers.
On the contrary, that part of it which renders either of the
High Contracting Parties liable to be called upon by the
other for assistance can operate only when one of the allies
has found himself obliged to go to war in defence of interests
which are common to both, when the circumstances in which
he has taken this step are such as to establish that the
quarrel has not been of his own seeking, and when, being
engaged in his own defence, he finds himself threatened, not
by a single Power, but by a hostile coalition.

His Majesty's Government trust that the Agreement
may be found of mutual advantage to the two countries, that
it will make for the preservation of peace, and that, should
peace unfortunately be broken, it will have the effect of
restricting the area of hostilities. — I am, etc.

LANSDOWNE.

APPENDIX C

Some of the More Important Recent Books, etc.,
on Japan.

Japanese Government Reports issued by the various Departments.

British and American Consular Reports.

Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.

Transactions of the Japan Society, London.

Murray's Handbook of Japan, by Chamberlain and Mason. Latest

edition.
Chamberlain, Professor B. H. — Things Japanese. London, 1902.
Yamawaki, H. — Japan in the Beginning of the Twentieth

Century. Tokyo, 1903.
Stead, Alfred (Editor). — Japan by the Japanese ; a Survey by its

highest Authorities. London, 1904.

This is a valuable collection of papers written by distinguished

Japanese statesmen and administrators. It was published

after my book was printed.

Brinkley, Captain F. — Japan and China, 12 vols. London, 1903.

, Article on " Japan " in supplementary volumes of Encyclopedia

Britannica.
Von Wenckstein. — Bibliographv of the Japanese Empire. London,

1895.
Oliphant, L. — Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to China

and Japan. Edinburgh and London, 1859.
Alcock, Sir R. — The Capital of the Tycoon. London, 1863.
Black, J. R. — Young Japan. Yokohama, 1880.
Adams, F. D. — History of Japan. London, 1875.
Griffis, W. E. — The Mikado's Empire. New York, 1876.

, Townsend Harris, First American Envoy. London, 1895.

Mounsey, A. H. — The Satsuma Rebellion. London, 1879.
Murray, D. — The Story of Japan. New edition. London,

1904.

443

444 Dai Nippon

Reed, Sir E. J. — Japan : its History, Traditions, and Religions.

London, 1880.
Dickens and Lane-Poole. — Life of Sir Harry Parkes. London,

1894.
Bird, Miss (Mrs. Bishop). — Unbeaten Tracks in Japan. London,

1888.
Diosy, A. — The New Far East. London, 1904.
Von Siebold, A. — Japan's Accession to the Comity of Nations.

London, 1901.
Knapp, A. M. — Feudal and Modern Japan. London, 1898.
Norman, H. — The Real Japan. London and New York, 1892.
, Peoples and Politics in the Far East. London and New

York, 1896.
Stead, A. — Japan, our Ally. London, 1902.
Curzon, G. N. (now Lord). — Problems of the Far East. London,

1896.
Davidson, J. W. — The Island of Formosa, Past and Present.

Yokohama and London, 1903.
Brownell, C. L. — The Heart of Japan. London, 1903.
Fraser, Mrs. H. — A Diplomatist's Wife in Japan. London, 1899.
Rittner, G. H. — Impressions of Japan. London, 1904.
Morris, J. — Advance, Japan. London, 1895.

, Japan and its Trade. London, 1902.

Watson, W. P. — Japan, Aspects and Destinies. London, 1904
Davidson, A. M. C. — Present Day Japan. London, 1904.
Hartshorne, A. C — Japan and her People. London, 1904.
Del Mar, W. — Around the World through Japan. London,

1903.
Ransome, S. — Japan in Transition. London, 1899.
Leroy-Beaulieu, P. — The Awakening of the East. London, 1900.
Clement, E. W. — Handbook of Modern Japan. Chicago and

London, 1904.
Scherer, J. A. B. — Japan To-day. London, 1904.
Weston, W. — The Japanese Alps. London, 1896.
Dickson, W. G. — Gleanings from Japan. Edinburgh, 1889.
Dixon, W. G. — The Land of the Morning. Edinburgh, 1882.
Peery, R. B. — The Gist of Japan. Edinburgh, 1896.
Vladimir. — The China-Japan War. London, 1896.
Eastlake and Yamada. — Heroic Japan. Yokohama, 1896.
Jane, F. J. — The Imperial Japanese Navy. London, 1904.
Nitobe, I. — Bushido, the Soul of Japan. Tokyo, 1901.
Hearn, L. — Kokoro and other Works. London, 1896, etc.
Lowell, P. — The Soul of the Far East. Boston, 1896.

Appendix C 445

Gulick, S. L. — Evolution of the Japanese. New York and London,

1903.
Okakura, K. — The Ideals of the East. London, 1903.
Griffis, W. E. — The Religions of Japan. London, 1895.
Mitford, A. B. — Tales of Old Japan. London, 1876.
Hayashi, Viscount. — For his People. London, 1903.
Watanna, O. — The Wooing of Wistaria. London, 1902.
Aston, W. G. — History of Japanese Literature. London, 1899.
Chamberlain, Prof. B. H. — The Classical Poetry of the Japanese.

London, 1880.
Riordan and Takayanagi. — Sunrise Stories. London, 1896.
Lewis, R. E. — The Educational Conquest of the Far East. New

York and London, 1903.
Miyamori, A. — Life of Yukichi Fukazawa. Tokyo, 1902.
Griffis, W. E. — Yerbeck of Japan. Edinburgh and London, 1901.
Bacon, A. M. — Japanese Girls and Women. Boston and London,

1891.
Rein, J. J. — Japan, Travels and Researches. London, 1884.

, The Industries of Japan. London, 1889.

Anderson, W. — Pictorial Arts of Japan. Boston, 1886.

Gonse, L. — L'Art Japonaise. Paris, 1883.

Audsley and Bowes. — Ceramic Art of Japan. Liverpool, 1875.

Huish, M. B. — Japan and its Art. London, 1889.

Hartman, S. — Japanese Art. Boston and London, 1904.

Morse, E. S. — Japanese Homes and their Surroundings. New

York, 1903.
Piggott, F. T. — Music and Musical Instruments in Japan.

London, 1903.
Conder, J. — Landscape Gardening in Japan. Tokyo, 1893.

Reference should also be made to the bibliographical notes at
the end of each chapter of this book, and also, when possible, to
files of the daily newspapers published in English in Japan, especi-
ally the Japan Daily Mail and the Japan Times.

INDEX

Administration, problems of, 280

Administrative bodies, functions of, 284

Agriculture : in Old Japan, 238 ; new
conditions, 240 ; improvements in,
• 241 ; means for encouraging, 245 ;
legislation on, 246

Alliance with Great Britain, 76, 329, 438

Army and navy, 109 ; development of,
in

Art, characteristics of Japanese, 205

Art and music education, 95

Art industries : art in Old Japan 204 ;
Western influences, 206 ; Japanese
Art Society, 207 ; criticism of foreign
art, 20S ; modern conditions, 209 ;
Eastern ideals, 210 ; art and economic
conditions, 211 ; present conditions in
Japan, 212 ; comparison with India,
214 ; future of Japanese art industries,
216

Asia, Japan in, 391

Asia, task of, 385

Assembly, deliberative, 53

Associations, technical, 185

Balance of trade against Japan, 227

Banking system, 304

Books on Japan, 443

Brinkley Captain, opinions on : Japanese

religion, 38 ; men of the Revolution,

52 ; Japanese officers, 113 ; Japanese

press, 175 ; foreign advisers, 193 ;

Japanese art, 213 ; foreign treaties,

316, 330
Britain, Great : alliance with, 329, 438 ;

lessons for, 425
Britain of the East, ambition to become,

342 ; geographical advantages of

Japan, 334
Budgets, family, 373-75
Budgets, national, in 1893 and 1903,

298, 299
Building industry, 177

" Bushido," 32

Business relations, international, 331

Cabinet, functions of, 283
Capital in Japan, future of, 394
Chemical industries, 176
China : war with, 71 ; results of war
with, 73 ; aggression of Russia and
Germany in, 74 ; results of, 75 ; re-
sults on Japanese policy, 74 ; Japanese
influence in, 349
Chinese opinions and ideals, 349
Code of Education in Japan, 82
College of Engineering (Imperial). See

Kobu-Daigakko
Colonies, military, 254
Combinations of employers and workers,

191. 393
Commerce : in Old Japan, 219 ; results
of new conditions, 220 ; development
of foreign trade, 222 ; exports and
imports, 222 ; distribution of foreign
trade, 224 ; balance of trade against
Japan, 227 ; current prices, 228 ;
provisions for encouraging commerce,
229 ; commercial and industrial
guilds, 231 ; tariffs, 231 ; commercial
morality of Japanese merchants, 43,
232 ; position of foreign merchants,

234
Confucian philosophy of life, 384
Consular (foreign) tribunals, 315
Cotton spinning, 171

Debt, national, 303
Deliberative assembly, 53
Development on Western lines, 68
Diplomacy, future of, 429, 432
Distribution of Japan's foreign trade,

224
Dockyards and shipbuilding yards, 122,

165
Duty to State, 39

447

44 8

Dai Nippon

East and West, relations of, 46, 401,

429
Eastern people and Western thought, 46
Economic forces in Japan, 342
Education in Great Britain, 426
Education : in Old Japan, 79 ; foreign
schools, beginning of, 81 ; Code of
Education, 83 ; primary, 85 ; second-
ary, 87 ; university, 88 ; technical,
93 ; art and music, 95 ; special
schools, 97 ; private institutions, 101 ;
moral, 104 ; results of, 106 ; statistics,

98, 99

Educators, some Japanese, 21

Embassy to United States and Europe,
1. 26, 55

Emigration to Korea and China, 264 ;
to other foreign countries, 265

Emperor : always source of power, 16 ;
proclamation of, on accession, 27 ;
religion of, 41 ; position in Japanese
Constitution, 275 ; proclamation of
war with Russia, 408 ; peaceful inten-
tions of, 431

Empire, extent of Japanese, 76

Engineering, civil and mechanical, 162

Ethics in Japan, future of, 394

Ethics in the West, future of, 402

Exhibitions, industrial, 189

Exports and imports, 222

Extra-territoriality, discussions on, 316

Factory work of women and children,

378

Farmers and labourers, economic con-
ditions of, 373

Feudalism, fall of, 48

Finance : financial position at Restora-
tion, 292 , taxation, old and new,

293 ; problems before new Govern-
ment, 294 ; financial administration,

294 ; Land Tax, 296 ; Budgets for
1893 and 1903, 298, 299 ; burden on
the people, 301 ; national debt, 303 ;
local finances, 304 ; banking system,
305 ; present financial conditions,
307 ; future financial policy, 386

Fish and marine products, 246
Food, importation of, 249
Food supply, 238
Foreign advisers, 193
Foreign capital in Japan, 198
Foreign consular tribunals, 315
Foreign industries, introduction of, 151
Foreign merchants in Japan, 234
Foreign policy of Japan : diplomatic
action, 344 ; opinions of statesmen,

345 ; Japan and Korea, 352 ; claims
of Japan, 354, 362 ; case for Russia,
357 ; effects of financial policy, 388 ;
ultimate solution of problems, 388
Foreigners : early relations with, 19 ;
arrival of (modern), 23 ; attitude of
Japanese towards, 53 ; intercourse
with, 379 ; status of, 195
Forestry, improvements in Japanese, 156
Formosa : expedition to, 64 ; ceded to
Japan, 256 ; Japanese population of,
256 ; administration of, 259 ; educa-
tion, justice, etc., 259; railways,
shipping, etc., 260 ; products and
foreign trade, 262 ; effects of Japanese
occupation, 262

Geographical advantages of Japan, 334

Government, central, 53, 281

Government, constitutional : first principle
enunciated by Emperor, 269 ; first
attempts at, 270 ; evolution of, 271 ;
National Assembly, 273 ; Constitution,
Marquis Ito on, 274 ; Constitution,
difficulties in working, 275 ; legislation,
278 ; future of, 389

Government factories, 177

Government, local, 289

Guilds, commercial and industrial, 231

Hara-kiri, 39

Hayashi, Viscount : Secretary of Em-
bassy, 2 ; Chief Commissioner
Engineering College, 3 ; services in
China, Japan, and St. Petersburg, 3 ;
Japanese Minister in London, 3 ;
Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain,
440

Health, national, 378

History, early Japanese, 14

History, methods of, 404

Hokkaido : history of, 253 ; military
colonies in, 254; agriculture, etc.,
254; railways, mining, etc., 255;
immigration and population, 255

India and Japan, 214

Industrial competition with foreign
nations, 335

Industrial developments : introduction
of foreign industries, 151 ; conditions
of native industries, 152 ; methods of
native industries, 153 ; mining and
metallurgy, 157 ; civil and mechanical
engineering, 162 ; Imperial Mint, 163 ;
shipbuilding and shipping, 164 ; sub-

Index

449

sidies for shipbuilding and shipping,
169 ; cotton spinning, 171 ; silk in-
dustries, 173 ; printing industry, 174 ;
chemical industries, 176 ; building
industry, 177 ; Government factories,
177 ; manufacturing establishments,
180 ; working hours and wages, 182 ;
industrial training, 182 ; technical
associations, 184 ; patents, trade
marks, etc., 185; industrial legisla-
tion, 191

Industrial influence of Japanese, 337,
338

Industrial training, 183

Industries, Japanese, 152

International relations, 311

Inventions, Japanese, 187

Ito, Marquis : member of Embassy to
Britain, 2 ; founds Engineering
College, 2 ; early history, 25 ; Japanese
Constitution, 274 ; Treaty with China,
73 ; President of Privy Council, 284 ;
opinions of, 277, 363, 396

Japan, books on, 443

Japan, necessity for a strong, 33

Japan in war-time, 419

Japan's success, secret of, 422

Japanese action, justification of, 409

Japanese ambitions regarding commerce

and industry, 200
Japanese Empire, extent of, 76
Japanese history, early, 14
Japanese history, making of, 405
Japanese industrial influence : in Far

East, 337, 351 ; in the West, 338
Japanese industries, 153
Japanese inventions, 187
Japanese mind, 31, 35, 39
Japanese power in Far East, 125
Japanese soldiers in Boxer troubles,

I2 5
Japanese troops, behaviour of, 417
Japanese weights and measures, 437
Justice, administration of, 286

Kaitakushi, department of, 253
Kobu-Daigakko (Imperial College of
Engineering) : institution of, 1 ; staff
of, 3 ; work of, 3 ; courses of study
of, 5 ; success of students, 6 ; results
of work of, 7, 13, 129, 361 ; history
of, 89
Korea : early relations with, 59 ; diffi-
culties with, 69 ; China, relations with,
70 ; Japan, relations with, 352
(b 207)

Labour and social problems, 193, 380

Lansdowne (Lord) on Treaty of Alli-
ance, 440

Laws affecting foreigners, 331

Legislation : industrial, 191 ; general,
278 ; affecting foreigners, 331

Lessons for Great Britain, 425

Lessons for nations of the world, 429

Life in Old Japan, 365

Life of common people, 371

Life of well-to-do classes, 370

Lighthouses, 144

Liu-Kiu (Loo-Choo) Islands, 64

Local finances, 304

Local government, 288

Manufacturing establishments, 180

Manufacturing industries, future of, 387

Marine engineering, 168

Matheson, H. M., London, 1, 25

Mental characteristics of Japanese, 44

Mercantile marine, 140

Merchants, foreign, position of, 234

Mind, the Japanese, 31

Mining and metallurgy, 157, 158

Mint, the Imperial, 163

Modern conditions of life in Japan, 368

Moral education, 104

Morality, commercial, 43, 232

Motives of Japanese, 31

National health, 378

National ideals and economics, 383

Navy : foundation of modern Japanese
navy, 115 ; Naval College in Tokyo,
117; development of, 118; present
conditions of, 121 ; naval officers,
training of, 123

Nobility, new orders of, 274

Officers, military, training of, 113

Officers, naval, training of, 123

Officials, grades of, 288

Old Japan : education in, 79 ; industry
in, 152 ; commerce in, 219 ; agri-
culture in, 238 ; life in, 365

Orders in the State, 17

Oriental and Occidental thought, 34, 46

Originality of Japanese, 47

Parkes, Sir Harry S. , 27, 319
Parliament, Japanese, 275
Patents and trade marks, 185
Population and food supply, 238
Population, pressure of, 251
Po r t.s and harbours, 144

2 G

45o

Dai Nipp07i

Postal services, 148

Press in Japan, 175

Prices current in Japan, 228

Primary education, 85

Printing industry, 174

Privy Council, functions of, 284

Progress, lines of, 54

Railways : beginning of railways in
Japan, 132 ; history of railway con-
struction, 133 ; working and financial
returns, 136 ; legislation, 137
Rankine, Professor, Glasgow Univer-
sity, 1
Religion, Japanese, 36, 285
Religion in Japan, future of, 396
Representative institutions, agitation for,

67
Revolution, men of, 52
Revolution, problems of, 51
Revolution, spirit of, 49, 396
River improvements, 139
Roads under feudal system, 130
Russia and Japan : early relations, 60 ;
Saghalin, cession of, 63 ; results on
Japanese affairs, 63 ; Japanese foreign
policy, 354, 362 ; case for Russia,
357 ; Russian ideas, 358 ; expansion
of Russia, 359 ; negotiations with
Russia, 405 ; war with Russia, 407 ;
Russian preparations for war, 414 ;
Russia's failure, secret of, 421

Satsuma Rebellion, 65
Schools, private, 101
Schools, special, 97
Schools, technical, 93, 183
Secondary education, 87
Shipbuilding, statistics of, 164
Shipping, modern mercantile marine,

140
Shogun (Tycoon) : legal position of, 15 ;

false ideas of, 17 ; treaties with, 23
Shogunate, fall of, 18, 24
Silk industries, 173
Social problems in Britain, 11
Social problems in Japan, 12, 380
Social results in Japan, 365
Spirit of the Revolution, 49, 396
State, duty to, 39
Statistics of education, 98
Steel work, Government, 161

Students, Japanese, 47

Students, university, 91, 92

Subsidies for shipping and shipbuilding,

169
Sugar, sake", tobacco, etc., 243

Tariffs, 231

Tea, 242

Technical associations, 185

Technical education, 93

Telegraphs, 145

Telephones, 147

Textile industries, 174

Thought, constituents of Japanese, 35

Timber, supply of, 155

Tourists in Japan, 379

Trade, foreign, of Japan, 222

Training, industrial, 93, 183

Treaties with Foreign Powers, 23, 312,

3*3. 3 28
Treaties (revised), Imperial Rescript on,

328
Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain,

438
Treaty of Shimonoseki, 73
Treaty revision, 318, 320-6
Treaty with Great Britain revised, 327

Universities, Tokyo and Kyoto, 89

Wages of workmen, 183

War, contraband of, 431

War, events of, with Russia, 415

War: with Formosa, 118; with China,

119 ; with Russia, 407
War, proclamation of, with Russia, 408
Weights and measures, Japanese, 437
Women and children, factory work o f .

378
Women in Japan, 375
Working hours and wages, 182
Workshops, engineering, 162
World politics, 432

Yamao, Viscount ; student in Glasgow,
2 ; Vice-Minister of Public Works, 2 ;
early history, 25 ; President of Institu-
tion of Engineers, 185

"Yellow Peril," 392, 430

Yezo, see Hokkaido

Young men who became leaders, 25

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