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•
•^ , b 1^ r. r V ^*-
or TH'-
COLLEGt 0-
THE
CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE
* ©
OF AGRICULTURE
DAIRYING, PART I
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY
RY
• • • !>/ 1 • • •
EDWARD H. FARRINGTON. M. S.
Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the
University of Wisconsin
This is the first of a series oi six books giving a complete course of instructions in
DAIRYING .
o " ■> •" ■*
* •' -»
COPYRIGHT. 19 10
THE CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
r-^s-'o-'-ii
•_:>\ u
/^
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/.
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\
c.;>
NOTE TO STUDENTS
In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from this paper, you
must thoroughly master the text. While it is not intended that you
commit the exact words of the text to memory, still there is nothing
contained in the text which is not absolutely essential for the in-
telligent dairyman to know. For your own good never refer to the
examination questions until you have finished your study of the tex t
By following this plan, the examination paper will show what }^ou
have learned from the text.
• ••
:-<f^-i^
J
^ « >
Parti.
DAIRYING
LESSON I.
INTRODUCTORY
I. — ^Develapment of the Dairy Industry.
1. Dairying is one of the oldest industries known to man.
Ancient inscriptions and documents seem to indicate that butter
was made one or two centuries B. C, and that contributions of
cheese for the support of monasteries were common in about
the year 500. Early literature also shows that for many years
no great attention was given to the development of the dairy
cow as a large milk producer, or that the processes of butter-
making and cheese making were changed much from year to
year. The cows in existence were milked and the butter and
cheese made in about the same routine way for many years.
2. Milk production and dairy manufacturing remained nearly
stationary until about 1875, when the centrifugal cream separator
began to show some promise of becoming useful. This invention
called attention to the large losses of. butter fat in skimming
milk by the old gravity methods, and led to the establishment
of creameries where the milk of many farmers was skimmed and
butter made in a much more economical way than formerly.
3. A second stage in the development of dairying dates from
the invention of the Babcock and other milk tests in about 1890.
298133
• • • »•»*-
- :-.::•: -•• ';: . r .• ' DAIRYING.
The Babcock test furnished a means of detecting the losses of
butter fat in skim milk, and thus showed the need of perfecting
cream separators until such losses were reduced to a 'minimum.
Previous to the invention of the Babcock test, skim milk contained
at least three-tenths per cent fat, (0.3%) but this loss has now been
reduced to less than one-tenth per cent, (0.1%) thus making a
saving of two-tenths per cent, fat, (0.2%) due to the common use
of this test. By these means creamery buttermakers have learned
the necessity of controling the conditions that give a uniformly
efficient skimming of milk by centrifugal separators. This saving .
of two-tenths per cent fat (0.2%) over the losses of former years
is five per cent (5.0%) of the fat in average whole milk, and it
represents a saving of $50,000 for every $1,000,000 worth of butter
manufactured from milk testing 4.0 per cent fat.
4. After the value of these two machines — ^the separator and
the ' milk tester — was thoroughly understood, the dairy industry
. began to grow rapidly along three lines. 1. The improvement of
dairy manufacturing processes; 2. The study of economical milk
production; 3. The marketing of dairy products.
5. The study of these questions was first taken up by European
farmers who understood the benefits to be derived from co-opera-
tion ; and in about 1880, farmers ' co-operative associations began to
be organized for the purpose of carrying on co-operative feeding
experiments, factory inspection, and the sale of dairy products in
the best markets. Such co-operation has not been extensively suc-
cessful among dairymen in the United States, but our dairy develop-
ment has been helped by state dairymens' associations, farmers'
institutes, state and county fairs, the farm and daily press, long
and short courses in agricultural colleges, and experiment station
bulletins.
A — Dairying Compared With Other Lines of Farming.
6. The statement is often made at farmers' institutes and
similar gatherings that a change from grain farming to dairying
has lifted the mortgage from many a farm. The truth of this asser-
tion has been proved over and over again; and numerous illustra-
tions might be cited to show that there are farms, counties, and
even states which owe their present prosperity largely to this
HOLSTEIN-F
HCLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL.
6 DAIEYING.
change. In many grain-growing sections of the country where for-
merly the uncertainty of the crop each year made the farmer's
income somewhat precarious, the fertility of the land has been im-
proved, and the general prosperity of the farmer has been increased
by the introduction of dairying.
7. Soil exhaustion from constant cropping of the land is an
important matter in- all lines of farming ; and the advantages which
dairying has over other lines of farming in this respect are worthy
of consideration. When only butter is sold from the farm there is
very little fertility removed from the soil. The carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen of which butter fat is composed are taken from the air
and from water by the aid of sunlight, and so these elements are
made to contribute to the food of man without exhausting the soil
to the extent that grasses and grains extract its fertility.
4
a. — Fertilizing Materials in Dairy Products and in Farm Crops.
8. One ton of butter contains about 1,688 pounds of fat, 272
pounds of water, and 20 pounds of milk sugar, and lactic acid, and
20 pounds of casein and mineral matter.* The first two sub-
stances, fat and water, comprise 1,960 pounds of the ton ; and their
formation does not impoverish the soil to any great extent. This
leaves only the 20 pounds of casein and mineral matter as the
fertilizing ingredients taken from the soil. This is a comparatively
small part of the ton, and no other farm crop removes so little
fertility from the land.
9. In a ton of mixed hay there are about 220 pounds of ash
(mineral matter) and protein; in a ton of corn 240 pounds; and of
wheat 275 pounds. These constituents are similar to the ash and
casein of butter, and a comparison of the figures shows that the
hay, the corn, and the wheat are 11 to 15 times more exhaustive
to the soil than is butter, when one ton or about $400 worth of
butter is compared with one ton of hay.
10. The case is somewhat different with milk. A ton of whole
milk removes from the soil about 88 pounds, or over four times as
much fertility as does butter. This difference between milk and
butter is largely due to the casein in milk, but the fertility which it
•Exclusive of salt added.
DAIRYING.
contains is saved to the farm if the skimmed milk is kept at home
or returned from the creamery in a condition suitable for feeding
calves and pigs.
11. In the foregoing comparisons between butter and farm
crops it has been assumed that the casein, protein, and ash are of
equal fertilizing value, in all the products mentioned. An analysis
of these products, however, shows the exact amount of plant food
in each. one of them. An average of some results of such analysis
is given in the following table. It includes not only the fertilizing
constituents but their value per ton.
Fertilizing Constituents in Crops and in Dairy Products.*
. •
Nitrogen
per cent.
Phos. Acid
per cent.
Potash
per cent.
Valut
per ton.
Hay
1.41
.27
1.55
$ 4.91
Corn
1.82
.70
.40
5.26
Wheat
2.36
;89
.61
6.63
Milk
.53
.19
.17
2.17
Skim Milk . . .
.56
.20
.18
2.31
Butter
.12
.04
.04
.49
Whey
.15
.14
.18
.84
Cheese ...
3.93
.60
.12
14.19
These figures show the advantages which butter selling has
over the disposal of other farm products, when the matter of soil
exhaustion is taken into consideration.
12. According to the 12th Census, the value of the dairy
products of the United States amounted to $472,369,255. This is
more than the value of any one grain crop excepting corn (maiz),
which was $828,000,000, while wheat was $369,000,000, vegetables
$242,000,000, cotton $370,000,000, fruits $131,000,000, eggs $144,-
000,000. There was not much difference between our exports and
our imports of dairy products. These nearly balance each other;
the value of the imports being $3,500,000, *and the exports $4,888,000.
We import considerable cheese, and export condensed milk, as well
as small quantities of low grades of butter. Our exports of corn
•uauiiCjiBQ puB sjaraj'B^ joj i[ooqpuT3ij sjIOjW*
DAIRYING. 9
(maize), however, amount to $47,000,000, and of wheat, meal aiKl
flour $46,000,000. When we remember that two pounds of butter is
often worth as much in the market as one bushel of corn, the
American fanner needs to consider seriously the economy of keoj)-
ing bis eom at home and feeding it to his dairy cows, rather than
sending it across the ocean for feeding the cows of the more
intensive farmers of Europe.
13. It is claimed by Lane, that the gain m fertilizing constit-
uents to a farm of 76 acres in seven years with thirty or forty
cows amounted to an equivalent of 27.6 tons of nitrate of soda,
29.6 tons of acid phosphate, and 2.47 tons of muriate of potash.
SHORTHORN BULL.
These results are found by subtrai^ting the pounds of fertilizing
materials in the milk produced, from the weight of these fertilizing
materials in the concentrated feed bought and fed to thesi; cows
during this period of time. Or in other words, there was a gain
to the farm for a year of 1,230 poupds of nitrogeu, 1,010 pounds of
phosphoric acid, and 353 pounds of potash from the grain fed to
the eows.
b. — Feeding Value of Skimmed Milk.
14. Another important item in farm dairying is the feeding
value of skimmed milk for young stock and poultry. Many prac-
10 DAIRYING.
tical and scientific experiments have demonstrated that calves and
pigs will thrive on warm, sweet, and undiluted skimmed milk
nearly as well as on whole milk, especially when a small quantity
of ground flax seed is fed with the milk. It is also claimed that
for feeding pigs, 100 pounds of skimmed milk is. worth nearly as
much as the price of a pound of butter, or one-half as much as the
price of a bushel of corn. One pound of butter is sometimes worth
more than a bushel of oats, and in some places more than two
bushels of potatoes.
c. — ^Dairy Products N«t Bulky to Market.
15. Besides these advantages of fertility and feed which milk
producing gives to the farmer, he can by dairying convert his
farm crops into concentrative products like butter and cheese, which
are not so bulky to market as grain, hay, roots, etc. This makes a
great saving in the cost of transportation and handling of such
crops.
d. — ^Utilizing Waste Land.
16. Another thing in favor of dairying is the fact that on some
farms there are waste places which cannot be cultivated and made
to yield crops by the bushel, but which may be utilized as pasture
and thus produce .an income, which although it may not be so great
as that from tillable land is far better than nothing.
e. — ^Dairyman a Manufacturer.
16. An intelligent dairyman is not only a producer of such raw
material as grain and forage, but he is also a manufacturer of
this raw material into milk, which is a high priced food product. In
some instances the income from milking a few cows may seem to be
small, but while the cows are busy all day converting their food
into milk, their owner is able to do a fair day's work in addition to
the milking.
f . — Employment Throughout the Year.
17. Dairying gives constant employment to farm labor in all
DAIKYING. 11
kinds of weather and during every season of the year. While the
cows are working in the pasture in the summer, the dairyman is
planting, cultivating and harvesting their winter feed. During the
winter the laborers who were employed in producing the feed are
kept busy in caring for the cows, which convert this summer feed
into winter milk. There is no time for idleness on a dairy farm, and
hired help can be profitably employed during the entire year.
g. — Profitable Returns for Study.
18. No branch of farming gives a greater opportunity for
profitable thought and study as well as skill and expertness in
management, than does dairying, and no line of work gives better
returns for intelligent thought than the dairy. Problems in breed-
ing and feeding, and in economical production are constantly before
the dairyman, and on the proper solution of these depends his pros-
perity. The dairyman of all men learns to be kind, gentle, and
progressive, as his experience with cows will soon show the necessity
of developing these traits of character to become successful. The
favorable statements already made in regard to dairying in general
might be still further added to without exaggeration, but those
given will apply to any community. It often happens that a certain
locality has special advantages for this line of farming, and these
should be utilized in every case. There is always room at the top
in dairying and success is attained by reading and thinking, and
by attending dairy conventions, visiting other dairy farms, and by
putting into practice the ideas accumulated in this way.
B — Peculiar Characteristics of a DauTman.
19. Certain traits of character seem to be particularly adapted
to dairying; and When we consider the reward a man may receive
for his labor in this line of work, it seems worth while to cultivate
the disposition most needed for success. A dairy farmer must give
constant attention to his business. The cows give milk every day
in the year, they have no holidays, and since the milk as well as
other dairy products are perishable, they must be properly and
constantly cared for ; any neglect of either the cows or the products
means a loss to the owner.
20. The dai,ryman must possess a gentle disposition, as harsh
12 DAIRYING.
treatment will reduce the flow of milk as well as lack of feed ; and
when the stock shows a tendency to run from rather than towards a
farmer, it shows that he does not possess the disposition necessary
for a successful dairyman.
21. He should also possess good judgment, as this is especially
needed in the buying of concentrated feeds and in determining
whether it is profitable for him to grow certain crops on his farm
arid sell them, using the money to buy feed particularly adapted for
milk production. He must also consider whether in his particular
locality it is more profitable for him to turn his attention to winter
or summer dairying. As a rule, winter dairying is more profitable
because the prices of dairy products are higher in the winter than
in the summer. But in some cases, cows require less care during
the summer time than in the winter, and many farmers prefer to
have their cows produce the largest quantities of milk during the
summer time, even though the prices of dairy products are lower
at this season of the year.
C — Winter Dairsdng.
22. The season of the year in which the largest quantity of
milk is produced varies with different dairymen. Those who wish
to supply a trade that calls for approximately the same amount of
milk each month, arrange to have some cows in the herd come in
fresh every month. In some localities, especially where the winter
seasons are not extremely severe, there is a tendency to have the
cows freshen in the spring, allowing them to browse in scant pasture,
timber lots, or swamp through the summer, giving what milk they
will for several months, and then allowing them to dry up and run
in the corn fields or around straw stacks during the winter.
24. Milk produced in this way is usually very expensive, even
though it does not cost much to feed the cows, as the amount of
milk given per cow does not sell for enough to pay for the new
cows that must be bought to keep up the herd. No herd will
endure such treatment many years ; and the loss of cows as well as
the cost of the feed that may be given them is enough to discourage
anyone from keeping cows on such a system as this.
25. A farmer's attitude toward dairying will change entirely
when he begins to make preparations for winter dairying. This
DAIRYING. 13
necessitates protection for the cows inl a comfortable stable, and
usually a silo well fiUed with corn silage for feeding the cows dur-
ing the winter. Neither the cow nor the farmer needs rest in the
winter; and a herd of good cows in a warm, well ventilated stable
gives profitable employment for both farm help and cows through
this season of the year.
26. Peed does not cost more in winter than in summer, and
labor is cheaper during the winter months; therefore, the cost of
producing the milk may be less in the winter season, and the prices
paid for it are much higher in winter than in summer.
27. In 1909 the Elgin market price of butter was in May, 27
cents; June, 26^/2 cents; July, 26^ cents, and in November,
32y2 cents, December, 36 cents and January, 32 cents.
The market price of cheese was in May, 15 cents; June, 13%
cents; July, 15^/^ cents, and in November, 16^/^ cents; December,
16^ cents, and March, 16% cents.
The quotations for milk for city supply were: 'May, $1.35;
June, $1.35, January, $1.79, and February, $1.64 per 100 lbs.
28. These figures show the difference between summer and
winter prices, and if the cows are fresh in the fall they will be
producing the most milk when prices are the highest. They will
also give more milk during one milking season as the flow of milk
will be kept up during the winter and turning them out to pasture
in the spring stimulates the milk producing organs so that there is
an increased flow of milk at this time. It is sometimes stated that
''cows fresh in the fall are fresh twice in the year."
29. The fall calf grows through the winter when there is time
to look after it and when turned out in the spring it grows better
and is better able to fight the annoying flies than a spring calf. It
is claimed that a fall calf will grow as much in twelve weeks as,
a spring calf in eighteen weeks and a fall calf makes a stronger
heifer and cow than a spring calf.
30. It is also claimed that cows calving in the fall are less
likely to have milk fever than in spring.
31. By winter clairying a more economical use of the land is
made than by summer pasture, which is too expensive, especially
on high-priced land.
D — Location in Its Relation to Kind of Dairying.
32; The distance from market is an important factor in deter-
mining the kind of dairying best adapted to a given location,
33. On high-priced land near a city the selling of milk directly
to the consumer or to a city milk dealer is a common practice. A
high price is usually paid for' such milk, as it can be delivered
quickly and, in good condition with little cost for transportation ;
but under such conditions a, large amount of the feed must be
BROWN SWISS BULL.
bought, and if crops are raised the land must be kept up to a high
state of fertility with manure and fertilizers bought from the city.
34. Cities are constantly reaching out farther into the country
for their milk supply, and the lower value of the land as well as
the decreased cost of producing feed as the distance increases,
makes it possible on these remote fanns to pay greater transporta-
tion charges.
IG DAIRYING.
35. Butter making or cheese making is not often undertaken
within the limits of a city demand for whole milk. The sale cf
sweet cream to ice cream dealers in cities is a very profitable line
of dairying when the farm is so situated that the cans of cream
can be conveniently shipped by steam or electric railroad.
36. Cream selling does not impoverish the soil of the farm on
which it is produced, and good prices are paid for a uniformly
sweet and rich cream.
37. Farms located beyond the reach of a city demand for milk,
find the local creamery, cheese factory, or condenfeary a profitable
enterprise to patronize. The creamery takes the cream, leaving Ihe
skim milk at the farm, and this is worth about twice as much per
100 pounds' for feeding purposes as the whey returned from a
cheese factory. The condensary uses all the milk, returning noth-
ing to the farm, and on this account pays more for milk than
the creamery or cheese factory.
38. Tarm butter making and the shipping of a can of sour
cream once a week to a distant point for butter making gives the
isolated farmer a market for the products of his cows.
39. The difference in receipts for milk sold to a city milk dealer,
a creamery, or a cheese factory will depend upon the market prices
of these products at any given time, and the cost of making the
butter or cheese. This may vary in different localities, and it is aLso
influenced by the a-mount of patronage at each factory, the cost
of manufacture being less pej? pound at a large factory than at a
small factory.
40. Taking 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent, fat as a
basis for illustration, the amount that may be received for it when
sold to each of three places may be calculated as follows :
41. 1st. — Selling milk at 3 cents per quart to a city dealer is the
same as $1.50 for 100 pounds of 4 per cent. milk.
42. 2nd. — If taken to a creamery this 100 pounds of milk should
make 4.64 pounds of butter, which at 30 cents per pound amounts
to $1.39. To this should be added the value of 80 pounds of skim
milk and 15 pounds of buttermilk, which at 25 cents per 100 pounds
amounts to 24 cents, making a total of $1.39+24=$1.63. From
this should be subtracted the cost of making the butter, which at
DAIKYING. 17
3 cents per pound gives 4.64X3=14 cents, leaving the net receipts
for the 100 pounds of milk from the creamery $1.63— .14==$1.49.
43. 3rd. — If this 100 pounds of milk is taken to a cheese fac-
tory, it will make about 10 pounds of cheese, which at 15 cents
amounts to $1.50 ; to which should be added the value of 90 pounds
of whey, which is one-half that of skim milk or 12 cents, making
the total receipts for cheese and whey $1.50+12=$1.62, from this
must be subtracted the cost of making the cheese, which at l^^ cents
per pound gives 10Xiy2=15 cents, and $1.62—15 cents=$1.47 as
the net receipts for the milk if taken to the cheese factory.
44. A sununary of these figures the receipts for 100 pounds
of milk, testing 4 per cent, fat when sold at 3 cents per quart as
$1.50; when sold to the creamery, $1.49;- and when sold to the
cheese factory, $1.47. A comparison similar to this can be made by
substituting other prices for milk, butter and cheese as the mar-
kets change.
II. — Selecting Cows for the Dairy.
45. According to the Twelfth Census, taken in the year 1900,
there were 18,112,707 cows in the United States. The total amount
of milk produced per year is reported as 7,728,583,350 gallons. A
calculation made from these figures shows that the average milk
production per cow per year is 3,600 pounds. A somewhat more
recent estimate of the number of cows was reported by the United
States Department of Agriculture in 1906. This gives the total num-
ber of cows in the United States at that time as 19,793,866. This is an
nicrease of over one and one-half millions in six years, so that it is
evidently safe to assume that at the present time, 1910, there are
at least 21,000,000 cows in the United States, and that the average
production per cow per year is not far from 4,000 pounds of milk.
46. This average production seems like an extremely small
figure, especially to farmers living in localities where milk produc-
tion hds been carried on for several generations ; but it shows what
a great opportunity there is for increasing the amount of milk pro-
duced per cow per year when this figure is compared with some of
the records that are published of herds in which the average pro-
duction per cow is from 6,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk per year, and
18 DAIKYING.
of single cows whose record has reached 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of
milk per year.
47. Persons somewhat familiar with the keeping of cows would
consider that an increase of 100 pounds of milk per cow per year
would not require any great effort on their part. Many of them
would think it comparatively easy to do this by giving a trifle more
attention to the care and to the feed of their cows. But if this were
done and milk is worh $1.00 per 100 pounds, such an in<3rease would
add $21,000,000 to the value of the dairy production of the United
States each year.
48. One of the best ways to add this 100 pounds, more or less ,to
the annual production of each cow is to weigh the milk at milking
time and find out how many pounds each cow is producing in a
year. If the average per cow per year is 4,000 pounds of milk,
there must be a great many that produce less than this amount, and
the number of cows below the average must be many more than
the number above the average, as one 10,000 pound cow will take
the, place of five 2,000 pound cows.
49. Statistics show that there is a great need of ''weeding
out the unprofitable cows.'' Farmers will discharge a hired man
who does not earn his wages, and H great deal of the farmer's time
is occupied in killing weeds in his crops; but the weighing of each
cow's milk is generally considered ''too much bother." It is a fact,
however, that many farmers can increase their income by keeping
records of their cows, and disposing of those that give less than
4,000 pounds of milk, or 200 pounds of butter in a year.
50. Nearly every farjner would eagerly accept an offer of $20
for 15 minutes' work once in two weeks for a year, but he can easily
earn more than this by w^eighing and testing the milk of his cows.
The following illustration shows how such work was valuable to the
owner of the two cows in plate 3. These belonged to a herd of 12 that
were all fed and cared for in the same way. These two cows were of
the same age, color, and general appearance, except that No. 1 was
thin and No. 2 fat. The owner was induced to weigh and sample the
milk of each cow in his herd once in two weeks for a year. The
samples were sent to the creamery and tested. From these weights
and tests the total production of each cow was calculated.
51. The records at the end of the year showed that cow No. 1
DAIKYING. 1[)
gave 7,600 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent. fat. This is equal to
360 pounds of butter, which at 25 cent^ is worth $90.00. Cow No. 2
gave 5,400 pounds of milk testing 4.1 per cent, fat, amounting to
260 pounds of butter, which at 25 cents is worth $65.00. Cow No. 1
produced 2,200 pounds more milk than No. 2, and 100 pounds more
butter, which at 25 ceirts per pound amounts to $25.00 to which
should be added the value of the 2,000 additional pounds of skim
milk.
52. A feed record kept by the farmer for the year showed that
the cost of feed per cow in the herd was about $30.00. Both cows
required the same amount of care and whether or not the farmer
wants *Ho bother with" the weighing of the milk as a means of se-
lecting the profitable cows in his herd, depends on the purpose for
which he is keeping cows. Does he wish the cows to support him,
or is he working day after day to support his cows?
53. The low average production of milk per cow per year shows
that many farmers are either so much attached to their cows that
they do not care to part with any of them even if it is proved that
some do not produce milk enough to pay for their feed, or they
think that they know enough about their cows without weighing and
testing the milk of each one. This indifference to an exact know-
ledge of the profit and loss from cows is common among* farmers,
and on account of it they suffer annually large financial losses.
54. Many observations have been made in recent years to show
the actual production of milk by cows throughout the country. In
Illinois, records were obtained of 556 cows owned by farmers sup-
plying milk to either a city, a creamery, or a condensary. The
results obtained were classified by dividing the total number into
four lots of 139 cows each. The average production of the poorest
lot was 133 pounds of butter per cow, and of the best 301 pounds of
butter. The profit from the poorest lot of 139 cows was $100, and
from the best lot of the same number of cows $4,000. A further
study of the records showed that it would require 1,021 cows of the
producing capacity of some to equal that of 25 other cows.
55. The records obtained by weighing and testing the milk of
each cow in a herd are valuable not only to the owner as an aid in
selecting those he wishes to keep; but such records if good ones,
help to sell the calves of the cows, and they raise the value of the
22 DAIRYING.
cows themselves. Weighing the milk of each cow and testing a
sample with the Babcock test as described later is now taking the
place of farmer churn tests.
56. Chuipn tests are now out-of-date, as it has been shown that
butter can be made to contain an abnormal amount of water by
artful manipulation. The fraudulent compounds thus obtained are
no longer accepted as butter. Legal butter according to recently
adopted United States standards, must contain at least 82.5 per cent,
fat, and since the amount of fat in butter is necessarily a variable
quantity on account of the method of manufacture, the butter record
of a cow is now based oi\the weight of butter fat in her milk instead
of the butter that is reported to have been made from it.
57. The Babcock test and a pair of scales are the means now
employed for making permanent and valuable records of dairy
cows. They measure the milk by an absolute standard which is not
subject to variations when honestly used. The test takes the place
of the churn, because the same accuracy cannot be obtained with
scales and churn as with the scales and test. The most expert dairy-
man is not able to divide 100 pounds of cream into four or laore
equal parts and make exactly the same weight of butter from each
part, but the Babcock test will show the same percentage of butter
fat in the different lots.
a. — ^Average Milk Producers.
58. The statistics already quoted indicate that the average cow
in the United States produces about 4,000 pounds of milk ; and if this
tests 3.5 per cent, fat, and an overrun of 16 per cent, is assumed, the
average butter production per cow is 162 pounds. The average
farm value of the 21,801,000 cows is reported as $35.79 per cow in
the 1909 year book of the United States Department of Agriculture.
59. Taking these figures as a basis, the value of cows producing
more or less than this amount can be estimated. If a cow producing
162 pounds of butter is valued at $35, a cow producing 200 potinds is
worth more than the value of the increase in butter. Assuming both
cows to be an equal expense to the owner, then the one producing 38
*The increase of the churn over the test or the difference be-
tween butter and butter fat.
DAIRYING. 23
pounds more butter than the other brings at 25 cents per pound,
38X25=$9.50 more income. This $9.50 is a little more than 6 per
cent, of $150.00, and since many people consider money at 6 per cent,
interest as a good investment, the cow producing 200 pounds of but-
ter may be assumed to be worth $150 more than the cow producing
162 pounds of butter.
60. The difference in value of cows may in this way be based
on the amount of money on which the excess of production over the
cost of keeping will pay a fair rate of interest. There may or may
not be a difference in the amount of feed consumed by the two cows.
This will depend on the individuality of the two animals, but the
cost of stabling and caring for them is the same, and the owner's
profit comes from the margin obtained over the cost of keeping.
61. The average production of milk per cow shows a great need
of improvement in our dairy cows ; and while it may be difficult to
buy better cows, they may be raised by the use of a pure bred dairy
sire. The figures given show that it will be a good investment to
pay what may seem to be excessive prices for both cows and bulls of
the dairy type.
b. — Exceptionally Large Milk Producers.
62. The development of dairy cows by careful feeding and
handling, so that they will produce a maximum of milk on a mini-
mum of feed is a business in which many people are enthusiastically
engaged. Formerly a great deal of attention was paid to the pedi-
gree of a cow, and this is still of considerable importance, but it is
far from being the only record that is in demand at the present lime.
The opinion is fast gaining ground that an official test of a dairy
cow's performance as a milk and butter producer is of the first im-
portance.
63. These tests are best made at home, where the cows are
undisturbed by strange surroundings. There may be educational
advantage in having exceptionally good cows exhibited at fairs and
places where many people see them, but cows nearly always produce
more milk at home than at a fair where they are more or less
excited. This is well understood by dairymen ; and when an excep-
tionally large milker is to be tested, the owner usually sends to an
agricultural college for a man to come to the farm and watch th^
24
DAIRYING.
milking, then sample and test the milk of such cows as he wishes to
be tested. The cow is thus given every advantage possible to do her
best, and the record she makes is an official one, since it is certified
to by a disinterested party who is usually a representative from an
agricultural college. There is nothing spectacular about these home
tests of dairy cows, but they are being quietly made in many of the
states and the interest in them is rapidly sprea4ing.
64. The best one-year records of cows belonging to four of the
dairy breeds up to 1910 are the following:
Ayrshire cow, Rena Rose, milk 1^,072 pounds, test 4.26 per cent,
fat, butter fat 643 pounds.
Guernsey cow, Dolly Dimple, milk 18,459 pounds, test 4.96 per
cent, fat, butter fat 907 pounds.
Holstein cow, Colantha 4ths Johanna, milk 27,432 pounds, test
3.64 per cent, fat, butter fat 998 pounds.
Jersey cow, Jacoba Irene, milk 17,253 pounds, test, 5.53 per cent,
fat, butter fat 953 pounds.
65. These figures certainly must inspire respect for the dairy
cow as a producer of human food. A circular issued concerning the
record of Jacoba Irene states that her milk for one year contained
2,527 pounds of solids, and that this is equal to the edible solids of
25 steers.
66. The Missouri Agricultural College compares the solids in
milk of a cow giving 18,405 pounds of milk in a year with the carcass
of a 1,250 pound steer, and gives the following figures.
Dry Matter or
Solids.
Milk of 1 cow
18,405 pounds.
Steer
1,250 pounds.
Protein
552 pounds
172 pounds
Fat
618 pounds
172 pounds
Milk Susrar
920 pounds
. . . pounds
'
Ash
128 pounds
43 pounds
Total
2,218 pounds
548 pounds
The dry matter from the milk is all edible solids, while that of
the steer includes hide, bones, tallow, etc. This shows that cows and
not steers must be kept on high priced land.
DAIEYING. 25
67. A good daily grain in live weight of a steer is two or three
pounds, and this is nearly half water, while a cow giving 50 pounds
of milk per day is manufacturing six pounds of solid food for man,
which is more digestible than even 12 pounds, gain in live weight
per day in the steer.
68. The milk of the Holstein cow (27,432 pounds), would sup-
ply 94 people with milk for one year, provided the estimate of 290
pounds of milk per capita is a correct one.
69. It is claimed that the dairy cow produces human food more
cheaply than any other animal, and to equal the production of a cow
giving 50 pounds of milk per day, a steer would have to allow 10
pounds of steak to be cut from his carcass every day.
c. — Choice of a Dairy Breed.
70. There is no best dairy breed of cows. This is the conclusion
of many broad-minded dairymen. There are four so-called dairy
breeds of cows which arranged alphabetically may be named Ayr-
shire, Guernsey, Holstein and Jersey. In addition to these there are
many cows producing large quantities of milk in the following
breeds: Brown Swiss, Short Horn, Dutch Belted, Devon and Red
Polled. The selection of a breed by each dairyman is about the
same sort of task as choosing a cream separator or a sewing machine.
71. There are good cows and poor cows in all breeds as well as
excellent machines in all makes. Each breed of dairy cows possesses
certain characteristics which are more or less well known, but it is
hard to prove that any one breed contains a higher percentage of
economical milk producers than another.
72. Two cows of the same breed, fed, cared for, and milked in
the same stable may vary as much in milk production as two cows
of different breeds. The individuality of the animal is of as much
importance as her breed.
73. The selection of a breed should be based on a person's likes
and dislikes, and the disposition to be made of the milk. In sec-
tions of the country which supply cities with milk there are often
found large numbers of cows of the breeds which have the char-
acteristic of producing large quantities of milk, and a heavy flow is
nearly always accompanied by a lower per cent, of fat in the milk
than when the amount of milk produced per cow is smaller.
26
DAntYING.
*Tield and Test of Milk from Cows of Several Breeds.
BREED
No. of
Cows
Fat
No. of
Cows
Milk per
day lbs.
Calc. Batter
per day
lbs.
Jersey
491
191
679
370
108_
50
^_20_
5
5
5
. 4,98
425
27.3
29.7
48.8
43.5
1.36
Guerusey
4.77
151
503
275
50
50
14.
1.42
Holstein-J^'riesian
3.28
1.60
Shorthorn
3.73
1.62
Ayrshire
3.84
37.0
37.3
13.2 j
27.2
1.42
Red Polled
3.73
3.39
Brown Swiss
3.78
1.41
Devon
4.57
27
S
5
.60
Dutch Belted ....
3.40
.92
Polled Jersey . . .
4.66
22.0
1.07
French Canadian
3.99
5
27.0
1.08
74. It is also claimed that the grade or conformation of the
farm should be considered in selecting a breed as light, active cows
can climb hilly pastures better than heavy cows which are more
appropriate for level land.
75. When a dairyman has a definite purpose in view, .and he
wishes to place cows in a certain locality with which he is well
acquainted, the problem of selecting a dairy breed is cwnparatively
easy. Some are influenced by the characteristic color and form or
style of a certain breed, while others want a rich milk or a large
quantity of milk from each cow.
76. Certain breed fanciers find all the good qualities in one
breed, while others see good qualities in all dairy breeds. Jilach
person must therefore, make his own selection after consulting his
fancy, his location, and his market, make a choice and stick to it, then
develop by breeding and selection exceptionally fine representatives
of that breed.
77. The cows of any one breed need as much study to determine
which ones are. the economical milk producers as do the different
breeds. It should not be claimed that the cows and calves of one
breed are stronger than another, or that they can stand more hard-
nVoll 's Handbook.
DAIRYING. 27
ship than another, because the profitable milk producer has i«ot
been developed for the purpose of enduring hardship. Rough treat-
ment, cold stables, and scant feed will destroy the dairy qualities of
any breed, and unless cows can be well fed and cared for during the
entire year, the choice of a breed is not of much consequence. But
when once made, there is no particular advantage in changing to
another ; stick to your choice in the same way that you would to a
certain line of work in which you have invested money. There will
be no profit in changing after a decision has been made.
78. The ''special purpose" cow or breed is better for a dairy-
man than the ''dual purpose'* cow. It is fair to assume that dairy
cows are kept to produce milk, and as a converter of feed into a large
quantity of milk, the "special purpose*' cows are more profitable
than the "dual purpose" cows, which give a fair quantity of milk,
and raise a good, veal calf each year or that have a tendency to
make more milk when given an abundance of feed. Cows of the
latter type are not strictly dairy cows-.
79. It can no longer be claimed that cows of a certain breed
are cheese cows, while others are butter cows. The dairy test at the
Chicago World's Pair showed that there was not much diffierence in
the ' ' cheese value ' ' of the Jersey and the Holstein cows, and although
it is a well known fact that there is proportionately more casein in
normal milk containing a low per cent, of fat than in milk of a
higher fat content, it has also been demonstrated that the pei: cent,
of casein varies as much as one per cent, in the milk of cows -.vhich
contain the same per cent, of butter fat.
80. It is also true that the richer the milk the better the quality
of the cheese made from it, and that the slightly lower yield of cheese
per pound of rich milk than per pound of thinner milk is balanced
by the increased value per pound of cheese made from the richer
milk.
81. In actual cheese factory practice, however, where the mixed
milk from different herds is received, the purity or cleanliness of
the milk received has more influence than the richness of the milk
' on the quality of the cheese as it is now sold in the market.
d. — Cost of Keeping a Cow.
82. Although it is a very complex problem, there is no subject of
DAIRYING. 29
greater importance to the owner of cows than the cost of producing
the milk. This question will give better returns for time and study
devoted to its consideration than nearly any other part of the dairy-
man's work. It is difficult to determine just what should be
included in the cost of producing milk, as this will vary from nearly
nothing on farms where cows are kept and allowed to wander over
waste, rocky land, timber land, swampy land, etc., for nearly six
months in the year, and then given little or no shelter during the
winter, to the expensive farms where cows are kept on high priced
land in expensive stables and where the feed as well as the labor
must all be obtained at the highest market price.
83. In considering the question of the cost of producing milk,
the cow owners of the country can be divided into three classes:
First, those engaged in what is termed general farming, where
the cows are kept as a part of the farm stock only ; and in addition
to milking the cows and selling either milk or cream from them, the
farmer produces and sells hay, grain, potatoes, pork, poultry, mutton,
arid some vegetables and fruit. Such farmers buy very little feed for
their cows; thfey keep no record of the milk production, and give
.the cows no special attention. This class includes by far the great
majority of cow owners in the country.
84. The second class of so-called dairy farmers make the dairy
cows the important part of their farm operations^ The cows
are selected by keeping careful records of their milk production,
feeds for milk production, and the entire attention of the owner
is given to the production of milk in the most economical way;
85. The third class of farmers, which is an exceedingly small
•one, devote their time to intensive milk production ; and their work
may be compared with that of the owner of trotting horses, as
they are interested in developing some one or a few of the cows in
their herd so that they may have the honor of owning a cow which
has broken all previous records in the total amount of milk and
butter fat produced in a given time. This line of intensive milk pro-
duction has also been carried on in the dairy tests conducted at the
Chicago Columbian Exposition and the Louisiana Purchase Exposi-
tion held at St. Louis in 1904.
86. Attention has been directed to the cows kept on the farm
DAIRYING.
DAIRYING. 31
where milk is only one of the products sold each year in many
different ways. The results of one of these lines of investigation
have been reported under the heading of ''Cow Census Record'*
in Hoard's Dairyman. These records are usually obtained by a
representative of this paper visiting the farms in given localities
and- by talking with the owner of the cows, and obtaining an esti-
mate of the amount of the feed given the cows on each farm.
87. The figures concerning the amount of milk produced by each
herd is gnerally obtained by consulting the creamery, cheese fac-
tory, or other buyer of the milk sold from the farm. This work
has been very valuable" as it directs the attention of the owner
of the cows at e^ch place, to the opportunties he has for finding
out what the milk approximately costs that he is selling from the
farm. The figures reported may lack some exactness, but they
give a general idea of the approximate cost of the feed per cow
per year on the farms where the cows are only one part of the
general farming operations. In obtaining the'se figures no attempt
was made to determine the cost of any other part of the cows'
expenses. The data refers entirely to the feed cost in each locality.
A summary of some of these figures is as follows :
Averajfe of Results Obtained from Cow Census.
QTATi? No. of No. of i^lT^""
STATE Herds. Oows Fe'^Jper
Cow
Illinois : . .100 1,400 $32.76
Iowa 100 1,062 28.23
Massachusetts 50 453 36.27
New Hampshire 100 872 35.67
New York 100 1,724 46.78
Total 450 5,511 $35.94
88. The figures in this table do not give information con-
cerning the expense of keeping a cow excepting the estimated
cost of the feed. There are, however, other things which enter into
the cost of producing milk besides the feed and among these may
be considered the following:
89. First, the cow stable. This, of course, must be large enough
3^ DAIRYING.
to house the necessary feed the cows will consume as well as the
cows themselves. The cost of the cow stable may be variously
estimated, but under average conditions it seems safe to place this
at $50 per cow. This estimate will allow $1,000 for a building to
house 20 cows or $1,500 to house 30. The proportion of this expense
which the cost of maintaining a cow should bear is represented by
such items as taxes, insurance, interest, depreciation in value of
the stable each year, etc. These items will certainly amount to
so. much as 10 per cent, of the money invested which in this case
is $50 per cow and will amount to $5.
90. Second, the value of the cow. There is a great variation in
the value of cows: This is a figure which may vary to wide extremes,
as in some localities it is difficult at the present time to buy cows
for $75, while in others they can be obtained for about $30. Plac-
ing the average value per cow at $50, we can use this as a basis
on which to estimate the amount that should be charged to each
year's milk production for the money invested in the cow. It has
been estimated that a cow remains a producer of milk about four
years. The milking period of some cows is much longer than this,
but on account of the losses from accidents, sickness, poor milkers,
and other causes, a cow's usefulness in a herd does not extend
much over a period of four years. Assuming, then, that at the end
of four years, a cow must be sold for beef, or for about $30, there
is a depreciation of $20 in four years, which amounts to about 10
per cent, of the original value of the cow, which was $50 ; making
the annual expense of the cow $5.00, expressed as depreciation in
value.
91. Third, the cost of feed. This will naturally vary with dif-
ferent cows and in different localities. An experiment made by the
Illinois Station illustrated this point in the following way: Twa
grade cows, six and nine years old, both fresh in the spring, were
given the same kind and proportion of feed for one year. They
were also milked and cared for in the same way. Careful records
were kept both of the feed consumed and the weight of the milk
and butter produced. The results of this experiment for the year
show that cow No. 1 consumed during the year 20,196 pounds of
feed. She produced 11,329 pounds of milk, which according to its
test was equal to 658 pounds of butter. Cow No. 2, consumed
DAIRYING. 33
19,598 pounds of. feed. She produced 8,121 pounds of milk, which
according to its test was equal to 364 pounds of butter. There was
a difference in the records of the two cows for the year of 598
pounds of feed and 3,207 pounds of milk and 294 pounds of butter;
expressed in percentage, the difference between the two cows was
2.9 per cent, in feed, 28 per cent, in milk and 45 per cent, in butter.
92. Calculating the pounds of butter produced by each cow
at 16 cents per pound gives the total pounds of butter produced by
cow No. 1 as worth $105 and of cow No. 2 as worth $58, there being
a difference of $47. In this case one cow produced $47 worth more
of butter than the other and the difference in feed consumption was
about 600 pounds. This illustrates the influence of the cow's indi-
viduality or dairy temperament on the economy of milk and butter
production, showing that not all cows produce the same amount of
milk on the same quantity of feed. In a previous statement we
have estimated the average cost of the feed per cow per year as $35.
93. Fourth, the cost of caring for a cow. There is a great
difference in the expense of the labor necessary to feed, care for
and milk the cows. This work is done in some places entirely by
hired help. In others the members of a farmer's family are doing
some kind of farm work each day and while their labor is just as
valuable and should be charged up to the expense of keeping a cow
in the same manner as the labor of hired help this is not the case,
and the cost of milking and caring for the cows in some localities
is not placed at a very large figure. It has been variously esti-
mated that one man can milk, feed and care for 15 to 25 cows.
Assuming 20 cows to be an average number, and the wages of a
man is $40 per month, then the cost of the labor per cow per year
is $24. The time required for milking a cow on an average duriag
the year has been estimated at the Missouri Experiment Station as
60 hours. The value of this time per hour can be variously placed
at 15 cents, the total cost of labor for milking a cow on this basis
is therefore $9. From the statements given, it seems fair to assume
that the expense of caring for a cow per year may be safely placed
at $15.
94. Fifth, miscellaneous expenses. There are certain tools and
implements needed in caring for cows. The expense of these, while
not very great, amounts to something, and it should be included
34 DAIRYING.
in the annual expense of keeping cows. Among these various items
are included the milk pails and other tinware, hay forks, shovels,
brushes, medicine, etc. A fair figure for these expenses per cow
is $5. In addition to the value of the milk there are two items of
the cow's production which should be taken into consideration.
95. First, the value of the calf. This varies all the way from $1
to $100, or more. In some cases the calves are considered of very
little or no value, while in others, especially the calves from pure
bred stock, may be sold for high prices. An average value of a
calf, however, may be placed at $5.
96. The second items with which the cow should be credited is
the value of her manure. It has been estimated that an average
cow produces 75 pounds of solid and liquid manure per day. From
the composition of this manure the fertilizing vahie of its various
constituents can be calculated. Such an estimate places the value of
this manure at about 8 cents per day which amounts to $30 per
year.
97. The importance of saving the solid and liquid manure of
cows is not appreciated in this country to the extent that it is in
the older dairy sections of Europe, where in some places, it would
be impossible for the owners of cows to make a living if they were
so wasteful of the manure as we are in this country. This unneces-
sary waste is avoided by building cement vaults just outside of the
cow stable for the purpose of storing the liquid manure which runs
from the cement gutters behind the cows into this vault. A large
proportion of the solid manure is also stored in these vaults. The
mixture is pumped into wagons and sprinkled over the fields,
mostly where grass used for feeding the cows has recently been
cut. This makes it possible to retain on the farm a large share of
the fertilizing constituents of the feed the cows consume. The only
part of it that is lost is that contained in the milk or cream sold
from the farm. It is only under such conditions as this that the
manure of the cow can be considered as worth $30 a year. Under
our wasteful methods of farming in this country, fully two-thirds
of this value of the manure is lost, and it is assumed that thie
value of the manure per cow is $10. It is doubtful if even this much
is realized from the manure per cow in many cases. But a good
opportunity is here offered for the dairy farmer to increase his
DAIKYING. 35
profits by giving more attention to the saving of his stable manures.
The nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash which make plants grow,
and which are also contained in human food, such' as milk, may
by this method be used over and over again, and the only loss of
these valuable elements is in the milk, cream, butter and cheese
that are sold from the farm. This small loss is made up in some
sections by the com, the oil meal, and other grains which may be
bought and fed to the cows.
98. A summary statement of the expenses apd receipts from
a cow per year may, therefore, be given as follows :
» ■
Expenses.
Cow stable, $50, per head, int., taxes, etc $ 5,00
Value of the cow, $50, depreciation 10 per cent 5.00
Cost of feed 35.00
Care and labor 15.00
•
Total expenses $65.00
Beceipts.
Calf $ 5.00
Value of the manure 10.00
Total $15.00
The difference between the expenses and receipts is $50, which
must be covered by the milk produced.
99. Assuming that the total cost of keeping a cow per year
is $50, a calculation may be made to show the cost of milk per 100
pounds and per quart when the total production per cow varies
from 3,000 to 10,000 pounds per year. If a cow gives only 3,000
pounds of milk per year, and it costs $50 to pay her annual expenses,
then this milk costs $1.70 per 100 pounds, or 3.3 cents per quart. If
the cost of keeping a cow remains the same, $50, and the amount of
milk she produces per year increases, the cost of this milk per 100
pounds and per quart is shown in the following :
DAIRYING.
37
Milks pounds per
cow per year
3,00.0
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
. 10,000
Cost of milk per
100 pounds ^
Cost of Milk
Per quart
$1.70 3.3 cents
. 1.25 2.5 cents
1.00 I ...2. cents
.83 I ...1.7 cents
1.3 cents
.1.2 cents
1.1 cents
.1. cents
100. It cannot be expected that the cost of keeping a cow
giving 10,000 pounds of milk per year will be the same as that of a
cow giving 3,000 pounds of milk. The difference, however, will be
mostly covered by the feed consumed, as the other expenses of
stable, labor, etc., are approximately uniform, excepting that the
annual interest and depreciation in the value of the cow may be
somewhat different. The figures are of importance, however, as
they show t^e approximate cost of the milk to the owner of cows
producing different amounts of milk per year. According to these
figures, with a cow giving 5,000 pounds of milk the cost of the milk
is $1.00 per 100, or 2 cents per quart, and unless it is sold for a
higher price or 'the expenses of keeping the cow are reduced, the
owner w^ill receive no profit for his labor and his money invested
in such a cow.
The Creamery or Buttermaking Value of the Milk.
101. A calculation similar t othe one given above may be made
for estimating the value of different amounts of milk produced
per cow per year when the milk or cream is either sold to a cream-
ery or is used for making butter at the farm. Under such circum-
stances, the value of the milk is foun,d by adding the value of the
skim milk to that of the pounds of butter made from the cream.
Assuming the average test or per cent, of fat in all the milk to be
3.5 also that the skim milk is 80 per cent, of the whole milk, and
this skim milk is worth 30 cents per 100 pounds, and the overrun
is 16 per cent, the value of the different amounts of milk on a
butter basis may be calculated for one year. Taking for example.
DAIRYING. 39
three cows giving 4,000, 6,000, and 8,000 pounds of milk, ea^eh
testing 3.5 per cent, fat, the value of this milk on a butter basis
may be calculated as follows:
4,000X3.5=140X1.16=162
6,000X3.5=210X1.16=243
8,000X3.5=280X1.16=325
Value of the Skim milk ;
4,000X80 per cent, equals 3,200X30 cents, equals $ 9.60
6,000X80 per cent, equals 4,800X30 cents, equals 14.40
8,000X80 per cent, equals 6,400X30 cents, equals 19.20
102. Subtracting the value of the skim milk in each case from
the $50 which represents the co^ of keeping each cow a year,
leaves $40.00, $35.58, and $30.80. Dividing these figures so obtained
by the pounds of butter produced in each case gives the cost of the
butter per pound as 24.9 cents, 14.6 cents, and 9.4 cents. On this
basis the cost to the owner of the butter sold from the cow produc-
ing 4,000 pounds of milk is nearly 25 cents per pound, the one pro-
ducing 6,000 pounds of milk, 15 cents per pcfund, and the one pro-
ducing 9,000 pounds of milk, 10 cents per pound.
103. The difference in the values of the three cows on a butter
basis may be shown in another way. If the butter sells at 25 cents
per pound, in each case, then the cow producing 4,000 pounds of
inilk and 162 pounds of butter pays for her keeping and nothing
more. On this basis, all cows giving less than 4,000 pounds of milk
per year are kept at a loss to the owner. The cow giving 6,000
pounds of milk from which 243 pounds of butter may be made is
considerably better than the cow giving 4,000 pounds of milk.
Subtracting 162 pounds of butter contained in the milk of the latter,
from the 243 pounds of butter of the cow producing 6,000 pounds of
milk leaves 81 pounds of butter. If this can be sold at 25 cents per
pound it amounts to $20.25. Adding to this, the value of the skim
milk in excess of the skim milk contained in the 4,000 pounds of
milk produced by the first cow, it would be $14.42 minus $9.60 or
about $5, giving a total of about $25.00 as the value of the cow
producing 6,000 pounds of milk over that of the cow producing 4,000
pounds of milk. A similar calculation of the cow giving 8,000
pounds of milk and 324 pounds of butter shows 324 minus 162
pounds of butter equals 162, which at 25 cents per pound amounts
40 DAIRYING.
to .$40. Adding to this $10 as the value of her skim milk over that
of the 4,000 pound cow, makes a total of $50.
104. According to these estimates, a cow giving 4,000 pound*
of milk allows her owner no return, while the cow giving 6,000'
pounds of milk makes a profit of $50 — ^which is 10 per cent, on
$500. These figures show that dairying is especially well adapted
to the farming of high priced land, as it not only keeps up the fer-
tility of the soil, but allows a fair interest on the money invested
provided the farming and feeding ^re intelligently done, and most
important of all, provided the cows are carefully selected and only
those giving milk enough to pay for their feed and a margin besides,
are kept on the farm. According to these figures it may safely be
calculated that while a cow giving 4,000 pounds of milk is worth
nothing, a cow giving 6,000 pounds of milk niay be worth $250, and
one giving 8,000 pounds of milk may be worth $500 to her owner.
E — ^Estimating the Value of a Cow.
105. Certain items in the cost of keeping a cow are nearly the
same for all the cows in one herd. These are the cost of stabling,
of attendance, of labor, the general care of the cows, and of the
utensils such as milk pails, shovels, forks, etc. A uniform charge
against each cow, good, bad and indifferent, can be made for these
items of expense.
106. The variation in the expense of keeping the cows will fall
almost entirely on the feed consumed; and although it has been
demonstrated that two cows will often give different amounts of
milk on the same amount and kind of feed, still the amount of feed
consumed is a large item in the cost of keeping a cow.
107. The relation between the cost of feed and the milk and
butter fat produced by different cows may be seen from the follow-
ing, taken from recoijds of 25 cows at the Wisconsin Agricultural
College for the year 1908-09.
Cost of Milk Butter
feed lbs. fat lbs*
Highest $64.33 14,484 689
Lowest 26.44 4,516 243
Average . ; 41.05 8,493 363
Average for six years ^ 37.70 7,454 315
DAIKYING. - 41
These figures show a difference of about 10,000 pounds of milk
and $38.00 worth of feed between the extreme cows or nearly $4.00
worth of feed for every 1,000 pounds of milk when the milk pro-
duction is above 4,500 pounds. If then, the cow giving this amount
of milk, (4,500 pounds), is worth a given sum, and milk is worth
$1.00 per 100 pounds, each increase of 1,000 pounds of milk adds
$6.00 to the value of the cow, as this represents the difference
between the $10.00 for the 1,000 pounds of milk and the $4.00 worth
of feed required to produce this niilk.
108. Fraser places the value of a cow producing 2,000 pounds of
milk and 80 pounds of butter fat at $30.00, and adds $5.00 to the
value of the cow for each increase of 1,000 pounds of milk up to
7,000 pounds. Where a cow produces 7,000 pounds of milk and
above he adds $10.00 for each 1,000 pounds of milk produced per
year.
109. The cost of feed and other expenses of keeping cows has
been variously estimated in different sections of the country. Wing .
of New York gives the following figures :
Cost Per Cow Per Year.
20 lbs. hay for 180 days at $10 per ton $18.00
8 lbs. grain for 180 days at $30 per ton , 21.60
26 weeks pasture at 30 cents 7.80
1 man to 20 cows at $40 per month 24.00
Interest on $50 at 5 per cent 2.50
Depreciation 5.00
$78.90
110. Connecticut, Storrs Station ** average of five years record
with herd of about 20 cows ;
Cost of Cow Per Year.
Feed $53.46
Labor, stable, etc ; 33.00
Interest and depreciation 4.16
$90.62
•Hoard's Dairyman.
**Bul. 29.
42 DAIRYING.
111. The New Jersey Experiment Station 7 years' record of a
herd of about 40 cows with an average production of 6,500 pounds
of milk, cost of feed per day 12.3 cents, makes the feed cost of
milk per quart 1.5 cents.
112. The amount of feed that may be obtained for $35, which
has been assumed to be the average cost of feed per cow per year,
is very different in different sections of the country, as is shown
by the following figures reported as the feed consumed by one cow at
the Nebraska and at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station :
Feed Consumed Per Cow Per Year.
Nebraska Wisconsin Price Per Ton
1905-06 1908-09 Nebraska Wisconsin
Corn 1,017 lbs. 702 lbs. $12.50 $16.00
Bran 585 lbs. 762 lbs. 15.00 17.50
Oats 317 lbs. 22 lbs.- 18.75 18.00
Linseed Meal ... 209 lbs. 32.00
Silage .3,498 lbs. .6,696 lbs. 1.75 2.50
Alfalfa hay 2,828 lbs. .... 6.00
Clover hay 1,166 lbs. .... 10.00
Pasture ........ .$6.50 . , . . 1.00 per mo.. . .
Soiling crops : . . 196 .... 1.50
Distillers' Grain ...... 546 26.00
Milk, lbs 10,773 5,362
Fat per cent 3.64 ^ 5.66
Butter fat 392 SOS
Cost of feed $35.26 $35.17
This shows the variation in prices of feeds in different sections
of the country, and the. need of determining the facts on each farm
rather than measuring one's herd by the standard of some other
locality.
P— Cost of Equipment for Testing Cows by the Babcock Test.
113. Several types of Babcock milk testers have been designed
by various manufacturers of these machines, but the process of test-
ing milk is the same in all of them. The hand tester is most com-
DAIRYING. 43
monly used for testing cows at the farm unless high pressure steam
is available, in which case a turbine tester may be used, or if elec-
tric current is handy the tester may be run by an electric motor.
All hand testers at the present time are made with cut gear instead
of belts or friction pulleys for transmitting the power of the crank
to the whirling bottle frame. Hand testers vary in size from two to
twenty-four bottles.
114. The two-bottle tester can be clamped to a table or bench.
They sell for $4.00. This price includes the necessary apparatus for
making tests complete. A four-bottle tester of this type sells for
$5.00. The bottles in these small testers, however, are enclosed in
separate pockets which whirl around in front of the person turning
the crank.
115. Many users of testers prefer the slightly more expensive
niachines in which the whirling bottles are enclosed in a cast iron
frame. These give the operator complete protection from broken
glass or spilled acid in case of an accident.
116. The cast iron machines are made to test from 6 to 24
samples at one time. The prices of these testers with apparatus com-
plete for making tests are about :
$ 8 for a 6-bottle tester.
$ 9 for a 8-bottle tester.
$10 for a 10-bottle tester.
$12 for a 12-bottle tester.
These testers weigh about 75 pounds and are substantially made.
117. The acid used in making the tests may be bought by the
gallon in jugs at about 60 cents per gallon. These must be shipped
by freight. Larger quantities can be bought by the carboy at about
2 cents per pound. One pound of acid will make 14 tests. When
the glassware breaks, it can be replaced at approximately the follow-
ing prices :
Per
Each. doz.
Milk test bottles $ .15 $1.25
Cream test bottles ; . . . . .20 1.50
Skim milk test bottles 60
Acid measures 15
Milk pipettes 15
DAIRYING. 45
118. Any owner of cows can well afford to invest $10 in an
8-bottle tester, $3 in a milk-weighing scale with an adjustable loose
hand on the dial for balancing the weights of the pail, and 50 cents
in milk record sheets. The information obtained by the use of these
in getting an exact knowledge of the milk production of each cow
will be worth many times the price paid for it.
Cr^Methods of Testing the Milk Production of Cows.
1. — ^Farm Tests by the Owner.
119. Many good dairymen consider the inform,ation gained by
w^eighing each cow's milk at each milking, well worth the time
required to do this work. It has been shown, however, that weigh-
ing the milk of each cow two consecutive milkings one each week or
even one in two weeks, and multiplying the figures thus obtained by
the number of days elapsed since the preceding weighing, will give
a fairly close agreement with the results obtained by weighing the
milk of each milking.
120. The number of tests necessary for showing the total pro-
duction of a cow depends largely on the uniformity of her milk in
quality from day to day. The milk flow of all cows gradually de-'
creases with the progress of the period of lactation, but the rich-
ness of some cows' milk varies more than others from day to day,
hence the number of tests necessary to show her average produc-
tion will vary with the peculiarity of the cow in this respect. Some
information on this point has been obtained by comparing the results
obtained by adding together the weights recorded at each milking
with those found by calculating the total production of milk and
butter fat from weights and tests made once each week, two weeks,
and four weeks. Such a comparison made with the records of each
one of six cows showed that weighing and sampling the milk of two
consecutive milkings once a week gave 98 per cent, once in two
weeks 97 per cent, and once in four weeks, 96 per cent, of the
amount of milk and of butter fat obtained by daily weights. This
shows that there is a probable error of about 2 per cent, in the
calculation of a cow's annual production of milk and of butter fat
when such calculations are based on weights and tests made for
one day either once a week, or once in two weeks, and that a probable
error of about 4 per cent, exists in records based on weights and
DAIRYING. -v....J::i_;:^ — ^ 47
tests made for only one day in every month. This reduction in the
amount of record work is quite an object with some cow owners, and
the information obtained by weekly or bi-weekly weighings is ot
more value than no record whatever. It is true, however, that when
a start has been made with this work, the interest increases, and if
semi-monthly records are made at the beginning, the gaps between
weighings will be closed up as the work progresses.
121. Weighing and testing the milk of one milking only is likely
to give a very erroneous impression of the actual milk pi*oducing
capacity of a cow as very sudden and unexplainable varations in
both the weights and the test of a cow's milk may occur at any one
milking. These variations are, however, qualified by mixing the
milk of two or more consecutive milkings.
122. A profitable cow, or one producing more than enough milk
to pay for her feed and care, may not require any more attention
than one that is running her owner in debt every day of her life
but the profitable cow can be made more valuable by increased
attention, which if bestowed on the other cow is wasted. It would
seem then that it ought not to be necessary to present arguments to
cow owners to convince them of the cash value of records of milk
production of each cow. Many neglect this work because they do not
know exactly how to make the records.
123. When once convinced that weighing the milk of each cow
is necessary for profitable milk production, it will pay to make a
business of fitting up a convenient place for the scales, record sheet,
sample bottles, etc., as awkward arrangements for this work tend
to make it distasteful and it is more likely to be neglected than when
a comparatively easy and handy way for weighing and recording is
provided.
124. A spring balance with two hands on the dial is the most
convenient scale for weighing the milk. If the divisions on the dial
indicate pounds and tenths of a pound, the additions of the weights
of milk will be easier than with a scale which weighs to ounces.
125. The records may be kept on sheets made for the purpose
that can be bought of dairy supply firms. These are usually arranged
as follows:
48
DAIRYING.
Cow Name or No.
L
2
3 -
4
Date
A.M.
P.M.
A.M.
P.M.
A.M.
P.M.
A.M.
P.M.
August 1
2
3
4
This sheet is usually tacked to a board and kept on a shelf near
the weighing scales. Various arrangements have been suggested
for keeping this record sheet so as to protect it from dirt, and make
the writing of weights convenient for each milker.
Another way of keeping the records is to give one page or more
of a small book tq each cow and rule the pages in the following way :
Cow No. 1 — Milk Record
Age Fresh, Dife Breed SoUUIf^Datt
Date
Time
Night
Lbs.
Mom
Total
Lbs.
Date
Time
Night Mom
Tohil
P.M.
A.M.
Lbs.
P.M.
(A.M.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
t
This has the advantage of keeping all the information about one
cow together and the disadvantage of being less convenient to record
the weights on the various pages of a book at milking time than on
one blank sheet.
126. A number of wide mouthed glass- bottles holding about, four
ounces may be provided for taking a sample of each cow's milk. A
small amount of powdered bichromate of potash (about as much as
will be dipped up on one-fourth inch of a pen knife blade) should be
added to each bottle to keep the sample of milk sweet until it may
be tested. These bottles should be corked and numbered to cor-
respond with the cows. A small sampling dipper will be needed to
take a sample of each lot of milk after weighing it.
127. The complete outfit for testing the cows includes :
1. A milk weighing scale.
2. A record sheet or book.
3. Sample bottles, one for each cow.
4. Preservative.
5. A sampling dipper.
DAIRYING. 49
6. A lead pencil.
7. A Bahcoek milk tester.
128. A general plan on which the work may be arranged will be
understood from the following directions:
1. Give each cow a permanent name or number.
2. Provide a place for using the scales at milking time.
3. Select a milk weighing pail, or bucket.
4. Eecord the weight of this empty pail, or provide some sure
way of deducting its weight from each lot of milk.
5. After milking a cow dry, pour all her milk into the weigh-
ing pail.
6. Eecord the weight of this milk in the proper place in the
book,
7. Pour milk from weighing pail into milking bucket and
immediately dip a sample from it into a bottle having the
number of this cow.
8. The sample from the first milking should only fill the bottle
one-half full.
9. At the next milking, repeat the weighing and sampling and
pour the second sample into the same bottle that was pre-
viously half filled.
10. Each sample bottle should contain a mixture of milk from
two consecutive milkings of one cow.
11. Cork the sample bottles to prevent evaporation.
12. Weigh and sample the milk of each cow once, twice and
four times per month.
13. Note time of each milking.
14. Eecord the date each cow calves.
15. State how many days each calf was fed its mother's "milk.
16. Record how you disposed of each calf.
17. Weekly statement of cow's feed, including the weight,
price of grain, if any, with the amount and kind of hay,
cornstalks or other coarse fodder.
18. Health of cows.
19. Note change of any milkers.
20. Eecord date when cow was dry.
129. A farmer with twelve cows has estimated that fifteen min-
utes ' extra time was required to weigh, sample and record the milk
MILK TESTING:_0UTFIT FOR WEIGHING AND TESTING MILK
OF EACH COW AT THE FARM
DAIKYING. 51
of his cows on testing days. Such records are sometimes taken by
a bby who is too young to milk, but capable of doing the extra work
required at milking time on testing days. At one farm this work
has been done by the women.
ACCURACY OF THE RECORDS.
131. The accuracy of such records as these is necessarily
influenced by the conditions common to nearly all farms. Milk-
ing is usually done with more or less haste, especially at the
planting, haying or harvesting seasons. The milkers as a
rule are not accustomed to the use of scales and often consider a
weight within one pound of the true figure ''near enough.'' They
do not understand the necessity of promptness in sampling milk
after it has been poured from one pail to another before the cream
has begun to separate. In spite of these and other disturbing fac-
tors, results have shown that tests of dairy cows can be made by
the farmers themselves with sufficient accuracy to give a very satis-
factory knowledge of the performance of each cow.
131. From the results obtained every week or two weeks, the
total annual production of a cow is found by multiplying the average
of weights representing the milk production of one day by <he num-
ber of days in the month and adding the figures for each month.
132. The money value of each cow's milk for the month may be
found by multiplying the monthly weight of butter fat by the mar-
ket price of butter for that month if the farmer wishes to know
tie creamery value of each cow's milk. This does not take into
account the so-called ''overrun," which is the increase in butter
over the butter fat, because the cost of making the butter is an item
that should be taken into consideration and it may be assumed that
this is offset by the overrun. If one wishes to calculate the produc-
tion of a cow to butter, it may be readily done by adding one-sixth
to the weight of butter fat.
The figures obtained by such records for one cow are given in
the following table :
52
DAIBYING.
Details of One. Cow's Illlilk Record.
Cow No. 32.
Weight of Milk, Lbs.
Test, fat,
per cent.
Butter fat,
11-
Date.
Momingr'
Nigrht
Total
lbs.
Aug. 1:
8.
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.5
2.5
2.6
2.5
6.5
5.0
5K)
5.0
5.2
4.5
4.2
3.9
.34
8
.22
15
.21
22
.19
Averasre
5.37
4.5
.24
Sept
Dry.
Fresh.
6.5
18.
18.5
16.5
4.5
16.
16.
14.
11.
84.
34.5
30.5
3.6
4.5
4.3
6.0
Oct. 26
Nov. 7
.39
14
1.53
21
1.48
28
1.52
Averagre
27.5
4.5
1.23
Dec. 5
19.
19.
21.
20.5
15.5
17.
18.5
18.
34.5
36.
39.5
38.5
8.1
4.3
3.7
4.1
1.07
13
1.55
20
26
1.46
1.68
Averasre
87.1
3.8
1.41
Jan. 3
21.
20.5
18.5
21.
20.
19.
16.5
15.6
18.5
17.
40.
37.
34.
39.5
37.
4.3
4.0
3.4
3.8
3.8
1.72
10
16
1.48
1.15
23
1.50
31
1.48
Averagre
37.5
3.9
1.46
Feb. 6
17.
16.
19.
15.
16.
18.5
17.
17.
33.
34.5
36.
32.
3.7
3.4
3.4
4.1
1.22
14
1.17
22
1.22
28
1.31
Averacre
33.8
84.
34.
34.6
3.6
1.23
Mar. 8.... Tf
17.
17.5
19.
17.
16.5
15.5
42
3.6
3.6
1.43
16
1.22
26
1.24
Averasre
34.1
3.9
1.33
April 2
19.5
19.
19.
15.
17.
16.
14.5
15.5
17.5
11.5
35.5
33.5
34.5
32.6
28.5
3.8
4.2
3.8
4.4 .
3.8
1.35
9
1.41
16
1.31
23
1.43
30
1.08
Averasre
32.9
4.0
1.31
May 7
19.
19.5
18.5
15.5
14.5
14.
12.5
9.
33.5
33.5
31.
24.5
3.8
3.8
3.8
8.7
1J21
14
1.27
21
28
1.17
.90
Averagre
30.6
3.7
1.15
•
13.
12.
12.
7.5
10.
8.6
9.
7.5
June 6
23.
20.5
21.
15.
4.0
4.6
5.1
4.2
.92
11 :
.94
20
27
1.07
.63
Averasre
19.9
4.5
.89
7.
6.5
4.
3.
7.5
5.
3,
2.
July 6
14.5
11.5
7.
5.
4.2
4.8
4.4
4.4
.60
12
.55
20
.30
28
.20
Averagre
9.5
4.4
.41
DAIRYING.
53
Monthly Summary of Preceding Table.
Cow No. 32.
Months.
Average Per Day
Multi-
plied
by
days.
Monthly Total
*Price
per lb.
fat
Value
Milk
Teat.
Fat
Milk
Fat
of fat
Aufif
•
Lbs.
6.37
Dry
4.6
Lbs.
.24
31
Lbs.
166
LbB.
7.44
Cts.
16.
18.6
21.76
22.0
21.1
19.1
18.9
18.26
17.9
16.8
16.4
16.0
$1.19
Seut
Oct
Nov
27.6
37.1
37.6
33.8
34.1
32.9
30.6
19.9
9.5
4J> 1.23
30
31
31
28
31
30
31
30
31
826
1,160
1,162
946
1,067
987
948
694
294
36.90
43.71
46.26
34.44
41.23
39.30
36.66
26.70
12.71
8.11
Dec
3.8
3.9
3.6
3.9
4.0
3.7
4.6
4.4
1.41
1.46
1.28
].S3
1.31
1.16
.89
.41
9.22
Jan
8.64
Feb
6.51
March
7.62
April
May
7.08
6.46
Jane
4.11
July
2.03
Aver.
26.75
3.97
1.06
18.4
Total
304
8,131
323.
$69.81
^Creamery price which was one half cent under the averacre Elgin market price for the month
at that time.
This shows the method by which the total milk and butter fat
production is obtained and the way in which its cash value may
be figured.
♦
Variations in the Test of Milk.
The daily tests of the milk show: to what extremes the milk of
on^ cow will vary from day to day, a difference of one-half of one
per cent, and occasionally even more than one per cent, being noticed
on some days. This is shown by these records for August, Novem-
ber, December and June. Such variations, however, tend to equalize
each other from ^ay to day, and milk of unusual richness is gener-
ally followed by exceptionally thin milk, so that the average rich-
ness of the two lots comes near to the normal quality that the cow
produces. This daily variation in milk is much more striking in
some cows than in others, even in a herd having the same feed
and care ; it seems to depend largely on the health and more or less
excitable temperaiuent of a cow, nervous cows showing a much
greater tendency to unevenness in the quality of their milk than
cows of a quiet disposition.
54 DAIEriNG.
Peed Records. There are but few farmers who keep any records
whatever of the feed consumed by their cows during the year. AIL
the cows at one farm are usually fed, in the same way, no attempt is
made to vary the feed of each cow excepting where grain feeding
is practiced, it is usually stopped while a cow is giving little or no
milk. It may not be profitable to keep feed records for each cow
in a herd at the beginning of a systematic study of the cows, but
every farmer ought to know how much the milk his cows are produc-
ing is costing him. A record which was kept on a farm where twelve
cows were milked will illustrate one step in this direction.
Estimated feed cost and receipts from twelve cows :
Expenses.
Grain bought during year $181.00
30 acres corn stalks, $2.00 per acre 60.00
10 tons of clover hay, $5.00 50.00
10 acres good pasture and 15 acres woodland f 65.00
Total cost of feed $355.00
Receipts.
Received for milk at creamery $572.00
Sold 12 calves at $5.50 66.00
$638.00
60,000 lbs. skim milk, 10 cents per 100 lbs 60.00
Receipts exceed feed cost $343.00
$698.00
The grain feed consists of corn and oats ground together, corn
meal and bran, or about 15 tons of grain at $12.00 per ton.
This record shows that the estimated cost of feed at this farm
was nearly $30 per cow; and the total receipts $698.00 divided by
12, the number of cows in this herd, gives a little over $58 as the
average receipts per cow. Assuming that the manure will pay for
the care of a cow, the owner of this herd received an average profit
of $28 per cow. Each cow was fed about the same amount of grain
and hay during the period of stable feeding — November 1 to May 1.
The grain was fed dry just before milking, ten to fourteen pounds
per head being fed per day, excepting the dry cows, which received
DAIRYING. 55
very little grain. Hay was fed the last thing at night after milking.
During day time the cows were turned out into a sheltered yard
where they were fed corn stalks that had been stacked near the
barn at husking time. The corn stalks were well eaten and it is
probable that the cows satisfied their differences in appetite on the
corn stalks, if, as stated, each one was given the same amount of
hay and grain. The cows had access to well water during the entire
year, and w^re in pasture from May to November. When cows
were fresh the calf was allowed to have its mother's milk for about
three weeks, when it was sold for veal.
133. An inspection of the records of each cow at this farm
shows that the butter in the milk of one cow in this herd brought
$53.35 in a year, and that of anibther' $28.72. These figures do not
mean that cow No. 1 is worth $53.00 and No. 2, $28.00, because if
the feed of a cow for a year cost $30, cow No. 1 earned an annual
profit of $23.00, but the farmer lost $2.00 by keeping No. 2. In five
years No-. 1 would pay $115.00 into the owner's pocket, but if he
kept No. 2 during this time, a loss of $10.00 must be made up from
some other source, and inspection of the receipts from twelve cows
on each of two farms shows that at farm A. there were three cows
which did not produce enough milk to pay for their feed. The
entire herd only paid a profit of $7.00, and three of the twelve cows
paid $50.00 of this amount, while the combined profit of the other
nine cows is only $25.00. In this case three cows earned 100 per
cent, more money in a year than was earned by nine cows on the
same farm. On the other farm, twelve cows earned a total profit
of $228.00, instead of $75.00 as on the first farm, but even at farm
B. there is a considerable difference in the cows. No. 1 earned only
about $8.00 profit while No. 2 earned nearly $31.00, a difference of
about 400 per cent, in the annual butter value of these two cows
to their owner.
135. These tests are of more value to the owners of the herds
tested than to anyone else, but some illustrations of general interest
may be drawn from them. The cows on one farm were tested for three
years. The average receipts per cow in 1898, from the creamery
were $36.30 ; in 1900, $39.20, and in 1901, $38.92. The figures do not
show much indication that the owner profited by these tests. Two
cows that did not. produce enough milk to pay a profit on their
56 DAIRYING.
* feed were kept in the herd for three years, and five other cows pro-
duced less than $30.00 worth of butter in a year. The annual pror
duction of the mature cows during the three years shows that the
poor cows did not improve from year to year, but continued to
give less milk than required to pay for the feed consumed. The
one good cow was equally persistent in doing well. The creamery
value of her milk for three years was $200. This is $110 more than
the cost of her feed when we take $30 per year as the value of a
cow's feed. The butter produced by the other five cows tested for
three years amounted to only $114 more than the cost of their feed
during the same time. The milk of one cow, therefore, paid the
owner within $4 as much profit in three years as the milk of five
cows in the same herd for the same length of time. In another herd
the excess of butter over cost of feed of two cows was worth $60,
w^hile that of five other cows was worth only $56.00. Thus the
owner received at the creamery $2.00 less for the milk of five cows
than he did for that of two cows in the same herd. Many more
startling illustrations might be given from the records of the
different herds.
136. If, as bias been stated, each farmer fed all his cows in the
same way, and the time and labor of milking and feeding the cowjs
w^ere approximately the same for both good and poor cows, it fol-
lows that it did not cost any more to feed the best than the poorest
cows in the h,erd. The information furnished by these tests may
be very valuable to the owner of the cows, and should be of im-
portance to the cow as her life ought to depend upon the record
she makes. Previous to making the tests, the owners of these cows
had no accurate idea of the relative value of their cows; but the
records show that the information gained is worth many times the
cost of a milk weighing scale, a Babcock test, and the time neces-
sary to use them.
DAIRYING. 59
EXAMINATION
Note to Student — These questions are to be answered inde-
pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your exami-
nation. Use thin white paper about 6"x9" for the examination.
Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat
the question. Mail answers promptly when completed.
QUESTIONS ON LESSON I.
1. How far back in history does the dairy industry extend?
2. What two mstehines had an influence on the early development
of dairying?
3. Show by a calculation the amount of money that may be saved
by the Babcock Test in making $1,000 worth of butter.
4. What was the approximate test of skim milk before and after
the invention of the Babcock Test, and what percentage of the
total fat in average milk does the saving by this test represent ?
5. Along what lines has dairying progressed during the past 30
years, and when did co-operation among farmers begin to pro-
duce results? '
6. Why is co-operation among farmers in the United States un-
successful ?
7. Why is cream and butter selling less exhaustive of soil fertility
than the selling of milk, cheese or grain crops from the farm?
6. Which of the constituents of dairy products and of farm crops
have' the greatest and which ones have the least money value ?
9. Show by a calculation the money value of the fertilizing con-
stituents in 3,800 pounds of hay, of corn, of milk, of butter,
and of cheese.
10. How does the annual value of dairy products compare with that
of some farm crops?
11. Why are the exports of dairy products from the United States
so small and of what do our imports of dairy products consist?
12. Why is it profitable for the European farmer to import grain
for feeding cows?
60
DAIRYING.
13. A cow giving 8,500 pounds of milk in a year consumed the fol-
lowing amount of feed:
Hay 1,237 lbs.
Silage 7,735 lbs.
Pasture grass 301 lbs.
Sugar beets 502 lbs.
Wheat bran 570 lbs.
Oats ' 138 lbs.
Corn meal 650 lbs.
Oil meal 70 lbs..
Distiller's Grain '. 546 lbs.
These feeds and the milk contained the following percentages
of fertilizing elements:
Hay, (mixed)
Silage, (corn)
Pasture grass
Sugar Beets
Wheat bran
Oats
Corn meal
Oil meal
Distiller's grain, (dry)
Milk
Phosphoric
Nitrogen.
acid.
Potash.
1.41
.27
1.55
.28
.11
.37
.91
.23
.75
.22
.10
.48
2.67
2.89
1.61
1.86
.77
.59
1.58
.63
.40
5.43
1.66
1.39
3.62
f
1.03
.09
.55
.19
.]8
The fertilizing value of these materials is:
Nitrogen, 20 cents per pound.
Phosphoric acid, 4 cents per pound.
Potash, 4^4 cents per pound.
What is the value of the excess of fertilizing constituents in
the feed over these in the milk of this cow?
14. Give a rule for estimating the money value of skim milk per
100 pounds.
15. Explain at least five advantages which dairying has over other
lines of farming.
16. Mention some of the traits of character which a successful
dairyman should possess and why are these advantageous?
DAIRYING. 61
17. What are some of the advantages of winter dairying? Are
there any disadvantages?
18. What are the differences between winter and summer prices
of dairy products in your locality ?
19. What is the value of 100 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent,
fat : First, when sold at retail at 8c and at 5c per quart ?
Second, when made into butter which sold at 35c per pound,
if the cost of making is 2V2C and corn is worth 75c per bushel
Third, when made into cheese that sells for 20c per pound and
the cost of making is VAa per pound. In these calculations it
may be assumed that 1 quart of milk weighs 2 pounds, that the
skim is 80 per cent, of the whole milk, the yield of cheese 9.5
pounds per 100 pounds of milk and the whey is 90 per cent, of
the milk.
20. What is the approximate annual production of milk and of
butter fat by the average cow in the United States and what
will be the average test of the milk?
21. What objections may be made to a *' churn test" of a cow's
butter production?
22. Give some reasons for weighing and testing the milk of a cow.
23. Taking as the basis of your calculations the average farm value
per cow in the United States and the average butter produc-
tion as standards, what would be the price of the butter per
pound ?
24. Assuming that each cow gave milk 360 days in a year, how
many pounds of milk and of butter fat were produced per day
by the best Ayrshire, Guernsey, Holstein and Jersey cow on
record up to January, 1910?
25. What is the average milk consumption per person per year,
and how many persons will the best cow of each of the four
breeds mentioned supply with milk for a year?
26. How do steers and cows compare as producers of human food?
27. Discuss the question, which is the best dairy breed of cows.
28. Outline a plan for calculating the cost of keepiug a cow for
one year. Discuss the value of each of the factors that should
be taken into consideration in such a calculation.
30. What is the actual value of the solid and liquid manure pro-
duced by a cow in one year and why does this differ so much
from the value realized from the manure per cow each year?
62
DAIRYING.
31. What are the constant and the variable factors in calculating
the cost of milk produced by different cows ?
32. How much milk at 3 c per quart and butter at 30c per pound
must a cow produce to pay the expenses of keeping her per
year?
33. How may a calculation be made to demonstrate that one cow
giving 2,000 pounds more milk than another cow is worth $200
more to her owner?
34. What are some of the important factors that influence the cost
of producing ^ilk in different localities ?
35. What do you Estimate the cost of keeping a cow in your herd to
be for one year and what is the cost per pound of the total
milk produced by the herd?
36. Give a complete list of the supplies needed for testing the milk
of cows at the farm and an estimated cost of the same.
37. How often should the milk of a cow be weighed and tested in
order to calculate her total production?
38. What is the objection to weighing and testing one milking only?
39. Briefly describe a way of testing the milk of a cow for one year.
40. How much milk and butter fat was produced by a cow in one
year where the following record was made and what was the
value of the butter fat in her milk at the prices given ? What is
the value of the skim milk when corn is worth 60c per bushel?
The cow began milking October 1, 1910.
Weight of Milk
Fat
Price of Butter
^^M'llY^'^'*
Date
MTOXli
HUB
percent
Fat — Cents
A. M.
) P. M.
Oct. 15
18
12
4.2
28
Nov.- 15
12
8
3.8
27.5
Dec. 15
14
16
3.7
29
Jan. 15
13
12
3.9
30
Feb. 15
10
10
4.1
30
Mar. 15
8
12
4.0
32
Apr. 15
7
8
4.3
30
May 15
5
5
4.5
26
June 15
6
4
4.8
27
July 15
3
2
5.0
28
DAIRYING -'*•••'•• •'•'"•'•••••63
WRITE THIS AT THE END OF YOUR EXAMINATION
I hereby certify that the above questions were answered en-
tirely by me.
Signed
Address
• • •
• • • •
• 4
'\ .\ ,-.
0' v-r
'^
Correspondence College
of Agriculture
DAIRYING— PART TWO
J/
/
THE
CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE
OF AGRICULTURE
DAIRYING, Part II
4 » .»
CARE OF THE DAIRY AND
Its PRODUCTS
.(<?-. • •- • D X • • • •
EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S.
Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the
University of Wisconsin
This is the second of a series of six books, giving a complete course of instruc-
tion in DAIRYING
COPYRIGHT, 1910
THE CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
INOTB TO STUDBNTS
L.
In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from
this paper^ you must thoroughly master the text* While
it is not kitended that you commit the exact words Af the
text to memory^ still there is nothins: contained iii the text
which is not absolutely essential for the intellisfent dairy-
man to know* For your own gfood nerer refer to the ex-
amination questions until you ]iiav< finished your study of
the text* By following: this plan; the examination paper
will^'lhoW what fdti have learned from the text*
Part II
DAIRYING
CAEE OF THE DAIRY AND
ITS PRODUCTS
137. 2. Cow Testing Associations. In about the year 1805 a
Danish farmer's wife, it is claimed, suggested that both time and
money might be saved if a number of farmers in a neighborhood
should club together and employ one man to do the work connected
with the weighing and testing of the milk of each cow belonging
to these farmers. Some of the advantages of such an rrrangement
over the doing of this work by the farmers themselves are :
I. Economy,. .2. . Increased value of the records because of
their greater accuracy. 3. Increase in the number of farmers
that would avail themselves of this opportunity to gain definite
information about their cows.
A development of this idea led to the establishment of what is
know^n as "Cow Testing Associations." These have increased in
number until it is claimed that 400 such associations have been
organized in Denmark.
The idea did not get much of a start in the United States until
about 1905-1906, but at the pr§senj: time cow testing associations
are e^ablished in Maine, Vermont, New Ydrk, Penns3^i^ania, Mich-
igan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Ohio ; and the work is fast spreading
to other states which may have associations by this time.
4 DAIRYING
138. Plan of Organization. When there are indications fav-
orable to learning something about the profitableness of the cows
in a number of farmers' herds, a paper is circulated for the purpose
of finding out how many farmers ard willing to join in this effort
to "weed out the unprofitable cows.'* This paper is a contract
which each farmer signs. The following is a copy of such a con-
tract as used for this purpose in the State of Wisconsin:^
<^ ■' ^ .«• "'■ • •
Whereas ./..'...: .Association has been
organized for the principal purpose of providing means for the co-opera-
tion of its members in testing milk of their cows periodically and for the
Improvement of their dairy interests, and Whereas, it is proposed by the
said A?frsociatioii to lengage a suitable person for the piirpgse as soon as
enough subscriptions are obtained to warrant said Association to engage
such person, w.e, the undersigned, members- of said association, each for
himself and not one' for the other, severally agree to pay the sum of
a year for each cow set opposite our respective
names to said Association for the purpose. Said fees to be paid in Semi-
Yearly installments in advance, the first payment to be made as soon 'as
such person is . engaged by said Assqeiation. Each one pf us also agees
to furnish board and lodging for said person for at least one day each
month and convey him to Eis next place of work, or should such person
furnish his own conveyance, each one of us agrees to feed said" person's
horse for at least ohe day a month. Said person shall not work on Sun-
days, but shall have board and lodging over Sunday at the place where
he is working Saturday.
Name. No. of Cows
139. The- association is given any local name which the mem-
bers may choose. The amount usually 1 paid by each member is
$1.00 to $1.25 per cow tested, depending on the amount of work
done by the traveling representative of the association, who fur-
nishes each member with the record he makes at each visit and
also a summary record at the end of the year.
V -
When about 25 f armers^ .hl^ve. signed the contract, a meeting
is called of all parties interested in the association. At this meet-
ing officers are elected and by-laws adopted. The following is an
* State Dairyman's Association}
DAIRYING ^
illustration, of the articles, etc., of such an association organized
tri Wisconsin. *
140. ARTICLES OP ASSOCIATION
Article I.
The name by which said association shall t)e known in law Is ...... .
• • i . . Association.
Article 11.
The purpose for which it is formed is generally to promote the dairy
interests of its members and particularly to provide means and methods
for improvement of dairy qualities of cows and for testing of cows of
the members periodically. *
Article III.
Its principal office and place of business shall be at
Article IV.
The number of its directors shall be
Article V.
The names of the Directors for the first year of its existence are
as follows:
• •• ' .';. ..r..«
Article VI.
Any person may^become a member of this association and be entitled
to its benefits and privileges upon being accepted by its Board of Di-
rectors and upon complying with the requirements of its by-laws.
In witness whereof, we, the parties hereby associating, for the pur-
pose of giving legal effect to these articles,, hereunto sign our names
this.... day of ,A. D., 19....
State of t;. . -^- :-
County of •_ ^
On this : . . . day of. ... . .'. . . .J9 . . . . , before me, a Notary
Public in and for said county, personally appeared ...'..,.......
known to me to be the persons named in and who executed the foregoing
instrument and severally acknowledged that they executed the same
ifreely and for the intents and purposes therein mentioned. .
. Notary, Public
My Commission expires, . ............
* State Dairyman's Association.
DAIRYING
141. BY-IiAWS OF
Article I-^Anniial and Special Meetings.
The annual meeting of this association shall be held at a place to
be designated by the Board of Directors in on the
day of of each year at o'clock in the
afternoon^ for the purpose of electing a Board of Directors, and of the
transaction of such other business as may lawfully come before said
meeting.
Special meetings may be called by the Board of Directors or by the
President, and notice thereof shall be given by the Secretary by mailing^
to each member a written or printed notice thereof at least five dajrs
prior to such meeting. Such notice shall state the object of the meeting,
and no other business shall be transacted thereat.
Article II— Board of Directors
Section I. The Board of Directors shall consist of mem-
bers. They shall be elected at each annual meeting, the first election to
be held on the day of 19 ... .
Section II. The Board of Directors shall have the management and
control of the business of the association, and shall employ such agents as
they may deem advisable, and fix the rates of compensation of all officers,
agents and employes.
Section III. Whenever any vacan'cles trccur in ■ the Board of Direc-
tors by death, resignation or otherwise, the same may be filled without
undue delay by the majority vote of the remaining members of the Board.
The person so chosen shall hold office until the next annual meeting or
until his successor is elected and qualified.
Section IV. The Board of Directors shall meet on the first .
of each month, at such times and in such places as they may by resolu-
tion determine.
Article III — Officers.
Section I. The officers of the association shall consist of President,
Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer. The offices of Secretary and
Treasurer may be heild by the same person. The officers shall be elect-
ed by the Board of Directors by a majority vote of the whole number of
Directors. The first election shall be held immediately after the election
of the Board. Subsequent -elections shall be held annually on the day of
the regular meeting of the Board next ensuing annual election, the day to
be fixed by resolution of the Board of Directors.
Section II. In case of the death, resignation or removal of any officer,
the Board shall elect his successor who shall hold office for the unexpired
time.
DAIRYING 7
. i
Article IV-^Membership.
Any person acceptable to the Board of Directors m^y become a member
upon paying a membership fee of 26 cents; -
Article V— Dues.
Each member shall pay a fee of 25 cents annually on x)i* before
the first ........ of ; The first' annual dues to be payable on or
l>efore the .of. 19 . . . . No member shall Ije allowed
to participate li^ the election of the Board of Directors who shall not have
paid his annual dues in advance.
Article Vr. *
These by>-laws may be amended, added to or altered by a majority
vote of all members present at an annual meeting, or at a special meeting
called for that purpose.
142. As soon as the association is organized the directors may
be authorized to purchase a testing outfit and engage a man to dq
the work of the association at the farms ofite different members.
The testing outfit. should include the following supplies which
may cost about $30.00: " \ .
A 10-12 bottle Babcock milk testing machine. ' '
I gross guaranteed milk test bottles.
' ' ' ■ ' . ' ■ .-'
3 milk measuring pjpdtes.^-:: 1 '
rX acid measure, i can of cleaning powder.
3 creanttest bottles, 3 skim milk test bottles.
I sample dipper, 3 brushes for dealing bottles. -
I pair dividers for reading fat tests.
I gal. sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.82. ^
50 one-half pint, numbered sample jars, ^^itlr -covers. .
I milk weighing scale.
A record book for each member;
143. Qualifications of the Man Employed for Testing. The
man employed by each association for testing the cows and making
the records for the members should have not only an ability to
sample' and test miJk accura^ly by the Babcock test,, but he must
be quick and correct in making the necessary calculations, write
plainly, possess considerable general information about . farming,
take an interest in the work, be eager to accommodate his as-
sociates, and manifest a disposition to receive as well as impart
information.
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DAIRYING 9
I
His duties will require him to be present^at the farm of each
member at least one day in every month and he must be on hand
^when the cows are milked and when they are fed. He must weigh,
sample, and later test the milk of each cow, weigh the feed, calcu-
late the pounds of butter fat produced by each cow, multiply this
figure by the number of days elapsed since the previous test, then
multiply the product by the market price of butter for that month.
He can also calculate the cost of the feed consumed by each
cow, the cost of milk per loo pounds, and of one pound of butter
fat, and when desired, the receipts for $x.oo worth of feed.
144. A copy of his record may be left with the farmer at each
visit and a duplicate kept for the purpose of making a summary
statement of each herd at the end of the season.
Blanks for keeping the records may be furnished by the as-
sociation and the data which shall be recorded on them determined
by the directors.
145. The following outline may be helpful in showing how
records may be kept and such changes as seem desirable can be
made by each association.
MILK RECORD
Record for 1 day
Total for the month
Cow
No.
Milk
lbs.
Fat
p'r ct.
Fat
lbs.
Milk
lbs.
Fat
lbs.
Price
of fat
cents
Value
of fat
Value
of feed
Differ-
ence
1
2
a. m.
8.4
p. m.
7.6
16.0
4.0
*
.64
480
19.2
30
5.76
4.87
89ct8.
FEED RECORD
•
Daily feed, lbs.
Total feed for month, lbs
•
Cow
No.
Hay
Silage
Bran
Corn
Meal
Hay
Silage
Bran
Corn
Meal
Cost
Feed
1
Cost
per
ton
15
$10
30
$2.50
4
$17
6
$16.00
450
per lb
.5c
900
0.125c
120
.85c
60
.80c
2
$2.25
$1.12
$1.02
$:48
$4.87
10 DAIRYING
146. Benefits of Cow Testing Association to Members, i. The
monthly meetings give an opportunity for a discussion and a com-*
parison of the various herd records, methods of feeding the cows^
and of handling the milk.
2. The members can take advantage of this opportunity to dis-
cuss co-operation in buying feed, seed, and other farm supplies.
■
3. The records obtained are economically made by a disinterest-
ed party, thus giving confidence in them as indicating which cows
should be kept and which should be disposed of.
«
4. If the traveling representative of the association is well in-
formed concerning modern ideas of feeding and other farm opera-
tions, his suggestions may be valuable and show that a change of
feed or in many cases, more feed, is what is needed to make the cows
profitable.
5. The records will show that there are special characteristics
among the cows, some making more milk from a given amount of
feed than others ; and that the cost of producing a quart of milk or
a pound of butter fat varies with different animals.
6. Some cows that are large milkers may eat more feed than
their milk is worth, and a large flow of milk is not always an indi-
cation of a profitable milk producer.
7. Rich milk does not always indicate a profitable cow.
8. If the records are studied by the owners they will show the
value of definite information and systematic work, and the members
of the association will get large returns for the money invested
by them.
«
147. A veteran organizer of cow testing associations states
that success depends largely upon the individuality of the man
employed to visit the farms. He must have patience to explain
the work repeatedly ; he must not be inclined to talk too much ; he
should be accurate in figures and never urge a farmer to, join the
association against his will, as such a member may do more harm
than good. He should also be ready to supply the farmers with
ear tags for their cows if necessary, and in some cases it is better
for the traveling representative of the association to furnish his
DAIRYING 11
own horse and wa^on as some farmers prefer to board both man
and horse, . rather than to hitch up and drive from one to four
miles to the next farm.
148. A summary of records of 50 herds gave the following
figures:
Highest Lowest Average
Butter per cow, lbs 267 46 140
Cost of feed $4i.0(> $17.00 $29.00
Cost of butter fat per lb 54 !ii
Butter fat for $1.00 of feed 2.40 .45 1.35
3. Official Testing of Dairy Cows.
»
149. Weighing and testing the milk of each cow at the farm
by the owner or by an employee of a Cow Testing Association as
already described are done for the purpose of "weeding out the un-
profitable cows.*' There are at the present time, however, two other
systems of testing cows that are carried on for the purpose of ob-
taining an official statement of cow's milk and butter fat produc-
tion, in order that such a record if exceptionally high may help to
obtain an increased price for the cow and her offspring. In this
way the owner may dispose of his surplus stock at good prices.
One of these systems of testing cows is known either as the Ad-
vanced Registry or the Authenticated Tests, and the other as the
Dairy Cow Competition.
150. In 1894, the American Holstein-Friesian Association es-
tablished what was called the "Advanced Registry," or a class
which included cows that had reached a certain standard of milk
and butter production in tests supervised by a representative of an
Agricultural College or an Experiment Station and conducted ac-
cording to certain regulations. This same general idea was taken
up by the Guernsey Cattle Club in 1901, and by the Jersey Cattle
Club in 1903. The tests recognized by these various associations
are confined to pure breed cows. Rules for making such tests as
vrell as directions to be followed by the man supervising them are
printed; and there has been a constantly increasing number of
such tests made each year since the work was started.
12 1 DAlkYlJlG
151. Detailed inforqiation concerning the making of these
tests and the official recording of the results can be obtained from
the secretaries of each of the dairy cattle associations which at the
present time are the following:
Holstein-Friesian Association,
Malcolm H. Gardner, Secretary, Delavan, Wis.
Guernsey Cattle Club,
W. H. Caldwell, Secretary, Peterboro, N. H.
Jersey Cattle Club,
J. J. Hemmingway, Secretary, New York City.
Ayrshire Breeder's Association,
C. M. Winslow, Secretary, Brandon, Vt.
During the progress of this work or since it was first started,
a system of both official and semi-official test has been organized.
152. The official tests are conducted mostly for seven days
although sometimes for 30 or even 60 days. During the time
these tests are being conducted the college representative must be
present at each milking and both he and the owner of the cows
make affidavits concerning the results obtained.
153. The semi-official tests are carried on for one year and
the college representative is responsible only for the figures ob-
tained during two days each month, but he checks up the owner's
figures for the monthly milk yield "and the average quality of the
milk of the monthly tests is taken to represent that of the entire
month for the cow tested. The sum of the figures for the produc-
tion of milk and butter fat of a cow for 12 consecutive months or
for such part thereof during which she is in milk gives the semi-
official record of the cow for the year." *
154. "Retests" of cows on official tests are sometimes ordered
by the Superintendent of the Advanced Registry of each associa-
tion. These "retests" are ordered mostly on the ground of exces-
sively high results as reported by the parties testing a cow. "Re-
tests" are ordered by the Holstein-Friesian Association when a
cow "has for three consecutive days imder test produced an aver-
age in excess of the following figures:
* Woll in Wis. Expt. Station Bulletin 160.
i - . / Butter fat, lbs.
Heifjer, ist calving, average above 2.1
Heifer, 2nd calving, average above 2.5
Heifer, 3rd calving, average above. i . .2.8
Older cows, average above 3.0
Any animal of any age averaging for 3 days above 4.5 per cent fat/'
155. The Guernsey Cattle Club also requires "another test
within 15 days" when the figures reported for a cow are above cer-
tain prescribed limits.
156. Each of the Cattle Associations and Clubs which have
taken up this line of work has prepared regulations and printed
instructions for conducting tests as well as a scale of charges and
rules to cover all questions and conditions that may arise.
157. The following instructions issued by the Guernsey Cattle
Club illustrate some of the points covered by the various associa-
tions in carrying on this work :
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS TO INSPECTORS
Identification of Cow. The Supervisor shall satisfy himself that the
cow to be tested answers the description as to color markings given when
registered, a tracing of which will be furnished by the Secretary of the Club.
In case the animal does not agree with the description furnished,
the Supervisor shall make a diagram of the- color markings of the cow,
and attach same to his detailed report of her test.
CoBchict oi Test. 1. — The Supervisor shall be present at the last
regular milking preceding the beginning of the test and shall satisfy him-
self that the cow is milked dry at that time. He shall note the hour at
which this milking is made, and the final milking on the test must be made
at exactly the corresponding hour on the last day of the test.
' 2 — He must be present, at each and every milking during the test and
satisfy himself that at the close of each milking the pail contains nothing
but the milk drawn from the cow in the test.
3 — Under no circumstances shall more than one cow undergoing test
be milked at the same time. The Supervisor must in every case be in
position to observe the milker during the whole milking.
4 — ^^Immediately after the milking is done he shall take charge of
the pail and contents, weigh the same on scales, the accuracy of which he
has tested, and enter the exact weight of milk, at once, on his records.
5 — As soon as the milk has been weighed, it is thoroughly mixed by
14 :DAIR¥i*«5
pouring it from one pail to another, or by means of a dipper, and a test
sample is immediately taken. The Supervisor takes charge of and is
personally responsible for this sample, which is kept under lock and key
until tested.
The test is proceeded with as soon as convenient after the milk has
cooled to ordinary room temperature.
6 — Duplicate fat determinations are always made by the Babcock
test and both determinations recorded. Readings of the results are made
at about 130 F., the test bottles are preferably placed in a small tin pail
containing water of this temperature for five minutes before the readings
are taken. If duplicates vary more than two-tenths of one per cent, the
test must be repeated. The sample taken of any one milk is not thrown
away until a satisfactory test of the milk is obtained. The Supervisor
shall enter at once the results obtained on his record book, and shall fill
out proper blanks, in ink or indelible pencil, on completion of test.
7 — If any of the milk or the test sample from a milking is accidentally
lost, the missing weight or the test credited to this milking is to b6 ob-
tained by taking the average of the corresponding milking during the test;
e. g., if the evening milking is lost or the sample therefrom, the average
of the weights or tests of the evening milking during the test is taken as
the yield or the test for the one lost. It must be stated on the report
that the data so obtained are estimated and not actual.
8 — The Supervisor shall be required to pay special attention to the
filling out of the test report blanks, especially as to dates of calving, ser-
vice, in heat, or not served, etc. Any sickness or other conditions shall be
made note of. A full statement as to feed shall be given.
9 — The Supervisor is not at liberty to decide as to which stipulations
contained herein are essential and which are not, but is required to ob-
serve these directions in all details. He shall report promptly any irreg-
ularity or unusual occurrence in connection with the test which he may
observe, and shall, in general, take all means to conduct a fair and equit-
able test of the cows placed under his supervision.
Advanced Registry of the Breed Associations. *
The following table gives the requirements for admission to
the Advanced Registers established by the various breed associa-
tions. Cows credited with the production given of butter fat or of
milk and butter fat on authenticated tests conducted under the
direction of an agricultural college or experiment station are ad-
mitted to the Advanced Register (or Register of Merit) of the
respective breed associations.
* Bui. 191, Wis. Expt. Station.
DAli^YING
15
H
t r
•I
Age
2 years
3 "
4 "
5 " ■
iiequirements
increase ^ach
day by pounds
Guernsey
7-day
record
Year
rcc'd
HOL-
STEIN
7-day
record
Jersey
7- day
record
Pounds butter fat
10.0
11.66
13.32
15.0
.00456
250.5
287.0
323.0
360.0
.1
7.2
8.8
10.4
12.0
.00439
12.0
260(2iyr8.)
300
350
400
Ayrshire
Year record
Lbs. milk and butter fat
6,000
6,500
7,500
8,500
jl.37
12.74
214.3
236
279
322
.06*
.12t
*Two-year-old form.
tThree-year-old form.
There is no increase in the requirements for any breed after a
cow is five years old. The age of a cow is taken at the beginning
of the record, in case of the Guernsey, Jersey, and Ayrshire breeds,
while in the case of the Holstein breed it is taken at the time of
last calving.
4. Official Tests in Dairy Cow Competition.*
158. The importance and value of a yearly milk record of
each cow in a herd is often realized, but not always obtained by
owners of dairy' cows, They hesitate to undertake what to them
seems ta'be a lot of extra work. An effort has been made in sev-
eral stafees to encourage this work by raising a sum of money which
is used for^ prizes to be awarded to the owners of single cows and
of a given number of cows that come up to certain prescribed
standards in their milk and butter fat productions for one year.
These tests are conducted and the records certified to by a represen-
tative of the Agricultural College, and the following brief outline
of the rules governing this work in the State of Wisconsin is given
as an illustration of the plan which is proving to be satisfactory:
1. Any cow owned by a resident of the State may be entered in
competition.
2. Cows entered in the competition shall be tested for two days
each month during the year, as arranged for by the rules governing the
semi-oflBcial yearly tests in this state, with the provision that no award
Woll in Wis. Expt. Station Circular No. 9.
Ifi DAIRYING
shall be given to a cow that has not been safely bred within five months
from the date of last calving. ' r-.r
3. The owner shall furnish a detailed monthly statement of the
kinds and the amounts of the different feeds eaten each month ty the
individual cows entered in the competition.
•
4. In order not to place young animals at a handicap in the award
of prizes, the records of production actually made by cows under five
years of age shall be increased in accordance with the average results
obtained in authenticated yearly tests of cows of different ages, as follows':
Records made by cows under 2% years at the beginning of the yearly
test shall be increased by 30 per cent; 2% to 3 years old by 24 per cent;
3 to 3% years old by 18 per cent; 3% to 4 years' old by 15 per cent; 4
to 4% years old by 8 per cent; and 4% to 5 years old by 5 per cent.
5. Records of production for the competition may begin on the fifth
day after calving and shall close 365 days from the date of the beginning
of the test.
6. The XJOst of the monthly two-day tests conducted in connection
with this competition shall be $5 for each farmer. The expense stated
covers the entire cost of the test to farmers so far as the Station is con-
cerned and includes all necessary expenses of the supervisors of the tests
(traveling, hotel, per diem, etc.) Farmers supply the sulphuric acid and
glass jars or bottles used in the tests, and pay notary fees (if affidavits
are required) and express changes on Babcock testers. They provide for
the accommodation of supervisors at the f§j'm during the tests and con-
vey them from and to the nearest railway station or next farm where
tests are conducted.
No more than ten cows in any one herd shall be tested at one time
on monthly tests if the cows are milked twice a day, and no more than
eight cows .where any are milked three or four times a day. The number
of milkings per day shall in no case exceed four.
7. Prizes shall be awarded as follows:
(a) For the highest records of production of butter fat by a cow
for one year —
First prize, $300. Third prize, $100.
Second prize, $200. Four prizes of $50 each.
(b) For the highest records of production of butter fat by 10 covers
in any one herd for one year —
First prize, $500. Third prize, $200.
Second prize, $300. Fourth prize., $100.
Two prizes of $50 each.
In addition special prizes, both for individual and herd records, are
offered. The maximum amount of money paid to any one breeder shall
DATRYILNG 17
be $500. Prizes sha^ only be awarded tQ the bona j9de owner of a cow
at the time her record is made. ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ « *
The present competition differs from previous tests of dairy cows
in that the rules require the cows shall be bred regularly. Failure to
^et a cow in calf before the end of the fifth month after calving will bar
her from competing for prizes. This will enable a breeder to obtain high
records from his best cows without the risk of ruining them for future
usefulness in the herd.
III. Causes of Variation in the Amount «and' the. Richness of Milk
Produced Under Normal Conditions.
159. One of the first things noticed by a beginner in weighing
and testing the milk of a cow is the surprising variations in the per
cent of fat that may occur from day to day. These variations lead
sometimes to a questioning of the accuracy of the method of testing
the milk, because the results in some cases seem to be decidedly
contradictory to the conclusions of cow owners who have milked
cows for years and whose opinions have been formed from their
own expectations rather than from actual tests they have made»
The general impression among farmers seems to be that the rich-
ness of a cow's milk should remain the same as long as there is no
change in the cow's feed. It should be remembered, however, that
the teacher or scientist who makes the statement that rich feed
does not make rich milk is basing his conclusions on the results of
actual trials that have been made, and while he might prefer to be
on the popular side and agree with the opinions of those who have
fed cows for years, he must record the figures just as they come
even if they are contradictory to the popular idea on this matter.
It has been demonstrated beyond question by many scientists that
the Babcock Test gives accurate results when properly used, and
since the method is so simple that any intelligent person should
have no difficulty in getting accurate results with it, we should have
perfect confidence in the figures obtained by weighing and testing
the milk of a cow or cows each day.
160. The cause of many of the variations in milk have been
carefully studied and the observations of scientists nearly always
point in the same direction. Among the factors that have been
noted to have an influence on the amount and the richness of a cow's
milk are the following:
18 DAIRYING
A. The Individuality of the Cow.
i6i. The peculiar characteristics which each cow possesses,
or the traits of disposition that are born in her have a great in-
fluence on her milk secretions. The effect of individuality on milk
production may be noticed first as to the amount of milk produced,
and second, as to its richness.
The ampunt. of milk a cow is capable of producing is unfor-
tunately an unknown quantity with many cows, simply because
their owners will not give them feed enough. The grain ration and
other feed are dipped out to all cows in the herd in like quantities,
and the milk each one gives is supposed to be the best she can do.
This may be true; but each cow has her individual capacity which
should be found out.
A certain amount of feed is naturally needed to keep the ani-
mal in normal health ; this maintenance ration is simply enough to
keep up the normal weight of the cow; but no one can afford to
keep a dairy cow on this basis, as the profit she makes will come
from the amount of feed she will convert into milk above her main-
tenance ration without getting sick. It is therefore necessary to
determine first of all whether a cow will respond with milk or with
increase in live weight when she is given an abundance of feed.
No amount of care and feed can make some cows increase their
milk flow any more than it is possible to make a trotter of a draft
horse by feed, or make a man handsome by changing his boarding
place. A poor cow gives but little milk no matter how she is fed,
but a cow having a so-called "dairy temperament" is just as stub-
born the other way. She converts her excess of feed over a main-
tenance ration into milk and it is impossible to fatten her during
the milking period.
162. The cow shown in Plate 2, is a good illustration of one
having a dairy temperament, as this cow was eatmg about 87
pounds of green feed and hay together with 22 pounds of grain per
day when this picture was taken, and the way in which her ribs
show indicates that this feed was converted into milk rather than
into live weight. She gave for 120 days an average per day of 67.5
pounds of milk, and this milk contained 2.35 pounds of butter fat,
equivalent to two and three-fourths pounds of butter. This char-
19
—A Dairy Temperament Cow.
acterisfic of cows is well worth finding out, and success or failure
in dairying largely depends on the attention given to the study of
each cow's individuality.
163. The influence of individuality on the variation in test of
a cow's milk is very striking. A cow with a quiet disposition will
with quiet handling give milk of about the same richness from day
to day; little dJturbances do not change the test of her milk nearly
so much as the same annoyances may effect the milk of a high
strung, nervous cow. A cow with an excitable temperament has a
much greater tendency to unevenness in the quality of her milk than .
the mild eyed "Mooley" cow which quietly chews her cud and is
not much disturbed by her surroundings. The nervous system has
an important effect on milk secretion, and a sensitive cow may
show great variations in the test of her milk, A test of the milk
of each milking of any cow may, however, give results that aie
surprising to anyone whose attention has not been drawn to this
matter. A difference in test of one-half to one per cent and even
20 DAIRYING
more than one per cent may be noticed in the milk of a cow fron:i
day to day, or between the two milkings of one day. Such varia-
tion may tend to equalize each other and a milking of unusual
richness is generally followed by exceptionally thin milk.
164. Nearly every kind of a variation has been noticed in the
amount and the richness of some cows' milk from one milking to
another, but a sudden drop or an exceptional increase in the weight
of milk given at one milking does not necessarily indicate that the
larger quantity will be thinner and the smaller amount richer than
the average test of that cow's milk. There is no uniform relation
between quantity and quality of milk from one milking to another.
165. The test or' per cent, of fat in a cow's milk from day to
day furnishes not only a means of calculating her value as a pro-
ducer of butter, but it may serve to show the physical condition of
the cow, as there is usually a good reason for a sudden change in the
richness of the milk from one milking to another. This wae well
illustrated in the dairy cow tests conducted during the Columbian
Exposition or World's Fair held at Chicago in 1893. > The milk
of each cow was weighed and a sample of each milking tested. I
well remember how keenly the test slieets were watchea every day
by the superintendents of the different herds of cows. If the
per cent of fat in the milk of any one cow showed a sudden increase
or a decrease, that cow was immediately examined, her tempci ature
taken and questions asked about her treatment as to whether she
had broken loose in the night or anything whatever had happened
to her between milkings, that would help to explain the variat^'on,
as the managers Had learned that by watching the tests of a
cow's milk they could judge of her physical condition in much the
same way as a physician gets information about a patient's health
by feeling of his pulse. The cows in these World's Fair testa
were very highly fed and <wi tfeiiraccount not strictly comparable
with many cows on the farm, but the relation between a cow's
health, her treatment, etc., and the daily variation in the tesfc
of her milk is undoubtedly a natural characteristic and of much
greater significance with some cows than with others.
DAIRYING
21
166. Some of the variations that may occur in the per cent, of
fat in the milk of one cow from one milking to another is shown
by the following figures taken from the records of six cows whose
milk was weighed and tested each day during an entire milking
period.
Extr^ne Results Obtained During One Milking Period. *
Per cent Fat in Milk
Cow No.
No. Days
Highest
12.3
Lowest
2.9
Average
I
307
5-0
3
428
7-9
2-5
3-7
16
332
9.2
1.8
• 3-9
18
342
8.1
2.0
3-7
4
278
6.6
1-5
3-3
S
332
8.a
2.2
3-7
These figures show that with nearly all cows there is some
one milking during the year when the per cent of fat is very
different from the normal -figure for that cow. It has been no-
ticed also that such extreme variations in the per cent of fat
are much more common with some cows than with others, depend-
ing largely on the nervous disposition or individusLlity of each cow.
167. The way in which two cows will differ in the amount of
variation that may occur in their milk when in the same herd
and with the same treatment is shown by the following figures.
Illinois Bui. No. 24.
22
DAIRYING
Variation in the Daily Weight and Test (per cent, fat) of MUk
of Two Cows in the Same Herd.*
Cow No. 1
Cow No. 3
1
Date
Milk lbs.
Fat %
Milk lbs.
Fat %
Dec. 18
15
5.2
10.5
3.4
Dec. 19
16
4.5^
11.0
3.0
Dec. 20
15.5
4.0
11.0
3.7
Dec. 21
le
4.8
12.0
3.4
Dec. 22
15
4.0
11
3.8
Dec. 23
14.5
4.6
11
3.8
Dec. 24
15
4.3
12.3
^.4
Dec. 25
12.5
4.7
12.5
3.6
De<i. 26
16
5.2
14
3.6
Dec. 27
17
5.3
14
4.0
Dec. »8
17.5
5.9
14.5
3.8
Dec. 29
19
4.8
15
4.0
Dec. 30
19
4.8
15
3.6
Dec. 31
19
4.6
16
3.6
. Jan. 1
18
5.0
14.5
4.0
Jan. 2
19
4.8
15.5
3.5
Jan. 3
18
4.9
14.0
3.8
Jan. 4
20
4.9
15
3.7
Jan. 5
19
S.2
15.5
3.9
-
Jan. 6
19
4.2
15
3.8
Jan. 7
20
5.2
16
4.0
A glance at these figures shows that the per cent of fat in the
milk of cow No. i varied considerably more from one day to
another than that of cow No. 3, even though they were fed and
handled in the same herd.
B. Lactation Period.
168. The time between the calving or "freshening" and the
"drying up" of the milk flow of a cow is called her period of
lactation. This comes usually within one year, but the length
of one period of lactation varies with different cows: it is in-
fluenced, first, by the natural characteristics of the cow, second.
* 111. Bui. No. 24.
DAIRYING 23
• . ^ . —
by the way she is milked, and third, by the time of the beginning
of the next milking period.
A cow having a natural tendency to give milk will often con-
tinue milking until near calving time, and such a one is nearly
always a profitable cow even if she does not give a large quantity
at any one milking. The cow which gives a large flow of milk
for a few months and then stands dry for several months is less
likely to pay as well as the persistent milker. The length of the
lactation period naturally varies, but observations made from the
records of 665 cows have shown that a "standing dry'' period of
40 to 75 days is advisable for milch cows. *
The general tendency with cows is to give the maximum
amount of milk soon after freshening or early in the lactation
period, and then the flow gradually diminishes until the end of the
period when the cow is "dry."
169. The period of lactation may be lengthened by milking
the cow regularly and by taking pains to strip her at. each milking.
Failing to do this will help to dry up the cow; and this is some-
times necessary in order to have a period of about six weeks rest
or "standing dry."
170. The decline in the flow of milk is not uniform with all
cows, some fall off gradually, others drop suddenly in their milk
flow, and still others are rather intermittent in giving milk.
171. The milk flow generally increases during the first and
sometimes through the second month, but this is influenced by the
feed during the flush of the milking period. Changes in feed,
especially from dry feed to pasture have a great influence on the
milk flow. The effect of the advance in the lactation period on
the richness of the milk is comparatively uniform with cows.
Fleischman found that with 16 cows, the milk of 15 increased in
richness, and one decreased from the first to the last week of the
milking period. The milking period of one cow was divided into
four parts with the following results: *
* Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
* Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
2i
DAIRYING
Lactation Period
Week
3rd
22iid
31st
44th
Milk lbs.
30
20
12
3
Proportion of Fat in
Tota) Solids in UAVk %
2O
32.6
,: 32.2
44.8
172. By dividing the lactation periods by five cows ititt>
months which may have been at different seasons of the year, the
following results were obtained.
Daily Average Milk Pounds and Fat per cent. During Each Month
of the Lactation Period of Several Cows in the Same Herd.**
Month of
Lactation
Period
r
2
3
4'
5
6
■7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Cow No. 1
Milk I Fat '
lb
1 %
23
4.5
19
4.6
17
4.7
20
4.9
19
4.6
17
4.9
16
5.4
16
5.2
13
5. .7
8
6.3
3
6.4
Cow No. 3 Cow No. 4 Cow No. 5
Milk
lb
24
23
18
14
12
12
16
16
14
14
14
12
9
6
Fat
.%.
3.2
3.3
3.7
3.7
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.8
4.0
3.8
3.9
4.2
4.7
Milk '•
Fat
Milk
lb
% .
lb
30
2.9
26
26
2.8
30
26
3.2
31
27
3.2
27
30
3.1
23
25
3.4
23
19 '
3.6
20
15
3.7
20
11
3.8
16
5
4.0
12
6
Fat
3.6
3.9
3.S
B.e
3.5
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.S
4.3
4.1
These records illustrate some of the peculiarities of different
cows in the changes in quantity and quality of their milk through
one lactation period. The milk of cow No. i decreased gradually
in flow and increased in richness during* an eleven month period.
No. 3 gave milk for 14 months; and when she finally was dry the
richness of her milk had not increased to a very high figure. Cows
Nos. 4 and 5 had shorter milking periods and the decrease in flow
of milk was rather sudden, with not much increase in richness at
the end of the lactation period.
** Illinois Bui. No. 24.
DAIUXIKG
25
Tbere is more or less variation in this respect among cow^'
but the average figures obtained from the milk records of 1300 cows
has been reported as ist month, 3,75 per cent, fat; 3rd mouthy
3.50 per cent, fat, and last month, of the period of lactation, 4.14
per cent. fat. **
C. Different Portions of One Milking.
173. No one thing probably interferes more with the accuracy
of the results obtained by inexperienced persons in testing tJie
miHc of each cow ki a herd than the failure to take into considera-
tion'the ^dMerencer in -riehnes^^ of the first and the hist milk drawn
from a cow's udder. When one wishes to know the richness of
miHf. given^ by a cow, all the milk including the "strippings" aa 'vwctt
as the "fore" milk should be included in the total amount;, this
total quantity is then thoroughly mixed by pouring from one pail
to another before taking a sample of it for testing. The reason
for this mixing may be seen in the foUowii^ figures which show the
richness of the milk drawn from different quarters of a cow's udder
in separate portions at one milking.
Amount and Richness of Milk from Beginning to End of
Milking of One Cow.'*'
Two left teats 1
Two right teats
Sample
Milk
Fat
Sample
Milk
Fat
No.
Oz.
%
No.
Oz.
%
1
9
4.3
1
9
4.5
2
9
4.3
2
9
4.5
3
9
4.4
3
7
4.6
4
9
4.8
4
9
4.6
5
9
4.8
5
9
4.9
6
9
5.7
6
9
5.2
7
. 9
6.1
7
9
6.5
8
3
8.0
8
6
6.5
9
2
8.8
In this case only a small amount of milk was drawn in each
of the several samples into which the milking was divided. A
more striking difference between the richness of the first and the
last portion of one milking is shown when a cow gives a large
Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
* Kirchner Milchwirtscaft.
«» •■•
26 DAIRYING
quantity of milk and the samples are taken of only the first and the
last portions
Per. cent of P^t in First and Last Quart bf Milk Drawn
from Each of Three Cows at One Milking.**
Cow No. I Cow No. 2 Cow No. 3
Milk, pounds 40 28 40
Fat per cent in ist qt 1.4 1.8 .08
Fat per cent in last qt . ..... 7:4 4.3 64
174. The changes in richness of milk during one milking is
still further shown, by dividing, the milk of one milking into 13
parts when the following results .w©f?erobtahied.***
Sample Fat per cent. Sample Fat per cent.
No. I, 1-3 No. 8, 5.8
No. 2, 1.7 No. 9, 6.1
No. 3, 2.4 No. 10, 7.2
No. 4, 2.9 No. II, 8.1
No. 5, 3.3 No. 12 9.7
No. 6, 3.8 No. 13, 1 1.5
No. 7, 4.8
175. It is a well known fact that the milk of a cow is not of
the same richness throughout the entire milking, the first portions
or "fore" milk are thin while the last or "strippings" are rich.
The cause of this difference in richness between the first and last
milk is sometimes said to be due to the raising of the cream on
the milk in the udder. This is extremely doubtful because milk is
secreted during the milking process, and very little of it exists
ready formed in the udder when milking begins.
The most probable explanation of this difference In richness
is that the fat in the milk accumulates in the fine tubes of the
cows udder from the first to the last of a milking and as the
milking process proceeds the hand pressure and manipulation of
the teats and the udder is greatly increased, and by this means the
butter fat which has clogged the fine ducts is squeezed out with the
last portions or "strippings.** This is well illustrated by the fol-
lowing results :
** Mich. Zeitung, Vol. No. 36, Pg. 575.
*** Stohmann — Milch und Wolkereiprodbete.
DAIRYING 27
176. A cow was milked dry; the milk obtained was divided
into three portions, the per cent of fat in these three portions was :*
1st, 1.04; 2nd, 3.57; 3rd, 8.61. The average of the three por-
tions of mixed milk of this milking was 3.6% fat. A second
milking of the cow after 15 minutes gave a small quantity of milk
which contained 7.8% fat; a third milking after another period of
15 minutes contained 6.0% fat, and a fourth after 15 minutes con-
tained 44% fat ; showing that the difference in the richness of the
milk is not due to a change in the milk secretions or the creaming
of milk in the udder, but that some of the fat of the mitk is
mechanically held in the iine-4ti<^ts of the cow's udder and when
these are rinsed out, the milk returaB to about its normal richness
or fat content as in this case from 3.6 to 4.4%, the latter figure
representing the newly formed milk in the last 15 minute period
after the ducts had been rinsed out by the milk secreted during
the two preceding 15 minute periods ; the newly formed milk having
about the normal per cent* of fat.
177. Many analyses have shown, however, that the difference
between the first and the last milk is confined almost wholly to the
per cent of fat and that the other constituents, casein, milk sugar,
etc., are present in about the same amounts in the milk from the
beginning to the end of a milking. It has also been noticed that
other things besides milking, that give the udder extra manipula-
tion such as the butting of a calf, moving around through the day,
and the extra manipulations given by milking on the right side of
the' cow have a tendency to increase the fat per cent, in the milk,
as the night milk is richer than the morning milk when the interval
of time between the milkings is the same and the milk from the
right side of the udder is richer than that from the left side because
of the extra manipulations on the milking side of the cow.
D. Intervals Between Milking.
178. The question is often asked, "Which is the richer, the
morning's or the night's milk?" The answer to this question is
another question, "What time are the cows milked in the morning
and at night?" If the milkings are at five o'clock and there is
just 12 hours between them, there will be* very little difference, if
♦ Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
2»
DAIRYING
any, in amount, and in richness of milk of the two milkings. When
farmers are busy during the, long days of the year, the cows are
often milked at 4:00 A. M. and at 8:00 P. M. At such times there
is an interval of eight hours between night and morning milkingfik^
and 16 hours between the morning and night milking. Under
such conditions the morning milk is the richer, as the longer the
time between milkings the thinner the milk.
179. Fleischmann made careful observations on the weight
and composition of milk from a herd which averaged 129 cows
during. a year. His figures show the following:
Average richness of morning and night milk of herd of 129 cows
No. of Cows Morning Milk Night Milk
Fat % Fat %
Oct. to Jan.. 126 3.15 3.26
Jan.. to April 117 2.97 3.07
April to July 139 ' 3.32 3.04
July to Oct 136 3.60 3.36
Average
129
3.26
3.18
This shows that with herd milk, where there is not much dif-
ference in the number of hours between the night and morning
milkings, the richness is very uniform.
180. The variations that may occur in the night and the
morning milk of one cow are shown by the following figures :
Daily Average and Extremes in the Milk of One Cow . *
Month of
Lactation
Period
Night milkings
Morning milkings
Milk
lbs. I Fat percent.
Extr. I Ave.
Extr.
I Milk lbs. I Fat percent.
Ave. I Extr. | Ave. i Extr. | Ave.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
f 8.5-12
10.6
4-6
4.8
10-14
12.3
3.4-5.2
6. -9.5
8.3
2.9-6.5
4.9
9.5-12
10.7
3.3-6.1
3.5-9
7.5
3.3-7.3
4.9
8 -11.5
9.5
3.8-5.8
7.5-9.2
8.6
3.9-9.4
5.0
10-12.5
11.1
4-11.2
7.5-10.5
8.7
4.1-10.2
4.7
9.2-11.7
10.6
3.6-6.8
7.2-9.5
87
4.5-6.2
5.0
8 9.5
8.8
4.4-5 8
6.2-10.2
8.1
4.0-7.1
5.4
5-10
7.7
4.5-6.9
7-9.7
8.4
4.0-5.9
5.1
6-9.5
7.6
4-7.2
5-7.2
6.4
4.6-7.1
5.6
5-5.7
6.3
4.7-7.5
1-5.7
3.8
.3.3-9.7
6.3
1.5.7
4.2
4.2-12.8
1-2
1.5
^.2-9.2
7.3
1-2
1.3
4.6-6.7
4.S
4.4
4.5
4.8
4.5
4.8
5.4
5.4
5.8
6.3
5.5
* Illinois Bui. No. 24.
At the beginning of the lactation period the weight of the
morning milk was a little greater and the per cent of fat somewhat
less than the night milk, but on certain days both the weight and
the test of the milk varied considerably at both^milkings from the
average figures for the month. This cow was milked throughout
the year in the way and at the times each day that the cows are
milked on the average farm and the figures give a fair representa-
tion of results that will be obtained under such conditions.
E. Number of Mitkings in One Day.
i8i The practice of milking cows twice each day is nearly
universal. Some cows giving large quantities of milk and others
during the beginning of the lactation period are milked three times
in 24 hours.
182. An experiment was made with 8 cows by Backhaus**
in which the cows were milked twice a day for one week, and four
times a day the following week. A comparison of the weights and
analyses of the milk during these two periods showed that 10%
more milk and 6% more butter fat was obtained by milking four
times each day. Hittcher found that with fresh milking cows
6.3% more milk and 6.8% more butter fat was obtained by milking
three as compared with two times a day. Fleischmann tound that
when the day was divided into periods of 9 hours between night
and morning milkings, 8J^ hours between morning and noon, and
6j^ hours between noon and night milkings, that the following
average figures per cow were obtained during a six months' record
of a herd:
Morning Noon Night Milking '
Milk, pounds 8.5 6.7 5.1
Fat per cent 2.7 3.0 3.7
Hours preceding milking 9 83^ 6^
The last and the richest milk was obtained after the shortest
period of time between milkings. This is in accordance with the
usual observations, but it has shown that the evening milk may be
richer than the morning milk even where the time elapsed before '
** Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
30 DAIRYING
the evening milking is longer than before the morning milking
as it is claimed that exercise of the cow during the day has a
tendency to make the udder secrete somewhat richer milk than is
the case during a quiet night period.
183. There is no doubt that the act of milking excites
the activities of the milk glands, and consequently the greater the
number of milkings in a day, the more milk will be obtained, but
whether or not the increased amount obtained by three or four
milkings each day and the price received will .cover the/expense
of time and labor in doing this extra milking, and caring for the
milk three or four times instead of twice a day, is a question that
each man must decide for himself.
F. Milking One Teat at a Time.
184. It has been shown by a number of trials that when the
milk from each teat is kept separate there is a difference in the
amount and in the richness of the milk obtained from the different
teats. The average of four trials made with one cow milked one
teat at a time gave the following figures.*
Milk lbs. Fat %
(A) Right fore teat 2.17 3.76
(B) Right hind teat 2.15 3.93
(C) Left . hind teat 2.95 4.26
(D) Left fore teat 2.05 3.69
9.32 3.92
It was found, however, during these trials that the difference
was not always the same, but the amount and the richness of the
milk obtained from each teat was influenced by the order in which
the teats were milked, and by changing the order at each of four
milkings the following variations in the milk from each teat was
noted :
* Wis. Exp. Sta. Report 1889.
31
T*atrA
Right fore
Tat I
Teat 3'
Right hind
TtatC
Left fore
Teat D
Left hind
When
Milked
Milk
lb.
per cent.
Milk
lb.
Fat
percent.
Milk Fat
lb. percent.
Milk Fat
lb. percent*
First
Second
Third
Fourth
2.5
2.4
2.3
1.5
3,56,
3.6
3.9
3.6
2.1
2.3
2.5
L7
4.9
3.5
4.0
3.2
3.a
- 4.47 -
2.2
3.5
3.1
6.00
2.3
' 4.4
2.7
2.3T
2.0
. 4.5
3.0
3.93
^.1.7.
2.0
Average I 2.17 | 3.76 | 2.15 [ 3.93 | ,2.95 J 4.^6 | 2.05 | 3.69
G. Milking Fast and Slow.
- 185. Jt is often- daimed .that a strong, fast milker will get
more milk than a boy or than a milker who prolongs the milking
time by indifferent attention to his work. The effect of fast and slow
milking was tried (**) on nine cows which were each milked rapidly
(3 to 4 minutes), for a period of time and then milked slowly,
taking double the time of the fast milking, some cows being milked
fast and some' slow each day so as to eliminate other disturbing
conditions. Tlie results showed in .every case that the fast milking
gave a richer milk than the slow milking, the gain in butter fat by
fast milking being 11.73% for the herd. The gain from fast
milking was greatest with the three cows giving the most milk;
49 pound, or nearly one-half a pound of butter fat per day being
the sum of the increase in fat for the three cows. The effect on
cows giving but little milk was not so marked.
During these trials it was noticed that whenever a change was
made from fast to slow milking or the reverse, there was not at the
time of this change a decided difference in the milk, but after
continuing one way of milking for a few days, the milk gradually
returned to its normal amount and richness although slow milking
never gave quite so good results as fast milking.
H. Change of Milker.
1P6. Nearly everyone who has owned cows knows that the
milker has a great influence not only on the amount of milk ob-
tained from a cow, but on the persistency with which the cow
gives milk. Some milkers will dry up the cows while others by
their way of milking will develop the milk producing qualities of
** Wis. Exp. Sta. Report 1889.
32
DAHRYING
a cow so that she' is constantly gaining in milk production from
year, to Jear.. Many trials have been, reported of thfe difference in^
the amount of milk obtained from, the same cow. or cows by dif-
ferent milkers. From one cow in a herd as reported by Henket'**
a. good milker got i8 pounds of milk testing 4.2% fat ''-while a pooi^
milker got 12.5 pduhdjs of milk testing 2.7%! fat. At the Wisconsfet
Agricultufal CoHege one milker got 244.5 pc^tmds more milk from
five cows in a two weeks'' period than a poor milker got from the
same cows in two weeks. A trial i& reported by Babcock in which,
four cows were milked for periods 6f one week by eaQh:<^n^ of three
men all of whom were considered gdod milkers. The results show-
ed* that one of these three men always got more milk an^d more
fcrutrter fkfr than the other two Inen.
The greatest difference in the yield of milk always occurs
at the first milking after the change of milkers, but in the t6
changes from milker A to B there was obtained 1.7 pounds more
butter fat by B than by A in milking the same cows.
A Summary of the R^ults Calculated per Cow per Day
Were as Follows:
Cow 1
Cow 2
Cow 3
Cow 4
Milk
Fat
perce*t
Milk
Fat
perce't
Milk
Fat
p€rce*t
Milk>
Fat
percent
Milker A 20.2
Milker B 22.0
Milker C 20.0
4.5 15.3
4.85 16.2
4.85
4.45
4.75
21.0
23.6
18.8
3.94
4.84
4.06
17.8
18.
3.9
4.1
These figures show that B got more and richer milk from the
same cows than the other milkers, and with cow No. 3 he got over
one quart more milk and the milk tested 1.0% more butter fat
Beach* reports that from six cows there was obtained 22.3 pounds
milk testing io.6%fat by stripping them immediately after they
had been milked by careless milkers. This amounts to 2.4 pounds
of butter fat, or 2^ pounds of butter, which at 30 cents per pound
gives 82 cents as the loss at one milking from six cows by careless
milkers.
* Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
*Storrs Conn. Expt. Sta. Report 1903.
as ariy feeRog Of fear -or cwE dislike for the tailker Will have a ten^
dency to reduce 'both the amount- and the- quality of the mitka
cow gives. - _ '\ '■ ' '
:. J. Milking a Cow Dry
187. The necessity of "stripping" a cow dry each time she is
milked is very generally understood among milkers, as leaving
some milk in the udder or stopping the milking before the. glands
stop secreting milk is one of the best means known for "drying up"
a cow. Many illustrations of this fact have been known and one
of those reported by Soxhlet and Svoboda* shows that a cow
which gave 71 pounds of milk from six milkings gave only 44 pounds
at the next six milkings when she was only half milked at five o£
the last six milkings. This is a loss of 39% ; and by continuing this
inef&cient milking for 10 weeks the cow was ruined as a milker.
J. The Hegelund Method of Milking
188. This method of milking consists of a set of manipulations
used after the usual milking and stripping of a cow; these are de-
signed to obtain the last traces of rich milk left in the udder. This
method of after-milking has attracted considerable attention and
several investigators have reported on its use in a number of
herds. The following description of the manipulations and the
illustrations are given by Woll in Wis. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 96,
Description at the Manipalationa in the Hegelund Method of Milking.
First Manlpnlatlon — The right quarters of the udder are pressed
against each other (if the udder ts very large, only one quarter at a time
**Wis. Expt. Sta. Report 1903.
* Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
1. 1— Fim manipul^oa itfudder, ri£bti]uan«n. . fig. 2 — Fint mnipuUtioa, left quarter*
g.3— 2nd manipulation, riglil fore qu«rt"r. Fig. 4 — 2n(J maniputation, right hind quarte*
g.S— 2d manipulaiion, right hind quarter. rear view Fig. 6— Third n
PLATE 3- — The Hegelund Method of Milking.
DAIRYING 35
is taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in
tront on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the outside of the
. idder and the four fingers in the division between the two halves of the
udder. The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same
time lifted toward the body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is
repeated three times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked
out, and the manipulation repeated until no more milk is obtained in this
way, when the left quarters are treated- in the same manner. (See Figs,
1 and 2.)
Second Manipulation — The glands are pressed together from the side.
The fore quarters are milled each by itself by placing one hand, with
fingerr^spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in*the
division between the right and left fore quarters; the hands are pressed
against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is ob-
tained liy this manipulation, . the hind quarters are milked by placing a
hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and
turned upwarci, but with the thumb Just in front of the hind quarter.
The hands are lifted and grasp into the gland from behind and from
the side, after whiich they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipula-
tion is repeated until no more milk is obtained. (See Figs. 3-5.)
Third Manipulation — The fore teats are grasped with partly , closed
hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the
same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands
and the body; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the
fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner.
(See Fig. 6.)
m
Hill's reports on the use of this method that the extra milk ob-
tained about evenly balanced the extra expense; and, unless the
cows' udders are clean, the extra manipulations of the udder causes
considerable rnore dirt to fall into the milk than by the ordinary
way of milking. Wing reports that by the after-milking or by
stripping cows thoroughly, the residual milk obtained averaged 8.75
pounds per cow per week and .6 pounds butter fat. Woll reports
that by using this method for four weeks with 24 cows the average
gain per cow per day was i. pound milk and .09 pounds butter fat;
the greatest increase for any one cow per day was 5.5 pound milk
and the least .2 pounds milk.
The extra time required for the "after-milking manipulations
was about three minutes per cow, or 20 cows per hour, and this
time at 15 cents per hour makes the cost of labor per day 30 cents.
If the average increase is .1 pounds butter fat per cow per day,
this for 20 cows is 2. pounds, which at 25 cents per pound gives 50
cents from which subtracting the cost of the extra labor, 30 cents.
36 DAIRYING
leaving a margin of 20 cents per day or $6.00 per month earned by
applying this method of after-milking to a herd of 20 cows. The
evidence all shows the great importance of carefully milking each
cow dry at every milking.
K. The Use of Milking Tubes
189. As a rule milking tubes are only used when a cow has
a sore teat or quarter of her udder and hand pressure is so painful
that milk cannot be drawn in the usual way. The insertion of the
tubes into the cows teats is a painful operation with most cows
and a disturbance of this kind will have a great effect on the milk
secretion. Babcock reports a trial of milking tubes with 8 cows
for seven milkings. Four tubes were used on each cow at once,
and after milk stopped flowing from the tubes the cows were
hand stripped but no more milk was obtained. Some cows did not
object to the milking tubes while others did; but in all cases the
milk drawn by means of the tubes contained less butter fat than
was obtained by hand m'ilking. There was obtained, from the 8
cows by hand milking 140 pounds of milk testing 4.7% fat and by
use of the milking tubes 134 pounds of milk testing 2.9% fat or
6.6 pounds of butter fat by hand and 3.9 pounds by tube milking,
or a loss of 2.7 pounds butter fat from the use of the tubes. This
shows that they should be used only in case of injury or soreness
of the cow's udder.
L. Effect of Changing Quarters, Dehorning, etc.
The illustrations previously given in regard to the effect of
change of milkers, method of milking, etc., show that the dairy
cow is a very sensitive animal, and that the sudden disturbance of
her normal quiet life has a depressing effect on her milk production.
This sensitiveness is greater in some cows than in others 5 as a rule,
the better the cow the more sensitive she is to any irregularity.
Certain disturbances seem to have a temporary elfect on the
milk production, causing a loss of milk and butter fat in the
milking immediately following the excitement, but the cows seem
to recover from this loss in a short time.
M. Change of Quarters.
191. Babcock found that when two cows were taken from
their home stable to a neighboring barn one mile away that at the
DAIRYING 37
first milking in the new quarters one cow gave 2 pounds less milk
and that this millc contained 1.0% less fat than at the last milking
heiore leaving her home quarters, but at the second milking in the
new quarters the loss of the first milking was recovered and she
continued her normal flow of milk; The other cow showed the
same tendency, giving nearly i pound less milk testing 1.5% less fat
than at the last milking before the change of quarters, but recov-
ering her normal production soon after. Hill reports results from
7 cows driven 3^/2 miles from one barn to another in which there
was a general increase in yield of milk during two days following
the change of quarters, but six of the seven cows gave milk of a
poorer quality after the change. The effect of transportation and
change of quarters with cows exhibited at fairs has frequently been
noticed, and the so-called "milk tests" at these fairs for one or two
days only, are likely to give an erroneous impression of the milk
producing qualities of the cow under normal home farm conditions.
N. Dehorning.
192. A number of observations on the influence of dehorning
of cows on the amount and richness of the milk given by the cows
have been made. Babcock reports results of dehorning on 10
cows. The details of five records are as follows :
Cow 1 Cow 2 Cow 3 Cow 4 Cow 5
Milking be- Milk Fat% Milk Fat% Milk Fat% Milk Fat% Milk Fat%
lore Dehorning 11.2 4.2 8.4 4.4 9.1 4.0 8.5 4.0 3.5 3.8
After Dehorn'g 8.1 3.9 7.2 3.8 9.1 4.6 6.0 2.7 3.7 3.6
The results obtained from the five other cows were similar to
these. There was a decrease in both amount and quality of the
milk at the first milking after dehorning, but this was only tem-
porary, as by taking ^the herd of ten cows as a whole, the weight
of milk for two days before dehorning was 289 pounds, and two
days after dehorning was 244 pounds, while for the next two day=
it was 280 pounds. This shows that cows can be dehorned withoat
seriously aifecting their milk yield.
Other observers report similar results, although Doane found
in (Observations made with a number of cows that they failed to
regain the normal flow of milk until about 8 days after dehorning.
O. Weather Exposure
193. Nearly every creamery and cheese factory owner lias
33 DAIRYING
noticed the effect of continued hot weather in summer and a cold,
raw wind or storm at any season of the year on the milk supply
received at the factory. The loss on account of such exposure of
the cows can be more than saved by providing a shelter in the
pastures in summer and comfortable quarters in winter. Plumb
made a comparison from Jan. 27 to Mar. lo, of the amount of milk
obtained from six cows which were all given the same kind of feed,
and as much as they would eat of it. Three of the cows were kept
in a comfortable stable while three were left outside regardless of
the weather. The results showed that the cows in the cotnfortab'e
stable ate less feed, gained more in live weight and gave more
milk than the unsheltered cows. The financial results showed
$12.79, or $4.29 per cow in favor of the sheltered cows for this
short period of about six weeks.
P. Stable Temperature
194. The effect of keeping cows in a stable at a temperature of
55 degrees F. as compared with a temperature of 45 degrees F., and
tried at Wisconsin. Several trials were made with 12 and 6 cows
in different years. An increased yield of milk was noticed with
cows kept in the stable at 55 degrees F. during three trials, and
in the stable at 45 degrees F, during two trials. The average of
results, however, was in favor of the higher temperature.
Brooks reports a trial made in Massachusetts with six cows
from Dec. 18 to Mar. 8, in which one lot of three cows was kept
in a stable heated by hot water pipes to a temperature of 55 de-
grees F., and the other lot in a stable not heated. He found but
little difference in the milk yield of the two lots, the increase not
being nearly enough to pay for the cost of heating the stable.
Cows need plenty of fresh air and they can stand a cool tempera-
ture without loss of milk, but protection from exposure to storms
and cold winds is always necessary as the food a good dairy cow
eats should be converted into milk and not into a layer of protective
fat on her ribs for the purpose of keeping her warm.
Q. Changes in Stable Routine.
195. The effect on their milk flow of feeding cows before, after
or during milking depends on the training or habit of the cows.
If accustomed to any one of thiese practices it is not advisable to
change. Emery, of North Carolina, reports a falling off in milk
DAIRYING • 39
from 7 pounds to i pound with one cow, and in per cent of fat
in the milk from about 4.0 to 1.6 with another cow when the grain
which they had been accustomed to have during milking was not
fed until after milking. This must not be interpreted as showing
the advantage of feeding cows during iiiilking, because many cows
have not been accustomed to being fed at that time and they give
as much milk as can be expected of them; probably they would
not give more if they were fed during milking. It shows a serious
loss in milk may be caused by failure to follow a certain routine in
feeding to which the cows have become accustomed.
R. Age of the Cow.
196. The usefulness of any cow as a milk producer will
naturally depend on her individuality and her treatment during
the different years of her life, but under the best conditions there
is a limit to the number of years she will give milk at a profit.
The rate at which the milk production increases and decreases dur-
ing the average life of a cow has been studied by a number of in-
vestigators. Hills, of Vermont,* reports the following figures
from an exhaustive study of the yearly records of 99 cows.
Age of cow
years ..2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10
Milk, lbs.. 4172 4797 5061 5394 5493 5549 5613 5678 5642
Fat % .. 5.43 5.33 5.34 5.27 5.21 5.33 5.37 5.25 5.28
These are only a few of the many figures given in Hills* study
of this question, and he concludes that "the differences one year
with another in no case are large, and that heifers practically "strike
their gait" so far as the quality (or richness) of the milk is con-
cerned in their first lactation period."
An inspection of the records of 150 cows in Germany gave the
following results.**
Lactation period ist 2nd 3rd 4th sth 6th Beyond6th
Milk, pounds 5490 6600 7040 7209 7535 7434 6790
Fat per cent 3.65 3.68 3.64 3.65 3.61 3.62 3.58
Another study of records of 2454 cows showed an mcrease in
the annual milk production to the seventh lactation, and after this
*Vt. Expt. Sta. 1906.
** Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
40 DAIRYING
a decline with a slight change in the per cent of fat in the milk
from 3.37 in the first to 3.19 in the sixth lactation pefibd. '
(
The evidence indicates that cows as a rule begin to decline in
milk production after the sixth to the eighth lactation period.
S. Abortion. -
197. The statement is sometimes made that abortion ruina
a cow as a milk producer,, and she should be fattened and sold*
This is a mistake, as abortioc can be cured; and after recovery a
cow may produce, a satisfactory yield- of. milk. Sev^aX> obser-va-
tions have been made which show the effect of abortion on the
niilk yield. Hills* gives the average per cow of six that aborted
as follows:
Normal Calving Abortion Period
Milk, pounds 6115 3902
Fat per cent 4.93 5.43
Fat pounds 351 247
Beach** reports the records of 10 cows under normal calving
and through an abortion period to the following normal calving
period. The average milk production per cow per year before
abortion was 5,892 pounds milk and 283 pounds butter fat. "These
cows aborted seven months (average 211 days) after conception"
and the average time per cow before another normal calving took
place was 2.1 years. During this time or the abortion period, the
the average per cow was 5,196 pounds of milk and 268 pounds of
butter fat per year. The milk was 696 pounds, or 12% less per
year during the abortion period. The satisfactory yields are at-
tributed in part to the complete removal of the after birth, and the
thorough disinfection of the animal after abortion." No trouble
arose from failure to breed -after abortion when time (about six
months) is given to recuperate from the effects of abortion.
T. The Use of Tuberculin.
198. When cows are tested for tuberculosis by injecting a
small quantity of tuberculin into the circulation an increase in the
temperature is noticed in the reacting cows. This treatment does
*Vt. Expt. Sta. Report 1895.
**Storrs Conn. Expt. Sta. Report 1907.
DAIRYING ' 41
©ot.have any serious effect on the health of the cow, :4nd it has
been found that the effect if; any on the milk flow is temporary.
Bohm*** reports that with reacting cows there was a falling off in
milk within two or three days after injection, but a return to normal
milk yield within one week. In non-reacting cows there was no
diminution in the milk yields.
Trials made by de Schweinitz**** showed that when large doses,
30 cc. of , tuberculin, were injected into healthy cows thefe was
no -variation in the fat in the milk, but with some reactmg cows "a
marked decrease in fat was noted." The data collected indicates
that the testing of cows by injection of tuberculin into* the circula-
tion has no serious effect on the- milk secretioi.
U. Sickness of a Cow.
199., Any disturbance, of a cow's digestion which is sufficient
to cause. her to refuse to eat, or the appearance of a feverish con-
dition as well as the occurrence of a more serious sickness has an
influence on milk secretion. The most common change in the milk
is a decrease in the amount, and an increase in the per cent of fat.
If the milk of cow is being tested at each milking, and a sudden
increase in fat is noticed at any one milking, this is a good indica-
tion ,of some disturbance of the health of the cow provided nothing
else, like the breaking loose of some cow in the. stable at night, has
happened. Th? per cent of fat in milk varies more than the other
constituents of milk and although severe sickness may change the
entire composition of a cow's milk, the per cent, of fat is subject to
so much variation from one milking to another that the old idea
of feeding a baby with the milk of one cow only, is no longer
considered advisable.
The mixed milk from several cows is much more uniform in
composition from day to day than that of one cow, as the entire
herd of cows is not likely to be influenced by the same disturbance
that may effect one or more cows in the herd.
V. Protection from Flies.
200. Many remedies have been proposed for keeping the flies
away from cows, and a number of trials have been made to note
♦**E. S. R. XX 85.
♦♦** B. A. I. 13.
42 DAIRYING
their effect on milk production. The general impression seems to
be that so much of the cow's time is wasted in fighting flies,
when they are exceptionally numerous, that she does not have
sufficient time to eat feed enough to keep up her milk supply.
Beach* tried a proprietary remedy for flies on the Experiment
Station herd for two years, and found that while the cows were not
troubled by flies when these remedies were used, there was no
change in the milk flow that could be attributed to the fly pro-
tectors. He concluded that the annoyance of cows by flies is
overestimated. Carlyle* ' kept a herd of 14 cows in a well venti-
lated and fly screened stable where they were protected from flies,
and by comparing their milk and butter production with that of
14 cows given the same treatment excepting that they were kept
outside in a shaded paddock where flies were numerous, he found
that the cows protected from flies "produced more butter fat, but
the increase was not sufficiently great to pay for the trouble and
expense."
One of the best protections from flies that has been found in
recent years is a barnyard floor built of concrete. When the
manure of the stable is removed from the barn and the barnyard
is kept clean and dry, the number of flies is greatly diminished and
the cows as well as the milkers are relieved from a large share of
the usual annoyance from flies,
•
W. The Effect of Drought
201. It is a well known fact that the lack of feed for cows
during a long and continued drought will diminish the flow of
milk and usually when a cow "dries up'' the per cent of fat in the
milk increases. It has been noticed however, that during a severe
summer drought, the yield of cheese per 100 pounds of milk is not
what would naturally be expected from, normal milk of a given
per cent fat. This led to an investigation by Babcock which showed
that the per cent, of solids-not-fat in the milk, which usually is com-
paratively uniform was decidedly low in the milk of cows receiving
scant feed during a dry season.
At a factory where the milk of 50 patrons was received the
*Bul. 32 Conn. Storrs. Expt. Sta.
**Wis. Expt. Sta. Report 1899, p 92.
DAIRYING 43
per cent, of solids-not-fat in the milk was about 9.0% in April, May
and October, but in July and October it dropped to 8.4%. It was
further shown that in those herds fed grain during the drought, the
per cent of. solids, not fat, in the milk was about normal, while
with no grain feeding it was low. The average of five herds which
were fed grainduring drought was 4.28% fat; 8-82% solids-not-
fat, and 11.03% pounds cheese per 100 pounds of milk. The average
of five herds receiving no grain during droug-ht was 4.02% fat;
8.19% solids-not-fat- and 9.86 pounds of cheese for 100 pounds of
milk. A similar condition of the milk has been noticed at other
cheese factories, showing that long continued drought and insuf-
ficient feed at such times has a tendencv not onlv to reduce the
1' ■ » * ■
milk flow but to reduce the per cent, of solids-noti-fat in the milk.
This makes a low yield of dieese, although the per cent of fat in
the milk would indicate Xht contrary, and the yield of butter at
such times would be increased.
X. Warm or Cold Drinking Water.
202. An exhaustive study of the effect of warming the water
in winter on the milk production of cows has been made by Prof.
F. H. King. He made observations during two winters from
about Jan. 21st to March 31st, covering periods of 64 and 80 days
respectively. Six cows kept in a good stable were divided into two
lots. To one lot of three cows wa^ given water at 70 decrees
Fahrenheit. Each lot was given water at one of these temperatures
Fahrenheit, and to the other lot of three cows water at 32 degrees
for a period of about 16 days and then changed to water of ths
other temperature. The observations showed that the cows re-
ceiving the warm water drank about 10 pounds more water, ate
more food and gave about i.o pounds more milk during one year,
and J4 pound more milk the second year per day per cow than
those given cold water. The cows on cold water required 1.54
and 1:41 pounds food per pound of milk,. and those on warmer water
1.44 and 1.39 pounds. A calculation of the financial difference in
the returns from the two lots based on the same prices of feed and
milk, and assuming the cost of warming the water for 40 cows
during 120 days to be $15.00, showed a profit of $26.40 the first
year and a loss of $5.98 the second year. Every cow showed a
preference, except one, for the warm water. Other investigations
44 DAIRYING
report little or no financial benefit from warming the water for
milch cows, but it is certainly true that a sensitive cow especially
when fresh in milk may be injured by drinking cold water, while
other cows not accustomed to a comfortable stable and producing
little milk may not be disturbed in any way by drinking cold water.
PLATE 4— A Well Balanced Udder.
Y. The Form of the Udder
203. In judging or in selecting a dairy cow the form or shape
of the udder is an important point to be considered. It has al-
ready been shown (Par. 184) that the different quarters of a cow'a
udder may give milk containing different per cents fat, but this only
varies with the order in which the quarters or teats are milked.
The udder as a whole secretes milk of the same average .
composition from all quarters. The development of the udder,
however, may have considerable influence on the amount of milk
produced by each quarter. If the udder is well balanced, ap-
proximately the same amount of milk will be produced by the
fore as the hind quarters. Hills reports trials with five cows
which gave 46 per cent, of their milk from the fore quarters
and 54% per cent from the hind quarters. Plumb found that with
well balanced udders the difference in yield of milk from the fore
and the hind quarters was only about 0.2 pounds per day.
The shape of the udder is largely an inherited characteristic,
and since faulty fore udders are more common than defective hii.d
PLATE 5— THE MAMMARY GLAND
udders, a developmettt of the fore udder by selection and breeding
will undoubtedly have a tendency to increase the yield of milk.
Z. Milk Secretion.
204. The secretion of milk is a process that is not thoroughly
understood in all its details. It is known however, that there are
only two mammary glands in all mammals. The number of lobes
or teats on each gland varies however, with different animals from
a large number, as in the case of the sow, to one teat on each
gland as in the goat's udder. The cow usually has two teats on
the right and two on the left gland. Occasionally a liiird, smal'er
teat occurs on the udder of some cows. The two glands of *he
cow are separated by a membrane or partition, the ligamentum
su^>ensorium mammarum* which helps to support the udder and
* Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
46 DAIRYING
hold it in place. This fibrous partition is attached to the abdometi';
in front and' to a point between the thighs in the rear. There is"i ■
no passage of the milk from one gland to another on each side of
this partition, but there is some passage of milk from one teat to
another on the same gland. This may be shown by milking dry
the two teats on each side of the cow or those on the same gland
when approximately the same amount of milk will be obtained
from each pair of teats. If the two fore teats or the two hind teats
which are each on different glands are milked dry it will be found
that the weight of milk obtained from each of these pairs will be
influenced by the order in which they are milked as the milk of
each teat of a pair in this case comes from a separate gland. If,
however, the milk from each teat on one side or on the same gland
is weighed it will be found that the most' milk will be obtained from
the teat milked first, showing that there is some communication
PLATE S — Cow'a Udder Showing Gland Cells.
between the sections of one gland and that some of the milk in the
second quarter milked will be drawn away through the first one
milked.
Condition of Milk in the Udder.
205. Milk ready formed in a liquid condition is not stored
up in the udder like water in a sponge for if this was the case, there
would be no change in the milk from the first to the last of a
milking. It would all be of the same richness from the beginning
to the end of the milking. Neither is milk filtered or diffused
directly from the blood, because the constituents of milk such as
casein and milk sugar are never found ready formed in the blood.
PLATE 7.
R. ilk is the product of active gland cells, a collection of which is
called a gland lobule and these cells are capable of changing the
raw materials of the blood into the peculiar constituents of milk.
The characteristic composition and richness of each cow's milk is
48 - DAIRYING
determiired Iby.thc gland lobuFe cells, just as the color and variety
of an apple. is a charaGteristic of -certain cells iiv^ each bud. A
change of food of the tree will have no effect on the color or the
other normal characteristics of. the fruit of that tree. A Baldwin
tree contains cells that produce a Baldwinapple; and green colored
apples as well as red appks are produced on trees side by side in
the same orchard. The nature of the cells determines the char-
acteristics of the fruit, and no amount of food in the way of a
fertilizer can change this quality .< In the same way each -cow is
born -with cells in her milk glands that .secrete milk ol a certain
composition, and no amount of feed or lack of feed will change
•their character, so long as the cow is in normal condition; more
feed will produce more milk by making these glands more active
or by building up a larger number of cells, but the milk secreted
will always have the same characteristic composition. If this were
not true it would be possible to make a cow give cream by feeding
a suffcientiy concentrated feed, and we could by changing the feed
obtain either Jersey or Holstein milk from the same cow. It may
be asked how does it happen that we have Jersey and Holstein milk
if feed does not change its richness, and why is not the milk of all
cows of the same percentage of composition? The answer to this
question is that there is a variation in the cell structure character-
ictics of the milk glands of cows when born and by selecting
animals that give a little richer or a thinner milk than the mother,
a strain of cows has been developed that after a few generations
give milk of a different percentage composition than that of the
first cow. The change in the per cent of fat (which is the most
easily varied of any of the milk constituents) is accomplished in
much the same way as the change in the color of a cow's hair.
There is no change during the life of one cow in this, particular,
but her offspring may be of a slightly different color than its moth-
er, and succeeding generations will show still greater variations
from the original animal if careful selections are made with this
point in mind.
206. The Milk Glands are located in the udder near the body
of the animal as shown in Plate 8. Blood circulates through the
arteries and veins to the gland lobules which takes substances in the
blood and coi vert them into milk by means of microscopical
bodies called alveoli. When milk is being produced by the gland
19
PLATE S — The Milk Glands.
these alveloi become swelled as shown in i, but at other times are
flat and contracted as in 2. During secretion the milk flows from
these alveoli in the gland lobules through fine ducts or tubes that
increase in size as they near the milk cistern which is a cavity
holding about one-half a pint located just above the roots of the
teat. From this milk cistern the milk flows through the tube in
its center to the end of the teat when the sphincter muscle closes
the opening. The cow has no control over this muscle and but
little control of another muscle at the root of the tcut which helps
to hold the milk that accumulates in the cistern. The muscles
surrounding the gland near the body of the animal are partially
under control and this enables the cow to "hold up" her milk
under nervous excitement.
The Control which .a cow has over her milk secretions is
similar to that "which a man has over the salivary and the tear
glands. Certain conditions cause one's "mouth to water" or the
saliva to flow and one's "eyes may water" either voluntarily or in-
voluntarily. In the same way the act of milking causes the milk
so DAIRYING
gland to begin the secretion of milk and this continues until the
gland is emptied or until some sudden excitement causes the
nerves surroiinding the milk gland to check the milk secretion.
After birth of the young the blood which was used to nourish
the young mammal before birth is sent to the udder, and this
causes the glands to become active. The inside of the gland lobules
is covered with a layer of epithreHal cells which are swelled when
secreting milk and flat when no milk is given. The outside o^ the
gland lobule is covered with a network of blood and lymph vessels
which nourish and build up the gland. The more of these glands
there are the more milk is produced, but a certain amount of the
milk is undoubtedly formed during milking, as the milk given at
one milking weighs more than the entire udder and its contents
before milking began. The cow's milk glands ordinarily weigh
between two and three pounds, and the solid matter alone in 20
pounds of milk will amount to about two and one-half pounds;
while with cows giving 50 pounds of milk, the solid or dry matter
amounts to six pounds.
The activity of the milk glands in a cow is therefore influenced
by the inherited milk-giving capacity of the animal and by the
treatment the cow receives such as milking dry at each milking,
regularity of time between milkings, promptness and gentleness
during milking, protection from excitement, and an abundant sup-
ply of palatable feed at all times. These are points to which the
owner and the milker of cows should give close attention in order
to develop and maintain the maximum activity of the milk glands.
The milk veins under the abdomen of the cow extend for-
ward from the udder to a point near the middle of the abdomen
where they enter the body, and then pass on to the heart. The
size of this opening which the blood passes through as well as
the size of the milk veins is some indication of the milking capacity
of the cow.
207. Too Frequent Milking or too long a time between milk-
ings tends to diminish the activity of the gland like the tiring of a
muscle by excessive exercise, but with a normal amount of milk-
ing the emptying of the glands seem to be a stimulus to milk se-
cretion and a knowledge of this fact may aid cow owners in their
DAIRYING 51
efforts to develop the milk giving tendency in cows. Some investi-
gators have suggested that since the fluctuations in the flow of milk
has a great effect on the per cent of fat in the milk the secretion
of fat is a controUing factor in milk formation. Collier* found
that when the time between milkings was exactly 12 hours the
average for 9 cows of five breeds was .696 pounds of milk per hour
during the night and .7 pounds of milk per hour during the day;
the average per cent of fat in the morning milk was 4.26 and of
the night's n^ilk 4.22 showing a great uniformity in the milk
secretion, and in the fat per cent when there are no fluctuations in
milking. The great activity of the milk gland has also been illus-
trated by Collier in a calculation based on the figure obtained above
.7 pounds or 19.6 cc milk per hour, and on an average or 150 obser-
vations on the milk of 15 cows of six breeds which later showed
152 fat globules in one-one-thousandth of a millimeter of milk;
his calculation showed that under these conditions the milk gland
is secreting 136,000,000 fat globules per second. This gives some
idea of the great activity of the milk gland. The subject of the
source of the faf in milk has been studied by a number of investi-
gators; but this question can not be aiscussed at this point. One
experiment made by Collier showed that for every one pound of
fat in the milk, the cows received 1.21 pounds of fat in their feed;
and although it may be possible that a cow converts some of the
other constituents of her feed into milk fat, there is usually more
fat in the feed -than in the milk.
AA. The Breed of the Cow.
208. The general characteristics of certain breeds of dairy
cows are well known. The Jersey and the Guernsey cows as a rule
give less and richer milk than the Ayrshire and the Holstein cows,
while the Brown Swiss, Shorthorn, Red Polled and Devon breeds
come about half-way between the two extremes in the amount and
quality of the milk they produce.
The richness of the milk, or the per cent of fat it contains, is
a breed characteristic, as is also the size of the animal, earliness
of maturity, disposition, persistency of milking, length of milking
*
*N. Y. Geneva Report 1891, page 28.
52
DAIRYING
periods, etc. Some breeders are now trying to combine many ot
the good qualities of several breeds into one, such as a large
quantity of rich milk.
Such a development as this may be promoted by keeping in-
dividual records of both feed and milk per cow per day as the feed
consumed per unit of milk or milk fat is of great Importance in
the collection of data to be used in selecting cows to breed from
and from which to build up a herd having the characteristics most
desired.
The breed of a cow,^ however, does not always insure her pos-
sessing the peculiar qualities of that breed, as there are many ex-
ceptions and considerable variation in the cows of one breed. This
is well illustrated by the following figures collected during the
Dairy Cow Demonstration at the World's Fair held at St. Louis.
The cows of each breed were all under one management which was
trying to make each cow give the most milk possible at the least
food cost; but the figures show considerable variation in the ca-
pacity of the cows of each breed.
Variation in Milk Production of Cows of One Breed
St. Louis Dairy Test, 120 Days' Record.
Holstein Jersey
Best i Poorest Ave. 1 Best Poorest Ave.
Milk per day lbs
Test of milk
67
3.5
2.35
9cts.
Ucts.
47
3.2
1.51
1.2cts.
16.4cts.
53
3.4
1.83
1.07cts.
13.5cts.
48
4.8
2.33
l.lcts.
9. 7cts.
39
4.1
1.61
1.3ct8.
13.2cts.
42
4.7
Butter fat lbs
1.93
Feed cost milk per quart
Feed cost butter per lb.
1.16c
10.5c
No. cows in heici 15 25
Sl.orthorn
Brown Swiss
B«-pt 1 Poorest 1 Ave. | Best | Poorest j Ave.
Milk per day lbs 1 48 | 21
Testof milk | 4.0 | 8.9
Butter fatlbs , 1.73 | 0.84
Feed cost milk per quart j 1.09cts | 2.15cts.
Feed cost butter per lb. j 11.7cts | 23.4cts.
35
3.8
1.28
1.3cts.
15.3cts
51
3.4
1.75
1.09cts
18.6cts
38
3.8
1.48
1.4cts.
15.5cts.
No. cows in herd
28
44
3.6
1.6
1.2c
14.7c
DAIRYING. 53
The figures show the characteristic richness* of the. milk of
th^se different breeds and their tnilk production. The cows were
selected at that time for the purpose of making as good a showing
as possible for each breed. The feed cost per quart of milk is low-
est in the case of the best Holstein cow and the feed cost per pound
of butter fat is the least with the best Jersey cow, but there were
cows in each of the breeds which produced both milk and butter
more economically than some one cow in every other breed.
BB. Feed.
209. The calculation of standard feeding rations and related
questions will be discussed under another head, but the effect of
the feed on milk secretion is a matter of importance independent of
compounding of rations. Economical milk production depends
largely on healthly and active milk glands, and since such glands,
like muscles, are nourished by the protein feeding stufts, an ample
supply of this constituent should be available in the feed of milch
cows. The fat in feeding stuffs is also important, as it doubtless
aids in supplying the fat of milk, although the food fat is changed
by the dfgestion process and does not appear as such in the milk.
A sufficient amount of food fat has a favorable action on milk se-
cretion, but an excess not only makes a feed too expensive, but it
inay disturb digestion and thus reduce the flow of milk. An in-
sufficient amount of fat as well as a scanty supply of other feed
fails to keep the animal up to its producing capacity, and this
deficiency may reduce the flow of milk. It is necessary, therefore,
to supply the cows with an ample quantity of feed of the right
kind in order to keep the milk glands in a healthy and active con-
dition.
Even green feeds are not always nutritious, as it is well
known that pasture grass and other feeds grown during a continued
wet spell of weather have "no strength" as stock feed, and brew-
ery slop feed, roots, etc., fed in too large quantities do not aid
* See also page 24, Lesson i.
54 DAIRYING
milk secretion. A consumption of large quantities of water either
in feed or as a result of feeding salt to such an extent as to make
cows drink more water, fails to increase the milk flow or to
diminish the per cent, of solids in the milk.
There is a limit to the amount of concentrated feed and of
protein that should be given cows for the purpose of increasing
their milk .flow, as a point will be reached at which the Increase in
milk is not sufficient to pay for this increased feed and when there
IS no further gain in milk it may be assumed that the feed is suf-
ficent for a maximum flow of milk. A feeding rule for cows has
been suggested that is based on the amount of milk given. This
rule is to feed as many pounds of grain per day as the milk of the
cow contains pounds of butter fat per week, or one-third to one-
fourth as much grain as the cow gives pounds of .milk per day>
'Varying it according to the richness of the milk. If a cow gives
30 pounds of milk testing 4% fat the amount of grain she may be
fed per day according to this rule is either one-third of 30, 10
pounds; or one-fourth of 30, 7.5 pounds when the calculation is
based on the amount of milk given. If based on the richness as
well as the weight of milk, the amount of grain to be fed per day
is found as follows : 30x4% equals 1.2 pounds of fat in the dairy
milk, and seven times this figure (1.2x7) is 8.4 pounds of grain.
The butter fat in the milk is a better basis than the weight of
milk only for calculating the amount of grain to be fed a cow, as it
takes the richness of the milk and the consequent increase in ac-
tivity of the milk glands into consideration. When fed by this
rule a cow is supposed to be given all the roughage or coarse feed
such as hay, silage, roots, etc., that she will eat. By regulating the
amount of grain or concentrated feed that a cow may have, she is
permitted in this way to satisfy her appetite on the coarse feed and
thus use her judgment as to the amount of feed she needs.
210. The palatability of the feed is all-important, as cows will
not eat spoiled hay, although such hay may contain a sufficient
quantity of nutrients to produce milk. The addition of grain or
something that tempts the cow's appetite will sometimes induce her
to eat such spoiled hay, but these same appetite-exciters will not
be needed to increase the consumption of well-cured, palatable
ieed. The condition of the animal will also have an effect on the
DAIRYING 55
amount of feed eaten, but increasing the feed to an under-fed cow
will not change the richness of the milk, although it does increase
the amount of milk she gives. There are no feeds, however, that
permanently change the normal per cent, of fat in milk.
Milk secretion is influenced by other things than the amount
of nutrients in feed. One of the most conspicuous of these is the
change from stable to pasture feed in the spring. This green feed
containing an abundant supply of easily digested protein and the
exercise in the open air after several months in a closed stable,
have a stimulating action on milk secretion and an immediate
effect is noticed in the milk; it changes color, flavor, and viscosity J
there is a sudden increase in the per cent, of fat in the milk with
a slight decrease in amount, but by the second week on pasture
the per cent, of fat returns to its normal figure and there is a gain
in quantity of milk. Fleischmann reports the following figures ob-
tained from the record of a herd of cows that show the effect of
changing from stable to pasture.
Last week % week in stable 1st full wk. 2d wk
in stable ^wk. at pasture at pasture at pasture
Milk per cow lb 19.3 18.5 19.9 20.7
Pat per cent.. 3.08 3.78 3.50 3.21
Observations on the changes that take place in milk when
cows first go from stable to pasture have been procured at the
Vermont Experiment Station for eight years. The herd varied in
number from 30 to 50 cows during the different years. The milk
yield on going to pasture increased each year but one. This in-
crease may be expressed in the proportion of 100 pounds of milk
during two v/eeks stable feeding before pasture to 107 pounds
during the first two weeks on pasture, and 103 pounds during the
next four weeks on pasture, excepting four years when it was 95
pounds in the last period of four weeks.
The per cent, of fat in the milk during these periods of the
different years is shown by the following figures.
56
DAIRYING
2 weeks
Stable
4 years showing increase 5.01
1 year showing increase 4.88
3 years showing increase 5.11
Average per cent, fat in milk
Next 4 wks
at pasture
5J}8
5.18
5.08
Not every cow in the herd showed the same effect of this
change each year, but during four yeara only 2% of the cows gave
thinner milk on pasture than .on stable feed. In one year 7%
of the cows and during three years 15% -of the cows gave thinner
milk during the first two weeks on pasture than in the last two
weeks on stable feeding. The results as a whole show that milk
from pasture feed is not as a rule poorer than from stable feed,
and that there are no facts to uphold the double standard of milk
which has been adopted by some cities and states where a thinner
milk is permitted during the months the cows are at pasture than
in the winter months of the year.
211. Effect of Heavy Grain Feed. Many trials have been
made to show the relation between the amount and the richness of
a cow's milk and the amount and richness of her feed. There is an
impression among some cow owners that rich feed makes rich milk
and vice versa. The experiments made on this point invariably
show, however, that while an increase in the grain ration may cause
a gain in the milk flow and more butter is made, there is practically
no change in the per cent, of fat, or in the richness of the milk.
If a cow is giving 20 pounds of milk per day, and it tests 4% fat
this amounts to .8 pounds butter fat or about one pound of butter
per day. If her grain ration is increased she may give 25 pounds
of milk per day, but this milk will test approximately 4% of fat
the same as it did before. This increase will make more butter
than formerly, even though the test of the milk has. not changed,
since 25 pounds of milk testing 4% fat gives one pound of butter
fat. This is about 1.2 pounds of butter, or a gain of 20%. in the
amount of butter made by the cow in consequence of the increase
in feed, even though there was no change in the test of the milk.
The following figures were obtained in an experiment made
by the writer in which an attempt was made to increase the .grain
ration of three cows to as large a quantity as seemed safe without
DAIRYING
57
making the cows sick. During this time the milk of each cow was
tested daily and note made of. the changes if any took place. When
the experiment was begun the cows were not fed as much as they
ought to receive. The results obtained are given in the following
table.
Feeding. period
Corn and
Wh«iat
Oil
Timothy
Corn
Dry matter
cob meal
Bran
Meal
Hay
Silage
in feed
jl>ays
lbs.
lbs.
lbs..
lbs.
IbA,
lb«. •
I 25
.'
2
10
20
18.6
II 12
6
4
2
6
20
23.7
III 27
8
4
4
12
24.9
IV 15
10
S
5
12
28.4
V 51
12
6
6
12
32.0
VL 6
12
6
12
■
26.5
VII 16
. -
6
22
25.2
IX 31
Pasture luxuriant blue
grass.
'
Daily Weight and Test of Milk
Cow I 1
Cow 3 1
Cow «
> f ■
Milktb
Fat %
Milk lb ,
«
■ Fat %
Milk lb
,Fat %
16.7
4.6
"•5
3-8.
25
3-6
184
5-2
14.8
3-7
29
3-9
19.9
4.9
ib.3
3-6
31
37
19-5
4-5
16.6
3-5
31
3-5
17.6
4.8
14.9
3-8
28
3-5
18.6
5-0
15-2
37
26
' 3-4
13.6
5-9-
12.5
4.2
19
40
16.0
5-2
14-5
37
23
3-4
These figures show that an increase in the grain ration from
two pounds to 24 pounds per cow per day did not change the aver-
age test of the milk of these cows, even though the heavy grain
feeding was continued for nearly four months. There was an in-
crease however, in the flow of milk amounting to three pounds of
milk per day for cow No. i and five pounds and six pounds per day
for cows Nos. j and 5 respectively.
It will be noticed that the milk flow of each cow increased on
the heavy grain ration for about 60 days, that there was then a
slight falling off ifor about 60 days, and a decided decrease in milk
58 DAIRYING
with all the cows during the last i6 days, when the grain was re-
duced to six pounds per day. But it will also be noticed that as
soon as the cows went to pasture, the milk flow gained again to
nearly the same amount as four months earlier in the cow's milk-
ing period.
The drop in the test of the milk when the cows went to pasture
was simply bringing it back to the same richness that the milk had
before the cows began to dry up on account of a reduction in the
grain ration.
* V
The conclusions of all careful experiments on this point have
been. the same; and as Jbefore stated the richness of a cow*s milk is
a natural characteristic like the color of her hair. Changes in feed
do not permanently affect it so long as the cow is in normal con-
dition.' The net profit or a profitable return for the feed consumed
is the all important point in feeding and breeding dairy cows, and
records of milk produced and feed consumed if carefully obtained
by the owners of cows or by farmers' Cow Testing Associations
will furnish valuable information concerning the animals to be
selected for breeding purposes in order that milk may be produced
as economically as possible.
DAIRYING • 59
EXAMINATION
Note to Students — ^These questions are to be answered inde-
pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your exami-
nation. Use thin white paper about 6 in.x 9 in. for the examination.
Number the answers the sanie as the questions, but never repeat
the question. Mail answers promptly when completed.
Questions on Lesson IL
1. Briefly describe the origin and the advantages of Gow Testing
Associations.
2. Give some of the important points that should be included in
a contract to be signed by the members of a Cow Testing As-
sociation.
3. What is the cost to each member per year and what does he
receive for his money?
4. What points should the Articles and By-laws cover?
5. What are the requirements for becoming a voting member ?
6. Describe the kind of a man needed for doing the work of the
Association.
7. . From the following record of one cow : Milk A; M., lo pounds,
P. M., 12 pounds, test 3.8, price of butter 30 cents, feed eaten
12 pounds of hay, cornstalks 40 pounds, corn meal 8 pounds.
Price of hay $12.00 per ton, corn stalks $1.50 per ton, com
meal $8.00 per ton. Calculate the feed cost per 100 pounds
of milk and per pound of butter fat, also the total milk and
60 . DAIRYING
butter fat production for 30 days, and the receipts from butter
fat for $1.00 worth of feed.
8. Mention six or more ways in which these associations may be
a benefit to the lyierabers. -
' / , J '" ;. ^ k A^ = r ; T . '' / ' - ■ ," . •
9. What is the Tliffei^nce>be*tweeri Cbw'Testfhg Associations and
Advanced Registry testing of cows?
10. When and by whom was the Advanced Registry testing begun?
11. Where are the headquarters of the Secretaries of the Associa-
tions which make Advanced Registry tests of cows?
12. What' is an official test, a semi-official test, and how long a
time ^ does . each coyer ?
13. What is meant by a retest?
14. What are the requirements for admission to the Advanced
Registry in each of the dairy breeds?
15. What is meant.by "Dairy, Cow Competition" tests?
16. Mention some of the individual characteristics of a cow that
iare of importance to a dairyman.
17. What is the usual relation between amount and richness of a
cow's milk? If the milk suddenly increases in weight what
is the common change in richrfess ?
18. What kind of cows show the most striking variations in rich-
I . ■ 1 . •
ness of niilk?
19. What may a sudden change in richness of a cow's milk indicate?
20. ;,Tq what extent may the test of one cow's milk vary from day
to day? Give figures.
1 1
21. Is this variation the same with all cows and how does it differ?
22. What is meant by "Lactation, period" apd what influences its
length? ...
23^ What is a satisfactory "standing dry" period in days?
'24. How may the lactation period be lengthened?- '
DAIRyiNQ 61
25. What per cent, of dry matter in the milk is the fat at different
parts of the milking period ?
26. To what extent does the richness of a cow's milk change in
different portions of one milking? ' Give figures.
27. Why is the last milk, or stripping, the richest, and what kind
of treatment tends to. make the milk richer?
28. What influences the richness of the morning and night milk?
29. To what e^ent does the we^ight and the test of the milk of
one cow vary from morning to night? Give figures..
30. When is it profitable to milk cows more than twice a day?
31. What portion of the udder gives the most and the. richest milk?
32. What effect does fast or slow milking have on the milk ob-
tained ? Give figures.
33. How much difference in wages can a good milker earn more
- than a poor milker ? Calculate from one of the records given
in paragraph 186..
34. How much money may be lost per cow by failing to milk dry?
Calculate from record given in paragraph 187.,
35. What would be the value of the milk and butter fat saved in
a year if all cows were milked by the Hegelund method and
the figures reported in paragraph 188 were obtained by its use?
36. What are the advantages and disadvantages of milking tubes?
37. What is an objection to State and County Fair tests of doiry
cows?
38. What influence has dehorning cows on the test of their milk?
39. What may be the financial loss if 10 cows are exposed to the
• ' weather for six months, based on the results reported in
paragraph 193?
40. Is there any necessity of heating cow stables in winter?
41. Should cows be fed during niilking?
62 DAIRYING
42. At what age does a cow begin to decline in milk production
and richness of milk?
43. Is it necessary to fatten and sell good dairy cows after an
abortion period, and what may be the. loss in milk during an
abortion period?
44> What effect on milk flow is caused by testing cows for tuber-
culosis?
45. Why is not advisable to feed the milk of on« cow to a baby
and what effect on milk has the sickness of a cow?
46. What effect have fly protecting medicines on milk flow and
what is a good protection from flies for cows?
47. In what way does scant feed during a dry season effect the
composition of milk and yield of cheese?
48. How much money could a farmer afford to use in buying grain
for his cows during drought if he kept ten cows that gave 30
pounds of milk each per day and cheese is worth 15 cents per
pound ?
49. Does it pay to warm water for cows in cold weather?
50. In what part of a cow's udder is the most milk produced ?
51. Are the teats diagonally opposite on a cow's udder on the
same gland, 'and which of these two will give the most milk
when milked first?
52. Give proof that milk is not filtered from the blood. -
53. What determines the richness of a cow's milk?
54. How are thin-milk-giving cows obtained?
55. What muscles of the udder are under the control of the cow,
and what control over milk secretion has the cow?
56. What are the alveoli?
57. How may the activity of the milk ^land be stimulated?
58. What are some of the characteristics of a dairy cow that are
peculiar to the breed to which she belongs?
DAIRYING 63
59. To#what extent do cows of the same breed vary in their
economical milk production?
60. Why is abundant feed econoftiical and why are protein feeds
especially appropriate for cows giving milk?
61. What objections may be made to feed containing too much fat?
62. How may the activity of the the milk gland be illustrated?
63. If a cow gives 50 pounds of milk testing 3.5^ fat, how much
grain and rough feed should be fed her?
64. What effect does the feeding of salt or of watery feeds have on
the milk and milk production?
65. How does turning out to pasture affect the milk of cows during
the first and later weeks ?
66. What changes in the standard of richness in milk should be
made during the season when cows are on pasture feed ?
67. What are four or more changes that are noticed in milk when
cows are first turned out to pasture ?
68. Did the increased milk and butter fat obtained in the case of
Cow I, 3, and 5 in paragraph 210 pay for the increase in feed
at present prices of milk, butter and of the feeds used?
Write This at the End of Your Examination
I hereby certify that the above questions were answered entirely
by me.
Signed
Address
k •
j%-
THE
Corresponaence College
of Agriculture
FT. WAYNE, INDIANA
DAIRYING— Part III
Cream Separation
By EDWARD H. FARRINGTON, M. S.
ProfeMor of Dairy Hudbaa^ry ia tKc Unirenity of Witieonsin
Tliia 10 tKe Third of a Series oi Six Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction
in Dairying
COPYRIGHT, 1911
Ihe CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
NOTE TO STUDENTS
In order to derive the utmost possible l>enef it from
this paper^ you must thorousfhly master the text« While
it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the
text to memory^ still there is nothing: contained in the text
which is not absolutely essential for the intellisftnt dairy-
man to know* For your own Sfood^ never refer to the
examination questions until you have finished your study
of the text« By following: this plan^ the examination
paper will show what you have learned from the text*
DAIRYING
DAIRYING— Part III
Cream Separation
212. Wherever milk is used as a human food some attempt
is ordinarily made to skim off the cream. Nearly every civilized
person considers cream to be the most valuable part of. milk. A
higher price is paid for it than for either butter or cheese, and
none of the common milk products are so expensive as cream.
On account of this superior value which cream possesses, a con-
stant effort has been made in the past, to separate *the cream
from milk by the most economical means possible.
Two forces have been used for this purpose in the past, —
the force of gravity, and centrifugal force. The former costs
nothing, while the application of centrifugal force to cream separa-
tion is more or less expensive. Gravity, which works in a per-
pendicular direction, was used almost exclusively until about
1876, when centrifugal force, which acts horizontally, began to
be used tor skimming milk.
High temperatures favor the separation of cream by cen-
trifugal force, because hot milk is less viscous than cold, just as
hot syrup is thinner than cold syrup, but cream rises slowly by
gravity, and on this account milk must be cooled to prevent its
souring and coagulating before the cream has all come to the
surface.
DAIRYING
Another possible cause of the cream rising better at a low
than at a high temperature is that the surface tension is increased
at lower temperatures, and the fat globules in milk unite more
rapidly at low than at high temperatures, forming larger lumps
of fat, that rise to the surface easier than smaller ones.
Up to the. present time, no method has been devised that will
recover all the fat of milk in the cream; losses occur during each
handling of the milk, first from waste by milk sticking to the
pails, cans or machines, and second, some fat is always left in
the skim milk. The amount of butter fat lost in these two ways
may be very small or it may be a large percentage of the fat
in the whole milk. The extent to which the milk fat is recovered
in the cream w^ill depend largely on the efficiency of the method
of cream separation used, and the ability and carefulness of the
person doing the work.
In the early days little was known about milk except that
cream will rise when it is allowed to stand quietly for a few
hours. This is the simplest division of milk into its component
parts, i. e., separating the cream from the skim milk or the fatty
portion from the serum. We know at the present time that the
solids in the milk have a very complex composition, but without
going deeply into the subject we will consider briefly the relation
which the milk constituents have to cream separation.
CAUSE OF CREAM SEPARATION
214. When milk is divided into cream and skim milk, the
greater portion of the milk serum is left in the skim milk. A cer-
tain amount of it gets into the cream, but this cream-serum is of
about the same composition as the milk serum. Skim milk con-
taining no fat is therefore a good illustration of what is known as
milk serum. It is heavier than water, having a specific gravity
of 1.04; and in normal milk the butter fat, which has a specific
gravity of .9, is suspended in the milk serum in the form of
microscopic globules.
DAIRYING 5
215. The term specific gravity means that if a certain quan-
tity or measure of water at a given temperature weighs 100 or
1000 pounds, the same quantity of milk serum, or skim milk,
weighs 104 or 1040 pounds, and the same quantity of butter fat
weighs 90 or 900 pounds. This difference in weight between the
milk serum and the fat is the cause of cream separation. If the
butter fat were free to move in the serum there would be a
complete separation of the fat by allowing milk to stand, but this
is not the case. The curd or casein of the milk and other sub-
stances present act as a retarder on the fat from coming to the
surface. A certain amount of the fat of milk rises when the
milk is left standing quietly and forms a layer of cream on the
surface, while the skim milk underneath retains some fat, depend-
ing on certain conditions. The amount of fat left in the skim
milk is the standard commonly used for measuring the efficiency
of different methods of cream separation.
216. The condition of the serum varies in different lots of
milk. The casein is- not always in the same condition, and this
influences the thickness or viscosity of the serum. The greater
the viscosity, the more resistance there is to the movement of
the butter fat, and the less the viscosity, or the thinner the serum,
the easier the fat rises.
This viscosity of the- serum is not only influenced by the con-
dition of the curd or casein, but by the amount of milk sugar,
etc., in solution in the serum. Milk rich in fat contains usually
more solids-not-fat than thinner milk, and the more solids in
the serum the greater its viscosity and its resistance to the
separation of the fat. If the serum of milk was always the same,
rich milk would skim easier than thin milk.
•
217. The size of the fat globules in each lot of milk has
considerable influence on cream separation. It has been found
by looking at a drop of milk under a microscope that the fat is
distributed through it in extremely small drops or globules, and
that these globules vary in size. As a rule, they are larger in the
milk of a fresh cow than when the same cow is a stripper. It is
evident that the larger the fat globules, the quicker they will
separate from the serum, and this, together with the increased
DAIRYING
percentage of solids-not-fat in the milk serum explains the
difference between the skimming efficiency of milk from a fresh
and from a stripper cow. Late iji the milking period the fat
globules are small, and although the milk may be rich as is usual
with an old milking cow, the cream does not separate so well as
earlier in the milking period, because of the change in size of
the fat globules.
218. Dean reports results from setting milk in cans in ice
water in which the skim milk from fresh cows contained .4% fat;
at the middle of the milking period, .6% fat; and late in the
milking period, .7% fat. Another investigation on the influence
of the size of the fat globules on cream separation showed that
the richness of the skim milk increases as the number of the
small fat globules increased. Each lot of milk was examined
with a microscope and graded according to the percentage of
fat globules having a diameter of .003 millimeters. These were
skimmed with a separator and the following results reported:
Milk
of
Lot
Per cent, of the fat
globules .003 m.m.
or less in diameter.
Fat, Per Cent.
Whole Milk
Skim Milk
1
33.9
4.63
•
0.11
2
53.9
3.17
0.12
3
56.8
3.53
0.16
4
58.0
3.65
0.17
f
3
58.2
3.98
0.17
6
60.2
3.33
0.19
7
74.0
2.54
0.21
This shows that when only one-third or 33.6 per cent, fat, the
skim milk tested about one-half as much as when three-fourths or
74.0 per cent, of the fat globules were the diameter mentioned,
and the whole milk tested 2.54 per cent. fat.
DAIRYING
219. Results similar to this were reported in Bulletin 122 of
the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station in which
mixed Holstein and mixed Jersey milk were skimmed, with the
following results :
Holstein
Jersey
Number
of Trials
Milk,
Fat %
Skim Milk.
1^'at %
Milk,
Fat %
Skim Milk
Fat %
7
29
3.77
3.45
.077
.188
5.65
5.71
0.95
0.38
It is a well known fact that the fat globules in Holstein milk
are much smaller than in Jersey milk and the difference in the
per cent, of fat in the skim milk here given is undoubtedly caused
by this fact.
220. The effect of agitation of the milk is to break up the
fat globules into smaller ones, and thus reduce the skimming
efficiency. Cream will not rise on milk that has been transported
either by rail or by wagon nearly as well as it will on the same
milk before this agitation. And heaters used for bringing milk
to a skimming temperature for centrifugal cream separation should
not agitate the milk violently. This is shown by the following
experiment. Milk was churned for five minutes in a churn having
a dasher, at different temperatures, and it was found that the
churned milk always left more fat in the skim milk than the un-
churned. The effect of the churning increases with the temper-
ature of the milk.
Temperature of milk 87° F.
Milk not churned 13
Milk churned before separated... .14
The influence of agitation on the rising of cream when milk
is allowed to stand for some hours in pans or cans is much
greater than when milk is skimmed by a centrifugal separator.
122° F.
185° F.
.12
.13
.69
.72
8 DAIRYING
221. Grouping of the Fat Globules. When milk is first drawn
from, the udder, the serum is in its most limpid condition, and the
fat globules are evenly distributed throughout the serum, in which
they move readily. After standing for a time at ordinary temper-
atures without immediate cooling, the serum thickens somewhat,
and the fat globules group themselves together into clots or clus-
ters which rise to the surface slowly. This grouping seems to
cause the clusters to drag on their way to the top of the milk.
An entirely satisfactory explanation of this grouping into clusters
has not as yet been given, but there is some similarity between it
and the action of the corpuscles in blood.
222. Similarity Between Blood and Milk. If blood in the
veins is examined with a microscope it will be noticed that the
corpuscles appear to be uniformly distributed throughout the
liquid, they do. not touch one another. This condition of the cor-
puscles changes, however, when blood is exposed to the air at
ordinary temperatures, the corpuscles then group themselves into
clots in very much the same way as the fat globules arrange them-
selves in the milk after it stands a while.
223. Another similarity between the action of the fat globules
and the blood corpuscles is the behavior of certain alkalies towards
both substances. If caustic soda or potash is added to milk, the
grouping of the fat globules is prevented, and the cream rises
quickly. These same alkalies prevent the coagulation of blood.
It has been further noticed that when blood is immediatelv cooled
to a temperature below 40 degrees F. that it does not coagulate,
but remains liquid. A similar action is shown by the fat globules
in milk. They remain apart and rise quickly to the surface when
the milk is cooled to about 40 degrees F., immediately after draw-
ing it from the udder. This cooling must be done at once as a
delay of even a few minutes allows the grouping of the fat glob-
ules into clusters which rise much more slowly than do the single
globules. The substance which entangles the globules is appar-
ently heavier than the fat and acts as a load on them. This has
been illustrated by certain experiments which have shown that
when cream is obtained by "deep setting'' of cans of milk in cold
water, there may be a loss in the cream if the milk is allowed to
DAIRYING
stand twenty or thirty minutes before placing it in the cold water.
When the cans of milk are set in cold water immediately, the
sudden chilling of the milk next to the walls of the can by the
cold water seems to prevent the groups of fat globules in the
milk from attaching themselves to the walls of the can and hastens
the cream rising, even though the interior temperature may not
be brought to 40 degrees or lower for some little time thereafter.
224. These comparisons of the blood corpuscles with the fat
globules, together with a knowledge of the fact that the fat in
milk is suspended and not dissolved in the milk serum, help to
make clear the reasons for some of the manipulations and arrange-
ments that are commonly used in the various methods of cream
separation. It is obvious that the thinner the layer of milk the
quicker the fat will rise to the surface, and since the serum cools
faster than the fat, cooling has a tendency to hasten the rising of
the cream because it increases the difference between the specific
gravity or weight of the butter fat and that of the milk serum.
Heat, however, has the opposite effect and retards the rising of
the cream.
A. SEPARATING CREAM BY GRAVITY.
225. Cream is usually obtained from milk in one of two ways,
first, by the so-called "gravity processes,*' and second, by means of
centrifugal force. The **gravity processes" have passed through
two stages of development during the years they have been in
use, starting with "shallow setting" and progressing to the "deep
setting" process.
a. "Shallow Setting."
226. The first method of cream separation, historically speak-
ing, is the shallow setting of milk into tin pans or in earthen
vessels. The details of this process of creaming milk are very
simple. Directly after milking the fresh, warm milk is strained
into tin pans which are about fifteen inches in diameter and four
inches deep. The pans have floating sides and are filled two-
thirds full of milk. These pans of milk are set in the pantry, the
buttery, or some other convenient place about the house and left
lo DAIRYING
standing from 12 to 48 hours. The temperature of the milk dur-
ing this period is the same as that of the surrounding air and
varies with the seasons of the year. The temperature of the room
in which the milk is set should control the depth of the milk. If
the room has a temperature of 60 degrees Fahr., three inches is
deep enough, and some idea of the rate at which the cream rises
at this temperature is shown by the following observations:
227. When set at 60 degrees Fahr. the percentage of the fat
in the milk that was recovered in the cream was as follows :
After standing 8 hours 43.5% or at the rate of 5.44% per hour.
The following 8 hours 11.5% or at the rate of 1.44% per hour.
The following 12 hours 11.4% or at the rate of 0.95% per hour.
The following 12 hours 6.7% or at the rate of 0.56% per hour.
Total, 40 hours 73.1%
The higher the temperature at which the milk is set the richer
the cream and the smaller the quantity of cream obtained.
When set in this shallow layer the fat globules do not have
far to rise to reach the surface; the cream separation therefore
begins at once. The cream which rises first is rather thin, but it
gradually thickens by standing, and if the room is warm and dry
there is so much milk surface exposed to the air that the constant
evaporation makes a rather tough, leathery cream. This drying
of the cream may be somewhat overcome by setting the pans of
milk in a well ventilated basement or cellar, where the air is
partially saturated and where the temperature does not go bjclow
60 degrees F.
Condition of Cream When Skimmed.
228. If sweet cream for the table is wanted, the milk must
be skimmed before the souring process has begun. It is, however,
very difficult to skim off such cream without losing a considerable
quantity of it by the mixing which is nearly unavoidable when
the skimming is done. Not much more than one-half the cream
in milk is obtained when it is skimmed sweet by this process.
DAIRYING II
229. When cream is skimmed for churning and butter mak-
ing, the milk may stand until the souring process has thickened
and curdles the skim milk. This often gives the milk some 48
hours or even longer to stand. Nothing is gained by this pro-
longed standing excepting the advantage of skimming the cream
from curdled milk. Cream will not rise on sour milk, but after
standing long enough the cream becomes thick and somewhat
tough on the surface, and this aids in taking off the cream be-
cause there is no danger of setting up currents which may remix
the cream when the skimming is done.
t. Conditions Influencing ''Shallow Setting" Cream Separation.
230. The completeness with ^yhich cream is separated by the
"shallow setting" process has been found to be influenced by some
one or more of the following conditions:
. The temperature at which the milk is set.
The length of time the milk stands.
The condition of the milk serum.
The period of lactation of the cows.
The size of the butter fat globules in the milk.
The depth of the milk layer.
The skill of the person skimming the cream with the shallow
cream skimmer.
231. The effect which these conditions have on the complete-
ness of cream separation by this process may be briefly explained
here, as they also have more or less influence on other methods of
creaming milk.
First, a temperature of 40 to 50 degrees F. is favorable for
cream rising, as the serum, being the better conductor of heat, is
cooled more quickly than the fat and consequently the difference
in specific gravity is increased and the cream rises quickly. A
thermometer should therefore be placed in the room where milk is
set for creaming in order to indicate the temperature, and to show
what changes may be needed for keeping the milk at the tem-
perature best suited for cream rising.
12 DAIRYING
Second, more cream will rise in twenty-four hours than in
twelve hours. The difference between the weight or the specific
gravity of the butter fat and the milk serum is not very great and
the cream is therefore slow in rising to the surface. It will con-
tinue to rise so long as the milk is perfectly sw^eet, but it is
stopped by the souring and thickening of the milk.
Third, the milk of a "fresh" cow contains fat globules of a
larger size than those in the milk of a "stripper," and the cream
will therefore rise more quickly at the beginning than at the end
of the cow's period of lactation. This gradual diminution in size
of the fat globules, together with the increase in viscosity of the
milk from the beginning to the end of the lactation period, has a
tendency to retard the cream separation by any process.
Fourth, the fat globules of milk are not uniform in size with
all breeds of cows; the average size of these globules is to a cer-
tain extent a breed characteristic. The Holstein and the Ayrshire
cows, as a rule, give milk which contains smaller fat globules
than those in the milk of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds. On
this account cream will separate more quickly and completely
from the milk of some cows than from that of others ; the larger
the fat globules the more quickly the cream will rise and the
richer it will be when all other conditions are uniform.
Fifth, cream is ordinarily skimmed from shallow pans with a
skimmer, made clam-shell shape and about six inches in width.
Several small holes are punched in the center of its bowl to allow
the skim milk to drain away from the cream while skimming. If
this skimmer is skillfully used, the cream is nearly all taken from
the milk, but a careless handling mixes the cream more or less
with the skim milk, and fails to get all the cream.
2. Characteristics of "Shallow Setting" Cream.
232. The "shallow setting" method is a rather crude one, but
it has been used for many years, and is still found in some local-
ities. Earthenware crocks of varied sizes are occasionally substi-
tuted for the tin pans, but the process of getting the cream differs
only in the shape and material of the containing vessel.
DAIRYING 13
The cream obtained by ^'shallow setting" is comparatively rich
in fat, provided too much skim milk is not taken with the cream
when it is skimmed; and since cream rises more slowly on warm
than on cold milk, it becomes compact and thick by long standing.
233. The only effort commonly made to control the tempera-
ture of the milk set in "shallow pans" is to keep it from freezing
in cold weather and from souring in warm weather. If the milk
stands 24 hours or more in these pans in a room at a temperature
of 60 degrees F. or higher the cream which rises will be some-
what ripened as the souring begins quickly at this temperature.
3. The Principal Advantages of the "Shallow Setting" Method of
Creaming Milk Are:
234. First, the inexpensive outfit needed for separating the
cream. The tin pans and skimmer do not cost much, and milk
is usually set on some more or less convenient shelf about the
house.
«
Second, it is a convenient way of obtaining cream from small
quantities of milk.
Third, the cream will separate from the milk of stripped cows
better by the shallow than the deep setting gravity method,
4. The Objections to the "Shallow Setting" Method of Cream
Separation Are:
235. First, that the large surface of milk exposed to the air
will not only collect dust and taints from its surroundings, but
molds may also grow on the cream surface.
Second, it may be claimed that it is an advantage to have the
cream ripen during the time it is standing and that it will there-
fore be ready to churn when a sufficient amount is obtained at
one time to make a churning. This may be true in some cases,
but when the quantity of milk set each day does not give cream
enough for a churning, each lot of cream held after skimming will
continue to ripen and will be overripe when more cream is skim-
med from subsequent milkings. Overripening of cream is the
source of much of the strong flavor in butter.
14 DAIRYING
Third, the evaporation from the surface dries the cream and
tends to form clots of dried cream which will not churn, but may
be carried into the butter, making the white specks often noticed
when cutting through a piece of farm dairy butter. These white
specks are also caused by lumps of sour skim milk or curd that
are skimmed oflf with the cream.
Fourth, this method of cream separation often fails to get
more than three-fourths of the fat from the milk and it is thereby
responsible for a loss of at least one-fourth of the butter.
The efficiency of the "shallow setting" method of cream sep-
aration is the lowest of all the means employed for taking cream
from milk. The average of a great many tests of skim milk from
"shallow settings" is nearly one per cent. fat. In some cases
where the milk is skimmed sweet only about one-half the fat is
removed in the cream and the skim milk may test as high as
2% fat.
Fifth, the lumps of sour curds in "shallow setting" cream are
often the cause of white specks in butter.
«
Sixth, much more space is required for setting milk in shallow
pans or crocks than to skim the same amount of milk by other
processes.
236. A thick, rich cream can be obtained by setting the milk
in shallow pans, such cream often testing as high as 30% fat and
being of a different consistency, because of the long time standing,
than centrifugal separator cream of the same richness.
The body of "old fashioned" cream which is so frequently
referred to as much superior to that of modern ceram may be de-
veloped in centrifugal separator cream by allowing it to stand a
day or two at a temperature which will prevent its souring.
237. In using the old methods of "shallow setting" milk no
attempt was made to control the temperature of the place where
it was kept except to prevent the milk souring in summer and
freezing in winter.
b. Devonshire Cream.
238. This is a cream which is rich and nearly solid. It is
made by setting milk for 12 hours or more in pans, which, after
DAIRYING 15
the cream has risen, are placed on a stove or over hot water and
heated to about 190 degrees F., or until. cream melts into drops
of butter oil around the edges of the pan. These are then allowed
to stand 12 hours longer and the cream is skimmed off in a layer
of thick consistency that is considered a great delicacy,
c. "Deep Setting,"
239. The second step in the development of cream separation
methods was the so-called "deep setting" process. This differs
■from "shallow, setting" in the shape and size of the vessel used
Plate i— "Deep Setting" of Milk for Cream Raising.
for setting the milk and the temperature at which the milk is set.
The process is carried out in the following way:
240, The freshly drawn, warm milk is strained into cylin-
drical cans 18 inches high and about 8 inches in diameter. Some
of these cans are covered, but the cover is made so as to prevent
water from running over the tops of the cans into the milk, even
when they are submerged in water. The cover fits over the out-
side of the can and permits the circulation of air above the milk.
This protects the milk from flying dust and unwholesome odors
and at the same time provides a simple way of keeping the milk
i6 DAIRYING
at a uniform temperature, which is maintained by adding ice to
the water around the cans or by keeping a small stream of water
running through the tank in which the cans are set.
241. The fat globules in the milk in these cans have a much
greater distance to travel to reach the surface than is the case
when milk is set in "shallow pans." This naturally leads one to
inquire where there is any advantage in the "deep setting" over
the "shallow setting." The answer to this question is, that the
temperature of the milk when set in the ice water is much more
Plate z— The "Deep Setting" Cooley Process for Skinimini; Milk.
DAIRYING 17
favorable for cream rising than is that of the rooms in which the
shallow pans of milk are usually set and the milk does not sour
so quickly.
242. The sudden chilling which warm milk receives by sub-
merging the cans in cold water is beneficial for gravity cream
separation because it retards the grouping of the fat globules into
clusters, as already described. When a temperature of near 40
degrees F. is maintained for 12 to 24 hours the cream separation
is nearly complete if all the conditions are favorable.
243. (1) The "Cooley process" is a good illustration of the
"deep setting" method of creaming milk. After milk is set in the
"Cooley" cans, the cream is obtained by drawing off the milk
from the bottom of each can through a faucet, which is so made
that the flow of skim milk will stop when the cream is reached.
A strip of glass placed in the side of the can enables the operator
to see the thickness of the cream and to adjust the faucet ac-
cordingly.
244. When the skimming faucet at the bottom of the can is
once opened the flow of skim milk should not be checked until
the cream is reached, as repeated opening and closing of the faucet
sets up currents in the milk, which again mixes the cream already
separated. This practice not (5nly makes the cream thin, but it
allows too much of the cream to pass away with the skim milk
and diminishes the efficiency of the skimming. The skimming
faucet is usually set so that the flow of milk will stop at about
one to two inches below the cream line. If drawn close to the
cream line thefe will be too much loss of fat in the skim milk.
245. The "deep setting" cream may be skimmed every 12
hours or just before the next milking, so that the same cans may
be in constant use. The thinness of the cream is due somewhat to
this short time of setting and is also influenced by the carefulness
with which the skim milk is drawn off.
This "Cooley" cream usually contains from 15 to 20 per cent,
fat and the skim milk may test as low as 0.2% fat, but the average
test of the skim milk from deep setting is about .75% fat. This
is 0.25% fat less than the average skimming done with shallow
setting so that on the whole the "deep setting" of milk for cream
I8 DAIRYING __^_^____^^
rising is an improvement on the shallow setting. In former years
the "Cooley" process was used a great deal and developed to a
high degree of efficiency. At 165 farms in Maine where this pro-
cess was used and the cans of milk set in water tanks in which
ice was continually kept, the per cent, of fat in the' milk did not
exceed 0,2%, the average being 0.15%,
246. (2) The "Shotgiin" can is similar to the Cooley can in
shape and dimensions, but the cream is dipped off from the top
by using a conical dipper which should be dipped in water to wet
it before using. Considerable more care is required to skim off
Plate 3— Equipment for Cooley "Deep Setting" Process,
the cream efficiently by this process than by drawing off the skim
milk at the bottom as in the Cooley process.
247. The cream from "deep setting," which usually contains
about 20% fat, is rather thin for selling direct to the consumer.
There may be no objection to churning such cream, but it is
hardly thick enough for table use; the best way to thicken this
cream is to add that skimmed from several cans into one can and
let the cream rise a second time on the mixed cream. More skim
DAIRYING 19
milk may be drawn off from this cream and such a practice not
only furnishes a thicker cream, but it removes the necessity of
drawing off the skim milk too close to the cream the first time
and encroaching on the directions to skim to "one inch below the
cream line."
Some of the conditions already mentioned under "shallow
setting" have an influence on cream separation by the **deep set-
ting" process, especially those which affect the size of the fat
globules in the milk. These have been shown to be affected by
the breed of the cows and their period of lactation.
Effect of Richness of Milk on Cream Separation.
248. It has been claimed that milk which is rich will skim
cleaner by the gravity process than that poor in fat. An experi-
ment has been made on this point in the following way:
249. A herd of cows was divided into five groups, those giv-
ing the richest milk being placed in one group, and those giving
the thinnest milk in another, with intermediate groups between
them. The test of the milk from each group was as follows :
Group 1 . ; 5.46 Group 3 4.36
Group 2.^ 5.33 Group 4 4.21
Group 5 3.85% fat.
The milk from each group was set at the same temperature
and skimmed in the same way. The per cent, of fat found in the
skim milk of the two extreme groups was. Group 1, .12, and Group
5, .44. The intermediate groups did not seem to follow any rule,
as the test of the skim milk of Group 2 was .29% fat. Group 3,
.25% and Group 4, .26%.
These results indicated that there was a difference in the
efficiency of the cream between the richest and poorest milks,
but there is no indication of a definite relation between the rich-
ness of the milk and its creaming qualities in all cases.
Losses from Delay in Setting the Milk.
250. The effect of immediate and delayed setting of the milk
after milking has been shown by Babcock in some experiments in
20 DAIRYING
which one lot of milk was set within four minutes after milking
and another lot within fifteen to thirty minutes. The test of the
skim milk showed it contained .3 to .4 per cent, more fat when
there was a delay of thirty minutes in setting the milk than was
found when the milk was set four minutes after milking. The
advantage of immediate, over delayed, setting was conclusively
proved.
Influence of Temperature on Cream Rising.
251. The effect of different temperatures on the cream rising
by "deep setting" the milk in cold water has been shown by set-
ting milk at various temperatures, between 35 and 58 degrees F.
When set at 35 to 45 degrees F. it was found that the skim milk
tested .23% fat, at 48 degrees F. it tested .30% fat, at 50-54 de-
grees F., .74% fat, and that set at 58 degrees F., .95% fat. These
results indicate that the milk set at the lowest temperature was
most exhaustively skimmed.
252. From these figures a calculation may be made to- dem-
onstrate whether or not one can afford to buy or put up ice to cool
the water used in the "deep setting" process. The difference be-
twen the best and the poorest skimming, .23 and ^.95, is .72 of a
pound of fat. This will make three-fourths of a pound of butter,
which is worth at least fifteen cents. The problem resolves 'it-
self then into determining how much ice may be bought with the
money lost at the rate of fifteen cents per one hundred pounds of
milk.
253. If small quantities of milk only are skimmed, and if ice
is expensive in a certain locality, it probably will not pay to go to
any great expense for ice, but in the milk given by the average
cow in a year, there will be about 4000 pounds of skim milk ; this
is forty 100 pounds, and if the loss from lack of ice is fifteen cents
per 100 pounds, the loss per cow per year will amount to $6.00
when milk is set at 58 degrees F. instead of at 40 degrees F.
The important points to be kept in mind when using the
"deep setting" method of creaming milk are :
First, to set the milk immediately after milking by getting the
cans into cold water in less than five minutes after it is milked.
DAIRYING 21
Second, keep the temperature of the water in which the milk
cans are set below 50 degrees P.
Third, do not skim closer th*an one inch below the cream line
when drawing off the skim milk.
254. The efficiency of the skimming is influenced by the
same conditions that influence the "shallow setting" process, tem-
perature of milk, period of lactation of the cows, size of the fat
globules, richness of the milk, length of time milk stands before
skimming, delay in setting cans in cold water and the agitation of
the milk before setting.
255. The advantages which the "deep setting" process has
over the "shallow setting" are:
1. Less space is required for setting a given quantity of milk.
2. Less labor in skimming.
3. Milk and cr^am are not exposed to the air.
4. A sweet cream is obtained.
5. Less fat is lost in the skim milk.
Tin cans are mostly used for "deep setting" milk, although
stationary glass jars placed in a cabinet have been made. These
are hard to clean, and as the glass is not as good a conductor of
heat as the tin, the skimming is not so satisfactory.
"Deep setting" cream is usually sweet because the milk is
cooled at once after milking. If the milk is clean it will not sour
for 36 hours or more when the cans are set in ice water. The
cream will all rise on fresh cow's milk in 12 hours, but strippers'
milk must stand from 24 to 36 hours.
256. Cream shrinks in thickness or volume by standing too
long a time in cans. Dean states that in cans 8j4 inches in dia-
meter and 20 inches deep, the shrinkage of cream is about one-
eighth of an inch for each 12 hours standing after the first 12
hours.
d. Cream Raising by Dilution with Water
257. Separating cream from milk by adding water to it is a
very old idea, but every few years some agent is found traveling
22
DAIRYING
around the country with a cheap combination of tinware, tubes
and a faucet, trying to induce the farmers to buy this "Most
Valuable Invention."
This so-called ^'separator" is simply a painted tin can with a
funnel shaped tube on one side of it. Milk is poured into the can
through the top cover and water through the funnel tube at the
side. The mixture of equal parts milk and water is allowed to
stand from "30 to 90 minutes," and then the skim milk is drawn
off through a faucet near the bottom of the can. What is drawn
off appears to be a very thin skim milk, but as it is more than half
water, considerable cream is required to make it even look like
skim milk.
SECTIONAL VIEW
Plate 4 — Type of Can used for Raising Cream by Dilution and Water.
258. A great many trials of this dilution method of cream
raising have been made at experiment stations. Professor Wing,
of Cornell University, has tried three different kinds of apparatus
devised for this purpose. He did not get nearly so complete a
separation of cream with any of them as was obtained by the
centrifugal separator, the shallow setting or the deep setting of
the milk in cold water. At 5 farms where these "new" dilution
methods of cream separating were used, the skim milk tested from
0.66 to 1.20 per cent. fat. At 40 farms where milk was set in
DAIRYING
23
shallow pans the average test of the skim milk was 0.39 per cent,
fat, and at 30 farms where deep setting of the milk in cold water
was practiced, the average test of the skim milk was 0.39 per
cent. fat. It is a well-known fact that centrifugal separators will
skim milk to 0.1 per cent, fat, which is about ten times better
than the results obtained by these dilution methods.
259. The difference between the effect of warm and of cold
water for diluting milk to aid the cream rising is shown by the
following results reported by Professor Wing:
Cooley cans of
milk in ice
water at 44° F.
y2 warm milk
y2 cold water
47-60° F.
10-100 parts milk
10-100 parts hot
water
Per cent, fat
in skim milk
22^
1.28
1.11
No. of trials.
11
•
11
4
These "aquatic," "hydraulic," or "ventilated" cream "separ-
ators" are all operated on practically the same peculiar plan, and
any tin can with a faucet at the bottom will answer the purpose
for which these painted wonders are sold at large prices. Dairy-
men should know that they are not so efficient as the methods
ordinarily used for skimming milk at the farm.
Average Results of Skimming Milk by Gravity Process*
260. The following summary gives the temperature, also the
test of skim milk and cream that may be expected from the three
gravity methods of cream separation under average conditions:
Method
Temp.ofmilkF.
Per cent, of fat in
Skim milk
Cream
Shallow setting. . . .
60-90
.5- .10
10-35
Deep setting
40-50
.2- .5
15-20
Dilution, aquatic . . . ,
40-140
1.0-1.5
10-12
24 DAIRYING
261. The skimming efficiency of any method of cream sep-
aration is sometimes expressed in percentage which the cream fat
is of the whole milk fat. If 100 pounds of milk containing 4 per
cent, fat is so skimmed that 85 pounds of skim milk testing .2
per cent.' fat is obtained from it, the .17 pounds of fat (or 85 X 2%)
subtracted from the fat in the whole milk, 4.0 pounds, leaves 3.83
pounds of fat in the cream. The per cent, which the fat recovered
in the cream is of the fat in the whole milk represents the skim-
ming efficiency of the method, or expressed in form of a propor-
tion, 4 : 3.83 : : 100 : X = 95.757o.
This figure will be influenced both by the richness of the milk
and the amount of skim milk as well as by the test of the skim
milk. If the milk tested 3.0 per cent, fat, and .17 pounds fat was
left in the skim milk as before, the skimming efficiency is
3 minus .17=2.83, and then 3 : 2.83 :: 100 : X or 94-35 per cent.
If 80 instead of 85 pounds of skim milk is taken and this tests
.2 per cent, fat,- the skimming efficiency of milk testing 4.0 per
cent fat is 80 X .2 per cent, or .16 pounds, and 4 — .16 = 3.84
pounds, which is the fat recovered in the cream and using the
same proportion, 3 : 3.84 : : 100 : X = 95.78 per cent, which repre-
sents the skimming efficiency.
e. Centrifugal Cream Separation.
262. It has been shown that there is a considerable loss of
fat when cream is obtained from milk by either of the common
gravity methods of cream separation described in the preceding
pages. These losses are now almost entirely overcome by the
modern "centrifugal" cream separator. This machine has made a
wonderfully rapid development in its construction since the time
it was first proposed for this purpose. It is now only about
twenty years old, though the principle of using centrifugal force
for separating the fat from the milk serum was recognized some
fifty years ago.
263. Before considering the stages of development through
which the separator has passed it may be well to get a slight idea
J
DAIRYING 25
of the force which acts on milk while it is in a centrifugal separ-
ator. The contrast between the action of the force of gravity on
a body and the centrifugal force exerted on a body revolving
about a center may be illustrated by comparing the weight, or
the gravity of a body with the pull on a string to which the same
body is attached, when whirled around one's head at a high speed.
If a weight is hung on a spring balance and swung around in a
circle at various speeds, it will be noticed that the pull of the
weight on the balance will increase if the speed increases. A dif-
ference will also be noticed between the pull exerted by a small
weight as compared with a larger one where both are revolved
at the same speed. This explains the action of centrifugal force
on milk; the cream is separated from the skim milk because the
fat is lighter than the serum when milk is revolved at a high
speed.
264. If the weight of a certain volume of milk serum is 1.04
lbs., then that of an equal volume of butter fat is .90 lb.* The
difference between the weights of these two volumes is .14 lb.,
and the effect which centrifugal force may have to separate the
fat from the serum can be calculated by determining the pull
which is exerted on a weight of .14 lb. when revolved at any
given speed in a circle of a given diameter. If the weight .14 lb.
is hung from one end of a spring balance one foot long, and this
is revolved about the other end as a center at the speed of 100
revolutions per minute, the indicator on the balance will show
that the weight is pulling .48 lb. Increasing the speed to 200
revolutions makes, the pull 1.92 lbs. At a speed of 1000 it is
48 lbs., and at 5000 revolutions per minute the pull of this .14
pound weight on the balance is 1200 lbs. This shows the differ-
ence between gravity and centrifugal force to be as .14 is to 1200
when milk is revolved at a speed of 5000 revolutions per minute
in a circle having a radius of one foot.
Calculation of Centrifugal Force
The centrifugal force in pounds exerted on any body may be
calculated by multiplying the weight of the body in pounds by the
* These numbers are taken because they represent the spec-
ific gravity of milk serum and of butter fat respectively.
26 DAIRYING
square of the velocity in feet per second, and dividing by the
radius in feet multiplied by 32.2.*
Centrifugal force equals
W X V^ in feet per second
RX32.2
In the above illustration the centrifugal force exerted on a
weight of .14 pound when revolved at a speed of 100 revolutions
per minute in a circle having a radius of one foot is calculated
as follows:
266. The velocity in feet per second is found by multiplying
the diameter of the circle by 3.1416, in this case it is 2 X 3.1416 =
6.283, then multiplying this figure by the speed 100, and dividing
by 60 to reduce to seconds, gives the velocity as ' 10.94 ft. per
second. The square of 10.49 is 1 10, which multiplied by the
weight .14, gives 15.40, and this divided by the radius, one foot,
after multiplying by 32.2, gives 0.48, the centrifugal force in
pounds.
267. The effect of centrifugal force on milk in a cream sep-
arator has also been illustrated by Fredericksen.** "WheA a par-
ticle of matter is swinging round a central point, the force by
which it presses outward from the center revolution depends upon
the gravity, the speed, and the distance from the center. Sup-
posing a weight W to revolve around an axis, the distance from
the center (the radius) being R feet, and the number of revolu-
tions S hundred a minute, then the centrifugal force F==3.4X
RXWXS*. Consequently, if R is one foot and W is one pound
the centrifugal force will be:
For 100 revolutions a minute 3.4X 1= 3.4 pounds
For 200 revolutions a minute 3.4X 4= 13.6 pounds
For 400 revolutions a minute 3.4X 16= 54.4 pounds
For 1000 revolutions a minute 3.4X 100= 304. pounds
For 5000 revolutions a minute 3.4X2500=8500. pounds
* The velocity of a body falling in vacuum increases in each
second by 32.2 feet per second.
**2 J. D. Fredericksen in The Dairy Messenger.
DAIRYING 27
268. In other words, for 1000 revolutions a minute the dis-
tance from the center R being 1 foot, the centrifugal force is 340
times the weight of the matter ; R being 2 feet, it is 680 times ; R
being 3 feet it is 1020 times the weight, etc. Supposing the
weight of a particle of fat in the milk to be 10 weight units, and
that of an equally large particle of milk serum to be 11 weight
units, then the force by which the fat is naturally driven towards
the surface by gravity only will be 11 — 10=1, while the centrifugal
machine making 1000 revolutions a minute with an average radius
of 1 ft. the force will be 340X 1 1— 340X 10=340. Thus the tendency
of separation is increased 340 times by the centrifugal forces,
and if the speed is 5000 revolutions per minute, the increase will
be 8500 times. This gives an idea of the efficiency of centrifugal
creaming as compared with any gravity process, and also suggests
the enormous strain to which the drum of a separator is sub-
jected. Supposing a stick to make 1000 revolutions a minute
around its center in the horizontal plane, at each end carrying
a pail with milk weighing 60 pounds, and supposing the average
radius to be 2 feet, then the force with which each pail will pull
the stick is 340X2X60=40,800 pounds or about 20 tons."
269. Besides showing the difference between the force of
gravity and centrifugal force these figures give some idea of the
tremendous strain there is exerted on separator bowls run at a
high speed. It should be noticed in the figures given that the
pull on the balance does not increase directly in proportion to the
increase of the speed or the velocity, but to its square. Doubling
the speed or velocity quadruples the centrifugal force.
These brief statements show that the strain on the walls
of a separator bowl is influenced by three things, the weight of the
material revolved, the diameter of the bowl, and its velocity. The
smaller the bowls, the higher the speed at which they may safely
run.
Pail and Drum Separators
270, Many experimental machines were made for the purpose
of separating cream from milk before any satisfactory results were
28 DAIRYING
obtained. One of the first applications of this principle to cream
separation was made by a Massachusetts man in about 1870.
He placed graduated glass tubes filled with milk in pockets some-
thing like those now used in the Babcock milk tester and whirled
these tubes in a machine constructed for the purpose. After
whirling about 20 minutes the thickness of the cream was meas-
ured in each tube. This machine was designed to be used as a
cream tester for milk. It was, however, a pattern for the first,
commercial cream separators which were constructed on the same
plan excepting that pails holding fifty to sixty pounds of milk
were substituted for the glass tubes. These pails of milk were
whirled at a speed of 400 revolutions per minute and when they
were stopped the cream was skimmed from them in the same way
as gravity cream had been formerly skimmed from milk. This
operation required a great deal of time and power. It was of
no particular value except as a demonstration that cream could
be separated by centrifugal force. A number of machines of this
type were made, but they all had to be stopped after whirling
and the cream skimmed off as in the gravity methods.
271. These so-called "pail" machines were followed by the
*Mrum" centrifuge, which was a revolving, vertical cylinder filled
with milk. Four wings extended from the walls to the about one-
half way to the center of the drum, in order to carry the milk
with the drum. After whirling for some time the drum was
stopped and the skim milk or the heavier part thrown toward
the circumference of the drum was drawn off by means of faucets
in its walls. The cream was then removed from the center, a new
supply of milk added and the whirling process repeated. These
"drum" centrifuges were experimented with for some time. Dr.
Fleishman used one holding 200 pounds of milk, which was
whirled at about 900 revolutions per minute. The time required
for this heavy drum to stop after it had attained full speed was
about one-half hour, and this long time was a serious drawback
to its use. It was demonstrated, however, by the use of this
machine that 95.6 per cent, of the fat in normal whole milk could
be separated in this way and that the completeness of the cream
separation is influenced by the temperature of the milk and the
length of time it is whirled in the centrifuge at full speed.
DAIRYING 29
The Continuous Cream Separator
272. The next suggestion in the way of a mechanical sep-
arator was the revolving bowl, from which the skim milk and the
cream are removed while the bowl is running at full speed. The
Danish-Weston was one of the first separators of this kind. It
appeared on the market in about 1880. A continuous flow of milk
was delivered into the open, top, center of the revolving bowl,
and when it attained full speed, the skim milk was thrown by the
centrifugal force to the outside walls of the bowl 'and the cream
towards the center. The skim milk and cream were removed by
skimming tubes or arms which ctirve over the top of the bowl
into the center where one of them dips into the milk and the other
into the cream. These separator bowls were about 15 inches in
diameter, and 12 inches high. They were run at a speed of nearly
4000 revolutions per minute, and skimmed about 2000 pounds
of milk per hour. One of the advantages claimed for this ma-
chine was the opportunity it gives the operator to change the
thickness or richness of the cream by adjusting the skimming
tubes while the bowl was revolving. This is done without inter-
rupting the flow of the milk into the bowl. One of the objections
to this machine was the way in which the skimming was some-
what interfered with ty the milk supply as it entered the bowl.
The cream layer or core in the center was constantly being broken
up by the milk as it entered the bowl. The whirling motion
forced the milk through the cream layer already formed and
thereby partiially mixed the cream again with the milk.
273. This difficulty was overcome by what is called the
Peterson ring. A tube or ring is placed at the bottom center
of the bowl and through this tube the milk is delivered back of
the cream core. This allows the milk supply to enter the bowl
without interfering with the separation which has already been
done.
This separator soon had a competitor in the DeLaval
Standard. The bowl of this machine was radically different in
construction from those formerly made. A spindle is attached
to the hollow bowl and the cream and skim milk are thrown
from the openings at the top of the bowl into tin covers placed
30 DAIRYING
over the bowl. From these covers or pans the skim milk and
the cream are conducted into cans or vats by the side of the
machine. The required speed of this bowl is 8000 revolutions per
minute and about 1200 pounds of milk are skimmed per hour.
274. These two machines were in use from 1879 to 1892.
They had nearly the same skimming efficiency; approximately
0.2% of fat was left in the skim milk. Since then the separator
bowl has been considerably changed, but the construction of the
frame which supports the bowl and the method of attaching
power to it, together with some other features, are practically
the same today as they were in those old machines which possess
the distinction of being the first successful power cream separators
invented.
At the present time some of the largest cream separators will
skim 300 pounds of milk per hour so that not more than one-tenth
of one per cent, of the butter fat is left in the skim milk, and in
addition to this the sweet milk from cows of any breed or in any
part of their lactation period may be efficiently skimmed.
275. The power cream separators were the first ones used
extensively. These may be divided into two general classes, the
"hollow bowl" and those having the bowls filled with discs or
plates of some sort.
In both types, milk enters at either the top or the bottom
of the bowl and by whirling in the bowl it is separated into three
layers, first, the dirt, ash and precipitated albumen, and casein
of the milk, which being the heaviest, flies to the walls of the
bowl and is deposited as "slime ;" second, the layers of skim milk,
and third, the cream which increases in richness towards the center
of the bowl.
276. Both the cream and the skim milk are discharged near
the center of the bowl and the nearer the center these openings
are placed, the easier the bowl runs. If the skim milk discharged
at the circumference of the bowl considerable more power would
be required to run it. The size of the skim milk tubes in the
bowl are also regulated by the size of the milk inlet and the
speed of the bowl.
DAIRYING 31
277. In developing the separator the manufacturers have
tried to increase the capacity and still have efficient skimming,
also to overcome the interruption of the skimming caused by the
milk entering the bowl without interfering with the cream passing
to the center and the skim milk to the walls of the bowl. The
entering milk is now delivered in the bowl at a point-between the
layer of cream and skim milk where the specific gravity is nearly
the same as that of the whole milk because the cream and skim
Plate 5— The De Laval Cream Separator,
milk travel in opposite directions after entering the bowl, and the
continuous inflow should interfere as little as possible with these
currents.
Advantages of Centrifugal Over Gravity Skimming
278. The same conditions that affect the cream rising by
gravity influence centrifugal cream separation, but to a less degree.
32 DAIRYING
First the friction of small fat globules is greater than large ones,
as they have more surface for a given amount of fat. Second,
the condition of the fibrium in milk makes cream separation
easier directly after milking than after standing some hours, and
third, the depth of milk in the bowl or the greater the distance
the milk mijst travel before leaving the bowl, the more efficient
is the skimming.
279. A comparison of the centrifugal and gravity methods
shows :
1. That the centrifugal separator skims milk satisfactorily
at a greater r^nge in temperature, say anywhere from 80 to 120
degrees F.
2. There is less exposure of the milk to air, dirt and bacteria,
3. There is greater certainty of skimming all the fat from
the milk, as the machine is not subject to all the influences which
man cannot regulate, such as the temperature and weather, lack
of ice, transportation, etc., which affect gravity skimming.
4. The separator cleans some of the dirt and slime from
the milk during the skimming.
5. A better quality of cream is obtained where milk is
skimmed immediately after milking and the cream is perfectly
sweet, although it may be soured to churn or kept sweet.
6. The richness of the cream may be easily regulated.
7. Skim milk is in the best possible condition to feed when
separated right after milking.
8. The cream is nearly all skimmed from the milk, the
skimmed milk containing only a trace of fat when all the condi-
tions of skimming are the best.
The Development and Classification of Cream Separators
280. Competition among manufacturers and the widespread
use of cream separators has caused a great development in these
machines in recent years. The great number of separators now
DAIRYING ^33
on the market makes it impossible to describe them all, but some
have stood the test of years and proved their superiority.
The number of hollow^ bowl machines now on the market is
not large, but some of these are as satisfactory as those filled with
discs or plates.
281. The discs in a separator bowl divide the milk into
thin layers and subject it gradually to the action of the centrifugal
force. This reduces the power required to turn the bowl of a
given capacity and it also reduces the length of time necessary
to subject milk to the centrifugal force in ^order to give a satis-
factory skimming. The discs may increase the capacity of a
bowl about three times over that of the same bowl without discs.
282. The time milk remains in a separator bowl may be
calculated from the amount of milk it holds and the amount
skimmed per hour, e. g., if a bowl holds 10 pounds of milk when
filled and its capacity is 3000 pounds per hour, or 50 pounds per
minute, milk must remain in the bowl about one-fifth of a minute,
or 12 seconds, during the process of skimming.
283. The development of the cream separator may be seen
from the following results * obtained in Germany, where several
tests were made of machines from year to year. The average
per cent, of fat in the skim milk in 1894 was .19; in 1898, .22;
in 1900, .16, and in 1904, .11.*=^^
284. Further reduction in the amount of fat left in the skim
milk can hardly be expected, but the capacity of the bowls may
be increased by greater speed as stronger material may be found
from which to manufacture the bowls.
Cream separators may be classified first, according to the
method of attaching power to the bowl, such as belt, turbine, and
crank or cog gearing attachments, second as hollow or filled with
discs or plates, third, bowls with or without a spindle, fourth, sus-
pended bowls.
* Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
** These tests of skimmed milk were not made by the Bab-
cock test.
34 DAIRYING
All cream separators may be divided into two principle parts,
first, the frame with power attachment, oiling devices, milk sup-
ply, pan, cream and skim milk spouts, and second, the bowl with
' its peculiar features.
Selecting a Cream Separator
285. Among the great variety of separators now on the
market there is no one that is always the best under all circum-
stances. The manufacturers are making improvements and changes
Plate 6— The U. S. Cream Separator.
in various parts of their machines each year, but perfection has
not been reached in any one of them.
-At the present time a clean skimming of the milk to at least
one-tenth per cent, fat in the skim milk is to be expected of all
standard makes of separators. Some of the important points to
be considered in a cream separator are:
DAIRYING 35
1. The simplicity of the bowl and of the construction of the
machine in general.
2. Method of attaching power to the bowl or to the spindle.
3. The construction of the bowl, its diameter, weight, and
the amount of time required to clean it, also the bowl bearings.
4. The cream regulating device.
5. The capacity or amount of milk skimmed per hour.
6. Time required to put together, take apart and clean the
bowl and its attachments.
7. Protection of the operator from moving parts.
8. Convenience for oiling and amount of oil needed.
9. Smoothness of the cream.
10. Power* required to operate the machine.
11. Durability.
12. Convenience of obtaining repairs.
286. Some separators have more of these points satisfactory
than others, and in making a selection one must decide to what
extent these requirements are satisfied in one machine more than
in another. When the price is the same for equally good skimming
and the amount of milk skimmed per hour, the advantages of
each in construction should be considered.
287. The price of a separator per 100 pounds of milk skimmed
varies according to the capacity, the largest capacity machines
costing much less per 100 ppunds of milk skimmed than the
smallest ones. The power required to run the separators varies
a great deal, some requiring 10 to 15 times more power to run
them than others to do the same amount of skimming. The ex-
cessive strength of material used in some cases may be responsi-
ble for the great difference in power needed, but accidents from
a machine breaking seldom occur except when the instructions
of the manufacturers are not followed.
288. The best separator, therefore, is the one which skims
the most milk per hour at the lowest speed, at the lowest tem-
perature of the milk with the least expense of power, and is the
36 DAIRYING
most durable as well as the most easily cleaned. Some separators
do good work when all conditions are constantly watched and
kept up to or exceed the instructions of the manufacturer, but
a slight variation from these, such as a low speed, high feed, low
temperature of milk, etc., seriously affect the test of the skim
milk and cause a loss of cream. Several tests of a separator
should, therefore, be made, before final judgment is passed on it.
These tests should cover not only the skimming qualities of the
separator, but they should be extended to an inspection of the
upper or neck bearing of the bowl, the lower bearings, the gear-
ing, if any, the advertised capacity and speed of the bowl, the
way in which the height of the bowl is adjusted, the cream
screw and its adjustment, the skimming tubes in the bowl, and
the means by which the power is applied to the bowl to re-
volve it.
Method of Testing a Cream Separator
289. Nearly all manufacturers are willing to have their
machines tested by the purchaser before buying it. Such a test
may include some or all of the following observations:
1. Time required to take apart, clean and put together ready
for skimming.
2. Time to get up to full speed.
3. Turns of crank per minute (if hand machine).
4. Noise of machine and space occupied.
5. Weight and measure of the frame and bowl and its part.
6. Weight of cream, lbs., and of skim milk, lbs., collected
from the machine in one-half minute, both to be sampled and
carefully tested when first the bowl is running at speed required
by the manufacturer; second, when running 10% under normal
speed; third, when temperature of milk is 75 degrees F. ; fourth,
when temperature of milk is 85 degrees .F.
290. From the weights of cream and skim milk collected
in one-half minute the capacity of the separator or the pounds
Plate 7— Sectional View of a Cream Separatoi
38 DAIRYING
of milk it was skimming per hour may be calculated by multiply-
ing the weights obtained by 120. If one-half a pound of cream
and 5. pounds of skim milk were collected in one-half minute,
there were 5}^ pounds of milk passing through the bowl in one-
half minute, and this is at the rate of S'/i x 120, or 660 pounds per
hour. Hence the capacity of the separator at that trial was 660
pounds per hour.
Careful tests of samples of skim milk and of cream taken
each time will demonstrate the skimming efficiency under the
varying conditions of speed, temperature of milk, and capacity,
that may be tried.
Plate 8~The Tubular Cream Separator.
291. In making tests of any separator the printed directions
furnished by the manufacturer should be carefully .read, and al-
ways followed whenever the machine is used. The book of in-
structions should be as carefully kept as any of the various
parts of the machine, as it may be the means of preventing large
losses in using the separator each day, and it is also essential for
ordering new parts or in getting repairs when needed.
DAIRYING 39
Scale of Points for Judging Cream Separators
292. If a number of cream separators are to be tested they
may be compared with each other according to the following
standard of points:
Skimming efficiency 60
Construction 10
Ease of cleaning 20
Power required * 10
100
Recording a Separator Test
293. The capacity and the skimming efficiency of a separator
may be recorded with the following observations:
1. Date
2. Name of separator
3. No. of separator bowl
4. Speed of bowl, r. p. m
5. Temperature of milk
6. Weight collected in minutes.
7. Cream lbs. Skim milk lbs.
8. Skimming per hour .lbs.
9. Proportion of cream from milk
10. Test of skim milk
11. Test of cream*
12. Test of the whole milk
294. A series of records like the above may be made when
the separator is running below speed as well as at normal speed.
This will show the effect of variations in speed on the skimming.
Other tests made when milk is skimmed at different tempera-
tures and when more or less than the advertised amount of milk
* This may be calculated if necessary.
is being skimmed per hour, will show how these variations in
capacity, in speed and in temperature will affect the skimming.
The best separator is one in which the skimming is least in-
fluenced by such variations. The following example illustrates
some of the calculations made in tests of this kind:
Plate 9— A Belt-Power Type of Cream Separator.
295. When the separator is running under normal conditions
the cream may be collected in pail No. 1 and the skim milk in
pail No. 2 by holding these under the respective spouts of the
separator for a certain number of seconds. If one pound of cream
and nine pounds of skim milk are caught from the separator in
DAIRYING 41
exactly one-half minute of skimming, the total weight of milk
skimmed in one minute is 20 pounds, and in one hour it is 20 X 60,
or 1200 pounds. The capacity of the separator then is 1200 pounds
per hour according to this observation. The proportion of cream
from milk is one pound of cream from each 10 pounds of milk
and the test of the cream may be calculated from the weights and
tests of the milk and the skim milk.
If the whole milk tested 4.0% fat and- the skim milk one-
tenth of one per cent, fat, the test of the cream may be found
as follows: the record shows that in each 100 pounds of milk
skimmed there is obtained 90 pounds skim milk and 10 pounds
cream. They also show that in this 100 pounds of milk there
are four pounds fat. If the fat separated in the skim milk is
subtracted from the whole milk fat, that which is left must
be the cream fat. The weight of this fat is obtained first by
multiplying the 90 pounds skim milk by its test, .1%, which gives
90X.001, which equals .09 pound fat. Subtracting this from 4
pounds of fat in the whole milk leaves 3.91 pounds fat in the
10 pounds of cream and the test, or per cent., of fat this repre-
sents in shown by the proportion 3.91 : 10 : : X : 100 in which X
equals 39.1% fat, or the calculated test (fat %) of the cream.
Points Common to All Separators
296. A cream separator consists of first, the frame; second,
the bowl, provided with some arrangement by which it is brougui
to a high speed; and third, the milk supply can and the cream
and skim milk spouts or pans.
Nearly all separator bowls should be filled with milk or water
before starting them or soon after they begin to revolve. The
bowl should be started slowly, taking several minutes to get it
up to full speed. This caution helps to preserve the machine and
prevents any unnecessary wear from too sudden starting, and
bringing it up to full speed too quickly.
297. In coming up to full speed there may be more or less
trembling of the bowl, but this ought to entirely pass away in a
42 DAIRYING __^_^__^^
short time and the bowl should run steadily and smoothly when
it has attained full speed. Separator bowls are balanced to run
quietly at a certain speed, but this does not always insure their
running with the same smoothness at other speeds. Some un-
steadiness and jarring of the frame and of the bowl may be safely
ignored if this is noticed while the separator is coming up to
speed, and disappears when the bowl reaches its normal speed.
Plate lO-The Simplex Cream Separator.
The separator howl should be put into place in the frame very
carefully, as a sudden dropping of the bowl into the bearings
may cause serious injury to them, and such rough treatment may
also bend the spindle or break the gearing, pins, etc., in the lower
bearings.
All the bearings of the bowl and of the spindle should be
perfectly smooth, clean and bright and the oil started in all the
oil Clips as soon as the bowl begins to revolve.
DAIRYING 43
Clogging of the separator bowl is usually indicated by a
change in the thickness of the cream. When the bowls become so
filled with slime that milk cannot pass through the skim milk
tubes, it must leave the bowl through the cream tube, and con-
sequently the cream becomes thin by the milk passing out the
cream spout.
Factors Influencing the Efficiency of Cream Separators
1. The speed of the separator bowl.
2. The temperature of the milk, and method of heating milk.
3. The richness of the cream separated.
4. The amounf of milk skimmed per hour.
5. Sour or clottfed milk.
6. Cream outlet becoming clogged.
7. Bowl not clean.
8. The steady, smooth running of the bowl at full speed and
the uniformity with which the bowl speed, the milk feed, and the
temperature of the milk recommended by the manufacturer are
maintained.
1. The Speed of the Separator Bowl
299. The manufacturers determine, by careful tests, the safe
speed at which their separator bowls may be run. This will vary
with their diameter, as it has already been shown that the cen-
trifugal force exerted on the walls of a bowl increases as the
square of the diameter; a ten inch bowl may be run at a speed of
6000 revolutions per minute; and one three inches in diameter
may safely make 20,000 revolutions per minute. The speed recom-
mended by the manufacturer ought to be known by each user
of a cream separator, and the speed should be maintained when-
ever the machine is used for skimming milk. If run below speed
there may be an unnecessary loss of butter fat in the skim milk,
and too high speed may be the cause of serious accidents. In-
creasing the speed will sometimes improve the skimming done by
some separators, but there is more or less danger from such a
practice. The manufacturer's instructions should be carefully
followed.
When the separator is driven by some power the connecting
pulleys should be of such sizes as will give the proper speed to
the bowl and some sort of reliable governor ought to be placed
Plate ii — Ssctional View of the Bluebell Cream Harvester,
on the power, so that the bowl will not run either above or below
the required speed.
Calculating Size of Pulley for Running a Belt Separator
300. The required speed of the separator bowl and ol the
intermediate pulleys is given in the book of instructions sent
DAIRYING
45
with the separator by the manufacturer. In order to obtain this
speed it is necessary to provide a pulley of a certain diameter
on the line shaft from which the intermediate is run. This dia-
meter is found by multiplying the diameter of the driven pulley
by its speed and dividing this product by the speed of the driver.
Such a calculation may be illustrated by assuming that the small
pulley on the intermediate is five inches in diameter, and makes
910 revolutions per minute, and that the line shaft has a speed
of 300 revolutions per minute. The diameter of the pulley needed
on the line shaft is then found by multiplying 5 by 910, which
gives 4550. Dividing this by 300 gives 15 inches, which is the
diameter of the pulley needed.
The line shaft pulley should have a flat face at least six
inches wide and the belt which connects it to the intermediate
should be at least 2^^ inches wide when power cream separators
are used. The speed indicator on power machines should always
be in place and in good repair. Frequent observations of the
speed should be made during each run, as losses of fat in the skim
milk caused by irregularity of the bowl speed, may amount to
a considerable figure.
With hand machines the number of turns of the crank may
be regulated by using a watch to time the turns per minute.
301. The following table* shows the effect of variations in
speed of a hand separator bowl on the efficiency of skimming
milk. The figures represent the average of 12 trials in each case.
Per cent, fat
Skim milk
Cream
Turns of
separator
crank or
speed
Highest
Lowest
Ave.
Highest
Lowest
Ave.
Normal . . .
42
21
28
.04
.02
.03
10 too high
48
24
32
.04
.02
.03
10 too low.
36
19
26
.10
.10
.12
20 too low.
34
17
23
.38
.14
.21
♦Indiana Experiment Station, Bulletin 116.
46 DAIRYING
302. These figures show a difference in the per cent, of fat
in the skim milk of .18% (.03-.21) between normal speed and 20
turns of the crank below normal speed. This is a loss of one-fifth
of a pound of butter in each 100 pounds of milk skimmed or at
least 5 cents worth of butter per 100 pounds of milk. Calculated
on the basis of 8000 pounds of milk per cow per year, the loss
amounts to $40 for a herd of 10 cows, or about one-half the price
of the machine, and with the herd of 20 cows, the loss would be
equal to the cost of some separators when new. The figures show
that it pays to give attention to the speed at which the separator
is run every day.
303. The speed of the turbine separators is somewhat regu-
lated by the pounds of steam pressure shown on the steam gauge,
but frequent use of the speed indicator is always advisable. A
variation in speed affects both the cream and the skim milk. Too
low speed tends to thin the cream and enrich the skim milk,
while too high a speed will thicken the cream and diminish the
per cent, of fat in the skim milk. Variations above and beloAV
normal speed during one run are very wearing on the machine
as well as expensive in losses of more or less butter fat. It should
also be remembered that there is a limit to the strain which the
separator bowl will endure without bursting, and on this account
the speed of the separator bowl should be carefully watched.
Skimming Temperature of the Milk.
304. The temperature to which the milk is usually heated for
cream separation ranges from 75 to 85 degrees F. When cows
are receiving a large amount of green feed and when they are fresh
or producing a large flow of milk, the cream is separated easier
than is the case with milk from strippers or from cows receiving
dry feed exclusively.
These two factors, the feed of the cows and their period of
■
lactation, have an influence on the temperature to which milk may
be heated before separation. When many cows are fresh a tem-
perature of 75 degrees F. is often high enough for the milk. Dur-
ing hot weather it is the custom at some creameries to skim the
DAIRYING 47
milk without heating it. A temperature above 75 degrees F. may
not do any harm, but the best separators will skim summer milk
at. a temperature of 75 degrees and leave only one-tenth of one
per cent, or less of fat in the skim milk. In the fall and winter
seasons when the cows are drying up, the milk should be heated
to 80 or 85 degrees F. for separating. If the temperature falls
below 70 degrees F. and in some cases below 80 degrees F., there
may be an unnecessarily large loss of butter fat in the skim milk
as a great fluctuation in the temperature during separation is detri-
mental to the best skimming. The higher the temperature of the
milk, the better the skimming, and it has been suggested that by
heating milk to 160 degrees F., or to a pasteurizing temperature,
that nearly all the fat in the milk may be skimmed out. Such a
high temperature will undoubtedly aid in removing the last traces
of fat from the skim milk, but the uniform heating to 80 degrees
F. is the temperature commonly recommended and used.
305. The temperature of the milk changes its viscosity and
this influences the separation of the fat globules ; the warmer
the milk the thinner the serum, and the colder the milk the
thicker the serum becomes. There is not much increase in
efficiency of skimming when the temperature of the milk goes
above 90 degrees F. A higher temperature than this does not
give enough better skimming to pay for the extra heat. Skim-
ming milk at a pasteurizing temperature, 160 degrees F., in-
creases the capacity of the separator and more slime is thrown
out of hot milk than when skimmed at 85 degrees F.
306. When first drawn from the cow, milk skims better than
after standing several hours. This may be due to the solidifying
of the fat globules, to the enclosing of these globules in the curd
or casein to some extent, and to changes in the casein which make
the milk more viscous.
307. A change in the viscosity or fluid condition of the milk
has been noticed when cows change from stable to pasture feed,
and again when they return from pasture to stable feed in the
fall. The following figures* illustrate this change in the skim-
ming efficiency:
*Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
48 DAIRYING
Per Cent. Fat in the Skim Milk.
Spring. Fall.
.11 Stable Feed .14 .
.13 Mixed Feed 16
.15 Pasture Feed 18
308. The stable milk skimmed a trifle better in each case
than the pasture milk. Whether this is due to the difference in
viscosity or the effect of exercise of the cows is uncertain, but
it has been noticed that morning milk skims better than night
milk, and milk that has stood quietly better than that which has
been transported.
The effect of such differences in the skim milk may not seem
to amount to much, but .1 pound buter fat is worth 2^ cents,
and this loss may easily occur in each 100 pounds milk skimmed,
if all the known precautions for skimming clean are not taken.
Methods of Heating Milk Before Skimming.
309. Holding milk at a skimming temperature (85 de-
grees F.) for one-half hour or more before skimming is not ad-
visable because of the rapid development of bacteria at this tem-
perature, and a partial ripening of the milk which may be re-
sponsible for objectionable flavors in the cream or the butter if
the latter is made from the cream.
This makes the heating of milk in a large receiving vat at a
creamery objectionable because it may be thus heated for too long
a time.
310. Heating milk by forcing steam directly into it is also
objectionable, first, because of the unevenness of the heating;
second, because the excessive heat from the steam may coagulate
particles of casein around the fat globules, and third, the steam
may contain impurities from the water, or the boiler from w^hich
it comes.
Milk heaters with a revolving dasher that throws the milk in
a thin film around a steam heated drum are not the best kind of
a heater because the excessive agitation splits up the fat globules.
Plate i2 — Cooley Milk Heater.
Plate 14 — Tempering Vat for heating Milk before Separating.
and this tends to leave more fat in the skim milk. The higher the
speed of the dasher the more fat is left in the skim milk, as is
shown by the following figures:
Revolutions of Dasher Fat in Skim Milk,
Per Minute. Per Cent,
200 .11
300 .13
400 .20 .
500 . .23
Plate 15— 20th Century Milk Heater with Pump Attachment.
Milk heaters in which the milk passes over a metal surface
heated with hot water or the revolving discs filled with hot
water are very satisfactory for heating milk to a skimming tem-
perature.
311. The influence of different temperatures of Heating milk
on the efficiency of skimming is shown by the following figures*
which are averages of the eight trials in each case:
♦Indiana Expt. Sta. Bui. 116.
DAIRYING
51
Temperature
Per Cent, of Fat in Skim Milk.
of Milk
Skimmed.
Highest
Lowest
Average
90
75
60
.04
.07
.20
.01
.04
.09
.022
.051
.120
Here is an average difference of .1% fat between skimming
at 90 degrees F. and 60 degrees F., and if butter fat is worth
25 cents per pound, this difference in fat lost amounts to 2j^
cents per 100 pounds milk skimmed, or $2.50 per day at a factory
where 10,000 pounds of milk are skimmed.
Richness of the Cream.
312. Many separator bowls are provided with a cream screw
by means of which the richness or the thickness of the cream may
be changed. This screw can be adjusted so that a thick or thin
cream will be separated when the bowl is skimming its normal
amount of milk and is running at full speed. A certain amount of
variation in the richness of the cream has no effect on the richness
of the skim milk and the best separators will skim a cream con-
taining 40% fat as well as thinner cream, but fluctuations in the
richness of the cream should be avoided.
313. Most of the standard makes of cream separators will
leave as little fat in the skim milk when skimming cream of 20%
as 40% fat, but there is some difference in separators on this point.
Some of them skim a thin cream with less loss in the skim milk
than when rich cream is skimmed. The very rich cream, 50% fat,
is successfully skimmed as a rule only when the skimming is
done under normal conditions of speed, temperature and capacity.
Importance of Cleaning a Separator.
314. Observations of dairy inspectors among users of farm
separators indicate that about one-third to one-half are washed
52 DAIRYING
after each skimming, and two-thirds to one-half are not washed
until after using two or three times for skimming milk.
This attempt to save work and to put off the cleaning as long
as possible has an injurious effect on the quality of the cream or
butter made from the cream, because the slime and dirt left in the
separator bowl after the first skimming decomposes very fast and
taints the next lot of fresh, sweet milk run through it. This is
one of the important causes of the inferior quality of farm sepa-
rated butter, about which so much has been said in recent years.
A dirty separator is not only the cause of a loss to the user
of such a machine because it taints the cream from sweet milk,
but the dirty separator does not skim so well as a clean one; the
slime left in the dirty bowl may clog the small skim milk and
cream tubes in the bowl and thus prevent the free passage of milk
through them while the separator is skimming.
315. A report made by Hunziker on this point showed that
at 35 dairies where the separator bowl was taken apart and thor-
oughly cleaned each time it was used, the highest test of the skim
milk was .12%, the lowest .02%, and the average .038%, while at
23 dairies where the separator bowl was cleaned only once a day
the skim milk tests ranged from .72% to .02% with an average of
.1% fat, making an average difference of .06% fat in the skim milk
from the clean and dirty separators or from washing it once or
twice a day. If the skim milk from a dirty separator tests as
high as it did in one case, .72% fat, this means a loss from using
a separator without washing each time after skimming of 35
pounds fat in the skim milk of a cow giving about 6,000 pounds
of milk in a year, or 40 pounds of butter at 25 cents per pound
amounts to $10, and the same loss in a herd of 10 cows amounts
to $100 per year, which added to the cost of a new machine that
in many cases is $100, makes the hand separator an expense . of
$200 per year to the dairy that fails to wash the separator each
time it is used, and on this account leaves .72% fat in the skim
milk.
If this is added to the losses caused by taints introduced into
the cream from a dirty separator, the total losses amount to high
pay for the time required to carefully clean a separator bowl and
all its parts after each skimming.
DAIRYING 53
316. The efficiency of skimming by a separator is influenced
in much the same way as just described if the milk is not per-
fectly sweet at the time of skimming, or if it is sweet and not well
mixed before skimming, as any lumps of sour curd or dried cream
in the milk will clog the tubes in the separator bowl in the same
way as the slime and dirt left in the uncleaned bowl interfere
with clean skimming.
CAPACITY OF A SEPARATOR.
317. The amount of milk skimmed per hour indicates the
capacity of a separator bowl. This is determined by the manu-
facturer. If too much milk is forced through a bowl the skim-
ming will not be satisfactory, as under such conditions the milk
does not remain long enough in the bowl to receive the full effect
of the centrifugal force and some of the cream is consequently
carried into the skim milk.
318. Each separator bowl is designed to skim milk at a cer-
tain rate and to remove all the cream excepting a trace of fat
which goes into the skim milk. The amount of milk which will
be skimmed clean indicates the capacity of a separator. This
may be increased somewhat by excessive heating of the milk, but
as a rule the capacity advertised by the manufacturer is under-
stood to be the amount of milk which the bowl will skim per
hour when heated to about 85 deg. F.
319. It is very essential that the supply of milk shall be kept
uniform during skimming ; an irregular or fluctuating flow of milk
not only interferes with clean skimming, but in some cases the
tubes in the bowl become clogged, especially when the milk sup-
ply is stopped for a few minutes. With some separators the bowl
must be cleaned after each stopping before skimming can be
continued. An even feed, even speed, and a uniform temperature
of the milk are three very important points to be watched in using
a separator.
320. A change in the amount of milk skimmed per hour
does not cause a uniform change in the test of the skim milk. ■
54 DAIRYING
If a separator has a capacity of 600 pounds per hour and
leaves .1% fat in the skim milk, a reduction of 10% in the capac-
ity or to 540 pounds, may cause a 10% drop in the test of the
skim milk or from .1% to .09% fat, but an increase of 10% in
capacity, or to 660 pounds, makes more than a 10% increase in
the test of the skim milk. It will probably test .15% instead of
.11% fat, and a further increase to 720 pounds will raise the test
of the skim milk more than 20%, probably to .2% rather than to
.12% fat.
321. The amount of milk running into the separator is usu-
ally regulated by a float under the faucet in the milk supply pan,
and this should always be used, as it feeds the milk into the sepa-
rator at the rate designed by the manufacturers for giving the
best results.
The effect of a variation in the capacity of a separator is
shown by the following figures* taken from six skimming trials
in each case:
Per Cent. Fat in Skim Milk
Normal amount of milk 02 to .035, average .028
Above normal 13 to .165, average .145
Below normal 02 to .035, average .027
322. The capacity of a separator bowl may be changed by
the accumulation of dirt and slime as the skimming progresses.!
This fills the bowl and naturally reduces the amount of milk the
bowl will hold. If there is .05% of dirt and slime in milk and a
separator bowl when filled holds three pounds, and further if milk
is passing through the bowl at the rate of 600 pounds per hour,
there will be accumulated .05% of 600 pounds or .3 pound dirt
and slime per hour, and this is 10% of the three pounds, or the
capacity of the bowl is reduced 10% per hour while skimming
such milk.
323. When the bowl is clean, milk passes through it at
the rate of 10 pounds per minute (600 pounds per hour), and if
the bowl holds three pounds then the milk remains in the bowl
♦Indiana Experiment Station Bui. 116.
tKirchner Milchwirtschaft.
DAIRYING 55
.3 minute or 18 seconds. If the dirt and slime accumulates and
reduces the space from 3 pounds to 2.8 pounds, the time the milk
will remain in the bowl is reduced from 18 to 16 seconds and this
will have the same effect on the efficiency of skimming as in-
creasing the amount of milk skimmed per hour.
The Separator Slime.
324. A deposit of dirt, hair, and a greyish white, slimy sub-
stance is left on the walls of a separator bowl after it has been
used for skimming milk. The amount of this deposit varies with
the sweetness and the cleanness of the milk and the temperature
Df the milk at the time it is skimmed. It increases with the
acidity and with the temperature of the milk. If perfectly sweet
milk is skimmed at a pasteurizing temperature, say 160 deg. F.,
this slime will accumulate in the bowl very rapidly and may soon
fill the bowl so that it is • necessary to stop the skimming and re-
move this slime.
325. Besides the dirt in the milk and many of the bacteria,
the bowl slime contains a nitrogenous constituent of the milk
which is probably in suspension and heavier than the milk serum.
The amount of slime taken from milk varies from .01% to .3%.
Many analyses of it have been made and its composition is shown
by the following figures:*
Water 66. to 75. %
Fat . . 1 to 4.1 %
Nitrogenous matter 17.5 to 29.4 %
Other organic matter. 85 to 7.75%
Mineral matter ^ 1.5 to 4.1 %
This leathery coating of slime taken from the inside of the
separator bowl when cleaning it should be burned and not washed
down the drain or fed to any animal, because of the large number
of bacteria it contains, and while these may be harmless at times,
there is danger of spreading diseases by feeding it to any animal.
*Kirchner Milchwirtschaft.
56 DAIRYING
Steady Running of the Separator.
326. If the separator runs roughly and trembles when under
full speed, an efficient skimming may be interfered with. The
cause of the vibration should be located at once. An uneven or
unsteady motion which makes the separator pans or frame vibrate
may be caused by —
1. The separator frame or bowl is not level.
2. The bowl is out of balance.
3. The bowl spindle is bent.
4. The bowl is too high, does not run freely.
5. The bowl is not put together properly.
6. The upper bearing is too tight.
7. The frame is not securely fastened down.
8. Milk enters before bowl is up to full speed.
9. Oil not good, or gummed bearings.
10. Defective gearing or too tight belt.
11. Worn or dirty bearings.
12. The bowl is running backward. This is dangerous, as
the cover may be thrown off when the bowl turns in the wrong
direction.
13. The speed is too high.
14. The cover is not screwed down to the mark.
327. Running a high-speed separator bowl when it trembles
perceptibly at full speed is not safe. An effort to remedy the dif-
ficulty should be made at once, and if unsuccessful in overcoming
this by such means as are available, the bowl should be sent to
the manufacturers for repairs. When a separator bowl needs re-
pairing it should not be sent away until after a "loaning bowl' is
received from the repair shop. "Loaning bowls" are usually kept
on hand at the factory and can be put into the separator frame
and used until the one needing rebalancing or other repairs is
returned.
DAIRYING
57
328. The effect of an unbalanced bowl and uneven, rough
running of a separator when at full speed and skimming milk is
shown by the following figures:*
Per Ceni
;. Fat
Balanced
Unbalanced
Cream
Skim Milk
Cream
Skim Milk
42
.03
25
.15
28
.03
28
.16
32
.03
31
.18
— » —
Average. . .03
.16
A loss of .13% fat in the skim milk from unsteady- running of
the separator, and this on the milk of one cow for a year or about
5,000 pounds skim milk, amounts to 6.5 pounds butter fat, which
is equal to 7.5 pounds butter; that at 25 cents per pound is worth
$1.87, and for 10 cows $18.70. This will more than pay the ex-
pense of repairing the bowl and keeping it in good running order.
Important Points to Be Observed in Running a Cream Separator.
1. Read and preserve the manufacturers' book of instructions.
2. Test the spirit level to be used in leveling the frame and
the bowl.
3. Carefully clean all the small tubes in the bowl and its
cover.
4. Soap the rubber bowl ring before screwing down the cover
and do not leave the ring in the bowl after cleaning, but hang it
on a nail to dry.
5. Screw the bowl cover up to the mark.
6. See that the oil runs freely. Keep dirt and milk out of
the oil and shut off oil when the machine stops.
7. Do not drop the bowl into its bearings.
8. Start speed slowly and keep a uniform speed.
9. When through skimming, flush the bowl with warm
♦Indiana Expt. Sta. Bui. 116. ^
58 DAIRYING
water or skim milk to clean last traces of cream from bowl and
from skimming pans.
10. Clean the separator bowl before the milk sours in it.
11. The separator bowl should revolve in the same direction
as the hands of a watch.
12. Keep the milk float in supply pan when skimming.
13. Turn faucet of milk supply can full open at once when
bowl is up to speed and allow full flow of milk to enter the bowl.
14. Inspect the bearings and oil tubes before each skimming.
Setting Up Power and Hand Separators.
329. The smoothness with which a separator runs and the
efficiency of the skimming done by it, are both influenced by the
care and accuracy with which the separator is placed in position
to run. Some separator frames are placed on rubber cushions
enclosed in tin cases, one at each corner. A lag screw passes
through the center of the rubber and case with an iron washer
under it. These lag screws fasten the separator to the floor, but
they must not be drawn so tightly as to destroy the elasticity of
the rubbers. Lag screws may be made to hold firmly in a stone
or cement foundation by using just enough strips of leather for
filling the hole in the cement as to make the screw fit tightly.
The separator frame ought to be raised somewhat above the
foundation in order to permit cleaning out the oil, milk and dirt
which accumulate under it.
Leveling the Separator.
330. When the frame is securely fastened to the foundation,
place the separator bowl in it. Then place an accurate level on
top of the bowl and turn the bowl slowly. This will show whether
or not the bowl is level at all points in the circle. If it is not, the
necessary adjustment may be made by placing thin pieces of wood,
tin, and even paper, under the corners of the frame where needed.
331. The belt which connects power separators to the inter-
mediate should make a straight line from the left side of the sepa-
. DAIRYING 59
rator pulley over the top of the intermediate pulley and move
away from the separator so that the bowl turns in the direction
indicated by the arrow stamped on the bowl cover. The belt
must not be too tight, as the tight belt may cause the lower bear-
ings to heat, and require an unnecessary amount of power to run
the separator. A tight belt may also increase the wear of the
bearings. When a flat belt is used the unpainted side should be
placed next to the pulleys. The upper side of the belt is tight
and the lower slack. A new belt should be put on in the evening
if possible so that it may be stretched over night. When the belt
becomes stretched by long use, the belt tightener should take up
the slack.
Cleaning a Separator.
332. A new separator bowl is often covered with a coating
of grease to keep it from rusting. This is cleaned by first wiping
off the grease from all parts of the bowl and the tin covers and
then washing them with hot water containing a little sal soda.
It is not often necessary to remove the bearings of the bowl or
the lower spindle of a new machine unless there is some defect in
the running of the separator. These bearings, however, must be
clean and bright, with no grit or threads left in them.
Cleaning After Separating.
333. When through separating, the bowl is first flushed out
with warm water before there is any reduction in its speed. This
will remove the cream from the bowl and from the cream cover.
The bowl is then allowed to stop or to "run down." Both the tin
covers, the float, and the faucet are then taken off and thoroughly
washed in a sink. This tinware should also be scalded, then placed
where it will be dry and not rust until used again.
334. The separator bowl of power machines is nearly always
emptied by using a siphon. This must be done before the bowl
cover is unscrewed. After the liquid is all drawn from either a
hand or power bowl the cover is unscrewed (left handed), by
using wrenches made for the purpose; the different parts of the
6o DAIRYING
bowl are thoroughly washed in the sink, rinsed with scalding
water or steamed and kept in a clean, dry place until the next
skimming.
335. The slime that collects in a separator bo\Yl can often
be removed in one large piece and burned. It should not be left
in the sink or thrown into a drain as it will easily clog them. The
t-ibes in the bowl should all be cleaned by passing a spiral wire
brush through them. This is very important, as small pieces of
curd or slime left in any of these tubes will interfere with the
skimming. The tinware and parts of the bowl should be steamed
after washing and made so hot that they will dry. Never wipe
the tinware with a towel or cloth, but keep these after steaming
in a clean place until needed for the next skimming.
Causes of Variations in the Richness of Separator Cream.
336. Any treatment or condition of the milk that has a ten-
dency to make the serum thin will help to increase the richness of
the cream coming from a separator when all other conditions are
the same, and thus increase or reduce its richness.
Hot syrup is thifiner than cold, but the hotter the milk when
skimmed the richer the cream. There are objections, however,
to heating the milk much above 80 degrees F. for skimmings, first
bcause of the cost of the fuel ; second, the cost of cooling the
cream; third, it is more wearing on the separator to skim hot
milk than warm milk.
Excessive Capacity.
337. Allowing too much milk to run through the separator
bowl makes a thin cream because any excess of milk over the
amount designed by the manufacturer must flow out of the cream
spout, as only a certain quantity can be thrown out as skim milk
at a certain speed.
Too little milk makes a rich cream, because the amount of
skim milk remains constant and any deficiency as well as excess
must come on the cream.
DAIRYING 6i
Position of the Cream Screw and of Skim Milk Tubes in the Bowl.
338. When the cream screw is turned in, a richer cream is
obtained because it takes cream from nearer the center of the bowl.
Turning the screw out will naturally make the cream thinner.
A fraction of one turn of the screw is often sufficient to make a
difference of several per cent, in fat in the cream.
When adjustable skim milk tubes are placed in the bottom
of the bowl these should be turned out to make the cream richer,
as this will force more skim milk through them.
Variations in Speed.
339. The amount of skim milk thrown out the skim milk
tubes may be increased by increasing the speed of the bowl, and
this will naturally make less and richer cream. Reducing the
speed gives opposite results and makes a thinner cream.
If the cream coming from a separator is getting thin this may
be due, first, to clogging of the bowl with slime so that the skim
milk cannot pass through the skim milk tubes of the bowl ; second,
to a reduced speed; third, to too much milk flowing into the sepa-
rator; fourth, to a change in the cream screw.
340. One of the most common causes of a variation in the
richness of cream from the farm separator is the different amount
of water or skim milk that is used to flush out the bowl when
through skimming. Most of this goes into the cream spout and
the extent to which the cream is diluted by it will depend on the
amount of rinsing water used.
Uniformity in all the operating processes will help to give a
cream of uniform richness.
341. The following figures show the effect of various condi-
tions of operation on the richness of separator cream, most of the
figures being taken from Kan. Exp. Sta. Bui. 137:
Influence of Temperature of Milk.
Temp, of milk, F. deg. . 115 110 90 80 70
Cream test, fat % 32 30 29.5 29 27
Skim milk test, fat % . . .01 .01 .012 .02 .039
62 DAIRYING
342. The richness of the cream increases in these trials from
27% to 32% fat as the temperature of the milk is raised from 70
degrees F. to 115 degrees F., showing that the milk should be
skimmed at the same temperature from day to day and a ther-
mometer used at each skimming.
Influence of Speed of Separator Bowl.
Normal speed —
Cream test, fat % 28 35 28 30 35
Skim milk test, fat % . . .02 .02 .01 .02 .03
Low speed —
Cream test, fat % 25.6 30 24 . 25 28
Skim milk test, fat % . . .035 .045 .025 .05 .055
343. Failing to keep the speed up to that required by the
manufacturer reduces the richness of the cream and increases the
test of the skim milk.
Change in Flow of Milk or Capacity of Separator.
Full capacity-
Cream test, fat % 28
Skim milk test, fat %... .02
Half capacity-
Cream test, fat % 36.8
Skim milk test, fat % . . .01
A reduction of one-half in the flow of milk gives a cream of
about 8% more fat than with full capacity.
Influence of Steadiness of Running.
Steady-
Cream test, fat % 38.8 29 32 25 25
Skim milk test, fat % . . .01 .015 .02 .025 .02
Unsteady —
Cream test, fat % 24 27 18 21.2 9
Skim milk test, fat % . . .03 .25 .04 .05 .30
35
28
30
35
.01
.01
.02
.03
43
35
40
41
.01
.015
.01
.02
DAIRYING 63
Influence of Acidity of Milk.
Acidity of milk, % 26 .29 .50 .42 .29
Cream test, fat % 31 28 36 32 30
Skim milk test, fat %. . .015 .01 .01 .01 .05
Effect of Change in Richness of the Milk.
Milk, fat % 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.6 6.1
Cream, fat % 20.7 24.5 28.2 ^ 33.1 38
344. The results given above illustrate the way in which farm
separator cream is affected by lack of uniformity in the everyday
running of the machine. The centrifugal cream separator is a
very valuable machine in the dairy and the creamery, but it is not
an absolutely automatic machine. A reasonable amount of atten-
tion must be given to it in order to get the most satisfactory re-
sults. Losses of fat in the skim milk may easily be reduced to a
satisfactory figure and uniformity in the richness of the cream
may also be obtained, but these results require some care on the
part of the operator of the machine.
Advantages of a Rich Cream.
345; When cream is sold from the farm there is sometimes a
tendency to skim too thin cream on the assumption that the- more
cream sold the more money will be received for it. This is a
mistake for the following reasons:
First, skimming a rich cream gives more skim milk for stock
feed than a thin cream.
Second, the richer the cream the smaller the quantity to cool,
and this is sometimes an important matter where ice is scarce and
expensive.
Third, rich cream occupies less space and reduces the weight
and transportation charges.
Fourth, if butter is made of cream, more starter can be added
to a rich than to a thin cream, and a rich cream can be churned
at a lower temperature, which gives a better body and more ex-
haustive churning than is the case with thin cream.
64
DAIRYING
THE COST OF SKIMMING MILK BY A CENTRIFUGAL
SEPARATOR.
346. Many farmers have been accustomed to the inexpensive
outfit needed in the gravity process of skimming cream from milk
and are inclined to consider the $100 charged for a centrifugal
cream separator as more than they can aflPord to pay, and further,
the number of years such a machine may be successfully used, as
well as the cost of operating it, are items that may easily make
one hesitate to buy one of these machines.
A little figuring will, however, show that the butter fat that
may be saved from the gkim milk by the centrifugal separator will
soon pay for the machine.
347. Professor Hunziker in Ind. Bui. 116 gives the following
as the average per cents of fat in 223 samples of skim milk col-
lected from farms in different sections of the state. One hundred
and fifty-six (156) of these were from hand separators with an
average of .05% fat; 17 from **deep setting" with an average of
.34% fat; 15 from ''shallow pan setting" with an average of .50%
fat; 35 from "water dilution" with an average of .57% fat.
He also gives the following figures which show the value of
the fat lost in the skim milk from one to 20 cows in a year on the
basis of 85 pounds skim milk in 100 pounds whole milk, an over-
run of one-sixth, and butter worth 25 cents per pound:
Value of Butter Fat Left in Skim Milk.
Method of Skimming the Milk
No.
Cows
Lbs.
Milk
Water
Dilution
Shallow ,
Pan 1
Deep
Setting
Hand
Separator
1
6,000
$ 6.68
$ 5.86 ,
$ 3.99
$ .63
5
30,000
33.43
29.32
19.95
3.16
10
60,000
66.86
58.65 ,
39.90
6.33
15
90,000
102.90
87.97
59.85
9.49
20
120,000
133.72
117.30
79.80
12.66
DAIRYING 65
348. These figures show that the fat saved from the skim
milk when milk is skimmed by a centrifugal separator, as com-
pared with gravity skimming, is worth from $4 to $6 per cow per
year, and with a herd of 10 to 20 cows enough fat will be saved
to pay for the separator in one year.
349. The number of years that a separator will keep in good
running order depends on its construction and on the kind of use
it has at the farm. There is no doubt but these machines, as
made by the manufacturers who have been in the business for
many years, will last for ten years or more ; but it is probably
safe to place the depreciation in value and interest on the money
invested in a separator costing $100 as about $15 per year, or
about five cents per day.
350. Other items of expense in running a separator daily
are, first, the power, which, if run one hour each day, is worth 25
cents; second, the separator oil and some repairs, which may cost
about five cents per day, and third, the cost of the labor of clean-
ing, which may be about 20 cents. The sum of these daily ex-
penses is 55 cents, and if 100 pounds of milk are skimmed per day,
the cost of skimming is a little more than one-half a cent per
pound or about one cent per quart. The cost of the machine and
its operation will, however, be about the same for 1,000 pounds
of milk per day as for 100 pounds of milk, and when the larger
amount of milk is handled, the cost per pound of milk is reduced
to one-tenth of a cent per quart or one-twentieth of a cent per
pound of milk. This, together with the quality of the sweet
cream and sweet skim milk obtained by using the centrifugal
cream separator, make it a valuable machine for farmers owning
cows and who either make butter or sell cream.
HAND SEPARATOR POWER.
351. People who have traveled extensively among farmers
where hand separators are in use, state that the kind of power
used to run the separator in various localities is something that
seems to be regulated by custom in each locality. In some coun-
ties or localities the machines are all turned by hand, while in
66 DAIRYING
others some tread power is used, and in still other places a gaso-
line or steam engine is the customary power. In addition to these,
electric motors and water power may be used.
352. The tread power is not always satisfactory or economi-
ical unless some farm animal besides a horse is used. A dog or
sheep is not satisfactory in a tread power, but a bull is occasionally
used for this purpose with excellent results.
The power must require little attention; it must be uniform
and so attached to the separator that its speed will not vary.
Gasoline engines are used a great deal; electric motors give a
uniform speed, and a steam engine has not only the advantage of
being a good power, but the necessary steam boiler gives a sup-
ply of steam and hot water that is always useful and needed for
heating the milk and for cleaning the tinware, separator bowl and
other utensils used in handling milk.
353. If large quantities of milk are to be skimmed each day,
several small separators are better than one or two excessively
large ones, as one may be started earlier than the others and
later on stopped and cleaned while the others are running.
354. The cost of the power is not always in proportion to
the amount of milk skimmed, as the equipment must be large
enough ta take care of the maximum amount of milk that will be
received and all the machinery must be run except some of the
separators for smaller quantities of milk. Hand power at farms
may be expensive for running separators because of the uneven-
ness of the speed kept up. This, however, may be regulated by
using a watch to time the crank revolutions if necessary.
355. If small quantities of milk are to be skimmed at a farm
by steam engine power, the milk must either be cooled at one
milking and then heated to a skimming temperature at the next
milking, or steam raised in the boiler after each milking. The
difference in labor or expense of the two practices must be de-
cided at each farm.
DAIRYING 67
ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL CREAM SEPARATOR
TO FARMERS.
1. If farmers have been accustomed to haul their milk to a
creamery and bring back skim milk from the factory, the cost of
this hauling is seldom less than 10 cents per 100 pounds of milk,
or about three cents per pound of butter.
356. If the milk of a cow contains 200 pounds butter in a
year the farm separator, by saving this cost of hauling, earns $6
per year or $60 for a herd of ten cows. The cream hauling, how-
ever, costs about one cent per pound butter fat and this will re-
duce the $60 to $40 gain per year by cream instead of milk hauling.
2. The feeding value of the skim milk as it comes from the
farm separator directly after milking is better than at any other
time. Mixed creamery skim milk is not only older, but may be
diluted somewhat, and it may also be the means of spreading
tuberculosis from one herd to another.
357. The condition of the creamery skim milk is often the
cause of keeping some whole milk on the farm to feed calves.
This is rather expensive feed when butter is worth 30 cents per
pound, but the calves will not need whole milk when they can get
sweet skim milk from the farm separator. The farm skimming
therefore helps not only in raising calves economically, but it
helps to increase the amount of milk fat sold to the factory.
ft
3. The farm separator reduces the loss from an occasional
can of sour milk which may be sent to the creamery when whole
milk is delivered.
4. The farmer can keep more cows when a farm separator
is used, as he has more time at home than when delivering whole
milk.
5. There Is more demand for cream than for milk and it can
be economically shipped longer distances and thus give farmers
the benefit of a wider territory or more extensive market than he
is able to get for his milk.
358. All these advantages which may be obtained from the
use of a farm separator are based on its supplying a perfectly
68 DAIRYING
clean and sweet cream. This "necessitates a constant effort on
the part of the farmer to keep the machine clean and the cream
cool. If this is not done and a sour, tainted cream is produced
at the farm, the returns from using a farm separator will be less
than those from selling whole milk to a creamery.
359. In recent years the rapid introduction of the farm sep-
arators has brought a new problem into the creamery industry.
Many gathered cream factories are receiving farm separator
cream and the amount of it is constantly increasing; in fact the
whole milk creameries find their patrons in some cases voluntarily
changing from the old way of delivering milk, to the new one
of using a farm separator and sending their cream to the factory.
The rapid development of this tendency among farmers indicates
that the system has merit which they appreciate, and that the
creameries must necessarily arrange to receive such cream and
to make the best butter possible from it.
Quality of the Butter
360. The experience of many creameries with farm gravity
cream in the past has been such as to cause them to doubt the
practicability of making so fine a quality of butter from farm
separator cream as they formerly have made from factory sep-
arated cream. The standard of butter quality certainly ought
not to be lowered by farm separator cream; for when it is skim-
med from the warm, new milk, cream is in a purer condition than
that skimmed from milk which is twelve or more hours old. The
sooner cream is separated from milk after milking the better
the cream for any purpose. This being true, faults in the
butter made from such cream cannot be charged to the farm
separator. In many cases, butter made from cream not properly
cared for does not sell for the top market price, and since there
is a growing tendency to sell butter on its merits, giving only the
price its quality deserves, there will be difficulty in disposing
of butter made from a poor quality of farm separator cream, at
prices equal to those of butter made at whole-milk creameries.
Considering the question, however, from the mechanical side of
the butter making process alone, there is no good reason why
DAIRYING 69
farm separator cream should not be equal to, if not better than,
that separated at a factory with power separators.
Defects in Farm Separator Cream
361. The defects found in gathered cream butter usually
arise from improper care of the cream before it is delivered to the
factory. These defects develop or are introduced into the cream
either by the method of caring for it at the farm or by the way
it is transported to the creamery. A perfectly clean, sweet and
satisfactory cream is produced on many farms and delivered in
good condition to either retailer, an ice-cream maker or a creamery.
There are, however, places where tainted and defective cream is
found and in some cases it is being mixed with cream of a better
grade. This is hardly fair to the producer of a first-grade cream
and in order to raise the standard of the entire product to a grade
equal to the best, the following suggestions are offered as a
guide to persons not familiar with proper methods of caring for
cream.
Care of Farm Separator Cream
1. The farm separator should be placed where there are no
bad odors. It must be thoroughly cleaned each time it is used;
the bowl and all tinware must be scalded and placed out of the
reach of dust. Under no circumstances should the separator bowl
be left until it has been used a second time before the cleaning is
done. The bowl-slime and rinsings left in the separator after
skimming begin to sour and decay in a very short time, and if the
cleaning is not done immediately after skimming, the taints of this
sour milk are hard to remove.
2. Cool the cream to near 50 degrees F. immediately after
separating it. The ideal way of cooling separator cream is to
conduct it from the cream spout of the separator directly over a
water cooler. The cream must then be kept at a temperature
near 50 degrees F. by setting the cream cans in cold water. When
a cream cooler is not used the cream cans should not be over six
inches in diameter. They should be set in cold water and the
temperature reduced to 50 degrees F. or lower. This should be
70 DAIRYING
done at once and the cream stirred frequently in order to hasten
cooling. A tin disc to which is attached a strong wire handle
two feet long makes an efficient agitator for this purpose.
3. Never mix warm and cold cream or sweet and slightly
tainted cream.
4. Provide a clean and covered water tank for holding the
cans of cream, and change the water frequently in the tank so
the temperature does not rise above 60 degrees F. A satisfactory
arrangment may be made by allowing running water to flow
through the milk and cream cooling tank to the stock watering
tank.
5. Skim the cream immediately after each milking. It is
more work to save the milk and separate once a day and less
satisfactory than skimming while the milk is warm, since the milk
must be heated again when saved until another milking.
6. A rich cream testing 35 per cent, fat or more is the most
satisfactory to both farmer and factory. The best separators
will skim rich cream as efficiently as a thin cream and more skim
milk is left on the farm when a rich cream is sold.
7. Cream should be perfectly sweet, containing no lumps or
clots when sampled or delivered to the haulers or to parties
buying it.
There is a good demand for sweet cream and it can easily
be supplied by keeping the tinware, separator, strainer-cloth and
water tank clean and the cream cold.
8. It is best not to attempt to turn the farm separator by
hand, but to provide some power such as a tread power on which
a bull or horse can be worked, or use a small gasoline engine.
9. When patrons persistently fail to take good care of their
cream at the farm, some creameries adopt the practice of grading
it; and by keeping the tainted, sour cream separate from that of
good quality they make two grades of butter, paying the farmers
according to the purity of their cream.
10. The best way to prevent the use of farm separators
from destroying the reputation of butter made in localities where
these are numerous, is to collect the cream daily in small cans
which are washed at the factory; each can containing the cream
from one farm only.
—Showing complete equipment of the Cream Hauler. No. i is the
stirrer and sampler. No. 3 is the rubber scraper used for scraping
the farmer's pail and the weigh can. No. 3 is the box holding the
sample bottles. No. 4 is a firmly secured hook on which to suspend
the weigh pail. No. 5 is a 6o-pound capacity cream spring scale, and
No. 6 is the weigh pail.
Ind. Expt. Sta. Bui. 116.
72 DAIRYING
The Cream Hauling
362. It often happens that cream which has been well cared
for at the farm is damaged during transportation to the creamery.
The cream gathering wagon starts out early in the morning, and
the first cream which it collects must remain in the wagon until
it returns at night. This trip when taken in the hot days of
summer or the cold days of winter is likely to be injurious to
the quality of the cream. An efficient protection from these ex-
treme temperatures is a problem which must be solved if the
butter made from such cream is to grade as extra in quality.
Sampling- Cream
363. When cream stands for any length of time the top
layer will be richer than the cream below; this makes it neces-
sary to thoroughly mix each lot of cream by pouring from one
can to another just before taking a sample for testing. If the
cream is lumpy it should be poured through a fine hair sieve
before sampling.
364. Gathered-cream factories have in some cases adopted
the following method of sampling cream: Each driver is pro-
vided with a box of numbered bottles having a capacity of about
four ounces each, one bottle being provided for each patron.
This box is protected from heat in summer and cold in winter
so that the sample bottles of cream may arrive at the factory in
nearly the same condition as when taken from* the farms. This
gives the butter maker a chance to inspect each patron's cream
and locate the defective lots, if there are any.
365. After inspection at the factory the samples are either
tested before souring or poured into composite sample jars which
contain a preservative, no preservative is added to the bottles
taken to the farms by the man who weighs, samples and gathers
the cream, but he must protect these samples from changes
caused by heat and cold during the different seasons of the year.
In some factories each lot of cream is tested as received.
This is considered more accurate and satisfactory than tests of
composite samples.
DAIRYING n
Cream should be sampled with a tube or some arrangement
that gives the same aliquot portion of each lot.
366. When the composite samples are tested, the cream
shoul be weighed into the Babcock cream test bottles. Meas-
uring cream with a pipette of any kind or size does not give ac-
curate results in testing with the Babcock test. In Wisconsin
the law requires that cream should be tested by weighing into
test bottles, and legal cream must contain at least 18 per cent. fat.
367. Testing cream accurately requires greater care than
testing milk, especially in reading the per cent, of fat. The short
necked cream bottles, graduated from 40 to 50 per cent., do not
afford an opportunity for exact readings, because the column of
fat is so wide that the menicus may include nearly one-half of
one per cent, fat, and uncertain readings that may be either
too high or too low are the result. Cream test bottles should
have a narrow neck. This makes it possible to graduate the
necks to divisions representing less than one-half of one per cent,
each.
Very accurate tests of cream may be obtained by weighing
half the usual quantity of cream, or nine grams, into narrow
necked test bottles that are graduated to two-tenths of one per
per cent., like the whole milk bottles, and multiplying the read-
ings by two.
Testing Cream When Received
368. The tendency at the present time seems to be towards
testing each lot of cream when it is received. The method of taking
composite samples described in preceding paragraphs is not con-
sidered by some factories and farmers so satisfactory as gather-
ing or shipping each farmer's cream in his own can and then
weighing and testing this cream when it is delivered. Some
creamery managers find it more satisfactory to confine the cream
hauler's duties simply to the delivery of an empty can and the
collection of a full or partially filled can of cream at each farm
than to expect the hauler to both weigh and sample each lot of
cream when he collects them. Gathering the cream in separate
74 DAIRYING
cans gives the manager of the factory an opportunity to inspect
each lot of cream and to do the weighing and sampling at the
factory, where he has better facilities for this work than the
driver has on his route,
369. If the cream is used wholly for butter making the
butter maker at the factory may place a small amount of carefully
prepared starter in each clean can sent to the farms and in this
way exert some control on the fermentations started in the cream
as it is poured into these cans at the farms.
DAIRYING 75
EXAMINATION
Note to Students — These questions are to be answered inde-
pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your examina-
tion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination.
Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat
the question. Mail answers promptly when completed.
1. Why is an effort made to separate cream from milk and
what two forces have been used for this purpose?
2. At what date did centrifugal cream separation begin to
be studied?
3. In what way does heat and cold affect gravity and
centrifugal cream separation?
4. Give an explanation for the separation of cream from
milk.
5. What is milk serum and what is its sp. gr.?
6. If a given quantity of milk weighs 1039 lbs. and the same
quantity of water weighs 1000 lbs., what is the sp. gr. of the
milk?
76 DAIRYING
7. Explain how the separation of cream from milk is in-
fluenced: 1. By the composition of the milk serum; 2. By
a cow being "fresh" or a "stripper;" 3. By the size of the fat
globules; 4. By agitation of the milk.
»
8. What similarity is there between milk and blood?
9. ' What effect on the cream raising has the addition of
caustic soda to milk?
10. What are the names of several methods of gravity
cream separation?
11. Briefly describe the "shallow setting" process.
12. At what rate does cream rise when milk is set at 60*' Fahr.?
13. Describe the effect of different temperatures on gravity
cream raising.
14. How many hours is milk usually allowed to stand for
cream to rise by "shallow setting" and how many inches deep
is the milk? ^
15. Does setting milk in a warm place give a richer or
thinner cream than keeping it cold ?
16. Why is hand skimming of sweet milk more difficult than
skimming sour milk?
17. How may shallow setting of milk cause white specks
in butter?
18. Give at least 3 points in favor of the shallow setting
process for creaming milk.
19. Explain at least six objections to the shallow setting
process.
20. How is Devonshire cream made?
DAIRYING ^^
21. Explain the "deep setting" process of cream separation.
22. Describe the equipment needed in this process.
23. Wfiy are better results obtained by the deep than by
the shallow setting process?
24. What temperature of the' milk is best suited to the deep
setting?
25. Which gives the best results, skimming from the top
or the bottom of the milk?
26. What is the average richness of deep setting cream?
27. What effect has the richness of the milk, also delay- in
setting the milk on the richness of the skim milk obtained by this
T^rocess?
28. What objection is there to opening and closing the skim
milk faucet while skimming?
29. What are five advantages of the deep setting over the
shallow setting process?
30. Describe the process of cream raising by dilution with
water and what are its advantages if any?
31. What is meant by the skimming efficiency of a process?
32. Give the average temperature of the milk, the richness
of the cream and of the skim milk obtained by each of the three
gravity processes of cream separation.
33. If 100 lbs. milk testing 5% fat gives 80 lbs. skim milk
testing .3% fat, what is the skimming efficiency?
34. Briefly explain how and why cream is separated from
milk by centrifugal force.
35. If a weight of two lbs. is revolved in a circle six inches
in diameter what is the amount of the centrifugal force exerted
on it?
;8 DAIRYING
36. What difference in centrifugal force is caused by doubling
the diameter and by doubling the speed of a separator bowl?
37. Briefly describe the stages of development of the cream
separator.
38. Of what benefit are discs or plates in a separator bowl?
39. Into what three layers is milk divided in a separator
bowl ?
40. Why is the skim milk opening of a separator bowl
near its center or axis?
41. At what point in the separator bowl is milk delivered?
42. What are some of the advantages of a centrifugal sep-
arator?
44. Which is the best separator?
45. What observations may be made for testing a separator?
46. if 5 lbs. cream and 5 lbs. skim milk are collected from
a separator in 20 seconds, how much milk is being skimmed per
hour and what per cent, of the milk is the cream?
47. If 100 lbs. milk testing 3.5% fat give 80 lbs. skim milk
testing .2% fat what is the test of the cream?
48. Explain how at least five different things may influence
the skimming efiliciency of a cream separator.
■
49. If a 4-inch pulley on separator should make 200 r. p. m.,
what size pulley is needed on a driving shaft having a speed of
50 r. p. m.?
50. What is the best temperature for milk skimmed and
what are the objections to skimming at a high temperature,
say 170° F.?
DAIRYING 79
51. How does the method of heating milk affect its skim-
ming efficiency?
52. Why should not milk be kept warm a long time before
skimming?
53. Give an illustration of the damage that may easily be
done by not washing a separator bowl each time it is used.
54. What is meant by the capacity of a separator?
55. How may the capacity of a separator be determined?
56. Give figures showing how long milk remains in a sep-
arator bowl while skimming.
57. What is separator bowl slime and what is its composi-
tion?
58. Give some of the causes of a rough running separator?
59. What is meant by a loaning bowl ?
60. How does an unsteady running bowl affect the skim-
ming.
61. Give some points to be observed in running a separator.
62. Describe the setting up of a separator.
63. Describe the cleaning of a separator.
64. Explain in detail at least 5 different causes for separator
cream varying in richness.
65. How does the speed of the bowl change the richness of
the cream?
66. If milk testing 3.0% fat gives cream testing 20% fat
what test of cream will milk testing 5.0% give?
8o
DAIRYING
67. What should induce a farm separator owner to skim
a rich cream?
68. If a cow gives 5000 lbs. milk, what would be the value
of the fat left in her skim milk if skimmed by each of 4 differeat
methods of separating cream and when butter fat is worth 30c
per lb.?
69. What is a fair estimate of the cost of skimming
by a centrifugal cream separator?
70. How is the quality of milk affected by the hand
arator?
jy>
71. Give an outline of a good method of caring for cr^|Jil
until it is sold.
*
■4A -
Write this at the End of Your Examination
I hereby certify that the above questions were answered enti^i^'\:j
by me. i'^-i^.
Signed ««4i«l^'
■
■ u
Address •if" " '
■■:-V
» " -- 1
f^\\ ^ R A K ^
OF THE
COLLEGE 0
[?/?/CULTU^
THE
Correspondence Colleg
of Agriculture
FT. WAYNE, INDIANA
DAIRYING-Part IV
Care oi the Dairy aiul its Products
By EDWARD H. FARRINGTON. MS;
ProfcMor of Dairy Hasbandiy m tke
UniTcnity oi ^Viscoasin.
Tbi« {• tke Fourth oi a Series oi Six Books ^ivin^ a Complete Course oi Instruction
in Dairying
COPYRIGHT, 1911
^Zhs CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
NOTE TO STUDENTS
In order to derive the the utmost possible benefit from
this paper^ you must thorous:hIy master the text* While
it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the
text to meiporyt still there is nothing: contained in the text
which is not absoltuely essential for the ihtellis:ent dairy-
man to kno^. For your own sTood^ never refer to the
examination questions imiil you have f kiished your study
of the text. By following: this plan^ the examination
paper will show what you have learned from the text*
■'.■■
•1 1 ' \ ■ ♦'i •' »
DAIRYING
' i
DAIRYING— Part IV
CAKE OF MILK.
670. Pure, clean milk is one of the most healthy and nu-
tritious of human foods. This or a similar statement is made so
often in print and in lectures that the value of milk as a food,
especially for infants and invalids, is well nigh universal))'
known. In former years milk consumers were supposed to need
protection from the watering and skimming of milk only, and a
determination of the amount of cream and of natural, solid mat-
ter in the milk was about all that was considered necessary in
order to protect the public from a fraudulent milk supply. This
feeling of security and confidence in the milk supply so long as
it was rich enough, has in recent years been shown to be abso-
lutely wrong. The developments in bacteriology and in medical
science have proved beyond the slightest doubt that milk and
other dairy products may be among the most dangerous of human
foods. Such diseases as typhoid fever, tuberculosis, diphtheria
and many others, also the disturbances of the ))0WjeJs that cg.use
suffering and often death of many infants and ebildreu are
spread by dirty, contaminated milk. It has been proved that the
germs that $ause these and other, diseaeses find milk about the
best possible .soil to grow in, and since it has also been proved
that one germ will multiply into millions in a few hours and that
small particles of dust and dirt, as well as the legs of flies, con-
tain thousands of germs, it certainly is clear that the germ^and
the dirt content of milk is of more vital importance to humanity
4 DAIRYING
than is its per cent of cream or the amount of solid food it con-
tains.
671. An enormous amount of milk is consumed in the
United States every year. It has been estimated that the milk
sold from house to house, the so-called market milk, is equal to
the production of about 7,600,000 cows, and that used in butter-
making 9,700,000 cows, and in cheese-making 800,000 cows. If
has also been estimated by the Illinois Experiment Station that
the 2,000,000 inhabitants of the city of Chicago consume over ten
tons of dirt every year in their milk. These figures are startling
although they are undoubtedly true, and while a little filth
dropping into the milk pail may not seem to amount to much to
the milker at the time, it is contributing to the tons of dirt that
are being unconsciously consumed every day in our milk supply.
A realizing sense of the truth of such statements as the fore-
going, as well as the frequent proof that contagious diseases have
been spread by means of milk, makes people in some localities
willing to pay 12 to 20 cents per quart for milk which they know
is perfectly pure and clean. The increasing number of sanitary
milk-producing farms, where milk is simply protected from
disease, dust and dirt to such an extent that it will keep sweet
for weeks, is certainly an indication of the advancement of civili-
zation.
672. It is a well known fact that most of the milk brought
to creameries and cheese factories will not keep sweet for more
than one day in warm weather. The reason why this milk spoils
so quickly is also well known. It is not the fault of the cows;
they are innocent of any wrongdoing; it is the person who feeds
and milks the cows that is responsible for the dirt in the milk.
If the milk producer wants a higher price than he is now re-
ceiving for his milk, no matter to whom he is selling it, the surest
way for him to accomplish this is to keep the milk clean ; there
is always a good demand for pure milk and when a factory re-
ceives such milk, the butter, the cheese or the cream it sells will
be so improved in quality that a higher price can be demanded
for it than those products made from impure milk. Persons
buying such milk will be glad to pay an extra price for it. This
DAIRYING 5
has been the case in many instances and the reputation of a farm
or factorj- that is based on the purity of itB products is standing
on a firm foundation. Certainly everyone that is connected
with such an enterprise may justly be proud of it. A reputation
of this kind arouses an interest in one's work and puts the neces-
sary etfort to obtain it on a higher plane than that of mere
drudgery.
THE NUMBER OF QERMS IN MHJL
673. Milk produced in the common way without any special
precautions to protect it from dirt during milking contains from
100,000 to 20,000,000 germs in 1 cc. (1 cc. equals about 20 drops).
Many samples of sweet milk taken from bottles delivered to the
city consumer and from the weigh-can at a creamery or a cheese
factory have been found tp contain many millions of germs in
one cubic centimeter, or at least one million germs in each drop
of milk.
Plate 1. — Eflect ot temperature upon growth of bacteria. A, a
single bacterium; B, Its progeny In twenty-four hours In milk kept at
fifty degrees V. (6 bacteria) ; G, Its progeny In twenty-four hours In
milk kept at seventy degrees F. (TEO bacteria). From Bui. 26 Storrs
(Conn.) Agr. Eipt. Sta.
Nearly all these germs get into the milk after it is drawn
from' the cow, showing that the number may be easily reduced
bv carefulness and cleanliness of the milker and of all others
6 DAIRYING
who may handle the milk up to the time it is delivered to the
factory or to the city consumer.
Since the number of germs in milk is due largely to the
way in which it is handled, some cities have passed ordinances
requiring milk sold in that city to contain not more than 500,000
bacteria per cubic centimeter. Other cities have adopted a
different standard, but this is about the average figure.
There is a strong tendency on the part of health officers and
of manufacturers of a high quality of dairy products to insist on
clean milk and a frequent inspection of the cow stables, as well
as the methods of handling the milk at the farms, is being en-
forced to a greater extent each year.
THE KIND OF GERMS IN MILE.
674. It is claimed at the present time that there have been
found at least 200 different kinds of bacteria in milk. These may
in a general way be divided into the good, the bad, and the
indifferent germs. The lactic acid bacteria which cause milk to
sour, may be classed under the head of **good" germs, in so far
as they aid in the development of desirable flavors in butter and
in cheese after it is made, but these same bacteria may spoil the
milk for cheese-making if they are too numerous in the fresh
milk.
675. Under the head of '/bad'' germs may be included the
disease producing bacteria and those that cause bad flavors in
milk, butter and cheese. The ** indifferent'' germs include a,
large number that grow rapidly in milk, but have no particularly
injurious or beneficial effect on dairy products, or on the con-
sumer of such products. It is true, however, that the entire
absence of germs helps the fiavor of milk and cream while their
presence may spoil these products, and when one realizes that
16 million bacteria may grow from one bacterium in 24 hours, the
necessity of protecting . milk from dirt, dust and dirty utensils
can be readily understood. Bach hair that drops in the milk
DAIRYING 7
during milking may brin^ thousands of bacteria with it, and
each particle of dirt and dust may be swarming with germs
from the alimentary canal of the animals, while the strainer
cloth, if one is used, and the tinware of all kinds, if not thor-
oughly washed and scalded just before using them, will continu-
ally be adding their supply of bacteria to those already accumu-
lated in the milk.
PROTECTION OF MILE FROM GERMS.
676. Persons handling milk in any way may be divided into
two general classes; first, those who understand the ways in
which milk may be contaminated by dirt and careless handling,
but who fail to do so well as they know how; and second, those
who are ignorant of the best methods of handling milk in order
to protect it from contamination.
Both classes of people should feel their responsibility to
humanity in handling such an easily contaminated food product
and they should never relinquish their efforts to keep the milk
absolutely free from dirt and dirty utensils while it is in their
possession or care.
677. The protection of milk from dirt and disease germs is
an easy or a hard matter according to the conditions under
which it is produced. If cows are milked in a dark stable where
the floor is saturated with water, the walls spattered with
manure and the ceiling decorated with hay or straw, squeezing
through loose boards, these and other conditions that usually
accompany such a place make it nearly impossible to produce
milk fit for human consumption or for making good butter and
cheese.
Expensive stables and high-priced cows are not, however,
necessary for producing clean milk ; constant attention to simple
details will protect milk from contamination in a cheap barn
as well as in any other place.
Some of the conveniences and necessary arrangements for
keeping milk clean are included in the following specifications:
8 DAIRYING
INFLUENCE OF STABLE CONSTRUCTION ON
CLEANLINESS OF MILE.
678. The place where cows are milked should be as clean as
the place where it is consumed. In other words, the cow stable
should be as clean as the dining-room and the cows and the
milkers as clean as the household cook.
A cow stable should be built so that it can easily be kept
clean and the cow clean and healthy, while in the stable. It need
not be an expensive building, although the place where the cows
are tied up is usually a part of the farmer's barn in which other
stock as well as the hay, grain, etc., are housed.
679. A few things necessary in a cow stable for protecting
the milk from contamination are the following:
1. Ventilation, which is best secured by some well-con-
structed and easily operated device (see par. 718) rather than
by loose boards or accidental holes in a window. The walls and
ceiling of the. stable may be purified by a coat of whitewash
which can be effectually applied with a spray pump; this ought
to be used several times in a year. Some cow stables are cov-
ered with straw or old hay placed on boards with large cracks
between them. No amount of whitewash will keep such a ceiling
in a sanitary condition. Chaff and loose straw dropping through
the cracks are a constant source of dust and dirt during milking ;
the floor above the cows ought to be as tight as the walls of the
stable.
Smooth, tight walls and ceiling which can be whitewashed
with a spray pump or brush at least twice a year are therefore
necessary.
2. Sufficient light should be provided by windows that can
be opened and shut easily. See par. 717.
3. A smooth, watertight floor that drains to the gutter and
thence away from the bam. After cleaning out the cow stable,
at least twice each day,' a sprinkling, of plaster over the floor will
aid in absorbing the liquids and in preserving the wooden floors ;
<iement floors do not need plaster as they may be flushed with
water from a hose. Any stable floor should be sprinkled with
water before sweeping.
5. Comfortable stalls, stanchions or cow ties. See par. T2S.
6. Clean bedding free from an excess of dust and odors.
7. Feeding mangers that can be easily cleaned.
8. A handy place for keeping the milking stools and tools
used for cleaning the cows and the stable, such as brushes,
manure forks, shovels, etc.
9. Place a name or number at each stall and provide a
milk . weighing scale and record sheet.
10.- The presence or absence of each one of these simple,
DAIRYING II
leasily obtained conveniences may be noted by the inspection of
anv cow stable.
THE COW YARD.
680. Pools of standing water in the yard, around the water-
ing tank or in the pasture ought to be drained or fenced off to
prevent the cows getting into the stagnant water. When cows
walk through such places more or less mud sticks to their legs
and body, making the milker a great deal of trouble when he
tries to clean the cows. The dust from this mud finds its way
very easily into the milk at milking time. Such milk sours
quickly and the dangers from diseases are increased with the
amount of mud in the milk.
Deep well, spring or running water are the best sources of
supply for watering cows. The concrete cow yard and the
manure carriers not only help to keep the cows clean, but solve
the fly question by removing their breeding places from the
stable and its vicinity.
INFLUENCE OF CARE OF COWS ON CLEAN MILE
681. Tuberculin testing is absolutely necessary in order to
be sure the cows are all free from tuberculosis. The germs from
this disease may get into the milk from a tuberculous udder and
from the excrement which dries and the mucus which adheres to
small particles of dust and dirt that fall into the milk.
When buying cows insist on a certificate of good health and
freedom from tuberculo'sis.
A place should be provided for keeping sick cows separate
from the herd.
682. No dusty bedding or musty feed should be used and
feeds having a strong odor, like silage, turnips, etc., should be
fed after milking.
12 DAIRYING
Waste feed should be removed from the mangers and not
thrown under the cows for bedding. This applies especially to
silage, which will not contaminate milk except through the air.
If the waste is left in the stable the air becomes saturated with
silage odor and this is absorbed by the milk after it is drawn
from the cow, but not before. Silage fed to cows will not con-
taminate milk if the stable is well ventilated and the milk is
never exposed to a silage laden atmosphere.
683. A gentle brushing or carding of the cows every day
will be found to be very beneficial to them; if this is not done
regularly, the flanks and udder of a cow should be brushed just
before milking in order to remove all loose hair and dirt that
might fall into the pail during milking. The mud which cows
have gotten on their legs and udders should be brushed off be-
fore milking is begun, and before the pails are brought to the
stable so that the dust will not settle on the tinware and thus
get into the milk. Just before milking the udder of a cow should
be washed with a clean damp sponge and then wiped dry.
684. Dairy cows must be kept quiet and never hurried or
worried; rough treatment, loud talking and dogs will diminish
both the milk flow and its richness. Abundance of sound feed
is economical but be careful to make all changes in feed grad-
ually, as too sudden changes may bring on indigestion and dis-
turbances that interfere with milk secretion. Milk should not
be used for 20 days before or until 3 to 5 days after calving.
INFLUENCE OF THE MILKER AND THE MILE PAIL ON
CLEAN MILK.
685. When a man is milking, he should bear in mind that
he is handling a food product which will undoubtedly be placed
on the tables of many people in essentially the same condition
that it is obtained from him. He should be just as particular
and as careful when milking to supply his customers or for a
factory as he is when filling the glass pitcher which his wife or
child brings him when milking and asks to have it filled, for his
own supper table.
Maiy of our food producta are "purified by fire," or cooked,
before they appear on the table, but milk and its products are,
aa a rule, used raw, with all the impurities that may have gotten
Plate 4. — An Inexpensive but clean dalr; house. Milkers tn clean
white suits; palls and cana handled in a sanitary manner, From Cir-
cular 142, B. A. I., U. S. Dept. Agr.
into them on the way from the cow to the table. The consumer
does not like to be reminded of these posaibilitiea of contamina-
tion and he would therefore gladly pay an extra price for milk
which ia known to be clean and wholeaome.
686. Milk is sometimes a aouree of positive danger to a
community, as it has been demonstrated that diseases may be
spread by this food product from one farm to many households.
When such contagious diseases aa typhoid fever, diphtheria,
scarlet fever, etc., occur in a family selling milk, the fact should
at once be made known to the proper authorities and the milk
produced on that- farm should be disposed of aa directed by
them. A sick person or one convaleacing from any contagioua
disease, or any one acting as a nurae for the aick, ahould not be
14 DAIRYING
allowed in the cow, stable or permitted to take care of cows. He
also should neither be allow^ed to handle nor deliver the milk, as
it is one of the best food materials for disease germs. In it they
thrive and multiply with alarming rapidity. This makes it neces-
sary to use every precaution possible to prevent the spreading
of diseases by criminal carelessness in handling milk from an in-
fected localitv.
THE MILKER'S PREPARATION.
687. The milker should wash his hands with soap and
water just before milking and wipe them dry with a clean
towel. His finger nails should be cut close so as not to injure oi*
irritate the cow. No loud talking should be permitted during
milking. Go about this work promptly and quietly, w4th as much
regularity in the time of milking as is possible. Some success-
ful dairymen milk their cows **by the watch'' and are very par-
ticular about the exact time each cow is milked. They are also
careful to have the same cows milked by the same men in the
same order. Experience has taught them that regularity in
milking aids in developing a tendency to prolong the period of
lactation.
Always milk with dry hajids; moistening the hands with
milk or water during milking is one of the most filthy practices
imaginable.
MILK THE COW CRY.
688. A great many milkers are in too much of a hurry to
get through milking to milk the cows dry. This loss may amount
to one-half a pound of milk from each cow at every milking, as
was found to be the case by a farmer who followed his hired
man and milked all the cows after him. By this second milking
he got over a pound from some cows and less than one-half a
pound from others, but from ten cows he got five pounds of
strippings at one milking. This to some does not seem to be a
very large amount of milk to bother with, but if milking in gen-
DAIRYING 15
eral was done so carelessly, the total loss of milk in the United
States from lazy milking would amount to sixteen million pounds
per day. This startling figure is undoubtedly as correct as the
statistical reports which give the number of milch cows in the
United States as 16,292,360, and it shows that a great saving
may be made by milking the cows dry. The last milk or strip-
pings is also much richer than the first milk, so that it is worth an
extra effort to obtain it.
689. It has been estimated from careful observation made
by Professor Woll that the yield of milk can be permanently in-
creased nearly tw.elve per cent by a systematic udder manipula-
tion and further that there is such a difference in the way cows
are milked by different persons that some milkers are worth at
least $14.00 a month more than others on account of the differ-
ence in the amount of milk an extra good milker will obtain from
a given number of cows as compared with other careless milkers.
This fact was obtained from some experiments made at the Wis-
consin Experiment Station in which the difference in the amount
of milk obtained by four different men from the herd of fifteen
^ows was noticed.
Milker No. 1 left .17 lbs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk.
Milker No. 2 left .05 lbs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk.
Milker No. 3 left .19 lbs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk.
Milker No. 4 left .2 lbs. butter fat per cow in the after-milk.
These figures show a difference between extremes of .15
pounds butter fat per day and if these fifteen cows are milked
300 days in the year, the difference would amount to an annual
loss to the owner of 675 pounds butter fat which at 25 cents a
pound, amounts to $169.00, showing that the owner could afford
to pay the best milker $14.00 a month higher wages than the
poorest milker.
690. The first jets of milk from each teat often contain a
large number of bacteria that have entered the udder by way of
dust and dirt adhering to the moist ends of the teats. This
*'fore'' milk rinses the tubes of each and removes many bacteria
so that when it is kept separate from the later milk this is more
nearly germ free than when no attempt is made to keep the
*'fore'* milk out of each milking.
i6
DAIRYING
OOVEBED MILK PAILS.
691. Many kinds of covered milk pails have been suggested
in recent years. The idea in them all is to reduce the size of the
top of the pail and thereby expose less space to the air and dust.
id
l'J*l^^l,M
Plate 6, — Two kinds of milk palls. The open pall admits mucb
dirt; the covered pall keeps It out. From Circular 158, B. A. I., U.
S. Dept. Agr.
In some cases layers of cloth or cotton and wire gauze are placed
over the reduced opening ^in this way falling 'dust or dirt is kept
Plate 6. — The Ourler Milk Pail,
out of the pail during milking. Careful trials with such pails as
compared with the common open pail have shown over 60% less
dirt and 25 to 95^ less bacteria in milk when a covered pail was
DAIRYING 17
used. Covered milk pails are more necessary in a dirty than in a
clean stable and cloth or cotton coverings may be a source of
bacteria rather than a protection unless these are sterilized each
time before using them.
Plate 7. — The Sterilac Milk Pall.
The pail with a hood cover which gives a small opening for
milking into is now considered a very satisfactory milk pail as
it may be easily cleaned, it is convenient, and furnishes nearly
all the protection needed in a clean stable when used by a clean
milker. The use of open pails for hand milking is fast disappear-
ing and doubtless before many years it will be forbidden by state
and city boards of health.
692. Wooden pails should not be used as they easily get
sour and cannot be kept thoroughly clean when new. A clean
place should be provided for the pails in the stable when it is
necessary to set them down.
The kind of bedding under the cow has a great infiuence on
the contamination of milk. The Virginia Experiment Station
found twice as many bacteria in milk when straw as compared
with sawdust was used for bedding the cows and. by sprinkling
straw bedding with water just before milking, the number of
bacteria in the milk was reduced 53 per cent.
i8 DAIRYING
CARE OF MILE AFTER MILKING.
693. Milk should be removed from the stable immediately
after milking and not poured into cans standing behind the cows.
When a clean milk room is built at one end of the stable, each
pailful of warm milk may be poured into a funnel which is con-
nected by a spout to milk cooler and cans on the other side of
the partition, separating the milk room from the stable. A better
way, however, is to remove the milk at once to an adjoining milk
house.
694. Milk strainers ought not to be necessary and the cov-
ered milk pail is helping to discard the strainer, but when used,
these, if made of cheese cloth or of flannel, should be boiled after
washing and protected from dust while drying. A dirty strainer
may introduce many bacteria into the milk. Swiss cheese makers
forbid the use of strainers at the farms as experience has shown
that a more satisfactory milk is obtained when strainers are not
used.
695. Cooling milk immediately after milking improves its
flavor and checks the growth of any bacteria that may be present
in the milk. A temperature of 50° F. and lower is unfavorable
for the growth of nearly all bacteria, but as soon as the tempera-
ture is 60°F. bacteria begin to grow and develop rapidly between
this temperature and 90°F.
The warm milk fresh from a cow should be cooled at once
to 50°F. and kept at near this temperature until delivered to the
consumer.
696. There are three general methods of cooling milk di-
rectly after milking. First, by frequent stirring and dipping the
warm milk in a can set in cold water. This is often too slow as
the water may not be cold enough and the milk not stirred fre-
quently enough to reduce the temperature fast enough to be of
much help in keeping it sweet.
Second, by pouring the milk into a cylinder the bottom of
which is punched with holes about the size of a pin; then by
holding this a few feet above the can, the milk flows in fine
streams through the air to the can below. This cools the milk
somewliat. but not to the temperature of the air; it is a goo<l
preliminary treatment before cooling further in cans as described
in the first case.
It is obvious that the air must be dust-free and odorless
when this method of cooling is used.
Plate 9. — The Champion Milk Cooler.
Third, by allowing the milk to flow in a thin layer over a
metal surface which is cooled with water or brine.
Plate 10 — Beetov Milk Cooler.
697. All the many kinds of coolers designed for using water
require cold water. Some are so arranged that ice may be placed
in the water, but this must be stirred as the hot milk warms the
water neit to the tin. If a constant supply of running water is
available, a tank or barrel of water with ice in it may be placed
above the cooler and siphoned through the cooler and the tank.
The Star cooler and others made of rows of coils of pipe are
rather expensive, but efficient and satisfactory. If not crowded
above their capacity these will cool milk or cream to within a
few degrees of the temperature of the water used in the cooler.
Some of these coolers are so arranged that brine may be
pumped through the lower half and a lower temperature than
that of the water thus obtained.
DAIRYING 21
698. Aeration of milk is not necessary if the milk is clean
and the cooling can be done without it. Milk or cream should be
exposed as little as possible to dusty air. Sudden cooling and
holding at a cold temperature is the most satisfactory way of
keeping milk sweet.
Cooling is the only milk preservative that is permitted by
law in some states ; the chemicals advertised for this purpose are
injurious to the consumer's health and the addition of them to
the milk, cream or butter is forbidden.
Never pour warm milk into cold. Do not mix the two lots
until both are near the same temperature.
ODOKS IN MILK.
699. The common odors in milk may be divided into two
classes: First, those that can be removed by aeration. These
are absorbed from the surrounding air after milking and include
such odors as bamy or stable odors, cowey, kitchen and silage
odors.
To the second class belong the odors that cannot be removed
by aeration. These come from the feed eaten, such as wild
onions, weeds, turnips and too much new pasture grass, which
latter gives an unpleasant flavor to butter during the first days
of changing from stable to pasture feed. This soon passes away,
however, when the cow's digestive system gets adjusted to the
sudden change.
• • »
700. The feeding of silage to cows does not necessarily con-'
taminate the milk. Sufficient proof of this is the fact that silage
is being constantly fed to cows that are producing some of the
highest priced milk in the country and milk which is much
sought for by physicians for the use of invalids and hospitals
because of its purity and wholesome flavor.
The objection to silage feeding in the majority of cases
comes from the poorly ventilated stables. Milk will absorb the
silage odor if it is present in the bam and for this reason it is
necessary to have the silo closed except when silage is being
22 DAIRYING
taken from it at feeding time. All the waste silage that is not
eaten by the cows should be removed and not left in the mangers
or under the cows for bedding. When this is allowed the air
will be so filled with silage odor that it will be absorbed by the
milk at milking time. No trouble, however, will come from silage
odor when the barn is clean and well ventilated and the silage is
fed after milking.
Turnips and rape may also be fed without transmitting their
characteristic odor to the milk if fed after milking and in not too
large quantities at first.
The objectionable flavors in milk that come from the cows
eating musty feed, pasture weeds, garlic and wild onions, are not
so easily gotten rid of as the silage odor and such feeds should
be avoided.
701. The cowey, barn and kitchen odors sometimes so prom-
inent in milk may be removed to a certain extent by aeration, but
prevention is preferable to cure in such cases. Keep the milk
out of these places and give it a chance to live by itself where it
will not be contaminated by unprofitable neighbors.
CARE OF DAISY UTENSILS, TINWARE, ETO.
702. All efforts to supply the consumer with clean, sweet
milk, are useless if the milk pails, cans, bottles, etc., are not faith-
fully washed and scalded* just before milk is handled in them.
Milk sours so quickly and the sour smell is so hard to wash
out that all dairy utensils ought to be washed very soon after
they are used. The be^ results are obtained by rinsing off the
film of milk with cold water, then washing thoroughly with
warm water, using a brush to clean out the seams of cans, and
finally rinse with scalding hot Water and place in the sun or some
dustless place to dry.
Do not wipe milk tinware with a cloth but let the rinsing
water be so hot that there is no need of further drying than the
evaporation of this boiling Water. *
Wooden pails or other utensils are not suitable for liandlinK
ailk in any way.
Plate 11. — Wash Sink.
Milk cans and pails should be smooth with all cracks and
seams flushed with solder.
703. If skim milk or butter milk is returned in the cans to
the farms such milk should be emptied from the cans as soon as
they reach the farm. If the skim milk is allowed to stand in
them until it becomes sour it is difficult to remove the odor.
Washing the milk cans at the factory or place of delivery and
returning them empty to the farmers is an excellent practice. It
will remove the cause of many failures to make butter, cheese
and cream of first class quality.
704 Anyone advocating the washing 'of any dairy utensils
or machine only once a week is an enemy to the dairy business.
Miik and cream cannot be kept in a condition suitable for human
food unless they are produced from sound feed in a clean bam
and handled in carefully washed utensils.
Handling milk in rusty, dirty or unsanitary cans is forbid-
den by law in some states and fines amounting to $25 and over
are imposed on guilty parties convicted of this misdemeanor.
705. Keep Night and Morning's Milk Separate. Never mix
warm milk with cold milk as this will spoil both. The morning
and night's milk should be k^t in separate cans until thorough-
24 DAIRYING
ly cold. The cans of milk must be loosely covered and kept in a
perfectly clean place protected from dirt and bad odors. In
winter the milk should not be allowed to freeze and in summer it
must be kept sweet without the use of" any kind of preservative.
In some states there are strict laws against the use of preserva-
tives in milk.
706. DeUvering the Milk. During transportation the cans
of milk must be filled to prevent churning and must be closed
with tightly fitting covers and jackets or a canvas placed over
them as a protection from dust, mud, or rain. These coverings
will aid in keeping the milk cool in extremely hot weather and
in winter they may prevent the milk from freezing.
Milk ought to be below sixty degrees Fahrenheit when de-
livered to a factory or to any other buyer, and the nearer fifty
degrees, the better for the milk, as this indicates that it has been
thoroughly cooled at the farm.
707. The Purity of Milk is entirely within the control of the
milker. If the cows are healthy th^re i^ no excuse for dirty,
tainted or sour milk. The defects iaost commonly met with in
milk may be avoided by following the directions here given.
708. Health of the Oows. Milk from a cow having any
kind of disease should not be used for human food. Sore teats,
a caked udder, or anything that cauises bloody milk must be
cured before the milk is usable. Milk from healthy cows ought
not to be used until six days after calving ; some authorities also
refuse to accept milb for thirty days before calving or when a
cow gives less than six pounds per day.
709. Injurious Food. Decayed or musty grain or feed is
unfit food for milch cows as it has an injurious effect on the
product made from it as in fact on the cow herself. Musty hay
and decayed silage are as bad as musty grain ; certain kinds of
roots, rape, etc., should only be fed in such a way as to leave the
milk free from taint or odor, which can be done by feeding these
foods directly after milk; wet brewers' grains must be fed with
caution ; on account of the strong odor from this by-product and
similar feeds, the milk will be contaminated unless removed at
once from the stables after milking.
DAIRYING 25
710. Pure Water. This is as essential for cows as it is for
humanity, and nothing but deep well — spring — or pure running
water is fit for cows.
Watering troughs must be cleaned regularly and one found
to contain rusty iron or decayed wood ought to be repaired or
replaced. Fresh water should be pumped daily if the cotvs are
watered at the stable. Two water tanks are sometimes provided
at dairy farms and a milk house built over one of them. The
water is pumped by a wind mill through the milk house tank
containing the cans of milk and then passes on to the stock water-
ing tank. This makes a very satisfactory arrangement for keep-
ing the milk cool when the wind blows but when there is no wind
the water must be pumped by hand. Such a milk house should
be well ventilated and kept clean. The water tank ought to be
regularly scrubbed so that the cows may always be supplied with
an abundance of pure, clean water.
THE OOW STABLE.
711. A sanitary cow stable that may be clean enough to be
used as a dining room if desired is not necessarily an expensive
building. The same material may be used in building a clean as
a dirty cow stable and by giving the matter some study it will
be found that the arl*angements and the conveniences needed for
keeping the cows healthy and the milk clean are not expensive
luxuries; they are common, every-day necessities that far exceed
in satisfaction the cost of building them.
712. Two general types of cow stables are illustrated in
*Plates 12 and 13 and in the plans of the model bam erected at the
Wisconsin State Fair grounds. First, the one-story stable used
only for housing, feeding and milking the cows, with no feed or
hay stored in the building and second, the two-story stable with
cows, feed and other stock all under one roof.
The one-story stable is better adapted to localities where the
climate is mild or not severely cold at any time during the year
*U. S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Circ. 131.
DAIRYING
DAIRYING
27
71
I I I I I I I f l|
M I I I 1 I I I
Plate 14. — Floor plan of two-story cow stable.
131, B. A. I., U, S. Dept. Agr.
From Circular
than to places where cows need good protection during a long
winter. The one-story stable is also supposed to be easily kept
clean because the feed is brought in and the manure taken out
of the building each day and the concrete floor of the entire
building flushed with water daily if desired. The manure is re-
moved from the building, by carriers on an elevated track and
feed brought in by the same means by from nearby feed barns.
These same aids to clean cows and clean milk may be had in
a two-story cow stable and in cold climates the hay loft over the
cows helps to keep them warm in winter.
713. The necessary ventilation should be provided in either
type of stable, although the one-story building in a mild climate
has less need of such provision than the two-story stables of
colder countries. The details of construction for sanitary cow
stables nave been worked out by building firms and dealers in
farm machinery. Bulletins on the subject are also published by
the U, S. Department of Agriculture at Washington and by a
DAIRYING
nomber of state agricultural experiment stations. Space will
not permit more than a general discussion of some of the essential
features needed in a sanitary cow stable, but sucli plans are
numerous and easily obtained, nearly every agricultural college
will supply blue prints and publications on application, and some
manufacturing firms make a specialty of furnishing plans and -
specifications for dairy bams appropriate to the needs of the
applicant.
.^^
Plate IB. — CroBB sections of stable shown In Plate 14.
714. The location of the stable should be on well drained
land and near a satigfaetory water supply. This is self-evident.
It is also well known that protection of the stable from the hot
sun and from cold storms by means of trees or a side hill will
30
DAIRYING
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DAIRYING
31
make a difference of several degrees in the temperature and will
provide a cooler stable in summer and a warmer one in winter
than an unprotected, bleak location.
The convenience to market or to a shipping point is also
important as the least time possible should be given to delivering
x-zxio'
32)f&
.«-ftx/5'
Plate 18. — Detail of Truss, Model Farmers' Barn on Wisconsin
State Fair Grounds.
the milk or cream to a creamery, a cheese factory or a city milk
depot. A long haul in the hot sun is not only a damage to the
quality of the milk and other dairy products, but it is an ex-
pensive use of time.
32
DAIRYING
The distance of the stable from the dwelling house should
not be overlooked on account of the odors and the drainage that
may come from the stable and the cow yard. It should not be
possible for the surface water to flow from the stable towards
any dwelling. Surface drains may sometimes be clogged or
Plate 19. — Panel between Trusses, Model Farmers* Barn on Wis-
consin State Fair Grounds.
frozen and the natural drainage should therefore be away from
any dwelling. A concrete cow yard built like a cement sidewalk
has been found to be very satisfactory. It should be well built
and given a grade so that it will drain. The concrete must also.
be kept dry underneath by drains. In such a yard the cows can
DAIRYING
33
stand in wet weather and keep clean. Sometimes only a part of
the cow yard is concrete and this may be enclosed with a fence
while another part or the dirt yard may be used in dry weather.
VBNTILXrOli
Plate 20. — End Construction, Model Farmers' Barn on Wisconsin
State Fair Grounds.
715. Protection from flies is one of the advantages obtained
by the concrete cow yard and by removal of manure away from
the stable. A muddy yard and heaps of manure are the best kind
of breeding places for flies. It is much more economical to re-
move the cause than to buy sprays and washes that have to be
renewed each day in order to protect the cows and the milkers
from flies.
34 DAIRYING
716. The Water Supply. Deep well water is usually pure
and cold and when pumped by farm engine of some sort into a
clean tank that is not too large or inaccessible, it makes a satis-
factory water supply. Spring water piped to the stable or forced
by a water-ram is an exceptional source of supply, but a good
one when possible.
The city or town water supply may sometimes be piped to a
cow stable and thus solve this question for some dairies, but such
water is likely to be expensive and considerable warmer in the
summer season than water from a deep well on the farm.
Pond, lake or river water is seldom safe because of the prob-
able pollution from surface drainage. Cows should not have
access to any quiet, shady pond or pool of water. Such a com-
bination may make an artistic picture and look as if the cows
were extremely comfortable, but they produce human food and
wading in the mud usually necessary for getting into a body of
open water will contaminate the milk in at least two ways ; First,
by the dirt and mud that sticks to the cow's legs and udder and
second, "by drinking the foul water which the cow herself has
polluted.
Drinking water for the cows is best supplied either by means
of a clean tank in the dry cow yard, or by filling the cement
manger in front of the cows with clean water some time during
the day. Such a manger can be easily cleaned, but the small,
stationary box, sometimes provided for each cow and filled with
water occasionally, is a filthy way of making cows drink stale
water. "Watering the cows once a day in the cement mangers and
once in the tank in the bam yard has been found to be a good
practice.
717. Amount of Light Needed in the Stable. The destruc-
tive effect of direct sunlight on tuberculosis and other germs is
sufficient ground for providing an abundance of daylight in a
cow stable. There are other beneficial effects of light on both the
cows and the persons who care for them, but this one, the germi-
cidal power of light, is of the first importance. A dark corner or
a dim basement is a dangerous place in which to keep animals
that are to be used for food or that produce food such as pork,
DAIRYING 35
eggs and milk. Direct sunlight at noon is a stronger germ
destroyer than towards morning and evening, and diffused light
is less effectual in this direction than direct sunlight. It is also
true that germs protected by shadows or by a covering of dirt
may not be destroyed by even direct sunlight because it cannot
penetrate through the dirt. This shows why cleanliness and
scrubbing are beneficial to the public health. A suflScient num-
ber of windows in a cow stable not only makes the place a more
cheerful, but a more healthy habitation for both man and beast.
Vertical windows admit more light than horizontal windows of
the same size and the thickness of the wall in which the window
is placed has an influence on the amount of light passing through
the window.
A good rule to follow in lighting a cow stable is to provide
four square feet of window space for each mature animal or
devote one-fourth the wall space to windows.
718. Some Essential Points in Bam Ventilation^ The nat-
ural forces that cause the passage of air through the flues and the
rooms connected with a properly constructed ventilating system
are first the pressure of the wind on the outside walls of the
building and second the difference in temperature and in
moisture content between the inside and the outside air. The
breath of the cows and the temperature of their bodies are
warmer than the air surrounding the stable and this makes such
inside air lighter than the colder air outside, so that it will rise
to the ceiling of the room in which the cows are standing. Dry
air is also lighter than moist air and this helps the circulation of
air in the stable. In order to take advantage of these conditions
of the air and the force of the outside wind as aids in procuring
desirable currents of air or ventilation through a cow stable, it
is necessary that the walls and windows of the stable, as well as
the air ducts and flues of the ventilating arrangements should be
made air tight, except where the intakes and the exits of air are
placed.
719. Volume of Air Required per Cow. It has been esti-
mated* that the air drawn into and forced out of the lungs of a
♦Ventilation by P. H. King.
36 DAIRYING
cow each hour amounts to 117 cubic feet ; this air in 24 hours will
fill a space about 14x14x14 feet in dimensions, or stated in an-
other way, if air is supplied to cows in the same way as water is
given to them, each cow needs 6 full pails of air per minute. It
is further estimated '*That the air of stables and dwellings should
at no time contain more than 3.3 per cent of the air once breathed
and in order that the air of a stable shall at no time con-
tain .more than 3.3 per cent of air once breathed it must enter and
leave at the rate of 3,542 cubic feet per hour per cow.^'
720. Unless animals as well as man are given a constant
supply of fresh air they are poisoned by the accumulation of COg,
water and waste products in the air, their vitality is diminished
and they finally suffocate. In an experiment with twenty cows,
reported by Professor King, there was found to be a loss of .55
pounds of milk per cow per day when the stable was poorly
ventilated, as compared with the 2-day periods of ample ventila-
tion and in addition to this, the cows in the insufficiently venti-
lated stable showed evidence of blood poisoning by an appear-
ance of a rash on the skin that made the cows rub their sides
^* until the hair in many cases was stained with blood."
721. A good indication of poor ventilation is the accumula-
tion of moisture which may even fall in drops from the walls and
ceiling of a cow stable. This is evidence of an extremely un-
healthj'- condition and where it exists some provision should be
made at once to overcome it. If 10.4 pounds invisible vapor are
thrown off daily by an animal weighing 1000 pounds, the air in
a 20-cow stable 20x40 feet and 9 feet high must be changed every
50 minutes when the temperature is 70° in order to carry off the
moisture exhaled by the cows and to prevent its condensation
on the walls and ceiling of the stable.*
722. Space per Cow. From 400 to 800 cubic feet per cow
stanchion may be used as a guide in calculating the length and
width of the stable, and the height of the ceiling above the cows
which is usually not over 9 feet. The amount of cold weather
during a year in each locality should be considered in planning
the stable. Too much space per cow is a waste of heat from the
"Figures taken from King's Book on Ventilation.
DAIRYING
37
-^
^
y
<T.^T^-:r.
-\^A^
'^«
^
t
SwA.
Plate 21. — Barn Ventilation. The best method of ventilating an
ordinary stable. The intake flues are constructed in the side wall.
The ventilator flues, CE, will take up space occupied by two cows, but
they will be found more efficient than a single flue. They should have
their lower openings at or near the floor level and rise two or three
feet above the ridge of the roof, or any adjoining roof. These flues
may be constructed of very light galvanized iron and have caps placed
over them. From Bulletin 164, Wis. Agr. Bxpt. Sta.
bodies of the animals which aids in making the ventilating system
work; it also helps to keep the cows warm in cold weather. On
the other hand, too many animals in a given space pollute the air
and make the stable unhealthy as well as hard to keep clean. All
these things should be taken into consideration when calculating
the space per cow in the stable.
38
DAIRYING
Plate 22. — Method of ventilating a lean-to stable. The air enters
at AB, and then passes out through the flue CE, built on the side wall
and roof of the upright. In constructing this flue enlarge it at the
plate and purline plate to avoid checking the draft. This flue, CK,
might, instead of following the line of the roof/ pass out through the
roof at the plate to a height of two or three feet above the ridge.
STTMMART OF ESSENTIAL POINTS IN VENTILATION.
1. The stable must be tight or so built that it can be made
tight by closing windows, doors, etc.
2. The exit flue for the ventilating system must be air tight
like the smoke chimney for a stove, with no reduction in size
throughout its length. A round or a square flue is most efficient
and this construction with as few bends in the flue as possible
will reduce the friction of the air passing through it.
3. The openings for air entering the stable should be placed
on all sides of the building one about every 10 feet, with the out-
DAIRYING
39
X
Plate 23. — ^A wall section of a stable constructed of wood. The
exterior, A, shows the opening at C. The cross section, B, shows the
method of constructing the fresh air intake. The outside opening is
shown at D and the inside at E. A simple but effective valve to regu-
late the supply of fresh air is also shown at E.
side opening in the wall at least 3 feet below the one on the inside
of the wall. A large number of openings, one about every fourth
studding, distributed along the walls are better than a few large
ones, and they should all be provided with a door or register
which may be easily opened and closed and thus provide a means
of regulating the amount of outside air coming into the building.
40 DAIRYING
4. The outside air should enter the room near the ceiling
and the exit flue should open about one foot from the flooi".
5. The capacity of the entire number of inlet flues and the
one or two outlet flues should be about equal although the outlet
is usually only one or two large flues while there are many suGiall
inlet flues, some of which may be closed during cold weather.
6. The height of the outlet flue will be governed by the
difference in temperature of the inside and the outside air. Pro-
fessor King gives the following conclusion in regard to this
point :
'^Outtakes and intakes for horses and cows should provide
not less than 30 square inches per head when the outtake has a
height of 30 feet; if the outtake is shorter the area should be
greater; if higher it may be less.
**A 20 foot outtake would require about 36 square inches
per head instead of 30. ' ^
723. The Cow Stall. Considerable attention has been given
in recent years to the construction and the arrangement of cow
stanchions and stalls so that they will keep the cow clean and
will also be comfortable to both the cow and to the milker. Other
desirable qualities of a stall or stanchion are convenience in tying
up and turning out the cows and protection from injury which
may be caused by a cow stepping on the udder of a neighboring
cow.
An arrangement that satisfies these requirements is not
necessarily an expensive one, but the way in which a cow is tied
or stalled will have considerable influence on the amount of labor
necessary to keep her clean while in the stable.
724. The chain tie around a cow^s neck is comfortable, but
it gives the cow too much freedom to move from side to side and
when this is possible, manure is likely to be dropped on the floor
of the stall instead of in the gutter behind the cows, and thus
make it difficult to keep the cow clean.
725. The rigid stanchion is uncomfortable and has the same
objections mentioned for the chain tie. Both the tie and the
DAIRYING 41
stanchion leave the cows exposed to the danger of having their
udders injured by being stepped on by a neighboring cow.
726. The swinging stanchion is comfortable and gives a cow
freedom of movement. It also keeps the cow in place better than
the chain tie.
727. The cow stalls that keep the cows separate from each
other by iron partitions between them and a chain rope across
the rear of each stall represent an entirely different way of
stabling cows than any kind of chain tie or stanchion. These leave
each cow free in the stall; she is not tied by the head or neck in
any way, and the front of the stall is adjustable to accommodate
cows of different sizes. The rear posts near the gutter are some-
times objected to because of the inconvenience they cause in
cleaning out and in milking the cows. Such stalls are not adapted
to the use of a milking machine, as the partition prevents any use
of the machine between two cows which are usually milked at one
time.
728. Another type of cow stall that is about half way be-
tween the full stall and no stall, is now being extensively used.
The cow is tied by a chain around her neck and a short partition
extending only about half way to the gutter keeps her in place
so that the manure drops into the gutter. There is also little
danger of i«jury from a neighboring cow stepping on her udder
when she is lying down. This type is illustrated by the Ideal
stall shown in Plate 25, made of iron pipe. The latter is used in
the dairy bam of the Purdue, Indiana, Experiment Station.
Several cow. stalls have been patented and can be bought
ready made, but when the important requirements of a sanitary
stall are understood, they can be made without great expense.
729. The floor of the stalls, as well as the mangers, feeding
alley and alley back of the cows, are usually made of concrete,
with a cement finish. It is also a good plan to extend the cement
a foot or two up from the floor on the walls all around the stable.
Such floors are easily kept clean and they also make it possible
to save the liquid manure which is so valuable. When a cement
floor is laid directly on the ground it is necessary to make pro-
vision for protection from dampness ; this may be done by laying
42
DAIRYING
Plate 24. — The Model stall, which has been in use for several
years, has been adopted by many of the best dairymen of the country.
The essential feature of this stall is the movable cross bar near the
hind feet of the cow, which causes her to move forward when lying
down, thus avoiding her own droppings. From Bui. 185, Wis. Expt. Sta.
a cobble stone and cinder foundation underlaid, with tile drains.
The concrete floor on which cows stand is sometimes covered with
a movable platform as a protection to the cows in cold weather
and when continuously standing in the stalls. The use of a cork-
brick covering over the cement has been recently suggested for
making the floor more comfortable for the cows.
730. The floor of the stall should be about 4 feet between the
gutter and manger for the small cows at one end of the stable,
and 5 feet at the other end for the large cows. The width of floor
required per cow will vary from 3 feet to 3% feet, according to the
size of the cows.
DAIRYING
43
'%'A
Plate 25. — The New Ideal stall used in the dairy barn of the
Purdue Experiment Station is one of the most sanitary of the simple
home-made stalls now used. This is made of gas pipes with the ex-
ception of the mangers and their partitions, which are of wood. The
guides for the chain tie are placed at an angle nearer to each other at
the top, which tightens the chain and draws the cow nearer the
manger when she lies down, thus preventing entanglement and bring-
ing her forward out of her own filth.
731. The gutters behind the cows are usually about 18 inches
wide and 4 inches deep at the shallow end of the row of cows, and
6 to 8 inches deep, according to the length of the row at the end to
which the gutter drains.
732. The mangers when made of concrete should be provided
with a movable partition which will keep the feed of each cow
separate from her neighbor and allow watering in the manger as
well as easy cleaning out when the partitions are removed. A
convenient size of manger is one about 20 inches wide at the top,
15 inches at the bottom and about 6 inches deep. Thia will be
large enough to prevent waste of feed while eating, and give good
ventilation in front of the eows.
Plate 26. — Stable equipped with James Steel Stalls.
The feeding alley may be from 4 to 7 feet wide, the greater
width being needed only when it ia desired to drive a wagon
Plate 27. — Another Btable equipped with James Steel Stalls.
through the alley. The alley back of the cows through which
they pass in and out of the stable need not be over 4 feet wide,
but this width should be regulated to accomodate the arrange-
ment used for removing the manure depending on whether or not
DAIRYING
45
■*p«««aB> •
•
o-l
i<j>'':*l -
St;
I
0)
OQ 0)
OQ (n
OQ O
OQ
OQ
be
3 •*
0?
<o
•^ Pi O
•^ CO bO
^ ^ "^
© o o
i2 +J 'O
00 ^ ©
® ® «,
^j rj ffl
rt a tj
pL, bO ©
•« S
> ?
bfi :s
46 DAIRYING
a manure carriec on a suspended track or a wagon is used for this
purpose.
FEEDINO DAIRY COWS.
733. The importance of suitable feed and plenty of it, is
now being recognized by the owners of cows much more than form-
erly; they realize that as much, if not more, attention should be
given to this (juestion than to the testing of the milk, and the
selecting of the cows on the basis of such tests. It has been shown
that a careful study or even a few observ^ations concerning the
food consumption of each cow in a herd is a very profitable use
of time, as some cows produce from 10 to 30%more milk and
butter fat from a given quantity of feed than do others. The re-
lation between feed consumed and milk produced helps to de-
termine the value of a cow to any owner.
734. Maintenance ration. A certain amount of feed is
needed to keep any animal alive and when the feed is just suf-
ficient to prevent any gain or loss in live weight, it is called a
maintenance ration. It is evident therefore that a large cow will
require more feed than a small cow to maintain her live weight.
An 800 pound cow needs approximately 21 pounds, a 1000 pound
cow about 24 pounds, a 1200 pound cow 26 pounds, and a 1500
pound cow 30 pounds of dry matter in her feed per day to pro-
duce 1 pound butter fat.* This illustrates the influence of the size
of the cow on the feed consumed for producing the same amount
of butter.
735. Relation of Feed to milk production. The effect of the
amount of milk and butter fat production on feed consumed is
shown by the following figures. The dry matter in feed required
by an 800 pound cow when dry is about 10 pounds per day ; when
producing one-half pound butter fat, 16 pounds ; for 1 pound but-
ter fat 18 pounds, and for 2 pounds butter fat, 28 pounds dry matf-
ter in feed per day. For heavier cows the feed is increased as
shown in the following table.
The amount of feed given the cow should therefore be regu-
lated by the live weight of the cow and the amount of milk and
butter fat she is producing.
*Wis. Bui. 200, p. 9.
DAIRYING
47
The relation between daily feed and production of butter fat,
as well as size of the cow, is approximately shown by the follow-
ing figures:
Weight of Cow.
Butter fat in milk ....
Dry matter . in feed . . . .
Digestible matter in feed
protein in feed
800
drv
10
6.3
.5
.5
16
11
1.3
1.
21
14
2
15
26
18
2.6
1000
1200
dry
12
8
.5
19
12
1.5
1.
23
16
2
1.5
29
19
27
dry
.5
1
1.5
15
21
26
31
10
14
17
21
.8
1.6
2.2
2.9
A cow weighing 800 pounds when producing 1 pound butter
fat in her milk per day needs 21 pounds total dry matter, which
shall contain 14 pounds digestible dry matter and 2 pounds digesti-
ble protein in her feed per day.
Taking the figures in the above table as standards, a calcula-
tion of the amount of feed needed for each cow may be made
when the amount of dry matter, etc., in the feeds available is
known.
The following table gives the necessary figures for making
such a calculation with a few of the most common feeds.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE COMMON CONCENTRATED
FEEDING STUFFS
No.
Name of feed.
00
•
«H <0
3
•i-H
O »
t^
0)
>»
00
-•-*
•
1— •
.<-•
o
-•-*
6«i
o
u
a
§
(k
h
0) CO
<M
OQ
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Wheat bran
Wheat zniddlings:
Flour
Standard
Red Dog
Corn and oats
Oil meal
Cotton seed meal
Gluten feed
Dried distillers' grains.
Dried brewers' grains. .
Malt sprouts
Hominy feed
Rye feed
Barley feed
Buckwheat feed
Buckwheat hulls
Mixed dairy feeds
Calf feeds
Animal feeds
Poultry feeds
348
81
223
54
347
159
13
35
27
18
47
39
53
17
8
3
74
64
52
218
U.U
10.58
10.92
10.61
12.74
8.59
7.32
8.08
6.09
7.93
4.99
9.88
11.37
8.67
12.50
13.02
11.84
9.51
8.45
10.52
15.17 4.67
17.37
17.12
16.77
9.98
33.21
42.35
23.85
30.49
26.59
27.13
10.56
15.29
12.48
10.74
5.04
12.83
24.72
69.22
13.30
5.37
5.42
4.12
3.75
8.09
9.30
3.39
12.78
7.07
1.49
8.55
3.47
2.80
2.75
1.05
4.98
7.28
8.31
3.66
10.66
5.40
6.78
2.22
5.47
8.73
8.69
7.91
12.56
15.21
13.51
4.71
5.
7.
20
40
31.87
40.96
11.33
6.01
"4.25
62.04
57.03
55.11
63.40
65.64
35.78
25.56
54.94
35.52
38.84
46.54
63.46
60.85
65.03
39.22
37.84
53.66
47.52
5.65
59.98
6.85
25
65
88
42
60
78
1.83
2.56
4.36
6.34
2.84
3.82
3.62
2.92
09
36
96
8.37
9.29
$22.63
28.43
25.64
30.25
27.30
31.61
31.81
23.69
27.52
22.00
17.44
22.93
23.73
19.06
19.91
12.00
26.27
70.46
59.61
47.44
48
DAIRYING
TOTAI^ DKY HATTER AXD DIGESTIBLE COMPOXEXTS IX
100 POrXDS OF FEED
C'onrentrateM.
f'orn Meal
L'orn-and-Cob Meal
Barley
Oats
Rye ,
E'eas
Soy Beans
Wheat
Mixed Dairy Feeds
Buckwheat Feed
Buckwheat Hulls .
Rye Feed ,
Hominy Feed ,
Malt Sprouts
Calf Feeds
Animal Feeds
i'oultry Feeds
Barley Feed
Wheat Bran
Wheat Middlingrs:
Standard
Flour
Fled Dog-
Corn and Oats ....
Oil Meal
Cotton
Dried
Dried
(Jluten
Seed Meal
Brewers' Grains.
Distillers' Grains
Feed
Wet Brewers' Grains
Sllaye
Corn
Clover
Alfalfa
RootM
SuKar Beets
Mang'els
Potatoes . .
Frenh C-reen Feedw
Podder C!orn ,. ,
Peas and Oats '. ,
Sorj?hum . . .
Clover ,
Alfalfa
Cabbage
Suffar Beet l^eaves
i*umpkfns
Cured FeedN, Hay, Etc.
Alfalfa
medium
mammoth
Hay
Clover
Corn
Clover,
Clover,
Mixed
Alaike
Fodder
Corn Stover
Oat Hay . .
Oat Straw
Dry
Matter
Digrestible
Protein
Carbo-
hydrates
and Fat
Total
Dig-estible
Matter
1
1
89.1
7.9
76.4
$4.3
84.9
4.4
66.5
70.9
89.1
8.7
69.2
77.9
89.0
9.2
56.8
66.0
88.4
9.9
70.1
80.0
89.5
16.8
53.4
70.2
89.2
29.6
54.7
84.3
89.5
10.2
73.0
83.2
88.2
9.1
59.3
68.4
87.5
4.8
38.2
43.0
86.9
.3
20.7
21.0
88.6
12.2
60.6
72.8
90.1
6.9
78.3
85.2
95.0
21.2
40.1
61.3
90.5
21.8
58.1
79.9
91.6
63.0
20.8
83.8
89.5
10.2
64.9
75.1
91.3
10.9
63.8
74.7
88.9
11.7
47.7
59.4
89.1
13.2
55.8
69.0
89.4
15.3
62.5
77.8
89.4
14.4
63.3
77.7
87.3
7.2
65.1
72.3
91.4
29.6
49.1
78.7
92.7
35.6
42.6
78.2
92.1
21.5
43.8
65.3
93.9
22.3
65.5
87.8
91ul
20.3
61.2
81.5
24.3
3.9
12.5
16.4
29.5
1.2
18.1
19.3
28.0
2.0
15.8
17.8
27.5
3.0
12.8
15.8
13.5
1.1
10.4
11.5
9.1
1.1
5.6
6.7
21.1
0.9
16.5
17.4
20.7
1.0
12.5
13.5
16.0
1.8
8.9
10.7
20.6
0.6
13.1
13.7
29.2
2.9
16.4
19.3
28.2
3.9
13.8
17.7
15.3
1.8
9.1
10.9
12.0
1.7
5.1
6.8
9.1
1.0
6.5
7.5
91.6
11.0
42.3
53.3
84.7
6.8
39.6
46.4
78.8
5.7
36.3
42.0
91.1
4.7
48.1
52.8
90.3
8.4
48.9
57.3
57.8
2.5
37.3
39.8
59.5
1.4
32.8
34.2
91.1
4.3
49.8
54.1
90.8
1.2
40.4
41.6
DAIRYING 49
736. The nutritive ratio of the feed is a matter of considera-
ble importance and this should be determined as well as the
amount and the composition of the feed.
Many feeding experiments have shown that for cows produc-
ing milk the nutritive ratio should be about 1 :7. This means that
the daily feed per cow should contain one part digestible protein
to seven parts digestible carbohydrates. As an illustration of a
nutritive ration calculation take the figures from the table above
for corn liieal. These are digestible protein 7.9, digestible car-
bohydrates 76.4, and dividing 76.4 by 7.9 gives 9.67, showing the
nutritive ration of com meal to be 1 :9.67.
737. Calculating a ration from the standards given let us
assume that the cow weighs about 1000 pounds and she is giving
milk that contains 1 pound of butter fat per day. The table
shows that the daily feed of such a cow should be about 23 pounds
of dry matter and this should contain about 16 pounds digestible
dry matter and 2 pounds digestible protein. Selecting some of
the more common feeds from the table, a ration that nearly satis-
fies this requirement will be made up as follows :
Digestible
Dry Protein Carbohydrates
Matter lbs. lbs.
30 pounds com silage 8.85 .36 5.43
8 pounds clover hay 6.78 .54 3.17
2-4 pounds corn meal 3.56 .32 3.06
4-6 pounds wheat bran 5.32 .70 2.86
2 pounds oil meal
24.51 1.92 14.52
Nutritive ratio 1:7.5 or 14.52^1.92.
738. This ration gives 24.5 pounds dry matter instead of 23
pounds ; 1.92 pounds digestible protein instead of 2 pounds, and
1.92 + 14.52 = 16.44 pounds digestible dry matter instead of 16.
The nutritive ratio is 1:7.5 instead of 1:7. It comes, however,
near enough the standards to make a satisfactory feed for cows of
this weight and producing 1 pound of butter fat in the milk
daily. The important problem to be considered after clearly
so DAIRYING
understanding the method of calculation here given is the use of
feeds, either those raised or bought, that will cost the least labor
and money and provide the combination of nutrients desired.
In some cases it is more profitable to sell certain feeds grown
on the farm and use the money for buying feed more suitable
for making the kind of ration needed to produce milk economi-
cally; the market price of oats may warrant the selling of oats
from the farm and buying such concentrated, protein feeds as
gluten meal, malt sprouts, and some others; the market prices,
cost of delivery, and all expenses coiinected with the buying and
selling of such feeds must be taken into consideration in making
such a calculation, but it pays well to keep posted about market
prices of feeds and to give the matter of economical feeding, as
well as balanced ration feeding, constant attention.
739. The two tables given, contain sufficient data for mak-
ing the necessary calculation as to a proper feed for dairy cows in
almost any locality, and it is much better to understand the
method of using them than it is to have a number of different
rations recommended and then make a choice for them.
740. A feeding rule which requires no calculation as to
digestible protein, etc., etc., needed per cow has become quite
popular in recent years, as has also the mixing of the grain ration
in large quantities and giving each cow the number of pounds of
this mixture that her size and milking conditions require. Some
of the grain mixtures used at the University of Wisconsin* dairy
barn are:
No. 1. Wheat bran 2 parts, ground oats 2 parts; corn meal
2 parts ; gluten meal 1 part ; oil meal 1 part.
No. 6. Wheat bran 3 parts; com meal 4 parts; distiller's
grains 3 parts.
Either one of these grain mixtures ^*When fed with corn
silage and hay or com stover, will furnish a ration having a nutri-
tive ratio of 1 :7. Each cow should receive as much roughage as
she will eat up clean, and a portion of this should preferably be
of a succulent nature, like grass, silage, soiling crops, or roots.
^Bul. 200.
DAIRYING 51
Of concentrates it has been found a good working rule to feed as
many pounds of grain feeds per day to each cow as she produces
pounds of butter fat a week, or one-fourth to one-third as much
grain as she gives pounds of milk daily, the amount depending
upon the per cent of butter fat in the milk. In the case of cows
producing milk with a low per cent of fat, one-fourth would be
required. Care should always be taken to avoid an increase in
body weight above the normal for each cow, since the milk secre-
tion, as a general rule, is likely to suffer when cows commence to
utilize their feed for the formation of body fat."**
741. Palatability and digestibility. It has been stated that
a chemical analysis of ground leather will show a percentage of
protein and carbohydrates similar to those of a concentrated cat-
tle feed, but the ground leather is worthless for feeding stock of
any kind. This striking example only illustrates another very
important point in feeding dairy cows, which is that all the feeds
they receive must be fit to eat and wholesome ; musty, moldy grain
or hay, and decayed silage will not give good returns as milk pro-
ducers, even though the figures in the table may show them to con-
tain percentages of digestible protein.
742. The important points in feeding dairy cows profitably
are first, a cow that will respond with milk when given a liberal
ration ; second, sound, palatable feed, both coarse feed and grain
mixture, and third, give all the coarse feed of some sort the cows
will eat, but regulate the amount of grain mixture by the pounds
of milk produced daily.
BEST SEASON OF THE TEAR FOR FRESH COWS.
743. This question should be considered from the standpoint
of the cow, the cost of the feed, and the sale of the products. The
advantages to be obtained from fall calving cows have been dis-
cussed in Lesson I, under the subject of Winter Dairying. The
arguments there given are all favorable to the production of the
maximum amount of milk during the winter, but a large per-
centage of the cows throughout the country are fresh in the spring
**Woll and Humphrey in Wis. Expt. St a. Bui. 200.
52 DAIRYING
and give the largest flow of milk in May, June and July. Thib
spring freshening of the cows is defended by some farmers on the
ground that there is usually more help on the farm during the
crop raising season than in the winter and this, together with the
smaller amount of care required for stabling and feeding the cows
in summer as compared with the winter season, is sufficient reason
for the widespread adoption of this practice among farmers.
The question of summer or winter dairying must therefore
be largely decided on the basis of the importance of dairying or
of milk production in the work of each farm. If a few cows are
kept for supplying the family with milk and butter, spring calv-
ing cows will probably give the least trouble to the farmer, but
if cows are kept for the purpose of converting feed and labor into
milk which is to be sold at the best price possible, then fall calving
cows will be the most profitable.
RAISING HEIFERS FROM THE BEST COWS.
744. There is undoubtedly more satisfaction and more profit
in raising heifers from the home herd than in buying cows from
outside sources for keeping up the herd. This is especially true
if a bull of a distinct dairy type and cows with good milk records
have already been procured as a foundation for the herd. By rais-
ing the heifers of cows with well known characteristics, such as a
well balanced udder, easy milkers, persistent milkers, and cows
that have a tendency to convert feed into milk rather than into
live weight, the owner may have reasonable assurance as to the
kind of cows the heifers will make. • Such herds are likely to give
a much more substantial profit from year to year than a herd
made up entirely of strange cows. If a thoroughbred bull is
used in the herd, it will be continually improving from year to
year, and the improvement will be much faster than many cow
owners think.
745. Heifers need good training and special attention during
their first milking period, which is best begun at the age of two
years. The most intelligent milker should have charge of the
heifers, as they need to be taught 'to have no fear of the milker;
they should be milked dry at each milking in order to help de-
DAIRYING
velop the milking habit, and they should be milked up to witJ
about two months of their second milking period.
In raising a heifer it is advisable to note the state of devel
ment which she has reached at the age of two years, as a too ea
milking period will tend to stop her development, if she is :
mature at that time, while a too late (after 3 years old) milk:
period may retard the milk producing tendency and develoj
disposition to convert her feed into an increase in live weij
rather than into mlik.
746. If a cow is inclined to be an unprofitable milker i1
better to feed her heavily and milk her at the same time, conti:
ing this until she is fat enough to sell for beef. This is m
profitable than trying to fatten the cow after she is dry, as
tempting to. fatten dry cows is usually a waste of feed. If on
other hand a cow shows a tendency to give milk nearly up
calving time, it is better to continue milking her as long as ;
gives milk, than to force her to go dry by occasionally omittin
milking or by not milking clean at each milking.
THE PURE-BBED SIRE.
747. After the importance of weeding out the unprofita
cows by weighing and testing their milk has made an impress
on the dairyman, he often begins to wonder where he can
cows that are worth keeping. Profitable cows are always wort
good price, and one of the surest ways to supply a farm o
neighborhood with such is to use a pure-bred sire. A bull for 1
purpose must be carefully selected. He should come from a m:
ing strain of cattle or from a family that has shown the da
temperament for generations. He also ought to have the po^
to transmit the milk producing capacity of his ancestors to
sons and daughters. This characteristic cannot always be
termined by external appearances, but it can be assumed tha
bull of good milk-producing ancestors and of a dairy type ^
help to add many valuable cows to a herd or to a commun:
Farmers do not always seem to realize how fast the blood of
bull may be made to accumulate in a herd, but a calf of the f
54 DAIRYING
generation will contain 50 per cent of the blood of its sire, one of
the second generation 75 per cent ; third generation 87.5 per cent,
and fourth generation nearly 94 per cent. This is a fast grading
up of a herd and it shows how important it is to watch the breed-
ing of the cows, in order that the herd may be on the up grade
rather than in the opposite direction. A sire of no dairy breeding
or characteristics will produce calves like himself; they will not
be any better than he is, and may be worse if the dam has no milk-
ing tendency.
748. A grade sire can never help to build up a herd in the
same way as a pure-bred sire. It is true the grade sire may be
cheap, but the milking capacity of the cows in the herd does not
improve under such breeding. If a half-blood sire is bred to a
scrub cow, the calf will have three parts scrub and one part of the
better blood. This is no improvement of any consequence, and
even if a three-fourths blood sire is bred to a scrub cow, the off-
spring will be five parts scrub and only three parts of a possibly
higher quality blood. Progress is too slow by this breeding, and
many generations will pass before the pure blood begins to show
any impression on the scrub stock. When a pure-bred dairy sire
is used his daughters may easily produce more milk in their first
milking period than the mothers of these daughters ever produced.
In buying a pure-bred sire an inspection should be made of
something more than the pedigree of the animal. The milk
records of his ancestors for several generations are of far greater
importance and these should be the evidence on which an estimate
of his value is placed.
It is often stated that ' ' The bull is more than half the herd. ' '
This is an especially important statement for a milk producer to
consider and in thinking about his herd the dairyman should re-
member that in building up or improving the milking capacity
of his cows, that he can raise good cows from good cows and a
pure-bred sire, and that although a high standard of producers
has already been reached, this may be raised still higher. An
effort should therefore be made to strengthen the constitution and
vigor of the breeding animals. Breeding for the purpose of ex-
tending an animal's pedigree is of no value, but improving the
practical value of the cows as milk producers is worth while.
DAIRYING 55
749. Observations reported from the Missouri Agricultural
College showed that 10 daughters of a dairy sire produced an
average of 110 pounds butter fat per cow more than their mothers,
while 10 daughters of a scrub sire produced an average of 216
pounds butter fat per cow, which was 18 pounds butter fat per
cow less than their mothers produced per cow. The Indiana Ex-
periment Station reports an average of 64 pounds more butter fat
per cow from herds in which pure-bred sires were used than in
those not using such sires ; the butter from the improved herd was
also produced at a cost of 31/^ cents less per pound than in the un-
graded herd.
750. An increase of 100 pounds butter per cow at 30 cents
amounts to $30 per year, and this for a herd of even 10 cows means
a difference of $300 per year which the pure-bred sire would earn
for even a small herd. If such a sire is used in the herds for an
association of farmers he would be a profitable investment, even
if he cost $1000, while the sire that failed to increase the milk pro-
duction in the different generations of cows would not be worth
anything as the milk flow from the cows would be constantly
diminishing.
751. In selecting a sire, the records of his ancestors should
cover more than a short period of 10 to 30 days, as these may be
misleading, but annual records will show a substantial basis on
which to base one's judgment of the milk producing qualities of
his family.
The age of a sire is not a safe standard by which to measure
his value in a dairy herd. An aged bull whose daughters have
satisfactory milking records is better than a young one without
a record, and a young bull should not be condemned if he has good
ancestors, until the records of his daughters have been obtained.
The power to transmit characteristics to the offspring is
something that must be determined for each individual, as this
is not a universal trait in all animals. It is much stronger with
some animals than with others, even of the same family.
COMMUNITY BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS.
752. There are many advantages to be obtained by co-opera-
56 DAIRYING
tion or by uniting the interests of many individuals in one organi-
zation. Farmers and dairymen have realized this in the past and
have started many co-operative societies that have been helpful
to them. One of the more recent of such organizations is the
Community Breeders' Association.
Statistics show that the number of cows in dairy sections oi
the country is continually increasing. This is encouraging, but
along with this gain there should be some development in indi-
vidual production, and the question is now being asked, is the
quality of the cows improving as well as the quantity . The amount
of milk produced per cow is of as much, if not more, importance
than the number of cows milked on each farm, and it is for the
purpose of raising the standard of production per cow that these
associations are being organized.
BENEFIT OF THE ASSOCIATION TO ITS MEMBE&S.
753. The Community Breeders' Associations that have al-
ready been successfully started have shown :
1. That the co-operation of owners of cows of a certain
breed in a community is much more beneficial to them than is a
spirit of rivalry and competition. If a certain community gets the
reputation of having a supply of excellent representatives of a
given breed of cows, all the cow owners in that neighborhood
profit by it, and the more they do to aid each other, and the more
they strive to deserve a high reputation for excellent cows, the
greater the benefits derived from such a reputation by all the cow
owners in the community. More progress is made by such co-
operation than by each farmer working independently of each
other.
2. Such community organization gives an added interest to
questions of breeding ; they provide a wider field for observation
than the herd of one man supplies, and these more extensive ob-
servations make some impression on old fogy and erroneous ideas
that may be in existence in the community.
3. There is better protection from tuberculosis and con-
DAIRYING 57
tagious diseases when all the cows' owners combine to stamp out*
such diseases and the advertising of such a place gives a better
chance to sell stock at higher prices than when each farmer works
independently of the other.
4. In buying stock, purchases can be made from each other,
and the buyer may be supplied with full information about the
various ancestors of the animals bought. A community may also
buy a carload or more of stock to better advantage than a single
buyer, therefore the advantages of both buying and selling are
greatly in favor of the community organization.
Jersey Island is a good illustration of this idea, and when the
well known reputation of that island is extended to various com-
munities throughout the land, the breeders located in each com
munity may reap the benefits therefrom.
5. Such an association may issue an occasional publication
or bulletin, giving a list .of the stock available in that community,
and in this way a market may be found much quicker than when
each breeder devotes his own time to selling his stock.
6. The idea of the association is not one of coercion, as no
one is obliged to belong to the organization, and a member must
not expect a sudden change in the character of his herd or to dis-
pose of his stock at a high price at once, but by co-operation to
aid and to encourage the improvement of the stock in a neighbor-
hood so that it will have a reputation that will be beneficial to all
the members.
754. Too much territory should not be covered by each as-
sociation, as members need to see each other and to see the stock
on the various farms. Members in good standing will always
profit by such an organization to the extent to which they take
an interest in its work. The plan of forming such an organization
is usually for any leading person in a community to call a meet-
ing, and after discussing the matter with possibly the assistance
of a representative of some similar association, draw up a consti-
tution and by-laws, elect officers and issue certificates of mem-
bership.
The organization and its work may be understood from an
outline to be found in Wisconsin Bulletin 189, in whicli
58 DAIRYING
state thirty associations have been organized during about tw,»
years. Each association is composed of 7 to 70 members, tht^
annual dues range from 50 cents to $3.00, and the number of pure
bred animals owned by members varies from 4 to 1000.
THE TUBERCULIN TEST.
755. There is little if any objection to the tuberculin testing:
of dairy cattle at the present tirtie. It has been demonstrated in
the last few years that the test when properly made has no bad
effect on healthy cows, and that one tuberculous animal may
spread the disease not only to all the other stock in the stable, but
to the hogs kept on the same farm, and in some instances, tht*
poultry have been found to be tuberculous. The disease spreads
rapidly, and a tuberculin test of each animal in the herd should
be made at least once a year. When cows are bought, these
should be kept out of the herd until they have been tested twice
and found free from the disease.
756. Tuberculous cows do not always show symptoms of the
disease; they may be as fat and healthy appearing as the sound
cattle, and the only way of detecting the condition of each animal
is to make the test at least once a year, unless no trace of the
disease has ever been found, and no new stock has been brought
into the herd. In such cases testing once in two years is often
enough.
757. Tuberculin testing is usually done during the cold sea-
son of the year when cows are in the stable. The cows should all
be in normal condition when tested, and remain quietly in their
stalls during the test. They should not be allowed to drink large
quantities of cold water just before the test, and the test should
not be made either just before or just after calving, or when a
cow shows symptoms of any disorder.
The test, which is comparatively simple, may be made by the
owner of the cows, or by any careful person. The necessary
tuberculin may be obtained from the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, and this, together with a clinical thermometer, an injec-
tion needle, and a graduated hypodermic syringe, are all that is
DAIRYING 59
needed for testing the cows. The tuberculin should not be used
if it has become turbid, and it should be kept in a cool place, pro-
tected from light.
DIRECTIONS FOR TUBERCULIN TESTING COWS.
758. The syringe and needle should be placed in boiling
water for at least 5 minutes just before using them.
The temperature of each animal to be tested should be taken
several times (about once in 2 hours) during the 12 hours preced-
ing the injection of the tuberculin. The temperatures are all
taken by inserting the thermometer into the rectum of the animal,
where it should remain for 3 to 5 minutes before removing. The
temperature is at once read and recorded. If these preliminary
temperatures run as high as 103° F., the tuberculin test of such
animals cannot be depended on, and cattle in advanced stages of
tuberculosis do not respond to the test. The general appearance
of such cattle, however, is usually sufficient evidence of their
diseased condition.
Very few animals are included in these two exceptions, and
the preliminary records of temperature nearly always show a
normal condition.
759. After these records have been made through the day,
the tuberculin is injected between 8 and 10 p. m. of the same day.
About 1.5 cc. tuberculin is a dose for stock under two years old;
2 cc. for mature cows, and 3 cc. for bulls and large cows.
760. The tuberculin is injected by means of the needle and
syringe under the skin, either at the side of the neck or just be-
hind the shoulder blade. The next morning, temperature records
should be made again about once in 2 hours from 6 a. m. until
evening. If these show a rise of 2 degrees or more above the
temperature of each cow, as recorded before the injection of the
tuberculin, this rise in temperature is an indication that the animal
has tuberculosis, or it * * reacts. ' ' Animals that do not show a rise
in temperature to 103° F. during the day after the injection of
tuberculin are not tuberculous.
6o DAIRYING
761. Winslow* states that **Wheii the temperature is be-
tween 108 and 103.8° the test is doubtful and the animal should
be re-tested after 3 months.''
**When the temperature rises gradually to 103.8° F., or over
within 15 hours after the injection, the animal may be considered
positively affected with tuberculosis, provided this constitutes a
rise of 2^ over the maximum temperature recorded before the
injection."
MILK FEVER.
762. This disease is said to be more common in cows calving
in the spring than in the fall, and it is also claimed that milking
the udder dry in the first 24 hours after calving brings on milk
fever.
The disease causes the cow to become very uneasy, and she
lays down with her head drawn to one side.
Relief and cure of the disease is now obtained by forcing air
into the udder through the teats. This, it is claimed, has been suc-
cessfully done in an emergency by means of a bicycle pump, but
a small syringe designed for this purpose should be owned by
everyone who keeps cows at the present time. A complete and in
expensive outfit for giving this treatment to cows is now adver-
tised in nearly all the agricultural and dairy papers.
ABORTION.
763. The premature birth of the calf may be caused by an
accidental injury, or by bacteria, which are responsible for con-'
tagious abortion. The latter are spread by the bull and by germs
present in the air or dust of a cow stable.
An aborting animal should be isolated at once, and all the
bedding burned, the fioor disinfected with lime or some other
•Production and Handling of Clean Milk, p. 348.
DAIRYING 6i
germ destroyer, and the walls of the stall or stable washed and
whitewashed. Everything possible must be done to destroy the
germs which may escape from the discharge of an aborting cow.
The sheath of the bull, as well as the uterus, tail and legs of the
cow must be thoroughly and repeatedly washed with non-irritating
antiseptic liquid. Among the solutions recommended for this
purpose are:
A 2% solution of carbolic acid.
A solution of bichloride of mercury, 1 part to 400 parts of
water.
A 2% creolin solution, and many others that may be recom-
mended by a competent veterinarian.
Contagious abortion can be cured and the cows become
healthy, normal animals, but the herd must be carefully protected
from this danger by looking up the records of new cows bought,
and of bulls used in the herd.
A PLAN FOR IMPROVING A CITY MILK SUPPLY.
764. An unlimited supply of clean, healthy milk is desired
by everyone, including the milk producer, the milk dealer, and
the consumer. In order to obtain such a milk supply these three
classes must unite with the local board of health in a spirit of co-
operation that will protect the rights of each one. This has been
found to be the most effective way of obtaining the kind of sup-
port for this movement that will produce results.
The producer or the cow owner furnishing clean milk should
be protected from the careless, indifferent producer of dirty milk
f
and from the milk of diseased cows.
The retailer who has contracted to pay a given price for a
certain kind of milk has a right to expect such milk from the pro-
ducer and the consumer has a right to know that his milk is
produced in clean surroundings and neither diluted nor polluted
in any way before delivery to his table.
765. When all persons interested in an enterprise combine to
attain the same end a certain amount of pride is taken in the busi-
62 DAIRYING
ness and this is an incentive to make improvements where needed
After the responsibility of all these parties is well understood,
the first thing to be done is to recjuire all dealers in milk to procure
a license; this is a protection and a privilege as it gives the citi
zens a means of knowing what dealers are willing to conform to
reasonable regulations and also those who will allow anyone the
privilege of visiting either the farm where the milk is produced
or the depot from which it is distributed.
The adoption of a standard or a score card by which each
farm and dairy may be measured, or inspected will be the next
step towards raising the general condition of the milk supply oj
any community, because ignorance on the part of the producer
as to what is needed at his dairy to bring it up to the required
standard is sometimes the cause of impure milk and there will
doubtless always be different grades of clean milk coming from
the many farms that produce it.
766. The dairy fajm score card is a standard by which dairy
farms may be measured and their standing as to cleanliness, etc.,
recorded ; it is based on a systematic arrangement of the various
conditions that have an influence on the purity of milk and these
are then given a numerical value. A number of different score
cards have been proposed for the use of inspectors as a means of
recording the conditions under which milk is produced at each
farm visited.
777. The following is the one used by the City of New York.
DEPARTMENT OP HEALTH.
The Citj' of New York.
Division of General Sanitary
Inspection. Dairy Report.
Inspection No Time A. P. M. Date 1911'
1. Dairyman Owner
2. P. O. Address : P. O. Address
3. County State. . . . Party Interviewed
4. Milk delivered to Creamery at Formerly at
5. Operated by Address
6. Distance of farm from Creamery Occupied farm since
7. No. Cows No. Milking. . . ! . . .No. Qts. produced
DAIRYING
63
8. All persons in the households of those engaged in producing or
handling milk are free from all infectious disease. Weekly
reports are being filed
9. Date and nature of last case on farm
10. WATER SUPPLY for utensils is from a located
feet deep and apparently is pure and wholesome
State any possible contamination located within 200 feet of source
of water supply, or if water supply is not protected against surface
drainage
11,
12
13.
r4,
Water supply on this farm analyzed 191... Result
Style of Cow Barn Length.-. . .h. Width ft. Height
of ceiling
DAIRY RULES of the Department of Health are
posted
DAIRY HERD examined by on 191. ..
Report
Perfect
Allow
15,
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23
EQUIPMENT.
COW STABLE is located on elevated ground with
no stagnant water hog-pen, privy, uncovered cesspool or
manure pit within 100 feet 1
FLOORS, other than cow beds, are of concrete
or some non-absorbant material 2
Floors are properly graded and water-tight 2
COW beds are of concrete or planks laid on con-
crete 2
DROPS are constructed of concrete, stone or some
non-absorbant material
Drops are water-tight and space beneath
is clean and dry
CEILING is constructed of and is
tight and dust proof
WINDOWS No total square feet there is
2 square feet of window light for each
600 cu. ft. air space (1 sq. ft. per each 600 cu. ft., 1) . .
VENTILATION consists of . . . . sq. ft. muslin covered
openings or. . . .sq. ft. open chutes in ceiling or
; . . . .which is sufficient 3, fair 2, poor 1, in-
sufficient 0 .
2
2
64
DAIRYING
Perfect
Allow
24. AIR SPACE is . . . .cu. ft. per cow (600 and over-3),
(500 to 600-2), (400 to 500-1), (under 400-0) 3
25. LIVE STOCK, other than cows, are. . . . excluded from
rooms in which milch cows are kept 2
27. Separate quarters are provided for cows when
calving or sick 1
28. COW YARD is . . . .properly graded and drained 2
26. There is (J^rect opening from stable into silo or
grain pit 1
29. WATER SUPPLY for cows is unpolluted and
plentiful . . .1 • 1
30. MILK HOUSE has direct opening into cow
barn or other building 1
31. Milk house has . . . .sufficient light and ventilation. ... 1
32. Floor is properly graded and water-tight 1
33. Milk house is . . . .properly screened to exclude flies. . . 1
34. Milk pails are of smoothly tinned metal
in good repair 1
35. MILK PAILS have .... all seams soldered flush 2
36. Milk pails are of the small mouthed design, top
opening not exceeding 8 inches in diameter, Diameter . . 2
37. Racks are provided to hold milk pails and cans
when not in use 2
38. Special milking suits are provided 1
40
39.
40.
41.
42.
METHODS.
Perfect
STABLE INTERIOR painted or whitewashed on
which is satisfactory 3, fair 2, unsatisfactory
1, never 0 -
FEEDING TROUGHS, platforms or cribs are
well lighted and clean
Ceiling is free from hanging straw, dirt
or cobwebs
Window panes are washed and kept clean
3
1
Allow
• • • «
• • • •
DAIRYING
65
Perfect
Allow
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
WALLS AND LEDGES are free from dirt, dust,
manure and cobwebs 2
FLOORS AND PREMISES are . free from dirt,
rubbish or decayed animal or vegetable matter 2
COW BEDS are clean, dry and no horse manure
used thereon 2
Manure is removed to field daily 4, to at least
100 feet from barn 2, stored less than 100 feet or
where cows can get at it 0 .... 4
Liquid Matter is allowed to saturate ground
under or around cow barn 2
MILKING STOOLS are clean 1
Cow Yard is clean and free from manure 2
COWS have been tuberculin tested and all
tuberculous cows removed 7
Cows are all in good flesh and condition
at time of inspection 2
Cows are all free from clinging manure and
dirt. (No. dirty ) 4
LONG HAIRS are kept short on belly,
flanks, udder and tail 1
UDDER AND TEATS of cows are thoroughly
brushed and wiped with a clean damp cloth before
milking 3
ALL FEED is of good quality and distillery
waste or any substance in a state of putrefaction is
fed 2
MILKING is done with dry hands 2
FOREMILK of first few streams from each teat is dis-
carded 2
Clothing of milkers is clean 1
Facilities for washing hands of milkers are
provided in cow barn or milk house 2
Milk is strained at and in clean
atmosphere 1
Milk is cooled within two hours after milking
to 50 degrees F. 3, to 55 degrees F. 2, to 60 deg. F. 1 3
• • • •
Ice is
used for cooling milk 1
66 DAIRYING
Perfect
Allow
63. MILK HOUSE is free from dirt, rubbish and
all material not used in the handling and storage of
milk 1
64. Milk utensils are rinsed with cold water im-
mediately after using and washed clean with hot water
and washing solution 2
65. Utensils are sterilized by steam or boiling water
after each using 2
66. Privy is in sanitary condition, with vault
and seats covered and protected 1
60
Remarks
Equipment 40 per cent. Score per cent.
Methods 60 per cent. Score per cent.
Perfect Dairy 100 per cent. Score per cent.
778, A detailed explanation of what constitutes perfect
under each head may be prepared from the information already
gone over in this lesson. Thes« may be distributed at a meeting
of all the milk producers and milk men which should be called if
this is feasible. At this meeting the plan of inspection is ex
plained and an announcement is made of the public posting in the
city hall or in the local papers of the standing of the various
dairies as indicated by the* score cards; such public posting is not
usually made however until the inspector has visited each farm s.
few times and thus given an opportunity for the owners to bring
the sanitary conditions up to a higher standard than may exist
at some farms. All parties interested are of course left free to
join in the movement or not, as they please, but the inspection of
a farm usually helps to develop a pride in the dairy with a desire
to elevate its reputation, if this is needed.
779. The next step is to hire an inspector who will' devote
his time to visiting and scoring the farms and dairies. He should
know something about milk, as well as farm conditions and should
be able to explain how each farm may be improved. After making
the inspection he should give each owner a copy of the score
card filled out at his farm. This affords each man a chance to see
DAIRYING 67
where his dairy stands in the grading and why it may have a
high or a low sc'ore, also what it is necessary for him to do to
deserve a higher score. Such inspection encourages one to pro-
duce clean milk and shows that efforts in this direction are
appreciated.
780. After a few weeks another meeting of all parties direct-
ly interested in the milk distribution of the city or the locality is
called and the results of the score cards are discussed ; these wiU
show how improvements may be made at the least expense and
they may be used as a basis for making different prices for milk
from certain groups of dairies for a period of time.
781. Inspection outside city limits is purely a matter of
courtesy but licenses should be granted only to retailers of dairy
products from inspected farms.
782. After a few months of this inspection and scoring of
the dairies and every one has been given an opportunity to avail
himself of the benefits of this movement, the last score card or the
standing given each dairy by the scoring of all the milk producers
and dealers, is published in the local papers or posted in the city
hall. This gives the consumer a chance to inform himself con-
cerning the milk, etc., sold by each dealer he is patronizing as well
as all others. A good inspector's report is a good advertisement
for a dairy or a dealer and the plan, if carried out, will induce the
owners of cows to seek information rather than to force it upon
them; and the poorly kept dairies will be forced to clean up in
order to compete with others. Many dairies could raise the score
given their farm methods at a very little expense by cleaning up
the cows, stables, etc., and by using a plenty of cold water for
washing the milk utensils, as well as steam or hot water for scald-
ing these.
783. This plan for improving the milk supply of * a com-
munity has been tried in hundreds of cities and towns in recent
years and has given excellent satisfaction. Some cities have
adopted the system of classing as excellent all dairies given a
scoring of 90 points or better ; good 80 ; medium 60 and poor below
60 points.
68 DAIRYING
It has been found that in a very few months a large propor-
tion of the dairies will move up from a lower to*a higher class and
will nearly all be in the class **Good'' and above or go out of
business.
THE CITY MILK PLANT SCORE CARD.
784. A score card similar to the one described for dairies
has been suggested for giving information concerning the con-
dition of city milk plants, creameries, cheese factories, etc. The
details of these cards have been worked out for the use of in-
spectors or anyone interested in such reports and copies of such
score cards may be found in some text books or obtained by
writing to the Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.
SCORING BOTTLED MILK OR CREAM.
785. The score card system that has been used so many
years for recording a judge's opinion of butter and cheese has
been applied to milk and cream which is to be delivered to the
consumer.
When entries of bottled milk and cream are competing in an
exhibit these are scored by the following standard.
Flavor 40 points
Composition 25 * *
Bacteria 20 ''
Acidity 5
Appearance 10
( i
i (
Total 100 ''
786. Each exhibitor is usually required to answer a number
tot questions in regard to the milk or cream. Some of these ques-
tions are the following:
1. Date and hour of milking the cows producing the milk
entered.
2. Place, date and hour of shipping the milk.
3. Is the entry a fair average sample of the milk produced
daily ? *
DAIRYING
69
4. Give a detailed statement of the way milk is handled from
time of milking to shipping.
787. In scoring certain classes of milk such as ^ * certified, ' '
the exhibitor is asked what per cent of butter fat and of total
solids as well as the number of bacteria are guaranteed. In
judging the *' flavor'' of milk and cream the samples are heated
to 100° F. ; this brings out tjie flavor and shows very striking
differences in the various samples. Some are lacking while others
have a rich, pleasant flavor and aroma. The bacteria counts are
usually made after five days' incubation. These have shown that
expensive stables are not necessary, but that milk containing but
few bacteria can be produced in a stable where ordinary clean-
liness only is the practice.
788. The following score card with directions for using it
illustrates this method of judging milk and cream :
SCORE CARD FOR MARKET MILK.
Exhibitor: — .
Address: , .
NUMERICAL SCORE.
Flavor, 40.
Composition, 25.
Bacteria, 20.
Acidity, 5.
Appearance of
package and
contents, 10.
Perfect score,
100.
Judgro's score.
DESCRIPTIVE SCORE.
Remarks:
Date: —
Flavor.
Composition.
Bacteria.
Acidity.
Package and
contents.
Excellent.
Good.
Fair.
Bad.
Flat.
Bitter.
Weedy:
Garlic.
Silasre.
Manure.
Smothered.
Other taints.
Perfect,
Fat, — per cent.
Solids not fat, —
per cent.
Perfect
Total, .
Liquefiers, ,
Perfect.
per cent.
Perfect
Foreign matter.
Metal parts.
Unattractive.
-, Judge.
70 DAIRYING
DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING.
FLAVOR.
If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect
(40). Deduct for objectionable flavors and odors according to con-
ditions found.
COMPOSITION.
If 3.25 per cent fat or above and 8.5 per cent solids not fat or
above, score perfect (25). Deduct 1 point for each one-fourth per cent
fat below 3.25 and 1 point for each one-fourth per cent solids not fat
below 8.5.
BACTERIA.
Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter (perfect) . . 20
Over 10,000 and less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter 13
Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter 18
Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter 17
Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16
Deduct 1 point for each 25,000 above 100,000.
When an unusually large number of liquefying bacteria are present,
further deduction should be made according to conditions found.
ACIDITY.
If 0.2 per cent or below, score perfect (5). Deduct 1 point for
each 0.01 per cent above 0.2 per cent. (If Mann's test is used, dis-
continue adding indicator on first appearance of a pink color.)
APPEARANCE OF PACKAGE AND CONTENTS.
If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter
can be detected in the contents, score perfect (10). Make deductions
according to conditions found.
[United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, Dairy Division.]
CLASSES OF MILK.
789. A number of different kinds of milk are now offered to
the consumer by dealers and dairymen. Some of these were first
suggested for advertising purposes as a means of drawing the
attention of the public to an exceptionally clean and healthy milk
supply. At the present time the following names have been
generally adopted as describing certain kinds of milk and their
meaning is universally understood.
DAIRYING 71
790. Maxket Milk is a term used to distinguish milk sold
directly to the consumer either wholesale or retail in cans or in
bottles from milk sold in cans to creameries, cheese factories and
condensaries.
Some years ago an estimate was made of the number of cows
supplying milt; for different purposes in the United States. This
estimate divided the milk production as follows:
7,600,000 cows produce the market milk.
9,700,000 cows produce the milk for butter.
800,000 cows produce the milk for. cheese.
791. Certiflled Milk. The use of the word ^^ certified'' as
applied to milk is limited by law in some states to milk from cows
and dairies that are regularly inspected by a representative of a
board of health or a medical milk commission. A certificate of
inspection is given to the owner or manager of a dairy furnishing
such milk.
Milk commissions may be formed for the purpose of supplying
milk conforming to certain conditions and the commission may
make contracts to supply the consumer with such milk and to find
out if each producer has the necessary equipment and is capable
of living up to the required conditions ; a certificate is sometimes
issued with each bottle of milk sold.
Some of the conditions under which certified milk must be
produced are the following;
792. The cows, the stable, the feed, and the milkers must
always be up to the highest standard of health and cleanliness.
The water used at the dairy must be examined by a chemist
and by a bacteriologist.
The milk must not be more than twelve hours old when sold
and contain less than 10,000 bacteria in one cubic centimeter.
The milk must be sold in sterilized bottles and kept at 50"^ F,
or lower until delivered to the consumer.
793. These and other conditions that protect the purity of
milk can easily be provided without excessively expensive build-
ings and equipment. Some dairymen are now doing this as is
shown by a record kept by a man producing 250 quarts of milk
72 DAIRYING
daily. He estimated that the cost of 29 cow stanchions, cement
floor, water supply, milk cans, 1000 bottles, bottle washer, capper,
rack, milk cooler, boiler, pump, and milk pails, was $1631.70, and
the bacteria content of the milk produced at this dairy was 2500
per c. c. as an average of 17 tests made of milk taken from bottles
on delivery routes. Six of the 17 tests showed less than 1000
bacteria per 1 c. c.
This good record can be made by any owner of cows if the
cows are healthy and clean, the stable has a tight ceiling, no cob-
webs or dirt are allowed to accumulate in it, the woodwork is
whitewashed, cement ^oors provided, no feed or bedding stored
in the stable except that needed daily, wood shavings are used for
bedding, 600 cubic ft. space and 4 sq. ft. window space provided
per cow stall, cows groomed not less than one hour before milking,
udders carefully washed and dried before milking, washstand or
sink provided for washing milkers' hands in stable, milk pails
.with small openings are used, the first jets of milk always drawn
into a separate can and not into the milk pail, clean clothes are
worn by the milkers, and the milk removed from the stable and
cooled immediately after milking.
794. Inspected milk is a clean milk from healthy cows that
have been tuberculin tested and their general health examined by
a veterinarian. The cows are kept in a stable that is well lighted
and ventilated and their feed and water in good condition, but
not up to the standard of ^* certified'' milk. Milk of this class is
delivered to the consumer in sterilized containers, kept at 50° F.
or lower until delivered, and it should not contain more than
100,000 bacteria per one cubic centimeter.
795. PSpSteurized milk includes milk that has been heated to
a temperature ranging from 150° F. to 180° F. for a period of
time that varies with the temperature and after heating is then
cooled to 50° F. or lower. Milk from dairies that do not comply
with the requirements of *^ certified" and * inspected" milk may
be made safer for human consumption by pasteurizing, as this
process, if properly carried out, will destroy disease germs that
may be present in the milk and prolong the time it will keep sweet.
All milk of an unknown origin may be placed in this class.
DAIRYING 73
It should not be allowed to reach a temperature as high as 60° F.
before pasteurizing and the equipment for pasteurizing should be
under the personal inspection of a board of health officer.
A sick cow should not be allowed to remain on a farm even
if the milk is pasteurized.
796. The principal advantage of pasteurizing milk comes
from the killing of disease germs such as those of tuberculosis,
typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever and some of the intestinal
diseases of children.
Some of the objections that have been made to the pasteuriza-
tion of milk are that it has a tendency to make people handling
milk on the farm more careless in keeping it clean, it increases
the cost of milk, and that dirty milk ought to be allowed to sour,
and no attempt be made to keep it sweet by pasteurization.
The advantages seem to outweigh the disadvantages, especial-
ly when milk is pasteurized in the bottles in which it is delivered
to the consumer.
THE PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM FOR
DIRECT CONSUMPTION.
797. The milk supply of cities and towns ordinarily comes
from farms some distance away and during warm weather it is
often difficult to deliver this milk in a condition perfectly satis-
factory to the consumer. State laws and city ordinances forbid
the use of either solid or liquid preservatives in milk and the
expense of sufficient refrigeration to keep milk cold enough to
prevent its souring is so great that pasteurization has in many
cases become a necessity.
798. Within the past few years a great many dealers in milk
and cream have taken advantage of the improvements made in
pasteurizing machines and have fitted up their, establishments
with the modern apparatus and supplies needed for furnishing
the consumer with pasteurized milk and cream in bottles. These
products have become popular principally because it has been
found that they will keep sweet longer than unpasteurized or raw
milk and cream.
74 DAIRYING
An infinitesimally small proportion of the world's milk sup-
ply is produced in the way described under certified milk; the
common methods of milking and of caring for milk are such that
it becomes thickly seeded with bacteria which may not necessarily
be disease germs but by their rapid growth cause milk to sour un-
less it is kept suflficiently cold to prevent the development of the
souring germs.
799, It has long been known that boiled milk will keep sweet
longer than raw milk, but the flavor of such milk is not a desirable
one and the consumer will usually object if anything like a cooked
taste in the milk is noticed. This objection has been entirely over-
come by the pasteurizing process which means simply that the
milk or cream has been heated to a temperature that destroys
nearly all the bacteria, but not sufficient to impart a ** scalded"
or '* cooked'* taste to it.
The bacteria in milk are not all of the same kind or character ;
some are easily destroyed by a short heating while others are only
killed by continued boiling ; this makes it difficult to always obtain
uniform results by practically the same treatinent. Milk that is
fresh from the cow* and has been well cared for, will contain but
few bacteria while that which is obtained from cows that are
not cleaned, then milked in a dusty stable and the milk strained
through a tainted strainer cloth into sour smelling cans will be
seeded with a multitude of germs that even the pasteurizing pro-
cess cannot completely destroy.
800. Pasteurization does not add anything to the milk; it
simply aids in preserving the good qualities that are there present
and on this account it is useless to attempt to pasteurize dirty
milk ; the dirt remains in the milk and it usually contains a large
number of the bacteria which produce putrefactive fermentations
and are also spore forming ; these spores are not easily destroyed
and often survive the heat of pasteurization and start to grow
when the pasteurized milk and cream are kept at a temperature
favorable for their development (above 50° F.). This is the
reason why pasteurized milk and cream have such a repulsive
odor when decomposition begins, the sour milk (lactic acid)
bacteria have been destroyed by the heat but the putrefactive
DAIRYING
75
SUAfiLY K^NH
I
11.
M/Uf
Wt/^/Z£^
1
1
ilf
A
-■ 1
-
1
•
nr^/f0l£>/A/6 ^Af/f
*—P€CEiv/uG zv/wr
*<ooieff
aorrts
A/U£^
Plate 29. — Arrangement of equipment for a pasteurizing plant.
bacteria spores which were not destroyed have changed the nitro-
genous constituents of the milk into products that are quite dif-
ferent from those noticed in ordinary sour milk. These same
putrefactive changes take place to a certain extent in the normal
souring of milk which has not been pasteurized, but the predom-
inating odor and taste of such sour milk come from the products
of the lactic acid fermentations and they are sufficiently pro-
nounced to make the putrefactive odors less noticeable.
Various names have been given to the process of milk pas-
teurization depending on the method used for heating the milk.
801. Home Pasteurization is done by using the '* double
boiler." As soon as the water boils in this boiler it is taken off
the stove, the milk added and after covering the boiler is al-
lowed to stand at least 20 minutes. Milk treated in this way is
usually heated to 165° F. It should then be cooled to near 40° F.
and kept cold until needed.
INTERMITTENT OB ''HELD" PASTEURIZATION.
802. When the application of pasteurization was first pro-
posed for preserving milk and cream it was deemed necessary to
heat these to about 155° F. and hold them at this temperature for
15 to 30 minutes. This continued heating was supposed to be
needed to destroy all disease germs that might be present and it
DAIRYING
Plate 30. — A simple type of pasteurizer,
is undoubtedly the most effectual of all the methods of heatiug
in so far as destroying the bacteria is concerned. It was found,
however, that when milk is heated to so high a temperature for
so long a time, the cream will not rise on it in the same way thai
it rises on raw milk. This made the intermittent method of
pasteurizing milk unsatisfactory to dealers because their custom
ers will not believe that there is cream in milk unless they cau
see it, even though a test of the milk shows that it may be of nor-
mal richness. Another peculiarity of the intermittent heating
is noticed in the body or consistency of cream pasteurized in this
way; ci-t'Hin containing as high as 25 per cent fat often appears
DAIRYING
Plate 31.— A "Regenerative" pasteurizer for use without hold-
ing tank.
to be as thin as milk and it is hard to convince the consumer that
such cream is as rich as the actual test proves it to be. These
two features therefore have made the intermittent process un-
popular.
803. The next step in the use of the pasteurizing process
for preserving milk and cream was the suggestion that the tem-
perature be reduced from 155 degrees to 145 degrees F. and then
Plate 32.-^HDldiiis tank with automatic emptying device.
hold the milk or cream at this temperature for about 15 minutes.
Investigations proved that this treatment was effectual in de-
stroying the disease germs and that a great deal better cream
separation took place in bottled milk than was the ease when it
was heated to 155 degrees F. for 15 minutes or longer.
This temperature of heating {145 degrees F. for 5 to 15 min-
utes) is undoubtedly the most satisfactory one to use in pasteuriz-
ing milk and cream when the question is considered from the
standpoint of those who wish to guarantee freedom from disease
germs of all kinds in the products supplied, but the heating of
large quantities of milk or cream in this way is not a rapid process
and in some cases it may not be any more efficient than the con-
tinuous process, as the thoroughness of the pasteurization depends
to a large extent on the condition of the milk handled.
804. If a clean milk from healthy cows is to be pasteurized
and there is no danger of its being contaminated with the spores
of putrefactive bacteria or the germs of the tuberculosis bacillus,
or other disease germs, then the temperature and the length of
time of heating may be greatly reduced, as the lactie aeid bacteria
are destroyed at near 130 degrees F. and heating to this tempera-
ture will greatly increase the length of time that such milk will
keep sweet. If, however, on the other hand the milk supply is
obtained from many farms that are never inspected and about
which little or nothing is known, it may contain many spores of
the putrefactive bacteria and an unknown variety of disease
germs. Such milk as this may often be rendered less harmful by
pasteurization, provided it is heated while the milk is still sweet,
but after pasteurization it will only keep sweet a limited length
of time because the spores are so numerous that they are not
likely to be all destroyed by the heating. The longer the period
of heating, the greater will be the number of spores destroyed
and on this account the intermittent process of pasteurization is
best adapted to the handling of mongrel milk.
8o
DAIRYING
Plate 35 SectioDal view of another type of Regenerative Cooler.
The machines shown in Lesson V, pp. 62-63-64, are now used
for pasteurizing milk and cream by this method.
THE CONTINUOUS HEATING PROCESS.
805. In supplying cities with milk the question of pasteuriz-
ation is usually considered from a commercial standpoint only.
The dealers naturally wish to reduce expenses to the lowest
terms but at the same time gain any advantage possible from
the improved keeping quality of pasteurized milk. The contin-
uous process of pasteurization has therefore appealed to them as
better adapted to the handling of large quantities of milk than
the intermittent process. The principal thing that has led to the
DAIRYING 8i
approval of continuous pasteurizers by milk dealers is the rapid-
ity with which the cream rises on bottled milk. This is a very
important point as it appeals'to the eye of the consumer and when
milk will keep sweet twelve to twenty-four hours longer than
formerly and also shows a satisfactory layer of cream on the sur-
face, there is little to be desired besides this on the part of the
average milk dealer.
The physician however may know that even if such milk has
been pasteurized, the process used has not necessarily made it
germ-free because the milk has not been heated long enough to
kill all the germs although it may have destroyed over 90 per
cent olthem.
806. The number of bacteria found in milk after it has been
pasteurized will be influenced by the number present in the raw
milk and the length of time it is heated as well as the temperature
to which it is exposed during pasteurization. An increase in the
time of exposure to a temperature above 145 degrees F. will have
a tendency to reduce the likelihood of a satisfactory raising of
the cream on the milk and the two desirable qualities of freedom
from bacteria and a good cream line are therefore to a certain
extent antagonistic, the longer the exposure to a pasteurizing
temperature, the less likely will there be a good cream line on the
milk and the shorter the exposure, the fewer the bacteria killed:
An exposure of one minute even, will destroy more bacteria than
the so-called flash heating, and when the length of time of heating
is extended without interfering with the cream-raising properties
of the milk or the capacity of the machine, a pasteurizer is ac-
complishing an important feature of the work it is designed to do.
COOLING AFTER HEATING.
807. A sudden cooling of the milk or cream from the pasteur-
izing temperature to near 50 degrees F. is a very essential part of
the pasteurizing process. A slow cooling not only diminishes the
keeping quality, but it retards the cream raising on the milk.
The spores which are more or less numerous in nearly all
82 DAIRYING
p&steurized producta will begin to develop whenever a tempera-
ture favorable for their growth is reached. This should be well
understood by everyone handling pasteurized milk or cream. If
after heating, the cooling goes on slowly, spores that have not
been destroyed by the heat will begin to grow and many of them
Plate 34. — View of anotherjtype of regenerative cooler.
jp&y have developed sufficiently during the cooling to seriously
interfere with the keeping quality of the milk ; this will make the
tieating process of no particular value and many failures to suc-
ceed in the handling of pasteurized milk or cream have been due
to the lack of appreciation of the necessity of keeping the milk
and cream at a low temperature {50° F. or lower) after it is
pasteurized.
APPROVED PASTEUBIZATION.
808. According to a Bulletin issued in January 1912, by the
Health Department of the City of New York — "Only such milk
or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized as has been subjected
to a process in which the temperature and exposure conform to
one of the following :
DAIRYING 83
No less than 158 degrees for at least 3 minutes.
No less than 155 degrees for at least 5 minutes.
No less than 152 degrees for at least 10 minutes.
No less than 148 degrees for at least 15 minutes.
No less than 145 degrees for at least 18 minutes.
No less than 140 degrees for at least 20 minutes.
STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM.
809. When milk and cream are sold directly to the consumer
either in hottles or in any other way, a uniform richness in these
products from day to day is very much desired. Such uniformity
is not only a recommendation to the huyer, but it is more profit-
able to the dealer to standardize each lot of milk and cream to a
certain per cent fat than it is to have no definite knowledge of
their richness and run the risk of losses through variations in the
per cent of fat.
Many ways have been suggested for reducing the figuring
necessary to determine how many pounds of milk and cream of «b
given richness must be taken in order to get a mixture of a certain
per cent fat.
Tables of figures have been published and short formulas given
for making such calculations but one of the most common methods
of calculation recommended is the following :
810. Place at the left hand corners of a square the tests of
the two kinds of milk or cream that will be used for making the
standard product. In the center of the square place the test of
the milk or cream wanted, then subtract diagonally, placing at
the right hand comers of the square the differences between the
figure in the center of the square and the figurei^ thus obtained.
These latter figures at the right hand comers represent the pro-
portions in which the milk and cream should be mixed.
811. Standardizing milk. If milk testing 3.0% fat is wanted
and two lots of milk, one testing 2.5% and the other 4% fat are
available, the proportions in which these two should be mixed
may be found as follows. See directions given above.
DAIRYING
This shows that by mixing .5 parts 4.%
milk with 1.0 parts 2.5% milk, the mixture
will test 3.% fat or 1 part 4% milk added to 2
parts 2.5% milk will make 3 parts 3% milk,
and if 100 lbs. of milk testing 3% fat are
wanted then 5/15 or 1/3 of 100 = 33 lbs. milk
testing 4% fat should be mixed with 10/15 or
2/3 of 100 = 66 lbs. milk testing 2.5% fat.
812. Standardizing cream. How much
skim milk is needed to reduce cream testing
32% fat to cream testing 18% fat.
This shows that by adding 14 lbs. skim
milk to 18 lbs. cream testing 32% there will be
obtained 32 lbs. cream testing 18% fat.
813. ' Substituting milk testing 4% fat for
the skim milk and the amount of this needed to
reduce the 32% cream to 18% cream may be
found.
In this case mixing equal quantities of 32%
cream and 4% milk gives 18% cream and if
100 lbs. 18 per cent, cream are wanted mix
14-28 or % = 50 lbs. 32 per cent, cream with
14-28 or % = 50 lbs. 4 per cent. milk.
814. Weight of cream to be added to given
weight of milk to make cream of given test.
If 50 lbs. milk testing 4 per cent, fat are
to be made into cream testing 20 per cent, fat
by using 30 per cent, cream according to these
figures the milk and cream must be mixed in
the proportion of 10-26 milk to 16-26 cream
and 50 lbs. milk will require 10:16::50:X=80
lbs. 30 per cent, cream to make a cream test-
ing 20 per cent. fat.
DAIRYING 85-
816. Mixing butter and skim milk to make
cream. If cream testing 18 per cent, fat is
wanted from butter containing 80 per cent, fat
which is to be added to skim milk the propor-
tions of each needed are as follows:
Showing that 18 lbs. butter fat mixed with
62 lbs. skim milk will make 80 lbs. cream test-
ing 18 per cent.
816. Calculating the lbs. cream of a given test that can be
made from a given weight of butter. How many lbs. 18% cream
will 40 lbs. butter make if the butter contains 80% fat? This
may be calculated from the figures obtained above and gives
18:62::40:X = 138 lbs. skim milk to which 40 lbs. butter are
added making 178 lbs. 18% cream.
817. Another simple method of making the necessary cal-
culations in standardizing milk or cream is to multiply the weight
of cream by its test and divide the product by the figure repre-
senting the standard wanted. If 500 lbs. cream testing 30% fat
is to be reduced to cream testing 25% fat the calculation is made
as follows: 500X30 = 15000 and 15000-^25 = 600 showing that 500
lbs. cream testing 30% fat will make 600 lbs. of cream testing
25% fat by adding 100 lbs. skim milk to the 500 lbs. 30% cream.
819. A still shorter way to make the necessary calculations
is to subtract the test of the standard cream which in this case
is 25% from the test of the cream to be reduced or 30%, then
multiply the pounds of cream to be standardized by this dif-
ference, 30— 25=5 and 5X500=2500 which 2500-^25 = 100 lbs.
the weight of skim milk that must be added to the 500 lbs. 30%
cream to reduce it to cream testing 25% fat. If cream is to be
standardized with whole milk of a certain test instead of skim
milk the calculation may be made in the same way by dividing
the product by the difference between the test of the milk used
and the figure representing the standard wanted. In the above
calculation if milk testing 4% fat is to be used instead of skim
milk then divide the 2500 by 21 which is 25—4 = 21 and the
amount of 4% milk needed will be 2500-^21 = 119, lbs. which
added to 500 = 619 lbs. cream testing 25% fat.
820. Another illustration of this method of calculation may
86 DAIRYING
help to make it clearer. If 350 lbs. cream testing 28% fat are
to be made into cream testing 18% fat by using skim milk the lbs.
skim milk needed may be found as follows:
28—18 = 10: 350X10 = 3500:
3500-^18 = 195 showing that 195 lbs. skim, milk added to
350 lbs. cream testing 28% fat will make 545 lbs. cream testing
18% fat.
If milk testing 4% fat is used instead of skim milk then
28—18 = 10 and 350X10 = 3500 and 18—4 = 14 and 3500-^14=250
therefore 350 lbs. cream testing 28% fat + 250 lbs. milk testing
4% fat = 600 lbs. cream testing 18% fat.
RETAILING MILK IN BOTTLES.
821. This line of work is now carried on in three different
ways:
1. The owner of the cows distributes his own milk and pos-
sibly some of his neighbor's milk directly to customers in a near-
by town or city.
2. City milk dealers ship milk in cans to their city establish-
ments where it is bottled and distributed.
3. City milk dealers build a milk bottling station in the
country and ship the bottles of milk to the city in refrigerated
cars.
The object to be attuned is the same in each of the above
cases and supplies and machinery suitable for equipping both the
large and the small milk bottling plant have been designed and
described in the circulars and catalogs of dealers who make such
supplies a specialty.
822. The general methods of handling bottled milk are the
same for the large and the small . dealers. The milk must be
clean and sweet, the bottles washed, sterilized and filled, and then
kept cool until distributed.
As a rule the milk is cooled before bottling, but in some
instances the warm milk is filled into bottles directly after milk-
ing and these placed in ice water or in a refrigerator where the
DAIRYING 87
milking takes place after filling. One of the objections to the latter
method is the possible lack of uniformity in the composition of
the milk in all the bottles filled at one milking. This may be over-
come by waiting until all the cows in the herd are milked before
bottling of the mixture is begun. If bottled as fast as the cows
are milked the difference in the richness of the milk of different
cows will be noticed in the various bottles filled during the
milking.
823. There are objections however to holding a large quan-
tity of warm fresh milk for any great length of time before cool-
ing and the general custom has been adopted to cool the milk at
onee after miiking and bottle the cold, mixed milk of the herd
after milking has been completed.
Any of the efficient and economical milk coolers may be used
and the milk should be filled into the bottles as soon as possible
rtffer milking and cooling.
824. Many bottle fillers have been placed on the market and
these save time and labor. The simpler the construction the bet- '
Plate 36. — Bottle Filler.
88 DAIRYING
ter and all bottle fillers should be as plain and as smooth as possl
ble so as to make the cleaning and sterilizing of the bottle filler
easily accomplished. Rubber parts should be avoided because of
the tendency of rubber to soften and swell when exposed to the
necessary sterilizing temperature. All bottle fillers should be
covered and the cover used when the tank is filled with milk, in
order to protect it from dust, flies, and other outside contamina-
tion.
825. A sterilizer for heating empty bottles and all milk
utensils and tinware after cleaning them is absolutely necessary.
It is true that large, power bottle washing machines rinse the
bottles with hot water and this may be made eflScient enough to
leave the bottles nearly germ-free without heating them in a
sterilizing oven, but such ovens are essential wherever milk is
handled in quantity as the milk pails, dippers, cans, and all uten-
sils need to be heated to a temperature up to or above that of
boiling water in order to destroy the germs that sour the milk
and the disease germs that grow so easily in milk.
Sterilizing ovens can be bought of any desired size. They are
usually made of galvanized iron and large enough to hold the
bottles in crates on a car which may be wheeled into the oven.
An oven with two compartments is a great convenience, one for
heating th^e crates of glass bottles and the other for heating tin-
ware.
Such ovens are heated by forcing steam into them through
perforated pipes laid on the bottom of the oven. A temperature
of 212° F. can be obtained in this way and this should be main-
tained for one-half hour or more. After heating, the hot bottles
should not be removed too suddenly from the oven, but allowed
to cool somewhat before the door of the sterilizer is opened. A
sudden rush of cold air into the oven chamber may crack the hot
bottles.
826. A higher temperature of heating the bottles may bo
obtained by using the high pressure sterilizing ovens which are
made to stand several pounds of steam pressure. The greater the
pressure the higher the temperature and the shorter the time
necessary to expose the bottles and utensils in order to destroy all
germ life.
These high-pressure ovens are very expensive and they are
unnecessary if the bottles and utensils are well washed and rinsed
before the final sterilization.
The size and the construction of the sterilizer may be adapted
to the needs of each place — a small one may be made of wood or
tin and large sterilizing rooms are sometimes made of cement.
These have been very satisfactory in several instances.
Plate 37. — Bottle Sterilizing Oven.
If shelves or partitions are built into an oven they should be
made of perforated metal so that the steam will pass through
them, and it may be a convenience to have such made movable.
The sterilizer should be large enough to hold all the bottles
and utensils needed for one day as it is economical to do this
work only once each day.
Sterilizing ovens of various dimensions can be bought ot
dealers and the most economical are those built of heavy gal-
vanized iron, angle iron, iron bolts and first class material in every
respect. "We have used what we consider a rather expensive
90 DAIRYING
sterilizing oven for ten years and it is ast good as new now. There
is no economy in buying cheap, tin ovens.
827. The location of the sterilizing oven may save con-
siderable work if placed between the wash room and the bottle
filling room. The car of bottles may be run into the oven from
the washing end of the room and drawn out at the opposite end
where the bottle-filler may be located.
In a small milk bottling business no special washing ma-
chinery is absolutely necessary, but wash sinks are made with
partitions for separating the rinsing from the wash water and
with over-flow pipe to carry oflf the fat and oil that comes from
the bottle washing.
828. Very convenient sinks are also made to which a turbine
bottle washing brush is attached and a rack for spraying the
inside of the bottles with clean water after washing. A small tank
filled with water for rinsing the outside of the bottles is also
provided.
829. The empty bottles from customers, are first rinsed with
water in one part of the sink, then placed in the second part
which is filled with hot water to which a little alkaline washing
powder is added. The inside and outside of the bottles are washed
with the revolving brush. The bottles are then rinsed with hot
water by the spraying device and placed in the racks which are
transferred to the sterilizing oven where they are heated by steam
to a temperature of 212° F. for at least one-half hour. An iron,
angle thermometer should be placed at some point in the oven
where it can be easily read and not in danger of being broken.
The bottles should be in an inverted position in the oven and
after heating and partially cooling placed in a metal lined, small
room, where they are kept inverted until needed.
Care must be taken in handling the bottles, the bottling tank
and all sterilized utensils to keep ones hands and fingers out of
the inside sterilized surface, as this may inoculate them with
bacteria and undo all the work of sterilizhig.
830. In bringing the warm milk from the stable, it should be
cooled over a sterilized cooler at once and placed in the bottle
filler where it is filled into the bottles at once and then capped.
DAIRYING 91
The pulp caps should be dipped in hot paraffin before placing
them in the filled bottles and these placed in ice water and kept at
a temperature of 40-50° F. The sudden cooling and keeping the
bottles of milk cold by placing broken ice in the delivery boxes
will insure the milk keeping sweet and help the formation of a
distinct cream line.
Plate 38. — Bottle Washer and Sterilizer.
All the milk utensils, cans, coolers, pails, bottles, etc., must
be cleaned and scalded after using them and then left in the
sterilizing oven or the metal lined storeroom where they will be
protected from dust until used. The walls and ceiling of the milk
bottling and wash room should be carefully cleaned by steaming
and washing.
831. By taking these precautions and protecting the milk at
the stable, it is easily possible to keep the germ contents of the
milk down to 5000 per cubic centimeter, (1 e. c. = 15 drops), even
though the cow stable and the milk room are not faced with
glazed tile and plate glass.
832. In handling the bottles both when empty and after
filling it will be found convenient to use crates or carriers holding
10 to 20 bottles. These can be placed on a truck and run into the
sterilizing oven and after this operation each crate fits under
the bottle filler from which after filling they may be transferred
to the cold room and later into boxes that fit the delivery wagons.
833. The shape of the glass bottles is not a matter of much
consequence. They should, however, be of a uniform diameter
for bottles of the same capacity, and all bottles should hold full
measure. This is more easily possible than formerly, as the
92 DAIRYING
machine-made bottles now on the market are very exact and
uniform in shape and in capacity.
834. The capacity of bottles may be tested by measuring the
required amount of water in them when a new lot is received.
One quart is equal to 946 c.c. and by using a graduated cylinder
the capacity of each bottle may be tested by pouring each bottle
filled with water into this cylinder and noting the number of c.c.
it contains.
885. Paper milk bottles are now on the market, but have
not come into general use. They cost about %c per quart, and
V2C per pint, and although paraflSned and sterile, their expense is
more than the cost of glass bottles, together with the cost of
cleaning, transportation, etc.
836. The life of a glass bottle varies in different establish-
ments. The loss from breakage and failure to return them
amounts to about one per cent per day. This, however, will de-
pend on the carefulness of the delivery men and washers. A
record kept in an establishment where 500 bottles were used
daily showed a loss of 3 bottles per day from breakage.
«
837. The cost of bottling and delivery of milk has been
estimated as about equal to the cost of production. A large milk
dealer near Duluth estimates the cost of producing the milk as
'5c per quart, and the cost of distribution as 5c per quart.
Winslow estimates the cost of bottling and retailing milk in
the city as follows :
Freight and cartage 1^ cents
Bottling and icing 1^ cents
Wagon delivery 1 cent
Office expenses V4, cent
Total cost of handling, per quart . . 4l^ cents
DAIRYING 93
" 838. Various estimates have been made of the way in which
the cost of milk from the farm to the consumer is divided.
N. Y.» Boston**
cents cents
Paid the farmer 2.75 4.4
Cost of transportation 5 .69
City delivery 4.75 3.20
Total per quart 8.00 8.30
839. According to the investigation of prices of transpor-
tation and delivering city milk reported by the Secretary of
Agriculture for the last week in June, 1910, the average price
paid by the consumer for milk in 78 cities was 8 cents per quart,
with the following prices in different sections of the country :
Cents
North Atlantic and N. Central States 7.5
Western States * ... 8.9
Slouth Central States ', 9.1
South Atlantic 9.3
CAKE OF DAIRY PRODUCTS BY THE CONSUMER.
840. Much has been written concerning the care of milk
on the farm. Printed rules and regulations have been distributed
to the producers of milk, calling their attention to the effect
which the condition of the cows, the cans, the barnyard, the
stable, etc., etc., will have on the purity and the keeping, quality
of the milk after it leaves their hands.
Prevention of all kinds of defects in milk is certainly better
than any atempts to cure them, but the care and hac^dling of
milk by the consumer is a matter that the producer is, not re-
sponsible for, and he may not therefore be the cause of, the soijir
milk in every case. This is shown by the fact that the^same Ipj;
of milk may be distributed to a number of families, and some of
them complain it does not keep well, while others have no fault
■ ■■ : ' ■ f ''
^ - - 1. . , ,«
•Winslow Production and Handling of Clean Milk. •
••Fanners' Bui. 469, O. B. S. v i ; -
94 DAIRYING
to find; here the trouble is undoubtedly caused by the way in
which the milk is used or handled by the customersl.' The milk
man is not always at fault when the milk or cream sours on the
consumers' hands, because the milk man cannot be sure of the
care it will receive after he delivers it.
841. The care of milk and cream after it reaches the kitchen
is just as important as the farm care of these products. Some
of the causes of milk souring after it gets into the hands of the
consumer are the following:
1. Frequent changes in the help employed at the customer's
house.
2. A long time for serving breakfast to different members of
the family, when the cream may stand on the breakfast table in
a warm room for two hours or more. It may have been taken
off the ice at 7 :00 a. m., but by waiting for the last member of
the family to have breakfast, which may be 9 :00 a. m., the cream
has warmed up to 70° F. before it is returned to the ice box.
3. Lack of ice in the refrigerator, which may be located
near the cook stove in a hot kitchen, and the help or someone
else has forgotten to put the ice card in the window and keep
the refrigerator supplied with ice.
4. Placing the bottle of milk and cream in the grass on the
shady side of the house instead of in a refrigerator.
5. Trying to make a small quantity of cream go too far in
a latge family by diluting it with milk which is slightly sour or
tainted. In such a case the milk is at fault, but the cream gets
the blame.
6. Diluting milk and cream with rice water in the kitchen
before it goes on the table.
7. Requiring the milk man to take the garbage from the
house if. his milk is bought. This pollutes the milk wagon, but
the customer expects the milk man to deliver perfectly sweet
and clean milk just the same.
8. Buying dairy products from two firms, one cheap and
the other not so cheap, and complaining of deffects in milk and
cream to the head of one firm, and asking him to exchange some
of his high quality goods for spoiled products on hand.
DAIRYING 95
9. Emptying bottles of milk and cream into poorly washed
utensils, such as tomato cans simply rinsed out with cold water.
10. Taking several bottles of milk, daily, placing them in a
refrigerator and overlooking one which may be a week or more
old when finally used. This one will be spoiled, but the customer
immediately calls up headquarters and wants to know what 's the
matter with his milk.
11. Filling several small pitchers with milk or cream for a
large family, placing these on the table, and afterwards gathering
what is left from each pitcher into a milk bottle, where it is kept
in refrigerator. This will usually be sour by the next meal he-
cause of the distribution it has had in several;> pitchers, and the
temperature at which it has been kept while on the table. ?
i
12. Supplying milk and cream to a grocer who deliveraf it
to customers. Some bottles of old milk will occasionally be over-
looked in the back part of his refrigerator, and these will l^ter
be delivered to customers. I
13. Dirty house refrigerators where dairy products ar^^epc
by the customers.
14. Failing to return clean bottles and using them for all
purposes around the house, such as turpentine arid coal oil con-
tainers.
THE DAIKT HOUSE OR MILK ROOM.
842. After milking the cows, the milk is disposed of in
r arious ways. First, it may be shipped in cans to a city supply, a
oondensary, a cheese factory, or a creamery. Such cans of milk
may be held uiitil delivery in cold water as shown in Plate 3i^
where the water pumped from a deep well flows through the milk
tank to the stock watering tank. If this water is kept at a
temperature near 50° F. the milk will keep sweet, provided the
cans are clean, the milk is clean, and is cooled immediately after
milking.
The milk house should be well lighted and ventilated, and
not used for any other purpose than for storing or handling milk.
If in addition to the tank of cold water described above a place is
provided for running the warm milk over a clean cooler into the
96
DAIRYING
0)
0
X
u
DAIRYING
97
cans, and for washing and steaming the empty cans, the milk
room will be supplied with all the necessary conveniences for
handling milk shipped from the farm in cans.
Second, milk may be skimmed and butter made from the
cream at the farm, or the cream may be sold directly to a buyer.
In such a case the dairy house should be large enough to accom-
modate a cream separator, a cream cooler and a churn and butter
worker. A small boiler room at one end may be necessary if hot
water and steam are not secured from some other source, and an
ice refrigerator provided in which the butter or cream is kept
until sold.
-tto^
''//////////////////////////A
^/yy//A////////}/////////,
Plate 40. — Floor plans of dairy house, showing general arrange-
ment.
If this equipment is all placed under one roof it may be ar-
ranged as shown in Plate 40.*
Third, milk may be sold to families and buyers near home.
Such a business is satisfactorily handled in a combination ice
house, refrigerator and milk room designed especially for a dairy
where milk is bottled on the farm and sold to consumers.
843. Some of the essential points in any milk or dairy
*Cir. 131, B. A. I.
98
DAIRYING
8
Cemeinf P/amt^i*
'■1 r:
iM
Plate 41. — Cross section through dairy house.
OlliEN^ION^
m^jTTz'
Plate 42. — Floor plan showing arrangement of equipment in small
dairy house suitable for dairy of thirty cows.
DAIRYING
99
house are: I. That it is open on all sides and away from any
rubbish or bad odors ; 2, that it will be used for no other purpose
than Bi dairy house ; 3, the floor' should be cement or tile with good
drainage and a trap in all drains. All the windows and doors
should . fit tightly, but be easily opened and provided with fly
screens; 4, a porch and vestibule at the entrance door will
furnish a protection from outside weather, and will help to keep
some dirt out of the building; 5, the inside walls may be either
plaster or wood, and painted so as to be easily washed; 6, if large
enough, the building may be divided into three parts, a boiler
and fuel room ; a milk receiving room in which a cold water tank
is located, and a separating and wash room.
COMBINATION MILK HOUSE AND ICE STORAGE.
844. The combination of the refrigerator and ice storage
building here described* is a modification of the Hanahan system.
The air circulating around the ice stored in the ice bouse, comes
^
u.
'i-Ll
'• II :• 'I >!
'-iL
'■ " ' II ll ' '
ii I' ;| Ji ll I ll
H
!• 'I
— -11—44 — ;•«•;_ i__ii__ :
i' '! ' I'
--^-
' 'I
i!
tz.iz,\i-hz\i'^^.-t--.l
"Xa
• ••
Ii Ji
ft-n
ll
ll !• j' ll Ij II I'
^=f-t^
• Ii ll
I! l! i{ rl II _•!
jt-ll.
fi "IT
iU
dLmMi
■vf^
Jm^ ^' -J-i^^'-L-r^'
Plate 43. — Floor plan of combination ice and dairy house.
I .( I' I
into the refrigerator through the floor, and out near the ceiling
•Hoard's Dairyman, Jan. 21, '11, p. 1504. v
.'.\:X')
100
DAIRYING
into the ice storage room. This ice is packed closely, no saw-
dust is used, but it freezes into one immense block insulated by
the walls of the building, but kept away from the walls by 2x6-
inch strips ; concrete girders 4x10 inches are built in the concrete
floor, and across these girders are laid 2x6-inch timbers on which
the block of ice rests.
■ta
n
Si -
B^sn*
n
\ 1
Plate 44. — Elevation of combination lee and dairy house.
The cold air passes through the space between the girders
to the floor of the refrigerator, which is made of narrow plank
about 1 inch apart, and so built that it may easily be removed and
cleaned.
In building this or any other arrangement for a dairy house
and cold room it is well to have a clear understanding of some
of the general principles concerning insulation, weight of ice,
dryness of the air, etc., etc., and then work out a plan suitable
for each locality.
845. There are at least three ways of supplying the low
temperature for a cold room, which is so necessary for handling
dairy products in hot weather: First, by means of an **ice ma-
chine"; second, by using a mixture of ice and salt which is held
in a series of cylindrical metal storage tanks at one side of a room,
and third, by the use of ice alone.
The cost of this reduced temperature will depend to a large
extent on the location of the dairy. It will be readily understood
DAIRYING
lOI
that in some climates and places, where a body of water is handy,
and ice can be easily obtained, the use of natural ice is cheapei*
than a mechanical refrigerating machine, while in other localities,
especially if power is cheap, or can be obtained at a reasonable
;:{:
•
i
An .
i65£"/ve/^-ff--e5AT»^
t }_ t J,
waffgu
••. • ••» «
-. .'. • '.'
^^ly^'.
-*::>•*
•V.-; j.-»:i
*••-
y
Plate 45. — Section through comhination ice and dairy house.
price, and no body of water is convenient for supplying ice, the
ice machine may be a more economical investment than the ice
house in which natural ice is stored.
THE TEMPERATURE DESIRED.
846. In handling bottled milk or cream, and in buttermak-
ing, a temperature below freezing is not necessary except in the
I02 - DAIRYING
case of storing butter, which will not be here considered, as this
is an industry of the large cold storage establishments. A tem-
perature below freezing will, of course, preserve milk and cream
a longer time than a higher temperature, but when these ar<'
frozen it has been found that the fat, casein and albumen collect
in lumps that do not liquify satisfactorily when the frozen milk
or cream is thawed. There is, therefore, no necessity of provid-
ing a ^''•eezing temp'jrature in a farm dairy cold room, but for
getting the best results in handling dairy products, especially
bottled milk and cream, a temperature of 35 to 45 degrees should
be available.
Tlic length of time one wishes to hold milk sweet before de
livery to the consumer must also be taken into account in con
sidering the temperature to which these products are to be cooled.
Nearly everyone has learned by this time that the sooner milk is
cooled after milking or after the heating process in pasteuriza-
tion, the better the flavor of the milk and the longer it will keep
sweet. No amount of cooling will restore good qualities to old
milk, even though it is still sweet.
847. Milk should always be cooled as soon as possible after
milking. If the products, such as milk and cream, are consumed
by pustomers within twenty-four hours after milking, a tempera-
ture of 50° F. may suffice, but if it is desirable to preserve the
products for a longer time, a lower temperature is needed. It is
not, however, considered good practice to keep milk several days,
even if it is sweet, as certain changes take place in milk before
it sours, and the sooner it is consumed after milking, the better.
lOE STORAGE AND COLD ROOM CONNECTED.
848. A convenient arrangement for a dairy is a construc-
tion which provides for the ice storage, the cold room or refrigera-
tor and the milk or cream room in one system ; that is to say, an
arrangement by which the three rooms are connected. This is
much more convenient than to have the ice stored in a separate
building some distance from the milk room, as the labor of trans-
ferring the ice from the ice house to the refrigerator is thus
avoided.
DAIRYING 103
The construction of the ice storage house and the cold room
or refrigerator, however, should be somewhat different because
of the purpose for jvhich the two are used. First, the refrigerator
should have an insulated concrete floor, while the floor of the ice
house should be covered with sawdust or some insulating ma-
terial on which the ice is stored. In one case the insulation is
above and in the other it is below the floor.
Second, the construction of the walls of the two buildings
must be somewhat different. A thin air space is needed in the in-
side wall of the ice storage house next to the ice or the sawdust
in order to prevent the dampness of the ice penetrating the insu-
lated walls of the ice house. The extra air space is not always
necessary in the refrigerator because in this room the air must
be dry and the ice is not placed near the walls, consequently they
are not exposed to the dampness that comes from contact with
ice stored against them as in the ice house.
849. Dry air is one of the most important things to be
secured in a refrigerator. First, because it prevents the growth
of moulds which may be responsible for a musty odor in the
refrigerator, and second, because it makes the insulation effective.
A damp atmosphere will penetrate wooden walls which, when
wet, become good conductors of heat, and their insulating value
is thus much reduced.
INSULATING MATERIAL.
850. The prime object of insulation is to prevent the passage
of air currents and protect the space enclosed from changes in
the outside temperature. The cold temperature which may bo
obtained by means of ice is held in the room by the insulation.
Protection by insulation is obtained by means of walls varying
in thickness, but built in such a way that currents of air cannot
pass through them. The construction ordinarily used for this
purpose is a board, a brick, or a cement wall on the outside, next
to this is a space varying from four to twelve inches, which is
filled with some insulating material such as shavings, sawdust,
mineral wool, etc., and inside of this a covering or wall built of
I04 DAIRYING
matched lumber; this is then covered with two thicknesses of
damp proof paper with edges overlapping at least two inches,
and on this paper another layer of matched Jumber is placed.
This last layer gives the inside finish of the room.
851. The so-called empty, ** dead-air space*' should be
avoided, or no effect made to secure it, as a strictly dead-air
space is nearly impossible to obtain. There will necessarily be a
difference in the temperature of outside and the inside wall en-
closing such an empty space and this difference in temperature
will cause the warm air to ascend on one side, and the cold air to
descend on the other, thus creating a current in this **dead air"
space and interfering with true insulation. It is also about im-
possible to get the walls so carefully built that there will not be
cracks or nail holes in them which will allow currents of air to
pass through the '*dead air** space.
When such an empty space is filled with dry shavings, saw-
dust, etc., these currents of air are prevented and the inside room
will be insulated and protected from changes of the outside
temperature.
852. It is very essential, first, that all insulating material
should be absolutely dry when placed in these dead air spaces;
(if shavings, sawdust, etc., are used, these should be spread out
in a thin layer and thoroughly dried before using) ; second, that
the walls should be built so that cracks or nail holes are few, if
any, as both these defects will diminish the effect of insulation;
third, the lumber of the walls should be matched boards, and no
tar paper should be used because of its odor; fourth, protect the
insulation from dampness that may come from melting ice, by a
thin air space and the use of damp proof paper.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOOR OF REFRIGERATING BOOM.
853. A wood floor of any kind is not suitable for a farm
refrigerator room, because when it is wet it is a good conductor
of heat and it decays easily. Dry wood only is suitable for a cold
room, and it is not probable that the floor of a dairy refrigerator
will be kept dry all the time.
DAIRYING 105
The floor should be insulated as well as the walls and ceiling.
Ruddiek, of Canada, made extensive experiments with various
kinds of floor construction, including the use of hollow brick,
concrete blocks, etc., and got satisfactory results from a floor
built as follows: A four-inch layer of concrete covered with
eight inches of cinders, on top of which is placed tar paper, and
above the paper a two-inch finishing coat of concrete. The tar
paper prevents the wet concrete from filling the air spaces in the
cinders and spoiling the insulating effect of the cinders. Some
other material than tar paper, like roofing pitch, may be spread
over the first coating of concrete. The cinders must be kept dry
and thus make them an effective insulating layer. A sufficient
slope should be given to the floor to drain it, and the opening
to the drain provided with a trap to keep out currents of air.
THE FLOOR OF AN lOE STORAGE HOUSE.
854. The floor of an ice storage house must be well drained
so as to carry away any water from the melting ice. A layer of
gravel on top of this drained area can be covered with sawdust
ten inches or more deep, and the ice blocks packed close together
on this dry sawdust. No sawdust should be allowed to get in be-
tween the cakes of ice. The walls of the ice storage room should
extend into the ground far enough to prevent circulation of air
under the foundation, and a coating of pitch or waterproofing
placed on the outside of this wall, especially below the surface of
the ground.
THE WALLS OF THE lOE STORAGE BUILDING.
855. The outside walls can be built of lumber, brick, con-
crete, or cement blocks. All these materials should be given a
coating of waterproofing material, either paint, pitch or paraffin,
in order to prevent the absorption of moisture which makes the
walls a good conductor of heat and reduces the insulating
efficiency. If a waterproof covering is not used the inside of
io6 DAIRYING
concrete, brick or cement walls can be covered with matched
lumber by nailing narrow strips of wood to the wall, and after
covering these with -waterproof paper, nail on the matched
boards; this will take the place of an outside waterproof cover-
ing of some kind. When paper is used for protecting walls from
dampness each layer of paper should lap over several inches, and
two layers are better than one.
The studding are placed against this outside wall, and a
space of six to twelve inches is left for filling with dry shavings,
sawdust or some insulating material. On the inner side of the
wall around the studding space, matched lumber is nailed, then
a layer of paper, then narrow strips of furring, to which is nailed
the inside layers of matched lumber; the object of this air space
furnished by the narrow strips of furring being to protect the
shavings or insulating materials from the dampness of the melt-
ing ice.
These directions are given only to illustrate a way of ob-
taining the essential features of insulation, which are, the pro-
tection of the insulating material from moisture and from cur-
rents of air, both of which may come from the outside and from
the inside of the building.
Any suitable material or combination of materials may be
used in building the walls. The principal objects to be attained
are efficiency and economy of construction that will keep the
insulating material dry at all times.
856. The walls of a refrigerator do not need the air space
provided by the strip of furring mentioned above, as there should
be no dampness coming to the wall from the inside of the room.
This inside wall in the refrigerator, however, should be built of
odorless wood, which may be either oiled, shellacked or white-
washed. It is claimed that a little salt added to the whitewash
will prevent its rubbing off when touched. The so-called cold
water paints may be used, and to these or to the whitewash some
disinfectant may be added to kill molds, and if the place is at all
damp, formalin or dilute solution of corrosive sublimate may be
used.
DAIRYING ro7
THE WEIGHT OP ICE.
857. A cube of ice one foot square, weighs about 58 pounds
when the ice is solid. There will be some variation from
this in actual practice, depending on the amount of snow and
shale in the ice. An approximation of the amount of ice needed
by the user of the plant may be calculated by determining for
how many days a given amount of ice will be used during the
year. If a space five feet square and five feet deep is packed
solid with ice, this is 5x5x5, or 125 cubic feet, which multiplied
by 58 lbs., gives 7250 lbs. This will supply about fifty pounds of
ice per day for 125 days, when a loss is allowed of about eight
pounds per cubic foot from waste. Similar calculations may be
made for supplying different amounts of ice per day for any
number of days.
The ice house in the plan submitted with this article will hold
about 10x14x9, equal to 1260 cubic feet, which multiplied by 58,
gives 73,080 pounds, which is about 36 tons of ice.
CITT MILK ORDIHANOES.
858. In former years very little attention was given to the
regulation of anything, but the skimming and the watering of
milk. The developments in bacteriology have shown, however,
that milk may be the means of . spreading many contagious
diseases, and on this account it has become necessary to protect
the health of the people by means of city ordinances which arc
designed to make it impossible to sell any unsanitary or diseased
milk or cream within the city limits. Such ordinances are
usually made to cover the following points at least :
A license for which $1.00 is paid each year must be obtained
by everyone selling milk or cream in the city.
The location of the dairy or dairies, and the number of cows
supplying the milk, as well as permission to inspect the barn and
premises where the milk is produced must be submitted.
Each delivery wagon must have its license number marked
on it.
io8 DAIRYING
All cows must be exieimined by the tuberculin test at least
once each year, and the results of such tests determine how soon
a retest should be made.
The sanitary condition of the cow stable, milk house, ap-
paratus, bottles, cans, wagons, etc., etc., must conform to certain
regulations.
The pasteurization of milk or cream must be done at certain
prescribed temperatures and held for certain lengths of time at
these temperatures.
A standard bacteria content per 1 c.c. milk and cream may be
adopted, together with standards for fat and solids-not-fat in
whole milk, skim milk and cream.
The use of any kind of a preservative in milk or cream is
always forbidden, and provision made for making complaints,
as well as for inspection and for fines when any of the provisions
of the ordinance are violated.
Experience with city milk ordinances has shown that unless
an inspector, who may devote as much of his time as is necessary
to this work is provided, the public gets very little protection or
benefit from such ordinances.
STATE DAIRY LAWS.
859. The laws of a state relating to the sale of dairy pro-
ducts may include all the regulations contained in city milk
ordinances and many others.
Strict regulations are usually made concerning the sale ot
butterine, oleomargarine and filled cheese, the shipping of un-
washed, empty milk cans, the location of a farm cream separator,
the use of a state brand or stencil or label, the capacity of Bab-
cock milk test glassware and the lawful reading and reporting of
test results. .?.,,.
Provisions are also made for prosecuting toy violations of
these laws, and the enforcement of all penalties.
DAIRYING 109
Some of the standards contained in state dairy laws are the
following, taken from the Wisconsin laws :
Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and
kept, excluding that obtained within eight days before and four
days after calving, and contains not less than eight and one-half
(8.5) per cent of solids-not-fat, and not less than three (3) per
cent of milk fat.
Modified milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have
a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its con-
stituents.
Skim milk is milk from which a part, or all of the cream has
been removed, and contains not less than nine (9) per cent of
milk solids.
Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling,
but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present, and
immediately cooled to fifty (50) degrees P^ahrenheit or lower.
Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated to the tempera-
ture of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient to
kill all organisms present.
Evaporated milk is milk from which a considerable portion
of water has been evaporated, and contains not less than twenty-
eight (28) per cent of milk solids, nor less than eight (8) per
cent of milk fat.
Condensed milk is milk from which a considerable portion of
water has been evaporated, and to which sugar (sucrose) has
been added, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) per
cent of milk solids, nor less than eight (8) per cent of milk fat.
Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable
portion of water has been evaporated.
Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which rises to
the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it by
centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and contains not less than
eighteen (18) per cent of milk fat.
Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a
considerable portion of water has been evaporated.
no DAIRYING
Milk fat, butter fat, is the fat of milk, and has a Reichert-
Meissl number not less than twenty-four (24) and a specific
gravity of not less than nine hundred five thousandths (0.905) at
forty degrees (40) Centrigrade compared with water at the same
temperature.
Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering
in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a
mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk
constituents, with or without salt or added coloring matter, and
contains not less than eighty (80) per cent of milk fat. (Wis.
law is now 82.5% fat).
Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by
melting butter and reworking, without the addition or use of
chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and con-
tains not more than sixteen (16) per cent of water, and at least
eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat.
Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from
milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or
lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and
seasoning or added coloring matter and containing, in the water-
free substance, not less than fifty (50) per cent of milk fat.
Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar,
with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than
fourteen (14) per cent of milk fat.
Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar,
and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than twelve
(12) per cent of milk fat.
Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar,
and sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than twelve
(12) per cent of milk fat.
/
DAIRYING III
EXAMINATION
Note to Students — These questions are to be answered inde-
pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your exam-
ination. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the exam-
ination. Number the answers the same as the questions, but
never repeat the question. Mail answers promptly when com-
pleted.
1. In what way may milk become a dangerous food?
2. About how much milk is used for making cheese each
year in the United States?
3. About how many pounds of dirt is consumed per year
per man by the milk consumers of Chicago?
4. How does the condition of the milk supply indicate the
state of civilization of a community?
5. About how many germs or bacteria in one drop of com-
mon, sweet milk?
6. What is the usual standard of city ordinances in regard
to the bacteria content of milk?
7. What general names may be given to the bacteria in
milk, and how many kinds have been found therein?
ii2 DAIRYING
8. How many bacteria may grow in one day from one germ,
and what is meant by a **good" dairy germ?
9. From what sources do bacteria get into milk?
10. Is an expensive stable necessary for producing clean
milk, and why!
11. Name at least 10 important points that should be con-
sidered in building a cow stable.
12. How may the cow yard influence the number of flies
around the cows!
13. What kind of a water supply do cows need, and why?
14. In what 3 ways may cows and milk be seeded with
tuberculosis germs?
15. How may silage be fed so as not to convey the silage
odor to milk?
16. Explain the grooming necessary for a cow before milk-
ing.
17. What effect on milk, flow has rough treatment, loud
talk and dog chasing of the cows?
18. What is the least number of days that milk should not
be used both before and after calving?
19. How is milk different than most other food products
when consumed?
20. Why should not a sick person or one with sore hands
be allowed to milk or handle milk ?
21. Why should cows be milked with dry hands, and what
benefit may come from regularity in milking?
22. What effect has lazy milking on the aniount of milk
produced each year?
23. Show by an illustration the difference in wages per
month that a good milker may earn over a careless milker.
DAIRYING 113
24. Why should the first jets of *'fore" milk be kept
separate from the rest of the milk?
25. What is a covered milk pail, and how much dirt may
they keep out of milk!
26. If milk strainers are used, how should they be made,
and how cleaned f
27. Describe 3 methods of cooling milk, and why should
milk be cooled at once after milking?
28. Is aeration of milk necessary, and when should warm
milk be mixed with cold milk!
29. Into what two classes may the odors in milk be divided,
and how may silage be safely fed to cows without contaminating
the milk?
30. What milk flavors cannot be removed by aeration?
31. Describe a satisfactory washing of milk tinware.
32. Why should night and morning milk be kept separate,
and give directions for transporting milk in cans?
33. Name some injurious common feeds for dairy cows.
34. Describe a satisfactory milk house.
35. Briefly describe two types of dairy bams.
36. Give 3 points to be considered in locating a cow stable.
37. How may stable and barnyard construction influence
the number of flies in summer?
38. Describe several kinds of drinking water supply and
methods of watering cows.
39. How much light is needed in a cow stable and why is it
important ?
40. Give general description of conditions that make bar^)
ventilation possible.
1 14 DAIRYING
41. How much air should a cow be supplied per minute and
what influence does bad air have on cows?
42. What is a good indication of poor ventilation in a cow
stable 1
AS. On what basis may the size of a cow stable be calcu-
lated ?
44. Mention at least 6 important points in bam ventilation.
45. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each of 2
ways, of keeping cows in place in a stable.
46. Give some of the important details of construction in
building a cow stable floor, a gutter and a manger.
47. About how much more milk and butter fat may one cow
produce than another from the same amount of feed ?
48. ' How much difference between the food required by an
800 lb. cow and a 1500 lb. cow to produce 1 lb. butter fat ?
49. Calculate the nutritive ratio for each of the following
feeds: Wheat, bran, alfalfa hay, corn silage, potatoes, cabbage,
and mixed hay.
50. Calculate a ration for a cow weighing 1200 lbs. and
producing 1.5 lbs. butter fat in her milk daily, using the follow-
ing feeds: Corn silage, clover hay, corn meal and wheat bran
to make up the ration.
51. If a cow gives 20 lbs. milk testing 4.0% fat per day, how
many lbs. grain mixture should be fed dail^j, and how many when
she gives 40 lbs. milk, testing 3.5% fat; also when giving only
8 lbs. milk, testing 4.5% fat?
52. What 3 things should be considered in determining the
best time of year for cows to freshen ?
53. Give points to be considered in forming an opinion
about raising heifer calves.
54. Give some of the points that make a bull profitable to a
dairy herd, and which generation will contain over 90% of the
blood of a bull.
DAIRYING 115
55. Give some examples illustrating the increase in value
of a herd by using a pure bred sire.
56. Give at least 6 benefits that may be derived from a
community breeders' association.
57. How may tuberculin testing protect both man and
beast ? What animals are subject to the disease, tuberculosis, and
how do they contract it?
58. How often should tuberculin tests be made, and at what
season of the year?
59. Give brief description of tuberculin testing of cows.
60. Describe a remedy for milk fever, and the treatment of
abortion in cows.
61. How may the people interested in a milk supply be
classified, and what is the responsibility of each class?
62. Give a brief outline of a way to secure the co-operation
that will be effective in improving a milk supply.
63. Give at least 30 observations that should be made in
scoring a dairy farm.
64. How many meetings of the milk men should be held be-
fore a score of each dairy is made public?
65. What score must a dairy have to be classed as **good"
and as **poor?
J y
66. What is the scale of points on which bottled milk is
scored ?
67. What is the difference between market milk and certi-
fied milk ?
68. What is meant by a milk commission?
69. What standards must ** inspected" milk pass?
70. What are some of the advantages of pasteurized milk,
and some of the objections to it?
ii6 DAIRYING
71. Why has spoiled, pasteurized milk such an offensive
odor, and what effect has pasteurizing on dirty and on clean milk?
72. Describe **home'' pasteurization, giving temperatures.
73. What has made the **heW method of pasteurization
unpopular, and how may this be overcome ?
74. At what temperature are lactic acid or milk-souring
bacteria destroyed, and why is a higher temperature needed in
pasteurizing ?
75. How may milk be pasteurized and still retain a cream
line in bottled milk?
76. What advantage is obtained by cooling after heating in
pasteurizing milk?
77. How long a time must milk be heated to 158, to 148 and
to 140 degrees F. in order to have it pass as pasteurized ?
78. How many pounds of milk testing 3% fat must be
mixed with 250 lbs. milk testing 5% fat to give a mixture testing
4% fat?
79. How many pounds milk testing 3% fat must be added
to 175 lbs. cream testing 30% fat to give a mixture testing 20%
fat?
80. How many pounds cream testing 25% fat can be made
from 60 lbs. butter containing 82% fat, using skim milk to mix
with the butter?
81. What are the objections to bottling milk from each
cow as soon as she is milked?
82. What are the objections to rubber parts in any ap-
paratus used for handling milk?
83. Describe some of the important points in a sterilizing
oven used by a milk dealer.
84. Describe the treatment of milk bottles from the time
they are received empty until filled with milk and ready for de-
livery.
-DAIRYING 117
85. H^w may 4he cWIftUdfty '©f pint milk botties be tested ?
86. How long will a glass milk bottle last in daily use, and
how many will be needed in a year to supply a business of lOOO
bottles per day?
"."• '■...■.
87. How much of the money paid by the customer is re-
ceived by the dairy man or the milk producer per qt. of milk!
88. Give at least 10 ways in which the consumer or buyer of
milk and cream may be the cause of its spoiling too soon.
89. Give 5 or more essential points in a milk house.
90. What are 3 ways in which a dairy refrigerator may be
kept cold?
91. What objection is there to freezing milk in order to
keep it sweet?
92. Describe the making of walls of a refrigerator and of an
ice storehouse; how do they differ?
93. Mention 2 ways in which dry air helps a refrigerator.
94. What is the objection to a dead air space in an insulated
wall ?
95. Describe the construction of a concrete floor for a
refrigerator and for an ice house.
96. Describe the construction of the walls of an ice house.
97. How many pounds of ice may be stored in a room
10x20x9 feet?
98. Give some of the essential points to be included in a
city milk ordinance.
99. Give some of the regulations that shbuld be included in
state dairy laws.
100. What per cent of fat is required in legal milk, cream,
ice cre9.m and cheese?
\
118
**■ *
UAIRXW^G
Write thiaaik tfie end of your Examination
,1. hereby certify that the above qxiestions were answered en-
,tirely by me.
Signed -
Address
'.^r.:
y
THE
Correspondence College
of Agriculture
FT. WAYNE. INDIANA
DAIRYING— Part V
Butter Making
By EDWARD H. FARRINGTOR M. S.
Profesior of Dairy Husbandry in the Univertity of Wiseondn
TK{« !• tlie Filtk of a Scriet of Six Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction
in Dairying
COPYRIGHT, 1911
^R# CORRESPONDBNCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
NOTE TO STUDENTS
In order to dtxivt the utmost possible benefit from
tibis paper^ you must thorousfhly master the text* While
it is not intended that yoti commit the exact words of the
text to memory^ still there is nothing: contained in the text
which is not absolutely essential for the intelligent dairy-
man to know* For your own good» never refer to the
examination questions until you have finished your study
of the text* By following tibis plan» the examination
paper will show what you have learned from the text*
DAIRYING
DAIRYING— Part V
BUTTER MAKING.
370. In a general way the process of butter making is the
same 'on the farm as it is in the creamery. Cream is churned
until the butter separates in the shape of small granules about
the size of wheat kernels, the butter milk is then drawn off, a
little water added to rinse away the last traces of butter milk,
the granular butter salted, then worked, and finally placed into
jars* or tubs and sold.
The quality of the butter made at either the farm or the
factory depends largely on the condition of the cream when it
is churned and on the skill of the butter maker in handling the
granular butter after it is churned. The quality of the cream
depends to a large extent on the way in which it Js skimmed
from the milk. A great deal of the farm butter is now made
from what we have already described in a previous lesson as
gravity cream, and nearly all the creamery butter is made at the
present time from cream which has been skimmed from the milk
either at the farm or at the creamery by a centrifugal separator.
This difference in the kind of cream commonly churned at the
farm and at the factory makes the process of butter making
somewhat different in the two places. The farm butter is made
from milk of one herd and the cream from this milk is therefore
more susceptible to conditions that influence churning, such as
feed, stripper cows, etc., than is the cream at a creamery which
4 DAIRYING
is a mixture of cream from many farms. In the' creamery the
peculiar characteristics of the cream from any one farm are lost
in the large quantity of which it is a part in the factory chum.
The difference in conditions under which butter is made at the
farm and at the creamery require a somewhat different discus-
sion of the process as carried on in the two places, but the farm
butter maker may g^ain many useful points that will aid him in
improving the quality of the farm butter, by carefully following
the discussion of the creamery butter maker's methods, which
will be given somewhat in detail after the general description of
farm butter making.
FARM BUTTER MAKING FROM GRAVITY CREAM.
371. Cream From "Shallow Setting". If cream is obtained
by "shallow setting" the milk and this is allowed to stand until
the skim milk underneath is sour and thick, such cream is more
or less ripe or sour when it is skimmed. This will cause a
difference in ripeness of the cream from day to day and make
the butter of different churnings very uneven in quality. It is
therefore nearly impossible to get a uniform grade of butter from
week to week when the cream is obtained in this way. The only
satisfactory treatment of such cream is to churn it as often as
every other day. After allowing the mixed cream from two to
four skimmings to stand for at least 12 hours, this cream should
be strained through a cheese cloth placed over a hair sieve into
the churn. . This will remove the lumps of curd and dried cream
that are often responsible for the white specks in butter.
By churning as often as every other day, the best butter
possible to make from such cream will be obtained, provided
the cream does not get over-ripe and it is kept in a cool place
before churning. If such cream stands longer than two days it
may become tainted and sometimes strong from the excessive
souring that goes on, especially if it is allowed to stand several
days and sometimes a week between churnings.
372. The losses from low prices in selling such butter be-
cause of its defective flavor that comes from the cream several
DAIRYING 5
days or a week old will be g^reater than the expense of churning;
as often as every other day. The only way in which a satisfac-
tory grade of butter can be niade from "shallow setting;" g^ravity
cream is to either churn every other day or to skim the cream
before it sours and then keep the sweet cream in a cool, clean
place so that it sours very slowly during the days between
churnings. There is more danger of making defective butter
from over-ripening (see Paragraph 470) than from under-ripen-
ing such cream, and the sweeter it is churned the better the
quality of the butter obtained from it.
373. If cream stands so long that the whey separates, this
whey should be poured off and not put into the churn with the
cream, as the richer the cream in the churn the better the quality
of the butter.
In churning all gravity cream, any handling that will increase
its richness will improve the quality of the butter and reduce the
length of time necessary to churn the cream to butter or to make
the "butter come."
374. Cream From '*Deep Setting" Milk in Cold Water. If
cream is obtained by setting milk in cold water in deep cans,
it differs from the "shallow setting" cream in two particulars:
First, it is sweet when skimmed, and second, it is thin, containing
only about 20 per cent. fat. It is therefore possible to make a
much more uniform grade of butter from deep than from shallow
setting cream because the sweet cream gives an opportunity for
controlling the ripening process. This may be done by placing
the sweet cream in a can or vat which is so arranged that its
temperature may be controlled. As a rule the cream should be
warmed when sweet and after it has soured, cooled and kept cold
until churned.
It is not advisable, however, to hold even sweet cream longer
than two days before churning it. The practice of adding a
small amount of sweet cream to a can or vat each day foY a
week and then churning the mixture will never make so good a
grade of butter, no matter from what source the cream comes,
as churning every other day.
375. Sweet cream should not stand at a temperature near
70 degrees F. for more than ten hours, as a longer time at this
6 DAIRYING
temperature will make it too sour and the butter will have a
strong flavor. After standing at 70 degrees F, a few hours, or
until it has a perceptible sour smell, the cream should be cooled
to near 50 degrees F, and held at this cold temperature until
churned. {See Paragraph 479.)
376. "Deep setting" cream can be made richer than it usual-
ly is when first skimmed by allowing it to stand in a tall, narrow
can having a faucet at the bottom, and after 12 hours or more,
draw off the skim milk or whey that may have collected at the
bottom of the can.
Plate 1— The Barrel Churn
377, The Farm Churn, The common barrel churn with no
dasher or other works inside is the best farm churn to use. Sev-
eral thousand patent churns haVe been recorded in the U. S. pat-
ent office and new ones are still being added to the list nearly
every year, but no churn has yet been made that is superior to
the barrel churn. The "lightning," "one minute" and other
fancy named churns have no real advantage over the barrel churn
as the churning of cream is a process which requires agitation
or concussion of the cream at a temperature that will leave the
smallest amount of butter fat in the butter milk and give a gran-
ular butter that has a firm body and from which the butter milk
, drains without leaving much of it adhering to the butter gran-
ules.
DAIRYING 7
Another advantag^e which the barrel churn has is that it is
easy to clean ; the cpver opening is lar^e so that the butter may
be easily removed and when not in use the drying; of the wood
does not make cracks that can not be repaired, as the hoops of
the churn may be easily tightened by driving; them down a little.
378. Churns for which startling claims are made as to the
quickness with which cream is churned by them into butter are
inferior to the barrel churn because they contain dashers, discs,
or some contrivance inside the churn that is hard to clean, or it
easily gets out of repair or cracks and does not make the butter
come any sooner than a barrel churn if the latter is used under
exactly the same conditions as the wonderful new churn.
379. Among the types of churns commonly used on the
farm are the stationary churns with a dasher that is worked up
and down by hand, th^ revolving churn and the swinging churn.
Many modifications of these three types of churns have been
proposed, the difference between them being principally in the
construction of the interior works which may be dashers or discs
revolving at dMerent speeds.' . Some of the important qualifica-
tions of a churn are the following:
1. It must be of simple and solid construction, with a tight
fitting cover that is easily put on and taken off. A narrow strip
of cork around the edge of the cover that fits on a metal rim
around the opening in the churn is better than a large rubber
band or washer for making a tight joint to prevent leaking
around the cover.
2. The churn must be easy to clean. The dashers and discs
in some churns are not only hard to clean but they may be the
cause of considerable loss from cream and granular butter that
sticks to them. The churn should have a large opening or cover,
not only for the purpose of taking out the butter easily, but to
give plenty of room to ventilate' and sweeten the churn when it
is not in use.
3. The churn should require a minimum amount of power
to run it and give a complete churning of the cream, leaving
very little fat in the butter milk. The claims of the maker of
the churn concerning the efficiency of its churning may easily be
8 DAIRYING
tested by following; the directions for using the churn and then
testing: the butter milk with the Babcock test.
If the richness and temperature of the cream are satisfactory
the butter milk should not test over 0.3 per cent fat when the
butter g^ranules are about the size of wheat g^rains.
4. The churn should not in any way contaminate the cream
by g;rease or particles mixing; with it during; the churning; process.
380. Claims for a certain churn that it will make a larg;er
amount of butter from the same cream than a barrel churn, may
g;et the user of such chums into trouble, as an excessive amount
of butter is only obtained by incorporating; an illeg;al amount of
water or butter milk in the butter. Leg;al butter must not hold
more than 16 per cent, water. A seller of butter containing;
more than 16 per cent, water must pay a tax of 10c per pound
for all such butter sold, and he must also obtain a license for the
privileg;e of making; it. Such butter is classed as adulterated
butter by the U. S. laws.
381. Preparing the Chum For Use. Just before using; a
churn it should be scalded with hot water to sweeten it and to
close the pores of the wood so that the butter does not stick
to it. By placing; the cover on the churn and revolving; it a few
times when about one-half filled with hot water the steam and
hot water will penetrate all the seams and destroy any ferments
that may have started in the wood or in the cracks of the churn.
After drawing; off the hot water, fill the churn nearly full
with cold water and let it stand until the wood has become thor-
oug;hly cold before adding; the cream.
382. A new churn or one having; any kind of a disag:reeable
odor should be allowed to soak several hours after filling; it with
hot water to which a little soda or alkali or lime has been added.
This water may be chang;ed several times, and finally sour skim
milk or butter milk revolved in the churn for some time.
383. Never forg;et to draw the ventilating; plug; after the
first or second revolution of the churn, as this will let the steam
escape and prevent an explosion. After churning; sour milk,
rinse with cold water and repeat this treatment until the odor
of the churn is entirely satisfactory.
DAIRYING 9
384. Filling the Churn. When the churn has become cold
the cream may be added, but it shoulcf always be strained through
a hair sieve or some other fine sieve. This will remove lumps of
curd, dried cream or butter g^ranules that will make white specks
in the butter if not removed.
385. The churn should never be filled more than one-half
full, and one-fourth full is better. A churn that seems to be too
larg^e is better than one too small for the dairy for which it is
bougjht.
386. The butter color is added to the cream just after
filling, using the amount of color desired by the customers to
whom the butter is sold. Vegetable butter colors are now used
almost exclusively, as most of the pure food laws of the various
states forbid the use of aniline or coal tar colors.
Butter color should be fresh and have no rancid odor as well
as no sediment in the bottom of the bottle.
BUTTER COLOR.
387. A uniform color is one of the desired qualities of com-
mercial butter. The natural color of milk fat from which butter
is made varies considerably during different seasons of the year.
Some of the causes of these variations are the feed, the breed,
and the period of lactation of the coivs giving the milk. Butter
made when cows are on full pasture feed is of a deeper yellow
color than when the cows are given dry feed in the stable. The
milk of fresh cows often makes a more highly colored butter
than that of strippers, and the characteristic yellow color of the
butter of Guernsey cows is well known to most dairymen.
388. All these factors influence the natural color of butter
fat to such an extent that a collection of samples of butter from
different herds of cows may show as many shades of yellow as
there are packages of butter. Some markets prefer a more highly
colored butter than others, but all demand that the. particular
standard preferred shall be a uniform color. These peculiarities
of the markets and of the cows have led to a nearly universal
lo DAIRYING
custom of adding; artificial coloring; matter to butter in order to
satisfy the demands of the trade.
389. The addition of coloring; matter to butter is, therefore,
not a deception, but is the result of a desire to cater to the popu-
lar demand for a uniform yellow color in butter at all seasons
of the year. The brands of butter color now on the market may
be divided into two gfeneral classes:
1. Those made from anatto seed by the use of some oil as
a solvent, commonly called veg;etable butter colors.
2. The aniline or coal-tar color, sometimes called mineral
colors.
In former years aniline butter colors have been more exten-
sively used than vegetable colors. There seems to be some un-
certainty in the popular mind whether or not aniline butter color
is harmless as used in the manufacture of butter. On account of
this doubt, which with some amounts to prejudice against the
use of coal-tar coloring matter in any article of food, manufac-
turers of butter color have of late made an effort to meet this
demand for vegetable or anatto butter color.
390. The vegetable or anatto butter colors are not so strong
as the aniline colors and a larger quantity of anatto color is
therefore needed to give butter the same depth of color as aniline
colors would give. The anatto color will fade when exposed to
direct sunlight, but this does not diminish its value as a butter
color, since butter is not often kept in direct sunlight for any
length of time. Experiments have shown that butter colored
with vegetable color held in cold storage for one year did not
fade.
391. Aniline butter color is a fast color. Butter colored with
it will not fade, even when exposed to direct sunlight. It is a
strong coloring agent, a small quantity only being necessary, and
when properly made, imparts no flavor to the butter. The prin-
cipal objection to it is the uncertainty as to its harmlessness and
the popular demand that everything used in food products should
be above suspicion.
392. Amount of Color Needed. The amount of butter color
to use will vary with the season of the year and the strength of
DAIRYING II
the color. A g^ood basis on which to calculate this amount is the
number of c. c. per 100 pounds of butter fat in the cream of the
churning;, to which it is to be added. ^ This will vary from about
25 c. c. in summer to 50 c. c. in winter per 100 pounds butter fat
in the cream. If butter color costs $2.00 per gallon and 25 c. c of
it per 100 pounds of butter fat are used, the cost of this 25 c. c.
is about one and one-third cents. If otie gallon of color weighs
8 pounds and this costs $2.00, then the color cost 25 cents per
pound, and as butter usually sells for at least 25 cents per pound,
this color added to the butter, sells for about the same price as
is paid for it.
393. The color is usually added to the cream in the churn
just before churning. If this should be forgotten, the color may
be stirred into the salt and this mixture added to the granular
butter when it is ready to be salted. The color will then be dis-
tributed through the butter when it is worked in the usual way.
The butter color should be kept in a cool place, and small
bottles of it that have stood in a grocery store for some time
should always be examined before used, as a rancid odor some-
times develops in butter color, and this may be imparted to the
butter.
394. Salt deepens the shade of color in butter, and different
amounts of the same color must be added to salted and to un-
salted butter in order to get approximately the same shade of
color in both kinds of butter.
If the cream contains lumps of butter before churning, these
will not take the color added at first, but such butter becomes
evenly colored by standing.
395. After placing the tight-fitting and securely-fastened
cover on the churn, revolve slowly a few times, then stop it and
pull the plug or ventilate the churn in order that the gases and
compressed air may escape. This should be done at least twice
during the first ten revolutions of the churn. It is a good plan
also to take the temperature of the cream in the churn after the
first few revolutions and if this is not near the temperature de-
sired, warm or cold water may be added to the cream until such
a temperature is reached.
12 DAIRYING
The chumingf is continued at a uniform speed until the sound
of the cream in the churn indicates that it is becoming milky and
the butter is coming.
CHURNING.
396. Cream is churned for the purpose of separating the fat
globules from the serum of the cream. This is done by solidify-
ing the liquid fat globules and then sticking them together into
sufficiently large lumps or granules to float on the serum. The
object of churning is to accomplish this separation exhaustively
and within a reasonable time.
Butter fat itself is not a simple or an elementary substance,
but is composed of several so-called "glycerides of the fatty
acids." These, component parts have different properties ; some
of them are hard, like tallow, while others are soft like lard, and
the proportion in which the hard and the soft parts are present
is somewhat variable. This lack of uniformity in hardness is due
principally to the breed of the cow and to the part of the period
of lactation in which the milk is produced. Jersey butter fat as
a rule contains more of the harder, tallowy parts than is com-
monly found in average butter on the market, while Holstein but-
ter fat is below the average in this particular, and contains a
large proportion of the softer parts. This difference in the com-
position of butter fat is one cause of the variation in temperature
at which cream churns satisfactorily at different times. By
churning, the fat globules are made to adhere to each other, be-
ginning with the microscopic drops which gradually accumulate
and stick together until the mass becomes large enough to be
seen, and finally to form granular butter. The point at which the
fat globules begin to stick together varies according to the com-
position of the fat and its temperature; pieces of tallow need to
be warmer than pieces of lard in order to make them stick to
each other, and if both are heated so high as to melt and become
oily, such particles would break apart and fail to stick together
when brought into contact with each other by churning. This
property of tallow and lard to become sticky and adhesive at
different temperatures illustrates the differences in churning that
%
DAIRYING 13
are often observed in butter-making. When butter fat contains
a large proportion of the harder component parts, the globules
will stick together, or churn, at a higher temperature than is the
case with fat which has more of the softer component parts. A
Jersey cream will therefore churn in a satisfactory way at a
higher temperature than a Holstein cream. These two breeds
represent the extremes in this particular, and between them are
found the great majority of cows.
Temperature of Churning.
397. The churning temperature of cream is the temperature
of the butter-milk when churning is completed. This is not nec-
essarily the temperature of the cream when it is put into the
churn, because the room where the churning is done may be
colder or warmer than the cream, and will change the cream
temperature before churning is completed.
398. In considering the question of churning, it is well to
remember the objects to be attained by churning, which are: (1)
To complete the churning in a reasonable length of time; (2) to
have the butter come in a firm, waxy condition, and (3) to churn
out all the *butter there is in the cream. The efficiency with
which these three things are accomplished depends largely on the
temperature of the cream when it is churned.
399. No fixed temperature can be adopted as a standard to
be used in all churnings, but a few general statements regarding
churning temperatures may be made as applying to normal con-
ditions of cream:
1. A thin, sweet cream.
2. A thin, sour cream.
3. A rich, sweet cream.
4. A rich, sour cream.
Jhese statements are intended to apply to the mixed cream
of several cows or herds where the influences of breed character-
istics and the lactation period are eliminated by the numbers and
variety of the cows producing the cream.
14 DAIRYING
1. A thin, sweet cream containing less than 25 per cent fat
and under 0.3 per cent, acid will not as a rule chum exhaustively
at any temperature. If churned at a temperature high enough to
bring the butter, which will be near 60 degrees F., a rich but-
termilk will be obtained and considerable butter lost in this way;
if churned at a sufficiently low temperature, near 50 degrees F.,
to reduce the richness of the buttermilk, the butter will not come,
because thin cream churned at so low a temperature as 50 degrees
F. will swell up and fill the churn without separating into butter
and buttermilk. Cream of this kind is not often churned, but
when it is attempted the churning must be done at 60 degrees F.
or above, and the rich buttermilk so obtained may be run through
a cream separator in order to recover the butter leit in the
buttermilk.
2. A thin, sour cream having an acidity of 0.5 to 0.6 per
cent, and containing less than 35 per cent, fat will churn exhaust-
ively at about 62 degrees F. This is the old temperature rec-
ommended for churning farm cream. It is marked on many of
the so-called "dairy thermometers" as the "churning tempera-
ture," and it has proved to be a very satisfactory temperature for
certain kinds of cream. A lower temperature will often prolong
the time of churning beyond a practical limit for churning and a
higher temperature will reduce the length of churning time, but
it will increase the richness of the buttermilk. The butter will
also be soft and lacking in body. The best temperature, then, for
churning this sour cream is near 62 degrees F.
3. A rich, sweet cream containing about 40 per cent, fat and
0.3 per cent, acid may be churned satisfactorily at a temperature
between 50 and 55 degrees F. If warmed up much above 55 de-
grees F. such cream will churn in a few minutes, but the butter-
milk will be very rich. A temperature near 50 degrees F. is most
appropriate for making an exhaustive churning of this kind of
cream. Sweet cream butter may be made by churning a rich
cream at a low temperature.
4. A rich, sour cream of 40 per cent, fat and 0.5 per cent,
acid will churn at a very low temperature, the nearer 50 degrees
F. the better. It will, however, often churn unevenly because of
its thickness and its tendency to stick to* the sides of the churn.
DAIRYING 15
which may make the churning of such cream impracticable. A
rich cream may be skimmed by the separator, but it is usually
diluted with the starter*, and this thins it sufficiently so that it
may not test over 30 per cent, fat when churned. This is the
condition of most factory cream, and it represents as nearly ideal
conditions of cream for churning as any practice now commonly
in use. *
400. The skimming of a rich cream is one step in the pro-
cess of overcoming the faults in milk by reducing^ the amount of
tainted serum or skim milk in the cream. Such a thick cream
will not, however, churn well, and it is therefore thinned by add-
ing a sufficient amount of selected starter and the whole milk to
make it contain near 30 per cent. fat. This cream is then ripened
to about 0.6 per cent, acid and churned at 50 to 54 de-
grees F. When churned at a much higher temperature than this,
there is too much loss of butter in the buttermilk, and the body
of the butter may lack the firmness which is so much desired in
that of a fancy, extra quality.
When t6 Stop Churning.
«
401. Butter is supposed to be sufficiently churned when the
granules haye attained the size of kernels of wheat. This has
been the universal rule for many years, and it answers the pur-
pose of a guide for beginners at the present time. Experienced
butter-makers are not so particular about the exact size of the
granules when churning stops, as they are about the temperature
of the granules. When butter has come soft in the churn, the
granules will stick together and make larger lumps of butter than
is the case when the granules are cold and hard at churning
time.
402. The churning of soft butter should be stopped as soon
as possible after the cream "breaks" and the butter granules be-
gin to show distinctly; for if it is continued beyond this point,
the butter will quickly form large lumps in which more or less
buttermilk will be enclosed. This is hard to wash out, and if
*The cream ripening starter will be described in LeSgQn \'I.
I
i6 DAIRYING
left ui the butter, it makes a milky brine and a butter that will
keep but a short time. Buttermilk changes so rapidly that it
helps to produce the old, rancid flavors which characterize
"strong" butter. This is one of the common difficulties met with
in farm butter ; the cream being churned too warm and too much,
and the butter holding an excess of buttermilk which ferments
quickly and produces the objectionable qualities that are frequent-
ly characteristic of farm butter.
403. When a thin cream is churned at a low temperature,
such as cream containing 25 per cent, fat churned at 55 defirtcs
F., the butter usually comes in round shot-like granules that are
hard and firm. It is often difficult to get such butter to stick to-
gether to form granules large enough to be held by the strainer,
but it may be done by warming the cream. Granular butter for
exhibition purposes may be made in this way; the shot-like i^rar.
Plate 2— Large and Small Butter Granules
ules churned from thin, cold cream are washed with cold water
and added to brine in glass jars or bottles, the colder the cieam
the more nearly round and the harder are the butter granules.
404. The ideal size of granules may be easily obtained by
churning ripe cream containing about 30 per cent, fat at near .^2
degrees F. The butter when it comes will first show pin -head
granules which will quickly grow to the size of wheat kernels,
DAIRYING 17
and at about this size the buttermilk will usually drain away
thoroughly from the butter without any of the granules being
lost through the buttermilk or the hair sieve strainer, which is
ordinarily used in drawing off the buttermilk from the churn.
Exhaustiveness of the Churning.
«
405. The amount of fat left in the buttermilk or its richness
is influenced by the temperature of the churning, the richness
of the cream, its acidity and the length of a churning.
Short churnings give a rich buttermilk and a soft butter, as
the cream is churned too wlarm. Long churnings of fine butter
granules give a thin buttermilk because the cream is thin and cold.
406. The richness of the buttermilk is usually influenced by
the same conditions that affect the length of churning. Churn-
ings will be uniform in time and in richness of the buttermilk
when cream of about the same richness is ripened uniformly and
churned at the same temperature, but mixtures of lots of sweet
and sour cream will give a rich buttermilk.
407. Over-churning injures the body or grain of butter and
reduces its keeping quality as too much buttermilk is enclosed in
the large lumps of over-churned butter.
408. A quick churning may be made by warming the cream
to about 70 degrees F., but at this temperature a large portion
of the butter is left in the buttermilk and is therefore not an eco-
nomical churning. The butter is also too soft to handle well
when the cream is churned at this high temperature and on ac-
count of the law concerning the amount of water that butter
shall contain, as well as the losses of butter in the buttermilk,
the temperature of churning should not be higher than 62 de-
grees F.
Cause of Long Churning.
409. Excessively long churnings are caused by one or more
of the following conditions:
DAIRYING
The cream is from the milk of a stripper cow or from
^hose milk flow is drying up. This difficulty may be
)y so arranging the herd that fresh cow's milk or
ows early in their milking period are distributed thro
; year and the cows do not all "dry up" at the same tirxae.
rticular condition of the milk of stripper cows, that csLxases
turnings may be somewhat overcome by adding cold wrsLter
1 milk and separating the cream from it by the v\r2Lt:er
1 process. This will cause a somewhat excessive lo^^ of
:he skim milk as has already been described in the le^^on
im separation, but when butter is made from a small
s and the majority of them are strippers, it may b
ly of time in churning to use the dilution metho
ig the milk of such cows. The cream so obtained ma,
with that from other cows' milk and a satisfactory clx
de.
The cream is too thm. This is especially the conii
m from deep setting of milk in cold water. Such cwr
t contain more than 15 per cent, fat, and this is very
churn, especially in cold weather. Cream having a
about 30 per cent, fat gives satisfactory churning re;
it is thinner than this an effort should be made to
I the cream either by taking more skim milk when s
r by allowing the cream to stand 12 hours or more
■aw off the skim milk that may separate from it at
SLtX
of
i.4Dr
Xt:
^
The cream is too cold. Churning on the farm should
mpted until the cream has been brought to a tempera
It 60 degrees F., and some check should be made on
y of the thermometer used. These sometimes vary f
I degrees and unless one knows by comparing the t
T used with some other one that is accurate, the t
:r may be the cause of a long churning. In taking t
e observations the thermometer should be allowed to
I the cream at least five minutes before reading it.
The churn is too full. The cream should not fill
tiore than one-half full, and one-fourth full is better w
g begins; if an attempt is made to churn more than 1^
of cream the time of churning may be abnormally lon^'
:m1
/
DAIRYING , 19
A combination of these causes of long churning^ may easily
occur at any one farm, viz.: stripper cows, thin cream and too
cold cream, but by overcoming them the time of churning may
be reduced to about 45 minutes, which is a reasonable time for
churning cream.
Remedy to Be Applied.
410. When a churning on acount of some of the causes men-
tioned above has been going on for several hours and there is no
indication of the butter coming because the cream has swelled and
foamed until it revolves around with the churn without falling
from end to end, as the churn revolves, the best thing to do in
such a case is first to add a handful of salt to the qream in the
churn. If after churning a few minutes longer the cream does
not break or change its condition, a quart or two of water either
hot or cold, depending on the temperature of the cream, may be
added. The water should bring the temperature to near 70 de-
grees F., and then the churning should continue.
411. If neither salt or water added to the cream is of any
aid in making the butter come, the cream may be taken from the
churn and mixed with the next churning of fresh cream which
should be rich and warmed to near 60 degrees F. when put into
the churn. In this way the butter may be saved from the cream
that seemed to have "witches" in it and failed to churn.
Drawing Off the Buttermilk.
412. As soon as the butter granules have reached the de-
sired size the buttermilk is drawn off through a hair sieve or a
buttermilk strainer. • This catches the granular butter that comes
through the draining plug of the churn and separates it from the
buttermilk.
413. The granular butter should be allowed to stand for at
least 15 minutes after the buttermilk has all drained off in order
that the last traces of buttermilk may drain away. If the butter
20 DAIRYING
is soft, a few pieces of clean ice may be placed on it in the chuin
during: the draining of the last of the buttermilk.
Washing the Butter.
414. After all the buttermilk is removed, cold water having
a temperature of about 55 degrees F. is added to the granular
butter until the churn is about one-half filled. The cover is then
put on and after standing until the granular butter has hardened
or reached a temperature of about 55 degrees F., the chum is
then slowly revolved from five to ten times so as to rinse all the
buttermilk from the butter granules. This wash water is then
drawn off. Another washing with cold water may be given the
granules if they seem to show a milky or curdy appearance. This
second washing is seldom necessary, but it is sometimes bene-
ficial, especially if the cream was a little too ripe when churned
or the butter granules too soft.
415. The wash water should be absolutely pure and whole-
some, as defects may easily be started in the butter by using an
unclean wash water or ice, as these may introduce putrefactive
germs into the butter. Nothing but the purest drinking water
should be used for washing the butter, soaking the churn and all
other utensils used in butter making.
416. The temperature of the wash water is very important,
as churning the granular butter in water that is warmer than the
butter tends to- soften the granules and to make an excessive
amount of water stick to the butter fat. By excessive churning
of the granular butter in warm water or in warm buttermilk, the
water content of the final butter may easily exceed the legal limit
of 16 per cent. This may be avoided, however, by washing the
fine granules of butter with water cold enough to harden them
and not leave the butter in a soft, mushy mass.
417. Under certain conditions of churning the granular but-
ter needs no washing. If a ripe, rich cream is churned at a low
temperature so that the buttermilk is about 50 degrees F. when
drawn off, it will be noticed that the last drainings of buttermilk
are watery and the granular butter shows no milky buttermilk
DAIRYING 21
in the churn. Such butter, when salted and worked without wash-
ing usually has a high flavor and if consumed within a few days
is a very satisfactory product. It does not have good keeping
qualities, and this practice is not followed very often at the pres-
ent time.
418. The market demands for butter are now different than
some years ago. A mild, clean flavor is more satisfactory than a
pronounced butter flavor which is likely to change soon to a
strong, nearly rancid flavor. Under such market demands the
washing of butter' once or twice with cold water does not remove
the desirable flavor of the butter. The amount of washing but-
ter needs depends on: (1) The temperature of the churning; (2)
the amount and kind of acidity in the cream; (3) the size of the
butter granules.
419. Butter from over-ripe or from tainted cream may some-
times be improved by excessive washing, and butter containing
white specks of curd from over-ripe cream may be improved by
repeated washings, as the curd is heavier than the butter and
may sink to the bottom and be drawn off in the wash water.
Salting the Butter.
420. The old rule for salting butter is to use one ounce of
salt for each pound of butter. The expression, "an ounce to the
pound" is a very common one. This is a good standard, but the
ainount of salt that remains in the finished butter is not always
the same when this rule is followed. More or less salt is wasted
in all churnings. The amount retained in the butter depends
principally (1) on the amount of water in the granular butter
when the salt is added; (2) the fineness of the salt crystals and
their solubility, and (3) the amount of working the butter gets
after salting.
421. Several ways of salting butter are more or less com-
mon among farm butter-makers.
First. Brine salting, which consists simply in adding brine
or salt dissolved in water, to the granular butter after drawing of."
22 DAIRYING
the wash water. This method of saltingf requires considerable
more salt than dry salting^ and ^ives a very mild salted butter
because the brine does not stick to the butter in such quantities
as the dry salt. Brine salting gfives an even distribution of salt
througfh the butter and is therefore a sure prevention of "mottles"
in butter.
Second. Dry salting^ in the churn is a good way of mix-
ing salt with butter. This is an economical use of salt, but the
uneven mixing it receives in the churn and the uncertainty of the
weight of butter and necessary weight of salt to use are two oi
the objections to this method. Good results are obtained by add-
ing a part of the salt to the granular butter in the churn, then
swing it back and forth a few times until well mixed; after this
let the butter stand for at least one-half hour for the salt to dis-
solve. It may then be taken from the churn, placed on the
worker where the remainder of the salt is added and the work-
ing completed.
Th^rd. Dry salting on the butter worker is a method by
which the salting may be most easily controlled. After the gran-
ular butter has thoroughly drained in the churn and while it is
still in granules, the butter is taken from the churn with wood.='n
ladles. (A good butter-maker never puts his or her hands in the
butter), weighed, and then spread in a layer on the butter worker.
About one-half of the weighed salt is sprinkled or sifted over it,
being careful to use a fine sieve so as to take out all lumps,
sticks, etc., from the salt. The butter is then mixed with this
salt by folding layers of butter over and over with a wooden
ladle. It may then be worked a few times with the lever of the
worker and left standing for the* salt to dissolve.
This standing after salting is always desirable, but it neces-
sitates doing the working in a clean, cool room, where the tem-
perature does not go above 60 degrees F., as the butter may be
injured by the warming up and softening during working.
After standing awhile, the remainder of the salt is added and
the working completed by pressing the lever into* the butter and
folding the butter over and over. A little working at a time and
waiting about ten minutes between workings will help to evenly
distribute the salt through the butter as- fast as it dissolves.
DAIRYING 23
This will prevent mottles in the butter and remove the gritty
taste that is so objectionable in finished butter-
Fourth. Dampen the salt with about as much water as
there is salt, using from one-eighth to one-tenth as much salt as
there is butter, or about one and one-half oz. salt per pound of
butter. This damp salt is then sprinkled over the granular butter
and worked into it a little at a time, allowing the butter to stand
between workings.
Plate 3— Types of Butler
24 DAIRYING
The Butter Salt.
Many brands of butter salt are now on the market They
vary from fine to coarse grained. They also vary in the shape
of the salt crystals.
When a butter-maker is accustomed to the use of one size
of salt crystal it is sometimes difficult for him to get the same
results in his butter with a radically different salt crystal. It
will take some time to adjust his practice to the change in salt.
The coarse grained salts dissolve more slowly than the fine, and
the working of the butter should be regulated to fit the grain of
the salt used. More fine than coarse salt is usually wasted in
butter-making, and as a rule the fine grained salts are. cheaper
than the coarse.
423. Before any salt is used, a tablespoonful of it should be
added to a glass of clean water and the solution of the salt
noticed. If it has a muddy color or a fine sediment that will not
dissolve, another lot of salt that gives a clear brine should be
used.
424. Analyses of samples of the principal brands of butter
salt on the market have shown them to contain from 97.8 to 99.2
per cent, sodium chloride. The difference between these figures
and 100 per cent, is principally made up of calcium sulphate.
425. The difference between the fine and the coarse grained
salts is shown by measuring the space filled by the same weight
of each salt. Comparing weights with volumes on the basis of
one pint weighing one pound, then one pound of the finest
grained salt will just about fill a pint measure, while oiie pound
of the coarse grained salt will fill approximately one and one-half
pints, or 385 grams fine salt equal 400 c. c, and 385 grams coarse
salt equal 550 c. c.
426. The length of time required to dissolve the coarse and
the fine salts is shown by the following figures : A given quan-
tity of coarse salt dissolved in 45 seconds, of medium salt in 30
seconds, and of fine salt in 25 seconds. The coarse salt required
nearly twice the time to dissolve it as the fine salt. The form,
as well as the size of the salt crystals has, however, some in-
fluence on the rate of its solubility. A cube of salt does not dis-
DAIRYING 25
solve so rapidly as a flaky crystal, and these facts are of some
importance in getting the salt dissolved and evenly distributed
through the butter.
427. The amount of added salt that is retained in butter
after working; varies from one-fourth to one-half. If butter is
salted at the rate of "one ounce to the pound," this is using about
6 per cent, of salt and since the finished butter contains all the
way from two to four per cent, salt, more than one-half the salt
used is sometimes washed out during the working.
428. The appearance of salted butter is usually quite differ-
ent from that of iinsalted. Salt "draws out the moisture" which
is in the form of microscopic drops too small to be seen in the
fresh butter, into "beads of brine" that are easily visible in the
salted butter. This makes salted butter look as if it contained
more water than unsalted, which is not always the case. An-
other way in which salt sometimes affects the appearance of but-
ter is in the formation of white crystals on its surface. These
26 DAIRYING
crystals sometimes accumulate in such quantities as to form a
white incrustation nearly covering the entire exposed surface of
the butter. At other times only occasional patches of white
crystals are formed. These white spots are seen most frequent-
ly in winter and on one pound prints or bricks of butter that have
stood in a refrigferator. They often appear within 12 hours after
butter is made and increase in size so lon^ as the butter remains
under conditions favorable for their formation. Such spots are
not an indication of defective salt, bad butter, or poor work-
manship; they simply show that the butter has been kept in a
cold place which at the same time has been so dry that the water
of the brine evaporated, leaving the salt on the surface of the
butter. This appearance of salt on the surface of butter may be
prevented by moistening^ the air of the room or the box in which
the butter is held.
429. Salt will absorb odors, and before adding any salt to
butter, its odor should be noticed; it should also be kept in a
clean, dry place where there are no bad odors, but plenty of
fresh, dry air.
Working Butter.
430. The three operations of washing, salting and working
butter are so intimately connected that directions for carrying
out each one of these cannot be given without some repetition.
In discussing this part of the butter making process an attempt
has been made to cover the ground under the three heads, rather
than to give all the information possible under each one of them;
it will be necessary therefore to read the preceding pages on
washing and salting butter in order to get all the instructions
that may have been mentioned in regard to any one of these
processes.
431. The appropriate working of butter will be influenced
to some extent by the washing and salting it has previously re-
ceived. It would be an easy matter to describe a number ot
possible variations in the amount and kind of working butter
should have, when washed and salted in different ways, but this
DAIRYING 27
is not of such fundamental importance as an understanding of
the reasons for working butter. When a butter maker is familiar
5tb. them it is comparatively easy to work butter in a way best
suited to accomplish the desired results.
432. The purposes of working butter are (1) to remove the
buttermilk and surplus water; (2) to distribute the salt, and (3)
to unite the granules so as to obtain the desired butter consist-
ency.
There is no hard and fast rule by which these three things
may be always accomplished in an entirely satisfactory way by
the same treatment; the different working must be varied to
suit the different conditions of the butter, and the butter-maker
should know what influence each particular condition may have
on the three objects to be attained.
1. To remove the buttermilk and surplus water will require
different amounts of working according to the hardness and the.
size of the butter granules, as well as the amount of water they
■contain, which' is influenced to some extent by the length of time
the butter is allowed to drain in the churn.
The hard, small granules of butter which are usually ob-
tained by churning at a low temperature will need but little
working to remove the buttermilk and surplus water, and such
butter can stand a great deal of working without injuring its
grain. A rather soft, sticky butter does not drain freely, because
both the buttermilk and the water stick to it and in this condi-
tion butter will not stand much working without injury to its
grain and body.
Betwen these two extremes is the medium granule, about the
size of wheat kernels which is firm, but neither soft nor hard and
which will drain as dry as necessary in about fifteen minutes after
the water is drawn from it. Such butter will not be injured by a
fair amount of working.
2. Working butter to distribute the salt is best accomp-
lished by repeated workings, allowing it to stand between each
working as long as practicable, the longer the time the better the
salt is dissolved. After a few revolutions of the worker, the but-
ter may be tested to see if it contains the right amount of salt.
/
28 DAIRYING
If too fresh, add more salt and if too salty, add water to wash
out the surpltis salt; do not wash it too much, as the subsequent
working will remove some of this extra salt. If the working is
all to be done at one time the butter should be allowed to stand
one-half hour at least between the first and the last portions of
the working.
Two or more workings are surer than one, of evenly distrib-
uting the salt without injury to the grain of the butter. This is
especially the case when a coarse salt is used.
When twice working is practiced, the butter is taken from
the worker and the salt is well mixed, then put into tubs which
are placed in the refrigerator and left a number of hours, usually
over night. During this time the butter has hardened and the
salt dissolved so that when taken out and worked a second time,
the desired res;ilts may be obtained with less working than
when it is all done at one time.
Repeated working of cold, hard butter presses out more or
less brine at each working and an excessively dry butter with
too much loss in weight occurs if the butter is not warmed up at
the time of working it. Salt attracts the fine drops of moisture
in the butter into larger drops of brine and these are easily ex-
pelled by excessive workings.
3. The mixing of butter granules into a firm and waxy mass
is best accomplished by pressure rather than by grinding. The
perfect grain or body of butter is obtained by working the wheat-
like granules until a broken surface of the butter resembles a
piece of broken steel; the fracture is distinct arid not sticky; the
butter has a velvety, springy feeling that is hard to describe, but
easily recognized by careful observation and practice.
433. The butter working should be stopped before the but-
ter shows a tendency to be stringy and to pull apart like grease
with thread-like connections between the t.vo parts. Overwork-
ing has a tendency to give the butter a greasy appearance like
lard, which is not attractive to the consumer. If the butter is
cold and hard when worked, there may be a great loss of weight
by the expelling ot both salt and water from the butter, and on
the other hand working at a too high temperature has a tendency
to incorporate instead of removing' water. \
DAIRYING 29
Many successful butter-makers work their butter by the
watch or by counting the number of revolutions of the worker
or rollers of the worker. This is a safe practice to follow, as it
aids in producing a uniform body ■ in the butter of different
churnings.
434. The amount of working to give butter will be in-
fluenced by: (1) The amount of butter worked at one time; (2)
the temperature of the butter; (3) the size of the butter gran-.
ules when salted; (4) the richness of the cream and the tem-
prature of churning; (5) the feed and the freshness of the cows;
(6) the solubility of the salt and the size or shape of the salt
crystals; (7) the time butter stands during the working.
435. The workin'g of butter may be stopped: (1) When no
gritty salt is noticeable; (2) when streaks of light or whitish
Plate S— The Lever Butter Worker
color caused by salt all disappear; (3) when mottles do not ap-
pear after butter stands about six hours ; (4) when the surface of
butter cut with a string or wire shows a uniform color; (5) when
the brine that drips from the worker is no longer milky.
436. The lever butter' worker is always satisfactory for farm
butter making. It should be scrubbed and scalded with hot
water and then cooled with cold or ice water just before using
it, and this same treatment should be given to all the wooden
ladles and paddles as well as the butter worker lever, before
30
DAIRYING
using them in the butter. This scalding: and then cooling closes
the pores of the wood so that butter does not stick to it. Work-
ing butter in a wooden bowl with one's hands is a practice of
former times that has been abandoned by all modern farm butter
makers. It is unsanitary and it fails to make butter with a sat-
isfactory salt content or texture.
Washing the Chum and the Butter Worker.
437. After removing all the butter from the churn it should
be partly filled with scalding hot water, the cover put on and
churn revolved a few times, taking the precaution to ventilate
the churn to prevent an explosion. If the water is hot enough,
the churn may be left uncovered in a clean place after drawing
Plate 6— Butter Paddles
off the hot water and the steam and heat will dry the wood so
that it will be in good condition for use next time.
If the churn is left to stand for weeks and months it should
be filled with lime water or slaked lime. This will prevent it
from drying out and the wood will be kept in a sweet condition.
The same scalding process used on the churn should also be
given to the worker and butter paddles. It is claimed that a coat-
ing of whitewash or slaked lime is also beneficial for keeping
these implements in good condition between churnings.
DAIRYING 31
The Yield of Butter.
438. The amount of butter obtained in the churn will de-
pend principally on the amount of butter fat in the milk and
cream churned. The butter, however, when ready for the mar-
ket, contains something else besides the butter fat of the inilk
and cream. Some water and salt are mixed with the fat and a
small amount of the curd of the buttermilk always stays in the
butter. This is shown by the difference in the taste of butter
fat and of butter. The pure butter fat oil as it exists in the milk
and cream is tasteless, while butter has more or less, taste, due
to some extent, to the salt and the curd that have been mixed
with the pure butter fat. ' It is evident therefore that if all the
fat of the milk and cream is recovered in the butter there should
be obtained considerable more butter than there was butter fat.
The amount of this increase of butter over butter fat will de-
pend on the extent to which these so-called foreign substances
have been added to the fat. Butter usually contains about 83.00
per cent, butter fat, 14.00 per cent, water, 2.00 per cent, salt and
1.00 per cent. curd. There will be some variation in these fig-
ures from one churning to another, as it is impossible to make
each churning of butter contain exactly the same per cent, of fat,
water, salt and curd.
-439. The law in regard to butter at the present time is
that it must not contain over 16.00 per cent, water and the
buttermaker should be sure that his practice of churning, work-
ing, and salting butter from day to day will make legal butter. This
is not a difficult matter and if the methods described in this
lesson are followed, there is little danger of making butter con-
taining over 16.00 per cent, water. The average per cent, of water
in butter is about 14.00 as already stated.
The Butter Overrun.
440. Since butter is not all butter fat, but- a mixture of
salt, curd, water and fat, the amount of butter that may be
made from either milk or cream can be approximately calculated
by finding out how much fat there is in the milk or the cream
32 DAIRYING
and adding to it the increase that will come from the water,
salt and curd when the butter is made. This increase is called
the overrun and it is usually expressed as a per cent, of the fat
in the milk or cream skimmed and churned. If 1000 lbs. of milk
testing 3.5 per cent, fat is made into butter there will be a slight
loss of fat in the skim milk and in the buttermilk. Nearly all the
remainder of the fat of the milk should be recovered in the butter
and when the water, salt and curd are added to this butter fat,
the net increase in weight will be about 16 per cent, of the fat in
the milk. In this case 1000 lbs. milk multiplied by its test, 3.5
per cent, fat gives 35 lbs. butter fat and the approximate amount
of butter that may be made from it is found by adding 16 per cent.
to the pounds of butter fat or 35 pounds x 1.16=40.6 pounds butter-
This weight of butter may be reduced by greater losses in the skim
milk and butter milk than are included in this calculation, also by
incorporating less water in the butter and from excessive losses
by waste of milk, cream and butter that sticks to the cans, vats,
churn, etc., during the skimming and churning of the milk and
cream.
441. The overrun or yield of butter from milk and cream
, is influenced by: (1) The losses in skimming; (2) the losses in
churning; (3) the losses from waste; (4) the accuracy of weigh-
ing, sampling and testing the milk, cream and butter; (5) the
amount of water, salt and curd incorporated in the butter.
When a practice is adopted that gives a uniform skimming and
churning and accurate weights and tests are made of the milk,
cream and butter, the vield of butter or the overrun will be uniform
from day to day.
CALCULATING THE OVERRUN.
442. The overrun is calculated by first multiplying the weight
of milk or cream by its test. This gives the pounds of butter fat
handled ; second, weigh the butter and from it subtract the pounds
of butter fat found by the first calculation; third, find what per
cent, the difference between the weight of butter and of butter
DAIRYING 33
fat is of the pounds of butter fat in the milk or cream started with.
If 1000 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent, fat gives 40.6 pounds
butter then the overrun is calculated as follows: 1000 ^ 3.5fo^=35
pounds butter fat. Then if 40.6 pounds butter is made the increase
is 40.6 — 35^5.6 pounds and this 5,6 pounds is what per^ cent of
35 pounds (35:5.6::100:x=16%.)
443. The overrun from, cream is a few per cent, more than
from milk because the losses in skimming are not considered in
the cream overrun. If 100 pounds cream testing 35 per cent, fat
gives 42 pounds, butter the overrun is calculated as follows : 100 ^
35%=35 pounds butter fat and this subtracted from the 42 pounds
butter leaves 7 lbs., which is a certain per cent, of the 35 pounds
fat in the cream. This may be found in the following way
Plate 7— Paper Butter Package
ii$:7::io:x=2ofo.) An overrun calculation may be made from data
obtained in any churning, but it is always necessary to know the
pounds of butter fat in the milk or the cream and the pounds of
butter made from this butter fat. Unless these two figures are
known, the overrun cannot be calculated.
FARM DAIRY BUTTER PACKAGES.
444. Wood or paper packages of various shapes and sizes are
more satisfactory than any other, material used for this purpose.
Tin rusts and glass or crocks are generally too heavy for eco-
nomical transportation. Crocks make a clean, attractive package
so long as no cracks or scars are found on them, but as soon
34 DAIRYING
as they are nicked or the glazing broken the ro»g^ surface is
hard to keep clean enough for a butter package.
445. The paper boxes made of various sizes for selling butter
in small quantities are light but firm enough to make a satisfactory
package. They are usually lined with parchment paper and are
made substantial enough to be shipped by express or by freight
if crated. These boxes require no soaking or other preparation
before using and the butter may be packed directly into them
after churning.
Fiates 8 and 9— Buiter Tubs
446. Among the wooden butter packages are the bail box and
the small tub ; both must be thoroughly scrubbed and then soaked
in first hot and then cold water. The soaking in cold water
should continue several hours. Steaming such packages is helpful
in killing any mold spore that may be present and in removing
woody flavor, although these are generally made of wood selected
especially for this purpose and do not often impart a woody flavor
to the butter.
447. All wooden packages should be lined with parchment
paper after both the wood and the paper have been thoroughly
steamed and soaked. Strips of parchment cut to fit the sides and
circles for the top and bottom of the package are commonly fur-
nished with the box or tub.
448. All boxes and tubs should be filled solid by packing the
butter a little at a time and pressing it firmly into the package be-
DAIRYING 35
fore more butter is added. Any holes or cavities in the butter
reduce its attractiveness to the buyer. When the package is filled
the butter should be cut off by drawing a wire or string across the
top. This gives a smooth, even surface on which the cloth circle
may be placed. A thin sprinkling of salt sifted on the top of the
cloth makes an attractive finish. The parchment paper side-lining
is sometimes large enough to come up about an inch above the
top of the package and this is folded neatly over the smooth cut
surface of the butter before putting on the cloth circle. The top
of the butter should not show any finger prints and the exact net
weight of the butter in each package should be recorded. An
occasional test or comparison of the scales should also be made
to insure accurate weighing as this is important to both the
buyer and to the seller of the butter.
Plates 10 and Il-Butter Prinigrs
449. One pound prints or bricks of butter are coming more
and more into favor. Hand printers of various types may be
bought for this purpose and one side of the printer carved with
a trade mark or ornamental design which should not be too elabor-
ate as this increases the difficulty in keeping it clean, but such a
brand may be helpful in selling the butter, especially if the quality
is uniform and characteristic.
Each print or brick should have square edges, no cavities
and always weigh 16 ounces. A butter maker should never neglect
36 DAIRYING
to weigh a few prints at every churning as this insures full
weight and it also prevents losses from overweight which may
amount to considerable money in a year.
Each print or brick of butter should be wrapped in parch-
ment paper which can be bought of the right size and on which
the trade mark of the makeras well as his name may be printed,
450, A paraffined paper carton or wrapper for each print
of butter is now used a good deal as this, protects the butter in
handling, especially in delivery from house to house. It is custom-
Plate 12— Butler Package for i Pound Dricks
■ ary to have the maker's name printed on this carton and also a
sentence or two concerning the best way to keep the butter after
it is delivered to the customer, such as the following :
451. To preserve the fine qualities of this butter which is
fresh from the churn keep it cool and keep it away from fruits,
vegetables, cooked meats or other materials having odors. The
quality of butter is often spoiled in the house refrigerators after
leaving the dairy or creamery where it is made.
452. A favorite way of shipping print butter to customers
buying a certain amount each week is to pack 2, 4 or 6 or more
of the prints in a wooden box. These boxes may be "knocked
down," of any size desired and when nailed together will exactly
fit the number of prints each customer wants. This makes a
convenient package for shipping by express or by parcels post,
453. In order to be up to the times some sort of a package
should always be used as the old way of molding butter into
cakes, balls or rolls of varying sizes is now out of date. The
DAIRYING 37
appearance of the butter is nearly as important as its flavor and
butter simply rolled up in a cloth is not so salable as the same
butte* in a neat package or in a well-made one-pound brick.
454. Wooden packages should not be used a second time as
it is impossible to keep them clean enough and most of them
ar cheaply made with the expectation that they will be used
but once.
Plates 13 and 14 — Crates of Butter PackageB
MARKETING FARM BUTTER.
455, Selling butter to the country store or a grocer in a city
is generally unsatisfactory as the price paid at the store must
be below the market price unless some particular customer has
taken a fancy to a certain make of dairy butter and is willing to
pay an advanced price for it. The only advantage a store sale
has over private customers is the saving of time in delivery.
456. Supplying special customers with butter by shipping
or delivering directly to them is the most profitable way of dis-
posing of farm butter. In order to do this in such a way, as to
command a fancy price it is necessary to make butter of a uniform
quality and to deliver it regularly and promptly.
38 DAIRYING
457. When customers of this kind are once obtained they
will soon become attached to the butter and notice the difference
between their butter and all other butter. The butter of each dairy
has its own*characteristics and it is because of this fact that some
customers are willing to pay $1.00 per pound and more for butter
of a certain dairy. The price of farm dairy butter in general is
not so high as that of creamery butter, but a higher price is paid
for some farm dairy butter than for any creamery butter. This
shows the opportunity there may be for selling farm butter for
fancy prices, but in order to do this, considerable time must be
given to the farm butter making and it is generally more profitable
for a farmer to devote his time to economical milk production and
sell his milk or cream to a creamery than it is to make small
quantities of butter to sell at the best price he can get.
BUTTER MAKING FROM SEPARATOR CREAM.
458. The making of butter from separator cream has many
advantages over the making of butter from gravity cream. The
richness of separator cream can easily be controlled and when
skimmed from perfectly sweet milk the cream should be in the
same condition from day to day and give an opportunity for making
butter of a uniform quality. Such an opportunity is more within
the grasp of a farm butter maker than a creamery butter maker
because the former has the cream from his own separator only,
while the latter receives either milk or cream from many farms.
459. The process of making butter from separator cream has
been studied and developed to a high degree of efficiency during
the past fifteen years. Many different machines and methods have
been tried and certain ones of these have stood the test of time
and proved their fundamental importance to the industry. These
methods and general principles apply to farm as well as to factory
butter making and some of them will be given more in detail than
already described in the preceding pages.
DAIRYING 39
COOLING THE CREAM
460. It is admitted by all buttermakers that cream should be
cooled before it is churned (1) to aid in giving the butter a de-
sirable body and grain; (2) to obtain an exhaustive churning, and
(3) to check the souring process.
461- The cream as it comes from the separator has a temper-
ature of about 75 to 85 degrees F. Some good authorities advise
that it should be run from the separator over a cooler into the
ripening vat as a cooling of 20 degrees or more and the aeration
it gets by the cooling are beneficial to the flavor of both cream
and butter. This treatment, it is claimed, removes some taint
from cream and gives it and the butter a cleaner flavor and bet-
ter keeping qualities than is the case when cream is ripened with-
out this cooling or aerating. This practice is recommended and
followed in Datiish dairies and in other European butter-making
establishments. In America, however, the common custom of
butter makers is to allow the cream to flow from the separators
directly into the cream ripening vat without an intermediate cool-
ing; it being claimed that cooling after ripening answers every
purpose and that unnecessary work and a waste of water or other
cooling material is thereby avoided.
462. The fat in cream hardens and crystallizes slowly, not
entirely on account of its failing to reach the same temperature
as the cream serum in a given time, but because fat changes from
a liquid to a solid condition less readily than the serum cools.
Stirring or any sort of agitation, will aid in hastening the crystal-
lization of the fat, and the solidifying point of butter fat. A thor-
ough cooling of the fat requires the maintainance of a tem-
perature near SO degrees F. for two hours, or more. This is usually
done in the ripening vat before churning.
463. Cooling cream by placing large blocks of clean ice in
obtained. The cream immediately surrounding the cake of ice is
•necessarily chilled to a much lower temperature than that a little
distance from it, unless the ice is kept in constant motion. This
may cause an uneven ripening as well as an unsatisfactory cooling
of the cream and should therefore be avoided whenever possible.
40 DAIRYING
Ice broken in small pieces and added to cream in a vat or to the
churn is less objectionable and this is sometimes done with good
results in an emergency. If continued as a constant practice, how-
ever, there is danger of injuring the churn, as broken lumps of ice
will deface the wood somewhat by scratching it during the churn-
ing.
CREAM RIPENING
464. The principal reasons for ripening cream before it is
churned are: (1) To give flavor to the butter; (2) to aid in
churning within a reasonable time and (3), to improve the keeping
quality of the butter. i
465. When cream sours a certain part of the milk sugar
(lactose) is changed to lactic acid. This and other changes that
take place are caused by the growth of bacteria, which are sup-
posed to be responsible for much of the flavor in butter. A great
deal has been learned about these microscopic plants, but there
still remains so much to be found out concerning the part they
play in the development of butter flavor that their relation to it
will not be extensively discussed at this time.
466. In a general way it may be said that the milk and cream
bacteria may be divided into two classes: (1) Lactic acid bacteria
which sour milk and cream by the production of lactic acid, and
(2), putrefactive bacteria which change the nitrogenous consti-
tuents, such as the casein and curd of milk and cream, into products
having an offensive odor and a disagreeable taste.
467. Both classes are usually present in large numbers in the
milk which comes from many herds. The putrefactive bacteria,
however, are usually more numerous in the winter season than
in the summer, because of the stable milking and the house care
of the milk and cream.
•
468. The lactic acid bacteria are the ones which the butter-
maker should try to cultivate in the cream ripening, and the
putrefactive bacteria are not so easily destroyed as many of the
other germs in milk and cream. They will survive a temperature
DAIRYING 41
that kills the lactic acid bacteria, and on this account are very
troublesome, especially at the seasons of the year when they are
likely to get into the milk in large numbers.
470. In making raw cream butter the buttermaker can best
deal with these undesirable bacteria by ripening a very rich cream
with a starter which contains a sufficiently large number of the
acid-producing bacteria to suppress the growth of the purefactive
organisms. The safest way, however, is to so care for the milk
and cream at the farm that it is kept free from these undesirable
bacteria.
L Effect of Ripening on Butter Flavor. It is a well known
fact that pure butter fat is nearly tasteless. This shows that most
of the butter flavor is the result of a more or less complex mixture
of butter fat, cream-serum, curd and salt. The fat is not the single
source of taste in butter, but by the ripening of the cream, products
are formed from the fat, the casein, and the cream serum which
are partially absorbed by the bjitter fat, and give the butter its
characteristic flavor.
When the ripening process goes too far the fat itself is changed
somewhat and objectionable flavors are produced. If the butter
is not properly cared for after being made, the ripening process
may continue to go on to such an extent that the butter fat be-
comes rancid and gives the peculiar flavor of "strong" butter.
The characteristic difference in taste between sweet cream
butter and that made from sour or ripened cream shows the effect
which the ripening process has on butter. Sweet cream butter
has a flat, sweetish taste with very little aroma, while butter from
ripened cream has the characteristic "butter" taste and aroma
which is more on less pronounced, depending on the extent to
which the cream is ripened before churning.
The opinions of scientists differ somewhat as to the kind of
bacteria or ferments that are best fitted to ripen cream and produce
a desirable flavor in the butter. All agree however that lactic acid
ferments are always beneficial, but some claim that a mixture of
certain other ferments with the lactic acid bacteria produces equally
as good and sometimes a better flavor and aroma in the butter
than lactic acid alone.
42 DAIRYING
The presence of air is not necessary for cream ripening as the
lactic acid bacteria grow in the presence and in the absence of air.
Aeration and stirring are beneficial during cream ripening, as they
prevent a musty smell in the butter and distribute the ferments
uniformly through the mass of the cream.
RELATION BETWEEN HARDNESS OF THE FAT AND
THE BUTTER FLAVOR
471. Butter fat is a very complex compound, but for the pur-
pose of butter-making it may be considered as made up of the hard
and the soft fats. The relative proportion of these components
affects the body and texture of the butter. The proportion is in-
fluenced by the cow's feed and by her period of lactation. When
cows are fresh and when they receive a liberal supply of green feed
the relative proportion of the soft fats is greater and the butter is
often much softer and melts at a lower temperature than is the
case in' the latter part of the lactation period or when cows receive
dry feed exclusively.
The hardness of butter may be an indication of its flavor.
High flavored butter is usually softer than low flavored butter and
hard, tallowy butter is inclined to be tasteless.
The relation between the amount of hard and of soft fats in
butter is not changed, however, by the cream ripening process. It
is either a breed or an individual characteristic of the cow or it is
subject to the changes already mentioned in the period of lactation
and the feed that the cows receive.
It will thus be seen that the fermentations which take place
during the ripening of the cream are not the only source of butter
flavor. These ferments are however of great importance, and
their propagation and control is discussed under the head of Start-
ers in lesson VL
2. The Effect of Ripening on Churning. It has already been
stated that one of the reasons for ripening cream is to aid in churn-
ing the cream in a reasonable length of time. A well ripened
cream will churn under ordinary circumstances in about 45 minutes,
DAIRYING 4i
and very IMe butter fat will be left in the buttermilk if the churn-
ing tempemture is an appropriate one. The effect of ripening otf
tlie diuonrng of cream may be demonstrated by dividing a lot oi
cream inito two parts, one of which is held at a temperature cold
enongih tto prevent ripenii^ and the other ripened at temperatures
fitted to give the best results. When both lots are churned at the
propter temperature for churning ripe cream and in churns of the
same size, it will be found that the ripened cream churns first and
gives more butter than is obtained from the sweet or unripened
cream. The ripening has had some effect on the curd of the cream
and aids the separation of butter fat from the serum. There are
other things, such as the temperature and the richness of the
cream that have an influence on churning, but these are discussed
in another place, par. 399, and are only outlined here to call atten-
tion to the fact that cream ripening is one of the important factors
in churning.
3. Effect of Ripening on Keeping Quality. One of the strik-
ing differences between sweet cream butter and ripened cream
butter is the way in which they hold their fresh flavor. When but-
ter is kept at the ordinary temperature of butter cellars and house
or store refrigerators — ^near 50° F. — the fermentations character-
istic of cream and butter are not materially checked ; they continue
to develop in the curd of the butter and may often have a marked
effect on its flavor in a short time. Sweet cream butter usually
contains more curd than that made from ripened cream, because
the curd does not wash out so thoroughly during the butter making
process. The sweet cream butter therefore goes "off'^ flavor much
more quickly than the other butter, because of the accumulation
of these fermentation products. The continued ripening of the
curd in butter, after it is made, may improve the sweet cream
butter flavor for awhile, but when the fermentations are not stop-
ped by cooling the butter, the butter fat absorbs the fermentation
products formed, and their accumulation, as well as the changes
which take place in the fat itself, produce the old and rancid flavor
which is so obiectionable in butter.
472. The ripened cream butter will, as a rule, keep in a fresh
and acceptable condition under the same conditions of temperature
44 DAIRYING
for a longer time than the sweet cream butter, because the ripening
before churning has reduced the amount of curd left in the butter.
The expression is often heard that butter which is once good is
always good, meaning that high scoring butter will retain its good
qualities better than butter which has never been exceptionally
fine. This is undoubtedly true in many cases, but exceptions are
so common that it can hardly be accepted as a foundation principle
in buttermaking. Cases have frequently been known in which
prize butter has gone "off" flavor in a short time after ^ it was
scored ; and while such instances may not be so common as those
in which high scoring butter has retained its good qualities longer
than poorer butter, still the exceptional case is of sufficiently fre-
quent occurrence to make it unsafe to predict the future of any
piece of butter with certainty.
473. Many opinions and more or less positive statements re-
garding butter flavors are sometimes advanced which cannot be
proved, but they receive a certain amount of respectful attention
because of the inability of the listener to contradict them. Such
statements are often based on a few observations made without the
support of scientific investigation, which up to the present time has
not revealed the principles or laws on which butter flavor and its
keeping quality is founded. If these laws were known it would
be possible so to formulate them that men of ordinary intelligence
could follow their directions and obtain uniformly good results.
474. The part which bacteria, lactic acid and curd play in
butter making is not thoroughly understood by the best author-
ities, but the ripening of cream with a pure culture of lactic acid
bacteria either alone or with some of the so-called flavor-producing
bacteria is recommended as good practice. The results obtained
will be influenced by the cleanliness, and the^ sweetness of the
cream started with, and the ability of the butter maker to judge
when to check the ripening process and when to churn the cream.
LENGTH OF RIPENING PROCESS
475. The rate or rapidity with which cream ripens may be in-
fluenced by a variety of conditions. Some of these conditions are :
DAIRYING 45
1. The richness of the cream.
2. The condition of the miik.
3. The weather conditions.
4. The number of bacteria present, whether added by a
starter or from other sources.
5. The temperature at which the cream is held.
1. EFFECT OF RICHNESS OF CREAM ON RIPENIlio
Same idea of the rate at which cream is ripening in the early
stages of the process may be gained by using the tests for acidity
which are employed for this purpose. Both Mann's acid test and
Farrington's Alkaline Tablets are capable of giving satisfactory
results. These tests do not necessarily measure the ripeness of
cream, but they may in the early stages of the process serve as a
guide to show how fast the acidity is progressing. Cream reaches
the limit of its acidity at a lower percentage of acid than milk.
The fat in cream is neutral, and since the acidity must be de-
veloped entirely in the crearii serum, the amount of serum present
will be governed by the percentage of fat in the cream. A cream
testing 20 per cent, fat contains 80 per cent, serum and one testing
50 per cent, fat contains only SO per cent, serum. The amount of
acid that may be developed in the thinner cream will therefore be
considerably larger than it is possible to obtain in the richer cream.
The serum present may contain the same percentage of acidity in
both cases, but on account of there being so much more serum in
the thin than in the rich cream, the fat in the thin cream is mixed
with a larger quantity of the acid serum than is the 'case with the
rich cream. This doubtless has ,some influence not only on the
rate at which cream ripens, but on the extent to which the butter
flavor is developed by the ripening.
476. A simple calculation will show the serum acidity of
cream of any richness corresponding to a standard acidity for
cream containing a certain percentage of fat. If, for example, 0.6
per cent, acid in cream testing 25 per cent, fat may be accepted as
a standard, then the corresponding serum acidity of cream testing
46
DAIRYING
other percentages of fat may be found as follows: Cream testing
25 per cent, fat contains 75 per cent, serum ; and since the fat is a
neutral substance the 0.6 per cent, acid is held in the 75 per cent
serum. If we have .6 lb. acid in 75 pounds serum, there is .6 divided
by 75 or .008 lbs. acid in 1 pound of serum. This .008 pounds acid
is then the standard acidity per pound of serum, and the pounds
of serum in cream of any per cent, fat should be multiplied by this
figure in order to determine the serum acidity, which will corres-
pond to .6 per cent, acid in cream testing 25 per cent. fat.
The results of a few such calculations are given in the follow-
ing table:
«
Acidity of cream corresponding to .6 per cent, in cream testing 25
per cent. fat.
Cream fat, per cent.
Serum, per cent. .
Acidity, per cent. .
20
25
30
35
40
45
80
75
70
65
60
55
.64
.60
.56
.52
.48
.44
50
50
.40
An acidity of any other standard may be calculated by the
same method.
LIMIT OF ACIDITY
477. It will be explained under the discussion of starters that
there is a limit to the percentage of acidity that will develop in
either skim milk, milk, or cream. In skim milk this point is
reached at about 0.8 per cent, acid ; in cream it will be reached at
a lower per cent, acid, depending on the richness of the cream.
A series of trials have shown that by allowing samples of
cream containing from 25 to 50 per cent, fat, to sour several days
or until no more acid in quantity would develop, that the limit
of acidity obtained was the following:
Showing the extreme acidity which developed in skim milk and in
cream testing different per cents, fat.
Fresh . . .
24 hours
48 hours
72 hours
96 hours
108 hours
.17
.14
.14
.13
.13
.13
.55
.50
.38
.35
.34
.31
.64
.57
.47
.46
.46
*
.76
.60
.53
.50
*
.78
.62
.54
.50
.78
.VO
.55
•
.11
*Too thick to draw into pipette.
DAIRYING 4?
478. These tests show that the acidity of the different
samples reached a maximum beyond which it did not develop even
though they were held under favorable conditions for souring.
They also show that buttermakers should not expect cream con-
taining 25 and up to 50 per cent, fat to develop an acidity beyond
the figures given in the table. A cream containing 25 per cent,
fat may reach 0.6 per cent, acid, but a richer cream such as a 40
per cent, fat cream will not sour much beyond 0.5 per cent acid.
2. CONDITION OF THE MILK
The cream from a perfectly sweet, clean milk will ripen more
slowly and in a much more satisfactory way than cream skimmed
from milk in which the ripening has already started. Milk that
has not been properly cooled after milking and has begun to sour
from age or impurities will not supply a cream free from taints.
The defects of the milk are carried into the cream, and they are
often the cause of an abnormal ripening of the cream.
When the milk is pure and free from all foreign matter as
well as taints the cream skimmed from it will be in such a satis-
factory condition that the buttermaker may be able to control the
ripening process and make an excellent quality of butter. This
is not to be depended on, however, if a great variety of bacteria is
carried to the cream from the impure milk.
A large churning of butter may be injured by one lot of im-
pure milk and the entire quantity of milk or cream to which it is
added suffer a loss in butter price on that account. This does not
seem fair when a reasonable amount of care will keep milk and
cream sweet and pure.
3. THE WEATHER CONDITIONS
During hot, sultry weather bacteria- thrive and multiply rapid-
ly, but in a cool, clear atmosphere the growth of these ferments is
somewhat retarded. The effect of changes in the weather is often
noticed in cream which is ripened in open vats. Damp, dark, and
48 DAIRYING
warm days are favorable for a vigorous bacterial growth and when
cream is exposed to such weather it should be watched closely in
order to prevent the ripening process from going too fast. This
may be checked by cooling the cream to 50° F. and lower, but even
at this temperature the cream may continue to ripen in muggy,
warm weather faster than in bright, dry days.
This tendency of the cream ripening to be influenced by the
weather should receive due consideration from day to day by the
buttermaker.
4. NUMBER OF BACTERIA IN CREAM
The number of bacteria present in cream at the time ripening
begins has an important influence on the rapidity of its ripening.
The supply of bacteria in each lot of cream should therefore be
controlled by the use of more or less starter depending on the rate
at which it is desired to have the cream ripen. This is similar to
the growth of vegetation in well prepared soil. The ground may
be covered with a luxuriant crop if a liberal amount of seed has
been planted, but with a scant seeding very little growth will be
seen even if the soil and other conditions are favorable.
5. THE TEMPERATURE OF RIPENING
A large number of the bacteria which ripen cream grow rapidly
at a temperature between 70° and 90° F. Both the activity and
the ripening of cream are hastened at these temperatures. In
practice, however, it is not customary to warm cream much above
70° F. when one wishes to hasten the ripening; and it progresses
so rapidly at this point that a few hours is usually sufficient to
bring about the desired effect.
Checking the ripening is not such an easy matter as hastening
it. The growth and development of bacteria may be retarded by
cooling the cream to near 50° F., but some changes continue to
take place even at this temperature. The ripening goes on ex-
tremely slowly, however, and cooling to as low a temperature as
DAIRYING 49
possible and as suddenly as possible is about the only safe means
the buttermaker has at his disposal for checking the progresis of the
ripening.
*RAW CREAM BUTTER
479. Quick Ripening. The point to which cream is ripened
before churning may be reached in a comparatively short time
after separation if the buttermaker so desires. When quick ripen-
ing is practiced a large starter is added to the sweet cream and it
is then held at a temperature of 70° to 75° F. from two to four
hours, or until the cream has reached about 0.5 per cent acid.
The cream is then cooled to near 50° F. and held at this tem-
perature at least two hours or until it is churned. Some butter-
makers of long experience profess to be able to get the best quality
of butter by churning immediately after the cream has been
brought to the proper stage of ripeness and then cooled sufficiently
for churning. This method it is claimed will produce a more highly
flavored butter than that made when the ripened cream is held at
a temperature near 55° F. for 12 hours or more after ripening, or
until the morning churning. The butter intended for competition
in prize contests is sometimes made in this way, the buttermaker
watching the cream and churning it in the night when it is "just
right" rather than running the risk of loss in quality by allowing
the ripened cream to stand until the next morning and then churn-
ing it.
480. No satisfactory theoretical explanation for the immedi-
ate churning after quick ripening has yet been offered, and the
success of such a practice depends largely on the ability of the
buttermaker to detect the point at which the cream is in the proper
stage of ripeness for obtaining the desired quality of butter. The
acid tests will not do this, as they measure only the amount of
acid developed by the ripening. After a certain point has been
reached the acidity fails to increase, but the ripening changes con-
*Raw cream butter is understood to be butter made from
cream which has not been heated above the usual separating
temperature of milk — that is about 85° F.
so DAIRYING
tinue to go on, and usually the butter flavor is more or less aflfected
by their progress. In many cases the butter is injured by allowing
the cream to stand very long after a quick ripening, and this makes
the practice rather an unsafe one for inexperienced buttermakers.
The safer practice to follow until one becomes expert in detecting
the proper point to which cream should be ripened, is to hold the
cream at a lower temperature and allow the ripening process to
develop slowly.
481. Slow Ripening. The ripening of cream from 20 to 40
hours is far more common than is a quicker ripening. The usual
practice where milk or cream is handled daily during the entire
year is to run the sweet cream from the separators directly into
the ripening-vat to which a starter may have been added at the
beginning of the separation. If the cream is all separated at about
eleven o'clock, it is then thoroughly stirred and its temperature
may be about 70° F., while the acidity is near .2 per cent. The
cream is held at this temperature until its acidity has reached about
0.4 per cent. This may be attained at about 4 p. m., depending on
the conditions already mentioned (par. 475). At this point the
cooling of the cream is begun and continued until its temperature
has reached 50-55° F. This temperature is maintained until the
next morning, when the cream churned is of moderate richness.
Cream should not be held many hours after it has reached 0.6 per
cent, acidity, as the butter loses its fresh, clean flavor by continu-
ing the ripening after this point.
482. When milk is separated every other day, as is often the
case in winter and the colder seasons of the year, the cream is held
for two days before churning. Under such conditions the tem-
perature of the cream should not be allowed to go much above
56° F. It is kept near this temperature until the acidity has
reached about 0.4 per cent. This will require some time, as the
ripening process goes on slowly at 56° F. under normal conditions.
If the milk when separated is partially ripened the cream will ripen
quickly and so high a temperature as 56° F. may not be a safe one
at which to hold the cream, but with sweet cream and a moderate
amount of starter there is not much danger of over-ripening the
cream by holding it from 6 to 12 hours at 56** F. Frequent acid
DAIRYING 51
tests of the cream will show the progress of the ripening, and when
.4 to .5 per cent, acid has been reached the cream should be cooled
to near 50° F. and held at that temperature until it is churned. The
acidity at churning time should not exceed 0.6 per cent.
483. The so-called "48 hour" or slow ripening of cream is
practiced and recommended by some buttermakers who produce
an extra quality of butter, even when milk is skimmed daily. The
body of the butter may be firmer, than that made from cream
ripened a shorter time at a higher temperature. The practice is a
safer one to follow with perfectly pure and clean milk than with
milk of uncertain sweetness from day to day. Milk from one or
a few large herds well cared for and in prime condition each day
will furnish cream which may be much more safely ripened for
48 hours than that supplied by a number of more or less careless
patrons.
UNCERTAINTY OF RIPENING BY RULE
484. The foregoing discussion of cream ripening is intended
to apply to the ordinary conditions at the present time where either
milk or cream or both are made into butter. The conditions of
this supply may vary from day to day according to the weather,
the season, and the extent to which the milk producers are dairy
farmers. Some butter is made from milk and cream from many
small farmers who keep a few cows as a side issue and do not
give the cows or the milk much attention. At other places the milk
and cream is produced by men who make a business of dairy
farming; they keep good-sized herds of dairy cows and provide
the necessary arrangements for taking excellent care of the milk
and cream. These differences in the supply have an important
bearing on the cream ripening and the butter quality. On account
of this variety in condition, it is impossible to give directions for
cream ripening that may be followed in the same routine way each
day and at all places.
485. A definite knowledge of the reasons for ripening cream
and the influence which temperature, acidity, etc., have on the
52 DAIRYING
process should be possessed by the buttermaker, and these with
his experience and his own careful observations should be his guide
in ripening each lot of cream. He cannot successfully follow any
set form of directions as to the number of hours that the cream
should be held at certain temperatures each day, or the amount
and best kind of starter to use. He must understand thoroughly
the cause and the effect of the various tests and manipulations em-
ployed in cream ripening, and govern his work by this knowledge.
PASTEURIZED CREAM BUTTER
486. Nearly all the desirable and the objectionable flavors ex-
cept food flavors found in milk, cream and butter, come from
fermentations that are started in these products by bacteria. The
souring of cream is an illustration of the growth of ferments in
cream that help to develop in the butter. If these are of the
right kind a good butter flavor is obtained, if not of the right
kind an objectionable flavor is noticed. It is evident there-
fore that a control of the fermentations that occur in all dairy
products is a very important matter. One of the ways in which
an attempt has been made to control the fermentation in butter
making is to heat the cream to a temperature ranging between 150°
and 180° F. then cool it to near 50° F. Such a heating is called
pasteurization. If the heating has been thorough, nearly all the
bacteria that cause the fermentation or souring of cream will be
destroyed and if a carefully selected starter which contains the
right kind of bacteria is then added; this seeds the cream with
ferments that develop the desirable flavors in the butter.
UNIFORMITY IN QUALITY OF PASTEURIZED CREAM
BUTTER
487. The secret of success in butter making is to make an
article of uniform quality. Consumers from day to day like to
recognize the taste that they have become accustomed to in their
butter, and an introduction of a new taste arouses suspicion and
provokes expressions of dislike. These may not always mean that
DAIRYING 53
the butter is inferior in quality ; but that the familiar taste is lack-
ing.
488. A uniformity in the salt, the color and the texture of
butter is the result of careful and uniform workmanship, which is
largely mechanical ; but to make butter which shall have a uniform
flavor throughout the year requires a certain amount of expertness
and good judgment, that is something more than mechanical. Uni-
formity in flavor cannot always be obtained by following fixed
rules. This is especially true of raw cream butter where the
fermentations which take place in the cream are subject to the
varying conditions of milk, cream and weather that influence
their growth. When the cows receive sound, wholesome feed and
are milked in a clean way, as is generally the case after a rain
in June, milk often has a different taste from that produced only a
few months later by the same cows, which may be standing all
day in stagnant water fighting flies in a pasture that has become
barren of feed in consequence of a continued drought. There is
a great difference in the purity of the milk produced under these
two conditions and in the variety of bacteria found in the cream
obtained from it.
489. The butter made from such milk will naturally vary in
flavor under the opposite conditions, especially when churned
from raw cream, because in this case nothing has been done to re-
duce the number of bacteria usually present in such cream. This
difficulty may be overcome by destroying the bacteria present and
by introducing a pure culture of selected bacteria. The butter
maker has therefore much better chances of making butter that is
uniform in quality during the entire year, when he pasteurizes
either the milk or cream and ripens the cream with a carefully
prepared starter. So long as the pasteurizing is well done and
the starter is uniformly good, the butter will possess the same mild
and sweet flavor which, though not so high, and pronounced as is
sometimes obtained in raw cream butter, will yet be more satis-
factory to the trade because of its uniformity in flavor and its good
keeping qualities.
490. The objections that have been made to pasteurized
cream butter in America as the result of a few widely scattered
54 DAIRYING
trials at creameries and experiment stations, are the mild flavor,
the salvey texture and the diminished yield. Recent work in this
direction has demonstrated that these defects were largely due to
the lack of experience which the butter makers have had in making
this kind of butter and to the machines and appliances used for
pasteurizing the cream.
491. Within the past few years an interest in starter-making
has become widespread among American butter makers, and the
knowledge gained from this work has taught them how to produce
a desirable and sufficiently-pronounced flavor in pasteurized cream
butter to entirely overcome the old prejudice against such butter
on account of its flat and mild taste.
The other objections relating to the salvey body or texture
and the diminished yield of butter from pasteurized milk or cream
have now been overcome by the modern machines used for heating
the cream to a pasteurizing temperature. An important point in
pasteurizing seems to be the immediate and sudden cooling of the
cream after it has been raised to a pasteurizing temperature. This
coling, apparently, helps to restore the proper texture which has
been made more or less salvey by the. melting of the butter fat
when the cream is heated. It also helps to prevent losses in yield
of butter, although the exhaustiveness of the churning is also in-
fluenced by the temperature of churning (see par. 399).
492. A series of experiments made at the Wisconsin Dairy
School showed that there is no necessity for ^a loss in yield, and
comparative scorings of pasteurized cream butter have shown
that it may be made equal in flavor and texture to that made from
raw cream. The advantages gained by pasteurizing cream in
keeping quality and in the uniformity of the butter are of sufficient
importance to justify a widespread adoption 'of this method of
butter making. The theory of the practice is sound in every par-
ticular, and the successful application of it is within the reach of
buttermakers of average intelligence.
493. It is not however an automatic process of cream ripening
and buttermaking, but requires careful attention to the details of
pasteurizing the cream, making the starter, and ripening the
DAIRYING 55
cream. When these details are mastered the careful and intelligent
butter maker is more surely rewarded by uniform success by
making butter from pasteurized cream than he can hope to attain
from the churning of the ripened raw cream.
494. Pasteurizing the cream must not be expected to remove
all the taints which may be present in the miik from which the
cream is skimmed, but it will preserve the good qualities that are
present in the milk and will prevent the development of some de-
fects that would become prominent when the raw cream is ripened.
Pasteurizing also gives the pure-culture starter but little to con-
tend with besides its own bacteria, and thus affords the butter
maker a safer foundation for obtaining the benefits of his expert-
ness in selecting a starter than it is possible for him to obtain with
rawr cream in which there is always present an unknown variety
of good and bad germs.
495. High flavors are likely to be irregular because of the
extreme difficulty butter-makers have in controlling the milk and
cream supply and in determining the exact point at which to check
the ripeningj)rocess when it has reached the delicate stage where
the high and short-lived flavors attain their maximum development.
The element of luck enters largely into the making of such butter,
and records show that these extremely high flavors are not lasting.
Such butter does not keep well; the flavor is so delicate that it
passes away quickly, and a taste of "strong butter" takes its place
in a much shorter time than is the case with butter which has a
less pronounced flavor when it is freshly made.
RIPENING PASTEURIZED CREAM
496. On account of the destruction of nearly all germ life in
pasteurized cream by the heating which it has received, a generous
amount of starter must be used to complete the ripening process
within the usual time. The cream passes from the separator to the
pasteurizer, where it is first heated to 160° or 185° F. and then
cooled to near 70° F. It enters the ripener at this temperature —
70° F. — and is there mixed with about 10 to 20 per cent, starter,
depending on the richness of the cream. If the cream contains
S6 DAIRYING
about 30 per cent, fat, 10 per cent, starter is usually sufficient. The
cream and starter are thoroughly mixed and held at nearly 70° F.
for four to six hours, or until about .5 per cent, acid has developed.
At this point the ripening may be. carried further than is safe in
raw cream, because in the pasteurized cream the starter is supposed
to contain nothing but desirable bacteria, and hence the products
they will form by continued ripening should not be so injurious
to the butter flavor as is the case with raw cream, because of the
variety of bacteria present and the uncertainty as to what products
will be formed and taken up by the butter during the ripening
process.
497. When the cream has reached 0-5 per cent, acid it should
be cooled to near 50° F. and held at this temperature for two hours
at least, or until churned. It is often held from eight to ten hours
after cooling begins.
While cooling, the cream should be thoroughly mixed, and
when the cooling has once begun it should progress rapidly until
the lowest possible temperature is reached. If the cream* is not
cooled to a temperature that will check the growth of bacteria, the
ripening process will continue and may go so far as to spoil the
butter. It is therefore important that the cooling should be done
quickly and the cream kept cold until churned. The ripening of
pasteurized cream is subject to the same influences, such as rich-
ness and temperature of the cream and condition of the starter, as
is described under raw cream ripening. These points need to be
watched and provided for as carefully in one case as in the other,
but the pasteurized cream ripening has the advantage of being more
under the control of the butter-maker than is usually the case with
raw cream.
PASTEURIZING GATHERED CREAM
498. The cream churned at a gathered cream factory is very
often tainted and more or less sour when it is received. This con-
dition is usually due to the lack of proper care at the farms and to
the age of the cream when collected. It is rarely gathered daily.
DAIRYING 57
the common practice being to make trips every other day in sum-
mer and twice a week in winter. When cream is kept for so long a
time as this it is often sour before it leaves the farm. This, in many
cases, is caused by carelessness or because no great effort has been
made to keep the cream cool until it is delivered to the haulers. A
certain amount of such tainted cream is usually gathered on each
route, and when no precautions are taken by the gatherers to keep
the inferior cream separated from the sweet cream, that has been
well cared for, the bad qualities of the former are transmitted to
the entire lot and the butter suffers a loss in quality on this ac-
count. Such inferior cream is not always found on every route ; but
even when the many patrons deliver a perfectly sweet cream to
the gatherers, there will be a great variety in the flavors and in the
freshness of the different lots; and this lack of uniformity in the
cream will necessarily have its influence on the quality of the
butter. Some of the defects of gathered cream butter are often be-
yond the control of the butter-maker, and he is obliged to do the
best he can with that which is brought to him.
499. In hot summer weather an acidity of 0.6 per cent, is
often developed in the cream when it is delivered to the factory;
such creaip is sour enough to churn, but since it is usually very
warm, it could not be churned at once without suffering a large
loss in the butter milk; the sourest lots would churn first and
leave some of the less ripened cream in the butter milk. This loss
may be avoided by stopping the ripening immediately, either by
cooling or by heating the cream to a temperature that will check
the growth of the bacteria which are responsible for the cream
souring.
500. The course sometimes adopted in handling this cream
is to place large pieces of ice in the cream as soon as it arrives
at the factory; usually about 6 p. m. The vats of cream are left
to cool as best they may during the night, with an occasional stir-
ring of the floating pieces of ice through the evening. The next
morning it will be noticed that the acidity of the cream has not
increased much; but the ripening has continued, and the tem-
perature of the cream may be near 60 deg. F. At this temperature
the cream is churned, and the butter obtained is of a more or less
58 PAIRYINc;
inferior quality on account of the excessive and uneven ripening
of the cream.
The principal objection to this practice is the slowness with
which the cream is cooled. This delay permits a continual de-
velopment of the undesirable fermentations which the cream may
contain and thus increases the chances of producing an inferior
butter.
501. An improvement on this practice has been made, by cool-
ing the cream as quickly as possible, after it is all received in the
evening. The cream is then churned at about ten o'clock at night,
and the butter obtained is of much better quality than when the
cream is held over night and churned the next morning. In this
way the only defects the cream contains are those present at the
time it arrived at the factory.
502. A much quicker and more efficient way of stopping the
development of undesirable fermentations in such cream is to pas-
teurize it at the factory as soon as it arrives. All that is needed
is steam, a good water supply, and a continuous pasteurizer and
cooler. Sour cream may be heated to a temperature of 160° F. and
cooled to 60' F., or lower, in one of these machines. This treatment
will stop the fermentations that may be present in the cream and
remove some of the taints which have already developed nn it. "
503. The necessit}^ of further ripening after pasteurizing will
depend on the sourness of the cream when it is received. If the
acidity when the cream is pasteurized is near 0.5 per cent, no
further ripening is necessary ; but a sweeter cream may be warmed
and held until about this amount of acid has developed. When
sufficiently ripened, the cream should be cooled and held at as cold
a temperature as possible, near 50° F., until it is churned. The
quality of the butter made will be influenced by the amount and
kind of ferments in the cream before it was pasteurized.
504. No great benefit can be obtained from the use of a starter
in such cream, because in most cases it is already too sour, and a
starter would not have much chance to exert any great influence
over the fermentation products that are already formed. The
curdling and separation of whey from sour ceram when it is
pasteurized need not be feared, as this is caused by carelessness
in heating, either by allowing the temperature to run too high or by
DAIRYING 59
failing to keep the cream in motion while it is being heated. When
the cream curd is cooked into hard lumps these may <:ause con-
siderable annoyance, but they may be removed by straining the
cream into the churn and by Washing the granular butter several
times. The curd specks are. heavier than water and will sink when
the churn is half filled with water and allowed to stand. These may
then be drawn off with the wash water and the operation repeated
until most of them are removed.
SWEET CREAM BUTTER
505. A somewhat limited demand for sweet cream butter
is usually found in large cities. Such butter is churned a short
time after the cream is separated from the milk, and for most
people it has what would be designated as a flat, insipid taste.
None of the flavor due to cream ripening and souring is present,
and the characteristic butter flavor sought for by the general
market is almost entirely lacking when such butter is freshly
made. "^
506. Sweet cream butter does not always keep well, and it
must be shipped to customers frequently and in small quantities in
order to keep them supplied with a fresh and agreeable article.
Perfect cleanliness is absolutely necessary in making this butter,
as the introduction of foreign flavors by means of dust, dirt, or by
the absorption of surrounding odors is very quickly noticed on
account of the uniformity in taste of fresh butter; the best grades
have such a delicate flavor that slight taints are very easily
noticed.
507. Sweet cream butter may be made by skimming a rich
cream testing about 40 per cent, fat; then, by letting this stand
at near 40° F. for two or three hours to harden the fat, the cream
may be churned in a reasonable length of time, and practically all
the butter churned out. If the cream is much thinner than this,
the churning may require several hours, and if the temperature is
allowed to rise much above 50° there will be a large loss of butter
in the butter-milk.
6o DAlRYINCi
Sweet cream butter is made in all other respects like ripened
or sour cream butter, except that it is sometimes wanted with
neither color nor salt added to it.
«(
'Sweet Butter" in the New York market is the term applied
to unsalted butter, but this is not necessarily sweet cream butter.
SUMMARY OF CREAM RIPENING METHODS
1. Hold sweet cream testing about 30 per cent fat at a tem-
perature of 70° F. until .5 per cent acid develops, then cool to 50®
F. and hold at this temperature until churned, usually the next
morning after skimming the cream.
2. Ripen sweet cheam as fast as possible at a temperature of
70° to 75° F. until .6 per cent, acid is developed in the cream,
then cool to 50° F. and after one to two hours holding at this
temperature churn at once.
3. Hold the sweet cream at 55° F. for about two days and
then churn.
4. Add 10 to 20 per cent, of a carefully prepared starter to
sweet cream containing 35 to 40 per cent, fat and continue as in 1.
5. Add 5 to 10 per cent, starter to sweet cream and churn at
once.
6. Pasteurize sweet cream, add a starter and continue as in 1.
7. Pasteurize sour cream after neutralizing the acidity with
lime and churn after holding about two hours at 50° F.
8. Tainted cream may be diluted with either sweet milk or
water and run through a separator, then ripened with a starter as
in 4.
CREAM RIPENING VATS
508. In most American creameries and farms where butter
is made the separator cream passes directly into the ripening vat
where it is held for a number of hours before churning. At the
present time there are many kinds of cream ripening-vats in use.
DAIRYING 6i
They are all made with the same object in view — that is to protect
the cream from the surrounding air temperatures and to change
the temperature of the cream as desired.
509. The Channel Bottom Open Vat is the oldest cream
ripening-vat in common use. A space of several inches between
the tin and the wood sides of the vat is filled with water, and in
some of them an ice box is built at one end. In this vat the cream
must be stirred by hand with a tin dipper or a wooden stirrer when
the butter maker wishes to change the cream temperature. On
PUte 15— The Bojd Cream' Ripen er
account of the small porportion of the cream touching the tin sides
of these vats, changes in temperature are made rather slowly when
large quantities are ripened at one time. These vats have been
used extensively in the past, and many dairies and creameries are
fitted up with them, as no other vats were proposed for a number
of years.
510. The Twin Cream Vat is made on the same plan as the
open vats, except that it is composed of two long narrow tin vats
placed inside one wooden box. Both the vats are surrounded by the
same water and must consequently be held at the same tem-
62 DAIRYING
perature. This may be a disadvantage, especially when one may
be filled with ripe cream and the other with sweet cream. It is not
often that these two kinds of cream are intentionally held at the
same temperature, but when a twin vat is used there is no help for
it, for when the temperature of one is changed that of the other
will necessarily be changed also. The only advantage the twin
vat has Over two separate vats is that it occupies less space and is
cheaper.
All open cream vats should be provided with a clean light
cover; this is usually a wooden frame covered with wire netting
and light oil cloth. Such a cover is necessary to potect the cream
from flies, floating dust and dirt which may be blown into the vat
or drop into it from above.
Plate 16— Fnrrington Cream Ripener
511. The Boyd Cream Ripener. The Boyd vat as it is com-
monly called, is an insulated box provided with a cover which is
also insulated. Inside the box, a coil of tinned iron pipe is sus-
pended in the vat and may be moved back and forth by turning
a pulley connected with the coil. Either cool water or brine may
be forced through the coil and this by being moved back and
forth will change the temperature of the cream and mix it at the
same time.
DAIRYING 63
The special point of advantage claimed for this vat is the
opportunity it gives the butter maker to maintain a uniform
temperature after the cream has been brought to such a tempera-
ture as he wishes to hold it. The insulation of the walls with
several thicknesses of suitable material is supposed to protect the
cream from changes in temperature of the outside air,
512. The Farrington Cream Ripeoer. The Farrington ripener
consists of two horizontal cylinders revolving on a common center,
the inner one of tin and the outer of wood with a space between.
Plate 17— The Wizard Agfitatir
Through this space either hot or cold water or brine may be forced
for the purpose of changing the temperature of the cream which is
in the inner cylinder. The ripener is revolved by means of a belt
attached to a pulley. This revolving motion keeps the cream
thoroughly mixed and brings it into contract with the tin sides of
the cylinder, thus giving the butter maker a ready control of the
temperature. This control of the temperature is most important.
Every butter maker knows that no one temperature should be
maintained during the entire time of ripening, but that a change is
often imperative owing to certain weather conditions, or the
rapidity with which the ripening is progressing.
This ripener is completely closed with the exception of a
brass tube which connects the inner cylinder with the outside air
by passing through one of the gudgeons or bearings of the ripener.
In this way the cream is protected from outside odors and dust,
and at the same time it is provided with a circulation of air between
it and the outside even when the ripener is revolving.
513. When ready for churning the cream may be forced
from the ripener into the churn by means of a pump which is oper-
ated by a belt connecting with some shaft in the creamery. This
pump forces air into the ripener and this pushes the cream from
it into the chum through an iron pipe connecting the two machines.
Plate 18— The Sitnr>lex Cream Ripener
Cream may be pasteurizeji in the Farrington Ripener by opening
the steam valve and heatiiiK the water surrounding the
cream. By revolving the ripener during the heating the cream
may be uniformly heated and it does not burn on the tin while
being warmed to the desired temperature.
DAIRYING 65
514. The Wizard Agitator is a rectangular wooden vat the
inside of which is lined with tinned copper. A spiral coil of tinned
copper resembling a series of discs extends through the vat and
by turning this at a speed of 60 revolutions per minute the cream
is stirred or mixed and its temperature changed by pumping either
warm or ice water which is held in a box at one end of the vat,
through the inside of this spiral coil. The water pump is attached
to one end of the vat and may be used or not as desired.
The vat is covered and made in sizes of 300 to 1000 gallons.
Plate 19--EcUpse Cream Ripen
515. The Simplex Cream Ripener is somewhat like the Boyd
ripener. The interior is tinned copper and the outside sheet steel,
some insulating material being placed between the two. Several
rows of pipes are suspended in the vat and these swing back and
forth through the cream changing its temperature according as the
pipes are warmed or cooled by water passing through them,
516. The Eclipse Cream Ripener contains a coil of pipe run-
ning from one end to the other of the vat and this stirs the cream
as well as changes its temperature when it revolves at a low speed.
Several other modifications of these types of cream ripening
vats are on the market, the essential features of them being some
66 DAIRYING
mechanical means of stirring and cooling the cream when desired
during the ripening process. All cream vats should be so made that
cleaning is a reasonably easy operation and the cream does not
get into the bearings of the stirring arrangement.
DAIRYING 67
EXAMINATION
Note to Students — These questions are to be answered inde-
pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your examina-
tion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination.
Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat
the question. Mail answers promptly when completed.
QUESTIONS ON LESSON V.
1. What are some of the differences between farm and factory
butter-making? ^
2. Why is the quality of butter made from "shallow setting"
cream likely to vary and how often should such cream be
churned ?
3. What, is the best way of handling "shallow setting*' cream for
butter-making?
4. What are the advantages of deep over shallow setting cream
for butter-making?
5. How may thin gravity cream be made richer and what effect
will this have on churning such cream?
68 DAIRYING
6. What are some objections to churns with revolving dashers
or discs?
7. Which is the best farm chum, and why?
8. Give four or more important points to be considered in select-
ing a chum.
9. How may a new churn be prepared for use?
10. How should a churn be treated before and after each churning?
11. When is the butter color usually added in butter-making and
at what other time may it be added, if necessary ?
12. What are some things that may cause a variation in the natural
color of milk fat?
13. What are the two types of butter colors and how do .they
differ from each other?
14. How may the butter color used influence the change that may
occur in butter when it is exposed to sunlight?
15. If butter color costs $1.50 per gallon and weighs 8 pounds,
how much more is received for the color when butter sells
for 30 cents per pound than is paid for it?
16. What effect does the salt in butter have on the butter color?
17. What happens when cream is churned and what conditions
of the milk fat influence churning?
18. When should the churning temperature be taken? ,
''Q- What are at least three of the objects of churning?
20. Describe the different temperatures to be used in churning
sweet and in churning sour cream.
21. When should churning be stopped and why?
DAIRYING 69
22. What conditions give a rich buttermilk ?
23. How may small, shot-like granular butter be made for ex-
hibition?
24. What is over-churning and what objections may be made to it?
25. What does a quick churning indicate?
26. What are some of the causes of long churning and how may
they be prevented?
27. If the cream swells and fills the chum so that the butter does
not come, what may be done to such a churning of cream?
28. How and when should the butermilk be drawn off from a
churn ?
29. On what does the amount of washing of butter depend?
30. What temperature of wash water should be used and how
many washings are advisable?
31. What effect may too warm wash water have on the butter?
32. What influences the amount of salt held by the finished butter?
33. What advantages has brine salting butter?
34. How may dry salt influence the water content of butter?
35. How do butter salts differ from each other?
36. How may salt be tested and how should it be kept?
«
37. What per cent, of sodium chloride in butter salt and what are
the usual impurities?
38. Which occupies the most space, a given weight of coarse or of
fine salt?
70 DAIRYING
39. How much longer does it take tp dissolve a coarse than a
fine salt?
40. What per cent, of salt is added to butter when it is salted 1 oz.
to 1 lb.?
41. What effect does salt have on the appearance of moisture in
butter?
42. How may the white crystals sometimes seen on the surface of
butter be prevented?
43. How may the working of butter be regulated, and when has
butter been worked enough ?
44. What is the object of working butter, and what objections
are there to using a butter bowl?
45. How should the churn, worker, ladles and all butter-making
utensils be kept betwen churnings ?
46. What conditions influence the amount of working butter needs
and how may one know when butter is worked enough ?
47. What is the butter overrun?
48. What is the difference between butter and the butter fat in
milk? .
49. Mention some things that will cause a high overrun and a low
overrun.
50. What makes the difference between the milk and the cream
overrun ?
51. What is the greatest possible overrun when butter containing
82.5 per cent, fat is made?
52. If 32 pounds butter are made from 1000 pounds milk testing
2.8 per cent, fat, what is the overrun?
DAIRYING 71
53. If 720 pounds butter are made from 2000 pounds cream test-
ing 30 per cent, fat, what is the overrun?
54. Describe some of the packages in which butter is sold and
their advantages.
55. How should all wooden butter packages be treated before fill-
ing them with butter?
56. How may butter in one pound bricks be prepared for market
and how shipped?
57. What is the minimum express charge on butter at your sta-
tion ?
58. What objections are there to selling butter to a grocer or to
a general store?
59. Why is the highest priced butter made at farm dairy?
60. What advantages has separator over gravity cream for but-
ter-making?
61. Why should cream be cooled as it comes from the separator?
62. What objections are there to cooling cream with lumps of ice?
63. How long should cream be held at a cool temperature before
churning?
64. For what purposes is cream ripened?
65. What effect does the ripening of cream have on the quality
of butter?
66. Is there any relation between the flavor of butter and its
hardness?
67. How does ripening the cream influence its churning?
72 DAIRYING
68. If cream testing 30 per cent, fat has an acidity of .5 per cent,
what would be the coresponding acidity of cream testing
20 per cent, fat?
69. To what per cent, acidity may skim milk be soured and how
does this differ from cream testing 40 per cent, fat?
70. How does the weather affect the ripening of cream?
71. How do changes in temperature influence the ripening of
cream?
72. Give temperatures and hours of holding cream for quick
ripening and for slow ripening.
73. What is pasteurized butter and what are some of its char-
acteristics?
74. How may sour cream be pasteurized and churned?
75. How may' sweet cream butter be made?
Write this at the End of Your Examination
I hereby certify thp.t the above questions were answered entirely
by me.
Signed
Address
THE
Correspondence Colleg
of Agriculture
FT. WAYNE, INDIANA
DAIRYING— Part VI
Buttermaking (Continued)
By E. H. FARRINGTON M, S.,
Pro£«0Mr of Dairy Husbandry
in the UuTeraity
of TVitcoiuia.
Till* ia tliA Sixtli iA a Scries tA LeMons tfiWntf a Complete Coune of Instruction
in Dairying.
COPYRIGHT, 1912
"Du CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
NOTE TO STUDENTS
In order to derive the the utmost possible benefit from
this paper^ you must thorous:hIy master the text While
it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the
text to memory^ still there is nothing: contained in the text
which is not ahsoltuely essential for the intellis:ent dairy-
man to know. For your own s:oodt never refer to the
examination questions until you have finished your study
of the text* By following: this plan^ the examination
paper will show what you have learned from the text.
DAIRYING
DAIRYING-VI
BUTTER.MAKING.~GON T.
517. The flavor and keeping quality of butter is largely
influenced by the way in which the cream is treated before
churning it. There are often certain variations in the results
obtained even when apparently the same method of treatment
is followed from day to day, but the general characteristics
of the three kinds of butter commonly made in American
creameries may be illustrated by a series of experiments made at
the Wisconsin Dairy School.
The general plan of the experiments was to mix ten to
fifteen hundred pounds of sweet cream from the separators in
a large vat. This cream was then divided into three lots, A, B,
and C. Some of the details of one experiment are given below ;
these will serve to illustrate the course pursued in all the
others.
518. Lot A, was cooled to about 50° F. and churned
sweet. The acidity of the cream was about 0.3 per cent, and
its test 30.0 per cent fat. This churning required about one
hour; the temperature of the buttermilk being 52° F. and its test
0.1 per cent fat. The granular butter was washed twice, the
temperature of the water being 50° F. The bulk of the
butter was packed in tubs and four ten-pound packages were
DAIRYING
also filled. The latter packages were numbered and placed in
the refrigerator having a temperature of 45 to 50 d^^rees F.
One package was sent to a commercial butter judge who was
requested to score the butter when first received and to hold
all packages in his cellar where the temperature ranges from
40 to 50° F., and then to score them a second time in order
to test the keeping quality of the butter.
519. Lot B. was taken from the large vat and heated to
185 to 190° F. in a continuous pasteurizer. The hot cream was
run over a water cooler and cooled to 54° F. It was, then placed
in a ripening vat, about 15 per cant starter added, and warmed
up to 75° F. After the starter was added the cream tested 28 per
cent fat and 0.3 per cent acid. Five hours later the cream had
a temperature of 70° F. and 0.46 per cent acid. It was then
cooled and held over night and was churned the next morning
at about 7 o'clock. The temperature of the buttermilk was 56°
F. and its test 0.1 per cent fat. Packages of this butter were
saved as in the case of Lot A.
520. Lot C, the raw cream, was ripened with the same
starter as was used in lot B. Lot C was held at about 75° F.
for three hours and at 70° for two hours when it had reached
0.5 per cent acid. It was then cooled and left to stand over
night. The next morning this cream churned in 40 minutes ; the
temperature of the buttermilk was 54° F., and its test 0.1 per
cent fat. Packages of the butter were held in the refrigerator
as mentioned under Lot A.
521. The washing, salting and working of the three churn-
ings from each day's cream were made as uniformly as possible,
the point in the investigation being to note the differences there
might be between sweet-cream butter, pasteurized-cream butter
and raw-cream butter, all made from the same cream.
The packages of butter were examined every few days at
the dairy school, and scorings were also received from the com-
mercial judges. The following comments made by the writer
about one set will illustrate the general quality of all the butter
made in these three ways.
DAIRYING
Comments on the Sweet-Cream Butter.
522. When one day old it had almost no aroma but a
fresh, sweet-cream taste. Its texture was more like the pas-
teurized than the raw-cream butter ; very little moisture showed
on the surface and it had a close solid body. After three days
this butter had a suggestion of age in its aroma, but the taste
was still sweet. The butter remained in this condition for
three weeks, gradually getting a little more defective in aroma,
but still sweet to the taste. At that time the flavor was de-
cidedly strong, like that of old butter. The flavor did not
improve after the first day, but gradually showed its advancing
age by becoming a trifle rancid rather than by developing a
clean, sour taste.
Comments on the Pasteurized-Cream Butter.
523. When this butter was one day old it had a clean taste,
but not much aroma; it was rather flat but resembled the raw,
sour-cream butter more than that made from sweet cream.
After three days, more aroma developed and this continued
to increase until the butter was three weeks old when the
aroma changed somewhat, becoming a trifle sour. No other
indication of age was shown until the butter was five weeks old,
when a slightly old taste began to be noticed. The texture of
this butter was close, but not smeary, and fully equal to that
of the raw ripened cream. The butter surface, however, showed
almost no brine but looked dry and smooth, quite different from
that of the raw-cream butter.
Comments on the Raw-Cream Butter.
524, I'he day after churning the flavor of the raw-cream
butter was the highest of the three. The butter aroma in-
creased a trifle each day for about two weeks when the butter
began to show age, and in three weeks it was decidedly strong,
almost rancid. The texture of this butter was coarser and more
DAIRYING
open than either that from the sweet or the pasteurized cream-
butter, and considerable brine showed in drops on the surface,
making the appearance as Well as the flavor of this butter
decidedly different from that of the others.
CREAM RIPENING STARTERS.
525. The use of a starter in cream ripening is becoming
more common among butter makers every year. It is nearly
always made of skim milk which has been carefully soured
and in which the butter maker has attempted to propagate a
more or less pure culture of bacteria.
526. The purpose of a starter is to supply crearti with a
large excess of the ferments or bacteria which will control the
souring process and thus aid in developing good flavors in the
butter. Butter fat absorbs odors or flavors produced by the sour-
of cream and it is therefore essential that only such fermenta-
tions as will give butter its peculiar flavor are permitted to
grow in cream while it is ripening. Butter fat absorbs objec-
tionable as well as desirable products formed during the souring
process and the flavor of the butter is therefore influenced by
the kind of fermentation that takes place in the cream.
527. The addition of selected sour milk to sweet cream
is something like adding yeast to bread, it "starts'' the desired
fermentation in the cream. There are many becteria in milk
and cream, but the starter is used to control and to multiply the
good ones whose growth forms products that give butter a de-
sirable flavor. Milk and cream usually contain a great many
kinds of bacteria; some of them are beneficial, others are in-
different, and still others are positively detrimental to the good
qualities of butter.
528. It is generally believed that the lactic acid bacteria
are among the most desirable germs* for cream ripening, as
they convert milk sugar into lactic acid and produce the normal
souriiftg of milk and cream. If there were no other kinds of
bacteria in cream, the butter made from day to day would
* As a rule, the words bacteria and germs have the same meaning, and
they are therefore here used synonymously.
i
■
DAIRYING
undoubtedly have a uniformly good flavor. Other kinds of
bacteria may also be beneficial for cream ripening, but little
definite information on this point is available at the present
time. Besides the beneficial and the indifferent bacteria, there
are other kinds which are directly responsible for defects in
butter, among these are the "digesters" and the "gas producers."
These may be present in such large numbers as to control the
fermentation of the cream and overcome the growth of those
bacteria which produce its normal souring. The buttermaker
should therefore make an effort to suppress the injurious bac-
teria and cultivate the beneficial ones. In order to do this suc-
cessfully an acquaintance with the conditions both favorable and
unfavorable to the growth of bacteria will be helpful. It is not,
however, the purpose of this description to discuss the subject
of bacteriology, but simply to give brief directions for the dairy-
man to follow in making a starter.
529. In order to get good results in starter making, a butter
maker should understand that bacteria are microscopic forms of
life which are present nearly everywhere. The air of the barn
and dairy is full of them, and the milk utensik, which have not
been heated to the temperature of boiling water are "lined" with
germs. It is also claimed that 50,000 germs have been found on
one house fly. Bacteria multiply very rapidly and cause milk or
cream to sour by changing the milk sugar into lactic acid ; some
bacteria produce what are called spores and others do not.
These spores are not so easily destroyed ; it being necessary to
repeatedly or continuously heat milk containing some kinds of
spores in order to kill them. Spore-bearing bacteria are usually
most plentiful around dirty barns and other filthy places; they
are the cause of a great many defects in dairy products. It is
necessary, therefore, in preparing skim milk for starter making,
to heat the milk to a high temperature, near the boiling point,
for one-half hour or more, in order to kill the spore-bearing bac-
teria present, which if not destroyed will grow and spoil the
starter. The effect of the putrifactive and other objectionable
products formed by the spore-producing bacteria may be largely
neutralized by getting the acid-forming bacteria to grow in the
8 DAIRYING
starter as soon as possible. The spore-bearing bacteria do not
grow well in milk containing a large number of lactic acid bac-
teria.
Making the Starter.
530. The common method of making a starter as practiced
by butter makers is about as follows: For the foundation, or
soil in which to grow the bacteria, sweet skim milk* is selected
from the separator or gravity skimming when the cleanest milk
is being skimmed. This is pasteurized** by heating it in either
the modern starter-can or by setting a can of it into a larger
can or tank of hot water. While being heated, the milk is
stirred occasionally to prevent its burning onto the tin. The
temperature to which the milk is heated will depend somewhat
on its purity and cleanliness. When exceptionally clean, the
few bacteria which the milk may contain will be destroyed by
heating to 150 degrees Fahrenheit.
This is a sufficiently high temperature to kill a large number
of the fully developed bacteria, but if the milk has been more or
less contaminated, by careless milking and dirty handling at the
farms, a large number of spores from the spore-making bacteria
will survive this temperature and make it necessary to heat the
milk higher. Heating to 185- degrees Fahrenheit for one-half
hour is the temperature usually recommended for preparing the
seed bed or foundation skim milk in which the pure culture of
bacteria is to be grown.
531. Necessity of Thorough Heating. It is very essential
that the foundation skim milk should be nearly germ-free, as any
undesirable bacteria that may have been left alive in it after
heating will grow and multiply as fast as the desirable ones
whicii have been added in the form of a pure cculture ; the pijod-
ucts formed by the growth of these undesirable bacteria may be
* Besides skim milk, whole milk, and thin cream, such milk . prodnots
%B unsweetened condensed milk and milk powder may be used for ttat
foundation material in starter making.
* jlterlllalnar aiid Pasteartalnflr* The proper use of the words "sterll-
Izingr" and "pasteurizing:" is not understood by all butter makers. They
are likely to use either word as a name for heatinir milk to some temper-
ature n-ear scalding:. This is not correct, as each word has a meaningr of
its own and should indicate a different treatment of mUk.
DAIRYING
the cause of some defects in the butter. If, on the other hand,
the skim milk is very clean, heating to a temperature of 150 de-
grees Fahrenheit is sufficient to kill all the bacteria in it. Re-
peated heating to a high temperature will aid in reducing the
number of bacteria and of spores. Some of the spores will sur-
vive one heating. This is especially true of the putrifactive
bacteria which may be the cause of serious defects in butter if
they are not held in check.
532. When the foundation skim milk (or milk free from
weeds) is made as nearly germ-free as possible by heating, it is
covered with an over-lapping cover and left to cool.
Cooling the Skim Milk. The cooling is done in any conveni-
ent way, either by allowing cold water to run around the hot
can or by setting the can in a refrigerator ; stirring while cooling
will hasten matters, and the more quickly the cooling is done
Plate 1 — Covered Milk Bottle for Propagating Starter
the better it will be for the starter, as sudden cooling chocks the
development of the spores which may have lived through the
heating.
When the skim milk has cooled to 80 degrees Fahrenheit,
the pure culture is added to it. This pure culture may be a small
quantity of some sour milk which has been selected and allowed
10 DAIRYING
to sour naturally, or it may be a bottle of solid or liquid com-
mercial culture which has been prepared for this purpose.
The prepared seed or pure culture grown in a small quantity oi
sour milk which is to be added to this carefully prepared soil or
pasteurized skim milk is often called the "mother" starter or
startoline.
534. Preparation of "Mother" Starter or Startoline. In
order to get the best results in making the "mother" starter, or
startoline, there should be provided : (1) Several quart bottles
each equipped with a glass tumbler cover, and a long-handled,
silver-plated spoon. (Fig. 1.) A glass vessel is better than any
other for this purpose, as it enables one to see the way in which
the milk is souring, and whether the curd is solid or wheyed off
and gassey. Tin, crockery, or earthen ware are more or less
Plate 2— A Small Steam Sterilizer for Starter Bottles,
porous, or cracked, and are not so easily kept clean and germ-
free as glass.
2. A galvanized iron can, with cover and steam connection
at the bottom, as shown in Plate 2. A perforated shelf is placed
on strips so as not to stand directly on the bottom of the can,
and it also helps to distribute the heat from the steam. When
steam is not available this can, with its bottles, may be heated
by means of hot water, which should not be filled above the top
of the bottles inside.
3. An Incubator. (Plate 3.) This is simply a box in
which a fairly uniform temperature may be kept by providing
walls, bottom and cover filled with felt, paper, hay or any in-
sulating materials, and is used in the same way as a fireless
cooker in the kitchen. The pail is filled with warm water and
when the cover is closed the bottles are kept at a temperature
which hastens the souring of the milk, and they are protected
from changes of the outside temperature. It may be necessary
Plate 3 — An losulated Box for Incubating Starters.
to change the water in the pail occasionally, but water at a
temperature of about 90 degrees Fahrenheit will hold a tem-
perature of about 70 degrees Fahrenheit in the box for several
hours.
535, The clean milk bottle, tumbler and spoon must be
sterilized by dipping in hot water just before using them; each
12 DAIRYING
bottle is then two-thirds filled with clean, swe^t, fresh, whole
milk and two or more of these bottles are placed in the gal-
vanized iron can, or sterilizer. Steam or hot water is thai
turned into the can carefully, so as not to break the bottles, and
the heat gradually raised to about 180 degrees Fahrenheit, which
temperature is held for at least 15 minutes. The entire heating
process may take one-half hour. This heating kills all the bac-
teria in the milk, except some spores, and provides a nearly
germ-free soil in which to develop the pure culture. The bottles
of milk are allowed to cool without removing the glass tumblers
used as a cover; when cool they may be used as needed for
building up a starter.
Adding the Pure Culturct.
536. When small bottles or packages of pure culture of bac-
teria are bought for starter-making, the cork or wrappings should
be carefully removed, in order to prevent any outside contami-
nation. All the liquid, or the powder, should be added to one
of the bottles of sterile milk previously prepared. (See par. 535.)
The glass tumbler cover is then placed on the bottle and the
contents mixed by occasional shaking. It is then placed in the
incubator and a pail of water added to the box, so as to bring
the temperature up to about 80 or 90 degrees Fahrenheit. At
this temperature the pure culture bacteria will soon begin to
grow and the sterile milk in the bottle will coagulate in a few
hours. It is then filled with millions of the bacteria needed for
making the starter, and after transferring a spoonful of the
coagulated milk from this bottle to another bottle of sterile milk,
which is then put in the incubator for the next day, the con-
tents of the first bottle is added to a larger quantity of pasteur-
ized skim milk. This is then thoroughly mixed and when the
laiger amount has been held at a temperature of about 80 de-
grees Fahrenheit for a long enough time to coagfulate it. this
sour milk is added to the cream, which is to be ripened.
537. By this process there is added to the cream many
millions of bacteria like those in the pure culture bought. The
DAIRYING 13
success in developing them depends largely on the care used in
all the various steps of the process and the prevention of con-
tamination of the starter during tlie making. The starter should
be carefully covered and protected from dust and currents of
air; such protection is one of the most essential elements of
success in •starter-making, as the slightest exposure after heat-
ing, to the air, drops of water, or the use of a cover or stirrer,
which has not been sterilized immediately before using it, may
introduce injurious bacteria into the starter, and by contamina-
tion impair its efficiency.
538. Developing the Pure Cultures. The commercial cul-
tures, if active bacteria are present, will soon begin to grow in
skim milk when held at 80 degrees Fahrenheit. If maintained
until the milk begins to thicken, this will require from 18 to 36
hours. This sour milk may then be added to a larger quantity
of skim milk which has been previously heated to 185 degrees
Fahrenheit. This second transfer, or second generation of the
starter, may then be held at any temperature between 50 degrees
Fahrenheit and 90 degrees Fahrenheit, which will promote the
rapidity of growth desired. This will depend on the time when
it is needed for the cream. The souring process goes on rabidly
at 90 degress Fahrenheit, but is nearly checked at 50 degrees
Fahrenheit. The temperature of the starter must, therefore, be
regulated to accommodate the cream in which it is to be used ;
warming or cooling the starter to any temperature between
the points mentioned that may be deemed necessary to hasten
or to check the souring process.
Natural and Commercial Starters.
The starters now in use for ripening or souring cream may
be divided into two general classes.
First: The Natural Starters.
539. This name is sometimes given to sour whole milk,
skim milk, butter milk, or thin cream which has soured without
the addition of an artificial pure culture of any kind. The fer-
14 DAIRYING
mentations they contain have developed from the bacteria that
get into milk, cream, etc., during the usual handling of these
products. Excellent starters are often made from selected whole
milk. Several sterilized milk bottles, provided with covers, as
previously described, are two-thirds filled with milk from differ-
ent cows, or from different herds; each bottle is labeled and
placed in the incubator at a temperature of about 80 degrees
Fahrenheit until the milk sours. The sour milk in each bottle
is then carefully inspected, and those in which the curd is solid
with no holes and have a pleasant, but acid, taste*, are the safest
ones to use for making a starter. This kind of a starter pos-
sesses the advantage of being easily changed in case the butter
flavor becomes unsatisfactory. In some places bottles of milk
are collected daily for the purpose of selecting a new starter
from them whenever wanted.
540. It is claimed that milk from a fresh cow, or early in
the milking period, is much better for starter-making than the
milk of a stripper. If the udder of such a cow is carefully
washed and dried just before milking, and the first few jets of
milk kept separate from the remainder of her milk, which is
then milked directly into sterilized bottles, a very satisfactory
starter may be built up by setting such bottles of milk in the in-
cubator to sour, and then adding this sour milk to a larger quan-
tity of pasteurized skim milk. Three to four pounds of sour
milk, added to 400 pounds of pasteurized skim milk, will gener-
ally become sour enough to add to cream, if kept at about 65
degrees Fahrenheit for twenty-four hours.
541. Buttermilk or sour cream are not usually recommended
as starters for ripening cream, because a churning of cream may
* Milk Is sterilized when all bacteria and spores in it are killed. This
is a very difficult thing to do, and is only accomplished in laboratories
wrhere facilities are provided for repeated boilings for periods of at least
•ne-half hour long. Between boilings at least twenty minutes should
elapse and the milk allowed to cool to about 80 degrees Fahrenheit in order
to develop those spores which have lived through the first boiling. When
these have matured they will be killed by the subsequent boiling, ^rom
three to five days are generally needed to sterilize milk completely.
It is not possible for butter makers with the ordinary dairy or cream-
try appliances to sterilize milk. They may pasteurize it, however; and
this is the name that should properly be given to the ordinary heating
•f milk for starter making. The temperatures used in pasteurizing art
not sufficiently high or prolonged to destroy all germs and in>ore8 in millu
but in many cases, over ninety-nine per cent, of the bacteria may be killed
by pasteurization.
DAIRYING 15
become over-ripe, or tainted, and if some of it, or of the butter
milk from it, is added to the next lot of sweet cream, these
defects may be transferred from one churning to another. The
sour cream and the buttermilk starter should not, however, be
altogether condemned. They may sometimes be used with good
results, as they are not always bad. The principal objection to
such a starter lies in the fact that the butter maker has no choice
in selecting his starter, but must use the same thing each day.
Sour cream and buttermilk are not safe sources of new starters,
but after a good one has been obtained from some other source,
its good qualities may be carried along from one churning to
another, for a while, by saving some of the cream or the butter-
milk for ripening the next lot of sweet cream.
542. When a desirable starter has been obtained, an attempt
is usually made to retain the bacteria it contains as long as
possible. This is done by saving a small quantity of it each day
and adding this as seed to a new lot of pasteurized skim milk.
In this way the good butter qualities, which are due to these
bacteria, are transferred from one churning to another.
543. Best Condition of Starter for Use. The starter ought
to b« used before there is a separation of whey from the curd,
as a coagulated starter is too sour for producing the best results
in cream. The object of a starter is to propagate the largest
possible number of selected bacteria in a vigorously growing
condition ; and from our present knowledge it is supposed that
this point is reached just as the milk coagulates and before the
whey separates from the curd.
The method of controlling butter flavor by means of a
starter may seem to be an easy one to follow, but in general
dairy and creamery practice it has been found that there are
many ways in which the starter or the pure culture becomes
contaminated with undesirable bacteria. These are introduced
so easily by careless handling from day to day and by a lack of
knowledge regarding the propagation of starters that it is im-
portant for the buttermaker to understand not only the mechani-
cal manipulations, or how to make a starter, but he ought also
to be familiar with the reasons for each step taken in their propa-
r6 DAIRYING
gation.
Second: The Artificial or Commercial Starters.
544. These are of two kinds, the liquid, such as the O.
Douglas Boston Butter Cultures, and S. C. Kieth, Jr., Baccillus
Lactis Acidi, which is shipped in four small glass vials in one
mailing case, and the solid cultures of Hansen, Ericsson and
Parke, Davis & Co. The commercial starter is designed to
supply a pure culture of bacteria, which may be transplanted
into skim milk and built up to a large starter. It was formerly
claimed that the buttermaker could be supplied with different
kinds of bacteria, and he could order the particular one wanted,
such as acid bacteria, neutral bacteria, and several other kinds.
At the present time it is very generally believed that some
variety of the lactic acid bacteria is more beneficial to both the
buttermaker and the cheese maker than any other kind, and the
manufacturers are dealing in this one only.
545. The liquid cultures are short lived, but each package
is dated to show when the culture must be used. They also,
when fresh, begin to work quickly after being added to pas-
teurized skim milk. The solid cultures keep a year or more, but
are weakened by age and several generations must be propa-
gated* before they are used, as they improve with each transfer.
546. The directions for using these cultures given by the
manufacturers are essentially the same in principle, but differ
somewhat in detail. A few of the more important instructions
regarding each culture are given in the following table.
*The manufacturers of Hansen's lactic ferment recommend the propo
gation of three generations of the skim milk before using it as a starter in
cream. The dry powder is added to pasteurized skim milk which is allowed
to stand at 80 degrees F. until it begins to thicken. This is called startoline and
is added to a fresh lot of pasteurized milk to make a second startoline. This
second generation is propagated in a third lot of pasteurized skim milk; and
when this third generation has soured it is ready to be used in cream. A
small quantity of startoline is saved each day to make a new starter as it is
claimed that the germs in the dry powder are somewhat dormant and are
not aroused to their full activity until several transfers of them have been
made in skim milk.
DAIRYING
17
A brief outline of the manufacturers instructions for using
comniercial butter culture:
KIND OF CULTURE
Details of
Preparation
Hansen's
Lactic
Ferment
Douglas
Cultures
Keith's
Cultures
Errisson's
Butter
Culture
Flavorone
Foundation
or mother
skim milk is
heated to
175 deg. F.
for 1 hr.
180 deg. F.
30 min.
180 deg. F.
30 min.
185-200 deg.
30 min.
180 de§. F.
30 mm.
This skim
milk is cool-
ed to tem-
perature
75-80 F.
85-90 F.
90 F.
•
58-70 F.
90 F.
Amount of
culture to
use. 1 oz.
culture in
skim milk
8 qts.
8 qts.
Iqt.
1 qt.
1 small
package in
skim milk
4 lbs.
1 large
package in .
skim milk
20 lbs.
Hold for
first growth
of cultures
at
75-80 F.
80-90 F.
70-75 F.
Even temp.
80-90 F.
Length- of
time, hrs.
18-24
24
36-48
16-18
18-20
To propa-
gate from
day to day,
add to pas-
teurized
skim milk
about
39^-596 and
hold at 60-65
F. Gradu-
ally dimin-
ish amount
of startoline
as germs
"regain vi-
tality" by
the trans-
fers from
day to day
About Tfo
holding at
75-80 F.
about 24
hours until
thick
8 qts. to
10-20 gal.
past, milk
holding at
70-75 F.
about 18
hours until
coagulated.
1-2 pints to
25 gal. past,
skim milk
holding at
65-67 F. in
summer,
70-72 in win-
ter and let
stand from
noon till
next morn-
ing.
One part
"starter" to
50 parts
"sterilized"
milk.
Amount of
starter to
use in
cream
5-6^0
5-10% in
summer and
10-209^ in
winter
5-10%
"The more
the better"
10-20%
Tem. of
ripening
cream
65-75 F.
70 F.
m
60-68 F.
70 F.
Use fresh
bottle of
culture
Every 2
weeks
Each
week
Each
week
Each
week
Each
week
i8 DAIRYING
549. Selecting the Starter. The first thing for a butter-
maker to learn about starter-making is how to transplant de-
sirable ferments from one day to another into the sweet cream
without introducing a great many undesirable bacteria at the
same time.
Another important point in starter-making is the skillful
selection of a desirable starter. This knowledge is obtained by
close observation and by training the senses of taste and smell
to distinguiA a good starter from a poor one. The ability to
detect the peculiar odor which experience has shown to be char-
acteristic of a good starter and to determine whether or not it
will injure or improve the butter is more easily acquired by
some people than by others. Some people have a very acute
taste and a keen sense of smell ; they can tell instantly whether
a starter will give good or bad results if used to ripen cream.
This acuteness is often a natural gift, but nearly all persons may
cultivate it by a systematic training obtained from daily obser-
vations regarding the effect which certain starters have had on
butter flavor. Some peculiar odor of a starter may often be
noticed in butter made from cream in which the starter was
used, and by repeated comparisons, the buttermakers may, after
a while, be able to state before a starter is used whether it will
produce a good, a bad, or an indifferent flavor in the butter.
A sharp, clean, acid taste with no trace of an offensive odor
is about all that can be given in the way of description of the
desirable flavor to be sought for in selecting a starter,
548. Vigor of the Starter. Another thing to be considered
in starter-making, besides the purity of the culture, is the vigor
and the thriftiness of the ferments which have been selected.
A weak or enfeebled growth of even a desirable culture may not
produce good results in the cream, and an effort should be made
to provide conditions favorable for a vigorous development of
the bacteria wanted. The growth of bacteria in a starter may be
compared with that of vegetation. When plants are transplanted
in a greenhouse or garden, the strong and thrifty ones get
started more quickly and grow better than those which are weak
DAIRYING 19
and feeble. The same thing is true of bacteria; the healthy,
vigorous germs develop quickly, and bring about the changes
in milk which are peculiar to them much more rapidly than is
the case with wilted and enfeebled bacteria. The garden plants
may be sorted over and the vigorous specimens selected for
transplanting, but there is no similar means of detecting the
hardy bacteria. The buttermaker must form his opinion of them
from the acidity and age of the starter, as well as the tempera-
ture at which it has been kept and the rapidity with which it
has soured.
549. Acidity of the Starter. It is a well known fact that the
vigor of bacteria is diminished by an accumulation of their own
products, one of which in the case of milk and cream is lactic
acid. When the acidity of milk has reached 0.8 per cent, the
bacteria cease to multiply rapidly, and those present in such a
strongly acid liquid are greatly reduced in strength and vigor.
The starter is therefore supposed to be in its best condition for
use before the acidity has reached 0.8 per cent; about 0.6 per
cent acid is probably a more favorable stage of acidity than 0.8
per cent. This amount of acid (0.6 per cent) is often developed
before milk coagulates ; better results will therefore be obtained
by using the starter just before rather than after it has curdled
or whe3^ed off.
Thus, as we see, the two things most needed in a starter
are, first, a large excess of some desirable kind of bacteria, and,
second, a vigorous and healthy growth of the bacteria which
have been selected.
550. Amount of Starter to Use. No fixed rule can be given
for determining the quantity of starter that ought to be used in
each lot of cream. The condition pi the milk and cream and of
the starter must be considered in estimating the amount needed.
A quick ripening of the cream is aided by a large starter and a
slow ripening is obtained by using a small quantity ; a thin cream
needs less starter than a thick cream, and the sotimess of the
starter itself is of importance. In a general way it may be said
that the amount of starter to be recommended in the summer,
20 DAIRYING
when the cows are on grass, is from five to ten pounds of starter
per 100 pounds of cream. This amount is usually added to cream
testing about 30 per cent. fat. In the winter, when cows are
milked in the stable and receive dry feed, good results have been
obtained by skimming a cream testing 50 to 60 per cent fat and
using at least 25 per cent of starter. The flavor of the butter
may also be benefited by the addition of clean and sweet morn-
ing's milk to the cream.
551. The starter is sometimes added to cream immediately
after the first cream is obtained. It is often placed in the cream
vat the first thing in the morning and the cream from the
separator run directly into it. When this is done the butter-
maker should know beforehand approximately how much milk
will be skimmed and the quantity of cream that will be obtained.
This will give the necessary information for calculating the
pounds of starter needed. No great exactness in this particular
is necessary, however, as a few pounds more or less of starter
will not seriously change the ripening process.
552. Stirring the Starter. In the early stages of the starter
it is often necessary to stir the skim milk in order to aid in uni-
formly heating it and also to mix the pure culture thoroughly
with it. No harm will come from this early stirring before the
starter has soured, but when all the necessary mixing and heat-
ing has been done, the starter should not be disturbed. It should
be allowed to coagulate quietly, and the soft, sour curd added to
the cream. This curd is often run through a hair sieve to remove
any hard lumps that may be present. Curd lumps in a starter
are often caused by stirring it after souring, and on this account
directions are usually given to omit stirring after the first neces-
sary mixing of the pure culture with the skim milk.
553. Starters and Food^ Flavors. The principal use of a
starter is to improve the butter flavor. Some starters undoubt-
edly are injurious to the flavor because of the undesirable fer-
ments they introduce into the cream, but the fundamental idea
of a starter is either to increase or to improve the butter flavor.
The starter is not, however, responsible for all butter flavors;
some of them, both good and bad, are produced by the cow's
DAIRYING 21
feed. The ^*J^^^" flavor, which is so much desired by consumers
of butter, has not been propagated during the entire year by
using a "J""^" starter ; nor have the germs been isolated that
are responsible for the onion, the garlic, and the weedy flavors
that sometimes are noticed in butter. These flavors come directly
from the cow's feed. Luxuriant pasture feed in the spring and
summer, and weeds eaten at any time of the year, impart charac-
teristic flavors to both milk and butter. The eifects of these
feeds on butter flavor are familiar to many buttermakers, and
are known to be entirely independent of the starters used in
ripening the cream.
554. Overcoming Food Taints with Starters. The objecc-
tionable food flavors, such as the onion and weedy flavors, may,
however, be somewhat surpressed, if not entirely overcome, by
skimming a very rich creanj. containing 50 per cent fat and
diluting this with 15 to 30 per cent of a starter which does not
contain these flavors. Milk for this purpose may sometimes be
difficult to obtain, but it is useless to try to overcome the weedy
and onion flavors by using starters tainted with these flavors.
The heating which skim milk receives in starter-making cannot
be depended on to remove such taints. The starter must always
be made from milk entirely free from taints of any kind. It has
been suggested that the cream from weedy milk may be mixed
with hot water or with skim milk and run through the separator
a second time as a means of purifying it from onion and garlic
flavors. Goodrich has recommended adding one teaspoonful of
saltpetre to each gallon of the hot water used. The purpose of
this dilution is to remove the objectionable flavors by washing
them out with hot water or with a weak solution of saltpetre.
Sterilizing Utensils, Care of Starters, Etc.
555. On account of the wide distribution of bacteria in the
air, water, and flying dust, it is extremely important that all the
utensils used in starter-making should be completely sterilized.
The time and attention given to starter-making may be entirely
22 DAIRYING
thrown away and the starter ruined by any neglect in this
direction.
The cans, buckets, dippers, stirrers, cloths, covers and every-
thing used in the preparation of a starter should be thoroughly
steamed after they have been washed and rinsed with clean
water. A steaming box or oven may be provided for this pur-
pose and the tinware should be heated in it to a boiling tempera-
ture for at least one-half hour. An exposure of the starter or
of the cans to the air, by leaving them uncovered, or by rinsing
the cans with water which has not been boiled, may spoil the
work already done, and it is therefore very important that every
precaution possible should be taken to prevent the contamina-
tion of the pure culture with undesirable bacteria. Even the but-
termaker's hands should be rinsed in water which has been
boiled and he should also avoid putting his hands inside the
cans, pails, etc. After these utensils have been sterilized, the
cans used for holding the starter ought to have covers made with
overlapping sides that fit outside instead of inside the can walls.
Bacteria are so numerous and so widely distributed that in
starter-making it is safe to assume that they are always growing
on anything which has not been previously heated to a suffi-
ciently high temperature to destroy them. On account of the
susceptibility of a starter to outside contamination, it is always
safest to skim oS and throw away the top layer of an inch or
more.. This often contains some undesirable bacteria that have
found their way into the can in spite of all precautions to keep
them out.
General Precautions Regarding Starters.
556. Strict rules in regard to temperatures and the length
of time that the starters must be kept at definite temperatures
cannot be safely followed from day to day. The maker must
use his judgment in regard to the best conditions necessary for
the starter in each case.
DAIRYING 23
1. If the starter is not wanted for immediate use, and it has
already become sour, it may be kept a few hours by cooling to a
temperature of 50 degrees Fahrenheit, or lower, and if the milk
does not sour fast enough it should be warmed in order to hasten
the souring process.
2. If the starter is spongy and gassy, the skim milk has not
been properly pasteurized, or else it was obtained from tainted
milk. Such a starter should be thrown away and a new one
made from perfect milk.
3. Whole milk may be used for starter-making instead of
skim milk, and the milk from fresh cows or those in the early
stages of their milking period is preferable to that of strippers.
4. Nothing need be feared from a cooked flavor by heating
the foundation skim milk to a high temperature. This will dis^
appear before the starter is ready to use.
5. Do not let the starter get over ripe, and remember to
save a bottle of mother starter or startoline each day for seeding
the fresh lot of pasteurized milk which makes the starter for the
next day.
6. More benefit will usually be obtained from a starter in
pasteurized cream than in raw or unheated cream.
7. The bottles or packages of pure culture should be kept
in a cool place protected from strong light until they are used,
and not opened until everything is ready for emptying the con-
tents into the pasteurized or sterile skim milk in which the cul-
ture is to be grown.
8. By careful handling, a pure culture may be carried along
and used daily for weeks and months, but until one becomes
expert in handling starters it is best to begin a new one each
week, as the starter may degenerate from the impurities which
get into it from day to day.
9. In developing a starter the bottles of milk should be
kept at a constant temperature until soured sufficiently; then
cooled and kept cold until added to the pasteurized milk. Too
24 DAIRYING
high a heat, about 130 degrees Fahrenheit, will kill the lactic
acid germs in the starter, but cold does them no harm.
10. Always pour out some of the starter into a cup for
examination, and never place a thermometer, pipette, or spoon
in the starter after it is made, although these must be used in
the early stages of the process.
11. Every effort possible should be made to protect the
carefully soured milk from contamination after the pure cultures
have been added and a good growth of lactic acid germs is ob-
tained.
JUDGING THE QUALITY OF BUTTER.
557. The various qualities of butter are classified under the
following heads : Flavor, texture, color, salt and package.
When an expert butter judge, or a butter buyer, gives his
opinion of butter it is generally expressed with figures. The
American commercial standards for perfect butter are the follow-
ing: Flavor 45, texture 25, color 15, salt 10, package 5; total
100 points.
558. It is not customary to give any butter a score of 100
and thereby acknowledge it to be perfect in all its qualities.
Scores of 98 are, however, sometimes reached, although in ex-
hibits of butter entered for prizes there are not often more than
one or two entries out of one hundred with a score of over 97
points. Only about one-third of the total number will score 93
points or better. The proportion of the total number of entries
exhibited that score above 93 will vary in different exhibits and
in different seasons of the year.
Butter that scores 93 or better is usually marked perfect on
at least two qualities and sometimes on three, but almost never
on flavor. (See par. 569.) Defective flavor is the most common
fault found in butter. Such qualities as texture, color, salt and
package are more under the control of the buttermaker than
is the flavor.
DAIRYING _25
It has become customary to express one's opinion of diif er-
ent butter samples by fractions of points, such as 41, 41 J4, or
4iy2 on flavor. Many tubs of butter are scored about the same
figure, there often being no greater variation thaii one-half point
between them.
559. In scoring a large number of different lots of butter,
the judges usually go through the entire lot first and then give
careful attention to a few of the best tubs that they have picked
out as superior in quality. There is so little difference in these
best lots that they are carefully studied in order to detect some
difference in them. The final test may be narrowed down to two
tubs between which the judges often find considerable difficulty
in deciding which is the better one; the final decision placing
only a difference of a small fraction of a point between the two
lots of butter.
The finer points of butter scoring are difficult to explain
and errors of juudgment may frequently be made. These can,
however, be largely eliminated by having three or more judges
work independently, each one recording his opinion of each lot
of butter and then submitting the different judges' reports to
either the buttermaker or to another judge, who may further in-
spect such samples as show a wide variation in the scores sub-
mitted by the different judges.
560. The best judges of butter as a rule are men who are
constantly buying and selling butter. They may know very
little about butter making, but they have become familiar with
the demands of the market and can quickly distinguish between
salable and unsalable butter from the market standpoint. The
constant training which butter buyers get fits them for detecting
the fine points that weuld not be noticed by a person less familiar
with the great variety of butter that comes under their notice.
Anyone having a sensitive nose and tongue can by training dis-
tinguish slight differences in the quality of various packages of
butter. If the butter judge has an ideal standard in mind, he
can easily determine how near this standard each package of
butter approaches, and give his reasons f®r such an opinion in
each case.
26 DAIRYING
* Judging Dairy Butter.
561. Foreign judges of butter distinguish between flavor
and aroma, the former refers to taste and the latter to smell. In
the United States the single term "flavor" is used and the ideal
flavor is one that has a mild, rich, creamy and dean butter
taste.
Some of the defects in butter flavor are designated by the
following ter«is : Flat, light, cheesy, rancid, briney, fishy, weedy,
bkter, feverish, etc.
562. In most cases the word used gives a sufficient ex-
planation of what is meant by the defect; feverish flavoi; is a
term that has been applied to a disagreeable, sickening taste
sometimes noticed in butter when cows first go to pasture in
the spring, and is possibly caused by an unhealthy condition of
the cow because of the sudden change of feed.
563. Fishy flavor has been found to occur mostly in butter
made from excessively ripe cream, and into which considerable
air has beea worked by over- working. It is supposed to be due
to an oxidation process, rather than to bacterial growth. The
bitter flavor usually comes from holding cream too lo»g at a
low temperature. This defect is seldom noticed in butter made
during the summer reason.
Butter Texture.
564. Under this head is ueually included the "body," con-
sistency, firmness, and the "grain," or appearance of a broken
surface of butter; also the condition of the brine in the butter
as to whether it is clear or milky. The texture may be desig-
nated as greasy, tallowy, spongy or sticky, with a cloudy or an
excess of brine. A judgment of the texture i» made by noticing
the feeling of butter on one's tongue and by pressing it with
the finger.
565. The texture may be injured or spoiled by over-churn-
ing, over-working, and by under-working, which latter may leave
too much brine in the butter. The fe«d of the cows and the
DAIRYING
27
character of the butter fat also have an important influence on
butter texture. When cows first go to pastuure from dry feed
the butter usually has what is called a "weak body."
Judging Butter Color, Salt and Package.
566. The greatest and most common defect in color is
*'mottles" but objections are also made as to the amount of
color such as *'too high" or "too low." The color should be
bright and even with no streaks or white specks in the butter.
Unless some market wants a particular shade, the color of
natural June grass butter is a good color standard.
567. The salt 'in butter must be all dissolved and evenly
distributed, a "gritty" salt or defective flavor fro*n impure salt
are the most common of objections to butter on account of the
salt.
568. The butter package should be clean with no finger
marks on it or rounded corners on square bricks. Solid packing
will leare no holes or pockets in the butter and a towel should
never be used to cover the top of the package.
569. The following illustration of a score card gives an idea
of the way in which the quality of butter may be expressed'
by figures :
Flavor
Texture
Color
Salt
Package
Total
Standard
45
25
15
10
5
100
"Extras"
40
23
15
10
5
93
"Firsts"
39
22
HH
9)4
5
90
"Seconds"
35
23
15
9}4
4>4
87
Selling Butter on Basis of Its Quality.
570. Selling butter according to its quality is a practice
that has been discussed to some extent in recent years. It
seems only fair that butter scoring 96 points should sell at a
higher price than butter scoring 93 and 93 butter should sell
28 DAIRYING
for more than that scoring 90. No great . progress has ever
been made in putting this plan into practice, but certain market
terms have been used instead of figures to designate the quality
of the butter, such as ''Extras'* which means butter scoring
93 points, and "Firsts" which means butter scoring between 90
and 93 on the Chicago market, or between 87 and 93, on the
New York City market.
571. ^'Seconds" includes on the Chicago market butter scor-
ing between 90 and 87 and on the New York market between
87 and 80 points. "Thirds" is a grade of butter which on the
New York market scores from 80 to 75 points.
The following statement made by a commission merchant
of many years' experience in buying and selling butter, gives
some information concerning the system used by such mer-
chants.
MARKET TERMS AND DEMANDS. •
572. . "The highest grade of butter is termed "extras," and to
pass inspection as such they must be of the very highest for
that season : That is, during the winter months, it is not expected
that butter will have quite the high flavor or aroma of butter
made when the grass is in its most perfect state in spring and
summer, but in all other respects it must be equal to the best
June goods the year around.
The flavor must be quick, fine, fresh and clean.
The body must be firm and solid with a perfect grain or
texture, free from salviness.
The color must be uniform, neither too light nor too high.
The salt must be well dissolved, thoroughly worked in, not
too high nor too light salted.
Packages must be a standard five-hoop, white ash tub,
holding sixty pounds of butter.
Should there be a failure to meet any one of these specifica-
tions it lowers the grade of the butter.
DAIRYING 29
573. The next grade is called "firsts," and must be below
"extras," lacking somewhat in flavor, which, however, must be
good, sweet and clean.
All other requirements being the same as in ''extras."
574. "Seconds" consist of a grade just below "firsts," and
the flavor must be fairly good and sweet.
The body must be sound and smooth boring.
The color must be fairly good, although it may be somewhat
irregular.
There may be some defects in salting, it being high or light
salted.
575. "Thirds" consist of butter below "seconds," defec-
tive in flavor, showing strong tops or sides; it may not be
smooth boring, may be mixed or streaked in color, irregular in
salting and put up in miscellaneous packages.
576. "Grease" butter consists of all grades of poor rancid
butter below "thirds."
The above classification holds good for dairy butter, with
the exception of the package which may be of reduced size.
A very small package is not desirable even for dairy butter,
and tubs for dairy butter holding 30, 40 or 50 pounds net are
recommended.
577. Today the buyer accepts nothing as first-class except
it be of a very high grade, every hoop in place, every cover
perfect, the tub evenly filled, covered first with a cloth neatly
cut and sprinkled with a very light covering of butter salt.
In shipping, a small stencil should be used, and the package
marked on the top where it may be easily erased in case the
goods are sold to a dealer for reshipment or for storage.
The cover must be secured with three or four neat tin
strips, the smaller number is preferred, and no dealer ever wants
to see the wire hooks used for this purpose.
30 DAIRYING
578. Do not overload butter with brine. No man wishes
to buy butter and then find that he has paid for one or more
pounds of brine, and if he be a shrewd buyer he would not buy
such butter a second time except at a greatly reduced price. Of
course, there are tricks that work for a few times, but they lose
the trickster money in the end.
Pack the butter solidly in the tub so that there will be no
vacant spots when the butter is turned out on the testing board
for examination.
Do not put salt in the bottom of the tub."
Honests Weights in Selling Butter.
579. Market quotations on butter are usually made daily or
weekly in the largest cities. Such quotations are approximately
the same figure each week in different localities except that
prices in the eastern, Atlantic coast cities are often one cent or
more higher than those in the central-west section of the United
States.
580. Butter sold on the general market must as a rule
possess better qualities to bring top prices than butter sold to
regular customers as the latter will overlook occasionally defects
that a general buyer will object to.
581. A great many different arrangements are made for
selling butter ; some ship to a commission merchant who sells at
a certain figure above or below the market price and who
charges the creamery 5 per cent commission for doing the busi-
ness. Other merchants do not charge any commission but agree
to pay a certain market price f. o. b. the city to which it was
shipped.
582. The diffeent agreements between seller and buyer are
numerous and may be for a longer or a shorter time than one
season. Such agreements are a matter of business between the
buyer and the seller and require no particular discussion, but
there is one point in selling butter that every butter seller should
insist on and that is honest weights. No agreement should be
DAIRYING 31
made with a buyer except on the basis of the net weight of
butter contained in each tub or package as determined by the
weights obtained when each tub is filled at the factory. It is
possible that oi.e-half pound or so on each 60-pound tub of
butter should be allowed for shrinkage in weight, but the net
weight of butter in each tub should be known and the butter
paid for on thi& basis of the net weights of all the tubs of butter
in each lot sold.
583. A creamery can often afford to sell, its butter at a
lower price per pound on the basis of honest weights than at
a higher price per pound with no agreement as to weights. The
net amount of money received for the butter churned at the
creamery and for which the patrons should be paid according
to the butter fat delivered in milk and cream is much more
important than an offer of one-half cent or more above the
market quotations for the butter f. o. b. the factory shipping
station. The price per pound is of some importance, but payment
^ for the actual number of pounds of butter delivered is of much
greater importance.
584. In order to get accurate weights of the butter shipped
from a creamery the tubs should be paraffined then weighed with
cover, and this empty weight marked on the side of the tub.
After the tub is filled with butter and the cover nailed on,
the gross weight may be marked on the side of the tub; the
difference between the two weights will show the net weight
of butter in the tub. If the net weight is then reduced one-half
pound per 60 pound tub this reduction, together with the cost
of the tub, amounts to more than one-half cent per pound of
butter in the tub, so that instead of receiving 25 cents per
pound for the butter as stated in the invoice the creamery will
actually receive something less than 24j4 cents per pound of
butter, assuming that it was sold at the market price, which
happened to be 25 cents at the time. A statement of the net
and the gross weights should be sent with each shipment of
butter to market and if the creamery is sure of its weights and
the buyer complains of any shipment that the weights do not
"hold out" such a shipment should be transferred to another
32 DAIRYING
buyer or returned to the creamery and reweighed. This will
show whether the creamery or the buyers weights are correct.
Moldy Butter.
585. The selling price of butter is sometimes reduced by
the appearance of a green or white mold on the butter package
and sometimes noticed on the butter itself. This mold may grow
after the butter has left the point from which it is shipped or
it may have started in the package, when this was filled at the
time the butter was made.
Mold spores are omnipresent and they will begin to grow as
soon as conditions favorable for their growth are provided.
Dampness promotes the growth of mold and dryness retards
such growth ; so long as the butter packages are kept in dry air,
there is little danger of the mold spores starting to grow although
there may be millions of them present.
586. It is evident therefore that to prevent butter or the
butter package from molding, it is necessary to either destroy
all the mold spores present in the package and its lining and on
the walls of the refrigerator, or other room where the butter may
be kept ; or the butter must be held and transported in a room,
car, and storage where the air is always dry. The greatest losses
from moldy butter are suffered by creameries. The butter
from these factories is usually shipped to market in 60 pound
tubs.
587. The so-called Elgin butter tub is a 5 hoop, asn tub
holding from 58 to 63 pounds butter. These tubs cost from
18 to 26 cents each and the freight varies according to the
distance shipped; lyi cents per tub is about the average freight
charge that must be added to the cost of the tubs.
In buying tubs those should be selected that have no dark
colored staves, but the wood is smooth and free from knots;
the covers should fit well and when received the tubs should be
stored in a dry place and kept upside down so that the hoops
DAIRYING 33
do not drop off as the tub dries in the store room before it is
used.
Preparing Butter Tubs for Use.
588. Many suggestions have been made concerning the
best way to treat both tubs and other packages before filling
them. It is evident that they must be perfectly clean, as near
water-tight as possible, and free from mold spores. These con-
ditions can be brought about in a more or less satisfactory way
by any one of the following treatments.
1. The day before the tub is to bfe used it may be filled
with saturated brine and allowed to stand twenty-four hours.
After this brine-soaking, which should be given to the parch-
ment paper tub lining also, the tubs are washed and steamed,
then filled with cold water and held in this way until filled with
butter. During the brine soaking the covers may be kept on
the tubs to prevent warping. The time of soaking in brine may
be reduced to two hours if hot brine is used and a steaming
box may be made for heating the tubs after soaking and thus
reduce the cost of steam used for this purpose.
2. The tubs may be immersed in scalding hot water for
one-half hour when sprinkled inside with salt and allowed to
stand over night empty. In the morning place them for about
three minutes over a steam jet, after which each tub is filled with
cold water and stands this way until filled.
3. Soak the tubs in brine containing 5 per cent formalde-
hyde and the parchment paper linings in brine to which lj4
ounce formaldehyde has been added per gallon.
4. Place each tub over a steam jet long enough to heat it
thoroughly, then coat the inside with hot paraffin. This may be
done either with a brush or by pouring hot paraffin into each
tub, which is then rotated until the inside is all coated.
589. The hot paraffin destroys all mold spores, and as they
do not get nourishment from paraffin, those that may fall on its
surface later will not grow. The paraffin melts at a temperature
34 DAIRYING
of 250 to 260 degrees Fahrenheit, and the cost of paraffin is
about 2 cents per tub on the basis of using 3 ounces of paraffin
costing 8 cents per pound. Paraffining the tubs need not cost
more than the usual brine soaking process. Coating the inside of
each tub is better than dipping the entire tub in hot paraffin, as
the latter method requires more paraffin and the paraffin tub
cannot be marked with a pencil. Paraffined tubs are usually
1 to 2 pounds lighter than brine or water-soaked tubs, and this
should be watched to prevent loss in selling the butter.
590. The net weight of butter obtained by actually weigh-
ing each tub before and after filling with butter should be
marked on the tub and* a record kept of such weights.
Paraffining butter tubs is the most satisfactory way of treat-
ing them, as it prevents mold from growing on the tub and on
the butter, it protects the butter from taking any flavor from
the wood, it gives the tub a neat appearance, and it reduces the
loss by shrinkage in weight when butter is shipped to market.
591. In addition to the treatment of the tubs mentioned,
the butter and the tub should be protected from mold by keeping
the factory refrigerator and the shipping car refrigerator dry.
Butter often becomes moldy after it leaves the creamery, be-
cause it is transported in a damp refrigerator car, or held some
days in a damp sales room. The growth of mold in a refriger-
ator may be retarded by occasionally wiping the walls with a
cloth moistened with a 5 per cent glycerin solution of corrosive
sublimate.
Mottled Butter.
592. The unevenly colored or mottled appearance of the
smoothly cut surface of butter is a defect which shows a lack of
knowledge or of skill on the part of the butter maker. Mottled
butter never grades as "extras" in quality, and butter judges as
well as buyers do not hesitate to reduce its score or its price on
account of this imperfection. Mottles are caused by an uneven
distribution of the salt throughout the butter — ^too much salt in
DAIRYING 35
one place and not enough in another. Unsalted butter is never
mottled ; it has a uniform color which is somewhat lighter yellow
in color than the same butter has when salted. Salt deepens the
color of butter to which no color has been added, as well as that
which has been artificially colored. The darker and the lighter
colored places consequently show an uneven mixing of the salt.
Uncolored butter may therefore be mottled, as well as colored
butter. *
593. Continual working will remove mottles, as this eventu-
ally causes the salt to be evenly distributed, but there is danger
of injuring the body or texture of butter by an excessive work-
ing and the salvey, greasy appearance which over-working pro-
duces may be as objectionable as the mottles. In order to pre-
vent mottles without injuring other qualities of the butter the
butter maker must understand the conditions which aid and
those which interfere with a uniform mixing of salt with butter.
Salt is more evenly dissolved and more quickly distributed in
soft than in hard butter, but soft butter will not stand so much
working without injury to its body as will hard butter. These
facts indicate the necessity of varying the amount of working
according to the consistency of the butter.
594. When butter comes in small hard granules that are
allowed to drain rather dry before the salt is added, an even
distribution of the salt is much more difficult to obtain than
when the granules are softer ; such hard butter is therefore often
mottled unless it is worked a great deal. Mottles are also rather
difficult to prevent in butter which has been over-churned until
the granules, are excessively large. In such cases the butter
working should be extended over a considerable length of time,
allowing the butter to stand about thirty minutes between each
three or four revolutions of the worker. The same amount of
working does not always have an equal effect on both hard and
soft butter, and it cannot safely be assumed that when different
churnings of butter are worked for the same length of time that
mottles will or will not appear. The amount of working neces-
sary to prevent mottles becomes, therefore, a matter of judg-
ment based on observations which are made from day to day.
36 DAIRYING
595. Butter which is worked but little at a time and allowed
to stand between workings is much less likely to be mottled than
that which may be given the same amount of working at one
time without stopping. Dry, hard butter to which dry salt is
added is more often mottled than that which is soft and some-
what moist, or has been salted with damp salt. Any condition
of the butter that will aid or retard the solution or distribution
of the salt, such as its water content, its hardness and the size
of its granules, will have an influence on the mottled appear-
ance of the butter, and an uneven distribution of water in the
granular butter may be the cause of mottles by dissolving dif-
ferent amounts of salt in various parts of the same churning.
596. Hard and soft granules, as well as small and large
ones, will hold different amounts of water, which in some parts
of the churning may be so plentiful as to dissolve the salt read-
ily, while in other parts there is less water and the solvent ac-
tion on the salt is slower. The presence or absence of mottles
is therefore entirely within the control of the butter maker and
he should not be satisfied until he is capable of making perfectly
even colored butter in which there is no suggestion of mottles.
When butter is freshly made the salt may not have had
sufficient time to show the effect which it will have later on the
color of the butter. This makes it difficult to determine whether
or not the butter will be mottled after it has stood long enough
to harden, and a positive statement in regard to the future ap-
pearance of mottles in the butter cannot be safely made without
a knowledge of the details of both the salting and the working of
the butter.
597. It has been claimed that too cold wash water will
cause mottled butter, and this is undoubtedly sometimes the
case, but the effect it will have depends on the extent to which
the butter is cooled, to the temperature of the water. If only the
surface of the granules are cooled by the water standing on
them a short time the salt will not be uniformly dissolved by
the butter and this may cause mottles, but if the granular butter
is thoroughly and uniformly hardened by the cold water there
DAIRYING ,17
is not much danger of mottles appearing on account of the cold
wash water.
598. When salt is added to butter, it should be of about
the same temperature as that of the butter and contain no
lumps. It ought also to be evenly distributed over the granular
butter, as the churn cannot do this when the salt is all thrown
in at one place in a heap.
The amount of working necessary to prevent mottles varies
with different seasons of the year, as the butter varies from soft
grass butter in the spring, to hard, dry-feed and dry-cow butter
in the winter, and the butter maker should change his practice
of working to suit the conditions during the different seasons
of the year.
Streaked, Spotted or Speckled Biltter.
599. These are imperfections in color that are different
from mottles; they are cause^d first by lumps or specks of curd
or dried cream which have not been removed, and second, by
small lumps of butter that are floating in the cream before
churning and failed to take the color when it is added. These
defects in butter may be prevented by carefully straining the
cream when it is put into the churn.
The hard lumps of white curd sometimes noted in cream
are usually caused by over-ripeness of the cream, or by failing
to stir it sufficiently during ripening. When sour cream is
allowed to stand without stirring, the curd and whey separate,
and the longer such cream stands the tougher the curd becomes.
If these white specks are so small as to pass through the cream
strainer, they may be removed as described under Washing But-
ter, but they are ordinarily caught in the strainer at the time
the cream is put into the churn.
The lumps of dried cream sometimes noticed usually come
from scraping off the sides of the vat where the cream has
splashed up above its surface and dried onto the sides of the vat.
38 DAIRYING
This dried cream is better left on the vat than scraped off and
put into the churn, as the defects it may cause in the butter are
worse than the loss sustained by not saving them.
600. Lumps of butter are sometimes noticed in cream be-
fore churning.. They are caused either by the separator not
skimming smoothly, or by agitation from stirring, or during the
transporting of the cream. They are often too large to be pene-
trated clear through by the butter color that may be added to
the cream. In this way the inside of these lumgs being of a
different color than their surface, an unevenness in the color of
the butter is caused. If these lumps are strained out, they are
of no injurv to the butter, and it is claimed that even when
allowed to mix with the butter, the color will spread through
them so that no serious defect 9omes from their presence in the
cream.
The Water Content of Butter.
601. The difference between the amount of butter fat shown
by the Babcock test in milk and cream and the weight of butter
made therefrom may vary from 10 to 20 per cent ; this variation
is caused by the difference in the loss of butter fat by skimming
and churning during each operation and the amounts of salt,
curd and water, which may have been incorporated in each
churning of butter.
Butter is a mixture of butter fat, salt, curd and water, and
it is not easily made to contain exactly the same amounts of
these constituents in every churning.
602. The difference between the weight of butter fat in
milk or cream and that in butter made from them, i^ called the'
"overrun." This subject is discussed in detail in par. 440, but
one of the factors which has an influence on the amount of
"overrun" obtained jin each churning, is thie water content of the
butter. The same amount of water is seldom mixed with each
lot of butter, but the average variation is not sufficient to be
DAIRYING 39
generally noticed by the consumer and in fact appearance may
be deceitful in regard to this point.
In so far as the water is concerned, the consumer is equally
well pleased with any good butter that contains from 10 to 15
per cent of water, but to manufacturers this difference of 5 per
cent between extremes given is a very important matter. He
would naturally prefer 15 to 10 per cent of water in his product
if one sells as well as the other.
603. Butter makers and consumers generally form their
opinions regarding the amount of water that any given lot of
butter contains by the brine that leaks from the package, or by
the amount of moisture on the butter surface.
It is perfectly natural to conclude that butter which shows
drops of brine on its freshly cut surface contains more water
than that on which no drops are visible, and this difference in
the appearance of butter has been frequently noticed and com-
mented upon. It was plainly shown by the American and for-
eign butter exhibited at one of the conventions of the "National
Creamery Buttermakers' Association."
604. American butter was represented in that exhibit by
entries of 600 30-pound tubs of butter from 600 different cream-
eries and foreign butter by about 30 packages of butter purchased
in London by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Among
these foreign butters were packages from Denmark, Sweden,
France, England, Ireland, Australia and several other countries.
Some of the foreign butter showed as much moisture on its sur-
face as was noticed on American butter, but one package of but-
ter appeared so dry and mealy as immediately to attract atten-
tion to this particular point. One-pound samples from each of
the foreign butters and also from the three prize-winning
packages of American butter were obtained at that time for
analyses. These analyses later showed that the particularly dry
appearing sample of foreign butter contained 15.10 per cent
water, which is 3.66 per cent higher than the average analysis
of American creamery butter, which was 11.44 per cent of water
in the average of 473 samples of butter, as reported in Bulletin
No. 74, Wisconsin Experiment Station.
40
DAIRYING
605. A complete analysis of this dry appearing, foreign
butter and of the American prize creamery butter gave the folr
lowing results :
Water
Per Cent.
Fat
Per Cent.
Ash (Salt)
Per Cent.
Curd
Per Cent.
Foreign
American
15.00
12.46
82.94
83.31
.44
2.68
1.52
1.55
These figures show that the foreign butter contained nearly
3 per cent more water and over 2 per cent less salt than was
found in the American butter. The foreign butter probably was
but very slightly salted, and a considerable portion of this 0.44
per cent of ash doubtless came from the mineral matter of the
buttermilk and curd which the butter contained.
The unusual high water content of this apparently dry
butter was very striking, and it led the writer to try to find an
explanation for the apparent contradiction.
606. A series of experiments was therefore made by salting
one-half the butter from a lot of cream and by making the other
half in exactly the same way except that no salt was added to it.
During the working of each lot of butter the dry appearance of
the unsalted butter was very noticeable, while moisture and
brine showed distinctly on the salted butter. This difference
in apparent dryness was so plain that either lot of butter could
be accurately selected without consulting the numbers of the
packages and the record book. Considerable brine also leaked
from the salted butter, but the unsalted butter was very dry.
An analysis of the two lots of butter showed that although both
were made from the same cream, churned and worked in ex-
actly the same way, the salted butter always contained less
water than the unsalted.
607. It should not be inferred from these results that all
salted butter will contain less wateer than unsalted butter, but
rather that when all other conditions, such as cream ripening,
churning, washing, working, etc., are the same and the cream of
one ripening is made into two lots of butter in the same way,
DAIRYING 41
that the salted butter will contain less water and show more
drops of moisture or brine on a cut surface than will be the case
with the unsalted butter.
The total yield of salted and unsalted butter from the same
lot of cream in these experiments was about the same, as the
salt replaced the water and it was shown that an increase of
water in the unsalted butter does not necessarily mean an
increased yield from a given amount of butter fat.
608. In a number of trials the butter was worked twice,
each lot being about half worked on the day it was churned,
then placed in tubs and set in the refrigerator until the next
morning, when the working was completed. At the second
working it was noticed that considerable brine had collected in
the bottom of the tubs containing the salted butter. This leak-
ing of the brine doubtless accounts for the generally low per
cent of water found in the salted butter worked twice, as com-
pared with that which was worked once.
609. Considerable more attention has been given to the
water content of butter during the past ten years, and since the
observations just mentioned were made. In 1898 butter on the
general market contained approximately 11.00 per cent water.
At about that time butter makers began to note the importance
of uniformity in the water content of butter and of keeping up
the percentage to a figure that will not diminish the yield
sufficiently to cause excessive losses in weight and consequently
in profit from the manufacture of butter. In 1902 the average
water of 800 samples of creamery butter was 11.78 per cent. In
1907 the average of 658 samples of butter from as many cream-
eries was 13.56 per cent water. This shows an increase of about
2 1-2 per cent in the water content in about ten years. In 1906
the average water content of 2,786 samples of Danish butter was
14.29 per cent, showing that our butter was then one per cent
lower in water than Danish butter. A uniform water content in
butter from day to day means a great deal to the maker and to
the farmers who produce the milk and the cream from which it
is made.
42 DAIRYING
610. If butter contains 12.00 per cent water one day and
15.00 per cent water the next day, the difference between the
two lots amounts to 3 pounds in every 100 pounds of butter
made. This 3 pounds is worth 90 cents, if butter is 30 cents per
pound and if 300 pounds are made daily, the difference is worth
$2.70, which is more than the buttermaker's wages in some
cases.
611. Water is held by butter as a film around each granule
and in the pockets between the granules. The smaller the
granules the greater the amount of butter surface and conse-
quently the larger the amount of adhering water. On the other
hand the larger and the more irregular the granules, the more
and the larger are the pockets to be filled with water. The
amount of water held by the butter is influenced therefore by
certain conditions which the buttermaker should understand.
Some of these are the following:
A rich cream churned warm in a churn filled to its full
capacity brings butter in waxy granules which contain an excess
of water.
Effect of Size of Butter Granules on Water Content of Butter.
612. It has been shown in previous pages that salts helps to
expel the moisture in butter and since the salt will be more thor-
oughly and uniformly mixed with small than with large butter
granules, it seems fair to infer that the water contents of
butter will be increased by churning to large granules and
decreased by churning to small granules before the salt is
added to them.
The standard size of butter granules is that of wheat
kernels, as it has been found that the curd can be more easily
washed out, and the salt more uniformly worked into such
butter than is the case when it is gathered in larger lumps.
The objection to stopping the churn when the butter granules
are still finer than wheat comes from the possibility of
mechanical loss of those fine granules in the buttermilk.
DAIRYING 42
In order to obtain some evidence on the influence of size
of the butter granules on the water content of the finished butter,
a series of 22 churnings were made : a one-half of the churnings
were stopped when the granules were about the, size of a
clover seed, and the other half were about the size of corn
kernels. The butter made in each case was analyzed and the
average per cent of water was found to be 1.74 higher in the
butter churned to the large than to the small granules when
all other conditions were the same.
It is to be expected that more water will be squeezed
out of the fine than out of the coarse granular butter by a given
amount of working, because as compared with the large granules
the small ones hold more water between the granules and this
water is more easily pressed out by the working, than is that held
within the mass of larger granules, provided the butter has
a solid, firm body.
Effect of Temperature of Wash Water on Water Content of
Butter.
613. Of all the factors that influence the water content of
Dutter, the most important are undoubtedly the temperature
of the wash water and the amount of churning the butter is
given in the wash water.
It is usuall}' recommended to churn cream at as low a
temperature as possible in order to get an exhaustive churning.
This is undoubtedly good practice, but if the granular butter
is then washed with cold water the yield may be abnormally
low even though an exhaustive churning as indicated by the
test of the buttermilk has been obtained.
When churnings are made at a low temperature, the gran-
ular butter should be washed with warmer water so that it will
retain the normal amount of water and churning the fine
granules into larger ones in this warm wash water will increase
the water contents of the butter.
44
IjAIRYING
Any agitation of the butter in water while it is warm
and sticky will tend to incorporate water with it, while the
opposite treatment such as hardening the granules with very
cold water will tend to expel water from the butter.
614. A uniform and normal amount of water in butter
may be obtained by churning at a temperature that will give a
low testing buttermilk; then washing the granular butter with
water having a temperature a little above that of the buttermilk,
but not sufficiently warm to injure the body of the butter.
It is further necessary to increase the size of the butter granules
a trifle by churning in the wash water then salt and work the
butter sufficiently to prevent mottles and give it a waxy
body.
The fine, sound, hard granules repel water and make a dry
body, as the softer the butter fat the more water it holds. The
less viscous the cream, such as sour as compared with sweet
cream, the easier the water slips away from the granules; sweet
cream butter therefore contains less water than sour cream
butter, because the sweet cream butter needs more working to
remove the buttermilk and milky brine, which stick to it more
tenaciously than to sour cream butter.
Overchurning causes an excess of water in the butter, as
does also the working of butter in warm wash water and damp-
ening the salt before* adding it to the butter.
Churning to fine granules and working but little afterwards
gives butter with much water.
615. Butter worked in water a short time loses water, but
continued working in water incorporates an excess of water in
the butter. This is shown by the following figures, which illus-
trate also the effect which more or less water has on the quality
^f butter.
Churning in
Water
Water
Per Cent
Score of
Butter
10 minutes
15 minutes
20 minutes
15.03
17.44
18.81
93.9
92.4
93.1
DAIRYING 45
Relation Between Water Content and Quality of Butter.
616. As a general rule the conditions that favor an increase
in the water content of butter are detrimental to its quality.
Some of these conditions are over-churning, which leaves too
much buttermilk in the butter, churning too warm cream, which
causes excessive losses in the buttermilk, churning too rich
cream, which gives an uneven churning, and working in warm
wash water, which tends to make a greasy texture. These and
other conditions have a somewhat contradictory value in butter
making. They may increase the yield at the expense of the
butter quality. Although this relation may exist, it has been
repeatedly shown that there is no direct relation between quality
and water content in all butter, as both high and low scoring
butter may have either a high or a low water content.
In 1902 the Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture took samples from 802 tubs of creamery butter exhibited
at a National Convention and found that the five tubs of butter
receiving the highest score contained 11.03 per cent water and
the five receiving the lowest score contained 10.06 per cent water.
It has further been noticed in butter exhibits that eight tubs
marked by the judges as having "too much water'* contained an
average of 12.67 per cent water and two tubs marked "full of
water" contained 11.11 per cent, water, while two tubs marked
"worked too dry" contained 12.27 per cent water. These and
many other observations have shown that the quality of butter
does not regularly follow the water content.
617. A uniformity in water content is obtained by uni-
formity in the following- churning operations :
1. The amount of cream in the churn.
2. The richness and the ripeness of the cream.
3. The temperature of the cream and of the buttermilk.
4. The size of the butter granules.
5. The amount of draining before salting.
6. The temperature of the wash water.
7. The amount of working the butter receives.
The Butter Workers.
618. The implements and machines used for working butter
are the farm dairy lever-worker, the power table-worker and
the combined churn and worker.
The amount of working that butter should be given with
each of these workers must be determined by observations made
during the buttermakers' daily work, either by allowing a cer-
tain number of minutes working with a lever worker, or a num-
ber of revoliMions through the rollers of the other workers.
The table workers are usually allowed to make from 25 to
30 revolutions and the combined churn workers about 16 revo-
lutions.
These figures cannot be adoT>ted as sure guides to inevitable
success and no figures can be authoritatively given as the un-
varying standard for this purpose, but those mentioned may
aid beginners in establishing uniform methods of working which
are best suited to the condition of the butter in each case.
Plate 4— Type of Combined Churn and Worker
The Combination Churn and Woiltcr.
619. Nearly all creamaries have now replaced the two
pieces of machinery formerly used in butter making, the box
chum and the table butter worker, by the combined churn and
worker, in which both operations of churning and warking are
carried on in one machine. The introduction of the combined
DAIRYING 47
churn was comparatively slow. It was claimed by some that
the new machine was expensive, hard to clean, the butter maker
could not see the butter during the working process, butter
would get into the bearings, and that the salt would not be
evenly distributed through th« butter.
■ All these objections seem to have been overcome during the
years of development which this machine has undergone. Two
distinct types of combined churns are now on the market and
both are extensively used in factory butter making. One type
is represented by the Simplex churn, in which the worker is
removable. It may be placed in the churn after the cream is
churned. The other type includes the cylindrical churns in which
the working rollers are always left in the churn and never
removed during the churning.
620. Among the advantages claimed for the modern com-
bined cTiurn and worker ar«r:
Plate 5 — Showing Working of Butter in Combined Chum and Worker
1. The butter is not handled or taken from the churn until
it is ready to be placed in the finished package.
2. It is a saving of labor.
3. The butter is protected from the air, dust, flies and heat
of the room in which the work is done.
4. It requires less space than the two machines formerly
used for this work.
5. Large amounts of cream may be churned at once.
^ DAIRYING
6. The extent to which the churn is filled has no particular
influence on the churning.
7. The working of butter is nearly automatic and uniform
results may be obtained by counting the number of revolutions
in working each lot of butter.
8. The details of construction have been carefully worked
out 3o that the modern machine is durable and can be satis-
factorily cleaned.
The amount of working which each combined churn gives
butter varies with the number of rollers in the churn and their
location, so that the same directions do not apply to all chums,
but in a general way the following practice may be foun^ satb-
factory.
Plate 6— The Simplex Combined Chum aad Worker
621. After the buttermilk is drawn from the granular butter,
fill the churn one-half full with water, having a temperature
about 2 degrees warmer than the buttermilk. Revolve the churn
about four times on the slow gear, then allow the butter to pass
through the rollers about six times. Draw off the waab water.
DAIRYING 49
after which the salt containing no lumps is added ; then revolve
the churn six times and let it stand a few minutes to drain off
the surplus water; revolve again four times and let stand five
minutes, then repeat this working, with short intervals of drain-
ing, until the salt is dissolved and evenly distributed through
the butter. A little practice and careful observation of results
will soon determine the number of revolutions and intervals best
adapted to give satisfactory results with each churn.
It is not, however, a machine that can be successfully used
by a careless workman, as it is more complicated than a table
worker and requires judgment in running it and some knowledge
in arithmetic for calculating the amount of salt and color to be
used in each churning.
622. It is true that different lots of bitter varying in salt
content can not be easily obtained from one churning for different
customers, but the total amount of butter in each case can be
calculated from the weight and test of the milk or cream and
sufficiently accurate figures obtained for determining the amount
of salt and color used for each churning of butter.
The combined churn is not an automatic machine that will
do satisfactory work by simply pulling the lever or shifting a
belt and then leaving it to run, but its operation must be watched
and regulated. One thing that is especially necessary to be sure
of and that is to see that all the butter passes through the rollers
the same number of times, and that some of it does not escape
them. When this is the case the butter will be unevenly worked
and may be mottled. Such a possibility may be easily avoided
by not attempting to work more butter than the churn is built
to handle and by inspecting it occasionally during the working.
623. In warm weather when the butter Is apt to be soft, ice
may be placed on the rollers and the door closed, thus confining
the cold from the ice in the churn until the butter has hardened
when the ice may be removed and the working finished.
50 DAIRYING
THE CREAMERY INDUSTRY.
I. Benefits of a Creamery to Farmers.
624. A Better Price for Butter. In many farming communi-
ties there are often found localities where the butter made on
one farm is selling for ten cents^ while that from the adjoining
farm brings twenty cents per pound. This difference in price
may be cotitinuous throughout the year, even though the cows
and the feed are of about the same quality on both farms. When
a creamery is established in such a community, the farm on
which poor butter is made will naturally receive more benefit
from the factory than the one which supplies private customers
at fancy prices. The latter class of farmers will, however, be
glad to patronize the creamery, because they will continue to
receive the highest market price for their butter without the
trouble of making it. The reason for this is apparent. All the
principles of manufacturing, such as reducing expense and waste,
by operating one factory instead of several, apply to the cream-
ery as well as to other manufactories.
625. Cost of Making Butter Reduced. The creamery sub-
stitutes one churn and other dairy utensils for the fifty or more
farm churns. This is an enormous saving, as the time of one or
more men at a creamery and one fire under the boiler is much
more economical than the time and. fuel used at each of the
farms in making the same amount of butter. There is also much
less waste by the factory operations than is the case when the
fifty or more lots of butter are made at the fifty farms. This
saving of both cream and butter, which is necessarily lost by
distributing it over fifty or more small cans, vats, and churns,
is shared by all the patrons. The diflference in the expense and
amount of energy used in operating a creamery as compared
with the usual number of farm dairies which it supplants may be
illustrated by the contrast in economy of moving one thousand
people across a river by row boats as compared with trans-
porting them by means of one steamer. The work is much more
economically, quickly, and safely done by the steamer than by
the row boats ; and when the comfort of the one thousand people
is considered the two methods of transportation are not in the
DAIRYING 51
same class. A well managed creamery brings the same kind of
satisfaction to the one thousand or more people interested in it as
is felt by the one thousand passengers.
626. Butter of Uniform Quality. The creamery produces
a much more uniform article of butter than can possibly be made
at the different farms. In the matter of color and salt in butter,
to say nothing of the variety of flavors obtained in the farm
butter, the creamery product has a great advantage. The quality
of creamery butter is also, as a rule, far superior to that of farm
butter, the market quotation always placing extra creamery but-
ter at the top of the list. The milk therefore which was formerly
used in making the dairy butter may thus be converted into a
higher-priced article at the creamery than at the farm. The
creamery will also market more butter from the same amount
of milk than it is possible for a number of farm dairies to make.
The churning will be more exhaustive and the general waste
will be less.
627. Economy of Time in Marketing the Butter. The time
spent in delivering farm butter to private customers and the
annoyance of collecting and of waiting for them to pay butier
bills is entirely avoided by patronizing a creamery. Much less
machinery and supplies are also needed at the farm when milk
is sent to a creamery than when it is made into butter at home.
628. More Cows on EUich Farm. A large number of cows
may be kept on the farm when they have to be fed and milked
only and the farmer's time is not occupied with butter making.
This will enable him to concentrate his thoughts on the produc-
tion of milk, and he will find that the reducing of its cost to the
lowest terms will be a most profitable study for him.
629. The Farm Women Relieved From Some Extra Work.
The benefits of a creamerv to farmers would not be completely
enumerated if we failed to mention the relief it brings to the
farm women. They have many duties about the home each day,
and although there are excellent butter makers among them,
churning is extra work, and in some cases a heavy tax upon a
woman's strength. All good American farmers are glad to
52 DAIRYING
relieve the women of the household from this task, and the start-
ing of a creamery in a community usually has no stronger ad-
vocates than the farmers* wives and daughters.
630. Monthly Cash Payment. From a business standpoint
the creamery is beneficial because of the monthly cash income
which it brings to each patron. A definite amount of cash in
hand at regular intervals places the farmer in a position to plan
his work advantageously, and his whole family is cheered by the
anticipation and the realization of the benefits from the monthly
milk or cream check
II. Development of the Creamery.
631. The creamery as commonly referred to at the present
time is a modern institution. In the past butter was made in a
room or small building at the farm, where milk was kept and all
kinds of dairy work was done. The creamery now takes the
place of the farm dairy, and is equipped with machinery and ap-
paratus for makingj^ butter of the milk and cream brought to it
by a number of farmers.
632. Amount of Butter Made in Creameries. The first
American creameries were built in New York state between
1860 and 1870. The industry gradually spread to the West, until
at the present time there are about 10,000 in the United States.
Even now, however, only a little over one-third of the total
amount of butter made in the United States is creamery butter.
According to the United States census of 1900, there was made
in the United States 1,492,700,000 pounds of butter; only 420,-
950,000 pounds of which was creamery butter, while 1,070,700,000
pounds was made on the farm.
633. In some parts of the United States the creamery in-
dustry is growing rapidly at the present time, and the amount
of butter made in these factories will undoubtedly continue to
increase in the future. A movement has already begun among
creamery patrons towards the improvement of their herds by
keeping a record of the performance of each cow and disposing of
the unprofitable ones. This kind of work will not only make
DAIRYING 53
the farmers more prosperous, but it will increase the creamery
products in localities where factories have been in operation for
some time.
634. The Milk and Cream Supply of a Creamery. The
butter made at creameries under present conditions is churned
from cream which is either separated at the factory from milk
delivered by the patrons or skimmed at the farm and gathered
by teams which deliver it to the factory.
These two methods of skimming" milk have given rise to
two distinct kinds of creameries, the whole milk creamery and
the gathered cream factory. A rather sharp distinction between
these factories has existed in the past, but it is becoming less
marked in recent years. Formerly the whole milk creamery re-
ceived nothing but milk and the gathered cream factory nothing
but cream ; but at the present time the hand separators are so
extensively used by farmers that many whole milk creameries
now receive farm cream as well, and the exclusively whole milk
creameries are consequently diminishing in number. The gath-
ered cream factories on. the other hand are still without separa-
tors and are equipped and operated on about the same plan as
when first started. Each of the two kinds of creameries has its
peculiar fitness for butter making and for accommodating the
farmers who patronize them. The gathered cream factories
were the first ones started. They formerly were supplied en-
tirely with gravity cream, most of which was obtained at the
farms by deep setting the milk in cold water. At the present
time such factories are receiving more or less hand separator
cream, as well as gravity cream, and the change from gravity
to hand separator skimming is rapidly being made in many
localities.
635. Advantages of the Gathered Cream Factory. When
cream instead of milk is gathered from the farms, a larger terri-
tory can be economically drawn from because of the difference
in weight between the cream and the milk. The cream is only
about 15 per cent of the milk, and its transportation is less ex-
pensive, not only on account of its smaller weight, but because
there is no skim milk to be returned to the farms. The time and
54 DAIRYING
teams of many farmers is therefore saved by the one man and
team which does the drawing for a large number of farms. A
saving in the cost of milk-carrying cans is also made when
cream only is sent to a factoty.
The danger of spreading disease from one farm to another
by means of the factory skim milk is also avoided. Cases have
been known in which tuberculosis has been conveyed to a herd
by the factory skim milk being fed to calves ; and although this
may be prevented by a thorough pasteurization of the skim milk
at the factory, such a mode of protection is not equal to keeping
the skim milk on the farm where it is produced and receiving
none from other places.
But the greatest of all the benefits of this kind of creamery
to the farmer is derived from the perfect feeding condition of
the skim milk when it is separated from the cream with the
farm separator at milking time. The food value of this pure,
warm skim milk is not always fully appreciated. When it comes
from a separator it is cleaner than before skimming. It is un-
diluted, and is a wholesome, nutritious food for both man and
beast. In fact, a glass of warm skim milk from the separator
will not be distinguished by the majority of people from a glass
of new milk taken directly from the cow.
636. Advantages of the Whole Milk Creamery. The whole
milk or power separator creameries began nearly twenty years
after the gathered cream factories started, atid it was the superior
skimming of the power separators that led to the introduction
of the separator creameries. The old methods of farm skimming
by the gravity system, left from one-half to one and one-fourth
pounds of fat in every one hundred pounds of skim milk, and
this butter fat, even though it was kept on the farm and fed
to stock was extravagant feed. When the power separators '
were introduced, the farmers were soon convinced that they
could save this loss by drawing their milk to creameries sup-
plied with power machines. They also found the losses in
churning to be less at the factory than at the farm, and the
quality of the butter was superior to that made at the gathered
cream factories.
DAIRYING 55
These twu puiiu& of economy in skimming and churning and
the improvements in quality of the butter made, are the strongest
ones in favor of the separator creameries. It was soon found,
however, that farmers would not draw milk much more than five
miles to creameries, and in order to cover a larger territory, the
owners of separator creameries in some cases built and equipped
skimming stations.
637. The Skimming Station. This is usually a building
erected only for the purpose of skimming milk. Its equipment
includes the weigh-can, platform scales, milk sample jars and
sampler, a large milk vat, cans for holding the cream, a skim
milk weigher, a power separator, and some kind of power for
operating it. In some cases turbine separators are used and a
boiler only is needed to run such a separator. Some power will
be needed, however, to operate the water pump and the milk
pumps. When a belt separator is used at these stations an
engine must be provided as well as a boiler. A good water
supply is also needed. This equipment, it will be seen, is nearly
equal to that of a creamery, the only difference being in the
size of the building, and a few additional fittings, such as the
cream vat, the churn, butter worker, and refrigerator. The boiler
of a skimming station may also be considerably smaller than is
needed at the creamery, especially when a gasoline engine or
possibly a tread power is used to run the separator. A tread
power is economical in cases where the horses which operate
it are used to draw the cream to the creamery after the skimming
is done. A small boiler can be so arranged that danger from
freezing in cold weather may be avoided by draining it, together
with all steam and water pipes when the day's work is done. It
can be filled, when needed to begin work, by the pump, which is
operated by the gasoline engine or tread power.
638. Economy of Gasoline Engine. When a skimming sta-
tion is located some distance from the fuel supply, the gasoline
engine is a very economical power, as it has been demonstrated
that the cost of the gasoline necessary to operate the engine
which skimmed eight thousand pounds of milk per day at a
station, was no greater than the cost of drawing the coal eight
56 DAIRYING
miles to this station, if a steam engine had been used to do the
same work. In this calculation the use of gasoline, however,
saved the first cost of the coal, as the cost of drawing the gaso-
line is not included, because it was drawn by the cream hauler.
The gasoline bill only amounted to the price of drawing the
^oal.*
These and other suggestions in the line of economy in build-
ing and running a skimming station should be carefully con-
sidered when the subject is under discussion, for while there are
localities where they are undoubtedly profitable, this is not uni-
versally true. The conditions of any locality must be studied
by themselves, as it is not ^fe to conclude that when a skim-
ming station is a success in one place it will be so everywhere.
III. Directions for Starting a Whole Milk Creamery.
639. When a number of farmers become convinced that a
creamery will be beneficial to the neighborhood in which they
live, the first thin^ to be done is to make a careful canvass of the
surrounding country for the purpose of ascertaining the number
of cows that can be depended on to furnish milk to the factory.
The best way ta accomplish this is to circulate a paper which
must be signed by each farmer, pledging himself to send milk to
the creamery from a certain number of cows. In order to assure
the success of the enterprise there should be found at least three
hundred cows within five miles of the factory, In some cases
creameries have been started with less than this number of cows
in sight, but unless there is good reason to expect the number
to increase to three hundred or more in the near future, the
creamery cannot be expected to prove a paying investment.
640. The Milk Supply and Cost of Operating. The milk
supply from three hundred rows will range from three thousand
to six thousand pounds per day during the year, depending on
the kind of cows kept. In a new territory, where the creamery
is usually started, not much more than four thousand pounds
of milk per day during the vear can be depended on from three
hundred cows. Assuming that this will test 4.0 per cent fat and
make 4.5 pounds of butter per hundred pounds of milk, the
* Private Communication from H. B. Gurler.
DAIRYING 57
average daily product of the factory will be about 180 pounds
of butter. If 3 cents per pound is charged the patrons for mak-
ing the butter, this will amount to $5.40 per day, which sum is
available for paying running expenses. This $5.40 may be used
in the following way: The buttermaker's wages should be at
least $1.66 per day, the butter tubs, salt, color, and supplies will
cost about $1.00, fuel $1.00, taxes and insurance 15 cents, and
interest on investment 42 cents per day. The sum of these items
is $4.23, leaving 17 cents as the fund from which the depreciation
of machinery and building muSt be kept up.
641. These figures show that a creamery will be operated
at a loss if less than 4,000 pounds of milk, or the cream from
it, as an average per day is supplied to it during the entire year.
In some localities this amount of milk may be produced by less
than 300 cows, but the probabilities are that it will take more
than this number, as these figures mean a production of over
200 pounds of butter per cow per year, and the statistics of the
last census show that the average cow does not produce over
150 pounds of butter per year. If the creamery is started in a
locality where the average cow is not producing more than 150
pounds of butter per year, there should be at least 400 cows
pledged for the enterprise. These figures represent the mini-
mum volume of business that the promoters of the enterprise
should expect to carry on without doing it at a loss, unless local
conditions are such that some of the items may be reduced, or
the products sold at a greater margin.
642. After it has been found that there are enough cows
within a reasonable distance to support a creamery, the building
and machinery must be provided. This is done in several ways :
1. The Proprietary Creamery, An individual or a firm
may erect and equip the creamery and operate it entirely in-
dependent of the patrons, charging a certain price per pound for
making the butter.
2. The Joint Stock Creamery. The creamery may be built
and operated by a joint stock company, the stock of which may
be bought by patrons of the creamery, by business men, or by
any one wishing to invest in such an enterprise. The butter
58 DAIRYING
is made for a stated price per pound, and any profit or loss in
the business is divided among the stockholders.
3. The Cooperative Creamery. There are many different
ways of organizing cooperative creameries, but the general un-
derstanding JA regard to them is that the entire business, factory,
and machinery, is owned by the patrons supplying the milk, and
that instead of charging a certain price per pound for making
butter, the running expenses of the factory are deducted each
month from the gross receipts. The balance is divided among
the patrons according to the amount of butter fat contributed by
each one in the milk or cream sent to the facory.
643. Organizing. The organization of such a creamery is
usually started by calling a meeting of those persons interested
in the enterprise. Officers and directors are elected, a constitu-
tion and by-laws are adopted* and the association incorporated
according to the laws of the state. A competent lawyer should
be employed to draw up the articles of incorporation and attend
to other legal matters connected with the organization. Without "
going into details regarding the constitution and by-laws of such
an organization a few suggestions may be helpful in this direc-
tion. The usual officers, such as president, vice-president, secre-
tary, treasurer, and general manager, with a board of directors,
which is sometimes composed of the officers named, are elected
annually by the stockholders. The duties of these officers are
those usually performed by such officials.
644. The only one of these officials who receives pay for his
services, as a rule, is the secretary, who is also general manager;
and the amount paid him is determined by the board of directors.
His duties are to look after the general welfare of the business,
and he should be a man in whom the stockholders have uni-
versal confidence. He should be permitted to manage the busi-
ness as seems best to him, after consulting the directors, and
any criticism of his work should be in a spirit of helpfulness and
of promoting the best interests of all concerned. The success
of the creamery depends, in a large measure, not only on the
business ability of this official, but on the attitude of the stock-
holders towards him. His annual report to the stockholders
* A sample constitution and by-laws is given at the end of this lesson.
DAIRYING ,__ 59
should contain*a statement in detail of the jeceipts and expendi-
tures for the year, with a record of all meetings and transactions
authorized by the directors. A copy of this report should be
supplied to all stockholders.
645. Raising Funds. The money needed for building and
equipping the creamery is raised in different ways, each locality
determining for itself how this may best be done. In some cases
a sufficient number of shares of stock at ten dollars or one hup
dred dollars per share are issued, and this stock is bought by the
farmers who expect to patronize the creamery. Another way ot
raising the money is to let two or more of the responsible patrons
borrow a sum of money (probably $3,000) on a joint note. This
note with interest is paid by deducting a sum of money, five
cents, more or less, per hundred pounds of milk, as previously
agreed upon, from the monthly dividends of the different patrons.
When the payment is completed, stock is issued to the patrons
in proportion to the amount each one has contributed towards
this fund.
646. Assessment of New Patrons. The acquisition of new
patrons to the creamery after the original stock is all paid for
will be beneficial to the stockholders by reducing the cost pet
pound of making the butter, as it is a well known fact that oper-
ating expenses diminish as the amount of milk increases. When
patrons own stock in proportion to the amount of milk they are
furnishing the factory there is no necessity of taking into con-
sideration the item of interest on the stock, as the patrons are
receiving the benefits of the creamery in proportion to their
separate investments; but in the case of new patrons who are
not stockholders, it is only just that a reasonable interest on
the stock should be added to their monthly expense account.
This will be an assessment on all patrons, but it will be returned
to the stockholders as interest on their stock.
647. Sinking Fund. In addition to the item of interest
which is sometimes ignored, it is wise and just to create a sink-
ing fund. This fund is used to pay for the necessary wear and
tear of the machinery and building, and to distribute this ex-
6o DAIRYING
pense uniformly over a number of years or dufing the life of
the machinery. When a creamery is new there is little expense
for new machinery and very few repairs are needed, but as time
passes some of the short-lived apparatus, such as vats, chums,
butter workers, and tinware, will wear out and must be re-
placed. On this account the cost of operating the factory will
increase, and if no sinking fund has been accumulated, the cost
of the new apparatus will fall on the farmers patronizing the
creamery at that time. This is not fair to these patrons, if others
have dropped out and taken advantage of the smaller cost of
operation while the factory was new. An assessment of the
patrons for this sinking fund should be made every month in
order to permit those who may bring milk for a short time to pay
their share of these expenses. The amount of this fund may b^
estimated by assuming that the vats, churns, workers, tinware,
etc., will depreciate 20 per cent of their original cost each year ;
all other machinery 10 per cent; and the building 2 per cent.
This depreciation of a creamery costing about $3,000 will
amount to about $200 per year.
648. Estimate of Monthly Expenses. It has already been
stated that the milk checks or monthly dividends of a cooperative
creamery are paid from the money left after deducting the run-
ning expenses from the gross receipts of the creamery for the
month. Some idea of the items which should be included in this
monthly expense account may be obtained from the following
list which, it is estimated, will be the legitimate expenses of a
creamery costing about $3,000 and receiving an average of 4,000
pounds of milk, or the cream from it, per day during the year:
Buttermaker's wages $50.00
Secretary 5.00
90 60-pound butter tubs, 25c each 22.50
Tub fasteners, parch paper, etc 2.00
360 pounds salt 3.50
1J4 gal. butter color 2.00
4 gallons oil 1.00
Fuel at $1.00 per day 30.00
Taxes 1.25
DAIRYING 6i
Insurance 3.00
Interest 12.50
Sinking fund 16.66
$147.41
649. Though the sum of $147.41 per month may seen to be
a large figure to people who have not had experience in this
business, it will be found that the items ar^ legitimate and must
be paid for directly or indirectly, sooner or later, by every
creamery. On the other hand, the figures given are estimated
and may be made greater or less at different factories.
650. By carrying the calculation still further, we find that
if 180 pounds of butter are made daily from the 4,000 pounds of
milk, the cost of making this butter for the month is nearly 2.8c
per pound. This it will be seen is very nearly 3 cents per pound,
which is a rather common charge among creameries. This illus-
tration should not be understood as a recommendation of 3 cents
per pound, as the standard creamery price for making butter, for
the reason that there are localities in which a creamery cannot
be successfully operated for 3 cents per pound commission; but
even in such cases it may be for the best interest of the farmers
to have a creamery in operation at such a price per pound for
making as will give it a living profit.
IV. The Creamery Building.
651. Drainage. In selecting the site for a creamery build-
ing, the matter of drainage should be given careful considera-
tion, not only because a great deal of water is used about the
factory, but because of the nature of the drainage which comes
from a creamery. The daily washings contain more or less
milk, grease, etc., which decompose easily and makes the drain-
age a public nuisance unless properly disposed of. They may
also accumulate in the drain pipe until this is entirely closed up.
62
DAIRYING
For this reason in choosing a location these two possibilities
should be kept in mind and provision made to overcome or pre-
vent them.
Drainage through an 8-inch tile into a running stream of
water or a town sewer is to be preferred whenever possible.
When the creamery is located in the country, where this cannot
be done, this tile drainage should be conducted at least 40 rods
from the building before it is allowed to come to the surface;
and the outlet should be placed at some point where the natural
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
Plate 7 — Side Hill Creamery
elevation of the land is such that the drainage is satisfactorily
distributed. There are some localities where it is impossible to
secure the outlets mentioned, and in such cases it may be sug-
gested that the drainage be conducted into a cess-pool. This
way of disposal should be adopted only as a last resort and never
attempted except when these cesspools can be located in a gravel
or porous sub-soil. More than one cesspool is to be recom-
mended, as by using them alternately one may be undergoing
DAIRYING
63
purification, while the other is receiving the drainage. If cess-
pools are used, they should be so placed that the drainage from
them will not contaminate a well or other water supply.
652. Side Hill and One-Floor Plans. In locating a creamery
the elevation of the land leads to the consideration of two general
plans of creameries, the side hill plan and the level-ground plan.
When built on sloping land, the machinery may be placed on
three different levels; the milk being delivered at the receiving
PUTFORM ITVib' raised 3 PCCT
ABOVE CHURN ROOM FLOOR.
ZCOCOEBDD
COLD STORAGC-
lO'Xia'
RECE1VIN8 PLATPORM.
Plate 8 — Creamery all under One Roof
room, which is on the highest level. From the weigh can it
flows to the milk vat and separator, which are on the secondi
level; while the churn, butter workers, and refrigerator are on
the lowest level. The boiler and engine may be placed on the
same level as the separator, and the cream vat on either the
second or third elevation. The principal object in distributing
the machinery in this way on dif5ferent levels is to avoid the use
of milk and cream pumps. There are, however, at the present
time, pumps which may be token apart each day and so thor-
64
DAIRYING
oughly cleaned that no objection can be made to their use; and
the extra effort of going up and down stairs in a sidehill cream-
ery makes the plan a rather undesirable one. Taking every-
thing into consideration the creamery built so as to accommodate
all the machinery on one ground floor is to be recommended.
The milk-receiving room, however, should be elevated sufficiently
to permit the flow of milk by gravity from the weigh can to
the milk vat.
653. Plans of creameries are here given to show the general
appearance and arrangements of such factories as now built. One
of these (Plate 6) is the plan of a side-hill creamery; the other
SS^qrRaK
- - n 9
Plate 9 — Creamery with JVing for Boiler and Engine
^___ DAIRYING 65
two are plans of creameries built on level ground. Of these
latter two, one (Plate 7), is a plain rectangular building, with
everything under one roof; and the other (Plate 8), is made to
accommodate the boiler, fuel, etc., in a wing at one side of the
main building. (Plate 9).
The location of a creamery so as to accommodate the great-
est number of its patrons is an important matter, which should
be giVen careful consideration. If located in town, there are
some advantages in having it on a railroad side-track, especially
if fuel, tubs, and other supplies are bought in car-load lots.
Plate 10 — Exterior of a common type of Creamery Building.
6.S4. Partitions in the Creamery, Many modifications of
these plans may be made to suit the localities in which they are
built, and the ideas of people for whom they are built. On
account of the dust from ashes and fuel around the boiler it is
well to place a partition through the building, so as to separate
the boiler from all other machinery, especially the engine, which
may be placed in the room with the separator. Another parti-
tion which will separate the churning and butter working from
the main creamery room is advisable, and when it is so placed
66 DAIRYING
that the refrigerator door opens into this butter room its tem-
perature may thus be advantageously cooled while churning and
working the butter in summer weather. A clean, dry room
should be provided for storing butter tubs and salt. Salt will
absorb odors and may easily spoil the butter if this point is
not watched.
655. The Refrigerator must be provided with a good circu-
lation of air and perfect drainage, as a damp refrigerator may be
the cause of serious losses from mouldy butter.
656. The Milk Receiving Room. This should be built large
enough to give the buttermaker plenty of room to inspect the
milk and cream before it is poured into the weighing can. A
serious mistake in the construction of some creameries has been
made by building the milk receiving room so small that the
buttermaker does not pretend to _get into it, but takes th>e milk
which patrons pour through a spout connected .with the weigh
can, which is placed in a box-like attachment to the outside of
the building. This is a very poor arrangement. The milk re-
ceiving room ought to be built to accommodate the patrons when
unloading cans from their wagons to the platform and permit the
buttermaker to take off the can covers handily, if he chooses to
do so. The room ought also to be provided with an arrange-
ment by which two conductor spouts may be connected with the
weighing can. This will give the buttermaker a convenient
means of conveying the milk or cream to two vats, if he wishes
to separate some lots from others on account of their good or
Dad qualities.
657. The Creamery Floor. The question often arises as to
the advisability of laying a wood or a cement floor in a creamery.
The first cost of a cement floor is approximately one-third more
than that of a two-inch matched wood floor, but the cement
floor can be so laid that i^ will not crack if the foundation is
made firm enough to prevent uneven settling, while from a sani-
tary standpoint it is far superior to the wooden floor. The
cement floor should also wear three times as long as the wooden
floor.
DAIRYING 67
658. Making a Cement Floor. A solid foundation is first
provided, then concrete is laid on this to a depth of about 4
inches and a cement facing of about 3^-inch thickness spread
over the concrete.
The concrete is made by mixing two sizes of hard rock with
clean sharp sand and Portland cement; the following propor-
tions may be used as a guide:
Crushed rock 57 per cent or 12.7 parts
Gravel or screenings. . .27 per cent or 6 parts
Sand 11.5 per cent of 2.5 parts
Portland Cement 4.5 per cent or 1 part
After mixing the dry sand, gravel and cement, enough water
is added to make the mixture pasty; the thoroughly wet,
crushed rock is then added and the whole intimately mixed.
The floor should be laid in blocks to prevent cracking, and
the mixture of stone, sand and cement laid as fast as mixed.
The finishing surface made of two parts sand and one part
cement is spread over the concrete after this has been pounded
sufficiently to bring fine cement to the surface, but before the
concrete has set. The finishing surface is smoothed by trowel-
ing, then wet with a whitewash brush and pure, dry cement
sprinkled over it. The surface is then troweled until smooth
and hard.
In making this concrete, the rocks and gravel should be
carefully cleaned from adhering dirt before using in the mix-
ture. Any adhering dirt forms a coating over the surface that
prevents the cement from firmly sticking the pieces of rock
together.
A proper pitch of the floor to the gutters and drains should
be provided for when laying the foundation for the concrete.
659. If a wooden floor is laid it is a good plan to fill in
between the joints with cinders until the flooring rests on the
cinders. This will help to preserve the wood from decay. A
double floor accumulates moisture and rots out sooner than a
single floor. The application of two coats of boiled oil to the
floor before it has been wet will fill the pores of the wood and
68 DAIRYING
help to preserve it from decay. Whatever the material used, the
floor should be given a pitch of about one inch in four to iivt
feet to the gutters.
660. Trap in floor drain. A trap should alawys be built in
the floor drain or gutter. One placed inside the building is espe-
cially convenient for cleaning. It may be made by plajcing under
the floor at some point a simple box so that the gutter forms
a part of the cover. This cover can be easily taken off and
the dirt which collects in the trap removed.
661. Painting. Painting inside the factory may be done
satisfactorily with the cold water paints, which have no odor
and can be used at any time without danger of injuring the
quality of either milk, cream, or butter in the room painted. The
outside painting of a creamery ought to be given careful attention
and a fresh coat put on every two years at least. A newly
painted, neat-looking creamery, is an ornament to any locality
and reflects the quality of the milk and cream received and
the butter sold from it.
662. The smoke stack. The smoke stack or chimney for
the boiler should be at least 30 feet high and extend 10 or more
feet above the roof. A good draft through the grate is important
for the most economical use of fuel. In this connection it may
be added that constantly poking the fire to keep up steam is a
great waste of fuel ; it will pay therefore to provide a good
draft for the fire. In some places this may be done by connecting
the exhaust steam from the engine with the smoke stack or
chimney; this steam, however, will shorten the life of either
chimney or stack by rusting the iron and disintegrating the
mortar and brick. A chimney will last longer than an iron stack
of the same height, but it will cost more and will not give
so good a draft on account of the two turns necessary to make
connections with the boiler, the iron stack being placed directly
on the boiler.
663. Windows and ventilators. The creamerv windows
should be loose fitting, as steam swells them. They ought to
be made to open at the top for ventilation, as well as at the
bottom. There should be a ventilator in the roof to carry off
DAIRYING 69
heat in summer and steam in winter; and at least one large
door or window should be provided for getting large churns
and other machinery into the building.
664. Skim milk platform. The arrangements for delivering
skim milk to the patrons at a creamery should receive careful
consideration. The hose through which the patrons fill their
cans should lie on a platform when not in use. This platform
is built water-tight- with a raised strip around the outside to
prevent milk and water running over its sides. A sewer con-
nection is made with it, and the platform together with the
skim milk and buttermilk tanks should be cleaned daily. Some
such arrangement as this will help to overcome the foul odor
which surrounds some creameries, where the skim milk hose
is allowed to drain on the ground outside the building.
665. Roof of the creamery. Whenever metal roofing is
used it must be covered with paint to preserve it^ otherwise
it will soon rust out. It is not advisable to use a metal roof
at any place where steam comes in contact with the underside,
as this will soon rust out even if painted when put on, because
the paint cannot be renewed on such places.
666. The creamery equipment. An estimate of the fittings
and machinery ordinarily needed in a creamery which will handle
from .3 to 8 thousand pounds of milk per day is included in
the following list. The prices of these fittings will vary so
much from year to year that no attempt to give them is made,
but quotations may be obtained from creamery supply firms
by persons wishing for this information. It would be well to
get quotations from several dealers.
This list may not contain everything that every creamery
should have, but it will give a general idea of a whole milk
creamery equipment and it may be changed to suit the require-
ments of different localities and buildings.
1 15 H. P. Tubular boiler complete with stack; 1 injector
or boiler feed pump ; 1 10 H. P. horizontal engine including sight
feed lubricator; 2 milk pumps; 1 separator, capacity 2500 to 3000
pounds ; 1 milk heater ; 1 cream cooler ; 1 80-gal. weigh can with
70 DAIRYING
3-inch perfection gate; 1 500-gal. milk receiving vat; 1 300-gal.
cream vat; 1 churn and butter worker or combined churn and
worker, capacity 400 lbs. or more of butter; 1 wash sink with
draining board: 1 cream strainer; 1 hair sieve for straining
starter ; 1 buttermilk strainer ; 1 20 bottle turbine Babcock milk
tester, with glassware complete ; 1 starter can ; 1 butter printer ;
1 conductor head and 6 ft. pipe ; 2 200-gal. galvanized steel vats
for skim milk and buttermilk ; 1 skim milk weigher ; 1 noiseless
water heater; 3 rubbed mops, 14 in. ; 1 100-patron milk ledger;
1 dozen milk record sheets; 5 dozen quart jars with top and
tag for composite milk samples; 1 8-oz. graduate (for butter
color) ; 6 floating thermometers ; 1 butter packer ; 2 butter pad-
dles; 1 canvas apron; 100 butter tubs and parchment liners; 1
6oo-lb. double beam platform scale; i butter salting scale; i well
water pump ; shafting and belts ; pulleys and iron piping, wren-
ches and other tools. If the creamery is to receive cream only,
there is no necessity of buying the separator, skim milk weigher
and a few of the other items whicH may easily be omitted from
this list.
Suggestions for Operating a Co-Operative Creamery.
667. A co-operative creamery may draw up its constitution
and by-laws to suit the parties interested in the organization.
The following suggestions are given to guide the members in
selecting such regulations as they may choose to adopt:
1. The undersigned residents of
hereby agree to become members of the Co-
operative Association formed for the purpose of manufacturing
butter from whole milk and cream.
We agree to furnish milk or cream from the following
number of cows :
Names Cows
This paper should be preserved for future reference.
DAIRYING 71
After securing signatures to the above paper a meeting
should be called of all those signing the paper and others in-
terested in the creamery. At this meeting the Constitution and
By-Laws may be discussed, adopted and signed by all the
stockholders of the association.
Officers of the Association.
1. The Officers of his association shall be a president,
\rice-president, secretary and treasurer. These with three other
members of the association shall constitute the board of direc-
tors.
2. Election of these six officials shall be made at the annual
meeting and they shall hold office until their successors are
elected and qualified.
3. The President shall preside at all meetings of the asso-
ciation or of the board of directors. He shall call special
meetings of the association or of the board of directors when
deemed necessary.
4. The Vice-President shall act as president in the absence
or on request of the president.
5. The Secretary shall keep all records and send notices for
all meetings of both the directors and of the association and of
appointments on committees, etc.
He shall sign all orders on the treasurer and other official
papers of the association, conduct the business of the asso-
ciation as required by the directors and certify to the corvect-
ness of monthly milk and cream pay sheet, showing the details
of weights, tests, etc., and amounts due from or to each patron.
6. The Treasurer shall g^ve a receipt for all money passing
into his possession and belonging to the association, pay out
this money on orders given by the secretary or president or
both, as provided and give such bond as the board of directors
may require. At the expiration of his term of office he shall
turn over to his successor in office upon demand all the money
and records in his hands belonging to the association.
72 DAIRYING
7. The Board of Directors shall have full management of
the business of the association. They may borrow a sum of
money not to exceed thousand dollars, purchase a site,
adopt a plan, erect necessary buildings, buy machinery and other
equipment and supplies as needed.
They shall audit all just claims against the association and
from details furnished by the secretary determine the amount to
be paid to each patron each month. They shall require of the
secretary each month a complete report of receipts and dis-
bursements and determine the amount to be deducted for a
sinking fund.
The balance left each month after all just claims are al-
lowed shall be divided among the patrons according to the
amount of butter fat in the milk and cream furnished by each
patron.
The board of directors shall be responsible for making and
enforcing such regulations as may be for the general good of
the association.
Among these regulations may be included the following:
Milk Supply.
(a.) Each stockholder shall furnish all the milk and cream
from his cows except such as is needed for his family. Any
stockholder failing to furnish all the milk and cream for the
month or more shall forfeit his share of the dividends on his
stock unless relieved by the board of directors.
(b.) The time of delivering milk and cream to the factory
each day will be determined by the board of directors.
(c.) All milk must be sweet, fresh and unadulterated. No
milk shall be received from cows not in good health, and not
until the third day after calving,
(d) All milk patrons shall receive 80 pounds of skim milk
for each 100 pounds of whole milk delivered to the factory.
(e.) No milk will be received at the factory on Sunday.
(f.) The foreman in charge of the factory is authorized to
reject any lot of milk which is tainted, sour, or in any way de-
fective. The board of directors is authorized to impose such
DAIRYING 73
penalty as they may deem wise to enable the enforcement of
these regulations. The following may serve as an illustration
of such penalty : Any patron of the association convicted of
skimming, watering, or in any way adulterating milk or cream,
or of sending bloody milk or impure milk to the creamery, or
by taking more skim milk than he is entitled to, shall be liable
for the first offense to a fine of five dollars, for the second fif-
teen dollars, and for the third offense he shall forfeit all interest
he may have in the association, including stock and dividends
which may be due or which may become due.
(g.) All stockholders must own, rent or control cows pro-
ducing milk or cream to furnish to the factory, and any stock-
holder failing to furnish milk or cream to the factory for two
months during any year shall not receive the dividend on his
stock.
(h.) A patron's premises may be visited by the board of
directors or their authorized agent for the purpose of suggesting
improvements in the caring for the milk, cream or cows, and of
the proper drainage and general cleanliness of the premises.
Such agent is also authorized to secure samples of milk from the
cows at the farm when it is deemed necessary.
(i.) The milk and cream of each patron shall be tested
as often as three times per month and more frequently if deemed
wise by the directors.
The board of directors are authorized to suspend the oper-
ation of any of these by-laws as they deem expedient for the
best interests of the association.
Selling Cows. Any stockholder, selling or disposing of his
cows shall thereafter cease to receive any dividends on his stock,
but he can sell or dispose of his stock only to person or persons
eligible to purchase the same, and then only to such as may
be acceptable to the board of directors.
The board of directors may purchase the same from such
person or persons for the association on such terms as may be
agreed upon.
74 DAIRYING
Transferring Stock. After stock has been issued, the same
can only be disposed of by such stockholders upon the approval
of the board of directors, to the end that the board of directors
shall have the sole rig^ht to determine to whom the said stock
shall be sold.
The board of directors shall not issue to any one member
a greater number of shares of stocks than the number of cows
owned and listed by him for the creamery.
Filling Vacancies. Any vacancies in any office of the asso-
ciation shall be filled by appointment by the board of directors.
Quorum and Powers of Amending By-laws. A quorum to
do business shall consist of a majority of all the stockholders,
and these by-laws can be altered and amended only by a two-
thirds vote of the members present at a duly constituted
meeting.
Special Meetings. The president or a majority of the board
of directors are hereby authorized to call special meetings, but
can do so only upon giving, at least, ten days's notice of the
time and object of any such special meeting to the stockholders.
In case the said special meeting shall be for the purpose of
amending the by-laws, it shall be the duty of the secretary to
notify each stockholder at least ten days before such special
meeting that the same is called for the purpose of amending the
by-laws and the general character of the proposed amendment
shall be inserted in said notice.
Warning.
Professional creamery promoters are often useful to farmers
in awakening an interest in the enterprise and in giving vlauable
suggestions concerning equipment, etc. Such persons should
be paid a reasonable sum for their services, but the so-called
creamery ''shark'' is a promoter who attempts to swindle
farmers by inducing them to raise money for building and equip-
ping creameries in localities where there are not 300 cows
within three miles of a given point. He also charges excessive
DAIRYING 75
prices for building and machinery. Among the tricks of the
creamery shark are the following:
1. Treating a few leading farmers to a trip, with all ex-
penses paid, to some creamery which is similar to a "salted"
gold mine, in that a few of its patrons tell extravagant stories
of their receipts and give an excessive figure as the cost of their
creamery and its machinery.
2. Making a present of shares of stock to some of the pro-
spective patrons of the proposed creamery, with the understand-
ing that their "influence'' pays for the stock.
3. Securing signatures before definite specifications are
written in the contract.
4. Supplying old, out-of-date machinery and failing to in-
clude all that is essential for successfully operating a creamery.
Protection from such swindlers may be obtained by sub-
mitting the local creamery proposition to an expert and then
by dealing with firms having an established reputation for fur-
nishing building and equipment at the lowest cost consistent
with good material and workmanship.
Investigate thoroughly, know of whom you are purchasing,
and look up the reputation of a firm before signing any contract.
76 DAIRYING
EXAMINATION
Note to Students — ^These questions are to be answered inde-
pendently. Never consult the text after beginning your examina-
tion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination.
Number the answers the same as the questions, but nf ver repeat
the question. Mail answers promptly when completed.
QUESTIONS OF LESSON V.
1. Give a brief outline of sweet cream butter making.
2. What is the appearance, flavor and keeping quality of
sweet cream butter?
3. How may pasteurized cream butter be made?
4. How does pasteurized dif5fer from other butter?
5. What is the process of making ripened cream butter?
6. What are some of the characteristics of sour cream
butter?
7. What is the purpose of a "starter?"
8. How and in what way may a starter affect the flavor
of butter?
9. Into what three general classes may the bacteria in
cream be divided?
10. Which bacteria are beneficial and which injurious to
butter quality?
11. What is the source of most of the injurious bacteria?
12. How may the injurious bacteria be suppressed?
13. What is the foundation or soil of a starter and what
may be used for this purpose?
DAIRYING ^^
14. What is the difference between pasteurizing and steri-
lizing?
15. To what temperature and how long should the founda*
tion part of the starter be heated?
16. To what temperature should the foundation of the
starter be cooled?
17. When should the pure culture be added in making a
starter?
18. What is meant by "mother" starter and by "starto-
line?"
19. What is the best kind of container for the startoline
and why?
20. What must be included in a complete equipment for
making mother starter?
21. Mention the various steps in making a starter and on
what points does success depend?
22. What temperatures hasten and what retard starter
growth ?
23. How may the best natural starter be made?
24. Is there any objection to using buttermilk or sour
cream for building up a new starter?
25. When is a starter in best condition for adding to
cream ?
26. What is an artificial or commercial culture and what
two general kinds of them are on the market?
27. What is meant by a "generation" in starter making?
28. How do the solid and the liquid cultures differ from
each other?
29. How do the directions of starter culture manufacturers
differ from each other?
30. When is a starter in the best condition for use?
31. What acidity is favorable for a good starter?
32. How much and when should starter be added to cream?
33. What precautions should be taken in stirring a starter?
34. How are food flavors affected by a starter?
35. Mention some of the precautions that should be taken
in handling starter utensils.
78 DAIRYING
36. Mention some important points in starter making.
37. What is the standard butter score?
38. What is the cause of "fishy" and of "bitter" butter?
39. What are some of the defects in butter flavor?
40. Under what butter quality of butter is an excess of
brine scored?
41. How is the texture of butter determined?
42. What are some of the defects caused by salt in butter?
43. What is the score of butter called "seconds?"
44. If butter scores 88, 91, 96, what is the name of the
grade to which each one belongs?
45. In what way do "firsts" differ from "extras" and from
"seconds ?"
46. What weights should be made in filling butter tubs
for market?
47. Which is the more critical of butter quality, regular
customers or the general market?
48. What is one of the very important points in selling
butter ?
49. What two factors tend to reduce the net receipts for
butter ?
50. How may moldy butter be prevented and how de-
veloped ?
51. Describe two good ways of preparing butter tubs for
filling.
52. What amount of paraffin is commonly used for one tub ?
53. What are some of the advantages of paraffining butter
tubs ?
54. What is an important condition of a refrigerator car
for shipping butter?
55. What are some of the causes of mottled butter and
how may they be prevented?
56. In what way does soft butter affect mottles?
57. Do mottles appear in butter immediately after mak-
ing it?
58. How does the temperature of the wash water aflFect
mottles?
DAIRYING 79
59. What may be the causes of streaked butter?
60. Which has the dryer appearance, salted or unsalted
butter ?
61. How does the amount of salt affect the water in butter?
62. If 400 pounds of butter contains 10 per cent' water and
5 per cent water is worked into it, how much more is the 400
pounds then worth to the maker if butter is 2.S cents per pound?
63. What is about the average water content of Danish
and of American butter? .,
64. What is the difference in yidd between salted and un-
salted butter ?
65. If 400 pounds of butter contain 12 per cent water one
day and 15 per cent water the next day, how much wages would
the buttermaker receive if he was paid the difference in yield
at 30 cents per pound ?
66. In what ways is water held by butter?
67. Which contains more water, butter from large or from
small granules?
68. How does a warm wash water affect the amount of
water in butter?
69. How do methods of increasing the water content of
butter affect its quality?
70. Mention at least 5 conditions in butter making that have
an influence on the water content of butter.
71. How does the Simplex butter worker differ from
others ?
72. What objections have been raised to combined chums
and butter workers?
73. Mention at least 5 points in favor of combined chums
and butter workers.
74. Give a brief outline of butter working with a combined
churn and worker.
75. Explain how a creamery may benefit the makers of
both poor and good farm butter.
76. Give at least 7 advantages which a creamery has over
farm butter making to the farmer.
17. < About what proportion of the total butter is made on
farms in the United States?
8o DAIRYING
78. Give at least five advantages of a ga,thered cream fac-
tory.
79. What led to the building of. whole milk creameries?
80. What is needed to equip a skimming station?
81. Show by a calculation that the milk from 200 cows will
not be enough to make a creamery profitable.
82. Explain three methods of organizing and operating a
creamery.
83. How may funds be raised for starting a creamery?
84. How may new patrons be added to the cooperative
creamery and on what terms?
85. What is the "sinking fund*' and how is it raised?
86. What are some of the items that should be included
in the monthly running expenses of a cfeamery?
87. Why is the location of a creamery important and what
are some of the advantages of a level ground location?
88. Mention some important points in planning a creamery
building.
89. Give details of constructing a cement floor.
90. Mention some important points in building a wooden
floor.
Write this at the end of your Examination
I hereby certify that the above questions were answered entirely
by me.
Signed
Address ^
THIS BOOK IB DUE OK THE LAST DATB
STAMPED BISLOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 26 CENTS
WILL BE ABBWB9ED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $fl.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
AUG 9 194R
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