HAND BooK°fthe FARM SERIES
EDITED fffJ. CHALMERS MORTOfJ,
AIRY
OF THE
FAK
\f\
BY
JAMES LONGANDJ. C.MORTON.
BRADBURY AGNEW^ Co 9.BouvERiEST.
LONDON
LIBRAgTY N
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
*.
OF"
' /4>
7r
HANDBOOK OF THE FARM SERIES.
EDITED BY J. CHALMEES MOETON,
EDITOR OF THE "AGRICULTURAL CYCLOPEDIA;" THE "AGRICULTURAL QAZETTE J
THE "FARMER'S CALENDAR;" THE "FARMER'S ALMANAC;"
"HANDBOOK OF THE DAIRY;" "FARM LABOURER," ETC.
HANDBOOK OF THE FARM SERIES
EDITED BY J. CHALMERS MORTON.
THE
DAIRY OF THE FARM
BY
JAMES LONG AND J. C. MORTOK
LONDON:
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., 9, BOUYERIE STREET.
1885.
G
THE present Volume is one of a series discussing the Cultiva-
tion of the Farm, its Live Stock, and its Cultivated Plants, the
Farm and Estate Equipment, the Chemistry of Agriculture,
and the Processes of Animal and Vegetable Life. Among the
writers who have been engaged on them are Messrs. T. BOWICK,
W. BURNESS, G. MURRAY, the late W. T. CARRINGTON, the Rev.
G. GILBERT, Messrs. J. HILL, SANDERS SPENCER, and J. C.
MORTON, Professors J. BUCKMAN, J. WORTLEY-AXE, and J.
SCOTT, Dr. M. T. MASTERS, F.R.S., and Mr. R. WARINGTON,
F.C.S.
J. C. M.
PREFACE.
THERE is no branch of English Agriculture
which has more profited by the spirit of investi-
gation and the practice of recording observations
which have of late more or less possessed us all.
To Mr. H. M. Jenkins, of the Koyal Agricultural
Society, we are indebted for a knowledge of French
and Danish Dairying, which has done a great deal
during the past ten years to improve our own dairy
practice. And to the rivalry and records of breeds
and of individual animals on the other side of the
Atlantic we owe a knowledge of the possibilities of
milk and butter produce of which no idea formerly
existed. It is not too much to say that the
traveller and the enthusiast, the inventor and the
chemist, have together of late years lifted what
VI PREFACE.
used to be the homeliest and most stagnant of all
departments of our Agriculture into the very fore-
most rank of all, so far as energy, activity, and all
the other evidences of life are concerned. In the
following pages, accordingly, along with the sub-
stance of a former handbook4'' published many years
ago for the present writer, there will be found not
only those pages brought down to the present date
and re-written and condensed, but much added
information on Foreign Dairying, contributed by
Mr. James Long, and a tolerably full account of
the improved practice and experience in our own
Dairy districts at home.
J. C. M.
* "Handbook of Dairy Husbandry," by J. Chalmers Morton. Long-
mans. 1860.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAP.
I. — DAIRY STATISTICS
II. — FOOD OF THE Cow ....... 15
III. — CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE Cow .... 35
IV.— MILK ...... r .... 51
V. — BUTTER 63
VI. — CHEESE .......... 77
VII. — GENERAL MANAGEMENT 94
VIII. — FOREIGN DAIRYING ... 101
INDEX 145
THE DAIBY OF THE FARM
INTRODUCTION.
A BOOK on Dairy Husbandry ought to describe the
management of the farm so far as that is directed to the
production of milk, as well as the processes of the dairy
by which that milk is made to yield its various market-
able products.
The present Handbook is, however, one of a series ; and
some of the topics included in an extended review of dairy
farming have been discussed elsewhere. The particular
management both of breeding stock and of the crops
cultivated for their food has already been described. In
the Handbook of the Livestock of the Farm, also, there
are chapters on dairy and other breeds of cattle, and short
instructions are given not only on the duties of the herds-
man, but on those of the dairyman also ; and the reader
will find, in a condensed form, some of the information
which is more fully given here. Although, therefore, in the
present Handbook it is intended to give shortly the answers
of experience to such questions as — What crops should
be grown ? what cattle should be kept ? how should they
be managed ? in order to the production of the largest
quantity and best quality of milk ?— yet our chief purpose
2 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
is to give in full the information which the dairyman rather
than the farmer needs, and in chapters on dairy statistics,
on the food and choice and treatment of the cow, on milk,
butter, cheese, and general management, and on foreign
dairying, to describe the experiences of the dairy farmer
and the manufacture of butter and cheese, as carried on
in foreign countries and in our best dairy districts.
CHAPTER I.
DAIRY STATISTICS.
Dairy Produce — Milk — Butter— Cheese— Stock and Produce per acre — Stock
and Produce of the Country.
THE butter made from a given quantity of milk, is
rarely more than 4 per cent., varying from one thirtieth to
one twentieth of its weight. The cheese made from a
given quantity of milk is generally less than one tenth
part of its weight. The quantity of butter and of cheese
which milk will yield depends upon the breed of the cow
and its individual character ; upon the number of weeks or
months during which it has already been in milk ; and
upon the food which it receives. All these particulars are
included in the general management of the dairy farm. But
it also depends upon the methods of dairy management
adopted, the details of time, of temperature, and of
manipulation in churning, cheese-making, &c. Add to
the influence of all these circumstances affecting the
quality of dairy produce the fact that the quantity of milk
which a given extent of land will yield varies enormously
with the way in which it is cropped and stocked ; and it
will be easily understood how the widest diversity of
experience and opinion in dairy management comes to
prevail.
It may be observed here, although the chemistry of the
B 2
4 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
subject has been elsewhere discussed, that the quantity of
butter and of cheese respectively which milk yields to the
dairyman, differs materially from the quantity which it
yields on examination by the chemist. The caseine, or
strictly cheesy part of milk does not generally exceed 4 per
cent, of its weight ; but the cheese of the dairy contains
much besides the mere caseine of the laboratory; less
than one third of it generally is caseine ; nearly one third
of it in the richer kinds of cheese is butter ; more than
one third of it often, when purchased by the factor, is
water, and 3 or 4 per cent, of its weight is salt and other
mineral matter. It may well be then that 4 per cent, of
caseine in the milk should yield 10 per cent, or even more
of marketable cheese. And so with the butter of the
market; it differs considerably from the butter of the
laboratory, containing in addition to the pure fatty matters
of which alone the chemist takes account, 2 or 3 per cent.
of cheese, and 15 or 16 per cent, of water. And if these
additions do not increase the butter made in the dairy
beyond that which is extracted in the laboratory, it is
because so much is often lost in the former by the im-
perfect means of separating it which are there adopted.
The object of the dairy farmer being to derive the
largest profit from his land, he crops the arable portion,
and manages the pasturage so as to keep a full dairy
stock ; these he selects of the best kinds, and from the best
breeds for the produce of butter or of cheese, according to
his purpose. Having thus insured the largest produce of
the kind of milk desired, he regulates his dairy manage-
ment so as to obtain from it, as cheaply as possible, as
much of the best made cheese or butter as it will yield.
Successful dairy farming thus implies a knowledge of the
DAIRY STATISTICS. 5
•crops, the stock, and the dairy management best adapted
to a profitable yield of butter or of cheese. And these are
the three divisions under which it is proposed to arrange
the details of dairy experience in the following pages,
this preliminary section being devoted to a statement of
its gross results in a considerable number and variety of
instances.
The Yield of Milk. — In the cases given the breed and
the manner of feeding are mentioned, and the number of
cows of which the experience recorded was true is stated
when known. On the late A. B. Telfer's farm, Canning
Park, near Ayr, whose dairy of forty-seven cows was of
Ayrshire breed, the average yield was 30,660 gallons
annually, or 650 gallons apiece. This is probably over
an average yield, but from what an extraordinary variety
of experience anything like an average must be calculated
•every dairy farmer knows. Thanks very much to the
British Dairy Farmers' Association and the example of Mr.
E. C. Tisdall, of the Holland Park Dairy, Kensington, one
of its most energetic and public- spirited members, we have
now many dairy records kept, and some of them have been
published. Mr. J. N. Edwards, of St. Albans, who won
the prize of the society for the best dairy record in 1883,
reported that from 30 cows nearly always in milk he
obtained in 40 weeks 13,630 gallons of milk, or 447
gallons apiece in that time. The experience here was
made up of maxima such as that of the cow "Mustard,"
which produced 1,100 gallons in twelve months, milking
thirteen months continuously and yielding 1,279 gallons in
all, and of others yielding 514, 322, 876, 490, 645, 917, and
537 gallons respectively. Mr. J. T. Harrison, of Frocester
THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
Court, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, reports a year's produce
of 55 cows at 31,728 gallons, or 577 per cow, besides the
milk used in weaning 43 calves ; these were cross-bred
shorthorn cows. Mr. Boyd Kinnear reports the produce
of a small dairy of Guernsey cows during ten years as 616
gallons apiece. In the year 1883 eight cows yielded from
481 to 660 gallons apiece, averaging 550 gallons. Five
selected cows have their life history given. One was milked
twelve years, averaging 553 gallons annually ; another nine
years, averaging 743 gallons. Mr. Hosley, of Lord Bray-
brooke's home farm at Audley End, near Saffron Walden,
reports in the Agricultural Gazette of February 25th, 1885,
the records of a Jersey dairy, of which the following are
the principal items : — twenty cows of all ages produced
9,577 gallons, or 478 gallons apiece, of extraordinarily
rich milk. The individual cows varied from 900 gallons
annually to 230 gallons. The average per cow in three
years was 445, 465, and 689 gallons for the cows under
four years, between four and six, and over six years old
respectively for 1882 ; and the corresponding figures for
1883 and 1884 were 461, 443, and 483 for 1883, and 390,
413, and 606 for 1884.
From these instances it may be safely gathered that the
average yield of well managed cows varies from 480 to 600
gallons of milk a year, according to breed and size ; the
smaller breeds, such as the Kerry, yielding considerably
less than the former of these amounts ; and the larger
Yorkshire, short-horned, and cross-breeds yielding as much
or even more than the latter.
It will also be understood that, by rich feeding and first-
rate management, the average yield of a small dairy breed
like the Ayrshire may be raised as high as 600 or 650
DAIRY STATISTICS. 7
gallons annually ; and that, by corresponding treatment of
the larger breeds, their yield may be raised as high as 800
gallons and upwards, as in some of the instances quoted.
The experience of London dairymen proves, indeed, that
these figures may be exceeded ; and where cows are kept
solely for the provision of milk, and replaced by others at
a loss of 6Z. or 11. apiece so soon as their yield falls below
about six quarts a day, the annual yield of the large-
framed Yorkshire cow may, by good feeding, be kept at
nearly 1000 gallons annually on the average number of the
herd in stall throughout the year.
The Yield of Butter — Mr. Haxton, in his article on
Dairy Husbandry in the Agricultural Cydopcedia, speaks
of churning 100 gallons of midsummer milk from Fife-
shire cows, and obtaining 27J Ibs. of butter. This was at
the very low rate of 1 Ib. to every 29 pints. Mr. Aiton,
who has written on the Dairy Husbandry of Ayrshire,
reports the milk of Ayrshire cattle as ordinarily yielding
1 Ib. of butter to every 20 pints.
The following are other instances of annual produce of
butter per cow. Mr. Telfer's ordinary produce of butter
from Ayrshire cows was lib. for 20J pints of milk, or
rather more than 2J gallons; but when the milk was
richest it yielded lib. per 18 pints, and when poorest lib.
per 24 pints.
Mr. Williams, county Cork, in one of the most
fully detailed accounts that exists of dairy experience
(Agricultural Gazette, 1855), stated that feeding " well-
bred Irish cows " on grains nearly all the year round with
grass in summer and hay in winter, he found that 384J
gallons of summer milk yielded 13 6f Ibs. of butter, or 1 Ib.
8 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
from 22 J pints of milk, and that 198f gallons of winter
milk gave 81J Ibs. or 1 Ib. of butter from 19J pints. The
whole year's yield was 583 gallons of milk and 218 Ibs. of
butter per cow, or 1 Ib. to every 21 1- pints.
The late Mr. Horsfall of Burley Hall, near Otley, found
4 gallons of milk yield from 24 to 27 ozs. of butter, corre-
sponding to 1 Ib. to every 21 and 18f pints respectively ;
and his cows annually produced on an average 266 Ibs. of
butter each.
We have of late years been startled by extraordinary
records of butter produce from America, where Jersey cows
have been cultivated and stimulated to an almost incredible
productiveness ; and in place of the respectable average of
600 gallons annually, capable of yielding 2 cwt. of butter
in the year, which is a good ordinary English experience,
we are told of cows yielding twice and even three times as
much. Mr. Hosley, of the Audley End Jersey Dairy, whose
figures we have already quoted, gives the following averages
for 1882, 1883, and 1884 respectively : — cows under four
years of age, 240 Ibs., 264 Ibs., and 194 Ibs. respectively
for the milk as recorded above ; cows between four and six
years of age, 281 Ibs., 268 Ibs., and 259 Ibs. respectively,
and cows over six years of age, 353 Ibs., 274 Ibs., and
311 Ibs. respectively. Over the whole herd in the three
years the produce was 283 Ibs., 269 Ibs., and 257 Ibs.
apiece. And some examples of extraordinary yield are
given, almost rivalling the American reports. Thus, No. 8
produced 407 Ibs. of butter in 49 weeks in 1882; No. 11
in 1883, No. 10 and No. 17 in 1884 produced over 390 Ibs.
each. We fear agricultural maxima have little influence on
agricultural averages ; and while we do not refuse our belief
to even the marvellous stories told of Eurotas and other
DAIRY STATISTICS. 9
extraordinary American Jerseys, we fear that in ordinary
cases 1 Ib. of butter from 20 to 21 pints of milk and
200 Ibs. of butter per annum, is more nearly the ordinary
experience of the larger breeds of dairy cows in this
country. How great the contrast presented by the Jersey
under its best circumstances is to this, Mr. Hosley's ex-
perience proves. His Jersey cows yielded a pound of
butter to every 7 quarts in 1882, every 6f quarts in 1883,
and every 7-f quarts in 1884, and varied from 12f quarts
to a pound in the poorest instances to milk so rich that a
pound of butter came from every 3f quarts.
The Yield of Cheese — The following are illustrative
cases : — Mr. White of Warrington, in his account of
Cheshire cheese-making (Agricultural Society's Journal,
vol. vi.) gave three instances in one of which from 211
gallons of milk, 4 cheeses were made, weighing " a day or
two after making " 22 6J- Ibs. ; this was at the rate of 1 Ib. for
rather less than 7 J pints of milk. In two additional cases
he reported that 43 gallons of milk yielded a cheese weighing
47 Ibs. eight months after making, and 107 gallons yielded
two cheeses, weighing 110 Ibs. a month after making.
Adding them together, they indicated an average yield of
1 Ib. of cheese from 7| pints. Mr. Haxton reported the
produce of cheese in six Ayrshire dairies as being 1 Ib. to
every 7f pints. The quantity yielded per gallon is greater
in the autumn than in the spring ; and whereas in June it
may take 11 Ibs. of milk to yield one of cheese, in
September and October 9 Ibs. of milk will yield as much.
In Dorsetshire, where milk is largely used for the pro-
duction of butter and skim-milk cheese, it is stated that
the average yield per cow is 168 Ibs. of the former, and
10 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
about 200 Ibs. of the latter annually. Mr. M'Adam of
Silverdale, near Newcastle, Staffordshire, reported of his
dairy of 100 cows, that their milk produced 1 Ib. of
cheese per gallon, equal to about 4J cwts. apiece per
annum. There were given in the Agricultural Gazette,
some years ago, the statistics of fifteen dairy farms,
from which it appears, that 439 cows produced annually
1604 cwts. of cheese, besides 5268 Ibs. of milk-butter,
and 11,420 Ibs. of whey-butter, and rearing eighty- five
calves. If we deduct thirty-nine cows for the milk for
these calves, then it appears that the remainder pro-
duced 4 cwts. of cheese, about 13 Ibs. of milk-butter,
and 28 Ibs. of whey-butter annually a piece. To these we
may add, from personal knowledge of the Gloucestershire
dairy district, that while variations of season and conse-
quent differences in the quantity of grass produced will
occasion differences in the produce of cheese from as low
as 3 cwts. to as high as even 5 cwts. per cow in extraordinary
cases over whole dairies, the average yield of cheese on
well managed dairy farms, where ordinary care is taken in
the selection of cows and maintenance of the herd,
approaches 4 cwts. per cow. Mr. White reported, as the
average experience of dairy farmers in Cheshire, that on
land worth 30s. per acre, 3 cwts. of cheese per cow is the
average produce; "but in a few instances, 5 cwts. per
cow, and even more, is sometimes made." It may be
added, that in Ayrshire a stone (24 Ibs.) of cheese is
generally made from 90 quarts of whole milk, or 1 Ib. of
cheese from every 9J Ibs. of milk; and that the same
quantity of skim milk cheese is made from one half more,
or 135 to 140 quarts, i.e. 1 Ib. of cheese from every 14 Ibs.
of skim milk.
DAIRY STATISTICS. 11
The "half coward" cheese of Gloucestershire, made
from the whole milk of the morning mixed with the milk
of the previous evening's meal, skimmed after 12 hours'
standing, is yielded at a midway rate, as 1 Ih. from 11 or
12 Ibs. of the milk from which it is made.
Stock and Produce per Acre. — On this point, four or
five cases of actual experience may he quoted. In the case
of the First Prize Dairy Farm, near Shrewsbury, in 1884,
a herd of 50 cows on 185 acres, two-thirds pasture, pro-
duced close on 5 cwts. of cheese per acre, besides some 30
cwts. of butter in the year. Here the cows were a very
good dairy shorthorn, fed liberally throughout the year.
In other instances known to me 19 cows have produced 65
cwts. of cheese, 77 cows have produced 320 cwts., 37 cows
have produced 130 cwts., and 43 cows have produced 161
cwts. in the year, besides varying small quantities of butter
derived partly from the whey and partly from the evening's
milk — which is creamed, especially in the latter months of
the year, when it is richer, before being added to the
morning's milk. The following are other examples. The
late Mr. Palm's farm at Stapleford Hall, near Tarvin,
Chester, now in the occupation of Mr. John Lea, consisted
of 180 acres of pasture land, and 65 acres of tillage, and 5
acres of homestead and garden ; and it carried 52 dairy
cows, besides 60 or 80 fatting sheep, and 40 or 50 ewes
with their lambs, together with 15 or 20 calves, and as
many yearling, and two-year-old heifers. Putting the
average annual yield of cheese at fully 3 cwts. per cow,
this amounts to 100 Ibs. of cheese per acre from the grass
land, without taking account of the sales of other stock on
the one hand, or the acreage of arable land on the other,
12 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
from which, during winter, the herd is to some extent main-
tained. Mr. White, of Warrington, says, in the Agricultural
Society's Journal, vol. vi., that 15 to 18 cows are kept per
100 acres of grass land, and that a cheese of 36 to 54 Ibs.
is made daily from their milk during four or five months in
summer. Assuming then that 45 Ihs. of cheese are made
during each of 140 days, we have 350 Ibs. per cow, over
18 cows, but only 63 Ibs. per acre over the 100 acres, owing
to the large extent of land (more than 5 acres) allotted per
cow. The 15 Gloucestershire dairy farms already referred
to contain 1716 acres of pasture land and 258 acres of
arable land. They produced 1600 cwts. of cheese, or 105
Ibs. per acre (less than 4 acres are required per cow),
besides keeping a stock on the whole of 85 calves and the
same number of yearling, two-year-old, and three-year-old
heifers, and a small flock (127) of sheep. The sales from
this extent of land include in addition to this cheese 15
tons of bacon, 350 young calves, 85 old cows, and 8 Ibs. of
butter per acre. Mr. Caird in his "English Agriculture,"
in 1851, says, that of good grass land in Wiltshire, 2J acres
are reckoned sufficient to support a cow throughout the
year ; and, to give an idea of the quantity of stock actually
kept in a particular instance, he adds : "We found a milking
stock of 40 cows on a dairy farm of 120 acres." The
same authority quotes the following particulars supplied to
him in reference to Cheshire experience. " On 36 farms,
containing 6600 acres 2200 of which were in tillage, a
stock of 1176 cows, besides the necessary quantity of
young cattle, is kept in this proportion :
First class, 600 acres at 3 acres per cow, 200 cows.
Second class, 800 „ 3£ ,, 226 „
Third class, 3000 „ 4 „ 750 ,,
f U >1TY
DAIKY STATISTICS. 13
These examples are, however, instances rather of average
than of possible produce. Good dairy farms will keep a
cow for at most every three acres of pasture, and under
good management, with some arable land in addition, a
smaller extent will suffice. The object of a book on the
subject should be rather to present the maxima of agricul-
tural experience, and thus stimulate progress, than to dwell
merely on averages, though a knowledge of these is ne-
cessary to a truthful statement of ordinary dairy statistics.
Stock and Produce of the Country. — In this paragraph
we give such figures as the annual agricultural statistics of
the country provide. It is significant of the growing
extent of the share of the pastoral, grazing, and dairying
interest in the agriculture of Great Britain that the area in
permanent pasture has increased more than one- sixth during
the past fifteen years. It was 12,735,897 acres in extent
in 1869 ; it is 15,290,820 acres in 1884. Two and a-half
millions of acres have been laid down with permanent
grasses during this period. The number of cattle has
also increased, though not in the same proportion. There
were 5,313,473 cattle of all ages in 1869; there were
6,269,141 of all ages in 1884. Of these 2,390,863 were
cows and heifers in milk and in calf. The corresponding
figures for the United Kingdom, including Ireland, were
22,811,284 acres of permanent pasture in 1869, and
25,667,206 acres in 1884; 9,078,282 cattle in 1869,
10,097,943 in 1884, of which 3,724,528 were cows and
heifers in milk and calf. With all deductions for those
breeds which do little more than rear their calf, and for
those breeds where the whole milk is devoted to the raising
of stock and the fatting of veal, and considering, on the
THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
one hand, the small yield of some breeds and on the other the
large quantity produced by cows now fed especially for the
yield of milk, we may assume that the 3,724,528 cows yield
nearly 1,200,000,000 gallons annually. Of this at least
one-twelfth is taken for calves; and if the consumption of
milk, which has very greatly increased of late years, be put
at over one quarter of a pint apiece daily, say 14 gallons
a year for each one of the population, 500,000,000 gallons
thus consumed must be deducted, leaving 600,000,000
gallons for the manufacture of cheese and butter, a quantity
equal to the production of 580,000,000 Ibs. of cheese or
240,000,000 Ibs. of butter, or perhaps we may say
100,000,000 Ibs. of cheese and 200,000,000 Ibs. of butter—
a quantity which would provide about one-eighth of an ounce
of cheese and one-quarter of an ounce of butter apiece per
head of the population daily. That this is not enough, and
that there is a growing deficiency in the home supply, is
proved by the increasing quantity of butter and cheese which
is annually imported, as appears from the following table : —
Imports.
Imports.
Year
Year.
Butter.
Cheese.
Butter.
Cheese.
cwts.
cwts.
cwts.
cwts.
1869
1,259,082
979,189
1877
1,637,403
1,653,920
1870
1,159,210
1,041,281
1878
1,796,517
1,968,859
1871
1,334,783
1,216,400
1879
2,045,399
1,789,721
1872
1,138,881
1,057,883
1880
2,326,305
1,775,997
1873
1,279,566
1,356,728
1881
2,047,341
1,840,090
1874
1,619,808
1,485,265
1882
2,169,717
1,694,623
1875
1,467,870
1,627,748
1883
2,334,743 1,799,704
1876
1,659,492
1,531,204
1884
2,472,567
1,926,070
The imports, it will be seen, have nearly doubled during
the past sixteen years.
CHAPTEE II.
FOOD OF THE COW.
Pasturage — Summer and Winter Feeding — Relations of Food to Pasture —
Malt and Barley — Crops of the Dairy Farm, Ensilage — Schemes of
Cultivation for Dairy Farms.
IT is intended in this chapter to describe actual practice
in a number of instances of cow feeding ; to state such
facts as are known on the relations of various foods to the
yield and quality of milk; and to enumerate the crops
proper for cultivation on a dairy farm.
The Pood of the Cow in the common practice of our
dairy districts is pasturage in summer, and hay and straw
with, in some cases, a few turnips or mangold wurzel
in winter. She will consume in depasturing from 1 to
1J cwt. of grass daily, varying of course according to age
and size ; or during seven months of grazing as much as 12
to 16 tons of green food. Pastures which would by July
have growth enough on them to make from 20 to 40 cwts.
of hay, and which will when that is cut grow probably
three-fifths as much grass after July 1 as they had grown
before, will, if their growth be eaten down from week to
week throughout the season have produced from 7 to 14
tons of green food per acre. From 1J acre of the best
grass lands to as much as 2J of the poorer class will thus
be wanted for the summer maintenance of the cow. One
16 THE DAIHY OF THE FARM.
acre of whole grass and the aftermath of another acre which
had been mown for winter hay will in the former case be suffi-
cient for a cow; and double that extent will be needed in the
latter case. The cow will thus receive fully £ of a cwt. of hay
daily during the five winter months. In Gloucestershire
this is generally given it in the field ; the cattle being
foddered morning and evening unsheltered ; and 2 J tons of
hay a head are considered an ample winter's allowance.
In Cheshire the dairy cows are more generally received
into yards and stalls during winter : 2J or 3 acres of grass
land per cow are the general allowance in order to supply
sufficient summer pasturage and winter provender ; but the
dairy farms in that county generally have a larger proportion
of arable land attached to them, and it is common to give
the cows turnips, mangold wurzel, and straw, as well as hay.
The late Mr. Palin of Tarvin, near Chester, stated that his
cows being gradually brought into yards towards winter, as
the yield of milk ceases, are fed in stalls, first on man-
gold wurzel leaves, then on turnip-tops, and then succes-
sively on turnips, swedes, and mangold wurzel, along with
cut straw and hay chaff. The feeding of dairy cows in
Wigtonshire, includes If acre of pasture during summer,
4 tons of turnips during winter, and 2 bushels of beans
given as bean-meal at spring time of the year. In Fifeshire,
the annual feeding of the dairy cow is put at 2 J acres of
grass, 9 or 10 tons of turnips, and 30 cwts. of oat straw as
fodder, together with 1 ton of wheat straw as litter. It is
the practice now to treat the cow much more liberally
during the winter months and when she is dry than used
to be the rule. The bare condition in which, after calving,
the cow was often turned out to grass in spring is now
quite understood to be bad farm management. The large
FOOD OF THE COW. 17
number of cows which are now brought to the pail in
autumn for the provision of milk in winter for the supply
of towns makes, of course, the distinction which used to
obtain between winter and summer feeding no longer
applicable, and the yield of milk is stimulated by the most
liberal treatment. And when the object is to obtain the
largest possible supply of milk during winter, house feeding
is of course adopted. Here, great reliance is placed on
grains, of which a bushel a day per cow or even more is
given, together with 12 to 18 Ibs. of hay, and J cwt. of
roots, chiefly mangold wurzel, or in place of the two last,
abundance of cut green food, clover, vetches, &c. during
summer. This with ample supply of water forms the
daily food of the large Yorkshire cows to be found in
London dairies. A common method is to pasture the
cows in summer, giving them cut green food in addition
towards autumn and in early summer, and feeding in
stalls or yards on roots, grains, cake, and hay, and steamed
messes during winter. The practice of giving warm mashes
is more common in the north. For small Ayrshire cows,
the following has been found a sufficient winter dietary on
which to keep them in full milk : — 30 to 40 Ibs. of boiled
turnips, with 6 Ibs. of cut straw, and 3 Ibs. of bean-meal
mashed up in them : straw ad lib. being supplied in
addition. Mr. Horsfall's winter feeding was remarkably
liberal, and he received his return for it in the fattening of
his 'cows at the time they were giving milk. The following
is the report to the English Agricultural Society of his
management : — He had for four years given his dairy cows
rape-cake, of the kind termed " green " cake, which im-
parted to the butter a finer flavour than any other kind of
cake ; and in order to induce them to eat it, he blended it
o
18 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
with one quarter the quantity of malt- dust, one quarter
bran, and twice the quantity of a mixture in equal propor-
tions of bean- straw, oat- straw, and oat- shells ; all well
mixed up together, moistened, and steamed for one hour.
This steamed food had a very fragrant odour, and was
much relished by the cattle : it was given warm three
times a day, at the rate of about 7 Ibs. to each cow (or
21 Ibs. daily). Bean-meal was also scattered dry over the
steamed food, cows in full milk getting 2 Ibs. per day, the
others but little. When the animals had eaten up this
steamed food and bean-meal, they were each supplied daily
with 28 to 35 Ibs. of cabbages from October to December,
of kohl-rabi till February, or of mangolds till grass time ;
each cow having given to her, after each of the three
feedings, 4 Ibs. of meadow hay (or 12 Ibs. daily). The
roots were not cut, but given whole. The animals were
twice a day allowed to drink as much water as they
desired. — Mr. Horsfall ultimately discontinued the use of
bean-meal owing to its comparative price, and in its place,
along with about 5 Ibs. of rape-cake, gave an additional
allowance of malt coombs, and 2 or 3 Ibs. of Indian corn-
meal per cow. On this food, in instances actually
observed, his cows gave 14 quarts of milk a day, at the
same time that they gained flesh at the rate of about one
quarter of a cwt. per month.
As regards the summer feeding of these cattle, Mr.
Horsfall says :— " During May, my cows are turned out
on a rich pasture near the homestead : towards evening
they are again housed for the night, when they are
supplied with a mess of the steamed mixture and a little
hay each morning and evening. During June, when the
grasses are better grown, mown grass is given to them
FOOD OF THE COW.
instead of hay, and they are also allowed two feeds of
steamed mixture. This treatment is continued till October,
when they are again wholly housed. In January, 1854, I
commenced weighing my milch cows ; and I have con-
tinued this practice once a month almost without omission.
I find ihat cows in full milk yielding 12 to 16 quarts each
per day vary but little in weight, some losing, others
gaining, slightly. It is common for a cow to continue
from six to eight months before she gives below 12 quarts
per day, at which time she has usually, if not invariably,
gained weight. The cows giving less than 12 quarts, and
down to 5 quarts per day, are found when free from ail-
ment to gain without exception. This gain, with an
average yield of nearly 8 quarts per day, is at the rate of
7 to 8 Ibs. per week each." This, of course, is only in the
case of cows not in calf, intended to be dried and sold fat.
Relations of Pood to Dairy Produce — It is difficult to
say of any agricultural result how much of it is due to any
particular cause ; and in the case of dairy produce, so
many causes contribute to the result that the difficulty is
greatly increased. The breed, the individual character of
the cow, its treatment, and the dairy management of its
milk — all, as well as the food which it receives, affect the
quantity of butter or of cheese which is obtained from it :
and thus any comparative experiments in order to ascertain
the effect of particular foods must be carried on for a length
of time before their results can be considered trustworthy.
The following are experiments quoted in the Journal of
the Albert Institution, Glasnevin, Dublin. The first table
gives the result of a weekly observation of the food and
produce of cows during the months named. During the
c 2
20
THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
first week, 5 cows were observed, during the second, 7 cows,
and during the others 6.
Produce.
Number of
Quarts of
Week
ending.
Kind of Feeding which the Cattle received.
Milk to
produce
Gallons
Pounds
1 Ib. of
of Milk.
of Butter
Butter.
May 27
/ Clover and rye-grass, with a few \
\ hours' grazing . . . /
891
30
11-9
June 28
July 27
Winter vetches, and grazing as above
Clover and rye-glass, second cutting .
1221
961
III
12-32
147
Aug. 25
Cabbages and grazing . . . .
87
26
13-38
Sept. 29 Clover, third cutting
74
23
12-86
Oct. 25
Nov. 28
Mangold-wurzel leaves and hay . .
Mangold-wurzel leaves and hay .
50^
40|
151
15
13-3
10-86
Dec. 19
White turnips and barley straw . .
33f
14*
9-47
The richness of the milk increases, as its quantity
diminishes. This indeed appears to have had a more
powerful influence than the varying character of the food.
The ration of mangold leaves proved, however, an exception
to this rule. — The following is another series of weekly
experiments lasting over several months. In the first week,
the numher of cows observed was 7, and in the others 12.
ft 04. A 0-L
~S
Number of
j-/aro a/c
which the
Experi-
Kind and Quantity of Feeding
per Head Daily.
II
Produce.
Quarts of
Milk to
produce
ment WAS
finished.
Q ^
PH
Milk.
Butter
lib. of
Butter.
Days
Gals.
Lbs.
Quarts.
April 11
( 70 Ibs. of mangold- wurzel and )
\ 50 Ibs. of turnips . . . )
3
42|
19
9
July 11
Italian rye-grass, ad libitum .
7
173
75
9-22
Sept. 18
Second cutting of clover . . .
7
131
60
8-73
Sept. 25
Cabbages .....
7
144
62
9-29
Oct. 2
Mangold-wurzel leaves and cabbages
7
162
60
10-8
Oct. 9
Mangold-wurzel leaves alone . .
7
212
86
9-86
Dec. 1
I 50 Ibs. of mangold-wurzel and j
j 60 Ibs. of turnips . . . j
7
168
74
9-08
FOOD OF THE COW.
21
We have now to refer to the more exact, but shorter
experiments of scientific men. Those of Boussingault, on
his farm at Bechelbronn, in one case lasted over eight
successive weeks, and in another over four successive
weeks, with the following results : — The foods given are
named in the first column, the daily ration of the several
foods being calculated according to a recognised table of
equivalents, as equal in every case to 33 Ibs. of hay.
Food given during successive
weeks.
Quantity
of Milk
daily.
Percentage composition of Milk.
Casein. Butter.
Sugar.
Ash.
Water.
FIKST SERIES.
pints.
I
Hay ....
9-3
3-4
4'5
47
o-i
877
Turnips and straw
10-5
3'0
4'2
5-0
0-2
87-6
Wurzel and straw . .
9-8
3-4
4-0
5-3
0-2
87-1
Raw potatoes and straw
87
3'4
4-0
5-9
0-2
86-5
Hay ....
6'2
—
—
—
—
—
Raw potatoes, salt, and
straw . . . .
5'9
—
—
— -
—
—
Jerusalem artichokes
6-0
3-3
3-5
5-5
0-2
87'5
SECOND SERIES.
Hay and clover . .
18-6
3-0
3-5
4'5
0-2
88-8
Green clover
21-2
3-1
5'6
4-2
0-3
86'8
It seems plain that the results of the first series, as indicated
by the diminished yield of the cow on hay, were vitiated by
the general diminished productiveness of the animal with
the lapse of time.
Another elaborate series of experiments on this subject
was published by Dr. K. D. Thomson, who many years ago
compared the effect of barley, malt, barley and molasses,
barley and linseed, and bean-meal, in their effects on the
quantity and quality of the milk yielded by two cows on
these diets respectively, during successive periods, generally
of 10 or 15 days. The following results are condensed
22
THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
from the tables in which he gives a summary of his
observations : —
Duration of !
Experiment.
Daily Food consumed.
Daily Milk.
Yield of Butter
per Cow.
Days.
Lbs.
Lts.
Ox.
1 K
Barley . • . . 10 )
JLU
Hay . . . 29£ (
*^*
8
15
i Malt ... 10i )
|Hay . . . 27iJ
20^
10*
Barley . . 9 j
10
Molasses . . . 2| >
21*
11J_
Hay ... 27 J
Barley ... 8 j
10
Linseed . . 4 >
21|
11
Hay ... 25$)
Bean-meal . . 11 j
5
Linseed ... ^ >
2ii
12
j
[Hay . . . 24iJ
There do not appear from these figures to he any very
marked differences either in the quantity or quality of the
milk produced from these varying foods. Dr. Thomson
gave as the result of his whole series of experiments, the
following conclusions, which are calculated from his tables,
and may be taken as illustrative of the effects of the several
dietaries which he tried upon the quantity of butter produced.
Dura-
Food consumed Daily — calculated Dry.
Total
Drv
Milk
Produce from
100 Ibs. of the
tion of
\JLy
TTonrJ
yielded
Dry Food.
Experi-
ment.
Grass
and
Grain, (be.
r oou.
Daily.
Daily.
Hay.
Milk.
Butter.
Days.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
28
22
26-2
26-4
Grass, daily . 10 '2
Whole barley . 3 '9
26-2
30-3
23'
20-3
11-6
8-41
2 71
1-82
20
26-35
Whole malt . 5 '3
31-6
19-7
7-08
2-07
32
24-4
Crushed barley . 10 '2
34-5
21-
8-64
2-11
32
23-3
Crushed malt . 10 -2
33-5
20-
7-95
1-92
20
21-
Barley,8'15; molasses 2*7
31-85 20-35
8-06
2-19
20
21-83
Barley and linseed 10'67
32-25 21-8
8-45
2'15
10
22-5
Peas . . 107
33-2
21-5
813
2-25
FOOD OF THE COW. 23
It must be remembered that no information is given
directly in this table on the cost of the butter or milk
produced by these several feedings, though this may be
calculated from it by any one who shall take the trouble.
The maxims of ordinary experience are, however, to be
taken as of superior importance to scientific observations
of such limited duration : and these are — (1), to maintain
the cow in vigorous health, whatever may be the food
provided — (2), to give it unrestrained access to good water
— and (3), to change the food as often as possible, whether
by turning into a fresh pasture, or by alteration of winter
feeding in the stall.
Crops and Foods for Dairy Stock. — The cultivation
of the crops suitable as food for dairy stock has been
described in another Handbook. At present, a mere list
will be given of these crops, with a reference to their
probable yield per acre, the period of year during which
each is available, &c. (1.) Pasturage. The grass of old
meadows of good quality is the best possible summer food
for dairy cows. They will thus consume from 1 cwt.
upwards of green food daily. The annual yield of grass
from meadows will vary from 7 tons per acre during the
season up to 14. It is available in this climate generally,
from early in May till the middle of November or later?
during which time an ordinary cow will consume from 10
to 14 tons of green food. (2.) Hay, well made from good
meadows, is the very best winter food for dairy cows. It
is economised by the addition of straw and roots and meal,
&c., but when given alone, must be supplied at the rate of
J cwt. daily, or thereabouts, a-head. (3.) The Clovers
afford capital grazing for young stock, and on arable dairy
24 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
farms to milch cows also. They may yield on good land,
well cultivated, in 2 or even 3 cuttings, if the season be
favourable, 10, 6, and 4 tons respectively per acre ; or from
12 to 18 tons per acre during the season. If the cattle
are foddered, as in small dairies they may be, these and
other green foods must be supplied at the rate of fully one
cwt. each cow daily. They are available from June or
July till October. (4.) Vetches sown in October, and
again in April, May and June, may be made to provide a
succession of food all through the summer, commencing in
May. They yield one cutting, which may furnish from 6
to 10 tons of green food per acre ; a very succulent food if
given before its flowers appear ; and the better, therefore, for
being cut 12 or 24 hours before use, in order to wither and
harden somewhat. They may be given with good effect,
cut up along with straw or chaff. (5.) Eye cut green is
one of the earliest of spring foods ; sown shortly after
midsummer it is available early in April, yielding perhaps 4
or 5 tons per acre of green food, and more as the crop
approaches maturity, when of course it becomes less useful
as food. (6.) Italian Eye-grass is one of the best forage
plants for cows when cultivated liberally. If manured
abundantly after each cutting, especially if the dressing
can be washed in by irrigation, another cutting, weighing
10 or even 15 tons per acre, will be ready in a few weeks.
And as many as five heavy cuttings have been obtained
from it in the season on sewage farms. When sufficiently
ripened, it is the best possible cut food that can be given
to cows, inducing an abundant yield of excellent milk.
(7.) Lucerne, on deep, rich, and sheltered soil will also
yield a succession of cuttings of excellent food for cows,
weighing, if the intervals between the rows be forked and
FOOD OF THE COW. 25
manured after each cutting, from 6 to 8 tons per ' acre
each. time. It is not always at once very welcome in cow
food. There is a certain bitterness that is distasteful,
and we have known of late when it has been given
as a useful food cut up in the chaff-cutter and sweetened
with the addition of a pint of treacle or 1 Ih. of coarse
sugar, both of them cheap foods just now (1885).
(8.) Sainfoin may be classed with the clovers as to
quality and quantity of produce, but can rarely be cut more
than once a year. It is available for several years on the
same land, requiring of course to be manured if constantly
cut ; suitable for rocky and calcareous soils, where clovers
are not generally so successful ; and yielding probably 10
to 12 tons of green food, under ordinary management, per
acre. (9.) Gorse crushed, and given with other food, is
liked by cows, and has been successfully used in dairies.
It is available during November and the winter months,
and, given at the rate of two bushels of the bruised
material along with carrots, and a little hay, is one of the
best winter foods for cows in milk. (10.) Rape is useful
in early winter, less liable to affect the taste of the milk
than some other green foods, and a very succulent and
palatable food. Capable of being mown and brought in
daily from the field, it is available as a daily food during
September, October and November, and indeed formed a
portion of Mr. Horsfall's feeding of his well-managed
dairy herd. A crop of rape will yield from 10 to 12 tons
of green food per acre. (11.) Cabbages of various sorts,
open and hearted, early and late, are liked by cows, and
may be made to yield a succession of food from May all
through summer, and on till the end of the year. Land
yielding successive crops of cabbages may be made to yield
26 THE DAIEY OF THE FARM.
an enormous weight of food — even 40 or 50 tons per acre
during the season. Not more than half a cwt. a day,
supplemented with more suhstantial food, should be given
to a cow ; and care should he taken to remove any spoiled
portions of the food, which, if consumed, would greatly
aggravate the disagreeable flavour which, under the most
careful management, they are apt to give to the milk. (12.)
Turnips, common and Swedish, are given to cows, the
former in early winter, the latter on till towards spring.
They will yield from 10 up to 20, and even 25 tons per
acre, hut they are faulty, owing to the taste which, without
special management of the milk, they give to it. Sixty to
eighty Ihs. of these roots daily, along with an unlimited
supply of straw, is an ordinary daily ration. These roots
are less liable to affect the milk if steamed, or even if
merely pulped : 15 or 20 tons of common turnips per acre,
and 12 to 15 tons of Swedish turnips, are an ordinary crop,
but they are liable to so many casualties from weather,
insects, &c., that no great dependence can be placed on
them for a small dairy. (13.) Mangold Wurzels are the
best root crop for winter and spring feeding of milch cows.
They give a slightly bitter taste to the milk, and their
extreme succulence as food is not favourable to the richness
of the milk. Not more than f cwt. should be given daily
when they are the sole dependence along with straw : and
a smaller quantity along with richer food is better manage-
ment in butter dairies. Thirty tons per acre can be grown
more easily than 20 tons of turnips, and in the following
spring and summer they are better food per ton. (14.)
Kohl Rabi, is a hardy and useful crop on dairy farms,
yielding perhaps 12 or 14 tons of stems, and a useful top
as well, which cattle eat with relish. (15.) Carrots,
FOOD OF THE COW. 27
especially the large Belgian sorts, can be grown with great
advantage on a dairy farm ; 10 to 12 tons are a good
ordinary crop. They do not give a disagreeable taste to the
milk, and are extremely palatable to the cattle. Half a
cwt. a day might be given along with other food. (16.)
Parsnips, while not so palatable as carrots, and more
proper to be given in a steamed or boiled mess, along with
other food, are even more nutritive, and enrich the milk.
Of the large Jersey parsnips, 10 or 12 tons per acre have
been grown. (17.) Potatoes when steamed, if at hand in
sufficient quantity for such a use, are excellent cow food ;
and even raw they are sometimes used, but with less
advantage. (18.) Straw of our various corn and pulse
crops is used as winter fodder in the cow-yard. Cooked
bean straw, if the crop has been well harvested and cut
before it was dead ripe, is nutritious fodder. Pea- straw,
if free from mildew, is also good food; and clean wheat
and oat and barley straw is often almost the sole fodder of
dry cows and young stock through the winter, with a very
few turnips. If a portion of the straw be cut to chaff, and
wetted with a hot and salt sort of linseed soup, made at the
rate of about J a Ib. of the linseed to each of the cattle,
store stock can thus be kept in very good condition through
the winter. (19.) Meal of the various grains — wheat,
barley, oats, beans, peas — also of linseed and Indian corn,
is used more or less in cases where rich feeding of dairy
cows is adopted. Bean, barley, and India-meal are probably
more commonly used than any other, and the first seems
especially fitted as food for cows in milk ; a pound or two
sprinkled in the course of the day over the ration, cooked
or otherwise, as the cow receives it, is generally well repaid.
The relative uses of barley meal and malted barley have
28 THE DAIEY OF THE FARM.
been already referred to. The experience of most practical
men seems to be in favour of the malt. The only exact
record of experience on the subject, however, asserts, what
theory would predict, the superiority, as food, of the
barley which has not undergone the malting process.
Linseed, ground or bruised, forms a useful addition to the
steamed or boiled mess given to the cow. The whole-meal
of wheat, so long as wheat is no higher than 5s. a bushel,
ought to displace some of the higher priced foods one has
been accustomed hitherto to use. (20.) Cakes of our
various oil-producing seeds, are among the best of cattle
foods. Linseed cake stands highest on the list, and is the
most costly. Cotton- seed cake produced from decorticated
seed, has taken a high place among other cattle foods.
(21.) Carob leans, a sweet pod eaten with great relish by
sheep and cattle, is capital food for milch cows. (22.)
Molasses are sometimes used as food for dairy cows, and 3
or 4 Ibs. thrown over a mess of cooked chaff and a few
turnips, induce to larger consumption of comparatively
unpalatable food. In Dr. Thomson's experiments, molasses
were proved to be a useful food. (23.) Of all the foods
used in milk dairies, where cows are fed nearly all the year
in the byre, nothing equals brewers' grains for stimu-
lating the production of poor milk: from 2 to 4 pecks
daily are given to each cow. Gradually mixing a little
with their ordinary ration, they will ultimately take it
greedily. Grains from the smaller breweries are believed
to be the best. They and the waste liquor of distilleries
are used largely in town dairies. Both, however, diminish
in value with every improvement in the processes adopted
for extracting the nutritive part of them in brewing or
distilling. (24.) Salt should be placed within reach of the
FOOD OF THE COW. 20
cow, and a lump to lick at in her manger is perhaps better
than the direct addition of so many ounces daily in her food.
We must not forget to mention, what is virtually a new
source of succulent food in winter, the practice of ensilage
which has lately been introduced to this country from the
Continent, and which is being rapidly adopted in many
districts of this country. Green grass, or rye, or clover is
packed tightly in pits, and kept there under a pressure of
1 cwt. or more per square foot of surface, and is found
at the end of many months in a perfectly palatable con-
dition for dairy stock, so as to be available all through the
winter. Mr. Kirby, of Hook Farm near Bromley, has
fed more than 100 cows during the past winter (1884-5)
on the contents of his silos, in which mown grass cut the
previous June had been cut into chaff, and packed and
pressed. And this is now a not uncommon experience.
Cows fed on 50 Ibs. of ensiled grass, with some 30 Ibs. of
grains, and 2 or 3 Ibs. of cake, and as much barley-meal,
yield abundant milk of admirable quality. When the
grass is put at once under pressure, planks being placed
upon it, and some two feet of clay piled on the planks, it
comes out six months afterwards wet and sour, with a
smell something between those of the brewhouse and the
tanyard, but nevertheless very palatable to the cattle. It
is possible, by allowing the piled grass to attain consider-
able heat before pressure is applied, to avoid the sour
fermentation, so that the stuff comes out sweet and with a
pleasant odour ; and in this condition we should think it
preferable as cow food.
The Cropping of Laud for the Cow, notwithstanding
the variety of foods available for her, is generally a very
30 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
simple matter. Almost all the butter and cheese made in
this country is made from grass-fed cows, and what there
is of winter produce comes from hay, or occasionally roots,
i. e. turnips and mangold wurzel, and straw ; while the
milk with which our towns are supplied comes from
brewers' grains, together with cut vetches and clover in
summer, and hay and mangold wurzel in the winter.
There is, however, room for a great deal of economy yet
in the utilising of the dairy farm, by adapting its arable
part more directly to cow-feeding, and so enabling the
keeping of a larger stock of cattle. Let us take an instance
or two of small farms available for dairy management, and
see how far arable crops enable us to increase the stock of
dairy cows beyond the " one to every three acres," which
is the average of our ordinary dairy districts. The follow-
ing paragraphs describe actual cases in which the advice
of the writer was applied for : —
(1.) "Hill Side" had 15 acres of poor grass land and
35 acres of arable land, 5 of which were in sainfoin. Let
us see how many cows he could keep. The 20 acres of
grass and sainfoin may be supposed to yield 200 tons of
green food ; and of the 30 acres of arable land, 20 acres in
clover, mangold wurzel, carrots, parsnips, and Swedish
turnips, might produce annually nearly 400 tons; while the
remaining 10 acres in grain crops would produce, say 15
tons of straw : 580 tons of food, at 120 Ibs. each per day,
would keep 26 or 27 cows throughout the year, and the 15
tons of straw would litter them in winter. This calculation
is on data which will hold true whether the grass be made
into hay or not. And the following is a rotation which
would bring out the quantities and kinds of produce sug-
gested. It will be seen that the cattle will be much more
FOOD OF THE COW. 31
easily kept in winter than in summer. It is for summer
food that the difficulty will be felt. Let half the sainfoin
and nearly half the grass land be mown each year, and
5 acres of the arable land be in clover, to be cut and
carried to the cattle in the house. The 30 acres of arable
land may be divided into 6 fields of 5 acres each. 1st
year, wheat sown with clover seeds ; 2nd year, clover ;
3rd year, swedes ; 4th year, wheat ; 5th year, mangold
wurzel ; 6th year, carrots.
Summer food. Winter food.
5 acres of clover ... 60 tons.
5 , swedes .... — 100 tons.
5
5
5
15
mangold wurzel . . 80 ,, and 80
carrots .... 30 ,, ,, 30
sainfoin . . 30 ,, ,, 30
meadow ... 80 . 60
280 300
Of course the 60 tons of grass produce put down to the
column of winter food is given as hay, but that does not
affect its valuation as food. Here, then, by so much arable
produce we might be able to provide daily food through-
out the year equal to the maintenance of a herd of 20 to
25 cows on a poor farm of 50 acres. A medium farm of
50 acres wholly of pasture would not, as a general rule,
keep more than two-thirds of the stock for which food is
thus provided. The crops supposed are heavy, but land
liberally cultivated under such a rotation ought to yield
good crops.
(2.) The following is the case of a dairy farm of 35 acres
of meadow and 25 acres of arable land. — The cows are
stall, box, or shed-fed during winter and during part of
spring and autumn. Suppose them to be under shelter
32 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
200 days in the year. Each cow must have ahout 8 Ih. of
litter daily ; she may be kept comfortable with this, though
it is certainly a scanty allowance ; she will thus require
14 cwt. per annum, and 25 cows will need about 17 tons a
year — a quantity which may be supposed to grow on 12
acres, the half of the arable land.
The arable land, then, may be cropped thus : —
1 acre of lucerne.
12 acres of grain crop, or 6 of wheat and 6 of oats.
6 acres (after wheat)— 2 of rye, 2 of Italian rye-grass, and 2 of vetches.
These again succeeded by 6 acres of mangold wurzel.
6 acres (after oats) — 1 of parsnips, and 5 of carrots.
Of the pasture land : —
18 acres may be mown, and
17 acres depastured, each year.
The following, accordingly, will be the produce of green
food, besides the straw of the 12 acres of grain : —
18 acres of hay, equal to 30 tons of hay ; which may be con-
sidered equal in green food, to 120 tons.
18 acres of aftermath, equal to . . . . . . . 60
17 acres depastured, equal to . . . . . .190
1 acre of lucerne, equal to . . . . . . 10
2 acres of rye, equal to ....... 15
2 acres of Italian rye-grass, equal to . . . . . 25
2 acres of vetches, equal to . . . . . . .20
6 acres of mangold- wurzel, equal to . . . . . 170
1 acre of parsnips, equal to 10
5 acres of white carrots, equal to 60
Or, in all 680 tons.
a quantity equal to nearly 2 tons of green food a day, which
will keep 30 to 35 cows very well. And the crops may all
FOOD OF THE COW. 33
be used in proper season. Beginning with October ; till
January, the cows will be feeding on grass, carrots,
parsnips, and hay ; till April, on carrots, mangold wurzel,
and hay ; till June, on mangold wurzel, rye, rye-grass,
vetches, and hay ; during summer, on grass in the fields,
lucerne, &c. The only difficulty will be in getting the
wurzel after Italian rye-grass and vetches ; this must be
done by spade ; and if each day, the piece mown be
manured, dug, and planted with young plants from a seed-
bed, I do not anticipate much difficulty. In addition to
this stock, two horses will be kept, and food must be
provided, or displaced, for them by the purchase of 40Z.
worth of oats, meal, &c. It is plain that other crops might
have a place in the scheme. Cabbages which admit of
transplanting in a forward stage of growth from seed beds
to any land from which the crop has just been taken will
~be certain to have a place on such a dairy farm.
These instances will be considered cases of high farming ;
••and the ordinary experience of dairy farmers, where only
one cow is kept to every 3 or even 4 acres of pasture, is
more generally improved upon in a less vigorous way by
the cultivation of a few acres of roots, so as to economise
the winter's consumption of hay, render less hay-making
necessary, and make more acres of the pasture available
for summer feeding ; thus enabling the keeping of more
cows on summer feeding of grass, which is the most pro-
ductive of milk.
A large produce from the cabbage might be obtained by
two crops being taken in rapid succession from the same land,
viz. a crop of an early sort, planted as soon as the mowing
of the vetches allows the land to be manured and worked ;
and then a crop of the larger "Drumhead" sort dibbled
34 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
in, as every fourth of the early cabbages is cut in spring,
leaving the removal of the others to be effected during the
months of May, June, and as they are required; the
intervals between the then growing field cabbages to be
dug and manured as they are thus cleared. Vetches, too,
will need to be sown in successive patches, in order to yield
a succession of food during the summer months. The
difficulty of the autumn months, especially in a dry
season, may generally be met by having the later cabbage
crop in readiness ; sometimes, also, by some early sown
rape.
CHAPTER III.
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW.
Dairy Breeds : Shorthorns, Suffolk, Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, and Kerry —
Individual Character : Age, Form, Other Characteristics — Treatment of
Cow: Housing, Health, Winter Milk, Diseases, Milking— The Calf:
Rearing and Feeding.
THE various breeds of cattle known to English agri-
culture, and their ordinary management, have been already
described in a Handbook on the Live Stock of the Farm,
but it is right that such peculiarities of breed, age, and
individual character should be referred to, as ought to
guide the choice of the purchaser.
The Dairy Breeds of Cattle. — Of the many distinct
breeds of cattle cultivated in the United Kingdom, only
four or five can be enumerated as strictly dairy breeds.
Among these are the shorthorn, the Suffolk, the Channel
Island breeds, the Ayrshire, and the Kerry. — (1). The
Shorthorns are more and more the principal dairy breed
of these islands. In Gloucestershire there was, and still
is to some extent, a dark red, or brindled cow, of medium
size, with almost black extremities, though sometimes with
a streak of white along the back : but it is now becoming
rare. In Cheshire also there was a native breed more or
less resembling the Lancashire and midland counties long-
horned breed ; but either by substitution or by crossing,
D 2
36 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
the Yorkshire cow, essentially a shorthorn, is displacing
it. This therefore is at present peculiarly the milk-pro-
ducing breed of the country. In the midland counties the
long-horned hreed does indeed still retain its place in dairy
herds, and yields well enough to justify its retention.
Elsewhere the Devon, a much smaller animal, yields hut a
small quantity of milk ; the Hereford, an animal of nearly
equal size, is also deficient in its yield, and in neither of
these counties does the prevalence of a peculiar breed
produce anything like a general dairy husbandry. The
London milk dairies are thus almost exclusively of this
short-horned Yorkshire cow, and excepting Suffolk, Ayr-
shire, and the Channel Islands, it is extending more or
less into every dairy district of the country. It has the
advantage over all other sorts, that its calves make more
valuable oxen, and its cows, after five or six years' milking,
are more easily turned into beef. The milk, compared
with that of other smaller breeds, is remarkable rather for
quantity than quality, and therefore it is adapted either for
direct consumption, or for the production of cheese, rather
than of butter. For this reason, while taken for town
dairies, and for the cheese-producing districts, the Ayrshire
or the Channel Island sort are preferred by those who
merely wish a home supply of dairy produce for the
house. Good shorthorn cows are now offered for sale in
almost every considerable market in the kingdom. The
northern fairs, however, as those of Yarm, Northallerton,
Darlington, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, furnish the best
choice. The fairs of Northampton, Boston (Lincolnshire),
Stow-in-the-Wold (Gloucestershire), are also noteworthy.
The best young cows just calved are worth from 20Z. to
25Z. apiece : prices, however, varying from year to year.
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 37
(2.) The Suffolk, a hornless red breed, is of great excel-
lence for the dairy. Like all good dairy animals, its cows
are narrow and small before, compared with the develop-
ment of the hind-quarters. They are good milkers, and
as the Suffolk dairies are mostly managed for the produc-
tion of butter, the milk is of tolerably good quality.
The Suffolk breed yields probably a larger quantity of
milk in proportion to its size than any other in the
island, and it deserves therefore more attention, as
furnishing suitable animals for small home dairies, than,
except in its own district, it has received. The polled
Suffolk cow is purchasable at almost any of the fairs in
Suffolk and the adjoining counties.
(3.) The Jersey and Guernsey breeds, in which, faults as a
fattening animal, and merits as a milk producer, generally
both in an exaggerated form, are combined, are the
favourites of the small or household dairy. The great,
almost deer-like beauty of the head, and indeed, in well-bred
Jersey cattle, of their whole form, makes it an ornament
to the park ; the unequalled richness of its milk enables it
to meet a demand for cream ; and its small size makes it
at once less mischievous in winter in the field, and more
easily managed in the house. The quality of its milk is so
good, that not unfrequently one (or more) of this breed is
kept even in large dairies, where the large-framed York-
shire cow forms the majority of the herd, for the sake of
the enrichment of their produce by the mixture of its own.
The best fair at which to purchase Channel Island cows is
that held on Trinity Monday at Southampton. Sales by
auction are, however, almost weekly advertised in the
London papers, where these, and other imported breeds,
are offered. The price reached is 20 guineas, and higher,
38 THE DAIRY OF THE FAKM.
for a well-bred young cow. The fawn-like Jersey has an
equal rival in the yellow and white Guernsey, a larger
cow, yielding as much or more milk of an equal quality,
with a frame and character hetter calculated either to carry
heef or to admit of crossing with other heef-producing
breeds. Mr. Hosley, of Audley End, near Saffron Walden,
has lately published the results of three years' records of
dairy yield in Lord Braybrooke's Jersey herd. The average
yield of cream over the entire herd in 1882, 1883, and
1884 has been 15*5, 15*8, and 14'7 per cent, of the milk
respectively ; the highest in any cow was no less than
33-0, 32'0, and 32*5 respectively. The yield of butter from
milk varied from 54- to 17 J ounces per gallon in different
cows, the average being 9, 9 J, and 8 J ounces per gallon over
the whole herd in the three years ; the milk to a pound of
butter on the average was 7, 6-J, and^7J quarts in 1882,
1883, and 1884 respectively ; and the total yield of milk
we have already reported as varying from 750 to 3600
quarts per annum. It is plain that a breed, of which this
is a possible record, must possess the very highest dairy
value.
(4.) The Ayrshire, though too small for the productive
pastures of our English dairy districts, and involving,
owing to the greater number that must be kept on a given
extent of ground, more labour than the larger dairy breeds
there prevalent, is one of the most useful dairy animals we
have. It possesses more perfectly, perhaps, than any other
sort, the external features which a good dairy cow ought to
exhibit, and withal, it displays a greater aptitude to fatten
than other small dairy cattle generally have. It yields
a remarkable quantity of excellent milk, which, if less rich
than that of the Guernsey or Jersey cow, is better adapted
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 39
for cheese-making. It is generally short-horned, red and
white, small boned, and with light forequarters. Good
Ayrshire cows are to be obtained at all west of Scotland
fairs and markets. The best bred animals have a "fancy"
price, and as much as 18Z. to 20Z. are asked for good
young cattle in milk.
(5.) The Dutch, a large black and white breed, large
horned and somewhat ungainly in appearance, is now in
great repute both in this country and America for their
large yield of milk, which, however, is of poor quality.
(6.) The Kerry breed of cattle are remarkable for their
small size, and comparatively with it their large yield of
extremely rich milk. This character they possess in
common with other small and mountain breeds of cattle.
The Anglesea breed, for instance, a small race of black
cattle, are spoken of as deserving more attention for the
dairy than they receive. And the small Breton cow is
another of the same class, which is being imported in
considerable numbers for household dairy use. None of
these small breeds are, however, comparable with the
Ayrshire, the Suffolk, or the Channel Island cow for such
purposes, and still less can they compete with the two
first named, or with the shorthorns, for use on large
dairy farms.
Age and individual Character. — It is these, of course,
and chiefly these that must guide the purchaser of
a cow. The breeds that have been named will guide a
choice, simply because in them individual character does
receive, to a certain extent, a classification. Thus, the
•characteristics of a cow embrace such particulars as size,
docility, form, aptitude to fatten, and proved productiveness
40 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
as to milk ; but the cows of any given breed more or less
resemble one another in all these points, and a reference
therefore has been made to those particular breeds in
which, as regards fitness for the dairy, the combination of
all these qualities is best. It is, however, the actual
possession of these characters in the individual, and not
its belonging to a dairy breed of acknowledged excellence,
that constitutes its merit ; and it may be well, therefore,
to point out those particulars with which excellence for the
dairy is generally connected. (1.) As to age* there is
nothing more unprofitable than an old cow. In the
ordinary practice of the dairy, the cow is kept probably five
or six years in milk, being sold when eight or nine years
old ; this is the general practice, simply because at that
age the quantity, and especially the quality, of her milk
falls off so much, that it is better to replace her with a
younger animal ; but as a cow is sometimes of such first-
rate quality as to induce her owner to keep her as long as
she will breed, so oftentimes it is well to part with an
inferior cow after a year or two's experience of her. The
cow is generally at her prime after her third calf. In
Ayrshire, when cows are let to dairymen, three heifers
with their first calf are put as equal to two cows. (2.) As
to form, a good cow, of whatever size, is generally
lighter in her forequarters than behind ; she should be
especially wide and deep at the loins, her skin should
handle soft, her udder should be of full size, and the teats
should be placed symmetrically on it, and it should be
ascertained that they are all perfect — that the cow has not,.
* For indications of age, and many other particulars not specially called
for in a Handbook of Dairy Husbandry, see ' ' Handbook of the Live Stock
of the Farm" — (Messrs. Bradbury and Agnew.)
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 41
as it is said, lost any of her " quarters." * The milk veins
in connection with the udder should he prominent and large.
The head should he rather long and narrow, and the neck
rather thin than otherwise ; the extremities generally
should he fine. (3.) Among other characteristics of a
good dairy cow, quietness and docility of temperament is a
point of capital importance. A notice here, too, may he
given of what is regarded generally as a curious specula-
tion, rather than as having any certain foundation in ex-
perience. M. Guenon, of Bordeaux, has professed to he ahle
to determine the quantity of milk which a cow will yield,
and the numher of months during which she will maintain
that yield, hy an examination of certain local marks on the
thighs and hinder part of the animal. The notion is, that
cows are good milkers in proportion to the extent of
surface on the thigh, and backside generally, which is
covered hy reversed hair. The farther upwards, and the
wider there, that this surface of upward growing hair
extends, the hetter is the cow as a milker. An attempt
is made to connect this " escutcheon," as it is called,
surface with the arterial arrangements for the supply
of blood to the milk- secreting apparatus within the udder ;
hut M. Guenon's theory, such as it is, does, we believe,
depend simply upon the alleged observation of good milk-
ing qualities in animals which exhibit this peculiarity in
a remarkable degree. The late Mr. Haxton in his book,
* This would really constitute a loss of one-quarter of her milk ; for the
udder is not a bag from which the teats are four common outlets for the
fluid it contains. Each of these outlets has connected with it a separate
apparatus for the secretion of milk ; so that, on the one hand, if one fail
or be diseased, wholesome nourishment for the young may still be obtained
from the others ; but so also on the other, that the loss of a teat is equal
to a real loss of one-fourth the milk-producing ability of the animal.
42 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
entitled, " How to choose a good Milk Cow," * declared that
his own examination of many dairies, expressly for the
purpose, led him to the conclusion, that M. Guenon's
marks of a good milk cow are really trustworthy.
Treatment of the Cow — The proper treatment of the
cow in milk, which has heen separated from its calf,
consists simply in giving it suitable food and water at
regular times, allowing it sufficient exercise for its health,
keeping it clean and warm, and milking it properly and
regularly. The subject of food has been already suffi-
ciently discussed, and the necessity, especially when
comparatively dry food is given, of an ample supply of
water being allowed, has been insisted on. Where the
animal is house-fed, it should be fed on succulent and dry
food alternately, and at least three times a day, allowing
ample intervals for rumination. In any case she should
be allowed access to a pasture or a yard for exercise during
the middle of the day in winter, and early and late during
summer. But it is of course much the better plan, where
possible, to have daily access to the pasture field for food
as well as exercise all round the year. (1.) The coiv-house
may be a mere shed with a trough along its inner side,
and upright posts every 6J feet or thereabouts, carrying a
sliding ring and neck strap, by which two cows are attached
each to its place ; this shed should be open to the south,
and be partly closed against the weather by wattled gates,
or otherwise, in winter. Or it maybe a series of "boxes,"
which may be 9 feet square, or, 8 feet by 10, in which the
cow remains during the winter season, being littered daily,
;
* Blackie, Glasgow.
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE" COW. 43
rising in her lair by the continual addition of the hard
trod straw and excrement. The trough in this case
must be capable of being raised as the floor of the box
rises, and if it be hung on two pins at each end between
two uprights bored every three inches or so to receive these
pins, this raising can be easily effected ; and there will be
this additional advantage, that by withdrawing the upper
pin at either end after the food has been consumed, the
trough will turn over bottom upwards, so as to hinder the
cow from dirtying it. If the cow be confined permanently
in this way, water must be " laid on " to troughs to which
the cows have access. Much the most common cow-house,
however, is that in which a double row of cows is tied in
couples to a long manger at either side, leaving a wide
interval in the centre enabling the easy removal of the
dung and the easy bringing in of litter. A sufficiency of
this for warmth and cleanliness must be provided ; 10 to
15 Ibs. a day apiece will be needed in the boxes : rather
less will suffice for stalls. Except in box-feeding, the dung
should be removed at least every morning and evening, and
fresh litter supplied at night. It is an additional security
for cleanliness, and a comfort and advantage to the animals,
if they are occasionally curry-combed. The cows stand in
couples between posts 6J feet apart, and the lair, wide
enough to give ample standing room when the cow is feeding
at the manger, should have a wide gutter along its
further edge to receive the dung and urine. In all cases
ample space and sufficient ventilation should be provided, and
at all times, of course, kind and gentle treatment must
be insisted on. An animal so sensitive as a cow, whose
produce is dependent so much upon its health and even
temper, abundantly rewards quietness, and punctuality, and
44 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
liberality of treatment. On the subject of patience and
gentleness in dealing with the cow, it may be well to add,
that they are especially needed in dealing with a heifer
rearing her first calf, and just commencing to be milked.
(2.) Health. The cow goes with young 9 months and a
week, or thereabouts. Of 760 cows, whose period was
observed by Lord Spencer, 600 calved between the 279th
day and the 291st day, and the births were pretty evenly
distributed over the intervening period, reaching a maximum
about the 284th day. 314 cows calved before the 284th
day, and 310 cows calved after the 285th day ; and it is
noteworthy that a larger proportion of bull calves came at
late births, and a larger proportion of cow calves at the
earlier births. Thus of 381 calves dropped after the 284th
day, 233 were males and 148 females ; and of 294 calves
dropped before the 284th day, 135 were male and 159 were
female. On the whole, the number of males produced by
this very large number of cows was considerably above that
of females.
Of abortion it must suffice to say, that while sometimes
owing to ill-health at the time of its occurrence, it is
probably often produced by eating ergotted grass in autumn ;
and as a security against this it is well to let the cows run
rather on aftermath at that season than on imperfectly
grazed pasturage where bents and seed stems of various
grasses are generally found exhibiting the ergotted condi-
tion.* In the ordinary practice of our dairy districts,
* Ergot is a diseased state of the seed of rye and certain grasses — a mal-
formation of growth, owing to the attack of a parasitic fungus. It is a
popular belief, generally ridiculed, however, that the keeping of a donkey
or a goat with the herd will hinder this slipping of the calf. It is possible
that a preference of this animal for the drier bents liable to ergot, may be
at once the explanation and the justification of this belief.
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 45
where it is desired that the cows be in full milk, and their
calves all, or nearly all, weaned by the time they turn out
to grass, it is common to let the bull run with them from
the end of May, or thereabouts. — Winter Milk. When
a constant supply of milk, required whether for the
market or for merely home use in a household, is
to be supplied continuously throughout the year, it is
necessary either to have a summer and a winter cow,
by giving them access to the bull in summer and in
winter respectively, or to change the cow at a considerable
loss, when she begins to dry, for one more recently calved.
The cow should be let dry at least six weeks before calving,
and two months is a better time. Simply ceasing to milk
it is sufficient for this purpose. If you give it somewhat
drier food and less water for a few days, the secretion of
milk soon ceases ; but if any swelling or inflammation of
the udder ensues, hot fomentation is a sufficient remedy.
The parturition of the cow takes place generally without
the need of any assistance, but in case of difficulty a
properly qualified practitioner must be called in. Before
calving, and immediately afterwards, the cow should
be carefully nursed, and receive warm mashes twice a
day with her usual food ; and these are made simply by
pouring boiling water over bran — a peck or thereabouts at
a time — letting it remain until cold enough to give it as
food- Steamed turnips may be mashed up with it, and a
pint of oatmeal mashed in will make it still more nourishing.
— In calves the "hask" or " hoose," a cough produced by
worms in the windpipe, is prevented by good water and
sufficient food ; and may possibly be cured by limewater,
" half a pint daily," or turpentine in linseed oil, " one
ounce in four, once a week." This should be taken along
46 THE DAIKY OF THE FARM.
with entire change of food, as, for instance, removal to old
sainfoin in an upland district. — Quarter-ill is another
disease of young animals, producing almost sudden death,
often owing to sudden change of food or exposure to cold.
It is best prevented by uniform treatment as to feeding, and
warm and comfortable housing. — Hoven, in which the
stomach is distended by the gases produced during
imperfect digestion, is the consequence of greedy or rapid
feeding on succulent food. An ounce of hartshorn in a
pint of water will greatly relieve ; if not, the left flank is
sometimes stabbed downwards between the hip bone and
rib, and the gases liberated — a "trochar," leaving a
" canula " in the wound allowing the passage of the gas,
being used for the purpose. — Purging in calves is generally
treated by a dram or two of carbonate of soda given
in warm milk, which helps to dissolve the indigestible
curd in the stomach. Two ounces of mutton fat dis-
solved in a quart of warm milk is sometimes given to
a calf thus affected, with good effect; in cows, chalk
and opium are the remedies. — Redwater is a disease
of the liver, accompanied by scouring, and dark-coloured
urine ; the medicine should contain calomel and Epsom
salts. — The drop after calving, a paralysis, is to be pre-
vented by allowing the cow sufficient exercise, and keeping
her in good health before calving. — The foot and mouth
disease is accompanied by sore feet and blistered mouth.
The mouth should be washed with alum- water and treacle,
and the cows should be carefully nursed, and fed if neces-
sary on linseed mashes, gruel, and other soft food. — Pleuro-
pneumonia, an infectious disease of the lungs, may possibly
be cured if taken at the earliest symptom, commencing as
it generally does with " a little short cough, and staring
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 47
coat." In addition to medical treatment, good nursing
and linseed mashes as food are required. — Diseases of the
skin, as mange and lice, are to be avoided by cleanliness
and curry-combing, also by good feeding, which keeps the
animal in vigorous health, and able and willing to clean
itself ; and they may be cured by thoroughly rubbing in
tobacco- water. — When owing to any wound or disease in the
teat blood appears in the milk, the teats should be well
fomented with warm water, milked with gentleness, and
the following ointment afterwards applied to them, —
"Palm oil 3 ozs., yellow wax 1 oz., acetate of lead 2 drs.,
alum 1 dr. To be well incorporated together, and applied
daily after milking." — Warts on the udder, which are
often a great nuisance, are removable " simply by the
knife or cautery, or ligature when the cow is not in milk."
It must suffice to add here, that for these short notices,
the value of most of which has been verified in our own
experience, we are indebted to Mr. W. C. Spooner ; and we
conclude as we began, by advising that, except where mere
nursing will suffice, the veterinary surgeon be consulted.
(3.) Milking. On the right performance of this opera-
tion depends a good deal of the produce which it obtains.
It should be effected gently, quickly, and perfectly — the
first because everything that soothes the animal is bene-
ficial, the last both because the milk-secretion is thereby
unchecked, and because the last-drawn milk is much the
richest. The whole subject, however, was so well treated
in a paragraph which appeared some years ago in the
Ayrshire Agriculturist, that we extract it here : —
" The milking of cows resolves itself naturally into two
heads, viz., how to milk, and when to milk. — If every drop
of milk in the cow's udder be not carefully removed at each
48 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
milking, the secretion will gradually diminish in propor-
tion to the quantity each day left behind. But another
reason why every drop of milk should be taken away is to
be found in the well-known fact, that the last milk is
doubly as good as the first milk — hence, if not removed,
there is not merely equal, but double loss. Milking should
be conducted with skill and tenderness — all chucking or
plucking at the teats should be avoided. A gentle and
expert milker will not only clear the udder with greater
ease than a rough and inexperienced person, but will do so
with far more comfort to the cow, who will stand pleased
and quiet, placidly chewing the cud, and testifying by her
manner and attitude that she experiences pleasure rather
than annoyance from the operation. Cows will not yield
their milk to a person they dislike or dread. The ordinary
practice is to milk cows twice daily — at about 5 o'clock in
the morning, or in winter as soon after daylight as possible,
and again at the same hour in the afternoon, thus leaving
12 hours' interval between each milking."
It should be added, that cleanliness in milking should
be observed — the hands should be clean and the udder too.
In practice the milkers wash their hands, but not the
udder of the cow ; and a clean milker, that is, one who
does not wet his hands with the milk when milking, will
milk a dry udder without dirtying the milk, even though
the udder be not clean. In large dairies milking lasts
about an hour each time, and 8 or 9 cows are allotted to
each man.
The Treatment of the Calf, when intended for veal
or for beef, has been already to some extent discussed.*
* See Handbook of the Live Stock of the Farm. Bradbury, Agnew, & Co.
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 49
When the heifer calf is reared for dairy purposes, less
forcing food is required and even desirable. Ample exer-
cise, too, is necessary. The rules to be observed are to give
the milk, whether it be new or skimmed, of the natural
temperature, to be obtained by warming a portion of it
before mixing with the rest ; and perfectly sweet ; to take
care that calves are brought into shelter at night, at least
till June and again after September, and to keep them few
together in the field. After a few days they are fed from
the pail, by getting them to suck the fingers under the
surface of the milk ; giving them at first two quarts a-piece
in the morning, and two quarts a-piece at night ; and it is
well to tie them up for the purpose, and to let them
remain tied up for twenty minutes or more after being fed,
else they take to sucking and plaguing one another. A
little hay in a network bag is hung here and there in the
calves' house, that they may learn to suck and eat it.
During the first winter, a little hay is given along with
turnips and mangold wurzel and a little bit of oilcake daily
benefits them. The ensuing summer is spent in second
year's clover, or old sainfoin as pasture, and in the case of
the more precocious breeds, they are often put to the bull
at sixteen months old. They are fed during their second
winter on a full allowance of roots and straw with a morsel
of good hay or oilcake in addition. To keep up a herd of
dairy cows, about one fifth their number of heifer calves
must be reared each year ; these are almost invariably
selected from the calves of the herd, the remainder being
sold as soon as possible after birth. If, however, it be
desired to rear heifer calves for sale as young cows, it is
good policy to purchase them from the best dairies, even
though you pay 3L a-piece for what elsewhere would not
50 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
cost one half as much. Taking them in succession,
a couple at a time, and eking out with hay tea, and meal,
and linseed, ten calves may very well be reared in the course
of the season on the milk of a single cow. It is well to
leave the calf with its mother for a week or two in the case
of young cows ; they are better milked by their young ;
and if carefully stripped in addition at least once a day by
hand, are likely to yield more milk, and to yield it more
easily in the future than if the calf be taken early from it,
as it may from older cows.
It is proper that mention should be made here of the
various artificial calf foods, by Messrs. Bowick, Messrs.
Bibby, and other manufacturers, by which the use of milk
in calf feeding may be economised, and by which skim
milk may be enriched. Ample experience exists of their
efficiency for this purpose : and of the saving which they
enable the farmer to make. The use of hay tea, too, has
long been known as a great help in economical calf rearing.
CHAPTER IY.
MILK.
Composition— The Dairy— The Taste of Milk— Adulteration.
The Composition of Milk — Milk is essentially an
emulsion of oily matters in a water containing albumen
and casein (cheese) and a sugar in solution. Its oil floats
in it in the form of globules, varying from -aoVo th to T-oW^h
part of an inch in diameter. If the milk be kept at rest,
these globules will rise to its surface and form a coating of
oream in which, along with still a portion of water holding
various substances in solution, they form a fluid which
upon being violently agitated, thus rupturing the globules
and enabling them to unite, separates into the butter
which these form, and the " butter-milk," containing
water, casein, sugar, &c., which they leave behind. The
composition of milk, in so far as these buttery globules are
concerned, is ascertained in a rough way by an instrument
called a lactometer or lactoscope. In one form it consists
of a glass tube five inches long, held upright in a frame
and graduated downwards in a scale dividing the contents
below the zero mark into 100 parts. On being filled up
to the zero mark and left at rest the mechanical separation
of the buttery globules (cream) takes place, and the
quantity of this cream in lOOths of the whole quantity of
E 2
52 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
milk may be read off upon the scale by the thickness of
the layer which it exhibits. A series of such tubes in a
frame are needed for comparing in this way the milk of
different cows.
Another instrument, for the same purpose, depends for
its indications on the fact that opacity of milk depends
upon the corpuscles of fatty matter which are suspended
in it, and that consequently the more cream it contains the
greater will be the obstacle opposed to the passage of light.
It consists of two tubes, one of which may be pushed into
the other like the joints of a telescope, and the end of each
tube is closed with glass, so that when milk is poured into
the outer tube by a small opening on the side, by pushing
in the inner tube, a layer of milk of any thickness may be
obtained. The apparatus is placed on a stand, and the
value of the milk is estimated by the thickness of the
layer of it through which the light of a small wax
taper at a fixed distance can be observed, the value of
the milk being in the inverse ratio of the transparency ;
for the larger the amount, of fat present, the greater, of
course, will be the opacity. The thickness of the layer
of milk is measured by a scale on the instrument, and a
table sold with it shows the percentage of cream to which
it corresponds.
These and other devices are expedients for determining by
mere observation the relative quality of different samples of
milk. For the exact determination of its composition a
tedious process of analysis is required, on being subjected
to which it is shown to consist of casein, butter, sugar of
milk and water, besides soluble and insoluble mineral
matters. The quantities of these in a sample of milk
vary very considerably.
MILK.
53
The milk of different animals varies in composition,
as will be plain from the following table.
COMPOSITION OP MILK.
Ingredients
in
Woman.
Cow.
Ass.
Goat.
Ewe.
Mare.
100 parts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Casein .
1-54
1-52
2-9
4-0
4-48
1-7
1-82
4-08
4-50
1-6
Butter .
4-37
3-55
2-3
4-6
3-13
1-4
0-11
3-32
4-20
trace.
Sugar
Ash. .
Water .
5-75
0-53
87-81
6-50
0'45
87-98
3-8
91-00
3-8
0-6
87-0
4-77
0-60
87-02
6-4
90-5
6-081 5-28
0'34 0-58
91-65 86'bO
5-00
0-68
85-62
87
} 89-6
Total .
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100 'CO1 100-06
100-00
100-00
Of these analyses, 1 and 4 are by Dr. Lyon Playfair ; 3
is the average of 2 analyses by Haidlen ; 5 is the average
of 5 analyses by Peligot ; and 2, 5, 7, 8, and 9 are by Henry
and Chevallier.
As regards the milk of the cow, it differs in composi-
tion, as has been already said, according to the breed, age,
and food of the animal. It also varies exceedingly ac-
cording to the period since the birth of the calf. Thus,
the first- drawn milk produced during the labour and excite-
ment of parturition contains an extraordinary quantity of
casein, and is otherwise different from ordinary milk ; no
doubt naturally beneficially so to the young in the first day
or two of its life, during which time the milk not used by it
and drawn from the cow is unfit for any other use, and is
thrown to the pigs' trough. If this "colostric " condition,
as it is termed, of the milk be prolonged, the purgative
effect, beneficial at first, which it produces on the calf,
becomes injurious. Too generous feeding after parturition,
we are informed by Professor Simonds,* tends to the
* Vol. XIX. of the Journal Eng. Agr. Soc.
54 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
maintenance of this relaxing condition of the milk. And
he also remarks that a period of rest from milking before
the next birth is necessary in order that time be given to
the milk- secreting organs for the provision of the material
to which the altered state of the milk is then due. How
very much the milk is thus altered, is shown by analyses
by Henry and Chevallier, who found in the first milk of the
cow, ass, and goat respectively — 15' 1, 11*6, and 24 '5 per
cent, of casein : differing enormously from the figures given
above. The following table gives the results of numerous
analyses of ordinary cow's milk : —
Ingredients ' COMPOSITION OF XKW MILK.
in 100
Parts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Casein
Butter
3'32
3-99
4'22 4-0
4-92 4'6
4-48
3-13
4-16
3-70
3-42
2-29
3-31
7-62
2-94
1-99
5-1
3-0
3-6
4-0
Sugar .
Ash .
5-01
0-22
4-16
•55
3-8
0-6
4-77
0-60
4-35| 2-79
•591 -52
4-46
•71
4-48
•64
|«
5-0
Water
87-46
86-15
87-0
87-02 87-19
90-42
83-90
89'95
87-3
87-4
Of these, No. 1 is the average of 10 analyses, by
Boussingault, of milk from cows about 200 days after
calving, and fed upon the whole on rather poor rations.
No. 2 is the average of 8 analyses, by Playfair, of autumn
milk, from a shorthorn cow, whose period of calving was
not known ; she was fed on rich food. No. 3 is another
by Playfair, "the average of several analyses taken when
the cow was in the field." No. 4 is an analysis by Henry
and Chevallier : 5 is by Dr. K. D. Thomson * of milk
from grass-fed cows ; and 6 is the average of two samples.
Thomson on the Food of Animals. Longman.
MILK. 55
of remarkably poor milk supplied to the union workhouse,
Belfast. Nos. 7 and 8 are examples of rich and poor milk
respectively quoted in a recent lecture by Dr. John A.
Voelcker ; 9 is an analysis, at Giessen, by Haidlen ; and
10 is the average of 12 analyses, at Bechelbronn (Alsace),
by Boussingault.*
These tables, together with the intimation that casein,
the essential matter of cheese, is soluble in alkaline solu-
tions, and is so held dissolved in milk — that the butter of
milk is a compound of several oily matters of different com-
position, and produced in various proportions, according to
such circumstances as the food and the temperature of the
period — that the sugar of milk is capable of transformation
by the mere re-arrangement of its elements into a substance
having acid properties, and therefore called lactic acid —
that this re-arrangement is effected by almost any disturb-
ance of a chemical nature, such as the presence of a ferment
itself in process of decomposition — that, in fact, any sub-
stance in contact with it, undergoing chemical transforma-
tion, acts as a ferment on it, so that decaying matters in its
neighbourhood, and air carrying filthy odours, the product
of such decay, are thus ferment enough for the purpose —
that the curd of milk itself, in the presence of warm air,
thus undergoes such chemical transformations, and be-
comes a ferment — that rennet, itself a ferment [the word
may stand, whatever theory of its action be adopted], deals
with the solvent whatever it is by which the casein is held
dissolved in the milk so as to release the latter, which re-
sumes its form as curd insoluble in water : — These par-
* For 1, 9, and 10, see Boussingault's "Rural Economy." Others
are taken from the Journal of the Agr. Soc., and Johnston's Lectures
on Agr. Chemistry, and Dr. Thomson on the Food of Animals.
56 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
ticulars must for the present suffice on the suhject of the
composition of milk.
The preservation of milk in its natural composition, and
therefore in its sweetness, may he effected hy heating it in
"bottles or metallic vessels up to the boiling point, and then
closing them hermetically. The air is thus expelled to
which the chemical changes involved in the souring of
milk are due ; and, moreover, the curd which under the
influence of air acts as the disturbing ferment, loses for a
time, until again exposed to air,* its power of entering on
these chemical changes after being raised to the boiling
temperature. In this way milk is made capable of becom-
ing an article of commerce, and will be acceptable as a
drink after months of keeping. Condensed milk — which is
milk subjected to evaporation so that more than one-half
of water is dissipated, and the whole reduced to a thickened
glutinous mass, to which in some cases sugar has been
added — is now largely manufactured, and is especially
serviceable for use on shipboard, where it will keep fresh for
months.
For the period during which milk is kept for the separa-
tion of its cream, its sweetness is to be maintained simply
by keeping it cool and in perfectly clean vessels and per-
fectly clean air. It is in this way that we avoid the opera-
tion of all external ferments, and hold in check the chemical
alterations which they promote, to which the souring and
other injurious changes in the condition of milk are due.
The Dairy. — In order to keep milk sweet, and for the
proper management of the processes which its manufactured
* So that repeated heating of milk, nearly to the boiling point, at inter-
vals of 24 hours, or thereabouts, will keep it sweet, though it be exposed
to air during those intervals.
MILK. 57
products undergo, certain rooms must be set apart
expressly for the purpose. The milk-room should be cool,
for the reasons just stated ; and a somewhat sunken floor,
a shaded or thatched roof, and an aspect to the north and
east are therefore desirable.
In it there are shelves on which the vessels to contain
milk are to be arranged. The shelf and the floor are better
of stone than of wood, as being less absorbent of anything,
whether milk or dirt or damp, which may act as a ferment.
The room should be away from any drain or dungheap ; it
should not be near any store of food, whether the larder of
the house or the feeding- stalls of the farmery. The air
which enters it should, if possible, be free from the taint
which any such neighbourhood more or less produces. The
drier, toft, the air is, the better : and therefore it is better
that a dairy be kept clean by keeping out the dirt, by
rubbing and by brushing, than by washing. Practically,
however, the floor and shelves of the milk-room are kept
clean by washing. By strict attention to cleanliness and
ventilation, and by as far as possible excluding a summer
temperature, those causes which tend to the souring of
milk are excluded or held in check. And so it is made to
yield good butter, and good cheese.
The Taste of Milk is affected by the food of the
cows, and in its turn is communicated to the butter and
the cheese made from it. In the latter case, if it can be
artificially removed, this must be done before the curd is
set : in the former case the attempt at removal is some-
times made after churning has been done. In both, how-
ever, it is best to attempt the removal of the aroma from
the milk. It occurs in the milk of cows at pasture, some-
58 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
times when the buttercup is in full bloom, or when wild
garlic has been eaten. It is, however, a more general
difficulty during winter time, when cows receive turnips,
cabbages, and mangold wurzel. In all cases, the best
method is to attempt by heat to dissipate the aroma. This
is to some extent possible, by cooking the food to which
the taste is owing : a mess of steamed turnips and bean-
meal, and oatmeal and linseed will produce perfectly sweet
milk. But if after milking, it be found to possess the dis-
agreeable taste, then if it be placed in hot water and
allowed to steam for half an hour or so before placing it in
the vessels in the dairy, the taste and smell will in great
measure leave it. The following are among the devices
our correspondents have adopted for the more thorough
expulsion of the taste.
No. 1 has found chloride of lime very effectual to'remove
from butter the taste of turnips, or any other bad flavour.
A drachm of it to every expected pound of butter is put
into the water of the second washing, after it is taken out
of the churn, and the butter well but rapidly kneaded in it.
No. 2 says : Do not feed your cows with turnips until
they have been previously milked, by which means the
animal has twelve hours to get rid of the flavour of the
vegetable. Good hay must also be given in sufficient
quantity. Great cleanliness must be maintained not only
in the dairy but in the cow-house. No stale pieces of
turnip should on any account be allowed to remain in the
manger, which should be cleaned out before feeding.
No. 3 says : We had cows on grass last year, and their
cream and butter had an acrid taste in the spring-time.
We had about a dessert- spoonful of saltpetre dissolved in
water, and put into every gallon of milk before it was
MILK. 59
churned, and a small bit of common salt was put into the
milk-pan when the milk was brought in from the cows.
The cream was put to stand in boiling water for half an
hour, and frequently stirred while the water cooled before
it was churned. Ultimately we had good butter, but cer-
tainly not till after this season of the year had passed.
No. 4 recommends, that as soon as the milk is brought
into the dairy (warm from the cows), there should be poured
into it half a pint of boiling-water to every gallon of milk ;
cover it over with a cloth four times doubled for half an
hour ; then strain and pour it into milk dishes to stand for
cream. The cloth will absorb the steam and entirely re-
move any unpleasant taste.
No. 5 has occupied a farm of 500 acres, and kept a large
dairy of cows, and never had the taste of turnips in the
butter. The application of hot-water and steam, at different
times, to the milk and cream, entirely took away all flavour
of the turnip.
No. 6 says : My butter is made from the milk of cows
fed, morning and evening, on swedes : the only precaution
adopted is that the cream, before being placed in the churn,
should stand in a room with a fire, and raised to the tem-
perature of 65° Fahr.
No. 7 says : If you collect so many gallons of cream
before churning, put that number of half pints of vinegar
into. the jar to begin with, and churn when the usual quan-
tity is collected.
No. 8 makes a strong solution of nitre, and adds a
dessert-spoonful of it to every two gallons of milk as it is
brought in from the cow.
No. 9 says : My cows were fed last winter on mangold
wurzel cut into shreds with a Moody's (Frome) turnip-
60 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
cutter, and mixed with hay and straw-chaff. The butter
was made twice a week, and was good in flavour, but
crumbled. In the spring I was able to add rape to the
above food, the butter immediately changed to a good
texture, and improved in flavour ; this change I attribute
to the oily nature of the rape plant. — To this it may be
added that there are many testimonies to the fact that
pulping roots before giving them to cows does tend to dissi-
pate their disagreeable aroma, and so to insure good milk.
No. 10 recommends the preventive system — it is better
than the curative. If cows eat old and decayed grass in the
meadows you cannot have good butter; if they get at
strong- scented herbs the butter will partake of the smell ;
if the cream is mismanaged before and during churning,
you must not expect pleasant butter ; if your cows are too
stale milked, the butter will be rancid. If cleanliness and
attention to the diet of the cows be looked to, cases of
failure will be very rare.
No. 11 asserts that turnip-milk will not keep so long as
grass-milk, but gets rancid ; and this is increased by the
practice of keeping the churn near the fire in winter, which
is sometimes done.
No. 12 says : When the cream is in the churn, and the
proper temperature gained (57°), I put in a little chloride
of lime mixed in a little water. Of course the quantity
depends upon its pureness, and also upon the degree of
taint. I put as much as will lie upon a sixpence to three
gallons. One or two trials will ascertain the proper quan-
tity. Too much gives a disagreeable flavour, a little im-
proves it and gives a sweet nutty taste.
No. 13 has given his milch cows for fifty years turnips
regularly in the winter, and both milk and butter have
MILK. 61
been perfectly good. The turnips are swedes or Aberdeen
yellows, and lie takes them up in October and carefully cuts
off every bit of leaf and root, and stacks them in a dry
cellar in his cow-yard ; if every bit of leaf be not carefully
cut off it will taint the milk.
No. 14 says : Let the dairymaid, before going to milk
her cows, place on the fire her kettle filled with water ; and
on her return to the dairy with the new milk, add to every
gallon of milk a sixteenth, or half-pint of boiling water ;
stir both a minute or two, and after a short interval pour
them out into the lead, earthenware, or (as the case may
be) glass bowls. I practised this method the whole of last
winter (and am doing the same now), when my cows had as
many swede turnips as they could eat, and not the slightest
trace of the turnip flavour can be discovered. The water
must be boiling when added, or the experiment fails.
As an additional cause of distaste in milk, we refer to the
so-called "bulling" of the cows, a periodical excitement,
which disturbs the whole system, and seems to be the only
explanation possible of some cases of bad milk and butter,
especially of those which occur when the cows are first
turned out to grass after calving.
Adulterations of Milk are confined to admixtures of
water, or of portions of skim-milk. Adulterations of these
kinds are still not uncommonly practised, as the records of
our police courts abundantly testify. Under recent legis-
lation all sales of food are presumed to be under the
inspection of qualified analytical officers ; and of milk, as
of other articles, analyses are continually being made when
there is reason to suspect dishonesty, under which any
abnormal poverty of milk is immediately detected. And
62 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
when the quality, either as regards the percentage of cream
or of total solids, is found to fall beneath a certain very
moderate standard, the seller is liable to fine by the magis-
trate. Apart, however, from direct addition of water, the
most general cause of the inferiority of town milk no doubt
exists in the quality of the food. When grains and dis-
tillery wash are the main feeding they receive, the milk is
poor, altogether apart from adulterations.
The mention above of the Inspector and Public Analyst
reminds us of the . Butterine, Oleo-margarine, and other
artificial substitutes for butter and for cheese, which cer-
tainly, however, are no part of English dairy husbandry,
and cannot, indeed, be sold as dairy produce without a
breach of the law. We do not propose to describe the
processes by which milk, deprived of its cream, and re-
enriched by the addition of oils and fatty matters obtained
from the fat of beef, is made to produce an artificial butter
or an artificial cheese. These manufactured articles are,
however, when cleanly made, perfectly wholesome food;
and butterine, especially, is largely imported into England
from Holland and America — and is being more and more
consumed in this and other countries.
CHAPTER V.
BUTTER.
Composition — Cream — Churning — Implements for the Butter Dairy.
The Composition of Butter varies somewhat with the
method of its manufacture. If made from whole milk or
from scalded cream, it contains more cheesy matter than
if made from cream in the ordinary way, And this is an
important matter, not only as affecting its taste, but also
as affecting its keeping properties, for it is to this cheesy
part, and its activity as a ferment, that the tendency of
butter to decay is chiefly owing. But the composition of
butter also varies to some extent with the circumstances
of its manufacture. Its essential part consists of various
kinds of fatty matter, liquid and solid, and it is largely on
the feeding of the cows, and the temperature of the weather,
&c., that the proportion of these several oils present in the
butter, and its consequent firmness or softness, depends.
The following are among the published analyses of
butter : —
*
COMPOSITION OF BDTTKR.
I.
*.
3.
Pure Fats ....
82.7
79.72
79.12
Casein ....
2.45
3.38
3.37
Water
14.85
16.90
17.51
64 THE DAIKY OF THE FARM.
Essentially, butter is composed of solid and liquid fats,
margarine and elaine, and in addition to these oils, there
may be present in very small and varying quantity, a
number of other substances, of fragrant, or, some of them,
of fetid odour. They are derived from changes produced
in the sugar of milk and in the oils of butter — processes
accompanied by the absorption of the oxygen of the air —
which are excited and maintained by the presence of the
cheesy part of the butter, which is here most liable to be
acted on by ferments, just as it is in milk itself.
Cream forms a proportion of milk, varying according
to the richness of the whole fluid, and the poorness of the
remainder. And there are as many proportions between
the one and the other as there are instances in which the
point has been ascertained.
The following is from a correspondent in Gloucester : —
20 quarts of milk in hot weather yield If quarts of cream,
or about 9 per cent.; and one-fourth more, or 11 per cent.,
in colder weather. In Mr. Williams' dairy, Co. Cork, the
average of the year's milk produced 12 per cent, of cream
— 12 pints of cream and rather more than 5 Ibs. of butter
per 100 pints of new milk. The average yield of Mr. T.
Scott's English dairies, quoted some years ago before the
Agricultural Society, was 1 quart of cream for every 12£
quarts of milk, or little more than 8 J per cent, of a cream
yielding 15 ozs. of butter per quart. In Mr. Horsfall's
dairy, to which reference has already been made, the cream
did not exceed 6J per cent, of the milk.
Some of the differences thus observed are no doubt
owing to original differences in the quality of the milk ;
but this last case is due to an extraordinary density of the
BUTTER. 65
cream obtained; for the milk was of at least ordinary
quality, while the cream was so rich as to yield 25 ozs. of
butter per quart, the ordinary yield being not much more
than half that quantity. These differences depend, as has
already been said, on differences of breed and of individual
character ; on differences of the period after calving when the
samples have been examined ; and on differences of feeding.
The quantity of butter obtainable from milk, except
when the whole milk is churned, depends, other things
being equal, upon the perfect separation of its cream. To
this end the milk is poured through a hair sieve for the
separation of any hair or other dirt, into vessels, where it
stands some four inches deep; and after standing 12 hours
it is skimmed by a thin almost flat tin dish, containing
holes through which milk flows easily, and cream with
difficulty. It may be skimmed a second time in the same
way after another 12 hours, the milk after the first
skimming being shifted into clean pans and set there for
the next ; or the milk may be, and very often is, left 24 or
even 36 hours before being skimmed, and then it may be
either skimmed, or the milk is drawn off beneath it either
through a plug, if it be a shallow leaden cistern, or
through a syphon if it be of glass or earthenware.
Probably the greatest quantity of milk in this country
is set for cream in leaden cisterns about 4 or 5 inches
deep : the next commonest pan is of brown earthenware,
white inside, some 21 inches across at top, and 4 inches
deep or thereabouts, and a foot or more wide at bottom.
Vessels of tinned iron of similar shape are also commonly
used for the purpose. Glass milk-pans are now much in
vogue ; exceedingly clean, as dirt is so much more easily
seen on them ; they are more brittle than the earthenware.
66 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
The late Mr. Duncan, of Bradwell, near Stony Strat-
ford, told us : — " When I first took to dairying on a large
scale, I laid out 20Z. in glass pans. On further acquaint-
ance with them, I have come to the conclusion that they
are the cheapest things (even at 4s. each) that a farmer
can use ; for they are washed, and wiped, and kept clean
with 300 per cent, less trouhle than 'leads.' My glass
pans are ahout 20 inches in diameter : I do not like larger
ones. They hold ahout 5 quarts each."
Besides these several materials, stone cisterns or vessels
cut out of what are called milk stones in Derbyshire, or
out of common slate, are in use in some dairies.
As to the asserted differences ^ in the yield of cream from
milk set in different kinds of pans, that must arise if the
milk in each was of the same depth, from their influence
respectively on the temperature of the milk.
Butter-making. — There are wide differences of manage-
ment recently introduced into English dairy management
from ahroad. In the " Cooley " system milk is set in cylin-
drical vessels in ice-cold water ; and there is thus an im-
provement in both the quantity and quality of the cream and
in the rapidity of its separation. By means of the centri-
fugal separator cream is taken more thoroughly from the
milk, as well as more immediately, than in any other way ;
and the quantity and quality of the butter are improved.
To revert to ordinary management, however, let it be added
to the above, (1) that each day's skimming, or, rather,
the cream separated at each operation, at whatever
interval it be taken, is commonly placed in the cream-
crock, a vessel which may be of earthenware or tin ;
(2) that at each addition to the store in this vessel, and,
BUTTER. 67
indeed, the oftener the better, the whole is mixed up
together by means of a wooden stirrer kept there for the
purpose ; (3) that when the last skimming of the milk is
accomplished, the remainder of skim-milk is either placed
together in a large wooden tub, whence it is drawn for
sale, or where it is set for cheese, either by itself or added
to the whole milk of another meal, or it may at once be
placed among the store of food for the pig ; and (4) that
as soon as the vessels are emptied in which the milk has
been set for cream, they are to be well washed and dried
and placed ready for the reception of the next meal of
milk ; the washing being done first with warm water, and
then with swillings of cold water in the case of glass,
earthenware, or tin — and with water and wood-ashes
scoured to and fro over the surface, and abundant swillings
with cold water in the case of leaden cisterns. This com-
pletes the case of milk and cream management under the
ordinary plan.
In Devonshire the milk is set for cream in tinned
vessels or pans of iron or brass, of more than the common
depth of milk-pans ; and after 12 hours' standing or more,
these are placed upon a furnace till the first steam is seen
in blisters under it, after which they stand till the milk is
cool, and then the cream is collected with a skimmer in the
usual way, or it may be even lifted with the hand. It is
kept thereafter in the cream-crock for a few days, or until
enough is gathered, when butter is easily made from it by
" flapping " it, as it is called, with the hand in a tub for
about ten minutes or less. In some cases these tin vessels
are never moved when full of milk, but placed upon the
horizontal flue of a furnace which serves as shelf. After
12 hours' standing the fire is lighted, and the milk heated
F 2
68 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
until the cream blisters, when the fire is withdrawn and
the milk cools, and in another 12 hours is ready for the
separation of its cream.
The best maxims for the guidance of the butter dairy
which have yet been published are those given in the tract
entitled " Hints on Butter-making," * by Mr. H. M.
Jenkins, the Secretary to the Koyal Agricultural Society
of England, of which extracts are here given : —
Clean all dairy utensils.
Cool the milk directly it is brought into the dairy, by
placing the cans in a running stream, or by any other
available method.
Set the milk, at a temperature not exceeding 55°, in
glazed earthenware or tin pans.
Skim the milk carefully with a perforated tin saucer
after it has stood twelve hours, carefully taking cream
unmixed with milk. A second skimming of cream, twelve
hours afterwards, should not be added until immediately
before churning, and the most delicate butter is made with
the first skimming only.
Keep the cream, until the time for churning, in the
coldest place available if sweet-cream butter is to be made ;
but if sour-cream butter for keeping purposes is to be
made, the cream should be gently warmed to about 64°
Fahr., and the souring process commenced by the addition
of a little sour cream or buttermilk. Sweet-cream butter
is better for immediate consumption, as fresh butter, but it
does not keep well, and the percentage of butter obtained
from a given quantity of sweet cream is 3 to 4 per cent,
less than from the same quantity of sour cream. Covered
earthenware or tin vessels should be used.
* "Hints on Butter-making." Published at 12, Hanover Square, London,
BUTTER. 69
Churn the cream at a temperature of 57° to 60° in a
Tevolving barrel or a midfeather churn, fitted with a spigot.
The more simple the churn the better, because it is more
easily cleaned. The churning should be done with regu-
larity, at the speed which experience recommends.
Ventilate the churn frequently during the first ten
minutes by removing the ventilating peg for a few seconds.
Listen attentively to the sound of the cream, and when
it changes in the least degree stop the churning, and
ascertain whether the butter has come, and if it is in
globules no larger than a pin's head, withdraw the butter-
milk. To avoid loss, pass the butter-milk through a hair-
sieve, which will retain any particles of butter that may
-escape with the butter-milk, and return them to the churn.
Wash the butter thoroughly with cold water by half
filling the churn, giving it three or four turns and then
withdrawing it in the same way as the butter-milk.
Repeat the washing until the water comes out of the churn
as clear as it was when it was put in.
Take out the butter with a pair of wooden patters or a
hair-sieve, and do not touch it with the hand.
Press out the water still in the butter by passing it
under a kneading board, or by working it gently with the
wooden patters. Care should be taken not to destroy the
4t grain " of the butter by careless or superfluous working.
The butter " comes " first, as we have said, in flakes and
particles, which are washed, as already stated, by successive
additions of cold water; and at length, becoming united
by the continued revolution of the beaters, form lumps,
when churning may be stopped. These lumps are taken
out by wooden patters and pressed together. The rule
now is to avoid handling it directly, but till lately the dairy-
70 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
maid having previously well rinsed her hands and arms in
cold water, and rubbed them with a little salt, placed the
whole mass either in a pan of cold spring water to harden,
or when no washing had been allowed, in a shallow empty
wooden vessel. In the latter case the butter was repeatedly
kneaded with the thick part of the open hand, and the
butter-milk separated by this pressure, and mopped up as
it appeared, with a canvas cloth which should be constantly
wrung dry. On the thorough separation of this butter-
milk depends a good deal of the keeping and sweetness of
the butter ; and though it involves more labour, it can be
done in this dry way by perseverance in kneading and
beating it with the cloth, and then mopping up the milky
liquid. The whole process is, however, now accomplished
by a revolving kneading apparatus referred to in a following
paragraph. When washed, the milk can with less labour
be equally well separated ; but excessive washing of butter
certainly separates some of that to which the fulness of its
flavour is due. If the churning is done too rapidly, the
buttery parts sometimes are not sufficiently viscous to
cohere, and the butter assumes a granular texture, which
renders it difficult to mould. The same fault sometimes
arises in the case of cream from the milk of cows that have
long calved. After a sufficient kneading or washing with
cool hands, finely powdered salt is added to it, according to
taste, certainly not more than 3 or 4 ounces per stone, and
well mixed with it by the hand ; the whole is then divided
out in half pounds, and made into rolls, lumps, or prints,
as the case may be.
In the curing of butter, the object is to bring every
particle of the caseous ferment, present more or less in
all butter, into contact with salt, or sugar, or substances
BUTTER. / 1
of that class, and so check its own tendency to decay, and
its consequent action on the butter itself. It is important,
therefore, to bring about the entire and thorough mixture
of the salt with the butter.
We may add here the following recipe for "boiled butter,"
a form in which butter is preserved in Piedmont : " Into
a clean copper pan (better, no doubt, tinned) put any
quantity of butter, say from 20 to 40 Ibs., and place it
over a very gentle fire, so that it may melt slowly ; and let
the heat be so graduated that the melted mass does not
come to the boil in less than about two hours. During
all this time the butter must be frequently stirred, say
once in five or ten minutes, so that the whole mass may
be thoroughly intermixed, and the top and bottom change
places from time to time. When the melted mass boils,
the fire is to be so regulated as to keep the butter at a
gentle boil for about two hours more, the stirring being
still continued, but not necessarily so frequently as before.
The vessel is then to be removed from the fire, and set
aside to cool and settle, still gradually; this process of
cooling being supposed also to require about two hours.
The melted mass is then, while still quite liquid, to be
carefully poured into the crock or jar in which it is to be
kept. In the process of cooling there is deposited a
whitish cheesy sediment proportioned to the quantity of
butter, which is to be carefully prevented from inter-
mixture with the preserved butter." This is taken from
Dr. Forbes' Physician's Holiday (Murray) : he states
further that some add a little salt in the boiling.
Lastly, when butter becomes rancid, it seems, from the
experience of a Belgian agriculturist, quoted in the Agri-
cultural Gazette, to be .possible to remove the bad smell
72 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
and disagreeable taste by beating or mixing it in fresh
water with chloride of lime. The operation consists in
beating the butter in a sufficient quantity of water, in
which put " 25 or 30 drops of chloride of lime " to 2 Ibs.
of butter. After having mixed it till all its parts are in
contact with the water, it may be left in it for an hour or
two, and afterwards withdrawn, and washed anew in fresh
water. Another correspondent recommends that the butter
should be kneaded with fresh milk, and then with pure
water. He states that, by this treatment, the butter is
rendered fresh and pure in flavour as when recently
made. He ascribes this result to the fact that butyric
acid, to which the rancid odour and taste are owing, is
readily soluble in fresh milk, and is thus removed.
Churning — (1.) In those cases where whole milk
is churned for butter, the churn is a fixture. It is
an upright somewhat conical vessel, made so, however,
only in order to secure the tightness of its hooping,
and it is of various dimensions, from three feet and
upwards in height, and from fifteen inches in dia-
meter, according to the quantity of milk to be treated.
This milk is churned when about three days old,
varying according to the weather, being first -allowed
to cool and then placed in large wooden vats to become
sour. The practice is to place it in coolers, as in ordinary
dairies, until it has acquired the temperature of the air,
thereafter to pour it into large wooden vats capable of
holding two meals at a time, where it sours ; and if churn-
ing is done twice or three times a week, to put into the
churn all the milk which has become sour, whether it
be sixty, forty-eight, or only twenty-four hours old ;
BUTTEK. 73
never, however, putting sweet milk into the churn along
with the sour, as if milk becomes sour by churning,
or otherwise' than in the natural way, the buttermilk soon
becomes rancid and unsaleable, whereas the butter-milk
from milk soured naturally retains an agreeable and sale-
able quality for a much longer time. The milk in summer
is churned at the natural temperature; in winter hot
water is poured in with it till it is raised to 65° or 70°.
In winter, too, when cows are fed on turnips, the milk is
poured at once into the churn and allowed to sour there ;
and, being hindered as much as possible from cooling, and
afterwards heated by the addition of hot water, or by the
insertion for a time of a tin vessel full of hot water, the
butter does not retain the taste of the turnip. The
churning commences and is carried on for three hours,
a regular stroke of the plunging float-board being an
essential part of the process, and a rate of forty to
forty-five strokes per minute being maintained. This
regularity is attained by the use of steam or water power,
it being in the case of the larger churns too laborious for
manual labour. The after-management of the butter,
when it has "come," is the same whatever method of
churning is adopted.
Whatever churn is adopted, it is washed out first with
scalding water, and then with cold water before using
it. .The cream in winter is raised to a temperature of
55° to 60° by the addition of hot water ; or, as in some
churns is possible, by standing the whole apparatus in a
tub containing water of that temperature. A common
plan is to let cold water stand in the churn for an hour
before using it in summer, and to let hot water stand in
it for some time in like manner in winter.
74 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
Churns of very many kinds are made. The up-
right churn has heen already named. — The "barrel churn,
in which the cream fills one half or more of a horizontal
cask slung in a framework, provided with shelves project-
ing from the inside half-way towards the axis, and the
whole turned slowly with the handle. — The hox churn,
in which the vessel holding the cream is stationary, and the
churn is agitated hy a revolving series of heaters arranged
around a horizontal axis, is very common.
Implements for a Butter Dairy. — They must he
provided in quantity sufficient for the largest daily yield of
milk throughout the year. Twenty-five cows may he sup-
posed likely, during the height of the season, to yield 100
gallons a day, and when milk is left only 24 hours to set
up cream, this will need 50 square feet of surface, 4 inches
deep, or as this is rather deep, say 60 square feet of surface
of cistern, or more, if vessels with sloping edges be used
in which to place it for cream : nearly 3, therefore, of the
ordinary vessels would he needed for every cow. Now, 100
gallons would, in the course of 24 hours, throw up 10
gallons of cream, and if the churning is done twice a week,
a 30-gallon churn, working 15 gallons at a time, and used
twice on churning days will suffice; 5 or 6 cream crocks of
earthenware, or vessels of tin, capable of holding 4 gallons
a-piece, will be needed to hold the cream. A flat butter
tub in which to make the butter, and scales and butter prints,
will be needed for making it up, and clean maple butter
boards, if there be no marble slab, for placing it on in the cool
dairy until it is sold. Besides this, of course pails for taking
the milk, 3 will suffice for 25 cows, and a sieve through which
to pour it into the pans, will be needed. For a small dairy,
BUTTER. 75
as of two cows, much smaller provision is required. A
single pail, a hair sieve, half a dozen glass milk vessels,
two earthenware cream crocks, each capable of holding a
couple of gallons of cream, an American box churn, or one
of any other make, capable of churning 3 gallons at a time, a
butter tub, prints, butter scales, &c., are all that is needed.
The various appliances now in use in large butter dairies
include many implements and machines unthought of
a few years ago. A refrigerator (Lawrence's) presents
double vertical corrugated surfaces, over which the milk
trickles from above, and is collected below, being made cool
by cold water passing upwards between them and escaping
at top. The immediate cooling of the milk is necessary
when it is despatched by railway for consumption at a
distance ; and it is desirable at all times and in every case.
Fixed barrel churns, vertical or horizontal, with axles
carrying flappers ; barrel churns revolving on horizontal
bearings, carrying flanges from the circumference inwards,
which lift and dash the contents as the whole revolves ;
revolving barrel churns, cylindrical or hexagonal, the axis
of motion being arranged somewhat diagonally, which
gives an additional emphasis and complicity to the dash of
the contents as they revolve, and has the advantage of a
special position of rest, which enables the drawing off of
the contents without risk — end-over-end churns in which
the axles or bearings are placed transversely to the length
of the barrel, whose contents are flung from end to end as
the whole revolves — horizontal oscillating churns, in which
the cream is thrown first to one end and then the other of
a suspended cradle with somewhat less violence than in the
other case : — All these are so many methods by which the
cream is made to yield up its butter ; and it is understood
76 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
now that no torture or violent rapidity of movement is
required for this purpose — that the texture of the butter
ultimately is rather injured than otherwise hy what may be
called a destructive violence or rapidity of movement. The
butter being removed, as already said, is dealt with by a
worker, which in all its many forms is essentially just a
deeply corrugated cylinder made to press and roll over the
butter on the table, where it is submitted to this kneading.
The machine which has produced and will produce
the greatest change of practice in our butter dairies is the
centrifugal cream separator. Of this, too, several forms
exist, all of them acting by a substitution for the force of
gravity in separating the cream, which is the lighter
portion of the contents of the milk, the action of a centri-
fugal force which can, of course, be raised beyond that of
gravity to any extent by increasing the velocity of revolu-
tion. The whole milk as brought from the cow pours
continuously into an enclosed flattish cylindrical vessel,
capable of holding 2 or 3 gallons. This revolves from
3,000 to 6,000 times a minute, and the water of the milk
carrying curd and sugar in solution, flies to the outer rim
of the revolving mass, the cream collecting in the centre ;
and each, as the whole milk continues to pour in, passes
into the tube properly placed to receive it, and is delivered
at its separate exit: a rich thick cream pouring from
one, and the poorest skim-milk — veritable " sky-blue " —
pouring from the other. Skim-milk may thus be had
" fresh from the cow; " and it will no doubt command the
value which really belongs to it as food, now that it can be
had unspoiled, as hitherto it has been, by the know-
ledge that it is 36 or 48 hours old, and is on the eve of
becoming sour.
CHAPTER VI.
CHEESE.
Composition — Curd — Various Cheeses : Gloucester, Cheshire, Dunlop, Cheddar,
Derbyshire, Lancashire, Stilton— Utensils of the Cheese Dairy.
The Composition of Cheese depends, of course, upon
the mode of its manufacture. The following analyses of
actual specimens by the late Professor Johnston may
still be accepted as trustworthy; and they probably still
represent average quantities of the several cheeses
named : —
Ingredients per
cent.
Skim
Milk
Cheese.
Double
Glou-
cester.
Cheddar.
North Wilts.
Dunlop.
1st Spe-
2nd Spe-
cimen.
cimen.
Water . .
43-82
35-81
36-04
35-58
44-80
38-46
Caseiii . /
45-04
37-96
28-98
25-00
28-16
25-87
Butter . .
5-98
21-97
30-40
30-11
23-04
31-86
Saline matter .
5-18
4-25
4-58
6-29
3-99
8-81
100-02
99-99
100-00
99-98
99-99
100-00
The quantity of butter present, to which the richness of
the cheese is due, depends, first, on the quality of the
milk, next, on its cream being all retained when it is set
for curd ; and, lastly, on the process of manufacture being
conducted so carefully, that the curd" shall retain its
butter, none of it being allowed to escape with the whey.
78 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
The Formation of the Curd is effected by any agent
•which will set the casein of the milk free from the solvent
"by which in fresh milk it is held in solution. And the
subsequent treatment, which it receives in the processes
of cheese-making, has for its object simply the separation
of this water, together with the addition throughout it of
such a quantity of salt as may check any tendency of the
curd to decay. The artificial ferment used is called rennet.
A calf's stomach, called a " veil," either with or without its
content of curdled milk, is salted and packed away for
months, with others, in a jar. "Water which has stood
upon it, after this, is rennet; and a certain portion, varying
according to the exact recipe of its preparation, from half
a pint upwards, is added to, say, 100 gallons of the milk
to be " set."
Notwithstanding that a general definition of the process
may be given in these terms, yet upon the niceties of the
various recipes adopted in the preparation and use of this
rennet depends much of the varying quality of the cheese
produced by it. In practice, these prepared " veils"
are purchaseable of the grocers in all cheese-making
districts, who keep them in a salt pickle. They are pur-
chased a year old or more, in winter, at the rate of about
two for every cow, that quantity being used according to
Gloucestershire practice in the preparation of the rennet
needed by the milk which each cow will yield. These veils,
according to one method, being delivered in a wet state,
are placed in a saturated brine, 6 to every 2 gallons, and a
30 to 40-gallon cask (old olive jars are very suitable) • is
prepared at once. The liquid is ready for use in about
2 months, and it improves with age, unless diluted by the
addition of more brine, in which case fresh veils must
CHEESE. 79
be added to it. In other cases a piece of a dry veil is
soaked overnight in half-a-pint of water, and this is the
rennet used on the morrow. Latterly a prepared essence
is being used in preference to home-made rennet, with, it
is said, more uniformity of result ; for on the quality of
the rennet as well as on other things the resultant cheese
depends. Veils vary considerably in size. Irish veils
weigh from 6 to 8 ounces each, and the numbers specified
are to be taken as applying to those of average weight.
For details of their use we must refer to the detailed
account, given in the following paragraphs, of the several
methods of cheese-making.
The Accommodation needed for Cheese - making
varies in different districts. Everywhere, however, the
same instructions as to cleanliness are of course impera-
tive. In Gloucestershire a room on the north side of the
farmhouse serves for holding the milk, whether set in
pans on shelves for cream, or in the cheese-tub on the
floor for curd. Here too are the leaden cisterns in which
the whey stands, a foot deep, for cream, and from which,
after skimming, it drains away to the pig's vault. On the
north side of this room is a paved shed, in which churning
is done, and in which vessels are placed to dry ; and at one
end of this shed is a wash-house (with the well close by),
with furnace and boiler, in which milk may be warmed,
and where the vessels are washed. In addition to this,
there is a cheese-room, generally a loft over the dairy ; but
forjhot summer weather a detached and cool airy place is to
be preferred. Here on the wooden floor and on wooden
shelves the cheese are placed almost close together and
turned repeatedly, until ripe for sale.
80 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
Gloucester Cheese -making. — Under ordinary manage-
ment, the Gloucester cheese is made twice a day. The
morning's milk is heated or cooled to about 80° in one
or more large vessels of from 80 to 100 gallons : a pint
and a half or {hereabouts of rennet is added to every
100 gallons : in an hour's time or so, when the curd has
set, the curd-breaker, a wire sieve, fixed on the end of a
pole, is slowly and repeatedly drawn hither and thither
through the mass, the whey is baled out, the curd is
pressed by the hand, crumbled fine, and placed in a cloth
and in the cheese vat under a press for 12 hours ; it is
then salted and turned, and again put under the press.
It is kept there as long as there is press-room for it, and
afterwards transferred to the dairy shelves, where it is
turned at intervals, and where it gradually ripens. The
whey baled out of the curd-tub stands and throws up a
cream, from which an inferior butter is made. The less the
quantity of cream that rises, the more of course is the
butter left in the cheese ; and the more gentle the manage-
ment of the curd and the removal of the whey, the less is
the quantity of this cream that rises on it.
Keevil's patent curd machine, now largely used in
the county, consists of a cylindrical tin vessel, which is
used as a cheese-tub, with a drainer up the side from top
to bottom, through which the whey escapes, and with a
revolving frame of vertical and horizontal wires, by which
the curd is systematically broken.
It needs, after the curd has set, that a few cuts through
it with a knife be made, else this revolving framework of
wires will carry the whole mass of curd with it, which will
thus escape without being cut ; after this, the revolving
wire cutter is pushed round with extreme slowness ; and
CHEESE. 81
gradually the mass of curd is thus systematically reduced
to little fragments, and sinks, and the clear green whey is
drawn off through the strainer. It has been separated so
gradually, that it throws up little or no cream on stand-
ing, and therefore it at once goes to the pig's vault.
Keevil's machine is a fixture on the dairy floor ; it is con-
nected with an outside hopper, through which the milkmen
pour the contents of their pails, and thus they never enter
the dairy. It may he a jacketed vessel, and thus receive
hot or cold water around it for the regulation of the tempe-
rature of its contents. This or other similar machines
has long been adopted in Gloucestershire, with, we under-
stand, satisfaction to those who have broken through the
ordinary practice of the district by employing it.
Cheshire Cheese-making requires the use of a milk-
house, where the evening's milk is placed to cool, a dairy
where the cheese-tub stands, into which the morning's
milk is at once poured, and where there is a furnace and
boilers for scalding the whey and for boiling water ; where
also the cheese presses stand and (if there be no drying
house) whence the cheeses, after pressure, are finally
removed to the cheese-room or store. The cheeses vary in
size from \ cwt. upwards.
Cheese is made only once a day, and in small dairies
sometimes once only in two days ; a cool place in which to
keep the milk is therefore indispensable. The rennet used
in Cheshire dairies is made fresh from the veils each day.
Two bits of 2 or 3 square inches are cut off them, and
put into half a pint of warm water the day before use,
along with a tea-spoonful of salt, and this effusion is the
rennet, and suffices for 50 or 60 gallons of milk. The
82 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
following may be taken as the ordinary history of a
Cheshire cheese : — The cows are milked at night, and the
milk poured through a sieve into tin pans on the floor of
the milkhouse. This milk is skimmed in the morning, and
then poured into the large tub where the curd is " set." As
the morning's milking proceeds, the pailsful are brought one
after another and poured through the sieve into this tub.
A pan of milk, containing more or less, according to the
quantity whose temperature is to be raised sufficiently high
by the addition of it, is warmed by floating in a boiler in
the dairy ; and, when sufficiently hot, the whole of the cream
just taken is mixed with it, and the whole thus warmed is
poured at last into the tub, which thus contains the whole
milk, cream and all, of both " meals." The temperature
of the milk when well mixed should be about 75° Fahr.
The liquid colouring matter, " annatto," about half a gill,
dissolved in half a pint of warm water, is added to the 100
or 120 gallons which may be then in the tub as the produce of
40 cows — a half-handful of saltpetre may be thrown in with
a view of correcting the bitterness which is to be detected
while the butter-cups are in full leaf ; and the rennet, about
a pint of brine, in which two or three little bits of the
prepared calves' veils have been steeped over night, is added
to the milk, which is then left for an hour covered up till
the curd has fully formed. It is then cut slowly with a
wire curd-breaker, and the curd sinking, the whey is baled
out ; the curd is collected and squeezed both by hand and
the direct pressure of a weight above a board placed upon
it, and the last of the whey being removed, it is lifted
either into a basket or into one of the large Cheshire
cheese vats (" thrusting tubs "), pierced with holes for the
further escape of fluid — the lower part being a wooden
CHEESE. 83
cylindrical vat, and the upper a tinned cylinder slipping
into it as the curd on pressure sinks. After a certain
pressure in this form, the curd is removed and cut
and broken by hand or by a curd mill, and from 1 to 2 Ibs.
of fine salt is scattered over it, according to the weight of
the cheese ; about 1 Ib. to every 40 Ibs. of cheese is a
common quantity. The whole curd being then rebroken,
is refilled into the vat, into which a cheese cloth has
previously been placed. It is then put gradually under
pressure, which after the second or third day amounts to
many hundredweights upon each cheese.
Every day the cheese is turned and wrapped in fresh
•cloths ; and on the seventh or eighth day of this treatment,
or as soon as dry, it is removed to the loft and there
swathed around with strong girthing, and placed on a
bench. By and by it is laid, still swathed as before, on a
layer of straw on the floor of the room, and there it lies till
from ten weeks to four months old, when it is ready for
sale.
In some dairies, in order to the perfect extraction of the
whey, skewers are used on the first day to pierce it, being
thrust repeatedly into it through the holes in the cheese
vat, in order to the formation of drains for the liquid. The
whey is heated in a boiler ; some drainings from the cheese
of the previous day, commonly called " thrustings," are
added to it ; and after a first skimming some sour butter-
milk is thrown into the boiler, and then the heat raised to
180° Fahr., when it iss kimmed again. By the first skim-
ming a cream called " fleetings " is obtained, yielding a
very good butter; and by the second, a substance used
principally for feeding calves ; the whey is afterwards given
to the pigs. Excepting a portion of the cream used in the
G 2
84 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
house, and that which thus comes from the whey, the
Cheshire cheese is a whole-milk cheese, and as rich, there-
fore, as any that is made.
The use of colouring matter does not in any way improve
the cheese, nor add to its value, and in many dairies it is
altogether discontinued.
The Dunlop Cheese-making differs from the Cheshire
in the use of stale rennet, as in Gloucestershire ; in the
greater heat, 85° or 90° Fahr., of the milk when the rennet
is added — a tablespoonful to every 20 gallons — and in the
consequent extreme rapidity of the setting of the curd,
which is ready for cutting in a quarter of an hour. The
curd is put up in cheeses of 28 to 36 Ibs. weight ; they
are whole-milk cheeses, made night and morning in dairies
of sufficient size ; and where enough milk is not provided at
one meal, then, as in Cheshire, the evening's milk, after
being skimmed, is heated to the requisite temperature, and
with the cream is added to the morning's meal ; and the
whole is set for curd at the temperature stated. Dunlop
cheeses are of a fat and mild tasted character. Their
management after the setting of the curd is very much the
same as that of Cheshire.
Cheddar Cheese-making differs from that already de-
scribed, chiefly in the scalding of the curd ; which is done
by heating a portion of the whey, and letting the curd
remain in it for a considerable time at a temperature even,
above the natural heat of the milk. The following is a
description of the dairy management of the late Mr. Harding,
at Compton Dando, Somersetshire. The milk is poured from
the pails through a sieve into a receiver outside, from which
CHEESE. 85
a pipe conveys it through the wall to the cheese-tub or to
the coolers. A canvas bag is also placed over the inside
•end of the pipe, so that a douhle precaution is used against
impurities entering with the milk.
The rennet is prepared by steeping perhaps five veils at
once, and this usually suffices for two weeks, in which time
about 21 cwt. of cheese may be made.
Immediately after the morning milking, the evening and
morning milk are put together into the tub. The tem-
perature of the whole is brought to 80° by heating a small
quantity of the evening milk. After the rennet is added,
an hour is requisite for coagulation. At eight o'clock the
curd is partially broken, and allowed to subside a few
minutes, in order that a small quantity of whey may be
drawn off to be heated. This whey is put into a tin vessel
and placed in a boiler in an adjoining apartment, to be
heated in hot water. The curd is most carefully and
minutely broken, and then as much of the heated whey is
mixed with it as suffices to raise it to 80°, the temperature
at which the rennet was added. Nothing more is done to
it for another hour.
A little after 9 o'clock a few pailfuls of whey are drawn
off and heated to a higher temperature than at 8 o'clock.
The curd is then broken as minutely as before, and after
this is carefully done, an assistant pours several pailfuls of
the- heated whey into the mass. During the pouring in of
the whey the stirring with the breakers is actively con-
tinued, in order to mix the whole regularly, and not to
allow any portion of the curd to become overheated. The
temperature at this time is raised to 100°, as ascertained
by the thermometer, and the stirring is continued a con-
siderable time, until the minutely broken pieces of curd
86 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
acquire a certain degree of consistency. The curd is then
left half an hour to subside.
At the expiry of the half hour the curd has settled to the
bottom of the tub. Drawing off the whey is the next
operation. The greater proportion is lifted in a large tin
bowl, and poured through a hair sieve into the adjoining
coolers. As it runs into the leads it appears to be very
pure. When the whey above the mass of curd is thus
removed, a spigot is turned at the bottom of the tub, and
the remainder is allowed to drain off, which it does very
rapidly without any pressure being required. To facilitate
this part of the work the tub is made with a convex bottom,
and the curd is cut from the sides of the tub and placed on
the elevated centre. It is carefully heaped up, and then
left for an hour with no other pressure than its own weight.
After this interval it is cut across in large slices, turned
over once on the centre of the tub, and left in a heap as
before for half an hour. The whey drips away towards the
side of the tub, and runs off at the spigot ; and no pressure
being applied, it continues to come away comparatively
pure. After undergoing these easy manipulations, and
lying untouched during the intervals that have been men-
tioned, the curd is ripe for the application of pressure. But
great care is taken not to put it into the vat to be pressed
at too high a temperature. If the heat be above 60° — and
it usually is higher at this time — the curd is broken a
little by the hand and thrown upon a lead cooler until
it is brought down to the desired temperature.
The after-management of the cheese resembles that of
Cheshire. A little salt, 1J Ibs. per cwt. or thereabouts, is
added to the crumbled curd, and it is mingled and broken
by the curd mill. The cheese vats are placed under the
CHEESE. 87
machine, and are piled one above the other as the curd falls
down. A cloth is put over each vat when the breaking is
over, the curd is reversed in the cloth, put back into the
vat, covered up, and placed in the press for about three
quarters of an hour. After this, the cheese is taken out,
and a cloth wrung out of warm water is put on it. It is
again changed at two and at six o'clock, after which dry
cloths are put on it. Care is taken that the cheese fills the
vat properly. To accomplish this, the vats, at making up,
are filled rather full, and the edges of the cheese are pared
in the afternoon. Next morning the cheese is rubbed on
both sides with salt, and the same cloth is put on again.
On the third morning it is treated in a similar manner.
The cheese is put into the vat without a cloth on the
fourth morning, and a little salt is rubbed over it to keep it
from adhering to the wood. After the fourth morning, it
is reversed in the vat, without a cloth, each morning, until
the process is complete about the sixth or seventh
morning.
Keevil's or other similar apparatus is now generally used,
by which a jacketed cheese tub of tin may be surrounded
by a stream of hot water ; and so the milk and whey retained
at any temperature that is required, without the necessity
of removing [large quantities of milk or whey to a boiler
every time of cheese-making for the purpose of being heated.
Derbyshire Cheese-making does not differ materially
from that which obtains in Gloucestershire in making a
thick (double Gloucester) cheese. It is usual to make but
once a day, unless in very hot weather, when it may be
doubtful if the milk can be got cool and kept sweet during
the night, in which case cheese is made in the evening as
88 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
well as morning. In general, however, the evening's milk
is put in thin layers in the cheese-tub and other vessels to
cool during the night, tin vessels of cold water being put
to stand it in in order to subject it to as large a cooling
surface as possible. In the morning, if much cream has
risen, it is partly skimmed, and, if necessary, warmed up
with some milk and added to the morning's milk, so as to
bring the whole to about 80°. In the summer time, how-
ever, the rennet has often to be added when the milk is
naturally warmer than this. Enough fresh-made rennet
is added to set the whole in an hour or less. After the
curd has been broken with the common sieve curd-braker,
used gently for a sufficient time, a presser is used — a sort
of heavy metallic sieve " follower," which sinks gradually
through the whey and ultimately lies upon the curd, en-
abling the baling out of the whey. After this has been
for the most part taken out, this follower is forced hard
down en the curd so as to squeeze and still further separate
the whey from it. The curd may then be slightly salted,
though this is not always done at that time. It is broken
by hand into a vat and pressed ; taken out and broken up
again, re-vatted and again pressed ; and this may be done
more than once — as often, indeed, as seems to be required,
It is at length finally vatted, in sizes of about 4 to the cwt.;
its whole surface is made to take in as much salt as it will
hold by rubbing and pressing ; this gets liquified by the
exuding moisture and is absorbed. It is dry-clothed and
changed in the press daily, and is in the press four or five
days before being finally removed to the cheese-room, where
it is turned at gradually-increasing intervals until ready
for the market.
In some districts, and notably in Lancashire, no salt is
CHEESE. 89
put in the curd, but the cheeses, after two or three days'
pressing, are placed in brine for a week, in which they float,
going in soft at first and coming out hardened. They are
taken thence to the cheese-room, and turned daily till sold.
Stilton Cheese is made chiefly in Leicestershire, from
the whole milk of the morning to which more or less (often
none) of the cream of the evening's meal has been added.
The following is a recipe : —
The utensils required in its manufacture are the same
as those in ordinary use, excepting the cheese-vat, which
in this case is a tin-plate cylinder, 10 inches high, and
25 inches round it, without top or bottom, having the
sides pierced with holes to let out the whey. The rennet
is made in the same way as usual. About 9 gallons of
new milk, and, if to be very rich, the cream off 2 or 3 gallons
of milk (the cream to be warmed before being put to the
milk), are used in the manufacture of one cheese. If suffi-
cient new milk cannot be obtained, the night's "milk and
cream are to be used with the morning's milk, as well as
the extra cream. The rennet is to be put in when it is of
the natural temperature of new milk. When it has become
curd, it is not broken as in Gloucestershire and elsewhere,
but a canvas strainer is laid in a cheese-basket, and the
curd put into it, breaking it as little as possible ; the cross
corners are drawn together, and it remains in this way
some hours, until sufficiently firm to slice. It is laid in
the vat in slices, a layer of curd and a sprinkling of salt
alternately ; this is continued until the vat is full, then a
flat square piece of board is placed at the top of the vat,
one having been previously laid at the bottom ; and placing
one hand at the top, and the other underneath, the cheese
90 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
is to be turned over very quickly: its own weight is a
sufficient pressure. Keep turning it every two or three
hours, and two or three times the next day. It is to be
kept in the vat three or four days, according to the
firmness of it. When taken out, a thin piece of calico is
to be dipped in boiling water, and wrung out, and then to
be pinned tightly round the cheese. This cloth remains
on it until it is thoroughly dry. The cheese should be
turned twice a day : it does not require any more salt than
that which is put in with the curd. There is a great deal
of trouble with this kind of cheese ; from the constant
dampness of the skin it is apt to get fly-blown — maggots
are the result — and the cheese is destroyed.
Of other English makes we merely refer to Bath, truckle,
and sage cheese.
Truckle Cheese. — Truckle cheeses are made in vats from
6 to 9 inches deep, and about 9 inches across. When the
vat is about half full a small tablespoonful of fine salt
should be put into the middle of the cheese, and well rubbed
into the curd, taking care that it does not spread to the
outside, which would cause it to separate, and be of injury
to the cheese. In making truckle cheeses the curd should
be quite sweet, thoroughly crumbled, and made as dry as
possible before filling the vats, and it should be pressed very
firmly in with the hands, and allowed to remain in the press
four or five days — turning them every day, and salting them
three times. Truckle cheeses are better for being kept 12
months. They are in some dairies made throughout the
whole season. There is, however, a risk, under ordinary
management, of their bulging and heaving during the ex-
treme heat of the summer owing to fermentation ; and this
CHEESE. 91
difficulty does therefore in most dairies confine the making
of this sort of cheese to the autumn months, when less
heat interferes with the ripening of it.
Sage Cheese should be kept twelve months before
it is fit for use. Bruise a quantity of sage in a mortar,
also a little spinach for the sake of the juice, which will
give a green colour, the sage alone not being bright enough
in itself ; these juices, squeezed together through a cloth
and added to about a pailful of milk with a proper propor-
tion of rennet, will make enough sage curd for one thick
cheese. When the whey is drawn from this in the usual
manner, the curd will be found of a much deeper colour
than might be expected from the pale green given to the
milk. This sage curd should be kept quite separate from
the bulk. When ready for the vats, having been crumbled
into small particles separately, some of the green curd
should be mixed with the other (about one-third is
sufficient), either by laying it in rows or mixing it together
in the vat ; care should be taken that none of the whey
drawn from it gets into that intended for butter, or it will
give it the flavour of the sage. The after-management of
this cheese is the same as that of other thick cheeses.
Bath. Cheese. — Take one gallon of new milk, and add
three* quarts of cold water, with about two or three table -
spoonsful of rennet, and when turned into tender curd take
it out gently with the skimming dish, and lay it on a sieve,
but do not break it ; the whey will thus drain sufficiently
from it before placing it on a cloth in a small square vat made
for the purpose, about an inch and a half thick, and about
9 or 10 wide. The above quantity of curd will be, as
92 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
nearly as can be ascertained, enough for one cheese ; it
requires to have one or two dry cloths applied to it, and in
two days it may be taken out of the vat and placed between
two pewter plates and turned every day, the plates being
wiped dry. It will generally be fit for use in a week or
nine days.
Utensils for the Cheese Dairy — Besides the ordinary
milking-pails, and sieve through which the milk is
poured from them, a deep cheese-tub, to stand on the
floor of the dairy, in which the curd is set, is required,
holding 4 gallons, or thereabouts, for every cow in the
dairy. It costs Id. to 9d. per gallon. A " ladder " is
needed to rest across this tub for carrying the sieve
through which the milk is poured. Curd-breakers, double or
triple knives, and an open wire-work sieve, to be thrust to
and fro, are required. A curd-mill, costing from 20s.
upwards, being simply a hopper, at the bottom of which
is a cylinder studded with short radial arms revolving
between corresponding pins fixed in the sides of the trough,
and passing the curd placed in the hopper in a crumbled
state, is also needed. Keevil's curd-breaking and cheese-
making apparatus is, as we have said, largely used. Vats or
leads of sufficient capacity to hold the whey, where it is set
for cream, are also needed. Cheese-vats, in which the
curd is pressed into the form of the future cheese ; and
cheese-presses, either direct masses of stone lifted by
winch and rope and pulley, or lever presses, are needed.
The heaviest of the former consists of a block of stone, of
nearly 3 feet cube, and weighing 20 to 30 cwt. The latter are
of various forms, and produce, by the action of a small weight,
whatever pressure is desired. They cost about 50s. ; or,
CHEESE. 93
if two together in one frame, about 5Z., and may be used to
exert a pressure varying from 1 cwt. up to 30 cwt., or even
more. We may also name here, as a recent invention with
probably a future, a series of cheese-shelves arranged in
a book-case form, i. e., closed on one side, and slung on
two pivots, enabling it to be swung round, bottom upwards,
so that the top of each shelf containing cheese becomes,
in its turn, the floor on which those cheeses rest ; and the
whole work of turning a number of cheeses is done at once.
Insects affecting Cheese. — Cheeses are liable to the
attacks of various insects, the principal of which are the
cheese-mite and the cheese-fly, Piophila casei, whose
maggots are the well-known jumper. The cheese-fly,
we may add, is a little greenish-black fly, with yellowish
head and legs. In order to escape its attacks, the cheeses
should be pressed dry, and so made as not to crack ; they
should also be repeatedly wiped with a flannel cloth, and
turned on boards kept clean by scrubbing and occasional
rubbing with fresh oil.
CHAPTEE VII.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
Dairying and Grazing — Profitable Use of Milk — Cropping of a Dairy Farm.
Dairying or Grazing. — A tenant of grass land has
the choice of many modes of turning it to account. If it
be very rich grazing ground, he may devote it wholly to
the feeding of heef : if very poor grass land with some
arahle attached, he may devote it wholly to the rearing of
young stock, bringing up five to ten calves to every cow he
keeps. Under more ordinary circumstances he may keep
either a butter dairy or a cheese dairy ; or it may be his
interest to use the milk in fattening veal. The nature of
the market for his produce will probably determine his
choice. It is no part of our plan to discuss the relative
merits of grazing and dairying here, but there is one point
of the comparison which ought to be alluded to, and that
is the immense draught made upon the resources of the
land by any system which involves the annual sale of the
milk, either whole or manufactured, as the sole produce of
the land.
Milk contains a good deal of those parts of the earth of
soils on which their fertility very much depends. As the
sole food of the young, it feeds their bones as well as their
flesh, and in its mineral part, therefore, is to be found the
mineral part of bones, as well as the alkaline and other
GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 95
mineral substances held in solution in the juices of the
living animal. 1000 parts of milk contain from 5 to 7
parts of ash or mineral matter ; and this consists about
one half of phosphate of lime (bone-earth), and the rest of
soda and alkaline salts. The following is a detailed
analysis of two samples.
Ingredients of 1000 Ibs. of milk : —
l. 2.
Phosphate of lime 2*31 Ibs. 3 '44 Ibs.
„ magnesia . . . . 0'42 0*62
„ iron 0*07
Chloride of potassium . . . . 1 '44
„ sodium . . . . 0'24
Free soda . . . 0'42
0-07
1-83
0-34
0-45
4-90 „ 677 „
If a cow yields 600 gallons of milk a year, then,
whether this be sold away altogether, or converted into
cheese for sale, or set for cream and made into butter and
skim-milk cheese, or given to young stock to be afterwards
sold, these products being sold off the farm, it loses in this
way from 30 to 40 Ibs. of mineral matter from its soil.
This is no doubt a small quantity ; but continued for
a long series of years it undoubtedly tells upon the
fertility of the soil, and is a loss to which rich grazing
grounds, where full grown animals are brought simply to
be fattened, are not subject. In illustration of the per-
petual drain of phosphates which the cheese manufacture
entails upon the soil, it may be mentioned here that the
dairy pastures of Cheshire have been wonderfully im-
proved by the addition of bone dust as a top-dressing
to the land, a manure which supplies just those ingredients
of which the cheese had deprived it.
96 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
The most profitable use of Milk.— This necessarily
depends altogether on the market. (1.) To sell the whole
milk direct to the consumer is probably the most
profitable method. One penny a pint is a common whole-
sale price to the cow keeper. His cows may yield under
varying treatment from 600 to 1000 gallons annually, and
thus return from 20Z. to 33/. annually a-piece. (2.) To
make milk into butter and skim-milk cheese, may, at the
yield of 600 gallons annually, and calculating 22 pints per
Ib. of butter and 1J gallon per Ib. of skim milk cheese,
yield as follows : —
£ *.
600 gallons of milk = 60 gallons of cream = 210 Ibs. of
butter, &tls. 4d 14 0
540 gallons of skim-milk = 360 Ibs. of cheese, at 4d. per Ib. 6 0
Total annual yield per cow .... £20 0
(3.) To make milk wholly into cheese may, with a yield
of 600 gallons of milk, result in 5 cwts. of cheese per
annum; a very unusual produce, however; and this at 64s.
per cwt., a moderate price, results in an annual produce of
<£16 per cow, to which must be added, perhaps, 50s. worth
of butter and bacon, or £13 10s. in all. The more common
produce, however, is : —
£ *.
4 cwts. at 64.9 12 6
Together with the extras 2 10
Or, in all £15 6 per cow.
(4.) To use the milk wholly for fatting veal, at the rate
of 10, 16, 20, 24, 27, 30, and 32 gallons in seven succes-
sive weeks, using 160 gallons or thereabouts in that time
for producing about 1 cwt. of veal, will enable each cow thus
GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 97
to fatten 4 cwts. or more of veal per annum ; and this at
the price of 41. per cwt. would yield 16L annually per cow.
From this, however, must be deducted the cost of whatever
other food the calves consume, and also a certain sum at
which the risk attending the management of young stock
must he valued — a risk which does not accompany the other
modes of turning milk into money.
It may thus be assumed, after making sundry deductions,
that 24L, 20Z., 18?., and perhaps 16L may be taken as the
produce of well-managed cows, in milk, butter, cheese,
and veal respectively ; the value of the calf, 30s. or 35s.,
when a week or ten days old, has to be added. It will,
however, be generally felt that, excepting, perhaps, the
first of these cases, these figures stand too high for
ordinary experience ; and certainly that which is true of
well-managed individual cows is not necessarily true of a
whole herd, however perfect the management may be. In
illustration of this, two facts may be mentioned, one of
which entirely corroborates our estimate ; but the other,
the more trustworthy of the two, considerably discounts
it. — 1. The dairy statistics of 15 farms in Gloucestershire
already referred to (pp. 10, 12, 16), prove that in the year
of their collection 439 cows produced 1604 cwts. of cheese ;
5268 Ibs. of milk-butter, 11,420 Ibs. of whey-butter,
besides a sale of 354 calves and of 1756 score Ibs. of bacon.
The total sales at present prices would stand thus : —
£ s. d.
1,604 cwts. of cheese, at £3 4s 4,84416 0
5, 268 Ibs. of butter, at Is. 4^ 351 4 0
11,420 Ibs. of whey butter, at Is. . . . 571 0 0
354 calves, at £1 5s 442 10 0
1,756 scores of bacon, at 10s 878 0 0
439 cows produced £7,087 10 0
H
98 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
This was equal to 16L 3s. per cow, corresponding very
nearly to the figures given as true of the money produce
of cheese-making. — 2. The other fact is that in many large
dairy districts it is common for the farmers to let their
cows for the year to a dairyman, agreeing to set apart
certain pastures for them, and to give them certain quanti-
ties of fodder, and of green and other food. The hirer of
the cows has the use of all the accommodation which the
farmery affords, the use of dairy utensils, &c., and he
undertakes the entire management of the animals, and
of their produce, which helongs to him while they remain
in his hands. And the fact to which we allude is, that
the farmer is willing to let his cows to the " bower," as he
is called in Wigtonshire, for from 101. to 12L apiece: which,
if their average produce realises 14L or 15L, seems to leave
a small enough margin for the lahour and the profit of the
dairyman who hires them.
The Cropping of a Dairy Farm has already heen
considered (see page 23). We refer to it again under this
section to insist on the great advantage to large dairy
farms of a considerable portion of the land being arable.
The ability to maintain cows during the winter season —
when dry or not yielding milk enough for the maintenance
of the general dairy management — on roots and straw,
instead of hay, and thus to set apart a larger portion of
the grass for summer pasture to its own great advantage,
and to the greater productiveness of the cows at their most
productive period, cannot be overrated. If every 100 acres
of grass land, being at the rate of more than 1J acres per
cow of whole summer pasture, together with the aftermath
of a corresponding quantity needed for winter hay, will
GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 99
maintain a herd "of 30 dairy cows, then any source of
winter feeding which will displace two-thirds of the hay
required will set free for pasturage two-thirds of the ex-
tent of grass-land to be mown. It is not too much to
say that by 30 acres under arable culture as much winter
food will be provided as by 50 acres of grass-land mown.
Supposing, then, these 100 acres to be divided into 80
acres pasture and 20 acres arable, it is plain that of the
half of this pasture (40 acres), which ordinarily would
fall to be mown, at least two-thirds (26 acres), would be
set free by the winter food (straw and green crops) yielded
by the 20 acres arable : and the stock capable of being
kept on the remaining 80 acres pasture, as compared with
that on the 100 acres of whole pasture, depends on the
relative summer produce of 66 acres whole grass and
14 acres aftermath, as compared with that of 50 acres
whole pasture and 50 acres aftermath. There cannot be
a doubt that the former will yield more food than the
latter, and at the most productive time of the year, while
the land will at the same time, under this plan, be more
likely to increase from year to year in value. It thus
appears that a larger dairy stock can be kept upon a
farm so managed, while, at the same time, one-half of
the arable land will be yielding its valuable produce of
grain for sale. It seems, however, also to be certain that
the use of home-grown grain, bean and pea-meal, oats and
-corn wheat, is economical and desirable while the prices are
so low as they have been in 1884-5.
Let me add as a postscript that the selection and main-
tenance of the herd — gentle, regular, and punctual treat-
ment 'of the animals throughout the year ; provision of
H 2
100 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
sufficient wholesome food for them, and abundant water,
with frequent change of pasturage when at milk — these
are the special maxims of successful dairying. If on the
one side of these we have . the proper cultivation and
management of the land, and on the other, cleanly, care-
ful, and skilful management in the dairy, then a maximum
of dairy produce may be expected. But this depends
essentially on the health, and therefore on the treatment,
of the animals which yield it. If one word more be
permitted it should contain the answer of an old dairy
farmer when asked as to the secret of his success. It
had come principally, he said, of seeing for himself that
his cows were always thoroughly milked out.
CHAPTER VIII.
FOREIGN DAIRYING.
DENMARK. — FRANCE : French Cheeses, Brie, Coulommiers, Gerome',
Journiac, Livarot, Mont d'Or, Neufchatel, Mignot, Pont 1'Evgque,
St. Marcellin, St. Remy. — GERMANY : Limburg and Backstein
cheeses. — HOLLAND : Edam and Gouda cheese, Delft butter. — ITALY :
Gorgonzola, Parmesan, Ricotta cheeses. — SWITZERLAND: Emmen-
thaler, Gruyere, Vacherin, Schabzieger.
DENMARK.
IT is not necessary to enter fully into the system of
dairying in Denmark, as far greater space would be required
than the limits of this work permit. It may he remarked,
however, that Danish dairying, though hut of recent creation,
•so energetically has it been conducted, has become, if we con-
sider the size of the country, the most prominent of any in
Europe. It is true, however, that cheesemaking is here still
in its infancy, and that there is practically no cheese which
is essentially Danish, made in any considerable quantity.
The butter of Denmark is now so famous in this
•country, that it not only obtains a higher price than the
best British, but it often beats the choicest samples from
Erance ; and this the French authorities themselves admit
with regret, and so highly do they rate the work of the
Danes, that a Danish dairy has recently been travelling to
the various French exhibitions. At the present moment,
the centrifugal separator is doing immense work in
102 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
Denmark, and the system is as follows : — The cows are
milked very early in the morning, and the milk is
immediately cooled and passed through the separator ; hut
the cream is not churned on the same day. It is,
however, placed in vats where a small quantity of sour
material is added, in order that it may he sufficiently sour
for churning on the following morning, it having heen
proved heyond douht that hutter made from sour cream
not only keeps hetter, hut is produced in larger quantities.
The barrel and Holstein churns are in general use, and
churning is continued until the hutter comes in small
grains, when the hutter milk is run off, and the hutter
carefully washed in the churn with very cold water ; for
upon many of the farms ice is used for the purpose of
keeping everything cool. Where the butter-worker is not
used, though this, like the separator, is now becoming
popular, the butter is worked and made up by hand either
upon a small table or in a wooden trough. Here the dairy-
maid thoroughly manipulates it, and as each piece is
kneaded, it is laid aside and salt strewn upon the top,
when the remaining pieces as fast as they are finished are
placed upon it and salted in a similar manner. "When all
the butter has been worked, and the pile is complete, it is
cut down in slices, and these are again kneaded with the
hand in order to thoroughly amalgamate the salt with the
butter. In hot weather ice is used to keep it solid, but it
is quickly packed in kegs and sent to the exporter.
A great deal of attention is paid by the Danish Govern-
ment to the proper instruction of young people destined
for agriculture ; and the majority of the best dairy farmers
who are sufficiently interested are provided with pupils
sent by the Professor of Agriculture, or obtained by them-
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 103
selves. These remain at the farm from twelve to eighteen
months, paying a small fee for the time they are there.
They manage and milk the cows, assist on the farm, even
to mowing and harvesting, and are taught in the most
complete manner the whole routine of dairy work. Each
pupil is supplied with a small book in which is a slip for
each day, and upon this he enters the returns of his
department and endeavours to show a better weekly return
than his competitors. These figures are checked by the
head dairy-maid, who also keeps a book showing the
quantity of milk obtained, and cream and butter yielded,
with minor details which are very necessary in a large
dairy. Where the cream separator is not used, the Swartz
system is generally adopted. This consists of a vat some
9 ft. by 2j- to 3 ft. and some 2 ft. in depth, which is built
of concrete or brick lined with cement. At one end is a
tap for the supply of water, and at the other an outlet
pipe to carry surplus water away. This vat is usually
built in the milk room on the coldest side of the house,
and is in summer daily provided with ice, which is allowed
to float in the water. As the milk is brought in it
is strained and poured into the Swartz cans, which are oval
in shape, 24 inches deep, by about 8 inches wide, and
16 inches long. The milk remains in these cans from 10
to .12 hours, when the cream has all risen and is
skimmed off. The skim milk is then taken away either for
manufacture into cheese, or for the house and the cattle,
and the next milking is poured in. This system is
extremely simple, but cannot be properly conducted at a
higher temperature than 45° F. If, therefore, a cold
spring of water can be obtained which will not rise higher
than this, ice will not be required, but in reality an
104 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
exceptionally cool milk room is required in addition to the
water. Ice is generally preserved in Denmark, either in
barns or square yards, with four brick walls, and if well
buried in sawdust and examined weekly so that crevices
may be filled up by treading the sawdust in, little difficulty
is found in keeping it until the end of the summer, and
frequently indeed until a second summer.
In Sweden and Norway the system of butter making is
very similar, the best dairies being in the south of Sweden,
in which part we have seen the work conducted. There is
very little difference between the Danish and Swedish
systems, and at the present time it is the aim of both
Swedes and Norwegians to carry out the Danish system in
its entirety, and to obtain Danish prices. The cream
separator is now being largely used in these countries, and
almost every improved appliance is being adopted. The
Swedish system of setting is found everywhere ; but the
cattle are by no means so good as those in Denmark. The
only cheese worthy of the name which is made in .these
countries and which is special to them, is the " Myseost/'
which is made from whey, and largely composed of the
sugar of milk, as most people can tell by the peculiar
grittiness felt in eating it. Its colour is generally green,
and although sweet, its flavour is by no means agreeable,
and a taste for it has to be acquired before it can be
enjoyed. The whey is boiled upon the fire until almost
three parts have evaporated, it being continually stirred
the while. During the process the top or cream of the
whey which had previously been skimmed off, is added,
and when a scum or foam appears upon the surface this
process ceases. As may be supposed after so much
evaporation of water, the residuum has become a sticky
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 105
paste, which, as we saw at Madame Nielsen's, was poured
into a kind of mortar and there beaten with a pestle by
seven or eight dairy-maids in turn, until it was ready to
place in the mould, where it remained for pressure foi
about two or three days, when it was sold to be eaten
fresh. This cheese can be improved by the addition of new
milk or cream during the process of heating.
FRANCE.
Although the dairy is part and parcel of the system
of agriculture in almost every part of France, it is
hardly necessary, perhaps, to say, that it is much more
extensive, and far more perfect in its arrangements in the
Northern than in the Southern departments, where the
culture of the grape is more suitable to the climate, and
congenial to the people. It is true that the cultivation of
the breed of dairy cattle and the manufacture of the
famous cheeses peculiar to France, are conducted in
many districts in the centre and west of the country ; but
perhaps there are none which can approach those of
Calvados and La Manche, whether it be in the manufacture
of cheese and butter, the system of cropping for dairy
purposes, or the production of the highest quality of dairy
cattle. This being the case, the general remarks which
follow have particular reference to those departments,
which may be taken as an example of the highest class of
dairy farming in France.
The cows principally preferred are those of the Cotentin
race — large fleshy animals of fine quality, and magnificent
milkers. These animals, together with the luxuriant pas-
ture of these departments of Normandy, have much to
do with the system which has been adopted and raised to
106 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
such a pitch of celebrity. While it is the custom to house
the cattle in winter, and to feed them upon hay, which is
seldom huilt in ricks, hut placed in the barn in small
bundles of about lOlbs. each, — with mangolds, turnips, and
even carrots, they have a great idea of summer pasturing ;
and, to such an extent is this conducted, that we have seen
herds of cattle turned into meadows with two feet of
grass, almost ready for the scythe, and into which the dairy-
maids went three times a day for the purpose of milking.
This is, indeed, a common custom ; and in large dairies,
with the aid of the deep brass Cannes, holding from four to
eight gallons, which are carried upon the head of the girl,
or placed in panniers, two upon either side of the back of a
donkey, the milk is all obtained without the necessity of
driving the cattle home. The dairy-maid, like the labourer,
is a hard-working and invaluable servant, whom it would
be difficult to equal in this country. When the milk is
taken to the farm, it is first strained, and then poured into
earthenware pans, which somewhat resemble in shape the
galvanised iron pail used in this country, being much
larger at the top than at the bottom. Sometimes, however,
these pans are almost oval in shape, and similar in
diameter at the top to the bottom, with a handle on
either side, so that the system of setting the milk is quite
different from that adopted in England, and is rather a deep
than a shallow one. The milk room, too, is entirely
different from those common in England. It is generally
a plain apartment with a flagged floor, and a drain down
the centre. The milk pans are either set upon a small
raised stone or brick shelf upon two or three sides, or
within a wide gutter, which is formed by brickwork being
set about twenty inches from the wall, this being either
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 107
partially filled with water, or arranged for water to be
continually running through. In some milk rooms, how-
ever, there is hardly any system ; the milk cans being placed
at one end of the apartment in any position on the main floor.
As a rule the churning and working of the butter is not
conducted in this apartment, which is reserved entirely
for milk. There are three systems adopted in raising the
cream. Sometimes it is skimmed from entirely sweet
milk ; and the butter made from this cream is usually sent
to Paris, and obtains the highest possible prices, for the
Parisians are famous for the quality of their butter. In
other dairies the cream is allowed to sour, and is not taken
off the milk until the latter has turned, and is frequently
found in a state of curd. The farmers believe that they
obtain a larger yield of butter by this means, — which is
possible, considering that they must take up some curd
with it, — and they find that it procures a fuller flavour,-
which is preferred by a certain class of consumers. This
butter also keeps better if it is thoroughly well made, but
not unless. Another system which we have seen adopted
in the department of La Manche, is that of artificially
souring the milk. The milk room is usually placed behind
the kitchen, so that a communication can be made between
the flue and the milk room. At a certain time in the day
a tap is turned, and a quantity of hot air is sent into the
milk room, which is at all other times exceptionally cool,
and the sudden change turns the milk. In these cases we
were astonished to find, upon lifting the cream in the pans
with the skimmer, that the milk underneath was an
absolutely thick curd, and it appears to us impossible that
butter can be made without the introduction of a certain
percentage of this. The farmer uses the curd for two
108 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
purposes : in some cases for his men, and in other cases
for his calves ; each calf being entirely fed upon it until it
is fit for the Paris butcher, when it is sent up in the form
of large veal. In churning, which practice is, generally
speaking, conducted in time for the markets of the district
once or twice a week, as the case may be, the barrel churn
is almost invariably used, and in large dairies two are
worked at the same time by means of a connection through
the wall, with horse-gear outside. A number of different
churns have at times been exhibited in these departments,
but the farmers do not take to them, and the barrel may be
seen everywhere. The churn is generally turned at a slow
pace until the granular butter is formed ; and much
importance is attached to this, for the cleansing, and we
may almost say, the working of the butter is conducted
within the churn. This could not possibly be done if it
were converted into lumps before churning was stopped.
Where salt is used, it is almost invariably mixed with the
butter in the churn, and any practical dairyman will, after
a few moments' reflection, see that there can be no better
opportunity of thoroughly amalgamating it by means of
brine with the butter, than by pouring it into the churn
while the butter is in this granular form. Every
particle of butter-milk is washed out, and the butter can be
salted to the greatest nicety by means of careful washing
after the brining process, thus modifying the strength of
the salt to the required taste. When this is done the
butter is taken out, very slightly worked, and made up into
huge lumps or cones, and placed in baskets of appropriate
size, ready for market, or despatch by rail. Naturally, in
some cases, it is put into pots either for the merchant or
for shipment : in others it is prepared, as we have
FOREIGN DAIRYING. r^S^ 109
frequently seen it in London sliops, in pound or half-pound
rolls, or in kilogrammes or half-kilogrammes. The
churning process usually takes place in an apartment
adjoining the milk room, also paved with stone, and
plentifully supplied with water, these two articles being
made a sine qua non with the French dairy farmer. On
the best dairy farms there is generally a drainage system
for carrying waste milk and butter-milk into the pig-
geries, although these are sometimes at a considerable
distance.
Cheeses. — It might almost be said that the cheeses of
France are more numerous than those of all the rest of
E urope put together. We should not be surprised if this were
the case : at all events the number is very large, although
many of the cheeses are quite local and almost identical with
those made in other parts of the country and known under
other names. Pouriau, a recognised authority upon dairy-
farming in France, names a large number of cheeses in his
recent work, and divides them into two classes, hard and
soft ; the latter being sub-divided into new and ripe cheeses,
and the former into, (1) pressed and salted, and, (2) cooked,
heated, and pressed cheeses. New cheeses are found in
almost every market in France, and in several forms.
Thus they are made by large milk dealers in the cities
from surplus milk which they cannot hope to dispose of
in any other way. Small farmers manufacture them from
skim milk and send them into the markets in a very tasty
form at a very low price, while others with greater skill
make new milk cheeses, or cheeses combined of new milk
and cream, reaping good prices from these, and giving them
names such as Bondons, Neufchatel, Normandie, Malakoif,
110 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM*.
double cream, etc. The perfected or refined soft cheeses,
which are seldom sold until completely ripe, and which are
both made and ripened, and purchased and ripened by the
farmers, include those of Normandy — the principal of
which are the Camembert, Livarot, Pont 1'Eveque,
Mignot — those of the departments of Seine, Marne, Oise,
Meuse, etc., which include the Brie in its various forms,
e.g., the Brie de ferme, Brie courant, Brie de saison, the
Coulommiers Brie — also the Troyes, Barberey, Eroy, and
the Chaource ; also imitations of both Brie and Coulom-
miers. Again, among numerous other soft cheeses popular
in France are the Mont. d'Or, the Port du Salut, the
Kollot, Marolles, Langres, Void, the Gerome, St.
Florentin, Olivet, Bourgogne, Macquelines, Thury,
Munster, Compiegnes, and the Senecterre. Among these
may also be included what are called fromages a pate
ferine, such as the Roquefort, the imitation Roquefort, the
Septmoncel, Gex,Mont-Cenis, Sassenage, Cantal, Languiole,
and a variety of other cheeses of the Auvergne. There are
also Hollandes Francaise, or French-made Dutch, and
fromage de Bergues, these being all pressed and salted.
Among the remainder or really hard cheeses we have the
Gruyere and its imitations, the Rangeport, Port du Salut,
and the fromages of the Pyrenees, also a variety of others
made from the milk of goats and sheep.
The descriptions in the sequel relate to a selected
number of varieties which are at the head of their re-
spective classes, and which are slightly varied in different
departments.*
* See also " British Dairy Farming," illustrated by the writer of these
lines, published by Chapman & Hall, in which this department is
exhaustively treated.
FOREIGN DAIRYING. '. ;: 111
Brie — In the manufacture of the Brie cheese the rennet
is added to the milk as the latter comes from the cow, and
in a general way one particular make, that of Boll, is pre-
ferred rather than home-made rennet. Thus it is always
of one strength, and a proper quantity can he added with-
out difficulty. Eight twentieths of a cuhic centimetre are
used for each litre of milk. The mixture is set in a tin
vessel holding ahout forty litres, and after being slightly
stirred with a spoon it is left in a room at a temperature
of 65° F. It may he added that in summer time, in spite
of the evenness of the temperature, six twentieths only are
required to obtain the same result. At the end of four
hours the curd has become firm and elastic to the touch.
It is the"n placed in moulds made of tinned iron ; two being
used for each cheese, and varying in diameter, some
cheeses being twelve inches across, and others not more
than half that size. The top mould fits into the bottom
one, and the curd is filled to its rim so that when it has
drained and sunk considerably this is taken off. The top
mould is 2 inches, and the bottom 2^ inches in depth.
The curd is fit to move when the whey rests on the top
quite clear and bright. For ladling it into the moulds a
flat tinned iron plate slightly concave is used. The moulds
stand upon small round boards called planchettes, upon
which straw mats are laid, the boards being placed upon
fluted benches made of cement, from which the whey
drains off. At the end of 3 hours, when the top mould
is taken off, a dry mat is placed on the top of the curd, and
a clean board laid over this when the cheese in the bottom
mould is inverted and left to drain for 8 to 10 hours. Next
day fresh mats are used in the same manner, the straws
being laid in a contrary way to those of the previous
112 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
day, so that the cheese is marked evenly on each side.
The mould is next removed and the plain cheese left upon
the sloping boards, having been first salted with very fine
salt, sprinkled by the left hand and spread by the right, by
means of a goose quill. At the end of 12 hours each
cheese is laid upon a round willow frame called a clayette,
which is placed on the top of the cheese, this being at once
inverted and the mat beneath removed. The cheese is
next taken to the drying-room, and salted on the rim and
the outer face, and placed upon shelves to dry, plenty of
air being necessary, and this should be passed through the
room in as energetic a manner as possible. The cheese is
turned morning and evening, a clean clayette being used
each time. On the 2nd day a white mould appears in large
patches, and when this has covered the face of the cheese
it is taken to another apartment where the currents of air
are stronger, but are regulated at will as it may be found
necessary to hasten or retard the development of ripening.
Here, the cheeses are placed upon dry mats resting upon
boards and turned every 24 hours, the mats being changed
each time. The mould becomes blue at the end of a month,
when it is the custom of the farmers to sell the cheeses
either for immediate consumption or for further ripening
by the merchants.
Conlommiers. — In the manufacture of Coulommiers,
which resembles Brie in almost every particular, the
rennet should not be added at a temperature exceeding
77° F. The quantity per litre of milk is from 1J to 3
twentieths of a cubic centimetre according to the season,
the curd standing 36 hours in an apartment at 64° F.
before it is touched, when it is softer and less elastic than
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 113
that obtained in the manufacture of the Brie. The re-
maining portion of the process resembles that of the Brie ;
but it may be added that the cheese is much smaller in
diameter, ripens much quicker, and can in fact be eaten
with greater relish on the eighth or tenth day from its
manufacture, when the Brie at this period would be taste-
less.
Gerome. — This is a soft round cheese, weighing from
4 Ibs. to 8 Ibs., and sometimes made with the addition of
aniseed. The milk is coagulated at the temperature at
which it comes from the cow, and is placed in a deep
copper vat holding some 40 quarts, and covered with a lid,
in the centre of which is a wooden funnel. To the bottom
of this is attached a cloth for straining. The rennet, as
in most cases in France, is home-made, and the quantity
added varies according to its strength, which can be ascer-
tained with a little practice. The curds and whey are
divided with a ladle in half an hour, and the vat covered
for a second half hour, when the division is continued
until the curd has formed into small pieces about the size of
a nut. When this has been accomplished it is taken out
and put into cylindrical moulds 5 to 9 inches in diameter,
two being used to each cheese, the one fitting into the other.
The larger one is pierced with a number of holes for
drainage. The height of the two moulds when fixed is
about 14 inches. At the end of 12 hours the curd will
have sunk into the bottom mould, when the top is taken
off. It is now called a cheese, and changed into a fresh
clean mould, and placed upside down upon a shelf. In 6
hours it is again turned, and it is twice turned during the
two following days. When draining, the cheeses are
114 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
always put upon a sloping shelf from which the whey can
run off. The temperature of the room in which they are
made is ahout 60° F. Salting is next performed, the two
surfaces being well sprinkled, and this operation is re-
peated every 3 or 4 days, the cheeses being turned each
time. Turning is continued for 3 days after salting, and
the surfaces moistened with tepid water. When a dry
crust has formed, they are removed to the drying room,
or se'choir, in which large numbers are kept in a small
space, the aeration and temperature being perfect. When
thoroughly dry, the Gerome cheeses are taken to the cave or
ripening cellar, where they must be carefully managed.
The largest remain here some 3 to 4 months, and are
frequently turned and washed with slightly tepid water
during the time. As soon as they are brick- red in
appearance, and sufficiently firm to yield to the pressure
of the finger, they are marketed. A good Gerome is firm,
rich, and oily, with a few small holes in the centre, in this
respect somewhat resembling Gruyere.
Livarot. — One of the most popular cheeses in France,
and one which is not only profitable in its manufacture,
but well adapted for production by our dairy farmers, is the
Livarot, which takes its name from the town of Livarot
in the department of Calvados, the principal centre of its
manufacture. To the workmen, who consume immense
quantities of it, it is almost indispensable. The milk
taken from the cow is creamed on the following day and
poured into large wooden tubs, holding about 50 gallons,
being then brought to the temperature which it possessed
on leaving the cow. The rennet is then added, in summer
1, and in winter 2 dessertspoonfuls being required for
FOKEIGN DAIRYING. 115
•every 6 gallons of milk. As a rule this is made on the
premises, several calves' stomachs being cured together,
for each of which a large spoonful of salt and 3 glasses of
water are used. In 1 or 2 hours, the coagulation is com-
plete, when the curd is hroken up and laid upon rushes
or a clean cloth. Before placing in the moulds, it is
necessary that the curd should he reduced to small
•cubes no larger than lumps of sugar. After having been
left to drain for a quarter of an hour, the curd is placed
in the circular wooden moulds where it completely drains
.-and attains a proper consistence. This result can be
obtained in 3 or 4 hours if it is warmed, but the quality
of the cheese will be impaired. Moreover it must not be
left too long in the moulds — 1 to 4 days, according to the
season of the year and temperature, being quite sufficient.
'The moulds are turned over one hour after the curd has
been placed in them, and this operation is repeated half-a-
dozen times before the cheeses are released. They are
salted with the hand and left for 4 or 5 days on inclined wood
or stone tables, and then taken to the hdloir, or market.
The hdloir is an apartment with windows let into opposite
walls, through which a current of air passes for the
purpose of desiccating the cheeses placed in them in various
stages upon the lath racks, which have been previously
covered with straw. In this place they are left for 15
to 30 days, and then taken to the cave, all the apertures
of which are closed, and uniform temperature kept. In conse-
quence of the gas given off from the cheese, the walls are
not made of brick or stone, but of mortar mixed with
chopped hay. The cheeses, placed on planks, are turned
twice weekly in winter, and three times weekly in summer,
'being slightly wetted each time with pure water, and salted
i 2
116 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
afresh when necessary. At the end of 8 or 10 days in
the cave they are set on their edges on a species of sedge
to assist the process of drying. They remain in the cave
for 3 to 6 months, according to their size, and, when packed
for transmission to market, are coloured with anatto. It
requires about 5 pints of milk to make a cheese ; and Sep-
tember and October are the months chosen in which to
commence the process of manufacture. Several makers of
Livarot cheeses manufacture from 5,000 to 8,000 dozen in
a season, besides purchasing many white ones to perfect in
their own caves, which sell at 3|- to 8f francs per dozen,
and ultimately realise 15 to 20 francs, or, during Lent, 20
to 30 francs. At the Lisieux market, one of the best in
the department, three varieties of cheese are sold — white
cheese, which is eaten fresh and is most delicious, at 2d.
retail, or 1.20 to 2 francs the dozen : Carnembert of
medium quality from 4 to 5.50 francs : and Livarot, which
varies from 9 to 11 francs the dozen — while at St. Pierre
about 1,000 dozen are sold in the market every week, at
an average of 7 francs the dozen. At the markets of
Yimoutiers, Livarot, Lisieux, St. Pierre, and at Lisieux
Station, very large quantities are also sold ; and, since
1866, the total value of the cheeses manufactured has more
than doubled.
Journiac — This cheese is made to resemble Koquefort,
but instead of being manufactured from ewes' milk it is en-
tirely composed of the milk of the cow. The following is
the system adopted at the farm of M. Laforce, who resides
some 3,300 feet above the level of the sea. When the
milk comes from the cow it is poured into a wooden pan,
made of fir, which will hold the milk from a hundred cows.
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 117
It is then carried to the cheese-room, and the rennet is im-
mediately added. After the curdling and the separation of
the whey are complete the curd is placed in cheese-moulds
made of tinned iron, in which it is left to drain for three or
four days, and afterwards carried to the cave, which is kept
at a uniform temperature of 77° F., where it is constantly
watched and attended to hy special workmen. Every cheese
is turned daily and frequently sprinkled with fine white
salt. After a short time they are removed to other caves,
which are much colder and provided with strong currents of
air. Here they are stood upon their sides and pricked to
the centre with needles in order to place in contact with the
air a fine meal composed of rye, wheat, and barleymeal,
which, at the moment of placing the curd in the cheese-
moulds, was laid within the body of the cheese. This
•composition, when properly made, gives rise to the forma-
tion of a blue mould in the interior of the cheeses ; and if
the colour is of a fine blue it is classed as first quality,
providing of course it is of equal taste. During the time
the cheeses remain in the second cave they are daily rolled
and scraped, in order to avoid spontaneous growth of fungi.
They are usually ripe at the end of two months and de-
spatched for sale in cases holding one dozen each.
•Mont d'Or. — These very delicious small cheeses are
made of new milk, either by the addition of the morn-
ing's to the evening's, or twice a day. The rennet is not
added to the milk but the milk to the rennet, this being
placed in the vessel in which setting is to take place.
When thoroughly firm the curd is broken up and placed in
single hoops, similar to those used for Coulommiers, these
however being placed upon larger hoops, which are made of
118 |THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
wood, and on the top of these a couple of straw mats are-
laid to encourage draining and prevent curd passing
through. The diameter of the metal hoop is from 12 to
13 centimetres and that of the wooden a shade more, the
height of each being about 8 centimetres. When the
moulds are filled, they are placed upon a fluted inclined
shelf in order to drain, each cheese being turned at the end
of two hours, when clean mats replace the wet ones. Next
day the same process takes place, when they are carried to
the sechoir for further drying ; shelves covered with rye
straw being provided for the purpose, and the cheeses being
here taken out of the mould. Turning takes place four
times a day, but there is no salting other than that which
results from a continual damping of each surface with
brine. When sufficiently dry, at the end of two or three
days the cheeses are removed to the ripening room, where
they remain for a week during warm, and a fortnight in
cold, weather.
Roquefort — It is only necessary to refer to the Koque-
fort cheese — to state that it is made of sheep's milk, that the
system of manufacture is somewhat intricate, and that, as
it is not likely to be attempted in this country, we do not
deem it necessary to give a detailed description.
Neufchatel. — This little cheese, which takes its name
from the little town in the Brie district, in the department
of Seine Inferieure, is largely imitated by milk dealers in
London, who find the system a ready way for disposing of
"their surplus and sometimes spoiled milk. It is sold in
both its ripe and white forms, as well as from poor and rich
milk respectively : those made from skimmed milk being
FOKEIGN DAIRYING. 119
largely consumed by the poorer classes. The milk is co-
agulated in vessels holding about 12 quarts, the rennet
being added when the temperature is about 90 °F. The
pans are left from 36 to 48 hours, after which the curd is
deposited in cloths which are hung to drain over square
forms, the corners of the cloths being fixed to the corners
of the moulds. It is next put into a dry cloth and slightly
pressed for 9 hours or more if the whey is not extracted.
It being now tolerably solid, it is placed in small cylindrical
moulds, which give it its shape, salted at the ends, placed
on planks in rows, and carried to the perfecting or ripening
cellar. In a few days a white mould appears, and it is then
ready for the market as a new cheese. If this is to be com-
plete it remains much longer and is regularly turned. One
pound of milk is estimated to make a cheese, so that as a
gallon will make ten, and the poorest cheeses realise a penny
each, the maker does remarkably well with his milk. Natu-
rally the prices vary according to the quality, some makers
preferring to add cream to the milk, while others use skim
milk only. There are a variety of ways of manufacturing
these white cheeses, whether they are to be ripened or not.
In some cases a mould is used which resembles a small box
about 3 inches high by 4 inches square, holes being pierced
in the sides. In other cases a similar box is used, which
stands upon four legs ; and in others again a heart-shaped
wicker frame is adopted, or a round mould of wood in which
holes are similarly pierced. The curd of skim milk is used
in several forms for the manufacture of fresh soft cheeses,
and is even sold in its new state for that purpose. In some
cases where it has been made at a temperature of 80° F., it
is mixed with a small quantity of cream, and when the two
are thoroughly amalgamated the mixture is put into small
120 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
moulds, and left to drain ; but the curd must be particularly
soft or the amalgamation will not be perfect. Sometimes,
however, it is placed in fine cloths and hung over square
moulds, or from the ceiling of the dairy. Little cheeses of
this nature can be made in so many ways that it is not sur-
prising the French take so much trouble to understand and
manufacture them, and that we should be able to see such
numbers of different varieties in their country markets.
Camembert. — Perhaps this is the most popular of any
French cheese among English consumers. It was invented
nearly a century ago by Marie Fontaine, ancestress of M.
Cyrille Paynel, the most famous maker of the present day,
whose farm at Mesnil Mauger we visited, to learn the pro-
cess of manufacture, a few years ago. It takes its name
from the commune of Camembert, in which Mdlle. Fon-
taine resided. The cheese is made from whole milk, and
cream is not added as is popularly supposed. There are
imitations made of partially skimmed milk, but they do not
possess the quality of the real article. A portion of the
morning's milk is added to the milk of the previous even-
ing, this being heated in a tub to the temperature of 95° F.
when the rennet is added, this depending chiefly upon its
strength and the time of the year.
As an even quality of rennet is very important, some
makers prefer to manufacture their own. M. Paynel uses
one dessertspoonful to twenty litres of milk, and about
fifty per cent, more in winter. When mixed, the milk is
stirred for two or three minutes to assist its coagulation.
It is then covered and left for between five and six hours
according to the season, and when the finger can be laid
upon the surface without curd adhering, it is ready for
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 121
work. The curd is next taken out with spoons, and placed
in small cylindrical metal moulds, some four inches in dia-
meter, in which the cheese is shaped. These are open at
both ends, and stand upon small rush mats which are laid
upon sloping tables with gutters at the ledge for carrying
off the whey as it runs down from the cheeses. As a rule
2 litres of milk are required to make each cheese. After
remaining all day in the moulds, the cheeses can be removed
with ease. They are then turned, and the faces placed
upon clean mats, the new faces being powdered with fine salt,
and the cheeses left to drain until the next day. They are
now taken out of the moulds, rapidly salted, placed upon
wooden shelves, and left for two or three days until they are
ready to send to the drying-room, where they are laid upon
shelves covered with straw. This drying room, or hdloir,
is specially designed to admit as much air as possible, the
more energetic the current the better, although it must not
be carried straight through from window to window but
arranged so as to affect the whole apartment, as shelves are
placed from top to bottom. The windows must also be
covered with fine wire gauze to prevent the entrance of
insects and dust. The cheeses must be daily examined
while under the drying process, and turned or removed as
may be required. They remain in this apartment from
20 to 25 days according to the season. If the weather is
damp, the process must be hastened by admitting more air,
otherwise they become too soft and are likely to spoil.
During the first week, they are turned daily, and afterwards
every other day. About the third day, small brown spots
are seen upon the surface or skin, and in another week
they become covered here and there with fine white patches,
and as further days pass these change to a yellow, and then
122 THE DAIRY OF THE FAEM.
to a reddish yellow. They are not removed until they
have commenced to sweat and no longer stick to the fingers
when touched. The next process is that of ripening in the
cave de perfection, or curing cellar, which is an apartment
with glazed windows and interior shutters arranged to pre-
vent the entrance of the sun. The temperature must he
mild — about 50° F.-^-and the apartment slightly humid.
Too much moisture is not desirable, and the floors are often
paved to prevent this. Shelves are built round the room,
and upon these, cheeses are placed according to their age.
As they are taken from the top, the lower tiers are removed
up and space left for new cheeses as they arrive — a foot
dividing each shelf. The cheeses remain here from 20 to
30 days, during which time the most constant attention is
paid to them, for they are turned almost every day, and
every phase of fermentation watched, and assisted or
checked as may be found necessary. In some cases they
are made all the year round, large dealers purchasing the
cheeses from the smaller makers in their new state, and
drying and ripening them themselves in their own specially
prepared apartments.
The most imperfect ripening is that of summer, hence
cheeses are seldom made by farmers during the hot months.
When the process is complete, each cheese is wrapped in
paper and packed away in sixes, and again wrapped up and
packed in wooden cases or willow baskets in wheat chaff,
and despatched to the markets. In the best season they
reach 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. a dozen, but in summer they are
often sold as low as 4s. — realizing, however, lOrf. to Is.
each in the London markets. Upon the average, it takes
2 litres to make a cheese of 300 grammes or about 10J
ounces. M. Paynel uses 1000 litres of milk daily when
FOREIGN DAIRYING.
123
making Camemberts, and consequently turns out some 500
cheeses per day, these yielding him an average of 6s. Qd. a
dozen. A good Cotentin cow is expected to give 3000 litres
of milk or about 1600 cheeses, which, at 5s. 6d. a dozen,
would be nearly £35. In the department of Calvados many
farmers make from 10,000 to 160,000 cheeses each ; while
from the village of Mesnil Mauger, where M. Paynel resides,
twenty-four makers in one season made 62,000 dozen.
Mignot. — This cheese receives its name from the family
of Mignot, who were the first to make it. It is made
in two varieties, the new or white cheese produced from
April to September, and the Mignot passe from September
to April, the latter being the more valuable. The milk of
the morning is creamed in the evening, and mixed with the
evening's milk. It is then heated until it slightly scalds
the finger, when it is poured into earthen vessels and a
spoonful of rennet added to every 40 litres. It is next
placed near the fire, and left from 8 p. m. until 6 the
following morning, being covered the while with a double
cloth with a small hole in the top to prevent souring. The
coagulation is very slow, but when it is effected, the work
of manufacture is proceeded with, as in the case of the Pont
1'fevequewith the exception that the Mignot is drained less
than that cheese. In making the white cheese, the mid-
day milk is skimmed in the evening, and mixed with the
evening's milk, both being warmed as before mentioned. It
is then placed in earthenware vessels and covered with a cloth
until the next morning, when it is skimmed and used with
the new milk of the morning, after which the rennet is
added. The rest of the process is as for the Mignot
passe, both cheeses being subjected to very slow drainage
124 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
of the whey. They are rapidly made, salted upon the
evening of the day they are put in the moulds, dried
almost without air, and despatched to market a day or two
afterwards. When ripe, the Mignot has a rich golden
colour, and resembles the Livarot and Pont 1'fiveque in
flavour. It is made in both round and square forms, and
reaches 4s. to 5s. a dozen in winter.
Pont TEveque. — This popular little cheese is made in
the district of the town from which it takes its name, between
Lisieux and Honfleur. Its original name was Angelot,
or, as some think, Augelot from the valley of the Auge
Oise. It is now made in 3 qualities, according to the
quantity of cream used in its manufacture. In the first
quality the fleurette, or first cream, is added to new milk
after milking; or with some makers pure milk is used alone.
The second quality is made from the morning's milk, which
has been added to the evening's milk after skimming;
while the third quality is made from the skim milk of 3 milk-
ings, without any addition of new milk. In autumn 4
milkings are sometimes mixed, but in summer seldom
more than 2 ; while in winter 5 and even 6 are occasion-
ally used. In making cheeses from new milk, the latter is
placed upon the fire until luke-warm, when the rennet is
added, and as in the case of the Camembert, just sufficient
is used to cause coagulation, too much giving a disagree-
able flavour, and causing too active a separation. No
rule as to quantity can be given, this being ascertained
only by practice, with the particular rennet. The milk is
stirred with the hand, and left for about 15 minutes, when
the whole becomes set. It is then cut to the bottom of
the vessel with a wooden knife, and left 5 minutes after
FOEEIGN DAIRYING. 125
being covered with a cloth. The curd is next taken out,
and laid upon reed mats, called glottes, where it is left to
drain for a short time. The square moulds, made of ash or
beech, are then filled with curd and placed upon the same
mats until drainage is complete, these being turned several
times during the half hour following the operation, and
many more times during the clay. After being continually
placed upon fresh dry mats of a similar kind, in 48 hours,
the cheeses are taken from the mould, and salted with fine
dry white salt. One side is salted in the morning and the
other in the evening, only a small quantity of salt being
used. They are then taken to the sechoir, or drying-room,
and placed upon long shelves suspended from the ceiling.
This apartment is aired or ventilated, as described above.
The cheeses remain equi- distant from one another for 2
or 3 days, and are turned only once a day, and when
dry they are carried to the ripening cave or cellar, and laid
close to each other in boxes, this close proximity being
supposed to assist their ripening. Great care must, how-
ever, be exercised : they must be frequently examined, and
turned over every 2 days, and afterwards stood upright,
and finally flat one upon the top of the other. They
remain from 3 to 4 months in this apartment, according
to their size and quality ; the richest remaining for a less
period than the poorest, and if these are small and thin,
15 to 20 days is often sufficient to perfect them. Poor
cheeses which are kept for a long period, . sometimes
become too hard, when they are enveloped in a cloth
damped with whey, this process making them more tender.
A well-made Pont 1'fiveque cheese retains its qualities
for a year, and even two years if properly taken care of;
but it must be prevented from coming into contact with
126 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
damp and too much air. The richest cheeses are made in
the autumn, the midsummer cheeses heing generally from
milk which has heen skimmed for butter-making. This
cheese has a tendency to harden, but this is prevented in a
great measure, by the addition of a little boiling water in
the milk when it is put together. Milk used for the
manufacture of this cheese in summer must not exceed a
lukewarm heat, or it will become too hard, whereas in
autumn and winter the makers prefer that it should
slightly burn the finger.
In making the second quality of cheese, a litre of boiling
water is generally added to 6 or 7 litres of milk, a little
more being used in autumn than in summer. In making
the third quality the makers simply boil the water which is
poured into the milk, the latter not being heated at all.
Great care, however, is needed, as old milk is liable to turn.
This cheese must be eaten quickly, as it will not keep more
than about 3 months, but otherwise it is almost as fine as
cheese made from whole milk. It becomes a velvety blue
in 3 weeks, shewing that it is ripe, when it should be at
once marketed. To make a good cheese valued at Is. 3d.
4 litres of new milk are required ; and 5 to 6 litres for a
two-franc, or Is. Sd. cheese : thus 4 litres valued in
England at about Id. produces a cheese worth double the
money, in addition to the whey, which would increase the
return. The richest of these Pont I'feveque cheeses,
called " Bespoken " and made of two-thirds whole milk
and one -third cream, are seldom marketed, but reach from
30 to 40 francs per dozen, and are found upon the tables
of the rich in Paris, and other parts of France. Many of
the farmers in the district manufacture from 4,000 to
5,000 cheeses per annum.
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 127
St. Marcellin. — This cheese is made from goat's milk,
unskimmed, and derives its name from the district in
which it is made. The cheeses weigh from ahout 4 to 4J
ounces, and, if eaten fresh, must be consumed within twenty-
four hours. In hot weather they are considered particularly
agreeahle, though called cheeses of the third quality. The
rennet is manufactured according to the custom of each
particular farmer, hut is generally made from calves' veils
and white dry wine. No definite rule can be given as to
the quantity to be used, as this varies with different
makers, and according to its strength, but a little practice
will determine this point. If too much is used the cheese
becomes slightly sour. In winter the milk is heated a
little before working commences, but not in summer.
When the milk is curdled, it is placed into small goblets
or mugs, holding about 2 pints, which are perforated all
over the surface. In these the curd is placed, and after it
is sufficiently drained, and unable to lose its form, it is
quickly salted, taken from the moulds, and placed in an
apartment upon a shelf, on which is a layer of rye straw.
This apartment must be well aerated, and in a sheltered
position, and the cheeses turned and salted daily during
the hot weather : once every 2 days being sufficient in the
cold season. When they commence to dry, the crust
assumes a yellowish colour, and then a blue : and in this
state may be marketed as cheeses of the second quality.
In order to make a more perfect article the cheeses are
placed in a closed compartment in a cellar, being always
placed upon straw. Here they take a blue, and then a
yellow mould, and are considered to be of the best or first
quality. The chief feature in the manufacture of the
St. Marcellin cheeses is, that the most rigid cleanliness in
128 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
every operation is observed. The second and third
qualities of these cheeses can also he made from un-
skimmed cow's-milk, while good cheeses may he manu-
factured by adding to the goat's milk 25 per cent, of milk
from the cow. It is questionable, however, whether we in
this country can make so tasty an article in the absence of
the peculiar and exceptional pasturage cultivated by the
French farmers of the district in which this cheese is
made.
St. Remy — The milk and rennet are put together for
the manufacture of this cheese at a temperature of 95° F. :
10 to 12 grammes — a third or a little over a third of an
ounce — of rennet being used for every 100 litres of milk.
If the milk is not set direct from the cow, it must be
warmed until it reaches the required temperature. St. Remy
cheese is sometimes made from mixed milk, and sometimes
from new milk, according to the system of the maker.
The curd is usually formed in from 20 to 25 minutes;
but if at the end of this time it is not fit for use, a small
additional quantity of rennet is added, without re-warming
the milk. When firm it is cut into pieces with a utensil
made for the purpose to assist the separation, and it is
then left for half-an-hour, after which the whey is removed
and the curd placed in the moulds, which are allowed to
stand upon a sloping table until late in the afternoon, or
6 or 7 hours from the time of commencing the work, when
they are turned and left to drain until the next morning.
They are then salted for the first time, and again turned
and left for 24 hours. Next day they are again slightly
salted, and when fairly dry are placed upon small plates or
dishes, and stood upon shelves and turned 2 or 3 times
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 129
daily ; the plates, which are of wood, being moistened each
time. If they become at all hard they are washed with
lukewarm skim milk, with the aid of a brush. When
thoroughly drained they are put upon drying shelves until
quite dry, and fit for the refining cave ; but before being
taken here they are usually passed through some fresh
water whatever the season of the year may be. When in
the cave, which is a particularly cool cellar, they are
washed at least twice a week in summer with a brush, care
being taken to remove all mouldiness as it appears ; but
the washing is not needed so much as they proceed in the
ripening process.
GERMANY.
There are a variety of systems in force in the different
countries of which this nation is composed, but it is
not necessary to refer to any other than the North
German one, for in South Germany butter-making as
well as cheese-making is conducted in an old fashioned
manner, and would afford no instruction to the modern
dairy farmer. North Germany is becoming a famous
dairy district, more especially since the first factory was
built at Kiel, this having been but the precursor of many
others which are now in full work in various parts of
Sleswig, Holstein, Brunswick, and Hanover. Perhaps the
most intelligent portion of North German dairying is in
connection with these factories, to which the farmers send
their milk for conversion into butter and cheese, and
receive a sufficient sum to pay them well for their trouble*
Home dairying in Germany is neither advanced nor
especially intelligent, and cannot compare with that of
130 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
either France or Denmark ; but scientific dairying is equal
to that of either country, for perhaps German scientists in
this department have no superior in Europe. As in
Denmark, it is the custom in the factories to manufacture
butter which is sent out in little round pots with covers,
and which hold a kilogramme (a little over 2 Ibs.) ; these
being usually salted, when they will keep for a length
of time. The butter is invariably made from cream which
has been soured whether it has been separated by the
centrifugal machine or raised in the Swartz vat; and it
is almost invariably churned in a vertical churn known in
this country as the Holstein. As a general rule, the
farmers who conduct their own dairies, churn until the
butter has become solid, when they fail to thoroughly
cleanse it, and often salt it too highly. The Germans,
however, like a well developed flavour, and scarcely realize
that they are behind neighbouring nations in dairy
management. In all the factories a proper system is
conducted, the milk heated and cooled after its arrival,
skimmed by the Danish, Laval, Lefeldt, or Fesca machines ;
and the skim and butter-milks largely used in the manu-
facture of cheese. All factories sell cream neat in two
qualities, as is sometimes done in London ; and they also
sell skim-milk and butter- milk to the poor, their vans
being seen in every large city, with the taps of the cream,
and new skim, and butter-milk, outside, with the prices of
the day painted over each. The Germans also use their
butter-milk for their horses, for which it is a valuable food,
and pays much better than giving . it to pigs. Pigs,
however, are largely kept for the purpose of consuming the
whey and such milk as cannot otherwise be disposed of.
There is perhaps more care taken to prepare foods for the
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 131
poorer classes than in any other dairying country ; for, in
addition to the milk above mentioned, curds are largely
sold at l%d. a pound, much of which is made from
butter-milk, while skim-milk sells at S^d., and butter-milk
at 5d. a gallon. The principal cheeses made in Germany
are also particularly adapted for consumption by the poorer
classes, and of these we may name specially the Limburg
and Backstein ; the latter being made in varieties known as
Lab kase, Hartz kase, and Sauer kase, although there
are a variety of sour cheeses made in Germany.
The Limburg Cheese, which is also largely made in
Belgium, and which is almost the only dairy product at all
famous in that country, is manufactured from skim-milk,
and realizes in North Germany about 2Jd. a pound to the
maker, selling retail at 3d. each. It is made from milk at
a temperature of about 95° F., sufficient rennet being
added to set the curd in 40 minutes. There is no great
art in its manufacture, for immediately it is fit to work,
the curd is ladled out of the vat and placed in the moulds
upon a table made for the purpose. This table may be
2 yards long by 2J feet broad, one end being higher than
the other. It is divided by movable partitions, which may
be made of wood or tin, so that when these are placed in
there are a number of moulds or divisions four inches
square. These divisions are perforated, and along the
bottom of the table are very small fluted channels for
carrying off the whey. Sometimes the curd is placed in
the tables before the divisions are inserted, these being
placed in the curd when it has become firm. On the
following day the cheeses are formed, taken out and salted,
being turned several times for three days upon the shelves
K 2
132 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
upon which they stand, when they are taken to the drying-
room, and remain sometimes for a considerable period.
Occasionally the Limhurg is sold fresh, but it may be kept
until thoroughly ripe, at the end of two or three months,
when it obtains a higher price. 100 litres of milk (22 gal-
lons) usually make 8 kilogrammes (about 18 Ibs.) of cheese.
The Hartz Ease is made from skimmed sour milk at a
temperature of 90° F., the whey being completely separated
from the curd by the process. At the end of a few hours
the curd is dipped out of the vat and placed on a similar
table to that used for the Limburg, but in addition
it is pressed by weights which are put upon the top of
each cheese. In a short time the curd is then placed in
a mixing tub and salted at the rate of 1 ounce to 3 pounds.
It is then ground, worked, and once more placed in the
moulds upon the table. They are again slightly pressed,
and then taken out of the moulds and put upon the shelves
of the cheese-room to dry, being turned at first twice a day,
and afterwards once only. They are then taken to the
curing- cellar; but unlike the French, who encourage a
growth of fungus, this is destroyed as rapidly as it
appears, by being brushed off.
Backsteiu — There are a variety of systems by which
this cheese is made, although they do not differ much ; but
it is manufactured either from skim or half- skimmed milk
at a similar temperature to the Limburg, being also con-
verted into curd in the same period of time. After setting,
instead of being immediately placed on the cheese-table, it
is cut up into cubes to allow the whey to drain, and
afterwards again cut into cubes for the same purpose. It
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 133
is next placed in the wooded moulds similar to those used
for Limburg ; and when sufficiently drained, each cheese is
taken out and treated in a similar manner to that we have
described above for the Limburg. There are also a variety
of cheeses known by other names made in North Germany,
but the manufacture is similar to that already described.
In the South, however, there are a few kinds which need
not be referred to, as they resemble in almost everything
but name those which we have described as being made in
France and Switzerland.
HOLLAND.
The chief dairying districts in the Netherlands are
North and South Holland and Friesland, each of which
has its specialite. In the first, the famous Edam or round
Dutch cheese is manufactured, together with the almost
equally well-known Campine butter; in the second, the
flat Dutch or Gouda cheese is a staple industry in ad-
dition to the butter of Delft ; while Friesland is, perhaps,
more famous than either for its butter, one port alone in
this country having exported 400 tons in one season. In
North Holland it is the custom of the dairy farmers to sell
their worst calves at a month, rearing the best for the
dairy, and it is remarkable that throughout Holland larger
numbers of cattle are kept per acre than perhaps in any
other dairying country. The system of setting milk is,
generally, similar to that in England by means of the open
pans, although in many cases the Swartz system is fashion-
able. In South Holland the best farmers expect to realise
660 gallons of milk per cow, one gallon making a pound of
cheese ; and we are not surprised at this, for the size and
134 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
milking qualities of Dutch cows are generally known. In
the best dairies it is customary to skim at 12 hours to
make the first quality of butter, and at 24 for the second,
but 24 and 36 hours' skimming are most frequent with
the smaller farmers.
In the manufacture of Delft butter the milk is first
cooled in copper vessels, which stand in very cold water
for 2 hours. It is then transferred into shallow pans in a
cool dairy, skimming taking place at 12, 18, and 24 hours.
The churns used are exceedingly primitive and much
inferior to those adopted in this country. The working is
done by hand, and the salting and packing exceedingly
well-managed ; but as a general rule it is not thoroughly
well- washed nor too carefully made. Although an immense
quantity of butter is imported into this country from
Holland, there is very little of high quality, or such as our
makers need attempt to imitate, the greater part of it being
an imitation, in the art of producing which the Dutch seem
to have long taken the lead, for there are numerous
factories in Holland, and large quantities of poor butter,
especially Campine, made for the purposes of mixing with
and giving a character to, the imitation.
Edam. — The most famous dairy products of Holland so
far as British consumers are concerned, are the Edam and
Gouda cheeses. The former is the round, red Dutch, and
is made as follows : — The rennet is added to the milk at a
temperature of 90° F., and in 20 to 25 minutes, it is cut with
an instrument resembling a lyre with a dozen strings. After
standing for a short time for the separation to take place,
the whey is taken out and the curd afterwards thoroughly
worked by the hand; and, when fit, it is placed in the
FOKEIGN DAIRYING. 135
moulds which, in the case of this cheese, being globular,
are divided into halves. The moulds, being full, are
placed together, and pressed as tightly as possible. The
solid curd is then taken out, a cloth wrapped round it,
placed in fresh moulds, and subjected to pressure in a
lever press until the next day. The moulds are placed in
dishes to catch the whey, and the same pressure is generally
made to answer for several cheeses. At the end of this
time the cheese cloth is removed, and the cheese placed in
a semicircular mould with a foot to it, and several holes
perforated in the sides. A piece of flat board is then
placed on the top, and it is then put under the press.
After sufficient pressure has been obtained, the cheeses
are salted and turned daily for 8 or 10 days, at the end of
which time they are soaked in water and rubbed over with
linseed oil.
Gouda — In the manufacture of the flat Dutch or Gouda
cheese there is some similarity to the Edam system ; the
rennet coagulating the milk in about 40 minutes, after
which time the curd is gently cut and the whey allowed
to separate for 10 minutes, when it is again manipulated ;
and after another rest the curd settles at the bottom of
the vat, and the whey is drawn off. Hot whey is next
mixed with the curd to sustain its warmth, and it is again
• allowed to remain for a short time, when this is taken out
with a utensil specially made for baling. The curd is
afterwards well-worked and evenly broken up. It is then
pressed in the bottom of the vat and again broken up, as a
mill is not used. It is afterwards placed in perforated
moulds (being previously covered with cloth) which are
immediately put to press, the pressure being increased
136 THE DAIKY OF THE FAKM.
regularly until the following day, when it is turned and
provided with a clean cloth. The cheeses are then laid in
salt and water, where they remain for 3 days, after which
they are washed with whey and taken to the drying-room.
Here they are placed upon shelves, and daily turned until
the second week, when turning is performed every other
day. At the end of a month they are fit for sale, hut it is
the custom of some of the hetter makers to keep them for
a much longer period, when the flavour is considerably
improved and the consistence is more mellow. The Gouda
cheese is generally made of new milk but, as in all cheeses,
there are many farmers who skim the milk once before they
set it to curd.
ITALY.
Butter -making in Italy is not conducted upon a prin-
ciple which can by any means be termed modern or per-
fect. Upon small farms, the cream, which is raised in
open pans, often made of wood, is churned in cylindrical
churns, the beaters within being turned instead of the churn
itself. This is the general custom in Lombardy. In Pied-
mont it is quite common for the farmer to place his cream
at 50° F. into a round box, called a Purragie, which has a
kind of spoon attached to the axle. This is turned by a
crank and the revolution of the spoon is upon the inside of
the periphery of the box. This process is rather laborious
and requires the services of two men. " The dairyman of
Parma," we are told, "beats his milk with a cream
whipper, and skilfully lets the floating cream, which gathers
into a bucket, overflow into a fine-edged wooden bowl and
thence into the churn." In summer 10 pounds of ice are
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 1ST
added to 30 quarts of cream, while in winter the cream is
heated, the temperature heing usually kept at from 57 ° to
67° F., the Italians permitting a pretty wide margin.
When in the churn the cream is beaten by two men alter-
nately with a butter beater attached to a frame, this being
raised and lowered by leverage. The butter forms in about
40 to 45 minutes, water being added if formation is desired
quickly, and ice if it is necessary to retard it. The butter
is worked by hand, formed in large lumps, and left to
drain. In some parts of Italy it is customary to keep
butter in bladders, a method which is considered very con-
venient, and which enables it to be kept for a length of
time.
Cheese factories abound in Italy, and numbers have been
started since the year 1873-74, when the Government
offered large prizes and gold medals to the best-managed
associations. In Sicily, strange to say, small dairymen,
instead of daily manipulating their own milk, take it to the
large cow-keepers, until they have delivered some 300
quarts. They then receive that quantity back at one time
and deal with it in the manufacture of butter or cheese, this
system of reciprocity being found mutually beneficial. The
Italian cheeses known in England are the Parmesan and
the Gorgonzola, the last-named of which the writer has
visited Lombardy to see in course of manufacture.
Gorgonzola. — In making this cheese the milk is coagu-
lated while warm from the cow, great attention being paid
to the preparation of the rennet, and the quantity re-
quired being only ascertained by experience. The curd is
set in from 15 to 20 minutes. The whey is then separated
as much as possible, and the curd hung up to drain in coarse
138 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
strainers. This process is conducted twice daily after each
milking. The curd which has been dealt with in the
morning, and which is placed in round wooden flexible
moulds, in which a cloth is first laid, is placed upon an in-
clined table, upon which the chaff of some rye has been
laid. By the time the evening's curd is ready that of the
morning is naturally cold, but the cheese is composed of the
two, the cold curd being placed in the centre and the warm at
the top and bottom. Thus each cheese is made up of three
layers, and as the hot and cold curd never properly combine,
two sets of interstices are, as it were, created, in which, as
it matures, the well-known green mould forms, and adds to
the cheese the delightful flavour which is so much approved
of in this country. During the first day of manufacture the
curd is turned three times, and on the next morning it is
put into a clean cloth and salted, this process being con-
tinued for at least a week, sometimes more, and 1 ounce of
salt generally used to about 8 pounds of curd. In some
cases the salting operation is conducted by a special process
of turning and pressing against a salted surface, this giving
a better crust to the cheese. The wooden mould within
which the curd was placed in the first instance is not re-
moved until the fourth day, when the cheese has commenced
to ferment. At the end of 25 days a good cheese is gener-
ally a pinkish white in colour ; but if it is inferior it becomes
nearly black, the crust in this case being soft, and the body
of the cheese rapidly deteriorating. If, however, the crust
is hard, washing in brine will improve it. The temperature
of the cheese-room is usually between 57° and 67 ° F.
The ripening commences in April and frequently continues
until August. One gallon of milk usually makes 1 Ib. of
Gcrgonzola cheese.
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 139
The Parmesan, or Formaygio di Grana, cheese is very
largely made in Italy. In its manufacture the milk is
heated, according to its condition and age, from 77° to
86° F., although this is somewhat guess-work, for the dis-
tinction is invariably made by hand. The rennet is then
added in the proportion of a £ ounce to 500 gallons. This
rennet is dissolved by using a pestle in small wooden uten-
sils made for the purpose, and filtering it through fine
sieves, through which it oozes into the milk vat. The curd,
having formed, is broken with a utensil called a rotilla, a
disc being at the bottom end. The working is continued for
forty minutes, with intervals every now and then, that the
curd may be consolidated but not hardened. When the whey
is removed, \ an ounce of saffron is added to the contents of
the vat per 80 gallons. The pan containing the curd is next
placed upon the fire and heated for nearly an hour up to a
temperature of 112° F., being stirred during the time with
the utensil named above. When the curd has broken up into
minute particles it is removed from the fire and a quantity
of the cold whey, which had been drained off, is added to
the mixture to assist the curd in forming in a mass at the
bottom, where it is gathered and squeezed with the disc of
the rotilla. It is then loosened and drawn to the surface,
where it is collected in a cheese cloth, and lifted out into a
mould and there left in its wet state for an hour. After
this it is placed in a box made of beech and bound with
hoops. A cloth is placed over it, and a wooden follower,
upon the top of which heavy weights are laid. In this
state the whey is pressed out ; but, after a few hours, it is
again dipped in the whey, but returned to the mould after
being enveloped in buckram, — this, by means of the pres-
sure, giving the cheese the peculiar print which is always
140 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
seen upon its crust. After some hours it is salted and then
dipped in salt water and again pressed between the boards.
The salting process is continued every other day for a fort-
night, when it is taken to the curing-room and occasionally
scraped, being finally well rubbed with oil.
There is a cheese made in various parts of Italy similar
to the whey cheeses which are made in two or three
English counties. This is called Kicotta. The curd, if we
may so call the solids obtained from the whey, is the
solid matter remaining in the milk after the extraction of
the casein and fat. This is sometimes placed in a vessel
of cold water, well shaken, and afterwards pressed with the
hand. In half an hour the surface of the water is covered
with a scum. This is the fat or butter of the ricotta. In
making the cheese, the whey is boiled, a little of the sour
whey from the last making being first added. In this
process, a scum also rises which may be used at once in
the form of butter or converted into a regular cheese. It
may be improved by several modes of salting and curing,
or by the addition of sweet milk or cream.
SWITZERLAND.
Dairy farming in Switzerland is an important national
industry ; but in the mountainous cantons which are shut
off from the outer world for almost half of the year, and
where the cattle graze, and the cheeses are made at an
altitude of some 7000 feet, the system is exceedingly
primitive. In these districts it is customary for one or
two men to take the entire cattle of the valley to the moun-
tains for the summer, to live with them, milk them, and
make the cheeses, a hut being provided for the purpose.
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 141
Once a month the owners below visit the herds and test the
quantity of each cow's yield ; and by this means the cheeses
are divided, and the herdsmen paid. In the more fertile
cantons, such as Zurich, Zug, Lucerne, and Schwytz, the
young cattle are grazed upon the mountains, but the cows
are housed the whole year round, getting grass during
summer and hay during winter, cake and corn being almost
unknown to the farmers. The milk is usually set in
shallow wooden pans similar to the English, for almost
every dairy utensil is made of wood in Switzerland. The
cream is churned sweet, the churns resembling a Gruyere
cheese or a small millstone in shape, and they are conse-
quently difficult to manipulate and impossible to clean. The
butter is exceedingly good and seldom salted, but it must be
eaten fresh, for it will not keep. In cheese -making, unless
in the factories and on the best farms, the milk is turned
by a primitive kind of rennet made of vinegar and sour whey
in which pieces of bread are placed ; and except the very
beautiful copper cheese kettles, the finest appliance of the
kind which we know, there are no good dairy utensils
made in the country. The principal cheeses are — Emmen-
thaler which we call Gruyere ; Gruyere, which in the
country is often a real skim milk cheese ; Vacherin ; and
Schabzieger.
Emmentlialer — In this manufacture the milk must be
at a temperature of from 93° to 96° F. If, however, the
milk is extra rich, it may be a degree higher, whereas, for
poor milk it should be a degree lower. Again, as in
summer cooling is slower than in winter, it is not
necessary that the temperature should be quite so high.
The quantity of rennet added is usually 3 Ibs. to 650 or 700
142 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
Ibs. of milk, this rennet however heing specially prepared
by each maker. At the expiration of from 20 to 40
minutes, the curd has become firm and gelatinous, and
manipulation then commenees. In the first place it is cut
.through slowly and regularly with a wooden knife called a
sabre de bois which reaches to the bottom of the kettle.
It is then left for a short time for the whey to divide from
the curd, and afterwards heated afresh to a much higher
temperature before it is again cut up. The breaking of the
curd continues for some time, until at last it is entirely
disunited from the whey, gets harder, and formed into
small grains. The operator then takes a large cloth,
stretches a metal band across one end, and this he dips to
the very bottom of the kettle beneath the curd, which is
ingeniously gathered into the cloth. The metal band is
then disengaged, the four corners of the cloth affixed to a
hook suspended over the vat, and the whole is immediately
swung across and dropped into the centre of a huge gruyere
hoop which is placed upon a table. Here it is worked into
shape, cleverly covered with dry cloths, the hoop pulled
tightly, and the cheese well bound within it. It is then
placed in the cheese press, where it remains for about three
hours, a pressure of eighteen pounds being devoted to each
pound of cheese. After this, it is taken out and provided
with clean cloths and again pressed, the changing of the
cloths taking place four, five, and even six times during the
day. The next morning the cheese is again taken out and
placed upon a table for salting, being first well scraped or
pared. The salt is laid upon the surface, and well brushed
in with a brush provided for the purpose, about 4 Ibs. of
salt being used for 100 Ibs. of cheese. It is then taken
to the cheese-room and placed upon a shelf, and here it is
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 143
that it is either perfected or spoiled, for if the temperature
is too low, it becomes hard and solid, and, if too high, it
swells and large holes are formed within. If, however, the
maker tests each cheese with his finger daily, there is
little fear of any being spoiled.
Gruyere. — Gruyere in Switzerland is a half-fat cheese,
the evening's milk being skimmed and then added to the
milk of the morning, the latter being heated to a tempera-
ture of 110° F. before the addition of the evening's milk,
so that the mean temperature of the mixture is about
93° F. before the rennet is added. The system of adding
rennet is controlled by a simple experiment which the
maker employs, adding 1 spoonful to 3 spoonfuls of milk
before the bulk of the milk is touched. If this minute
quantity sets in 60 to 80 seconds, all well and good, and he
is satisfied of the strength of the rennet. As a general
rule, the proportion is 1 part rennet to 140 parts of milk.
When set, the curd is cut, as in the case of the Emmen-
thaler. The remainder of the system of manufacture very
much resembles that described above. A hundred pounds
of milk usually make 8 to 11 Ibs. of Emmenthaler cheese,
or 5 Ibs. to 6 Ibs. of the poorer Gruyere.
Vaclierin. — The Vacherin cheese is chiefly made in
Canton Fribourg. New milk is heated to a temperature of
100° to 104° F., and after the curd has set, it is gently
divided with a net made for the purpose, and left for an
hour, when the whey will be found at the top of the vessel.
This is then baled out and the curd placed in a mould, in
which it is left to drain for 15 minutes, being wrapped in
a cloth and slightly pressed. The cheese is turned, and
144 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM.
the cloth changed four times during the day, in order that
the whey may be completely pressed out or absorbed. It
is taken out of the mould the next day and laid upon
a clean cloth and left to dry and ripen, being turned and
the cloth changed every second day.
Schabzieger. — This cheese, which is famous in some
parts of Switzerland, is chiefly made from the albuminous
portions of the milk called sere, and also from the curd of
skimmed milk ; and strange to say, the more completely the
milk is skimmed the more successful is the manufacture of
the cheese. The milk is heated until boiling point, when
a quantity of cold butter-milk is added, little by little.
Next a small quantity of azi — a prepared sour butter-
milk— is added, and the mixture removed from the fire.
Coagulation will now have taken place, and the mass
is stirred with a large spoon, and after being allowed
to stand for a short time the solid portion is taken out and
placed in boxes prepared for the purpose, pressed, and then
subjected to a heat of 60° F. in order to start fermentation.
This is but the beginning of the manufacture, for it is
allowed to ferment for some weeks, when the cheese is
ground and salted, and a small portion of herb named
Melilotus coerulea which is finely pulverised, added, to impart
the well-known flavour of the zieger. The cheese is now
beaten, and made up into very small conical shapes. It is
estimated that 30 Ibs. of skim-milk make 3 J Ibs. of schab-
zieger, which is not eaten as is ordinary cheese, but mixed
with butter, and spread upon bread.
INDEX.
ABORTION, 44
Acre, yield per, 11
Adulteration of milk,
61
Age and character of cows, 39
Albert Institution, 20
Arable dairy farms, 98
Artificial foods, 50
Ash of milk, 95
Ass milk, 53
Ayrshire cow, 36, 38
— produce, 5, 7, 9
BACKSTEIN cheese, 132
Bath cheese, 91
Boiled butter, 71
Boussingault's rations, 21
analyses, 53
Brewers' grains, 2*8
Brie cheese, 111
Butterine, 62
Butter, 63
— making, 66
— statistics, 3
— yield, 7
CABBAGES, 25
Caird's English Agriculture, 12
Cakes, Oil, 28
Calf rearing, 49
Camembert cheese, 120
Carob beans, 28
Carrots, 26
Cheddar cheese, 77, 84
Cheese, 77
— press, 92
— room, 79
— yield, 9
Cheshire cheese, 81
— experience, 10, 12, 13
Choice of cow, 35
Churning, 72
Churns, 75
Clean milking, 100
Clover, 23
Colostric milk, 53
Cooley system, the, 66
Cotentin breed of cows, 105
Coulommiers cheese, 112
Cowhouse, 42
Cream, 64
Crops for the dairy, 23
Curd formation, 78
— mill, 92
DAIRY breeds, 35
— examples, 5
— farms, 30
— for milk, 57
Denmark dairying, 101
Derbyshire cheese, 87
Devonshire cream, 67
Discrepancies, 67
Drying the cow, 45
Dunlop cheese, 77, 84
Dutch cattle, 39
EDAM cheese, 135
Education for dairying, 102
Emmen thaler cheese, 141
Ensilage, 29
Ergot, 44
Escutcheon, the, 41
Ewe's milk, 53
FIFESHIRE experience, 13
"Fleetings," 83
Food and produce, 19
Food of cow, 15
Foot-and-mouth disease, 46
Foreign dairying, 101
France, 105
French cheeses, 109
GENERAL management, 94
Gentleness and punctuality, 99
German dairying, 129
Gerome cheese, 113
Glo'ster cheese, 77, 80
Gloucester experience, 10, 12, 16
Gloucestershire cow, 36
— statistics, 97
Goat milk, 53
Gorgonzola cheese, 137
Gorse, 25
Gouda cheese, 135
Grazing or dairying, 95
Gruyere cheese, 143
Guernsey cattle, 37
— produce, 6
HARTZ kase, 132
Hask or hoose, 45
Hay, 23
Health, 44
Holland dairying, 133
Hosley's experience, Mr., 8
Horsfall's practice, Mr., 8, 17
Hovcn, 46
146
INDEX.
IMPLEMENTS, 74
Imports of dairy produce, 14
Insects affecting cheese, 93
Irish cows, 7
Italian rye-grass, 24
Italy, 136
JENKINS' rules, Mr. H. M., 68
Jersey cattle, 37
— produce, 6, 8
Journiac cheese, 116
KEEVIL'S curdbreaker, 87
Kerry cattle, 39
Kohl rabi, 26
LACTOSCOPE, 52
Lancashire cheese, 88
Lea's experience, Mr. John, 11
Limburg cheese, 141
Livarot cheese, 114
Lucerne, 24
McADAM's experience, Mr., 10
Malt and barley, 22 '
Mangel wurzel, 26
Mare's milk, 53
Meal, 27
Mignot cheese, 123
Milk, best use of, 96
— composition of, 51, 53, 54
— sale, 96
— yield, 5
Milking, 47
Molasses, 28
Mont d' Or cheese, 117
NEUPCHATEL cheese, 118
North Wilts cheese, 77
OLEO-MARGARINE, 62
PALIN'S experience, Mr., 11, 16
Parmesan cheese, 139
Parsnips, 27
Pasturage, 23
Pleuro-pneumonia, 46
Pont 1'Eveque cheese, 124
Potatos, 27
Purging, 46
QUARTER-ILL, 46
RANCID butter, 71
Kape as cow food, 25
Redwater, 46
Refrigerator, 75
Remedies for ill-tasted butter, 58
Roquefort cheese, 118
Rye, 24
SAGE cheese, 91
Sainfoin, 25
St. Marcellin cheese, 127
St. Remy cheese, 128
Salt, 28
Schabzieger cheese, 144
Schemes of cultivation, 30
Separators, 76
Shorthorns, 35
Shrewsbury prize farm, 11
Skim-milk cheese, 9, 77
Skin diseases, 47
Statistics, dairy, 13
Stilton cheese, 89
Stock and produce, 13
Straw, 27
Suffolk cattle, 37
Summer food, 16
Swartz system, 103
Sweden and Norway, 104
Switzerland, 140
TASTE of milk, 59
Thomson's experiments, Dr. R. D., 21
" Thrustings," 83
Truckle cheese, 90
VACHERIN cheese, 143
Veal, 96
Vetches, 24
WARTS, 47
Water-supply, 43
Whey, 83
Wigtonshire experience, 16
Winter food, 16
— milk, 45
Woman's milk, 53
YORKSHIRE cow, 36
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I WAVER LEY.
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26. LAY OF LAST MINSTREL
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ti. CHRONICLES — JOB
ELEVEN
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