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DAIRY FARMING

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO

DAIRY FARMING

C. H. ECKLES, D.Sc.

PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY
OF MISSOURI

AND

G. F. WARREN, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF FARM MANAGEMENT, NEW YORK STATE

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

gorfc

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1916

s-.fa.3q

COPYBIGHT, 1916,

BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916.

Norfoooti

J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

INTRODUCTION

AGRICULTURE now has a recognized place in both high
S( nools and colleges. If this progress in scientific study is
t( continue, it is necessary that the instruction be kept on an
e< ual educational basis with all other subjects. The courses
in agriculture must stand for good, solid work such as is typi-
ci 1 of the entire farming industry. There is a need for text-
b< oks that give the basic principles of the subject briefly
\v thout being superficial. To help in meeting this need a
series of books, to be known as the Farm Series, is being
prepared. The aim of each book will be to discuss the phases
oi its subject that are of most importance to the farmer ; that
is. to answer the farmer's questions, and to make these
answers in the form of underlying principles rather than as
rules. The positive advice or rules that may work in one
region may be absolutely wrong in another region, or at an-
other time in the same region. If one understands the prin-
ciples involved, he will be better able to change his practice
to meet the ever-changing conditions. Statements are often
made that a farmer should raise all his cows, that he should
produce winter milk, that he should build a silo. Such rules
have no educational value and usually have no practical value.
The real problem depends on the factors involved in each case.
For instance a few of the points that must be considered in
deciding whether or not to build a silo are the adaptation of

acj'jf 72

vi INTRODUCTION

the farm to corn production, the price of hay, the size of the
herd, the price of milk, whether winter or summer dairying
is followed, the amount of money available. No rule can be
made that will include all these points, for many of them may
be changed next year.

It is fitting that the first book of the series should deal with
what is probably the most important source of income of
American farmers, — dairy farming.

As population increases we must of necessity depend more
on dairy products and less on beef cattle. The best methods
of producing beef are very different from the best methods of
producing milk. Many farmers who once kept beef cattle are
changing to dairying. For such farmers a study of dairying
is of particular importance because it will bring to them in-
formation that has been worked out by long experience in
dairy regions. Even in the old established dairy regions the
changes in prices of land, feed, labor, and dairy products and
the increasing importance of manure for growing cash crops,
make a study of the principles of dairy farming of prime
importance.

The success of the teacher will depend in large measure on
the extent to which the conditions in the community are
studied. Many suggestive questions are given after each
chapter. Much time should be spent in finding answers to
these. A number of laboratory exercises should be given on
farms in the region. One should not too lightly condemn the
practices of the farmers, but should rather try to learn what
are the natural and economic conditions that led to the present
practices. Many farmers in the community are in all proba-
bility farming in a manner that is best for present conditions,
but that may not be best a few years from now when condi-
tions change.

This book is adapted for use in schools and colleges that

INTRODUCTION Vll

wish to devote some time to the study of dairy farming.
Three to five recitations per week and two laboratory periods
per week will usually be desirable. At least a part of the
laboratory exercises, and preferably all of them, should be
given in periods that are two hours long. If this much time
ca'inot be allowed, the laboratory period may be placed at the
en 1 of the day so that when farms are visited, it will be pos-
sible to take the longer time that is necessary.

It is hoped that the book will also prove useful to farmers
WIG wish a better understanding of the principles involved
in the successful operation of a dairy farm.

G. F. WARREN.
[THACA, N.Y.,

April 1, 1916.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

PAGES

IMPORTANCE or THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 1-11

Milk a universal food, 1 — Value of milk as food, 1 —
Butter and cheese as food, 2 — One dairy cow per family, 3

— Amounts of dairy products used, 4 — Milk inspection, 5

— Dairy cattle as a source of meat, 5 — Dairy cattle in other
countries, 6 — The dairy cow an efficient machine, 7 — Cows
effective users of by-products, 7 — Dairying and main-
tenance of soil fertility, 9 — Cows help to provide a full
year's work, 9 — Receipts from dairy products, 10.

Questions and problems 10

Collateral reading 11

CHAPTER 2

B SEEDS OF CATTLE 12-39

Origin of Breeds : Origin of domesticated cattle, 12 —
Origin of breeds, 12 — Definition of terms, 13 — Classifica-
tion of cattle, 14 — Value of breeds, 14 — Pedigrees, 15.

Dairy Breeds: Number of animals registered, 16 — Hol-
stein-Friesian, 17 — Jersey, 21 — Guernsey, 24 — Ayrshire,
27 — Brown Swiss, 30 — Dutch Belted, 30 — Kerry, 30.

Dual Purpose : Dual Purpose, 31 — Shorthorn, 32 —
Polled Durham, 34 — Red Polled, 34 — Devon, 36.

Beef Breeds: Hereford, 37 — Aberdeen-Angus, 37 —
Galloway, 38.

Questions and problems .......

Laboratory exercises ....... 39

Collateral reading ........ 39

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE .

Selection of a Breed: Selection of a breed, 40.

Individual Selection : Selection of individual cows, 42 —
Extent of variation of individuals, 44 — High-producing
cows more economical producers, 46.

Selection by Type : How individual selection is made, 47

— The dairy type, 47 — The udder, 50 — The milk veins
and milk wells, 51 —The barrel, 52 — The score card, 53.

Selection by Performance Eecords : Selection by records,
56 — Overrating the importance of rich milk, 56 — Complete
milk records, 68 — Taking samples for testing, 59 — Aver-
aging tests, 61 — Permanent records, 61 — Cow testing asso-
ciations, 61 — Advanced registry, 64 — Relation of age of
cow to yield and richness of milk, 66.

Selection of a Bull : Selection of the bull, 69 — Differ-
ence in transmission of dairy qualities by different bulls, 71

— Methods of selecting a bull, 73 — Cross breeding, 74.

Questions and problems

Laboratory exercises

Collateral reading

PAGES
40-78

78
78

CHAPTER 4

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE ..... . 79-93

Decline of milk production in summer, 79 — Protection
from flies, 79 — Dehorning, 81 — Marking calves, 82 —
Shelter, 82 — Milking the heifer, 83 — Methods of milking,
84 — Hard-milking cows, 85 — Effect of interval between
milkings, 86 — Milking machines, 86 — Cow with leaky
teats, 87 — Bloody milk, 87 — Chapped teats, 88 — Warts
on teats, 88— Bitter milk, 88 — Kicking cows, 88— Self-
sucking cows, 89 — How long should a cow be dry ? 89 —
Drying up a cow, 89 — Milking the cow before calving, 90
— Care of cow after calving, 90 — Management of young
stock, 91 — Care and management of the bull, 91.

Questions and problems ....... 93

Laboratory exercises ....... 93

Collateral reading ........ 93

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 5

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE .94-138

Composition of feeds and feeding stuffs : The uses of
feed, 94 — Chemical analysis of feeds, 94 — Water, 95 —
Ash, 95— Protein, 95 — Crude fiber, 95 — Nitrogen-free
extract, 95 — Fat, or ether extract, 95 — Digestibility, 96 —
Production values, 96 — Feeding standards, 97 — Calculat-
ing a ration, 100 — The cost of the ration, 105.

Discussion of common feed stuffs: Timothy hay, 106 —
Corn stover, 106 — Hay from legumes, 106 — Silage, 107 —
Corn, 107 — Wheat bran, 107 — Oats and oat products, 108

— Cottonseed meal, 108 — Linseed meal, 109 — Gluten feed,
109 — Beet pulp and molasses, 109 — Brewers' grains, 109

— Mixed feeds, 110 — Condimental stock foods, 111.
Feeding young stock and dry cows: Calf raising, 112 —

Raising the calf on skim-milk, 113 — Raising calves when
whole milk is sold, 116 — The use of milk substitutes, 117

— Feeding for veal, 119 — Feeding the dairy heifer, 120 —
Salt requirements, 123 — Feeding the cow when dry, 124.

Feeding the cow in milk : Water for cows, 125 — Turn-
ing on pasture, 126 — Feeding grain while on pasture, 127 —
Providing for periods of short pasture, 128 — Amount to
feed, 129 — The balanced ration, 131 — Succulent feed, 132

— Palatability of the ration, 132— Order of feeding, 133.
Feeding cows for the maximum production in official tests :

Obtaining the maximum production, 133.

Questions and problems 135

Laboratory exercises , . . . . . . 137

Collateral reading 138

CHAPTER 6

THE DAIRY BARN 139-149

General arrangement of barns, 140 — Lighting, 140 —
The floor, 141— The platform, 142 — The gutter, 144 —
The stalls, 144 — Mangers, 144 — Ties, 145 — Ventilation,
146 —Cost of dairy barns, 147.
Questions and problems ....... 148

Laboratory exercises ....... 148

Collateral reading 149

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7

PAGES

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 150-167

Normal conditions : The pulse, 150 — Temperature, 151
— Respiration, 151 — Excretions, 151.

Instruments and medicines : Instruments and medicines,
151 — Drenching a cow, 152.

Common ailments: Milk fever, 153 — Abortion, 155 —
Tuberculosis, 156 — Inflammation of the udder, 158 —
Scours in calves, 160 — Lice, 161— Bloat, 162 — Cowpox,
162 — Blackleg, 163— Sorghum and kafir poisoning, 164 —
Corn-stalk disease, 165.

Questions and problems 166

Laboratory exercises 166

Collateral reading 167

CHAPTER 8

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS ........ 168-201

Composition of milk: Average composition, 168 —
Water, 168 — Fat, 169 — Protein, 170 — Sugar, 170 — Min-
eral matter or ash, 171 — Color of milk, 171.

Factors affecting composition : Kind of animal, 172 —
Breed, 173 — Stage of lactation, 174 — Individuality of the
animal, 175 — Interval between milkings, 175 — Fore milk
and strippings, 176 — Effect of feed, 176.
Market milk: Sanitary milk, 177 — Certified milk, 181.
Butter making on the farm : Butter making on the farm,
182— Facilities needed, 183 — What is good butter ? 183 —
Flavor, 184 — Body, color, arid salt, 184 — Separation of
cream, 185 — Ripening of cream, 186 — Temperature for
churning, 187 — Churns and churning, 188 — Salting and
working, 189 — Package, 190.

Factory products: Creameries, 191 — Cheese making,
192 _ Condensed milk, 193 — Milk flour, 194.

Questions and problems 194

Laboratory exercises 195

Collateral reading 200

CONTENTS

Xlll

CHAPTER 9

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

Cattle and grass, 202 — Topography and climate, 203 —
! jocation of beef and dairy cattle, 204 — Relation of trans-
portation to dairying, 208 — Other adjustments due to
ransportation, 213 — Marginal regions, 214 — Effect of dis-
ance to railroad, 214 — Soil arid climate as determining the
and of product, 215 — Kind of product and season of pro-
luction, 215 — Animal unit defined,'218.

Questions and problems .......

Collateral reading .... ....

CHAPTER 10

SYS-I EMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS .....

Crops for feed: Corn silage, 221 — Soiling crops, 223 —
iloots, 223 — Legumes, 224 — Pasture, 224 — Home-grown
irain, 225.

Cropping systems for dairy farms : Principles of a good
Topping system, 225 — Examples of rotations, 226.

Cash crops and feed raised : Feed and cash crops, 227 —
\.ll feed purchased, 228 — Nothing but roughage raised, 228

— Roughage and grain raised, 229 — Roughage and cash
'•rops raised, 229.

Management of manure : Amount of manure produced,
:!3Q — Fertility of feed returned by cows, 231 — Losses of
manure and their prevention, 232 — Value of manure, 234

— Value of manure depends on the rate of application, 235
-Value of manure depends on the crop on which it is

applied, 238.

Questions and problems .......

Laboratory exercises

PAGES

202-220

219

220

221-239

238
239

CHAPTER 11

METHODS OF RENTING DAIRY FARMS ..... 240-245

Cash rent, 2*40 — Share of crops, 240 — Share of receipts,
240 — Examples of rented farms, 242.

Questions and problems 245

Collateral reading 245

XIV

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 12
COST OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING

Cost of production : Cost of producing milk, 246 — Cost
of raising heifers, 250.

Marketing dairy products : Ways of marketing, 253 —
Value of skim-milk in cities, 254.

Questions and problems . . . . . .

Collateral reading

CHAPTER 13

OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 258-288

Ways of measuring profit : The most important factors
for success, 258 — Ways of measuring profit, 258.

Size of business: Size of business, 259 — Relation of size
of farm to efficiency in use of labor, 260 — Relation of size
of farm to work done, 262 — Relation of size of farm to
efficiency in use of horses, 264 — Relation of size of farm to
efficiency in use of machinery, 265 — Relation of size of
farm to efficiency in use of capital, 265 — Size of herd, 267
— Summary of size of dairy farms, 268.

Returns per cow : Reason for poor returns, 269 — Costs
and returns must both be considered, 271 — Poor producers
promptly sold, 271 — Size of cows, 271.

Crop yields: Soils for the dairy farm, 274 — The well-
balanced farm, 274.

Diversified and specialized dairy farms : Relation of cash
crops to profits, 276 — Relation of capital to amount of stock
to keep, 277 — Acres per animal unit, 278 — Reasons for
large profits on diversified farms, 279.

Some successful farms : A successful dairy and hog farm
in Iowa, 281 — A successful diversified dairy farm in New
York, 285.

Questions and problems "-..' 287

Laboratory exercises 288

Collateral reading 288

CONTENTS XV

PAGK8

APPINDIX 289-306

Addresses of cattle breeders associations, 289 — Scale of
points for a Jersey cow, 290 — Scale of points for Ayrshire
cow, 291 — Scale of points for Guernsey cow, 293 — Scale
< >f points for Holstein-Friesian cow, 294 — Imports and ex-
ports of dairy products, 296 — Legal standards for dairy
>roducts. 297 — Average composition of milk and its
oroducts, 298 — Average weights of milk and cream, 298 —
The Haecker feeding standard, 298 — Wing's method of
Balancing rations, 304 — Average weights of feeding-stuffs,
S05 — Measuring grain, 305 — Measuring ear corn, 305 —
Measuring straw, 306 — Measuring hay, 306 — Capacity of
silos, 306.

DAIRY FARMING

CHAPTER 1

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY
G. F. WARREN

1. Milk a Universal Food. Milk is the one universal
food of mankind. All civilized peoples use milk from farm
animals. The more highly civilized and prosperous the
population, the greater is the amount of milk consumed.
In regions so far north that cows cannot be kept, reindeer
milk is used. In regions like India and the Philippines,
which are too hot for our common cattle, the water buffaloes
are the dairy animals and beasts of burden. In the deserts
the milk of mares and camels serves as food. In regions
where the people are very poor, goats and sheep are used
as milk animals. In parts of South America llamas are
so used. Everywhere civilized man keeps some milk animal.

2. Value of Milk as Food. The value of milk as food
is beginning to be better appreciated, but even now its
full value is not always realized. Most liquids have very
little food value; for this reason, all liquids are sometimes
looked upon as luxuries. But average milk contains 12 to
13 per cent of dry matter. This dry matter is readily
digestible and contains necessary foods in good proportions.

B 1

DAISY FARMING

The edible portion of an average beef animal is only 38 per
cent dry matter. The remaining 62 per cent is water.1

A quart of milk weighs 2.15 pounds and contains two-
thirds as much energy value, and nearly half as much protein
as a pound of sirloin steak. It is particularly rich in ash,
the bone-forming materials that are so essential for all young
animals. It contains about twice as much of these as does
beefsteak. A quart of skim-milk has over one-third of the
energy value of a pound of sirloin steak. It is richer in
ash and has almost half as much protein as the steak, as is
shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. — COMPARISON OF SIRLOIN STEAK WITH MILK, BUTTER,
AND CHEESE 2

WATER

DRY

MATTER

PROTEIN

ASH

ENERGY
VALUE

Pounds

Calories

1 pound sirloin steak . .

.54

.46

.165

.009

985

1 quart 4 % milk ....

1.87

.28

.071

.015

699

1 quart skim-milk . . .

1.95

.20

.073

.015

366

1 pound butter ....

.11

.89

.010

.030

3605

1 pound cheese (full cream)

.34

.66

.259

.038

1950

As the value of milk as food becomes better known, it
is more widely used by persons of all ages. If much that
is spent for meat were spent for milk, we could be as well
fed at less cost. If much of the money that is spent for
tea, coffee, alcohol, and other stimulants, that have little
or no food value, were spent for milk, our health and our
wealth would both be improved.

3. Butter and Cheese as Food. Butter is often thought
of as an expensive food, but it is the most concentrated of

1 U. S. Dept. Agr. ; Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28,
pp. 27, 28.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28.

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

our ordinary foods. As shown in Table 1, a pound of
b'ltter will furnish three and two-thirds times as much
energy as a pound of sirloin steak. Usually it does not
cost twice as much as the steak. It is one of the cheap
animal foods, is highly concentrated and easy to digest.
C heese is a cheap source of animal protein. We use over
four times as much butter as cheese, but the amount of
ciieese used is increasing.

4. One Dairy Cow per Family. In the ten years 1900
to 1910 the number of steers and bulls in the United States
decreased one-fifth, but the number of dairy cows increased
\vith the population. In 1910 the average number of
persons living together as one family was 4.5. Counting
tne dairy cows on farms and those not on farms, there was
one dairy cow for each 4.2 persons, or a little over one cow
per family. For sixty years the United States has main-

TABLE 2. — POPULATION AND NUMBER OF DAIRY Cows ON FARMS
AND RANGES IN THE UNITED STATES EXCLUSIVE OF OUTLYING

POSSESSIONS 1

YEAR

POPULATION

NUMBER OF DAIRY
Cows

NUMBER OF PERSONS
PER Cow

1850

23,191,876

6,385,094

3.6

1860

31,443,321

8,585,735

3.7

1870

38,558,371

8,935,332

4.3

1880

50,155,783

12,443,120

4.0

1890

62,947,714

16,511,950

3.8

1900

75,994,575

17,135,633

4.4

1910

91,972,266

20,625,432

4.5

1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. 704. Thirteenth Census, Vol. I, pp. 24,
1285, and Vol. V, p. 341. In addition to the above there were 973,033
dairy cows not on farms in 1900 and 1,170,338 in 1910. Most of these
were kept by families in villages, Vol. V, p. 430. The census does not
give the number of cows in cities for the earlier years.

DAIRY FARMING

tained an average of a little more than one dairy cow per
family. Because meat is so expensive we are using less of
it, but we are not decreasing the number of dairy cows.

5. Amounts of Dairy Products Used. The number of
dairy cows just about keeps pace with population, but there
have been changes in the use made of milk. The amount
of condensed milk produced increased 165 per cent in the
ten years 1899 to 1909. 1 The amount of fresh milk used as
food has increased rapidly. In New York City the amount
consumed per capita has increased one-third in twenty years.

TABLE 3. — BUTTER AND CHEESE PRODUCED AND CONSUMED IN
THE UNITED STATES, AND MILK SHIPPED TO NEW YORK CITY

YEAH

BUTTER

CHEESE

MILK AND CREAM
SHIPPED TO NEW YORK
CITY ^

Produced
per
Capita »

Consumed
per
Capita 8

Produced
per
Capita *

Consumed
per
Capita »

Milk per
Capita

Condensed
Milk and
Cream

1870

Pounds

13.3

Pounds

4.2

Pounds

Quarts

1880

16.1

4.8

1890

19.1

18.9

4.1

2.9

100

1900

19.6

19.4

3.9

3.6

109

1910

17.6

17.5

3.5

3.8

133

Approximately 288 quarts of milk per person are used
per year in the farm family. In cities about 112 quarts
per capita5 are consumed. It is possible that this differ-
ence has something to do with the better development of

1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. X, p. 374.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, p. 7.

3 Amount produced plus imports less exports as given in reports of U. S.
Dept. Agr.

4 Data for New York City furnished by The Milk Reporter.
6 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, ;,p. 17, 18.

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 5

children on farms. But the amount consumed in cities is
rapidly increasing.

6. Milk Inspection. In recent years great interest has
b<>en taken in improving the milk supply. Physicians and
boards of health have been agitating and inspecting. As
iii most worthy publicity campaigns many statements are
niade that are not true. The agitation has brought pressure
f ( r better milk, but at the same time the extreme statements
n ade have led many persons to use less milk than they other-
\\ ise would. The writer believes that for every person who
is injured by milk, many persons suffer from the lack of it.
\Ye need education for better care of milk on the farm, in
the city, and in the home, but we also need education as to
the great food value of milk so that more milk will be used.
L is unfortunate when one of these interferes with the other.

Dairy inspection has done much good. It will do more
good when more wisely performed. In the past it has too
often been made by persons who do not understand farm-
irjg or farmers. The emphasis is often placed on unessential
things. An inexperienced youth with an arbitrary score
card turned loose among dairy farmers usually does more
harm than good. In this way unnecessary antagonism is
often aroused. Recent investigations have shown that there
is no relationship between the score of a dairy as shown by
a score card and the quality of the milk produced.1 In a
la,ter chapter the essentials for the production of whole-
some milk are discussed. The vital points are that the
milker and the cow both be in good health and that the
milk be kept cold and as free from dirt as possible.

7. Dairy Cattle as a Source of Meat. Since there is one
dairy cow per family there is approximately one veal calf

1 New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 398.

6 DAIRY FARMING

or cow available for beef each year per family. About
seventeen pounds of dressed veal per family is used annually
in the United States.1 Nearly all of this is produced by dairy
cows. From the comparative number of dairy cows and
other cows, it appears that in addition to veal calves almost
half of the beef animals slaughtered are produced by dairy
cows. As population becomes more dense, we shall depend
more and more on the dairyman for our meat supply. Beef
from the beef breeds of animals will become too expensive
for any but the wealthy, as it now is in densely populated
countries. In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number of
dairy cows increased. Butter production increased 9 per
cent and cheese production 7 per cent. But the number of
steers and bulls decreased one-fifth.

8. Dairy Cattle in Other Countries. The British Isles
have one dairy cow to eleven persons. They import large
quantities of cheese and butter. France and the Netherlands
have one cow to five persons. Germany has one cow to six
persons. Denmark has one cow to two persons. It furnishes
large quantities of butter for England. Japan and China
show a striking contrast with America and Europe. Their
dense population makes any kind of animal food too expensive
to be used freely except by the wealthy. Instead of one
cow for a family, Japan has one head of cattle for thirty-seven
persons. The number of dairy cows is not reported, but
this probably means that there is not more than one cow
for from seventy to one hundred persons.2

As the population in the United States is becoming denser,
we are unfortunately forced to use less animal food, but we

1 Assuming that the calves slaughtered on farms were as heavy as those
killed in slaughter houses.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, pp. 666-668. International Insti-
tute of Agriculture, Vol. V, No. 10, p. 485.

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 1

still use far more than any other nation. For each person
we now produce over twenty-five times as much human food
from animals as is produced for each person in Japan.1

9. The Dairy Cow an Efficient Machine. From a given
qu; ntity of feed the dairy cow produces more human food
thi'ii does any other animal. According to Armsby's stand-
arcs, the amount of feed required to grow and fatten a
12( '0-pound steer would, if fed to dairy cows, produce about
thi ee times as much human food.

But the dairy cow must be raised, and the growing heifer
is 10 more efficient than the growing beef animal. Both
industries require that cows and bulls be kept. Figures
showing the returns from the entire beef industry are not
available, but results of the entire dairy industry in one
county, including the feed for the entire dairy herds and
im luding milk and meat returned for human food, are given
in Table 4, as well as the results from an entire poultry in-
dustry. As producers of protein, hens are the nearest com*-
petitors of dairy cattle, but judged on an energy basis hogs
arc second to cows. Both hens and hogs consume a higher
class of foods so that when compared with cows they are
not quite so productive as the figures would suggest.

10. Cows Effective Users of By-products. As population
increases, less and less grain is fed to animals because it is
all needed as human food. In Europe and other densely
populated regions cows are fed less grain than in America.
The dairy cow is the most efficient machine for changing
grass, hay, straw, cornstalks, and the by-products from
mills into human food. The cow will make a larger amount
of human food out of these products than will any other

1 Calculated on the basis of animal units aside from horses. See page
218.

DAIRY FARMING

TABLE 4. — PROPORTION OF FOOD EATEN BY VARIOUS CLASSES
OF LIVE STOCK THAT is RETURNED FOR HUMAN UsE1

PER CENT OP PRO-
TEIN RETURNED

PER CENT OP ENERGY RETURNED

Of Total
Food

Of Digest-
ible
Protein

Of Total
Food

Of Digest-
ible
Food

Of Produc-
tion Value
of Food

Cow2 ....

41.0

48.9

Cow3 . . . .

31.4

40.6

Dairy herds 4 . .

14.7

22.9

10.0

15.1

33.8

Steer 5 . . . .

8.9

17.0

Steer 6 . . . .

6.4

11.8

4.7

6.9

14.8

Hen ^ . . . .

16.1

20.9

7.1

8.3

14.1

Poultry flock 8

14.5

18.6

6.4

7.5

12.6

Hog9 . . . .

10.2

13.2

15.1

17.5

29.9

1 Values as human food from U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin (Revised)
28.

2 1000-pound cow giving 6000 pounds of 4 per cent milk based on Armsby's
feeding standard.

3 Similar cow raised to 2 years on Armsby's standard, milked 5 years,
then sold as lean beef.

4 Food eaten by 5191 cows, 1078 heifers, 874 calves, 158 bulls, in Dela-
ware County, New York. Pasture assumed to be one-third of the food.
Net product 24, 646,000 pounds milk, 100,000 pounds skim-milk, 260 pounds
butter, and 559 cows, 235 heifers, 62 bulls, 9 calves for beef. Most of
the calves were killed and thrown away at birth.

5 Steer grown to 1000 pounds in 2 years, then fattened 200 pounds in
100 days by Armsby's standard. Meat counted as fat beef.

6 All food eaten by a steer that grew to 1588 pounds in 3 years, assumed
to be fat beef. Ontario Agricultural College, Report, 1893, p. 122.

7 Food and product of 1 hen, average of 1803 by the writer.

8 All feed except grass for an average of 1803 hens and 60 roosters kept
one year, 2713 chickens raised. Net product 204,093 eggs above those
used for incubation, 1080 fowls and 1404 cockrels and pullets sold for meat,
4395 pounds, records kept by the writer.

9 Hogs assumed to have eaten the same feed as 1 hen and to have made a
gain of 1 pound for 5 pounds of grain.

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 9

animal. Cows also make use of the grasses that grow on
large areas of land that cannot be profitably tilled.

11. Dairying and Maintenance of Soil Fertility. From most
pars of the United States large quantities of stock foods
are shipped out for foreign use. In many sections roughage
tha is good stock food is still destroyed. The introduction
of < Dairying helps to keep a larger part of the fertility on the
farm. Many farmers who make dairying a part of their
farm business consider the maintenance of soil fertility, and
the use of waste products, to be as important as the direct
profits from the cows.

] Experiments for many years have shown that it is pos-
sib'e to maintain the fertility of the soil by means of chemical
fer1 ilizers, but as a matter of fact farmers who use farm
ma nure are most likely to keep up the fertility.

Cows Help to Provide a Full Year's Work. A farm is pri-
marily a place to work. The carpenter who works only
half the year is not likely to accumulate much property,
nor is the farmer who works only half the year likely to
pay for a farm. A limited number of cows on the farm
give employment in the morning and evening when field
work cannot be done. In the North where cows are most
numerous, the days are so short during much of the year
that a full day's work cannot be done, unless there are chores
to do. Cattle also provide work for stormy days and for
cold days in winter. They also provide work that children
can do before and after school.

Farm children are particularly fortunate in that they
have to help their fathers in the farm work. In the cities
laws are passed to prevent child labor, not because all labor
is injurious but because of the conditions under which the
work is done. Farm children learn much by working with

10 DAIRY FARMING

their fathers. Perhaps the most important thing that they
learn is to persist in necessary work even when they would
rather not. While helping with the chores the children are
learning and at the same time helping to increase the family
income.

12. Receipts from Dairy Products. Corn is the most
valuable product of American farms but most of it is fed on
the farm. Dairy products are probably the largest single
source of income of American farmers. The dairy products
sold from farms in 1909 amounted to nearly $500,000,000.
The value of both cotton and wheat sold exceeded this . But if
the cattle and calves that are also a product of the dairy were
combined with the milk, the receipts from these sales would
probably exceed the sales of any other product.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Get the local retail prices of butter, cheese, milk, skim-
milk, and sirloin steak. Make a table showing the amount of
protein and energy value that $1 will buy in each product.

2. Define " per capita." Define " dry matter."

3. Find the amount of milk and butter used per person in 10
to 12 families in your region. Average these and compare with
the averages given on page 4. Each student may report on one
family, or more if there are not 10 students in the class.

4. From the census reports for your state find the population
and the number of dairy cows for your county. How many per-
sons are there for one cow? Compare with Table 2. What
dairy products are shipped into your county? What products
are shipped out of the county ?

5. Repeat question 4 for your state.

6. What was the total value of all dairy products sold in your
county in 1909 ? In your state ? Which of the dairy products sold
are most important?

7. What was the value of dairy products compared with other
leading farm products in your state ?

IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 11

8. Why is more cheese used in Europe than in America? Why
are v,re using more cheese than formerly ?

9. Of what dairy products does the United States import more
than it exports? Of which does it export more than it imports?
Whi<-'.h are greater in value, the total imports or exports? To what
proc act is this due? See page 296. •

COLLATERAL READING

The Production and Consumption of Dairy Products, U. S.
Dei t. Agr., Bulletin 177.

Tde Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363.

1 1 the lists of collateral reading no attempt is made to give a
complete list of books and bulletins. A few of the more important
references that are readily available are given. Bulletins of the
diff< rent state experiment stations are not always available, for this
reason they are not often given as collateral reading but are referred
to in footnotes. At the beginning of the course the experiment
stat ion in your state should be asked for all available bulletins. If
af tt r examination it appears that certain ones of the publications
are likely to be needed for special study, members of the class should
sen< I postal cards requesting them. It is better to have the students
do 1 his writing because instruction as to where to get information is
a part of the course.

Write to the Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., or to your
congressman for the census report on agriculture for your state.
Also ask for the report on animals and animal products for the
United States.

Many important laboratory exercises are given after Chapter 2,
page 39, and for following chapters. These exercises should be
begun while Chapters 1 and 2 are being studied. Because of the
frequent use that is made of the Babcock milk test it is a good plan
to begin the laboratory work with Exercise 20, page 196.

CHAPTER 2

BREEDS OF CATTLE

C. H. ECKLES
ORIGIN OF BREEDS

13. Origin of Domesticated Cattle. No cattle are native
to America. All those found in both North and South
America are descended from cattle brought from Europe
and are the descendants of wild cattle that formerly lived
in Europe and Asia. It is not known where or by whom
cattle were first domesticated as it occurred in prehistoric
times. It is generally believed that there were two original
forms of wild cattle, the one somewhat smaller than the
Jersey, the other probably larger than any cattle that live
to-day and in type something like the long-horned cattle
formerly raised on the ranges of South America and in
Texas.

14. Origin of Breeds. The differences between these
two wild types account in part for the differences between
breeds of cattle, such for instance as the extreme difference
in type between the Jersey and the Holstein, or between
the long-horned cattle found in Texas and the Angus or
the Shorthorns.

Other factors in the formation of breeds are climate, food,
and nature of the surroundings. For example, the cattle of
Holland as a result of living for generations in a rich level

BREEDS OF CATTLE 13

country have become adapted to these conditions and are
not so well suited to rough scanty pastures as the Brown
Swi^s, or the Ayrshires which have been produced on poor
pastures. On the continent of Europe the breeds and sub-
bm ds are almost innumerable. They have chiefly originated
in the manner mentioned. In Great Britain alone ten or
twc ve distinct breeds have developed. Up to about the
middle of the eighteenth century these natural influences
were the chief factors in the development of breeds. About
tha time, largely as the result of the work of Robert Blake-
well, a great interest was aroused in England in improving
cati le.

The beginning of modern breeds may be traced largely to
this great movement. The methods used were careful selec-
tior , more liberal feeding, and good management. In some
case s, as with the Shorthorns and the Ayrshires, crossbreeding
and inbreeding were at first practiced. At the present
time most cattle breeders direct their efforts towards further
improvement in the breeds already in existence and not
towards the establishment of new breeds.

15. Definition of Terms. Scrub and native are terms used
to indicate that an animal does not carry more than a small
amount of the blood of an improved breed.

Grade. This term, generally used with some breed name,
as Grade-Hoist ein, means that the animal has one-half or
usually more of the blood of the improved breed. When
the proportion of improved blood is high, the animal is
called a " high grade."

Crossbred indicates that the animal is the offspring of pure-
bred parents of distinct breeds.

Pure-bred. This term is properly applied to cattle whose
ancestors came from the native home of the breed and con-

14 DAIRY FARMING

formed to the standards of the breed. Records must be
available showing the breeding of these animals and tracing
back in all lines to those coming from the original home of
the breed. Pure-bred animals are sometimes called thorough-
bred, but this term is also used to indicate a particular breed
of horses and is usually restricted to that meaning.

Registered. The breeders of each important breed of
cattle have an organization for the purpose of keeping records
and advancing the interests of the breed. Each of these
organizations keeps record books. Any pure-bred animal
that has the breed characteristics may be recorded, provided
both parents are already on record. A pure-bred animal
that is recorded is called a registered animal.

16. Classification of Cattle. The breeds common in
America are generally classed as follows :

Dairy Breeds. Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Brown
Swiss, Dutch Belted.

Dual Purpose. Shorthorn (Dairy Type), Red Polled, Polled
Durham, Devon.

Beef. Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway.

17. Value of Breeds. Animals of a distinct breed that is
adapted to the region usually sell for more than animals of
mixed or unimproved breeding even if the latter are equally
good animals individually. The value of the pure-bred is
due to the fact that it is possible to predict with reasonable
certainty what characteristics will be inherited by the off-
spring. Among dairy cattle it is not uncommon to find ani-
mals of mixed breeding that rank with pure-breds as pro-
ducers of dairy products. These animals of mixed breeding,
however, cannot be depended upon to reproduce themselves
in their offspring. Very high grades are more likely to
produce young like themselves. Pure-breds have been

BREEDS OF CATTLE 15

bred for generations with certain objects in view, and in
time these characteristics become fixed and are transmitted
with fair certainty.

The breed should be looked upon as a means of retaining
the characteristics that have been developed by the efforts
of 'he breeders in the past. Certain breeds have for gen-
era dons been selected and developed for the purpose of pro-
du< ing the greatest possible amount of good beef from the
least feed. It is reasonable to expect an animal belonging
to one of these breeds to excel one whose ancestors have
never been selected for any definite purpose. Other breeds
have been developed as dairy breeds, or for dual-purpose
use, and are the most efficient animals for these purposes.

18. Pedigrees. A pedigree is a record of the ancestry of
an animal. Its value lies in the opportunity it affords to
study the characteristics of the ancestors. Breed associa-
tions l have been organized by those interested, primarily for
the purpose of keeping authentic records of the ancestry of
pure-bred animals. Upon payment of the registration fee
an animal that has the required breed characteristics and both
of whose parents are recorded, may be recorded and assigned
a registration number. By this means it is possible to trace
the; ancestry of any registered animal as far back as the
ancestors that were imported. In ordinary use from three
to six generations are recorded on the pedigree as studied
by the breeder.

While pedigrees are of great value in making it possible
to select breeding animals to better advantage, it is a com-
mon mistake to attach too much importance to them. An
animal with a pedigree may not be any better than others
that are high grades of the same breed. Pedigree alone is

1 See addresses on p. 289.

DAIRY FARMING

no indication of the merit of the animal as an individual,
since it is merely a record of parentage.

Below is given the pedigree of the Jersey cow, Rosette's
Gipsy Maid, including four generations. The name of the
sire in each case appears at the top, and that of the dam at
the bottom of the bracket.

Rosette's
Gipsy Maid
220623

Eminent

Rosette

66050

My Jolly Girl
206038

Rosette's Golden

Lad

57498

Financial Queen
155098

Guenon's Golden

Lad

62168

Guenon's Mag V
189777

Orlando P.
2535 H. C.

Rosette's 5th P.
2881 H. C.

Reminder P.
2052 H. C.

Financial Pride P.
6060 H. C.

Guenon Lad P.
2571 H. C.

Loraine
82951

f Guenon's Golden
Lad
62168

Maceo's Mag V.
174758

DAIRY BREEDS

19. Number of Animals Registered. Some idea of the
greatly increased interest in pure-bred cattle is shown by the
rapid increase during recent years in the number of animals
registered by the breed associations. Over five times as
many Holsteins were recorded in the last ten years as were
recorded in the previous ten years. Three times as many
Guernseys, twice as many Ayrshires, and nearly twice as

BREEDS OF CATTLE

many Jerseys were recorded as in the preceding ten years.
Although the totals look large it should be taken into ac-
count that the number of registrations for each breed in-
cludes all since the herdbook was established. Probably
not over one-third of the total -registered are now living.
In proportion to the total number of dairy cattle in use in
the United States the number registered is very small, prob-
ably less than one in fifty. Table 5 gives the number of
eacii breed registered, also a comparison of the numbers
rec< >rded in the last ten years and in the previous ten years.

TABLE 5. — NUMBERS OF ANIMALS REGISTERED

LAST TEN

BREED

BEFORE
1895

1895-1904

1905-1914

TOTAL UP
TO 1915

YEARS COM-
PARED WITH
PREVIOUS TEN

YEARS

Per Cent

Jersey . . .

143,519

111,782

197,300

452,601

176

Hoi stein

56,141

49,296

267,374

372,811

542

Guernsey . .

11,029

15,661

52,450

79,140

335

Ayrshire

18,306

11,051

26,919

56,276

244

20. Holstein-Friesian. This well-known breed of cattle
originated in Holland and is especially well developed in
the province of Friesland. It is not native, as the name
Holstein would indicate, to the duchy of Holstein, which is
a province of North Germany. Some of the first cattle of
this breed imported to America were incorrectly called
Holstein, and a breed association was organized under this
name. Later another was started called the Dutch-Friesian.
These two were combined in 1885 under the name Holstein-
Friesian, which is the official name of the breed in this coun-
try. It is now generally called Holstein in America,
c

BREEDS OF CATTLE 19

This breed is probably one of the oldest among those in
general use. Holland has been famous for its cattle since
the time of the Romans. The best part of Holland is below
th< level of the ocean, which is* kept back by great dikes.
The land is level and very fertile and especially adapted to
grt ss. The cattle kept in Holland are given the best care of
an 7 cattle in the world. Attention is given to proper feed-
ing, gentle handling of the animals, and to good sanitary con-
dil ions. As a result Holland exceeds all other countries in
the average yield of milk and butter-fat per cow. Nearly
all of the Holsteins in the United States are descended from
about 10,000 head which were imported between 1875 and
1835. This breed ranks first in the number of animals now
being recorded.

Holsteins are the largest of the dairy breeds, the cows
reaching an average weight of 1200 pounds and the bulls
1800 to 2200 pounds as a rule. The color is always black
and white in any proportion but never blended. Cows of
this breed are gentle and quiet in disposition. The breed-
ing qualities are excellent, as is indicated by the rapid in-
crease in numbers of recorded animals. The calves average
95 pounds at birth, the largest of any breed except the
Bi-own Swiss.

Holsteins produce more milk on the average than any
other breed. In percentage of fat they rank the lowest. The
figures in Table 6 give the averages of cows in experiment
station herds. It is quite certain that these cows, on the
average, do not produce any more than well-kept private
herds.

On a farm where good conditions of management prevail,
a herd should average at least 8000 pounds of milk per year.
A high average would be 10,000 pounds per year. The milk

DAIRY FARMING

or butter from this breed has considerably less yellow color
than that of Jerseys, and in fact ranks the lowest in this
respect.

TABLE 6. — PRODUCTION OF HOLSTEIN Cows IN EXPERIMENT
STATION HERDS.

AVERAGE

NUMBER OF Cows
REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year
Per cent fat

8699
345

83
83

Pounds fat per year
Per cent total solids

300
1229

83
9

The highest fat records for a year made by this breed up
to April 1, 1916, were :

POUNDS MILK

POUNDS FAT

Duchess Skylark Ormsby ....
Finderne Pride Johanna Rue . . .
Finderne Holingen Fayne

27,762
28,404
24,612

1205
1176
1116

The highest milk record was made by Tilly Alcartra, who
produced 30,452 pounds of milk in a year, but she did not
give as much fat as a number of other cows.

In Holland, cattle of this breed are used for beef production
as well as for dairy purposes. The calves are especially
well adapted for veal as they are large at birth and gain
rapidly during the first few weeks. When dry the cows fat-
ten readily, and as is the case with other dairy breeds the
gains are made as cheaply and rapidly as with animals of
beef breeds. In the great cattle markets the price is always
lower for animals of the dairy breeds than for those of beef
breeds. There is some basis for this discrimination in the

BREEDS OF CATTLE 21

fact that the dairy breeds during fattening deposit larger
quantities of fat around the internal organs, and tallow is
worth but little as compared with the edible meat. The
be of -bred animals deposit more -of their fat in the muscular
tissue giving the marbled condition so much prized. How-
ever, the average meat consumer scarcely discriminates be-
t\\ een the beef from a Holstein and that from a beef -bred
animal if both be of the same age. It is safe to prophesy
that, in the future, dairy cattle will supply a much larger
proportion of the beef used in this country, as has long been
the case on the continent of Europe.

The strong points of the breed are the high milk yield,
the marked vigor of constitution especially of the calves,
the good breeding qualities, the quiet disposition, and the
value for beef and veal. The weakest point is generally
considered to be the low percentage of fat, but owing to the
large yield of milk the total production of fat is high.

21. Jersey. The Jersey and the Guernsey breeds are
often spoken of as the Channel Island breeds. They take
their names from trie islands of Jersey and Guernsey, located
in the English Channel. Jersey Island is only eleven miles
long and nine wide. The climate is mild and even. The
cattle are pastured by tethering. The system of agriculture
followed is very intensive since the average rent of the land
is about $50 per acre. The sale of pure-bred Jersey cattle
for export is an important source of income. Since 1789
the laws of the island have prohibited the importation of
cattle, so this breed has been kept pure since that time. Much
attention is given to the type of the animal as well as to the
butter production. This has resulted in the development of
a breed of great symmetry and beauty.

At the present time this breed is used to a limited extent

DAIRY FARMING

in England, and has been taken to all English speaking coun-
tries, although by far the greatest number is now in North
America. Some were brought to the United States about
1850. From 1868 to 1890 large numbers were imported,
and again since 1900 several importations have been made

FIG. 2. — Imported Jersey cow, Lady Viola, many times champion in the
show ring. A good representative of the Island type ; rather small, extreme
dairy type, udder almost perfect, long level rump, very symmetrical outline.

each year. This breed is most numerous in the Eastern and
Southern States.

The color may be any shade of yellow except orange — and
ranges from light fawn to dark gray or black. The most
common color is fawn shading to dark on the lower parts of
the body. The tongue, and the switch of the tail are black in
the majority of cases. White spots are not uncommon,
especially on the lower part of the body. These were at
one time strongly objected to, but now receive little atten-

BREEDS OF CATTLE 23

HOD. The color bears no relation to the value of any par-
ticular cow as a dairy animal. Mature Jersey cows usually
weit$h from 750 to 900 pounds. Those found on Jersey
Island and those recently imported are of smaller and more
refined type and are known as the Island type in contrast
to the larger, coarser type descended from the early im-
portations, known as the American type.

Cows of this breed are more sensitive than many others
on account of a highly developed nervous temperament.
When handled gently they become very docile, when care-
les>ly handled or abused they are quite the reverse. They
seem to thrive better than some other breeds in warm cli-
ma tes. As meat producers they rank very low. The calves
art small at birth, weighing 55 pounds on the average and
th( y do not gain rapidly for the first few weeks. For these
reasons they are not well adapted for veal.

The published records of Jersey cows owned by the
American experiment stations are given in Table 7. On a
farm where fairly good conditions are maintained a Jersey
herd should be expected to average about 5500 pounds
of milk per year containing on the average 5 per cent
of fat. A high average milk yield would be 7000 pounds
per cow.

TABLE 7. — PRODUCTION OF JERSEY Cows IN HERDS BELONGING
TO EXPERIMENT STATIONS

AVERAGE

NUMBER OF Cows
REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year
Per cent fat
Pounds fat per year
Per cent total solids

5508

5.14
283
14.9

153
154
153
29

24 DAIRY FARMING

The highest records for a year up to April 1, 1916, were :

POUNDS MILK

POUNDS FAT

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm . . .
Spermfield Owl's Eva

17,558
16,457

999
993

Eminent's Bess

18,783

963

In quantity of milk the Jersey is surpassed by other
dairy breeds. In use of food for the economical production
of fat the Jersey and her close relative the Guernsey are un-
surpassed. The best-known characteristics of this breed are
the high percentage of fat and the yellow color of the prod-
uct. The yellow color adds nothing to the flavor or the
food value of milk or cream but makes the article more
attractive to the consumer. The Jersey cow is also an un-
usually persistent milker which contributes to her popularity
as a family cow. This breed is best adapted for the produc-
tion of cream or butter. The weakest points are a lack of
vitality in the calves and lack of good breeding qualities in
the cow.

22. Guernsey. This breed is a native of the island of
the same name, which is the second in size of the Channel
Islands. The ancestors of this breed and of the Jersey were
undoubtedly the -same, and in fact a century ago the two
breeds were essentially alike. The conditions under which
the two breeds developed are almost identical, but type
has been emphasized far less than on Jersey Island. As a
result the Guernseys lack the symmetry and uniformity of
type characteristic of the Jersey. The Guernsey cow
weighs about 1000 pounds on the average, or at least 100
pounds more than the Jersey, and is also coarser boned. In

BREEDS OF CATTLE

DAIRY FARMING

general the colors resemble those of the Jersey, but include
some colors not found in that breed. The common colors
are reddish yellow, or lemon, or orange-fawn, with white
markings. Guernseys are probably a little slower maturing
than Jerseys, but are ready to freshen when about 24 months
old. Like the Jerseys they have little adaptation for beef.

TABLE 8. — PRODUCTION OF GUERNSEY Cows IN EXPERIMENT
STATION HERDS

AVERAGE

NUMBER OF Cows
REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year
Per cent fat

5509
498

17
21

Pounds fat per year
Per cent total solids

274
14.2

17
6

Records for cows belonging to experiment stations are
given in Table 8. A herd should average at least 5500 pounds
of milk per year containing 5 per cent of fat. A high aver-
age would be 7000 pounds per cow.

The highest records for one year up to April 1, 1916, were :

POUNDS MILK

POUNDS FAT

IVIurne Cowan ...

24,008

1098

IVtay Rilma •

19,673

1073

Spotswood Daisy Pearl ....

18,603

957

Guernsey milk and butter have a higher color than do the
products of any other breed, and for this reason the Guernsey
is especially favored where cream is sold in a critical market.
The strong and weak points of this breed are practically
the same as for the Jersey. They are best adapted for the

BREEDS OF CATTLE 27

production of cream and butter. Their milk yield is not
sufficient to warrant their use where milk is sold without
reg;ird to its fat content.

23. Ayrshire. The home of this breed is the county, or
shire, of Ayr in southwest Scotland. This is a rolling, moder-
ate! y fertile region and is not subject to great extremes of
temperature. The origin of the breed is somewhat uncertain,
but it dates back to the latter part of the eighteenth century.
It is generally believed that the breed was the result of cross-
ing Holland, Durham, and Channel Island animals upon
the native stock. It is at present the leading dairy breed
in Scotland and in New Zealand, and is common in parts of
England.

Ayrshire cattle were brought into Canada at an early date,
and were brought to Massachusetts as early as 1837. These
importations stopped after twenty or thirty years, and were
not resumed until about 1900. Until recent years the
Ayrshires in America were the descendants of the early
importations. The importations of the past few years have
met with the greatest favor, and as a result the best Ayr-
shires in America are now of the same type as those found
in Scotland. At the present time this breed ranks fourth
among the dairy breeds in numbers registered in the United
States. They are most numerous in the dairy sections of
the East and in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois. In portions of
Canada they constitute the majority of the cattle in use.

Many of their characteristics are between the Holstein
and Jersey. This is true of the size, yield of milk, yield of
fat, disposition of animals, size of calves, and breeding quali-
ties. The common color is spotted, red and white, or brown
and white in varying proportions. The two colors are dis-
tinct and never blend to form a roan as with the Shorthorns.

DAIRY FARMING

BREEDS OF CATTLE 29

The Ayrshire cows do not show the extreme angular dairy
type exhibited by some other breeds. They are smoother
over the shoulders and have fuller hind quarters. The udder
development is the most perfect found in any breed. Special
att( -ntion has been paid to this point by the Scotch breeders.
The teats are placed uniformly on the udder and are of
uniform size. The tendency to short teats has been the
cause of much unfavorable criticism, but the care which has
been taken within recent years to breed for longer teats has
largely removed this objection. In beef production Ayr-
shires rank high for a dairy breed. The calves weigh 65
to 70 pounds at birth and are strong and vigorous.

TAJJLE 9. — PRODUCTION OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE IN EXPERIMENT
STATION HERDS

AVERAGE

NUMBER OP Cows
REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year
Per cent fat

6533
385

24
24

Pounds fat per year
Per cent total solids

252
129

24
17

Results from experiment station herds are given in Table
9. An average yield of about 6000 pounds of milk contain-
ing 3.80 per cent fat may be expected from a herd under
farm conditions if given reasonably good treatment. The
milk does not show much yellow color. The breed is well
adapted for the production of market milk since it gives a
large amount of milk of average composition.

The best record up to April 1, 1916, is held by Lady of
Willowmoor with a production of 956 pounds of fat in one
year.

30 DAIRY FARMING

24. Brown Swiss. These cattle are native to the north-
eastern part of Switzerland where they have been bred as far
back as history records. During the winter season the cattle
are kept in the valleys and in the summer they are pastured
upon the mountain slopes. In America this breed is found in
almost every state but as a rule only in isolated herds. The
total number is small compared with the leading dairy breeds.

In appearance these animals are plain, substantial, and
well proportioned although inclined to be fleshy and often
rather coarse in bone. The cows reach a weight of about
1200 pounds. They are called brown, but the color is really
more of a mouse color and varies from a silver gray or light
brown, to a dark brown or nearly black.

They are noted for their vitality and good breeding qual-
ities. They are quiet and gentle. The calves are the larg-
est of any breed used in America and are easy to raise on ac-
count of their strong vitality. As milk producers the cows
rank about with the Ayrshires in both yield and richness
of milk. A milk yield of from 6000 to 9000 pounds per year
is often obtained, and an average of 6500 pounds per cow
should be obtained under good conditions. The fat aver-
ages a trifle under 4 per cent. Some excellent advanced
registry records have been made by this breed. The best
record up to April 1, 1916, is held by College Bravura 2d
with a production of 19,461 pounds of milk and 798 pounds
of fat in one year.

25. Dutch Belted. This breed has practically the same
characteristics as the Holstein, except that it has a white
band or belt extending around the body. It is used, to a
limited extent only, in the Eastern States.

26. Kerry. These cattle are smaller than those of any
other breed. They are natives of Ireland. The average

BREEDS OF CATTLE 31

weight of the cows is 650 pounds. The color is black with
a little white on the udder and underline. Another some-
what larger type of this breed is known as the Dexter Kerry.
A Jew small herds are to be found in the Eastern States.
Th< - cows produce a large amount of milk for their size. The
miliv averages about 4 per cent of fat.

DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS

27. Dual-purpose. The term dual-purpose is used to
describe those breeds of cattle kept for both milk and beef,
in contrast with the more specialized breeds, which are
kept primarily for either milk or beef alone. All dairy breeds
ha\ e some value for beef, and all beef breeds are sometimes
used for milk. The real dual-purpose cow stands about
midway between the dairy type and the beef type. It must
not be expected that a cow of this type will compare as a dairy
animal with good individuals of the special dairy breeds in
milk production, or that her calves can compete in beef pro-
duction with those from the special beef breeds. A dual-
purpose cow should be expected to produce about 200 pounds
of butter-fat per year as against about 300 for an equally good
specimen of a special dairy breed, and her calves should make
fair beef.

Dual-purpose breeds have been in favor in many sections
of the United States especially in the corn belt. The dual-
purpose breeds are less economical producers of dairy prod-
ucts than the special dairy breeds and for this reason should
not be chosen by the man who is making dairying an impor-
tant part of his farming operations. If the dual-purpose cow
is to be used at all, it should be on the general farm in the
com belt where cream is sold and skim-milk is available for
feeding calves and pigs, and where the abundance of roughage

32 DAIRY FARMING

makes it .desirable to have more animals to consume it than
the farmer is prepared to handle in the form of dairy cows.

28. Shorthorn. The Shorthorn is probably the best
known and most widely distributed breed of cattle. Its
native home is northeast England in the counties of York

FIG. 5. — Doris Clay, a Shorthorn cow of the dairy type with a milk
record of 10,270 pounds in one year. A dual-purpose cow but showing
more dairy characteristics than is typical.

and Durham. The name Durham, which was formerly ap-
plied to this breed to some extent, is explained in this way.
As with other breeds it is not possible to tell exactly how the
breed was originated. It is probable that the cattle brought
from the Continent were crossed with the native English
stock. It is certain that Holland cattle were also a factor
in the improvement. The first systematic breeding began

BREEDS OF CATTLE 33

about 1780. The men best known in the early history of
th( breed are Charles and Robert Colling, Thomas Bates,
Thomas Booth, and, more recently, Amos Cruickshank. In
developing this breed most attention was given to early
muturity and good beef qualities. At the same time cer-
tain breeders, especially Thomas Bates, were equally inter-
ested in developing a dual-purpose, or general-purpose, ani-
nic 1 in which the dairy qualities and the beef characteristics
should be well balanced. As a beef animal the Shorthorn
ranks in the first class. Within recent times the beef quali-
ties have been best developed in animals descended from the
he pd of Cruickshank. At the present time animals of this
breed seen in the show ring in America are of the most
pronounced beef type, and their popularity is based upon
their beef qualities. Certain strains, however, have been
developed by breeders who have maintained the milking
characteristic of the early type, and as a result at the present
time there is a fairly distinct milking type of pure-bred
Shorthorns found in large numbers in England and to a
limited extent in America. In recent years a number of
milk and butter records have been made by cows of this
breed that rank with the special dairy breeds.

Herds selected and bred for dual-purpose should average
about 5000 pounds of milk per year with a fat content of
from 3.8 to 4 per cent. The highest record up to April 1,
1916, is held by Rose of Glenside, 18,075 pounds of milk and
625 pounds of fat in one year.

The dual-purpose type does not have so good a beef
.conformation as the strains developed for beef. The beef
animals of this breed produce more milk than does the Here-
ford, Angus, or Galloway. The Shorthorn is more widely
distributed than any other breed, being widely used in

34 DAIRY FARMING

North and South America, South Africa, and Australia, as
well as in its native home.

The colors may be pure red, pure white, red and white, or
roan. The color cannot be taken as in any way an indication
of the quality of the animal. The mature cows usually weigh
about 1400 pounds but may reach 1800 pounds or more.
They are larger than the cows of any other breed.

Importations to America began as early as 1790, al-
though in small numbers until between 1830 and 1840 when
a large number were brought into Ohio. The American
Shorthorn Breeders' Association was established in 1882 and
since that time has looked after the interests of the breed.
More cattle of this breed have been registered than of any
other.

29. Polled Durham. Polled Durham cattle are either
pure-bred Shorthorns or nearly so. They are of American
origin. The " Single Standard" Polled Durhams' were
originated by crossing native mulley cows with pure-bred
Shorthorns. After a certain number of crosses of Short-
horn blood these animals were registered in the Polled
Durham herdbook. The " Double Standard " Polled Dur-
hams are so called since they are eligible to registry in the
Shorthorn herdbookl They were originated from naturally
mulley cows which appeared in pure-bred Shorthorns. At
the present time the latter line of breeding has practically
superseded the former. They are in every respect the same
as Shorthorns except for the polled characteristics. They
are found in considerable numbers in the Central States
and have met with considerable favor on account of the
polled characteristics.

30. Red Polled. Th's breed is classed as dual-purpose and
comes nearest at the present time, as a breed, to meeting the

BREEDS OF CATTLE

definition of this classification. It is native to the counties of
Su'folk and Norfolk in the eastern part of England. It is
believed by some who have studied the question that Red
Polls are descended from cattle brought to England by the
Dnnes and mixed with the native cattle. Until 1846 the
cai tie of these two counties were known as independent
breeds, but on account of their similarity, at this date they

FIG. 6 — Jean Duluth Beauty, a Red Polled cow, with a record of 20,280
pounds of milk, and 892 pounds of fat in one year. A dual-purpose cow
with a remarkable dairy record.

were combined and have since been known as Red Polls.
They are used in England as dual-purpose cattle. At the
present time the breed is found mostly in the two counties
where it originated, to some extent in Australia and New
Zealand, and in considerable numbers in America.

They were probably introduced into America during the
colonial times, but it was not until after 1870 that animals
were brought over the descendants of which have been kept

36 DAIRY FARMING

pure. They are most numerous in the Middle States. They
yield a medium amount of milk, take on flesh readily, and
make a fair grade of beef. As beef animals they do not rank
in the first class, nor can the cows compete in milk and fat
production with the special dairy breeds. A herd kepi under
good farm coin lil ions may be expected to average about ,r)()()()
pounds of pajlk per year, containing close to 4 per cent of fat
on (he average. A number of excellent milk records have
been made, (hough none are comparable with those of the
special dairy breeds. The cows usually weigh between 1200
and 1300 pounds, but occasionally more ; while the bulls reach
a weight of about a ton. In color (hey are a deep cherry
red; white may appear on the switch of the tail, on the
udder, and a few white markings are allowed on the belly.
White on any other part disqualifies the animal for registra-
tion. American herds of this breed vary widely in type.
Some breeders have given most attention (o beef production.
Other breeders have given most attention to dairy qualities.
The propel- type to maintain is a balance between these two
extremes. The best record up to April 1, 1916, of 20,280
pounds of milk am} 892 pounds of fat is held by Jean Duluth
Beauty.

31. Devon. Devon cattle are commonly classed as
dual-purpose. They were bred and developed in Devon-
shire1, England. They are thought to be one of the oldest
of I he breeds that originated in (Jreat Britain. The Devons
are smaller than the distinctive beef breeds, the cows weigh-
ing from 1200 to 1300 pounds. The color is a bright red.
The animal is bloeky and compact with a noticeable refine-
ment in bone. They are fair milk producers, yielding milk
rich in fat, comparing favorably in this respect with the
Jerseys. The breed is not numerous in the United States

B REEDS OF CATTLE 37

but is found to some extent in the Eastern States. Their
popularity seems to be decreasing, judging from the number
tli it are exhibited at fairs.

BEEF BREEDS

32. Hereford. This breed has been developed strictly
for beef purposes. The cows are milked to a very limited
extent. A few cows in a herd kept primarily for beef may
hi utilized to supply the family of the owner with milk, or at
times may produce enough to make it possible to sell a
small amount of dairy products. There are no records of
in. Ik production available, although it is known that the milk
of this breed ranks rather high in richness and has much the
s;i;ue characteristics as that of the Dcvons. The Hereford
probably ranks lowest in dairy qualities. As is the case
with all beef breeds, occasionally a cow is found that is a fair
mi Ik producer, but she cannot be depended upon to transmit
tli is characteristic. This breed is a native of Hereford in
the south central part of England, where it has been devel-
oped for about 150 years. The cows reach a weight of about
1-4 IK) pounds and the bulls as high as 2200 pounds. The
most distinctive characteristic of the breed is the white
face, which is never absent. This is transmitted very strongly
to practically all animals having even a small amount of Here-
ford blood. Herefords arc used mostly for grazing on the
plains of the West and Southwest.

33. Aberdeen-Angus. This excellent breed of beef cattle
ranks about with the Hereford as a producer of milk. The
cattle are always black in color and polled. Only rarely is a
cow found that would be profitable in a dairy. These excep-
tional cows cannot be counted upon to reproduce this charac-
teristic in their offspring. They are bred primarily for beef,

DAIRY FARMING

but are often used in a limited way for supplying milk for
the use of the owners. Angus grades may even be found
occasionally in mixed herds kept for milk. Practically no
records of the amount or richness of milk are available. A
limited number of fat tests made by the author indicate that
the milk of this breed averages about 4.0 per cent of fat, or
about the same as that of the Shorthorns. The Angus breed
originated in northern Scotland. In America it is found
chiefly in the corn-producing states. It has not been con-
sidered the equal of the Hereford on the ranges.

34. Galloway. This breed is a native of southwestern
Scotland. The cattle are black in color, always polled, and
are especially known for their long, thick hair, seen to the best
advantage during the winter season in northern regions.
They are found chiefly in the Middle States and on the ranges.
They are strictly a beef breed. No records are available
regarding the yield of milk or its richness. As is the case
with other beef breeds, occasionally a reasonably good milk
producer is found.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Which means more, to say that an animal is pure-bred or to
say that it is registered ?

2. Fill out a table like the following, including all breeds of cattle.

BREED

NATIVE
HOME

HORNED

HORNLESS

DAIRY, DUAL-
PURPOSE
OR BEEF

COLORS

USUAL
WEIGHT
POUNDS

BREEDS OF CATTLE 39

3. Tell how each breed of cattle may be distinguished.

4. From Tables 6, 7, 8, 9, find the percentage of solids not fat
for i;he milk of each breed.

5. How did Shorthorn cattle come to be called Durham ?

6. What is meant by Channel Islands?

7. On a map locate the region where each breed originated.
Gh o the leading characteristics of the region as to climate, topog-
rapliy, and food supply for cattle. Which one of the regions is most
like the region where you live?

8. Make a list of all the known owners of pure-bred cattle in the
school district or region, with the breeds owned and numbers of
eacii breed.

9. Which breed of dairy cattle is most numerous in the region ?
Wl i ich one is increasing most rapidly ? Why ?

10. Why did so many breeds originate in Europe, and why does
the same thing not happen in America?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

1. If different breeds of cattle are available, make comparisons
of t hem, and write a description of the cattle of each breed that were
studied. The score cards given on pages 290 to 296 may be of help
in studying each breed.

2. Make an outline drawing of the head of a Jersey and of a
Holstein cow as seen from the front. If possible measure the
length and width and draw to scale. The difference in the shape
of the head is supposed to be one indication that these breeds are
descended from two distinct forms of wild cattle.

COLLATERAL READING

Breeds of Dairy Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 106.
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp.
30 L-302 and 330-382.

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb, pp. 169-332.
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 27-106.

CHAPTER 3

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY
CATTLE

C. H. ECKLES
SELECTION OF A BREED

35. Selection of a Breed. One of the first questions that
arises in starting a herd is the choice of a breed. There is a
tendency to attach too much importance to this decision.
In choosing a breed the following points should be con-
sidered.

1. Kind of cattle most common in the locality.

2. Form in which the products are to be marketed.

3. Topography, climate, and food supply.

4. Preference of the breeder.

5. Average production of milk.

6. Average production of butter-fat.

7. Economy of production of milk and fat.

8. Breeding qualities of the cows.

9. Vigor of the calves.

10. Adaptability of the calves for veal, and beef value of
discarded cows and bulls.

1 1 . Original cost and probable demand for surplus animals.
Most of the points have been discussed in the previous

chapter. The advantages to the farmer of using the same
kind of stock as his neighbors, should be given far greater
prominence than his own preference or any small points of

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 41

difference between breeds. The advantages may be enu-
me -ated as follows :

J . May save expense in buykig males for breeding, and
maKe it possible to make more use of a bull that is found to
sin especially valuable animals.

L'. It is a great advantage in selling stock, since buyers are
atl racted by large numbers of the same breed in one locality.

:;. May save expense in official testing of registered cows
for advanced registration.

•':. Makes possible a local breed organization and creates
grc ater interest in good stock and proper management.

if the pastures are steep and rocky, the more active breeds
arc likely to be most successful. Where pastures are luxu-
riant and where large quantities or roughage are used, the
larger breeds are more at home.

Between similar breeds the preference of the breeder
mtiy decide the choice. For example, if location and market
would suggest the Jersey or the Guernsey as the most
suitable, the choice between the two might be easily deter-
mined by preference. If the dairy farmer expects to sell
milk for market, wholesale or retail, his choice would hardly
fall on the Channel Island breeds, unless the market is the
exceptional one that will pay enough more for rich milk to
justify its production. For milk production the Holstein,
Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss would be the natural choice. On
the other hand, if the location is such that cream is to be
sold, then the Jersey and Guernsey breeds would come in
for strong consideration on account of their well-known
economical use of feed for the production of butter-fat.
Under these conditions the probable value of skim-milk
for pigs and for calf feeding is still another consideration
and in some cases is sufficient to cause the choice to fall

DAIRY FARMING

upon the Holstein on account of the large production of this
valuable by-product.

When selling butter-fat, cream or butter, the total quan-
tity of fat and not the percentage of fat is the important
point. For cheese making and for market milk, the total
solids, and not fat alone are what is wanted.

It is impossible to give data that are entirely satisfactory
regarding the relative production of the breeds. The best
figures the author has been able to gather are brought to-
gether in Table 10. These are yearly records of pure-bred
animals as reported by experiment stations in the United
States for animals owned by them. It is assumed that the
conditions under which these records are made are fairly
comparable with and certainly no more favorable than those
found in good herds owned by individuals.

TABLE 10. — PRODUCTION PER YEAR OF Cows OWNED BY EX-
PERIMENT STATIONS

AVERAGE POUNDS

AVERAGE PER CENT

MILK

FAT FOR YEAR

AVERAGE

Number

Pounds

Number

Per Cent

FAT

Cows

Milk

Cows

Fat

Holsteins . . .

8699

3.45

300

Jerseys . . . .

153

5508

154

5.14

283

Shorthorns

6017

3.63

218

Red Polls . . .

5906

4.03

238

Guernseys

5509

4.98

274

Ayrshires . . .

6533

3.85

252

INDIVIDUAL SELECTION

36. Selection of Individual Cows. The success of a dairy
farmer depends more upon the selection of the individuals
within the breed than it does upon the choice of a breed.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 43

Tho efforts of the breeder are constantly directed towards
the1 development of the dairy breeds to the point where the
characteristic of high milk production will be uniformly
inherited. Even our poorest dairy cows give much more
milk than was given under natural conditions. Although
much progress has been made we must always expect many
covv's to fall below our standards because these standards
arc so far above nature. A certain number of the dairy
cows with good parents will have inferior dairy qualities.
No method of growing the heifer or of feeding the mature
cow can make a naturally inferior cow into a good one.
The cow must first of all have the tendency to use her feed
for making milk. High production of milk results from
selecting such a cow and then providing the proper amount
an«l kind of feed. A cow of high dairy qualities will do little
if uny better than one of inferior quality unless given suffi-
cient and suitable feed.

There is little evidence to support the common idea that
an inferior cow is the result of wrong methods of raising as
a calf. Recent experiments indicate that while the size of
the animal and possibly the vigor may be influenced by the
feeding when young, the tendency to produce milk is not
much affected by the methods followed in raising the ani-
mal.1 It should be clearly understood that this does not
mean that it makes no difference how a calf is raised. It
means that the efficiency of the cow as a milk producer is
chiefly a matter of inheritance. Her yield of milk is the
result of this inheritance plus the method of feeding and
management.

If a cow shows one year that she has inherited a tendency
toward milk production, she can be expected to produce

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135.

DAIRY FARMING

well for her entire lifetime. A cow that is a small pro-
ducer by inheritance remains so year after year. The aver-
age yearly records in Table 11, selected, f rom many kept by
the writer for a number of cows for a term of years, indicate
this fact. Some variation occurs, but Table 11 shows that

TABLE 11. — YIELD OF BUTTER-FAT OF DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS
BY YEARS IN POUNDS

BREED

FIRST
YEAR

SECOND
YEAR

THIRD
YEAR

FOURTH
YEAR

FIFTH
YEAR

SIXTH
YEAR

SEVENTH
YEAR

Jersey

296

416

468

499

580

Jersey

115

169

159

Jersey

336

452

545

425

440

Jersey

171

123

Holstein ....
Holstein ....

282
151

323
167

330
210

450

380

373

390

the good cows were good producers year after year, while
the inferior ones remained poor just as regularly. Occasion-
ally a cow has a poor year because she is out of condition,
but normally the results will be uniform when the feed and
care are the same.

37. Extent of Variation of Individuals. An abundance
of data has been gathered within recent years to make it
plain that the variation of individuals as milk producers
is the greatest single factor in the success of the dairy.
The Connecticut Experiment Station found the five most
profitable in their herd were fed a year at a cost of $56.54
each, while the five poorest consumed feed worth $52.02.
The best five averaged 304 pounds of fat for the year, and
the poorest five 189 pounds. One group lacked $4.09 per
cow of paying for their feed. The other group gave $26.91
per cow above the cost of feed. For $4.52 in additional feed

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 45

FIG. 7. — An example of wide variation in production. These cows
are registered Jerseys and half sisters. The one above averaged 418
pounds of fat for the first three years in milk. With the same treatment
the one below averaged 109 pounds of fat for the same three years. The
variation in the production was due to inherited characteristics.

46 DAIRY FARMING

the animals in the better group produced 115 pounds more
fat each.1 Reports from the Southern States for 719 cows,
covering in each case a full year, show that for each $1.00
invested in feed the best 10 cows gave returns of $2.20, while
the poorest 10 cows barely returned the value of the feed.
The best 30 cows produced three and a half times as much as
the poorest animals.2

In the University of Missouri herd one pure-bred Jersey
averaged 480 pounds of fat per year for three years, while
her half sister averaged 114 pounds for the same period.
A test of 18 Illinois herds, including 226 cows, showed the
best herd to average 389 pounds of fat and the poorest 142. 3

38. The High-producing Cows More Economical Pro-
ducers. A striking fact brought out by all such figures is that
the high producers will give a greater return from the same
amount of feed. It costs from $10 to $15 more per year to
feed the cow that produces 350 pounds of fat than it costs to
feed the cow that yields 200 pounds. It is a common mis-
take to assume that it costs no more to feed a cow producing
10,000 pounds of milk per year than it does to feed one yielding
5000 pounds of milk of the same quality. The larger producer
must use more feed, but not double that used by the smaller.
The former will use about 25 per cent more feed than the
latter, while the production of milk is 100 per cent more.
In many herds that have not been carefully culled, a greater
total profit might be realized by retaining one-half to two-
thirds of the herd and disposing of the inferior cows, but a
still better return may come from replacing the poor cows
by good ones.

1 Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 29.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of .Vnimal Industry, 25th Annual Report, p. 67.

3 Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 102.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 47

SELECTION BY TYPE

39. How Individual Selection is Made. There are in
general two methods of selecting dairy cows. The first is
by type or conformation, and the second is by records of
pr< 'duction. There is undoubtedly a certain conformation
th; t generally goes with high milk production. This con-
formation is generally distinct enough to enable experienced
judges to select very good from very inferior cows. As a
rule it is fairly easy to select cows that will yield 300 to 350
pounds of fat per year from those that will give half that
an ount. It is not possible, however, to judge by this means
alrne which one will produce 300 and which one 500 pounds
per year. Often even experienced judges will make decided
errors in selecting animals by thi's method, especially if the
cow is not in the most favorable condition to be judged.
Since records are available for very few cows offered for sale,
it is necessary for most cattle buyers to depend largely upon
type.

If it were possible to select all cows when giving their
largest yield of milk, judging by type would be reasonably
accurate. Under practical conditions this is not possible,
and cows have to be selected that vary from dry to the high-
est milk flow. The appearance of a dry cow gives little
indication of her merits.

40. The Dairy Type. The three striking points in the
conformation of a highly developed dairy cow are :

1. The spare angular form, carrying no surplus flesh
but showing evidence of liberal feeding in her vigorous
condition.

2. The extraordinary size and development of the udder
and milk veins.

FIG. 8. — These pure-bred Jerseys illustrate a wide range in type and
also the relation of type to production. The cow above shows good type.
A large barrel with plenty of depth from hips to the udder, well-developed
udder and milk veins. She produced 592 pounds of fat in a year.

The animal below, although perfectly healthy, is very shallow in body,
has a small barrel, and an extremely small udder ; she produced 122
pounds of fat in a year.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 49

,';. The marked development of the barrel in proportion
to the size of the animal.

^ high-class dairy cow rarely carries much flesh when in
full flow of milk. At the same time her alert vigorous ap-

Steer at middle of barrel.

Steer at heart girth.

Dairy cow at middle of barrel

Dairy cow at heart girth.

FIG. 9. — Cross section of a fat steer compared with that of a high-class
dairy cow. Notice the large abdomen, bony back, and sharp withers of the
cow. The skeleton of the steer is more fully covered with flesh.

DAIRY FARMING

pearance, her soft pliable skin and soft hair show that she is
not thin on account of a lack of feed. An animal thin in
flesh on account of insufficient feed has a stupid appearance
and shows a lack of vigor, while the hair generally is rough
and stands on end. In either case the paunch may be large
or small, depending on the bulkiness of the feed consumed.

__^ So characteristic is the

angular appearance of the
dairy cow that an animal
^^k that does not show this

form when in full flow of
milk should not be selected.
When the cow is near the
end of the lactation period,
or is dry, she should carry
more flesh, and it is a mis-
take to be too quick to con-
demn a cow at this stage
for being too beefy.

The well-developed beef
animal on the other hand is

square and blocky. The general shape, leaving the legs
and head out of consideration, is rectangular. The back is
broad and level, the thighs full and straight.

This difference in the shape of the body of a high-class
dairy cow and of a fat steer ready for market is shown by the
cross sections in Fig. 9. These were obtained by a device
that made it possible to get the exact outlines.

41. The Udder. A well-developed udder is the most
important characteristic to be considered in selecting a cow
for milk production. Since this gland has the function of
secreting the milk, its size and development are of the great-

FIG. 10. — A well-formed udder.
Note the length of attachment to the
body, and the well-developed fore-
quarters.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 51

est importance in judging the milk-producing ability of the

co\\ . It is not alone size, but active secreting cells that

con at. For this reason a meaty hard udder that remains

nen fly as large after milking as before is of little value. The

udoer should have a long attachment to the body, extending

well up in the rear and well forward in front. The quarters

should be even in size without

dec p indentations between, and

the teats should be of proper size

for convenient milking and evenly

pla 3ed. When the cow is dry, it

is impossible to judge accurately

of 'he development of the udder.

However, a large amount of loose

ski a showing an abundance of

room for expansion when the FIG n __ A well.formed

udder is filled may be taken udder. Figs. 10 and n are

. ,. ,. both high-producing cows.

as an indication that the udder

will develop in a satisfactory manner. Little can be judged
regarding the future size and shape of the udder in the calf
or heifer until the time for calving approaches.

42. The Milk Veins and Milk Wells. Large milk veins
an; one of the indications of high milk production that should
be given careful attention. The blood after passing through
the udder and supplying the cells with material for secreting
milk starts back towards the heart through the milk veins.
The name, of course, is a misnomer since they carry blood,
not milk. One of these opens on either side near the front
of the udder and passes forward just beneath the skin. These
veins crook back and forth and sometimes separate into
two or more divisions and finally pass upward through
the wall of the abdomen into the body cavity. The por-

DAIRY FARMING

tions of the veins from the udder to the openings through
which they pass into the abdomen are spoken of as the milk
veins. The openings are known as the milk wells. The
milk veins are one of the most reliable indications of dairy
quality, since a large milk production calls for a large flow

FIG. 12. — Udder of an inferior cow.
This udder is large and well shaped but
meaty, and is nearly as large after milking
as before.

FIG. 13. — A very pendulous
udder, objectionable because it
interferes with the cow when
walking, and because it easily
becomes soiled.

of blood to the udder, and large milk veins indicate such a
circulation.

43. The Barrel. The term barrel is applied in general
to that portion of a cow's body between the hind and fore
legs. The dairy cow to be a heavy producer must consume
enormous quantities of feed. To do this requires large or-
gans of digestion. A high-producing cow has wide-sprung
ribs and a deep abdomen, giving great capacity for the di-
gestive tract and other vital organs.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 53

An animal lacking in barrel cannot use sufficient feed to
ma ke her a large producer. The age of the animal has some
influence upon the size of the barrel. The apparent capacity
is also influenced to some extent by the ration fed. Bulky
feeds, such as hay and silage, when fed in large quantities
gh e this effect. In considering the barrel development of a
cow the depth as viewed from the side should be observed,
th<>n the width as viewed from behind. Some animals show

FIG. 14. — A typical weak FIG. 15. — Udder showing poor devel-
fore udder, a very common opment behind, and short attachment to
defect. the body.

great depth but on account of being narrow really have a small
capacity. In short a dairy cow should show great vigor,
great capacity to use food, and should have a strong de-
velopment of the milk-secreting organs, indicating that she
is likely to use the food for milk production.

44. The Score Card. The score cards adopted by the vari-
ous breed associations are shown on pages 290 to 296. These
are designed to set forth the desirable characteristics of the
breed and may be studied as a means of becoming familiar
with breed types. The preceding discussion of the dairy
type is general and applies to all breeds. It is based wholly
upon the indications of milk production and does not take

DAIRY FARMING

into account the many smaller points that go to make up a
conformation that is symmetrical and pleasing to the eye.
The breed associations in preparing their score cards, in

FIG. 16. — Defective udders. The one on the left is that of a pure-bred
dairy cow that produced only 10 pounds of milk daily. This udder is ex-
tremely small, ill-shaped, weak in the forequarters, and the teats are too
short. The one on the right has very small capacity with almost no de-
velopment in the forequarters.

certain cases, apparently emphasize points in which the
breed is likely to be deficient. An example of this is the
large number of points given to the fore udder in the Jersey
score card. Before using the score card the student should

FIG. 17. — A well-developed milk vein. On this cow the milk vein is
over one inch in diameter ana extends forward nearly to the front legs,
entering the body through three milk wells on each side. The veins on
the udder are also very prominent.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 55

8 o

•5 O -i <N

O ,_ ,_, ,_<

s §.s^

l> 00 O5

56 DAIRY FARMING

be familiar with the points of the animal as illustrated in
Fig. 18. The use of the score card is an advantage to the
beginner as a means of impressing the points to be taken into
account and their relative importance. It helps to make the
examination systematic and prevents one from forgetting
points that should be observed. The value of the score
card decreases as experience is gained. Judging in the show
ring is done entirely by comparison.

The score card given on page 77 is in use by the Depart-
ment of Dairy Husbandry, University of Missouri, and is
an attempt to give the points that are important in teaching
the selection of dairy cows for milk production. It gives
comparatively little attention to the smaller details of con-
formation or to breed type.

SELECTION BY PERFORMANCE RECORDS

45. Selection by Records. While it is often necessary
to select cows by appearances when buying, it is not neces-
sary to follow this plan after the animals are in the herd. A
more business-like plan is to keep a record of production for
each individual in order that the unprofitable animals may
be known and rejected. The records to be kept will depend
to some extent upon the use made of the milk. If it is sold
by quantity regardless of quality, then the total production
is the important fact. If the price of milk is based upon the
butter-fat, both the quantity and the quality need to be
known.

46. Overrating the Importance of Rich Milk. A com-
mon mistake in judging cows by records is attaching too much
importance to the percentage of fat. The cow that produces
the richest milk does not necessarily give the largest amount
of fat, nor does it follow that she is the most economical pro-

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 57

dueer. It is the total amount of fat that counts where fat
is the basis of market value. Figures selected from accurate
rec< rds kept by the author show the relation between the
yield of milk, the percentage of fat, and the total fat yield.

TAT.LE 12. — RICH MILK vs. HIGH FAT PRODUCTION FOR THE

YEAR

BREED

YIELD MILK

AVERAGE PER CENT
FAT

TOTAL FAT
YIELD

Pounds

2,796

6.29

176

3,188

5.31

169

13,895

4.90

681

2,849

4.42

126

stein

18,405

3.36

618

stein

6 387

3 26

208

stein

26,861

2.76

741

Jen
Jen
Jen

These figures show that the highest percentage of fat is often
accompanied by a low total yield. On the other hand a low
percentage of fat may go with either a high or a low milk yield.
The figures given, which are some of the extremes taken
from the records of a large herd, also indicated clearly that
the amount of milk varies much more than the percentage of
fat. For this reason it is far more important to know how
much milk a cow gives than to know its richness. If all the
animals in a herd belong to the same breed, it is about three
times as important to know the quantity as it is to have
records of the richness, even where milk is sold by the fat
content. For this reason the keeping of individual records
of cows should always begin with the use of the scales. The
cow owner should keep the records by weight and not by
measure, and become accustomed to thinking of milk yields
in terms of weights.

DAIRY FARMING

Three things should be known in order that the relative
profits of each animal may be calculated. These are the
amount of milk, the percentage of fat, and the cost of feed
consumed. When comparing individual animals these factors
rank in importance in the order given.
While cows should be fed according to
their production, it is not generally
practical to keep an individual feed
record of each. The best plan on the
farm is to know the cost of feeding the
entire herd and the total income above
feed, and then make such calculations
as may seem necessary to determine
whether certain low-producing cows
should be kept.

47. Complete Milk Records. The
most satisfactory plan of keeping records
is to weigh the 'milk of each cow daily.
This does not require much extra time
when proper arrangements are made.
The experience of every one who has
tried it is that no time spent on the farm

good »

pays better. A spring balance, graduated
to pounds and tenths, should be provided
and placed at a point convenient for the
milkers with the milk sheet close at hand.

The advantages of daily weighing may be summed up as

follows :

1. It makes it possible to reject the unprofitable cows.

2. Makes possible economic feeding. Individual cows
should be fed in proportion to the amount of milk they
produce.

FIG. 19. —A
scale for weighing milk.
The second pointer is
set to read zero when
the empty pail is at-
tached.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 59

3. Enables the herdsman to detect sickness. Often the
firsi indication that a cow is out of condition is seen on the
milk sheet. - .

4 Makes it possible to judge of the work of different
milicers.

5. Creates interest among the milkers that results in better
woi k on their part.

When milk records are kept in this form it is recommended
tha; a sample covering two or three days be taken for a
Babcock test. This sample is tested for fat, and the result
considered the average for the month.

Some dairymen weigh the milk on the first and fifteenth
of each month or at other stated intervals. From these
weights the yearly production may be estimated fairly ac-
curately, but the other advantages of daily weighing are
enough to make daily weighing preferable. In large herds
there is no way for the manager to keep close track of the
business except by daily weighing.

48. Taking Samples for Testing. Where many cows
are in milk, the most convenient way of taking a sample is
with a sampling tube. If a tube is not at hand, a satisfactory
sample may be prepared by taking equal quantities of milk
from each milking with a very small dipper or spoon, and
placing them in a jar. The milk should be well stirred be-
fore the sample is taken. Pint glass jars with tightly fitting
covers are used to hold the samples. One is provided for
each cow and is marked with her name or number. Ex-
cept in very cold weather some preservative is used to keep
the milk from souring before it is tested. For this purpose
formalin, which may be purchased at any. drug store, is best.
Tea drops is sufficient to keep a sample for several days.
The sample when complete is tested with the Babcock test*

DAIRY FARMING

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. FAT

FIG. 20. — Form for daily milk record sheet.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 61

Th( reading gives the butter- fat per 100 pounds of milk.
When butter is made, some curd, salt, and considerable
water remain with the fat to meke up normal marketable
butter. The amount of butter generally exceeds the fat
by ibout one-sixth and may be estimated if desired by add-
ing this amount to the fat.

49. Averaging Tests. A common mistake results from
averaging tests. A direct average of the tests made for a
certain cow each month during the year will not be a fair
avc rage test of the total amount of milk produced during
the year by this animal. This results from the fact that
the amount of milk represented by each test is not the same.
To find the true average test for the year the total fat yield
for the period covered by the tests must be divided by the
total yield of milk. The same method must be used in get-
ting the average test for the herd.

50. Permanent Records. Many who begin keeping records
do not make much of a success on account of not having a
suitable form for a permanent record. Fig. 22 is a form
that has been used with good satisfaction by the author for
a number of years.

Using a blank book, a page, may be ruled for each cow.
Space sufficient for several years may be provided in this
way in a concise form. In pure-bred herds the pedigree and
records of offspring may be put on the page opposite the
milk records.

51. Cow-testing Associations. Keeping records, es-
pecially of a large herd, involves considerable attention to
details. To provide for this, cooperative cow-testing associ-
ations have been established in many places. This plan
originated in Denmark in 1895, and the number of associ-
ations has since increased with great rapidity. At present

DAIRY FARMING

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SF LECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

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64 DAIRY FARMING

over 400 associations are in operation in that country and
probably an equal number in other countries of Europe.

These associations are formed by groups of farmers own-
ing from 500 to 1000 cows. A man is employed who goes
from farm to farm spending a day at each. He weighs the
milk from each cow and tests it for fat content. He cal-
culates the yield of each cow for the month, the cost of feed,
and income above feed cost. He also advises the farmer
as far as possible regarding methods of feeding and other
details. The cost is usually from $1 to $1.50 per cow each
year. In a few cases in the United States the man who does
the testing also keeps a full set of cost accounts for the farm.

52. Advanced Registry. One of the important factors
in the improvement of dairy cattle is the system of advanced
registration as conducted by the associations representing
the different dairy breeds. The ordinary registration of
animals insures the purity of their breeding, but does not
indicate their individual merits. Advanced registration
gives an accurate record of the production. Cows must be
registered in the herdbook before the tests are made. If
the production reaches or exceeds a certain standard, they
are registered again in another series. This is called advanced
registration. The weighing of the milk and the testing for
fat are done by representatives of the experiment station
in the state where the cow is owned. This insures an ac-
curate record made by a disinterested person.

Many changes in the rules and requirements have been
made for the various breeds since the system was begun in
1890. At present the standards set by the different breeds
are not uniform, and occasional changes are made, so it is
necessary for a breeder of pure-bred cattle to become familiar
with the rules and practices governing his breed at the time.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 65

In general it may be said, that while formerly most of the tests
made covered seven days only, now all the tests except for
Hoi steins cover a full year. Where the year test is made,
the owner weighs the milk each milking and the experiment
stai ion man weighs and tests it for fat two days each month.
Th< average percentage of fat for the two days is taken as the
average for the month. The Holstein breeders still use the
seven-day plan most extensively, although many year tests are
als( made.

Where a seven-day test is made, a two-year-old cow must
produce 8 pounds of fat for advanced registration. The
amount required increases with the age of the cow. A
five-year-old must produce 12 pounds or more of fat to be
entered. The minimum for a year varies from 214 to 250
pounds of fat with the several breeds for two-year-olds, and
for mature cows varies from 322 to 360 pounds.

The great value of the advanced registration system is the
possibility it affords of putting the selection of breeding
animals upon a sound basis. In selecting a male for breed-
ing purposes, the pedigrees of its ancestors form about the
only basis for judgment as to the probable character of its
offspring. If the records show the production of each cow
in the pedigree, it becomes possible to judge the value of the
animal fairly accurately. Advanced registration is un-
questionably the strongest factor now in operation for the
rapid improvement of dairy cattle. The great mass of dairy
cattle are not, and need not be, registered animals, and hence
are not eligible to advanced registration. However, the
system is equally valuable for grades, since improvement is
transmitted to grade herds by the pure-bred sires. The
addresses of the different breed associations are given on page
289. Further information can be obtained from them.

DAIRY FARMING

The following list includes the cows having fat records
of 950 pounds or more in a year up to April 1, 1916 :

NAME OF Cow

BREED

MILK IN
1 YEAR

FAT IN
1 YEAR

STATE IN
WHICH OWNED

Duchess Skylark Ormsby

Holstein

27,762

1205

Minn.

Finderne Pride Johanna

Rue

Holstein

28,404

1176

N. J.

Finderne Holingen Fayne

Holstein

24,613

1116

N. J.

Murne Cowan ....

Guernsey

24,008

1098

Ohio

Ona Button DeKol . .

Holstein

26,761

1076

May Rilma

G uernsey

19,673

1073

Penn.

Banostine Belle DeKol

Holstein

27,404

1058

Ohio '

Pontiac Clothilde DeKol 2d

Holstein

25,318

1017

N. Y.

Sophia 19th of Hood

Farm .

Jersey

17,558

999

Mass.

High-Lawn Hartog De-

Kol

Holstein

25,592

998

Ohio

Colantha 4th's Johanna

Holstein

27,432

998

Wis.

Spermfield Owl's Eva .

Jersey

16,457

993

Mass.

Lothian Maggie DeKol .

Holstein

27,968

991

Ohio

Maple Crest Pontiac

Flora Hartog . . .

Holstein

25,106

986

Ohio

Milanhurst America De-

Kol

Holstein

26,433

985

N. Y.

Crown Pontiac Josey

Holstein

28,752

982

N. Y.

Maple Crest Pontiac

Spotted Annie .

Holstein

21,393

981

Ohio

Pearl Longfield DeKol .

Holstein

28,050

972

Wis.

Caroline Paul Parthenea

Holstein

25,073

967

Wis.

Eminent's Bess . . .

Jersey

18,783

963

Mich.

Daisy Grace DeKol

Holstein

21,718

963

Ohio

Finderne Mutual Fayne

Holstein

22,150

961

N. J.

Spotswood Daisy Pearl

Guernsey

18,603

957

Ohio

Lily of Willowmoor . .

Ayrshire

22,596

956

Wrash.

Jacoba Irene ....

Jersey

17,253

953

111.

Tilly Alcartra ....

Holstein

30,451

951

Cal.

53. Relation of Age of Cow to Yield and Richness of
Milk. Under ordinary farm conditions the dairy cow fresh-
ens the first time at from 24 to 30 months of age. On an

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 67

DAIRY FARMING

average the production of milk for the lactation period in-
creases each year until the cow is about five years old, after
which the production remains fairly constant until the
animal reaches at least 11 or 12 years.

On the average a well-grown two-year-old may be expected
to produce 70 per cent, a three-year-old 80 per cent, and a four-
year-old 90 per cent of the milk and fat that she will pro-

5 7500

£ 7000

rd 6500

>- 5500
5000

11 12

5.00 £

t—

4.50 5
o

4.00 of

56789
LACTATION PERIOD

FIG. 24. — Influence of age on yield of milk and percentage of fat,
averages for six Jersey cows for twelve years.

duce when mature. The highest production for a year may
come anywhere between the 4th and llth year. Two-year-
olds that are not well grown may not give over half as much
as when mature. If a cow continues to breed, her milk
flow usually shows little decline until she is 12 years old and
sometimes even older. Probably the majority of dairy cattle
are rejected from the herd on account of failure to breed,
or from udder troubles before the effect of advancing years can
be observed to have had any effect upon the milk production.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 69

The richness of milk is less affected by age than is the quan-
tity. The average fat content remains practically constant
from year to year except that after the cow is eight or nine
years old the percentage of fat always declines slowly and
gradually with advancing years. A Jersey cow, for example,
thai averages 5.0 per cent fat when in her prime will decline
to ii bout 4.5 per cent when 12 to 15 years of age. The fol-

5.00

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
DAYS IN MILK

.00

FIG. 25. — Influence of the advance in lactation period upon the milk
yield and fat content, averages for ten mature cows and ten two-year-old
heifers.

lowing gives the average percentages of fat by lactation
periods for four Jerseys the records of which are complete
for 9 years.

Lactation period . 1
Per cent fat . 4.8

23456789
4.82 4.96 4.64 4.62 4.62 4.57 4.49 4.39

SELECTION OF A BULL

54. The Selection of the Bull. The successful develop-
ment of a dairy herd depends more upon the selection of the
bull than on any other one thing, unless it be the proper
culling out of inferior cows. One-half the inheritance of each
young animal in the herd comes from the bull, and for this
reason his influence on the herd is far greater than is that of

DAIRY FARMING

one cow who will have at most only a few daughters. This
is the basis of the old but true saying, " the bull is half the
herd."

The main opportunity for improvement in a native or
mediocre herd is by using a good sire. For example, one

FIG. 26. — An excellent three-quarters-bred cow, showing what a pure-
bred sire can do in two generations. The grandmother of this cow was
a rather poor milker. She herself produced in nine years, beginning
when she was two years old, 96,800 pounds of milk and 3814 pounds of
butter.1

bull might be the sire of 20 daughters in a herd in one year.
If the dams be capable of producing only 200 pounds of fat
yearly, and if the sire represents a breed or strain the cows
of which are capable of producing 350 pounds of fat per year,
it is evident that, if the daughters averaged only half way
between, there would be an increase of 75 pounds per cow

1 The Cornell Reading-courses, Vol. Ill, No. 54, p. 53.

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 71

am i ually . It is not at all uncommon to find even greater
.differences than this in actual practice.

The first cross of improved blood makes the offspring one-
hal ', the second, three-fourths, the third, seven-eighths of
the same blood as the improved breed. The continued use
of pure-bred sires of the same breed for 10 to 15 years will
change a scrub herd until it will have essentially the same
characteristics as the improved breed. The careful breeder
gives a great deal of thought to the selection of the sire for
his herd. The more skilled the breeder, the greater the care
taken in this respect. Almost any pure-bred bull will im-
prove a scrub herd, but only the bull of the best inheritance
wi'l increase or even maintain the standard of a highly de-
veloped herd.

55. Difference in Transmission of Dairy Qualities by
Different Bulls. There is a wide variation in the way
dii'ferent bulls transmit dairy qualities. This fact is
illustrated by the data in Table 13, compiled by the author
from the records of the Jersey herd owned by the University
of Missouri. This herd is descended from three cows. Com-
plete milk and butter-fat records for 21 years make these
comparisons possible. The comparisons are made in each case
between the production of the daughters of the various sires
used and the dam of these daughters. The figure 4381, for
example, given as the milk production of the daughters of
Missouri Rioter is an average of the production of each
daughter which is found in turn by taking the average of all
the lactation periods of the particular animal. If in any case
the daughter had only three or fewer lactation periods, the
comparison is between those and the corresponding periods
for the dam.

DAIRY FARMING

TABLE 13. — INFLUENCE OF THE SIRE SHOWN BY A COMPARISON
OF THE RECORDS OF DAUGHTERS WITH DAMS

AVERAGES FOR ALL LACTATION PERIODS

Dams

Daughters

Missouri Rioter

Milk Yield 5380

Per cent fat 4.35

Yield of fat 234

Hugorotus

Milk yield 4969

Per cent fat 4.66

Yield of fat 231

Lome of Meridale

Milk yield 4559

Per cent fat 4.85

Yield of fat 221

Missouri Rioter 3rd

Milk yield 4775

Per cent fat 4.98

Yield of fat 238

Minette's Pedro

Milk yield 5321

Per cent fat 5.03

Yield of fat 268

Daisy's Prince of St. Lambert

Milk yield 5362

Per cent fat 5.07

Yield of fat 269

Brown Bessie's Registrar

Milk yield ....... 6069

Per cent fat ...... 4.94

Yield of fat 300

Fairy's Lad

Milk yield 6219

Per cent fat 4.80

Yield of fat . 299

4381
4.93
216

4576
5.35
245

6050
4.81
291

8005
4.80
384

5376
5.04
271

3932

5.03

198

4607
4.97
229

6169
5.24
323

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 73

M any interesting comparisons may be made of the com-
pare tive values of these bulls. For example, the daughters
of Lome of Meridale averaged 1491 pounds of milk more
per year for their entire lifetime than did their dams. Eleven
out of thirteen were superior to their dams. If thirty
daughters of this bull had been milked in one herd, their
pro- luction would have exceeded that of their dams by 44,730
pounds per year. At $1.50 per 100 pounds the income would
be s671 per year more for the thirty daughters than for their
mo1 hers. If the animals were daughters of Missouri Rioter,
the 7 would have produced 999 pounds each less than their
dams or a total of 29,970 pounds less milk than their mothers
in i\ year. At $1.50 per 100 pounds this would be a decrease
of S450. It would then make a difference of $1121 per year
whother these thirty cows be daughters of Missouri Rioter
or Lome of Meridale. If we make the comparison directly
from the average yield of the daughters, the difference would
be 50,070 pounds of milk per year worth $751 at $1.50 per
100 pounds. If the greatest extremes be taken for compar-
ison, as Missouri Rioter 3d and Missouri Rioter, the dif-
ference is far greater.

56. Methods of Selecting a Bull. There are two ways of
selecting a bull :

1. On the basis of his pedigree and appearance.

2. From the records of his daughters.

The pedigree is the most reliable means of judging the
probable value of a young bull. The system of advanced
registration now in use makes it possible to obtain reliable
information concerning the dairy qualities of most of the
registered animals. In selecting a young bull one should
have these records before him. The points to be considered
are especially the records of the cows that are the close an-

74 DAIRY FARMING

cestors of the bull. It should also be observed to what
extent the bulls have sired high-producing cows. A well-
bred bull should have a large number of these records in his
pedigree.

Many persons overvalue an animal that carries a small
fraction of the blood of one noted animal. A pedigree that
shows moderately good parents and grandparents is better
than one that has one or two unusually good ancestors and
the rest mediocre. A noted animal farther back than grand-
parents has no very great significance if the nearer relatives
are not good.

It is doubtful if the conformation or appearance of the
bull in any way indicates his value as a sire of superior milk-
ing cows. On the other hand it is possible to judge from his
conformation to some extent as to the probable type of his
daughters. The only really safe plan for the owner of a
highly developed herd is to select a bull having daughters
in milk so that he may know the characteristics that the
bull transmits to his offspring. This, of course, can only
be done in a few cases but is always advisable when possible.
Care must be taken not to introduce disease by obtaining
a bull from a diseased herd.

57. Cross-breeding. Crossing means the mixing of the
blood of two distinct breeds. It is a practice that is com-
mon among American farmers. The object sought is to
combine the most desirable characteristics of the two breeds.
The practice has nothing to recommend it. Breeds have
been developed and are kept pure in order that certain char-
acteristics may be transmitted regularly to the offspring.
When two distinct breeds are crossed the chain of inheritance
is broken and all possible combinations of the characteristics
of the two breeds appear. For example, a farmer having

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 75

Jersey cattle may become dissatisfied with the milk yield
and cross them with Holsteins, expecting to combine the
Jersey quality of rich milk with tHe Holstein characteristic of
a hirge milk yield. Some animals may show this combi-
nation, while just as many may inherit a low yield from the
Jersey parent and a low percentage of fat from the Holstein.
Th< proper course is first to select the breed that best meets
the requirements, and then to continue along this line unless
it i.- found after sufficient trial that a serious error has been
ma<le.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the average percentage of fat for the year for two
co^ 3 making the following records by months :

Cow 1

Cow 2

Pounds Milk

Per Cent Fat

Pounds Milk

Per Cent Fat

January. . .

631

3.4

140

4.5

February

600

3.3

March . . .

450

3.8

1040

4.0

April ....

440

3.5

1800

3.3

May ....

390

4.0

1850

3.0

June ....

280

4.0

1720

3.2

Julv ....

140

4.3

1500

3.0

August .

0 '

1450

3.0

September . .

950

4.0

1480

3.2

October . . .

1280

3.2

1200

3.4

November .

1356

3.4

1000

3.8

December .

1280

3.7

600

4.0

2. Compare the multiplicity of breeds in one neighborhood in
this country with conditions in Europe.

3. What advantages are there in having one breed only in a
community?

4. Are there any breeders' organizations in your county or state?
6. Are there any cow- testing associations in your county or

state? If so, obtain any published results that are available.

DAIRY FARMING

What differences in production are found for different cows in the
same herd ?

6. Define lactation period.

7. Do you know any farmer in the region who weighs the milk
from each cow ?

8. Distinguish between rich milk and high yield of butter-fat.

9. How is milk sold in this region, by pound, quart, or on butter-
fat basis?

10. What is the object of having distinct breeds and keeping
them pure?

11. What is the distinction between a grade and a cross-bred
animal ?

12. Who in this county owns any advanced registry cows?

13. If a Jersey heifer calved at two years of age and in a year pro-
duced 3000 pounds of milk, testing 5 per cent fat, how much milk
can she be expected to produce when mature ? What will her yearly
production of butter-fat probably be? Compare with the average
for experiment station herds. Is she a good heifer?

14. Considering the proportion of fat to remain the same when
the heifer becomes a cow, complete the following table. Consider
the average butter-fat production of the experiment station herds of
the breed as 100 per cent when filling the last column. Which ones
are good animals?

BREED

AGE AT
FRESHEN-
ING

PRODUCTION IN FOL-
LOWING YEAR

PROBABLE
FAT PRO-
DUCTION
PER YEAR

WHEN

MATURE

COMPARISON
WITH EX-
PERIMENT
STATION
HERDS

Milk

Per
Cent
Fat

Total
Fat

Holstein . .

2£

7022

3.7

Holstein

7506

3.8

Holstein . .

8321

3.4

Jersey . . .

3472

4.9

Jersey . . .

5743

5.1

Guernsey . .

4113

5.2

Guernsey . .

4223

4.8

Shorthorn . .

5342

4.0

15. From the figures given on page 17 does there seem to be any
danger of over-production of pure-bred cattle in the near future ?

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 77

SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY Cows

SCALE OF POINTS

PER

CENT

Cow's NUMBER

INDICATING EFFICIENCY OF MILK
SECIETING SYSTEM
Udd r — large, evenly quartered, well
h< d up, not meaty, attachments long,
tc-,ts squarely placed, and of conven-

30
10

Milk Veins — capacious, entering large
w. Us

INDICATING CAPACITY

Jaw — • wide in angle, strong ....
Ban el — deep, wide, long, well held up,
w'th ribs broad, long, far apart, slant-
in ;, well sprung

INDICATING CONSTITUTIONAL
STR ENGTH AND VIGOR
Nos'ril — large, expanded

Eye — prominent, bright, intelligent
Che ;t — 'wide, deep

Skeleton — developed for strength, ol
good quality: roomy, long, and level
at pelvis

Skin — loose and mellow showing good

1
1
4

2
2

Carriage — • energetic, prompt, alert .

INDICATING DAIRY TEMPERAMENT

Body wedge shape. General appearance
angular and lean, yet clean-cut anc
noat in every part

BREED TYPE

Points characteristic of the particula
breed, such as size, color, temperament
ruggedness of build, etc

SCORE

Fill out the following, showing which cow you would place first, second, etc., and com-
pare with the score as given above. If milk records are available also, compare with these.

FIRST

SECOND

THIRD

FOURTH

Placim

Score

78 k DAIRY FARMING

LABORATORY EXERCISES

3. The Parts of a Cow. Go to a dairy barn or otherwise arrange
to have a cow to study. Without the textbook let each student
point out each of the parts of a dairy cow as shown in Fig. 18.

4. Make out a Pedigree. If herdbooks of any breed are avail-
able, or if they can be borrowed from a breeder in the region, make a
pedigree. If advanced registry books are available, fill in the A. R. O.
data. If different students take different animals, the pedigrees
may be compared to see which animal shows the best breeding. If
any farmer in the region has advanced registry animals, pedigrees
of these may be worked out, and the same animals may be used for
judging, so that comparisons may be made on the basis of both
breeding and individuality.

6. Judging Dairy Cattle. Go to a dairy barn or otherwise arrange
to have cows to study. Using a score card like the one on page 77,
make comparisons of two or more animals.

Give the reasons for ranking the animals in the order given.
Begin the reasons with the most important difference between the
animals compared and give all the leading differences. Make the
answers terse and concise.

6. Weighing Milk. If any farmer in the region desires to cooper-
ate with the school, take the class to his farm and get the method of
weighing started as directed on page 58. Test the milk, and com-
plete the records monthly. Feed records may also be taken by a
tnember of the class weekly or monthly. A still better exercise for
students who are living on farms is to have them keep the milk rec-
ords.

COLLATERAL READING

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp.
26-43, 51, 303-306, 308.

The Dairy Herd, Its Foundation and Management, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 55.

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 17-26 ; 116-
174.

CHAPTER 4

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE
C. H. ECKLES

58. Decline of Milk Production in Summer. Milk pro-
due tion of the average herd falls off rapidly in the latter
part of the summer. It is not uncommon for the amount
of milk sold by a farmer in August to be no more than half
tha t marketed during June. At the season when this rapid
decline of milk occurs the animals are greatly annoyed by
flies. The flies are often looked upon as the main cause of
this decline. There are good reasons for believing that the
eff( ct of the fly is overestimated. Where soiling or grain
feeding is practiced, the decline at this season is little more
than the normal one for the stage of lactation represented
by the cows. The main cause for the decreased production
at this time of the year is undoubtedly the failure of the
cows to eat a sufficient amount of feed. This lack of feed
may come from poor pasture due to dry weather, or it may
result from the fact that the cows do not graze sufficiently
because of the hot weather and the annoyance of flies. The
cow is sensitive to excessive heat, and this is probably in most
cases a stronger factor than the flies. The main precaution
to be observed is to make certain that the animals have
plenty of feed easily accessible.

59. Protection from Flies. Cattle in this country are
troubled most by two kinds of flies, known as the stable
fly and the horn fly. The stable fly resembles the house fly

80 DAIRY FARMING

except that its mouth parts enable it to bite while the house
fly cannot. The horn fly is a native of Europe and was
introduced into this country about 1886. It is recognized
from its habit of feeding with wings spread, and it usually
travels in swarms. It is also seen at times gathered around
the base of the horn.

Many of the flies that annoy cattle are hatched in manure.
The first precaution to be observed, in any attempt to re-
duce the number, is to avoid an accumulation of manure where
it will remain moist, especially near the barn. Horse manure
is preferred by these pests, but they breed in any, even that
dropped in the fields by the animals. No practical method
has been devised that will do more than reduce the number
of flies very slightly. Large fly traps in the barn have been
used with some success. Screens on the barn are generally
found worse than useless since the flies accompany the
animals into the barn and then remain in the barn if the win-
dows are screened.

Milk rooms should always be protected by screens, on
account of the serious danger of flies carrying germs of
human diseases into the milk.

In recent years a great many preparations designed to
repel flies have been placed on the market. These fly re-
pellents consist chiefly of some coal tar products with the
addition of fish oil, resin, or pine tar. Results at three
experiment stations go to show that there is little value in
using these preparations. If they are applied daily, it is pos-
sible to keep the flies away fairly well, but it is questionable
whether the animal does not suffer more from having the
pores of its skin closed up with the oily substance than it
does from the insect. There is no appreciable increase in the
milk flow when these substances are used.

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 81

60. Dehorning. There are many reasons for dehorning
the animals in the ordinary business herd. Horns are
responsible for frequent injuries and serve no useful pur-
pose. Dehorned cattle may be housed in much smaller
space and are fed and watered together with much more
convenience. As a matter of safety it is well to dehorn
bulls. There is no reason for believing that any bad effects
follow. It is not advisable to dehorn animals that are to
be used for exhibition purposes. While animals without
horns are occasionally found in the show ring, they are at
a disadvantage.

Calves may be dehorned successfully by using caustic
poiash (potassium hydrate) when they are a few days old.
The hair is clipped away from the small buttons which later
develop into horns. The caustic potash is moistened and
rubbed on the spot until the skin bleeds slightly, or is just
ready to bleed. Care should be taken not to use too much.
If sufficient potash has-been applied, a dent will be left in
the skull after a few days and no horns will ever develop.
Persons who have had considerable experience sometimes
usc^ this method on calves that are nearly a month old, but
it is best done during the first week, after that more skill
is required. A few cases have been reported where so much
water was used that it ran down into the eyes and put them
out. One man used so much potash that holes were eaten
through the skull and the calves killed. Such accidents are
inexcusable. In using potassium hydrate wrap paper around
the end of the stick to prevent injuring the fingers.

After an animal is at least one year of age, it may be de-
horned by using the saw or special dehorning clippers. De-
horning with the saw or clippers should be done in cool
weather in the spring or autumn.

82 DAIRY FARMING

61. Marking Calves. In raising pure-bred cattle it is
important that some system of marking be adopted which
will make it possible to identify the individuals. This is
more important with dairy cattle than with . beef breeds,
since the calves are taken away from the mothers soon after
birth. A number of systems of markings are in use. One
plan is to insert tags in the ears. There are many forms of
these. They are numbered, and if desired the name of the
owner is included. The general objection to this system is
the possibility that the tags may be torn out. Another plan
is to place a numbered brass tag on a strap about the neck.
This is removed when the animal is larger and well known
to the owner.

The tattoo system is also used with success. This con-
sists in printing letters or numbers in the skin of the ear with
India ink. The instruments are so made that a combina-
tion of letters or figures may be used. These tattoo marks
when properly applied are permanent and do not disfigure
the animal. They cannot be seen at a distance, but make
it possible to positively identify the animal. This system is
the most satisfactory with breeds having light- colored skin.

The system followed by the writer is to place a strap bear-
ing a number on a brass tag around the neck of the calf before
it is taken from its mother. This strap is left on until the
animal is nearly mature. The tattoo mark is then put on
the ear.

The color markings of Holsteins, as shown on the diagram
of the application for registry or on the pedigree, enable one
to identify these animals. But ear tags or other marking
systems are also desirable when large numbers are kept.

62. Shelter. The housing of the dairy cow naturally
depends upon climatic conditions. She should not be ex-

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

po^ed to severe cold weather. Cold rains and snowstorms
arc especially to be avoided. The most favorable temper-
ature has not yet been experimentally determined, but ob-
servation teaches that a barn temperature around 40 or 50°
F. is as favorable as any. In cold climates the cow should
remain in the barn during the cold season except for a few
hoars during the middle of the day while the weather is
mild. On stormy days or during extreme cold she had better
be kept inside constantly. Many barns in such regions are
kept too warm. In warm climates it is not necessary to
house the animal so closely as this. An abundance of fresh
air is as necessary for the health of the cow as for any
other animal. This should be supplied by proper venti-
lal ion and not through the walls
of an improperly constructed
barn, or by leaving the cow out-
doors exposed to severe weather.
Excessively warm weather is far
more injurious to the cow than
moderately cold. There is no
practical means of making the
animal comfortable when it is
too hot. For this reason hot
weather and warm climates are
not favorable for high milk pro-
duction, especially if accompanied

by a high humidity. FIG. 27. — Teaching a calf to

63. Milking the Heifer. If the lea(J.: good training for both

parties.

young cow is properly managed

before she has her first calf, there is little difficulty in
teaching her to be milked. Calves should be accustomed
to being tied when small, and if this is done there will be no

84 DAIRY FARMING

trouble from tying at any later time. Before freshening,
the heifer should be tied for a month or more in the stall
where she is to stand when in milk. A careful man should
handle her and take care not to excite her. It is especially
necessary to use patience and care when she is first milked.
64. Methods of Milking. There is a great difference in
the efficiency of milkers. One man may get 20 per cent more
milk than another from the same cow. A careless milker
may dry up a cow within a few months while a good milker
may keep up the milk flow for the entire year. Men who
care for. cows should always move among them quietly and
not startle them by sudden movements or loud talking.
The cow cannot control the secretion of milk by her will
but it may be affected by excitement. Anything unusual,
such as the presence of a dog or a stranger at milking time,
will cause some cows to give less milk. Changing milkers is
likely ^o result in a loss of milk for a few milkings, but if
the new milker be equally proficient the cow will soon return
to the usual amount. However, the milkers should be
changed as little as possible. The milking should be done
quickly and quietly. If the cow is accustomed to eating
grain while being milked, she will not do well without having
it every time. She can easily become accustomed to being
milked either before or after eating, but always should be
treated in the same manner. Care should be taken to get
all the strippings, since while the first milk drawn may con-
tain as low as 1 per cent of fat, the last contains from 6 to 9
per cent. The teats should always be dry when milked.
Wetting the teats is all too common but it is a filthy practice.
A small amount of vaseline rubbed on the hands serves
the same purpose as wetting the teats and is not at all
objectionable.

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

Lead teat plug.

65. Hard-milking Cows. Some cows cause considerable
annoyance because they milk unusually hard. This condi-
tion, which is caused by a strong muscle (sphincter muscle)
th; t closes the opening of the teat, can be remedied by
proper treatment. Instruments
an made by means of which it is
possible to overcome the difficulty
wi'h no danger to the animal.
In most cases the use of teat
plugs alone is sufficient. These
plugs, which are made of rubber
or lead, are placed in the teat
duct and allowed to remain there
until the next milking. This is
continued until the muscle is some-
what relaxed and the opening
remains larger. In severe cases a
cutting instrument known as the
teat slitter (bistoury) is used.
This operation should be per-
formed by a veterinarian or one
having experience in the use of
such instruments. In using teat

plugs, milk tubes, Or any instru- FIG. 28. — Instruments used in
T . -, . i • ii treating hard-milking cows.

ments which are inserted in the

duct of the udder, great care must be taken to sterilize the
instruments thoroughly before using them, for if germs gain
access they may cause serious trouble. A two per cent
solution of carbolic acid or a weak solution of creolin is
suitable for disinfecting instruments. It can also be done
by boiling them in water just before using. The teats should
be thoroughly cleaned before inserting any instrument.

Teat slitter
or bistoury.

Teat expander.

86 DAIRY FARMING

66. Effect of Interval between Milkings. If the cow be
milked twice a day at twelve hour intervals, there is usually
no marked difference between the night and morning milk.
If the periods are unequal, the larger amount of milk and the
poorer quality follow the longer period. Heavy-producing
cows and all that are being handled to obtain the largest
record should be milked three times a day. Few cows can
produce over 60 pounds of milk with two milkings, and when
75 to 80 pounds per day is reached, the production will sel-
dom go higher unless the cow is milked four times each
twenty-four hours. Heavy-producing cows may profitably
be milked three times a day. With cows of ordinary ca-
pacity the increased yield is not sufficient to pay for the
extra labor. A cow that will produce 60 pounds per day with
two milkings as a rule will increase to at least 70 if milked
a third time. The richness of the milk of heavy milkers is
increased somewhat when they are milked more than twice
per day. If many cows in the herd are giving over 50
pounds when milked twice a day, it will pay to try milking
three times.

67. Milking Machines. A satisfactory milking machine
has long been one of the greatest needs of the dairy farmer.
While it can hardly be said that the milking machine is out
of the experimental stage, still it seems sufficiently well
developed to be considered a commercial success at the pres-
ent time. It is thoroughly demonstrated that by its use a
skilled operator can do as good work as the average milker.
It is still a question whether the amount of milk obtained dur-
ing the lactation period by a milking machine is equal to
that obtained by a good milker. It is quite certain that the
cow is not injured by the use of the milking machine.

Provided the machine is properly cleaned and used, the

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 87

sanirary condition of the milk is better than under ordinary
conditions, but with careless handling of the machine the
milk may be in worse sanitary condition than that produced
by 1 and milking. So far the milking machine seems adapted
only to herds of 30 cows or more. One milker with a suitable
outfit can milk from 25 to 30 cows per hour. The indica-
tions are that the use of the milking machine will be widely
extended in the near future. As a result many more large
dairy herds will be kept. The labor problem is at present
the main factor in the way of maintaining large herds. The
proper management of a machine requires considerable
mechanical ability.

68. Cows with Leaky Teats. Some cows lose a portion
of the milk by leakage from the teats before milking. No
practical remedy has been devised. If conditions warrant
the trouble, the cow may be milked three times a day or the
teat opening may be closed after the milking by applying
collodion.

69. Bloody Milk. Bloody milk is much more common
than is generally supposed. Traces of blood are often found
in the separator bowl after milk has been separated although
its presence was not suspected. It is not an indication of
disease or any unhealthy condition of the cow. It is caused
by the rupture of a small blood vessel, which allows the
blood to escape into the milk ducts. Sometimes certain
cows have this trouble for several months but more often
it appears only once or twice. It cannot be prevented or
stopped by any specific treatment. One should see that
the cow is not being injured in the udder by being stepped
on by cows in adjoining stalls or by any other cause. As
a rule the cow recovers in a short time with no special treat-
ment.

88 DAIRY FARMING

70. Chapped Teats. Chapped teats may occur in cold
weather. The application of vaseline for a few times at
the first appearance of the trouble will usually check and
cure it. For severe cases the teats should be thoroughly
washed and softened with warm water, after which glycerite
of tannin may be applied.

71. Warts on Teats. These are often troublesome but
usually disappear of themselves. They may be treated by
applying vaseline or olive oil. If large, they may be cut off
with a pair of sharp scissors and the spot touched with a
stick of caustic potash.

72. Bitter Milk. This trouble is most often found where
one or two cows are kept to provide a family milk supply.
The trouble is confined mostly to cows that have been in
milk seven months or more. It rarely occurs when the ani-
mal is receiving green feed. The milk has a peculiar taste,
described by some as salty but more often as bitter. The
taste is present in the fresh milk but it seems to become more
noticeable as the milk stands. The cream from milk of this
kind churns with difficulty and sometimes will not churn
at all.

The cause of this trouble and a remedy for it cannot be
given with certainty. It most frequently occurs when the
animal is overfed with grain. The only treatment that
offers promise of removing the trouble is to reduce the grain
feed to the amount actually needed by the animal, or pref-
erably less, for a while and to give two or three doses of
1 to 1J pounds of Epsom salts at intervals of from three to
four days.

73. Kicking Cows. The habit of kicking is due usually
to wrong management. Cows kick at first from either
fear or pain. If not properly handled, they may develop

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 89

the habit. Striking a cow that kicks makes her worse.
In cjise the cow's teats are sore, use vaseline, or in severe
cases, use a milking tube, until the injury can be healed. If
the cow is afraid handle her gently. In some cases gentle
measures will not work. Some old cows that have got
into the habit cannot be cured. Such animals should be
tied during milking. This is best done by using a rather
heavy strap with a buckle and a loop. The strap is put
around one leg above the hock and the end drawn through
the loop. The strap is then put around the other leg and
buckled so the two legs are held close together. The cow
soon learns to stand quietly as long as the strap is in place.
74 Self-sucking Cows. This habit is not very common
but it is difficult to break up when once it is acquired. Oc-
casionally one cow will suck another one. If an ordinary
cow contracts the habit, the best plan is to dispose of her.
A fairly effective treatment seems to be to put a bull ring in
the cow's nose and hang- a second ring from the first. The
second ring can generally be taken off after a time.

75. How Long Should a Cow be Dry? Practically all
experienced dairymen agree that cows should be dry for a
period before freshening. A cow will produce more milk
if allowed six weeks to recuperate, than she will if milked
continuously. Heavy milk production is a severe tax upon
an animal. A cow that has not been dry for a short time
will start at a considerably lower level of milk production
than will one that has had a chance to rest. Under ordinary
conditions six weeks is sufficient, but if a cow is in a thin
condition it is better to make the period longer.

76. Drying up a Cow. The most common method of
drying a cow is to lengthen the interval between milkings, by
at first omitting one milking each day. After a few days

90 DAIRY FARMING

the milk is drawn only once in two days until the secretion is
stopped. There is less danger of injuring a cow in drying
her up than is generally thought. The secretion of milk
near the end of the lactation period depends largely upon
the stimulation of the nerves in milking and therefore stops
readily if this stimulation be removed. If a cow is produc-
ing as little as 10 pounds per day, milking can be stopped at
any time with no possible injury. The udder will fill slightly
for the first few days, after which the secreted milk is ab-
sorbed and no injury follows. If this plan is followed, it is
best not to draw any milk after once stopping. If the ani-
mal is producing much more than 10 or 12 pounds per day,
her feed should at first be reduced for a few days and the
character of the ration changed to one low in protein, such
as timothy hay, with little or no grain. As soon as the pro-
duction of milk begins to drop decidedly it is safe to stop
abruptly. The author has followed this plan for a number
of years with high-producing cows without the slightest injury
in any case.

77. Milking the Cow before Calving. It is the practice
of some to milk the heavy milkers several times before the
birth of the calf, thinking the udder may be injured. As a
rule this is not a good practice. It increases the danger of
trouble at the time of freshening and does not relieve the
congested condition of the udder to any great extent. It is
only advisable with the heaviest milkers when they are
suffering greatly from the distentiorr of the udder.

78. Care of Cow after Calving. The vitality of the cow
is low after' calving and she should be treated carefully.
She should be protected from cold winds and severe weather.
Her drinking water is best warmed for a day or two if the
weather is cold. The ration for the first few days should be

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 91

light and not very abundant. A bran mash, made by moisten-
ing 1 >ran with warm water, is well adapted as a grain ration
for the first day. If the udder is swollen and congested,
the i^rain ration should be increased very slowly until this
condition disappears. As a rule at least two weeks are re-
quired to get the cow on a full ration. No alarm need be
felt i f the udder remains hard and somewhat congested for a
few lays provided milk can be drawn from each quarter.

The cow should be watched closely for the first 48 hours
for symptoms of milk fever. This is most likely to occur
with the heaviest producers and never with heifers at their
first freshening. Every manager of high-producing cows
should become familiar with the symptoms of milk fever
and have the apparatus on hand to treat it promptly.

79. Management of Young Stock. The cheapest way to
raise young stock and the way that produces the most vig-
orous animals, is to allow them to run loose in open sheds
and tie them up only while they eat their grain feed. Some
farmers also follow this system with milking cows with good
results. The system is best adapted to regions that have an
abundance of straw as large amounts of bedding are required.

80. Care and Management of the Bull. The bull calf
should be fed in the same manner as a heifer of the same age.
He should always be well fed during the entire period of
growth as an undersized animal is not desirable. As a winter
ration clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay is best adapted to
his needs, while for grain a mixture of corn with oats, bran,
or oilmeal is excellent. The same ration that is fed to cows in
milk may be used. There is no advantage in having the
young bull fat, but he should be kept at least in moderate
flesh. When the roughage is of good quality the mature bull
requires little or no grain to keep him in moderate flesh.

92 DAIRY FARMING

• The bull should not be allowed to run loose with the herd.
He should be kept in a paddock where plenty of exercise is
possible. A ring should be put in his nose at the age of about
one year. A bull should be handled carefully and firmly at
all times. Teasing should never be allowed. He does not
appreciate petting or unnecessary handling, and is best let
alone except when it is necessary to handle him. He should
be handled in a firm manner and made to respect his keeper
but should never be abused. The bull of a dairy breed is
more likely to be vicious than one of a beef breed since the
former are much more active and nervous. It should
always be taken for granted that the bull is dangerous and
that he cannot safely be trusted. The animal should be
thoroughly trained for tying and leading when a calf. He
may then be tied or led at any time later even if handled only
at long intervals.

The main mistake made in handling aged bulls is in hous-
ing them too closely without exercise. Plenty of exercise is
the most important factor in preserving the vitality of a
breeding animal. For any but the most severe climates the
best housing for the bull during all seasons of the year is a
shed protected from the cold winds but open on one side.
Some exposure to the weather especially during the cooler
part of the year helps to keep him in good physical condi-
tion. Where it is necessary that the bull be kept in show
condition all the time, as for example in high-class breeding
establishments where buyers are present frequently, the
bull is generally kept in a box stall where he may be groomed
and where he is protected from the weather. Under these
conditions some provision must be made to exercise him
regularly or he is likely to become infertile. The ties, fences,
and gates should always be strong and kept in good repair

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 93

so that the animal may not have a chance to learn his enor-
mous strength.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. At what time of the year do most cows in your region freshen ?
Froni this fact and from Fig. 25, about how much less milk should
be giVen in August than in June? From the creamery or other
buyer of milk find the total amount of milk received in April, May,
June. July, and August. How does this compare with the natural
drop '

2. What proportion of the cattle in your region are dehorned?
How is dehorning done?

.3. What systems of marking cattle are used in your region?
4. Why do dairy cattle require warmer barns than beef cattle?
6. Are any advanced registry records made by breeders in this
region? How many times a day do they milk?

6. How long are most of the cows dry in the best dairy herds of
your region?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

7. Removing the Horns from a Calf. Following the direction
on page 81 remove the horns from a calf less than three weeks old.

8. Milking Contest. A milking contest may be held. Farmers
should act as judges. Some of the points to consider should be :
The effect of the manner of handling the cow on her composure ;
how clean the milk is kept ; how completely the milk is removed
from the udder ; and how fast the work is done.

COLLATERAL READING

Stable Fly, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 540.
Dehorning Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 350.

CHAPTER 5
FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

C. H. ECKLES
COMPOSITION OF FEEDS AND FEEDING STANDARDS

81. The Uses of Feed. A dairy cow uses feed for the
following purposes :

1. For maintaining the body.

2. To supply the material for milk.

3. For development of the fetus.

4. For growth in case the animal is immature.

5. To produce gain in weight.

Three general classes of food material are required.

1. Protein or nitrogenous material.

2. Carbohydrates and fat.

3. Ash or mineral matter.

The main problem of feeding is to supply the proper
amount of the food material of the three classes in the least
expensive form. It is evident that the first step is to know
what the animal requires for food and how to prepare a
ration that will meet this demand.

82. Chemical Analysis of Feeds. When a chemist makes
an analysis of any foodstuff, clover hay for example, he
determines the amounts of water, protein, ash, crude fiber,
nitrogen-free extract, and fat that the substance contains.
All feedstuffs contain these same constituents, but in widely
varying quantities.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 95

83. Water. All feeds, even those apparently dry, like
con or hay, contain a portion of water varying from 10 to
15 per cent. Roots, such as beets and turnips, contain about
90 ]>er cent of water. The water in the feed eaten serves
the same purpose as ordinary water consumed by the animals.

84. Ash. This is the mineral part of the plant substance
remaining after the material is burned. It makes up the
gm ter part of the bone, and is a necessary part of milk and
of loan meat. The ash elements that are most likely to
be deficient are common salt, phosphorus, and calcium.

85. Protein. All protein compounds contain nitrogen.
They serve the purpose of building up tissue in the body,
sucli as muscle and skin, and constitute the curd of milk.
Lean meat and the white of an egg are familiar examples
of nearly pure protein. All feeds contain more or less pro-
tein. Among hays, clover, alfalfa, cowpea, and soybean
contain the largest amounts. Among the common concen-
trates linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and wheat bran con-
tain relatively large quantities. A certain amount of protein
is indispensable in a ration, as nothing else can be substituted
for it by the animal.

86. Crude Fiber. This is the woody part of the plant,
which is the least digestible. The amount of this constitu-
ent increases with the age of the plant, and is large in feeds
like hays and corn stover, and small in concentrates like
corn and linseed meal.

87. Nitrogen-free Extract. This term includes the sugars,
starches, and other carbohydrates that are much like crude
fiber in composition, but are much more digestible.

88. Fat or Ether Extract. That part of the foodstuff
that will dissolve in ether is called ether extract. It con-
sists mostly of fats, and is usually so called although it

96 DAIRY FARMING

includes sufficient other products to make it somewhat
inaccurate to call it fat.

The crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat all serve
much the same purposes in the body. They supply heat to
keep the body warm, and material to be built into fat and to
be burned or oxidized in the body to furnish energy.

89. Digestibility. An animal is not able to digest all
of the substances in any foodstuff. The proportion of the
protein, for example, that may be used depends largely upon
the nature of the feed. The grains are more thoroughly
digested than the hays. The amounts of each of the sub-
stances that can be digested from any feed are determined
by what are called digestion trials. The chemist makes
such a trial by analyzing the food consumed during a certain
period, and at the same time collecting all the dung excreted
and analyzing that to find out how much passes through
the alimentary canal. The difference between the amount
consumed and the amount voided is called digestible. Such
tests have been made of all common feeding stuffs, so the
practical feeder has data at hand regarding both the com-
position of feeds and their digestibility to serve as a guide
in preparing suitable rations.

90. Production Values. The values of different feeds are
not always in proportion to the digestible nutrients. If a
food is hard to digest, some of the energy derived from it is
required to make up the loss due to the hard work of diges-
tion. Corn and other grains are easily digested, and for this
reason, energy from grains is worth more to the animal than
is the same amount of energy from timothy hay or other
coarse feeds. Timothy hay if burned gives off as much heat
or energy as does corn meal, but, in one experiment, Armsby
found the animal digested only 44 per cent of the timothy, while

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

77 per cent of the corn meal was digestible. On account of
the energy required for digestion, still less was available for
use in storing up fat, or for producing milk. On the basis
of digestibility 168 pounds of timothy was equal to 100
pounds of corn, but for production purposes, that is, for
sto -ing fat, producing milk, or making growth, 269 pounds
of 1 imothy was necessary to equal 100 pounds of corn. Table
14 gives a comparison of the amounts of energy available
fro in corn and from timothy hay.

TA SLE 14. — ENERGY VALUES PER 100 POUNDS OF CORN MEAL
AND TIMOTHY HAY, EACH CONTAINING FIFTEEN PER CENT

WATER

CORN MEAL

TIMOTHY HAY

He^t value wlien burned

Therms

171

Therms

176

Heut value of material digested . . .
Production value

131
70

78
26

It is not safe to compare roughage with grain on the basis
of digestible nutrients, but such a comparison between dif-
ferent classes of hay is fairly reliable, and grains may be
compared with grains on the basis of digestible nutrients.
The best way thus far found for comparing different feeds is
on the basis of the energy values for ' production. The
feeding standards given on pages 298 to 304 are based on
digestible material. Armsby's standards given in this
chapter are based on production values.

91. Feeding Standards. The many analyses that have
been made enable us to know how much of each of the sev-
eral constituents is contained in all common feeds on the
average. It is also known that the cow needs all of these

DAIRY FARMING

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

constituents. The next question is, how much of each
constituent is needed to supply what the cow must have to
enable her to produce a good flow of milk. This problem
has been worked on for many years by able investigators,
and a fairly accurate knowledge of the subject has resulted.
A si atement of the food requirements of the animal is known
as i\ feeding standard.

The first feeding standard to come into use in a practical
way was one prepared by Wolff, an eminent German in-
vesiigator. A later revision by Lehmann, known as the
Woiff-Lehmann standard, has been widely used. A standard
prepared in this country by Hsecker has also met with much
favor. The most recent feeding standard to come into use
was prepared by Dr. Armsby of the Pennsylvania Exper-
iment Station and is based upon his own extensive investi-
gations and those of Kellner in Germany. He bases this
standard upon the amount of digestible protein, and the
production value, or energy value, of the feed. He uses the
term " therm " to represent the energy or heat value re-
quired to raise 1000 kilograms of water one degree centi-
grade (1000 calories).

He first estimates the protein and energy required for
maintaining the animal, and to this adds the amount of each
necessary to supply what is needed for the milk. The
maintenance requirements for cattle are given as follows :

LIVE WEIGHT

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN RE-
QUIRED

ENERGY VALUE REQUIRED

Pounds

Therms

500

.30

3.80

750

.40

4.95

1000

.50

6.00

1250

.60

7.00

1500

.65

7.90

100

DAIRY FARMING

The maintenance requirement naturally increases with
the size of the animal, but not in direct proportion.

As 'a result of his investigations, Armsby suggested .05
pounds of digestible protein and .3 therms energy value for
each pound of milk. This was based upon average milk
containing 4 per cent of fat. The author ! has recently pro-
posed the following modification of Armsby's standard to
adapt it to the feeding of cows not producing average milk :

PER CENT FAT

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
REQUIRED PER POUND MILK

ENERGY REQUIRED PER
POUND MILK

Pounds

Therms

3.00

.050

.26

3.50

.052

.28

4.00

.055

.30

. 4.50

.058

.33

5.00

.062

.36

5.50

.066

.40

6.00

.070

.45

6.50

.075

.50

Where it is not practicable to take the richness of the milk
of each cow into account the following may be used and the
requirement based upon breed average :

BREED

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN PER
POUND MILK

ENERGY PER POUND MILK

Pounds

Therms

Holstein ....

.05

.26-.2S

Shorthorn 1

Ayrshire > .. .
Brown Swiss j

.055

.28-.30

Jersey \ . . .
Guernsey /

.066

.40-.45

92. Calculating a Ration. Let it be assumed that the
cow to be fed weighs 1150 pounds and produces daily 30

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 7.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 101

pou ads of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat. According to the
preceding table the maintenance requirement would be as
follows :

Digestible protein .56 pounds

Energy 6.60 therms

1 or the production of 30 pounds of 4.50 per cent milk
the 'e would be needed :

Digestible protein (30 X .058) 1.74 pounds

Energy (30 X .33 ) 9.90 therms

The total requirements then are as follows :

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

ENERGY VALUE

For maintenance ....
For milk production . . .

.56
1.74

6.60
9.90

Total . .

2 30 pounds

16 50 therms

The problem is to find a ration that contains this amount
of digestible protein and has this energy value. Other
problems also enter into the question, such as bulk and the
comparative cost of the several feeds available. In cal-
culating a ration we always begin with the roughage, since
on most farms considerable roughage is on hand that should
be used to the best advantage, and, as already pointed out,
the cow is adapted for consuming coarse feeds and must
have a certain bulk in her ration at all times. We will as-
sume that on the farm where the foregoing ration is to be
fed, corn silage, clover hay, and corn are on hand, and wheat
bran and cottonseed meal may be purchased if necessary
to provide the proper ration.

102

DAIRY FARMING

TABLE 15. — DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY
VALUES PER 100 POUNDS l

FEEDING STUFF

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

Pounds

Green fodder and silage :

Alfalfa 28.2

Clover — crimson .... 19.1

Clover — red 29.2

Corn fodder — green . . . 20.7

Corn silage 2 25.6

Hungarian grass 28.9

Rape 14.3

Rye 23.4

Timothy 38.4

Hay and dry coarse fodders :

Alfalfa hay 91.6

Clover hay — red .... 84.7

Corn forage — field cured . . 57.8

Corn stover 59.5

Cowpea hay 89.3

Hungarian hay 92.3

Oat hay 84.0

Soybean hay 88.7

Timothy hay 86.8

Straws :

Oat straw 90.8

Rye straw 92.9

Wheat straw 90.4

Roots and tubers :

Carrots 11.4

Mangels 9.1

Potatoes 21.1

Rutabagas 11.4

Turnips 9.4

Grains :

Barley 89.1

Corn 89.1

Corn-and-cob meal .... 84.9

Oats 89.0

Pea meal 89.5

Pounds

2.50

2.19

2.21

.41

.88

1.33

2.16

1.44

1.04

6.93
5.41
2.13
1.80

8.57
3.00
2.59
7.68
2.05

1.09
.63
.37

.37
.14
.45
.88
.22

8.37
6.79
4.53
8.36
16.77

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmer^' Bulletin 346.

2 Owing to an error, the original publication gave the protein of corn
silage as 1.21, but .88 is correct.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

103

T.ABLE 15. — DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY
VALUES PER 100 POUNDS (Continued}

FEEDING STUFF

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

Pounc

Gr. Ins (Continued) :•

lye 88.4

Wheat j 89.5

By products :

] >rewers' grain — dried . . . 92.0

1 Jrewers' grain — wet . . . 24.3

Huckwheat middlings . . . 88.2

< /ottonseed meal 91.8

Distillers' grains — dried

Principally corn .... 93.0

Principally rye 93.2

Gluten feed — dry .... 91.9

Gluten meal — Buffalo . . 91.8

( lluten meal — Chicago . . 90.5

Linseed meal — old process . 90.8

Linseed meal — new process 90. 1

Malt sprouts 89.8

ftye bran 88.2

Sugar beet pulp — fresh . . 10.1

Sugar beet pulp — dried . . 93.6

Wheat bran 88.1

Wheat middlings 84.0

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

Pounds

8.12
8.90

19.04

3.81

23.34

35.15

21.93
10.38
19.95
21.56
33.09
27.54
29.26
12.36
11.35
.63
6.80
10.21
12.79

ENERGY
VALUES

Therms
81.72

82.63

60.01
14.82
75.92
84.20

79.23
60.93
79.32
88.80
78.49
78.92
74.67
46.33
56.65
•7.77
60.10
48.23
77.65

A good ration of roughage would be corn silage 35 pounds
and clover hay 10 pounds.

Using the data given in Table 15, the following calcula-
tions are made :

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN

ENERGY VALUE

35 Ib. silage .
10 Ib. clover hay
Total

Pounds

(.35 X .88) .31
(.10 X 5.41) .54

Therms

(.35 X 16.56) 5.80
(.10 X 34.74) 3.47

.85

9.27

104

DAIRY FARMING

This leaves 1.45 pounds of protein and 7.23 therms of
energy to be supplied by the grain. If corn is grown on the
farm, we will use it as far as possible in making up the grain
ration. The amounts to be used can only be found by trial.
We will start with the following : corn 6 pounds, bran 3
pounds, cottonseed meal 1.5 pounds.

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

ENERGY
VALUE

35 pounds corn silage

Pounds

Therms
5 80

10 pounds clover hay . ....

.54

3.47

6 pounds corn
3 pounds bran

.41
31

5.33
1 45

1 5 pounds cottonseed meal . . .

.53

1.26

Total in ration ....

2.10

17.31

Required

2.30

16.50

This ration gives more energy than is necessary and is
deficient in protein. Since cottonseed meal is the highest
in protein we will omit 1 pound of corn and increase the
cottonseed meal to 2 pounds. We then have :

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

ENERGY

35 pounds corn silage

Pounds

.31

Therms
5.80

10 pounds clover hay

3 47

5 pounds corn . ...

4.44

3 pounds bran

.31

1.45

2 cottonseed meal

.70

1.68

Total in ration

2.20

16.84

Required

230

16.50

This ration approaches the standard closely enough for
practical purposes. It is not essential to have an exact

FEEDING DAI&Y CATTLE 105

agreement with the standard, since the composition of the
feed varies to some extent and the individual requirements
of i he animals are also subject to some variations.

93. The Cost of the Ration. In the foregoing, no atten-
tion has been given to the relative cost of the feeds used in
mailing up the ration. This question is one of great impor-
tance, and must always be taken into account. In pre-
paring the ration the cost should be calculated at the same
time, and trial made of various combinations that offer to
reduce the cost.

A careful study of the figures in Table 15 will be of great
assistance in the selection of the most economical ration. If
the ration at hand is short in protein, and the purchase of
soi Me concentrate to supply this deficiency is contemplated,
a study should be made of the amount of digestible protein
in various feedstuff s, together with the price. A good plan
is to calculate the cost per pound of digestible protein to
ascertain in what feed it can be purchased most economically.
For example, if cottonseed meal costs $32 per ton, one pound
of digestible protein would cost 4.6 cents, if the value out-
side the protein be ignored. With bran at $20 per ton a
pound of digestible protein would cost 9.8 cents, and with
oats at 50 cents per bushel, or $31.25 per ton, it would be
worth 18.7 cents. Under these conditions it is readily seen
which feedstuff would be the cheapest source of protein for
the ration deficient in that constituent.

If the question is that of providing the cheapest ration
as a whole and not merely supplying a lack of protein, it is
equally important to study the energy value of the several
feeds as carefully as is done with the protein. It is readily
seen, for example, that while bran has an energy value of 48.23
therms per 100 pounds, corn has a value of 88.84. If corn

106 DAIRY FARMING

and bran are the same price per pound, corn is by far the
cheaper feed. With bran at $20 per ton, a therm of energy
costs 2.07 cents, while in corn at $26 per ton the same energy
costs only 1.46 cents. When planning the ration to be pur-
chased, or even the crop to be grown in some cases, it is well
to make such calculations as suggested and determine which
are the cheapest feedstuffs under the existing conditions.

DISCUSSION OF COMMON FEEDSTUFFS
No particular feed or combination of feeds is essential for
the most economical production of milk. The first consider-
ation is to grow the most suitable crops on the farm in order
that the amount purchased may be as small as possible
without reducing the efficiency of the ration. In the brief
discussion which follows, only the most common feedstuffs
are considered.

94. Timothy Hay. The value of this hay as a feed for
dairy cows is often greatly overestimated. It is unpalatable
except when cut early and therefore will not be consumed
in sufficient quantities. The most serious objection is the
low protein content.

95. Corn Stover. This is the name applied to dried corn
stalks from which the ears have been removed. It may be
utilized to a small extent. It has the same characteristics
and objections as timothy hay, and cannot be depended upon
for more than a part of the roughage.

96. Hay from Legumes. Hay of this class is especially
valuable for the dairy cow. It includes the common clovers,
alfalfa, the cowpea, soybean, field pea, and other less com-
mon legumes, such as vetch and crimson clover. Forage
from this class of plants when properly cured is highly
palatable, and contains a relatively large amount of protein.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 107

For this reason a legume hay should by all means be grown
by he dairy farmer. The ash content is also large, which
is ( f importance, especially when fed with corn products
tha' are low in ash.

97. Silage. It is very important that a succulent food
be supplied to the cow at all times. In feeding corn silage
it siiould be kept in mind that this of itself is not a complete
ration for the cow in milk, since it is relatively high in car-
bo hydrates and low in protein. It is usually not advisable
to feed over about 35 pounds to a small cow and 40 to 45 to
a large one. It is not advisable to feed it as the only
roughage. Some hay should be given. For this purpose
the legumes are best adapted, on account of their high
protein and ash content.

98. Corn. Over the greater part of America, corn is the
cheapest grain. In the corn belt this valuable grain is often
fed to excess. On the other hand, some dairymen do not
feed any of it, on account of the erroneous idea that it is not
suited for milk production. Corn may be fed in reasonable
quantities to any class of animals on the farm. It is es-
pecially palatable for the cow in milk. However, it should
not be the only grain feed. Corn is low in protein and
ash content. If combined with corn stover, corn silage or
timothy hay for roughage, the protein content is entirely
too low for a dairy ration. Corn silage and ground corn
combined with clover or alfalfa hay and bran, however,
makes a good ration for general feeding.

99. Wheat Bran. Next to corn, wheat bran is the most
important cow feed of this country. Its great value as a
food for growing animals and cows in milk comes from the
high ash and protein content. Its light, loose character
also makes it a valuable addition to a heavy ration in the way

108 DAIRY FARMING

of lightening up the mass so that it is easier for the digestive
juices to act upon it. This is of special importance in con-
nection with such feeds as cottonseed meal, that have a ten-
dency to form a pasty mass in the stomach.

Wheat middlings, or shorts, is a valuable feed for the cow,
but it is more like corn meal in composition and prop-
erties than like bran. As a rule it is better to make use of
bran rather than shorts for the cow in milk.

100. Oats and Oat Products. Oats is an excellent feed
for cows and growing animals when the cost is not pro-
hibitive. Woll found oats to be about 10 per cent more
valuable per pound than bran as feed for cows. In general,
it may be said that oats are themselves an excellent feed.
But if the balance of the ration is deficient in protein, oats
do not contain enough protein to make up the shortage.
The valuable by-products of oats are mainly from oatmeal
mills, and consist of oat shorts and finely divided parts of
the grain. Besides these, a much larger quantity of hulls
must be disposed of by these mills. Hulls are mostly crude
fiber and are about like oat straw in feeding value. The
by-products of the oatmeal mills are therefore valuable, to
the extent that they contain the parts of the grains. Oat
hulls are used largely to form a portion of various mixed feeds.

101. Cottonseed Meal. This by-product is left after
the oil is extracted from cottonseed. It contains a higher
amount of protein than any other common feed. For this
reason it is especially valuable for balancing rations deficient
in protein, for instance those in which corn and corn products
form a large proportion. It should not be fed to excess.
As a rule from two to four. pounds per day is the maximum.
However, in the South, where it is abundant, it is fed in
much larger quantities with good results.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 109

102. Linseed Meal. This valuable feed is the residue
aftei1 linseed oil is extracted from flaxseed. It ranks next
to cottonseed meal in protein, and on the market usually
sell? for a little more. It seems to exert a very favorable
effei t upon animals of all kinds. Like cottonseed meal, it
is especially valuable as a means of supplying the protein
usually lacking in the farm-grown ration.

103. Gluten Feed. This is a by-product from starch
and glucose factories. It consists of the corn grain after the
starch is extracted. In protein content it ranks about
midway between bran and oil meal, and is a palatable and
valuable feed.

104. Beet Pulp and Molasses. Formerly beet pulp was
fed to cattle in the neighborhood of beet-sugar factories,
but now much of it is dried. The feeding value of dried beet
pulp is a little less per pound than corn, which it resembles
in the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates present.
It swells greatly when moistened and cannot be pressed into
a compact mass. For this reason it is easily digested and
is valuable to lighten up a grain ration that otherwise would
form a mass in the stomach not easily penetrated by the
digestive juices.

Low-grade molasses is another by-product of cane and
beet-sugar factories. It is often sold in combination with
other feeds, such as beet pulp and alfalfa hay, and sometimes
with nearly worthless materials such as peanut hulls, weed
seeds, cocoa waste, or peat moss. Molasses serves a useful
purpose in making unpalatable feeds more readily consumed.
Unfortunately it is too often used to disguise material of
little or no feeding value.

105. Brewers' Grains. Fresh brewers' grains are fed in
large quantities where they may be hauled directly from the

110 DAIRY FARMING

brewery. Considerable objection has been raised by city
health authorities to the use of this feed. If fed in moderate
amounts under proper sanitary conditions, it is not ob-
jectionable. However, the use of it is so often abused that
officials in some localities have found it easier to prohibit
the use than to regulate it. The objection comes from
feeding these grains exclusively, from allowing decomposi-
tion to begin before feeding, and from the very objection-
able sanitary conditions that exist if special care is not taken
to keep the feed boxes, feeding troughs, and, in fact, the
entire stable, clean. This feed should not be used in excess
of twenty pounds per day, and should be supplemented with
hay and some other grain, such as corn.

The greater part of the brewers' grains now produced are
dried, and in this form may be transported long distances.
This feed is rich in protein. Four or five pounds may be
used in the ration to advantage. At present the larger part
of this by-product finds a market in Europe.

106. Mixed Feeds. No small proportion of the grain
supplied the dairy cows of the United States is in the form of
mixed feeds. As a class, mixed feed is to be looked upon
with suspicion. Where the unmixed grains and by-products
may be bought on the market, it is always safer to purchase
them and to make such mixtures as may be best to supple-
ment the available farm feeds. The main purpose of the
manufacturers or dealers in putting feed mixtures on the
market is to dispose of material of inferior quality or of some
by-product of little or no value. One of the most common
ingredients of mixed feeds is oat hulls, from oatmeal factories.
In many cases the hulls are ground fine to escape detection,
and the claim is made that ground oats is a part of the
mixture. A careful examination will usually disclose the fact

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 111

that oat hulls have been added. Ground corncobs and corn
bra n are occasionally mixed with wheat bran. A cottonseed
feed that is a mixture of cottonseed hulls and cottonseed
me il is found on the market. The only object in making
such a mixture is to sell cottonseed hulls at a good price.
All alf a hay of doubtful quality is mixed with sugar refuse, and
by liberal advertising sold at a price above its real value.

Nearly all states where large quantities of feed are pur-
chased by the farmers now have laws regarding the sale of
feeding stuffs. These laws, however, do not take the place
of intelligence on the part of feed users. Such a law generally
requires the proper branding of each sack and labeling to
inciicate the chemical composition. It should be remem-
bered that the label gives the total amount of protein and other
constituents, and not the amount of each that is digestible,
which is decidedly lower. Feed buyers should patronize
only reliable dealers, and buy feeds that are labeled and
guaranteed. There are no mixtures better than the buyer
can make himself, and there is no special feed or mixture
having any remarkable properties not possessed by familiar
feeds. The buyer of mill feeds should make a point of keep-
ing in touch with the experiment station of his state, and if
the feed control is vested in some other body or official, with
them as well, and make use of the information they will be
able to furnish regarding the feeds on the market.

107. Condimental Stock Foods. Numerous articles vari-
ously known as " stock food " and " condition powders "
are common on the market and are fed to a considerable
extent by farmers who are not well informed regarding the
feeding of live stock. They are guaranteed to make stock
grow faster, cows to give more and richer milk, and some
are recommended as cures for nearly all diseases of domestic

112 DAIRY FARMING

animals. The best of these substances generally have for
their base common feedstuffs, such as linseed meal or wheat
middlings, while others contain low-grade mill refuse or even
ground bark or clay. To the base is added various other
substances, such as common salt, charcoal, sulphate of iron,
gentian, pepper, and Epsom salts, and often tumeric or iron
oxide for coloring. Some may have a small value as a tonic,
but if such treatment is desirable, the necessary drugs should
be purchased at a drug store, and may be had for a small part
of the sum asked for the same in the form of stock food.

Many experiment stations have made feeding tests which
have shown that no value was derived from the use of the
several brands of commercial stock foods. Money expended
for this class of articles will give far greater returns if used
for the purchase of ordinary feed.

FEEDING YOUNG STOCK AND DRY Cows

108. Calf Raising. The careful dairyman sees in the
best heifers the possibility of cows that will not only replace
the discarded members of the herd but help to raise the aver-
age, production. The question is often asked as to whether
it pays to raise the calf. The answer is that only under
exceptional conditions can the farmer afford not to raise the
well-bred heifer calves. Some farmers near large cities where
feed is high in price find it more profitable to buy all their
cows, but as a general practice in most farming sections, the
best heifers should be raised.

The dairy-bred calf is almost always raised by hand. A
discussion of the subject is naturally divided into two parts
on account of the two common conditions :

1. Calf raising where skim-milk is on hand.

2. Raising the calf where whole milk is sold.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

113

109. Raising the Calf on Skim-milk. It is well known
thai calves may be raised on skim-milk practically as well
as when fed whole milk.
A ^kim-milk calf is not
quite so fat during the
firsi few weeks but grows
equally as well as the
om receiving the un-
sepirated milk and de-
velops into an equally
good animal. Skim-milk

differs from whole milk Flf, 30. - A thrifty Holstem heifer six

months old, raised on skim-milk after the

Only in the much Smaller first two weeks with very little grain. It
,. , » , was fed 200 pounds of whole milk, and

amount ot butter-tat that 26io pounds of skim-milk.
it contains.

The calf may be taken from the cow at birth or allowed
to nurse two or three days. It should be given its mother's

FIG. 31. — The same animal shown in Fig. 30 when four years old, a
good type of cow and a good producer.

114

DAIRY FARMING

milk for the first few days, later mixed milk is as good.
Care must be taken not to overfeed at any time. For the
first two weeks ten to twelve pounds per day is all that the
largest calf will require. A small one needs even less. It may
be fed in two feeds, but three feeds are better for the first
two or three weeks. Each animal should be fed by itself

so that it is cer-
tain to get the
proper amount
of milk. As the
calf gets older
the amount of
milk may be in-
creas'e'd some-
what, but it is
not necessary to
feed over 16
pounds a day at
any time. A
large calf can

take up to 20 pounds without injury. The milk must
always be fed fresh and sweet. Milk that has been standing
some time, even if it does not taste sour, is not in the best
condition for feeding. The milk should have a temperature
of 90° F. or higher while the calf is young, but later it
becomes less sensitive to a slight change in temperature.
After about two weeks the feeder may begin to replace
the whole milk with skim-milk. This should be done
gradually, about a week being given to the change. The
amount fed should not be greater because skim-milk is
given in place of whole milk.

By the time the calf is a month old it will begin to eat

FIG. 32. — A Holstein heifer calf six months old,
raised on whole milk. Total milk consumed 2960
pounds.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 115

grain. The grain is best fed dry after the milk is drunk.
Cor i meal, linseed meal, oatmeal, or a mixture of all, serves
alrrnst equally well for this purpose. Where corn is grown
in abundance, corn meal is most commonly used as it alone

FIG 33. — The same animal shown in Fig. 32, when six years old, a good
milk producer but no better than the one raised on skim-milk.

has been found equal to any other grain or any combination
for this purpose. The total amount of feed required for a
calf raised on skim-milk up to the age of six months is
shown by the following, which is the average amount fed to
seven calves.

Whole milk 360 pounds

Skim-milk 2804 pounds

Hay . 270 pounds

Grain 113 pounds

Average weight of calves at birth .... 66 pounds

Average weight at 180 days 303 pounds

Average daily gain 1.3 pounds

The skim-milk calf should have hay placed within reach
as soon as it is old enough to eat it, or when it is about one

116 DAIRY FARMING

month old. The calf does equally well for the first three or
four months with hay or with pasture grass for roughage.

Another exceedingly important point is the necessity for
cleanliness of the pails and troughs used for calf feeding. A
good rule is to have the calf pails as clean as the milk pails.
The barn or stalls must also be clean and light. Dark, damp,
or dirty stalls often result in serious sickness. The best
part of the barn should be used for the calf pens. The
raising of the calf on skim-milk may be summarized as
follows :

1. Take the calf from its mother not later than the third
day.

2. Feed mother's milk for two weeks, then change gradu-
ally to skim-milk.

3. Especially avoid overfeeding. Keep the calf a little
hungry, and make sure that each calf receives its proper
amount.

4. Feed the skim-milk warm and fresh every time.

5. Feed dry grain, preferably com meal, as soon as the
calf will take it.

6. Keep the utensils and stalls clean at all times.

110. Raising Calves when Whole Milk is Sold. The
main difficulty in calf raising where whole milk is sold on the
market is the matter of expense. •

To raise a calf on whole milk means that the milk consumed
may be greater in value than the calf raised. If the calf is fed
whole milk as freely as skim-milk is given, it would consume
2000 to 2500 pounds before it is weaned. At SI. 50 per hun-
dredweight, the feed up to six months would represent a
value of $30 to $38. It is evident that this sum can be
expended with profit only on very valuable calves.

As a result of this situation the practice of not raising even

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 117

the best heifer calves is too common. This policy stands
in ihe way of improvement of the herd. The Illinois Ex-
periment Station found the average profit per cow to be
$20.53 more each year in those herds in which a pure-bred
bull was kept and calves raised.

111. The Use of Milk Substitutes. Several calf meals
advertised. as milk substitutes are on the market. These are"
sold under a trade name and the composition is not given.
In general they are a mixture of linseed meal, oatmeal,
wheat middlings, and corn meal. In some cases bean meal,
ground flaxseed, or skim-milk powder is included. The
Cornell University Experiment Station1 obtained good
results by the use of a commercial calf meal composed of
oatmeal, wheat meal, flaxseed, and dried skim-milk. The
calves received in addition a grain mixture consisting of
corn, oats, and wheat bran, three parts each. The calves
were fed whole milk alone for the first week after which the
calf meal was gradually introduced. The feeding of milk
was gradually reduced until at the end of about one month
the calves were receiving only the calf meal, grain mixture,
and hay. Most of the calves were able to grow fairly well
on this ration, and they developed into good cows. The
average quantities of feed used up to five months of age
were :

Whole milk 226 pounds

Calf meal 220 pounds

Grain 109 pounds

Hay 329 pounds

Average gain per day 1.1 pounds

Total cost of feed $14.69

1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 269
and 304.

118 DAIRY FARMING

Excellent results were also obtained by the same station by
the use of dried skim-milk powder. The quantities of feed
required for each calf up to five months with this ration were :

Whole milk 185 pounds

Milk powder . 230 pounds

Hay 370 pounds

Grain 114 pounds

Gain per day 1.25 pounds

Total cost of feed $11.75

The Illinois Experiment Station conducted an experiment
to determine the minimum amount of milk necessary to
raise a calf. Milk feeding was continued to the age of from
42 to 56 days. Whole milk was fed the first three weeks
followed by skim-milk up to the age of eight weeks. It
was concluded that it is advisable to feed milk long enough
to give the calves a good start. After the age of eight weeks
the calves thrived on grain and hay. The grain ration was
a mixture of corn, 4 parts ; oats, 4 parts ; and bran and lin-
seed oil meal, 1 part each. The total amounts fed per animal
were whole milk, 134 pounds ; skim-milk, 422 pounds. The
total value of the milk used was $4.62 for each calf.1

These results show clearly that the milk can be reduced to
an amount that does not make the cost of raising the calf
excessive. When grain is substituted for milk under the
conditions discussed, it must not be expected that the calf
will appear as fat and thrifty as one receiving milk. How-
ever, there is no reason for believing that the dairy qualities
of the cow are injured in any way. If a good ration is fed
as the calf grows older, it will make up any deficiency in
size that may result from the lack of more milk in the ration
when young.

1 Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 164.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

119

112. Feeding for Veal. To make a good veal requires
liberal feeding of fresh whole milk. So far no substitute for
whole milk has been found for this purpose. The best
qur lity of veal is produced when the animal receives nothing
but whole milk and is slaughtered at the age of two months.
Th > regulation of the United States Government for inter-
sta e commerce requires that the calf be at least three weeks
old before being put on the market. Many cities also have
regulations regarding either the age or the weight of veal
cal /es. Where such regulations are not enforced the ten<-
dei cy is to market the calves younger than this age, since
wh m milk is high priced, the younger the calf is sold the
greater the profit. The first question to be answered is
whether the calf can be raised profitably for veal. It often
ha] >pens, especially with the breeds having small calves,
thft the milk fed is worth more than the market value of
the calf when sold. For this reason some do not attempt
to raise the calf for veal but destroy those not wanted
for breeding purposes at birth.

TABLE 16. — FEED CONSUMED AND GAIN FIRST 30 DAYS

BREED

No.
CALVES

AVERAGE
BIRTH
WEIGHT

WEIGHT
AT END
OF 30
DAYS

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

POUNDS
OF MILK
CON-
SUMED

POUNDS
MILK PER
POUND
GAIN

Jersey . . .

88.9

1.33

376

9.42

Holstein . . .

127.0

1.47

441

10.02

Ayrshire . . .

107.0

1.23

344

9.31

The average daily gain of a dairy-bred calf is from 1.2
to 2 pounds during the first few weeks. About 10 pounds of
whole milk are required for each pound of gain. The data

120 DAIRY FARMING

in Table 16 show the average gain and weight for calves of
three breeds as found by the author.

113. Feeding the Dairy Heifer. No special difficulties
are experienced in raising heifer calves from the time of
weaning until they come into milk. If pasturing is practiced,
no further attention or additional feed is necessary so long
as the grass is abundant. The winter ration should consist
of a good quality of roughage with a small amount of grain.
A good ration is corn silage and clover or alfalfa hay, with a
grain allowance of about 2 or 3 pounds daily per animal.
A more liberal grain ration will cause a more rapid growth
of the young animals and earlier maturity. It is possible by
heavy grain feeding to have a heifer as mature at the age of
18 months as another fed entirely on roughage is at 24
months. Liberal feeding during the growing period and
the better condition of the animal which follows result in
a larger milk yield during the first year than is the case when
less is fed. The size of the animal when mature is influenced
to some extent by the manner of feeding during the growing
period. In experiments by the author, heifers fed a liberal
ration measured over an inch more in height when mature
than did heifers fed a ration with less nutrients.1 At the
age of 18 months the difference was nearly 3.5 inches, but
the group receiving the lighter ration continued to grow for
several months after the heavier fed group had ceased grow-
ing. The lighter fed group, however, remained slightly
smaller. Another factor that has some influence on the size
of the cow when mature is the age at which she comes into
milk. A heifer that freshens at an early age, for example,
20 to 22 months for a Jersey, and 22 to 24 for a Holstein,
will not develop into so large an animal as she would if she

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

121

122

DAIRY FARMING

were somewhat older. The difference will not be very
marked unless the animal has also been fed a light
ration up to this time and is therefore immature for
the age.

Heavy grain feeding when young, accompanied by late
breeding, will develop a heifer to her maximum size. A
ration that does not supply an abundance of food in an
easily digestible form, as, for example, hay and silage alone,
together with early calving will result in a slower growth
of the animal and a somewhat smaller size at maturity.
The best practice to follow is one between these two ex-
tremes. A heifer fed exclusively on roughage is too slow
in reaching maturity, while the heavy feeding of grain is too
expensive. A good development can be had by feeding
good roughage together with about 2 or 3 pounds of grain
per day during the winter season. The figures in Table
17, as found by the writer, will be of assistance to the
farmer who wishes to know whether his young animals are
being fed so that their development is up to the average
of the breed.

TABLE 17. — AVEEAGE HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF DAIRY HEIFERS

JERSEYS

HOLSTEINS

AGE

Height at
Withers

Weight

Height at
Withers

Weight

Inches

Pounds

Inches

Pounds

6 months

31.7

265

40.8

350

9 months

41.2

378

43.4

444

12 months

43.4

468

45.6

548

15 months

45.2

556

47.4

620

18 months

47.0

598

48.8

710

24 months

48.4

750

50.0

900

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 123

Sufficient data are not at hand for the Guernsey and
Ayrshire breeds, but they fall between the two breeds given.

It is well to breed the heifer sp that she will come into
milk at 24 to 26 months of age if a Jersey or Guernsey, and at
28 to 30 months if a Holstein or an Ayrshire, the variations
suggested being made to allow for the size of the animal.

T le milking tendency of the cow when mature is not in-
fluei iced to any appreciable extent by any ordinary variations
in the ration fed during the growing period. The dairy
cha] acteristic of a cow is a matter of inheritance and does
not ,eem to be influenced to any great extent by over- or under-
feed ng when a heifer. In experiments by the author with
ovei 40 animals some of the best milk producers, as well as
some of the worst, were in a group fed excessively from birth
to first calving. Another group receiving a light ration up
to calving time showed the same variation in quality.1

114. Salt Requirements. All animals that consume large
quantities of vegetable food require salt. It is not merely
an appetizer but a necessity. Animals that live upon meat
do not have this craving. A cow kept without salt shows
a strong craving for it during the first few weeks, then quiets
down into an emaciated condition of low vitality, which will
result in a complete breakdown after several months.

The amount of salt needed varies with the amount of feed
consumed. A dry cow needs about .75 ounce per day. The
cow in milk needs the same amount for maintenance and
in addition about .6 ounce per day for each 20 pounds of
milk. The amount required therefore for cows yielding from
20 to 30 pounds of milk per day is about 1.5 ounces. Salt
ma}- be supplied by mixing the proper amount regularly in
the feed or it may be placed where the animal can have access

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135.

124 DAIRY FARMING

to it. If the cattle run out every day, the best way to salt
them is to keep a constant supply in a box in the yard.
The plan of salting the cattle at intervals of one or two weeks
is not to be recommended.

115. Feeding the Cow when Dry. The milk yield of a
cow throughout her entire lactation period is influenced by
her condition of flesh at calving time. For good results it
is very important that she be in good flesh at this time.
A high producer will yield fully 20 per cent more during the
year if in good order at calving time. Less trouble is also
experienced when the calf is born. All mammals naturally
take on flesh before the young is born. This reserve store
of food is needed to aid in the production of milk. We
expect a dairy cow to give several times as much milk as
the calf requires. The importance of her being fat is there-
fore all the greater. The grain given to a dry cow is not
lost. It is used to store up fat in the body for the purpose of
milk production. If when a good cow is dry, she is fed
sufficient grain to get her in good flesh, it is just as sure to be
returned in milk as is the grain fed when the cow is giving
milk. The astonishing records of milk and fat production
obtained within recent years from cows under official test are
due in no small measure to a realization of the importance
of having the cow well fed before freshening and in a high
state of flesh.

The feeding of the cow when dry will depend upon her
condition when milking ceases. If in good flesh, only a little
more than a maintenance ration should be given. If not
in good condition, a more liberal ration is advisable, suffi-
cient to insure her being in good flesh when she freshens.
The character of the ration fed at this time need not vary
materially from that given to the cows in milk. Good pas-

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 125

ture, legume hay, and roots or silage are adapted for use
as roughage. As the time for freshening approaches, the
cow should by all means have a laxative ration if she has
not been receiving it before ; if on pasture, no special atten-
tion :s called for in this respect. The cow should have ex-
ercise, and nothing is better than freedom in a smooth pas-
ture or freedom in a barnyard in winter.

FEEDING THE Cow IN MILK

116. Water for Cows. Large amounts of water are
necessary for producing the milk itself and for the digestion
and Assimilation of the larger quantities of feed required to
mak( it. The author found by experiments that a cow
producing 27 pounds of milk per day drank 77 pounds of
water. The same cow when dry drank only 15 pounds per
day. Another cow producing over 100 pounds of milk per
day used an average of 250 pounds of water. These figures
show that the water requirement is in proportion to the
milk produced and the food consumed. They also show that
the question of water supply is much more important for
the cow in milk than for the dry cow. Dry cows need not
be watered more than once daily in winter time and do not
seem to want it oftener. During the summer the demand
for water is greater on account of the greater evaporation
from the skin. Cows on heavy feed, producing large quan-
tities of milk, should always have access to water at least
twice daily. For the best results, water of good quality should
be supplied close at hand, since if the animals are required to
walk long distances in cold weather, they may not drink a
sufficient amount and the milk flow may be reduced for this
reason. Water contaminated by drainage from barnyards
or with sewage should be avoided for sanitary reasons, as

126 DAIRY FARMING

well as for the additional reason that cows may not drink as
much as,is needed for the best results.

In very cold climates it is profitable to warm the water
for dairy cows. It is cheaper to warm the water with a tank
heater by burning coal or wood than to supply the necessary
heat by allowing the animal to burn high-priced feed in its
body for this purpose. A cow producing 25 pounds of milk
daily requires about 1 pound of corn daily to warm the water
used if it be given at the freezing point. Larger producers
would require a correspondingly larger amount for this pur-
pose. An even more important reason for warming water
is that a heavy-milking cow will not drink enough water if
it is near the freezing temperature. The activities of the
organs of digestion and milk secretion are almost stopped
for a while if a cow drinks 30 or 40 pounds of ice water.
Where water is warmed it is generally brought to a tempera-
ture of about 60° F.

117. Turning on Pasture. Cattle are pastured in summer
over the greater part of this country and every owner of a
cow welcomes the time when the cow may be turned out to
pasture. In changing from dry to green feed it is best to go
somewhat slowly, especially with heavy-milking cows. The
young immature grasses are mostly water and it is almost
impossible for a heavy-milking cow to eat enough to supply
the necessary nutrients.

Another reason for making the change slowly is the effect
upon the taste of the milk. When a cow is changed suddenly
from grain to grass, the milk may be given a strong taste ;
while if this change is made gradually, little or no change in
taste is noticed.

A common mistake is to pasture too closely^ in the fall and
to turn out too early in the spring. The cows should be

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 127

kepi off the pasture until the grass is well started. Grass
can only grow by having leaves above the ground in contact
with the air and sunshine. If the cattle are turned out to
graze while the grass is very short, its growth is slow since
it h;is no chance to get enough leaves to prepare its food.

118. Feeding Grain while on Pasture. The cow that
produces a small quantity will give but little if any more if
fed i^rain while on pasture. However, with the very heavy-
producing cow the case is quite different, and it is necessary
that she be fed some grain or she will not continue long on
the high level of milk production. The high-producing cow
cannot eat and digest a sufficient amount of grass to supply
the necessary nutrients and must have some concentrated
feed in order to continue to produce large quantities of milk.

Experiments made by the Cornell University Experiment
Station covering four years showed that while an increase
of milk yield was obtained from grain feeding it was not
economical to produce it in this way. Only about one addi-
tional pound of milk was obtained for each pound of grain
fed. In these experiments the pasture furnished an abun-
dance of grasses. It was observed, however, that the cows
that had grain during the summer gave better results after
the grazing season was over than those that received no grain.
This is also a matter of common observation by dairymen and
should be taken into account in considering the question of
summer feeding. The practice of the writer in regard to grain
feeding on pasture is represented in the following statement :

Jersey or Guernsey cow, producing :

20 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily

25 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily

30 pounds milk daily 6 pounds grain daily

35 pounds milk daily 8 pounds grain daily

128 DAIRY FARMING

Holstein, Shorthorn, or Ayrshire, producing :

25 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily

30 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily

35 pounds milk daily 5 pounds grain daily

40 pounds milk daily 7 pounds grain daily

It must be kept in mind that this applies only when pas-
tures are abundant. When a small amount of grain is fed
as a supplement to pasture, little attention is necessary as
to the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates that
it contains. When corn is the cheapest grain, it may be fed
alone if desired. Any mixture of common concentrates
serves the purpose, since it is total digestible nutrients that is
needed and the protein is usually supplied in ample amounts
by the grass. When larger amounts of grain are fed, more
care must be taken to have enough protein.

119. Providing for Periods of Short Pasture. Unfortu-
nately the season of abundant pastures is often short. In
many localities a dry period of several weeks often occurs
at times during the summer season. It is probable that as
much loss occurs from improper feeding at such times as
is caused by improper feeding during the winter. As long
as the cows are on pasture, and other work is pressing, the
farmer is inclined to let the cows get along the best they can.

It is well known to all experienced dairymen that if a
cow is once allowed to decline in her milk production, it is
difficult to bring her back to normal. To make a large
profit from the cow, a large yearly production must be had
and to obtain this ordinarily requires that the flow of milk
be kept up for 10 months out of the year. It is possible to
supplement short pasture by the feeding of grain, but this is
as a rule unnecessarily expensive. It will pay, however, if
no other feed is available. Provision for short pasture is

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 129

best made either by having green crops on hand that may be
cut for feed, or by feeding silage or alfalfa hay during this
period. The use of green crops cut and taken to the animals
is known as the soiling system. In recent years the use of
corn silage for summer feeding is meeting with the greatest
favor and promises to displace the practice of soiling to a
large extent, because it is much less expensive. For summer
feeding a silo of small diameter is recommended in order that
the silage may be fed fast enough to prevent spoiling. If the
silage is not needed it can be kept for winter use.

120. Amount to Feed. One of the most common mistakes
made in feeding cows is in not feeding them enough. If a
cow does not respond in milk yield when well fed, she should
be ;-old. The cheapest production is obtained from a high-
producing cow well fed. The cow may be looked upon as
a milk-producing machine, which we supply with the raw
material in the form of feed. This raw material is manu-
factured into milk. The same rule holds as with any manu-
facturing plant; it is run most economically near its full
capacity. One should understand that, first of all, the animal
must use a certain amount of its food to maintain the body.
This is called the ration of maintenance and is practically
the same whether the animal is being utilized for full capacity
or merely being kept without producing any milk at all.
About 50 per cent of all the feed she can consume is used by
a medium dairy cow for this purpose. It is evident that
after going to this expense it is the poorest economy to re-
fuse; to give the other 50 per cent of a full ration, which would
be used entirely for milk production. Since only half of a
full ration is available for making milk, it is clear that if
through mistaken ideas of economy the cow is fed 75 per cent
of a full ration the amount she has available for producing

130 DAIRY FARMING

milk is reduced 50 per cent. The heavy-milking cow is the
one most commonly underfed. It is often observed that
heavy-milking cows rapidly get thin in flesh after calving and
may drop greatly in the amount of milk within a short time.
This is the result of underfeeding. If a certain cow has a
capacity to produce only 25 pounds of milk daily and is al-
ready receiving enough feed for this amount, it is a waste of
feed to increase her ration as she will not correspondingly
increase in milk. If a cow of this type is given more feed
than she needs, she uses part of it for laying on fat and soon
commences to appear smooth and beefy. The practical
question arises then as to what means may be employed to
determine how much feed a certain cow needs. The most
accurate plan is to calculate the ration according to the feed-
ing standard as described in paragraph 92.

There are in addition certain observations that may be
made the basis of practical feeding operations. One is the
condition of the animal in regard to flesh. The inclination
to give milk is so strong in a good cow that when underfed
she will continue for some time to give more than is provided
for by her ration and will supply the remaining material that is
required from her body. This results in a gradual loss in
weight. When a cow in milk loses weight, it means that
she is underfed and unless her ration is increased soon she
will drop materially in milk yield. On the other hand if a
cow in milk is gaining in weight, it is evident that she is
getting more feed than she is using and her ration may be
cut down.

Another suggestion is to note carefully the amount of milk
the cow produces at her best, which will be within a short
time after calving. Then be sure to feed enough to sup-
port this amount of milk production. Later, as she declines,

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 131

due to the advance in the lactation period, reduce the feed to
correspond to the decline in milk.

The following rules serve as a -general guide for practical
feeding :

1 . Feed all the roughage the cows will eat up clean at all
times.

2 . Feed 1 pound of grain per day for each pound of fat
produced per week, or 1 pound of grain per day for each

3 pounds of milk produced by Jersey ; 3| by Ayrshire ; and

4 by Holstein.

3. Feed all that the cows will take without gaining in
weight.

Ic is best to become accustomed to thinking in terms of
wei g;ht rather than in terms of measure in calculating rations
and feeding dairy cows. It is often more convenient when
feeding to measure than to weigh the feed. The most prac-
tical plan generally is to feed with a measure and weigh the
feed mixture used often enough to make it possible to esti-
mate closely how much is required by measure to give the
weight desired.

121. The Balanced Ration. The most common mistake
made in feeding dairy cows, next to underfeeding, is giving
too little protein. This mistake is especially common in
the corn-belt on account of the wide use of corn and timothy
hay, both very deficient in protein. Where alfalfa hay is
fed the ration nearly always has enough protein. A milking
cow must use a certain amount of protein, and no other
material can take its place. A ration is said to be balanced
when the protein and carbohydrates are in the right pro-
portion.

It is not possible to make a good ration by using corn and
timothy hay unless large quantities of mill feeds rich in

132 DAIRY FARMING

protein are fed. In formulating a ration the roughage is
the first consideration, since the character of this portion
largely determines the kind of grain to be fed. The cheapest
source of protein is generally leguminous hay, such as clover,
alfalfa, or cowpea. If an abundance of any one of these
can be grown, the problem of making an economical ration
is greatly simplified. If alfalfa hay is fed, it is not necessary
to use concentrates that are rich in proteins. If mixed
hay and corn silage are used, at least one-third of the grain
should be rich in protein.

122. Succulent Feed. In order to obtain the best re-
sults it is necessary to have a portion of the ration of a suc-
culent character. This term is applied to feeds that contain
much water, such as green grass, corn silage, roots, and
cabbage. Such feeds seem to have a value outside of the
actual nutrients they contain on account of the favorable
effect upon the digestion of the animal. In the corn-belt,
corn silage furnishes the cheapest and best succulent feed
for winter. In other sections, especially north of the corn-
belt, the growing of root crops is generally practicable. They
supply this desirable element of the ration in an entirely
satisfactory form.

123. Palatability of the Ration. An animal will give better
results if it relishes its ration. Sometimes even if a feed
containing enough nutrients is offered, a sufficient amount
is not eaten on account of a lack of palatability. Hay and
other coarse feeds show the most variation in this respect,
depending upon time of cutting and manner of curing. It
is advisable to have the grain composed of a mixture of two
kinds or more as this increases palatability. A ration for
very high-producing cows should be a mixture of five or
six feedstuff s. Succulent feeds are always palatable and

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 133

they aid digestion by keeping the animal in good condition.
When a good ration has been selected there is no reason for
chi] nge for the sake of variety. If the animal craves a change
in ration, it is an indication that the ration it has been receiv-
ing is deficient in some particular.

124. Order of Feeding. Regularity in feeding is of
greater importance than any special routine. The common
pm ctice is to feed twice daily giving about one-half the grain
and roughage at each feed. The grain is generally fed first
ami the hay feeding reserved until the milking is done to
avoid having dust in the barn. Silage should also be fed
aft or milking to prevent possible odors in the milk. The
co\\r readily becomes accustomed to a certain routine and
this should not be varied any more than is absolutely neces-
sary. She may be accustomed to receive grain either before
or .after milking, or be easily taught to demand it while the
milking is being done.

FEEDING Cows FOR THE MAXIMUM PRODUCTION IN
OFFICIAL TESTS

125. Obtaining the Maximum Production. The maxi-
mum production is obtained from high-producing cows by
a combination of expert handling and the best possible
ration. Such cows cannot be fed entirely by any rule, nor
can their ration be calculated by a formula. The individual
animal and her characteristics must be taken into account.
One of the essential things is having the animal in the proper
condition of flesh at calving. She should be dry for two
months or more for the best results, and be fed a liberal
amount of grain during this period. Some form of suc-
culence is absolutely necessary as a part of the ration.
Roots, such as common beets, sugar beets, or mangels are

134 DAIRY FARMING

even better than silage for this purpose, and may be fed up
to 50 pounds or more per day.

The cow must be brought up to the full ration carefully
after calving, using about three weeks for this purpose. The
grain ration should consist of a mixture of several concen-
trates, all of which are palatable. So long as the animal re-
mains in normal condition, no change in the grain ration is
necessary. Special attention must be given to the physical
condition of the cow. A careful herdsman always closely
observes the character of the dung excreted, and learns
to judge when the digestion is normal. At the first
indication of lack of a keen appetite the ration is cut down
until the animal is again in condition to utilize the full
amount. If the digestion gives indication of even slight
disorder, a purgative, such as Epsom salts, 1 to 1J pounds
at a dose, should be administered at once. The grain
should always be eaten with a relish, and the animal
should show a disposition to want a little more than she
receives.

A ration for a heavy-milking cow must be rich in
protein. Much more grain should be fed in proportion
to the roughage than with an ordinary producer. In
fact, for the maximum production of a great producer,
the nutrients will need to be largely supplied by con-
centrates.

The following daily ration was fed by the writer to a Jersey
cow that was producing daily 40 pounds of milk, containing
2 pounds of fat. The cow weighed about 900 pounds and
produced during the year 13,895 pounds of milk and 680
pounds of fat. The same grain mixture was fed during the
greater part of the milking period, including the pasture
season.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 135

POUNDS

Corn silage . . 15.

Alfalfa hay . . 15.

Corn meal 3.5

Bran 3.5

Oats 3.5

Oil meal 1.5

Total roughage per day 30.,

Total grain per day 12.

A Holstein cow under charge of the author was fed the
following amounts daily while producing an average of 100
pounds of milk daily.

POUNDS

Corn silage 15.

Alfalfa hay 20.

Dried beet pulp 4.

Corn meal 6.1

Bran 6.1

Oats 6.1

Gluten feed 1.9

Linseed meal 1.9

Cottonseed meal 1.9

Total roughage 35.

Total concentrates 28.

The grain ration was prepared by mixing 100 pounds
each of corn, bran, and oats, and 30 pounds each of the last
three named above. One pound of dried beet pulp was added
to six pounds of the grain mixture and the entire mass
moistened with water some time before feeding. The cow
was fed and milked four times each twenty-four hours.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Distinguish between composition of a feed, digestible nutri-
ents, and production value.

2. Define concentrate, succulent, roughage, corn stover.

3. What succulent winter feeds are used in your region ?

4. What common feeds of your region are high in protein ?

136 DAIRY FARMING

5. Calculate the amounts of corn and clover hay required to
maintain a cow weighing 1000 pounds.

6. Find the amount of protein and energy required for a 1250-
pound cow producing 40 pounds of milk daily, containing 3.5 per
cent -of fat.

7. From the feeds in Table 15, calculate a ration that will sat-
isfy the conditions in problem 6. How does the ration agree with
the standards on page 304 ?

8. Find the protein and energy in the following rations :

Ration 1 Ration 2

Corn silage 30 Ib. Timothy hay . . . . 12 Ib,

Alfalfa hay 10 Ib. Corn fodder 10 Ib.

Corn 6 Ib. Corn 6 Ib.

Cottonseed meal ... 1 Ib. Bran 1 Ib.

What is the limiting factor in the second ration ?
For how much 3.5 per cent milk does each ration supply protein
in addition to maintaining a 1000-pound cow?

9. Calculate a ration for a 900-pound Jersey cow giving 23
pounds of milk daily, using the common feeds of the region.

10. When bran is worth $20, cottonseed meal $30, clover hay $10
per ton ; and corn 70 cents, and oats 50 cents per bushel, find which
is the cheapest source of protein. Which is the cheapest source of
energy ?

11. Obtain the local prices of purchased feeds in the regioa
Which is the cheapest source of energy? Of protein?

12. With prices given in problem 11, calculate the cheapest
possible satisfactory ration for a Shorthorn cow weighing 1200
pounds and giving 30 pounds of milk daily.

13. Is skim-milk usually available for calf feeding in this region?
What are the common calf feeds used ?

14. Let each student find the approximate amounts of milk and
other feeds used in raising a calf to six months of age for his own farm
or some other farm. At normal prices, what is the feed worth?
Have all these reports compared and averaged. Compare with
results on pages 115, 250 and 252.

16. Proceed in a similar manner to find the usual method of feed-
ing heifers in the region.

16. What is the usual date for turning cows to pasture in your
region? About what times are they taken off of pasture in the

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

137

fall? At what time are the pastures not likely to furnish enough
feed ?

17. What effect does the manner of feeding the heifer have on
the amount of milk that she is likely to give as a heifer? As a ma-
ture cow?

13. What conclusion would you draw from observing that a
cow when giving milk was gradually getting thinner? What con-
clus on if she were gaining in flesh?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

9. Raising a Calf. Let each student who can arrange to do so,
raiso a calf, following the directions that apply to the conditions.
Ke< p track of all the feed used, and see if the calf can be raised at
less than the usual cost. This is particularly important in regions
where whole milk is sold.

10. Study of Feeding on a Dairy Farm. Obtain permission to
visii, a dairy farm, preferably one where the farmer has scales that
will weigh cattle ; or students may do this work for herds on their
home farms. A spring balance and tape measure will be required.

Make a list of the cows in the herd, and find out the following
facts about each. Or if the herd is too large, use five or six cows
thai, are giving different amounts of milk. Each student may do
the work for one cow.

Cow 1

Cow 2

Cow 3

Cow 4

Age

Breed

Weight

Pounds milk

Per cent fat

Protein for maintenance ....
Protein for milk

Total

Protein of food

Energy for maintenance ....
Energy for milk

Total

Energy of food .

Gaining or losing flesh ....

138 DAIRY FARMING

How much milk is each giving? If the farmer does not know,
arrangements can be made to have one student or the farmer weigh
the milk for one or two days. What mixture of grain is fed?
How much grain is each getting? If the farmer does not know
the weight of a day's feed, he can measure out what he is using
and this can be weighed. What does the grain mixture weigh per
quart? In the same way the amounts of silage and other feeds
may be obtained. Weigh each cow. Ask the farmer's opinion
as to which cows are gaining and which losing in flesh. Obtain
samples of milk for each cow, and test for fat.

Calculate the amount of energy and protein for maintenance
of each cow, the amount necessary for milk production, and the
amount in the feed. The results may be summarized in a table like
the one shown on page 137.

Does it seem probable that any one of the cows is not obtaining
enough protein or enough energy? Are there practical ways in
which the ration may be cheapened by using different feeds? It
may be that the farmer will be willing to experiment with increasing
or decreasing the feed or with using a different mixture. If he is
willing to do so, the results should be followed carefully.

11. Raising Heifers. Obtain measurements of a number of
heifers, and compare with the results on page 122.

COLLATERAL READING

Computing Rations for Farm Animals by Use of Energy Values,
U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 346.

Handling and Feeding Silage, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin
578.

The Feeding of Farm Animals, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle-
tin 22.

Feeding Skim-milk Calves, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin
233, pp. 22-25.

Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp.
56-118, 308, 310, 313-317.

The Feeding of Animals, W. H. Jordan.

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 254-294.

CHAPTER 6
THE DAIRY BARN

C. H. ECKLES

I' is only within recent years that the arrangement and
construction of the dairy barn has been given the attention
thai its importance justifies. It pays to have a comfortable

"Him

FIG. 35. — Interior of a well-arranged barn.

barn on account of the larger production of milk which re-
sults. The arrangement of the barn is also an important
factor in efficient use of labor and in keeping the workers
contented. There is a growing demand for better sanitary
conditions surrounding the milk supply, and this means

139

140 DAIRY FARMING

that barns must be constructed with more attention to those
details that make it possible to keep milk clean.

126. General Arrangement of Barns. The style of barn
construction will necessarily vary with the locality, climate,
and many other factors. The interior arrangements of the
cow barn, however, may be much the same in barns differ-
ing widely in general plan of construction. The most com-
mon arrangement of dairy cows in a barn is in two rows,

82-0-

"A"G-£

FIG. 36. — Floor plan of a good barn in which the cows face the center.
The calf pens and milk room are not shown.

facing either towards the center or towards the wall. If a
manure carrier is used, it is most convenient to have the
heads together, as this saves time in feeding with no loss in
cleaning. If a wagon is to be driven through the barn for
cleaning, the cows should face the wall. More than two
rows require that the barn be too wide for efficient lighting
and for convenience in handling the cattle. The barn should
be located where there is good drainage and where it is con-
venient from the standpoint of labor.

127. Lighting. One of the most serious defects in many
barns, especially in old ones, is lack of sufficient light. A
light barn is more healthful for the animals, and it is the
first step toward removing the objectionable features often

THE DAIRY BARN

141

connected with dairy work. A dark barn is almost always
a dii ty barn. By having plenty of sunlight, dirty conditions
are easily seen and are usually corrected. There should be
about four square feet of glass per cow. The best arrange-
ment is to have the windows extend from the ceiling about

FIG. 37. — Floor plan of a barn for 20 cows.

halfway to the floor, as this makes it possible for the sunlight
to reach farther into the barn.

128. The Floor. One of the most important considerations
of all is the floor. A satisfactory floor is comfortable for
the cows, sanitary, easily cleaned, durable, and not too ex-
pensive. The floors most commonly used are wood, con-
crete;, or dirt, with wood or concrete gutters. A floor of
dirt, although comfortable for the cows, is only allowable
under conditions where it is not possible to have a better

142 DAIRY FARMING

one. The main objection, of course, is that it cannot be
kept clean. A fairly good arrangement in a cheap barn is
a dirt floor for the cows to stand upon with a cement gutter
behind, provided with a strip extending forward about one
foot to catch the urine. A tight wooden floor is comfortable
for the cows and may be kept in good sanitary condition if

FIG. 38. — A well-lighted barn.

in good repair. The main objection to this material is its
high first cost and lack of durability. Concrete is durable
and sanitary, but not so comfortable for the cows as the others.
It requires a liberal use of bedding. In putting in a con-
crete floor care must be taken to have the surface given a
rough finish, otherwise the animals will slip and sooner or
later seriously injure themselves. It is not necessary to
make the floor as thick as is sometimes recommended.
On solid earth four inches is as good as more.

129. The Platform. The best arrangement for keeping
cows clean is the platform and gutter. It is well to have the
platform about 6 inches wider at one end than at the other

THE DAIRY BARN

143

so that the cows may be arranged in order of size and fit
the platform. The same result may be accomplished by
havi tig the platform on one side of the barn wider than that

Fi i. 39. — Cross section of a barn with cows facing the center. The style
of ni mger may be varied as shown in Fig. 41. The length of the platform
shou d be varied to suit the breed. •

on 1 he other. The width of the platform from manger to
guti er should vary to suit the breed. The length of platform
needed for animals from 2 years old to the largest cows is
give n in Table 18.

TA3LE 18. — LENGTH OF PLATFORM REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT

BREEDS

BREED

SHORTEST

LONGEST

AVERAGE

Jersey ....

48 inches

56 inches

54 inches

Guernsey

50 inches

58 inches

56 inches

Ayrshire ....

50 inches

58 inches

56 inches

Holstein ....

54 inches

62 inches

60 inches

Shorthorn . . .

54 inches

62 inches

60 inches

The platform should slope about one inch from the manger
to the gutter. It is better to have it rise half the way back
and then slope to the gutter. This helps to prevent the
front feet from slipping and causing injury to the knees. A
very good platform can be made by laying 2 inches of con-
crete, then a layer of tar paper, and on this place 1J to 2
inches of concrete. The paper extends to within about 4
inches of the gutter. The tar paper prevents moisture from

144

DAIRY FARMING

rising and, by stopping the loss of heat, also makes the con-
crete warmer for the cow to lie on. One of the best floor
arrangements is one in which the floor, manger, and passage-
ways are of concrete with a wooden platform on top of the

concrete under the cows.
In this case two inches
of concrete under the
plank is sufficient if
placed on solid ground.
130. The Gutter. The
gutter is often made too
shallow. It should be
preferably about 8 or 9
inches deep and about

FIG. 40. — Modern stalls and ties. Steel
construction gives a neat appearance, is
sanitary, strong, and durable.

16 inches wide and should
be tight to prevent urine
from getting under the floor. A common plan is to have the
passageway behind the animals 2 to 4 inches lower than
the platform.

131. The Stalls. When the cow is tied in a stanchion,
the stall should be 42 to 44 inches wide for the large breeds,
while 36 to 42 inches is sufficient for the smaller breeds.
Partitions are used in many barns, but some dairymen pre-
fer to dispense with them for the sake of facilitating the move-
ment of the cows in getting in and out of the stalls, and for
convenience in doing chores.

132. Mangers. Concrete is the best material for mangers
from the standpoint of sanitation and durability. The most
common type of concrete manger is the continuous, which
is built in the form of a trough before the cows. By having
the feed alley raised, feed can be swept into the manger with-
out lifting. (See Fig. 36.) The main advantage of this

THE DAIRY BARN

145

stylo is the ease of feeding and cleaning. It may also be used
for .vatering in the barn. Some objections are made to this
stylo of construction on account of the chance it affords for
one cow to rob another of a portion of its feed. Partitions

TYPES OF MANGERS

FIG. 41. — Types of mangers.

of sheet iron or concrete are sometimes used to overcome this
difficulty.

133. Ties. The cow should be fastened so that she lies
down exactly where she stands or a little forward if possible.
The most objectionable way is to tie a cow to a manger so
that she must back up to lie down. This results in covering
the cow with filth. The most common ties in use are various
forms of stanchions. There is no better way to keep the cow
clean than to tie her with a stanchion, properly constructed,
and stand her on a platform of the right dimensions pro-

146

DAIRY FARMING

vided with a gutter of sufficient depth. The old style rigid
stanchion is not a satisfactory tie, as the cow has no free-
dom and cannot lie in a natural position. Many forms of
stanchions are in use that are entirely satisfactory. These
are generally hung on short chains at top and
bottom and are constructed of either wood or
steel. The double post slip chain tie is equally
comfortable for the animals, but not so con-
venient for use. Stanchion or chain ties may
be attached to either iron or wooden frame-
work as supports.

134. Ventilation. An abundance of fresh
air is as essential as plenty of feed. The most
simple form of ventilation is by windows. This
works best when the sash is hinged in the mid-
dle or at the bottom so that the air can be
admitted by tipping the top of the window sash
slightly into the room. This throws the air
towards the ceiling and away from the animals.
This form of ventilation can be used satisfac-
torily in mild climates. In northern latitudes
it is not satisfactory during severe weather on
account of the difficulty of properly controlling
the intake of air during rapid changes of wind
and temperature.

The best form of ventilation yet devised is the
King system. This consists of a large flue, opening near the
floor and extending above the roof, for taking out foul air. A
number of smaller openings arranged at intervals of 10 to 12
feet along the walls allow for the intake of air. The intakes
open to the outer air near the ground, pass upwards inside the
wall and open into the barn near the ceiling. These open-

FIG. 42. —
A common tie
for dairy cows.
This stanchion
is of steel with
a wooden lin-
ing and hangs
on chains at
the top and
bottom to al-
low freedom of
movement.

THE DAIRY BARN

147

ings should be provided with means for closing if the wind
pressure causes too rapid movement of the air.

IS 5. Cost of Barns. The price of milk, climate, cost of
mm >er, and many other factors influence the cost of dairy
ban s. Where milk is high in price and where a correspond-
ing < quality is demanded, a very different barn will be required
fron. the kind needed
who.i milk goes to the
crea tnery. If valuable
pur< -bred stock is kept,
a so ne what more expen-
sive barn may be justified
thai would be needed for
ordi lary cows, because a
goou barn may help one
to soil the stock. Some
very good dairy barns
have, been built where «•«* ARC AT CNO OF BARN

FIG. 43. — Cross section of a barn show-
ing the King system of ventilation.

The

air enters near the ceiling on the sides and
is drawn out through large flues opening
near the floor.

lumber is moderate in

price at a cost of $50

per cow. Unless milk

sells at a very high price,

one should certainly hesitate to spend more than $100 per

cow for the barn, including milk room, and silo, and storage

place for the other dairy feeds.

On the corn-belt farm, where few cows are kept and where
there is an abundance of straw, the cows may run in an open
shed. If there is a milking shed in which the cows are milked
and fed grain, very clean milk may be obtained. No system
is better for the health of the animals than running loose
in a good shed, but where dairying is made the primary
business a regular dairy barn is ordinarily desired.

148 DAIRY FARMING

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. What materials are used for barn floors in your region?
Describe the floor in some good barn, and tell how it was
made.

2. What different kinds of stanchions are used ?

3. Are manure carriers used in any barns? If so, what kind is
used, and what did it cost?

4. Does any barn in the region have the King system of ventila-
tion? If so, describe it.

5. If any barn has been built in the region in the past few years,
find the cost per cow.

6. Draw a floor plan for a barn to hold 6 horses, 15 cows, and
young stock. Or change the numbers of stock to suit the condi-
tions. Show dimensions of stalls, mangers, etc., and location of
milk house.

LABORATORY EXERCISES

12. Study of a Barn. Arrange with the owner to visit a good
dairy barn in the region, and study its general arrangement. A
tape measure and thermometer will be required.

Some of the points to be determined are as follows :

Length, width, height of posts, height of peak, height of ceiling
in cow barn.

Capacity for hay, silage, grain. See page 305.

Make a diagram of a cross section of the floor similar to figure 39,
indicating the dimensions of the feed alley, manger, platform,
gutter, etc.

How wide a place is allowed for each cow ?

What kind of stanchions are used ? What did they cost ?

How many cubic feet of air space is there per cow?

What system of ventilation is used? Did the air appear to be
good when you entered the barn ? What is the temperature in the
barn?

•How are the windows arranged? How many square feet of
glass is there per cow?

Is there a milk house ? How many feet must be traveled with the
milk from each cow?

Are the arrangements for feeding the cows and for cleaning the
barn convenient?

THE DAIRY BARN 149

COLLATERAL READING

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. I, pp.
245 260.

Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm, U. S. Dept.
Agr , Farmers' Bulletin 623.

^ Plan for a Small Dairy House, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle-
tin < .89.

1 ightning and Lightning Conductors, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers'
Bui etin367.

] fomemade Silos, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 589.

^ entilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools and Stables, F. H. King.

( ost of Fencing Farms in the North Central States, U. S. Dept.
Agr , Bulletin 321.

CHAPTER 7

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE
C. H. ECKLES

THE author makes no attempt at giving directions for
the treatment of such diseases and accidents as call for the
services of the competent veterinarian. The farmer should
depend largely upon the qualified veterinarian as his adviser
in matters concerning the health of his animals, but there
are certain common troubles that every manager of dairy
cows should know how to handle. The discussion which
follows aims to present a few of the facts that every dairy-
man should know. The discussions are in the nature of
advice for the owner of dairy stock and are not expected to
take the place of expert advice by the veterinarian.

NORMAL CONDITIONS

136. The Pulse. The heart of the cow normally beats
50 to 60 times per minute. It is more rapid in young animals
than in old, and is increased by excitement or exercise. The
most convenient way to take the pulse of a cow is to stand
on her left side and reach over the neck and feel the pulse
on the lower side of the right jaw. A quick, bounding pulse
indicates inflammation at some point in the body. The
trained veterinarian becomes very skillful in diagnosing dis-
ease by the feeling of the pulse.

150

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 151

137. Temperature. The normal temperature of a cow
usually varies between 99° and 103° F. The temperature is
tal en by means of a self-registering, or clinical, thermometer.
Be 'ore using it the mercury is shaken down. The instrument
is olaced in the rectum for at least three minutes before
tb< reading is made.

V rise in temperature indicates fever due to inflammation
at some point in the body. A rise of 4 degrees is serious,
wl ile as much as 6 degrees is dangerous. A sudden fall in
temperature is also serious. The dairyman should provide
himself with a good clinical thermometer and become fa-
miliar with its use.

138. Respiration. A cow normally breathes from 10 to
25 times per minute. Rapid breathing may be caused by
exercise, heat, or excitement, or by distention of the stomach
with gaseous food to such an extent that the lung capacity
is diminished. Rapid, short, or difficult breathing usually
signifies trouble with the respiratory organs.

139. The Excretions. The excretions of an animal, the
urine and feces, or dung, show the general condition of the
digestive tract and kidneys. The stockman should be quick
to observe any abnormality in this respect and determine
the cause if possible. It is especially important to observe
the feces of the cow when she is under conditions of high
feeding as this is the best index of the state of her digestion.
The knowledge necessary to interpret the various conditions
that appear can only be had by experience and observation.

INSTRUMENTS AND MEDICINES

140. Instruments and Medicine. Every manager of a
herd of dairy cattle should be prepared for the ordinary emer-
gencies. If a competent veterinarian is not readily accessi-

152

DAIRY FARMING

ble, this is all the more important. The following instru-
ments and medicines are most often needed, and it is
advisable to have them on hand :

Milk fever outfit, if high-producing cows are kept

2 milk tubes of different sizes

3 teat plugs of different sizes

Trocar, if there is much trouble from bloating
Syringe

Drenching bottle
Clinical thermometer

A liberal amount of carbolic acid or some other good dis-
infectant should always be on hand, as frequent use will be
found for it. Crude carbolic acid can be used in a 2 per cent
solution, when applied to the animal's body, or in a 5 per
cent solution for disinfecting other objects, such
as the floor of the barn, or instruments.

An abundant supply of Epsom salts should
also be provided, as occasion for using it will
come often. In most herds entirely too little
use is made of this important medicine. A
dose of 1 to 1 1 pounds of salts for the grown
animal should be the first treatment in nearly
all cases of sickness. In every case where an
animal shows loss of appetite or sickness the
cause of which is not known, a physic should
be given at once and the feed reduced. A
second dose after three or four days is often beneficial. If
the appetite of the animal has returned, the ration can again
be increased to the normal.

141. Drenching a Cow. The common method of admin-
istering medicine to a cow is to mix with water and give from
a bottle. This is known as a " drench." When giving a

FIG. 44.—
Milking tubes,
used when
teats are in-
jured or sore.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 153

drc nch, the head of the animal should be elevated by tying,
or it may be held by an assistant. The operator stands on
th< left side, and grasps the nose- with the thumb and fingers
in the nostrils. The bottle used should be adapted for the
pu -pose, having a long, strong neck. The mouth of the
bo tie should be inserted in front of the back teeth resting
on the tongue as far back as the middle. If the animal
coi tghs, the head should be at once lowered to allow the liquid
to escape from the windpipe. If this is not done, the med-
ici le may pass down into the lungs, and cause sickness.
Ui less there is some special reason for doing so, it is not
cu itomary to give over 1 to 2 quarts at a time. Unless the
he -dsman is thoroughly informed regarding the treatment of
cattle ailments, he will seldom have occasion to administer
medicine other than Epsom or Glauber salts except under
th<! direction of a veterinarian.

COMMON AILMENTS

142. Milk Fever. Milk fever occurs only with high-pro-
ducing cows. It never affects a cow with her first calf and
rarely with the second. The well-fed, heavy-milking cow
is ihe one most likely to be stricken. The disease is so typi-
cal that it is easily recognized. In practically every case
it occurs within 48 hours after calving. Every heavy-milk-
ing cow should be watched carefully until this time has
elapsed. The first symptoms are restlessness and excite-
ment. Within a short time paralysis of the hind legs be-
gins, resulting in a staggering gait. The animal soon falls
and is unable to rise. The cow assumes a characteristic
position, which is of great value in diagnosing the disease.
The head is turned to one side and rests on the chest with the
muzzle pointing towards the flank. When this position is

154

DAIRY FARMING

assumed, the cow becomes unconscious and remains so until
death, which occurs within about 24 hours if treatment is
not given. Fortunately the air treatment, which was dis-
covered a few years ago by Anderson in Denmark, makes it
possible to relieve nearly every case.
When this is properly applied, the cow
will recover completely within a few
hours and no bad effects follow. With-
out treatment, recovery seldom occurs.
An approved apparatus is shown in
Fig. 45. The essential parts are a
milk tube, a receptacle of some kind
in which clean cotton is placed to catch
the dust in the air pumped through it,
and a rubber bulb or pump of some
kind. In case a regular apparatus is
not at hand, one that will serve the
purpose can be improvised from mate-
rials generally found in a drug store.

In using the apparatus the operator
should first thoroughly clean his hands,
likewise the cow's udder and teats,
with warm water and soap, followed
by a 2 per cent solution of carbolic
acid or creolin. That portion of the apparatus which
holds the cotton, the rubber tube, and milk tube, must be
clean, and preferably boiled for 15 minutes before using,
then disinfected by the use of the carbolic acid or creolin.
The receptacle for holding the cotton is filled with ordinary
cotton, or, better still, absorbent cotton, which may be
purchased at most drug stores. The milk tube is inserted
into one of the teat openings without drawing any milk, and

FIG. 45. — Milk Fever
outfit. The milk tube is
inserted in the milk duct
of the teat and air is
pumped through steri-
lized cotton placed in the
small cylinder.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 155

air is pumped through the cotton into the udder. This is
con inued until the quarter is well distended with air, when
the tube is carefully withdrawn and a tape tied around the
teal tight enough to prevent the escape of the air. The
san e treatment is applied to each quarter. The teats are
allo.ved to remain tied. Ordinarily within two or three
hou 's the cow will regain consciousness and be able to stand
on ler feet. If the air is absorbed or escapes, so that the
uddor is not tightly distended, the tape should be removed
and another injection of air made as before. Usually two in-
ject ons are sufficient. The udder should remain full of air
fifteen hours at least, and longer if any sign of the trouble
remains. The calf of course is not allowed to suck during
this time. If inflammation of the udder follows, sufficient
care was not taken in disinfecting the apparatus.

143. Abortion. This term is used by cattlemen to indi-
cate the premature birth of the calf. Abortion may be
accidental or the result of a contagious disease. The non-
contagious cases may occur as the result of injury, such as
a fall, the kick of a horse, or being crowded in a gate or door-
way. Severe sickness, such as indigestion or bloat, may
cause the trouble. If a single case occurs, it may be attrib-
uted to some accidental cause. If a number occur in the
same herd, it is almost certain that the specific disease known
as contagious abortion is present.

This disease causes more loss financially to the dairymen of
the country than any other disease to which cattle are sub-
ject. As a result of the work of Dr. Bang of Denmark it is
now definitely known that this trouble is due to a certain
species of bacteria. The presence of these living organisms
in many cases, but not in all, results in premature birth of
the calf. It is thoroughly proved that the disease is con-

156 DAIRY FARMING

tagious and may spread through a herd from a single in-
fected animal brought into the herd. From 50 to 75 per
cent of the cows in an affected herd often abort. The
remainder are either naturally immune or carry the calf to
full time in spite of the disease. The calf is usually born at
the sixth or seventh month and, at this early stage, always
dead. After having once aborted many of the cows are
immune and afterwards carry the calf in a normal manner.
Others abort twice before becoming immune. Some as the
result of abortion become sterile or shy breeders. The
disease is spread either by the male or by the germs from
an affected animal getting on the feed consumed by another.

Two methods of testing cows for infection with this dis-
ease have recently been devised. These methods as yet
can be carried out only by a skillful operator supplied with
the facilities of a scientific laboratory. It is probable that
these methods will be adapted for use by a large number of
veterinarians. Such a test may make it possible to keep
herds free from abortion by excluding animals having the
disease.

No satisfactory treatment has yet been discovered for
contagious abortion. The main precaution now is preven-
tion as far as possible by keeping the disease out of the herd.
It is not safe to buy an aged bull or a cow from a herd where
the disease exists. If an abortion occurs, the fetus and after-
birth should be burned or buried. The aborting cow should
be isolated and the stall where she stood disinfected with a
5 per cent solution of carbolic acid.

144. Tuberculosis. This disease is caused by a certain
species of bacteria. The bacteria cannot develop from the
surroundings or conditions of handling, but must come from
another animal having the disease. The germs that cause

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 157

the disease escape from an infected animal in the slobber
from the mouth, with the manure, and, sometimes in the
cast of udder infection, with the milk. As a rule a cow does
not die quickly from tuberculosis. The disease usually pro-
gresses slowly. The animal may have it for years without
any indication of ill health. The disease may attack almost
any organ of the animal's body but is common, as with
hun i an beings, in the lungs. Animals that have plenty of
feed and fresh air may sometimes recover. Good ventilation
and good feed and care are important in control of the
dise tse.

It is impossible to tell by external appearances, except in
extreme cases, whether the animal is affected or not. For-
tune tely we have in the substance known as tuberculin, an
agent that is fairly reliable in showing the presence of the
disease even in the smallest degree. The test is made by
first taking the temperature of each animal three or four
times at intervals of two hours. Tuberculin is then injected
beneath the skin. After eight or nine hours temperature
readings are again taken and repeated five to eight times
at two-hour intervals. A rise in temperature suggests that
the disease may be present, but experience is necessary for
accurate interpretation of the results.. The interdermal
method, which is also used, consists in injecting the tuber-
culin in soft skin, usually on the under side of the tail. If
the disease is present, a swelling appears and remains for
several days!

A dairyman accustomed to the use of instruments can
conduct the test himself after first assisting a competent
operator. It is safer, however, to have the work done by a
trained veterinarian in order that no mistakes may be made
and that the test may be recognized by health officers and

158 DAIRY FARMING

prospective buyers. Many states have laws governing the
use of tuberculin. These laws are often changed, and are
sometimes far from satisfactory. For these reasons one
should understand the law before he tests his herd.

The tubercular organism in cattle is slightly different from
the human form, but sometimes the bovine form is found in
human beings. It is thought that tuberculosis of the lungs
is rarely if ever contracted from cattle, but some of the
cases of tuberculosis in the intestines and glands, especially
in young children, are thought to be so contracted.

145. Inflammation of the Udder. This is one of the most
common troubles with dairy cows. It varies in severity from
a mild case, when the milk is only slightly stringy for a few
days, to severe cases, where the udder becomes so swollen
that no milk can be drawn. It may end with the permanent
loss of the udder.

Inflammation of the udder is not the same as the conges-
tion that occurs in heavy-milking cows just after calving.
Congestion at this time is to be expected and need not cause
anxiety, as long as the milk can be drawn from each quarter
and the milk appears normal. When the udder is inflamed,
the cow should not receive much grain until the udder softens.
The ration fed should be laxative in nature and of a light
character, such as bran. The milk should be drawn several
times daily and the cow carefully protected from cold and
exposure.

Garget is a common name for mild cases of inflammation
of the udder. Sometimes there are swellings in the udder,
or the milk may be stringy or lumpy. In many cases no
special cause can be discovered, although exposure to severe
weather, lying with the udder on a cold floor, injury by
bruises, or too heavy grain feeding may bring it about.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 159

Certain cows at times have it as a chronic condition, giving
stringy milk at intervals for months or years. Mild cases,
if not chronic, usually respond . readily to treatment. A
physic should be given at once and the grain ration reduced
to one-third the usual amount. An ounce of saltpeter per
day for two or three days is generally beneficial after the
purgative has begun to work. If the udder is very sensi-
tive , a milking tube should be used for a few days.

( 'ccasionally severe cases of inflammation of the udder
develop. These usually come on suddenly and are most
likely to affect the heaviest milkers. One or more of the
quarters of the udder swell and become very hard, while
the whole gland is decidedly hot and tender and no milk
can be drawn. Usually a small amount of yellowish watery
fluid replaces the milk. If the inflammation cannot be re-
ducod within a short time, that part of the udder affected
will not secrete any milk during that lactation period and
will probably be permanently lost. In some cases a fibrous
mass develops in the udder following such an attack, in others
an ubscess may result.

Treatment must be prompt and thorough. The cow suf-
fers greatly from the weight of the udder. This should be
remedied as much as possible by passing a sheet around
the body to support the udder. Hot water applied for an
hour or more by packing soft rags around the udder, followed
by rubbing and kneading is often found beneficial. After
this is done, the best treatment is probably an application of
antiphlogistine. This is warmed and applied in a layer about
one-fourth inch thick leaving the teats protruding so that
the milk may be drawn. In about twenty-four hours the
antiphlogistine loosens and may be removed. A second
application is sometimes advisable. If it is impossible to

160 DAIRY FARMING

apply antiphlogistine, the udder may be packed in ice, which
is replenished as fast as it melts and allowed to remain
several hours.

In the beginning of any treatment of this trouble a drench
should be given containing from 1 to 1| pounds of Epsom
salts. One ounce of saltpeter is also given in many cases to
stimulate the action of the kidneys and may be continued
two or three days.

146. Scours in Calves. The most common trouble ex-
perienced in calf raising is indigestion, which shows its pres-
ence by scours. Care should be taken to distinguish between
common scours resulting from indigestion, and navel in-
fection, one symptom of which is scours.

Navel infection is sometimes called either white scours
or calf cholera. It is a contagious germ disease which gains
access to the calf's body through the navel cord soon after
birth. It appears within one or two days after birth. The
calf is very sick from the first and nearly always dies. The
eyes are sunken, and a common symptom, although it is
not always observed, is the passage of white, foul-smelling
dung. If one case occurs, others are likely to appear, es-
pecially if other calves are born in the same stall. Often sev-
eral cases occur in succession in the same barn. The trouble
may be avoided by making sure that the calf is dropped in
a clean stall and that the navel cord is not allowed to come
in contact with any manure or dirt until the cord is dry.
If the calf is dropped in the pasture, there is little danger
unless it is brought at once to the barn. If it is born in a
barn where previous cases have occurred, the only safe plan
is to tie up the cord at birth in a clean bandage, having ap-
plied a mild disinfectant, such as weak creolin or tincture of
iodine.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 161

Calves raised by hand should be watched closely for signs
of iiidigestion. The main treatment, as pointed out in the
disc ussion of calf feeding, lies in prevention. Often the first
indication of disorder is foul-smelling dung. If this is
noticed, the ration should be at once cut down to one-half or
one third the usual amount. Often light feeding for a few
tim<!S will remove the trouble with no further treatment.
It is well to add to each pint of milk one teaspoonful of a
mixture of one-half ounce of formalin in 15J ounces of water.
The formalin should be given for two or three days at least.
Afti-r two or three feedings, if the calf improves, the milk
may be increased to the usual quantity.

When a severe case of scours occurs, the feed should be at
onc<- reduced. A drench of three ounces of castor oil in a
pint of milk may be given with advantage. It is well to
•give the formalin mixture for several days during recovery
from a severe attack.

147. Lice. During the winter season especially, cattle
are often affected with lice. Calves and young cattle are
most often affected, but older cattle are not exempt, and they
may suffer badly from this pest. The presence of lice may
be suspected if the cows are seen rubbing the neck and shoul-
ders on trees and posts. When they are badly infested,
their hair usually begins to come out, in spots. Several
substances may be used to kill the lice. Any of the coal tar
dips and compounds on the market may be employed with
success. The most satisfactory treatment is kerosene emul-
sion. To make this, dissolve one-half pound of hard soap
in one gallon of boiling soft water. As soon as the soap is
dissolved, add two gallons of kerosene. Mix by pumping
with a spray pump or by stirring or by other means until a
thick creamy emulsion is formed from which the oil does

162 DAIRY FARMING

not readily separate. Before using, add this mixture to
19 gallons of water. The emulsion may be applied with a
spray pump, or with a brush, wetting the entire animal
thoroughly. The above amount is enough for twenty cows.

148. Bloat. This trouble comes from the formation of
an excessive amount of gas in the paunch. It often results
from pasturing on alfalfa or clover, but may occur with any
kind of feed. It is known by the excessive swelling of the
left flank. If relief is not obtained in time, the animal
may die from suffocation due to the great pressure on the
lungs. In mild cases driving the animal at a rapid rate
for some distance may be sufficient. Cold water thrown in
quantities upon the cow's sides may reduce the pressure.

The Kentucky Experiment Station recommends for acute
bloating that a quart of 1J per cent solution of formalin be
given as a drench followed by placing a wooden block in the
animal's mouth for a short time.1

In case relief cannot be obtained otherwise, the gas must
be removed without delay. This is best done by the use
of a trocar. In using this instrument a spot is selected on
the left side equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone,
and the backbone. The skin is cut for about an inch, then
the trocar is thrust into the paunch. The sheath of the tro-
car is allowed to remain in the opening as long as any gas
escapes, which may be several hours. It is generally advis-
able to give a dose of 1 to 1J pounds of salts after a case of
bloating.

149. Cowpox. This trouble is common with dairy cattle.
It appears as pustules especially on the udder and surround-
ing parts. The virus used in the vaccination of human
beings against smallpox is obtained from cows that have had

1 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 5.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 163

the disease. The first indication of the disease is the ap-
pearance of small pimples on the skin. These at first con-
tain a watery fluid which later -thickens and becomes pus.
Tho pustule becomes flattened at the center and about the
nin th day breaks and the pus escapes. After it has broken,
a t lick dark scale appears, usually with a depression in the
cei ter. This comes off later, leaving a small pit similar to
th( scars of smallpox. The disease is conta-
giois to other cattle, but an animal once af-
flic ed with the disease is immune for some
tin e at least, and perhaps for life.

No special treatment is necessary, as the
animal will soon recover. About all that can
be done is to apply some disinfectant, such as
zin<? ointment, or a weak solution of some one
of i he coal tar products commonly used on the
farm as stock dips. The affected animal should FIG. 46. -
be milked last so that the milker will not carry a iast resort in
the disease to other cows. After milking, the relieving bloat,
hands should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The
milk from a cow suffering from this disease should not be
used for human food.

150. Blackleg. This disease is also known as " black
quarter." It attacks calves and young cattle from the age
of a few weeks up to the age of 2 or even 3 years. It is dis-
tributed more or less over a large part of this country but
is largely localized. Certain neighborhoods or farms after
once becoming infected often remain so for long periods, and
any young stock exposed are liable to develop the disease.
It is caused by a bacterium that gets into the animal's body
from the food or water. This bacterium can survive outside
the animal's body for long periods, so that the disease may

164 DAIRY FARMING

appear even though no cases have been known for a long
time. Calves in good flesh are the most subject to its at-
tack. Calves affected with the disease live a few days but
seldom recover.

The disease is easily recognized. The calf at first appears
merely lame and stiff. Swellings will usually be formed on
some part of the body, and when these are rubbed a peculiar
crackling sound is noticed resulting from the gas that has
formed in the tissue. When the calf is examined after
death the affected quarter will be found to be congested
with dark blood and almost black in color, which condition
gives rise to the common name of the disease. It is useless
to attempt to treat the animals already affected. When
a case occurs, those not sick should be vaccinated at once.
There is then little danger that the trouble will spread.
In localities where the disease is common, vaccination should
be practiced on all calves, as a preventive, without waiting
for the disease to appear. The vaccine used for the pur-
pose may be purchased arid applied by the owner himself,
or a veterinary surgeon may be employed if the owner pre-
fers.

151. Sorghum and Kafir Corn Poisoning. Sorghum and
kafir corn are important forage crops in that part of the
country bordering on the semiarid. Under certain conditions
these plants develop a poison, which is frequently the cause of
losses of stock, especially cattle. The danger occurs when the
growth of the crop is checked by dry weather and at times in
second growth sorghum or kafir. The trouble occurs only
when the animal eats the green plant. The damage usually
happens when the stock break through the fences and eat the
green crop in the field, although occasionally cattle are turned
into such a field by some one who is ignorant of the possible

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 165

dai>ger. Death will sometimes occur within half an hour
after the food is eaten. As small a quantity as two pounds
sometimes causes death.

The Nebraska Experiment Station 1 records a case where
21 cows out of 32 died within an hour after being turned
into a field of stunted kafir corn. When these crops are
pin into the silo or made into hay for some reason the dan-
ger disappears. Little can be done to treat an animal af-
fec'ed. In fact, as a rule the animal is dead before the
owner knows it is sick. Prevention, by excluding stock from
such -fields during seasons when the presence of the poison
is suspected, is the only safe course.

152. Corn-stalk Disease. In the states of the Middle
West, where corn is grown in large quantities, the common
practice is to husk the corn from the standing stalks and
leave the stalks in the field. Later the cattle are turned
into the field to gather as much of the stalks and leaves as
they will utilize. Stalk fields are generally pastured during
the early part of the winter. Frequent losses of cattle occur
during the time they are given access to the stalk fields.
The ailment is known as the corn-stalk disease. It most
commonly occurs during periods of cold or wet weather and
always after the stalks have become thoroughly dry. The
trouble usually occurs during the first few days after the
cattle are put into the stalk field.

The disease appears suddenly. The animal afflicted is
reluctant to move and when forced to do so shows an un-
steady gait. Later there are indications of severe pain such
as kicking towards the body, bellowing, and moaning. The
animal may froth at the mouth and attempt to attack any
one coming near. Death usually occurs within one or two

1 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 77.

166 DAIRY FARMING

days. All attempts to find the specific cause of the disease
have so far failed. It has been proved that smut in corn is
not the cause. Those who have given the subject most
attention believe the trouble is the result of acute indiges-
tion caused by eating too much coarse indigestible food. It
is possible that under certain conditions some poisonous
substance is developed in the stalks.

No satisfactory medical treatment has been found. As
with many other diseases, attention has to be directed to-
wards prevention. Cattle should always be watered and well
fed before being turned into a stalk field for the first time,
and some laxative food, such as alfalfa or clover hay, should
be given daily. Plenty of water should be readily accessible.
The animals should be turned into the field for only a short
time the first day, gradually lengthening the time each day
as they become accustomed to the feed. Fortunately this
trouble does not occur from feeding corn fodder cut and
shocked in the field, or from corn put in the silo.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Let each student make a list of as many cases of deaths of
cattle in the community as he can find, giving the cause of death
and telling whether a calf, cow, steer, or bull. Combine these re-
ports to find the comparative number of deaths from each disease.

2. What is the cause of each of the diseases found ? How may
each be controlled ?

3. Similarly report on as many cases as possible of cows that were
sold or slaughtered, giving the reason why they were discarded.

LABORATORY EXERCISES

13. Miscellaneous Exercises. If possible make arrangements to
do the following work with a cow that is not very valuable. A clini-
cal thermometer, drenching bottle, carbolic acid, teat plugs, and
milk tube will be required.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 167

Each student should learn how to perform the following
opei ations :

Take the temperature.

Take the pulse.

( 'ount the respiration.

( ive the cow a drench of pure water in order to learn the method.

] repare a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid.

] isert a teat plug after sterilizing it with the carbolic acid solu-
tion

1 isert a milking tube after sterilizing it.

14-. Treatment for Lice. Prepare a kerosene emulsion by the
direction given on page 161. If possible arrange to use this on a
here that needs it.

COLLATERAL READING

Milk Fever, Its Simple and Successful Treatment, U. S. Dept.
Agr. , Farmers' Bulletin 206.

Anthrax with Special Reference to its Suppression, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 439.

Tuberculosis, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletins 351 and 473.

Practical Method of Disinfecting Stables, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Farriers' Bulletin 480.

Texas Fever, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletins 498, 569, and
603.

Eradication of the Cattle Tick Necessary for Profitable Dairying
in the South, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 639.

Foot and Mouth Disease, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 666.

Diseases of Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr. (A 550-page book, cost-
ing $ 1.)

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill,
pp. 122-146, 321-330.

The Diseases of Animals, N. S. Mayo.

CHAPTER 8
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

C. H. ECKLES
COMPOSITION OF MILK

153. Average Composition. Milk is composed of water,
fat, protein, sugar, and ash or minerals. The milk of all
species of animals and of every individual within the species
contains these same constituents, but the proportions ar%
subject to wide variations.

Cow's milk weighs approximately 2.15 pounds per quart.
(Density is 1.032.) It is not possible to give any single
statement that will give more than a general idea of its
composition on account of the wide variations due to the
influence of breed and other factors. If a quantity of milk
be taken as representative of the total amount sold for city
trade or of that sold to butter or cheese factories, it would
have approximately the following composition :

PER CENT

Water 87.3

Fat 3.7

Protein 3.5

Sugar 4.8

Ash 7

154. Water. Milk contains on an average about 87.3
per. cent of water; The extreme variations are from about
83 to 90 per cent. The water in milk serves the same

168

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

169

purpose as food as ordinary water. It should not be
con rhided from the high water content that milk has a
low food value.

155. Fat. The fat is commercially the most valuable
pan of milk. It is also the most variable in amount. It
ma> range from 2.5 to 7.5 per cent and occasionally even
beyond these limits. The fat exists in the form of minute

FIG. 47. — Photomicrograph showing fat globules
in Shorthorn milk. Magnified 400 diameters.

globules, too small to be seen by the naked eye but readily
seen under a microscope. It is in a state of suspension, that
is, the fat globules are floating in the milk. When milk
stands undisturbed for some time, the fat rises to the top in
the form of cream. Churning of cream is the uniting of
these, fat globules by mechanical means until they form a
lump of butter. The main factors influencing the amount
of fat are : (1) breed, (2) stage of lactation, (3) individuality

170 DAIRY FARMING

of the cow, (4) interval between milkings, (5) portion of
the milking, fore milk or strippings.

As food, fat serves as fuel to supply heat for the body, and
energy to keep up the body functions. The surplus is stored
as body fat, which serves as a storehouse of reserve material
for future use. Fat does not make growth of bone or muscle.

156. Protein. The protein varies in amount from 2.5 to
4.2 per cent in extreme cases. Mixed milk usually varies
between 3 and 3.5 per cent. Protein contains nitrogen
combined with hydrogen, carbon, and small quantities of
phosphorus and sulphur. The proteins in milk are a mix-
ture of several kinds. Two only need to be mentioned since
they make up nearly the entire amount. These are casein
and albumin. The casein is that part of milk which curdles
on souring. It also gives the white color to the milk. In
cheese making rennet is added to the milk to coagulate the
casein, which takes most of the fat with it in a mechanical
way. The albumin is present to the amount of about 0.7
per cent. It is much like the albumin of an egg or that in
blood. It is coagulated by heating and may be seen as a
scum on the surface of boiled milk. It goes into the whey
in cheese making.

The protein may be said to be the most valuable food con-
stituent of milk. It supplies material necessary for the growth
of bone and muscle and to keep up the repair of the body.
Part of the casein is in a semi-dissolved condition. A portion
of the undissolved part, and insoluble impurities that were
in the milk, make up the well-known separator slime.

157. Sugar. The form of sugar known as lactose is found
only in milk. Its chemical composition is practically the same
as that of cane sugar, although it is less sweet in taste. It
has the same food value as ordinary sugar and like it fur-

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171

nisl.es a source of heat and energy for the body. When acted
upon by certain bacteria, a portion of it changes into lactic
acic and makes the milk sour. The lactic acid unites with
the iime in the casein. This results in precipitating the casein
as 1 [ie curd of sour milk.

When milk is used for butter making, the greater part of
the sugar goes with the skim-milk, another part with the
but ermilk, and only a very minute quantity into the but-
ter. In cheese making a very small amount goes into the
che< se and the remainder into the whey.

158. Mineral Matter or Ash. This is the portion remain-
ing if milk solids are burned. It varies little in quantity
or composition. It seldom falls below 0.6 or exceeds 0.85 per
cent. It is composed largely of potassium, calcium, and
phosphorus, with smaller quantities of several other ele-
meri ts, including iron and sodium. When milk is used as food,
the ash serves to furnish material for the bones and to supply
other necessary demands for mineral matter in the body.

159. Color of Milk. The white color is due to some
extent to the fat, but mostly to the casein. The yellowish
color observed to some extent in milk is associated with the
fat. This yellow coloring matter is carotin. Its source is
the plants used by the cow for food.1 This pigment is
found along with the green pigment in growing plants. It
passes from the stomach through the circulation of the cow
and into the milk-fat in an unchanged condition. When the
feed is low in coloring matter, as for example dry hay and
grain, the color of the milk-fat is reduced, and the butter
may appear almost white as it often does in winter. The
yellow coloring matter has no food value, neither does it
give any taste to the milk or fat. The preference for yellow

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station,' Research Bulletins 9, 10, 11, 12.

172

DAIRY FARMING

butter and for cream of a somewhat yellow color is based
entirely upon looks.

FACTORS INFLUENCING COMPOSITION
160. The Kind of Animal. As already stated, the milk
of all species contains the same constituents but in different
proportions. Table 19 gives the average composition of
human milk and of that from several domestic animals.

TABLE 19. — COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS

SPECIES

DRY
MATTER

FAT

PROTEIN

SUGAR

ASH

Human ....
Cow . .

11.2

12 7

3.1

3 7

2.0

6.3

0.2
07

Goat

14.5

4.8

5.0

4.0

Sheep ....
Mare

16.3
93

6.1
1 2

5.1
20

4.2

5 7

0.9
04

Sow

15.9

4.5

7.2

3.1

1.1

Camel . . . .
Reindeer . . .
Bitch ....
Cat . .

11.8

28.8
23.0

184

2.5
14.5
9.3
39

3.6
9.8
9.7
9 1

5.0
3.0
3.1
49

0.7
1.5
0.9
05

The composition of human milk is of great importance
in connection with the problem of infant feeding. Within
recent years it has become more and more the practice to
modify cow's milk when used for infant food so that it ap-
proaches the normal milk of the human mother. The most
marked difference in composition between human and cow's
milk is the decidedly lower protein and higher sugar content
in the former.

The general plan followed in modifying cow's milk for
infant feeding is to add sufficient water to reduce the pro-
tein content to that found in human milk. Cream is then
added to restore the fat content to from 2.5 to 3.5 per

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

173

ceni and sufficient sugar, usually milk sugar, to raise the
consent of this constituent to that found in human milk.

A knowledge of the composition of milk produced by
the common domestic animals will be found of value at
tim< s. For example, if it becomes necessary to raise a colt
by 1 and, a study of the table giving the composition of mare's
mill, will show clearly that even average cow's milk should
be diluted with water before being used for this purpose.
Cane sugar is often added.

T!ie exceedingly rapid growth of small animals is ex-
plained by the very rich milk that small species always
produce. As a general rule the larger the species, the slower
the growth of the young, and the smaller the amount of solids
in tl ie milk. Animals living in arctic regions or in the ocean
are exceptions. These conditions require a large amount of
fat for fuel to keep the young animal warm. This interesting
fact is illustrated by the composition of the reindeer's milk
and also by that of certain marine animals such as the walrus
and the porpoise which secrete the richest milk known.

161. Breed. The milk from different breeds of cows
differs in composition. Table 20 gives a summary of all
the published records of American Experiment Stations on
this subject up to 1913 :

TABLE 20. — COMPOSITION OF MILK BY BREEDS l

BREED

TOTAL SOLIDS

FAT

PROTEIN

SUGAR

Jersey ....

14 70

5 14

3 80

5 04

Guernsey ....

14.49

4.98

3.84

4.98

Ayrshire ....

12.72

3.85

3.34

5.02

Holstein ....

12.00

3.45

3.15

4.65

U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 156.

174 DAIRY FARMING

It will be noted that the main variation is in the fat, al-
though the protein -shows sufficient variation to be of impor-
tance. Sugar varies but slightly, and the ash practically
none. The breed of the cow also has a marked influence
upon the size of the fat globules. Those of the Jerseys and
Guernseys are much larger than those of the Holsteins. The
larger fat globules in Jersey milk result in quicker and more
complete separation of the cream by gravity ; also in a slight
difference in the ease of churning. The breed of the cow
likewise has a marked influence upon the color of milk and
especially upon the color of the butter. In amount of color
the Guernsey ranks first, followed by the Jersey, Short-
horn, Ayrshire, and Holstein in the order named. There
is no basis for the common claim that certain breeds pro-
duce milk or butter of a better flavor than others. Out-
side the possible variation in color, the most expert judge
cannot distinguish the product of one breed from that of
another when other conditions are the same.

162. Stage of Lactation. The stage of lactation stands
second only to the breed in importance as a factor influencing
the composition of milk. The amount of the different con-
stituents and also the nature of the fat itself is influenced in
this way. The most marked effect is upon the amount of
protein and fat.

The figures in Table 21 obtained by the author show the
average for eleven cows representing three breeds which were
kept on a uniform ration for an entire lactation period to elim-
inate changes due to feed. A decided increase in the amount
of fat and protein is shown, but little change in the sugar
content.

The stage of lactation also has a marked effect upon
the size of fat globules. After the cow has been in milk

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

175

ten or eleven months, the fat globules average about one-
th rd the size of those in the milk when the cow is fresh.
Tl is is one reason why difficulty is often experienced in churn-
ing the cream from cows that have been in milk a long time.

T, BLE 21. — EFFECT OF STAGE OF LACTATION ON COMPOSITION

OF MILK

FOUR WEEKS
PERIODS

PROTEIN

FAT

SUGAR

Weeks

Per Cent

PerCent

1-4

3.25

4.00

4.87

5-8

3.06

3.85

4.84

9-12

3.06

3.79

4.94

13-16

3.13

3.77

4.82

17-20

3.25

3.82

4.80

21-24

3.25

3.79

4.75

25-28

3.32

3.83

4.88

29-32

3.32

3.85

4.83

33-36

3.57

3.97

4.62

37-40

3.83

4.11

4.55

41-44

3.89

4.22

4.74

45-48

4.08

4.54

4.91

49-52

4.34

4.66

4.50

163. Individuality of the Animal. The writer has kept
complete records for one year or more for 76 Jersey cows.
The lowest average fat content for a year was 4.47 and the
highest 7.00 per cent. Among 40 Holsteins the lowest was
2.6 and the highest 3.81. The records of 25 Shorthorns
show a variation from 3.59 to 4.31 in the averages for one
year. These give an idea of the extent of variation within
a breed. The variation in the other constituents is always
less than the variation in fat.

164. Interval between Milkings. If a cow is milked twice
daily at equal intervals, the quantity and quality of milk

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 155.

176 DAIRY FARMING

are usually about the same at each milking. If the intervals
are not equal, the larger yield of milk and a lower percentage
of fat follow the longer interval. When the milking is done
three times or more daily, the variation in fat content is
generally considerable, even though the intervals between
milking are equal. As a rule, the milk drawn near the noon
hour has the highest fat content. Where the composition
is varied by unequal intervals, the variation is confined
mostly to the fat.

165. Fore Milk and Strippings. The first milk drawn from
the cow contains a low percentage of fat, while the last is sev-
eral times richer in this constituent. The first milk as a rule
contains from 1.5 to 2.5 per cent, while the strippings range
from 5 to 10 per cent. The other constituents of the milk
are practically the same in all parts of the milking. Numer-
ous variations occur from day to day that cannot be ex-
plained by any of the 'factors described. A single sample of
milk from a cow may be entirely misleading.

166. Effect of Feed. The error is often made of assuming
that the richness of milk varies with the feed. While it
is possible under certain conditions to make a variation of
possibly 0.2 to 0.4 per cent by giving certain feeds, it is
only under conditions so abnormal that it is of scientific
interest only and has no practical bearing. As far as the
ordinary practice is concerned, the feed has no influence
upon the richness of the milk. If a certain cow averages
3.4 per cent fat for a year, no one knows how to feed her to
make her milk average 4.0 per cent for the following year.
The richness of a cow's milk is fixed by heredity and cannot be
permanently changed by any means. It is a well-known fact,
however, that a cow in a high state of flesh at time of calving
gives richer milk for a short time than does one thin in flesh.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

177

MARKET MILK

167. Sanitary Milk. Milk sometimes acts as the carrier
of human disease germs. The danger that such germs will
get into milk during handling is much greater than is the
d; nger of the transmission of any disease directly from the
cows. While the danger of carrying disease is great, it is

FIG. 48. — A small top milk pail helps to prevent contamination during
milking. Strainers and cloth over the opening are of little value. Some
of the most sanitary dairies use the types illustrated.

certain that dirty or partly spoiled milk is even more serious
and is responsible for much sickness and many deaths among
children.

The production of market milk that is reasonably safe
for food, is not difficult and need not involve heavy ex-
pense, except that more intelligence is necessary for its
production and greater intelligence demands higher wages.
It is certain that if the public wants good clean milk the

178 DAIRY FARMING

price must be somewhat higher than it has been in the past.
The first requirement is that the cows must be healthy.
The milk from a cow suffering from sickness of any kind,
including garget in the udder, should not be used. The
milkers should be in good health and should take special
pains that no possible chance is given for the germs of
typhoid fever to get into the milk. Care should be taken
that contaminated water is not used for washing the
utensils.

Sanitary milk means primarily clean milk. In fact, the
requirements for producing sanitary milk can be described
in two words. The first is cleanliness, and the second

is coldness. The source

U\ / of most of the dirt that

\ / finds its way into milk is

\ / filth from the cow's body.

V~ Q ~V A dirty cow invariably

m6anS milk' The

F.G. 49. - Milk pails and cans should
have all seams filled with solder as in b. stable should be SO COn-
Utensils with seams like a are very diffi- i xt A ix « -i i

cult to keep clean. structed that it is possible

to keep the cow clean. A

cow should be brushed daily to keep the loose dirt off the
body. The stable and yard should, of course, be kept in
a good condition of cleanliness. The milker should wear
clean clothes and should milk with dry hands.

Next to cleanliness of the cow stands cleanliness of the
pails, strainers, and other utensils. These should be first
cleaned with a brush, using warm water and some washing
powder. Special attention should be given to the seams.
After being thoroughly cleaned, they should be scalded with
boiling water or better heated in steam when this is avail-
able. After being scalded, they should be placed where

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

179

they will dry quickly. It is well to set them in the sun dur-
ing the day.

Coldness is as important as cleanliness. Keeping milk
cl jan keeps most of the bacteria out. Cooling it prevents
tl e growth of those that
d' get in. Effective cool-
ing means bringing the
tr nperature of the milk,
n< t later than an hour
af :er milking, and prefer-

FIG. 50. — Brush for cleaning milk utensils.

al ly sooner, to a temper- The brush & much better than a cloth.
at ure of 50° F., or lower.

In an experiment by the author a sample of fresh milk
w is divided into two parts, one of which was cooled at once
to 50° F., while the other was placed at 75° F., with the fol-
io ving results :

HELD AT 50° F.

HELD AT 75° F.

Bacteria per c.c. in fresh milk . .
Bacteria per c.c. after 12 hours
Bacteria per c.c. after 24 hours
Age of milk at first souring . . .

21,000
20,000
32,000
3 days

21,000

110,000
10,450,000
28 hours

Putting warm milk in an ordinary ice box is not an effec-
tive method of cooling, as can be readily determined by
testing it with a thermometer. The importance of the
statement regarding the necessity for sudden cooling and
the inefficiency of cold air as a means of cooling is illus-
trated in a striking way by an experiment conducted by
students under the supervision of the author. Sixteen gal-
lons of fresh warm milk was received from the barn, mixed,
and then placed in two cans. Plate cultures were made

180

DAIRY FARMING

from the milk, according to the
logical laboratories, to determine

FIG. 51. — Influence of temperature
on the growth of bacteria, a repre-
sents one original bacterium ; 6, the de-
scendants of one bacterium in milk kept
24 hours at 50° F. ; c represents the
number of descendants when milk is not
cooled.

cooled with ice to a temperature
temperature for a good ice box
lated below :

method used in bacterio-
the number of bacteria
present. There were
found to be 13,000 bac-
teria per cubic centimeter
in the fresh milk. This
is a low count, showing
that the milk had been
taken under excellent
sanitary conditions. One
can was cooled at once
to 50° by placing it in ice
water and stirring. The
other can still showed a
temperature of 90°. Both
were now put in a room
of 50°, which is a typical
The results are tabu-

COOLED MILK

UNCOOLED
MILK

Number of bacteria at beginning . .

13,000

Temperature of room . . .

50°

Temperature of milk at beginning .

50°

90°

Temperature after 12 hours ....

50°

70°

Temperature after 24 hours ....

50°

58°

Temperature after 36 hours ....

50°

51°

Number of bacteria after. 36 hours

15,000

52,500,000

The bacteria counts were made in both samples at the
end of 36 hours. The cooled sample contained 15,000 bac-
teria per cubic centimeter, and the uncooled the enormous
number of 52,500,000 in the same quantity. The sample

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181

co )led slowly soured within 40 hours, while the other re-
mained perfectly sweet for five days.

[f a large quantity of milk is handled, it should be cooled
b\ means of a water cooler, many styles of which may be
purchased at reasonable prices. The next best plan is to set
th i cans in ice water and stir the milk frequently.

The general subject of milk sanitation may be summarized
in the following statements :
. Use only healthy cows.

:! Milk should not be handled by any one suffering from
a c ontagious disease or associated with a person so affected.

)J. The cow's body should be kept free from manure.

4. The milker should have clean clothes and should milk
with dry hands.

£>. The utensils must be properly washed and sterilized.

C. The milk must be thoroughly cooled immediately and
kept cold until consumed.

168. Certified Milk. This name is applied to milk pro-
duced according to a set of rules prepared by a medical milk
commission. Such organizations have no relation to either
state or city inspection. Representatives of the association
make chemical analyses and bacteria counts of the milk at
frequent intervals. They also examine the sanitary condi-
tions of the premises where the milk is produced and the
health of the cattle and of the milkers at regular intervals.

If all rules are complied with and the number of bacteria
is below the maximum number fixed by the rules, the com-
mission certifies to the condition of the milk and allows the
dairyman to sell it with its approval. The rules are very
strict, requiring great cleanliness in every detail. As a
result certified milk means the highest possible quality from
a sanitary standpoint. Such milk usually retails at about

182

DAIRY FARMING

15 cents per quart, and the producer receives possibly 8 cents
at the farm. At present only a very small amount of milk
is produced under these conditions, as the market is limited.

FIG. 52. — Practical milk coolers for farm use. The one on the left is
more efficient, but more expensive. Cold water, preferably ice water, is
used for cooling.

It is only practicable to conduct such a business where a large
city market is easy of access and when suitable arrangements
can be made to market the product.

BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM

169. Butter Making on the Farm. Although the creamery
has become a factor of great importance in the dairy develop-
ment of the country, still according to the last census, 994
million pounds of butter per year, or 61 per cent of the total,
was made on farms. The greater part of this was produced
on farms where fewer than ten cows were kept. The quality
of farm-made butter varies from the poorest to the best.
The average quality, however, is far below that made in the
creameries. This is duo largely to the fact that little at-
tention is given to having proper utensils and facilities, on

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

183

account of the small amount of cream available on most
farms. Lack of interest and of knowledge as to the proper
me : hods also affects the quality of the product. When proper,
facilities are provided and the right methods are followed,
th( quality of butter made on the farm may easily be su-
pei ior to that made in the average creamery. To do this it
is i ecessary to have suffi-
cient cream to make it
po^ sible to churn at least
twice and preferably
th] ee times each week.

170. Facilities Needed.
It is very desirable, but
of course not absolutely
necessary, to have a sep-
arate room arranged for
but ter making. Some-
times a basement room, if

it is well ventilated and lighted, can be utilized with advan-
tage. A concrete floor provided with a drain saves a great
deal of labor in cleaning apparatus. Some means of cooling,
either ice or an abundance of very cold water, is indispensable.

171. What is Good Butter. Butter that has the qualities
which make it satisfactory to the consumer always sells
readily. While there is some variation in individual taste,
the general market demands the same quality everywhere.
The following is the common score card for judging butter.

FIG. 53. — A good milk house, an important
part of the equipment on a dairy farm.

Flavor
Body .
Color .
Salt
Package

100

184 DAIRY FARMING

172. Flavor. The proper flavor is hard to describe, but
may be said to be a pure butter taste and odor. It should
be entirely free from any other taste, such as might be de-
scribed as rancid, stale, or strong. The flavor of the butter,
whether it be good or bad, in at least nine cases out of ten,
is produced during the souring, or ripening, of the cream.
There are a few exceptions to this rule. A few feeds, such
as onions, turnips, or new rye pasture, will give a taste to
butter. In a few cases, butter made from the milk of a cow
near the end of her milking period, has a slightly objection-
able taste.

173. Body, Color, and Salt. Body, color, salt, and pack-
age may be said to depend upon mechanical conditions.
They are entirely under the control of the butter maker, pro-
vided suitable facilities are at hand. Faults in these quali-
ties are not to be attributed to the feed, breed, or season of
the year.

The body should be. waxy and firm, but not brittle or
salvy. It should not stick to the knife when cut, neither
should it crumble. Proper body results from having the
churning temperature right, stopping the churning at the
right stage, and working the butter the proper amount.

The color should be that of butter produced by cows on
pasture. During the season when dry feed is used, a suffi-
cient amount of vegetable coloring should be added to the
cream to give the proper shade of yellow. The most com-
mon defects in color are having it too high or too low, or
having a streaky or uneven color known as mottles. The
latter condition is due to uneven distribution of the salt, a
result of insufficient working.

The salt should be sufficient so that a person eating the
butter does not notice either a deficiency or an excess. In

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

185

ad( iition to too heavy or too light salting, the most common
fault is gritty or undissolved salt.

Vhe amount of water left in butter is somewhat variable.
Tho usual rule is to estimate that a given number of pounds
of butter-fat will give one-sixth more pounds of butter.

174. Separation of Cream. In certain localities it is the
practice to churn the whole milk, but this results in an
unnecessary loss of butter-fat in the buttermilk. Until
re< ent years cream has
be< n secured entirely by
all- >wing it to rise to the
toj of the milk. Since
th( introduction of the
cream separator, about
1885, the separator
method has become more
and more general.

The most efficient
gravity method consists
in using a narrow deep
can set in ice water or
very cold spring or well
water, and skimming the
cream at the end of 12 or
15 hours. A widely used
but very inefficient way
of securing cream is the
shallow-pan system,

which consists in placing the milk in pans and crocks not
over four inches deep and keeping it at a moderate temper-
ature. The cream is then skimmed from the surface at
the end of 24 or 36 hours. By use of the deep-setting

FIG. 54. — For butter making purposes
four cows with a cream separator are equal
to five when shallow pans are used to raise
the cream.

186 DAIRY FARMING

method it is possible to recover about 90 per cent of the
cream. By the shallow-pan method from 75 to 80 per
cent is recovered.

The centrifugal cream separator is now practical where
five or more cows are kept although it is often used for even
a smaller number. The separator makes it possible to re-
cover about 98 per cent of the butter-fat and to obtain the
cream in a condition that makes it possible
to produce the highest grade of butter. It
also results in a considerable saving of labor,
and the skim-milk is in the best possible con-
dition for feeding to calves.

175. Ripening of Cream. This subject
requires considerable attention since the mar-
ket value of the butter is largely controlled
by the cream ripening. Cream should not
used for raising be held too long. When churned, it should
cream by deep- nave a pure, sharp, sour taste with no ob-

setting system.

jectionable taste, such as bitter, rancid, or
stale. Cream ripening is due to the development of bacteria.
Butter factories use a starter to help control the souring,
but this is not generally practical for the small farm, unless
considerable cream is handled. The proper ripening of the
cream is controlled by two things : first, by observing proper
cleanliness in every detail of milking, separating, and hand-
ling the cream ; second, by proper control of the temperature
of the cream during the ripening process.

The following statement is based upon the assumption that
churning will be done two or three times weekly and not
daily. The best procedure under these conditions is to
keep the cream from the first milking at a temperature of
70° but not colder. This can be done by setting the can in

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 187

well water or standing it in a room at ordinary temperature.
The cream from the next milking is added to this without
coo ing. If by the time the cream from the third milking is
added, the cream in the can tastes sour, the entire lot should
be placed in cold water or a cold place where it will cool to
a t« mperature of between 50° and 60°. It should be kept
at his temperature until churned. The ^

fresii cream as separated is added to the
sou • until within about twelve hours of
chu rning, after which no more is added in
ord'jr that the cream may be kept cool
unt 1 churning time.

176. Temperature for Churning. No
defi aite temperature can be given covering
all conditions. The best rule is to use
sucli temperature as is necessary to get
the cream to churn within 30 to 45 min-
uter . Quicker churning means soft butter

, . , , ... FIG. 56. — Floating

Or tOO much loSS in the buttermilk, dairy thermometers.

Longer churning is of no advantage. A thermometer should

always be at hand

When cows are on pasture, a temperature where milk is cooled
of from 52° to 56° F. is usually found best, °r cream churned'
while under dry-feed conditions 58° to 64° F. is more suitable.
A thermometer should always be used in bringing the
cream to the proper churning temperature. Guessing at the
temperature often means poor quality of butter and much
waste of time. The churn should be not over one-third full,
and the cream should have about 25 to 30 per cent of fat
for the best results. Difficulty in churning is generally to
be attributed to having the temperature too low, the cream
too thin, or the churn too full. At times trouble that cannot
be attributed to these causes is experienced. This occurs

188

DAIRY FARMING

when the cream is from cows far advanced in the stage of
lactation and generally during the season when dry feeds

are fed exclusively. Under

these

itself

fat
fat
the
the

conditions the
is hard, the
globules small, and
amount of casein in
milk large. All these con-
ditions combine to make
churning difficult. If a
cream separator is in use,
the trouble may be partly
removed by mixing the
cream while still sweet
with three or four times
its volume of warm water
FIG. 57. — The most widely used, and and running this mixture

most satisfactory churn for farm use.

through the separator.

This affects the flavor of the butter somewhat, but makes
the churning easier by removing
part of the casein.

177. Churns and Churning.
For farm use nothing is better
than the ordinary barrel churn
without any inside fixtures.
Large farm dairies can advanta-
geously use a small-sized com-
bined churn and worker. The
cream should be strained into the
churn through a wire or hair FlG. 58. _ combined churn
strainer to remove particles of and butter worker» adapted for

use on the farm where large
CUrd, which if not removed Show amounts of butter are made.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

189

as white specks in the butter. If butter color is used, it
should be added to the cream in the churn. The churn
should be stopped when the butter granules are about the
size of kernels of corn, or a little smaller in thin cream.

The buttermilk is drained off through a strainer. The
but er is next washed to remove the remainder of the but-
ten dlk, by adding about as much water as there was

FIG. 59. — Butter in proper condition to stop churning.

buttermilk. This should be at a temperature of 50° to
56° F.

178. Salting and Working. After washing, the butter is
placed on the worker and the salt distributed over it.
The worker and the ladles used are previously put to soak in
hot water, then thoroughly cooled in cold water before using,
to prevent the butter from sticking to them. The amount of
salt may vary some with the market, but usually one ounce
per pound of butter is the amount preferred. The butter

190

DAIRY FARMING

is next worked to distribute the salt and to make the butter
into a compact mass. If there is trouble in getting the
salt dissolved, the butter may be allowed to stand a few
hours in a cool place after the working is partly done. A
second working is then given. The working should be done
slowly and mostly by pressure rather than by sliding the
ladle or working utensil over the butter. The working should
stop when the salt is all dissolved and the body of the butter
compact and waxy. Observation of the condition of the
butter and of the time required is the best way to learn the
proper stage at which to stop working. Overworking makes
the butter sticky and soft in texture, underworking results
in mottled butter.

179. Package. When butter is placed on the market,
the package is of great importance. It should be neat

and attractive and of
proper size. The rec-
tangular one-pound
prints meet with the
most favor every-
where. They should
be wrapped in good
parchment paper,
which may be pur-
chased in the proper
size, 8X11 inches, at
very low cost. When butter is shipped or handled in quan-
tities, it is also well to use a paraffined paper box over the
parchment paper, known as a carton, which protects the
butter. To secure and retain a good retail trade requires
a uniformly high quality of butter and a constant supply
during the year.

FIG. 60. — A hand butter worker that gives
good results when butter is made on the
farm.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

191

FACTORY PRODUCTS

180. Creameries. This name is commonly applied to
fac ories manufacturing butter on a large scale and from
mile supplied by several or many herds. The amount of
butter made on farms
decreased 7 per cent in
the 10 years 1899-1909,
but the amount made
in factories increased 49
per cent. The great
advantages of the fac-
tor- system are the
saving in labor and the
higl ler price obtained
for :he product.

Ill Some places the

milk is taken from the farm to the creamery for separation.

This is known as a whole-milk creamery. In others the

farmers separate the cream at home with

fl small separators and deliver the cream to

^_J\,__ ^ ^-^ the factory. Some creameries are owned
by the farmers and operated on a coop-
erative basis, while others are owned by
individuals or companies.

Many centralizer creameries have re-
FIG. 62. — Good

butter ladles. Butter cently originated in the Central and
JK^dT'hfld Weste™ States. Such creameries are
located in cities where shipping facilities
are good, instead of in a cream-producing neighborhood.
Cream is purchased by local agents or shipped direct to the
company by the producer. Shipments are at times made as

FIG. 61. — A hand butter worker. Where
butter is made in lots of five pounds or more
a worker should be used.

192 DAIRY FARMING

far as 400 miles, but generally within a 50-mile radius. Some
of these factories have the capacity of forty average-sized
local creameries. The cream received is usually sour and
too old for the best results in butter making. However, by

skillful methods of handling, in
the way of pasteurizing and neu-
tralizing the cream with lime
water, it is possible to make a fair
grade of butter. This type of
creamery is most common where
the producers of cream are widely
scattered so that a local creamery
cannot obtain sufficient raw ma-
terial. Under these conditions the
FIG. 63. — Butter print. The centralizer creamery serves a useful

rectangular print sells best. purpose) but where the gupply of

cream is sufficient a local factory is to be recommended.

181. Cheese Making. This important industry is carried
on most extensively in Wisconsin and in New York. In
1909 these two states produced over 79 per cent of the total
product in this country. The milk of about 850,000 cows
is used for this purpose in the United States and the value
of the product is nearly 50 million dollars annually. Only
about 3 per cent of the cheese is made on farms. Milk for
cheese making must be well cared for. This requires a fairly
liberal supply of milk within a small area. On the average 10
pounds of milk are required for 1 pound of cheese. Common
American Cheddar, which is the most common kind, contains
about one-third water, one-third fat, and one-third casein.

In the process of cheese making the milk is coagulated while
it is in a perfectly sweet condition by the addition of rennet
extract. Rennet is a substance obtained from the wall of

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 193

the stomach of calves that have been slaughtered for veal.
It is secreted by glands in the lining of the stomach in all
you ig animals that live on a milk diet. The casein as it is
coagulated by the rennet incloses the fat with it and forms
curt ,. This curd is cut into small pieces, and the water
gradually expelled by careful stirring and heating. When
the proper stage is reached, the curd is put into a press and
suff cient pressure is applied to cause it to unite into a solid
ma^ 3. When the pressing is completed, the cheese is put away
for ripening. Newly made cheese is not good to eat. It
lacks flavor as well as digestibility. It is kept for a period
of f 'om six weeks to six months for curing and ripening.

The temperature of the curing room must be carefully
con- rolled, as too much heat will injure the quality of the
che( se. The difficulty of proper control of the ripening is
the most serious objection to making cheese on the farm,
and the greatest difficulty to be overcome, in operating a
factory in a climate subject to great extremes of heat. Dur-
ing 1;he ripening, the protein largely changes from an insoluble
to a soluble form and in this way becomes much more digesti-
ble. The typical flavor is developed at the same time.

182. Condensed Milk. The process of condensing milk
was invented by Borden in 1856. For the year 1909 the
value of condensed milk in the United States was nearly 34
million dollars. The process consists in removing a portion
of the water from the milk by heating it in a partial vacuum.
The milk used must be fresh and in good condition. The
milk is condensed until 2J parts of the fresh milk make 1
part of the condensed. Two classes of condensed, milk are
commonly made. One is known as sweetened, since cane
sugar is added until the finished product contains 40 per
cent sugar. Condensed milk of this class is preserved

194 DAIRY FARMING

chiefly by the large amount of sugar present. The other
class is the unsweetened. Nothing is added to the milk.
The preservation depends upon heating the product after
it is in cans in a steam oven under pressure until it is
completely sterilized. Several grades of this class are made.
A condensed milk factory can only be operated where a large
supply of perfectly fresh milk can be obtained. The con-
densary is usually a good market for milk, but the farmer
supplying the milk has the same trouble raising his calves
as in the case where whole milk is sold in any other form.

183. Milk Flour. A few factories make powdered milk,
or milk flour. For this a part of the fat is removed, and
the milk is dried to make a fine white powder that keeps
well. When water is added, the powder dissolves.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Which is heavier, cream or skim-milk?

2. What purpose does each of the constituents of milk serve
when used as food? Which is the most important constituent?

3. Compare the amount of fat in Holstein milk with the amount
in Jersey milk when the latter is considered as 100 per cent. Com-
pare the protein in the same way.

4. Why is the percentage of fat not an accurate measure of the
value of milk as food ?

5. Is it possible to increase the percentage of fat in milk by
changing the feed ?

6. Is the color of milk a sure indication of the percentage of
butter-fat contained ?

7. Where does each constituent of the milk go when milk is
used for butter making ? For cheese making ?

8. What reasons are there for stripping a cow ?

9. What are the legal standards of your state for milk and
butter ? Some of this information is given on page 297. What are
the restrictions on the sale of oleomargarine ?

10. What principle of physics is the basis for the operation of
the cream separator and of the Babcock milk test?

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS

195

11. How many cows would be required where the shallow-pan
syst om is used, to supply as much cream as would be secured from 6
cow s when the centrifugal separator is used ?

12. Why is butter yellow in summer, and much lighter in color
in v inter ?

13. What is a farrow cow ? Why is cream from her milk likely
to 1 e hard to churn?

1 4. What is the leading dairy product in your region ?

15. Is more or less of the butter in your region made in factories
tha i formerly?

16. What butter or cheese factories are there in the region?

1 7. What dairy products are sold in your local stores ? Where
do ' hey come from ?

1 8. The following table gives results for 1909. Using data given
in t lis chapter, fill in the blanks.

BUTTER

CHEESE

CONDENSED MILK

Pounds
Produced

Butter-
fat
Re-
quired

Pounds
of
Milk
Re-
quired

Pounds
Produced

Pounds
Milk
Re-
quired

Pounds
Produced

Pounds
Milk
Re-
quired

Mad? on farms
Mad 3 in fac-
tories . . .

Tital . . .

994,650,610
624,764,653

9,405,864
311,126,317

494,796,544

1,619,415,263

320,532,181

494,796,544

LABORATORY EXERCISES

COMPOSITION OF MILK

15. Butter-fat. Examine some milk under the microscope, using
preferably a one-sixth objective, and make drawings of the fat
globules showing the variations in size.

16. Casein of Milk. This part of milk is precipitated by dilute
acids. Place 10 c.c. of skim-milk in a 200 c.c. beaker and add 90
c.c. of water at a temperature of 100° F. Immediately add 1.5 c.c.
of a 10 per cent solution of acetic acid. Let it stand 20 minutes
with occasional stirring. Filter, using ordinary filter paper, saving
the filtrate in another beaker. The residue on the paper is the casein.
The albumin, sugar, and ash are in the filtrate.

17. Albumin of Milk. Heat the filtrate from the above rapidly,
and boil until the solution can be filtered with a clear filtrate. Filter

196 DAIRY FARMING

while hot. The residue on the filter paper is the albumin. The sugar
and the ash remain in the filtrate.

18. Milk Sugar. The milk sugar is not easily separated from
the ash. Its presence may be demonstrated by using Fehling's
solution as follows. To 10 c.c. of the filtrate add 5 c.c. of Fehling's
solution and boil. The red precipitate shows the presence of sugar.

19. Ash of Milk. The presence of ash may be demonstrated as
follows. Take 25 c.c. of milk in an evaporating dish. Add a few
drops of acetic acid. Place evaporating dish and contents on a sand
bath and evaporate to dryness. Allow to char slightly, then place
on a wire gauze over a gas burner and heat until contents char. Re-
move the gauze and heat over a full flame until all of the carbon is
burned off. The gray residue is the ash, or mineral matter.

THE BABCOCKTEST FOR MILK

20. Test of Whole Milk. Apparatus needed : a hand power cen-
trifuge or testing machine, 4 to 6 milk test bottles, a pipette to
measure the milk, an acid measure, ordinary commercial sulfurio
acid, a small sample of milk, and some hot water. The apparatus
may be purchased from any dealer in dairy supplies. Sulfuric acid
may be obtained at any drug store.

Sampling the Milk. The accuracy of the test depends largely on
the sample taken. The milk to be tested should be thoroughly
mixed, preferably by pouring several times from one jar to another.
The milk should be at ordinary room temperature. The small end
of the pipette is placed in the milk and the milk drawn in by suck-
ing slowly at the upper end. The milk is drawn somewhat above
the mark which indicates 17.6 c.c., and the first finger is then quickly
slipped over the top of the pipette. The milk is then allowed to
escape slowly until the surface is at the mark on the pipette. The
small end of the pipette is now placed in the neck of the test bottle
and the milk allowed to flow into the test bottle. The last drop
remaining in the point of the pipette should be blown out into the
test bottle. It is always well to make duplicate tests of each
sample.

Adding the Add. When all the samples are measured out, the
acid should be added. The acid measure is filled to the 17.5 c.c.
mark with acid that is at room temperature. The acid is now
poured into the test bottle, holding the bottle in an inclined position
so that it runs down the neck and side of the bottle and forms a
clear layer at the bottom. Next take the bottle by the neck and

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197

giv< it a gentle rotary motion until the curd of the milk is entirely
dissolved, and the mixture of acid and milk is of a uniform dark cof-
fee ?olor and very hot. This change in appearance and in tempera-
tun is the result of the action of the acid upon the constituents of
the milk, all of which are dissolved except the fat, which is not
affe ?ted.

Whirling the Bottles. The bottles are now put in the centri-
fug . They should be quite hot throughout the whirling. Test-
ing should not be done in a cold room. It is generally necessary to
pla« e some boiling water in the bottom of a hand centrifuge to keep
up he heat during the whirling. The test bottles should be placed
in 1 lie machine so that they balance each other. The machine is
ope -ated for five minutes at the proper speed for the machine, 700
to 000 revolutions of the disk per minute, depending upon the size
of ihe revolving parts. At the end of five minutes the machine
is si opped, and hot water is added to each bottle by means of the
pip< tte until the contents come up to the bottom of the neck.
Tilt ti whirl the machine two minutes more and add hot water
to bring the fat column near the top of the graduations on the
neck. Whirl one minute and the tests are ready for reading.
The fat should be clear and free from black sediment below, or
f oai i on top.

Reading the Test. The test bottles should be placed for a few
minutes in a deep pail or pan of water, the temperature of which is
regulated to 130° F. The fat should be in a fluid condition. In
reading, the test bottle should be held in a perpendicular position
on the level with the eye.

I1 he reading on the graduated scale should be noted at the top
and bottom of the fat column,, This reading is made from the ex-
treme bottom of the fat column to the straight line which is seen
across the top, and not to the curved line which appears just below.
The difference between the two readings is the percentage of fat in
the milk. The neck of the bottle is graduated into large divisions
which represent per cent, and these again into smaller divisions,
each of which may be 0.1 per cent, or 0.2 per cent, depending upon
the style of the bottle.

Suggestions on Making the Bdbcock Test. 1. Use the index
finger, not the thumb, for closing the pipette. Keep the finger dry.

2. Draw the milk above the mark when measuring, and then hold
the pipette on level with the eye as the milk is allowed to flow a
drop at a time until the mark is reached.

198 DAIRY FARMING

3. Hold the bottle in a slanting position when adding acid,
and do not allow the mouth of the bottle to point toward any
one while the milk and acid are being mixed, as occasionally the
contents may be forced out suddenly.

4. Wash the pipette thoroughly, and dip it in hot water after
using.

5. The testing machine must be fastened securely to a heavy
table or bench. Start and stop the machine slowly.

6. If black sediment appears in the fat column, the indications
are that the acid was too strong. Use slightly less. If white specks
are present, it is probable the action of the acid was too weak. Use
a little more, or warm the milk 10 or 20 degrees before adding the acid.

7. Wash the test bottles at once after using by means of hot
water and some washing powder. Rinse thoroughly in clean water
to remove all traces of washing powder.

8. Remember the acid is poison and will burn the clothing or
skin. If spilled on anything, pour on plenty of water and add some
lime, soda, or washing powder to neutralize the acid.

21. Cream Testing. When cream is sold on the basis of the
fat content, the samples for testing must be weighed rather than
measured. A test may be made by the following method, but it
must be kept in mind that the results are not entirely accurate
and tend to be lower than the true reading.

Mix the cream thoroughly and by the use of the milk-testing
pipette, place 17.6 c.c. in a clean cup or beaker. Next fill the pipette
to the mark with water and add to the cream. Add a second pi-
pette full of water in the same manner. Mix thoroughly and test in
the same manner as would be done for milk. Since the mixture
tested is only one-third cream, the percentage of fat found must be
multiplied by three to give the percentage of fat in the cream.

VARIATIONS IN AMOUNT OF FAT IN MILK

22. Fat in Milk of Different Cows. Obtain samples of milk
from several different cows and determine the percentage of fat in
each with the Babcock tester. If the weight of milk can be taken
at the same time, calculate the amount of butter-fat each cow
produced. Samples for testing should be taken by thoroughly
mixing all the milk produced by the cow before taking out the
small portion from which the test is to be made.

23. Fat in Milk of Different Breeds. Take samples from cows
of as many breeds as are available and test each for fat.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 199

24. Fat in First and Last Milk. Take a sample from a single
co^ by milking the first few streams of milk from each teat into a
jar or bottle. Take the last strippings from the same cow in the
san:e manner, and test both for fat.

25. Fat in Milk Sold on the Local Market. Students from homes
win re milk • is purchased should each bring a sample for testing,
tak ng special care to get a fair sample in order that injustice may
not be done the milk dealer.

26. Modified Milk. Using one of the samples of milk pre-
vio isly tested, modify it by the addition of water and milk sugar
to make it suitable for infant feeding. Modify another sample to
maize it suitable for a colt.

27. Milk of Different Animals. Obtain milk from as many
different kinds of animals as possible, mare, sheep, etc., and test
for fat.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS

28. Total Solids. For this exercise a Quevenne lactometer and a
glass cylinder are required. Bring the milk sample to a temperature
of exactly 60° F., and place in the cylinder. Place the lactometer in
the milk slowly and carefully. When it comes to rest, note the read-
ing at the surface of the milk. By placing 1.0 before this reading we
have the specific gravity of the milk. For example, if the reading is
32, ohe specific gravity of the milk is 1.032, or that of average milk.
The solids not fat and the total solids may be estimated from this
and the Babcock reading by using Babcock's formula as follows, in
which I is the lactometer reading and / the per cent of fat.

-r + .2 f . = solids not fat.
Solids not fat + fat = total solids.

Now add one-fourth water to the milk, and repeat the test as
described. The results will illustrate one method of detecting
water in milk. No attempt should be made to use this method for
detecting water, except in an experimental way, unless the user is a
trained chemist.

KEEPING QUALITY OF MILK

29. Effect of Temperature. When practicable the following
experiment can be made advantageously.

Obtain a quantity of fresh milk, preferably not more than 3 hours
after milking. Divide into two parts, cool one part to 50° F. at

200 DAIRY FARMING

once and store in ice water or in an ice box. Adjust the tempera-
ture of the other sample to between 70° and 80° and leave in a warm
room. How long before each sours ?

"CREAM SEPARATORS

30. Separation of Cream. The students should obtain samples
of skim-milk from as many sources as possible, some from cream
separators, and others from places where the cream is separated by
gravity. Make the Babcock test, preferably using a special skim-
milk test bottle. What was the loss of butter-fat by each method
of separation ?

BUTTER AND CHEESE

31. Study of a Factory. Visit a butter, cheese, or condensed
milk factory, and learn as much as possible of the methods of manu-
facture, also of the methods of buying, selling, and management.

32. Judging Butter. If the assistance of a creamery man or
other competent judge of butter can be had, the class may gather
a number of butter samples representing the local supply, and judge
them with his assistance.

CHEESE

33. Making Curd. Dissolve a rennet tablet according to the
directions of the manufacturer, add it to milk and observe the effect.
Compare the curd formed with that from sour milk in taste and con-
dition. Curd made in this way is used in cheese making.

34. Fat in Cheese. Weigh out 5 grams of cheese, cut it into
small pieces, and put in a milk test bottle. Add 10 cc. of warm
water and acid as in testing milk. After the cheese is dissolved,
complete the test as for milk.

Since the test bottle is graduated for 18 grams, the percentage of
fat for the cheese must be calculated for that amount by dividing
the fat reading by the weight of cheese taken in grams and multi-
plying the result by 18.

COLLATERAL READING

The Production of Clean Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle-
tin 602.

Bacteria in Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 490.

The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Farmers' Bulletin 416.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201

The Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363.

The Application of Refrigeration to the Handling of Milk, U. S.
Dot. Agr., Bulletin 98.

K'arm Butter Making, U. S. Dept Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 541.

Cream Separators on Western Farms, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers'
Bu.letin 201.

Household Tests for the Detection of Oleomargarine and Reno-
va ed Butter, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 131.

Cheese Making on the Farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin
161 .

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp.
17.-246.

Medical Milk Commission and Certified Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr.,

Bulletin 1.

Condensed Milk and Milk Powder, O. F. Hunziker.

Milk and Its Products, H. H. Wing.

CHAPTER 9

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF
DAIRYING

G. F. WARREN

184. Cattle and Grass. Cattle raising goes with the
raising of hay and forage crops. How closely the growth of
these crops limits the production of cattle is shown by Figs.

FIG. 64. — Distribution of the hay and forage crops of the United States.
Compare with Fig. 65.

64 and 65, taken from the United States Census reports.
In the South and in the arid regions there are a few
more cattle than the hay and forage crops would suggest,
because some of the cattle in these regions are pastured all
the year and therefore require little or no hay.

202

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

203

TABLE 22. — CATTLE AND HAY AND FORAGE (CENSUS OF 1910)

REGION

CATTLE

DAIRY Cows

TONS HAY
AND FORAGE

Nev England

1 336 550

841 698

4 659,906

Middle Atlantic ....
Eas North Central . . .
Wes4 North Central . . .
Pae fie

4,232,521
9,819,097
17,647,714
3 204,400

2,597,652
4,829,527
5,327,606
826,115

11,302,178
20,391,562
36,326,167
7,306,590

Moi.ntain
Sou h Atlantic

6,060,725
4 839 321

514,466
1 810,754

8,600,736
2,917,870

Eas South Central . . .
We.- fc South Central . . .

3,942,526
10,721,012

1,628,061
2,249,553

2,565,716
3,383,010

135. Topography and Climate. As has already been indi-
cate d cool regions are more favorable than hot ones for the
daii y cow as well as for the manufacture of dairy products.

FIG. 65. — Distribution of cattle in' the United States.

Most of the cattle of the world are grown on pastures on
land that is too dry, too wet, too steep, too stony, or other-
wise not adapted for the growth of crops. All regions that

204 DAIRY FARMING

have such pastures keep cattle or sheep. In regions where
all the land is well adapted to crops, cattle production is
usually but not always a minor business. But cattle are
often fattened in such regions. Very frequently the final
factor in determining whether cattle shall be kept is the
presence or absence of land that is good for pasture, but not
good for crop production. For instance, in parts of the
corn-belt there is so little rough pasture land that fewer

FIG. 66. — Using the stony land for pasture.

cows are kept than otherwise would be. Most of the milk
supply for Chicago and for New York comes from north of
these cities, partly because of the presence of pastures and
partly because of the cooler climate.

186. Location of Beef and Dairy Cattle. It is apparent
that the number of cattle in a region is directly dependent
on the presence of hay and forage crops, or on ranges.
Whether the cattle shall be of the beef or dairy type de-
pends primarily on the distance to the centers of popu-
lation. Beef animals can be shipped long distances. They
are therefore grown farthest from the centers of population.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 205

Sev mty-four per cent of the steers and bulls in the United
Stages are west of the Mississippi River, but only thirty
per cent of the population is in that region.

The relative weight and bulk of the feed and of the human
foo< made from it, the perishability of the product, and the
cost of feed are the primary factors that determine where
different animal products shall be raised. When a liberal

FIG. 07. — A dairy region where the level land is used for crops, the side
hills for pasture and the poorest land is left in woods.

use of corn silage and pasture is made, and if we include
the feed for the young stock as well as for the mature ani-
mals, a pound of butter represents approximately 100 pounds
of feed. A pound of cheese or dressed beef represents about
50 pounds of feed, and a pound of milk 5 pounds of feed.

If drier feeds are used, the quantities will be less, but
approximately the same proportions will still hold. With
hay and grain a cow sometimes gives a pound of milk for
each pound of feed. A steer fed in a box stall for three
years used 38 pounds of feed for each pound of dressed beef.1

* Ontario Agricultural College, Report, 1893, p. 122.

206

DAIRY FARMING

Evidently cattle may be used to condense large quantities of
roughage into beef and butter for shipment to distant markets.
Another factor favoring the location of beef cattle in the
regions of least population is the fact that beef animals can
thrive on ranges that are too poor to support a good dairy
cow. In the irrigated valleys of the Northwest that have

FIG. 68. — Distribution of dairy cows in the United States. The largest
numbers of dairy cows are kept in the cool regions that have good blue-
grass pastures.

excellent blue-grass pastures dairy cows have practically
displaced beef cattle, but the dry range grasses that are
just above the irrigation ditch are given over to beef cattle
or sheep. Most of the beef animals are raised west of the
Mississippi River, although many of them are fattened east
of it.

In 1910 the New England, Middle Atlantic and East
North Central States had over 4 out of each 10 dairy cows
in the United States, but had less than 1 out of each 10
other cows.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

207

Vhe adjustment that the farmers have made to meet the
coi ditions is shown in Table 23. On April 1, 1910, Nebraska
am Iowa had more than one-fourth as many yearling steers
an< bulls (3 months to 15 months) as they had cows and
hei 'ers (15 months old or older). Practically all the calves
bom in these states are raised. Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio
ha< less than one-sixth as many yearling steers or bulls as

TABLE 23. — STEERS ON FARMS ON APRIL 1, 1910

STATE

STEERS AND BULLS
BORN IN 1909, PER 100
Cows1

STEERS AND BULLS
BORN BEFORE 1909, PER
100 Cows

Colorado

Nel raska ....

Iowa
Illii ois ....

28
15

36
20

Indiana
Ohio .

15
14

15
15

Nevr York ....

Massachusetts . . .

cows, and New York and Massachusetts had only one steer
or bull for 15 to 16 cows. In these two states practically
no steers are kept. The number reported represents practi-
cally the number of bulls. Instead of raising steers, these
two Eastern States sell practically all their bull calves as
veal. Near the cities, both the heifer and bull calves are
often killed at birth, as feed is too expensive to make it pay
to keep them even up to the legal age for veal. The East
Central States sell many of their calves for veal, but raise
some steers. The West Central States raise nearly all their

1 Number of steers and bulls for each 100 cows and heifers born before
Jan. 1, 1909. Since many heifers too young to have calves are included
with cows, the figures are all low in terms of milch cows.

208

DAIRY FARMING

calves. . The age at which the steers are sold also shows
an adjustment to feed prices. The Western States keep
their steers to two or three years of age, as is shown by the
fact that they have twice as many of the older ones as of
the yearlings.

During the past few years there has been some discussion
about introducing beef cattle in the Northeast, but there

DAIRY PRODUCTS
R.ECEIPTS FROM SALE. 19O9

FIG. 69. — Receipts from the sale of dairy products. This map shows
the location of the centers of commercial dairying, as contrasted with those
in which cows are kept to supply products for home use only.1

is little chance for such an enterprise to succeed. The sum-
mer pastures are fairly cheap, but the cost of winter feed for
a beef cow is more than the value of her calf.

187. Relation of Transportation to Dairying. Not only are
the relative positions of beef and dairy cattle determined by
the problem of transportation, but in dairy regions the kind
of product that is to be produced is controlled by the dis-
tance that the products must be shipped. Butter, cheese,

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 395.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

209

milk flour, and condensed milk are concentrated for their
value and can be shipped long distances. Cream for direct
use can be shipped farther than milk because it is more con-
cei trated for its value. It is sometimes shipped from St.

Percent

Ol lOWoc

orice
200

175

150

•f — " "" "

H<#.

.y*'"

125

•—....

^^x*"

- Cc

rC--""

100

-» -ftv»|

* ^^^^

^ —

1 • „

&u\\2-

Iowa. lit. Ii\d Ohio N.Y Mass

Fm. 70. — Average farm prices for five years, 1910-1914. As we go
eastward the prices of hay and corn rise faster than does the price of butter.
This- favors the production of butter where feed is cheap.

Lawrence County, New York, to Washington, D. C., about
500 miles.

Milk is the most bulky of the dairy products for its value
and is also very perishable, so that it is produced nearest to
the places where it is to be consumed. The city must
reach out just far enough to obtain its necessary supply.
Milk is now regularly shipped to New York City from points
over 300 miles away.

Farms that are favorably situated for the sale of milk
cannot afford to produce butter for sale on the wholesale mar-
ket. Hay and other feeds are too valuable nearer the cities,
p

210

DAIRY FARMING

One who under such conditions produces butter or cheese
is using more expensive raw materials and gets little if any
more for his product.

In 1912 farmers who sold milk to cities in different parts
of the United States received an average of 3.57 cents per
quart above all shipping costs. The averages varied from
2.9 to 4.4 cents for different cities.1 In the same year the
average farm price of butter was 26.1 cents per pound.2
The price received for the milk was probably equal to 36
cents per pound for butter.

How difficult it is for farmers near cities to compete in
butter production with those who have cheaper feed is
shown by a comparison of prices in New York and Iowa.
The average farm prices in 1914 are given in Table 24.

TABLE 24. — AVERAGE FARM PRICES IN IOWA AND IN NEW YORK 3

IOWA

NEW

YORK

Butter

$ .26

$ .31

Per Cent of
Iowa Price

119

Hay . .

10.10

14.60

145

Com

.55

.83

151

Butter was only 19 per cent higher on New York farms
than on Iowa farms, but hay was 45 per cent higher and
corn 51 per cent higher than in Iowa. Other feeds are in
about the same proportion. It is evident that butter and
cheese production must shift to the regions of cheap feed.
This shift is most strikingly shown by census figures. All

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Reporters, Sept. 24,
1913.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, p. 686.

3 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1914, pp. 516, 570, 626.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

211

of the northern states east of Indiana produced much less
but er in 1909 than they did ten years before. The Chicago
den and for milk was strong enough to cause a decrease in
but er production in Illinois.

Ii New York, butter production decreased 40 per cent and
che ;se production decreased 19 per cent in ten years. At

CREAMERIES

EACH DOT REPRESENTS

FIG. 71. — Location of creameries in the United States.1

the same time cheese production increased 88 per cent in
Wisconsin, and butter production increased 50 per cent in
Minnesota.

The great center of butter production is west of Chicago.
More butter is shipped from Chicago to the Eastern States
than is produced in the nine North Atlantic States.2 Wis-
consin, Iowa, and Minnesota are the leading butter states,
in the order named. From the rapid rate of increase, it is
probable that Minnesota will rank first at the next census

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 396.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177.

212

DAIRY FARMING

period. There is no reason to suppose that any other state
will be a close competitor with Wisconsin in cheese production.

TABLE 25. — POUNDS BUTTER AND CHEESE MADE ON FARMS
AND IN FACTORIES1

BUTTER

CHEESE

1899

1909

Per Cent
Increase

1899

1909

Per Cent
Increase

New York

115,408,222

69,358,918

-40

130,010,584

105,584,947

-19

Wisconsin

106,552,649

131,085,193

79,384,298

148,906,910

Minnesota

82,363,315

123,551,515

These declines in New York do not mean that the dairy
business has declined. They merely show that the readily

CHEESE FACTORIES
1914

FIG. 72. — Location of cheese factories in the United States.2

transportable dairy products are coming from regions of
cheaper feed. At the same time that these decreases have

1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. V, p. 489.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 397.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

213

taken place in butter and cheese production, the amount of
miik sold to be consumed as milk has more than doubled
(in ?reased about 121 per cent). .There is still much butter
and cheese produced in New York and other eastern states
and will be for some time to come. The amount of land
thi't is good for pasture but not good for crops is more than
enough to supply all the milk needed in the cities. The

FIG. 73. - — Distribution of cheese production in the United States.
Most of the cheese is produced in regions that are cool, and that have good
pastures on soils well supplied with lime.1

remaining land is used for the production of cheese and but-
ter. As the populations of the cities increase, the production
of both of these will decrease. Some butter will always
be made because the milk supply cannot be just right
for each day's demand. The excess is usually made into
butter.

188. Other Adjustment due to Transportation. Because
of differences in prices of feed and kinds of products sold, the

1 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231.

214 DAIRY FARMING

methods of dairying are very different in different regions.
Near cities the cost of feed is so high and the value of the
protein in milk (skim-milk) is so great that the raising of
calves is very expensive. Many farmers who are thus sit-
uated regularly buy their cows. This is certain to continue
to be the general practice. This provides a steady market
for mature cows from regions where feed and milk are both
cheaper. Such men can raise more calves than they need
and can sell some of them as cows.

Because of the expense of raising cows where feed is high
priced, the tendency in such regions is to keep the cows
longer. On New York farms, there were 7 cows for each
yearling heifer in 1910, indicating that the average cow
is probably kept until she is 8 or 9 years old. In Wisconsin
there was one yearling heifer for each 4.7 cows. In Iowa
there was one heifer for each 3.6 cows. In these states the
cows are kept about half as long as they are in New York.

189. Marginal Regions. There are of course many regions
where the conditions are about equally favorable for each
class of dairy products. The region may be at the end of
the milk-shipping region so that the freight charges on milk
make the net price of milk about the same as that of butter.
Such regions tend to prevent the price of milk from rising.
If it rises much, farmers stop making cheese or butter and
ship the milk ; and if the price drops, they go back to butter
or cheese making.

190. Effect of Distance to Railroad. Back from the rail-
roads on which milk or cream is shipped there are some-
times communities or farms that find it better to make
butter than to haul milk too far. In many of the milk-sell-
ing regions there are such examples. Sometimes the farmers
get calves from men living near the railroad, take them to

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

215

the distant farm to be raised, and then sell the cows back
to 1 he dairymen nearer the railroad. It is often more profit-
abl< for the farmers in such regions to cooperate and haul
the milk to the railroad.

191. Soil and Climate as Determining the Kind of Prod-
uct There are no important dairy regions that do not

Pe Cen
16

/ I

\J\

/ I
f

1
1

^ X,

sN,

Milk

"•-..^

B.»*

Vx
N\

Butter

~^* ^^

•

\
\

•\

CKeese

Aa Feb. Mar Af>r. M&y June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Fco. 74. — Proportion of the year's product made in each month. Record
for cheese made in Wisconsin, butter received in Chicago, and milk and
cream received in New York. Most of the cheese and butter is made in
summer and stored for winter use.

have good pastures. Cheese production appears to have a
further limitation. Nearly all the cheese is produced in
cool regions that have a limestone soil or that have a soil
fairly well supplied with lime. Butter is produced on all
kinds of soils, but most of the commercial product is from
regions where the soil and climate will grow good pastures.
192. Kind of Product and Season for Production. The
demand for milk in the cities is practically constant. Fifty-
two per cent of the total milk shipped to New York City is

216

DAIRY FARMING

received during the six months beginning May 1. But
almost two-thirds (64 per cent) of the cream is used during
the summer months.1

Because pasture is so much cheaper than winter feed, the
products that are readily stored, such as condensed milk,

Butter per Ib. Milk per qt.
42< A->t

..«••

..••*'

38.

•.

£;

^38

36.

..•

3.6

32.

>...«

f**

3.2

.3.0

. 2.8

2.6

^, *

^"^>

_22

Jm. Feb. Mar Apr May June July Au$ Sept Oct. Nov. Dec.

FIG. 75. — Average farm prices of butter and of market milk at shipping
stations for the five years 1910-1914. In order to secure a constant supply
of milk the prices in the different months have to be in proportion to the
costs of production in each month, but the amount of stored butter prevents
the winter price of butter from rising as high as it otherwise would.

butter, cheese, and milk flour, are most largely produced on
grass. About 75 per cent of the cheese in Wisconsin is pro-
duced in the six months beginning with May.2 Over three-
fifths (63 per cent) of the butter received in Chicago is
received during these six months.3

1 The Milk Reporter, Feb., 1915, p. 16.

a Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231, p. 21.

3 Chicago Dairy Produce, Jan. 16, 1915, p. 5.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING

217

Of course some butter and cheese is produced in all
moiiths. The problem is whether to have the cows freshen
in t lie spring, and thereby have most of the production made
on } >asture ; or to have them freshen in the fall, and therefore
hav<v most of the production made in- winter. It is perfectly
clea - that the majority of farmers find that the summer dairy
pay ^ best for cheese and butter. Many of those who sell
market milk have the cows freshen in the fall.

TAB LE 26. — FIVE-YEAR AVERAGE FARM PRICES OF BUTTER IN
THE UNITED STATES, 1910-1914 ; AND THREE-YEAR AVERAGE
PRICES OP MARKET MILK AT SHIPPING STATIONS, 1913-1915

MILK t

BUTTER 2

Cents per
Quart

Per Cent of
Dec. Price

Cents per
Pound

Per Cent of
Dec. Price

January

4.13

28.4

100

February . .

4.06

27.2

Mar:;h . . .

3.90

25.9

April ....

3.61

25.4

May ....

3.21

24.7

Juno ....

3.16

23.5

July ....

3.33

22.9

August ...

3.49

23.6

'83

September . .

3.66

24.7

October . .

3.98

25.8

November . .

4.14

26.7

December

4.19

100

28.3

100

The average farm price of butter in the United States by
months is given in Table 26, also the average farm price of
milk that is shipped to the leading cities. The highest
price of milk is reached in December. The June price is

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Correspondents, Sept.
24, 1913, Jan. 20, 1915, Apr. 28, 1915.

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbooks.

218 DAIRY FARMING

only 75 per cent of the December price. Butter is less
variable in price. The butter held in storage prevents the
winter price from rising as high as it would otherwise go.
Under normal conditions this stored butter prevents the
winter price from rising high enough to cover the increased
cost of feed as it must do in the case of milk. The winter
prices of butter and cheese are based not primarily on the
cost of winter feed, but on the cost of summer feed plus the
cost of storage.

In spite of this difference in favor of production of butter
on pasture, there are some farms that can produce it in win-
ter to the best advantage. Occasionally a farmer sells but-
ter at retail at such a high winter price that it more than
covers the higher feed cost. If the farmer is very short of
pasture and has an abundance of cheap winter feed, winter
production may pay. Sometimes the pressure of other work
in the summer is enough to more than offset the difference in
feed cost. Occasionally a farmer has such profitable summer
work and so much of it that he cannot afford to milk cows
in the summer, but may be able to milk them for butter pro-
duction in winter.

193. Animal Unit Defined. In order to compare the
amount of live-stock on different farms, it is necessary to
reduce all kinds of animals to some common basis. One
cow, bull, or horse is called an animal unit. Two head of
young stock are counted as one unit. Seven sheep, fourteen
lambs, five hogs, ten pigs, one hundred hens, are each
counted as one animal unit. In each case the numbers given
represent a group that eats approximately as much food
as a cow or horse, and produces manure worth as much as
that produced by a cow or horse. Similarly, the number of
cattle units on a farm are the approximate equivalent in

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 219

grovn cattle. To find the number of cattle units add half
the lumber of young stock to the number of cows and bulls.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1 Is your region more or less favorable for cattle production
thai the average of the country ? Consider the ease with which per-
man >nt pastures are maintained, length of the pasture season,
amo mt of pasture land that is not good for crop growing, amount
of g« >od forage crops grown, cost of winter feed, and total cost of
feed for the entire year.

2 Is the region relatively better for beef or for dairy cattle?
Som .? of the points to consider are : cost of feed, coolness of the cli-
mati , whether the pasture grass is luxuriant enough to maintain a
gooc flow of milk, and the market for dairy products.

3. What form of dairy products are usually most profitable in
this -egion? Why?

4. From the railroad agent find the amounts shipped in a car-
load of cattle, of butter, of milk, of cream. What is the freight on a
car-load of each to the nearest large city ? Use the same city in each
case.

5. From farmers, find about how many pounds of feed are repre-
sents d in a car-load of each of the above products.

6. From the census report for your state, fill in the following table :
Number of farms in the state

Number of dairy cows
Number of dairy cows per farm
Quantity of milk produced
Quantity of milk produced per cow *
Pounds of butter made on farms
Pounds of butter made in factories

Total pounds of butter
Pounds of cheese made on farms
Pounds of cheese made in factories

Total pounds of cheese
Amount of milk sold
Amount of cream sold
Amount of butter-fat sold

1 Notice that this is too low because some heifers that are too young
to give milk are included with cows.

220 DAIRY FARMING

Total value of all dairy products sold
Average value of dairy products sold per farm

7. Compared with the preceding census, which of the following
are increasing and which decreasing : number of cows ; butter made
on farms ; butter made in factories ; cheese. In each case give the
reasons for the change.

8. A similar study may be made for the county.

9. How may steers and bulls born before 1909, and born in 1909,
are there in your state or county for each 100 dairy cows ? Compare
with Table 23, page 207. What proportion do dairy cows represent
of all cattle? Compare with Table 22, page 203.

10. How many beef and dairy cows were there in your state or
county? How many heifers born in 1909? How many cows for
each heifer? Compare with the figures on page 214.

11. Are the calves in your region raised, or sold for veal? If
sold, at what age?

12. Does your region produce all its dairy cows? Does it pro-
duce any to be shipped to other regions ?

13. About what proportion of the cows in the dairy herds of
your region are replaced each year?

14. At what time of the year is most of the milk, butter, or cheese
of your region produced ? Why ?

COLLATERAL READING
Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 43-103, 276-278.

CHAPTER 10

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS
G. F. WARREN

D URY farms may be classified according to the cropping
syst< m that they use, also according to whether they raise
or buy their feed, and may be compared in many other
way:-. A few of these problems of organization are here
discussed.

CROPS FOR FEED

194. Corn Silage. The most striking change in the dairy
industry in the last century has come in connection with the
use of the silo. This provides a succulent feed in the winter
and makes it possible to obtain a better production of milk
at that time of year. The silo is a means of saving corn-
stalks in the best possible form for winter use. It does not
increase the value of the grain. In fact, there is always some
loss in the silo, and the cost of putting corn into the silo is
more than the cost of husking from standing stalks. Aside
from its value as a succulent feed, it is primarily a substitu-
tion of corn-stalks for hay. In regions where the season is
too short for maturing corn, it may still be grown for the
silo. In arid regions corn and other crops that would not
produce much grain are nevertheless of value for silage.

Few crops except corn and similar plants are used gener-
ally for the silo. Crops that make good hay are best stored

221

222 DAIRY FARMING

as hay, because hay can be handled more cheaply and be-
cause the hay crops pack so loosely in the silo that the
losses are considerable.

The higher the price of hay, the more important a silo
becomes. The more general use of silos in the East is pri-
marily due to the high price of hay. The average farm
price of hay in New York is 86 per cent above that in Ne-
braska, but in every region the price is rising so that interest
in silos is general.

Next to the price of hay the number of cattle is the pri-
mary consideration in building a silo. A silo that holds
much less than 75 to 100 tons is expensive for its capacity.
But such a silo will furnish feed for 20 to 30 cattle during
the winter months. It is usually not profitable to have a
silo for less than 10 cattle. If one has over 20 cattle in a
region where corn grows well, a silo is usually profitable.
Between these limits the price of hay, the amount of money
available, the machinery that must be purchased, and
whether winter or summer dairying is followed, will deter-
mine whether or not a silo will be profitable. In Livingston
County, New York, only 7 per cent of the farmers who had
fewer than 15 cattle units had silos, but 83 per cent of those
who had 25 or more cattle units had silos.

Silage costs more than the estimates often given. In
the Eastern States it usually costs about $4 to $5 per ton.
It is often considered to be worth one-third as much as hay.

In the corn-belt a ton of silage often contains about five
bushels of corn. To compare the cost of silage with the value
of corn husked from the standing stalks, we must add to
the value of the corn grain the extra cost of putting it in the
silo, and interest on the money invested in the silo, and an-
nual depreciation of the silo. These extra costs often amount

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 223

to SI per ton. On this basis silage usually costs $3 to $4
per ton.

195. Soiling Crops. Sometimes dairy cattle are kept in
the barn, and green feed is brought to them* rat her than
pro dde pasture for them. This system is practiced in some
pla< es in Europe and occasionally in America. The system
will keep more cows on a given area of land, and it is
therefore frequently advocated by persons who do not un-
deivtand American farming. When land is very high in
price, or labor very cheap, it is a good system. On the edge
of < ities it sometimes pays because land for pasture would
be 1 oo expensive. The high price received for the milk may
make it possible to follow this expensive method and yet
make a profit. The large amount of labor involved is shown
by results at the New Jersey Experiment Station. The
equivalent of 50 cows was kept for 6 months on various
soiling crops. During that time 278 tons of green crops
were hauled to the barn. The cost of the labor to haul these
crops to the barn, to say nothing of the cost of growing
them, would be more than the entire cost of pasture in
many dairy regions. It often pays to cut some corn-stalks
or to give some other feed at times when the pasture is short,
as discussed on page 128, but this is very different from fol-
lowing a soiling system. Such feeding is supplementing
pasture, not trying to do without it. Even when land be-
comes high in price and labor cheap, it is not probable that
a soiling system will be generally used in America, because
corn silage is cheaper and is as good. Any system of barn
feeding during the pasture season means that milk is being
produced on the winter basis of cost, whereas the product
must be sold at the summer price, which is much lower.

196. Roots. Mangels, sugar beets, or other root crops

224 DAIRY FARMING

are much grown for stock food in Europe, but in regions
where corn silage can be grown, such crops are not likely to
be raised extensively, because corn silage is nearly as good
and is cheaper. The cool moist climate of Europe and the
cheap labor are favorable for growing roots. Our climate
is better adapted to corn, and our labor is so costly that
root crops are expensive feed. The farmer who keeps too
small a herd to justify him in having a silo, sometimes finds
that it pays to raise root crops to give a succulent feed in
winter. Roots are a very expensive feed, but a few pounds
a day will often increase the milk yield enough to pay. Per-
sons who make advanced registry tests usually raise mangels
or beets to feed to the cows while on test. Root crops also
have a place in regions where the season is so short that
corn silage cannot be raised.

197. Legumes. The importance of raising alfalfa, clover,
or some other legume has already been emphasized. Many
farms in the eastern half of the United States are better
adapted to clover than to alfalfa, but where alfalfa grows
without too much difficulty it is preferred. Cowpeas are
the most common legume in the South. Soybeans, vetch,
and many other legumes are grown by some farmers, but in
most parts of the North, alfalfa or clover is more profitable.

198. Pasture. The common pasture plants in the north-
eastern quarter of the United States are Kentucky blue-grass
and white clover. On land that is deficient in lime, Canada
blue-grass or redtop is often the chief pasture plant. Blue-
grass requires several years to form a good sod. If the pas-
ture land is well supplied with lime and is fairly fertile, the
pasture usually requires little attention, but if it is not
fertile, more care is necessary. In the South the common
pasture plant is Bermuda grass.

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 225

199. Home-grown Grain. In the corn-belt it nearly always
to raise more corn than the cattle eat. Since there is

an ibundance of corn, it should be fed as liberally as possible
am yet have a good ration. In the Eastern States and
nor:h of the corn-belt farm-grown oats are often ground for
cov feed. Oats are nearly always too high in price to be a
proitable feed to buy, but the costs of marketing the oats
am hauling other feeds to take their place are often enough
to ] aake it pay to feed the oats that one has.

CROPPING SYSTEMS ON DAIRY FARMS

200. Principles of a Good Cropping System. The great
majority of the dairy cows are in the northeastern quarter
of ihe United States (see Fig. 68), east of central Nebraska
am; north of Washington, B.C. Most of this region is
adapted to timothy, blue-grass, and clover. Permanent
pastures of blue-grass and white clover are common. The
usual cropping system is :

Corn or other tilled crops on sod land for one or more
years.

Small grain for one or two years with timothy and clover
seeded in the last year.

Hay for one or more years, or hay followed by pasture.

This is an ideal cropping system for the dairy farm. The
three different classes of crops supplement each other in the
control of weeds. The corn furnishes silage or grain or both.
The small grain gives its best yield and at least cost when
grown after a tilled crop. The grasses and clover are started
by seeding in the small grain at very low cost. If the land
is adapted to clover, this helps to supply the protein that
is not provided in sufficient quantity by the other feeds grown
in the rotation.
Q

226 DAIRY FARMING

Everywhere a good rotation for a dairy farm should if
possible provide clover, alfalfa, or some other legume for
hay and should provide an abundance of roughage and pas-
ture. It should if possible provide a cash crop, or a feeding
crop for some other class of animals, such as corn for hog
feed.

201. Examples of Rotations. There are many variations
of this rotation plan that follow the general principles given

FIG. 76. — A good basis for profitable dairying ; high-grade cows on a
good blue-grass pasture ; corn for the silo in the background ; clover in an
adjoining field ; timothy and oats also raised.

above. In the southern part of the region described above,
from southern Pennsylvania to Kansas, a common rotation
is corn, winter wheat, clover.

A little farther north, corn is removed too late for the
planting of wheat, therefore oats are grown following corn.
In the Northeastern States, corn, potatoes, cabbage, and other
tilled crops are usually followed by oats in which grass is
seeded. The hay is usually left for about three years. In
this region hay does well and is high in price.

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 227

I Q the best part of the corn-belt, corn is raised for several
years in succession because this is the most important crop.
A j.;ood rotation for much of this region is corn two years,
followed by one year of oats in which clover and timothy
are seeded. This may be cut for one or two years, or if there
is i ot a permanent blue-grass pasture, it may be cut for hay
om year and pastured one year.

1 n regions where alfalfa is grown, systems of cropping are
not so definitely established. Perhaps the ideal dairy region
is c ne that is naturally adapted to corn and alfalfa and that
ha^ permanent pastures of blue-grass and white clover.

1 n the South, a good rotation is cotton one or two years,
foil 3wed by corn. The corn is followed by one year of oats
anc cowpeas, the oat crop being harvested in time to raise
a c -op of cowpeas the same year. Cowpeas or some other
croi3 is sometimes planted between the rows of corn. This
system, together with Bermuda grass pastures, provides
legumes, corn, pasture, and a cash crop. The legume and
pasture are, however, more expensive to raise than are
the grasses of the North. There is room for a great develop-
ment of dairying in the South, but the greatest dairy centers
will remain in the regions where grass grows more readily.

These are but a few of the great variety of cropping sys-
tems followed on different dairy farms.

CASH CROPS AND FEED RAISED

202. Feed and Cash Crops. There are many ways in
which the type of farming on dairy farms may be described.
Some of the most important comparisons are based on the
extent to which feed is purchased and the amount of other
products sold. The following are some of the different
methods :

228 DAIRY FARMING

1. All feed bought, no crops raised, nothing but milk and
discarded cows sold.

2. Nothing but roughage raised.

3. Roughage and all or part of the grain raised.

4. Same as 2, but with some cash crop or other product
sold.

5. Same as 3, with some cash crop or other product sold.

6. With any of the above methods, the cows may be raised
or may be purchased.

7. The cows may be pure-bred so that there is a consid-
erable income from the sale of stock.

In general, each of the above types is more profitable than
the preceding, provided the conditions are favorable for it.

203. All Feed Purchased. Some dairy cows are kept in
cities. Most of these are kept to supply milk for home use,
but some large dairies are maintained where all feed must be
purchased. Usually the cows are fed largely on factory by-
products that are not readily shipped. But sometimes or-
dinary feeds are purchased. The high price received for
the milk sometimes makes such an enterprise profitable.
Calves are very rarely raised in cities, because feed is too
expensive. Ordinarily it is cheaper to produce the milk in
the country where pastures are available. It costs less to
ship milk than it does to ship the hay and other feed required
to make it.

204. Nothing but Roughage Raised. This system is
very common in the hilly and mountainous parts of the
Eastern States. A better system is not easy to devise for
some regions where the land is not adapted to any crop ex-
cept hay and pasture and where the fields are all so small
and rough as to prevent the profitable growth of other crops.

Because of the small amount of field work, it is not often

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 229

profitable tp employ much hired help. The farmer with
the help of one member of the family at chore time can milk
20 >r 25 cows and, therefore, under this system, the women
oft"n help with the milking. The farmer can do the re-
ma nder of the day's work alone. In haying time he may
nee d a little extra help. Such farmers usually find that it
pa; s best to have the cows freshen in the spring so as to pro-
du< e most of the milk in summer and thus reduce the grain
bill. One of the important reasons for winter dairying is
to lave the summer free for field work, but on farms where
litt e field work is done this is no advantage.

1 fnder these conditions the milk production per cow is the
most important problem because profits depend almost en-
tin ly on the cow. It is sometimes possible to find some other
prc duct besides milk that can be raised without much extra
cost. Berries, eggs, honey, or hay will often add much to
the income. Sometimes pure-bred stock is kept and a good
profit made from the sale of the surplus animals.

205. Roughage and Grain Raised. Where the land is
good enough to raise grain, this system pays much better
than the preceding one because the grain feed can be raised
wit hout having to hire much extra labor, and with practically
the same number of horses that must be kept anyway.
(See Farm Records on page 281.)

206. Roughage and Cash Crops Raised. One of the
most profitable types of dairy farming is the combination of
intensive cash crops with a dairy. The manure is used
to grow potatoes, cabbages, apples, tobacco, hops, peas,
or sweet corn for canning factories, or some other crop for
sale. Where the soil and markets are favorable for one or
two of these crops, this system usually pays much better
than trying to raise the grain feed. It is, of course, much

230 DAIRY FARMING

better to raise the grain feed than nothing. But if instead
of raising the grain, one can raise cash crops that will pay
the feed bill several times over, he should certainly choose
the latter course. Hay is another good cash crop for dairy
farms near large cities. Most of the highly successful dairy
farms in New York and New England sell some crops, as do
many of the farms in other sections. Some of these farms
also raise all their grain feed, but most of them buy a consider-
able part of it. (See Farm Records on pages 242 and 285.)

Farther from the cities the cash crops are more likely to
be grain or grain marketed through hogs. This is the most
commonly profitable type of dairy farming in the corn-belt.
It is certain to increase greatly in that region. All of the
roughage and most of the grain is raised for, all of the farm
stock. A little cottonseed meal, or other nitrogenous feed,
is purchased to balance the ration. Much more corn is
raised than can be fed to the cows. This is sold or is fed to
hogs. If skim-milk is available for hog feed, the conditions
are particularly favorable for hog production. (See Farm
Records, page 281.)

MANAGEMENT OF MANURE

The success of the dairy farm is in no small measure de-
pendent on the use that is made of the important by-product,
manure.

207. Amount of Manure Produced. Under the direction
of the writer, R. E. Deuel determined the amount of manure
produced by a herd of 46 cows of different breeds and ages,
averaging 1008 pounds in weight. He found that excrement
was produced at the rate of 13f tons per year. Some years
ago Roberts found the amount to be 13.5 tons per 1000-
pound animal. In each case a little over one ton of bedding

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 231

was used, so that if the cows were kept in the barn all the
time and if no manure were lost, there would have been
nearly 15 tons of manure per 1000-pound cow.

INluch of the year the cows are either at pasture or in the
ban yard so that part of the manure is lost. About a ton
of n anure per cow per month is ordinarily available when
cow^ are kept in the barn and turned out in the barnyard for
a pn rt of the day. In the Northern States 8 to 10 tons of
man are a year, including bedding, are usually available for
eacl cow or animal unit kept.

208. Fertility of Feed Returned by Cows. The propor-
tions of the constituents of the feed that are returned in the
excroment are somewhat variable. A fat animal that is
not working or giving milk returns a very large proportion
of the food materials. A good dairy cow from the very
fact that she is an efficient machine returns a small propor-
tion.

TABI E 27. — PROPORTION OF CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD THAT ARE
RETURNED IN THE EXCREMENT OF DAIRY Cows

DEUEL

WOLFF 1

Dry matter

Per Cent

45.5

Per Cent

438

Organic matter

43 3

39 5

Nitrogen
Ash

44.3
63 6

47.5
53 9

R. E. Deuel determined the average results for a herd of
46 dairy cows. These results as well as the results by Wolff
are given in Table 27. Dairy cows return somewhat over
40 per cent of the organic matter and nitrogen of the food
eaten, and more than half of the mineral matter. Dry

1 C. M. Aikman, Manures and Manuring, pp. 227, 281.

232 DAIRY FARMING

cows, or cows that are giving little milk, often return a half
more than these amounts.

If one wishes organic matter to plow under to make humus,
he can feed cows and still have 40 per cent of the humus-
making material left. For this reason, it is usually more
profitable to feed stock than to plow under green-manure
crops.

If one desires nitrogen as a fertilizer, he can feed cows,
and still get back nearly half of the nitrogen of the feed. If
he needs phosphorus and potassium, he can feed cows, and
get back over half of these materials that are in the feed.
In addition to the above all of the bedding may be recovered.
Some of the manure may be lost, but for the time cows are
in the barn, if the manure is reasonably well cared for/
it is safe to estimate that over a third of the fertilizing value
of the feeds will actually be applied to the land.

209. Losses of Manure and their Prevention. On many
farms the manure is allowed to lie around in the barnyard
until a very large part of it is lost. Exposure for five months
resulted in a loss of over half of the value of the manure.1
One of the important reasons for keeping cattle is to obtain
manure, but there is no object in this if the manure is wasted.
If manure is kept moist enough so that it will not heat, and
yet if neither the liquid in it nor rain water that falls on it,
is allowed to escape, it will keep with practically no loss.

The safest place for manure is on the land. On some farms
it is possible to haul it every day. This is the best possible
way to save it. When this practice is followed, it is con-
venient to have the barn so arranged that one can drive
through between two rows of cows that have their heads
toward the wall. In regions where little is done except to

1 Elements of Agriculture, G. F. Warren, p. 141.

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 233

care for the cows and raise feed for them, the practice of
daily hauling is often best.

If many acres of crops are grown for sale or for use in
feed! ig other animals, the field work is so important that
durii g much of the year one cannot afford to take the time
to hi ul manure every day. There are then three ways of
keepi tig the manure. It may be left in piles until it can be
haulc d, it may be kept in covered barnyards, or may be
kept n a manure shed.

A :heap shed with a concrete floor will keep off the rain
and prevent the liquids from leaching away. A convenient
way of using such a shed is to have the barn equipped with
a ma Hire carrier so that the manure from the cows, horses,
and c ther animals, can be put in the shed. The floor of the
shed should be two to four feet below the floor of the barn
to in< Tease its capacity. The writer has found that a shed
25 feet square will ordinarily hold the manure from about
20 animal units until the time when it can be hauled. The
floor need not be expensive. Three inches of concrete on
solid ground will answer all purposes.

A better plan is to have the shed large so that cattle, hogs,
or other stock, can run in it. This keeps the manure solid
and makes a good covered shed. With either of the above
plans, it is convenient to have the barn so arranged that the
cows' heads are together. This saves time in feeding, and
the barn can be cleaned with a manure carrier as quickly as
if the cows faced the wall.

The majority of farmers throw the manure in piles in the
barnyard. The rains then wash away much of the best
part of it. Even with this method, considerable saving can
be made by having the eave troughs and yard drainage so
arranged that a minimum amount of water will run through

234 DAIRY FARMING

the manure. In arid regions even this precaution is not
always necessary because there may be only enough rain to
keep the manure wet without washing it away. With this
method of handling, it should be hauled away frequently.
If possible, all of it should be hauled out in the winter and
spring so that as little as possible will be lost by summer
rains. In August usually it can be cleaned up again. Bet-
ter care of manure by using the covered shed method, or by
some other method, is well worth consideration.

210. Value of Manure. Manure is sometimes valued
according to its chemical analysis. If purchased in com-
mercial fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and calcium in a ton of manure would cost over
$2. But what manure is worth to a farmer depends not
on its chemical analysis but on what he is going to do with
it. If it is to be left in the barnyard, it has no value. If
used on some crops, it may have a very high value. 'On
other crops its value is less. If applied in very large quan-
tities, its value per ton is less than when used in moderate
amounts.

The good returns that often come from combining dairying
with such intensive crops as potatoes, cabbages, hops, to-
bacco, apples, and grapes are due partly to the high value of
manure for growing such crops. It is just as easy by use of
manure to increase the potato crop ten per cent as it is to
increase a grain crop by the same proportion. But the po-
tato crop has so much greater value per acre that the returns
from such an increase are much more. Manure has a high
value for growing corn and is chiefly used on that crop in
regions where more intensive crops are not raised.

For raising corn, small grain, and hay, manure is often
credited to the cows at about $1 to $1.50 per ton at the barn,

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 235

The cost of hauling is usually about 50 cents so that these
figures would make the manure cost the crops $1.50 to $2
per 1on. For some new regions these figures may be high,
but i n the eastern half of the United States manure is always
wort i at least $1 per ton at the barn. Where truck crops or
other very intensive crops are raised, it may be worth much
mor< .

211. The Value of Manure Depends on the Rate of Appli-
cation. The Pennsylvania Experiment Station has con-
duct od an extensive series of fertilizer and manure experi-
meni s since 1882. A four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat,
hay s followed. On one plot 6 tons of manure is applied
on the corn and on the wheat. On another plot 10 tons is
used The check plots receive no treatment. The total
value -s of the crops per acre for 32 years were as follows : l

No treatment $474

Hx tons manure every other year (96 tons) ... 714
Ten tons manure every other year (160 tons) . . 747

When a total of 96 tons of manure was applied, the value of
the increased crops amounted to $2.50 per ton of manure.
An additional application of 64 more tons gave increased
crops worth 51 cents for each additional ton. For the
entire period of 32 years this extra manure would have
been worth nearly five times as much per ton if applied
at the lesser rate. If one kept 30 animal units and ob-
tained 6 tons of manure from each one, or 180 tons per
year, he would have 5760 tons of manure in 32 years. If
this manure were applied at the lesser rate, the total value
of the increased crops would be $14,400. If applied at the
heavier rate, the same manure would have brought increased

1 Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 90. Later data
furnished by F. D. Gardner.

236 DAIRY FARMING

crops worth only $9,828. The manure would have been
worth $4,572 more to the farmer if spread thinner.

The land that received the heavier application is better
for future crops but by no means is it better to the ex-
tent of the cost of the heavier application. The best
measure of how much better it is, is found in the results of
the last few years. As an average for the last four years,
the plots that had received 64 more tons of manure per acre
gave crops worth only $8.63 more than the crops on the plots
using the lighter application. This difference is not enough
to give any promise of catching up.

The same principle is shown by results at the Ohio Ex-
periment Station. Many different experiments have been
conducted for many years. In every case a given quantity
of manure has given the greatest returns when spread thinly.
One test in a three-year rotation of potatoes, wheat, clover,
has been continued for 21 years. Manure was applied
at the rate of 4, 8, and 16 tons on wheat. The total values
of the crops per acre were as follows : 1

No treatment $782.49

4 tons manure every three years (28 tons) . . 900.04

8 tons manure every three years (56 tons) . . 963.17

16 tons manure every three years (112 tons) . . 1099.31

When a total of 28 tons of manure was applied, the in-
creased crops were worth $4.20 per ton of manure. An ad-
ditional application of 28 more tons of manure per acre
gave additional crops worth $63.13, or $2.25 per ton for the
additional manure. A still further addition of 56 more tons
gave crops worth $2.43 per ton for the last additional manure.

Of course the land that has received the heavier appli-

1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 144. Data for 1914
supplied by C. G. Williams.

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 237

cation is in better condition, but this is not enough to make
up f )r the past difference in returns. Even with the fer-
tility left from all the previous years of treatment the plots
that had the heaviest applications were still paying least per
ton »f manure on the twenty-first year.

01 course if there is enough manure, the heavier applica-
tion is very desirable, but with a limited amount it is better
to sj read it thinly. These figures also indicate the high value
that one can assign to manure if he is keeping a small amount
of stock.

If a farmer had 180 tons of manure a year to apply for 21
yean under conditions like those in the Ohio experiment,
the manure would produce increased crops worth $15,869,
if applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, but would
give increased crops worth only $10,693 if applied at the rate
of 16 tons every three years. If the manure is not wasted,
this amount is usually available on a farm that keeps 15 cows
in addition to the usual amount of young stock, horses, etc.
If applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, it would
provide for 135 acres of crops. These are about the condi-
tions on many 160-acre farms.

If the manure were applied at the rate of 16 tons every
three years, it would provide for only 34 acres of crops.
This would be a very small farm. Another way to provide
for the larger application would be to keep four times as
many cows on the larger area. But this would make a very
heavily-stocked place.

From the above, we see that one of the strong reasons for
keeping a moderate number of cows is the high value that
can be obtained from the intelligent use of small applications
of manure. One of the reasons why it may not pay to stock
the farm too heavily is the smaller value that manure then has.

238 DAIRY FARMING

212. The Value of Manure Depends on the Crops on
which it is Applied. At the Ohio Experiment Station, 8
tons of manure was applied on wheat as compared with the
same application on potatoes. The manure gave increased
crops worth $3.45 per ton when applied on potatoes, but gave
only $2.72 per ton when applied on the wheat crop. If one
farmed 75 acres of this land with this three-year rotation
and had 200 tons of manure to use each year, he would
make $3066 more in twenty-one years if he applied it on the
potatoes rather than on the wheat.

With corn, wheat, and oats, each grown continuously on the
same land at the Ohio Experiment Station, corn paid the best
prices for manure, wheat next, and oats least.

Such experiments indicate the great importance of applying
the manure on the right crop in the rotation. They also
indicate the great advantage of combining dairying with the
production of such intensive crops as potatoes.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Make a list of all the farmers you know, with the number of
cows that they keep, and state whether or not they have a silo.
Lists by different members of the class can be combined to make a
cow and silo census. What proportion of the farmers who have 10
cows or Jess have a silo ? What proportion of those who have 10 to
20 cows have a silo ? What proportion of those who have over 20 ?

2. Make a list of all the different kinds of silos of the region. Of
as many as possible, find the cost (including labor by the farmer)
and the cost for each ton of capacity.

3. If any farmers have cut part of a field for silage and have
husked part of the same field, find the yield of silage and of grain.
How many bushels of corn in a ton of silage ? If the use of the silo
and machinery and extra work amount to $1.00 per ton, what would
a ton of the silage cost at the present price of corn ?

4. Does any one in the region follow a soiling system ?

6. Are roots raised for stock food by any farmers in this region ?
6. What are the best legumes for the dairy farm in this region ?

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 239

7 What are the common pasture plants of the region?

8 What are the usual crops grown on the dairy farms of this
regioi ?

9 What feeds do dairy farmers in this region buy ? What cash
crops or other products are sold from dairy farms ?

10 What crop rotations are used in the region? Do they in-
clude the types of crops that make a good cropping system?

11 What are the usual methods of handling manure in this re-
gion ? Is it taken out of the barns with a carrier, loaded on a wagon
drive i through the barn, or is it thrown out into the barnyard?
Do a ly farmers in the region haul manure every day? Do any
have a shed in which manure is kept? What proportion of the
f armt rs clean up and haul all the manure at least twice a year ?
On \v lat crops is the manure usually applied, and at what rate per
acre ?

12 How many months are animals usually kept in the barn
here ? About how many tons of manure are available for each ani-
mal u lit kept ? If possible find the tons of manure hauled by some
farme- and number of animals kept. How many tons were there
per ai imal unit ?

13. For some farm in the region find the area, acres of crops
grown, number of each kind of animals, and crop rotation. Calcu-
late tl le number of animal units and probable tons of manure avail-
able. On which crops, how often, and at what rate would you use
this iranure?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

35. Field Trip to a Farm. Visit one or more dairy farms. Make
sketches of the farms, showing location of different fields. What
crops *rere grown on each field last year ? What was done with the
crops ? What areas will probably be grown this year ? On which
field is the manure applied? How is the manure cared for? Is
the pasture permanent or rotated? What are the chief plants in
the pasture ? Is the pasture land good land for use in raising grain?
What disposition was made of the crops last year? Are the fields
and pasture conveniently arranged as to size and nearness to the
barn? What is the kind and amount of fencing? How many
months in the year are the stock kept on pasture? For how many
months does the pasture furnish all the feed ? How many animal
units are kept in the pasture ? How many acres of pasture per ani-
mal unit ?

CHAPTER 11
RENTING DAIRY FARMS

G. F. WARREN

213. Cash Rent. When cash rent is paid, the tenant usu-
ally furnishes everything but the land. The landlord then
has little to do with the farm. In some regions the land-
lord furnishes the cows and rents the farm and cows.

214. Share of Crops. In regions where grain or cotton
is the major product, the landlord usually receives a share
of the crop. If cows are kept, the landlord has no share in
them. Only rarely does a good dairy farm develop under
these conditions. The landlord is not likely to provide
suitable buildings. The tenant justly feels that the manure
produced by the cows he feeds increases the yield of the
landlord's land with no expense to the landlord.

215. Share of Receipts. In the older states the almost
universal system of sharing the products on rented dairy
farms is for each party to receive half of the receipts from
all products of the farm. The landlord furnishes the land
and does any extensive repairing of buildings. For small
repairs to buildings and fences he usually furnishes materials,
and the tenant does the work. He usually pays the taxes,
pays half the seed, feed, fertilizer, threshing, silo filling,
hay pressing, and similar bills ; and furnishes half or more
of the cattle and other stock from which he shares the in-
come.

240

RENTING DAIRY FARMS 241

The tenant furnishes the human labor, machinery, and
hors 3S, and half of the other stock, and- pays half of the bills
men ioned above. He pays such bills as horseshoeing and
mac n'nery repairs. Each party has half of the receipts and
own ; half of the young stock raised.

Ii regions where little but milk is sold, the landlord usually
f urn shes all cows (see page 244) . When profitable cash
crop 3 are raised in addition to dairying, the tenant usually
f urn shes some of the cows (see farm, page 242) . In either
case the calves raised are usually a part of the product, to
be Divided equally.

1V1 any variations occur. If the chances of making a profit
are )oor, the tenant obtains concessions from the landlord.
If tie chances are good, the tenant may make concessions to
get i he place. The landlord often furnishes some machinery
or he rses, usually what he happens to own. The tenant often
owns all the hens and receives all the product from them.
Usually he is then required to furnish all the feed for them.
A hog or two is often kept in the same way. If hogs are
an important enterprise, the feed and returns are divided.
Sometimes the landlord pays all the fertilizer bill and often
furnishes all the grass seed. Sometimes the tenant furnishes
all the grain for horses, and sometimes this cost is shared.
Colts usually belong to the tenant but are sometimes shared.

The fertility of the land, character of the buildings, quality
of the cows, distance to market, price of milk, size of the farm,
and many other factors must be considered before one can
say what the exact terms of the lease should be. For the
tenant the quality of the cows kept, the fertility of the land,
and amount of good crop land available are more important
than minor details in the lease.

It seems probable that this general system of rental will

242

DAIRY FARMING

come to be used in most regions where dairying becomes the
most important industry. One advantage of the system is
that it stimulates the keeping of animals. In several counties
where this has been studied the results show that the rented
farms keep more live-stock per acre than do the farms oper-
ated by owners.

216. Examples of Rented Farms. The results on farms
will show the method better than it can be described.

SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM IN WESTERN NEW YORK — 193
ACRES. A VARIETY OF PRODUCTS SOLD. Cows SHARED
EQUALLY

CAPITAL

TENANT

LANDLORD

Farm

$14,000

Machinery and tools
6 horses

$ 500
750

1 brood sow

Poultry

20 cows ...

400

Calves and bull

$1754

$14,504

CROPS

ACRES

TOTAL CROP

Corn

200 bushels

Wheat

800 bushels

Oats

560 bushels

Timothy and clover

50 tons

Potatoes

350 bushels

Field beans

252 bushels

Apples .

50 bushels

Peas for canning factory
Sweet corn for canning factory ....
Sweet corn stalks and pea vines put in silo

14 tons
24 tons

RENTING DAIRY FARMS

243

A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM IN WESTERN NEW YORK — Continued

TENANT

LANDLORD

Rect ipts
Milk

$1000

C; ttle sales and increased inventory .
P< ul try and eggs

30
60

H >gs

116

"Wheat

343

Oj.ts

168

P( tatoes

252

Auples

P( as

175

Sveet corn

Exp< nses
Libor

$2139
$ 200

$2277

Grass seed

$ 40

Feed

150

Fertilizer .

IVI ichinery Tip-keep

Bi ilding up-keep .

120

Harvesting

Tv-dne

Tb resting and coal

Insurance

Taxes

Receipts less expenses

$ 568
$1571

$ 439
$1838

Interest on tenant's capital @ 5% . .

$ 88

Tenant's labor income

$1483

Landlord's per cent on investment .

12.7

This farm is a large diversified business with good cows.
Most of the feed raised and nearly half of the income is
derived from the sale of crops. The provisions of the lease
are the usual ones for a farm of this type. With a farm of
this size and with good cows both parties are doing well.

244

DAIRY FARMING

A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM OF 190 ACRES THAT is HIGHLY
SPECIALIZED. THE LANDLORD FURNISHES ALL THE Cows

CAPITAL

TENANT

LANDLORD

Farm

$13,300

Machinery and tools ....

$ 425

375

Feed and supplies

300

Cows ...

1,725

Heifers and calves . . • .

210

Bull

200

5 horses

350

175

Colt .

Hog .

Hens

Turkeys

$1195

$16,365

CROPS

ACRES

TOTAL CROP

Silage corn

188 tons

Timothy and clover hay
Oats

60
30

78 tons
1200 bushels

IVlangels

250 bushels

Potatoes

120 bushels

Orchard and garden

TENANT

LANDLORD

Receipts
Hay . .

$ 178

Milk

1239

Cattle sales and increased inventory .
Hides . .

40
1

165
1

Colt increased inventory
Outside work

15
207

Hogs

Eggs .

Poultry

$1759

$1641

RENTING DAIRY FARMS

245

TENANT

LANDLORD

Expi rises

$ 400

1M ichinery up-keep

Biilding up-keep

$ 50

F< od .....

Si o filling

If-' ....

Si illion service

G ass seed

T vine

T' reshing

Fi el for threshing and silo filling . .
In Durance

5
10

T;,xes

Rect ipts less expenses

$ 634
$1125

$ 312
$1329

Interest on tenant's capital at 5% . . .
Ten; nt's labor income

$ 60
$1065

Lam lord's per cent on investment . .

8.1

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region?

2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock?
Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners?

3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re-
cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how
many years did they spend as hired men?

4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed
from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how
many years have they been tenants?

6. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and
that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility
of the land.

COLLATERAL READING

Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329.
Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185.
Farm Leases in Iowa, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletin 159.

244

DAIRY FARMING

A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM OF 190 ACRES THAT is HIGHLY
SPECIALIZED. THE LANDLORD FURNISHES ALL THE Cows

CAPITAL

TENANT

LANDLORD

Farm • .

$13,300

Machinery and tools
Feed and supplies

$ 425
300

375
300

Cows .

1,725

Heifers and calves . • .
Bull

210
200

5 horses

350

175

Colt . . .

Hoe-

Hens .

Turkeys

$1195

$16,365

CROPS

ACRES

TOTAL CROP

Silage corn

188 tons

Timothy and clover hay

78 tons

Oats . . •

1200 bushels

Mangels

250 bushels

Potatoes . ...

120 bushels

Orchard and garden

TENANT

LANDLORD

Receipts
Hay

$ 178

Milk

1239

Cattle sales and increased inventory .
Hides

40
1

165
1

Colt increased inventory
Outside work

15
207

Hogs

EP-O-S

Poultry . . . . .

$1759

$1641

RENTING DAIRY FARMS

245

TENANT

LANDLORD

Exp< uses
L; bor . . . f .

$ 400

1V1 xchinery up-k66p

Bi ilding up-keep

$ 50

F( (3d ......

Si o filling

le •} ....

H >rseshoeing

St illion service

G ass seed

Twine

Tl reshing

Fi el for threshing and silo filling
In surance

5
10

T; xes

Rect ipts less expenses

$ 634
$1125

$ 312
$1329

Interest on tenant's capital at 5% . . .
Tenj nt's labor income

$ 60
$1065

Lane lord's per cent on investment . .

8.1

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region?

2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock?
Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners ?

3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re-
cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how
many years did they spend as hired men?

4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed
from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how
many years have they been tenants ?

5. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and
that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility
of the land.

COLLATERAL READING

Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329.
Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185.
Farm Leases in Iowa, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletin 159.

CHAPTER 12

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF
MARKETING

G. F. WARREN
COST OF PRODUCTION

217. Cost of Producing Milk. Reliable figures on the cost
of keeping cows are available for two regions that repre-
sent decidedly different dairy conditions.

Delaware County, near New York City, is a hilly region
where the pasture season is short. Practically all grain is
purchased. Because of the nearness to large cities, hay is
very high in price. In this county the average cost per cattle
unit for over six thousand cows was $99. The year whose
records are here quoted was one of unusually high feed prices
even for the region. In the following year the cost was $88.
All the costs of keeping the cows and of the calves raised
were charged directly to the cows, raising calves being one
means of offsetting depreciation on cows. How near these
two balance in this region is shown by the fact that the re-
turns from cattle and hides sold were only $1 per cow above
the amounts spent for cattle purchased. This region is fairly
typical for New England and for hilly regions in other states
near the large eastern cities.

Rice County, Minnesota, represents a region of very low-
priced feed. The figures were obtained several years ago
when feed was cheaper than it is to-day. Hay is worth less

246

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 247

than one-third as much as in regions like Delaware County,
near New York City. Because of the very low price of feed,
the average cost of keeping a cow was only $60.

TABLE 28. — COST OF PRODUCING MILK

DELAWARE
Co.1 N. Y.(
6422 Cows

RICE Co.2
MINN.

Qm ntities
Pounds grain f6d

Per Cattle Unit
1662

Per Cow
864

I' ours human labor

130

133

Pounds milk produced per cow . . .
Pounds butter-fat per cow ....

Cos :s
F9ed

4514
208

$66.60

5252

188

$27.50

B odding

Buildings

4.41

2.46

Dairy equipment

.58

Interest .

2.94

2.35

Human labor

1826

]

Horse labor .... ...

.20

\ 18.66

Hauling milk

501

Bull cost

1.98

D epreciation

3.19

Miscellaneous

.91

3.28

Less cattle increase and net sales . .

.92

Total cost

$9857

$60.00

It will be observed that the costs other than feed are al-
most exactly the same in the two regions. The average
costs other than feed for keeping cows under farm conditions
vary widely on different farms, but in the great majority of
cases for grade herds are between $30 and $40 per cow. In

1 Report of the Proceedings of the American Farm Management Asso-
ciation, November, 1913.

2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 124.

3 This item included elsewhere. 4 Charge for this item not given.

248

DAIRY FARMING

pure-bred herds the costs are usually much more. Next to
feed, labor is the most important cost. The importance of
having the farm and buildings so arranged as to facilitate
work is at once apparent.

TABLE 29. — COST OF PRODUCING MILK ON NEW YORK FARMS 1

GRADE

3ERD8

PURE-BRE

D HERDS

1913

1914

1913

1914

Quantities
Number herds ....
Number cows ....
Number cows per herd .
Number cattle units per
iierd

297.5
17.5

239

8
189.6
23.7

309

5
110.5
22.1

328

4
85.5
21.4

363

Average value of cows
Pounds milk per cow
Value milk per cow . .
Pounds grain per cattle
unit
Pounds dry forage per
cattle unit . . .
Pounds silage per cattle
unit . •

$71.10
6185
$99.46

1551
3028
6554

$70.31

5584

$86.42

1479 .
2480
5540

$215.90
7000
$107.70

2339
3216
6791

$268.89
7388
$105.10

2295
3200
8980

Hours man labor per
cattle unit ....
Costs per cattle unit
Grain

116

$22 71

100

$1899

161

$34 18

183

$34.24

Dry forage

17.76

12.90

23.00

16.88

Silage etc

1290

11 74

1433

17.47

Pasture ......

496

4.43

4.52

4.15

Bedding

222

1 33

255

2 70

Man labor ....

1926

16.63

27.86

30.78

Horse labor

2 64

3 77

3 22

231

Equipment labor . . .
Interest

.91
3.55

.76
2.95

.97
11.21

.79
15.90

Buildings

2 81

204

2.34

3.27

Breeding fees ....
• Veterinary and medicine
Miscellaneous ....

.003
.20
2.13

.36
.09
1.95

8.21
.55
6.92

1.76
.59
10.16

1 New York State Department of Agriculture, Circular 130, p. 82.

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 249

TABLE 29. — COST OF PRODUCING MILK ON NEW YORK FARMS —

Continued

GRADE

HERDS

PURE-BRE

D HERDS

1913

1914

1913

1914

Suv mary
F -ed

$58.33

$4806

$76.03

$72.74

]\ tan labor .
A 1 else

19.26
1446

16.63
13 25

27.86
35 97

30.78
37.48

Total

Returns per cattle unit
Milk1

$92.05

$7281

$77.94
$6624

$139.86
$72 61

$141.00
$61 73

1 1 crease and net sales .
Manure
]V1 iscellaneous ....

18.02
10.59
.39

13.37

7.87
.06

87.01
10.11
1.79

90.47
10.12
1.95

Total

Proj t per cattle unit . . .

$101.81
$9.76

$87.54
$9.60

$171.52
$31.66

$164.27

$23.27

From these costs the value of the manure should be de-
ducted to find the returns that the average farmer would
have to get in order to make a profit on cows. For Rice
County the value of the calf would also have to be deducted.
This value is included in the Delaware County figures.

Accurate results of cost accounts on a number of New York
farms including 673 cows are given in Table 29. These
farms were not especially selected but are somewhat larger
and better managed than the average farm. Most of them
were located in parts of the state where feed is somewhat
cheaper than in Delaware County. The accounts are with
the entire dairy herd considered as a unit.

For the grade herds there is a surprisingly close agree-
ment with Table 28 as to costs other than feed. The pure-
bred herds cost more in every way, but the returns are more

1 Notice that this is total milk divided by the number of cattle units.
The value of the milk per cow is given above.

250

DAIRY FARMING

than enough to cover the greater cost. The pure-bred herds
on the average pay best.

218. Cost of Raising Heifers. The cost of raising heifers
on a Wisconsin farm that raised about twenty a year was kept
for five years. The food costs to raise a heifer to two years of
age varied from $39 to $42. The total costs varied from $60
to $65 in different years. The average cost of raising one
group of about twenty heifers is given in Table 30. To these
costs the value of the heifer at birth should be added and the
value of the manure produced in the barn subtracted. Of
course, the exact figures should not be expected to apply to
another farm, but the comparative costs are worth studying.

TABLE 30. — AVERAGE COST OF RAISING JERSEY HEIFERS TO Two
YEARS OLD ON A WISCONSIN FARM l

RAISING TO
1 YEAR OLD

SECOND YEAR

TOTAL 2 YEARS

Quantities used
Whole milk, Ib. ....
Skim-milk, Ib
Grain, Ib

342
3165
547

Silage Ib . ...

353

3250

3603

Mixed hay, Ib

857

1120

1977

Corn stover, Ib
Days pasture ....
Hours man labor . . .

Costs
Feed . . .

123
40

$2458

672
171
23

$16 11

672
294
63

$40 69

Bedding
Labor

1.00
5 14

2.00

286

3.00
800

Interest

1 12

2 53

3.65

Buildings

1 57

2 38

Equipment

.55

Loss by discarding . .
Miscellaneous ....

1.99

.42
1.38

.42
3.37

Total

$35.95

$26.11

$62.06

U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49.

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 251

Tiie quantities of feed used in growing heifers at the Ohio
Experiment Station and estimated costs are given in Tables

FIG. 77. — The heifers for which the costs of production are here
given in Table 30.

31 and 32. These heifers were fed a little more whole milk
and were fed over twice as much grain as the ones men-
tioned above. The costs were therefore higher.1

The costs other than feed vary from $21 to $28 in the dif-
ferent results here quoted. The feed costs vary from $41 to
$ 58. In the States east of Ohio feed is higher in price, so that
this cost is likely to be more. In some irrigated regions where
alfalfa hay is very cheap, the feed cost may be lower.
Where skim-milk is not available the feed cost is somewhat
higher, but need not be prohibitive, as is shown on pages 116
to 118.

1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 289.

252

DAIRY FARMING

TABLE 31. — COST OF RAISING 29 JERSEY HEIFERS AT THE OHIO
EXPERIMENT STATION.

Average weights ; at birth 55 Ib. ; at one year 472 Ib. ; at 2 years

758 Ib.

RAISING TO
1 YEAR OLD

SECOND YEAR

TOTAL 2 YEARS

Quantities used

Whole milk, Ib

469

Skim-milk, Ib

2918

3005

Grain, Ib

564

785

1349

Silage, Ib

444

2426

2870

Hay, Ib .

767

1038

1805

Stover, Ib . . . .

254

291

Days pasture ....

118

159

277

Costs

Feed

$27.39

$27.12

$54.51

Other costs estimated

12.79

14.89

27.68

Total

$40.18

$42.01

$82.10'

TABLE 32. — COST OF RAISING 22 HOLSTEIN HEIFERS AT THE
OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION.

Average weights ; at birth 82 ib. ; at 1 year 571 Ib. ; at 2 years

962 Ib.

RAISING TO
1 YEAR OLD

SECOND YEAR

TOTAL 2 YEARS

Quantities used
Whole milk, Ib
Skim-milk, Ib

445
2661

174

445
2835

Grain, Ib
Silage, Ib
Hay, Ib
Stover Ib

647
656
796
11

870
2247
1419
232

1517
2903
2215
243

Days pasture ....

Costs
Feed . . .

121

$28.57

151
$29.55

272

$58.12

Other costs estimated

12.79

14.89

27.68

Total

$41.36

$44.44

$85.80

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 253

MARKETING DAIRY PRODUCTS

219. Ways of Marketing. The milk supply in many small
towns and cities is retailed by dairymen who produce part
or ill of the milk that they sell. There are some oppor-
tunities for retailing milk in regions where dairying is not a
general industry. Such regions are likely to have beef or
du; 1-purpose cattle, and the farmers are not likely to know
hov • to care for a dairy animal. One who has good cows and
wh- > knows how to care for them often has a good opportu-
nity in such a town. Every town that is near to farm land
off( rs an opportunity for some retail dairyman. Some-
times there are too many in the business so that the business
wil) not pay for the time spent, but retailing frequently offers
a g )od chance for an energetic man.

Many farmers make butter to retail in a near-by town or
to l)e shipped by parcel post. The prices received are some-
times enough to make this a good method of selling.

The great majority of dairymen have to sell on a general
market at prices fixed by the purchaser. Sometimes the
conditions are such that the selling part of the business calls
for little thought, but often there are some points to study.
Cooperation in hauling milk is often a great saving of
time.

If the price of milk varies with the fat content, the farmer
should be able to estimate which is the best kind of milk to
produce. If he has more than one market, he should be able
to make similar estimates. In regions where market milk
sells for so much that one cannot afford to sell the product in
any other way, one often sees farmers who persist in selling
butter-fat or butter long after this has ceased to be the best
practice.

254 DAIRY FARMING

220. Value of Skim-milk in Cities. When milk is sold to
the creamery, the fat basis is, of course, the proper basis of
payment. Argument is often made that payment for market
milk should be on the same basis. The public is often ac-
cused of ignorance because it refuses to pay for milk in pro-
portion to the fat contained.

For human food, protein is probably the most important
constituent of milk. How much the cities are willing to
pay for skim-milk is shown by the high price that they are
willing to pay for milk when they could get the same butter-
fat in cream at much less cost. If the other constituents
were in proportion to the fat, then the percentage of fat
would be in proportion to the value as human food, but
the richness in protein does not increase so rapidly as
the fat.

Common retail prices in New York City are 9 cents for
milk, 40 cents per quart for 23 per cent cream, and 38 cents
per pound for butter.1 On the average, milk contains about
3.7 per cent fat. At these prices the butter-fat costs
about $1. 13 per pound in milk, 82 cents in cream, and 44
cents in butter.

Evidently, milk is not purchased merely for its butter-fat,
else butter-fat in cream would sell at the same price that it
does in milk. The value that the public places on fat, as
measured by the price of cream, shows that about 27 per cent
of the amount paid for milk is paid for food that is contained
in the skim-milk. Stated in another way, if the value of the
fat is measured by the price of cream, then the fat in a quart
of milk is worth 6.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 2.5
cents. Or, if the fat in milk is considered to have the same

1 Prices furnished by the Borden Company and verified from several
other sources.

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 255

value as the fat in butter, then the fat in a quart of milk is
worth 3.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 5.5 cents.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

} . For each of the regions given in Tables 28 and 29 find the feed
cost ind all other costs and the per cent that the feed cost is of the
total cost. Compare the feed costs in the different regiojis.

2. At the prices of feeds in this region, find the approximate
valu< of the feed required to feed a cow, as given in Table 28.

£. What per cent is the feed of the total cost of raising heifers,
as gi -en in Table 30.

4. At prices of feed and milk in this region, find the approxi-
mat( value of the feed used to raise a heifer, as given in Table 30.

6. Using the weights given on page 298, how many pounds are
thert in one gallon of milk? In one gallon of 35 per cent cream?
How many quarts in 100 pounds of milk ? In 100 pounds of 20 per
cent Team?

6. In what proportion should milk testing 3.2 per cent fat and
milk testing 4.5 per cent fat be mixed to make milk testing 4 per
cent ?

7 Using figures from page 298, how much dry matter is there in
40 quarts of skim-milk? In 100 pounds?

8 Some animal food is necessary for good success with hens.
Meat scrap is often purchased for this purpose at about $3 per
hundred pounds. It is also fed to hogs. It contains about 90 per
cent dry matter, but the dry matter is not so valuable as that in
skim-tnilk. If the dry matter in skim-milk is worth the same as
that in meat scrap, what would 100 pounds of skim-milk be worth?
What would it be worth per quart?

9. A farmer is offered 30 cents a pound for butter-fat, or $1.30
per hundred for whole milk. His average test is 3.8 per cent.
Which is the higher price ? Would the skim-milk be worth the dif-
ference as feed for hogs or poultry?

10. What would be received for 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk
when sold at each of the following prices :

a. 3 cents per quart?

6. $1.50 per 100 pounds?

c. 35 cents per pound for butter-fat ?

d. 30 cents per pound for butter ?

256

DAIRY FARMING

Considering the value of skim-milk and the labor of making
butter, which would be the best way to sell?

11. The prices paid for milk by the Borden Company from April,
1915, to March, 1916, were as follows, in the region where the freight
to New York is 26 cents per 40-quart can.

BUTTER-FAT

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

April
May

1.31
1 06

1.46
1 21

1.61
1 36

1.76
1 51

1.91
1 66

June

1 00

1 30

1 45

1 60

July .

1.16

.31

1 46

1 61

1 76

August

1 62

1 77

1 92

September

1 71

1 86

201

October
November

.70

.85
95

2.00
2 10

2.15
225

2.30
240

December

.80

2 10

225

2.40

January

200

2 15

230

February

1 95

2 10

225

March

.60

.75

1.90

2.05

2.20

The above prices will be paid to dairymen where they maintain,
during this contract, conditions scoring not less than 25 per cent on
equipment and 43 per cent on methods, according to the New York
Department of Health Score Card, as scored by the Company's rep-
resentatives. Dairymen scoring less than 25 per cent on equip-
ment and 43 per cent on methods, will receive ten cents per 100
pounds less than the above schedule. Milk of intermediate com-
position was paid for at corresponding prices.

Calculate the average price for the year for milk with each
per cent of fat.

What is the average price for fat in 3 per cent milk ? What is
paid per pound for the additional fat in 4 per cent milk ? In 5 per
cent milk? What is the price for the additional fat above 3 per
cent in all cases ?

12. If skim-milk is worth as much as found in problem 8, at what
price would butter have to be sold to bring as much as the average
price paid by the Borden Company for 3 per cent milk ? For 5 per
cent milk?

13. Using the average production given on page 42, what would
be the value of the milk for one year for a cow of each breed ?

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 257

14. Find the average price paid at retail in a near-by city for
butt* r, cream with known fat content, and milk. What price is
paid for fat in each form?

COLLATERAL READING

F irm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 440-493.
U S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49.

CHAPTER 13

OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN
DAIRY FARMING

G. F. WARREN
WAYS OF MEASURING PROFITS

221. The Most Important Factors for Success. In a dairy
region the most important factors have been shown to be
the size of the business, the returns per cow, the crop yields,
and the diversity of the business.1 Many other factors have
to do with financial success, but on careful examination it will
be found that most of them are covered by the above. For
instance, nothing is said about the effective use of labor, but
the most important single factor controlling such use is the
size of the business. The following are some of the many
other factors that cause minor variations in profit on many
farms and that sometimes become the most important factors.
Too much or too little capital may be invested in buildings
or stock. Too many or too few men or horses may be kept.
The region or farm may not be adapted to dairying. The
wrong kind of product for the region may be sold. The
barns and fields may be so arranged as to aid in the work,
or they may cause a loss of time. Other things being
equal, large cows pay better than small ones.

222. Ways of Measuring Profit. Two things are at work
on a farm — money and men. To be called a financial suc-

1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 349.

258

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 259

cess any business should pay a reasonable rate of interest on
the capital invested and, in addition, pay fair wages for the
labor used. The best way to measure profits on a farm is first
to fi (id the difference between the receipts and the business
exp< nses for a year, including in expenses all labor except
the owner's. This difference represents the pay for the use
of ihe capital and for the owner's time. The interest on
the noney invested in the business calculated at 5 per cent,
or i\ :, the current rate of interest, should be subtracted from
the ncome from capital and owner's labor to get the amount
left ;o pay for his time. This is called his labor income. The
folk wing averages from 73 farms in Illinois show the method
of figuring : l

Average capital $51,091

Average receipts 5,042

Average farm expenses 1,866

Income from capital and owner's labor 3,176

Interest on capital at 5 per cent . . 2,555

Owner's labor income 621

SIZE OF BUSINESS

223. Size of Business. In order to be most economically
manpged, a dairy farm should be large enough to provide
full use for a reasonable equipment of modern machinery.
This does not mean that it should be one of the great costly
and money -losing establishments that are often maintained
by wealthy men. But it does mean that a farm is working at
a disadvantage if it is not large enough to provide work for
two or three persons. Just how many acres this will require
depends on the richness of the land and on what is done with
the milk. A small area of land that will naturally grow two
tons of hay and fifty bushels of corn per acre will represent

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 41, p. 9.

260

DAIRY FARMING

as large a business as many more acres of poor soil. If milk
is sold at retail, a smaller area and smaller number of cows
may represent an equally large business. But even when milk
is sold at retail, it is very desirable to have 15 to 30 cows.

How important a reasonable area of land is to a dairy
farmer is shown by the results from 1988 farms in New York
as given in Table 33.

TABLE 33. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO LABOR INCOME. 1988
FARMS, TOMPKINS, LIVINGSTON, AND JEFFERSON COUNTIES,
NEW YORK

ACRES

NUMBER OF
FARMS

AVERAGE
NUMBER OF
ACRES PER
FARM

AVERAGE
ACRES OF
CROPS

AVERAGE
LABOR
INCOME

30 or less ....

$121

31- 50 .....

141

252 .

51-100

616

402

101-150

572

126

568

151-200

304

177

776

Over 200 ....

281

134

995

These farms are fairly typical of many of the dairy farms
from Dakota to New England. About half the farm is
devoted to hay, corn, small grain, and other farm crops.
The other half is pasture, or woods and waste land. The
farms of less than 100 acres are on the average not paying
the owner more than interest and hired man's wages. There
are of course some small farms that pay well, but, as a rule,
the larger farms pay better. Similar results have been ob-
tained in many other states.

224. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Labor. In every region where such studies have been made
the small farms accomplish much less per man than do the

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

261

fair-sized farms. Table 34 gives results for one county.
Thi average number of men per farm as given in the table
incl ides all human labor. Work of women and children is
expressed in terms of the number of men that would have
bee;i required to do the same work. On the smallest farms,
very little work was done by any one except the operator.
On the farms of over 200 acres, the hired labor and labor by
mei ibers of the family amounted to the time of one and one-
thir-i men, or, counting the time of the farmer, these farms
had the equivalent of 2.35 men.

The farms of less than 30 acres had an average of 3.5 animal
unii s per farm besides work horses. Those of over 200 acres
had an average of 34.2 animal units besides work horses.

The producing enterprises on most farms are the acres of
crops grown and the animals other than horses.

TABLE 34. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE
USE OF LABOR. 670 FARMS, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK

AVERAGE

NUMBER
OP ANIMAL

ACRES OF

ANIMAL
UNITS

ACRES

EQUIVA-

ACRES OP
CROPS

UNITS

EXCEPT

CROPS
PER MAN

EXCEPT

HORSES

WORK

PER MAN

HORSES

30 or less .

1.04

3.5

31-50 . . .

1.18

7.9

51-100 . . .

1.34

13.2

101-150 . . .

1.61

19.4

151-200 . . .

1.98

25.1

Over 200 ...

2.35

134

34.2

The acres of crops grown, the yields of these crops, the
number of producing animals, and the production of these
animals are a measure of the amount that is being accom-
plished on a farm. The crop yields and the production of

264

DAIRY FARMING

Much other work may be done, such as repairing machinery
and buildings, taking care of work horses, mowing the lawn,
and the like, but it is the productive work that limits the
income.

On farms in Jefferson County, New York, the average
amount of productive work per man varied from 102 work
units on the small farms to 294 on the largest farms. Each
man on the largest farms is accomplishing nearly three times
as much work as a man on the small farms. It must be
remembered also that the crop yields and the returns per cow
are as good on the larger farms. Each horse on the large
farms is accomplishing twice as much as each horse on the
small farms. The farms of less than 100 acres are very waste-
ful of both man and horse labor.

TABLE 37. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE
USE OF HORSES. 1248 FARMS, JEFFERSON AND LIVINGSTON
COUNTIES, NEW YORK

ACRES

NUMBER
OF FARMS

ACRES OP
CROPS

NUMBER

HORSES

ACRES OF
CROPS
PER HORSE

30 or less
31- 50

42
64

14.2

284

1.5
23

9.5
123

51-100

315

46.8

3.1

15 1

101-150

364

73 5

17 5

151-200 .

226

987

19 7

Over 200

237

152.8

7.2

21.2

226. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Horses. The discussion given above is the best way of com-
paring horse labor. Another comparison is shown in Table
37. On the large farms, twice as many acres of crops are
raised per horse as on the small farms. The average cost of
keeping a horse, as shown by cost accounts, is about $100 to

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

265

$175 a year in different parts of the. United States. This
includes feed, labor, depreciation, and all other costs. From
tlnV the importance of the efficient use of horses is apparent.
227. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Machinery. The small farms are very inadequately equipped
wit! i machinery, as is shown in Table 38. Even the

TAI LE 38. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE
USE OF MACHINERY. 1248 FARMS, LIVINGSTON AND JEFFER-
SON COUNTIES, NEW YORK

ACRES

ACRES OF
CROPS

VALUE OP
MACHINERY

VALUE OP
MACHINERY
PER ACRE
OP CROPS

30 or less

14.2

$141

$9.93

31 50

28.4

207

7.29

51 100 ....

46.8

426

9.10

101 150

73 5

497

6.76

151 200 . . .

98.7

613

6.21

Over 200

152 8

833

5.45

farms of over 200 acres have an investment in machinery of
only $833. This represents machinery of all ages. Prob-
ably the cost when new would be over twice as much, but
even this sum will not provide all the well-established ma-
chines, such as a grain-binder and manure-spreader for each
farm. But, while the small farms are not well equipped,
their machinery cost per acre of crops is almost double that
on the larger farms.

228. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Capital. The small farm has relatively much more of its
capital invested in unproductive ways than does the large
farm. No matter how small the farm may be, the owner
desires a respectable house. Table 39 shows that the small-

266

DAIRY FARMING

est farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses ; the
largest farms have somewhat better houses, but have only
9 per cent of their capital thus invested.

TABLE 39. — AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BUILDINGS.
FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK

578

ACRES

VALUE OF
HOUSES

PER CENT
OP TOTAL
CAPITAL
IN HOUSES

VALUE
OP OTHER
BUILDINGS

PER CENT
OP TOTAL
CAPITAL
IN OTHER
BUILDINGS

VALUE
OP OTHER
BUILDINGS
PER ANI-
MAL UNIT

30 or less . . .

$1494

$ 655

$164

31- 50 ...

1000

681

51-100 . . .

1236

1091

101-150 . . .

1477

1408

151-200 . . .

1810

1900

Over 200 . . .

2113

2552

The barns on the small farms also take a much larger
proportion of the capital. The smallest farms have 19 per
cent of their capital thus invested, the largest farms have
only 11 per cent thus tied up. A barn for ten head of stock
costs much more than half as much as an equally good barn
for twenty head of stock. The smallest farms have an
investment in barns of $164 per animal unit. The largest
farms have only $50 per animal unit. Yet observations lead
to the conclusion that the stock on the larger places is better
housed. If interest, repairs, depreciation, and insurance on
a building amount to 8 per cent of the value, then the housing
cost per animal unit will vary .from $13 per year on the small-
est farms to $4 per year on the largest.

Similar results for the United States are shown in Table
40. These indicate, as for other points in this work, that
the results are of general rather than local application. The

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

267

farms of less than 20 acres have 36 per cent of their capital
invested in buildings and machinery. Those of 100 to 174
acr< s have only 17 per cent of the money thus invested, yet
they have much better buildings and more machinery.
Money thus employed not only is unproductive, but it is a
soiree of constant cost for repairs. If a farmer had all his
money invested in buildings and machinery, his income
would, of course, be zero. In fact, he would not be a farmer
at nil.

TAILE 40. — AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BUILDINGS AND
MACHINERY,. FOR UNITED STATES, 1909, FROM THE CENSUS
REPORT

ACRES

VALUE OF
BUILDINGS
PER FARM

PER CENT
OF CAPI-
TAL IN
BUILDINGS

VALUE OF
MACHIN-
ERY

PER CENT
OF CAPI-
TAL IN
MACHIN-
ERY

Umier 20

$ 605

$ 56

2.5

L!0- 49
.r»0- 99

474

848

21
19

76
156

2.8
3.1

100-174
175-499
500-999

1182
1734
2174

14
10

241
390
639

2.7
2.4
2.4

100(1 or over

3330

1196

1 0

229. Size of the Herd. In regions where very little ex-
cept dairy products is sold, the number of cows kept is the
best measure of the size of the business. Table 41 gives
results from such a region in Jefferson County, New York,
and shows that farmers who have herds of 20 or more cows
are doing very much better than those who have smaller
herds. In fact, the size of the herd is as important as the
quality of the cows. The usual advice to sell the poorest
cows and keep only the best ones should be changed to the
more practical advice to replace the poorest cows by good

268

DAIRY FARMING

ones, rather than leave half of the barn empty. A cow that
is much too poor to keep may yet pay as well as an empty
stanchion. Of course, if the farm has too many cows for its
area, it will pay to sell the poorest ones and decrease the
number. In regions like Jefferson County that are well
adapted to dairying and not adapted to many other things,
herds of 20 to 30 cows when kept on farms that are large
enough for the herd, are usually more profitable than small
herds. Of course the number of cows should not be increased
out of proportion to the farm. On the other hand extremely
large herds are a disadvantage because the farm family is
ordinarily not able to do the work and too much labor must
be hired.

TABLE 41. — RELATION OF NUMBER OF Cows AND MILK SOLD
PER Cow TO LABOR INCOME. 585 FARMS, JEFFERSON
COUNTY, NEW YORK

MILK SOLD PER Cow

NUMBER OF Cows

6-10

11-20

Over 20

Less than $50 . . . • . .
$51-75

Labor Income

$632
447
599
760

Labor Income

$ 481
704
836
1054

Labor Income

$1046
1093
1249
1959

76-100 ' .
Over 100

230. Summary of Size of Dairy Farms. Unless a dairy
farm keeps four or five horses, it cannot take advantage of
the great economy in human labor that comes from the use
of four-horse machinery. But each horse ought to raise
20 to 30 acres of crops so that this calls for 80 or more
acres of crops. If 25 cows and young stock are kept,
there will usually need to be 60 to 100 acres of pasture.
This calls for 140 to 200 acres of land, a very common size

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 269

in most of the dairy regions of the United States. The aver-
age size of farms among subscribers to Hoard's Dairyman
was reported to be 167 acres. In some of the rich irrigated
valLys the pastures and alfalfa 'are so productive that a
considerably smaller area provides an equally large business.
In some very fertile regions like Lancaster County, Pennsyl-
vania, where very intensive crops are combined with dairying,
a fai m of 60 to 80 acres represents as large a business as two
or tiiree times this area in some regions.

Kot every dairyman has money enough to buy a farm of
the best size, but there are other ways of obtaining land.
The usual steps in becoming a farm owner are : first, to work
as a hired man ; then to become a tenant ; then own a mort-
gag< d farm ; and finally pay off the mortgage. Only 36 per
cent of the farmers in the United States own free from mort-
gage all the land that they operate. If one who has too
small .a farm knows how to farm and how to live economically,
he will often find it profitable to go in debt to buy more
land. A mortgage is not necessarily a bad thing. The im-
portant point to consider is the use to which the borrowed
money is put. It may not be wise to mortgage a farm for
the purpose of buying an automobile, but it may be good
business to mortgage it to buy additional cows or land
that is needed. Another way of enlarging the farm is to
rent additional land. There are half a million farmers in
the United States who own part of the land that they operate,
and who rent additional land.

RETURNS PER Cow

231. Reasons for Poor Returns. No single factor is
more important than the returns per cow (see Table 41).
Low returns may be due to not having a good market for

270 DAIRY FARMING

dairy products, or may be due to selling the wrong kind
of product ; for instance, making butter in a region where
there is a good demand for market milk at much better
prices. Low returns may be due to keeping the wrong
kind of cattle for the region or for the kind of product sold,
or to poor production because of poor care or feed, or to
having cows that are naturally not good ones. Before
one can intelligently change his practice, he must find out
to which of these causes his poor returns are due. The
preceding chapters have given attention to feeding and
to determining which are the cows that are naturally
poor, so that nothing more need be said on these most
vital points.

Even in regions unfavorable for dairying there are usually
some persons who make more money by combining dairying
with their other farm work than they would make if they
did not keep cows. Everywhere there must be cows enough
to supply the fresh milk even if butter is shipped in.
But in some regions the prices of products are low com-
pared with feed prices and other costs. In such regions, a
farmer who is only a fair dairyman may find that it pays
best to keep only a few cows or possibly to keep only enough
to supply products for home use.

In some regions milk is sold by the quart at the same
price regardless of the percentage of butter-fat. In such a
region, herds that give a high test are at so great a disad-
vantage that they cannot often be made to pay.

Those who keep pure-bred cattle sometimes fail to make
a profit because they select a breed that is not desired in the
region. The best market for the surplus stock of the small
breeder is nearly always in his neighborhood. He should
raise the kind that is wanted.

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 271

232. Costs and Returns must Both be Considered. No
set standard can be given for the receipts that are necessary
in 01 der to make a profit, because the costs of feed and labor
are ^o variable in different regions- and on different farms in
the ;• ame region. But many studies of this question have
indicated that it is a fairly easy matter to obtain receipts per
cow of a half more than the average for the region. Usually
the :nost profitable farms in a region are doing as well as
this. But increased costs must also be considered. It is
not he return per cow, nor the cost, that is of most impor-
tance, but the relation between the two. Sometimes the
bett< r returns are obtained at too great cost. On the other
hami, a dairy herd that produces less than the average some-
times pays, because the farmer has reduced the cost of feed
and labor to a still lower point.

233. For Good Returns the Poor Producers should be
Promptly Sold. In one county in New York the farmers
who obtained the best production per cow were doing the
most buying and selling of cows. Those who obtained poor
to fair returns were on the average replacing 1 cow in 23 by
purchase, but those who obtained the best returns replaced
one-seventh of the herd each year by purchase.

Those who got the lowest production per cow replaced one-
seventh of the herd each year by cows purchased or raised.
Those who obtained good production replaced one-fifth,
and those who got the best production replaced one-fourth
each year. They disposed of poor cows and milked good
cows whether they were home-raised or purchased. The
essential point is not who raised the cow, but how much
her milk is worth.

234. Size of Cows. As machines for changing feed into
milk, large cows and small cows seem to be about equally

272

DAIRY FARMING

effective. But the milk produced for a given amount of
barn room and labor is also important. Of two animals
that are equally efficient users of food, the larger animal is
usually much more profitable. Table 42 gives the value
of the milk and value of the feed for 355 cows in
Wisconsin.

TABLE 42. — RELATION OF SIZE OF Cows TO VALUE OF PRODUCT
ABOVE FOOD CosT1

WEIGHT OF
Cows

AVERAGE
WEIGHT

NUMBER

Cows

POUNDS

BUTTER-
PAT

VALUE OP
PRODUCT

VALUE OP
FEED

VALUE

PRODUCT

FOR $1

IN FEED

VALUE

PRODUCT

ABOVE

FOOD
COST

900 and

under

847

366.2

$114.52

$60.32

$1.90

$54.20

901-1000

952

417.8

131.22

69.86

1.88

61.36

1001-1 1DO

1071

447.8

142.56

76.28

1.87

66.28

1101-1200

1175

477.7

155.02

82.81

1.87

72.21

1201-1300

1276

506.2

163.52

91.51

1.79

72.01

1301-1400

1379

525.8

171.79

92.15

1.86

79.64

Over 1400

1556

566.6

184.61

96.60

1.91

88.01

It takes very little more barn room and very little more
labor to care for large cows than it does for small ones.
Medicine, veterinary fees, and many other expenses cost
about the same for large as for small cows. These costs were
found to be $25 per year in Minnesota, and $29 in New
York (page 247).

According to the figures in Table 42 a herd of 15 cows av-
eraging 1276 pounds in weight would make more butter than
20 cows averaging 847 pounds. The saving on labor, barn
room, and other fixed costs, would be about $125 per year

1 Data furnished by F. W. Woll, for cows whose records are reported in
Wisconsin, Bulletin 226.

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 273

by keeping the smaller number of large cows. Where the
land is level, and particularly if hay or other roughage is
abimdant, large cows are usually more profitable. Even
if nnall ones are introduced the farmers usually change
to large ones in time. Where the pastures are on steep,
rocky hillsides small cows are better able to hold their
pla< e. If pastures are very poor, the large cow is at a
dis; id vantage. She needs more feed, but she is not able
to valk so far as the small one. In the South where
hea and insects are both serious enemies of the dairy
business, nearly all of the cows kept are of the small active
bre< ds.

Records of 110 cows kept by the University of Nebraska
showed that cows averaging 801 pounds in weight gave an
average of 263 pounds of butter-fat, those weighing 1002
pouads gave 278 pounds of fat, and those averaging 1211
pounds produced 346 pounds of butter-fat. The production
was in proportion to the size.1

Of course the vital point is production per cow. If one is
buying a cow with a known record, it is the record that
should be considered. A large cow that is a failure is a
bigger failure than a small one that is a failure. The best
success comes from keeping large cows that are also good
for their size.

When large numbers are considered, the production and
feed consumption seem to be about in proportion to the size.
The advantage of having large animals is in the saving of
barn room and labor, just as there is an advantage in using
a six-foot mower rather than a four-foot one.

1 Records of cows reported in Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 139. Cows sorted by average weights for the years reported, into
three groups, 900 pounds or less, 901-1100 pounds, and over 1100 pounds.

274 DAIRY FARMING

CROP YIELDS

The returns from crops and costs of these crops have as
much to do with the success of the farm as a whole as do the
returns from the cows. It is not enough that the farmer
be a good dairyman, he should be a good dairy farmer.
Sometimes the farmer raises crops that are good for feed
but cost too much to raise. More frequently the yields are
not good enough to be profitable.

235. Soils for the Dairy Farm. Only under exceptional
conditions does it pay to choose land that is not naturally
productive. The farmer ordinarily raises all the hay and
part of the grain for the cows. If he buys grain, he ought
to have for sale some product other than milk that will more
than pay the feed bill. It is usually difficult for a farmer who
has poor land to succeed in competition with those who have
good land. Occasionally, but not usually, the poor land is
enough cheaper to make up for the difference in quality.

The best dairy soils are loams and clay loams that grow
grass well. The great dairy sections of the North are on
soils that grow Kentucky blue-grass and white clover for
pasture, clover or alfalfa hay, and corn. Dairy farms do
not as a rule buy much chemical fertilizer. The farmers
who get better crops than their neighbors are as a rule
receiving greater profits than the average, but as in the
case of good returns per cow, the returns are sometimes
obtained by methods that are too costly. Sometimes poor
crops are grown by such economical methods that they pay
well. Many successful farmers have crops a fifth better
than their neighbors grow.

236. The Well-balanced Farm. If a good-sized business,
good cows, and good crops are three of the most important

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

275

fadors for success, then a farmer who excels in all three
ought to do very well indeed. With rare exceptions this is
the case. Table 43 gives the labor incomes on 585 farms.

TAI LE 43. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM, RECEIPTS PER Cow,
AND CROP YIELDS, TO LABOR INCOME ON 585 FARMS WITH
Six OR MORE Cows, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK

ACRES

100 or less

101-150

Over 150

Labor Income

Receipts per cow $50 or less

( rop index 85 per cent or less

$308

$ 273

$ 331

( rop index 86—115 per cent

381

482

424

(rop index over 115 per cent

158

415

413

Receipts per cow $51-$75

(rop index 85 per cent or less

304

590

669

Crop index 86-115 per cent

437

653

1017

(rop index over 115 per cent

- 537

636

1161

Receipts per cow over $75

Crop index 85 per cent or less

594

935

1233

Crop index 86-115 per cent

641

1038

1148

Crop index over 115 per cent

659

1124

1291

They are grouped as small, medium, and good-sized farms ;
small, medium, and good returns per cow ; and small, medium,
and good crop yields ; so that there are 27 different com-
binations (crop index compares the crops with average crops
as 100 per cent). A study of this table indicates that if the
crops are wasted by being fed to cows that give very poor
returns, the final result is poor, even with a good-sized farm
and good crops. Medium cows and medium crops with
a good-sized farm pay very much better than the best cows
and crops on a small farm. Improvement in any one of
the three points helps, but well-balanced improvement in
all is best. A fourth important factor for success in dairy

276

DAIRY FARMING

farming is the diversity of the business. It usually pays
better to have cash crops or other products combined with
the dairy.

DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED" DAIRY FARMS

237. Relation of Cash Crops to Profits. As has previously
been mentioned (page 229), farmers who combine cash crops
or some other product with dairying, usually make more
than do those who sell nothing but dairy products. The
poorer the cows, or the lower the price of dairy products,
the more important it is that crops be sold. But even
with extra good returns per cow, those who sell some crops
are usually doing better than those who sell no crops,
as is shown in Table 44. The results here given are
for a typical region in New York. In the corn-belt the
most generally profitable type of dairy farming is to raise
corn for sale or for hog feed in addition to raising feed
for the cows.

TABLE 44. — RELATION OF RECEIPTS PER Cow AND CASH CROPS
TO PROFITS ON 585 FARMS WITH Six OR MORE Cows. JEF-
FERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK

PER CENT OF RECEIPTS PROM CROPS

RECEIPTS P

ER COW PROW

ITS PRODUCTS

MILK AND

$50 or less

$51-$75

Over $75

Labor Income

$ 56

Labor Income

$ 571

Labor Income

$ 926

1—20 per cent

311

589

962

21-40

426

947

1183

41-60 ....

554

1366

Over 60 .......

599

Only two farms in this group.

2 No farms in this group.

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

277

238. Relation of Capital to Amount of Stock Kept. The

amount of capital must also be considered in determining
how many cows to keep. Farmers who are short of capital
usually keep less stock than do those who have more capital.

TAHLE 45. — RELATION OF CAPITAL AND CASH CROPS TO PROFITS.
578 FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK

Pi it CENT OF RECEIPTS FROM CROPS

CAPITAL

$5000 or less

$5001-
$15,000

Over $15,000

20 • >r less

Labor Income

$253
181
256
424
231

Labor Income

$399
411
624
623
497

Labor Income

$1000
1399
1038
1194
473

21- tO

41-70
71-90 . .

Ov.r 90

Table 45 shows that with small capital those who depend
largely on cash crops make the most, while with larger
capital those who derive more of their money from live-
stock are doing best. The exact capital groups will vary
with different land values, but the principle is universal, that
one who is short of capital should keep less stock than one
who has more money. This is as one would expect. Live-
stock represents added capital after one has bought and
equipped his farm. If one is short of money, the absolutely
essential things are land, machinery, and horses. One may
get along without live-stock, but one cannot farm without
land and equipment. The majority of farmers understand
this principle. When they get more money, they increase
the amount and improve the quality of their live-stock.

For the young man with small capital it often pays to
gradually work into pure-bred cattle. One can begin with

278

DAIRY FARMING

a few moderate-priced pure-breds and, with a good bull,
can gradually develop a good herd. Ordinary pure-breds
can be improved just as grade cows can be improved. The
advantage of the pure-breds is that after one has them im-
proved, they are in greater demand for breeding purposes
because they are recorded.

239. Acres per Animal Unit. Another way of comparing
farms is on the basis of the number of acres of crops grown
per animal unit kept. Results for one dairy region in New
York are given in Table 46. The amount of stock that it
pays to keep, of course, depends on the returns that one gets
from it. With very poor returns, very little stock should
be kept. The better the returns, the more heavily the
place should be stocked. With good stock in the region
here mentioned, it pays best to have an animal unit other
than horses for each 3 to 4 acres of crops. The exact amount
that it pays to keep will of course vary with different regions
and on different farms, but nearly always it is best to have
the place moderately well stocked rather than go to either
extreme.

TABLE 46. — RELATION OF ACRES OF CROPS PER ANIMAL AND
RECEIPTS PER ANIMAL UNIT TO LABOR INCOME. 670 FARMS,
JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK

ACRES OP CROPS PER ANIMAL UNIT

RECEIPTS FOR EACH ANIMAL. UNIT EX-
CEPT HORSES

$50 or less

$51-$75

Over $75

1 0-2 0

Labor Income

$210
264
314

378

Labor Income

$649
680
763

824

Labor Income

$ 895
971
1053
914

2 1-3.0

3 1-40

Over 4 0

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

279

240. Reasons for Larger Profits on Diversified Farms.
There are many reasons why it does not pay to go to the
extreme either way. Ordinarily a man can raise feed for
more cows than he can milk. If each man milks 10 to 15

Hcurs

Distribution Man labor

800

400

Cattle
Horses
Manure
Potatoes, 1912
Potatoes, 1913

Alfalfa, 1914
Cabbage
'Poultry
Farm
Personal
Equipment

FCG. 78. — Distribution of man labor on a highly successful diversified
dairy farm, that kept 42 cows, 1 bull, 10 heifers, and 9 horses. The crops
raised were potatoes 11 acres, corn for silo 19 acres, oats 44 acres, hay
102 acres, and cabbage 7 acres, besides starting crops for the next year.
The cabbages, potatoes, and some of the hay were sold for more than enough
to pay the entire feed and labor bills.

cows, he can raise the hay and silage for these cows and part
of the grain, and in addition will have time to raise hay, grain,
potatoes, cabbage, or other crops for sale. If the cows are
so poor, or prices of the product so low, that the cows do not
pay a good price for their feed, it is of vital importance that

280 DAIRY FARMING

cash crops be raised. Even if the cows are highly profitable, it
may still pay to raise crops for sale, because these crops can
be raised at very little additional cost. It might be suggested
that more cows be kept to eat the additional crops, but this
calls for more men, who in turn can raise additional crops.

In regions where cash crops are not raised, the women
usually help with the milking because the farmer can raise
feed for more cows than he can milk, and it does not pay to
keep a hired man unless there is full work for him. Women
can milk and do housework between milkings. If the
region is well adapted to crops, it pays better to employ men
and have them do farm work between milkings. Figure 78,
page 279, shows the distribution of labor on a very success-
ful diversified dairy farm. The owners of this farm have
followed the same system for three generations and have
always been successful.

If a farm is too heavily stocked, much feed will have to be
purchased in a poor year or some of the stock must be sold.
In such years feed is likely to be very high and stock cheap,
so that whatever one does he is likely to lose.

If a farm is too heavily stocked, the returns per ton of
manure used will be low. The value of manure depends on
how heavily it is applied. A light application usually gives
better returns per ton of manure than does a heavy applica-
tion, as shown on page 235.

If one goes to the other extreme and keeps no animals or
too few animals, he will not have a full year's work. Animals
help to provide winter work, they provide work night and
morning when the days are too short to allow a full day of field
work. Notice how little winter work there would be for the
farm shown in figure 78 if there were no cows and no manure
hauling.

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 281

]\ lost farms have a considerable amount of low-grade
hay mixed hay, and other products that do not have much
market value or that are too bulky to pay to sell. At least
enough stock should be kept to make use of these low-grade
products. On many farms there is some land that will not
pay for farming, but that will bring some income as pasture.
Fanners who find cash crops very profitable often tend to
keep too little live-stock.

The more money one has and the more profitable his
animals are, the nearer he should come to exclusive stock
f an i ling, but it usually pays to sell at least one cash crop.
In he corn-belt, corn marketed through the hog takes the
pla( e of a cash crop. When little money is available and
when stock pays poorly, one should keep fewer animals, but
it usually pays to produce at least one kind of animal or
animal product. It is desirable that a farm have two to
foui important products for sale, and usually at least one
should be an animal product, and at least one a cash
crop.

SOME SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARMS

241. A Successful Dairy and Hog Farm in Iowa. One
can learn much by a study of successful farms, provided he
is sure that the farm he is studying is really successful. A
farm is a financial success when it pays interest on the
capital invested and pays good wages to the operator. Some-
times unimportant peculiarities of the farm are erroneously
considered the cause of success. A systematic study of a
number of farms will help to avoid this error. The record
here given for an Iowa farm shows one of the best types
of dairy farming for the corn-belt. (Data furnished by
Professor H. B. Hunger, Iowa State College.)

282

DAIRY FARMING

CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS

160 acres land . .

April 1, 1913

$32,000

April 1, 1914

$32000

Machinery and tools

715

764

18 cows 4 heifers 2 calves

2000

1 bull

175

17 cows, 2 heifers, 11 calves ....
8 horses 2 colts .

1340

2440

7 horses, 3 colts

1360

5 ewes

18 brood sows, 26 other hogs and pigs .
19 brood sows, 40 other hogs and pigs .
100 chickens .

630
50

715
50

Feed and supplies

1079

1047

Cash to run farm

100

$38,124

$38,651

CROPS GROWN 1913

CROP

ACRES

TOTAL YIELD

AMOUNT
SOLD

AMOUNT
RECEIVED

Corn

1990 bu.

150

$95

Corn for silo ....
Oats ....

128 tons
1540 bu

600

198

Hay

19 tons

In addition, there were 45 acres of rotated pasture and
17 acres of farmstead roads and waste land. Corn is raised
for two years, followed by oats in which grass is seeded. The
hay is left down two years, part for hay and part for pasture.

RECEIPTS

3939 Ib. butter-fat @ 33^, skim-milk returned . .
12 cattle sold and 6 increase of inventory . . .

Eggs

85 hogs sold and 15 increase of inventory . . .

Horses sold and increase of inventory

150 bushels corn

600 bushels oats

Outside labor

Machine work

$1300
755
30
1645
138
95
198
9
30
$4200

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 283

•
FARM EXPENSES

1 man 12 months $ 344

1 man 1 month 40

Machinery and repairs cost above increase value . . 81

G rain feed 69

Horseshoeing 10

Breeding fees 20

Veterinary 20

Sfeds * 47

Twine 11

Tureshing 31

ft! achine work hired 13

F'lel for farm use 5

Insurance 25

Taxes 110

Si leep sold for less than inventory value 7

Decrease in feed on hand 32

$ 865

SUM MARY

Receipts $4200

Expenses 865

Ircome from capital and operator's labor .... $ 3335

Ir terest on average capital $38,388 at 5% . . . . 1919

L;ibor income $ 1416

EFFICIENCY FACTORS
Size

Acres 160

Acres crops 98

Number cows 17|

Number brood sows 18|

Number men 2T1Z

Number work horses 7|

Number of productive man work units 620

Number of productive horse work units 435

Production

Corn 45 bushels per acre

Oats 55 bushels per acre

Hay 1-J tons per acre

Receipts per cow from butter-fat $74

Receipts per cattle unit $88

Pigs raised per sow 5.4

Diversity

Three main sources of income — milk, cattle, and hogs

284 DAIRY FARMING

Efficiency in use of labor
Crop acres per man 47
Crop acres per horse 13
Work units per man 298
Work units per horse 58

Fertility

Acres of crops, including rotated pasture per animal unit 3.6

The farm represents a good-sized business. It provides full
work for two men (one besides the owner) and has enough crops
to justify the use of four-horse teams and good machinery.

The crop yields are excellent. The returns per cow are
very good for milk sold to a creamery. The $74 per cow
represents a production of 225 pounds of butter-fat per cow
in addition to new milk for home use and for calves. The
number of pigs per sow is good.

The farm has three important products, — milk, cattle,
and hogs. The corn raised for hog feed takes the place of
the cash crops that are raised by the farm described on page
285 . The farmer has for five years used a pure-bred bull and
now has ten pure-bred cows, so that cattle are a third im-
portant source of income.

The acres of crops raised per man and work units per man
are very good. The efficiency in the use of horses is only
fair. It is possible that the farm might pay a little better
if fewer horses were kept.

In short, the farm is a good-sized business, has good crops,
good cows, good diversity, and uses man labor efficiently, and
the place is carrying enough stock so that there is a good
supply of manure.

The farmer had a common school education. He worked
as a hired man five years, then as tenant five years, after
which he bought this farm and has been operating it four
years. The efficiency factors given above when compared

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING

285

with the averages for farms given in preceding tables, show
how well the farm is managed.

242. A Successful Diversified Dairy Farm in New York.
Thi,- farm is typical of the best general type of dairy farming
for those portions of the Eastern States where intensive
casl crops combine well with dairying.

CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS

BEGINNING OF YEAR

END OP YEAR

211 icres of land ... ...

$14000

Ma< hinery and tools
31 <• >ws

400
2480

400

2480

2 caives .
3 calves ...
Ibull

30
80

5 horses
25 sieep 38 lambs

500
365

500

28 sieep, 43 lambs

411

75 dickens

Feer and supplies . ...

350

Cash to run farm

200

$18410

$18501

CROPS GROWN

CROP

ACRES

TOTAL YIELD

AMOUNT
SOLD

AMOUNT
RECEIVED

Corn for silo ....

Wheat

10
11

120 tons
330 bu

310 bu

$264

Oats

1006 bu.

Timothy and clover hay
Potatoes

55
12

83 tons
2400 bu.

2 tons
2025 bu.

25
1050

Apples
Cabbage

2
1

40000 Ib.

36000 Ib.

145

In addition to the above there were 85 acres of permanent
pasture and 9 acres of woods, farmstead, waste land, etc.

286 DAIRY FARMING

RECEIPTS

264,837 Ib. milk $3449

Calves sold and increase inventory 290

Sheep, lambs, and wool 204

Eggs 106

310 bu. wheat 264

2 tons hay 25

2025 bu. potatoes 1050

Apples 145

$5533

FARM EXPENSES

Labor $1100

Feed 511

Fertilizer 100

Seeds 53

Other expenses 260

$2024

SUMMARY

Receipts $5533

Expenses 2024

Income from capital and operator's labor .... 3509

Interest on average capital $18,455 @ 5% . . . . 923

Labor income 2586

EFFICIENCY FACTORS
Size

Acres 211

Acres of crops 117

Number of cows 31

Number of men 3f

Number of work horses 5

Number units productive man work 835

Number units productive horse work 431
Production

Corn 12 tons

Potatoes 200 bu.

Oats 41 bu.

Wheat 30 bu.

Milk sold per cow 8543 Ib.

Receipt per cow from milk $111

Receipt per cattle unit $112

Lambs raised per ewe 1.5

Receipts per ewe $8.16

FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 287

•
Diversity

Two main sources of income — milk and potatoes — several
other important things.

Efficiency in use of labor

Crop acres per man 32

Crop acres per horse 23

Work units per man 228

Work units per horse 86

Futility

Acres of crops per animal unit 2.6

Fertilizers produced per acre of crops . . . $.85

Although this farm is a long distance from the preceding
one its success has been due to the same factors. The farm
is a good-sized business, the cows and crops are good, the
farm combines dairying with cash crops. The only differ-
ence is that the Iowa farm marketed its corn crop through
hogs, while the New York farm raised a human food crop for
direct sale. Instead of keeping hogs to eat up extra grain,
the New York farm depends to a large extent on purchased
grain. Each farm followed the best type of farming for its
conditions. Because of the size and diversity of the business
each man is accomplishing a large amount. The production
per cow on this farm is unusually good. The farmer has been
in the dairy business for many years and now has a herd of
high grade and pure-bred Holsteins. The farmer began as
a tenant and worked this farm many years on shares. Be-
cause of his good-sized diversified business, with good pro-
duction, he was able to save money and buy the farm.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. What is the labor income for a farm on which the expenses
amounted to $1028, the receipts $2524, and on which the capital
was $20,247 ?

2. For a dairy farm in your region find the total area, area in
each crop, number of each kind of animals, and number of men em-

288 DAIRY FARMING

ployed. Calculate the units of productive man and horse work.
Calculate the area of crops and units of productive work per man and
per horse. Compare with farms of the same area in Tables 33-40.
If each student bases his report on 'a different farm, the results may
be compared.

3. To how many animal units is the stock on the above farm
equal? (See p. 218.) How many acres of crops per animal unit?
About what proportion of the manure is produced in the barn.
How many tons would this probably make per year if it is all saved ?
If the manure is well cared for, and if eight tons are applied per acre,
how many years would it take to cover the entire farm?

4. What is the value of the barns on the above farm? How
much is this per animal unit? Compare with Table 39.

5. Are conditions in your region naturally favorable for large
or for small breeds of dairy cattle?

6. What things aside from dairy products are commonly sold
from dairy farms in your region ?

7. As an average for the beginning and end of the year, how
many animal units are there on the farm described on page 281 ?
How many on the farm on page 285?

8. Compare the farms on pages 242 and 244 as to size of business,
crop yields, returns per cow, work units per man and horse, and in
other ways.

9. Compare each of the above farms as to efficiency in the use
of men and horses with farms of the same area in Table 36.

LABORATORY EXERCISES

36. Record of a Year's Business on a Farm. Arrange with
some dairy farmer to allow the class to go to his farm and study
his methods and obtain a record of his business for the past year,
using Farmer's Bulletin 661 for taking the record. Later calculate
the labor income and work, the efficiency factors, and compare
with the farms described on pages 281 and 285. What are the
strong points and what are the weak points of the farm?

Each student should make a similar record and study of the farm
on which he lives.

COLLATERAL READING

A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Farmers' Bulletin 661.

Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 535-565.

APPENDIX

AI 'DRESSES OF CATTLE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS

A nerican Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association, Charles Gray,
Sec., Chicago, 111.

A -rshire Breeders' Association, C. M. Winslow, Sec., Brandon,
Vt.

B -own Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, Ira Inman, Sec.,
Belo I, Wis.

Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, E. J. Kir by, Sec.,
Covt rt, Mich.

A nerican Galloway Breeders' Association, R. W. Brown, Sec.,
Carrollton, Mo.

T'le American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Sec.,
Peteiboro, N.H.

A nerican Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, R. J. Kinzer
Sec., Kansas City, Mo.

The Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton,
Sec., Brattleboro, Vt.

The American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Sec., 324 West
23d St., New York City.

Rod Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Sec., Gotham,
Wis.

American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, F. W. Harding, Sec.,
Chicago, 111.

The Polled Durham Breeders' Association, J. H. Martz, Sec.,
Greenville, O.

289

290 APPENDIX

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW
Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1913

DAIRY TEMPERAMENT AND CONSTITUTION

Head, 7.

A. Medium size, lean ; face dished ; broad between eyes ;

horns medium size, incurving 3

B. Eyes full and placid ; ears medium size, fine, carried

alert ; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and
muscular lips, jaw strong ..... Y . . ? * 4

Neck, 4.

Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to
head and shoulders 4

Body, 37.

A. Shoulders light, good distance through from point to

point, but thin at withers ; chest deep and full be-
tween and just back of fore legs ...... 5

B. Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge

shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up,
with strong muscular development 10

C. Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal pro-

cesses ; loins broad and strong 5

D. Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip bones

to rump bones 6

E. Hip-bones high and wide apart , . . : . . . . , 3

F. Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for

udder . .^ . . . 3

G. Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well

apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross in

walking 2

H. Hide loose and mellow 2

7. Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting-
on * .... 1

Udder, 26.

A. Large size, flexible, and not fleshy 6

B. Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between

teats 4

C. Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for-

ward of front teats 10

Carry forward 68

APPENDIX 291

Brought forward 68
D. Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up be-
hind 6

Teat*, 8.

Of good and uniform length and size, regularly placed . 8
MiU- Veins, 4.

Large, long, tortuous, and elastic, entering large and

numerous orifices ...... 4

Size. 4.

Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4

Gen\ rat Appearance, 10.

A. symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor-
tioning of parts to each other, depending on size of animal,
with the general appearance of a high-class animal, with
capacity for food and productiveness at pail . . . 10

100

SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW

Adopted by Ayrshire Breeders' Association, 1906

Head, 10.

Forehead — Broad and clearly defined 1

Horns — Wide set on and inclining upward 1

Pace — Of medium length, slightly dished, clean-cut,

showing veins 2

Muzzle — Broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils

large 1

Jaws — Wide at the base and strong 1

Eyes — Full and bright with placid expression ... 3
Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert .... 1
Neck, 3.

Pine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and
shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free

from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3

Fore Quarters, 10.

Shoulders — Light, good distance through from point
to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into

body 2

Chest — Low, deep, and full between and back of fore-
legs _6

Carry forward 21

292 APPENDIX

Brought forward 21

Brisket — Light 1

Legs and Feet — Legs straight and short, well apart,
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size,

round, solid, and deep 1

Body, 13.

Back — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open

jointed 4

Loin — Broad, strong, and level . 2

Ribs — Long, broad, wide apart, and well sprung . . 3
Abdomen — Capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong

muscular development '. 3

Flank — Thin and arching 1

Hind Quarters, 11.

Rump — Wide, level, and long from hooks to pin bones,

a reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3

Hooks — Wide apart and not projecting above back nor

unduly overlaid with fat 2

Pin Bones — High and wide apart 1

Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart 2

Tail — Long, fine, set on a level with the back .... 1
Legs and Feet — Legs strong, short, straight when
viewed from behind and set well apart ; shanks fine
and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size, round,

solid, and deep 2

Udder, 22.

Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy ; .
firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind
and far forward ; quarters even ; sole nearly level
and not indented between teats, udder veins well

developed and plainly visible 22

Teats, 8.

Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to
half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to
one-third the length ; length 1\ to 3| inches, thickness
in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular, and not

tapering 8

Mammary Veins, 5.

Large, long, tortuous, branching, and entering large

orifices 5

Carry forward 82

APPENDIX 293

Brought forward 82

Escutcheon, 2.

] )istinctly defined, spreading over thighs and extending

well upward 2

Color 2.

I ted of any shade, brown, or these with white ; mahog-
any and white, or white ; each color distinctly denned.
(Brindle markings allowed, but not desirable) .... 2
Cover '.rig, 6.

!• kin — Of medium thickness, mellow, and elastic ... 3

I [air — Soft and fine 2

Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color ... 1
Style. 4.

Alert, vigorous, showing strong character, temperament

inclined to nervousness, but still docile 4

Weignt, 4.

A /eight at maturity not less than one thousand pounds 4

Total 100

SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COW

Adopted by Guernsey Cattle Club

Dairy Temperament Constitution, 38.

( 'lean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ; wide muzzle
with wide-open nostrils ; full, bright eye with quiet
and gentle expression ; forehead long and broad: . . 5

Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head ; clean
throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ;
large rugged spinal processes, indicating good devel-
opment of the spinal cord 5

Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, strong struc-
ture of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with
good switch. Thin, incurving thighs 5

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an
open, relaxed conformation ; thin arching flanks . . 5

A.bdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel
development, indicative of capacity and vitality . . 15

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but

not thick • 3

Carry forward 38

294 APPENDIX

Brought forward 38

Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow, 10.

Escutcheon wide on thighs ; high and broad, with thighs

oval 2

Milk veins long, crooked, branching, and prominent, with

large or deep wells 8

Udder Formation, 26.

Udder full in front 8

Udder full and well up behind 8

Udder of large size and capacity 4

Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and even

size . . . 6

Indicating Color of Milk, 15.

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of
horns, on udder, teats, and body generally. Hoof,

amber-colored . . . . 15

Milking Marks Denoting Quality of Flow, 6.

Udder showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty 6

Symmetry and Size, 5.

Color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white markings.
Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved,

and not coarse 3

Size for the breed : mature cows, four years old or over

about 1050 pounds 2

100

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW
Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine in contour 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing ...... 2

Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under the

eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1

Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and

soft ; the secretion oily and abundant ...... i 1

Eyes — Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2

Horns — Small ; tapering finely towards the tips ; set modera-

ately narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent

inward ; of fine texture ; in appearance waxy . . . . 1

Carry forward 11

APPENDIX 295

Brought forward 11

Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free

from dewlap ; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4

Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips; fine and even over

oops ; moderately broad and full at sides 3

Ches: — Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth and moder-
ately full in the brisket, full in the fore flanks (or through
fche heart) 6

Croi-s — Moderately full 2

Chit e — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open

vertebrae 6

Barrel — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age
must be considered) 7

Loif and Hips — Broad ; level or nearly level between the
hook bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from
chine broadly and nearly level ; hook bones fairly promi-
nent 6

Run p — Long ; high ; broad with roomy pelvis ; nearly level
laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried
out straight to dropping of tail 6

Thu -I — High, broad 3

Quarters — Deep ; straight behind ; twist filled with develop-
ment of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4

Fla?< ks — Deep ; comparatively full 2

Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly straight ; wide
apart ; firmly and squarely set under the body ; feet of
medium size, round, solid, and deep 4

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely to
switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ;
the switch full 2

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance ; fine, soft,
and furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose;
mellow under the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant,
and of a rich brown or yellow color 8

Mammary Veins — Very large ; very crooked (age must be
taken into consideration in judging of size and crooked-
ness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices ; double
extension ; with special developments, such as branches,

connections, etc 10

Carry forward 84

296

APPENDIX

Brought forward

Udder and Teats — Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters
even ; nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist,
extending well forward in front ; broad and well held up

Teats — Well formed ; wide apart, plump, and of convenient
size

Escutcheon — Largest ; finest . . .

TABLE 47. — IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS

100

YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1912

YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1913

YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1914

Amount

Value

Amount

Value

Amount

Value

Imports
Butter, pounds .
Cheese, pounds
Cream, gallons .
Milk ....
Total . . .

Exports
Butter, pounds .
Cheese, pounds
Condensed milk,
pounds . . .
Other milk and
cream . . .
Total . . .

1,025,668
46,542,007
1,120,427

$237,154
8,807,249
923,779
61,671

1,162,253
49,387,944
1,247,083

$304,094
9,185,184
1,068,109
135,724

7,842,022
63,784,313
1,773,152

$1,753,461
11,010,693
1,549,549
1,089,440

6,092,235
6,337,560

20,642,738

10,029,853

1,468,432
898,035

1,651,879
244,913

3,585,600
2,599,058

16,525,918

10,693,107

872,804
441,186

1,432,848
474,055

3,693,597
2,427,577

16,209,082

15,403,143

877,453
414,124

1,341,140
333,217

4,263,259

3,220,893

2,965,934

NOTES FOR TABLE 48, ON PAGE 297

U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1913, p. 487.
No state standards.
Federal rulings adopted.
Percentage of fat based on total solids.
Fat, 7.8 per cent ; total solids plus fat, 34.3 per cent.
For butter making, 25 per cent fat.

This standard for sweetened condensed milk: "Evaporated milk,"
solids, 24 per cent ; fat, 7.8 per cent.

8 No report ; 1910 standard given.

9 By weight.

10 Not more than 0.2 per cent " filler."

11 Must correspond to 11.5 per cent solids in crude milk.

12 If artifically colored.

13 Must correspond to 12 per cent solids in crude milk.

• 14 23-24 per cent solids, 7.9 per cent fat ; 24-25 per cent solids, 7.8 per
cent fat ; 25-26 per cent solids, 7.7 per cent fat ; 26 per cent solids, 7.6 per
cent fat.

16 In May and June, solids 12 per cent.

16 Fat, 27.5 per cent of total solids.

APPENDIX 297

TABLE 48. — LEGAL STANDARDS FOB DAIRY PRODUCTS1

•fc

MILK

CONDENSED
MILK

K ^

P§ ^

X £r

X H

STATE

o 1

U £

""" D3

a J

B «

ffl

P^U

hnCi-

k^fe-

_ 03

£1

o o
02 a

03
P&l

H£

Per

Per 1 Per

Per

Cent

Cent Cent

Cent

Alal ama 2 . . . .

Ariz ma 2 . . . .

Ark: nsas 3 .

Call ornia ....

11.5

8.5

3.0

8.8

18.0

80.0

504

(5)

Coli rado ....

3.0

16.06

80.0

504

Co iccticut .

11.75

8.5

3.25

16.0

Del: ware 2 . . . .

Dis 'ict of Columbia

12.5

9.0

3.5

9.3

20.0

83.0

Flo. da ....

11.75

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0

82.5

50 4

28.0 7

7.77

Geo gia ....

11.75

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0

82.5

504 28.0

27.66 4

Havaii* ....

11.5

8.5

3.0

!28.0

7.7

Ida! o

11.2

8.0

3.2

9.3

18.0

82.5

(5)

Illii )is . . . . .

11.5

8.5

3.0

9.25

18.0

82.5

504

(5)

In 1 ma

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0

82.5

SO4

28.0

27.54

low ,

12 0

3.0

16.0

on O 9

1L75

$.5

3.25

9.25

18.0 6 80.0

504

(5)

Kei ucky '.'.']

12.5

8.5

3.25

9 25

18.0

82.5'

SO*

28.0

27.66 4

Lou siana ....

8.5

3.5

8.0

18.0

(i>)

fo\

Maiie

11.75

8.5

3.25

18.0

Ma \'Iand

12.5

3.5

9.25

18.0

(5)

(&)

Ma.-sachusetts

12.15

3.35

9.3

15.0

Mic ligan ....

12.5

3.0

Min lesota . .

13.0

9.75

3.25

20.0

454

fb\

Mis- issippi 2 .

Mis-ouri ....

12.0

8.75

3.25

9.25

18.0

82.5

SO4

28.0

7.76

Moi tana ....

11.75

8.5

3.25

20.0 82.5

SO4

Nebraska ....

3.0

18.0

New Hampshire

12.0

8.5

18.0 80.0

14 10

New Jersey . .

11.5

3.0

16.0

New Mexico -

Ne York . . .

11.5

3.0

18.0

(ii)

25.04

Ne ada . . . . i 11.75

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0 82.5

50 4 26.5

7.8

No ch Carolina . . 11.5

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0 82.5

504 28.0

27.54

No Gh Dakota . . j 12.0

9.0

3.0

15.0

Oh ,

12.0

3.0

180.012

(13)

25.04

Oklahoma . . .

12.51

9.5

3.0

18.0 181.5

Oregon ....

9.0

3.2

20.0

(14)

Pennsylvania

12.0

3.25

18.0

Por ,o Rico . . .

12.0

9.0

3.0

Rhode Island . . .

12.0

2.5

Souih Carolina 2 .

South Dakota . .

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0

80.0

504

28.0

27.54

Tennessee

8.5

3.50

Texas . .

8.5

3.25

Utah .....

12.0

9.0

3.2

9.0

18.0

80.0

SO4

(5)

Vermont ....

12.5 » 9.25

Virginia . . . . i 11.75

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0

82.5

(5)

Washington . . . i 12.0

8.75

3.25

9.3

18.0

West Virginia 2 . .

Wisconsin ...

8.5

3.0

9.0

18.0

82.5

SO4

28.0

8.0

Wyoming ....

8.5

3.25

9.25

18.0

82.5

SO4

28.0

(16)

298

APPENDIX

TABLE 49. — AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP MILK AND ITS
PRODUCTS

WATER

ASH

PROTEIN

SUGAR

FAT

Skim-milk, gravity . .
Skim-milk, separator .
Buttermilk ....
Whey .

89.88

90.60
91.24
9304

.77
.78
.70
42

3.54
3.57
3.50
084

4.91
4.95
4.00
534

0.90
0.10
0.56
036

TABLE 50. — AVERAGE WEIGHTS

PRODUCT

WEIGHT IN POUNDS PER QUART

Average milk
20 per cent cream
25 per cent cream
30 per cent cream
40 per cent cream
50 per cent cream

2.15
2.10
2.09
2.08
2.01
1.97

THE HAECKER FEEDING STANDARD
The feeding standard formulated by Prof. T. L. Haecker
of the Minnesota Experiment Station 2 has found consider-
able favor especially in the Middle West. This standard is
based upon a long series of investigations concerning the
requirements for maintenance and for the production of
milk of varying richness. This standard has recently been
modified by Savage in the direction of simplicity in form and
some increase in the nutrients.

This standard makes use of the total digestible nutrients
and does not exclude the amide nitrogen as is done by Armsby.

1 Calculated from the specific gravity of cream as given by Farrington
and Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, 20th edition, p. 77.

2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 79, 130, 140.

APPENDIX

299

This accounts mostly for the difference in protein require-
ment and the larger amount of protein in the various feed-
stuffs as shown in the table.

This standard as modified by Savage is expressed in terms
of digestible protein and total nutriment. The term " total
nut < inien t " is applied to the sum of the digestible protein,
the digestible carbohydrates, arid the fat. The latter is
multiplied by 2.25 to convert into its carbohydrate equiva-
lent . The maintenance requirement is stated for each 100
pounds live weight, and the amount necessary for the animal
in ( uestion is then found by calculation, taking the weight
of 1 he animal into account.

MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
POUNDS

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIMENT, POUNDS

Per 100 Ib. live weight

.070

.79

For One Pound of Milk

PER CENT FAT

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
POUNDS

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIMENT, POUNDS

3.0

.057

.29

3.5

.061

.32

4.0

.065

.35

4.5

.069

.38

5.0

.073

.41

5.5

.077

.43

6.0

.081

.46

6.5

.085

.49

In using this standard the same plan of calculation is
followed as explained for the Armsby standard. The main-

300

APPENDIX

tenance requirement is first calculated, taking into account
the size of the animal. To this is added the amount neces-
sary to produce the milk, taking into account the amount and
richness. For example, let it be assumed the problem is to
calculate the ration for a 1150-pound cow producing 30
pounds of 4.5 per cent milk daily. According to the pre-
ceding statements the requirements would be as follows :

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
POUNDS

TOTAL NUTRIMENT

Maintenance 1150 Ib.
30 Ib. 4.5% milk . .

(.070 X 11.5) .81
(30 x .069) 2.07

(.79 X 11.5) 9.09
(30 X 38) 11.40

Total

2.88

2049

The ration to be fed will then be selected and calculated
using the average composition of feeds as given in Table 51,
making such changes and modifications as are seen to be
necessary in order to bring the composition of the ration
reasonably close to the standard.

TABLE 51. — DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN AND TOTAL
NUTRIMENT PER 100 POUNDS l

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

TOTAL

NUTRIMENT

Concentrates.

Corn

89.4

7.8

84.3

Swggt Corn

91 2

8.8

88.3

Corn-and-cob Meal . .

84.9

4.4

70.9

Gluten Feed ....

90.8

21.3

80.6

Gluten Meal . .

90.5

29.7

85.9

Hominy Feed (chops)

90.4

6.8

83.9

Germ Oil Meal ....

91.4

15.8

78.8

1 This table is adapted from Henry's " Feeds and Feeding," 10th edition,
p. 582,

APPENDIX

301

TOTAL DRY

MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

TOTAL
NUTRIMENT

C< >rn Bran 90.6

Wheat 89.5

R. 'd-dog Flour .... 90.1

W heat Middlings . . . 88.8

Wheat Bran ..... 88.1,

Re ....'... 91.3

R ^e Middlings .... 88.2

R -e Bran 88.4

Barley 89.2

O.-.ts 89.6

Oatmeal 92.1

O. ,t Middlings .... 91.2

O.-.t Hulls 92.6

B ickwheat 86.6

B ickwheat Middlings . 87.2

B ickwheat Hulls . . . 86.8

Rice. 87.6

C; ,nada Field Pea . . . 85.0

C'wpea 85.4

Srybean 88.3

Kafir Corn 90.1

Linseed Meal .... 90.2

Cottonseed . ... . . 89.7

Cottonseed Meal . . . 93.0

Cottonseed Hulls . 88.9

Factory By-products.
Dried Brewers' Grains
Wet Brewers' Grains .
Malt Sprouts . . .
Dried Distillers' Grain
Wet Beet Pulp . . .
Dried Beet Pulp . .
Sugar-beet Molasses .

Silag;e.

Corn

Sorghum

Red Clover . . . .

Soybean

Cowpea Vine . . .

91.3

23.

90.5

92.4

10.2

91.6

79.2

26.4
23.9
28.0

25.8
20.7

8.8
16.2
13.
11.9

9.5
11.
11.2

8.4
10.7
11.9
13.1

1.3

8.1
22.7

1.2

6.4
19.7
16.8
29.1

5.2

30.2

12.5

37.6

20.0

4.9

20.3

22.8

4.1

4.7

1.4
0.1
1.5
2.7
1.5

69.2
79.7
80.8
68.8
59.5
81.6
69.7
62.0
77.3
69.5
92.0
85.4
41.2
61.7
73.7
30.9
86.5
69.9
74.2
85.2
52.6
77.7
81.4
80.6
37.3

65.7
16.3
69.4

88.6

8.2

69.0

58.8

17.2
14.1
11.8
15.2
12.1

302

APPENDIX

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

TOTAL

NUTRIMENT

Dried Roughage.
Fodder Corn with Ears .
Corn Stover, Ears removed
Timothy

57.8
59.5

86.8

2.5
1.4

39.8
34.2
48 1

Orchard Grass ....
Redtop

90.1
91 1

4.9

'48

50.4
539

Kentucky Bluegrass . .
Bermuda Grass . . .
Johnson Grass ....
Barley

86.0
92.9
89.8
850

4.4
6.4
2.9
57

46.2
54.9
50.3
51 6

Oat ....

860

452

Hungarian Grass . . .
Prairie Grass ....
Buffalo Grass ....

Hay from Legumes and
Mixed Legumes and
Grasses.
Red Clover

86.0
90.8
85.0

847

5.0
3.0
3.0

7 1

54.4
49.5
48.6

48 9

Alsike Clover ....
Crimson Clover . . .
Sweet Clover ....
Soybean

90.3
90.4
92.1

88.2

8.4
10.5
11.9
106

50.6
48.1
49.7
542

Cowpea

895

13 1

49 1

Alfalfa (western U. S.) .
Hairy (winter) Vetch
Peanut Vine ....
Oat and Pea ....
Mixed Grasses and Clover

Straw and Chaff.
Wheat

93.2

88.7
92.4
89.5
87.1

904

11.1
11.9
6.7
7.6

5.8

51.5
56.2
55.6
52.4
50.5

369

Rye

92.9

41 2

Oat

908

1 3

426

Barley

85.8

423

Buckwheat

90 1

1 2

397

Fresh Green Roughage.
Green Corn and Sorghum-
forage.

APPENDIX

303

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

TOTAL
NUTRIMENT

Fo< Ider, Corn, all

Varieties

20.7

1.0

13.8

S\v ^et Varieties ....

20.9

1.2

14.7

Fr< sh Green Grasses .

Pa ;ture Grass ....

20. •

2.5

13.7

K< itucky Blue-grass .

34.9

2.8

24.2

Tii lothy

38.4

1.5

22.7

Or hard Grass ....

27.0

1.2

15.7

R( Itop in bloom

34.7

1.9

24.3

W! eat Forage ....

22.7

1.7

14.6

R\ •-': Forage

23.4

2.1

17.1

Oa Forage, in Milk . .

37.8

2.5

22.9

Ba -ley Forage ....

21.0

1.9

12.9

Jol nson Grass ....

25.0

14.7

Be muda Grass . . .

28.3

1.3

15.6

Co nmon Millet . . .

20.0

0.8

12.3

Fresl Green Legumes,

Grasses and .Legumes

( Combined.

Re. 1 Clover

29.2

2.9

19.3

Als ke Clover ....

25.2

2.6

15.1

Cri nson Clover . . .

19.1

2.4

12.6

Sweet Clover ....

20.0

2.5

11.8

Alf.ilfa

28.2

3.6

16.6

Cowpea

16.4

1.8

11.0

803 bean

24.9

3.1

15.2

Canada Field-pea . . .

15.3

1.8

9.4

Roots and Tubers.

Potatoes

20.9

1.1

17.0

Common Beet ....

11.5

1.2

9.3

Mangel

9.1

1.0

7.0

Sugar Beet ....

13.5

1.3

11.3

Flat Turnip

9.9

7.5

Carrot . .

11.4

9.2

Ru abao'a

11.4

1.0

9.5

Miscellaneous.

Dwarf Essex Rape . .

14.3

2.0

10.6

Cabbage <

10.0

2.3

8.4

Field Pumpkins . . .

9.1

1.0

7.3

304

APPENDIX

WING'S METHOD OF BALANCING RATIONS

A short method of balancing rations devised by H. H.
Wing is practical and convenient.

He divides the ordniary grains into three groups : low pro-
tein (less than 12 per cent) ; medium protein (12 to 25 per
cent) ; high protein (over 25 per cent). The figures given
in the table are for the total and not the digestible protein.

TABLE 52. — WING'S METHOD OF BALANCING RATIONS

Low PROTEIN GROUP
Total Protein 12% or less

MEDIUM PROTEIN GROUP
Total Protein 12% to 25%

HIGH PROTEIN GROUP
Total Protein 25% or more

Corn 10.3
Oats 11 4

Wheat bran . . . 15.4
Mixed wheat feed 16 3

Malt sprouts .... 26.3
Linseed oil meal 33 9

Wheat 11.9
Rye . 11 3

Wheat middlings . 16.9
Cottonseed feed . 20.0

Cottonseed meal . . . 45.3
Gluten feed 25 0

Barley 12.0
Buckwheat . . . 10.8

Buckwheat feed . 18.3
Pea meal .... 20.2

Brewers' dried grains . 25.0
Distillers' dried grains
(corn) 31 2

Hominy chop . . 10.5
Dried beet pulp . 8.1
Corn-and-cob meal 8.5

Cull beans . . .21.6

Buckwheat middlings . 26.7

Mixed hay, corn silage, and corn fodder are very similar
in composition as far as the relation between the protein and
carbohydrates is concerned. When roughage of this class
is used, a grain mixture made by mixing equal parts by
weight of one from each of the three groups will make a well-
balanced ration. A dairy cow in full flow of milk should
receive all the hay and silage she will eat and the grain mix-
ture at the rate of one pound for each 3 or 3£ pounds of
milk that she produces, if this milk be about the average
composition of 4, percent. If the milk contains 3 to 3.5
percent fat, 1 pound grain to 4 pounds of milk is sufficient.
If alfalfa hay is used the high protein feed is not necessary.

APPENDIX

305

TAI.LE 53. — AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT FEEDING-STUFFS

FEEDING STUFF

Pounds

Barley meal 1.1

Barley, whole 1.5

Bre\vers' dried grains • 0.6

Coru-and-cob meal 1.4

Coi n-and-oat feed 0.7

Coi n bran 0.5

Corn, meal 1.5

Corn, whole 1.7

Col tonseed meal 1.5

Distillers' grains, dried .... 0.5-0.7

Germ, oil meal 1.4

Glu ten feed 1.3

Gluten meal 1.7

Hoi liny meal 1.1

Linseed meal, new process . . . 0.9

Lin eed meal, old process ... 1.1

Malt sprouts 0.6

Oat ^ ground 0.7

Oat;, whole 1.0

Rye bran 0.6

Rye meal 1.5

Rye, whole 1.7

Wh( at bran . - 0.5

Wheat, ground 1.7

Wheat middlings (flour) .... 1.2

Wht at middlings (standard) ... 0.8

Wheat, whole 2.0

ONE QUART
WEIGHS

ONE POUND
MEASURES

Quarts

0.9
0.7
1.7
0.7
1.4
2.0
0.7
0.6
0.7

1.0-1.4
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.9
1.1
0.9
1.7
1.4
1.0
1.8
0.7
0.6
2.0
0.6
0.8
1.3
0.5

RULES FOR MEASURING FEED

Measuring Grain. A bushel of grain contains approxi-
mately f cubic feet. To find the capacity of a bin, find the
number of cubic feet and multiply by -f, or multiply by 8
and divide by 10.

Measuring Ear Corn. Two bushels of ears are ordinarily
required to make one bushel of grain. To find the capacity

1 U. S. 'Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 222.

306

APPENDIX

of a crib, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by f, or
multiply by 4 and divide by 10. Seventy pounds of ear
corn is ordinarily called a bushel.

Measuring Straw. Few weights of straw have been re-
ported. The writer measured and weighed two barns full
of settled wheat straw. The mows were 14 feet deep, 1200
cubic feet were required for one ton.

Measuring Hay. Some kinds of hay are heavier than
others. The deeper the mow or stack and the longer it has
stood, the heavier the hay is per cubic foot. Of course the
bottom of a mow is much heavier than the top. Usually
about 500 cubic feet of settled hay are counted as one ton.

A barn 30 X 60 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of the
plate, and having the peak 9 feet above the plate, was filled
as full as possible with timothy hay and refilled after a few
days. This hay was baled by the writer about five months
later. It weighed 51^ tons. On another year it weighed
51 tons. A barn 30 X 42 feet and 16 feet from floor to top
of plate, with peak 9 feet above the plate, was similarly filled,
and baled out 32.75 tons.

Capacity of Silos. King gives the weight of a cubic foot
of silage at different depths two days after filling, as follows : 1

DEPTH

WEIGHT PER CUBIC
FOOT

AVERAGE WEIGHT TO THIS
DEPTH

Feet
1

Pounds

Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 59.

INDEX

Abi rdeen-Angus, 37.
Ab< rtion, 155.
Ad anced registry, 64, 133.
A£< and production, 66.
Alf.-.lfa, 106, 224.
Aii;:nal unit, defined, 218.

;i >res per, 278.
Asl , 95.
As.- >ciations, breeders, 289.

c >w-testing, 61.
Ay,' shire, 27.

no. registered, 17.

Ba! cock milk test, 58, 196.
Bal meed rations, 97, 131, 298,
Bai as, 82, 139.

c< ,sts of, 147, 266.
Bee', breeds, 37.

fiom dairy cattle, 5, 20.
Bee; pulp and molasses, 109.
Biti er milk, 88.
Blarkleg, 163.
Bloot, 162.
Blo( .dy milk, 87.
Breeders' associations, 289.
Breeds, beef, 14, 37.

classification of, 14.

dairy, 14.

dual purpose, 14, 31.

milk of various, 173.

origin of, 12.

production of various, 42, 66.

selection of, 40.
Brewers' grains, 109.
Brown Swiss, 30.
Bull, management of, 91.

selection of, 69.
Butter, ash in, 2.

compared with beef, 2.

energy in, 2.

imports and exports, 296.

legal standards, 297.

making, 182.

304.

.prices by months, 217.

production per capita, 4.

protein in, 2.

regions of production, 209.

season of production, 215.
Butter-fat, 59, 196.

factors affecting amount of, 172.
Buttermilk, composition of, 298.

Calf raising, 112.

scours, 160.
Calving, care at, 90.
Canada pea, 106.

Capital and amount of stock, 277.
Cattle, origin of, 12.
Centralizer, 192.
Certified milk, 181.
Cheese, ash in, 2.

compared with beef, 2.

energy in, 2.

imports and exports, 296.

legal standards, 297.

making, 192.

production per capita, 4.

protein in, 2.

regions of production, 209, 211.

season of production, 215, 216.
Churning, 187.
Climate, 203, 215.
Clover, 106, 224.
Condensed milk, 193.

imports and exports, 296.
Condimental feeds, 111.
Corn, 107.

silage, 107, 221.

stover, 106.

Corn-stalk disease, 165.
Costs of production, 246.
Cottonseed meal, 108.
Cows, compared with other animals,
7.

numbers of, 6.

size of, 271.

307

308

INDEX

Cowpea, 106, 224.
Cowpox, 162.

cow-testing associations, 61.
Cream, imports and exports, 296.

legal standards, 297.

separation, 185.

weight of, 298.
Creameries, 191.
Crimson clover, 106.
Crop rotations, 225.

yields, 274.

acres per horse, 264.

acres per man, 261.

cash, 227, 276.
Cropping systems, 225.
Crossbreeding, 13, 74.
Crude fiber, 95.

Dairy products, receipts from, 10.

Dehorning, 81.

Devon, 36.

Diversified farming, 227, 276, 279.

Drenching a cow, 152.

Drying up a cow, 89, 124.

Dual purpose, 14, 31.

Dutch Belted, 30.

Ether extract, 95.

Feeding standards, 97, 298, 304.
Feeds, 104, 300, 304, 305.

condimental, 111.

costs of, 246.

digestibility, 96.

effect on milk, 176.

energy in, 104.

mixed, 110.

production values of, 96.

returned in manure, 231.

uses of, 94.

weights of, 305.

Fertility of feed in manure, 231.
Flies, 79.
Floors of barns, 141.

Galloway, 38.
Garget, 158.
Gluten, 109.
Grade, defined, 13.
Guernsey, 24.

no. registered, 17.

Gutters, 144.

Haecker feeding standard, 298.
Hay, weight of, 306.
Heifers, feeding, 120.
cost of raising, 250.
Hereford, 37.
Holstein, 17.

Ice cream, legal standards, 297.
Inflammation of the udder, 158.

Jersey, 21.

number registered, 17.

Kaffir poisoning, 164.
Kerry, 30.
Kicking cows, 88.

Labor costs, 246, 248.
Labor income, 259.
Legal standards, 297.
Legumes, 106, 224.
Lice, 161.

Light for barns, 140.
Linseed meal, 109.

Maintenance requirements, 299.
Mangers, 144.
Manure, 9, 230.

amount produced, 230.

application of, 235.

losses of, 232.

value of, 231, 234.
Marketing, 253.
Marking cattle, 82.
Meat from dairy cattle, 5, 20.
Milk, ash in, 2.

bitter, 88.

certified, 181.

color of, 171.

compared with beef, 2.

composition of, 168.

condensed, 193.

consumed per capita, 4.

cost of, 246.

energy in, 2.

fever, 153.

flour, 194.

from different animals, 172.

inspection, 5.

INDEX

309

lejral standards, 297.

prices by months, 217.

rec ords, 58.

sanitary, 177.

substitutes, 117.

su-ar, 170.

te-ting, 59, 196.

va ue as food, 1.

ve;ns, 51.

w( ight of, 298.

wells, 51.
Mill- ing, methods of, 83, 84.

rn ichines, 86.
Mix. d feeds, 110.
Mol sses, 109.

Niti >gen-free extract, 95.

Oat>. 108.
Oil i leal, 109.

Pasi are, 126, 224.

feeding grain on, 127.
Pedigrees, 15.

Poll d Durham, 34.

Population of the United States, 3.

Pro( Auction values of feeds, 96.

Prof ts, factors affecting, 258.

Prolein, 95.

Pul-o, normal, 150.

Pun bred, defined, 13.

Rations, calculating, 100.
Red Polled, 34.
Registry, advanced, 64.

number of animals in, 17.
Renting dairy farms, 240.
Respiration, normal, 151.
Rotations, crop, 225.

Salt, 123.

Sanitary milk, 177.

Score cards, 53, 77, 290.

Scours, 160.

Selection, individual, 42.

of a breed, 40.

of a bull, 69.

Shelter, 82.
Shorthorn, 32.
Silage, 107, 221.
Silo, capacity of, 306.
Skim-milk, composition of, 298.

for calves, 112.

value as food, 2, 254.
Soiling crops, 223.
Soils for dairying, 274.
Sorghum poisoning, 164.
Stalls, 144.
Stanchions, 145.
Straw, weight of, 306.
Strippings, 176.
Successful farms, 242, 281.
Succulent feed, 132.

Teats, chapped, 88.

leaky, 87.

Temperature, normal, 151.
Tenure of dairy farms, 240.
Ties, 145.
Timothy hay, 106.
Topography, 203.
Transportation and dairying, 208.
Tuberculosis, 156.

Udder, 50.

inflammation of, 158.

Variations, extent of, 44.
Veal production, 119.
Ventilation, 146.
Vetch, 106, 224.

Water for cows, 125.

in feed, 95.
Weights of feeds, 305.
Wheat bran, 107.

middlings, 108.
Whey, 298.

Wing's feeding standard, 304.
Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard,

99.
Work units, 263.

Printed in the United States of America.

JHE following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects

Animal Husbandry for Schools

BY MERRITT W. HARPER

A isociate Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of
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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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Warren's Elements of Agriculture

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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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Principles of Agronomy

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Cloth, I2tno, illustrated, 430 pages, List price, $1.40

The "Principles of Agronomy" deals with the practices
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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork

DEC 14 1932
DEC 15 1932

1934

28 1938

SEP 8

ISApr

AUG

1936

MAR 16 1938

1838

REC'D LD
APR1319S8

•32

362172

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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