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The Branner Geological Library
JBASD-SDamWB JVNIOR-VMVERSirY"
jiL..
A
The Branner Geological Library
lEUSD-SIitNFORDiIVNIOR-VinVESSinr
r
ADVKRTISKMKNT
The* work of the liureau of Aiiieruaii Kthiioh>gy is <*oiuluct4Ml under aet of Con-
gress ^Mor eoiitiiiuiiig ethiiohigie researclies anion|>: the American Indiana under the
direction <,V tlie Smithsonian Institution/'
Two series of ])nblieations are issued by tlie lUireau under authority of Congress,
vi/, annual reports and bulletins. The annual reiM)rts are authorized by concurrent
resolution from time to time and are published for the use of Congress and the P>ureau;
tlie i)ublication of the series of bulletins was authorized by concurrent resolution first
in 1S80 and more definitely in 1888, and these also are issued for the use of Congress
and the Bureau. In addition, the Hureau sui)ervises the publication of a series ol
quario volumes bearing the title, '*Contributionsto North American Ethnology," begun
in 1877 by the Tnited States (reograpiiical Survey of the RcK'ky Mountain liegion.
Thes<* i)ubli(*ations are distributed primarily by Congress, and the i)ortions of the
editions printed for the Bureau arc used for exchange with libraries and scientitic
and c<lucational institutions und with special investigat<n*s in anthroiwdogy who send
their own publications regularly to the Bureau.
The exchange list of the Bureau is large, and tlie product of the exchange forms
a valuable ethnologic library iTidependent of the general library of the Smithsonian
Institution. This library is in constant use by the Burean cxdlaborators, as well as by
other anthropologists resident in or visiting Washington.
The earlier volumes of the annual reports aud the seven volumes of the •''Contri-
butions to North American Kthnology" thus far issued are out of i)rint.
Kxchanges and other contributions to the Bureau should be addressed,
The DiRKCToK,
Burma of American hJthnoloffy-,
Washinf/Um,, IK <J„
r. N. A.
IPKI'AIITMKNT Cll* illB INTHIIIIIIt
U. 8. OEOORtrillllAI, AND IIKlll.lJllllitI, HIHIVI'.V III' Till', IIIIUM HnllNIUIIi IINilHIl
.1. W. I'llWI'll.l. IN I'lUltlf^
(;<).VTHII{I.TI0\H
NORTH AMEKM AN KTIIS0MH;V
V'yJ,« Ml', IX
I' , I ; <•• V.'
211698
. » •
• ■
' • - •
• •
DEPARTMENT OF THK ISTEBIOH
U. S. GE0GHAPHI04I, iSII GEOLOGICAL SlIllVEV Of THE UOCKV llonNTAIS REGION
J. W. I'OWELI. IN f'HAHGK
DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TENTS, AND ETHNOGHAPHy
S'ri;i>HEN RKTUHN lUOOS
h;i>vfi-;it uv .i.v.mktj <i\vi-;.n i>(Hisi.;v
WASHIKUTON
GOVKKNMKNT PRINTINli OKKICE
1803
CONTENTS.
Letter of transmittal ix
Preface xi
PART FIBST.— GRAMMAR.
Chapter I.— Phonology 3
The alphabet 3
Syllabication 6
Accents • 5
Changes of letters 6
Substitution and elision 6
Contraction 10
Chapter II. — Morphology 11
Prononns 11
Personal pronuuus 11
Separate 11
Incorporated 12
Compound pronouns 17
Relative pronouns 17
Interrogative pronouns 17
Demonstrative pronouns 17
Articles 18
Verbs 19
Verbal roots 19
Verbs formed by modal prefixes 19
Compound verbs 21
Conjugation 21
Form 21
. Person 23
Number 23
Mode 23
Tense 25
Participles 25
Conjugation 1 26
Conjugation II 28
Conjugation III 32
Double verbs 35
Conjugations I and II 35
Conjugations I and III 35
Irregular and defective verbs 35
Paradigm : root KSA, to break off, separate 3d
Nouns 40
Forms of uouus 40
Diminutives 41
V
VI CONTENTS.
Chapter II. — Morphology — Continued.
Nouns — Coutinned.
Gender 42
Number 42
CsL»e 43
Possession 43
Proper and family names 44
Adjectives ^ 45
Number 46
Comparison 46
Numeral adjective.s 47
Cardinals 47
OrdinalH 50
Adverbs 50
Prepositions 52
Separate prepositions 52
Incorporated prepositions 52
Conjunctions 53
Interjections 54
Chapter III.— Syntax 55
Pronouns 55
Personal pronouns 55
Incorporated pronouns 55
Separate pronouns 57
Agreement of pronouns 58
Omission of pronouns 59
Repetition of pronouns 59
Demonstrative pronouns 59
Relative pronouns 60
Articles 60
Definite article 60
Indefinite article 62
Verbs 62
Position 62
Number 62
Government 63
Possessive form 64
Modes 64
Imperative 64
Infinitive : 65
Subjunctive-. 65
Optative, potential, etc 66
Tenses 66
Aorist 66
Future 67
Auxiliary verbs 68
Verbs of repetition 69
Reduplicated verbs 69
Verbs with the suffixes ^'s'a" and *'ka" 69
Substantive verbs 70
Participles 70
Active 70
Passive 71
Nouns 71
Position 71
Number 72
CONTENTS. VII
Page.
Chapter III. — Syntax— Continued.
Adjectives 72
Poaition , 72
Number 72
Numeral adjectives 73
Pronominal adjectives 73
Repetition and omission of adjectives 74
Adverbs 74
Position 74
Reduplication 75
Use of certain adverbs 75
Negative 76
Interrogative adverbs 77
Adverbial incorporated particles 1 77
Prepositions 77
Conjunctions 78
Interjections 79
PART SECOND.— TEXTS.
WicaqlipiHiqlipaya: The Fallen Star 83
Notes 89
Translation 90
Wotani6e Hoksina Oliai) kin : Acts of the Blood-clot« Boy 95
Notes 101
Translation 101
Legend of the Head of Gold 105
Notes 107
Translation 108
Odowaq ^gside : Bad Songs 110
Notes 113
Translation 113
Tasi^ta-yukikipi 115
Notes 120
Translation 121
Chee-zhon, the thief 124
Translation 127
The Younger Brother : or, The Unvisited Island 130
Notes 138
Translation : 139
Wamnuha Ita^oi^a : or, Bead-Spitter 144
Notes 147
Translation 148
Parable of the Prodigal Son— Luke xv, 11-32 150
The Lord's Prayer 151
The Fourth Commandment ^ 151
PART THIRD.— ETHNOGRAPHY.
Chapter I.— The Dakota 155
Tribes 156
Mdewakai)toT) wai) 156
Waljpekute 157
Walipetoi) wai) 157
Sisitoi] waq 158
Ihai)ktoi) wai) 160
Ihaqktoqwaqna 160
Titoi) wai) 161
Assiniboin 164
Viii COI5TENTS.
Chapter I. — The Dakota — Continued.
Priority 164
Method of cuuutiug 164
Method of reckoning time 165
Are the Indians diminishingf 166
Chapter II. — Migrations of the Dakota 168
Argument from History 168
Experiences of Nicolet, Le Jeuue, Raymbaalt; Menard, Allouez, Du Luth, La Salle,
Hennepin, Perrot, Le Sueur, Carver, and Pike 168
Tradition of Fort Berthold Indians, recorded by Dr. W. Matthews 181
Lewis and Clarke 182
Argument from Names of nations, tribes, etc 182
Dakota 183
Spirit Lake villages 183
Santee 184
Sisseton 184
Yankton 185
Yauktonai 185
Teton 186
Assiniboiu 188
Winnebago 189
Omaha and Ponka 190
Iowa and Oto 191
Mandan and Hidatsa 191
Absaroka or Crow 192
Osage, Kansa, Kwapa, and Missouri 193
Arikara or Rickaree 193
Shayeune or Cheyenne 193
Chapter III.— The Dakota Gens and Phratry 195
The Gens 195
The Phratry 195
TheTiyotipi 195
Fellowhood 196
Standing Buffalo 196
Tiyotipi, translated from M. Renville's Dakota version 200
Chapter IV. — Unwritten Dakota Laws 203
The Family 203
The Household 204
Courtship and Marriage 205
The Baby 207
ChilaLife 208
Training of the Boy 209
Training of the Girl •- 210
When Death comes 210
The Spirit-world 212
Chapter V. — The Superhuman 214
Ehna-mani 215
Chapter VI. — Armor and Eagle's feathers 219
Simon Anawai|g-mani 219
Chapter VII.— Dakota Dances 224
Singing to 224
Begging dance 224
No-flight dance 225
Circle dance 225
Scalp dance 226
Mystery dance 227
Sundance 229
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology,
Washington, D. C, April 25, 1893.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit to you the copy for ** Contributions
to North American Ethnology, Vol. IX, Dakota Grammar, Texts, and
Ethnography," by the late Stephen Return Riggs, having edited it according
to your instructions.
I am, with respect, your obedient servant,
James Owen Dorsey,
Ethnologist
To Hon. J. W. Powell,
Director, Bureau of Ethnology
IX
PREFACK.
By the Editor, James Owen Dorsey.
In consequence of the death of the author in 1883, the copy furnished
by him for the j)resent volume was left in such a shape that some editing
was necessary before it could be sent to the printer.
By order of the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, the editorship
of the manuscript was committed to me. I was requested also to prepare
the table of contents and index, and to see that the arrangement of the
chapters, headings, etc., conformed to the general plan of the publications
issued by this Bureau.
That such disposition of the manuscript was in harmony with the
wishes of the author will appear after'a perusal of the following extract
from a letter, dated April 20, 1881, sent by Dr. S. R. Riggs to Mr. J. C.
Pilling, then chief clerk of the Bureau. After speaking of an article that
he was preparing, to be entitled " Unwritten Laws," Dr. Riggs continues
thus: '^This letter, I think, will partly cover Ethnology. But I do not
])rofess to be skilled in Ethnology as a science, and shall be glad of any
suggestions from Maj. Powell and yourself."
In the manuscript as received from the author were sundry quotations
from my letters to him. But as several years had elapsed since these were
written and as I had been enabled to revise the quoted statements, bringing
the information down to date, it was but proper that such revisions should
appear as footnotes, each followed by my initials.
During the process of editing the manuscript it was ascertained that, as
there had been additional investigations among the Dakota and other tribes
of the Siouan stock since the death of the author, several questions treated
by him deserved further elucidation. When one considers the many years
in which the venerable author was associated with the work among the
Dakota Indians (1837-1883) it would seem to many persons very pre-
XII DAKOTA GEAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGEAPHr.
sumptuous for one whose life among the Indians began as late as 1871 to
question his conclusions, unless abundant facts could be shown to confirm
the assertions of the critic.
The author's life among the Indians was spent chiefly with a single
division of the Dakota, known as the Santee or Mdewakantonwan. A few
of the Teton words in his dictionary were furnished by one of his sons.
Rev. T. L. Riggs, but most of them were obtained irom Rev. W. J. Cleve-
land. The author, moreover, knew very little about the languages of those
cognate tribes that are not Dakota, such as the Ponka, Omalia, Kansa,
Winnebago, etc., while I have Uved among many of these tribes and have
devoted considerable time to the comparison of most of the Siouan languages,
having engaged in original investigation from time to time, as late as
February, 1893, when I visited the Biloxi Indians in Louisiana.
In order, therefore, to furnish the readers of this volume with the latest
information, and to give more fully than was possible in those footnotes for
which I am responsible my reasons for hesitating to accept Bome of the
author's conclusions, as well as evidence confirmatory of some of the author's
statements this preface has been written.
In my notation of Dakota words, both in this preface and in the foot-
notes, the author's alphabet has been used, except where additional charac-
ters were needed; and such characters are described in the following section
of this preface. But in recording the corresponding words in the cognate
languages the alphabet used is that of the Bureau of Ethnology.
All footnotes followed by " S. R. R." were contributed by the author.
Those furnished by his son. Rev. Alfred L. Riggs, are signed " A. L. R"
*'T. L. R." stands for Rev. T. L. Riggs, and ''J. P. W." for Rev. J. P.
Williamson. ** J. 0. D." marks those footnotes for which I am responsible.
LIST OP SOUNDS PECULIAR TO INDIAN WORDS IN THE PREPACE.
The alphabet given by the author on pages 3 and 4 has no characters
representing certain sounds heard in the Teton dialect of the Dakota and
in some of the cognate languages. Besides these, there are other sounds,
unknown in Teton and the other dialects of the Dakota, but common to
the other languages of the Siouan family. These peculiar sounds and some
additional ones which are described are given in the characters adopted by
the Bureau of Ethnology. The authority for the Hidatsa words is Dr.
Washington Matthews, U. S. Army.^ The Tutelo words were recorded
^U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Saiv., Haydeu; MisceU. Pabl. No. 7, 1877: Ethaog. and PhUol. of the
Hidataa Indians.
PREFACE. Xin
chiefly by Dr. Horatio Hale, though a few were acquired since 1882 by
Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt and myself. The Mandan words are taken from the
vocabularies of Dr. F. V. Hayden, Dr. W. J. Hoffman, and Prince
Maximilian, of Wied.
9. as a in what or as o in not.
c sh, given as iS by the author and Matthews.
a medial sound, between sh (s) and zh (z).
(J as th in thin, the surd of /.
d0 ad sound followed by a dh sound which is scarcely audible.
This combination is peculiar to the Biloxi, Hidatsa, and Kwapa
languages. Given as d by Matthews.
^ dh, or as th in the, the sonant of 9.
e a short e as in get.
q a sound heard at the end of certain syllables, but slightly
audible, nearer h than kh. Given by Matthews as an apos-
trophe after the modified vowel.
1 as in it.
j zh, or as z in dzure. Given as z by the author and as z by
Matthews.
3[ a medial k, between g and k, heard in Teton, (|)egiha, etc.
k' an exploded k. Given as Ij: by the author.
° a vanishing n, scarcely audible, as the French n in bon, vin,
etc., occurring after certain vowels. Given as t) by the
author.
fi as ng in sing, singer, but not as ng in finger; heard some-
times before a k-mute, at others just before a vowel, as in
jLoiwere (i-^fifi-e, i-yiiii-e, wail-e, etc.). Given as i} by the
author.
q kh or as ch in German ach. Given as h by the author and
Matthews.
; a medial sound, between d and t.
a as 00 in foot
ft as u in but, given by Matthews as ^'a" with a dot subscript
tc as ch in church. Given as 6 by the author.
t<; at sound followed by a 9 (th) sound, as th in thin, but scarcely
audible. It is the surd of d^, and is peculiar to the Bilox ,
Hidatsa, and Kwapal anguages.^jGriven as t by Matthews.
10 a medial sound, between dj (j as in judge) and tc.
:^8 a medial sound, between dz and ts.
XIV DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
SEPARATE PRONOUNS.
On page 11 it is said that the separate personal pronouns ''appear to
be capable of analysis, thus: To the incorporated forms mi, ni, and i, is
added the substantive verb, e, the y coming in for euphony. So that miye
is equivalent to / antj niye to thou arty and iye to he i^." On page 12 the
author informs us that " mis, nis, and is would seem to have been formed
from miye, niye, iye; as, miye es contracted into mi^; niye es contracted
into nis, etc.'' On the same page we find the emphatic forms of the
pronouns, mis miye, I myself; nis niye, thou thyself; is iye, he himself, etc.
Now, if the author has made correct analyses, miyemmi+y+e;
niye =z ni+y+e ; iye = i+y +e ; mi^ zz mi+y +e+e5 ; ni^ = ni+y+e+eS ;
is = i+y+e+efi; mii miye = mi+y+e+eS mi+y+e. He tells us, too, that
the forms mis, nifi, and is were originally subjective, while miye, niye, and
iye were originally objective.
On examining a myth in the Bushotter (Teton) collection, the following
sentences were extracted, as they show how the Teton Indians use the separ-
able pronouns. When the Giant Anuqg-ite or Two Faces discovers the pres-
ence of his adversary, Ha^ela, he exclaims, NiS eya kakiSdiya yadiq na 6l
Toil too I make yoa Bnffer you wish and to
mayau he: Are you (».oming to me because you wish me to make you
me yoa are f
ooining
suffer, too? (Here nis is subjective or nominative.) Ha^ela replies,
Hiya, niyes plia >[iij limttr)yela kaksa iyediyiq kta <?a ^1 <5ihi: No, I
1^, yoa fndeed head th*^ with a whrsziiig rutting it I make vonra will when to I come
(and no one sound off go suddenly to yoa
else)
come to you in order to cut off your head (making) a whizzing sound
(with my sword) as I send it (your head) suddenly (or forcibly) to the
ground. Here niyes, which is objective in this sentence, marks a contrast:
it is you only, not I, who jnust suffer. After killing the giant, Ha^ela
takes the rescued infant to the lodge of his parents, who are afraid to let
him enter, as they think that he is the giant. So Ha^ela says, Ina, he
O mother, that
miye ca wahi ye lo: mother, this is I who have come, not he (the
t nn I have indeed
come
giant). Here miye is sul)jective. When Ha^ela is taken to the lodge of
the chief who has two daugliters, the elder daughter says to the younger,
Ito, miyes le bluhakte: Well, I (not you) will have this one (for my
Well, I (not you) this I have will
husband). But the younger sister laughs as she retorts, He ya<Sii) 6n\ ca
That you wanted not as
miyeiS higgna wayig kte 6ir)s: As you did not want him (when you
l(aotyoa) ahoiband Ihavebim will .(fcmalt^
for Hpeaking)
PREFACE.
XV
could have had him.) Subsequently, when the elder sister had turned
na>[ela into a doj?, iijs eya iha na heya, Nis ehaij ni(^akiziij kte, eya: She,
nhc too laaghcil and said as You yourself you suffer shall said what
follows precedes
too, laughed and said, '* You yourself shall suffer (now)."
IKSEPARABLE PRONOUNS.
(^n page 13 the author remarks, *' These forms md and d may have
been shortened from miye and niye, the n of niye being exchanged for d."
In addition to the objections given in the foot note on p. 13, the editor
offei^s the following table:
1
Siouan
languages.
Verbs having
their 3d sing, in —
make their 2d
sing, in—
da-(la-)
and their
sing, in
1st
bla-)
Personal pronouns.
Dakota
ya-
uid^(bda-,
Isty miye
.v«-
du-(lu-)
u)dn-(bdn-
, blu-)
2d, ni^e
Cegiha
fa-
na-(9na-)
bia-
Isc, wie, etc.
*i-
ni-(oni-)
b i-
2d, fi, <ie, etc.
Kansa
ya-
hna-
bla-
Ist, mi
yft-
hnU-
blU-
2d, yi
Osage
fa-
eta-, ctsa-
d^a-
Ist, wie
♦ii-
ctU-, ctsli-
dtn-
2d, ^ie
Kwa])H
d^a-
ta-
ptv»-
1st, wie
.
d^i-
ti-
ptvi-
hata-
2d, dfi, d^ie
Toiwere
ra-
ora-
1st, mire
%MS
ru-
oru-
hatu-
2d, dire
Winnebago
ra-
cara-
%&'
1st, ne
ru-
curn-
%VL-
2d, DC
Hidatsa
da-(d«'a-)
da-(d^a-)
da-(d^a-)
mn-
1st, ma, mi
du-(d<Sn-)
mu-
2d, da (dfa), di (d^)
Biloxi
da- '
ida-
nda-
1st, fii[indi (nom.)
ni[int-ka» (obj.)
.
du-
idn-
ntlu-
2d, ayindi (nom.)
ayint-ka" (obj.)
N. B. — The Hidatsa and Biloxi modal prefixes da- and du- are not
exact equivalents of the Dakota ya- and yii-, the (pegiha ^a- and ^i-; etc.
The following appears on page 15: " Perhaps the origin of the ^ t ' in
' tku ' may be found in the ' ta ' of the 3d person used to denote propert}'.'
How can this apply to deksi-tku, his or her mother's brother, even if it
could be said of tarjksi-tku, his younger sister, and (5ii)hii}-tku, his or her
son! While a son or a sister might be transferred to another person's
keeping, a mother's brother could not be so transfen'ed. Such an uncle had
greater power over his sister's childi-en than the father had, among the
Omaha and cognate tribes, and presumably among the Dakota. Among
the Omaha even an adoptive uncle was conceded this power, as when
Susette La Flfeche (now Mrs. T. H. Tibbies) was invited by her father's
brother (a Ponka chief) to remove from the Omaha Reservation in Nebraska
XVI DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
to the Ponka Reservation in the Indian Temtory, for the purpose of accepting
a position as teacher in the agency school. The real father, Joseph La
Flfeche, consented, but Two Crows, an adoptive mother's brother, and no
real kinsman, objected, and for that reason Susette did not go. It appears,
then, that the *t' in 'dek^i-tku' does not imply "transferable possession."
CONTINUATIVES.
On page 45 the author translates two proper names thus : Iijyarig-mani,
One-who- walks-running, and Anawagg-mani, One-who-walks-as-he-gallops-
on. As mani is used here as a continuative, it would be better to render
the two names, One-who-continues-running, and One-who-continues-gal-
loping-on. In all of the Siouan languages which have been studied by
the editor we find these continuatives. They are generally the classifiers,
words denoting attitude, the primary ones being those denoting standing,
sitting, or reclining. In the course of time the reclining is differentiated
from the moving; but at first there is no such differentiation.
The author agreed with the editor in thinking that some of these
Dakota continuative signs, har), waijka, and yarjka, were originally used as
classifiers; and a comparison of the Teton texts with those contained in
the present volume shows that these words are still used to convey the idea
of action that is (1) continuous or incomplete and (2) performed while the
subject is in a certain attitude. Thus har) means to stand, stand upright or
on end, but when used after another verb it means the standing object. The
other verbs used as classifiers and continuatives are wai^ka (Teton, ytiijka),
to recline, yar)ka (Teton, yar)^a), to sit, hence to be. Yaijka occurs as a
classifier on pp. 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, etc. That it conveys the idea of
sitting is shown by the context on p. 89, where the Star bom sat (iyotuqke)
on the ridge of the lodge and was fanning himself (ihdadu yaijka). Waijka,
to recline: on p. 83, the twin flowers abounded (lat/ all along) in the star
country. On the next page, the infant Star bom was kicking out repeatedly
(nagarjgata waijka, he lay there kicking). On page 110 we read, Uqktomi
waq kaken ya warjka. An Unktomi was going (literally, going he reclined).
CARDINAL BIRTH-NAMES.
The Dakota names which belong to children, in the order of their
birth, up to fifth child, are given on page 45. Thus the first child, if a boy,
is called Oaske; if a girl, Winona. The second, if a boy, is called Hepag*
PREFACE. XVII
and if a girl, Hapai), and so on. While this class of birth-names is found
among the Ponka, Omaha, Osage, Kansa, Kwapa, the j^oiwere tribes, and
the Winnebago, all these tribes observe a different rule, i. e., the fii'st son is
always called Ing^a", or some equivalent thereto, even though he may not
be the first child, one or more daughters preceding him in the order of
birth ; and in like manner the first daughter is always called Wina° or by
some one of its equivalents, although she may have several brothers older
than herself. On the other hand, if there should be in a Dakota household
first a daughter, next a son, the elder or first born would be Winona and
the next Hapag (there being no Oaske), while if the first born was a boy
and the next a girl the boy would be Caske and his sister Hapaij (there
being no Winona).
KINSHIP TERMS.^
The following are the principal kinship terms in most of the Siouan
languages, all of which, except those in the Dakota, Hidatsa, Mandan, and
Tutelo, having been recorded by me. Most of the terms may be used by
females as well as males; but when the use of a term is restricted to
persons of one sex a note to that eifect will be found in the proper place.
In the Biloxi column, the algebraic sign (±) denotes that the ending
following it may be used or omitted at the will of the speaker.
> See pp. 45, 203, 204, 207^
7105— VOL IX n
XVIII
DAKOTxV GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
English.
Father
Mother
Mother's )>rother
Father's sister
Grandfather
Grandmother
Dakota.
(Tegiha.
atkukii (<^ato)
i<^adi
huijkii (<hiii)) iha"
(leksitkn (<deksi) in«*j;i
tui)wi('U (<tni;wiij) i^imi
tui}kai)Kitku,
tnijkaijKidai), etc.
(<tni;kai)) i^iga"
kuijku (<knij) ijja"
Kwapa.
ed#;it(^
«'te3(<'*
etimi
oti >ia"
e>ia"
KaniMk
iyadje
I
i'ha", ehfi" I ihfi"
idjegi
itcimi
itcigu
i>(u
Osage.
i^aise
ihQ"
iq^seni,
i";8e3ii
iqtsimi
iqtiiistn
i^tn, iq^tu
Klder hrother (his) (ii)*'-!! <rii)j'e) iji"r»'
Elder brother (her) timdoku (<tinido) i^iuii
Elder sister (his) taijkeku (<taijke) i^afige
Elder sister (her)
Younger brother
('•uijkii, eui)wekii ija'Ve
Son
Daughter
rii)hi!)tku(<riijksi) ijifigc
Grandchild
rui)ksitku,
<'ui)wii)tku
(<^cui)k8i)
tn kozakpaku
( <takoza)
ijange
eji'idfj-r*
etitu
etfniJie
ejft"d^^
8Ui)kaku(<8ui)ka) isafiga osAfi}[a
' [feni. voc, I
I wiHa"t^a" ] ,
I ■
Younger sister (his) ltai)ksitku (<tui)ksi) i^aflgo
Younger sister (her) taijkaku (<tai)ka) i(>arige
' ejifiJie
ejari3|c
i«^ncpa
etucpa
ijiye, iji''ye
itcidu
ita!)ge
ijuwo
is iingu, hi8
i8ti"ya", her
itai)ge
ijinge
ijftflge
ioi"fe. iji"c
itsi"|u,
iqt^i:^u
itan^te,
iqtan^io
iaft"we
isa;rii[a,
isilfi^a
iteeoin3[a
i.dfisto
* M MM
loun^te
itu( -pa,
iteucpa
itcucpa,
Iqtsucpa I
PEEFACE.
XIX
Xoiwere.
a"tce
ihft"
itceka
itumi
ituka
ikn
lyma
lyuna
iyuna
i^nne
^Viiinebago.
Mandan.
Hidatsa.
bia"(joi-r.l
I atfo,
t^at^ic
hiQ"ni-na
liitek,
hite^iara
hitcii»wi"-ra
itafie waitcke-rS.
liitcanka-T&
iyirie(Iowa);| hinlk
iaiAe (Oto)
liitcoke-rJl
hikoroke,
hikorok6-rri
Voc, k&"nikii
hini-rft
hitcito-r&
liinAnktcapa-
rj\, his sinter.
hiiin-ra.hiuO"-
hisiink-ril
iyrtfie
i t a 3[ w a ,
g r a ndson ;
ita^fwami,
grand-
daughter.
hini\k, hi-
nil7[a-rll,
hinan^a-r&
h itcu"ckc-
iiin?ie-ra his
grandson
k o - 1 om i -
nikoc, the
aunt (Wied)
ptafikoc
ptanka
ko-nike
iko-nuhankc
(it^:ad^u)
icanii, icawi
tomin
ad^iitvaka
iku
iaka
Tt^amctsa
itgainia
idf^ii
itsuka
it^akica
it^akn
id^ici
ika
itpamapica
Tutelo.
Biloxi.
^ da^ (Hewitt);
> eati; tat, yat( Hale)
eh6", his; ehi", her
(Hewitt)
ina; hena; hend" \
(Hale)
< .
adi-ya" (<adi)
^ enek (Hewitt);
) eiuek (Halo)
e!jo3i6° (Hewitt)
liigu" (Hale)
ego"<| (Hewitt)
finni, flnni-ya°
tuka^ni noqti, his
ra o t h e r ' s elder
brother; taka"ni
aka, younger do.
to"ni, to"niya",
elder sister; to"ni
aka, etc., younger
do.
ka»qo
3inn3lfi"ya»
ewahyek (Hewitt) ini, ini-ya*^
tando noqti
tahaflk, sister tafik-qohi-ya"
(Hale);
etahenk (Hewitt)
I
eno"q (Hewitt) ino"ni
Hftntka (Hale)
e80";^k (Hewitt)
eteka
ctoka (prob. his or
her child)
soHkaka, s o n t k a-
kaya", his
tando akaya", her
tankaka (J-ya")
i ta"ska (±ya")
yinniya"
ylifiJliya'*
yiniiadodi, sou's
son; yQ&3[adodi,
son's daughter;
ynn3[ayin 1,
daughter's son;
y ft n ^ a y fi Ti 3( i ,
daughter's dangh-
ter.
XX
DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHr.
English.
Brothor-in-law (his)
Brother-in-law (her)
Sister-in-law (his)
Dakota.
tahaqkn «tahai))
(^i^ecUy
ii6ekn
«6i6e)
haijkaku (batjka)
ii^aha"
ici*o
Sister-in-law (her) i^epai)ka«i6epai))
Sister's son (his)
ihanga
toi)8kaka(^ton8ka)
ici^ia"
i!|a"cka
Brother's son (her) toskaku
(toska)
Sister's daughter (his) tiii)zai)ka
(<tai)iai))
Brother's daughter
(her)
Son-in-law
Daughter-in-law
tozatjkn (<[tozai))
tako^kn (tako^)
tako^ku (<tako^)
i^ucka
i^ija"
i^jujaftge
i!|ande
i^ini
Husband (her)
Husband (my)
Wife (his)
hihna-kn (^hihna) eg^afige
uiihihna wieg^aflge
tawicu (<tawi])) igaq^a"
Wife (my)
mitawii)
wigaq^a"
Kwapa.
etaha°
ecik'e
ehafiiia
ecika°
etO"cka
eijijft'
etujafi^ie
et(i»te
etini -
ekt^aD}[ey
e3[na!i3|d
wikt^a&iie
eTfaqna"
e^aqntl"
Kansa.
itaha"
icik'e
ibbflga
ici}[a"
itcucka
it&ndje
itcini
igaqla^
Osage.
itaha*^
icik'e
iban^ia
icika"
iqtsucka
itcuckaya" ■ iqtsucka"
itciju itsio&n,
iqtsioti^
itcujaflge i iqtsuoaAiie
iqtani^Be
iqtsini
PREFACE.
xxl
Xoinere.
itaha"
icike
ihaQa
icika"
itami
Winuebago.
hitc&°-rft
bicik'6-rft
hiwanke-r&
liitcn"cke-rft
hitca"cke-r}i
hitcujaflk-rii
wa!^oliotci-rii
himlk-tcek-
buni-ra/^ tbe
oue whom I
have f o r a
new daugh-
ter."
bikaua-na
bikana-barft
bitcawin-Da
hitcawi"-harft
Mandau.
Hidataa.
id^aqt^i
icikici
naka, b i s
brother's
wife i t y a-
da^amia, i-
tyarawia,
his w i fe's
sister, h i s
wife.
ikidfa
ua
Tutelo.
Biloxi.
etah£n£" (Hewitt) ; taba"uiya"
yin^a yisii
etoekaii( Hewitt)
etosink (Hewitt)
eobdnk (Hewitt)
eta-man ki
eta-roihS",
** his woDian "
(Hale)
(^'his spouse/'
Hewitt)
witamihene",
" my spouse *'
(Hewitt)
tcka"Diya"
tAksiki (±ya").
elder sister's son ;
t Aksiki aka( :J:ya"),
younger sister's
sou.
t usdn^ii (±ya"),
elder sister's
daughter; tusQH-
kiaka (:l:ya"),
3'ounger sister's
daughter.
Name forgotten by
Indians.
tondi-ya"
tobo"ni-ya"
yini[a(|i-ya"
nyifi3ia'^i-ya"
yiiiHo^'ni-ya"
nyin^ionni-ya"
XXII DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGKAPllY.
The *^hna" in the Dakota term should not be compared with the
Pakota verb, olmaka, to place in, but with the (jpegiha verb, gyfa", to take a
wife (see "g^an" in eg^afige, a husband^ her husband), which answers to the
Kansa lafige, the Osage T[0aflT[e, and the j^oiwere 5[rane, all of which are
related to the verb, to take hold of, seize, apparently pointing to a time when
marriage by capture was the rule. (See the Dakota verb yuza.) The
original meaning of ** my husband" therefore may have been my capturer or
seizer. Ohnaka, when applicable to a person, refers to a sitting oiie, other-
wise it is applicable to what is curvilinear, a part of a whole, a garment,
book, etc. This is not brought out by the author, though attitude is
expressed or implied in nearly all the verbs of placing or putting in the
various Siouan languages. The Tutelo word for her hv^hand, etamafiki,
does not mean, '' her man." Manki, a husband, differs materially from the
several words which are said to mean *^man" in Tutelo. "To take a
husband," in Tutelo, is tamankti°se (<;manki), and " to fcike a wife " is
tamihu°se (from etamih5°6°, a w\je, his ivife). "To take a husband" in
Biloxi, is yin5[ado°ni, very probably from yin>[a;i and o°ni, probably
meaning "to make or have for a husband or child's father." "To take a
wife" in Biloxi, is yiii5[o°ni (yin^i and o°ni, to do, make), literally, "to
make a young one." The Biloxi term for "my wife," nyiii5[o°niya°, may
have been derived from yiil^i, tittle one, child, and o°iii an occasional form
of u°ni or u°niya°, a mother, the whole meaning, "my little one his or her
mother." In like manner, "my husband," nyin5[a4iya'*, may have been
derived from yin5[i, child, and a;iya° or adiya", his or her father, the com-
pound meaning, " my little one his or her father."
Among the Dakota names for kinship groups (see page 45), there are
several which admit of being arranged in pairs, and such an arrangement
furnishes hints as to the derivation of at least one name in each pair, in
connection with present and probably obsolete forms of marriage laws. In
each pair of names, the second invariably ends in ksi or si, the exact
meaning of which has not been ascertained, though it may be found to
imply a prohibition. Thus, ciijcu, his elder brother, ciqye, an elder brother
(of a male); but ciy-ksi, a son (who can not marry the widow of the
speaker, though one whom that s})eaker calls (^iqye can many her.) A
woman's elder sister is 6m), cuijwe, or cuywi, her elder sister being cuijku
or cuyweku; but a daughter is cuq-ksi (she (*.an not marry her mothei^'s
husband, though the mother's elder sister can do so). A man's elder sister
is taqke, a woman's younger sister, taqka; but a man's younger sister is
tai)-ks}; it is not certain whether there is any restriction as to marriage
Preface. xxni
contained in this last kinsliip name. A father is ate, and a mother's brother
is de-ksi (in Teton, le-ksi); we find in the cognate hiuguages (excepting
(pegiha and Winnebago) some connection between tlie two names, thus in
Kwapa, the syllable te is common to edj^ate and ete^e; in Kansa, dje
is common to iyadje and idjegi; in Osage, ;se is conunon to i^a48e and
iq;seT[i; in j^oiwere, tee is conmion to a"tce and itceka. At present, my
mother's brother can not mairy my father's widow (who is apt to be his
own sister). A man's brother-in-law (including his sister's husband) is
tahaq, and a man's male cousin is tahai}-si (who can not marry that sister).
A woman's brother-in-law or potential husband is si^e, but her male cousin,
who can never become her husband, is i(*e-si or si^.e-si. A man's sister-in-
law (including his potential wife), is haqka; but a man's female cousin
(whom he can not marry) is hagka-si. A woman's sister-in-law (including
her husband's sister and her brother's wife) is i(?epai), but a woman's female
cousin (who can become neither the husband's sister nor the brother's wife)
is i6epar)-si. The editor proposes to gi'oup together m like manner the
corresponding tenns in the cognate languages, such as iji°ff6, his elder
brother, and ijinge, his or her son; ija°^6, her elder sister, and ijange, his or
her daughter; but that must be deferred to some future time.
CARDINAL NUMERALS.
On pages 48 and 49 the author undertakes to analyze the Dakota
names for the cardinal numerals. He does this without comparing the
Dakota names with those in the cognate languages. A knowledge of the
latter will enable the student to correct some of the statements of the
author, and for that reason these names are now given.
ONE.
Dakota, war)(5a, waijzi or waqzidar) (waqzina, warjzila). Said by the
author to be derived from wai), an interjection calling attention perhaps, at
the same time holding up a finger, N. B. This is only a supposition.
(f egiha, wi", wi°aqtci (just one).
Kansa, mi", mi°qtci.
Osage, wi°, wi°qtsi.
Kwapa, mi^qti.
j^oiwere, iya°, iyanke.
Winnebago, hija°, hijafikida.
MandaUy maqana.
XXIV DAKOTA GRAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGBAPHY.
Hidatsa, duetsa (d^uetsa) luetsa.
Tutelo, no°sa, also nos, nosai, iio°sai, etc.
Biloxi, so"sa. I have not yet found in these cognate langnages any
interjection resembling the Dakota war) in use, from which the respective
forms of the numeral could be derived.
TWO.
Dakota, noijpa, " from en aoripa, to bend down on, or place on, as the
second linger is laid over the small one ; or perhaps of nape oijpa, nape
being used for finger as well as hand. N. B. The second finger laid down
(that next to the little finger of the left hand) is not laid over, but beside
the small one.
(pegiha, na°ba, in composition fia°ba, as in the proper name ^sxe
^a°ba. Two Crows. See seven, a derivative. To place a horizontal object
on something would be, a*a"he, which could not have been the source of
na°ba.
Kansa, nfi^ba.
Osage, ^ti°da.
Kwapa, na°pa, to place a horizontal object on something, ak'ii°he.
jLoiwere, nowe.
Winnebago, no°p, no°pa, no"pi, nu°p. The root in the Winnebago
verb to plaice a horizmital object is, t'ti'^p.
Mandan, nu°pa.
Hidatsa, dopa (d^opa, nopa).
Tutelo, no°p, no^bai, etc.
Biloxi, no°pa, na°pa; to place a horizontal object on something, i°pi.
THREE.
Dakota, yamni: " from mni (root), turning over or laying upP
(pegiha, 0ab^i": compare roots, b0i° and b^i^jia, bebf^i", twisted; etc.
Kansa, yabli, yabli": root bli°, turned,
Osage, 0adjii° or na^id".
Kwapa, d^abni.
j^oiwere, tanyi.
Winnebago, tani.
Mandan, namni.
Hidatsa, dami (d^aini) or nawi.
Tutelo, nan, nani, lat, etc.
PREFACE. XXV
Biloxi, dani: many roots in wliich na, ne and ne are syllables convey
the ideas of bending, turning, or shaking.
FOUR.
Dakota, topa, "from opa, to follow; (perhaps ti, a house, and opa,
follow with) as we say, 4n the same box' with the rest. The three have
banded together and made a *ti' or *tidag,' as we should say a family, and
the fourth joins them." N. B — Is not this rather fanciful?
(fegiha, duba; to follow is u^uhe; to join a party, 6d uihe (in full, 6di
uihe).
Kansa, duba or ;uba ; to follow, uyupye.
Osage, ;uda; to follow, u^upce.
Kwa])a, ;uwa.
j^oiwere, towe; to follow a road or stream, owe; to join or follow a
party, oyu^e.
Winnebago, tcop tcopa-ra, tcopi; to follow, howe.
Mandan, tope.
Hidatsa, topa (t(;opa).
Tutelo, tob, top.
Biloxi, topa.
FIVE.
Dakota, zaptaij, "from za (root), holding (or perhaps whole, as in zani)
and ptagyaij or ptaya, together. In this case the thumb is bent down over
the fingers of the hand, and holds them together^
(/Jegiha, Kansa, and Osage, satft".
Kwapa, sata".
j;oiwere, (jata".
Winnebago, sate, satca".
Mandan, kequ".
Hidatsa, kihu (zzkiqu).
Tutelo, gisa°, kise, kisa°.
Biloxi, ksa", ksani.
To hold is u^a° in (/Jegiha, uyifige in Kansa, u^inT[e in Osage, unafie in
j^oiwere, ad^aqeqe and ukcie in Hidatsa, and dusi in Biloxi.
XXVl DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
SIX.
Dakota, 6akpe **from sake, nail, and kpa or kpe (root), lasting as some
kinds of food which go a good ways, or filled, as a plump grain. This is
the second thumb, and the reference may be to the other hand being com-
pleted. Perhaps from the idea of bending down as in nakpa, the ear." No
satisfactory analysis of this numeral can be given in the cognate languages,
and that given by the author needs further examination.
(f egiha, cad6.
Kansa, cApe.
Osage, c^p6.
Kwapa, cap6'.
j^oiwere, ca5[we.
Winnebago, akewe.
Mandan, kima.
Hidatsa, akama or akawa.
Tutelo, agasp, agas, akes, akaspe.
Biloxi, akdqpe.
SEVEN.
Dakota, ^akowiq, ** from sake, nail, and owiq, perhaps from owiijga, to
bend down; but possibly from oig, to wear as jewelry, this being the fore-
finger of the second hand ; that is the ring finger." Do the Dakota Indians
wear rings on their index fingers?
(pegiha, de^a'^ba, -de aj)pearing in cad6, six, and ^a°ba being two; as
if seven were or, the second of the new series, hefiinning tvith six. Kansa,
peyu^ba. Osage, pe0&°da or pe(0)a"da- Kwapa, pena^da. j^oiwere,
cahma. Winnebago, ca5{owe. Mandan, kupa. Hidatsa, sapua (capua).
Tutelo, sftgum, sagom. Biloxi, na"pahudi, from variants of no°pa, two, and
udi, stock, or ahudi, hone, the *' second stock" or "second bone."
EIGHT.
Dakota, sahdogai}, *'from sake, nail, probably, and hdogaq, possessive
of yugai), to open (hdugaq is the true form, j. o. d. ); but perhaps it is
ogaij or oge, cover, wear; the nail covers itself Two fingers now cover
the thimib." How can the nail *^ cover itself?" (fegiha, de^ab^i", as if
from -de and ^ab^d°, three or the third of the new series, heginnmg with six,
Kansa, kiya-juba, "again four," and peyabli (cape and yabli). Osage,
ki:j[^e-juda, "again four." Kwapa, ped0abni° (cape and d^abni"). j^oiwere,
tREPACE. XXVII
krerapri" (incapable of analysis, tanyi being three). Winnebago, haru-
wanke or lia^ifuwanke (can not yet be analyzed). Mandan, titilki. Hidatsa,
dopapi (d^opapi), from dopa (d^opa), two and pi-, which appears to be the
root of pitika (pitcjika), ten, the whole probably signifying ten kss two.
Tutelo, palan, palan (pa and three). Biloxi, dan-hudi, the "third stock" or
"third bone."
NINE.
Dakota, nap(5ir)war)ka, "from nape, hand, (Jistigna, small, and waqka,
lies — hand small lies ; tliat is, the remainder of the hand is very small, or
perhaps, the hand now lies in a small compass. Or, from napdnpe (marrow
bones of the hand), or "the finger lies in the napcoka, inside of the hand."
Query by the editor: May not the name refer to the little finger of the
right hand which alone remains straight!
(|Jegilia, Kansa and Kwapa, canka.
Osage, ^i^ed^R^ tse ifmye or ^^ed^sJ" ts6 wi" ^inT[e, " ten less one."
j^oiwere, cafike.
Winnebago, hijafikitca'^ckuni or hijailkitcu^qckmii, " one wanting," i. e.
to make ten.
Mandan, maqpi (from maqana, one, and piraq, ten), "ten less one." (?)
Hidatsa, duetsapi (dfiuetsa and pi-), "ten less one."
Tutelo, sa, sa", ksaiik, ksa°qk.
Biloxi, tckane.
TEN.
Dakota, wikcemna, " from wikde or ikce, common, and mnayaq, gath-
ering, or from mna, to rip, that is, let loose. It would mean either that the
common or first gathering of the hands was completed, or, tliat being com-
pleted, the whole were loosed, and the ten thrown up, as is their custom;
the hands in the common positionJ^
(/Jegiha, g^eba or g^eb^a" (in which g^ezzkce of the Dakota, and
b^a°=:mna of the Dakota).
Kansa, lebla or lebla^
Osage, T[^ed^a°.
Kwapa, ktgebna or kt^eptcja**.
j^oiwere, krepra".
Winnebago, kerepana.
Mandan, piraq.
XXVIII DAKOTA GKAMMAli, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGEAPHY.
Hidatsa, pitika (pitcjika).
Tutelo, butck, putck.
Biloxi, ohi, ** completed, filled, out, to have gone through the series."
ELEVEN.
Dakota, ake waqzi, *' again one,'' or wikcenina saqpa waijzidai}. "ten
more one."
(|Jegiha, ag^i°-wi°, '^ one sitting-on (ten)."
Kansa, ali"-nii*^qtci, same meaning.
Osage, a^fii^^-wi^qtsi, same meaning.
Kwapa, mi"qti-a^ni", "(me sitting-on," or kt<;ept(;a"-ta" mi^qti a3[ni°,
"ten-when one sittiug-on."
j^oiwere, a5[ri°-iyanke, " one sitthig-on."
Winnebago, hijankida-cina, meaning not certain (hijailkida, one).
Mandan, aga-ma(jana (macjana, our).
Hidatsa, ahpi-duetsa (a(ipi-d^uetsa), " portioned one."
Tutelo, agi-no°saii.
Biloxi ohi so°sa(jehe, "ten one-sitting-on."
TWELVE.
Dakota, ake noqpa, "again two," or wikcenma saqpa nor) pa, "ten
more two."
(pegiha, cad6-na°ba, "six times two."
Kansa, ali"-nu"ba, "two sitting-on."
Osage, a^^i°-^u"da, same meaning.
Kwapa, na"pa-a5[ni", same meaning.
j^oiwere, a5[ri"-n(>we, same meaning.
Winnebago, no"pa-cina (no"pa, two).
Mandan, aga-nu°pa (nu°pa, two).
Hidatsa, ahpi-dopa (jujpi-d^opa), "portioned two."
Tutelo, agi-no°paii; see no°bai, two.
Biloxi, ohi no°paci6he, " ten two-sitting-on."
NINETEEN.
Dakota, uijma nap(5ii}waijka, " the other nine."
(pegiha, ag^i°-canka, " nine sitting-on."
Kansa, ama cafika, "the other nine," or ali°-canka, " nine sitting-on."
Osage, a^jti" 2[0ed^a° tse ^iil3[e, "sitting-on ten less (one)."
PREFACE. XXIX
Kwapa, cafika-ai[ni°, **nine sitting-on."
j^oiwere, aT[ri'*-canke, same meaning".
Winnebago, hijankitcii°qckuni-cina (see nine).
Mandan, aga-maqpi (see fiine),
Hidatsa, ahpi-duetsapi (aqpi-d^uetsapi), *^ portioned ten less one."
Tutelo, agi-ksankaii (see nine),
Biloxi, ohi tckanaqehe, **ten nine-sitting-on."
ONE HUNDRED.
Dakota, opawigge, " from pawiqga, to bend down with the hand, the
prefixed o indicating perfectness or roundness; that is, the process has
been gone over as many times as there are fingers and thumbs."
(fegiha, g^eba-hi-wi", *^one stock of tens."
Kansa, lebla" hii tciisa (lebla"", ten, hii, stock, tciisa, meaning unknown).
Osage, ij^edfia'* hii oi°a, **ten stock small," or *' small stock of tens."
Kwapa, kt9ept9a" hi, *' stock of tens."
Winnebago, okihija".
Mandan, isuk maqaiia (maqana, one).
Hidatsa, pitikictia (pitcjikiqtcjia), ** great ten."
Tutelo, ukeni nosa, or okeni.
Biloxi, tsipa.
ONE THOUSAND.
Dakota, kektopawiqge, or koktopawiqge ^^from opawiijge and ake or
kokta, agaifi or ako."
(|)egiha, g0eba-hi-wi° janga, *'one great stock of tens," or ^uge wi^
^*one box," so called because annuity money before the late civil war was
paid to the Indians in boxes, each holding a thousand dollars in specie.
Kansa, lebla" hii jinga tciisa (lebla°, h'u, hii, dock, jii^ff^> small, tciisa,
meaning uncertain) or lebla" hii tanga, 'Marge stock of tens."
Kwapa, ktcjeptcja" hi tafi^a, '*a large stock of tens."
Winnebago, kokija" (koke, box, hija°, one^, *'one box."
Mandan, isuki kakuhi.
Hidatsa, pitikictia akakodi (pit<;ikiqt(;ia akakod^i), exact meaning not
known.
Tutelo, ukeni putskai, **ten hundred."
Biloxi, tsipi°tciya, *'old man hundred," from tsipa, hundred, and i°tciya,
old man.
XXX DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
THE TERMS FOR »^ WHITE MAN^ IN SIOUAN LANGUAGES.
On p. 174 Dr. Riggs, in speaking of Hennepin's narrative, says: **Tlie
principal chief at that time of this part of the tribe, is called by Hennepin
* Washechoonde.' If he is correct, their name for Frenchmen was in use,
among the Dakota, before they had intercourse with them, and was probably
a name learned from some Indians farther east." The author's supposition
as to the eastern origin of w^AiC'iin) as an appellation for white men might
stand if there were no explanation to be found in the Dakota and cognate
languages. Hennepin himself is a witness to the fact that the Dakota
Indians of his day called spirits wasi^^uij (as Dr. Riggs states on p. 1 75).
And this agrees with what I have found in the Teton myths and stories of
the Bushotter collection, where wa^iduq is given as meaning guardian
spirit. Dr. Riggs himself, in his Dakota-English dictionary, gives wasicl^ui)
as "nearly synonymous with wakai)" in the opinion of some persons. He
appends the following Teton meanings : "A familiar spirit; some mysterious
forces or beings which are supposed to communicate with men; mitawasiduq
he omakiyaka, my familiar spirit told me that." This phrase he gives as
referring to the Takuskaqskai}, the Something- that-moves or the Wind
powers. The Mandan use w^aci and the Hidatsa maci for white man.
Though the Hidatsa word was originally applied only to the French and
Canadians, who are now sometimes designated as masikat'i (maci-kiit(;i, in
the Bureau alphabet), the true whites. The xoiwere tribes (Iowa, Oto,
and Missouri) call a Frenchman mac; okenyi, in which compound maxj is
equivalent to maci of the Hidatsa, waci of the Mandan, and wasicui} of the
Dakota. The Ponka and Omaha call a white man waq6, one who excels
or goes beyond (the rest), and a Frenchman waq6 uke^i", a common white
man. The Winnebago name for Frenchman is waqopinina, which may be
compared with the word for mysterious.
NOTES ON THE DAKOTA MYTHS.
On p. 84, lines 8 to 13, there is an account of the wonderful result
produced by tossing the Star-bom up through the smoke hole. In the
Biloxi myth of the Hummingbird there is an account of a girl, a boy, and
a dog that were cared for by the Ancient of Crows. One day, in the
absence of the fostermother, the girl tossed four grains of com up through
the smoke hole, and when they came down they became many stalks filled
with ears of excellent corn. The girl next threw the tent itself up into the
air, causing it to come dowr a beautiful lodge. When she threw her little
PREFACE. XXXI
brother into the air he came down a very handsome warrior. The girl then
asked her brother to toss her up, and when he had done this, she came
down a very beautiful woman, the fame of her loveliness soon spreading
throughout the country. The dog and such clothing as the sister and
brother possessed were tossed up in succession, each act producing a
change for the better.
On p. 85, from line 33 to p. 86, line 5, tliere is an account of the
deliverance of the imprisoned people by the Star-born when he cut off the
heart of the monster that had devoured tliem. In like manner the Rabbit
delivered the people from tlie Devouring Mountain, as related in the (/Jegiha
myths, '*How the Rabbit went to the Sun," and ^*How tlio Rabbit killed
the Devouring Hill," in ^* Contributions to North American Ethnology,"
Vol. VI, pp. 31, 34.
Note 2, p. 89. Eya after a proper name should be rendered by the
initial and final quotation marks in the proper places, when ediya follows,
thus: Mato eya e<5iyapi. They called him, ** Grizzly bear."
When heya precedes and eya follows a pln-ase or sentence the former
may be rendered, he said as follows, and the latter, he said what iirecedes.
Heya answers to ge, gai or ga-biama of the (pegiha, and eya to e, ai or
a-biama. In like manner the Dakota verbs of thinking may be rendered
as follows: he(5iij (which precedes, answering to ge^ega" of the (fegiha),
by he thought as follows, and e(5iij (which follows, answering to e^ega** in
(f egiha), by he thought what precedes.
The myth of the Younger Brother (}). 139-143) contains several
incidents which find their counterparts in the Biloxi myth of the Thunder-
being. In the Dakota myth the wife of the elder brother plots against the
younger brother; she scratches her thighs with the claws of the prairie
chicken which the brother-in-law had shot at her request, and tells her
husband on his return that his brother liad assaulted her. In the Biloxi
myth it is the aunt, the wife of the Thunder-being's mother's brother, who
scratched herself in many places. In the Dakota myth the Two Women
are bad at first, while the mother was good. But in the Biloxi myth the
Old Woman was always -bad, while her two daughters, who became
the wives of the Thunder-being, wore ever beneficient. In tlie Dakota
myth the old woman called her husband the Uyktehi to her assistance,
prevailing on him to transport her liousehold, including the Younger
Brother, across the stream. In the Biloxi myth the two wives of the
Thunder-being, after the death of their mother, call to a huge alligator, of
the "salt water species called box alligator" by the Biloxi, and he comes
xxxil DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
to shore in order to serve as the canoe of the party. Doubtless there were
more points of reaembhuuio m the two myths, but parts of the Biloxi one
have been forgotten by the aged narrator.
NOTEH ON THE DAKOTA DANCES.'
Tlie Begging dance is known among the Ponka as the Wana watcigaxe
(See "Omaha Sodoh)gy," in 3d Aim. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 35.5.) 'Hie No
flight danc« is the Make-no-tiight dance or Mafa watcigaxe of tlie Ponka
and Omaha. It is described in " Omaha Sociology " (in 3d Aim. Rept.
Bur. Kthu., p. 352). The Scalp dance is a dance for the women among
the Ponka and Omaha, who call it Wewatci. (See " Omaha Sociology,"
in 3d Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., p. 330).
The Mystery dance is identical with the Wacicka of. the Onialuu A
brief account of that dance was publislied by the editor in " Omaha
Sociology," in 3d Aim. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 342-346.
The Grass dance, sonu'times called Omaha dance, is the daTice of the
He^ucka society of the Omaha tribe, answering to the Ihicka of the Kansa,
and the Iu!i)6fi''cka of -the Osage. For accounts of the He^ucka see
"Omaha Sociology," in 3d Ann. Kept Bur. Ethn., pp. 330-333, and "Ilae-
thu-ska society of the Omaha tnbe," by Miss Alice f '. Fletclier, in the
Jour, of Amer. Folk-Lore, April-Jmie, 1892, pp. 135-144. For accounts
of the sun-dance, with native illustrations, see " A Study of Siouan Cults,"
Chapter V, in the 11th Ami. Kept, of the Bureau of Etliuology.
Bureau of Etiixology,
Washington, I). C, Septrmbcr 16, lfi!)H.
DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
PART FIRST.
GRAMMAK.
7105 — VOL IX 1
DAKOTA GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER I .
PHONOLOGY.
THE ALPHABET.
VOWELS.
The vowels are five in number, and have each one uniform sound,
except when followed by the nasal *' ij," which somewhat modifies them,
a has the sound of English a in father,
e has the sound of English r in th^y, or of a in face,
i lias tlie sound of / in marine, or of e in nie. •
o has the sound of English o in go^ note,
u has the sound of n in rulcy or of oo in food.
CONSONANTS.
The consonants are tweiitv-four in number, exclusive of the sound
represented by the apostrophe (').
b has it-s common English sound.
6 is an aspirate with the sound of English ch, as in chin. In the
Dakota Hible and other printing done in tlie language, it
has not been found necessary t4) use the diacritical mark.*
g is an emphatic c. It is formed by pronouncing "c" with a
strong pressure of the organs, followed by a sudden expul-
sion of the breath.f
d has the common English sound.
g has the sound of// hard, as in//o.
g represents a deep sonant guttural resembling the Arabic ghain
(^). Formerly represented by // simply. J
h has the sound of h in English.
h represents a strong surd guttural resembling the Arabic kha (^).
Formerly represented by /-.J
* For this Round Lepsius recoinmendH the Greek v-
+ This and k, p, t, are called rerebrah by Lepsiiis.
:t This and i correHpond with T^epAius, except in the I'orin of th«' diacritical mark.
- • •
• • «
> • •
• I
• • •
' .'i' DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
k has the same sound as in English.
V is an emphatic letter, bearing the same relation to k that *'<J"
does to "<5." In all the printing done in the language, it is
still found most convenient to use the English q to repre-
sent this sound.*
1 has the common sound of this letter in English. It is peculiar
to the Titoi}wai} dialect.
m has the same sound as in English.
n has the common sound of n in English.
X) denotes a nasal sound similar to the French n in feow, or the
English n in drink. As there are only comparatively very
few cases where a full n is used at the end of a syllable, no
distinctive mark has been found necessary. Hence in all
our other printing the nasal continues to be represented by
the common n.
p has the sound of the English jp, with a little more volume and
stress of voice.
p is an emphatic, bearing the same relation to p that '*<J" does
to '^6."*
s has the surd sound of English 5, as in say,
s is an aspirated .<?, having the sound of English sh, in in shhie.
Formerly represented by x,
t is the same in English, with a little more volume of voice.
t is an emphatic, bearing the same relation to "t" that "^." does
to ''6.y*
w has the power of the English tv^ as in walk,
y has the sound of English y^ as in yet.
z has the sound of the common English z, as in zebra,
z is an aspirated z, having the sound of the French^', or the English
s in pleasure. Formerly represented by j.
The apostrophe is used to mark an hiatus, as in s'a. It seems to be
analogous to the Arabic hamzeh (c).
Note. — Some Dakotas, in some instances, introduce a slight h sound before the
m, and also a d sound before n. For exami)le, the preposition *' om,'' with^ is by some
persons pronounced ohm^ and the preposition "en,^ iw, is sometimes spoken as if it
should be written edn. In these cases, the members of the Episcopal mission among
the Dakotas write the h and the dj as "ob,'' "ed."
* These are cuHed cerebrals by LepsiuH. In the ulpliabet of the Bureau of Ethnology these sounds
are designated by tc' (=d, of Kiggs), k' (=^^), p' (=p), and t* (--t), respectively, and are called
cjcplosivee.
SYLLABICATION-^ACCENTS. 5
SYLLABICATION.
§ 3. Syllables in the Dakota language terminate in a pure or nasalized
vowel, as ti-pi, housej tai}-yai}, well. To this rule there are some excep-
tions, viz. :
a. The preposition ' en/ in, and such words as take it for a suffix, as,
petan, on (lie fire, tukten, where, etc.; together with some adverbs of time,
as, dehan, now, hehan, then, tohan, when, etc.
6. When a syllable is contracted into a single consonant (see § 11),
that consonant is attached to the preceding vowel ; as, om, with, from o-pa,
tofoUow; wai}-yag, from waij-ya-ka, to see; ka-kis, from ka-ki-za, to suffer;
bo-sim-^i-pa, to shoot off, instead of bo-si-pa-^i-pa. But, in cases of contrac-
tion in reduplication, when the contracted syllable coalesces readily with
the consonant that follows, it is so attached; as, si-ksi-<Sa; sa-psa-pa.
c. There are some other syllables which end in ^; as, \i, he, ni^, thou,
mis, /, nakae§, indeed, etc. These are probably forms of contraction.
ACCENTS.
PLACE OF ACCENT.
§ 4. 1. In the Dakota language all the syllables are enunciated plainly
and fully ; but every word that is not a monosyllable has in it one or more
accented syllables, which, as a general thing, are easily distinguished from
such as are not accented. The importance of observing the accent is seen
in the fact that the meaning of a word often depends upon it; as, mdga, a
field, magd, a goose ; 6kiya, to aid, okf y a, to speak to,
2. More than two-thirds, perhaps three-fourths, of all Dakota words of
two or more syllables have their principal accent on the second syllable from
the beginning, as will be seen by a reference to the Dictionary ; the greater
part of the remaining words have it on the first
3. (a) In polysyllabic words there is usually a secondary accent, which
falls on the second syllable after the primary one ; as, hew6skantuya, in a
desert place ; f <Siy 6pey a, to barter,
(b) But if the word be compounded of two nouns, or a noun and a
verb, each will retain its own accent, whether they fall two degrees apart
or not; as, aguyapi-iddpaij, (wheat-beater) a flail; inmu-siipka, (cat-dog) a
domestic cat; ald6ita-ndzii}, to stand. gu^rd,
REMOVAL OF ACCENT.
§ 5. 1. Suffixes do not appear to have any effect upon tlie accent; but
a syllable prefixed or inserted before the accented syllable draws the accent
() DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
back, HO that it still retains the same ])osition with respec^t to the beginning
of the wonl; as, na])e, hand, uiinape, mt/ hand: baksa, //> cnt off frith a knife,
bawaksa, / cat of ; nidaska,y/«/, raijmdaska, hoards; nii^ga, afield, init^maga,
my field.
When the ai'cent is on the first syllable of the word the prefixing syllable does
not always remove it; as, noge, the far, inanoge, my ear,
2. The same is true of any number of syllables prefixed; as, kask^,
to hind; wakaska, J hind ; wirawakaska, I bind them.
3. (fi) If the verb be accented on the second syllable, and pronouns be
inserted after it, they do not affect the jnnmary accent; as, wast^daka, to
love: wastewadaka, / lore something-.
(//) But if the verb be ac(*ented on the first syllable, the introduction of
a pronoun removes the accent to the second syllable; as, m^ni, to walk;
mawani, / tralk.
lu some cases, however, the iwceiit is not removed; as, ohi, f^> reach to; 6wahi, /
reach,
4. When 'wa' is prefixed to a word commencing with a vowel, and an
elision tukes place, the a(*(*ent is thrown on the first syllable; as, iyu^kirj,
to rejoice in; wiyuskiij, to rejoice; amdcza, clear, wamdeza; ^dindd^H,, the red-
imnged hiack-hird, wamdosa.
o. When 'wo' is ])refixed to adjectives and verbs forming of them
abstract nouns, the accent is placed on the first syllable; as, pida, glad;
w6\)idii, gladness; waoijsida, merciful; wowaorjsida, mercy; ihAijgya, to de-
stroy; woihaijgye, a destroy ipiy.
6. So also when the first syllable of a word is dropped or merged into
a pronominal prefix, the a(H*ent is removed to the first syllable; as, kiksuya,
to remember; miksuva, remember me,
(IIANGBS OK LETTERS.
SIBSTITUTION AND ELISION.
§ f). 1. 'A' or *aij' final in verbs, adjectives, and some adverbs, is
changed to 'e,' when followed by auxiliary verbs, or by certain conjunc
tions or adverbs. Thus —
(a) When an uncontracted verb in the singular mnnber ending with
'a' or *ai)' pre(*edes another verb, as the infinitive mood or participle, the
'a' or *ar)' becomes *e;' as, ya, to go; ye kiya, to cause to go; niwai), to
swim ; niwe kiya, to cause to swim ; niwe ur), he is swimming ; but they also
say niwaij wauij, / am swimming.
CHANGES OF LETTERS. 7
(6) *A' or *ag' final in verbs, when they take the sign of the future
tense or the negative adverb immediately after, and when followed by
some conjunctions, is changed into *e;' as, yuke kta, there will he some;
mde kte iSni, / wUl not go.
To this there are a number of exceptions. Ba, to blame^ aud da, to ask or beg^ are
not changed. Some of the Mdewakaqtoijwaq say ta kta, he will die. Other dialects
use (Iq kta. Ohnaka, topUice any thing in, is not changed; as, ^^minapekii) takndai)
ohnaka dni wanq,^ I have nothhig in my hand, Ipuza, to be thirsty^ remains the same;
as, ipuza kta; ^^tuwe ipnza kii)hai)," etc., ^'let him that is athirst come.^^ Some say
ipuze kta, but it is not common. Yuha, to lift^ carry^ iu distinction from ynha, to
havpj possess^ id not changed; as, mduha sni, I cannot lift it.
(c) Verbs and adjectives singular ending in 'a' or 'ai),' when the con-
nexion of the members of the sentence is close, always change it into ^e;'
as, ksape ^a waste, wise and good ; waijmdake <Ja wakute, I saw and I shot it.
(d) *A' and 'aq' final become ^e' before the adverb 'higda,' the particle
*do,' and '^ni,' not; as, side hiijda, very bad ; waste kte do, it will be good;
takuna yute 6ni, he eats nothing at all Some adverbs follow this rule ; as,
tag ye hig, very tvell; which is sometimes contracted into tag y eh.
But 'a' or 'aij' final is always retained before tuka, ui)kai), ui)kai)d, e^ta, ^ta, ked,
and perhaps some others.
(e) In the Ti tog wag or Teton dialect, when *a' or 'ag' final would be
changed into *e' in Isagyati or Santee, it becomes 4g;' that is when fol-
lowed by the sign of the future; as, *yukig kta' instead of ' yuke kta,' 'yig
kta' instead of ^ye kta,' 'tifl kta' instead of 't^ kta,' 'dagtekiyig kta,' etc.
Also this change takes place before some conjunctions, as, epig na wagli, /
said and I returned,
2. (a) Substantives ending in 'a' sometimes change it to *e' when a
possessive pronoun is prefixed; as, sugka, dog; mitasugke, my dog; nita-
^ugke, thy dog; ta^ugke, his dog.
(b) So, on the other hand, 'e' final is changed to 'a,' in forming some
proper names; as, Ptagsigta, the name given to the south end of Lake
Traverse, from ptag and sigte.
§ 7. 1. (a) When *k' and '^,' as in kig and kighag, l^a and ^ehag, etc.,
are preceded by a verb or adjective whose final 'a' or *ag' is changed for
the sake of euphony into 'e,' the ^k' or *k' following becomes 'd' or 'cj;' as
yuhe dighag, if he has, instead of yuha kighag; yuke (Jehag, when there wa^y
instead of yukag {j:ehag.
(b) But if the proper ending of the preceding word is *e,' no such
change takes place; as, waste kighag, if he is good; Wakagtagka ape Ija
wa^tedaka wo, hope in God and love him.
8 DAKOTA GEAMMAE, TEXTS, AXD ETHNOGRAPHY.
2. When 'ya,' the pronoun of the second person singular and nomina-
tive case, precedes the inseparable prepositions 'ki,' to, and 'kl6i,' for, the
'ki' and 'ya' are changed, or rather combined, into 'ye;' as, ye(iaga, thou
makest to, instead of yakit'aga; ye<Si<5aga, thou makest for one, instead of
yakididaga. In like manner the pronoun ' wa,' /, when coming in conjunc-
tion with 'ki,' forms 'we;' as, wedaga, not wakidaga, from kidaga. Wowapi
wedage kta, I will make him a book, i. e. / tvill write him a letter.
3, (a) When a pronoun or preposition ending in 'e' or 'i' is prefixed
to a verb whose initial letter is 'k,' this letter is changed to 'c;' as, kaga, to
make, kidaga, to make to or for one; kaksa, to cut off, kididaksa, to cut off for
one.
(pi) But if a consonant immediately follows the 'k,' it is not changed;
as, kte, to kill, nikte, he kills thee. In accordance with the above rule, they
say dilute, / shoot thee; they do not however say kidute, but kiknte, he
shoots for one.
(c) This change does not take place in adjectives. They say kata, hot,
nikata, thou art hot; kuza, lazy, nikuza, thou art lazy.
§ 8. 1. 'T' and 'k' when followed by 'p' are interchangeable; as
iqkpa, iijtpa, the end of any thing; wakpa, watjia, a river; siijkpe, sii)tpe,
a muskrat.
2. In the Ihaijktoijwaq dialect, 'k' is often used for 'h' of the Walipe-
togwaij; as, kdi, to arrive at home, for hdi; daijpakmikma, a cart or wagon,
for daijpalimihma. In the same circumstances the Titorjwaij use 'g,' and
the Mdewakaijtoijwai) 'n;' as, (Saijpagmigma, (Saqpanminraa.
3. Vowel changes required by the Titoqwaq :
(a) 'a' to 'u,' sometimes, as 'iwaqga' to 'iyugga;'
(6) 'e' to M,' sometimes, as 'aetopteya' to 'aitopteya;'
(c) 'e' to 'o,' as 'mdetaohugka' to 'blotaqhuoka;' 'lf;ehaq' to 'Ifohaij'
or 'i:oi)haij;'
(d) 'V to 'e,' as 'edoqpi ye do' to 'edoijpe lo;'
(e) 'V to 'o,' sometimes, as 'ituya' to 'otuya;'
(/) 'i' to 'u,' as 'odidita' to 'oluluta;' 'itahai)' to 'utuhao,' etc.;
(g) 'o* to 'e,* sometimes, as 'tiyopa' to 'tiyepa;'
(A) 'a' or 'aij' final, changed to 'e,' before the sign of the future, etc.,
becomes 'iq,' as 'yeke kta' to 'yukiq kta,' 'te kta' to 'tii) kta.'
4. Consonant changes required by the Titoqwaij:
(a) 'b' to 'w,' (1) in the prefixes 'ba' and 'bo,' always; (2) in some
words, as 'wahbadaij' to 'wahwala;'
(b) 'b' to 'm,' as *^beya' to 'Sraeya;'
CHANGES OP LETTERS. 9
(c) *d' to 4/ always; as the 'd' sound is not in Titoijwai);
(d) *h' to *g,' always in the combinations *hb,' *hd/ 'hm/ *hn/ which
become 'gb,' ^gl/ *gb' and *gn;'
(e) *k' to *n,' as 'Va' to 'na;'
(/) *m' to 'b/ as (1) in *md' which becomes 'bl;' and (2) in *m' final,
contracted, as 'om' to *ob/ *tom' to Hob;'
(0) 'm' to 'p,' as in the precative form 'miye' to 'piye;'
(h) *n' to *b,' as (1) in contract forms of '<5,' *t,' and 'y,' always; e. g.,
*<5ai)tesin' to 'daritesil,' ^yun' to *yuV ^ii^d *kun' to ^kul,' etc.; (2) in certain
words, as Hiina' to 'lila,' 'mina' (Ih.) to ^mila;' (3) Hi' final hi some words,
as *en' to *el,' hedeii' to 'hedel,' *wai)kan' to 'waqkal,' Haijkan' to *taijkal,'
etc.;
(i) 't' to '<5,' as ^distigna' to 'disdila;'
(i) 't' ^^ *g/ as Htokto' to Htogto;'
(k) 'V to *k,' as Htokam' to Hkokab.'
(J) *w' to 'y,' in some words, as 'owasiij' to 'oyasig,' 'iwaqga' to
Hyuijga,' 'war)ka' to ^yugka,' etc.;
(m) *y' to *w,' as 'edog ye do' to *e<5or) we lo;'
(n) 'dag' final generally becomes 4a,' as 4iok6idag' changed to
'hok^ila;' but sometimes it changes to *ni,' as *wagzidag' to 'wagzini,'
*tuwedag' to *tuweni,' etc.;
(0) 'wag,' as indicated above, in 'a' to 'u,' in some words, becomes
'yug,' as 'hewagke' to 'heyugke,' 'nap(5igwagka' to Hiapdigyugka,'
4wagga' to 'iyugga,' etc.
§ 9. 1. When two words come together so as to form one, the latter of
which commences and the former ends with a vowel, that of the first word
is sometimes dropped; as, dagtokpani, to desire or long for, of cagte, the
heart J and okpani, to fail of; wakpicahda, by the side of a river, from wakpa
and iiiahda; wi<!5ota, many persons, from wida and ota. Tak eya, what did
he say? is sometimes used for taku eya.
2. In some cases also this elision takes place when the second word
commences with a consonant; as, napkawig and namkawig, to beckon with
the hand, of nape and kawig.
3. Sometimes when two vowels come together, ' w' or 'y' is introduced
between them for the sake of euphony ; as, owihagke, the end, from o and
ihagke; niyate, thy father, from the pronoun ni, thy, and ate, father.
§ 10. The 'yu' of verbs commencing with that syllable is not unfre-
quently dropped when the pronoun of the first person plural is used; as.
10 DAKOTA GBAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
yuhd, to havCj lighapi, we hare ; yuza, to holdj liijzapi, we hold. Yiiza also
becomes oze, which may be oydze contracted: as, Makatooze, the Blue
Earth River ^ lit. where the hive earth is taken; oze sida, bad to catch.
(CONTRACTION.
§ 11. 1. Contractions take place in some nouns when combined with
a following noiui, and in some verbs when they occupy the position of the
infinitive or participle. The contraction consists in dropping the vowel of
the final syllable and (*hanging the preceding consonant usually into its
corresponding sonant, or vice versd, which then belongs to the syllable that
precedes it; as yus from yuza, to hold; tom from topa, four. The follow-
ing changes occur:
z into s; as, yuza, to hold any thing; yus nazig, to stand holding.
i into s; as kakiza, to suffer; kaki^ waui}, I am suffering.
g into h; as, mAga, a fields and magd, a goose, are contracted into mah.
k into g; as, waqyaka, to see any thing, is contracted into waijyag.
p into m; as, topa, /o//r, is contracted into tom; watopa, to paddle or
row a boat, is contracted into watom.
t into d; as, odota, the reduplicated form of ota, many, much.
t into g; as, bozagzata, the reduplicated form of bozata, to make forked
by punching.
c, t, and y, into n; as, wanida, none, becomes wanin; yuta, to eat any
thing, becomes yun; kuya, below, becomes kun.
2. The article 'kiij' is sometimes contracted into *g;' as, oyate kir), the
people, contracted into oyateg.
3. Caqte, the heart, is contracted into (^an: as, <5anwa.4te, ^9/arf (<?ai}te and
waste, heart-good).
4. When a syllable ending in a nasal (i)) has added to it *m' or *n,'
the contra(*ted fonn of the syllable that succeeded, the nasal sound is lost
in the *m' or 'n,' and is consequently dropped; as, cagnugpa, to smoke a
pipe^ dagnum mani, he smokes as he walks; kakir)(^a, to scrape, kakin iyeya.
Contracted words may generally be known by their termination.
When contraction has not taken place, the rule is that every syllable ends
with either a pure or nasalized vowel. See § 3.
CHAPTER r I .
MORPHOLOGY.
PRONOUNS.
§ 12. Dakota pronouns may be classed as personal (simple and com^
pound), interrogative, relative, and demonstrative pronouns, together with the
definite and indefinite pronouns or articles.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
§ 13. To personal pronouns belong j^e^r^ow, number, and case,
1 . There are three i)ersons, the first, secoml, and third.
2. lliere are three numbers, the singukir, dual, and plural. The dual
is only of the first person; it includes the person speaking and the person
spoken to, and has the form of the first person plural, but without the ter-
mination 'pi.'
3. Pronouns have three cases, subjective, objective, Riid pos^sessive.
§ 14. The simple pronouns may be divided into separate and ificorpo-
rated ; i. e. those which form se])arate words, and those which are prefixed
to or inserted into verbs, adjectives, and nouns. The incorporated pronouns
may properly be (*alled article pronouns or pronomifial particles.
Separate.
§ 15. 1. {a) The separate ])ron<mns in most conmion use, and probabl}'^
the original ones, are. Sing., miye, /, niye, thou, iye, he. The plural of
these fonns is denoted ))v *uijkive' for the first i)erson, 'niye' for the second,
and *iye' for the third, and adding *pi' at the end either of the pronoun
itself or of the last j)rincipal word in the phrase. Dual, uijkiye, (/ and
thou) we two.
These pronouns aj)])ear to be capabk of analysis, thus : To the incor-
porated forms 'mi,' *ni' and *i,' is added the substantive verb 'e,' the *y'
coming in for euplumy. So that Mniye' is equivalent to I am, 'niye' to thou
art, and *ive' to he is.^
■A knowledge of the cognate languageH of the Siouan or Oakotan stork would have led the
anther to modify, if not reject, this statement. a.H well as several others in this volume, to which at-
tention is called by similar foot-notes. * Mi' and 'ni' can be possessive ($21) and dative (( 19, 3), or.
as the author terms it, objective (though the act is to another); but he did not show their use in the
subjective or nominative, nor did he give 'i' as a pronoun in the 3d singular. Besides, how could
he reconcilehis analysis of mi^, ni^^ and is (^ 15, 1, h) with that of miye^ aiye, and iyef—J. O. D.
11
12 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
(b) Another set of separate pronouns, which are evidently contracted
forms, are, Sing., mi^, J, ni^, thou, is, he. The Plural of these forms is desig-
nated by employing *ur)ki^' for the first person, 'ni6' for the second, and MiS'
for the third, and adding 'pi' at the end of the last principal word in the
phrase. Dual, ui)ki8, (J and thou) we two. These contracted forms of miiS,
ni^, and i^ would seem to have been formed from miye, niye, iye; as, miye
ei contracted into mi^ ; niye es contracted into ni^, etc.
2. These pronouns are used for the sake of emphasis, that is to say,
they are employed as emphatic repetitions of the subjective or objective
pronoun contained in the verb; as, mis wakaga, (I I-made) I made; miye
mayakaga, {me me'thou-madest) thou madest me. Both sets of pronouns are
used as emphatic repetitions of the subject, l)ut the repetition of the object
is generally confined to the first set. It would seem in fact that the first
set may originally have been objective, and the second subjective forms.
3. Mi^ miye, / myself; ni^ niye, thou thyself; i& iye, he himself; ugkiS
uqkiyepi, we ourselves, etc., are emphatic expressions which frequently
occm', meaning that it concerns the person or persons alone, and not any
one else.
§ 16. 1. The possessive separate pronouns are: Sing., mitawa, my or
mine J nitawsij thy or thinSj taw a, his; Dual, uqkitawa, (mine and thine) ours ;
Plur., uqkitawapi, our or ours, nitawapi, your or yours, tawapi, their or
theirs : as, wowapi mitawa, 7ny book, he mitawa, that i^' mine,
2. The separate pronouns of the first set are also used as emphatic
repetitions with these; as, miye mitawa, (me miw) my otvn; niye nitawa,
thy own; iye tawa, his awn; ui)kiye ui)kitawapi, our own,
INCOEPOBATED OR ARTICLE PRONOUNS.*
§ 17. The incorporated pronouns are used to denote the subject or
object of an action, or the possessor of a thing.
Subjective.
§ 18. 1. The subjective article pronomis, or those which denote the
subject of the action, are: Sing., wa, I, ya, thou; Dual, uq, (I and thou) we
two; Plur., ui}-pi, we, ya-pi, ye. The Plm*. term, *pi' is attached to the end
of the verb.
^ "Article pronoun'' is adopted by the uiithor from Powell's Introduction to the Study of Indian
Languages, 2d ed., p. 47. But the article pronoun of Powell differs materially from that of Riggs.
The classifier which marks the gender or attitude (standing, sittings etc.) should not be confounded
with the incorporated pronoun, which performs a different function (f 17). — J. o. d.
PRONOUNS. 13
2. (a) These pronouns are most frequently used with active verbs; as,
wakaga, I make; yakaga, thou makest; ugkagapi, tve make.
(b) They are also used with a few neuter and adjective verbs. The
neuter verbs are such as, ti, to dwell, wati, / dwell; itoqsni, to tell a liCj
iwatoijsni, I tell a lie. The adjective verbs with which ^wa' and *ya' are
used are very few; as, waoi}^ida, merciful, waoi)siwada, I am merciful;
duzahag, swiji, waduzahai}, / am swift of foot; ksapa, wise, yaksapa, thou
art wise.
(c) The neuter and adjective verbs which use the article pronouns ^wa'
and *ya' rather than *ma^ and *ni,' have in some sense an active meaning,
as distinguished from suffering or passivity.
3. When the verb commences with a vowel, the * ug ' of the dual and
plural, if prefixed, becomes ^uqk;' as, itoi)^ni, to tell a lie, uqkitoq^ni, we two
tell a lie; au, to bring, ui}kaupi, we bring.
4. When the prepositions 'ki,' to, and *kl(5i,'/or, occur in verbs, instead
of *waki' and 'yaki,' we have *we' and 'ye' (§ 7. 2.); as, kidaga, to make to
one, wedaga, / make to; kididaga, to make for, yedidaga, tJiou makest for,
yedidagapi, you make for one. Kiksuya, to remember, also follows this rule;
as, weksuya, I remember.
5. In verbs commencing with *yu' and *ya,' the first and second per-
sons are formed by changing the *y' into *md' and 'd;' as, yuwa^te, to
make good, mduwaste, I m^ke good, duwaste, thou makest good, duwastepi,
you make good; yawa, to read, mdawa, I read, dawa, thou readest In like
manner we have iyotai)ka, to sit down, imdotagka, I sit down, idotaijka, thou
sittest down.
6. In the Titor)wai) dialect these article pronouns are *br and 4;' as,
bluwaite, luwaste, etc.
7. These forms, 'md' and *d,' may have been shortened from miye
and niye, the 'n' of niye being exchanged for M.' Hence in Titoqwaq
we have, for the first and second persons of 'ya,' to go, mni kta, ni kta.*
8. The third person of verbs and verbal adjectives has no incorporated
pronoun.
Objective.
§ 19. 1. The objective pronouns, or those which properly denote the
object of the action, are. Sing., ma, me, ni, thee; Plur., uij-pi, us, and ni-pi, you.
' I am inclined to doubt this statement for two reasons: 1. Why should one conjugation be sin-
gled out to the exclusion of others f If md (bd, bl) and d (1) have been shortened from miye and niye,
how about wa and ya ($ 18^ 1), we and ye (f 18, 4), ma and ni ($ 19, 1-2, b)1 2. See footnote on $15, 1, a.
This could be shown by a table if there were space. See f 54. J. O. D.
14 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
2. (a) These proiioiius are used witn active verbs to denote the object
of the action; a^, ka^a, he made, niakao^a, he made me, nidagai)i, he made you
or they made you,
(h) They are also used with neuter verbs and adjectives; as, yazaij,
to be sick, mayazaij, 1 am sick; waste, (food, niawaste, I am good. The Eng-
lish idiom requires that we should here render these pronouns by the sub-
jective case, although it would seem that in the mind of the Dakotas the
verb or adjective is used im])ersonally and governs the pronoun in the ob-
jective. Or perhaps it wcmld better accord with the genius of the language
to say that, as these adjective and neuter-verb forms nuist be translated as
])a8sives, the pronouns 'ma' and 'ni' should not be regarded in all cases a«
objective, but, as in these examples and others like them, subjective as well.
(r) They are also incoi*j)orated into nouns where in English the sub-
stantive verb would be used as a copida; as, wica^ta, mmi, wimacasta, I am
a matt,
3. In the same cases where 'we' and 'ye' subjective are used (see
§18, 4), the objective pronouns have the forms 'mi' and 'ni,' instead of
*maki' and 'nidi;' as, kidaga, he makes to one, midaga, he makes to me,
nidaga, he makes to thee, nicagapi, he makes to you.
4. There is no objective pronoun of the third j)erson singular, out
' wida' (j)erhaps originally man^ is used as an objective pronoun of the third
person plural; as, wastedaka, to lore any one, waj^tewidadaka, he tores them;
Tvidayazaij, they are sick. When followed by a vowel, the 'a' final is
dropped; as, edawiduijkidoijpi, we do tv them,
§ 20. Instead of *wa,' /, and 'ni,' th^e, coming together in a word, the
syllable 'ci' is used to express them both; a*s, wastedaka, to lore, wasted!-
daka, I lore thee. The plural of the object is denoted by adding the term
'pi;' as, wastedidakapi, I love you The essential difference between *<5i'
and the 'ui) ' of the dual and plural is that in the former the first person is
in the nominative and the se(*ond in the objective case, while in the latter
both persons are in the same case. (See § 24, 1.)
The ])lace of the nominative and objective pronouns in tlu* v(*rb, adjec-
tive, or noun, into which they are incorj)orated, will be explained when
treating of those parts of s])eech.
§ 21. Two forms of possession appear to be recognized in Dakota,
natural and artificial.
(a) The p)ssessive article prcmouns of the first <'lass are, Sing., mi or
PEONOUNS. 15
ma, w;y, ni, thy; Dual, ui), (7ny and thy) our ; Plur., iiij-pi, our^ ni-pi, your.
These express natural possession; that is, })ossession that can not be alienated.
(6) These pronouns aie prefixed to nouns which signify the different
parts of oneself, as also one's words and actions, but they are not used alone
to express the idea of property in general; as, mitaijdaq, my body ; minagi,
my soul; mitawa(5ii), wy miwrf ; n\\i^z\^ my stomach ; misiha, w^ybo/; mi(5ai)te,
my heart; miista, my eye; niiisto, my arm; mioie, my words; niiohai), my
actions; ugtaijiJar), our two bodies; uijtaijdaijpi, our bodies; nitagdaijpi, your
bodies; ui)nagipi, owr 5o?^/6- ; \\\^6m)ie^\^ our hearts.
(c) In those parts of the body whicli exhibit no independent action,
the pronoun of the first person takes the form 'ma;^ as, raapa, my head;
manoge, my ears; mapoge, my nose; ma we, my bloody etc.
§ 22. 1. The pronouns of the first and second persons prefixed to nouns
signifying relationship are, Sing., mi, my, ni, thy ; Dual, ui)ki, (niy and thy)
our; Plur., ui)ki-pi, our^ ni-pi, your; as, midiijda, my child; nidek^i, thy uncle;
nisuQka, thy younger brother ; UQki<5ii)(?api, our children.
2. (a) Nouns signifying relationship take, as the pronouns of the third
person, the suffix *ku,' with its plural *kupi;' as, sui)kA, the younger brother
of a man, suijkaku, his younger brother ; taijkA, the younger sister of a woman,
tagkaku, her younger sister ; hihna, husband, hihnaku, her husband; Rte, father j
atkuku, his or her father.
(b) But after the vowel M,' either piu-e or nasalized, the suffix is either
*tku' or '<^u;' as, deksi, uncle, deksitku, hi^ or her uncle; tar)k4i, the younger
sister of a man, tarik^itku, his younger sister; 6ii)k&\, son, (^iijhir)tku, his or
her son; tawii), a wife, tawidu, his wife; ciijye, the elder brother of a man,
6ii)<?u, hi^ elder brother.
Perhaps the origin of the 't' in ' tku' luay be found in the 'ta' of the tliird per-
son used to denote property. See the next section.
§ 23. 1. The prefixed possessive pronouns or pronominal particles of
the second class, which are used to express property in things mainly, pos-
session that may be transferred, are, ^mita,' *nita,'and 'ta,' singular; ^uijkita,'
dual; and 'unkita-pi,' *nita-pi,' and *ta-pi,' plural: as, mitaoi)spe, my axe;
nitasuijke, thy horse; the}' say also mitahoksidaij, /;/// boy. These pronouns
are also used with koda, a particular friend, as, mitakoda, my friend,
nitakoda, thy friend, takodaku, his friend ; and with ki('*uwa, comrade, as
nitakic^uwa, thy comrade ; also they say, mitawiij, my wife, tawi^^u, his wife.
2. (a) *Mita,' *nita,' and 'ta,' when i)refixed to nouns commencing with
*o' or 'i,' drop the *a;' as, owiijza, a bed, mitowii}ze, my bed ; ipahii), a pil-
low, nitipahii), thy pillow ; itazipa, a bow, tinazipe, his bow.
16
DAKOTA GEAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGEAPHT.
(b) When these possessive pronouns are prefixed to abstract nouns
which commence with ^wo,' both the *a' of the pronoun and ^w' of the
noun are dropped; as, wowaj^te, goodnesSj mito waste, my goodness; woksape,
wisdoniy nitoksape, thy tvisdom; wowaog^ida, mercy , towaorisida, his mercy.
(c) But when the noun commences with 'a,' the *a' of the pronoun is
usually retained; as, akidita, a soldier j mitaakidita, 7Pty soldier.
3. *Wida' and *wi<5i' are sometimes prefixed to nouns, making what
may be regarded as a possessive of the third person plural; as, widahugku,
their mother; wi6iatkuku, their father.
4. ' Ki ' is a possessive pronominal particle infixed in a large number of
verbs; as, bakiksa, bokiksa, nakiksa, in the Paradigm; and, okide, to seek
one's own, from ode; waStekidaka, to love on£s own, from waiStedaka; iyekiya,
to find one^s own — to recognize — ^from iyeya, etc. In certain cases the 'ki' is
simply 'k' agglutinated; as, kpaksa, to break off one^s own, from paksa;
kpagag, to part with one!s own, from pagaq, etc.
5. Other possessive particles, which may be regarded as either pro-
nominal or adverbial, and which are closely agglutinated, are, *hd,' in
Isagyati; *kd,' in Yankton, and *gl,' in Titog wag. These are prefixed to
verbs in *ya,' *yo,' and 'yu.' See this more fully explained under Verbs.
Tables of Personal Pronouns,
SEPARATK PRONOUNS.
Sing. 3.
2.
1.
Dual 1.
Plur. 3.
2.
1.
Subjective.
lye; is
uiye; dIh
miye ; iniH
iii)kiye; iii)ki8
iyepi J
niyepi ;
uijkiyepi; ui)ki.s
Objective.
ijre
niye
miye
lyepi
niyepi
ui)kiyepi
Possessive.
tawa
nitawa
mitawa
ui)kitawa
tawapi
nitawapl
ui)kitawapi
Siufr. 3
2
1
Dual 1
Plur. 3
2
1
Nominative.
ya;
wa;
ui);
y©
we
uijki
ya-pi ; ye-pi
ui)-pi; ui)ki-pi
INCORPORATED PRONOUNS.
Objective. | Possessive.
ni;
ma;
ui
mi
m-;
mi-;
-ku, -tku ;
ni-:
ma-;
UI)- ; ui)ki- ;
ta-
nita-
mita-
ui)kita-
wii*a I
ni-pi ; ni-pi . ni-pi ;
uij-pi; uijKi-x>i ui)-pi;
-kupi; -tkupi ; ta-pi
ni-pi ; nita-pi
ui)ki-pi; ui)kita-pi
PRONOUNS. 17
COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
§ 24. These are '6i,' 'kfci/ and '\6\:
1. The double pronoun '(li/ combines the subjective / and the ob-
jective you; as, wastecidaka, / love youy from wa.stedaka. (See § 20.)
2. The form * kfdi,' when a double pronoun, is reciprocal^ and requires
the verb to have the plui-al ending; as, wastekididapi, tliey love ea<:h other.
But sometimes it is a preposition with and to: mici hi, he came with me. The
Titoijwag say kidi waki, / came with kirn.
3. The reflexive pronouns are used when the agent and patient are the
same person; as, wa^teicjidaka, he loves himself^ wastenigidaka, thou lovest
thyself^ wa^temi^idaka, / love myself.
The forms of these pronouns are as follows: —
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. iiji i^i-pi
2. niiji ni<Ji-pi
1. mi<Ji ui)ki(Ji uqkii^i-pi.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 25. 1. The relative pronouns are tuwe, whOj and taku, ivhat; tuwe
kaiSta and tuwe kakeS, whosoever or anyone; taku kasta and taku kakes,
wJiatsoever or anything. In the Titoijwarj and Ihaijktoi)wai) dialects 'tuwa'
is used for tuwe, both as relative and interrogative.
2. Tuwe and taku are sometimes used independently in the manner of
nouns: as, tuwe u, some one comes; taku yamni waijmdaka, I see three things.
3. They are also used with * day ' suffixed and * sni ' following : as,
tuwedaq ^ni, no one; takudaij mduhe sni, / have not anything; tukteday uq
6ni, it is nowhere; uijmana ecoqpi sni, neither did it.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 26. These are tuwe, whof with its plural tuwepi; taku, what? which
is used with the plural signification, both with and without the termination
'pi;' tukte, which f tuwetawa, whose? tona, tonaka, and tonakeda, how many?
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 27. 1. These are de, this, and he, thatj with their plurals dena, these,
and hena, those ; also, ka, that, and kana, those or so many. From these are
formed denaka and denakeda, these many; henaka and henakeda, those many;
and kanaka and kanakeda, so many as tliose,
7105— VOL IX 2
18 DAKOTA GKAMMAB, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
2. 'Dag' or 'na' is sometimes suffixed with a restrictive signification;
as, dena, these, denana, only these ; hena, those, henana, ordy so many.
3. * E Ms used sometimes as a demonstrative and sometimes as an im-
personal pronoun. Sometimes it stands alone, but more frequently it is in
combination, as, *ee,' * dee,' *liee,' ^/ii^i^ it Thus it indicates the place of
the copula, and may be treated as the substantive verb (See § 155.)
ARTICLES.
§ 28. There are properly speaking only two articles, the definite and
indefinite.
Definite Article.
§ 29. 1. The definite article is kig, the; as, widasta kig, the nian, maka
kig, the earth.
2. The definite article, when it occurs after the vowel *e' which has
taken the place of *a' or 'ag,' takes the form 'dig' (§ 7. 1.); as, wida^taiSide
(fig, the bad man.
3. Uses of the definite article: (a) It is generally used where we would
use the in English, (h) It is often followed by the demonstrative *he' — ^kig
he — in which case both together are equivalent to that whieh. In the place
of *kig,' the Titogwag generally use *kighag.'^ (c) It is used with verbs,
converting them into verbal nouns; as, edogpi kig, the doers, (d) It is
often used with class nouuvs and abstract nouns; when in English, the would
be omitted; as, woksape kig, thr wisdom, i. e., ivisdom. See this more at
large under Syntax.
4. The form of kig, indicating past time, is kog, which partakes of the
nature of a demonstrative pronoun, and has been sometimes so considered;
as, widastii Vog, that man, meaning some man spoken of before.
5. When *a' or *ag' of the preceding word is changed into 'e,' 'lj:og'
becomes 'cil^og' (§ 7. 1.); as, tuwe wagmdake dil^og, that person whom I
saw, or the person I saw.
In Titonwaij, Voij becomes voi), instead of ^^Hjloij. W. J. Cleveland.
Indefinite Article.
§ 30. The indefinite article is * wag,' a or an, a contraction of the nu-
meral wagzi, one; as, widasta wag, a man. The Dakota article Svag' would
seem to be as closely related to the numeral * wagzi' or *wag<5a,' as the
* While some of tlie Titoi)wai) may U8e **'kh)h'dr)" instead of '^^h)" this can not be said of those
on the Cheyenne Kiver and Lower Brule resen'ations. They use ^iq in about two hundred and fifty-
five texts of the Bushotter and Brayier collection of the Bureau of Ethnology. — j. o. d.
VERBS— VEllBAL ROOTS.
19
English article *an' to the numeral one. This article is used a little less
frequently than the indefinite article in English.
VERBS.
§ 31. The Verb is much the most important part of speech in Dakota;
as it appropriates, by agglutination and synthesis, many of the pronominal,
prepositional, and adverbial or modal pai-ticles of the language.
Verbal Boots.
§ 32. The Dakota language contains many verbal roots, which are
used as verbs only with certain causative prefixes, and which form partici-
ples by means of certain additions. The following is a list of the more
common verbal roots: —
baza^ smooth
ga^ open out
^i)y open out
gapa, open out
gata, spread
guka, spread out
hii)ta, brush off
hmuQ, twist
bna, fall off
hnayai), deceive
huhuza, shake
h^ open out, expand
h6i, crumblCj gap
hdata, scratch
hde^a, tear, smash
lidoka, make a hole
hepa, exhaust
M6a, arouse
hpa, fall down
hpu, crumble off
htaka, catchj grip
hn, peel
huga, jamy smash
kawa, open
k6a, untangle
kiij6a, scrape off
kiQza^ creak
kOQta, notch
ksa, separate
ki^a, bend
kSiia, double up
ktai), bend
mdaza, spread open
nida^a, btirst out
mdu, JinCj pulverize
mna, rip
nmi, spread out
pota, wear out
psaka, break in two
psui), spill
pSui), dislocate
pta, etU out J pare off
ptarjyai), turn over
ptuza, crackj split
sba, ravel
sbu, dangle
sdeca, split
ski^a, press
skita, draw tight
smiij, scrape off
sna, ring
sni, coldy gone out
sota, clear off, whitish
i^aka, press down
i§ka, tie
i^kica, press
dua^ miss
6pa, break off
^pi, pick off
spuy fall off
i^uia, ma^h
taka, touch, make fast
taij, tcellj touch
tepa, wear off
ti6a, scrape
tii)a, contract
titaij, pull
tkup^a, break off
tpi, cra<;k
tpu, cruinblcy fall off
wega, fracture
wii)^a, bend down
zamui, open out
^a, stir
ivhisL, rub out, effaoe
ziij, stiff
zipa, pinch
zuij, root out
zuzu, come to pieces.
Verbs formed by Modal Prefixes.
§ 33. The modal particles *ba,' ^bo,' 'ka,' *na,' 'pa,' * ya,' and 'yu'
are prefixed to verbal roots, adjectives, and some neuter verbs, making of
20 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
them activjB transitive verbs, and usually indicating the mode and instru-
ment of the action.
(a) The syllable * ba ' prefixed shows that the action is done by cutting
or sawing^ and that a hiife or saw is the instrument. For this the Titogwaq
use * wA ' for the prefix.
(V) The prefix * bo ' signifies that the action is done by shooting with a
gun or arrow, by punching with a stick, or by any instrument thrown end-
wise. It also expresses the action of rain and hail; and is used in reference
to blotving with the mouth, as, bosni, to blow out?
(c) The prefix ' ka ' denotes that the action is done by striking j as v/ith
an axe or club, or by shaving. It is also used to denote the efifects of wind
and of running water.
(d) The prefix * na ' generally signifies that the action is done with the
foot or by pressure. It is also used to express the involuntary action of
things, as the bursting of a gun, the warping of a board and cracking of
timber, and the eflPects of freezing, boiling, etc.
(e) The prefix *pa' shows that the action is done by pushing or rubbing
with the hand.
(/) The prefix *ya' signifies that the action is performed with the mouth.
{g) The prefix 'yu' may be regarded as simply cawsative or effective.
It has an indefinite signification and is commonly used without any refer-
ence to the manner in which the action is performed.
Usually the Higuification of the verbal roots is the same with all the prefixes, as
they Duly have respect to the manner and inHtrument of the action; as, baksa, to cut
in two with a knife, as a stick ; boksa, to shoot off; kaksa, to cut off with an axe; naksa,
to break off with the foot; paksa, to break off with the hand; yaksa, to bite off; yuksa,
to break off. But the verbal root ska appears to undergo a change of meaning; as,
kaSka, to tie, yuiska, to untie.
§ 34. These prefixes are also used with neuter verbs, gi\^ng them an
active signification; as, naziij, to stand, yunaziy, to raise up, came to stand ;
deya, to cry, nadeya, to make cry by kicking,
§ 35.* 1. We also have verbs formed from adjectives by the use of such
of these prefixes as the meaning of the adjectives will admit of; as, waste,
good, yuwaste, to make good ; teda, new, yuteda, to make new ; sida, bad,
yasica, to speak evil of.
2. Verbs are also made by using nouns and adjectives in the predicate,
in which case they are declined as verbs ; as, Damakota, I am a Dakota ;
mawaSte, / am good.
•For the Titoywai) use, see • wo^ and *yu' io the Dictionary,
COMPOUND VERBS— CONJUGATION— FORM. 2 1
3. Sometimes other parts of speech may be used in the same way, i. e.,
prepositions; as, emataijhaij, I am from,
COMPOUND VERBS.
§ 36. There are several classes of verbs which are compounded of two
verbs.
1. *Kiya' and *ya' or *yaij,' when used with other verbs, impart to
them a causative signification and are usually joined with them in the same
word; as nazig, lie stands^ naziijkiya, /^e causes to stand. The first verb is
sometimes contracted (see § 11); as, waqyaka, he sees, waqyagkiya, he
causes to see.
2. In the above instances the first verb has tlie force of an infinitive or
present participle. But sometimes the first as well as the second has the
force of an independent finite verb ; as, hdiwaijka, Jie comes home sleeps
(of hdi and waijka); hinaziq, he comes sta7uls (of hi and nazig). These may
be termed double verbs,
§ 37. To verbs in Dakota belong ronjuffatiorij fonUj person, number,
mode^SLiid tense.
CONJUGATION.
§ 38. Dakota verbs are comprehended in three conjugations, distin-
guished by the form of the pronouns in the first and second persons singu-
lar which denote the agent. Conjugations I and II include all common
and active verbs and III includes all neuter verbs.
(a) \\\ iXie first conjugatimi ihe subjective singular pronouns are *wa'
or Sve' and *ya' or *ye.'
(6) The second conjugation embraces verbs in *yu,' *ya,' and *yo,'
which form the first and second persons singularity changing the *y' into
*md' and *d,' except in the Titoqway dialect where these are ^hV and *1.'
(c) Neuter and adjective verbs form the third conjugation, known by
taking what are more properly the objective pronouns 'ma' and *ni.'
1. Of neuter verbs proper we liave (a) the complete predicate, as, ta, to
die; asni, to get well; (b) with adjectives; as waste with ay a or icaga;
wa«te amayai), / am growing better,
2. Of predicate nouns ; as, WamaiSicuij, / am a Frenchman.
3. Of predicate adjectives; as, ma waste, lam good. All adjectives may
be so used. — ^A. L. Riggs.
FORM.
§ 39. Dakota verbs exhibit certain varieties of form which indicate
corresponding variations of meaning.
22 Dakota GRAMMAft, T£XT?S, AIsTD ETHNOGBAPaY;
1. Most Dakota verbs may assume a frequentative form, that is, a form
which conveys the idea of frequency of action. It consists in doubling a
syllable, generally the last ; as, baksa, to cut off tvith a knifcj baksaksa, to
cut off in several places. This form is conjugated in all respects just as the
Verb is before reduplication.
2. The so-called absolute form of active verbs is made by prefixing
'wa' and is conjugated in the same manner as the primitive verb, except
that it can not take an objective noun or pronoun. The 'wa' appears to be
equivalent to the English something; as manoij, to steal, wamanog, to steal
something; taspaijtaqka mawanoq (jipple I-stole), I stole an appk, wama-
wanoi), I stole something, i. e., / committed a theft.
3. When the agent acts on his own, i. e. something belonging to him-
self, the verb assumes the possessive form. This is made in two ways: First,
by prefixing or inserting the possessive pronoun *ki' (and in some cases *k'
alone); as, waiStedaka, to love anything; diijca waStekidaka, he loves his
child. Secondly, in verbs in *yu,' *ya,' and *yo,' the possessive form is
made by changing *y' into *hd;' as, yuha, to have or possess any thing;
hduha, to Imve one^s own; ^uktaijka wahduha, / have my own horse.
It has already been noted that in the Yankton dialect the *y' becomes
*kd' and in the Teton dialect *gl;' thus in the three dialects they stand,
hduha, kduha, gluha. The verb *hi,' to co)ne to, forms the possessive in the
same way: hdi, kdi, gli, to come to one's own home. Examples of ^k' alone
agglutinated forming the possessive are found in kpatai), kpagag, kpaksa,
etc. It should be also remarked that the *kMs intercnangable with *t,' so
that among some of the Dakotas we hear tpataq, etc.
4. When the agent aX5ts on himself, the verb is put in the reflexive form.
The reflexive is formed in two ways : First, by incorporating the reflexive
pronouns, i<Ji, ni<Ji, micji, and uyki^i ; as, wa^tei<Jidaka, he loves himself. Sec-
ondly, verbs in *yu,' *ya,' and *yo,' that make the possessive by changing
*y ' into *hd,' prefix to this form *i; ' as, yuzaza, to wash any thing; hduzaza,
to wash one^s own, as one's clothes ; ihduzaza, to wash oneself.
5. Another form of verbs is made by prefixing or inserting preposi-
tions meaning to and for. This may be called the dative form.
(a) When the action is done to another, the preposition *ki' is prefixed
or inserted; as, kaga, to make any thing; ki6aga, to make to one; wowapi
kidaga (^writing to-him-he-made), he wrote him a letter. This form is also used
when the action is done on something that belongs to another ; as, ^uqka
kikte, (dog to-him-he-killed^ he killed his dog.
tERSOK— NUMBER— MODE. 23
(b) When the thing is done for another, *kfdi' is used; as, wowapi
kididaga, (writing for-him-he-made) he wrote a letter for him. In the plural,
this sometimes has a reciprocal force; as, wowapi kicidagapi, they wrote let-
ters to each other.
6. In some verbs ^ki' prefixed conveys the idea that the action takes
effect on the middle of the object; as, baksa, to cut in two with a knife j as a
stick; kibaksa, to cut in two in the middle.
7. There is a causative form made by ^kiya' and *ya.' (See § 36. 1.)
8. (a) The locative form should also be noted, made by inseparable
prepositions ^a,' *e,' 4,' and *o': as, amani, ewaijka, inazig and ohnaka.
(b) Verbs in the ** locative fonn," made by the inseparable *a' have
several uses, among which are: 1. They sometimes express location ow, as
in amani, to walk on. 2. Sometimes they convey the idea of what is in ad-
dition tOy as in akaga, to add to.
PERSON.
§ 40. Dakota verbs have three persons^ the firsts second^ and third.
The third person is represented by the verb in its simple fonn, and the sec-
ond and fii-st persons by the addition of the personal pronouns.
NUMBER.
§ 41. Dakota verbs have three numbers^ the singular^ dual, and plural.
1. The dual number is only of the first person. It includes the person
speaking and the one spoken to, and is in form the same as the first person
pliiral, but without the termination *pi;' as, wa^teuQdaka, we two love him;
mauijni, we two walk.
2. The plural is formed by suffixing *pi;' as, waiteuijdakapi, we love
him; manipi, they walk.
3. There are some verbs of motion which form what may be called a
collective plural, denoting that the action is performed by two or more acting
together or in a body. This is made by prefixing * a ' or * e ; ' as, u, to come,
au, they come; ya, to go, ay a, they go; nazii), to stafid, enazii), they stand.
These have also the ordinary plural ; as, upi, yapi, nazigpi.
MODE.
§ 42. There are three modes belonging to Dakota verbs : the indicative,
imperative, and infinitive.
1. The indicative is the common form of the verb; as, <5eya, he cries;
deyapi, they cry.
24 DAKOTA GRAMMEK, TEXTS, AMD ETHNOGRAPHY.
2. (a) Tlie imperative singular ig forraecj from the third person singular
indicative and the syllables ' wo ' and ^ ye ; ' as, deya wo, deya ye, cry tliou.
Instead of 'ye,' the MdewakaijtoQwai) has ' we,' and the Titoijwai) * le.' The
Yankton and TitOQwaij men use *yo.'
(6) The imperative plural is formed by the syllables * po,' * pe,' * m,' and
'miye;' as, deya po, ceya pe, ceyam, and deya miye. It has been sug-
gested that * po ' is formed by an amalgamation of * pi,' the common plural
ending, and * wo,' the sign of the imperative singular. In like manner, * pi '
and ' ye,' may be combined to make ' pe.' Tlie combination of * miye ' is
not so apparent.^
By some it is thought that the Titorjwaij women and (Aildren use * na'
for the imperative.^
The forms *wo,' 'yo,' and 'po' are used only by men; and 'we,' *ye,"pe,' and
Mniye' by women, though not exclusively. From observing this general rule, we
formerly supposed that sex was indicated by them; but lately we. have been led to
regard * wo' and *po' as used in commanding^ and *we,' *ye,' 'pe,' and *miye,' in
entreating. Although it would be out of character for women to use the former, men
may and often do use the latter.
When 'po,' 'pe,' and 'miye' is used it takes the place of the plural ending 'pi;^
as, ceya po, ceya miye, cry ye. But with the negative adverb ' sui,' the ' pi' is retained ;
as, ceyapi sni po, do not cry.
Sometimes in giving a command the 'wo' and 'ye,' signs of the imperative, are
not expressed, The plural endings are less frequently omitted.
3. The infinitive is commonly the same as the ground form of the verb,
or third person singular indicative. When two verbs come together, the
first one is usually to be regarded as the infinitive mood or present parti-
' In8tea<l of ^ i>o/ * pe ' and * miye/ tlic Titoijwai) luake the imperative phiral by the plural ending
'pi * and 'ye,' or * yo;' as, e^*oi)pi yo. In the Lord's prayer, for exauiple, we say, ** Wani)fitanipi kii)
ui)ki<''i(''azuzupi ye;" bnt we do not say in the next clause, '*^a taku wawiyutaq kii) ekta nnkayapi
sni piye," but *' ui)kayapi wni ye." Possibly the ]dural termination 'pi' and the precative form 'ye'
may have be<^u corrupted by the Santee into ' miye,' and by the Yankton and others into 'biye.' — w. j. c.
Then it would seem plain that 'po' is formed from ' pi' and 'yo;' and we reduce all the imperatiTe
forms, in the last analysis, to ' e ' and ' o.' — s. n. r.
3'Na' ran hardly bo called a sign of the imparative, as used by women and children. (1) It
appears to be an abbreviation of wanna, now: as, miku-na, t. e., maVn wanna, Give me, now\ A cor-
responding use of now is found in English. (2) It is, at best, an interjectional adverb. (3) It is not
used uniformly with un imperative foi-m of the verb, being often omitted. (4) It is used in other
connections; (a) as a con junction — when used by women it may be only such, as, raa]cn na, Give it to
me, and — an incomplete sentence; it is often used between two imperative verbs, as, iku na yuta, take
and eaty whereas, if it was an imperative sign, it would follow the last verb; (h) it is used to sooth
crying children, as, Na! or, Nana! (c) Nal and Nana! are also used for reproving or scolding. (5)
'Na' is used p<»ssibly as the terminal 'la,' and will dropoff in the same way. (6) If 'na' were a
proper sign of the im])erntive, men would use it (or some corresponding form) as well as women.
But they do not. We tind *wo' and 'we,' 'yo' and 'ye,* *po' and 'pe;' but nothing like 'na' useil
bv men. — t. l. k.
TENSE— PARTICIPLES. ' 25
ciple; and is contracted if capable qf contraction (§ 11); as, waijyaka, to
see any thing, waqyag mde kta, (to see it I -go will) I will go to see it ; nahoij
waug, (hearing I-ani) I am Iwaring^ or / hear.
What iu other languages are called conditional and subjunctive modes may be
formed by using the indicative with the conjunctions UQkaQS, kighai) or dQhaQ,tuka,
e6ta or Ata, and ke6, which come after the verb; as, ^eya ugkai)^, if he had cried; 6eye
^i^hai), if he cry; 6eye kta tuka, he would cry^ hut he does not: wahi ui)kai}8 wakaske
kta tuka, if I had comCj I would have bound him.
TENSE.
§ 43. Dakota verbs have but two tevse forms, the aoriM, or indefinite,
and the future.
1. The aorist includes the present and imperfect past. It has com-
monly no particular sign. Whether the action is past or now being done
must be determined by circumstances or by the adverbs used.
2. The sign of the future tense is * kta ' placed after the verb. It is
often changed into * kte ;' for the reason of which, see § 6. 1. 6.
What answers to a perfect pant is sometimes formed by using ' \oi^ ' or ' ^i^oij,'
and sometimes by the article * kii) ' or < ('iij ;' as taku nawahoQ feoij, what I heard.
PARTICIPLES.
§ 44. 1. The addition of *hai)' to the third person singular of some
verbs mak.es an active participle; as, ia, to speak, iahai), speaking; nazig, to
stand, naziijhaij, standing; mani, to walk, manihai), walking. The verbs that
admit of this formation do not appear to be numerous.^
2. The third person singular of the verb when preceding another verb
has often the force of an active participle; as, nahorj waiuj, I am hearing.
When capable of contraction it is in this case contracted; as, waijyaka, to
see, waqyag nawaziq, / st^ml seeing.
§ 45. 1. The verb in the plural impersonal form has in many instances
the force of a passive participle; as, makaskapi wauij, (me-they-bouml I-am)
I am bound.
2. Passive participles are also formed from the verbal roots (§ 33) by
adding *har) ' and * wahaij ;' as, ksa, separate, ksahai) and ksawahaij, broken
* Judging from analogy, hai) (see hai), to stand, to stand upright on end, in the Dictionary) must
have been used long ago as a classitier of attitude, the standing object. Even now we find such a use
of tai) in Cegiha (Omaha and Ponka), kai) iu^ Kansa, tqai) and kqai) in Osage, taha in x^iwere, and
tceka in Winnebago. The classifier in each of tbeHe languages is also used after many primary verbs,
as hai) is here, to express incomplete or continuous action. See '' The comparative phonology of four
Siouan languagee/' in the Smithsonian Report for 1883. — .7. 0. D.
26 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOG&APHY.
in two J as a stick. In some camb only one of ^ese forms is in use ; ItnA
generally both aocor, without, however, so far as we have perceived, any
^Serence in the meaning.
A few of the verbal roots are used as adjectives; as, mdn^fine; bat they also
take the participle endings'; as, mdawahaij crumbled fine.
CONJUGATION I.
§ 46. Those which are embraced in the first conjugation are mostly
active verbs and take the subjective article pronouns * ya ' or * ye ' and
* wa ' or * we ' in the second and first persons singular.
FIRST VARIETY.
§ 47. Tlie^r^^ variety of the first conjugation is distinguished by pre-
fixing or insertifig * ya ' and * wa,' article pronouns of the second and first
persons singular.
A. Pronouns Prefixed.
Kadka, to tie or bind anything.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Aarist tense.
Sing. Dual. Plar.
3. ka^ka, he binds or he bovnd, ka^k^pi, they bind.
2. yak&ska, thou bindest. yak^kapi, ye bind.
1. wak&ska, I bind. UQkdska, we two bind, uijka^kapi, loe bind.
Ftiiure tense,
3. kadke kta, he will bind. ka^k&pi kta, they will bind,
2. yak&^ke kta, thou wilt bind. yakdskapi kta, ye will bind.
1. wakd^ke kta, / will bind. ui)k^kapi kta, tee will bind.
aijkdske kta, we two tcill bind.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Sing. Plur.
2. kaSkd wo, ye, or we, bind thou. k^kk po, pe, or miye, bind ye.
PARTICIPLE.
kai^kdhag, bound.
CONJUGATION t .27
B. Pronouns Inskrtrd.
Ttmrn^, 4» 9§mi may thing.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Aartsi tense.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. man69, he steals or stole. maud^pi, they steal.
2. inaydnoQ, thou steaUst. maydno^pi, ye steal.
1. maw&noQi I steal. mauQnoT), we two steal, mafujnoQpi, we steal.
Future tense.
3. man6i} kta, &€ will steal. mand^pi kta, tA^ mil steal.
2. maydnoi} kta, thou wilt steal. mayduoijpi kta, ye will steal.
1. maw&noQ kta, I will steal. ma(ii)ii09pi kta, we will steal.
mafi^DOQ kta, we two will steal.
* IMPERATIVE MODE.
Sing. PloT.
2. man6i) wo, ye, or we, steal thou. man6i} po, pe, or miye, steal ye.
§ 48. The verb ytita, to eat anything, may be regarded as coming
under the first variety of this conjugation. The *yu' is dropped when the
pronouns are assumed; as, yuta, he eatSj y&ta, thou eatest, wAta, / eat
SECOND VARIETY.
§ 49. The second variety of the first conjugation is distinguished by the
use of * ye' and * we' instead of * yaki ' and * waki' (§ 18. 4), in tlie second
and firat persons singular.
A. Pronouns Prefixed.
KikBuya, to remember any thing.
indicative mode.
Aorist tense.
Sing. Daal. Plnr.
3. kiksfiya, he remembers. kiksfiyapi, they remember.
2. y^ksuya, thou rcmemberest. y^ksayapi, ye remember.
1. w^ksnye^ I remember. uQkiksaya, we two remember. uQkiksuyapi, we remember.
imperative mode.
Sing. Plar.
2. kiksiiya wo, ye, or we, remember thou. kiksfiya po, i)e, or miye, remember ye.
Future tense. — It is deemed unuecessary to give any farther examples of the
future tense, as those wliich have gone before fully illustrate the manner of its formation.
28 DAKOTA GKAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
H. PRONOfrNS IN8KRTKI>.
IScaki6ox), to do anytliiu^ to another.
INDICATIVK MOT>F..
Aori9t tente.
Sing. Dual. Plnr.
3. e6dki<k)r), he does to one. e6&ki6oQpi, they do to.
2. e6dye6oi), thou doest to. e6&ye6oT)pij ye do to.
1. e64we^*oij, / do fo. e^4uTjki(!oi), we two do to. e(^aijki6oQpi, we do to.
IMPEKATIVE MODE.
Siug. Plnr.
2. e^*^kieoi) wo, ye, or we, do thou it to one. ec4ki(*oi} po, pe, or miye, do ye it to one.
CONjrGATION II.
§ 50. Verbs in * yu,' * ya,' and ' yo,' which change * y ' into ' d ' for the
second person, and into * md ' for the first person singular, belong to this
conjugation. They are generally active in their signification.
FIRST VARIETY.
A. — Verbs in *yu.'
Tui^tai), to finish or complete any thing.'
INDICAIIVE mode.
Aor%»t tense.
Sing. Dual. Plnr.
3. yuStdi}, he finiahes or finished. yui^tdgpi, they finish.
2. dii8t&ij, thou dost finish. duHtdijpi, ye finish,
1. mduAtdi}, I finish. ui^i^taij, we two finish. fiQ^taijpi, we finish.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Sing. Plur.
yudt^i} wo, etc., finish tfwu. yuHt^i} po, etc., ^ni^A ye.
First person plural. — Verbs in *yu' generally form the first person plural and
dual by dropping the \yu,' an in the example; but occasionally a Ri>eaker retains it
and prefixes the pronoun, as, uijyftstaijpi for (iij^taijpi.
In the Titfiijwaij iliulect, yiiHtui) hoM liistai) in the Heconil i>er8un singular, and bluHtai) in the lirst.
CONJUGATION II.
29
B. Verbs in *ya.'
to hiU any thing in two.
INDICATIVK MODK.
Aorisi tense.
Sing. Dual. Plnr.
3. yaks^, he bites in two. yaksdpi, they bite in two.
2. daks&y thou bitest in two. daks^pi, you bite in two.
1. mdaks^, / bite in twj. ugy&ksa, we two bite in two. uijy&ksapi, we bite in two.
Sing.
yaksd wo, etc., bite thou in two.
IMPERATIVE MODK.
Plar.
yaksil po, etc., bite ye in two.
Ya, to go, is conjugated in the same way in Isaijyati, but in the Ihaijk-
toijwai) and Titoqwaij dialects it gives us a form of variation, in the singu-
lar future, which should be noted, viz : yiij kta, ni kta, mni kta ; dual,
uqyii) kta.
C. Verbs in *yo.'
lyotaqka, to sit down.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Aorisi tense.
Dual.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. iy6taijka, he sits down. iy6tai)kapi, they sit dawn.
2. idota^ka, thou sittest dotcn. id6tagkapi, you sit down.
1. imddtaQka, / sit down. uijkiyotaijka, we two sit down, uijkiyotaijkapi, we sit dawn.
Sing.
iy6tai)ka wo, etc., sit thou doivn.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Plur.
iy6tai}ka i)o, etc., sit ye down.
SECOND Variety.
§ 61. The second variety of the second conjugation embraces such verbs
as belong to the same class, but are irregular or defective.
IBBEGULAB FORMATIONS.
(a) Hiyn, to come or start to come.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Aorist tense.
Dual.
Sing.
3. hiyfi, he comes.
2. hidd, thou comest.
I. hib6, 1 come.
UQhiyu, we two come.
Plur.
hiytipi, they come.
hidupi, you come.
UQhiyupi, we come.
30
DAKOTA GEAMMAB, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGKAPHY.
Sing.
hiy6 wo, etc., come thou.
Sing.
3. yukdi), there is some.
2.
1.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
(b) Tnkai), to be or there is.
Dual.
UQkai), we two are.
Plur.
hiyii po, etc., come ye.
Plur.
yak&i}pi, they are,
duk^Qpi, you are.
^QkaQpi, we are.
The verb < yakai) ' in the singular is applied to things and not to persons except
as considered collectively.
(c) Plur. YakOQpi, they are.
Sing.
3.
2. dakAnoQ, thou art.
1.
Daal.
uijydkoij, we two are.
Plur.
yak6i)pi, they are.
dakdnoi}pi, you are.
UQy&koijpi, we are.
These last two verbs, it will be observed, are defective. Kiyukai), formed from
yukai), is used in the sense of to make room for one and is of the first conjugation.
VEBBS WITH OBJECTIVE PBONOUNS.
§ 52. 1. The objective pronoun occupies the same place in the verb as
the subjective; as, kaska, he binds, makaSka, he bitids me; raanoij, he steak,
maniiiog, he steals thee.
2. When the same verb contains both a subjective and an objective
pronoun, the bbjective is placed first; as, mayakaska, thou bindest me,
mawidayanoij, tJwu stealest them. An exception is formed by the pronoun
of the first person plural, which is always placed before the pronoun of the
second person, whether subjective or objective; as uijnidaskapi, we bind you.
KAdKA, to tie or hind.
him, her, it.
r
thee.
me.
them.
you.
us,
ui)k^i^kapi
uqy^kaskapi
ui)kiC4kapi
uijy^kaskapi
•
9
>
S
1
«
i
Sing. 3. ka^kd
2. yak^l^a
1. wak^ka
Dual. ni)k^ka
Plur. 3. kaskdpi
2. yak^kapi
1. ui)klUkapi
nid^ka
did^ka
nida^kapi
uijnfda^kapi
mak^ka
may^ka^ka
maklK^kapi
may^ka^kapi
wid^a^ka
wid^yaka^ka
widawaka^ka
wi6tii)ka^ka
wi6tfka4kapi
wictfyaka^kapi
wictiQka.4kapi
ni(!'il8kapi
di6&4kapi
nid^kapi
ugnidaskapi
Sing, ka^ktf wo, etc.
Plur, ]LMki po, tttc.
mak&^ka wo
mak^ka po
wi64ka^ka wo
wid^ka^ka po
ui)k^ska po
ugk^ka po
NEUTER AND ADJECTIVE VERBS. 31
Impersonal Forms.
§ 53. Active verbs are frequeutly used impersonally in the plural
number and take the objective pronouns to indicate the person or persons
acted upon, in which case they may be commonly translated by the Eng-
lish passive ; as, kaSkapi, (tJiey-bound-him) he is bound; nidaskapi, (they-bound-
thee) thou art bound; makaiSkapi, (they bound nie) I am baund ; widakaskapi,
(they bound them) they are bound.
Neuter and Adjective Verbs.
§ 64. Neuter and adjective verbs seem likewise to be used impersonally
and are varied by means of the same pronouns; as, ta, dies or he dies or he
is dead, nita, tJiee-dead or thou art dead, mata, me-dead or / die or am dead,
tapi, they die or are dead; possessive form, kita, dead to, as, ate makita, /o/A^r
to me dead; waste, good, niwa^te, thee-^ood, thou art good, mawaiSte, nie-good,
I am good, uijwa^tepi, we are good.
It is suggested by Prof. A. W. Williamson that the so-called objective
pronouns in these cases are used as datives and that they find analogy in our
English forms methinks, nieseems.^ A further careful consideration of these
Dakota article pronouns and the manner in which they are used leads to
the conclusion that these were the original forms, as fragments of * miye '
and * niye.' In the progress of the language it was found convenient, and
even necessary, for the active transitive verbs to have other forms, as, * wa '
and * ya,' to be used solely as subjective pronominal particles.^ Whence
they were obtained is not manifest. But as children, in their first efforts to
speak English, are found disposed invariably to use the objective for the
subjective, as, me want, 7ne cold, me sick, me good, etc., it would be natural
that where the necessity of changing does not exist the original forms should
be retained as subjectives. The form for the first person plural has been
retained both as subjective and objective. Many of this class of verbs are
best translated as passives.
It appears practically convenient to include these verbs and a few
others which are varied in a similar manner in one group, to which we will
give the name of third conjugation.
* See foot-note on the Paradigm after f 59, 4. Prof. A. W. Williamfion is correct with reference
to possessive or dative verhs in * ki/ as kita, raakita. Compare the use of the Latin ^mni; Eat mihi
liber. But niwa^te, mawaste^ UQwa^tepi, nita, mata, ui)tapi cannot he said to convey a dative idea.
The cognate languages show that these are pure objectives. — J. O. D.
^How about md (bd, bl) and d (I), mentioned in $ 18, 7f— J. O. D.
32
DAKOTA GKAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
C O N J U (i A T I (> N III.
§ 55. This conjugation is distinguished by the pronouns * ni ' in the
second and * ma ' in the first person singular. Those verbs included under
the first varkty take these pronouns in their full form. The second variety
embraces those in which the pronouns appear in a fragmentary stnte and are
irregular in their conjugation.
FIRST VARIETY.
§ 56. To this variety belong neuter and adjective verbs. The proper
adjective verbs always prefix the pronouns; but, while some neuter verbs
prefix, others insert them.
A. Pronouns Prkfixkd.
Ta, to die or he dead,
INDICATIVK MODK.
Aitrist Tense.
Sing. Dnal. Plur.
3. ta? ^e is dead or he dies. Mpi, they are dead.
2. nita, thou art dead or thou dient. iiitapi, you are dead.
1. inatH, I am dead or 7 die. uijta, we two are dead, uijt/ipi, ive are dead.
Sing.
2. ta wo, etc., die thou.
Siug.
3. waste, he itt good.
2. niw^ste, thou art good.
1. maw^ste, / am good.
IMPEKATIVK MOIIK.
TVaste, good or to In' good.
Dual.
uij waste, we two are good.
\\. PRONOI'NS InsKRTKI*.
Plur.
ta iM), etc., die ye.
Plur.
wastepi, they are good.
niwiiste[)i, you are good.
uijwdstepi, we are good.
i, to get well or he welK recover from sicknesM.
INDICATIVK >lOl>K.
Aonat Tenne.
Sing.
3. asDi, he is well.
2. anisiii, thou art well.
1. ain^sni, Jam well.
Sing.
asni wo, etc., he thou well.
Dual.
uijkasiii, we two are well.
IMI»KRATIVK MODK.
Plur.
asiiipi, they are well.
anisnipi, you are well.
uijkasnipi, tee are well.
Plur.
asiii po, etc., he ye welL
CONJUGATION III.
33
SECOND VARIETY.
§ 57. Verbs in this variety have only ^n' and 'rn/ fragments of the
article pronouns *ni' and *ma/ in the second and first persons singular.
These appear to be mostly active transitive verbs.
A. pRoxoi'Ns Prefixed.
1. The fragmentary pronouns *n' and *m' are prefixed to the verb in
its entirety.
Ui), t<> iiMf any thing, as a tool, etc.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Aoritit Tenne,
SinK.
3. UI), he u^es.
2, nui), thou usesf.
1. mui), T use.
Dual.
ui}kfnj, we two use.
Plnr.
(iijpi, they use.
nuQpi, ye use.
ui)kiii)pi, ice use.
In this and the following examples only the indicative aoriat is given, the forma-
tion of the remaining parts having been already sufficiently exhibited.
TTijpa and caijnuijpa, to smoke a pipe, are conjugated like uij, to u^e.
The reflexive form of verbs, which in the third person singular commen(*es with
* ihd' (see § 39. 4.), is also conjugated like ^uij ;' as, ihddska, to hind oneself ; nihda^ka,
thou hindest thyself; mihd4i^ka, I bind myself
2. The agjrlutinated * n ' and *m' take the place of the initial * y.'
Sinp.
3. yaijkii, he w.
2. naijkd, thou art.
1. mai}kii, I am.
(a) 7ai)ka, to be.
Dual.
ui)y&i)ka, we two are.
(h) 7ai)ka, to weave ^ as snowshoes.
Phir.
yai)k&pi, they are.
nai)k^pi, ye are.
ui)ydijkapi, we are.
Sin>;. Dual. Plur.
3. yi^ijka, he weaves. yAijkapi, they weave.
2. n&Qka, thou weavest. n^i)kapi, you weave.
1. mn4i)ka, I xoeave. uijyAi)ka, we two weave. ui}ydijkapi, we weave.
Y4ijka, to weave^ differs in conjugation from yaijka, to be, only in the first person
singular.
B. PRONOCNS lN8KRTKI>.
3. 'N' and *m' take the place of *w.'
7105_voL IX .3
34 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
(a) OwiqiSL, to make a bed of or use for a bed.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. owii)^a, he uses for a bed, owlQ^^api, they use for a bed.
2. ouii)za, thou usestfor a bed, onfQ^api, you use for a bed.
1. omii)^a, I use for a bed. ai)k6wi9^api, we use for a bed.
uijk6wii)za, we two use for a bed.
(b) Iwax)ga, to inquire of one.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. iwdij^a, lie inquires of. iwdijgapi, they inquire of.
2. iuiiQga, thoti inquirest of. iu(ii)gapi, you inquire of.
1. imui)ga, / inquire of. uijkiwai)ga, we ttco imiuire of. ui)k(wai)g;api, we inquire of
This second example differs from the first la the change of vowels, 'u' taking the
place of * a.'
Waijka and iwiiijka, to lie doicn, go to bed^ are conjugated like iw&Qga.
In the Titoijwaij dialect iyuijga is used instead of iwaQga, thus:
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. iyuijga. iyuggapi.
2. inuijga. inui^gapi.
1. imuijga. uijkiyugga. uijkiyuijgapi.
IciyuQga, I inqtiire oftliee; uijkiniyuijgapi, we inquire of you; etc.
They also say yuQka and iyuQka, instead of wai)ka and iwaijka. The like change
of * wa' to * yu' is found in other words.
4. *N' and *in' inserted with an *a' preceding.
Edoi), to do anything.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. ec6ij, he does. e66ijpi, they do.
2. eednoij, thou doest. ectooqpi, you do.
1. ecdmoi), / do. ec6ijku, we two do. ecoijkupi and ec6i)koTjpi, we do,
n.6(*oi)j kec'oij, and tokoij are conjugated like ec6ij.
C. Pronouns Soffixed.
5. The pronouns when suffixed take the forms *ni' and *mi.
a. H6u), to think.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. ociij, he thinks. eclqpi, they think.
2, ecAi)ni, thou thinkest, e^dijnipi, you think.
1. ec'dijmi, I think. ui}k^61ij, we ttco think. ui)k6ciijpi, tee think,
H66ii;, k^6ii), wd^iij, and aw46iij are C/Onjugated like e^iij.
DOUBLE CONJUGATIONS. 35
Ii), to weavj as a shawl or blanket.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. ig, he wears. igpi, they tcear,
2. hiQni, thou wearest. hignipi, you wear.
1. liiQmf, I wear. ni^kfi), we two wear. ui)kfQpi, we wear.
This example differs from the preceding in receiving a prefixed *h.'
DOUBLE VERBS.
§ 58. These are formed of two verbs compounded (^ 37. 2.). They
usually have the pronouns proper to both verbs, though sometimes the
pronouns of the last verb are omitted ; as, hdiyotaqka (hdi and iyotaqka),
to come home and sit down ; wahdimdotaqka, I come home and sit down ; they
also say wahdiyotaijka.
•
CONJUGATIONS I AND II.
Hiyotaqka, to come and sit down.
Sing. Daal. Plur.
3. hiyotai)ka, he comesj etc. hiyotai)kapi, they eome^ etc.
2. yahfdotai)ka, thou contest^ yahldotai)kapi, you come^ etc.
etc. ' ui)hfyotai)kapi, i€^oom4?, etc.
1. wahiiDdotai)ka, I come, uijhiyotai^ka, we two come,
etc. etc.
HdfyotaQka is conjugated like hiyotaQka. Hinaiii), hdinazii;, and kinaiii), in both
parts, are of the first conjugation; as, wahinawa:^in, yahinayaziij, etc.
CONJUGATIONS I AND III.
Igyaiika, to run (prob. i and yai^ka).
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. ii)yai)ka, he runs. ii)yai)kapi, they run.
2. yainaijka, thou runnest. yainai^kapi, you run.
1. wafmnai)ka, I run. ai)kii)yai)ka, we two run. ui)kii)yai)kapi, we run.
Hiwai)ka, kiwai)ka, and hdiwai)ka are conjugated like kaSka of the first conjuga-
tion and iwai)^a of the third.
IBBEGULAB AND DEFECTIVE VEBBS.
§ 59. 1. Eya, to say^ with its compounds h^ya and k^ya, are conju-
gated irregidarlyy *h' and *p' taking the place of *y' in the second and first
persons smgular.
36 DAKOTA GEAMMAE, TEXTS, AND BTHNOGBAPHY.
Eya, to say anythiug.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. ^ya, he says. ^yapi, they say,
2. eh&, thou sayest. ehdpi, you say.
1. ep&, I say or said. iii)k^ya, we two say. uQkdyapi, we say.
2. The Ihaijktoijwai) and Titoqwaij forms of ' eya,' in the singular and
dual, when followed by the sign of the future, are worthy of note; as, eyii)
kta, ehiij kta, epii) kta, uykeyiq kta.
3. Ep6a, I tkhik^ with its comj)ounds hepda and kepda, are defective^
being used only in the first person singular.
4. On the use of ' eya ' and its compounds it is proper to remark that
' eya ' is placed -after the matter expressed, while * heya ' immediately pre-
cedes, it being compounded of ' he ' and * eya,' tJiis he said. On the other
hand, ' keya ' comes in at the close of the plu:ase or sentence. It diffei^s
from * eya ' and * heya ' in this, that, while (heir subject is in the saine person
with that of the verb or verbs in the same sentence, the subject of *keya*
is in a different person or the expression preceding is not in the same form,
as regards person^ as when originally used; as, mde kta, eya, I will go^ he
said; mde kta, keya, he said that I would go; heclfamoi) kta, epa, that I wiU
do J I said; hedamoi) kta, kepa, / said that I would do that. Ke<5ii) and
ke<5ai)kii) follow the same rule that governs keya and kepda.
The annexed paradigm will present, in a single view, many of the
facts and principles which have been already presented in regard to the
synthetic formations of active verbs.
38
DAKOTA OBAMUAB, TEXTS, AMD ETHNOOBAPHX.
Aim, etc.
IAm.
«.
lk«M.
go:
M.
*i
Sine. 3. bakflfi
baiiikaa
bamtfkB»
bawiettw
bwifknapi
• s
3. hiiydkSB
bamdyaksu
bawi6ityak«i
batiqyakaapi
'2
1. hawiksn
ba^iksa
buni<!<!wakBa
ba/^fkaapi
sS
Dual banqkaa
bawitdijkaft
i^
Plur. 3. bakwipi
banikaapi
bam^kMpi
buwiSftkaapi
ballqkaapi
ii
2. bajftkHapi
bamftyaksapi
bawiidyaksapi
baiiqyakaapi
1. baliqksapi
batiijnikaapi
bawi£iigksapi
bafionikaapi
Sine. 3. biiksA
bouiksa
bomShsa
bowi£Aaa
bonlksapi
boflDkaapi
it
2. boviikaa
bomliyabita
bowifdyakaa
boHqyakaapi
1. bowitkan
buf^iksa
bowi£liwakaa
boCtksapi
£•
Duiil bo<li)k»a
Is.
Plur. 3. bokHSiii
bonfksani
bomukaapi
boTri£fG<sapi
boniksapi
boaqkaapi
3a
a. boySkwipi
bowi^^aksapi
boHqyakaapi
r
1. liorjqkaapi
boflnnikaapi
bowifiiqksapi
botiqnikaapi
■s.
Si»g.3.kakBil
Di6&kHa
makOaa
wi«Skakaa
nii^Akaapi
la
2. yakdkMi
maydkakaa
wi^ijakakaa
aijyiikakaapi
\. wakiCkaa
^i«£ksa
wi£(iwakakBa
6i«Skaapi
s s
liual nqkilksa
wi6tii)kakM
p
Plur. 3. kiikBipi
nit^Aeapi
■uakSkaapi
witAaksapi
nieikwpi
uokfiksapi
2
2. yakik-iaj.i
1. nqkikkaapi
ugni^akaapi
mayAaksapi
witiHyakakiiapi
V7 iAA n 1r a1rafk¥ki
.
uijyiikakHBpi
*?
W lUUqiCB H dUpi
iiiim sapi
•»
KLiig.3. nakBH
nanfkaa
na^al^
oawi-^akaa
11
2. naydkaa
nanjSyaksa
trnwifidyaksa
naUqyakaapi
Ji-
1. naw^ksa
iiiu^Sksa
nawii^ftwaksa
naffkaapi
ll
Piial Dadqksa
nawiitloksa
Plur. 3. naks^pi
nantksapi
uamakxapi
uawifiiftsBpi
aanfksapi
uftflijksapi
|l
2. Dayifkaapi
namttyakaapi
nawidityaksapi
naiiqyukBapi
S
nafiijuiksapi
■^
%t
Sing.3. pakai
uijiAsa
mapftksa
wifdpaku
□ipftkaapi
uqpikaapi
2. yapikea
may^tpaksu
wifSyapftkBa
uqydpaksapi
1. napifksa
fipfiksa
wi<;&irapa)(sa
i:ipl[kaapi
P
I'liir. 3. paLiIpi
wi<!tinpakHa
liplikHapi
uipKkaapi
urjp^aapi
^S
2. yapftksapi
uijyajiaksapi
1. ui)pitkHapi
nqnfpakHapi
uynlpaknapi
Suig. 3. yakxA UySkBu
mayftkHa
wif^Ayakaa
uiytikaapt
uiiyfikaapi
s
3. daksA
[cayfidakHa
wMJakaa
uijyWakBapi
:z
1. mdakHii
tiyfikna
w •'limdakaa
eiyrtkaapi
s
Dual uqylikBa
Plur. 3. vakeiipi
w fiiiiyaksa
t
niyitkaapi
mayllkBapi
w i^dyakaapi
iiiyfikaapi
uqyfiksapi
2. <lakHfipi
may&laksapi
aqy^akaapi
1. uijyiik»»pi
Sing. 3. yukafi
iiijnfyftkHapi
w itiijyftkHapi
LiDQiyakaapi
DijilkBa
maytikaa
wiefiyDkaa
uiyHkaapi
uijydksapi
If
2. dukflii
may^ukga
nitadakaa
ai)yiidukBapi
l.mduksd
fiyriksa
i^iyflkaapi
a * Dual .iijyfiksa
;-§ PLir.a.yuWpi
wienijyukaa
HiyukBapl
mnyriksapi
wii'iiyiiksapj uiyllkBapi
nqyaksaiH
3 ■ 2. duks^iii
mny^ukBap
wid^ukaapi
utjyadukBapi
t'
1. UQyukaapi
uijnfyiik-api
wUiiijyukBapi uqniyukBapi
PARADIGM: ROOT KSA.
39
Frequentative,
Absolute,
Reflexive.
Fo88€88ire,^
Dative,^
Sing. 3. baks^sa
2. bay^Baksa
1. baw^saksa
Doal ba^ksaksa
Plur. 3. baks^sapi
2. bay^Ucsaksapi
1. ba^Qkaaksapi
wabdksa
wab^yaksa
wab^waksa
wab^ui)k8a
wab^sapi
wab^yaksapi
wab^UQksapi
bafdiksa
baiii^iksa
bamfdiksa
bat!ii)ki(ukBa
bai^iksapi
banl6ik8api
batijQkidiksapi
bakfksa
bay^kiksa
baw^kiksa
batii)kik8a
bakiksapi
bay^kiksapi
badi)kik6api
bakf6ikBa
bay^diksa
baw66ik8a
baii)kicik8a
bakfeiksapi
bay^^iknapi
bailijkic'iksapi
Sing. 3. boksiikBa
2. boy^Ocsaksa
1. bowincHaksa
Dual botigkBaksa
Plur. 3. boks^sapi
2. boy^saksapi
1. botiijksaksapi
wab6ksa
wab<Syaksa
wab6wak8a
wab6ui)k8a
wabdksapi
wab<Syaksapi
wab6ui)k8api
boidiksa
bonf^iksa
boml^iksa
botiqki^iksa
bof^iksapi
boni^iksapi
boiiijki^iksapi
bokiksa
boy^kikfla
bow^kiksa
botii)kik8a
bokfkBapi
boy^kiksapi
bodQkiksapi
bokiciksa
boy^^iksa
bow6dik8a
botii)kieik8a
bokii'^ksapi
boy^^^riksayi
bodijkiciksapi
ki<^>i^ak8a
y<^di6akBa
w66i6ak8a
ui)kf<^i^ak8a
ki6i<^aksapi
y66i6ak8api
ui)kl(;i6ak8api
Sing. 3. kaks^ksa
2. yak^saksa
1. wak^ksaksa
Dual nijk^ncsaksa
Plur. 3. kaks^sapi
2. yak^ksaksapi
1. uqk^ksaksapi
waktfksa
way^kaksa
waw^kaksa
watiqkaksa
wak^ksapi
way^aksapi
walii)kakBapi
ilidilksa
nihdtfksa
mibdaksa
nijklbdaksa
ibd^ksapi
uihdiiksapi
ui)kihdak8api
bdaks^
yabd^ksa
wahd^ksa
ui)bd^k8a
bdaksiipi
yabd^sapi
uqbd^ksapi
Sing. 3. naks^sa
2. nay^ksakfla
1. naw^ksaksa
Dual nadijksaksa
Plur. 3. naks^sapi
2. nay^saksapi
' 1. nailijksaksapi
wanjiksa
wan^yaksa
waniiwaksa
wan^uijksa
waniiksapi
wan^yaksapi
wan^uijksapi
naf^iksa
nanfdiksa
namf^iksa
nadijkidiksa
naf^^iksapi
nanf^iksapi
nadt)ki^iksapi
nakiksa
nay^kiksa
naw^kiksa
natiijkiksa
nakCksapi
nayiikikBapi
uaiiijkiksapi
uakf<!^ik8a
uay^^'iksa
uaw6(^ik8a
nadi)ki^ik8a
uakldikHRpi
nay^i^iksapi
uauijki^'iksapi
ki(^ipaksa
yi^^ipakna
w66ipak8a
uijkiriimkHa
kl^ipaksapi
y(S6ipakHa)»i
uijkf^JX>ak8api
Sing. 3. paks^ksa
2. yap^ksaksa
1. wapiiksaksa
Dual uijp^ksaksa
Plur. 3. paksiiksapi
2. yapdksaksapi
1. uijp^ksaksapi
wap^ksa
wayjfpaksa
wawdpaksa
wadijpaksa
wap^Ksapi
waydpaksapi
wai^ijpaksapi
i^fpaksa
uiclpaksa
ini^ipaksa
ui)kl<^ipak8a
i^ipaksapi
uicfpaksapi
uijki^ripaksapi
kpaks^
yakp^ksa
wakp^ksa
uijkp^sa
kpaksdpi
yakpilksapi
UQkp^ksapi
8iug. 3. yaksjtksa
2. daksiiksa
1. mdaks^ksa
Dual uqvl^knaksa
Plur. 3. yaks^lksapi
2. daks^ksapi
1. uijyilksaksapi
waydksa
wad^ksa
wamdilksa
watimraksa
way&sapi
wadtfksapi
wadijyaksapi
wrtksa
wadtiksa
wamddksa
watiqyuksa
w6k8api
waddksapi
wauqyuksapi
ibdiiksa
nihd^ksa
mibd^ksa
uijkibdaksa
ibd^ksapi
nihd^ksapi
UQklbdaksapi
bdaks^
yabddksa
wahd^ksa
ai)bdjlk8a
hdaksHipi
yabd^ksapi
uQhd^ksapi
kf^'iyaksa
y6C*iyak8a
wdciyaksa
uqkfciyaksa
klciyaksapi
yd^iyaksaiii
Hijki(!'iyak8api
kf<^iyuk8a
y^^^iyuksa
w6<''iyuk8a
ui)kl<'-iyukHa
klriyiiKsapi
y^^c'MVuksapi
uijk5ciyuk8ai»i
Sing. 3. yuksdkfla
2. duks^l^a
1. mduks^^ksa
Dual tiqkBakBa
Plur. 3. ynks^sapi
2. duks^ksapi
1. tiijksaksapi
ibdtiksa
nibdtlkRa
mibddksa
uqkfhduksa
ibdliksapi
nibddksapi
uijkihduksapi
hduks^
yahddksa
wahduksa
uijbduksa
bduks^pi
yabdtiksapi
uQbduksapi
>In 8omo of tbe cognat-e Siouan languages tbere are two datives in common use, witli an occa-
sional tbird dative. Some Dakota verbs have two of these; e. g,, from ka^a, to wake, coiiio kiC'uga
(first dative) and ki6i6a^a (second dative), as in wowapi ki^aga, to write a letter to anotlier, and
wowapi ki6i6aga, to write a letter for or instead of another (or by request). In some cases the lirst
dative is not differentiated from the possessive. See note on $ 54. — J. O. D.
40 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
NOUNS.
FORMS OF NOUNS.
§ 60. Dakota nouns, like those of other languajres, may he divided into
two classes, prbnitirv and derUatire,
§ 61. Primitive nouns are those whose origin can not be deduced from
any other word ; as, raaka, earth, peta, Jire, pa, head, ista, eye, ate, father^
ina, mother.
§ 62. Derivative nouns are those which are formed in viu-ious ways
from other words, chiefly from verbs, adjectives, and other nouns. The
principal classes of derivatives are as follows :
1. Nouns of the iustrnment are formed from active verbs by prefixing
*i;' as, yumdu, to plough^ iyumdu, a ploiufh ; kasdeca, to split, icasdede, a
wedge ; kahiijta, to rake or sweep, icahiijte, a rake or hroom These again are
frequently compounded with other nouns. (See § 68.)
2. Nouns of x\iQ person or agent are formed from ai-tive verbs by pre-
fixing Sva;' as, ihaijgya, to destroy, waihaijgye, a destroyer : yawaste, to bless,
wavawaste, one who blesses, a blesser.
3. Many abstract nouns are formed from verbs and adjectives by pre-
fixing *wo;' as, ihaijgya, to destroy, woihai)gye, destruction ; wayazaij, to be
sick, wowa^azaij, siekvess ; waoijsida, wereifid, wowaoijsida, mercy ; waste,
good, wowaste, goodness,
4. Some nouns are formed from verbs and adjectives by prefixing 'o;'
as, waijka, to lie down, owayka, a floor ; a})a, to strike, oape, a stroke ; owa,
to mark or write, oowa, a mark or lettrr of the alphabet: sni, cold, as an
adjective, osni, cold, a noun; maste, hot, omaste, heat.
5. a, 'Wica,' prefixed to neuter and intransitive verbs and adjectives
sometimes fonns of them al)stract nouns ; as, yazaij, to be sick, wi<!^ayazaij
cmd wawicayazarj, sickness ; waste, good, wicawaste, goodness,
b. It sometimes forms nouns of the agent; as, yasica, to speak eril of,
curse, wicayasice, a curser.
c. Some nouns, by prefixing *wica' or its contraction Svi(?,' have their
signification limited tr) the human species; as, wicacai;te, the human heart;
wii^anape, the human hand ; wi(?<)ie, human words ; wicohaij, human actions,
AVe also have wicaatkuku, a father or one\s father : wicahuijku, one\^ mother ;
widaciijca, one\s children.
In like manner 'ta' (not the possessive pronoun, but the generic name of ruminat-
ing animals, and particularly applied to the moose) is prefixed to the names of various
members of the body, and limits the signification to such animals; as, tacaijte, a
NOUNS: DIMINUTIVES. 41
buffalo or deet^s heart ; tapa, a deer^s head; ta^e^j, a buffalo* s tongue; taha, a deer-n
skin; ta^esdi, the ^bois de vadie^ of the prairie.
When to such nouns is prefixed 'wa' (from waHaijksica, a bear), their signifi-
cation is limited to the bear species; as, wapa, a beards head ; waha, a beards sMn;
waiduQ, a beards den.
In like manner, 'ho,' from hogai}, a fish, prefixed to a few nouns, limits their sig-
nification to that genus; as, hoeLDej fish-fins ; hoaske, the bunch on the head of a fish.
6. Abstract nouns are formed from adjectives by prefixing ' wi6o,'
which may be regarded as compounded of * wica' and * wo;' as waste, .^oorf,
widowa6te, goodness, waoijsida, mrrciful ; wicowaoijsida, mercy.
7. a. Nouns are fonned from verbs in the intransitive or absolute
state by suffixing * pi; ■ as, wowa, to paint or trrite, wowapi, (they wrote some-,
thing) something written, a writing or hook; wayawa, to count, wayawapi,
figures or arithmetir.
h. Any verb may be used with the plural ending as a verbal noun or
gerund, sometimes without, but more commonly with, the definite article ;
as, idazo, to take credit, icazopi, credit; wayawa^te, to bless, wayawaitepi,
blessing ; waiharjgya, to destroy, waihaijgyapi, destroying; e6oi), to do, ecoijpi
kii), the doing of a thing.
8. When 's'a' is used after verbs, it denotes frequency of aetian, and
gives them the force of nouns of the person; as, kage s'a, a maker; edoijpi
s'a, doers; yakoijpi s'a, dwellers.
Diminutives.
§ 63. * Dai)' or *na' is suffixed to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs,
and has sometimes a diminutive and sometimes a restrictive signification.
1. Suffixed to nouns, 'daij' ii^ generally diminutive; as, mde, lake,
mdedai), little lake ; wak})a, river, wakpadaij, little river or rirulet ; apa, sonfc,
apadaij, a small j^art.
2. Some nouns now appear only with the diminutive ending, although
they may formerly have been used without it: as, hoksidaij, boy ; suijhpa-
dai), little dog, j^^WPV ; suijgidai;, fox.
3. Nouns ending with this diminutive take the })lural termination be-
fore the daij; as, hoksidai;, hoy, hoksipidaij, hoys.
4. Some nouns ending in *na,' when they take the plural form, change
*na' into *daTj;' as, wi(^ir;yai)na, girl, wiciriyaijpidai), girls ; wanistiqna, a
few, plur. wanistiripidaij. In some cases * dar) ' is used only in the ])lural
form ; as, tonana, a few, })lur. tonanaripidari.
The Ihaijktoijwaij and Sisitoijwai} commonly use ' na,' and tlie Titoijwai} ' la,' in
stead of ^daij,' for the diminutive ending ; as, hoksina and hoksila, for hoksidaij.
42 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
§ 64. 1. 'Daij' is often joined to adjectives and verbs, as the last prin-
cipal word in the clause, although it properly belongs to the noun; as,
^uktaijka waq waste-dai) (horse a good-little), a good little Iwrse^ not a horse a
littte good ; nidiriksi deye-dai) (thy-son cries4ittle), thy little son cries.
2. When used with a transitive verb, * darj ' may belong either to the
subject or the object of the verb; as, nisuijka sugka kiktedai} (thy-hrother
dog his'killed-litth), thy little brother killed his dog, or thy brother killed his little
dog.
Gender.
§ 65. 1. Gender is sometimes distinguished by different names for the
masculine and feminine; as, wi<5ai5ta, mafij winohirida, woman ; tataijka, 6i(/-
falo bull, pte, buffalo cow; hehaka, the mule elk, upai), the female elk.
2. But more commonly the distinction is made by means of adjectives.
*Wida' and ^wiijyai)' denote the male and female of the human species ;
as, hok^iyo^opa wi<5a, a male chUd, hoksiyolfopa wiriyaq, a female child.
*Mdoka' and *wiye' distinguish the sex of animals ; as, tamdoka, a buck;
tawiyedai), a doe, the *dari' being diminutive. These words, however, are
often written separately ; as, pagorita mdoka, a drake ; zitkadag wiye, a hen
bird. In some instances contraction takes place; as, &uj)g mdoka, a horse;
&\xi)g wiye, a marey from suijka.
3. Proper names of females of the human species frequently have
*wiij,' an abbreviation of 'wiijyari,' female, for their termination; as,
Totidutawii) (Woman of Iter red house); Wakaijkazuzuwiij (Female spirit that
pays debts). Sometimes the diminutive 'wiijna' is used for *wiij;' as,
Mahpiwiijna (Cloud woman).
Number.
§ 66. To nouns belong two numbers, the singular and plural
1. The plural of animate objects is denoted by the termination 'pi,'
which is attached either to the noim itself; as, suqka, a dog, ^uijkapi, dogs;
or, as is more commonly the case, to the adjective or verb which follows it
in the same phrase ; as, suijka ksa})api, wLse dogs ; sui^ka edoijpi, dogs did it.
2. (a) Names of inanimate objects seldom take the plural termination,
even when used with a plural meaning ; as, 6iiX), a tree or trees ; mdga, a
field or fields.
(b) On the other hand, some nouiLs fonned from verbs by adding the
plural termination *pi' (§ 62. 7. a.) are used with a singular as well as a
plural meaning; as, tipi, a house or houses; wowapi, a book or books.
NOUNS: CASE, POSSESSION. 43
Case,
§ 67. Dakota nouns may be said to have two principal cases, the sub-
jective and objective}
The subjective and objective cases are usually known by the place
which they occupy in the sentence. When two nouns are used, the one
the subject and the other the object of the action, the subject is placed
first, the object next, and the verb last ; as, widasta warj wowapi waq kaga
(man a hook a made), a man made a book; Dawid Sopiya wa^tedaka (David
Sophia loves) f David laves Sophia; Dakota Besdeke widaktepi (Dakota Fox-
Indian them-ihey-kiUed), the Dakota^ killed the Fox Indians.
When, from some consideration, it is manifest which must be the nominative, the
arrangement may be different; as, wi6adta Wakai)tai)ka kaga {man Ood made), Ood
made man.
As this distinction of case is rather syntactical than etymological, see further in
the Syntax.
Possession.
§ 68. The relation of two nouns to each other, as possessor smd possessed,
is sometimes indicated by placing them in juxtaposition, the name of the
possessor coming first ; as, wahukeza ihupa, spear-handU ; tipi tiyopa, house-
door; wida^ta oie, mun^s word.
Sometimes the first noun suffers contraction; as, mah6ii)6a, a gosling, for mag4
6ii)6a {goose child) ; mahiyumdn, a plough, for mdga iyumdn {field-plough) ; maUi6a-
hiQte, a rake, for m&ga i6ahii)te {fi^eldrake),
§ 69. But the relation is pointed out more definitely by adding to the
last term a possessive pronoun, either separate or incorporated.
1. Sometimes the pronouns *tawa' and Hawapi'are used after the
second noun; as, tataqka woyute tawa (buffalo food his), buffaloes food;
woyute ^uktagka tawapi (food horse theirs), horses^ food; wida^tayatapi tipi
tawa (chief hmise his), the chiefs s house.
2. (a) But generally the possessive pronouns are prefixed to the name
of the thing possessed; as, tataijka tawote (buffalo his-food), buffaloes food;
Dawid taaripetu (David Ms-day), the days of David.
Sometimes Hi' is prefixed instead of <ta;' as, wai^hiijkpe, an arrow; Dawid
tiwai)hii)kpe, DaviWs arrow.
Nouns commencing with *i' or <o' prefix ^V only; as, ipahii), a pillow; Ilake
tipahii), HaWs pillow; owii^^a, a bed; Hake towii):^e. Hake's bed.
Abstract nouns which commence with * wo ' drop the * w ' and prefix ' t ; ' as, wo-
wai^te, goodness; Wakaijtai)ka towadte, Ood^s goodness. (See § 23, 2. b.)
* A. L. Riggs thinks a better arrangement would include the genitive case with the autjeciive and
objective. The rule of position would then be : A noun in the genitive case qualifying another noun is
placed before the noun it qualifies. See $ 68.
44 DAKOTA GKAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
(fe) Nouns expressing relationship fonn their genitive by means of the
suffix pronouns * ku/ ^ cu,' ^ tku;' as, surika, younger brother, Dawid sugkaku,
David- s younger brother; cirjye, the elder brother of a man, Tomas diijdu,
Thomases elder brother: rir)ksi, a daughter ^ >vi(^ast4i (^ir)k6itku, mav^s duttghter.
Proper and Family Xamett,^
§ 70. The proper names of the Dakotas are words, simple and com-
pounded, which are in coimnon use in the hmguage. They are usually
given to children by the father, grandfather, or some other influential rela-
tive. When young men have distinguished themselves in battle, they fre-
quently take to themselves new names, as the names of distinguished an-
cestors of wari'iors now dead. The son of a chief, when he comes to the
chieftainship, generally takes the name of his father or grandfather; so that
the same names, as in other more j)owerful dynasties, are handed down
along the royal lines.
1. (a) Dakota proper names sometimes consist of a single noun; as,
Mahpiya, Cloud; Hoksidai), Bog; Wamdenida, Orphan; Wowa(5ir)yai),
Faith. '
(b) Sometimes they consist of a single adjective; as, Sakpe, (Six) Lit-
tie-six, the chief at Prairieville.
2. (a) But more frequently they are composed of a noun and adjec-
tive; as Istahba (eyes-sleepy). Sleepy-eyes; Tataijka-haijska {buffaio4ong),
Long buffalo; Matohota, Grizzly-bear ; AVamdi-duta, Scarlet- eagle ; Mato-
tamaheca, Lean-bear; Mazahota, Grey-iron; Maza-s'a, Sounding-metal; Wa-
paha-sa, Bed-Jtag-staff, called now Wabashair.
(b) Sometimes they are fonned of two nouns; a.s, Mahpiya-wi<5aita,
Cloud-man ; Pezihuta-wi('*asta, Medicine-man ; Ite-wakii)yaij, Thunder-face,
3. Sometimes a possessive pronoun is prefixed ; as, Ta-mako<5e, His
country; Ta-])eta-taijka, Uis-great-Jire ; Ta-03'ate-duta, His- red-people,
4. (a) Sometimes they consist of verbs in the intransitive form, which
may be rendered V)y nouns; as, \Vakut(s Shooter; Wana|>eya, One-who-
rauses-flighf .
(b) Sometimes they are compoiuuied of a noun and verb; as, Akidita-
nazii), Stamling-soldiej' or Sentinel ; Tataijka-nazii), Standing-buffalo; Ma-
lipiya-mani, Walking-cloud ; Waqmdi-okiya, One - who - talks- with -the-eagle ;
Mabpiya-hdinape, Cloud-that-appears-again,
• A ela88iti('Htion of porHonal luuiieH of th<* Omuhii. Ponka, KaiiKA. Osage, Iowa, Oto, aud Miftsouri
tribeH will be found on pp. 3JK^:^99, Vrov. A. A. A. S.. xxxiv, 188;"). See also "Indian personal uameH/'
pp. 263-268, Anier. Anthropologist; July, 1890.— J. O. D.
ADJECTIVES.
45
(c) Sometimes they are formed of two verbs ; as, Iijyaijg-mani, One-
who- walks-running. In some instance a preposition is prefixed ; as, Ana-
waqg-mani, Ofi€'Who'WalkS'as-he'gallopS'On.
§ 71. The names of the women are formed in the same way, but gen-
erally have *wii)' or *wh)na,' /ema/e, added; as, Aripetu-sapa-wiri, Black-
day-woman; Mahpi-wirjna, CloKd-woman.
§ 72. The Dakotas have no family or surnames. But the children of
a family have particular names which belong to them, in the order of their
birth, up to the fifth child. These names are, for boys, Caske, HepAq,
Hepf, Catdij, and Hak^. For girls, the}' are, Win6na, Hapaij, HApistiqna,
WAijske, and Wihake. Thus the first child, if a boy, is called Cask^, if a
girl, Win6na ; the second, if a boy, is called Hepaij, and if a girl, H4paq,
etc. If there are more than five children in the family, the othei*s have no
names of this kind. Several of these names are not used by the Titoijwai)
and Ihaqktoijwaq.
§ 73. The names of certain family relations, both male and female, are
presented in the following table :
A Man*8.
A IVoman'e
elder brother
elder sister
younger brother
younger sister
male cousin
female cousin
brother-in-law
sister-in-law
^iqy^
tai)K6
RU1)kl(
tai)k^i •
tah]{i)(li
hai)k^
tah^i)
hai)k^
timdd
<^U1)
8ni)k^
tai)k^
i^^i^i
i6^pai)^i
MH
id^pai)
The other relations, as, father, mother, uncle, aunt, gi'andfather, grand-
mother, etc., are designated, both by men and women, by the same names.
ADJECTIVES.
§74. 1. Most adjectives in Dakota may be considered as primitive ; as,
ska, white, taijka, large, waste, good.
2. A few are fonned from verbs by prefixing 'wa;' as, oijsida, to have
mercy on one, waorjsida, merciful ; caqtekiya, to love, wacaijtkiya, benevolent
§ 75. P^inal * a ' or * ai) ' of many adjectives is changed into * e ' when fol-
lowed by certain particles, as, hiijca, do, kiij or ciq, etc.: si(5a, bad, side
hiijda, very bad; wi<?asta side cii;, the bad man.
46 DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGBAPHY,
NUMBER.
§ 76. Adjectives have three numbers, the singular j dualj and plural.
§ 77. The dtuil is formed from the singular by prefixing or inserting
* ui),' the pronoun of die first person plural; as, ksapa, wise; wi6a^ta ugksapa,
we two wise men; waoijsida, inercifid; waoQ^imjda, we two merciful ones.
§ 78. 1. ThQ plural \^ formed by the addition of 'pi' to the singular;
as, waiSte, good ; wii5a^ta wa^tepi, good m^n.
2. Another form of the plural which frequently occurs, especially in
connection with animals and inanimate objects, is made by a reduplication
of one of the syllables.
(a) Sometimes the first syllable reduplicates; as, ksapa, unse^ plur.,
ksaksapa; tai)ka, great^ plur. tai)ktai)ka.
(6) In some cases the last syllable reduplicates; as, wa^te, good^ plur.,
waiJteiSte.
(c) And sometimes a middle syllable is reduplicated; as, tagkiijyai),
great or large^ plur., taijkiijkiijyai).
COMPARISON.
§ 79. Adjectives are not inflected to denote degrees of comparison, but
are increased or dmiinished in signification by means of adverbs.
1. (a) What may be called the comparative degree is formed by sagpa,
more; as, waste, good^ saqpa waSte, more good or better. When the name of
the person or thmg, with which the comparison is made, immediately pre-
cedes, the preposition * i ' is employed to indicate the relation, and is pre-
fixed to saqpa; as, widasta kiq de isaijpa waste, this man is better than that.
Sometimes *sain iyeya,' which may be translated more advanced^ is used;
as, sam iyeya waste, more advanced good or better.
It is difficult to traDslate 4yeya' in this coimectiou, but it seems to convey the
idea oi passing on from one degree to another.
(6) Often, too, comparison is made by saying that one is good and
another is bad; as, de 6i<5a, he wa^te, this is bad^ that is good, i. e. that is
better than this.
(c) To diminish the signification of adjectives, * kitaijna' is often used;
as, taijka, largCj kitaijna tarika, somewhat large, that is, ^^wt very large.
2. What may be called the superlative degi'ee is fonned by the use of
'nina,' ' hii)<5a,' and *iyotaij;' as, nina waste, or waste hii)<5a, very good;
iyotag waste, best
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES— CARDINALS.
47
NTTUEBAL ADJKCTIVES.
Cardinals.
are as follows :
wik6eiima,
ten.
wikdemna DOQpa,
twenty
wik^^mna yamni,
thirty.
wik6emiia topa,
forty.
opawiijge,
a hundred.
opawiijge noQpa,
two hundred.
kektopawli)ge,'
a thousand.
woyawa tai)kay
the great county
or a million.
wai)6a, WQ,j)iij or waijzidai), one.
noQpa, two.
yamni, three.
topa, four.
zaptaQy five.
dakpe^ six.
iSakowii), seven.
^hdogai)^ eight.
nap6iQwai)ka, nine.
1. The numbers from eleven to eighteen inclusive, are formed in two
ways:
(a) By ake, again; as, ake waijzidai), eleven ; ake noqpa, twelve; ake
yamni, thirteen^ etc. Written in full, these would be wikdemna ake waijzi-
dai), ten again one; wikdemna ake noqpa, ten again two, etc.
In counting, the Dakotas use their fingers, bending them down as they pass on,
until they reach ten. They then turn down a little finger, to remind them that one
ten is laid away, and commence again. When the second ten is counted, another
finger goes down, and so on.
(6) By sagpa, more; as, wikdemna sagpa warjzidao, ten more one,
(10 + 1) or eleven; wik<5emna saijpa topa (10 + 4), fourteen; wikdemna
saijpa fiahdogai) (10 + 8), eighteen.
2. Nineteen is formed by urjma, the other ; as, uqma napdiijwaijka, the
other nine.
3. (a) Wikdenma nogpa is (10 X 2) twenty, and so with thirty, forty,
etc. The numbers between these are fonned in the same way as between
eleve^i and eighteen; as, wikdemna noQpa sagpa wagzidai), or, wik<5enma
noqpa ake warizidaq (10 X 2 + 1), twenty-one; wikdemna noijpa saijpa nap-
6ii)wai)ka (10 X 2 + 9), twenty-nine; wikdemna yamni saijpa topa, (10 X 3
+ 4), thirty-four; wikdemna zaptaq saijpa napdiqwaijka (10 X 5 + 9)? fifiy-
nine. Over one hundred, numbers are still formed in . the same way ; as,
opawiijge sagpa wiki5emna ^akpe saijpa ^akowiij (100 + [10 X 6] + 7), one
hundred and sixty-seven; kektopawiijge noijpa saijpa opawiijge zaptaij saijpa
wikdemna yamni saijpa iSakpe ([1000 X 2] + [100 X 5] + [10 X 3] + 6),
two thousand five hundred and thirty-six.
' Also koktopawii)^e.
48 DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEXTS, AXD ETHNOGRAPHY,
(b) The numbers between twenUf and thirty^ thirty and forty^ etc., are
occasionally expressed by plac'injLf an ordinal before^ the cardinal, which de-
notes that it is so many in such a ten; as, iyaunii to\)i\j four of the third (fen^,
L e.j turnty-four ; itopa yanini, three of the fourth (ten), i, /'., thirty'three.
It is an interestinjif study to analyze these numerals. It has been stated
aboye, that the Dakota, in connnon with all Indians, it is believed, are in
the habit of using* the hands in counting. It might be supposed then that
the names indicatin<>: numbers would be drawn laruely from the hand.
The following derivations and explanations, it is believed, will be found in
the main reliable.
1. Warica, etc. fi'om waij ! interjection — callinj^ attention — perhaps, at
the same time, holdiny up a Jinyer.
2. Xoi;pa,.from en aoijpa, to l)end down on, or pkiee on, as the second
finger is laid down over the small one ; or perhaps of nape oi;])a, nape
being used for Jinyer as well as hand. The Ponka and Omaha is nai^ba,
and the Winnabago nuijj).'
3. Yanmi, from nmi (root) signifying either turniny over or layiny up ;
the S'a' perhaps indicating that it is done with the mouth. (See § 34/)
Tt is suggested, as a fintlier solution of yanini, that the Mnni' may bo an old
root, meaning together in- flow together, as we hnv<* it in the reduplicate amninuii, e,g.,
mini amnimni, to sprinkle water upon. The l^onka and Omaha is dha-bdhiij.^
4. Topa, from opa, to follow; (perhaps ti, a house, and o\rA, follow -with)
as we say, *in the same box,' with the rest. The three have banded
together and made a *ti' or *tidaij,' as we would say a family, and the
fourth joins them, '^fhe Ponka and Omaha is duba.
5. Zaptiuj, from za, (root) holdiny (or j)erhaps whole, as in zani), and
ptaijyaij or i)taya, toyether. In this case the thumb is bent down over the
fingers of the hand, and holds them toyether,
6. Sakpe, from sake, nail, and kpa or kpe, (root) lastiny as some kinds
of food which go a good ways, or JilUd, as a ])lump grain. This is the
second thumb, and the reference may be to the other hand being eompleted.
Possibly from the idea of bending down as in nakpa, the ear,
7. Sakowiij, from sake, nail, and owiij, ])erhaps from owinga, to bend
down ; but possibly from oii;, to wear, as jewelry, this being the fore Jinyer
of the second hand ; that is, the riny fnyer.
' Two takes the form <|"a"l)a (dbai)-ba) in tb»» Oiualia iiaino Maxe 4:a"ba, Two ('rows and deia"ba,
seven (-f2f). Two \\\ Winnebago is exj)ressed variously, even by the same speaker. Thus, we find
noijp, noi)pay noi)}>i, :nid nuiji). — J. O. I>.
-(Ca-b^i" in tht* not^ition of the Bun-aii olKthntdogy. — J. O. D.
DERIVATIONS OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 49
8. Sahdogai), from sake, nail probably, and lidogari, possessive of yugai),
to open ; but perhaps it is ogai) or oo;e, to cover ^ to wear ; the nail covers
itself. Two fingers now cover the thumb. ^
9. Nap<5ii)wai)ka, from nape, haml, cistii)na, small, and wai)ka, lies —
hand-small'lies ; that is, the remainder of the hand is very small, or perhaps,
the hand now lies in a small compass.
Eli Abrahaui explains ^napciijwaijka' as from napcupe. AWjingern are napcupe,
in the original sense; that is they are marrow honcH of the hand. Now this finger of
the second hand lies down alone. Two fingers have covered the thumb and this has
to take a bed by itself. Rather the finger lies in the na])C!oka, irmide of the hand.
10. Wikdenma, from wik(?e or ik(fe, common, and nmayai), gathering, or
from mna, to rip, that is let loose. It would then mean either that the com-
mon or first gathering of the hands was completed, or that, being completed,
the whole are loosed, and the ten thrown up, as is their custom ; the hands
in the common position.
100. Opawigge, from pawiriga, to bend down tvith the luind, the pre-
fixed ^o' indicating perfectness or roundedness ; that is, the process has
been gone over as many times as there are fingers and thumbs.
1000. Kektopawii)ge or koktopawirige, from opawiqge and ake or
kokta, meaning again or also. This would indicate that the humlred had
been counted over as many times as there are hand digits.^
§ 81. Numeral adjectives by reduplicating a syllable express the idea
of two and two or by twos, three afid three or bg threes, etc. ; as, nonmoqpa, bg
twos; yamnimni, bg threes; toptopa, bg fours, etc.
(1) WsbJ)iiVii\, the reduplicate of waijzi, properly means by ones, but is used to
signify a few.
(2) Noijpa and topa are often contracted into nom and torn, and are generally
reduplicated in this form; as, nomnom, by twos; tomtom, by fours.
(3) Yamni, zaptai), Sakowii), and wikcemna, reduplicate the last syllable; 21s,
yamnimni, zaptaijptaij, sakowii) wii), and wikcemnamna. The same is true of opawiijge
and kektopawiQge; as, opawii)gege, by hundreds.
(4) Nap(3ii)wai)ka and dahdogaij reduplicate a middle syllable, as nap6iijwai)g-
wayka, by nines, Sahdohdogai), by eights.
§ 82. WagiSa, nogpa, yamni, etc., are also used for ofice, twice, thrice,
etc. Nogpa nogpa heden topa, twice two so four, that is, twice two are four.
* The author gives, in the Dictionary, ogai) and op[e, clothes, corering, a sheath ; but not as a
verb. — 1, O. D.
'Can there be a satisfactory analyHis of the Dakota numerals without a full comparison with
those of the cognate languages of the Siouan family f I think not. — J. O. D.
7105 — VOL IX 4
50 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRArHY.
And *akih(le' is soiuetinies used for this purpose; as, noijpa akihde noi)pa,
tivo times two.
§ S3. 1. * Daij ' or ' na,' suffixed to numeral adjectives, is restrictive; as,
vainni, thrce^ yanniina, onljf three; zaptatj, ./rr^?. zaptaijna, onhj five,
2. With monosyllabic words *na' is doubled; as, nom, two, nomnana,
only two; tom,/o//r, tonmana, onlji Jour ; huijli, a part ^ hui)linana, only a part.
Ordinals.
§ S4. 1. The ordinal nmnbers, after tokaheya, ./?r.sY, are formed from
cardinals by prefixing * i,' *ici,' and * wici;' as, inoi)pa, icinoijpa, and wici-
noijpa, seeohd; iyamni, iciyanmi, and wiciyanmi, third; itopa, i(5itopa, and
\w\6\iOYA, fourth ; iwikcemna, tenth, etc.
2. In like manner we have iake waijzi, eleventh ; iake noqpa, twelfth;
lake yanmi, thirteenth, etc.; iwikcennia noi)pa, twentieth; iopawigge, one
hundredth^ etc.
§ 85. When several numbers are used together, the last only has the
ordinal form; as, wikcenma noijpa saijpa iyanmi, twenty-third ; opawigge
saqpa iake noijpa, one htrndred and twelfth,
ADV^EKBS.
^ 86. There are some adverbs, in verv (*onunon use, whose derivation
from other i>arts of speech is not now ap])arent, and which may therefore
be coiisidered as jnnmitives; as, eca, when; kuya and kun, nnder^ below;
kitaijna, a little, not murh: m'na and hiijca, very; ohiijni, always; saypa,
more; taijkan, without, out of doors ; waijna, now, etc.^
§ 87. But adverbs in Dakota are, for the most i)art, derived from de-
monstrative pronouns, adjeetives, verbs, k\\v\ other adverbs ; and in some instances
from other parts of speech.
1. Adverbs are formed from demotistrative pronouns, by adding *han' and
* haij,' ' ken ' and * cen,' * ketu ' and *cetu,' *en,' Mvi' and *kiva,' *ci' and *civa.'
(a) By julduig * han ' and * haij;' as, de, this^ dehan, here, now ; he, that;
hehan, thrrc, then; ka, that, kalian and kahatj, then, thrrr, so far. The forms
dehaij and hehaij are used with a slight difference* of signilication from
dehan and hehan; the first indicating place and the hitter time.^
(b) By adding * ken' and *cen;' as, kaken, /;/ this manner; eca, when;
ecaken, whenever, always; dcren, thus; hecen, /;/ that way.
' A. L. Kig^f^ Hii^j^t'sts that era has th<j foro«« of whrn only hy positioi . ainl that e<a and ere, ra
and 6e an^ fnMpHMitativo parti<'h*s. akin, in radical moaning, and pcrhapa in origin, to * ake,' again.
•In tho rognatt' langnagvs, timr words and space words are not fully ditforeutiated. • Thus iu
<?e.iriha. ata" i\, how loiuj? hoicfar? irhenf — J. O. D,
ADVERBS. 51
(c) By adding *ketu' and '<5etu;' as, kaketu, in that manner; decetu,
in this way; he(5etu, so, thu^.
(d) By adding ' en/ in, in a contracted form ; as, de, this, den, here ;
he, thut ; hen, tfiere ; ka, that, kan, yonder; tukte, whi<^h / tukten, where f
(e) By adding *ki' and *(5i,' *kiya' and *ciya;' as, ka, that, kaki and
kakiya, there; de, this, dedi and dediya, here,
2. Adverbs are formed from adjectives, by adding ^ ya; ' as, waste, .900^,
wasteya, well; sida, 6a^, sidaya, badly; tai)ka, //rm<, tai)kaya, greatly, exten-
sively.
3. (a) Adverbs are formed from verbs, by adding 'yaij;' as, iyuskii),
fo rejoice, iyuskigyaq, rejoicingly, gladly ; taijyai), w^ett, may be from the
obsolete verb 'tag' (as they still use ataq, to regard, take care of)-, itoijsni,
to tell a lie, itoi)6niyai), falsely.
(b) Some are formed by adding * ya ' alone ; as, aokaga, to tell a
falsehood about one, aokahya, falsely.
(c) In a few instances adverbs are fonned from verbs by adding * na;'
as, inahni, to be in haste, inahnina, hastily, temporarily.
4. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs.
(a) By adding *tu;' as, dehan, n/)w, dehantu, at this time; hehan, then,
hehantu, at that time ; tohan, when f tohantu, at what time f
(b) Other forms are made by adding *ya' to the preceding; as, de-
hantuya, thus, here ; hehantuya, there ; de6etuya, .so ; toketuya, in ivhat-
ever way.
(c) Others still are made by the further addition of 'ken;' as, dehan-
tuyaken, toketuyaken. The meaning appears to be substantially the same
after the addition of * ken ' as before.
(d) Adverbs are formed from other adverbs by adding * yaij : ' as,
dehan, now, here, dehaqyaq, to this time or place, so far ; tohan, ivhen? tohai)-
yaq, as long as, how long f ohiijni, always, olnqniyaij, for ever.
(e) Adverbs are formed from other adverbs l)y adding * tkiya ; ' as,
kun, below, kui)tkiya, downwards ; waijkan, above, waqkaijtkiya, upwards.
5. Some adverbs are formed from nouns.
(a) By prefixing * a ' and taking the adverbial termination * ya ; ' as,
paha, a hill, apahaya, hill'like, convexly ; wanida, none, awanin and awaninya,
in a destroying way.
(b) By suffixing *ata' or * yata,' etc.; ais, he, a hill or ridge, heyata,
back at the hill.
Words so formed may be calleiJ prepositional nonrift. See § 91.
52 DAKOTA GKAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGltAPHY.
6. Adverbs are derived from prepositions.
(a) By adding *tu' or *tuya;' as, malieii, in or within^ mahentu or
mahetu and niahetuya, inwardly,
(h) By adding ' wapa;' as, ako, beyond, akowapa, onward; inalien, in,
mahenwapa, inwardly.
PREPOSITIONS.
§ 88. (a) What are named prepositions in other languages are in
Dakota properly post-positions, as they follow the nouns which they govern.
(See § 186.) (6) Prepositions may be divided into separate and incorporated.
SEPARATE PREPOSITIONS.
§ 89. The separate prepositions in Dakota follow the nouns which they
govern; as, car) akan nawazii) (wood npon I-stand), 1 stand upon wood; he
inaza oi) kagapi {that iron of is-made), that is made of iron. The following
are the principal separate prepositions, viz:
alina, with etkiya, toicards om, icith them
akan. on or upon otu, at oij, of oi from, with, for
ako, beyond kabda, hyy near to opta, through
chna, amongst kici, with him, her, or /7 saijpa, beyond
ekta, at, to inahen, within taijhaij, /row
en, in olina, in yata, at.
etaijhaij,/row ohomni, around
Some of these arc quite as often used as adverbs as prepositions.
INCORPORATED PREPOSITIONS, OR PREPOSITIONAL PARTICLES.
§ 90. These are suffixed to nouns, pretixed to or inserted into verbs,
and prefixed to adverbs, etc.
§ 91. The prepositions suffixed to nouns are *ta,' and *ata' or 'yata/
at or on; as, tii)tii, prairie, tii)tata, at or on the prairie; inaga, afield, magata,
at the field; cai), wood or woods, caijyata, at the woods. The preposition en,
in, contracted, is suffixed to a few nouns; as, ti, a house, tin, in the house.
These fonnations may also be regarded as adverbs; as, he, a hill or ridge ^
heyata, at the hill or hack front.
T. L. Kiggs suggests that this elass of words should be deuonnnated prepo-
sitional nouns or adverbial nouns.
§ 92. The prepositions * a,' * e,^ * i,' ' o,' instead of beinpf suffixed to the
noun, are prefixed to the verb.
1. (a) The preposition 'a,' on or nj)o)l, is probably a contraction of
PREPOSITIONS— (CONJUNCTIONS. 53
'akan/ and is prefixed to a very large number of verbs; as, mani, to wcUkj
amani, to ivalk on, daqkaga aniawani, / walk on a log,
(h) The preposition * e,' to or at, is probably from ^ ekta/ and is pre-
fixed to some verbs; as, yulipa, to lay down anything one is carrying,
eyuhpa, to lay down at a place.
(c) The preposition * i ' prefixed to verbs means withy for, on account of;
as, dekiya, to pray, icekiya, to pray for a thing.
(d) The preposition * o,' in, is a contraction of ' ohna,' and is found in
a large class of verbs; as, hnaka, to place or lay down, ohnaka, to place a
thing in something else.
2. The prepositions which are either prefixed to or inserted into verbs,
in the pronouns' place, are * ki ' and * kfci.'
(a) *Ki,' as a preposition incoi-porated in verbs, means to or for; as,
kaga, to make, ki(?aga, to make to one; huwe ya, to go to bring anything,
kihuwe ya, to go to bring a thing for one.
(6) *Kidi' incorporated into verbs, means ybr; as, kaksa, to chop off, as
a stick ; kididaksa, to chop off for one.
§ 93. The preposition 'i' is prefixed to a class of adverbs giving them
the force of prepositions. In these ca^es it expresses relation to or connexion
with the preceding noun; as, tehai), yar, itehaq, far from any time or place;
heyata, behind, iheyata, back of something. These adverbial prepositions
are such as :
iako, beyond ihukaya, under itehai), /ar /row
iakan, upon ilieyata, behind, back of itokam, before
iaskadai), near to ikaijyeta, down from iwaijkam, above
icahda, by, near to ikiyedaij, near to iyohakain, after
ihakam, behind isaijpa, beyond iyotahedaij, between
ihdiiksaij, round about itakasaijpa, over from iyotahepi, between
iliektam, behind itaQkan, tcithout iyotakoijs, opposite to.
CONJUNCTIONS.
§ 94. Conjunctions in Dakota, as in other languages, are used to con-
nect words and sentences; as, waste ka ksapa, ^oor/ awrf mse; wicasta si(^eca
koya, men and children: *^Ur)kaq Wakaqtaqka, Ozai)zai) kta, eya: uqkaij
ozagzai)," And God said, ^Let light be:^ and light was.
§ 95. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions, viz: uqkai),
^a and ('a, and; ko and koya, also, and; uijkags, kiqhai) and dighaq, kiua-
hai) and cinahai), if; esta and sta, kes and 6es, kes and ges, although; kaes
and (Jaes, keyas and (Jeyas, even if; ka is, or; tuka, but For nqkaq and
uqkaqs the Titonwaq say yuijkaij and yuqkaijs, for *t:a' and ^va' they use
*na,' and for ^^a is,' *na il'
54: DAKOTA (.IJAMMAR, TKXTS, AKD ETIJ:NO(iRAPHY.
INTERJECTION S.
§ 96. It is ver}^ diflicult to translate, or even to classify, Dakota inter-
jections, lliose in common use may be arranged under the following
heads, according to the emotions they express:
Pain : yuij ! wiijswi ! ah ! oh !
lieyret: hehe! hehehe! hinjhe! huijhuijhe! oh! ahs!
Surprise: hopidaij! hopidaijniye! hopidaijsni! iyah! inama! iijyuij!
lA'anaka! tvorulerful ! surpri^ivy! astoni.shivg! huhf! imhed!
Attention : a! e! bes! hiwo! iho! ito! mah! toko! way! hark! look! sec!
behold! halloo!
Self-praise: ihdataij! ihdataijh! boast !^
Affirmation : ecahe! ecas! ecaes! ees! eha(?s! ehtakaes! eyakes! eyases!
nakas! nakaes! indeed! trnhj! yes!
Disbelief: eze! lies! hiijte! ho! hoecah! iyesnica! oho! tHze!orta8e!
(Yankton) /r/ fiulye! you don^t say so!
*Eya/ when used at the beginning of a phrase or sentence, is an inter-
jection, and seems to mean nothing.
' ''Boswt** do«*8 iu)t appear as an iuterjectioii in Webster's dictionary, nor in that of the Century
(*onipany. As ihdataij means ht praises himttel/f he boaaU, a better translation is, O how he boasts! —
J. O. D.
SYNTAX— PKONOUNS.
C H X V T E R TIT.
SYNTAX.
PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
7 ncorporated Pronountt,
§ 97. The ificorparated pronouns are either prefixed to or inserted into
verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
1. Position in Verbs.
§ 98. 1. (a) Monosyllabic verbs, such as, ba, to blmne, da, to ask for,
etc., necessarily prefix the })ronouns; as may aba {ine-thou-hlamest^^ thou
blamest me.
(b) Those verbs which are f onned by adding the prefixes * ka ' and
* pa,' and also the possessive forms in * kpa' or * tpa,' ^ hda,' and * lidu,' have
the pronouns prefixed ; as, kaksa, to cut off with an ajce, wakaksa, / cut off;
pagaij, to part with anything, wapagari, / part with; k|)agai), and tpagaq,
to part tvith one^s own^ wakpagai), / part with my own; hduta, to eat otters
own, wahduta, / eat my own.
(c) Other verbs, whose initial letter is ^ d ' or ^ k,' have the pronouns
prefixed ; as, daka, to esteem .so, wadaka, / estrem so ; kaga, to make, yakaga,
thou makest.
(d) For the fonns of the subjective pronouns of the first person singu-
lai* and the second person singular and plural of verbs in * ya ' and ' yu,'
see §§ 39. (6), 50.
2. (a) All verbs commencing with a vowel which is not a prefix, insert
the pronouns immediately after the vowel ; as, opa, to follow, owapa, / fol-
low ; excepting the first person plural, ^uqk,' which is prefixed; as, ui)ko-
papi, we follow. But ouijpapi is also used.
(b) The prefixing of the prepositions * a,' ^e,' *i,^ ^o,' does not alter
the place of the pronouns; as, kastaij, to pour out, wakastaij, / ^>o?/r out;
oka^tai}, to pour out in, owakastaij, / jiour out in; pahta, to btnd, pawahta,
I bind; apahta, to bind mi^ apawahta, / bind mi.
56
56 J)AKOtA GKAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
(c) Verbs forined from verbal roots and adjectives by prefixing * ba,'
^bo/ and ^na,' take the pronouns after the prefix; as, baksa, to cut off with
a knife, bawaksa, 1 cut off; boksa, to shoot off, as a limb, boyaksa, thou
shootest off; naksa, to break off with the foot, nawaksa, / break offtvith the foot,
Ql) Other verbs whose initial letter is * c,' * s,' ' m,' or ^ n,' have the
pronouns inserted after the first syllal)le ; as, capa, to stub, (:^awapa, / stah ;
mani, to walk, mawani, / tvalk. Pahta, to bind or tie, also inserts the pro-
nouns after the first syllable.
(r) Verbs that insert or prefix the })repositions ^ ki ' and ^ kfdi,' take the
pronouns inmiediately before the j)repositions. (See § 40. 5. a. />.)
(/) Active verbs formed from other verbs, adjectives, or nouns, by
adding the causative * kiya ' or * ya,' take the pronouns immediately before
the causative; as, waijyagkiya, to cause to see, wayyagmakiya, he causes me
to see; samkiya, to blacken, samwakiya, / blacken; caijtekiya, to love, caijte-
wakiya, / love any one.
(//) The compound personal and reflexive pronouns (§ 24) occupy the
same place in verbs as do the ordinary incorporated pnmouns; as, waste-
daka, to love, wastewadaka, / love anything, wastemicid<aka, / love myself
'2. Position in Adjkctives.
§ 99. 1. (a) The pronouns are prefixed to what may be called adjective
verbs and adjectives; as, yazaij, to be sick; tagcai) mayazaij, (bodt/ me-sick)
my body is sick; waste, yood, ni waste, (thee-ffood) thou art (food.
(/>) The pronouns *ma,' * ni,' and ^im' are prefixed to the simple
numerals; as, mawaijzidaij, / am one: ninoijpa|)i, you are two; uijyamnipi,
we are three.
2. (a) But if the adjective verb has assumed the absolute fonn by pre-
fixing * wa,' or if it commences with a vowel, the pronouns are inserted; as,
wayazaijka, to be sick, wamayazaijka, [ am sick; asni, to get well, amasni, /
hwe recovered,
(h) Waoi)sida and wacaijtkiya, and perhaps some others, which we are
accustomed to call adjectives, insert the pronouns; as, waoijsiwada, / am
merciful.
\\. Position in Nouns.
§100. 1. (r/) The j)ossessive ])ron(>uns are always prefixed to the noun.
(See §§ 21, 22, and 23.)
(li) When a noun and pronoim are joined together, with the substan-
tive verb understood, the incorporated pronomi is prefixed to some nouns
SYNTAX— PRONOUNS. 57
and inserted in others; as, ni^uqka, (thee-dog) thou art a dog; winic^.a^ta,
(thee-man) thmi art a man ; Damakota, (fn^-Duhcta) I am a Dakota,
111 some uoiuis the pronoun may be placed either after the first or second sylla-
ble, according to the taste of the speaker; as, wi{'*aUiijca, an old wan, wima^*aliii}ca or
wicamaliii)i;a, 1 am an old man,
(c) When a noun is used with an adjective or adjective verb, and a
pronoun is required, it may be prefixed either to the noun or to the adjec-
tive; as, nape masuta Qiand me-hard), or minape suta, (niy-hand hard) my
Iiand is hard.
2. In nouns compounded of a noun and adjective, the place of the pro-
noun is between them; as, Isaqtaijka, (knife-big) an American, Isaymataijka,
/ am an American,
4. Position with Respect to Each Other.
§ 101. 1. When one personal pronoun is the subject and another the
object of the same verb, the first person, whether nominative or objective,
is placed before the second; as, mayaduhapi, (^me-you-have) you have me;
uqniyuhapi (ive-thee-have or we-you-have) we have thee or we have you,
2. Wida, the objective plural of the third person, when used in a verb
with other pronouns, is placed first; as, widawakaska (them-I-hound), I
hound them.
Number.
§ 102. Incorporated pronouns, when intended to express plurality,
have the plural termination pi attached to the end of the word, whether
verb, noun, or adjective; as, wayazai), he is sick, wauqyazaijpi, we are sick;
wakaga, / make any thing, uijkagapi, tve make; nita^sugke, thy dog, nita-
suijkepi, thy dogs or your dog or dogs; niwaSte, thou art good, niwa^tepi, you
are good.
Separate Pronouns,
§ 103. The separate personal pronouns stand first in the clauses to
which they belong.
(a) They stand first in propositions composed of a pronoun and noun,
or of a pronuon and adjective ; as, miye Isaqmatayka, / am an American;
uijkiye ui)<5uwitapi, we are cold,
(b) In a proposition composed of a pronoun and verb, whether the
pronoun be the subject or object of the verb ; as, urjkiye urjyaijpi kta, we
will go; miye makaska (me he-bound), he bound me.
The separate pronouns are not needed for the purpose of showing the person and
number of the verb, those being indicated by the incorporated or article pronouns, or
58 DAKOTA GRAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGKAPHY.
inflexion of the verb; but they are fiequeutly used for the sake of emphasis; as,
nisai)ka he 1j:upi he; hiya, he miye inal^upi [thy-hrotlier that ic as-given f no^ that itie
me'U>as-given)y was that given to thy brother f noj it wa^ given to me; ye ma^i wo; hiya,
miye mde kta {to-go me-command ; nOj me I-go will)^ send me; nOy I will go myself.
(c) Wheu a separate pronoun is used with a noun, one being the sub-
ject and the other the object of the same verb, the pronoun stands first ; as,
miye mhii wadii) (me water I'Want)^ I want water; niye toka kig niyuzapi
Qfou enemy the you-tooJc), the enemie^^ took you. But when the pronoun is the
object, as in this last example, it may stand after the noun; as, t6ka kii)
niye niyuzapi (enemy the you you-took), the enemies took you.
(d) In relative clauses, the separate pronoun is placed last ; as, wi6aSta
hi kog he miye (man came that mc)^ I am the man who came; 6nidiyapi kiij
hena ui)kiyepi (you-help the those we), we are they who help you.
(e) The adv^erb *hir)ca' is often used witli the separate pronouns to
render them more emphatic; as, miye hiijca (^me very), my very self a ^^J^
nitawa hii}(5a (thee thine very), truly thine own.
. (/) In answering questions, the sep arate pronouns are sometimes used
alone; as, tuwe hec^og he; miye, who did thatf I; tuwe yaka he; niye,
whom dost thou mean f thee; tuwe he kaga he; iye, who made thatf lie. But
more frequently the verb is repeated in the answer with the pronouns;
as, he tuwe kaga he; he miye wakaga (that who made f that me J -made), who
made thatf T made it; tuwe yaka he; niye cica (whom meanest-thouf thee^
I-thee-mean), whom dost thou meanf I mean thee.
§ 104. When the separate pronouns are used with verbs or adjectives
the plural termination is attached to tlie last word.
(a) When the ])ronoun stands first, it is attached to the verb or adjec-
tive; as, uqkiye edoijkupi, we did it; niye yakagapi, you made it; niye
niwastepi, you ape yood.
(b) When the pronoun stands last, it is attached also to the pronoun ;
as, tona waoijsidapi kiij hena uiyepi (as-many mercifid tlw those you), you are
they who are merciful
Agreement of Pronouns.
§ 105. Personal pronouns, and the relative and interrogative tuwe,
whOy refer only to animate objects, and agree in person with their ante-
cedents, which are either expressed or understood ; as, he tuwe, who is thatf
de miye, this is I ; he Uawid tawa, that is David's ; he miye mitawa, that is
mine ; he tuwe tawa, whose is that f
SYNTAX -PRONOUNS. 59
Omission of Pronouns.
§ 106. The third person, being tlie form of expression which most
commonly occurs, is seldom distinguished by the use of pronouns.
1. Qi) There is no incor})orated or article pronoun of the third })erson,
either singular or plural, except ' wica ' and ^ ta.' (See §§ IH. (!, 19. 4, 23. 1.)
(h) The separate pronoun ^ iye ^ of the third ])erson, and its plural
* iyepi,' are frequently used in the subjective and sometimes in the objective
case.
2. But ordinarily, and always except in the above cases, no pronoun
of the third person is used in Dakota; as, siyo waij kute ka o (yrouse a
shot ami killed)^ he shot a grouse and killed it ; suktaijka kiij yuzapi ka kaska
hdepi {horse the caught and tied placed), they caught the horse and tied him.
Repetition of Pronouns.
§ 107. 1. In the case of verbs connected by conjunctions, the incor-
porated subjective pronouns of the first and second persons must be
repeated, as in other languages, in each verb; as, wahi, ka waijmdake, <*a
ohiwaya, / came^ ami I saw, and I conquered.
2. (yi) * Wica ' and other objective incorporated promjuns follow the
same rule; as, tataijka kiij waijwi<5amdake ca wicawakte (buffalo the, them-
I'Saw, and them-I-killed), I saw the buffalo and killed them.
(b) So, too, in adjective verbs ; as, orinisike (;a ni^ihtiij (thee-poor and
thee-feeble), thou art poor and feeble.
3. Two or more nouns connected by conjunctions require the posses-
sive pronoun to be used with each ; as, nitasui}ke ka nitamazakar), thy-dog
and thy-gun.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOITNS.
§ 108. Demonstrative pronouns may generally be used in Dakota
wherever they would be required in English.
1. When a demonstrative pronoun forms with a noun, pronoun, adjec-
tive, or verb a proposition of which it is the subject or object, it is placed
first; as, hena tataijkapi, those are oxen; de miye, this is I ; dena wa^teste,
tliese are good ; he mayaku (that nie-thou-gavest), thou gavest me that.
2. But when used as a qualificative of a noun, or noun and adjective,
it is placed last ; as, w^icasta kiij hena (inan the those), those men ; wi(5a^ta
wa6te kiij dena (rnan good the these), these good men.
§ 109. The demonstrative pronouns *he' and ^hena' are often used
where personal pronouns would be in English ; as, ate uuia^i kiij he wi6a-
60 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
yadapi sni (^father mesent the that ye-helieve iiot\ mi/ father who sent nie^ him
ye believe not; ate umasi kii) he inahdiiotariii) (^father vte-sent the that tne-
declaretti)j my father tiho sent me he heareth witness of me,
§ 110. Demonstrative pronouns are often used in Dakot^i when they
wouhl not be required in English ; as, isaij kiij he iwacu (knife the that /-
took), J took the knife.
RELATIVE PEONOTNS.
§ 111. 1. Tuwe, ivhOj and taku, whafy are used, both as interrogative
and relative pronouns, and in both cases they stand at the beginning of the
])hrase or sentence; as, tuwe yaka he, whom dost thou meant taku odake
^iij, what thou relatest.
2. (a) In affirmative sentences, * tuwe ' and * taku ' are often used as
nouns, the former meaning some person, and the latter, .sy>/;/^' thing; as, tuwe
he manoij, someone has stoUn that; taku iyewaya, / have found somethiny,
(J)) In negative sentences with * dai) ' suffixed, tuwe may be rendered
no one, and taku nothiny ; as, tuwedaij hi sni, no one came (lit. some'litth-per'
son came not)-, takudai) didie sni (some-Httle-thiny thon-hast not), thou hast
'nothiny. See § 25. 3.
§ 112. It has l)een shown (§ 2;"). 1) that compouml relative pronouns
are formed by joining *kasta' or *kakes' Xo ^tuwe' and *taku;' as, tuwe
kasta hi kiijhai) he waku kta (wh)ever comes if, that I-yire will), if anyone
comes I willyire it to him; taku kasta waijmdake ciijhaij wakute kta (ivhat-
ever I-see if, I-shoot will), if I see anything I will shoot it, or / will shoot what-
ever I see.
ARTICLES.
Definite Article.
Position.
§ 113. 1. Wlien a noun is used without any (|ualificative, the definite
article immediately follows the noim; as, maka kiij (earth the), the earth;
wicasta kiij waste (man the yood), the man is yood.
2. When a noun is used with an adjective as a qualifying term, the
article follows the adjective; as, wicasta waste kiij (man yood the), the yood
man.
3. When the noun is followed by a verb, an adverb and verb, or an
adjective, adverb, and verb, the definite article foHows at the end of the
phrase, and is generally rendered into English by a demcmstrative or rela-
tive pronimn and article; as, taku ecamoij kiij (what I-did the), that which I
did; widasta ^icaya ohaijyaijpi kiij (men badly do the), the men who do badly;
SYNTAX— ARTICLES. 61
widaita si^.a ^idaya ohariyaijpi kiij {inert had badly do tJu'), the had men who do
badly.
§ 114. The sif^s of the past teuse, ^^oi] ' and * (^ijcori/ are used in the
place of the definite arti(*le, and are rendered by the article and relative ;
as, widasta waijmdake (^^ikori, the man whom I satv.
Use.
§ 115. In general, the definite article in Dakota is used where it would
be in English. But it also occurs in many places where in English it is not
admissible.
(a) It is used with nouns that denote a class; as, wicasta kiij bosdan
naziijpi {men the upright stand), men staml upriyht; suktaijka kiij duzahai)pi
{horses the swijl), horses are swiff or run fast,
{b) It is often used, as in Greek, French, etc., with abstract nouns ; as,
wowa^te kiij {goodness the), goodness; woahtani kiij awihnuniwidaya {sin the
destroy S'them)y sin destroys them,
(c) It is used with a noun in the vocative case; as, maka kiij nalioij
wo {earth the hear-thou), earth, hear!
{d) As in Greek and Italian, it is used with nouns which are qualified
by possessive or demonstrative j)ronouns; as, ninape kii) {thy-hand the), thy
hand; wicasta kiij de {man the this), this man,
{e) It is often used with finite verbs, giving to them the force of gerunds
or vebal nouns; as, kagapi kii), the making; mauijnipi kiq {we walk the),
our tvalking; yahi kiij iyomakipi {thou-come the me-pleases), thy coming
pleases me,
§ 116. In Dakota the definite article is sometimes omitted where it
would be required in English.
{a) Nouns governed by j)rei>ositions are generally used without the
article ; as, (foqka^ke ekta mda {garrison to I-go), I am going to the garrison;
daq mahen wai {tvood into I- went), I went into the woods; tiijta akan mugka
{prairie upon I-lie), I lie upon the prairie,
(h) Proper names and names of rivers and lakes are commonly used
without the article; as, Tatarika-naziij {buffah-stamls), The-standing-hnffalo ;
Wakpa-minisota, the Minnesota river; Mdeiyedag, Lac-qui-parh,
{c) When two nouns come together in the relation of possessor and
possessed (§ 68), the last only takes the article, or rather the entire expres-
sion is rendered definite by a single article })laced after it; as, caypahmihma
ihupa kiq, the thill of the cart-, Wasicuij wi<!fastayatapi kiij, the King of the
French,
62 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
Intlefin itr A rticle,
§ 117. The iiuletiiiite article is more limited in its use than the definite,
but so far as its use extends it follows the same rules; as, hoksidai) wai)
(hoff a), (( hojf; hoksidaij waste waij {hoji (food a), a (/ootl Iwjf,
§ lis. Sometimes both articles are used in the same phrase, in which
case the definite is rendered by the relative (see § 113. 3); as, wic^asta wai)
waste kiij he ka^a (man a r/bod the that made), he was a good man who made
that
VERBS.
PoHition,
^ 119. 1. Dakota vc^-bs are usually placed after the ncmns with which
tnev are used, whether subject or object; as, hoksidaij kiij mani (fto// the
walks)j the hojf walks; wowapi Avaij duha (hook a thou-hasf), thou hast a hook.
2. Verbs also are usually placed after the adjectives which qualify their
subjects or oljjects, and after the adverbs which qualify the verbs ; as,
Waanataij wicasta wayapike ciij he taijyaij waijmdaka {Waanatan man
eloquent the that well I-saw), I saw Waanatan the eloquent man ren/ plainlf/.
For the relative position of verbs and personal pronouns, see § 98.
Xumher,
Plural,
§ 120. A verb, by its form, designates the number of its subject or
object, or l)oth: that is to say, the verb, being the last principal word in
the senten<»e, usually takes the plural ending ^pi' when the subject or object
is plural in signification.
1. (f/) When the subject represents animate objects, the verb takes the
plural termination; as, mani|)i, the/f walk; wicasta kiij hipi (man the came),
the men came.
(ft) lint when the subject of a verb denotes inanimate obje<*ts, the verb
does not take a plural form for its nominitive's sake; as, caij topa icaga (tree
four grows), four trees grow.
2. (a) A verb also takes the plural termination when it has a plural
object of the first or s(M*ond persons; as, Wakaijtaijka uijkagapi ((rod u.s-
made), God made us; Dakota niye Wakaijtaijka caijteniciyapi (/>r/Z'o/a gou
God yoU'loves), God lores gou Dakotas.
(h) When the plural obje(*t is of the third person, this plurality is
pointed out by wica, them, incorporated in the verb; as, waijwicayaka, he
SYNTAX— VEEB. 63
saw them ; Hake wahaqksida yamni widakte (Hake bear three them-kiUed),
Hake killed three bears.
§ 121. As there is but one termination to signify |)lurality both of the
subj^^ct and object, ambiguity is sometimes the result.
(a) When tlie subject is of the first, and the object is of the second
person, the plural termination may refer either to the subject or to the sub-
ject and object; as, wasteui)nidakapi, we love thee, or we love yon,
(b) When the subject is of the third, and the object of the second
person, the plural termination may refer either to the subject or the object,
or to both; as, wastenidakapi, they love thee, he loves you, or they love you,
§ 122. Nouns of multitude commonly require verbs in the plural num-
ber; as, oyate he(!^oripi, the people did that
§ 123. The verb *yukaij' is often used in its singular form with a
plural meaning; as, wakiyedaij ota yukaij, there are matnj pigeon^s,
§ 124. The verb ^ yeya' and its derivatives *iyeya,' * hiyeya,' etc., have
rarely a plural termination though used with a plural subject; as, widota
hen hiyeya, )uany persofis are there.
Dual.
§ 125. 1. The dual is used only as the subject of the verb and to
denote the person speaking and the person spoken to. It has the same
form as the plural })ronoun of the first person, excepting that it does not
take the termination * pi.'
2. Hence, as this pronoun is, in meaning, a combination of the first
and second persons, it can be used only with an object of the third person,
except when, the agent and patient being the same persons, it assumes the
reflexive form (§ 24); as, wasteur)daka, we two (meaning thou and /) love
him; wastewicuijdaka, wr two love them. See § 42. 1.
(iovcniment.
§ 12f). Acti^e transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, makaska
(^me binds), he hwds me ; widasta way waijmdaka {man a I-saw), I saw a man.
§ 127. Active verbs may govern two objectives.
1. A verb may govern two direct objects or so-called accusatives.
When an action on a part of the person is s|)oken of, the whole person is rej)-
resented by an incorporated pronoun, nnd the })art by a noun in apposition
with the pronoun; as, nape mayaduza (Jiand me-fhou'takesf)^ thou takest me
by the hand, or thou takest my hand. Compare the French, *////' prendre la
main.'
64 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND P:THN0GRAPHY.
2. A verb may govern a direct object or accusative and an indirect
obje(!t answering to a dative.
(a) When one of the objects is a pronoun, it must be attached to the
verb; as, wowapi kiij he mayaku kta (book the that nw-thou-give wilt), thou
ivilt (five me that hooJc,
(b) But when both the objects are nouns, the indirect is usually placed
before the direct object; as, Hepaij wowapi yaku kta (Jlepan hook thou-give
wilt)j thou wilt give Hepan a book; Hepi taspaqtaijka wan hiyukiya wo (Ilejii
apple a tos8\ toss Hepi an ai)pk,
§ 128. Transitive verbs with the preiK>sitions *a' or 'o' prefixed may
govern two objectives, and even three when two of them refer to the same
person or thing; as, sina kiij anicahpapi Qdanket the on'thee4aid)j they cov-
ered thee with a blanket; mini ])a amakastaij (water head on-me-poured), he
poured water oji my head,
§ 129. Intransitive verbs, with the prepositions *a' or 'o' prefixed,
govern an objective case; as, mani, to walk, cai}ku kiq omani (road the in-
walks) ^ he walks in the road ; liaij, to stand, maka kiij awahaij (earth the on
I'Staml), I stand on the earth,
FoHHeHsirv Form,
§ 130. This form of the verl) is used whenever possession or property
is indicated, and is very important in the Dakota hinguage. For the ways
in which the possessive form is made, see § 39. 3.
The use of this form of the verb does not necessarily exclude the possessive pro-
noun, but renders it superfluous; as, nape yahduzaza (/la/trf thou washeHt thine own),
thou (lost fcash thy hands; ninape yahduzaza is also correct. Tlie occurrence of the
possessive pronoun (lo(*s not render the possessive form of the verb the less necessary.
MODES.
Imperative,
§ 131. 1. In prohibitions the imperative mode is often indicated by the
adverb *ihnuhaij' placed ))efore the verb, with *kiij' or *kii)haij,' ^^iij' or
*ciijhaij,' following; as, ihnuhaij hecanoij kiij, do not do that; ihnuhaij
wi<5ayada})i kiijhaij, do not believe it. This is a stronger form than the
common imperative.
2. AVlien two verbs in the im[)erative mode are connected by conjunc-
tions, the first is used without the sign; as, owiijza kiij ehdaku ka mani
wo, take up thy bed and walk.
VERBS : INFINITIVE— SUBJUNCTIVE. 65
Infinitive.
§ 132. 1. Verbs in the infinitive mode immediately precede those by
whieh they are governed; as, cai) kakse yahi (wood tO'Cut thou-hast-come),
thou hast come to cut wood; lie edoq disipi, / told you to do that.
'2. The use of the infinitive mode in Dakota is limited, the finite verb
being often used where the infinitive would be in English; as, mda wadii)
(I-ffo Ldeaire)y I dtsire to go.
3. The infinitive mode can not be used as a noun, as it sometimes is
in English; that is, it can not have anything predicated of it, as in the
phrases, *'to see the sun is pleasant," **to walk is fatiguing." In such cases
verbal nouns or gerunds are used; as, wi waijyakapi kii) he oiyokipi (sun
seeing the that pleasant)^ the seeing of the sun is pleasant
Subjunctive,
§ 133. What may be called the subjunctive mode is formed by the aid
of conjunctions which follow the verb. (See § 42.)
1. (a) Kiijhaq and its derivatives, diqhai}, kinahai}, and cinahai}, usually
refer to future time,- future events only being considered as uncertain and
contingent; as, yahi kiijhai) mde ktn, if thou come^ I will go.
But <kii)liai)' does not always render tlie sense subjunctive, it being sometimes
ofied as an adverb of time, especially when preceded by tohan ; as, tohan yahi kii}hai}
mde kta, when thou comestj I will go,
(b) When anything past is spoken of as uncertain, * hediijhaij ' is com-
monly used ; as, hedanoi) hecii}har) eden ohdaka wo, // thou didst thaty con-
fess it
2. The conjunctions esta, sta, keya^, and kes, signifying though^ aU
though^ are also used to form the subjunctive mood; as, oci(?iyaka esta
widayada sni, although I tell theCj thou dost not believe; hi keyas ki<!fi mde kte
sni, though he come, I will not go with him ; amapa kes en ewadaijmi sni,
though he struck me, I paid no attention to it
3. Ur)kai}s, if usually relates to i)ast time or to something already
known, and is used to state what would have been the case if the thing
mentioned had been different fi'om wliat it is. It is usually followed by
tuka, but ; as, miye6i6azuzu ui}kai)s dicu kta tuka (me'thoU'lmdst-paid if
I-thee-give would but), if thou hadst paid me, I would have given it to thee ;
^uktagka mduha ugkaqs mde kta tuka (horse I-had if I-go would but), if I
had a horse I woM go.
7105 — VOL IX 5
66 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGRAPHY.
Opfatire^ Potential, etc.
§ 134. The adverb tokiij, oh that! is used with verbs to express strong
desire; in which case an *n' is suffixed to the verl); as, tokii) mduhen, oh
that I had it!
§ 135. The Dakotas have no way of expressing- fully and forcibly the
ideas of necessity and o])li<!:ation. The p1a(*e of the English words ought
and must is partially supplied by the word iyececa, fit, proper : as, ecanoij
kta iye(!?eca, it is fit that thou shouhlst do it,
§ 13G. 1. The idea of ability or i)ower is expressed by the help of the
verb okihi, to l)e aide, used after other verbs, which are either in the form
of the infinitive or gerund; as, ecoij owakihi (to do I-ahle), I aw able to do it,
or / ran do it ; inanipi kiij owakihi (walkim/ the I-able), I ran walk. Or
they are put in a finite form; as, suktaijka induza owakhi (horse I-ratr.h
I-ahhi), T ran ratrh a horse,
2, Inability is expressed either by * okihi' with the negative *sni,' or
'okitpani:' as, niawani kta owakihi sni (I-walk will I-ran not), or, mawani
kta owakitpani (I- walk will I-unahle), f rannot walk, 'Toka' or *t6kadai},
followed by the negative 'sni,' is often used for the same purpose; as,
tokadaq mawani sni (any-wan I-walk not), I eannot possihlji xvalk.
3. "^riie word 'pi(!^a' is suffixed to verbs to denote possibility or that the
thing ran he done; as, e^^oijpica, it ran he done; waijyagpica, it ran he seen.
But it more frequently occurs with the negative * sni; 'as, kahpi(^a sni, it
cannot be made,
TENSES.
§ 137. Notwithstanding the Dakota verb has but two distinc^t forms of
tense, there is no difficulty in expressing, by the help of adverbs, etc., all
the varieties of time found in other lanjjruagfes.
Aoriat,
§ 13H. 1. The aorist is used to denote present time, and generally
needs no mark to show that the present is referred to, that being usually
determined bv attendant circumstances or l)vthe context; as, tivata vanka,
nakaha waijmdaka, he is at the house, I have just seen him.
2. When necessary the adverb dehan, now, or hinahiij, yet, is used to
indicate present time; as, dehan tiyata yai}ka, he is now at the house ; hinahiij
den ui), he is here yet,
3. The aorist is used in general proj)ositions, which apply equally to
present, ])ast, and future; as, siceca waskuyeca wastedapi, children love fruit.
VERBS: TENSES. 67
§ 139. 1. The predominant use of the aorist is to denote past time, it
being always used in the narration of past events; as, ecamoi), / have done
it; he nidustai), / have finishecl that
2. (n) By the help of the adverb vvaqna, now, the aorist expresses per-
fect or finished time; as, waqna yustaijpi, they have now finished it; waijna
o<5i(^.iyaka, / hnve now told thee.
(b) In a narrative of past events, * way na,' together with the aorist,
naakes what is called the pluperfect tense; as, waqna yustaqpi hehan wai,
they had finished it when J arrived.
3. The aorist used with tuka, btitj expresses what is sometimes called
the imperfect tense; as, hen waui) tuka (there I was, but am not now), I was
there.
§ 140. Before naceca, perhaps, the aorist tense is sometimes used for
the future; as, hecoy masipi kii}ha7j, ecamoi} na6eca, if they tell me to do that,
I shuU probably do it.
Future.
§ 141. 1. The sign of the future tense is usually *kta.' It may be
used with verbs, adjectives, nouns, or pronomis; as, mani kta, he will walk;
he waste kta, that will be good; he tii}ta kta, that will be prairie; he miye
kta, that will he I.
2. The future tense is often used in ijaiTating past events respecting
something that was future at the time nientioned; as, wai}na upi kta hehan
wai, they were about to come tvhen I arrived there.
3. The future tense is used to denote that a thing woidd have taken
place if something had not prev^ented. In this case it is commonly followed
by *tuka,' whether the reascm is stated or not; as, wau kta tuka, / would
have come; upi kta tuka wicawakisica, they would have come, hut Iforba/le
them.
4. The future tense with the adverb *liii)ca,' is used to indicate a desire,
purpose, or determination to do a thing; as, mde kte hiqca (I-fjo will very),
I want to go; e^^oi) kte liii)ca ecoi) {do will very did), he did it because he
wished to do it, or he did it intentionally.
5. The future tense is often used where the nifinitive mode would be
in English; as, wau kta owakitpani (I-come shaU, f -unable), I am unable to
come; teyapi kta akitapi, they sought to kill him.
6. The future tense is sometimes used for the aorist, as in German,
when there is uncertainty about the thing spoken of; as, tinwicakte kii)
hee kta (murderer the that-he will), that is the murderer, the idea being, that
he will be found to be the nmrderer.
68 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
7. When two verbs in the future tense are connected by a conjunc-
tion, the first may be either with or without the sign; as, nihiqnidiyapi kta
ka ya<5eyapi kta, or nihiijnidiyapi ka yaeeya|ji kta, ipu wUl be troubled and
weep,
§ 142. 'Nuij' or 'nor>' is sometimes used instead of *kta,' as the sign of
the future tense, in interrogative sentences, and also when something future
is s}K)ken of as uncertain; as, mda nuq he, shall I go? token edoqpi nui)
taijii) 4ni, they kni*w not what they shaidd do.
§ 143. Before the verbs 'edii}' and *epca,' 'ke' sometimes marks the
future tense of the first person; as, mda ke epda, / will go, thought L
§ 144. In inteiTogative sentences 'hiq' is sometimes used for *ktA lie,'
denoting the future tense; as, wau hii), shall I conief
AUXILIARY VERBS.
§ 145. There are several verbs which are used with others as auxil-
iai-ies; such as, *iyeya,' ^kiya,' and *ya' or *yai).'
§ 146. 1. *lyeya,' when used with other verbs, expresses the additional
ideas of completion and suddenmss ; as, yustai) iyeya, he made a finish of it;
kaksa iyeya, he cut it off suddenly. In this way 'iyeya' is often used to
give force and animation to the style.
2. Verbs used with * iyeya,' if capable of contraction, are contracted;
as, kaptuza, to splits kaptus iyeya, he split it open,
3. * Iyeya' is often used with prepositions and adverbs, sometimes with
and sometimes without their taking the verbal prefixes; as, pamahen iyeya,
to push into; yuhukun iyeya, to put down; ohna iyeya and mahen iyeya, to
put into anything.
§ 147. *Kiya' is used with verbs as a causative suffix; as, edoqkiya, to
cause to do; kahkiya, to cause to make; naziykiya, to cause to stand. The
pronouns are inserted before the causative.
§ 148. ^ Ya' or 'yai}' is a suffix which occurs so frequently, and whose
use is sometimes so different from that of any English verb, that it demands
a special notice.
1. (a) It is used as a causative suffix; as, e(5orjya, to cause to do; maniya,
to cai$se to walk. In this case it always has a noun or pronoun for its object
expressed or understood; as, mani mayayapi, you cause me to ivalk.
(b) * Ya' used with adjectives makes of them active verbs; as, say a, to
dye or paint red; samya, to blacken.
2. (a) It is used with words denoting relationship, where in English
we should employ a possessive pronoun, and seems to have the force of to
VERBS OF REPETITION. 69
have J or have for; as, he ate way a (that father-I-have), that is my father;
Ateui)yar)pi mahpiya ekta uagke 6ii) (father-tve-have heaven in thou-art the)j
our Father who art in heaven,
(b) ^ Y«t' with nouns shows what use a thing is put to; as, de isaijwaya,
this I have for a knife; he tiyopayaya, that thou usestfor a door.
3. When the pronouns 'ma,' *ni,' and *ui}' are used without the pro-
noun 'ya' following, 'ya' becomes ^yaij;' as, atemayai), he has me for father ;
ateuqyaijpi, our father. But when *ya,' thou or you, follows, the vowel is
not nasalized; as, atemayaya, thou hast me for father ; ateuqyayapi, you call
us father.
VERBS OF REPETITION.
Reduplicated Verbs.
§ 149. 1. The reduplication of a syllable in Dakota verbs is very com-
mon. In intransitive verbs it simply indicates a repetition of the action; as,
ipsida, to jump, ipsipsi(?a, to hop or jump repeatedly ; ilia, to laugh, ihaha, to
laugh often. In transitive verbs it either indicates that the action is repeated
on the same object, or that it is performed upon several objects; as, yalitaka,
to bite, yahtahtaka, to bite often; baksa, to cut a stick in two; baksaksa, to cut
a stick in two often, or to cut several sticks in two. Verbs of one syllable are
rarely reduplicated.
2. There are some verbs whose meaning almost necessarily implies a
repetition of the action and which therefore are generally used in their re-
duplicated fonn; as, yuhuhuza, to shake; panini, to joy; kapsiijpsirita, to
tvhip; yu^iqsii}, to tickle; nasuqsui), to struggle, etc.
3. Verbs signifying to be are repeated to denote continuance; as, den
maqka maijke, / continue to stay here; hen dukaq dukaijpi, you reside there.
§ 150. The use of a reduplicated form of a verb in its proper place is
very important. It is as much a violation of the niles of the Dakota lan-
guage to use a simple for the reduplicated form as to use the singular for
the plural number.
Verbs with the Suffixes * s'a' and * ka.'
§ 151. *S'a' is suffixed to verbs to denote frequency of action or habit;
as, yahi s'a, thou comest ojlen ; iyatoijsni s'a, thou dost tell lies habitually, i. e.,
thou art a liar; wamanoij s'a, one who steals often, i. e., a thief
§ 152. *Ka' has sometimes the same signification with *s'a;' as, waoka,
a good hunter. But sometimes it does not produce any perceptible ditfer-
eace in the meaning of tlie verb; as, wa^teda and wastedaka, to love any-
thing.
70 DAKOTA Gl^AMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGKAPHY.
§ 153. When the verb, to which *ka' or *s'a' is suffixed, takes the plu-
ral form, the suffix usually follows the })lural temiination; as, waopika,
warksmen; ecoijpi s'a, doers. But hi tlie verb *da,* to esteem, *ka' may
either precede or follow the plural termination; as, wa^tedakapi and wa.4te-
dapika.
SXTBSTANTIVK VERBS.
§ 154. The verbs 'uq,' *oui)yar),' ^yaijka,' ^yukai),' and *hiyeya,' all
signify to fee, but when used, they are accompanied by other verbs, adverbs,
participles, or prepositions, descriptive of the place or manner of being; as,
maiii waui), / am walkim/; ti maheii maqka, / am in the house; h^diya
yakoypi, thet/ are there; en mauij, it is in me,
§ ir)5. The verb *e' or 'ee' occurs without a word descriptive of the
mode or place of existence; but it is confined to the third person, and is
used rather to declare the ulevtity than the exisUmce of a thing. This verb
combines with the pronouns, as, *hee,' *dee,' etc. *Yukai)' is used to de-
clare that there is, and wanida, that there is none; as, Wakaijtiiqka yukag,
there is a God ; Wakaijtai^ka waiiica, there is no God,
§ 156. The bringing of two words together in the Dakota language
answers all the purposes of such a copula as our substantive verb; as,
Wakai)taTjka waste {God good), God is good; wi kiq kata (sun the hot)^ the
sun is hot; de miye (this /), this is I; hena iyyaij (those stones), those are
stones ; Danikota (Dakota-thou), thou art a Dakota,
§ 157. From these examples it appears that there is no real necessity
for such a connecting link between words; and accordingly we do not find
any single verb in the Dakota language which shnply predicates being.
The Dakotas cannot say abstractly, / am, thou art, he is; but they can ex-
press all the modes and places of existence. And the. verb of existence is
understood in pronouns, nouns, and adjectives.^
PABTICIPLES.
Active,
§ 158. 1. Active participles follow the nouns and precede the verbs
with which they are used ; as, mazakar) hduha yahi (gun having thourcome),
thou hast eome having thy gun,
'A. L. Riggs makes tho following claasification of substantive verbs:
1. Oi' being or cjcisienre, as ui), yukai), yapka, etc.
2. Of condition; with participles and adverbs of manner; as, ui ui), living ia; taiqyai) yaqka,
{well is), 18 comfortable.
3. Of place ; with prepositions and adverbs of place ; as, akan ui), ia on ; timahen yai)ka, wiihin U,
4. Of identity ; e or ue, with the forms heo, dee. See ^ 155.
5. Of classiiication ; he^a, is such, as, hoksidai) wu^te heca, he U a good boy ; he iui)ktoke^a
heda, that ia a %Qo\f.
PARTICIPLES— NOUNS. 7 1
2. The objective pronouns are used with and {governed by active par-
ticiples, in the same way as by verbs; as, niayuha yiikaijpi {jne-having
they remaht), they still retain nu* ; niyulia yapi kta (thee-haviny they-yo will),
they will take thee nloay,
3. Active participles are used to denote prolonj^ed or continued action;
as, kiksuya uij, he is rememberiny ; Wakaqtayka cekiya ui), he is in the habit
ofprayiny to God ; iahaij icuqhai}, whilst he was speakiny.
4. A few particij)les are used with the verbs from which they are de-
rived; as, manihaij mani (walkiny walks), that is, he walks and does not ride;
nazii)haij nazii) {standiny he stands), he yets up and stands,
5. Two verbs together may be userl as participles without a conjunc-
tion; as, <5eya pat us iiiaiii) (weepiny stoopiny stands), he stamh stoopiny and
weepiny.
Passive,
§ 159. 1. A verb used as a passive participle follows the noun to which
it relates; as, tahiijca kiij opi, the deer is shot.
2. Passive participles are used to make what may be called the passive
form of the verb; as, ktepi, killed, niktepi kta, thou wilt be killed,
3. They are sometimes used independently as nouns; as, ktepi kig,
the slain.
NOUNS.
POSITION.
§ 160. The place of the noun, whether subject or object, is before the
verb; as, wamnaheza icl^aga, cornyrows: mini waciij (water I-want), I want
water.
Occasionally the subject comes atlter the verb; as, eya Wakatjtai)ka, said God.
§ IGl. When two nouns are used together, one the subject and the
other the object of the same verb, the subject is usually placed first (§ 67);
as, tatai)ka pezi yutapi (ox/'n yrass eat), oxen eat yrass; Dakota Padani kii}
widaktepi (Dakota Pawnee the theni-killed), the Dakotas killed the Pawnees.
§ 162. 1. Of two nouns in composition or combination the noun sus-
taining the relation of possessor always precedes the name of the thing
possessed. See § 68.
2. There are cases where two nouns are brought together in which the
latter may be regarded as in apposition: as, aguyapi wiconi, bread of life, or
more properly, the bread that is life. — a. l. biggs.
72 DAKOTA (GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPJiY.
NUMBKR.
§ 1()3. The principle on which the phiral termination is employ<^ is
that of })lacing it as near the end of the sentence as possible. The order
in a Dakota sentence is, first the noun, next the adjective, and lastly tlte
verb. Hence, if a noun or pronoun is used alone or has no word following
it in the phrase, it may take the plural ending; if an adjective follows, it is
attached to the adjective; and if a verb is used, it is attached to the verb.
1. When nouns are used to convey a })lural idea, without qualificatives
or predicates, they have the plural termination; as, ninaj>epi, thy hands;
hena Dakotajii, those are Vakotas.
2. When a noim which represents an animate object is to be made
plural, and is followed by a qualificative or predicate, the sigii of tlie plural
is joined, not to the noun, but to the (lualiftcative or predicate; as, witJasta
wastepi, yood nien: koska kiij hipi, the yowtig men have arrived ; wi<5a8ta waste
kiij hipi, the good men have arrived.
§ 164. The plural of nouns representing animate objects in the objec-
tive case, whether they are governed by active verbs or prepositions, is
designated by ' wica ' following, which is prefixed to or inserted in the gov-
erning word; as, tahiijca widaktepi ((leer them'they-kill)^ they kill deer; Da-
kota ewidataghaij (Dakota them-from), he is from the Dakotns.
ADJECTIVES.
POSITION.
§ 165. When the adjective is used simply as a qualifying term, it is
placed immediately after its noun; as, widasta wa^te, good man; <5ai3 i^ica,
had wood.
Tlie adjective ikce, commonj is placed before the noun which it qualities, Imt its
derivative ikeeka comes after; as, ikc'je liaijpa and haijpikceka, cemmon moccamns;
ik6e wi(*asta, a common mariy an Indian. The uumeral adjectives, when used with 6aij,
a day J are placed before; as, noijpa ^'aij, tico daysj etc.
§ 166. When the adjective forms the predicate of a proposition, it is
placed after the article, and after the demonstrative pronoun, if either or
both are used; as, wicasta kiij wasSte, the man is good; wicasta kiq he waste,
that mmi i^ good; taku ecanoij kii} he sida, that which thou didst is bad.
NUMBER.
§ 167. Adjectives, whether qualificative or predicative, indicate the
number of the nouns or pronouns to which they belong; as, li)yaij sapa
ADJECTIVES. 73
waij. a black stone: inyai) sapsapa, bitwk stones ; tataijka kii) wai^'aka, the ox
is stro^ig ; tatai}ka kiij was'akapi, the oxen are strong.
2. Adjectives do not take the plural form when that can })e pointed out
by the verb of which the noun is either the subject or object (see §§ 163,
164); as, wi(^asta waste he kagapi (inangood that theg-niade)^ gornl men made
that; Wakaijtaijka wicasta waste noni wicakaga (Great'Spirit men good tuH>
tliem-made^j God made two good men,
3. As the numeral adjectives after waijzi denote plurality by virtue of
their meaning, they may be used either with or without the plural termina-
tion; as, wi<?asta yannii, or wi<5asta yamnipi, three men.
Nt'MERAL ADJECTIVES.
§ 168. 1. Numeral adjectives used distributively take the reduplicated
form; as, yanuii, three, yanminnii, three and three, yanminmi i<!^upi, thepeach
took three, or theg took three of each.
2. Numeral adjectives are used alone to express the number (rf times
an event occui*s: as, yamni yahi, thou earnest three times. When a succes-
sion of acts is spoki^n of, the word *akihde' is often used; as, topa akihde
yakutepi, gou shot four time.s successive! g.
§ 169. To supply the want of woixls like place and wags in English,
the adverbial termination *kiya' is added to the numeral; as, noijpakiya
yakoqpi, theg are in two different places; he topakiya oyakapi, that is told in
four different wags.
§ 170. The Dakotas use the term luiijke, one-half; but when a thing is
divided into nioi-e than two aliquot parts they have no names for them;
that is, they have no expressions corresponding to one-third, one-fourth, one-
Jiflh, etc. By those who have made some progress in arithmetic, this want
is supplied by the use of ^oqspa' and the ordinal numbers; as, oijspa iyamni
(^piece third) one-third ; oijspa itopa {piece fourth), one-fourth.
The laii^ua|u:e more receutly adopted is kiyuspapi, divided. So that one-fourth
is top.a kiyusimpi waijzi. — A. l. k.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
§ 171. Owasiq and iyuhpa, all, sakim- and napin, both, apa and huijh,
some or a part, tonana and wanistiijna, few, a small quant itg, uqma, the other j
ane of two, ota, mang, much, and some others, are sometimes used as adjec-
tives qualifying nouns, and sometimes stand in the place of nouns.
§ 172. 1. As the adjective *ota,' mang^ much^ conveys a plural idea, its
reduplicated form * onota' or 'odota,' is not used when speaking of inani-
76 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
3. The paiticle 'ce/ in most cases, indicates the close of a direct quo-
tation of the words of oneself or of another; as, deden ecanoq kiqhai) yani
kta de, Wakaijtayka eya de, if thou dost thus, thou shait live^ God said,
4. The fi^ee adverbial particle 'do' is used for emphasis, at the end
of a clause or sentence, as, wahi kte do, / will anne. It is used generally
by young men, and not considered necessary by good speakers.^ *Ye' is
sometimes used in the same way by women and others.
5. Among the free adverbial particles may be mentioned 'wo,' 'we,'
*yo' and 'ye' with 'po,' 'pi' and 'niiye,' the signs of the imperative; and
*kta' and 'kte' signs of the future. These all follow the verb. See ^§ 42
and 43.
§ 179. In reply to questions which have the negative form, assent to
the negative proposition contained in the question is expressed by haq, yes,
and dissent by hiya, no; as, yahi kte ^ni he; hai}, wahi kte 6ni, thou wilt
not come, wilt thouf yes, I will not come; yahi kte sni he; hiya, wahi kta,
thou ivilt not come, wilt thouf no, I will come. If the question be put affirma-
tively, the answer is the siime as in Eugli»h.
§ 180. 'Tohan' and 'kighaij' are often used together with the same
verb, in which case 'tohan' precedes the verb and 'kiijhai)' follows it; as,
tohan yahi kiqhaij mde kta, when thou com4^st I tvill go.
§ 181. Wlien *itokam' is used in reference to time, it is often preceded
by the adverb of negation ; as, yahi Sni itokam (thou'<x)fn€st not before), be-
fore thou contest.
NEGATIVE.
§ 182. 1. Negation is expressed by placing after the verb, adjective,
noun, or pronoun, the adverb 'sni;' as, mdei^ni (I-go not), I did nt>tffo; he
dai) sni (that wood not), that is not wood.
2. An emphatic negation is sometimes indicated by 'kada,' whidi, how-
ever, is seldom used except in contradicting what has been previously said;
AS, yao kada, thmi didst not hit it.
3. A negative used inteiregatively often implies permission; as, iyaidu
6ni to {dost thou not take itf), may signify, thou mayest take it.
§ 183. 1. In Dakota two negatives make an affirmative; as, wanida,
ffeere is none; wanide 6ni (tliere-is-none not), i. e., there is some.
»*DoMn lsai)yati and Ihaijktoi)waij, and *lo' in Titoijwaij, seem to be equivalent to the mascu-
line oral period h& of the Omaha and Ponka, au of the Kausa, Osage, and Kwapa, ke of the Iowa, ke-i
of the Oto, sh of the Mandan, tH of the Hidataa, and k of the Crow. H& is seldom used by the Fonka,
but is common among the Omaha. — J. O. D.
PEEPOSITIONS. 77
2. When two negative verbs are connected by a conjunction, the first
may be without the sign of negation; as, kakipe ca iyotai) tagka sni (Ae-
surpassed and ^n&re great not) he neither surpassed nor was the greatest.
INTERROGATIVE.
§ 184. 1. *He' is the common interrogative particle, and is plaeed at
the end of the sentence; as, widayada he, dost thou believe f
2. When the person spoken to is at a distance, *hwo,' compounded of
'he' and * wo,' is used; as, toki da hwo, whither art tkmt going f This last is
not used by females.
3. Sometimes *ka' is employed instead of *he,' as the sign of interroga-
tion; as, he taku hogai) ka, what kind offish is thai?
4. Sometimes, however, the interrogation is distinguished only by tlie
tone of voice. Unlike the English, the voice falls at the close of all inter-
rogative sentences.
ADVERBIAL INCORPORATED PARTICLES.
§ 185. As has been stated (§ 34), by means of adverbial particles, large
classes of active verbs are formed from verbal roots and adjectives. There
are *ba,' 'bo,' 'ka,' 'na,' 'pa,' 'ya/ and 'yu,' with the possessive forms Mid,'
'kd,' and *gl,' which are prefixed or agglutinated. See the Verb Paradigm.
PREPOSITIONS.
§ 186. Prepositions are placed after the nouns which they govern, and
so are properly post-positions,
(a) Some are written as separate words (§ 89) ; as, maka kiq akan, on
the earth; tipi idahda, hg the house; doi)ka8ke ekta, at the garrison. In this
ease plurality of the noun is expressed by ' wica ' incorporated into the
preposition; as, tatagka kiq widikiyedaij (ox the them-near-to), near to the
oxen; Dakota ewidataijhai), /row the Dakotas.
(b) Other prepositions are suffixed to nouns (§ 91); as, tiijtata, on the
prairie; magata at the field ; (l^aqyata, at the woods,
(c) And others are prefixed to the following verb (§ 92); p^, amani,
to walk on ; idekiya, to pray for,
2. (a) Pronouns governed by a preposition are sometimes prefixed to
it, in which case those prepositions which have 'i' for their initial letter
cause an elision of the last vowel of the pronoun; as ikiyedai), near to;
mikiyedar), near to me; \te\iRT), far from ; ni tehai), ^ar/rom thee. If the pro-
78 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
noun is plural, the plural termination is attached to the preposition; as,
uijketai)hai}pi, from us.
(h) Sometimes the pronoun is inserted in the preposition, it the latter
consists of more than two syllables; as, enitaijhai), /ro/^/ thre.
(c) And sometimes it is contained in the following verb; as, en mau,
he is coming to me ; ekta niipi, theif went to you,
§ 187. Of the twMi prepositions 'V\(*\ and 'om,' both meaning with^ the
former governs singular and the latter plural nouns; as, he kidi mde ktH, /
will go with him; hena om mde kta, / will go with them.
§ 188. 1. The names of the natural divisicms of time, >vhen they refer
to the past, terminate in Miai},' and when to the future, in 'tu;' as, wehai),
Inst spring; wetu, next spring.
The termiuation * tu ' or ' etu,' in waniyetu, mdoketu, ptaijyetu, wetu, hagyetu,
atjpetn, litayetu, etc., may have been orignally a prei>osition, signifying, as it still
does in other cases, at or in; and the tennination * haij,' in wanihai}, wehai), radoke-
hai), ptii}hai), etc., is probably the adverbial ending.
2. The preposition 'i' prefixed to the natural divisions of time signifies
the next after; as, iwetu, the spring following; imdoketu, tfie next smnmer;
ihaghaqna, the )iext morning.
CONJUNCTIONS.
§ 189. 1. Conjunctions commonly stand between the words or sentences
which they connect; as, mahpiya ka maka, heaven and earth; wai)6i3'aka
tuka iyedidiye sni, / saw thee but I did not recognize thee; ecoq ya^i eiSta
e(?oi) kte sni (clo thou-told although, do will not), although thou told him to do it,
he will not.
2. But the conjunctions *ko' or *koya' and *ahna' are placed aff^'r the
words they connect; as, daijka waqhi ko mduha (^fire-steel flint also I have),
I'have flint and steel; mahpiya maka alma kaga, he made heaven ami earth.
§ 190. *Uijkar)' and *ka' both signify and, but they are used somewhat
differently, ^ka' denoting a closer connection than *uqkar).'
1. When two or more verbs having the same nominative are connected
by a copulative conjunction, 'ka' is commonly used; as, ekta w^ai l^a
waijmdaka, / went and saw. But if a new nominative is introduced,
*ugkaij' will be required; as, ekta wai uijkai) waqmayakapi, / went there
and they saw me.
2. When after a period the sentence begins with a conjunction, *l^a' is
not used unless the sentence is closely connected with the preceding one.
CON JU xN CTIONS— I NT ER JECTIONS. 79
3. 'Ui)kai)' never connects single nouns or adjectives, *ka' and 'ko'
being nsed for that purpose; as, waste ka ksap'd, good and wise ; 6ai) mini
ko, wood and wafer.
For the use of the eoiijuiictions kiijhaij, uijkaijs, and tukA, see § 133.
§ 191. The words 'e(m)' and 'nakaes/ ahhough more ]iroperly adverbs,
often supply the phice of conjunctions: as, he waku, e6u) makida, I gave
that to him hecause he asked me for it; he tewahii)da, nakaes hecedaij mduha,
/ refused that because it was the only one I had.
§ 192. The idea conveyed by the conjunction than can not be expressed
in Dakota directly. Such a phrase as, *'It is better for me to die than to
live," may indeed be rendered by an awkward periphrasis in several ways;
a.H, mate (^xt) he waste ka wani kiij he sica, for me to die is goody and to lii^e is
had: wani kii) he waste esta mate cii) he iyotai) waste, although it i^s good for
me to live, it is more good for me to die : or, mate kte cir) h(* waste l^a wani
kte ciq he sica, that I should die is good, and that I should live is had.
§ 193. The conjunction or is represented by *ka is;' but the sentences
in which it is introduced have not the same brevity as in Knglish; as, / do
not hww whether he is there or not, hen uij is ka is hen \\i) sni, uijma tukte
iyecetu sdonwaye sni (there is or thrrt* is not, which of the two I know no1^\
Is that a horse or an ox? he suktatjka ka is tatai)ka uqma tukte hedetu he
(that horse or ox, which of the two)^.
INTERJECTIONS.
§ 194. Some inteijections have no connexion with other words, while
others are used only as a part of a sentence. When connected with other
words, interjections usually stand at the beginning of the ])hrase. Consid-
erable knowlediifc of their use is n(»cessarv to enable one to understand tlu*
language well, as the interjections not only serve to indicate the feelings of
the speak(»r, but often materially modify the meaning of a sentence; as,
hehehe, didita o\) mate kta, o//.' [ shall die of heat ; '*AViconi kiij iho hee;
wiconi kiij he wicasta iyozaijzaij kii} iho hee" (Life the lo! that is; life the
that man light the lo! that is), John i, 4.
DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOfiRAPHY.
PART SECOND.
TEXTS.
81
7X0.") — VOL IX i}
TEXTS.
WICAI^HPI HIl^HPAYA; OR, THE FALLEN STAR.
Written in Dakota by Michkl Renville.
Ovate wari kaken tipi; uijkaij wiiioliiqc^a iioin taijkaii waijkapi; uijkari
People one no lived; and women two oiit-doors lay; and
wicaijhpi kiij iye<>;a wayyakapi. Uijkai) iQyuij iiijmaij heya: Icepaijsi, ito
atarn the shining aaw. And beoold the-one thlH said : Consin lo
wicaylipi waij iyege hca e yaijke (*u) he hihnawaya (res, eya. Uijkai}
star one shines very afore- is the that husband I-have oh* she And
said that ! said.
uijma kiij is; Mis ito ka wicaijhpi wari kitaijna iyehya yaijke ciij he
«t(ier the she; I lo that star one little "Mhining is the that
hihiiftwaye (es, eya. Uqkaij ihnuharina napiii ekta awicakipi, keyapi.
hniibaad ] kave oh she And suddenly both thither they were tax en they say.
that ! said.
Mako<Se way waste hiyca hok^idekpa ozuzuya namdaye waste warjka
Country o«e f];oo<l very twin-flowers full blooming beautiful were
e ekta uijpi. Uijkaij wicaijhpi wari nina iyege fikoi) he wi(5asta tai}ka;
that in tlieywere. Aw| star one much shining the that man large,
ka urima koi) he koSka, keyapi. Heden kinukariyari hihna wicayapi.
and other the that young-Man, they say. So one-and-the-other husband them-had.
[aforesaid]
Urikaij ui}ma warina ihdusaka. Makoce kiri tipsirjiia ota hu wasteste.
And one now with-child. Country the Pomme blanche many stalks beaatiful.
Hec'ren wiijyaij kori waqzi hopte kta kes hiknaku kii} tehiijda: Ustari wo,
So woman the one dig would aHhough husband-has the forbid : Stop
tuwedai) deC^i heeoi} siii ce, eya ede. U^jkai} ihdaka aye (a etipi. Urikar)
no-one here that does not he-said always. Awl moving went and oarojted. And
wiriyai) ihdusake wakeya itica«fe (a tiniahen piye kta e tiraahen hiyu, urjkap
woman with child tent pitcheil and inside fix-op would house-inside came, and
tipsiqiia waij liu tarika waste e aiticaga; ui}kai)» Ito de waka ke, edii);
Pomme blanche one stalk large l>eautiful that over it tent and Lo this I dig will. she
pitched: thought;
etaijhaij tuwe waijmayake (•a, ecii), ka horipe i('*u ka bopte ra iyupta idu;
for who me-8ce will / she thought, and digger took and dug-It and pulled-it-out ;
idurjhai) makoce yuohdog iyeya ka ohna hiyu, ka maka kii) ekta tezi kamdas
in the country opened *' out and from came, and earth the to belly burst
meantime
83
84 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY,
hirjllpaya keya})i. Heceii \vinohir)(Sa koij e t^^ tuka hoksiyokopa e t^^ ^^^^
8h»-feir they say. So woman the that died, but c£iild that died not
[aforesaid)
naofangata waijka. Wicahiqca way en hi; hoksiyopa kiij icu ka itpihnake
kicking lay. Old-man one there camo; chifd the took and placed in bononi
<Ja tiyataki, ka heya: Wakaijka, taku warj waijmdaka uijkaij caijte masico
and came home, and 1 his said: Old woman, aomeihing one I naw and heart me-bad
do, eya. Uykaij tawi^u kiij, He taku he, eya. Uykaij wiiiohin6a way tezi
he Raid. And bin wife the. That what 1 Hhe said. And woman one belly
kamdas t^^ warjka; uijkai) hoksiyopa waij naoangata waijke, ahna widana
bursted died lay; and child one kicking; lay also boy
tuka ce, eya. Wi(:'*ahin(:;a, tokeca ayaku sni he, eya. Uijkaij, Dee do, eya
bat he'said. Old man, why you bring not I she said. And. This is it . he said
home
<Ja itpi taqhaij icu. Uijkaij ta\vi(?u kirj heya: Wicahiyca, ito de ic^ahuijye
and bosom from took. And his wife the tliis said : Old man, now this we-raise*^
^e&j eya. Uijkaij wicahiijca koij heya: Wakaijka, ti ahiuihbeuijye kta ce,
oh-that! sne-said. And old man the this 'said: Old woman, house around- we-rolf will ,
[aforesaid ]
eye, (^a ticeska kiy olma kohoya iyeya. Uqkay ahinihmaij-hiyaye ra
he said, and tent-top the throuf(h he tossed it up. And whirling; around he went and
liiqhpaya. Urikaij sdohaijhay tin hiyu. Tuka ake i6u ka tide olina kahoya
fell uown. And creeping house-in he Bat again he and smoke through he tossed
came. took hole
iyeya. Ui}kaq hehan niani tin hiyu. Tuka ake idu l^a e(?en iyeya. Uijkaij
it up. And then walking house in came. Jiut again ho took and so tlbrew it. And
hehan hoksina waij caijsakana keya yuha tin hiyu ka, Turjkaijsina, dena
then boy one green stickn even having house in rame and. Grandfather, these
waijhii)ki)e mi(^aga ye, eya. Tuka ake iru ka e(?en iyeya, uykaij hehan
arrows make-me. he said. But again he took and so threw, and then
toki iyaya taijiij sni; uijkaij koska waij raijsaka keya yuha tin hiyu; ka,
where he went manifest not; and young man one green sticks even having house in came; and.
Dena, tuijkai)sina, inicaga w<>, eya. Ilecen vvaijhiijkpe ota kira^a. Ilecen
These, grandfather. make me, he said. So arrows many made for him. So
pte ota wicao ca wakeya waq taijka i(;idagapi, ka catku kin en waykan
buffalo many them-vhot when tent*^ one large made for and back-part the in high
themselves,
ohehdekiyapi, nina wasecapi.
bed* they -place^l, very rich-were.
Uijkai) wi(*ahiy(!'*a kiy heye: Wakaqka, taqyaij uijyakoij e imdu^kiij
And old man the this said: Old woman well we-nre that I-glad-am
(Se, ito eyaij\va])aha kte do, eye, (*a haijhaijna hiy tice iijkpata iyotaijka <Ja
, lo! I pro<-l^im will , he said, and morning very house top-at *" he sat and
Ci»mb
lieya: Miye tazu watoij, tasiyaka siij mdadopa, eyjL Uqkaij lie Tasiya-
this*8aid: f Uiidup I have. big-gut fat I chew, he-said. And this meadow
kapopo hee keyapi : Zitkana waij tajsiyakapopo eciyapi kii) hee ; niaku zi
lark that-is tlioyMay: binl one meadow lark named the that is; breast yel-
low
Ifa cokaya sape ciij he aijpao zi kii) he tataijka he sdusduta e inapiij
and middle black the that morning yellow the that buffalo horn smooth that collar-has
keyapi.
they say.
Hehan koska koij heye : Turjkarjsina, ito oniawanini kta (^e, eya.
Then young man the this'said: Grandfather, lo! I walking will , he said.
[aforesaid]
DAKOTA MYTHS. 85
Uqkaij widahii^da kii) heya : Ho, takoza, ko^ka eca oyate e6en wawaijyag
And oUI-nian the thi^Kaid: Yes, prrandcbild, young man when people no to see
omaiii ce, eya keyapi.
walks always, he said, they say.
Uqkai) he<5eii koska koi) iyaye ^a oyate wai} tipi en i ; uijkaij iDyui)
And BO yoiing man the went and people one living there came ; and benold
[aforesaid]
caijhde^ka kutepi eu i. Urjkay koskana waij en wavvayyaka, keyapi.
hoop shooting there came. And young man one thither looking-on, they said.
He(5en en inaziij, ka, Ito ki(!fuwa kidi wawaqmdake kta, eya. Heden \d6i
So there he stood, and. Lo! my fViend with I-look-on will he said. So with
nazii). Urikari heye : KiclSuwa, yati ekta uijhde kta, eya. He6en \d6i lida
he-stood. And this naid : Friend, your home to we go home will, he said. So with wont-
(dual) home
ka kici ki. Ui^kaij he kurisitku iciahya heda, he(5en kurikisitku kidi ti en
and with arrived. And that grandmother his raised such, so grandmother his with lived there
i, keyapi.
came, they say.
Ui)kaij, Uijci, ki(?uwa kici wahdi <5e, taku yute kta ikihni ye, eya.
And, Grand- ray friend with Ic4>raehoroe , what eat will that [please], ne
mother provide said.
Uykaij kurikisitku kiij heya: Takoza, token wahaij kta he, eya. Urjkaij
And grandmother his the this said: Grandchild how I do will i she said. And
koska uijma koij heya: Toketu hwo ui)(5ina, eya. Uijkari, Oyate kii) de
young man other thi; this said : How is it 7 grandmother, he said. And, Feople the this
[aluresaidj
waijna ipuza wicate kta ce, eya ; tuwe mini huwe-i kes hdi sni edee, eya.
now tnirsty they die will , she said ; who water goes-for although come not always, she
home said.
Urjkai), Kiduwa de^^a idu wo, mini huwe urjye kta ce, eya. Uijkai), Takoza
And Friend kettle take thou water for we go will , he said. And My grand-
child
kitar) idahwaye dikor)! eya. Taku sni-sni ikoyapa, eye, va heden kidi ye ^a
hardly I raised in the past ! she said. What not-not you fear, he%aid, and so with went and
nide kahda inaziijpi. Uijkaij mini kiij kahda wakiskokpa mini ozugzudar)
lake by they stoo<l. And water the by troughs water each full
hiyeya. Uijkaij tuwe mini huwe hi da taku e yakte ede keyapi ^ori
Htoo<i. And who water to get comics when what that you kill always they say the
[comes for] [afore-
said]
toki idada hwo, de mini huwe wahi do, eya.
where have you / this water to get I come . he said,
gone [1 coiue for]
Uijkai) ihnuhaijna toki iyayapi taijii} sni; heden iqyui) ti hariska war)
And suddenly whither they*^went manifest not; so benold f Louse long one
kakiyotaijna iyeya, ohna koska ka wikoska ozuna hiyeya: waqna apa tapi
in this direction lay, in young and maidens full were : now some dead
men
ka apa te idakisya hiyeya, en opeya ipi. Uqkaij, Dena token dukaijpi he,
and some to suffering were, in togetner they And, These how are-you-bere f
die came.
eya. Uykaij, Taku yaka he; dena mini huwe uijhipi he^, taku wag
he said. And, What you mean 7 these water to bring we came although, some- one
thing
nauijpdapi edee de, eyapi, keyapi.
US-swallowed always , they said, they-aay.
Uqkar) koska koij pa kiij en taku iyapapa yaqka. Uqkay, De taku he.
And young men the head the in some- striking waa And, This what f
[aforesaid] thing [sitting].
8G DAKOTA GKAMMAK, TEXTS, AKD ETHNOGRAPHY.
eya. Uqkar), IlaQta, he caqte ee de, eyapi. Ur)kay he hec^^en isar) ehdaku
he aaid. And Get-away that heart ia , they eaid. And he so knife liis-took
l^a baspu^pu yayka. Uqkaij ihnuhaijna taku niiia ham liirihda; uijkaij he
ond cut-to-pieees was [sitting]. And Muddcnly what very made a noise; and that
taqmalien taijka e hena iiawi(5apce, tuka caijte kiy baspupi uakaes ohiia ta
body inside large that those thems wallowed, bat heart the cni-up indeed in dead
kii) ekta hi t^, keyapi. Hedeii cu\^i kiij pahdoke ^a koska wikoska ko
the at come de^d, they say. Hence side the punched and young men maidens al«o
om hdidu.
with came out.
them
Ui)kaij oyate kir) nina pidawi^^aya e he6en wikoska nom ^upi. Tuka,
And people the much glad-them-he-made that hence maidens two gave nim. But,
Ohiqiii omauiyaij wauy e hedeii kicuwa iye wi^ayuze kta de, eya, Ifa
Always Journeying I am that so my friend ne them take will , he said, and
koskana koij napin ku. Uykaij hecen hocokam wakeya wai) iticagapi ka
young man the l)oth gave. And so in-the>court tent one pitched-fur, and
[aforesaid]
hokshia Ijor) kuijksitlju ki(?i akiyuha en awi(5akipi. Wikoska nor)pa toy hena
boy the grandmother his with bearing there them brougnt. Young women two the those
[aforesaid] [aforesaid]
om en ahitipi.
with in they moved.
Heden koska lj:oi) ake itoopteya iyaya keyapi. Uqkaq waqna ake
Then young man the again onward went they say. And now again
ko^kana waij manin naziq (^aqhdeska kutepi. Uijkai) wawaqyaka hai)
young man a outside stood hoop shooting. And looking-on standing
en i lj:a heya : Ito, ki(Juwa ki<?i wawaqmdake kta eye, ^a kidi naziij. Uqkaq
in he and this-said : Lo, friend with I-leok-on will he said, and with stood. And
oame
heye : Kiduwa, uijhde kta <5e, eye 6ii kici ki. Ka, Ugdina, kiduwa kidi wahdi
thin-he- Friend, we-go home will he-said, and with came. And, Grandmother, my fHend with ' I come
itaid: (dual) home. home,
de, takuij ikihni nai}ka wo, eya Tuka kuqksitkuna kiy. Token wahaQ kte
something hunting up be thou he-said. But grandmother hia the. How I-do will
e heha lie, eya. Uykaij, toketu he, eya. Ui)kai), Ovate kiq de waqna
this you say 1 Hhe said. And, How is it ! he said. And, People the this now
dai) or) wi(*atakuni6ni de, eya ; tuwe dai) l^u) i kes tohiijni hdi sni, eya.
wood for they perish she-said: who wood to-oarry goes if at any time come home not, she
said.
Uijkar), Kicuwa, hiyska icu wo, &di) Ijiiij uijye kta ce, eya. Uijkai)
And, Frieud, strap take, . wood to-carry we-go will , he said. And
wakai)kana kiq, Takus kitayna icahwaye diljioi), eya. Tuka, Wakaijka 16
old woman the, Grandchild hardly I-raiaed in the past, she said. But, Old woman that
de takusnisni ikoya})ica : heye ^.a koskana koij ki(!5i iyaye ^a heye : Cap
this trifles you atVaid-of : this'said and young man the with went and this said: Wood
aforesaid
l^in mda ce, tuwe yadiripi kiijhaij u po. Eyaya uqkai), Koska waq tokiya-
to-carry I-go, who you wish if come ye. They went and, young man a somewhere
taqhai) hi ka heya 6e eyapi, ]fa ihakamya eyaye. Waqna dag kii) en ipi,
firom come and this said they said, and after they went. Now wood the in tney
came,
ugkaij 6b,i) kiij ikaijtoij hiyeya e he<5en oyate koi) hetaqhai) ahdiyakupi
and wood the tied-iip lay, that so people the that Arom started home with
tuka, iye en naziy lj:a, Tuwe C^aq kiij den hi ca, taku yakte keyapi toij
but. ue there stood and, Who wood the here comes when, what you-kill they say the
aforesaid
DAKOTA MYTHS. 87
toki idada hwo, eya. Ui)kai) ihnuhaqna toki iyaya tai)ii) ^ni. Heden
wbeiw joMbaivegaiM ? heMdd. And aaddenly where henadgone manifest not. So
iQyui)^ wakeya wbj) ohna de<5en ko^ka wikoska ko, apa wotapi lj:a apa ni
b A e kl ten# a in thua young men maidens aUo, some eating and some alive
hiyeya e apeya yagka. Ui)kai), Dena token dukaqpi he, eya. Uqkap,
were waituig were. And, These how are yon ? he said. And,
Taku yaka lie; dena dai) l^ir) uijhipi ke^ taku deden uqkahdipi edee; ni^
What yon mean f these wood to carry we came although some- thub us brought home always; you
thing
eya nitakuni^ni de, eyapi. Uijkar) heyata etoijwar) uqkai) irjyui), ohdoka
aiuo yo«i«re<l«stroyed , they said. And behind looked and benold hole
war) deden hiyeya. Urjkai), De taku lie, eya. Uqkai), U^tai), he taku kii)
a so was. And, This what f he said. And, Stop, thAt what the
hee de, eyapi. Tuka waQhirjkpe ikikdu l^a okatkatai) vai). Uijkar) wakeya kii)
that is, they said. But arrow his-took and transfixed u. And tent the
ihnuharjiia kazamni iyaya. Uqkai) he hiijyarjkaga e noge awidayuhmuza
suddenly opened went. And that owl's that ear them shut up
keyapi. Heden kte nakaeS noge kii) namdaya iyaya. Heden, Ko^ka
they say. Thus killed indeed ear the opened out went. So, Young men
wikoska kir) owasii} tai}kan ku po, eye, <Ja om hdidu, keyapi.
maidens the all out come ye, he said, and with started out, they say.
them
Urjkar) ake witaijsna ui) nom kupi. Tuka ake, Kicuwa iye napin
And again maidens were two gavenim. But again, My-friend he both
widayuze kta de, eya. Ileden hoksina toQ kuijksitkuna kidi Ifa wirjyar) kii)
them take will he said. So boy the grandmother his with and women the
aforesaid
napin om hodokam wakeya wai) ohna ewidahnakapi.
both together in the middle tent a in they placed them.
Heden ake itoopta iyaya. Ake oyate wai) tipi war) en i, ui)kari ake
So again forward he went. Again people a dwelling a in came, and again
daijhde^ka kutepi, ui)kar) ko^kana wawaqyaka hai) e en inazii). Ka, Ito,
hoop shooting, and young man looking on standing there stood. And, Lo,
kicuwa kidi wawaqmdake kta, eye va kidi inazii). Ur)kai) heye: Kiduwa,
my friend with Ilookon will, he said and with he stood. And thissaid: My friend,
ui)hde kta de, eya, ui)kar) kidi ki. Urjkai) ake he kurjkisitku idahya heda.
we-go- will hesaid, and with he- And again that grandmother his raised such,
home went-home.
Uykai), Ui)dina, kiduwa kidi wahdi de, takui) ikihninaka wo, eya. Uqkai),
And, Grandmother, my friend with I come home, something hunt thou for him, he said. And,
Taku tukten iwadu kta e heha he, eya. Urjkai), Urjdina toka e heha he,
What whence I-take will that you say f she said. And, Grandmother why thAt you say f
eya. Ui)kar), Waziya wai) de oyate kii) teliiya widakuwa de, pte opi
he said. And, Waziya a this people the hardly them treats , buffalo kill
kes owasii) idu, ka waqna akihai) widate kta, eya. Uqkar), Ui)dina ektaye
although all he-takes, and now starving they die will, she said. And, Grandmother there go
(Ja, Mitakoza idimani hi tuka takuna yute sni e umaSi de^ eya wo, eya.
and. My grandchild travelling has but nothing eats not so me sent say thou, hesaid.
come,
Heden wakai)ka iyaye <Ja itehanyai) inazii), ka, Waziya, mitakoza idimani
So old woman went and afar off stood, and, Waziya, my grandchild travelling
hi, tuka takuna yute sni e uma^i ye, eya. Tuka, Wakagka Sida ekta
has but nothing eats not so me-aent she said. But, Old woman bad to
come
kihda wo, de taku yaka he, eya. Heden wakaqka deya hdi, lj:a takuva ke
go-home, this what you mean f he said. So old woman cry&g came and ftrien^ meant,
home
88 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AJNI) ETHNOGRAPHY.
^a, Waziya makate kta, key a ce, eya Uijkaq, Ki^uwa, ikaij icu wo, ekta
and. Waziya kill for me would. he said she said. And, My friend strap take, thither
UQye kta ce, eya. Uijkaij, Takus kitaij icahwaye cikoij! Ui}cina de
we go will he said. And. My-erand- hardly I have raised in the past (iraud this
(dual) child mother
wikopapake, eye (*a heceii iyayapi; ka Waziya ti on ipi ka wadouida
much afraid, he naid. and so tliey went ; and Waziya house to they and dried meat
came,
taijkau hiyeya e heceii takodaku kiij tona okihi kiy kiye va ahdiyakukiye
without £iung that so friend his the many as able to carry caused and sent hnn borne wiui it
^ iye e Waziya ti kiij eu i, ka, Waziya he tokae uyciua deu uwasi ugkaQ
and ne him> Waziya house the in went, and, Waziya this why grand- here I sent and
self ' mother
heha eya. Tuka Waziya ite tokeca yanke. Uijkaij daga itazipa wag
this you he .said. But Waziya face ditferent *" was. And ice bow a
said,
otkeya yanke. Ui}kaij, Waziya, de token yalmakeca lie, eya. Uijkai),
hanging up '' was. And, Waziy*a, this bow * you place away 7 he said. And,
Ustaq wo, he tuwe yutaij ca isto ayuwej^a 6e, eya. Ugkai), Ito, isto
stop thou that who touches when arm * on-it-broaks , be said. And, Lo! arm
amduwega ke eye (*a caga itazipe l^oij snayeli yunid^n iyeya, ^a, liecen
I*break-on-it, will he said, and ice bow the snapping broke went, and, so
hdidu.
he came home.
Ka haijhaijna uijkaij waijna ake oyate kig wanase aye ^a waijna pte
And morning then now again people the buffalo hunting went and now buffalo
kiij Ota opi. Uqkai) wayna ake owonase kiij iyaza tona opi kiy owasiij
the many shot. And now again surroui.d the tnrough many killed the all
jiahi edee ka ikpihnaka an. IJykaij koska war) he hi koij pte waij depa
gathercd-up and placed in bliiuket brought. And young man a that came the cow a fat
apata. Uykaij Waziya pte kiij ikpihnag u koij en hinaziij, ^ca heya: De
drMsed. And Waziya cows the putting in belt came the there coming stood, and this said: This
tuwe pata he, eya. Uijkaij, Miye wapata do, eya. Ugkai) Waziya heye:
who firessed 1 he said. And, l' I-dreased , he said. And Waziya this said:
Koska kor) he ke ^a, Wicar)hpi hiijhpaya, de tokiyataijhar) wanicage da e
Young roan the that meant and. Star Fallen, this from whence have you grown Mhac
decehiij wahaijni(;ida he, eya. Ugkai) is, Waziya, nis de tokiyatayhaij
so that tlius you boast yourself / he said. And he, Waziya, yon this from whence
wanidage da e wahaijni(nda he, eya. Ur)kaij Waziya heya: Widaghpi
you-grow-up f that you boast yourself f he said. And Waziya this said: Star
hiijhpaya, tuwe nai)ainapazo eda ta edee do, eya. Uijkaij, Ito, napawapazo
Fallen,* who finger me f»oints to when dies alwa\ s , he said. And Well, linger I point
ke eda mate da, eye da napapazo, tuka tokeda sni. Ugkaij hehaq is heya:
will when I-die, ! ho said and hand showed, but ditferent not. And then he this said:
Waziya, tuwe na})ainapazo eda nape kiij naiheyaya iyeya edee do, eya.
Waziya, who finger me points to when hand the paralyzed becomes always , he said.
Ugkay, Ito, napawapazo ke, ito eda naiheyaya iyemayida, eye, <;a edoij.
And, Well, I point tinger will, lo there paralyzed * make me. he said, and did it,
tuka nape ]^oi) ispa kiij hehaijyai) naiheyaya iyeya. Uijkaij ake uijina
but hand the lower arm the so far paralyzed was. And again other
ediyataijhaij edoy tuka ake ispa kiij hehagyay naiheyaya iyeya. Heden
from did-it, but again lower arm the so-far de^itroyetl was. So
Widaqhpi hiijhpaya isaij ehdaku ka Waziya sina abapote; heden pte
star Fallen * knife his-took and Waziya blanket cat up ; hence buffalo
ikpihnag uij kii) owasiij kadada. Heden oyate kiy hewidakiye: Detaqhai)
in-blanket was the all fell out. So that i>eoplo the thia-them-saia to: Henceforth
DAKOTA MYTHS. 89
patapi lj:a abda po, eye. HeiSen oyate kiij wapatapi ka tado iliaijpi ka tiyata
dr^w and carry ye home, he said. So people the dre»Hed and moat prepared and houses to
alidi. Ka hayhagna uqkay heyapi: Waziya siiia abapotapi koij waijna
brought And next morning and thia was said : Waziya blanket cut-up- was the now
home. aforesaid
tawicu kiij ka^ege yustaij e hdatata kta ce, eyapi. Wazivata itohe inaziy
wife-his the sewing up finished that he shake will. tliey said. Nortfito facing standing
his own
katata e lieceii wjiziyata taqhaij tate uye (Ja wa kiij wakeya kiij liiijskoke(^a
he shook that so north from wind came and snow the tents* the ho far around
hiijhpaye (5a oyate kiij owasii) wa maheu eyaye, va wicauihiijciye ca heyapi:
fell * and people the all snow under went. and they were troubled and this said:
Toketuya ke^as iii uijyakoripi koi); koska way token liaij ka waijna
In some way even living we were in the past : young man a how does and now
uijtakuuipi sui, eyapi.
we perish, they said.
Uqkay, Ur)<5ina, icadu wayzi omakide wo, eya. Urikaq liecen wa mahen
And, Grandmother, wing one hunt thou for me he said. And ho snow under
daijkuyapi: Mitakoza heya 6e, i(^.adu waqzi da 6e, eya e lieceu ilio toketu
road made: My grand child this says , wing one he asks , she that fo behold how is it
said.
keye ca ce, eyapi; ka waqzi Ijiupi. Uijkar) tide kiij iwaijkam wa kiij iyaye
he says that? , tlieysaid; and one they gave. And tent top the above snow the went
iiakaes, wa pahdogye (Ja tideska kii) akan iyotaijke (%i itokah itolieya i}'otaij
indeed, snow punched and tent-top the on he-sat and soutli towards most
icadu koq, heoq ilidadu yaqka, ui)kay itokaga taijliaij tatahiyuye c^i odidita
Idowed the, therefore fanning was, and south from wind-brought and heat
himself
taijka, ka wa kiij mini ipi^a akastaijpi kiij liecen iyaya, ka skaij iyaye va
great, and xnow the water boiling thrown-on the ho went, and melttnl went, and
inaka kiy owaqca po icu, ka lieden Waziya tawicu ciijca ko oni didita tapi.
earth the all over tog took, and so Waziys wife his children also together heat of died.
Tuka Waziya ciiida hakaktana nio^e sdana he tosu huta o})ahdi kiij ohiia
But Wazi/u child youngest bell\ bare that tent i>ole bottom hole the in
ohewar)ke ciij lieci onapena ka he nina oij etaijhaij dehaij Waziya yuke ciij
fn»rtt tlie there took refuge and that little wherefore now Waziya " is the
one lived
hececa, keya])i. Hecen ohuijkakar) kiij de, Widaijhpi Hirjhpaya eciyapi.
that sort, they say. So myth the this. Star Fallen * is called.
NOTES.
1. The use of the definite article "kii}" or "diij'^ with the demonstratives ^'he''
and "de" with their plurals is noticeable. "Kiij he" and '*ki!| de" have been ren-
dered **the tliat" and "the this." Sometimes they are eiiiiivalent to only "that" and
"this," as, wicasta kiij de, this man; at other times they are equivalent to "that
which" or " what;" as, Wi<5aT}lipi yaijke 6u) he, that star which is.
2. Attention is called to the almost uniform repeating of the verb ^'say " in dia-
logues; that is, both before and after the thing said. Before the words said, the form
is "heya," which is compounded of " he" and "eya," that said. It might be " he<*en
eya," thus said. Then at the close of the words spoken comes in "eya" again, which
to us seems superfluous. But it serves to close up and finish oft* the exi)ression, and
is helpful to a good understanding of the matter.
3. It is commonly afiirmed, and admitted in good part, that Indian languages
have no substantive verbs; that is, there is no one which corresponds exactly with the
90 DAKOTA GRAMICAB, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGBAPHY.
verb <<to be.^' But in the Dakota la&goiige there are several ways of expressing iL
One that appears frequently in these myihs is in^ dee, heey ee^ 6ee, and e^ee; the last
"e" is the verb of existence; ** this is it," or, more properly, "this is,^ "that is,^* "it
is." In 6ee and c6ee the idea is that of continuance. He^w e^e, he was saying that;
that is, he repeated it; he kept on saying it. So also the verb "tw),'^ when it can be
used, corresponds to our verb "to be." But the use of "uij" is limited. Tiien we
have "yai}ke" and " wai}ke," which have reference to place as well as being. But still
it remains true that in many cases the Dakotas do not need a substantive verb; lam
good they can express by the pronoun and adjective alone, "ma-wadte."
4. The study of these Dakota myths has greatly strengthened my former impres-
sions of the necessity of the supernatural. In this myth the deliverer of the people is
"star-born." In the Badger and Bear myth the deliverer is created by mysterious
power. But everywhere and always the supernatural is recognized. The bad forces,
whether the nameless, shapeless thing that swallowed them all up that went for water,
or the mythic owl's ear that covered them all in when they went for wood, or the more
powerful and tangible force, the northgod, all these and others must be met and con-
quered by the supernatural. So the incarnation of selfishness and meanness, imper-
sonated in Oray Bear, must be overcome and killed by the mysterious born.
TRANSLATION.
A people had this camp ; and there were two women lying out of doors and looking
up to the shining stars. One of them said to the other, " 1 wish that very large and
bright shining star was my husband." The other said, " I wish that star that shines
less brightly were my husband." Whereupon they say both were immediately taken
up. They found themselves in a beautiful country, which was full of beautiful twin
flowers. They found that the star which shone most brightly was a large man, while
the other was only a young man. So they each had a husband; and one became with
child. In that cx)untry the teepsinna,^ with large, beautiful stalks, were abundant.
The wife of the large star wanted to dig them, but her husband forbade it, saying
" No one does so here."
Then the encampment moved; and the woman with child, when she had pitched
her tent and came inside to lay the mats, etc., saw there a beautiful teepsinna, and she
said to herself, " I will dig this — no one will see it." So she took her digging stick
and dug the teepsinna. When she pulled it out immediately the country opened out
and she came through, and falling down to the earth, they say, her belly burst open.
And so the woman died; but the child did not die, but lay there stretched out.
An old man came that way, and seeing the child alive took it up, put it in his
blanket, and went home. When he arrived he said, " Old woman, I saw something
to-day that made my heart feel badly." "What was it!" said his wife. And he
replied, "A woman lay dead with her belly bursted, and a little boy child lay there
kicking." "Why did you not bring it home, old mant" she said. He answered,
" Here it is," and took it out of his blanket. His wife said, " Old man, let us raise
* As the author has said in another part of this volume^ ''e'' predicates identity rather than ex-
istence. And this is the case in the cognate languages: e in Cegiha, are in x^i^^i^; ^^^ h^re or ^re
in WinnebagO; should bo rendered *Hhe aforesaid/' 'Hhe foregoing/* etc. — ^J. o. D.
*Tipsii)na, the Paoralea esculenia (Pursh), the Pomme blanche of the French Canadians. — j. o. D.
DAKOTA Myths. 91
this child.^ '* We will swiug it arouud the tent," the old man said, and whirled it
up through the smoke hole. It went whirling around and fell down, and then came
creeping into the tent. But again he took it and threw it up through the top of the
tent. Then it got up and came into the tent walking. Again the old man whirled
him out, and then he came in a boy with some green sticks, and said, ^^ Grandfather,
I wish you would make me arrows." But again the old man whirled him out, and
where he went was not manifest. This time he came into the tent a young man, and
having green sticks. " Grandfather, make me arrows of these," he said. So the old
man made him arrows, and he killed a great many buffalo, and they made a large
tepee and built up a high sleeping place in the back part, and they were very rich
in dried meat.
Then the old man said, '' Old woman, I am glad we are well off; 1 will proclaim it
abroad." And so when the morning came he went up to the top of the house and sat,
and said, " I, I have abundance laid up. The fat of the big guts 1 chew." And they say
that was the origin of the meadow lark, a bird which is called ta^iyakapopo.^ It has
a yellow breast and black in the middle, which is the yellow of the morning, and they
;ay the black stripe is made by a smooth buffah) horn worn for a necklace.
Then the young man said, "Grandfather, I want to go traveling." *' Yes," the
old man replied, " when one is young is the time to go and visit other people." The
young man went, and came to where people lived, and lo ! they were engaged in shoot-
ing arrows through a hoop. And there was a young man who was simply looking on,
and 60 he stood beside him and looked on. By and by he said, '' My friend, let us go
to your house." So he went home with him and came to his house. This young man
also had been raised by his grandmother, and lived with her, they say. Then he said,
" Grandmother, I have brought my friend home with me; get him something to eat."
But the grandmother said, " Grandchild, what shall I do f " The other young man then
said, " How is it, grandmother!" She replied, "The people are about to die of thirst.
All who go for water come not back again." The star-born said, " My friend, take a
kettle; we will go for water." The old woman interposed, "With difficulty I have
raised my grandchild." But he said, " You are afraid of trifles," and so went with
the Star-born. By and by they reached the side of the lake, and by the water of
the lake stood troughs full of water. And he (tailed out, " You who they say have
killed every one who came for water, whither have you gone! I have come for water."
Then immediately whither they went was not manifest. Behold there was a long
house which was extended, and it was full of young men and young women. Some of
them were dead and some were in the agonies of death. " How did you come here?"
he said. They replied, "What do you mean! We came for water and something
swallowed us up."
Then on the head of the young man something kept striking. '* What is this!"
he said. " Get away," they replied, " that is the heart." So he drew out his knife
and cut it to pieces. Suddenly something made a great noise. In the great body
these were swallowed up, but when the heart was cut to piecjes and died death came
to the body. So he punche<l a hole in the side and came out, bringing the young men
and the young women. So the people were very thankful and gave him two maidens.
tTa8iyaka is the uame of the large intestine, the colon; 8(»uietini(*H a]>)>lied to tbe pylorus. Dr.
Kiggs gives another form of the name of the bird in the dictionary, taniyakapopopa. — J. O. D.
92 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
But be said, " I am journeying; my friend here will marry them," and so he gave them
both to him. Then in the middle of the camp they put up a tent, and the young man
with his grandmother and the two young women were brought to it.
Then the young man — the Star-born — proceeded on his j<mrney, they say. And
again he found a young man standing without where they were shooting through a
hoop. And so, saying he would look on with his friend, he went and stood by him.
Then he said, "My friend, let us go home," and so he went with him to his tepee.
"Grandmother, 1 have brought my friend home with me," he said, "hunt up some-
thing for him to eat." But the grandmother replied, "How shall I do as you say!"
"How is itt" he said. " This people are perishing for wood; when any one goes for
wood he never comes home again," was the reply.
Then he said, " My friend, take the packing strap; we will go for wood." But the
old woman protested, " This one my grandchild 1 have raised with difficulty." But,
"Old woman, what you are afraid of are trifles," he said, and went with the young
man. '*I am going to bring wood," he said; "if any of you wish to go, come along."
*'The young man who came from somewhere says this," they said, and so fol-
lowed after him.
They had now reached the wood, and they found it tied up in bundles, which he
had the people carry home, but he himself stood and said, " You who have killed every
one who came to this wood, whatever you are, whither have you gonet" Then sud-
denly where he went was not manifest. And lo ! a tent, and in it were young men and
young women; some were eating jind some were alive waiting. He said to them,
"How came you here!" And they answered, "What do you mean ! We came for
wood and something brought us home. Now, you also are lost."
He looked behind him, and lo! there was a hole; and, "What is this!" he said.
"Stop," they said, "that is the thing itself." He drew out an arrow and transfixed it.
Then suddenly it opened out, and it was the ear of an owl that had thus shut them up.
When it was killed it opened out. Then he said, " Young men and young women, come
out," and with them he came home.
Then again they gave him two maidens; but he said again, "My friend will
marry them." And so the young man with his grandmother and the two women were
plat»ed in a tent in the middle of the camp.
And now again he proceeded on his journey. And he came to the dwelling place
of a i)eople, and again he found them "shooting the hoop." And there stood a young
man looking on, to whom he joined himself as special friend. While they stood
together he said, "Friend, let us go to your home," and so he went with him to his
tent. Then the young man said, *' Grandmother, I have brought my friend home with
me; get him something to oat." For this young man also had been raised by his
grandmother. She says, "Where shall I get it from, that you say that!" "Grand-
mother, how is it that you say so!" interposed the stranger. To which she replied,
"Waziya* treats this people very badly; when they go out and kill buffalo he takes it
all, and now they are starving to death."
'The weather spirit, a mythical Ki^ii^y ^^o caused cold weather, hlizzards, etc.
See Ainer. Authropologist for April, 1889, p. 155. Waziya resembles a giant slain by the Rab-
bit, according to Omaha mythology. (See Contr. N. A. Ethn., vi. pt i, 22, 25.) — J. o. D.
DAKOTA MYTHS. 93
Tlieii he said, '^Graiidinotlier^ go to him and say, *My grandchild has come on a
journey and has nothing to eat, and so he has sent me to yon.'" So the old woman
went and standing afar oft', called, '' Waziya, my grandchild has come on a journey ami
has nothing to eat, and so has sent me liere.'' But he replied, ^Hiad old woman, get
you home ; what do you mean to come here ? " The old woman came home crying, and
saying that Waziya threatened to kill some of her relations. Then the Star-born said,
''My friend, take your strap, we will go there." The old woman interposed with, ''I
have with difticulty raised my grandchild." The grandchild replied to this by saying,
"Grandmother is very much afraid," and so they two went together. When they
came to the house of Waziya they found a great deal of dried meat outside. He put
as much on his friend as he could carry, and sent him home with it, and then he him-
self entered the tepee of Waziya, and said to him, "Waziya, why did you answer my
grandmother as you did when 1 sent her?" But Waziya only looked angrj\
Hanging there was a bow of ice. "Waziya, why do you keei) this?" he said.
To which he replied, '* Hands off"; whoever touches that gets a broken arm." So he
thought, " I will see if my arm is broken," an<l taking the i<*e bow he made it snap
into pieces, and then started home.
The next morning all the i>eople went on the chase and killed many buff*aloes.
But, as he had done before, the Waziya went all over the field of slaughter and
gathered up the meat and put it in his blanket. The "Star-born" that had come to
them was cutting up a fat cow. Waziya, on his round of tilling his* blanket with meat,
came and stood and said, "Who cuts up this!" "1 am dressing that," he answered.
Waziya said, addressing himself to the young man. Fallen Star, "From whence have
you sprung that you act so haughtily ? " ** And whence have you sprung from Waziya
that you act so proudly?" he retorted. Tlieu Waziya said, "Fallen Star, whoever
points his finger at me dies." So he said to himself, ''I will point my finger at him
and see if I die." He did so, but it was no whit different.
Then he on his part said, "Waziya, whoever points his finger at me, his hand
becomes paralyzed." So Waziya thought, "1 will point my finger and see if 1 am
paralyzed." This he did and his forearm was rendered entirely useless. He did so
with the other hand, and it too was destroyed even to the elbow. Then Fallen Star
drew out his knife and cut up Waziya's blanket, and all the buffalo meat he had
gathered there fell out. Fallen Star called to the people, "Henceforth kill and carry
home." So the i)eople dressed tliis meat and carried it to their tents.
The next morning it was reported that the blanket of Waziya, which had been
cut to pieces, was sewed up by his wife, and he was about to shake it. He stood with
his face toward the north and shook his blanket, and the wind blew from the north,
and the snow fell all around about the camp so that the people were all snowed in
and very much troubled, and they said : " We did live in some fashi<m before, but a
young man has acted so that now we are undone." But he said, " Grandmother, find
me a fan." So, a road being made under the snow, she went and said to the people,
»»My grandchild says he wants a fan." "Whatever he may mean by saying this?"
they said, and gave him one.
The snow reac'hed up to the top of the lo<lges, and so he punched a hole up
through and sat on the ridge of the lodge, and while the wind was blowing to the
94 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
south he sat and fanned himself and Btde the wind come from the south, and the
heat became great, and the snow went as if boiling water had been i>oured on it, and
it melted away, and all over the ground there mm a mist, and Waziya with his wife
and children all died of the heat. But the little, youngtot child of Waziya, with the
smooth belly, took refuge in the hole made by a tent-pole, wkore there was frost, and
so lived. And so they say he is all that there is of Waziya now. 80 also this myth is
called the Fallen Star.
WOTANIOE HOK^INA OHAl^ KIl^^
Bloodclot Boy Doings the.
Written in Dakota by David Grey Cloud.
Ii)yur) leaked: Hoka war) wa^ed ti keyapi. Hoka diqda ota hiijda.
Behold thus: Badger a rich lived tbey-say. Badger children many very.
Hoka waghirjkpe waqzidai) yuha, tuka haqska hir)6a yiiha. Hoka hodoka war)
Badger arrow one had, but long very had. Badger aurround a
kahmir) e yuha. Uqkar) he ohaqliaqna otoiyohi pte optaye ozudai) e<?ee.
river-bend that hail. And that morning each buffalo herd full always.
Tohan heci^eda eea owasii) hamwidaye, va owasir) dagkuye waijzidar) ahda
When so then all drovo-he them, and all path one went
home
eda widihektapataqhar) inazir), J^a tukte ehakedai) ui) eda, waghiqkpe war)
then them-behmd-from he-stood, and which thelast was when, arrow a
haqska yuhe dil^orj, he oi) owasir) idiyaza widao edee. Hoka hedoi) yaqke
long had that, that by all one-after- them-shot always. Badger tbis-doing was.
another
<Ja warjna waseda higda.
and now rich very.
Ur)kar) ihnuhaqna Mato war) en hi, ka Mato kiij heya: Hur)hur)he!
And suddenly Gray- Bear a in came, and Gray- Bear the this said: Wonderful!
sur)g, niye ke dedeii wased yati naqka he, eya. Miye kes midir)da om
brother, you even thus rich yon-live are-you ? he-said. I even my-children with
akihar) mate kte do, sui)g, eya. Heden, sur)g, iyonidipi kiijhar) den alii wati
starve I-die will , brother, he-said. So brother, please-yon if here move I-livo
kte do, eya. Ur)kar) Hoka, Ho, eya; iyokosags idimagagayaken sakim
will , he said. And Badger, Yes, said; moreover amusing-onrselves-thus both
uijti kte do, eya. Wai)na Mato kii} hde kta, uqkarj Hoka woheyur) waq
we-live will , he said. Now Gray- Bear the go-home would, then Badger bundle one
ikikdu ka Mato ku, |ca yr) akiyahda.
took and Gray-Bear gave, and carrying he-took-horoe.
Ihar)liaijna hehan Hoka ti kiq en Mato ahiti. Hoka ti kir) en Mato
The-next-moming then Badger bouse the in Gray-Bear moved. Badger house the in Gray-
Bear
hi kir) hedehnaiia Hoka taqkan iyeyapi; lea Mato iye ohna iyotaijka,
came the immediately Badger out-doors was-turn d : and Gray-Bear himself in satdown,
ka Hoka woyute tawa koya owasiij kipi ; heden Hoka taijkan eti, ka nina
and Badger provisions his also all wcre-taken: so Badger out-doors dwelt, and very-
much
akihar). Mato en hiyotaqke dir) ihar)haijna iir)kaij Mato haql'iaijna liir)
starved. Gray- Bear in came-sat-down the next-morning then Gray-Bear morning very
kikta, ka taqkan hinazii) lj:a heya : Hoka nuksi sidamnana kir) tar)kan hinar)pa
waked-up, and outside came-stood and this said : Badger ears stinking the outside come
95
[id DAKOTA (illAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETIINOCiRAPHY.
wo, nitahorok}! kiij phi o/uduij do, oya. Urjkaij Hoka vvarjhiijkj)e ehdaku;
iiii|H«r. yuur-HurroiiiKl ihr hiiffHlo full la . liitMld. And lUidger arrow bis took;
niliU.
ta Iloka horoij orcn^ kiij ako iyei^c^n oi^-oij, l^a owfiHirj idiyaza widao. Tiika
«iul Htkdin^r tlittt(lolii)( ulwuvN thii utfalii *' mi hH-dld, Mid ftll one-ftAer- theinhit. But
anotliiT
owaniij Mato \hi, ka waijzina kaon Iloka kic^upi ^ni. Haijhaijua otoiyohi
all (iruv Itear totik, iiiid mio ttvfiu Hudgur wm Klven not. MomtnfE each
liecoij, tuka tohiijiii Iloka waijzidaij ahdi nni e<?.eo: Ija e(?en waijna Hoka
tliMt h«-did, but iHivcr Itiidgor oun broii||bt not lUwayi: and no now Badger
hoiiiti
riijra oni akihaij \ii ktt^ Iiiiji^a. Tiika Mato ciijdadaij waqzi hakaktadaij hca,
rblldr«n with HUrvo tllo will vory. Hut (}rayHt«ar children one youngest very,
uijkaij liiH^ haijhaijua otoiyohi tasico^aij waijzi yuha nkata e(5ee, l^a tohaii
and ibut<»U(t uioniiug ovrry butn^lu-leg one had played always, and when
waijna hde kta ora Hoka tl kiij on tiyokahmihma iyewidakiya e<5ee, ka
uuw uu bonu) will thcu Hiultfi^r lumiM^ the in rolling* house ward* c*uaed-th«ai to-go always, and
luuiij ni yukaijpi.
b> that liv iug they-wert^
Hanhaijua waij ako Mato taijkau hiimpa ^a heya: Hoka uuksi
Moiuiujj ouo atfaiu Ura>' Hear outside oame and this said: Badger ears
Kirainnaua kiij, waijhiijkpo ahiyu wo, uitahoc^okH kiij pte ozudai) do, eya.
iitiukiui4 iho arrow bring out, your<i»urrouiMl the buflMo ftiU-la b«<^said.
Matt» hoy a tka Hoka yo siii. Uijkaij Mato heya: Ei^ii) yau sui kiqhaij
(iray i bin Haul but Hailger *go not. And Un^'Bear thlsHMdd : Now yua-cone not If
liear
iiuirib(hiHka kto (hs ova.
I sma«h>iMi VI 111 , lu^Miid.
Ihjkaij iloka tawiou hoya; \Vu^ahuji3H> eya^LW tokiki ewacii) we^waqna
Tbuu Hatlgrr wltV bU tbiM^nald: OMuuuit ai^a»y*rale sonelfeow think of it (fifrosaltt now
•p.)
ort^ii miriijoa oiii akihaij nmto kto» ova. Uijkai) l)oka heya: His ektamde (Ja
•o lay i bUdiim will itiarvo I dii« will, nhi^aAid. And Ba4|far Ihia^said: Tea, thare I-go and
oHHiiiij wirawat», l^a oouj tukto iyotau ^^P^ oiyhaij he wahdohdi kte do;
all ibcut I kill. iutd tlu^u whii^h ^ aAonl £m if thai Ihriitg-IlooM will
i^a iiakiiij vu iiiakto oMta kto diK Hoka eya> va Mat\> kkH ya. Uijkaij Hoka
tM alMi ibun uu^ bo Kill ovi'U wiU Hudgev (mU<I» aiMUivno^-Baar with wont. And Badger
JMfroij iM'tu^ akt^ tiwaniij ioiyaiia wioaa U^kau Mato heya: Pte torn cepapi
»H%-i'hti mIhhv* aH.iiu uU iaii^MlW4- thaiu klUsd. Awl (jlyty'-Bear thia>saiil : BitllMo fimr tnk
tiiM»ther
hrh UiiHi\ hiri patt' ca ahiU >yo, eya. Uuka\j lloka> Ho> eya; ^a wa^zi
vii i»,fi4t. put ttut u|» 4ud luiuMhottte, h«^Haid. And ta<Uci»r» Taa« said; and una
, /.M«-r^M rpit hou, iiijkau hooooilau ^>Hta. V^ waujoa y^i;^tau^ u^kaij Mati> heya:
IhI ^Kiv. i^ud ^katuuly hivdnMMHi and m>w ^fhiiahad. %Im» Gxiay-Ba«rtlii»«aHi:
lVv!<.^4<n' *iki' \\\\\}i\ \apato iui* ova. 'l\ika rtv>ka wicadia sol l>^*eeda9
w< iMS<t<rv'^pti wii'Mwakahdo Kta^ eya. Heha^yau hiuah Mato wauata
.,fTii*ffy) Ai^} riika whuun rtoKa tailo km ikav kitoi^ ^a Vi» kta, uokaii
•i«
hut itim H^klMVi hmmiI t^ alrliiiL ^M aad Ktvy woald.
.(,,♦0 ./- f Uokn mikwl lihwuuaiia kJ\). ti^w ^'^va wi\ we iiamay
^.- : wr ;»j^^, ♦rtM sMuhim^ 1^ *«<^y ll»»k <«wd» hlwd ywfc-^r^ a ai twl ifc
, . .r. . I . nM >H Oh* illitUmHr.v ; l^wl \% m. ^Msthtkhfy OwrU^ ^om U» imi^ and
DAKOTA MYTHS. 97
kte di), eya. Tuka Hoka is lieya : Hoho, mis haytul^e de wahdohdi kte
will. he-said. But Badger he thiM-said: Xo. do: I indeed this I-carry-honie will
do, eya. Mato ake eya, tka Hoka wicada siii. Ui)kaij Mato hiyu, ka
, hc'said. (xray-Bear again naid-it. bnt Badger would not. Then Gray- Bear came, and
Hoka we kir) ehna paha ehpeyapi.
Badger blood the in pushed was-thrown.
LTijkay wotauide war) aputiig ihpava, uijkai) we kirj he oijs})a uapohiiius
Then blood-clot om^ kissing he-fell-ifbwu. and blood the that a-pietre in-shut-hand
icu, ka yuha ceya hda, ka pezi oiy^e yusda ka we kiij opeinui ahde ca
he-took, and naving crytng went-home. and grass some *^ pulled and blood the wra|)pod-in carrie<l- and
home
eatku kiy eii akihiiaka; ka hehan iijyaij ka iuitosu ka pezihota ko huwe i
back-of- the in placed at-home ; and then stones and sweat- poles and Artemiiia also to-get went
tent
ka ini kaga. Ka initipi catku kiij eii pezihota kiij heua owirjze ca akan
and sweating made. And sweat lodge back-part the iu Artemisia the them raade-bed-of and upon
we kir) he ehnaka, ka hehan initi kirj he akantarjhai) kiy he tayyeh nataka.
blood the that place<i. and then sweat- the that the-outside the that very-well fastened.
lodge
Hehan mini icu ka timahen ehde, ka iijyai) kadye (:ii war)na kate rehar)
Then water he-took and within-house placed, and stones heated and now hot when
initi kiij mahen ewidahnaka, hehan tiyoj)a kir) eden nataka Hehan isto
sweat- the within them-he-placed then door the so he-fastened. Then arm
lodge
eceeday timahen iyeye ca mini kiij oij iqyaij kiij akastar) yaijka.
alone hoase-within he-thrust and water the with stones the pouring-on ^ was.
Ur)kaij ihrmhar)na tuwe mahen comnihdazi niya Hoka nahor). Ake
And suddenly some-one within sighing breathe Badger heard. Again
edoij, mini oy iqyar) kir) akastaij yaijka. Uykaij tuwe timahen heya niya:
he-did. water with stones the pouring-on was. And some-one within-house this-saidbreatfiing:
I)e tuwe aksa pidamayaye ca waijna makiyuhdoka wo, eya. Heden tiyopa
This who again glad-you-me-mMe and now open for me (male sp.), he-said. So door
yuhdoka, uijkaij koska waij widasta waste hca hinaypa: hecen Hoka
he-opened. and yonng-man a man beautiful very came out: so Badger
Wotanice Hoksidaij eya caze yata, ka he Hoka cir)ksiya.
Blood -clot- Boy saying name called, and that Badger son-had.
Uijkaij hehan Wotanice Hoksidar) heya: Ito, ate, heya wo, Ito, midir)ksi
And then Blood-clot Boy this-said: Now father this-say; Now my-son
heyake waste hde c^s, eya wo, eya. Uijkaij eya, uijkar) ecetu. Ur)kar)
clothes good very oh-that>, say thou, he said. And he said, and it-was-so. And
ake heya: Ito, midinksi ptaijlia war)zu waij wayhir)kpe ozudayh yuhe <;es,
again this-say : Now my-son otter-skin quiver a arrows full- very *' have oh-that
eya wo, eya. Uykaij eya, uijkaij ake edetu. Uijkaij hehan Wotanide
say thou. he said. And he-said, and again it-was-so. And then Blood-clot
Hoksidar) pa hir) kiq waijzi hdnzuij idu, ka tiyopa kir) en ehde ka war)hir)kpe
Boy head hair the one pulling took, and 'door the in placed and arrow
or) kute, ui)kaij kasden iheya. Hehan Wotanide Hoksidar) heva: Ate togda
with shot, and splitting hit-'it. Tkeu Blood clot Boy this 'said: Father why
WO mayakupi sni he. Ur)kar) Hoka heya: Hehehe, dir)s, taku yaka hwo:
food me^yon-give not ? And Badger this said: Alas! son what you-mean ?
war)na akihar) uqtapi kte do, wamaseda hda, ur)kar) Mato den hi ka owasii)
now starving we-die will ., I-was-rich very, and (i ray -bear here came and all
maki ka tar)kaij hiyu maye da owasiij idu, ka waqna akihaij uijt^pi kte do,.
took- and outdoors come made-me and all took, and now starving we-die will ,
from-mo •
eya.
he said.
7ia5— YOL IX 7
98 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
Urjkaij Wotaiiice Hoksidaij lieya: Heiia, ate, sdonwaye ('a .heoij
And Blood-clot Boy this^Huid: These, father, Iknow,* and therefore
ima(?aji:a ce, eya. Ate, tokei^h ecoij cisi kiijhaij eceu ecoij wo, eya. l^ijkaij
I-have-crown he'sjiid. Father, juAt-aa to-do I-yoa- if so do , lie-Huid. And
ooniiuHnd (male sp.)
Hoka, llo, eya. Haijhaijna Mato taijkan hinazii) ka nicipaij esta yau kte
Badger, Yes, said. In-tlie-morninK Gray-Bear without Htandn and you-call although you -come shall
sni; tuka iuoijpa eye ciijliaij helian yahinaijpe kta ka M6i de kta, tuka
not: but second time he-'says if then ' you-conie out will and with you-go will. but
miye he itokam waijua ekta inawahbe kta, eya. Wa 1311a haijhaijiia hiij
I-ni3'self this before already at I-hido will, he-said. Now morning very
Mato taijkan liinape (Ja heya: Hoka iiuksi sicamuana kirj waqliiijkpe kiij
Gray-l^(ear outride rauie and this said: Badger ears stinking the arrow the
ahivii wo, iiitahoeoka kirj pte ozuday do, eya. Tuka ye sni, ka iiioijpa
bring out, your-surrouud the bulTalo full-is he-said. But he-go not, and second-time
eye ciij liehaii waijhiijkpe ehdaku ka kidi ya ka ake owasiij hamwidaya, ka
he-said the then arrow histook and with went, and again all theui-seared, and
(?ar)ku waijzidaij alida, hehan Hoka waqhii^kpe oy owasiij i^iyaza widao, ka
path one they went, then Badger arrow with all in-a line them-shot, and
waQzi <5epa he Hoka pata
one fat that Badger dressed.
Uijkaij Mato heya: Kohaqna pata wo, eya. Waqna Hoka pata yustaij
And Gray Bear this*isaid: Soon cut up, he said. Now Badger cut-up finished
tehaij kiij hdi<?u kta; uijkaq Mato lieya: Hoka nuksi si^amnana hiij tokau
then carry come would: and Gray Bear this said: Badger ears stinking the away
home
hiyaya wo, we uamayakihdi kte do, eya. Tka iyowiijye sni kiij kta skaij.
go thou blood you-trample-infor-me will , he said. But stopping not carry would worked.
Uijkaij Mato hiyu ka iyahpaya ta we kiij ehna ehpeya. Tuka ake naziij
Then Gray Bear came and fell*upon and blood the in threw him. But again risirig
hiyaye va icu kta tka. Ake we kiq ehna ehpeya. Hehan Hoka ceya
wont and take would but. Again blood the in he-threw-him. Then Badger irried
skai).
working.
Uqkay hehan Wotauide Hok^iday naziq hiyaye, va en ya, ta keya:
And then Blood Clot Boy rising started, and there went, and this said:
Tokeda ate he6en yakuwa hwo, eya. Uqkai) Mato heya: He is, digs,
Why my-father so you treat 1 he said. And Gray Beair this said: This that sun
hepe do; Sung, koliaqiia nis nidiQda tado wicakahda wo, epe do, eya.
this I said: Brother, soon you your children meat take home to them. I-said he Nuid.
Tuka Wotanide Hoksidaij heya: Hiya, ate kahoya iyeyaye 6u) he
But Blood Clot Boy this said: No. my fathi.r throwing youHhoved the that
waijmdaka ce, eya; ka wayhiijh])e ehfhiku, uijkaij Mato nakipa, tuka kute
I saw ho said ; and arrow he-took, and Gray Bear fled, but he-shot
uijkaij sastechuj kiij he okatayyaij ka kte.
and little tiii'frr the that transtixcd and killed.
Hehan Hoka deya: Ciijs, Mato diijda waij hakaktadaq kiij tezi sdasdadarj
Then Ba<igor this'said: S«m, Gray Bear child a youngest the belly smooth
he kte sni wo, he tasicogaij nahmana uijkahipi edee, ka heoij dehaijvaij ni
that kill not, that leg bone secretly us brought always, and by that to this t\me alive
uijyakoijpi de, eya.
we-are, he said.
Uijkaij hehan Wotanide Hoksidaij tiyatakiya hda ka Mato tawidu
And then Blood Clot • Boy homeward went and Gray Boar wife his
home
DAKOTA MYTHS. 99
kipaij.ka heya: Mato okpe u wo, eya. Ui}kai) Mate tawicu wikaqi du
caUe<l to ami this said : Gray Rear to help come thoa, he said. And Gray Bear wife his strap took
carry the meat
ka u ka heya: Optaye tonakeca lie, eya. Uijkaij Wotaiiice Hoksidaij
niid came and this said: Hertf how many 1 she said. And Blood Clot Boy
heya: Optaye \va13zi do, eya. Uijkaij, Heua heuakeca e6i takukiye sni
this said: Hera one , he said. And, Those so many when something count not
eree korj, eya. War)iia kiyedaij u uijkaij ake heya: Optaye tonakeca he,
iilwaj's in the she said. Now near canio and again this said: llenl how many?
past
eya. Uijkar) Wotanice Hoksidaij heya: Optaye waijzi ce epe do, eye va
she said. And R\wh\ Clot Boy this said : Herd* one, I said , he said and
wai3hii)kpe ehdaku Uijkaij, Taijiii hecece kte eikoij eye (*ii nazicn, tuka
arrow his took. And. Of old so would he, I she 'said and fle<I, but
thou gilt
s}i8tedaij kiij eu okataijyari ka kte. Hehan Mato ti kirj en timalien
little tlngrr the in * drove it and killed Then Gray house the in within
Bear
iyaya, uijkaij owasiij panialididaij hiyeya. Wotanice Hoksidarj heya:
went. and all. heads-down were*. Blood Clot Boy this*said:
Wanzi tukte de ate \voyalf:upi ece he, eya i\vi(?awaijga; uijkaij owasirj ho
On«> which this my father food always ? he said, them asking; and all voice
you gave
waijzidaij heyapi; Miye, miye, eyapi. Tuka warjzidaij ^ye sni. Uijkaij
oni> this said; 1, I.* they said. But one said not. And
hehan heya: Miye, miye, eyapi, urjkaij etaijhaij wicani kteca, eya; uijkaij
then this said: 1. 1, tht;y say, and for that they live shall? he'^said; und
Wotanice Hoksidai) itazipe ehdaku ka owasir) wicakata ka heceedaij ()ka])ta.
BhM>d riot Jtoy bow his took and all them killed and that alone spared him.
He(^en lie Hoka ti kiq en aki ka he mini aku ka nakui) cahod yuj^e
So that Badger house the in he and that water bring and also ashes takeup
brought,
kiyapi.
they made him.
Hehan ake Hoka ninawaseca hda. Uijkaij hehari Wotanice Hoksidaij
Then again Badger very rich much. And then Blood- Clot Boy
iconmi ka heya: Ate, icimani mde kte do, tukte oyate waijzi ikiyedaij tipi
tired and this^Maid: Father, traveling I go will which people one near-by live
staying
sdoijyaye ciyhaij ekta mde kte do, eya.
you know if there I go will , he said.
Uqkaij Hoka heya : Dediya oyate warj wicota tipi 6e, eya ; hecen, ciijs.
And Ba<lger this said: Here people a many dwell, he said: so son
ekta de kta ; tuka wi6alica waij nitkokim u kta, ui^kaij he nihnaye waciij
there you go will; but old-man a you meeting come will, and he you deceive desire
kte do; tuka ihnuhaij taku eye cighar) ecanoi) kte sni do, eya. Uijkaij
will ; but take care what he says if you do will not , he said. And
Wotanice Hoksidaij, Ho, eya.
Blood-Clot Boy. Tes, he said.
Wotanice Hoksidai) waqna iyaya, urjkarj irjyuij ! wicalWa waij sajj;-ye-
Ulood-Clot Boy now had gone. . and lo! old man a ' %taff
kitoy u waijka, \a heya: Takoza, tokiya da he, eya. He is, Hei^egcen
holding roming was, and this said : Grandchild, where you i he said. This he. In this wav
oinawaninake, eya. He icuyhaij siyo keya ivvaijkam hiyahaijpi. Uijkay
I am walking truly ( he said. This in the meantime grouse many above alighted. And
wicahca heya: Takoza warjzi makio wo, waijna akihaij mate kte do, eya.
old man this said : Grandchild one for me shoot. now starving I die will , he said.
HM> IVVKOI A iU.VVMMAH. TKXTS, ANI> KTIINCHiKAPIIY.
rukii^ H<\^i xUvn:^ iHVtlo \^^ ui:i\v«ihui kIkk oyu, (jla iyoopta iyeya. Waqna
^*Vk1 Njt iV"i>«<\ *'h V. "it*'' Wfi/ I >iftM«Nfi HduiM. «n«l onwiinl went. Xow
t\l^\^^lu u\•lk:^^^ A* iv^kuvi XKH^cih^^;* \v<ui siijryi»kitoij itkokiin u lea \vai)iia
^vnVvic stih HT^M Wfuf. ^•ffiMK A «lMrh«vin]i tomtit came and now
vU^\^ \ l<^^ ^>'i^^.^^v 'i\\»^;*?inkAv IuhVu ^^u iiiaxii). TijUaij wirahca lieya:
^Vr^>v f- ^''ViVt V^^ ' HWi f*!-^*!) fv^ ^IN^rv v«mM(> 9Im<m) Aotl old luan this said:
^^^kv^^5^^ ^^\^ ^1^^ Sv».<i\^few v^sIh-^ \^>\^)miri kto do» t»ya, r^kai} Wotanice
H\>«\VfX!f.'^ 4.v\4^, r s'i«t"l««i«ifm iit^mitfk I^Mlir^f^ «UI hr*<mid And Bloods lot
UssksvsU^»i 1*i\vSl\ ^•^^v•<.<w k'i'iH v\iMmH)iniuu|H* va lu»han inulanule kta, ei'iij, ka,
)^s r)iMl«««ii4')t '1 f f %'ll^> li#r*^¥ ««iil lU<rii I|p»un i* ill. he tlioaicht. and,
U\V k'^v^ Uh^vv. 4v\*; v^Awnv'^m'tfii v^ukt^ v'a iHHMi akimz^i. llaijyetu^kiij hi*
5l\mM»i^\ \^v. Vv^ \ Mh^k^*. ^;A VVs^^uivV llv^ks^Ulaij istiijlH* .Mil ui), tiika waijua
*^t.'\} vw,|^-> *'* ■> '%--\t< wm. *MWw*/. V'^ IW;* >«ii(>«p|> tM4 was. but 9»w
^\^v*t^^v\^ i.*iv vsv't\ »;>*i»:';^wk^ >^5*Uikci. \W iouphai) wai)na ai)|m kaiiules aya^
y«l). '««•».'» ';tv <N^«t kWt'Mit 'K«« X^htM «lkUii»k aM>« aiorala;: l»rij|[htear«l «r«t.
U^^lki^V V.xsy*.v ;<N*^ v*si» W;W^ >^;AU^M nwi^liumu kt\ waqnas etaijhaij ai)pi kta
wirl. *»N \t <'.N«i \ tw"* ( tiWi^ «iU. »»« fhMa dj%]rli^t wHL
VvVav iv^ViWr; v^ft5AVi^y'<» Tinklvviui Ih*v ikji s^loijve sui. Wotaiiii^
^^H^^^'Y V'^ w^Y'VaVv Vt "jV^i^v^ i\vy;j^ V* I^uKa ki:> ow;!i?^i). Yuii^ij iv^yau
v'jvvt lit4. V*,)t>vitv f^ * kH^v ^ w w Wi ami ItoiV «lh» tit * «t:M*rte^ Ifcii maihi
V^ ^^.^V?lV V V '^vV/*^'^. ^ ^I'v^^ V^ WvV«^ suu^k^il >ir;*U sivV lhn!i k;ii^ I Qk;^^
Hv^^J^T^Vw VT'Vt.si^- "i\v\>w:fc XTfc V* ^Y-k^ji k^T V kxt x^* kxSxv*
>i^^t H^Vn x\ v^^\\i >Hv ^^?*>vik IWv^ift^ 'f'JwKr V ^ffX)kw siaii4:i^ kir itt i»ra
vN\^\ Vn K\T^ Vv\^^?fv ^^>i»Y«>^v MHxk>54wr "b^ ^ ^ ^^^'^ t^^ ™**
Dakota myths. .10^
NOTES. "^
1. The use of ces? which is *'ke6" frequently, is to be noted as indicating trt«A or
itrong desire. "Father, say this, *Oh that my son might have good clothes.'" This
is used at the end of the phrase or sentence, and is accompanied by the verbs think or
my J in some form. Like to these is " tokiij," used at the beginning of the wish.*
2. The life-giving qualities of the sweating process are strongly brought out in
this myth. There may be two objects or thoughts in the mind of the Dakota when he
makes a "sweat lodge." It is sometimes resorted to for curing disease. That good
quality Dr. Williamson always commended. No doubt it often afforded relief to a
congested condition of the system. But it was resorted to more frequently for the
purpose of getting into communication with the.spirit world. This is the object here.
From the blood of the buffalo, " which is the life thereof," is, by this process, created
a man. Is this evolution! The sweat lodge was usually made, as described here, by
taking willow boughs, bending them over, making their tops meet and interlacing or
tying them together, and thus making a booth, which was large enough for one to sit
naked inside and pour water on the heated stones. The whole was covered over
tightly with blankets or robes. This is the initipi (eneteepee). The sweater sang as
well as sweated. But in this case the object was to have the "mysterious power" do
its work alone.
3. This myth ends abruptly. It would hardly be true to the thought of an Indian
to leave the god-born in the shape of a dog, and that an ugly dog. There must be
a sequel to it.^
TRANSLATION.
Once upon a time there was a Badger who was rich and had many children.
He had one arrow, but it was a very long one. And in the bend of a river he had a
buffalo surround, which was full of buffalo every morning. When it was so and all
started out on one path, he stood behind them and shot his long arrow into the hind-
ermost, and it went from one to another through the whole herd. So the Badger
became very rich in dried meat.
Then suddenly there came a Gray Bear to his tent. And the Gray Bear said.
'The Titoi)waij une tokiij only lu soHloqiiies. When it is used it must be fonoweil by ni ur nii)
at tbe end of the clause expressin;^ the wish; as, tokii) he bluha uiij, Oh that I had it! — j. o. i>.
'^ There is more of this myth in the Cegiha versions. The hero, there called *'The Rabbit's Son,"
was caused to adhere to a tree, which he ha<l climbed at the request of the deceiver, Ictinike. This
latter character corresponds to Uqktomi of the ^antee Dakota, whom the Tetou call Ikto and Iktomi.
It seems better to leave these mythical names untranslated. While the Omnha and Poiika now apply
the name Ictinike to the monkey, ape, etc., it is plain that this is a recent use of the term. Ictinike
was one of the creators, according to the Omaha myths. After causing the Rabbit's son to adhere to
the tree, he donned the magic clothing of the latter, went to a village near by, and married the elder
daughter of the chief. The younger daughter, becoming jealous of her sister, fled to the forest, where
she found the Rabbit's son, whom she released. At this point the Omaha version differs from the
Ponka. The girl married the Rabbit*s son and took him to her home. After several exhibitions of the
skill of the young man, a dance was proclaimed. Thither went Ictinike, who was compelled to jump
upward every time that the Rabbit's son hit the drum. The fourth time that he beat it his a<1ver-
sary jumped so high that when he struck the ground he was killed.
See Contr. to N. A. Ethuol., vol. vi, pt. i, pp. 43-o7, and pt. ii, pp. 586-609. — J.o. D.
r • •
• • •
••".
•• ,
• • •
t02"- DAKOTA GBAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETlINOGltAPAY.
-,.%}' Wonderful! my brother, that you should live here in such abundance, while I and
'•..' my children are starving. If it please you I will come here and live with you/' The
Badger said, *' Yes;" and added, *'So we will amuse ourselves.'^ And when the (iray
Bear was starting home, he t(K>k a bundle of buffalo meat and gave to the Gray Bear
to carry home.
The next morning Clray Bear came with his household, and as soon as he moved
in Mr. Badger was turne<l out and (Jray Bear took possession of all his meat. The
Badger lived out doors and starved. The next morning after he took possession,
Gray Bear awoke very earl}' in the morning and standing outside said, "You Badger
with the stinking ears, come out, your surround is full of buftalo.^' So the Badger
took his long arrow and as he was accustomed to do shot it through the whole line of
buttalo. But the Gray Bear took them all and did not let the Badger have one.
This he did morning by morning, but never did the Badger bring home <me; and so
he and his children were about to die of hunger. But the youngest of Gray Bear's
children every morning jdayed with a buttalo leg, and when he was tired playing he
tossed them over to the Badger's tent. Thus they maintained an existence.
One morning again (J ray Bear came out an<l called, "Y'ou Badger with the
stinking ears, bring out your long arrow, your surround is full of buffalo." But the
Badger did not go; when the (Jray Bear said, ''1 will crush you if you don't come."
And the Badger's wife said, ''Old man, in some way consider, for I and my
children are starving to death." To this the Bjidger replied, '* Yes, I will go and kill
them all, and J will dress and bring home the fattest one, even if he kills me." So
he went wnth the Gray Bear and did as he was accust^mied to do, killing them all.
Then the Gray Bear said, •' You skin and carry home some of the fattest." To this
the Badger said *' Yes," and went to work to dress one of the fattest. When he was
finishing that Gray Bear said, '" Why don't you dress another?" But the Badger
would not, and said, '' This idone will be sutticient for my children."
As yet (iray Bear had not finished cutting \i\) his mesit, but when the Biulger
had tied up his meat and wa** about toi)ack it home. Gray Bear said, " You stinking-
eared Badger, get away, you will trample in this blood." But the Badger replied,
'* No, 1 fim going to carry this home." Gray Bear ordered him away again, but the
Badger would not go. Then Gray Bear came and pushed Badger down in the blood.
Thus, as he fell down in the clotted blood he kissed it, and tiiking a piece up in his
hand he went home crying. By the way he ]>ulled some grass and wrapped it around
the blood and laid it away in the back i)art of his tent. Then he went and brought
stones and sticks for a sweat-house, and Artemisia ov wild sage, and made a steaming.
In the back part of the sweat-house he made a bed of the Artemisia and upon it pla<;ed
the blood, and then he covered the lodge well on the outside. Then he took a dish of
water and placed it within, and when the stones were well heated he rolled them in
also and fastened the door. Then he thrust his arm ahme inside and poured water
on the stones.
Suddenly the Badger heard some one inside sighing. He continued to pour
water on the stones. And then som«» one breathing within said, "Again y<m have
made me glad, and now open for me." 80 he opened the door and a very beautiful
young man came out. Badger at once named him Blood-Clot Boy, and had him for
his son.
DAKOTA MYTHS. 103
Then Blood-Clot Boy said, ** Now, father, say this: * Oh that my son might have
good clothes.'" So he said it, and it was so. Then he said again, ^'Say this: *Oh
that my son might have an otter-skin quiver filled with arrows.'" This he said also,
and it was so. Then Blood-Clot Boy pulled a hair out of his head and placed it on
the door, and, shooting it with an arrow, split it. And then he said, "Father, why
don't you give me something to eat!" But the Badger answered, ''Alas! my son,
what do you mean ? We are all starving to death. I was very rich in food, but Gray
Bear came and took it all from me and drove me out, and now we are starving and
will die."
Then Blood-Clot Boy said, ** Father, I know these things, and therefore I grew.
Now, father, do just as I tell you to do." To this the Badger said *' Yes." Then
Blood-Clot Boy continued : ** In the morning when Gray Bear comes out and calls you,
you will not go; but the second time he calls then go with him, for I shall then have
hidden myself." So very early in the morning Gray Bear stood withont and called:
'* Stinking-eared Badger, take your arrow and ci)me, your surround is full." He did
not go; but when he called the second time he took his arrow and went with him.
And when they had scared the buftalo, and all had started home on one line. Badger
shot his arrow through them all, and dressed the fattest one.
Then Gray Bear said, "Dress it quickly." And when the Badger had finished
dressing and was about to start home with it. Gray Bear said, " Badger with the
stinking ears, get away, you will trample in my blood." To this Badger paid no
attention but continued to prepare to carry. Then Gray Bear came and fell upon
him and threw him down in the blood. He arose and went to take up his pack, but
again he threw him down in the blood. Then the Badger burst into tears.
But then Blood-Clot Boy api)eared, and said, "Why do you treat my father so!"
To which Gray Bear replied, "My son, this I said, *My brother, take home meat to
your children without delay.'" But Blood-Clot Boy said, "No, 1 saw you throw my
father down." Saying that he pulled out an arrow, and as Gray Bear fied, he hit
him in the little finger and killed him.
Then Ba<^lger said, "Do not kill Gray Bear's youngest child, the smooth-bellied
boy, for he it was who brought us leg bones and so kept us alive until this time."
Blood-Clot Boy then went towards home and called to Gray Beai^s wife, "Come ont
and help Gray Bear." So she took her packing strap and said as she approached
him, ""How many herds were there f" Blood-Clot Boy said, " One herd." "When
there are only that many he has never counted it anything," she said. And as she
came near she asked again, "How many herds are there!" Blood Clot Boy again
replied, " I have told you there was one," and he took out an arrow. She said, " I
apprehended this before," and fied; but he shot her in the little finger and killed her.
Then he went into Gray Bear's lodge and all bowed their heads. Blood-Clot Boy said,
"Which one of you brought food to my father!" And all but one with one voice
said, "It was I, it was I." Then he said, "You who said 'I, I,' shall you live!" And
Hlood-Clot Boy took his bow and killed all but the one who sjiid nothing. And him
he brought into Badger's lodge where he brought water and took up the ashes.
Then the Badger became very rich again. Blood-Clot Boy was discontented and
said, "Father I want to take a journey; 1 want to go to the people that you know
live near by." And the Badger answered, "My son, there is a people living just
here, to them you will go. But an old man will come to meet you with the intent of
104 DAKOTA GUAMMAK, TEXTS, AXI) ETHNOGRAPHY.
deceiving: you. You uuist not do anythinji' ho tells you to do.'^ To this Blood-Clot
Boy assented.
Blood-C'lot lioy was now ^one, and behold an old man with a staff catne to meet
him and said, '^Whither do you j(o, my grandchild!" But he replied, ''I am just
walking." In the meantime a flock of grouse came and alighted. ^'My grandchild,
shoot one for me, for I am starving," the old man said. But he answered, *'No, I
am going in haste in this direction," and so he passed on.
It was now evening, and again an old man with a staff' was coming to meet
him, who sat down just before their meeting, and so he came and stood. The old
man said, "Grandchild, although you are in haste, I will fill my pipe." Then Blood-
Clot Boy thought, '*! will smoke with him and then go on;" so he said, "Yes." While
they smoked together the darkness came on, and Blood-('lot Boy ])a8sed the night
without sleeping. In the meantime the old man ha^i fallen asleep; and the day was
breaking. Then the young man thought, " I will sleep a little for it will soon be
morning," and so he lay down.
This old man was the mythic being IJijktomi, but the young man knew it not.
While Blood-Clot Boy was sleeping very soundly, the old man that was got up and
said, "What if in some way you are killed!" Saying which he arose and stood
astride of him and bent his back and pulled out his limbs and stretched his ears, and
so made him into a very ugly hiking dog. The good clothes of the young man he
took and put on himself, and his own old clothes he threw away, and so went on with
him.
In this way Blood-Clot Boy was made into a dog. It was Uijktomi who deceived
him and did this to him. Then Uyktomi took the dog with him calling to him, "O
Blood-Clot Boy; wo-hwo! wo-hwo!" as he went along. And now when Uijktomi had
come to the people whither Blood-Clot Boy had been going, the dog was ashamed and
kept himself outside of the camp, and Ih)ktomi alone went among the people. Then
the i)eople said, "The famous Blood-Clot Boy is coming," and so they rejoiced greatly.
LEGEND OF THE HEAD OF GOLD.
Written in Dakota by Walking Elk.
Wi(5a8a waij ciijda topapi, tka owasiij koskapi; tka wahpani6api, ^a
Man a children were fonr, but all were young but were poor, and
men;
oqsika oi) \R nui) se uqpi. Ui)kaij widahda kiij heya: Iho wo, wakaqka,
poor for dead would be were. Then old-man the thU-8aid: Come, old- woman,
m\6ix)6ii hakakta kiy de iyotai) oij^iwakida, tka oijsika orj tiQ kte
my -child yonngest the this most I-have-roercy-on, but poor because-of die will
ch) walitewada siii. E ito, Wakaqtaijka urjkode ka iyeuijye diqhaij, ito wa^u,
the I dislike. Behold, Great Spirit we-tw(»-8eek, and Wt^-two-dnd if, lo, I-give
ka ito, taijyag i(?a?imi<5iciyii) kte do, eya.
and, lo, well he-rain-for-nie will , he-said.
Uqkaij wakaqkakiij heya: Iho, widahda, taijyaij eha e ito he^oqkoij
And old-woman the this said : Come, old-man, well you^say, that lo, that-we-du
Kiiya, e\^a.
will, she-said.
Hecen iho waqiiaka wiyohpeyatakiya WakaQtaqka ode yapi, ka
So behold now to-the- westward " Spirit-( treat to-seek they -went, and
paha way tarjka h(^a e eniyahaijpi; uykay iho widasa waij hiyahaij e hecen
hill a large very that on ^they-stood; and behold man a coniin|{:-stood that as
en ipi. Uqkay wi(:*asa koq heya: De taku oyadepi lie, eya. Uijkai)
into they came. And man that this-said: This what you seek i he said. And
wi(5ah(:^a is heya: Hehehe! koda, midinda kir) de oysiwakida e Wakaijtaijka
old-man he this'said: Alast friend, my child the this I-have-mercy-on that Spirit-lrreat
wal^u kta e owade ye do, eya. Uqkaij, Ho, koda, de Wakaijtaijka iniye do.
I give will that I seek " he-said. And, Yes. friend, this Spirit Great me
Koda ma^iLU wo, k\6\ wakde kta de, eya.
Friend give thou to me with I-go-home will , he-said.
Heden iho, ^\i daijkeij waijnaka kidi kda, uqkaij tipi waq mahpiya
So behold, gave when now with went- and house a heaven
home,
ekta se haq e en kidi ki, ^ca heya: Tipi kiij owasiij tokediijyai) waqyag
to almost stood that in with came- and this said : House the all hh much as you please observing
home,
ui) wo. Hehan suijkawakaij kii) de taijyar) widakuwa yo, ka tipi way de
be thou. Then horses the this well them -care- thou for, and house a this
di^ana e den he dig de waijyake sni yo, eye ^a tiyopa iyuhdoke kiy owasii}
little that here stands the this looK*at not, he said and *door keys the all
105
106 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND P:THN0GRAPIIY.
ku, ka hehan heya: Ho, en etoQwaij yo; ito, omaiii mde kta de, eye 0^
Kftve- aud then this*8aid : Yos, to look thoii : lu, walking I-go will , be-said and
II im,
iyaya.
went.
Uqkaij htayetu, UQkai) wicasa ota om kdi, ka tipi kiy ozuna ahiyotaijka;
Nuw night, then men many with ho came and house the full they-sat-down ;
honii*,
uijkaij waynaka teharj yaijkapi oij widasa kii} wayzi heya: Koda, hoksina
and now long-time were, therefore men the one this said : Friend, boy
kiij waste e hecekuana kte do, eye ca kiuaqpa. Uijkar) widaita kii) owasii)
the good that that-enough will , he said and weut-out. And men the all
is eya kinaijpapi.
they likewise went out.
Uijkag ake wi6asa kirj heya: Iho wo, ake omani mde kta ce; owanzina
Then again man the this-said: Come, again traveling I-go will; staying-at-home
en etoywaq yo, eye <Ja ake iyaya.
look thou after it, he-said and again lie went.
E heceniho en etoijwaij, nijkaij suijkawakay kiy uijmaij heya: Koda,
Thus behold he looked after it, and horses the one this-said: Friend,
tip! wai) ci^ana e waijvake sni nisi ^oij ito en ye ca tiinahen dag owinza
hoase a little that lo(>k-at not thee-com- that lo in go and within wood bed
manded
dokaya taku waij zi en liay ce, he en paha kiij oputkaij yo, ka koyahag yo,
in-the-mid die some- a yellow in standH , that in head the dipthou,*^ and be-thou-in-haste.
thing
nauqpiij kta de. De wicasa ota awidakdi kighaq hena niyatapi kte e mis
we-togetuer will be. This man many them -bring- if they you-eat will that me
home
hen mayutapi kta tka tawateijwaye sni, e nauijpiij kta de, eya.
there me-eat will, but I willing * not, we both together will be, he said.
Heden lioksina koij tipi war) di^ana koij en i ; uqkay dai) owiijza kirj
So boy that house a little that in went; and wood bed the
dokaya taku waq zi e mi bey a liaij e en paha kiij oputkaij, unkaij paha kig
in-the- something a yellow in-a-cin*le stood in head the he dipped, and head . the
middle
zi, ka ti])i kiij ataya ozaijzay ^a iyoyai)pa. Heden iho heyata kdidu l^a
yellow, and house the all-over shone and wan-light. So l)ehold back he-returned and
suqkawakay waij wokiyake dikoy he akaqyotaijke ^a nakipapi. Keyas
horse a told-him the-that that he-sat-uiMin and they-fled. Ntsvertheless
nina iyayapi.
fast they* went.
Uykaij tehaij i])i urjkai) ilio hektataqhay Wakagtarika kei<Jiye dikoi)
When far they went then behold from-behind Spirit-Great called-himself the-that
surjkawakaij uijnia koij he akan yaijke va kuwa awidau, ka lieya: Wahtesni
horse other the that upim was and following to them came, and this said: Worthless
sica, inaziij po, yanipi kte sni ye do; makode waq niskoyena waijke diij
bad, stop ye, ye-live shall not . country a so-large lies the
tukte en dapi kta hwo, eyaya en widau, daijkeij nihiijdivapi. Uqkaq ake
where to you-go will I saying to them came, whilst they-treui1[>led. Then again
heya: Wahtesni sida, inaziij j)o, yanipi kte sni ye do, ake eya. Car)key
this said: Worthless bad, stop ye, * ye-live shall not again he said. Meanwhile
nipi kte sni seededa.
they live would not itseeme<1.
Uijkaij suijkawakay kiy heya: Witka waij duha koij he hektakiya
Then horse the thisWd: Egg a thou-hast the that backwards
DAKOTA MYTHS. 107
kahona lyeya yo, eya; e heden iho iyecen e6o\). Ur)kay maka kiij
throwing *^Bena thou it, he-said ; that ho behohl in-like-manner he-did. Then earth the
hdaknjyaij miniwayca waij icaga ; caijkeij kuvva an key eijna hinaziq ka
tbe-breadth of ocean a grew; meanwhile following came the there stopped and
Iieya: Hehelie, suijkawakaij, oysimada ka akasani ehpemayaij yo; eciij
thi8-*8aid: Alas, horse, pity -me and acrona throw-thou-me: indee<l
hecanoQ kirjliaij tec^ihiijda kte do, eya. Hecen suqkawakaij kiq lieya:
that-thou-doeat if, I-yon-valae-niuch will , he said. Thus horse the thia-said:
Hehelie, tawateiiwaye sni ye do, eya. Tka nina kitaij e lie(5en iho mini kiij
Alas, I w^illing not , he-said. But much he-urged so-that behold water the
iwarjkam hiyui^iya, tka hec^en mini kiij cokaya hi kiij hehan hiijhpaye <Ja
above he ttircw himself, but thus water the midst came the then he-felldown and
hecen mahen iyaya ka minitapi. Heden hetaijhaij hoksina koy zaniyai}
so within went and were-drowned. Thus from-thence boy the safely
iyoopta iyayapi.
beyond went.
Uijkay oyate wag wicoti e en ipi ka hen uqpi. Urikaij hektataqhaq
Then people a dwellings in came and there they were. Then from behind
nataij ahi l:a wicakizapi, tka hoksina koij paha kiij kaobeij iyeye ca paha
to attack they- and them fought, but boy the hea«]-hair the arouml turned and head-
came hair
kii) mazaskazi ayuwiqtapi, dai)kei3 ziyena suqkawakay akan iyotaqke,
the gold was-rnbbed-over, meanwhile goldenly horse on he-sat,
Ifa watakpe ahi koij kahpa iyewicaya ka tonana o\vi('aka])te ka awidayustaq.
and to-attack they- those fall-off he-made-them and few them-spared and them-left.
came
Urikaij ake takpe ahi tka ake widakasota. Hoksina daqkeij hetaqhaij
And again to-attack they -came but again he-destroyed -them. Boy therefore from*that
oyate kiq tehii)dapi.
people the muoh-thought-of.
Iho mitakuyepi, taku oq hoksina liena liedoij lie. Toki ni kta diq, ka
Well uiy-friends, what for boy these this-did f Somewhere live would wished, and
Wakaijtaqka ikpi iyonape kta diij ka ode nadeda. Iho iyeya mjkaq
Spirit-Great bosom in take -refuge should wishetl, and H0ught-him,perh>ip8. Well he found and
Wakai)sida temye widakiye kta dirj. E heden toki napa nadeda, he ake ni
S]di-it-Bad to eat up them-cause would desired. And so somewhere he tied perhaps, that again live
kta diij ka napa nadeda. Tka ake takpe ipi e lieden ake widakize, ka
might he- and tied perhaps. But again toattack they that so again them -he-fought, and
desired came
owasiij widakte nadeda. He iye tawiyukdaq oij hedoij sni nadeda. Tuwena
all them-killed perhaps. This Tie his purpose tor this-did not perhaps. No one
en ayepida sni, seededa, ka tuwena iyaoqpepida sni. Tka is paha kiij
can b*e laid to not, as it seems, and no one * cau-l>e-Dlamed not. But they head the
bin charge ' (or-hill)
mazaskazi ayuwirjtapi kiq he dirjpi, ka hedoypi nadeda.
gold covered ovtr the that they desired, and this di'd perhaps.
Tatayka lyotaqke he iyededa wadake.
Bull " Sitting this * is-like I-think.
, NOTES.
The writer of this is a Yankton Dakota, and this appears in a very marked way
throughout the story. Notice the ''yo," sign of the imperative, used in various
instances instead of "wo;" and also the form "yiij," as in " icahmididiyiij kta," for
*4dahmicidiye kta." And also "kd" for "hd," as in "kda," to go home; "kdidu," to
100 flAKOtA (JKAMMAU, TKXTH, AND KTIINOOIiAPIIY.
^U, Ijn liolinii liny«: llo, on otoywaij yo; ito, oinani mde kta ce, eye ^a
#iiv> rttwl fh^rt tliix-MM: Vt^n, lu lookthmi. lo. WAlkinx I-go will , be-aaid and
filffi,
IVMVM
1T^f1f.
l^tjkaij htnyotu^ utjkat; vvirami ota om kdi, Ija tipi kiij ozuuaahiyotaijka;
Nloit iiii(lif. ilii'ri iiirn mntiy with h«"riifn(> iinil hottiMf \hei full they • sat *<lo wn ;
hmiM',
llijknij wnijiiakM uAuU) ynijkapi otj wirana kiij waijzi heya: Koda, hoksina
fltlit ttdw l«»itff (ittiH * W(«r-i>, ilipfpfori* iniiti Uin otin thin Mid: Friend, boy
kltj waftto M liocokiiatia kto do, eyo va kinarjpa. Uijkar) wi(3a8ta kiij owasii)
thn nitiHt (hfil ihHiHHMinih will , lti«* ntttd mid Wf^ut-uut. And men the all
lA Mva kInatjpMpl.
HlHt llll»»Wll«»* W»«ttt Mill.
Ifijkaij ako WH^a«a klij lu^ya: I ho wo, ako oinani mde kta ce; owanzina
ThuH ttufiiit mnti Ih^ thin-Mid! (■oiiie, Mi^ln traveling I-go will; ■taying-at-honie
p\\ eioijwaij yo, oye (Ja ako iyaya.
liMtk thoit nitt't- lf« hi*'iiAhl And agnlti hV w^nl.
K hoikni llm on t^ttUjwau, mjkaij suijkawakaij kiq uijmaij heya: Koda,
Hiiin liehidd hi« hMtki^dnni'f II, nnd liorRon the one thisaaid: Friend,
ttpl Wrti) i^tljLrtntt o waijvako wnl nlwi ^oij ito on ye (^a timahen 6iQ owinza
h«)nii«^ H llttt«* thMt hv«>Vn( not thiH>i'imi tlmt lo In go and within wood bed
nmtidmt
t^vkaya taku way ki on luvij i^s lie on paha khj oputkaij yt>, ^a koyahaq yo,
iM-thi^widdh' Arm^v- A \-«>tti>^ IM nUndn that III heait thi« dipthoit,^ and be>tbou-in-haate,
tMttK
tmiU)i>it) kta iV. l>o wtortAi ota awit^akdi kiijhag heua uiyatapi kte e nii^
m^ h)fri>tn^v HK-tlt W. ThfK mati many Ih^mHHing- tf they you-«al will that ma
hiHIK'
\m\ n^ayntapi kta tka tawattnjxvayo snJ, o uaut)pii) kta t^e, eya.
^tlt»V«* m^Hii ^tW, >»«♦ t wUHnx * *w>ts >«•« Hoth t«»ft*tlM* will be, lkf>*aaid.
UoiVn hokwina V<>y tip? wai) i^i^^ua ^oy o!\ i; uqkai) i5hi) ovriqza kiij
^ bt^y tbAl >ii>nw a \\\\H IbAl fn w»nt; and w<aod W4 tk«
xS>k«ya takn wai) zi o nuU^ya hay o o!\ jmha kii) oputkag, uukai) {>aha kiij
It^-Ybr ixomvthtnii a \v)K»k in-at^iy«*^ itt<M«d (n b««d I4«^ b«d$Mw< aiftd bead . tbe
f5i, ^a tipi ku) ati^ya i^^^y^m) V^ iyi>vai)j>a. 1 Kh^ou Uio I\e>^ta kdii5u ^a
jrKlW*^*'. find >if>tti»i> tW aW*vv^' nbf>«w» and ' wanliirbi. Se b(4Mil4 liarli Iie-T» <wn w 4 a»d
*u\)k^\vakay way wx>kivako t^iV^H) W akiU)yotHi)ko ^n nakijvipi. ^yeyas
>^'hi^ fkr tbi^y t^*1»nt fb««n b(«b<ild fN«inh«»blnd ;f^Ht44rNit <^afV)d-lilinae)r tWfliat
^\)kawakai) nyma V<>y W aka^\ \^yk<^ ij;!^ kw^^-^a ^^wh^u, ^ii Ix^x-^: W;U\te:^
b<»ffir Mhv^v tbi' tbat nfwwi ^ W(i«t and M1<»wfiif[ t««b<«i<Miin^«ii4 ^t»«al4: Waribjfciat
*h>a, fi^a^it) |>iv, yam'pi kt^ ^iii x-t* tli>; nv^ktxV >^-M) m^^cox-^ewi ^^;M)k^ <Si}
t^kte <^ti dapi kta h>PsN\ <^X'aX'« on >^i^n, <^^ko\) niKitH^ix-^ii. U^kni) ake
Wx^ : \Vahtoi5>ii N^%, ina«ii) j^\ yimipi kt^ :Sni xv «J<\ ^iJoe ^x-a. I%a)ke4)
^i^i kt<^ i5«i mo<hVh^>
X'ykai) Nm)kam»iikai) kii) hoya : Witka wwj <in)ia V<^ he Keklsakixii
DAKOTA MYTHS. 107
kahona iyeya yo, eya; e heden iho iyecen edoi). Ui)kar) maka kiq
throwing send thou it, he-said; that ho liehold in-like-nianner he-did. Then earth the
hdakiyyaij miiiiwaijca waij ica^a ; carjkeij kuvva an korj eqna hinaziq ka
the-hrcadth of ocean a grew; meanwhile following came the there stopped and
heya: Hehehe, suykawakaij, oijsimada ka akasain elipemayaij yo; eciij
this-*fiaid: Alas, O horse, pityme and across throw-thou-me; indeeil
he(:*anoi) kiijliaij tedihiijda kte do, eya. Hecen suqkawakaij kirj heya:
that- thou -doest if, I-yon-valne-much will , he said. Thus hor^e the this-said :
Hehehe, tawatenwaye sni ye do, eya. Tka nina kitar) e lie6eii iho mini kiij
Alas, I willing not , he-said. But much he-urged so-that behold water the
iwarjkam hiyui(*iya, tka heden mini kiij cokava hi kiij hehan hiijhpaye Qa
above he threw himself, but thus water the midst came the then he-fell-down and
heden mahen iyaya ka minitapi. Heden hetaijhay hoksina koy zaniyaQ
so within went and were-drowned. Thus from- thence boy the safely
iyoopta iyayapi.
beyond went.
Uqkay oyate wag widoti e en ipi ka hen uijpi. Uqkaij hektataqhaq
Then peoph) a dwellings in came and there they were. Then from behind
nataij ahi ka wicakizapi, tka hoksina koij paha kiij kaobeij iyeye <^.a paha
to attack they- and them fought, but boy the hea<l-hair the around turned and head-
came hair
kii) mazaskazi ayuwiqtapi, daijkeq ziyena jsuykawakaij akan iyotaqke,
the gold was-rubbed-over, meanwhile goldeuly horse on he-sat,
ka watakpe ahi koy kahpa iyewidaya ka tonana <>\vidaka])te ka awidayustaq.
and to-att«ck they- those fall-otf ne-made-them and few them-spared and them-left.
came
Uijkar) ake takpe ahi tka ake widakasota. Hoksina daijkeij lietaijhai)
And again to-attack they-came but again he-destroyed -them. Boy therefore from-that
oyate kig tehiqdapi.
people the much-t hough t-of.
Iho mitakuyepi, taku oij hoksina hena hedoij he. Toki ni kta diij, ^a
Well myfHends, what for boy these this-did f Somewhere live would wished, and
Wakaqtaqka ikpi iyonape kta diij ka ode nadeda. Iho iyeya uijkaq
Spirit-Great bosom in-takerefuge should wished, and sought-him, perhaps. Well ho fuund and
Wakaijsida teniye widakiye kta diij. E heden toki napa nadeda, he ake ni
spirit-Bad to eat up them-cnuse would desired. And so soiue where helled perhaps, that again live
kta diij ka nana nadeda. Tka ake tak])e ipi e lieden ake widakize, k«
might he- and tied perhaps. But again toattack they that su again them-he-fought, auc
.a
desired came
owasiij widakte nadeda. He iye tavviyukdar) oij hedorj sni nadeda. Tuwena
all theiii-killed perlia|»8. This Tie his purjiose tor this-did not perhaps. No one
en ayepida sni, seededa, ka tuwena iyaoQpepida sni. Tka is palm kiy
can Ih) laid to not, as it seems, and no one * can-lie-Dlameil not. But they head the
hiri charge ' (or-hill)
mazaskazi ayuwiytapi kiy he diqpi, ka hedoqpi nadeda.
gold covered t)ver the that they desired, and this did i>erhaps.
Tataijka lyotaijke he iyededa wadake.
BiUl Sitting this ' islike I-think.
, NOTES.
The writer of this is a Yankton Dakota, and this appears in a very marked way
throughout the story. Notice the '*yo," sign of the imperative, used in various
instances instead of ''wo;" and also the form "yiij," as in »' idahmididiyiij kta," for
" idaUmicidiye kta." And also '* kd " for " hd," as in " kda," to go home; " kdidu," to
108 DAKOTA GUAMMAB, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGRAPHY.
Start home, etc. Another thing uoticable is the abundant use of free adverbial parti-
cles, as, "e" at the beginning of sentences and "ye do" at the end, which can not be
translated, and are only used for emphasis or for rounding off the speech.*
In the dialogue between the old man and old woman in the beginning of the
fable there are a number of examples of the use of the Dakota dual, as, '' uijkode,"
*'iyeuijye," and " hecoiji^oij."
TRANSLATION.
A man had four children. And they were all young men, but they were poor
and seemed as if they would die of thriftlessness. And the old man said, "Behold,
old woman, my youngest child I have greatest pity for, and I dislike to have him die
of poverty. See here; let us seek the Great Spirit, and if we find him, lo, I will give
him to him to train up well for me."
The old woman replied, "Yes, old man, you say well; we will do so," she said.
And so immediately they went to the westward, seeking the Great Spirit, and they
came on to a very high hill; and as they came to it, behold, another man came there
also.
And this man said, "For what are you seeking!" And the old man said,
"Alas, my friend, my child whom I pity I want to give to the Great Spirit, and so I
am seeking him." And he said, " Yes, friend, I am the Great Spirit. My friend,
give him to me, I will go home with him." (That is, "I will take him to my home.")
And so when he (the father) had given him, he (the Great Spirit) took him home
with him to a house that seemed to stand up to the clouds. Then he said, "Examine
all this house a^ much as you like; and take good care of these horses; but do not
look into the little house that stands here." Having said this, he gave him all the
keys, and he added, "Yes, have a watch of this. Lo, I am going on a journey." He
said this, and went away.
It was evening, and he had come home with a great many men, who sat down,
filling the house. When they had been there a good while, one of the men said: "The
boy is good; that is enough." And saying this he went out. In like manner all the
men went home.
Then again, the man said: "Behold, I go again on a journey. Do you stay and
keep watch." So again he departed.
While he wfis watching, it happened that one of the horses said, "Friend, go
into the small house into which you are commanded not to look, and within, in the
middle of the floor, stands something yellow, dip your head into that, and make
haste — we two are together. When he brings home a great many men, they will eat
you, as they will eat me, but I am unwilling — we two shall share the same," he said.
So the boy went into the little house, and in the middle of the floor stood a round
yellow thing, into which he dipped his head, and his head became golden, and the
house was full of shining and light.
Then he came out and jumped on the horse that had talked with him and they
fled.
• '* Ye do" of the Isanyati (** ye lo" of the Titoijwai)), as an emphatic ending, seems equivalent
to the Osage ** e^au/' Kansa '*eyau/' and ^egiha *' afa." The last means ''indeed;" but ''e^u'' and
"eyau'' contain the oral period '^au" (= Dakota do, lo) as well as ''indeed." — J. o. D.
DAKOTA MYTHS. (09
Now when they had ^one a long way — they went very fast — behold, there came,
following tbem, the one who called himself the Great Spirit. And he said, ''Yon bad
rascals, stop; yon shall not live; whither will yon go in snch a small conntry as
this!" Saying this he came toward them, when they were mnch frightened. And
again he said, "Yon are bad rascals, stop; you shall not live.'' And indeed it
seemed as if they should not live.
Then the horse said, "Take the egg you have and throw it rearward.'' And he
did so, whereui)on the whole breadth of the country became a sea, so that he who
followed them came to a standstill, and said, " Alas, my horse, have mercy <m me
and take me to the other side; if yon do I will value you very much." And the horse
replied, "Ah, I am not willing to do that." But he continued to urge him; where-
upon he threw himself above the water, and so that, when he came to the middle, he
went down and both were drowned. By this means the boy passed safely on.
So it was they came to the dwellings of a people and remained there. But from
behind they came to attack, and fought with them; but the boy turned his head
around, and his head was covered with gold, the horse also that he sat upon was
golden, and those who came against them, he caused to be thrown off, and only a few
remained when he left them. Again, when they returned to the attack he destroyed
them all. And so the boy was much thought of by the people.
Now, my friends, why did the boy do these things? He wanted to live some-
where, and he desired to take refuge in the bosom* of the Great Spirit, perhaps, and
so he sought him. When he had found him, then the Bad Spirit sought to make him
(the Great Spirit) eat them up. So he fled — again he desired to live, perhaps, and
fled. But they followed him, so that In^ again fought with them and killed them all,
it seems. It api)ears that he did not do this of his own purpose. It seems as if no
one was chargeable with it, and no one was to b(i blamed for it. But they wanted
the head (hill) of gold, x>erhaps, and so they did it. I think that this is like Sitting
Bull.
•Ikpi j^eneraUy lueunH h*'Uyf abdomen. Soiiu'timeH it may iiH-an the thorax also; but that is inoro
properly caUed "inaku." So says the author in his Dakota Dictionary, p 195. — j. o. n.
ODOWAN J^IG.^IOE.^
Songs Bad.
Written in Dakota by David Grky Clocd.
Hituqkaqkaijpi wag hecen oyakapi. IJijktonil war) kakeii ya waijkar
MythH a thiin ia-told. l.'^ijkUinii one ho };oin^ was;
Hide way kalida ya waqka, uijkaij mde kig 6ai}iiaii majjaksica, l^a niaga,
lake one by-the- KoiQ£( was, and lake the out-iu duoka, and geese,
sideof
ka nia<|^atar)ka koya ota hiyeya. Ui)ktomi waijwiil^ayaka (*ii idicawiij
and swans also many won*. Uqktomi them-saw and backwanl
pustagstag isiiwaij kihde; <Ja pezi yusda, ka owa«ir| yuskiskite c*a Ifiij, ka
crawling out-of sight went-bome; and grass plucked, and all bound-up and canieil aid
on his back
ake Hide kii) kahda ya.
rgain lake the bythi*- went.
Hid«-of
Uykaij magaksica ka niaga Ija magataijka kiij heiia heyapi: I'qktomi,
^nd ducks and geese and swans the they this said: rqktomi,
lieiia taku e yakiq hwo, eyapi. Uqkai) Uijktomi heya: Ileiia is odowaij
these what that y<iu-cHrry ! they Huid. And rqktomi this-said: These they Songs
siigsicedaijka e he wakiy do, eya. Uijkaij magak8i<?a heyapi: Eca Uijktoihi,
bad-littlc oucjf that I-cnrry on naid. And ducks this said: Now Ui)ktQmi,
my i>ack
uijkidoway miye, eyapi. Tka Uijktorai heya: Hoho! tka era odowar) kiy
ns for-sing, they said. But Vgktomi thiH-Hsid: Indet^! but now songs the
sigsi(^e se eya. Tiika magaksica kiij iiina kitaijpi hiijca. Uijkai), Iho po,
ba<l-oueH like, he said. Hut ducks the much iusistcd-on very. And, Come-on (yei
eca pezi wokeya waijzi kaga po, eya. Uqkaij wayzi taijka kagapi l^a
now gruHM b<N>th uue make ye, said. And one large they-made and
yustaijpi.
they flninhed.
rijkaij l^ijktomi lieya: Warjiia, magaksica, ka maga, ka niagatayka
And ri)ktomi thiM*said: Now, ducks, and g(*<«e, and swans
owasiy pezi wokeya kiij tiinaheii ivaya po, (l^i^^idowaypi kta 6e, eya.
all grass hnlge the within go ye . I-for-you (pi.) sing will , said.
Uykaij magaksica ka may^a, ka inagataijka owasiij timahen ivayapi, ka
And ducks. and gwse, and swans all within lhey''went, and
* For the correHpoiidinj? Omaha and Tonka myth, see Contr. N. A. Eth., vi, pt. 2, pp. 66-69.— J. o. d.
2Ya wai)ka, he waft going; literally, going he-re^lined, Waqka, originally a clasHitier of attitude
(the reclining object), is used here as hai)ka (hafika) is in Winnebago. — .i. o. i>.
lio
DAKOTA MYTHS. ] 1 1
pezi wokeya kii) ozudai) iyotai}kapi. Uqkar) Uqktomi pezi wokeya tiyopa
grass lodge the fall they sat-down. And F^ktomi grass lodge door
kii) ohiia iyotaTjka, ka heya: Cicidowaqpi kiqhai), idui)haij tuwedaij toijwe
the in he sat-down, and this-said: I-for-you (pi.) sing if, whilst no-one look
kte sni, odowai) kiij he hecen kapi ce, eya: ka wayna heya ahiyaya:
shall not, *ong the that thns means , said: and now this-said sang:
"Istohraus waci po; Tuwe yatoyvve cirj, Ista uisapi kta; Ista uisapi kta."
"Eye-shut dance ye; Who yon look the, Eyes you-red shall; Eyes you-red shall."
Heya ahiyaye <5irj he icuijhai), magaksica, l^a raaga, l^a magatayka owasiij
Thfs- he-snng the that whilst ducks, and geese, and swans all
saying
iStohmus wa<?ipi, keyapi.
eyes-shut they danced, they-say.
Ui)kai) Uqktomi iiazii) hiyaye (n heya ahiyaya: '' Miye keskes
And IJQktomi to-stand went and this-sRying sang* " I even-even
. owakipa ; Miye keskes owakipa," heya opeya wa6i kii) he idui}haij owasii)
I foUow-in-my- i even-even I follow-in- this- wit'ti danced the that whilst all
own; my-own." saying
hotoi) wadipi kiij, hehan Uijktoini widiyotahedaq wadi U13 ; ka magaksica,
gabbling danceid the, then rgktomi t^ero-among dancing was; and ducks.
l^a maga, ka magatagka tona (^emc^'epa owariyag wantepi kiij hena tahii
and geese, and swans as-many fat ones to-look*^at they gooa the those necks
}niksa awicaya. Uqkaij magataqka wai) tahii yukse kta tka okihi sni, ^:a
' twisted-ofT took-them. And swan one neck twist-oflf would but able not, and
yuhotOT)toi). Ui)kaij inagaksira waij, Skiska eciyapi, kii} \ie6a waij istogii)-
made-sqnall-often. And duck one, Ski-ska by name, the such one eye-half
kiya toqwe kta, uykaij Uijktomi hee magataijka wai) taliu yukse kta, tka
open look would, and rqktonii himself swan a neck ^reak-off would, hut
okihi sni he wagyaka : uijkaij Skiska kiq heya: Toiiwaij po, toywaij po,
able not that saw : and Ski-ska the this-said : Look ye ! look ye !
wai)iia Ui}ktomi ui)kasota])i kta (?e, toijwaij po, eya.
now Ui^tomi us-use-up will , lookyo! said.
Ui)kar) hecehnana owasiij toijwaijpi, ka taijkan akiyahde kta; uijkaij
And without delay all they lo<>ke<l, and out-doors go-home would; and
Ur)ktonii tiyopa kiij ohiia ehpeicjiye va tiyopa kiij anice wa(!rir); lj:a hecoij,
Fgktomi door the in threw-it«Af and *door the forbid intended; and this-did,
tka hupahii ka siha koya oij apapi, ka eceii katapi, ka siha kiq oi) tezi kii)
bat wings and feet also with they •sniot4'. and thus knocked-dead, and feet the with stomach the
en amanipi, ^:a tezi owasirj kinaksaksapi, ka en \a waijka; kitaijh ni,
on they-walked, and st4miach all they-cut-up-with- and there dead he lay; by -a-little lived.
'their- feet,
uijkaij inazii) Ifa ohonini etoQwai), tuka waijna tokiya akiyahda. Uijkaij
and he-ar<»se and around looked, but now somewliere gone-home. And
Skiska wai) tokaheya toqwe cii) heoi) ista sa keyapi.
Ski-ska one tirst looked the therefore eyeM rtil, they-say.
Hehan IJriktomi niagaksica, ka maga, ka inagatagka tona tahu
Then Ui)ktomi ducks, nnd geese, and swans, niany-as necks
wicayukse rikoi) hena wi(?apahi ka kii) ka iyoopta ya wayka ; ka wakpa
them-twi8t«d-off had Itren those them-gathennl and t>arrie«1 and thence going was; and river
wai) iyohpaya ka kahda ya, wakpa oha wai/ tehai) kii) iyokopeya yeya ;
a * came-to,* and by-the-side w«'nt, river reach a long very * in-sight * stretrhe*! :
ui)kai) hen e wohai). Magaksida, maga ka inagatai)ka, tona tahu wi^^ayukse
and there he-boiled. Ducks, geese and swans, manyas ut^tks tlieni-twisted-off
oil) hena ohai) ehde : ka hehan istii)ina iwai)ka ; wakjia kii) ohnayai) ])aptus
the those to-boil placed: and then to-sleep lay<down; river the upon squatting
112 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
iwagka, ^:a heya : Mioi)ze eeiij tuwe u khjhaij niayuhi6a wo, eya ^a
he-lay, and thia-said : My oi)se, now who coin«s if wake thoa me up, safd, and
i8tii}iiia waijka.
a«leep lay.
Ugkai) I)(>ksiij<5a hee wakpohna watom u waqka, ui)kai) iijvui),
And Mink it-wan river-on paddling coming was, and behold,
Uqktomi liee woharj hde, ^a eii iyapeya paptus istirjina waijka waijyaka.
Uiiktomi it- was boiling had -placed, and in 'close-by squatted asleep lying he-saw.
Hecen etkiya ya, uijkaT) U^ktonii hee oqsyuhmuze kta, tka ikiyowii)^
So thither went, and Ujjktomi it- was close up his OQze would, but he-mouth-
moticm
iyekiya, uqkaij kiduijiii, tka i6an u, dus ye qn en i, Ija UDktoini
madesnadenly, and he-stopped, but jnst com- swiftly went and there ar- and Uijktomi
then ing. * rived.
iHtiqma warjka, tka wohe dilfoy he idu ka owasii) temye ^a huhu kii} owasiij
sleeping lay, but boiled had that took and all devoured and Iwnes the all
i<5i<5awii} dega kiij eu okada, ka tokiya iyaya. Wagna isiqyai) iyaya,
back -again kettle the in he-put, and somewhere went. Now out-of-sight had-gone,
uqkar) hehaii Urjktonii oyze waawai)yag kiye 6i^or) he oyaka, ka kitata
and then nijktotni oi)ze to-watch caused had that *^told, and shook
OQsyuhrauza. Urjkai) Uqktomi heya: lya, mioijze is kakedadai} ye,
the 01) ze closed. And Ui)ktomi this-said: \i^ell, my-oqze he (acted) indeed (f)
in that manner
eyahii}hdaiyotai)ghiyaya, l^a ohomni etOQwar), tka tuwedai) wai)yake sni
saying suddenly sitting up went, and around looked, but no one saw not
uijkar) heya: Okiijui ecas wagna wowahe 6ii) midispai), oij mayuhide,
and this-said: PerhapM indeed now . my-boiling the for-me-eooked. on .nc- me- waked,
count of
eye (^a kun ehde, ka caijwiyuze oij patata, tuka huhu edee ozudai). Uqkaij
said and down set, and holding-wood with stirred, but bones alone full. And
ake^ heya: Ehaes owasiij onahba do, eye ^a tukiha oij kaze, tka huhu
a;;ain this-said: Indee<1 all fallen-off , said and spoon with dipped-out, but bone
ededaij ohiia ni), Ugkaij heya: Miogze, tokeda tuwe u kirihaq omakiyaka
only in were. And this-said: My-oqse, why who comes if me-tell-thou
wo, epe sede ci^oij; ihomida kakiSdiye kta, eye <Ja daq ota ])ahi \r
I-said I-thought in the pdst surely I you-pnnish will, said and wood much gathered and
SLOT), ka wai)na peta nina ide, uijkar) iwai}kam oi}ze hdugai) inazii), ^a
put-on, and now fire much bum, and orer-it o])Be opene<l his own stood, and
oi}ze kii) gagahaij, tka heden uazii), Ifa wai)na te-hnaskigyai), ui}kai} hehan
oi)te the squirmed, but so he-stood, and now death-struggle, and then
yuktai)yai) ii)yaT)ke, <;a eceii kasamyedai) ihpave <Ja en ta wai)ka, keyapi.
to-tum-over lie-ran, and so a-blackened-mass it-/elI-<fown and there dead lay, they-say.
Hecen hituT)kaijkai)pi kiij de Odow^ai) oigsidedagka ediyapi.
So myth the this Songs Bad-Iittle-ones is-oalled.
Homaksidaij madistiijna kiij heehai) de nina nawahoq s'a, tuka
Me-boy me-little the then this much I-heard habitually, but
waT)na eharjtarihaij waniyetu wikdemna nom aktoi) nawalioi) sni.
now from years ten two more-than I-hear not.
'Ri^gw^iveH in Ihh Dakota Dictionary iyokiwii). to gesture to one with the mouth. If ikiyowiij
he an alternative form, it is a ca»e of nietutheHis. — .1. o. D.
DAKOTA MYTHS. 113
NOTES.
These Dakota myths, with interlinear translations, are all written out by
Dakota men, and hence are pure specimens of the languag:e. This one of the
Bad Songs is by Rev. David Grey Cloud, one of our native pastors, and, as he is a
Santee, the peculiarities are of that dialect, in which our books are generally written.
The rhythmic quality of the language comes out very fairly in Uijktomi's songs:
Istohmus wai^i po;
Tuwe yatoi)we ("'ii),
Kta ni^api kta;
I^ta niSapi kta.
And in this, reduplication and repetition are finely illustrated:
Miye keAke.4, owakipa:
Miye ke6ke6, owakipa.
TRANSLATION.
There is a myth which is told in this way: TJijktomi was going along; his way
lay along by the side of a lake. Out on the lake were a great many ducks, geese,
and swans swimming. When Uijktomi saw them he went backward out of sight,
and plucking some grass bound it up in a bundle, which he placed on his back and
so went again along by thr side of the lake.
Then the ducks and the geese and the swans said, " Pijktomi, what is that you
are carrying!" And Ugktomi said, "These are bad songs which I am carrying."
Then the ducks said, " Now, Uijktomi, sing for us." But XJijktomi replied, " But
indeed the songs are very bad." Nevertheless the ducks insisted upon it. Then
Uijktomi said, " Make a large grass lodge." So they went to work and made a large
inclosure.
Then Uijktomi said, "Now, let all of you ducks, geese, and swans gather inside
the lodge, and I will sing for you." Whereupon the ducks, the geese, and the swans
gathered inside and filled the grass lodge. Then Uijktomi took his place at the door
of the grass lodge and said, " If I sing for you, no one must look, for that is the mean-
ing of the song." So saying, he commenced to sing:
"Dance with your eyes shut;
If you open your eyes %
Your eyes shall be red !
Your eyes shall be red ! "
While he said and sung this the ducks, geese, and swans danced with their
eyes shut. Then Ugktomi rose up and said as he sang:
" I even, even I,
Follow in my own ;
I even, even I,
Follow in my own."
So they all gabbled as they danced, and Ugktomi, dancing among them, com-
menced twisting off the necks of the fattest and the best looking of the ducks, geese,
7105— VOL. IX 8
1J4 DAKOTA GKAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
and swans. But when he tried to twist off the neck of a large swan, and could not,
he made him squall. Then a small duck, which is called Skiska, partly opening its
eyes, saw Uijktomi attempt to break off the neck of the swan, and immediately made
an outcry:
**Look ye, look ye,
Uijktomi will destroy us all,
Look ye, look ye."
Whereupon they all immediately opened their eyes and started to go out; but
Ui)ktomi threw himself in the doorway and attempted to stop them. But with feet
and wings they smote him and knocked him over, walking over his stomach and cut-
ting it all up, leaving him lying there for dead. But coming to life he got up and
looked around. All were gone. But they say that the Wood duck, which first looked,
had his eyes made red.
Then Ugktomi gathered up the ducks and geese and swans whose necks he had
twisted off', and carried tbera on his back. He came to a river, and traveled along by
the side of it till he came to a long straight place or "reaeh," where he stopped to boil
his kettle. When he had put all the ducks, geese, and swans, whose necks he had
twisted off, into the kettle and set it on the fire to boil, then he lay down to sleep.
And as he lay there curled up on the bank of the river, he said, Now, my ogze, if any
one comes you wake me u]). So he slept. Meanwhile a mink came paddling on the
river, and coming to Uijktomi's boiling place saw him lying close by l^t asleep.
Thither he went, and although the oijze of Uijktomi should have given the alarm by
closing up, it made a mouth at the mink, at which he stopped only for a moment (till
he felt all was safe). Then he pressed on s>Wftly, and, while Uijktomi slept, took out
all his boiling and ate it up, putting back the bones into the kettle. Now, when the
mink was gone out of sight, the OQze of Uijktomi which he had set to watch told of
it. Uijktomi commended the faithfulness of his guard, and sitting up looked around,
but saw no one. '^Perhaps my boiling is cooked for me. and that is the reason he has
waked me," he said, and set down his kettle, and taking a stick he found it full of
bones only. Then he said, "Indeed the meat has all fallen off," and so he took a
si)oon and dipped it out, but there was nothing but bones. Then said he, " Why, my
oijze, I thought that I told you to inform me if any one came. I will surely punish
you." So saying he gathered much wood and put on the fire, and when the fire burned
fiercely he turned his ogze to it, and there stood holding it open, although it squirmed
even in the death struggle, and then turned it over, so that finally, they say, it fell
down a blackened mass and lay there dead.
This is the myth of Uijktomi and the Bad Songs.*
^ This is a very free rendering of the original. See p. 112, 1. 20: "So this myth is called, *The
Bad Little Songs.' ^* Lines 21, 22 should have been translated : " When I was a little boy I used to hear
this (myth) very often ; but it has been more than twenty years since I have heard it." — J. o. p.
TASI>^TA-YrKIKIPI.
Writtkx in Dakota hy M. Kknvillk.
a WO,
thou
Iqyur) kakeh : Koska e^*e to])api, ka wai)zi Ilakekena e(?iyapi ; hena
Behold tbuM: Younjs-men alone were four, and one Hakaykayna was'-called ; theae
tipi keyapi. Hereii tohan wotihni yapi kta ecu wai)zi hakakta kirj he ti
dwelt they say. So when to-hunt they -go would when one youugOHt the that house
awaijhdagkiyapi ka heriyapi ecee: Misuij, tokiya ye mi, owaijzi yaijki
t4»-wat<:h-they-cau8ed-hrm and thin-iiaid-t^i always: My-brother nowhere *go not, in-oue-place * bet!
eyapi, ka hecen wotilini iyayapi ece. He6eii tai}yaij tl awaqlidaka ecee.
they said, and so hunting They^wcut always. Thus well houst* his-own- watched always.
Heeen ti haijska wai) niiia haqska otipi, tuka wakiy kiy ti-vvihduksaij
Thus house long a much long in they dwelt, but packs the house around
idiyahdaskiii hiyeya keyapi. Ka nakurj taijkata kiij is wocaijahde kii)
'piled -on each were they say. And also without the it scaffolds the
hiyeya keyapi ; taku woteca ocaze kiij aijpetu eca ahdi yuke iiakaes nina
were they say; what unimals kinds the day when brouglit- won* indeed, very
home
wasedapi keyajn.
rich-they-were they say.
Uijkar) ake wotihni iyayapi ka Hakekena ti awaijhdaka tuka ic^omni
Then again hunting t*liey-went and Hakaykayna house his-own -watche<l but weary
kehai} wai) sag: bakse i ; tuka siha taku i(^apa, l^a niua yazarj kehai) hdi(:^u,
when arrow green to cut went: but fo«)t something stuck in, and very *^ sore when started-
home,
ka hdi keliaij hdasdoka: ui)kaij iijyuij hoksiyopa waij wiijyay e kasdog
and come home when puUed-out-his: and betiold ba1)y h jrir*! that pulling-out
i(^u keyapi. Uijkai) Hakekena nina icagte si&d yaijka. bina wai) iya|ienuii
he took they say. And Sakaykayna very heart bad * was. Blanket a he> wrapped
around
ka heyatii ehnaka. Heeen inina yaijka. Tokiij i(^a^e ees, eciij ; he<!?en
and beliiud plactMl. Thus quiet was. Oh that grow may, he-thought; so
^.aijte sica yaqka, ec^en 6h)6u kii) owasiij wotihni hdi])i. Hecen hdipi e<5a
heart bad was, until his brothers the all hunting came home. So they-come- when
fionie
nina wiyu.4kiT) ece, tuka ecec^e sni, heoi) ciycu kiij taku ican si6a iyukdagpi,
very he^rejoiced always, but like-that not, tbei'e fore brothers- the something heart bad *^they-judgea,
his
kahediyapi : Misuij, tokeca taku i^iaijte nisica ; tuwe taku ecanidoi) he<?ii)hai)
and this said lb: My-brotber. why what heart you-bad: who what has-done-to-you if
uijkokiyaka po, eyapi. Hykaij, Hiya, tuwena taku ecamidoij sni, tuka
US-tell, they-sald. And, No, no one something has-done-me not. bat
taku waqradaka, uykai) iyomakisice (;a inina maqke. Uijkai), He taku he,
something I-have-seen, and * I-am-sad and silent I-am. And, That what I
eyapi.
they said.
XX5
116 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, A2^D ETHNOGRAPHY.
Ui}kai), OiDve, owasiq idadapi iiehar) idomamni e^*en wai) sag yukse
And, Brotnern, all yon wot« gone when I- wm- weary ao-that arrows green cut
wai, tuka silia (^laraape, lj:a nina mayazai) l^ehai) wahdicu; ka wahdi kehai}
I want, bat f*wt me-pierccd, and very me-sore when I-atart4>dhofne: and I-came-home whan
wahdaiidoka, uijkar) hoksiyopa wai) wakaMoka, ugkai) wiijyai) nade;
I-pnllod-off-roy-own, and chfld a Ipnlled-oot, and girl may -be;
uqkar), Tokiq ica^e 6e&, ep^fa; uijkai) heoi) iyomaki^i^a <:*e, eya. Ui}kai}
and. Oh that grow may, I thonght; and therefore " iHiad-am he'aaid. ^nd
6ii)6u kiij, Mi.sui), tukte e he, eyapi kehai) i^u l^a wicakipazo.
brothera-hia the, My brother, which ia it t they aaid when, he-tnok and showed-it-to-them.
Urikar) iciyaza kici(Ju yekiyapi ka, E, tokii) icage <?e», eyapi. Urjkai)
Then one-to-other gave each they canaed and. Welt oh that it grow may. they aaid. And
ake Hakekena lieya heyapi: Hopo, ^iDve, ti ahmihbe uriyagpi kta de,
•gain Hakaykayna thi» aaid, they aay : Come ye. brotherts hooae whirl around we canae will
eya, keyapi. Heden i<^;upi lj:a ti<5e^ka kir) ohna kahoya iyeyapi. Iji)kar)
he aaid, they say. Then they took and hooae-top the through whirling tney nent it. And
ohmihmai) hiyaye ija ihpaya. Ui}kai] hok^ivopa wai) sdoharihai) deya tin
whirling it went and feu down. And baby a creeping crytag bouae-
in
hiyu keyapi. Tuka ake idupi l^a eden iyeyapi; uijkai) hehan widii)yai}na
it came, they Hay. But again they took and to threw it; and then gin
wag maui tin hiyu. Tuka ake icupi ^a eden iyeyapi. Ugkai) wi(5ii)yar)na
a walking houM* in came. But again they took and to threV her. Then giri
6aT) ade yuha tin hijni lj:a aoqpa. Tuka ake idupi ka ecen iyeyapi —
wood-to-bnm having honae in the came and laid-on. Bnt again they took and to threw —
itopa iyeyapi ; UT)kar) hehan wikoska wai) cai) ^ii) hdi, ^a hii)8ka hduske
the fourth time they and then young woman a wood carrying came, and ttrap unbound
threw : home her own
ija tin hiyu l^a hiyotarika.
and houae in came and tat down.
Ui)kai), Iho, taku uqyaqpi kta hwo, eyapi. UrikaT) wai)zi heya:
Th<m, Come, what we-have-her thall f they aaid. And one thit-aaid:
Mi8U]}ka iye he iyeya e hduze kta de, eya. Tuka Hakekena heya: Hiya,
My -brother ne • thit found he take-ber ahall , he aaid. Bnt Hakaykayna th it aaid: Ko
liedetu kte nni de, eya. Ui)kai) eda taku ugyaqpi kta hwo, eyapi, ^a
thatto ahall not , he taid. And then what we-have-ior thall f they aaid, and
wowahei^oi) wai)zik6i kapi; tuka Hakekena widada 6ni. Eda misui), taku
relatlonahipa aeveral meant; but Hakaykayna willing not. Then my brother, what
uqyanpi kta yadii) he, eyapi. Ui)kai), De UTjkiyohakam idaga, heoi)
we have her will yon want 7 they aaid. Then, Thia ua-after grew, therefore
tai)k6iur)yai)pi kta de, eya. Ui)kaT), He hedetu de, eyapi, ^:a datku kii) en
younger aiater we have will , he taid. And, Tliat ia fitting , they aaid, and back part the in
ohehdepi kidao^api l^a ohna ehnakapi. Heden wipata wayupika, nakaes
bod forhor-madt; and, on placed her. And-ao embroidering akillnil, indeed
war)zu \a liaqpa l^a isai) ozuha widii) ko ipata widakidage nakaes
quivert nnd mooraAinH and knife aheatht, ntrapn alto embroiden-xl them for the made indeed
nina iyuskii)pi, ka wotihni yapi kta da hehan, E, misui), tai)ksi tai)yai)
much rejoiced and hunting tYiey go would when then. See, my brother, slHter well
awai)yaka wo, eyapi ka iyayapi edee, keyapi.
look thou after her, they taid and tliey went alwaya, they aay.
Uqkai) ake heyapi l^a iyayapi : tuka idomni kehai), Taqksi, ito awai)-
Then again thia they aaid and iheywent: but hctired when, Sitter, to keep
yaka wo, war) saka wai)zi bakse mde kta de, eya ; lj:a heden iyaya ; ^a
thoa watch, arrow green one to cut I go will , he aaid ; and to &e*went ; and
DAKOTA MYTHS. 117
edana hdi tuka tai}ksitku en yai)ke siii. Hdi tuka inahnina toki iyaya
soon came back but suiter-hUi in was not. Hn-came- bat hurriedly somewhere gone
home
hedii): ^a hdi ape yaijka. Tuka tehai) hdi ^ni J^ehai) ode i ka kipai) uq,
bethought : and to oome wait- was. But longtime come not when to went and calling was,
home ing home hunt
taku iyeye sni ; heden hdi ka akipe yaqka. Tuka hdi ^ni eden 6ir)6u kii)
but found not; so came and waiting for was. But come not even brothers his the
home home
hdipi, l^a, Misui), tai)k^i toki iyaya he, eyapi lj:ehar) eden owidakiyaka.
came nome and, My brother, sister whither gone f they said when even so them he told.
Uijkai), Hehehe ta^ksi toki iyaye kta hwo, eyapi, Ifa ape yukai)pi; tuka
Then, Alas, alas! sister whither go will f they said, and waiting were; but
eden okpaza e heden Hakekena deya ; heden dindu ^or) owasii) om deya.
so dark was so-that Hakaykayna. cried; so brothers his the all with he-cried.
Tuka tokapa kit) heya : Misuq, aya^tai) po, tokeSta ai)pa kta de, eya : maka
But eldest the this said : My brothers, stop ye crying presently light will be , he said : earth
wita distiyeua de, he taku kae ugyudeyapi hedighai) waijuqyakapi kta de,
island small , that what ever us make cry if we-see will ,
eya, keyapi.
he said, they say.
Heden wagna arjpa lj:ehaQ tate ouye topa kii) hena otoiyohi eden ipi.
Thus now morning when winds source four the those each thus went-to,
^a nakui) maka kig owagdaya urjpi tuka ; heden iyekiyapi foi nakae^ nina
and also earth the all-over were but; so-that finding their own not indeed very
dai}te sidapi lj:a baidismisrai deya yakorjpi ; eden okide ayu^taopi. Uqkaij
heart bad, and cutting themselves crying were; until to hunt they ceasea. Then
their own
kaketu : Hakekena aqpetu eda raanin deya okawigga uij ede, ake manin
thus it was : Hakaykayna day when abroad crying going around was always, again abroad
deya ug eden istiijraa; ui)kai) iriyurj oguqga uijkai) toki tuwe deya nahorj,
crying was until he slept; and benold he waked and somewhere someone crying he heard,
tuka taqyai) nahoq sni k^hai) paha wai) tehaqwarjkagtuya kii) akan inazig,
but well heard not when hill a very-high the upon he stood,
ugkarj iqyui) winohiqda waij toki deya wiwakogza niyaq nahoij : Timdo,
and benold woman a somewhere crying wailing out breathed he heard : Brothers,
Tasigtayukikipi ewidakiyapi ^oi), timdo, wasasmayapi ^oi), maka torn
Tasintayookeekeepee them called that were, brothers, you-thought-much-of-me the, seasons four
iyotai) iyewakiye, eyaniyar), nahog. Ugkarj, E toke taqk^i hee se, eye, da
hard I find it, shecrieaout, he beard. And, Well indeed sister this-is it he said, and
seems,
heden deya ku, ^a eden hdi nakae^ ake digdu ^ot) om deyaya. Ugkai),
so crying return, and so he came indeed again brothers his the with cried often. And,
back
Cigye, ayastaqpi \b, wohai) po, wahaqpi ugyatkaqpi kta de, eya. Heden
Brothers stop ye and cook ye broth we drink will , he said. So
wohagpi ka wotapi, urjkarj hehan Hakekena, heya: Oigye, tuwe Tasinta
they cooked and ate, and then Hakaykayna this said: Brothers, who Tasinta
yukikipi ewidakiyapi he eye. UgkaQ tokapa kig he heya: Oyate hiyeye
yookeekeepee them-cafled ? he said. Then eldest the that this said : People all
dig ugkisnana wida ede ugkidagapi e heugkidiyapi do, eya. Ugkaq,
the we alone men only we-grew therefore thisto-us-they-say , be said. And,
Tokeda heha he, eyapi. Ugkag, Winohigca wag deya wiwakogze da
Why this you say ? they said. And, Woman a crying wailed and
heya niyag nawahog de, eya. Ugkag, Hehehe tagk^i hee sede do, eyapi,
saving atoud I heard , he said. Then, Alas, alas I sister that-is it seems , they said.
118 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AM) ETHNOGRAPFIY.
ka peta enen inazii)pi. Tuka Hakekena, ( *ir)ye, ayaj^tai) p^\ toket^ta ta^kni
and fire in in tbey stood. Bot Hakaykayna. Brothirrs, ceaiie ye crying pr«^aently iiuter
hee e iiahai)hi)j ni heeii}hai) warjna wai)ui)hdakapi kta naeeca ee, eya.
that-ifl nntil-now livt^a if now we-aee-Aoim wHI perhaps , he iftid.
Hecei) warjna ai)pa kehaij yapi ka etarjhai) nahoi) koi) en om inazii}. Ho,
So now morning; when they went and whencQ he-heard the in with he stood. Te».
detai}hai) nawahoQ ce, eya. Uqkaij ixke eva nivaij: Timdo, Ta.sii)ta
from here I-ht>aFd it he ^aid. An«l again said it aC*ad : Brothers. Taainta
yukikipi ewicakiyapi koi), Timdo wasasmayayapi koi), maka torn iyotai}-
jookeekeepee who were railed. Brothers yoa-w&»-earcd-Mr-Bu» aesswa four Terj hard
iyewakiye, eya nivaij uahoijpi. Uijkai), E, tai)k^i hee seC^ do, eyapi ka
I find it,* ahe crieJ oat they heard. Then. Well msttr that ia it a«eiiu» they .said and
ceyapi. Tuka, Aya^tai) po, tokesta aQpetu hai)keya tai)k^i wai)ni)hdakapi
they rried. Bot. Stop ye crying; ptreaently day half aiater we>aee-oars
kta ce, Hakekena eye ^a, Mive tokaheva wagwahdake kta ee, eve ca,
shall Hakaykajma said, and. I th>t I see her my own wiD he said, and
wiyuskirjskiijiia ivicage va en i, ka tai)ksitku koi} huha topa kii) owasii)
chickadeedee . made him!«elf and in went, and sister hia the limb» firar the all
okatai} wai}ka en i: uijkai) ite kii) bagahohoya waijka e wai)hdaka e
fasteneil lay to [or he and fsee the hroken uat [she lay] thna he saw her. then
there] came ; wat* hia own
hecen en iyahai) tuka timdoku wai^zi hee kei%j sni nakaes heye:
so (there) be alighted bat her brothent one that waa she nut indeed tliia^aid:
in thoaght that
Wiyu8kii;skii)na, tirado waijwicawahdaka ai)kai)!S eekpa [lit: navel] ieipate
Chickatleedee, my brothers I eooM see them, my own if bre nat I-yoa-
enibruider
kta tuka, eya. Ui)kai) wiyuskii)sku) koi}, Taijksi, de mive do, eya.
woald bat, she said. And T'hiekadeedee the. Siater, thia ia I » be said.
Ui}kai), Timdo, uijkiyahde kta, eya. Tuka^ Tokesta tai)ksi; wai)na
▲nd. Brother, we-go-home will she said. Bat. Preaently sjistcr: now
iyeui)niyai)pi ^e, eya, keyapi. Tai)ksi, ta^yai) wohdaka wo, eya. Uijkai),
we-yon-baTe-foond he'said, they say. Siatrr. w^Q teQ yoor-story, he^said. Then.
Timdo de ptai)pi e amahdipi ee, eya keyapi. Maka kiij mahen tai}hai}
Brother the otters they brottght-sae^hnawf. she'said, they sagr. Earth the within from
ka ayapi ka eeen ma]}ka eii) etoi^pta vahdogr>'api ^a ohna jTmiahen-imacupi
dig- theyeame and eren I wsm the towards tlhrj g»awe«f a hole, and tkroogh dragged-me iaaide
ka maka kii) ecen |>aohduta iveyapi nakae:^, heoi) iyeraayayapi sui ee eye
aad eartk the like hole stopped tWy^^ssade indeed. t h e t eiar e * ■a>yeq fimi Bst ^be ^tud
va ^iijeu en i^-ieahdi, keyapi. Taijksi hee ee, eye ca om en ya. Uqkaij
aad brothers hia to them he came they say. Stt*ter that ia, be'ivaid and with to went. And
home,
tihaqska kakiyotaijna iyeva hai) e en itai)kan ta^ksitkupi koi) hnha topa
boose fcmg rn thi& direetion extending )«tood that there oot ssd e siater^tbeirs tte ttmba fcar
kii) owasii) okatai) OQpapi e en ipi. Ui)kai) heva: Timdo, waijna maka
the an fbatened placed that there canw. Tken sbeth» '^ " — *^ —
tom den iyotaij iyekiva mai)ka, tuka ni wai)mayahdakapi kii) he taku
fisfir here experiencing diflk'olty l-aat. bat aliTe yoa(pL)8e«Bfe.y«orowit ftha that aoaw-
waQzi oi) he<5e<'e 6ii) he *i^i^iyakapi kta ee, eya kevapi. Ptai) kii) de ocaze
one (br that-ao the that I-yoo-teU wiD , abMkid they say. Otteca tke this kiada
zaptaQpi ce; wai)zi sa, wai)zi to, wai)zi zi, ka wai)zi ska ^ wai)zi sapa he
are ftnt one red. one bine, oae yellaw. aad ooa whita aad eaa black this
OI) timdo dehai) ni mai)ka ee. Tohan hogai) oha^pi huha kii) kadapi ca
by brother;* now alive I-oa. When iak they bsMsd baoea tha thxcw out
DAKOTA MYTHS. 119
waharipi kate 6ir) huhu ko akada aka.4tar)-iyemayar)pi ede; heden kate 6\r)
brotb hot the bones also emptied on they-poared oat on me alwayn ; so-that hot the
01) maspai), ka huhu kirj is omakasdate 6ii) or) ite kii) niahdi kii) deraa<5e<5a
by I-was-bamt, and 1>OQes the that me stuck in the by face the me-sore, the this me such:
6e: tuka tohag ptai) sapa kii) u ka hogai) hu* kig kada kta da donida If a
but when otter black the came and fish bones the throw out woald thee meat and
haripi ko orjge iyohnagraakiya ede koi) oi) ni warimayadakapi; heoq ptai)
broth also some * put in my mouth always that for alive you see me, your own therefore otter
war) sape dii) he ni wadii) de, eya, keyapi. Tohan htayetu da hehan warina
a black the that alive I want , she said, they say. When night when then now
wihni aku ede eda sa kig he ku da wakarjhdi 6a e tiyoboffaga ede, )^sl to
hunting come always then red the that comes then lightning red it is house shines always, and blue
home through
kii) he ku eda wakai)hdi kii) to e tiyobogaga ede; ka zi kii) ku da
the that comes when lightning the blue that house glints through always and yellow the comes when
wakaghdi zi e tiyobogaga ede, ka ska kii) ku da wakanhdi ska e tiyo-
lightning yellow that house shines In always, and white the comes when lightning white that house
bogaga ede, eya.
illume always, she-said.
Uqkai) wai)na timdoku kii) dai)hni i^idagapi tiharjska kii) tiyopa
And now brothers hers the war dubs made for themselves house long the *(door
anokatai)hai) inazirjpi : ui)kai) waqna wakai)hdi 6a kii) e tiyobogaga, ui)kai)
both sides stood : and now lightning red the that nouse illumed, and
ptai) sa koi) hee pa tin uye (Ja, Wati takumna, eya, tuka kata ehpeyapi ka
otter red the that is bead house pushed and. My house smells, he said, but they beat him to death and
in
tiyoyusdohai) idupi. Tuka ake wakanhdi to e tiyobogaga, ^a to kii), Wati
house iuto they dragged him. But again lightning blue that nouse lighted, and blue the, My house
takumna, eya hiijhda pa tin uya, tuka kata ehpeyapi ka tiyoyusdohai)
smells. saying suddenly head house in thrust, but they beat him to death and dragged him in-
idupi. Tuka ake wakarjhdi zi e tiyobogaga, urjkai) ptap zi e, Wati takumna,
to ttie But again lightning yellow that house illumed, and otter yellow that. My smells
house. house
eya pa tin uya, tuka kata ehpeyapi ka tiyoyusdohai) idupi. Ake wakanhdi
saying head house in thrust, but they beat him to death and dragged him into the house. Again lightning
wai) ska e tiyobogaga, uijkai) ptai) waij ska pa tin uya, tuka kata ehpeyapi
one white that house shinetlin, then otter one white head house thrust. but tliey beat him to death
is in
^a tiyoyusdohai) idupi. Hehai) ptai) sape dii) hee ku, uqkai), Timdo he
and nouse in dragging took him. Then otter black the that is came, and, Brothers that
edoT) eya e heden niyake yuzapi. Hehan tai)k6itkupi ^og okatai) he dilfoi)
did it she said that so that alive tney took it. Then : sister theirs the fastened that was
ikai) kii) owasii) bapsakapi ka ite kii) hdi t^D owasir) kiyuzaza l^a hdokupi.
thongs the all they cut and face the sores the all for washed and brought home,
Ka ptai) kir) nakui). Heden hdipi hehan iyotai) taqksitkupi kii) tai)yai)
And otter the also. So came home then most sister theirs the well
awarjhdakapi ; ka nakui) ptai) kii) niyake taqyai) yuhapi. Tuka ohii)ni
watched over theirs ,' and also otter the alive well they kept. But always
iyokisida ka ididowai) da heya ede keyapi : Hepai) dii)ye, Hepai) dii)ye,
sad and sang-hiniself when this said always, they 9ay : Haypaq brotJiers, Haypai| brothers.
oiyakapte tokeda uijkoi)pi kte epe dii) anamayagoptai)pi sni ka miye hii)
ladle another we use should I said the me you listened to not and mo hair
sida omakaptapi ye, Hepai) diriye, Hepai) dii)ye, eya ididowai) edee.
bad me they nave spared, Haypai) brothers, Haypai) brotliers, saying he sung to himself always.
Ui)kai) hediyapi, keyapi : Tai)yai) edauyyedonpi e oi) tai)yai) ui)niyuhapi
And this they said to, they say : Well to us you did therefore well we-you-have
«rt'aiuki| kin rn, I'^'iyani ; j4 r«>k«^'it> hi&i| -^la :%^n %iiinaii "-ff^f^B. - anii
liIlN: 'rair
ks» ot\ ♦H'iyaiii. (Jijkuij, Ifo. Tokir^'ir) a'juui ^ai-iri •-»'. -• .4 «v#fruiL '^r
iWt'aiMll to
r. ^-t-rr.iDi
,jlmU MM ilMit aiMil to Awl. Vnm. ••vwh*r» .:4ft . 'Wi ^ raM .j«t ««r
•On ' hUtt.
Hkv hiinktiyn \\m>, Wiyohpf*y;im Wakaqh^^a l^rai) ^-tiunvaiii -cia
jMiii «■«« ^m MVlli- .Viul lUar«loi« now •u«r «taM. M«a« as -am -ahmhk «*ik^
SifTKH.
L TW cuuue of the myth : TiiHirita ineauM O^t^rn tmtL .inri fnmi rfaat ia a|ipiwd to
ctitf im1 >>c .Aa>' nuuiiiatiii^ aiiiuiul. Taniijl oNtoii ij« rtjif ruiinif of rije upper joint i»f tfae
'^joJl -vritfcv .' >>icts Che InioklMMits and in rf'^anlMi ^im .& fiM'aiiarly iiiirf* little pieee to
miMHiL A.-^ Mc yukikipK it is stiid tii liisloiiu fo rhe old laui^ai^ ;iiul they do aor
ifciiuw ^'tuu: Sx jMrjoi:^ One old woiuau HU|{g«*HtM that yiikiki meauH to twijit or nili
.iMt ir Y'HiM lApeo awQiu deer s-tailtwihted oif. Tliat apfieam to rom^pond \mh the
•i^iMiii 4!V4*a >« s^ ekiesi of the bmthei*H. In ntply to fJakaykayna-H qnestiiHi, \V1io
.vtnfR .*ailinl C ifHJiSJ yukikipi? he replie^l, ^ <Jf idl |N?opltt we only :ure iuale»« aud heni*e
JL J.r ^tr^ti: rOff w«iukl think that the tour youiii; men (uinntitnted the hi>nHehold«
ki«a f-tiar ~!ie v'oiLi^£4ta»£ of those four wa^ culled Ilakaykaynii. But tliat Ih not so.
iliU^av rv.A\"iu ^v u^ >ai:> a ^)^w aud is not oouuted in the/oit/*. He wa«ft the fifths a^ the
i»iM4w- Lfcukay ^V'liiat ievr:v<Arily reiiuire.
I ir *» inmiCTiia* %• iK4e the use of *' misui),'* w.v ifi^untfer brother, uwed by the
r»yii>tM^ii u 'Ueir toUeecivif o.i|«icicy« both in a dii*eet ad<ireMH t^s and also in s{)eaking
.r. iti»k**v^«»vaik. a:.>h> !iie at*?* •• ciiiye,'* oWct hn^tkfr, in rt|ieakin^ of smd to one or
^1 .r IhAnu «t4^'ruits! la h.^r auiautT they use ** tai|ksi«** yoNfi//rr nintrr (of a man), in
ci»nUi4k^ »r II It '-liM j^srL ^A»i >be useis *Miuido«** oMrr hrothrr (of a woman), in her
•ii.fiiMiiro It out o* lil »if 'iliKittL It is hke our use of ** brother*" «uid '' siHter"* without
l.M ptut^vitu * iiv ' t^*in 'liK l^Ak\^ascll»^a\ssay misui|**or **ttiisui)km**audawomaui
.i^-.,» i%\\: • aii'TUi ' uiil - au.lA^^ikA.'* m^t o/iirr jr*«lrr aud mi§ jfi^niij^r jn^t/i^. The
,1'/ i.i».»»itt*-n if iiM :iMi;^iiui*t -a 5fcw* u^*^s of bn^her aud sister, whether older or
/iiM^v. biui Muiftutr if V uiUL H« «\>4ajiu, Alt' well ilhistratetl in this mx-th; bat in
, (,.. »^»i^i^Utn i .m\'n no "UoujL'iQ :: inM^iiul 10 ;idd the n^iirr and the jfouMjirr.
I i!»ir\ rhiiii^ K MiNHihiM ui A :is>;lki«A» iUusfmled by llaka>'kaynaV suddenly
t.^ii.ti..^! .ifaiA**!! uiu I .'!in*k.Mt»!eiW. ASiimsUs ;*Iw;iys have the i^ilt of speech iu
, 1 1».. 'uni .r till .t:»|mvM jriri ai ber Arift*f«>i>tt is wry att^etiujir: ** KnHhers wlh*
.-♦^(•.»' iu»rJ- ixt*! K 4 v'«n' iiiNruiiar i#a«e^ e^pcvt^i^ ^t^naI tcvoy^ *ihI fc>TVk TW
,ti««' * ••••« '* l»*^ *'*"*' '•»' '''•" '•' "^•^ bla»:k ct*;;pf%t oQQer — "* lle|^tim et^>^! Hepu«r
},.^ • n.'.ttiftv liikvrkui: Umilutm UuypaJi* WntdiKiBM^ IlUcett U^ mm^: tt^% L ike
DAKOTA MYTHS. 121
bad-furred one, alone am savetl!^ Hepai), which means the second tton, is the sacTed
name for the otter. — s. B. B.
In the Omaha myth of " The Brothers, Sister, and the Red Bird " (Contr. N. A.
Eth., VI, Pt. I, pp. 219-226), the youngest brother finds a sister in the manner described
in the Dakota myth. In the myth of "Ictinike, the Brothers, and Sister" (Contr. N.
A. Eth., VI, Ft. I, pp. 79-83), the youngest brother finds the sister who had been
carried underground by an elk. — j. o. d.
TRANSLATION.
Behold, thus it was: There were four young men and one who was called Hakay-
kayna. These lived together. And so it was that when they went hunting they made
the youngest one the keeper of the house, and said to him, ** My youngest brother,
don't go anywhere, stay at home." Saying this they went to hunt, and he watched
the house. Now the house they lived in was a very long one, but all around the inside
the packs were piled up on each other, and also there were scaffolds on the outside,
for every day they brought home all kinds of wild animals, and so they had a great
abundance of meat.
And so, on a time, they went out to hunt and Hakaykayna watched the house,
but when he was lonesome he went out to cut arrow sticks, and when something
pierced his foot that it was very sore he started home. When he reached the house
he opened the sore place, and, lo ! he took out a girl baby.
And on account of this Hakaykayna, sad of heart, wrapped a blanket around it
and laid it back and so was silent. "Oh that it might grow up ! " he thought, and so
was sad of heart until all his brothers came home from the hunt. He had always
been glad when they came home, but it was not so now. Tbey judged something had
made him sad, and so they said to him, "My brother, what makes you sad of heart?
If anyone has done anything to you, tell us." But he said, " No one has (U)ne anything
to me, but I have seen what makes me heart-sore and silent." And they said, "What
is it!" And he said, "Brothers, when you went away I was lonesome and went out
to cut arrow sticks, and something stabbed my foot and it was very sore, so that I
came home. When I reached home and took it out, it was a baby that I pulled out;
and it was a girl baby, perhaps. ^Oh, that it might grow up!' I thought, and on that
account I am heart-sore."
And his brothers said, "Where is it!" So he took it up and showed it to them,
and they passed it from one to another, and said, "Oh, that it might grow up !" Then
Hakaykayna said, "My brothers, come, let us whirl it around the house." So they
took it up and threw it out of the roof hole and it whirled around and fell down. But
now it was a creeping baby and came in crying. Again they took it up and whirled
it as before, and then she came in walking, a little girl. But again they took her up
and threw her, and she came in a girl bringing sticks of wood, which she placed on the
fire. But again they took her up and threw her as before. This was the fourth time
they whirled her, and then she came with a back-load of wood. She untied the strap
and came in the house and sat down.
Then they asked, "What relation shall she be to us?" And one said, "My
youngest brother found her, let him take her for his wife." But Hakaykayna said,
"No, that shall not be so." And they said, "What then shall be her relation to us!"
IIAKtiTA iniAMMML TKXtU xSU ETH^V^^ELiPffT,
4ai£ 9iifQ»i^^»ir^l M^vtM^ul riorum of rt^UuUtnmki^t, fUtt f^MkaricaifTtt dvi
- "^^luillihMi,^ 1 W\ AiUtl, **Mbiill Wi* lm%'«f i«4er Ufrl^ Wf»jvt #to 7#i« vjurf* Jkad far
-tiiiii;. " 1%i$i %iiK' «>Mlif lifter UM, litt iu» havi* Uter Um yftmmfftr ^nrntrS' Thej all aud.
*« ITliia at$L liM" )¥[\i|WMr tbiiitf." tiii tlwy msuUt \%mr % \mti '4S»d pkm»i ber in xhm bsm± port
l^ftflit ^dK" iriMi v^ry AkilllHil in iii^ilie nriil ^inill irr#rk« .ihc* #;niliniidemi <|aiT«i9w
imiwiimiitHK l^-wifr Akr^thH^ and varvyiuu-f^ra^m Uir tkusm^ ho that ihiry ^rvtarir nqaicML
^"^hnii t^^ mxsr^ to f^\ nut biiiitinic they KSiiily '^5ow. my broclMT* irafieli or«r 4»
nr «f«h *** 1^1 wImw 1i«^ tnt^w tirtnif liis Hi&iil^ '^ 5«fw iiMtcr, #lo yoa watielu I will go and
•ftt » 4mHii. BtXTi^^ siirk«** He w««tit aiitl mmii ramie bstf^k, Imt biM jmhUst was not tiiei«.
}|#« ^lUi^ftfi Kitr had p>)H> fi>T u littlt* whili^. ami mt wair^vi f^tr hf»r tn come home But
w riwt ^ti minH i>«^ ^%r « long whilo, lio w««fit fii hniit hi^r. ^ot ftnding b^. he came
:ii ifiail. vnitiR^: mtfaS lii$ iM^Uhoi^ eaini* bcMnn and M»iid to him, '^ Xy brother, where is
ipKfHT^^" ^^lltnv ^ Tulvl llnem about it, tlit^y miid, ^* AlaM, alaN! where bae oar sist^
.^cwwV'* VVitt^ oxlHNi vuMK^l and it became (hirk, and F{akay kayna cried and the broth-
>«e»^sil 'Ttft*! wt:;! ^ata
niwi riiM iniif^c ^^M" $akl« ** My bn)therH, mtop crying, Hoon it will be morning;
( tiia>j<f^uiil Mm*^! :m^ 4mu21: mi^ will then nee what haM made ua cry.'' 4o now when the
tiineniuc^ >ainit ^li«y '♦cvurtif^l ^mf to eaeh of the four wiiidn, and they went all over the
.-n^n^L \\ui vtinn rtttiey i^Hiad her not, they were very Mad and cnt off their hair as
VFiiKfi itiHV lliul*' «(«euriif%i lo hunt for her Ilakaykayna every day went abroad and
t^aiiMfi itnitinl MnMiitf, ^^ae day« aOer crying artMind, he fell aaleep, and lo! on
•vviiOAi^ ^l^ )^ iitt»iTt ^imKooe crying ^>mewhere. Hut n«>t hearing it distinctly he
t'v^fiii i^>k lAc^n inil ;iinl ^iiKit£ <ao iu Then, lo! iMiniewhere he heanl a woman wail oat
a . jw» 'fTTfuf, • IliTirtim'Hv whi* :jmw wiUetl TaHintay<N>k<^'ki«e|>ee; brothers, who once
««M jAe iMr .'fftiilnrtv. rhc tiinr ^i^tj^^saiMis I have had a hard tinie.*^ This he heard and
*iil-. -*Vif!! ftiai. tfiHmif no \ht ^^$X9€ jwnnewhen*;" and w he started home crying.
W\,$»u iii»-:i«nvert inH-liiTit;i!KrM^«fni^ttHi»: Iml he H4d<l, ••My limthers, cea!HMind boil the
«f£i«tt ^f" <Mtl iniiU ^nnn ?foupi'^ ^llM^y i'^ioketl and ate. Then Ilakaykayna said,
-ifiy »enf t»erit> wtui nn diey wiiM* ^nw ealknl TasiutaymikeekeepeeT** The eldest one
.«Mr«4%r#B« '* \f bil jienplH wh <»ai,y durv^ ;ft]il uaaKv^ and hence are so tilled. But why do
^o ..Mb. ; iiiu:'*" Uiii liH -Kwit -^^ C brtiiini ;* wmiian wail out that a.^ she cried*** ••Alas,
,i44ii« i^iu (4 «1•^^l»tJM' 'lur -HHtxtr.*^ Qbi^y ::»m4^ ami lhe> st^aal in the Are* Bat Hakay-
mM^it^t t%u%^ -llfmber?^ «ttmMi:. if ifii£if««i nl^ is vmr ?MstiM' s^die is ali\*e and we shall per-
Jtvm^ nijfefi Itft iiMimini^tsuintt tribe."^ w^mti iM^ sl%)i«kt v^itl^ him where lie had he^urd
VkM- ^U'd-i . ii- HMi^ - V:*i*H ritii^ \t^ \v\im*H li buMM^t it"^ t^kiv^ the^Y heanl her a^^aui s«iy^
- 4.^. .Uii-^4«<f» 'faser* iDti riit^v M uin»d; It^ |l|;i^k,t^xk.i^M^ ^i^tMi^u ^^''^S^uyk w^ s)tt^
,4MmA Mr lor Hif«r a » jiai^ <'^ <v <iUvV(v ^untJ^ ll wiJl^ ^^m^^ IMn; tbrtOk"^ ^ :$^iiit^ Ib^
tiMMsfitA .Atiumkt nio L 'iiidtoUiilitsbM 4Jid: Wt|l|i( i^l: ^IH^A SiJiW IM^ :MNHMt lty<i)V^ ^i^h. ll«ff
.Mii*«> 7 .Ajtf^ftiArt aui irr^aA3ft iwvt»rmi wirii im>»?<. bW Wi^hitM^ ^m lN*f< biril ^<£ifi: tuHi
DAKOTA MYTHS. 123
**My sister, it is I." She said, " Brother, let us go home." But he said, '* Presently,
my sister. We have now found you. Tell all about it," And she said, '* Brother,
the otters brought nie home. They dug from within the earth, and made a hole up
to where I was and dragged me in. Then they closed up the hole in the eiirth so that
you could not find me."
When she had said this, he said, ''Yes, 1 will go for my brothers." WMien he
came home to his brothers,' he said, "It is our sister." And they went with him.
And they came to a house that was stretched <mt very hmg, outside of which their
sister was placed with her four limbs fastened. Then she said, "My brothers, I have
been now four seasons in this suft'ering state, but 1 am still alive, as you see me. That
is owing to one thing, of which I will tell you. There are five kinds of otters here;
one is red, one is blue, one is yellow, one is white, and one is black. It is l)ecause of
the last one that I am alive, brothers. When they boiled fish and thn^w out the
bones they emptied the bones and the hot soup upon me, so that I am burned by the
heat, and the bones pierced me so that my face is all sore. That is the reason of my
being so. But when the black otter came to empty out the bones he would put into
my mouth some of the meat and of the soup also. On account of that you see me
alive. Therefore my desire is that the black otter may live."
"When the evening comes then they return from their hunts. When the red
one comes he makes red lightning shimmer through the house ; when the blue one
comes he lights up the house with blue lightning ; when the yellow one comes he
makes yellow lightning shoot through the house; when the white one comes he make
white lightning shine through the house."
Now, when her brothers had made themselves war clubs they took their stations
at each side of the door of the long himse. Now it came to pass when the red light-
ning gleamed through the house and the red otter ])ut his head in at the door and
said, "My house smells of something," then they killed him and drew him inside the
house. Then, again, the blue lightning gleamed through the house, and as he said,
*'My house smells of something,^ he put in his hea<l, but they killed him and drew
him into the house. The yellow lightning gleamed through the house, and the yellow
otter, saying, "My house smells of something," pushed in his head, but they killed
him and pulled him into the house. By and by a white lightning gleamed through
the house and a white otter pushed in his head, but they killed him also and drew
him into the house. Then the black otter came home, and the sister said, "That is
the one that did it." So they took him alive. Then they cut all the cords that bound
their sister and washed the sores on her face, after which they took her and the otter
to their home. Now, when they had come home they watched over their sister better,
and they t<iok good care of the otter that they saved alive. But he was always sad of
heart, and as he sung to himself, he said, *' Brothers H ay ])an! Brothers Haypan! I
said we ought to use a dift'erent ladle; you did not listen to me, and I, the bad-furred
<me, alone am saved. Brothers Haypan ! Brothers Hay])an !"
And they said this to him, " Y^ou did well to us, and therefore we want to treat
you well, but if you are going to be always sad of heart, you shall do what pleases
you; if you want to go where you please, so yim shall do." And he said, ''Yes, I
want to be free to go where I please." And they said to him, "(ro, you shall be
called the Western Child Otter." And they let him go.
Therefore they say it is that now there are only black otters.
CHEE-ZHON, THE THIEF.^
WBfrXl.» t% UMJLiJlA HT JaUMA ifAXrOL
lTj\nuj kaken wjwazica waij ciijliiijiku kia ti kevajn. Waqna
}K>ki^idaj| kitaijna taijka heliaii faurjku kii) heva iwaijga: Ciq4, waiina
btfj Uttk iarpir Um» ■thtf-k» t^ tkMMdi iiUBiiiiit Mj-mm wrm
wi^>haij duhe kta i yeliaqtm he<r^u tukte vi icohai) iyonieipi kta ive^eca he,
eya. Heliaii hoki^idaij kjij L^, Waiuanoijpi t^X ^^'^ Hehan hnqkn kiq
Leva: Oiij^, wicohai) kiij he ivotaq tehike wada ^oq, eva. Tuka ake
Oik^Mid: Kuu. wvrfc tbr tliM 'mm diftc«k I -• . -
iiakuij yuhe kta keya; ]fSi heva: Howo eca ma, wanagi tip! ekta ve ^
tukte wii^ohaij mdulie kta hei(^iij}iaij inn^waqga wo, eva.
which work 1 lure ftkiill it «r t ' ' - • -
Hehau huqku kiq iyaya. Tuka Oizai} duzahaq nakae^ ohomni iQyaqg
TIM'S boUho- bis tht «ent tliiU>«r. B«t Ckee-xke« rvift rairri annBd ruBii^
iyaye ('a iye tokaheya ekta i, ^ waiiagi kiq hewi^akiya: £^ ina den lii
"went and tie fir»t * tbere ar- nad cbcMto the tU»-to-tbc»-«iU : T a to - ■■»1mt ken ommi
rired.
Ip wi6ihaq tukte mduhe kta iniwaq^pi kiqhaq, wamanoqpi s'a eya po;
Mild work which I -have shaU inqaim of jron iC atealiag nnjalarlj aay-ye;
eye ^a hdi(^u ^a hdi. Hehan itehaq hehan huqku kiq <^eva hdi. Hehan
he^aaid and atarted aod cauie Then leog-after then aMitbcr-hIa tke trying rmmn Thtm
booie home. koae.
Cizai) hey a: Ina, taku wi^ohai) mal{:upi he, eya. Hehan huqku kiq is
Cbee-zhoD tbU »aid: Mother, what work me-tbej-^re f heaald. Then noClMr-hia tke abe
heya: Oiij6, wi(?ohai) kiij he nina tehike wada ^foi), eva. Tuka heva:
thia'Mid: Son, work the that rery hard I-eaieemed that, akeaaM. Bat tkla-he^aid:
Howo, ina, inina yanka wo, tokesta waqna ecadaq wiui)zi6e kta ee, eya.
Well. mother, aileot bethoa, preaently now aoon we-rieb will , beanid.
^a heliaji tokiya iyaya. Uijkai) e<^iyataghai) sugtaqka^ waQzi ahdi. Ake
And then aomewnere he went. And from-thence bone one be-bitmsbt- Again
' Though stories resembling this are found in many countries of the Old World, it has been
thought bent to retain the story of Cheezhon to show how the Dakota adopt stories of foreign origin.
A version of Jack the Giant-killer has been adopted by the Omaha — J. o. D.
* l^uktaijka or i$ni)ktat)ka is the usual Santee form of this word. — j. o. D.
124
DAKOTA MYTHS. 125
tokiya iyaya eda ediyataij pte, \aji tahir)(5a ska, ^ai^ taku wanuqyanpi
somewnere went then from-thence cow, or deer white, or some cattle
hedekden awidahdi e^ee.
thna them-bronght- always,
home
Ihnuhaijnah huqku otorjwe e<5iyatai) hdi, urjkar) heya: Oiqs, hariyetu
* Suddenly mother-his village from came home, and thisnaid: Son, night
kiq de wida^tayatapi tawidu mazanapdupe tawa kir) iyacu ^iii kii)hai)
the this chief wife-his finger-ring hers the yon take not if
hai)haqna wiyotaijhai) kir)hai) pa niyuksapi kta, keyapi, tka eye, ta deya.
tomorrow noon if head they break off will, they'Say, bnt she said, and cried.
for yoii
Tuka iyoki 6ni lj:a heya : Ina, inina yar)ka wo, he takusni <5e. Ka waijna
Bnt permitted not and this said: Mother quiet be [sit thou], that nothing-is And now
htayetu tuka iye wokoyake tawa l^eya widasta iyeden opugitor) eda hehaq
evening bnt ne clothes his even roan like stuffed when Ihen
daijiyamanipi wai)zi ka^a; ]j:a hehan war)ua hai)yetu tuka widasta kage 6ii)
ladder one made; and then now night bnt man made the
he daqiyaraanipi iyahna idu lj:a ekta i. Hehan darjiyamanipi eden ehde da
that ladder with took and there went. Then ladder so placed when
wakaT)tkiya ye (Ja owaqye ohena timahen etoi)war) ; urjkar) wida^tayatapi
upward went and window through house- within looked; and chief
kii) mazakaq ptededai) napanuqkataijhar) yuha istirjma wai)ka. Tuka
the gun short hands-both-with had sleeping lay. Bnt
owaqye pakokog pawar)kar)-iyeya eda pezi widasta ka^e dir) he owaijye
window rattling shoved-np when grass mnn made the that window
ohna yuza. Hehan widastayatapi oguq^a ta kute. Tuka pezi widasta
in held. Then chief waked and shot. But grass man
kage dilfoi) kii) he o, nakaeS kun yuhpa ehpeya ; ta hehan tin iyaya.
made had the that hit, indeed down threw it threw it and then house-in he went.
down away ;
thought
Tuka iduqhaq wida^tayatapi kte kedir) hear) kun iyaya. Tuka iduqhaij
But whilst chief killed he thought therefore down he- went. But in-the-mean-
time
Cizar) widastayatapi tawidu kii) hediya: Mazanapdupe kiq he hiyu
Chee-xhon chief wife-his the this-sald-to : Finger-ring the that to-oome
makiya wo, Cizar) hee sni, tuka wakte de, eya. Ui^kai) ^u ; tuka idu eda
to-me-cause, Chee-zhon that whs not, but I-killed , he said. And she-gave; but took when
kun hdidu.
down he-came.
Hehan widastayatapi tin hdidu Ija tawidu hediya: Mazanapdupe kiq
Then chief house-in came and wife-his this-saJd-to: Finger-ring the
hiyu makiya wo, Cizaij hee ^ni tuka wakte de, eya. Tuka is heya : Naka
to-€ome to-me-cause, CheA-shon that was not but I-kille<1 , he said. But she this^said: But>just
war)na heha 6ei di(Ju sece diljioq, eya. E, he Cizaq ee tka yaku do, eya.
now that- you- since I-gave- it seems in the she said. Well, thst Chee-zhon was but you-gave- , he said,
said to-you paat, it-to-him.
Tuka iduqhai) waqna Cizaij ki, ka huqku kiq hediya: Iho! dede-
But in-the-roeantime now Chee-zhon reached- and mother-his the this-said-to: Lo! this-
home
hnana tuka he taku oq deya yaui) he eya, lj:a hehan mazanapdupe kii) ku.
is-all but that some- for crymg you were f he-said, and then flnger-ring the gave-
thing n'^r.
Hehan warina ake kitaqna tehaij hehan hurjku otogwe ekta i, uqkaq
Then now again little long then mother-his town to went and
nakuq ake deya hdi. Ur)kai) Cizaq heya: Ina, de taku yaka he; de
also again crying came home. And CheezhoD this said : Mother this what you mean t this
12K DAKOTA liRAMMAB, TEXT* AND ETHNOGEAPHY.
wniizirt- -ni kiij htt^hiiij kiu*s yareye sni: «Ie winizica uijkai) e^^sn) ceya
V luii !if. ^ya. Qefian huqkii kiij heva: Ciijs, hai}tnke wirastayatapi kiij
tfiu-An- ..^-^mMi. TbvB totitfMK^kta rlu* rhii* Maul. S<m. Dow-indftnl rhief
ivr- liii)ra wihiiwtf hi kra keya tnk^ eya. Flehan Ciiiii) lieya: Imu is he
nitii Mii «lo. »-va: ka hei'-elmana rotaijka ('istniua waij kaji^H yai}ka ra vustaij.
•MHoc-tb'.cj: 3««( :>r«.u«l oDti rhjt ji«mf whixtl^ ninall «■• makinc wan (k«i.'> whra1i»-llau«lMP«l.
Hehan ht-ya: Iiia. nt^upa waijzi we okastai) ka o^hohda iuiaheiitai)hai) lU}
Thrti r|ui**4aitf !Uiot)i«-r z^x »»n*- >tliiii»i {ion r in aofl rlothm vailKseath flrvm rrmmr
w«.: ht-iVu '.whan hi kiijhaij isaij kiij de oi) rapa ihf*t'iye kta, tokeHta ta^apa
rban <* vtnv V-rwoi' t knit^ ch*» thm with <4ratihiD{; I««trikchyoa will. iadeMl ^S
kir} ht- "-iwaiKf kta. ht-iVii ht- we kiijhai) rikte keeii) kta ce: esta hehan
"tat *t^t I »<ab wilL «o that itlcvwl if I-y<m-kill h**-rhink will trat thmu.
Tohsiu ••«»r;iiika kiij 'le iiHiazoZo kiijhaij naziij yahicUule kta re, eya. Hehan
vhr« wtiJ.Tl* -tf Tt.i* I-J»l«w .*ft»^ If vou rif*** to rixir ff^t will hr'aaid. Thm
wai)na wiyotaijhari hehan wirastayatapi kii) tin hiyu, tiika huijku rapa
now mwa tlim chit-t th«* hoiiae in camr. bar looCbfr-hia ntai»
ih»-va wanv.ika. Ht-luin wir-a>tayata])i kii) heya: Hoera (Mzai), v^dnitkotkoka
br-:ii'rs<tT mtiw T^H-n •■hir-f rh** tbintaid: Astimiahimr Chrexbon. yna-fiwl
t-1-t-t- ^ta akt- iiakahake ^t-ein-r-a, eva.
I'likai.i < izai) is heya: I>e taku yaka he: <h- mis ina niwakive kta
Aad ' 'iM-frii'tfi 3^ Ttiti* '«ajNi Tlii!» what yrni mi^n ' thin I rotrthfr I-hrinir-toWip wrill
bet-amon. rva: ka «'«»rai)k;iiia]) kii) ehdakii ei'a ayazozo, uijkai) hui)kii kii)
-bi» T-fMi br*«aid xac w*u«rL^ •-«inaili tht* t4H>k-a)> hiM wh«*ii whiMlM-^m. and motbrr-his the*
ujiziii liivaviL Ht-liaii wirar^rayatapi kir) heya: Cizai), he rnazaska ton:i
^nr rttm- x*> *t»^ rtt^ Tbrti •*hi«'t' rbr thia-taiii . Cb<*exhon. that nMm«;T buw manr
i\ ah«liiw:i hfr-. «'va. Hehan ^'vhw) is heya: Hehe ile ota iyopewaye hei'eii
ri»u i<«nuit voTtr -'4«;il rbrn < brezlwn hf* Tlu* :«ai«i AIum' rliiM mii<*h i-|Miy-fur im
wivoix-wava wjriii Mii «•*- eva. K«'*iij mis tohan rnwe ta esta niye manipi
t-^iil. lu^nt 3<>T iv «aiil F'T I whrn inv on** (iead jltbim^h iaak«* rtmumma^
livf nar
kinhaii 'tr "ii uiwav*- kra nakaes he<^ij tewnhiijila re. eya. Tuka toua
A 'tnh n-T>. ; -n&hrivt X-.] indr^. rhrn-t»rH I pnza^-it bt^Haitl. Bat manr-aA
hinea ih^lawi t-*ra iv*-na ku kta keya. Heeen mazaska opawiiJiVe zaptaij
rfn iir- ■iiiiuT"' i:: tii«u:ii -"• maziv .•• jirt- w«»akL he takl. Sn mitBrv biiaiirpil nr©
<tl» i>«"l!
kt;u keva. Inkai). H«», eye. ka iyeiia ku ka akiyahda.
n.H It <tm\ ±iit: Vt^. :h* «>«ul. iml •*» many itur.v ami tm»k it htinMr.
Heliiiii "V iTe i»wasiii wirakii'u ei*a raku waijzi ecoij kta, keya. Het'en
rbfn ••»^*p*- Jk.i. 'hroi !i*-oallf-ii *rln*n ^mwthinjc <»nt» ht»-«l«i wi»nW. hr -^ajil. S«
wit-asra :raij**:u} «»ta t-n hipi. Hehan waijiia et'-oi) kta keye riij wjujmi
nvn •'!:)i-i ouax 'In-n- '-amf. rhtti miw ilo wimhl h«^-«iii rtir now
i\ ehaiini. hehan rawieii rn hinazii) si t-t-a he i'-a|>e ka kte e:5ta ake kiiiive
^t-waa-timr 'bna «-:tt^iu« ^).vrt :•> «t Q«i i^mi- whrn that 4ta)» utd kill aitb«Ku:h acaui Bake\iv«*
naan«i<^
kni keva, *-t*a «-a]»e ka kte. Hehan i-otai)ka«hn) kii) ayazozo yai)k<i« tuka
v^iHiM Ht ^«i. ibrn !mHtahiif«i .-UNi ik.il]«^l Hira omall '• whi»tlr tb** hr-iifew^m-it ■«•<) waft. Ii«t
htH*t»n ni wanka wanke. Hehan nina i*ai)ze hiijra.
m» .lt^a«l l^itii lax- ^a^ V.ynti tnnrli ht-ari hurt x-«»r\
Helian I'izan hunku is-iyatanhai) htli. ka, rh)s, haijhaijua waijmu
Pt«ii ('h«^rhon riH4hrr!:i« in«ni th«<r** oamc bioiir. 4n*L S«m. tn-tb«*^nMCBiAC tbaa
wocuha *>hna ininin t»hpt»niyai)pi kta, kevapi tuka, eva. Tuka Ciz;u), Ha!
.a n<«aitr \\h\ \.«.itlin>« «%ill. tlM<> %«\ 'mt. ^bc «aMi But Cbc^'iou. Ha:
DAKOTA MYTHS. 127
ha! ilia, is he taku sni do eya. Hehan wai)na liaijharina wiyotaijhai) ui^kaq
ba! mother, thiBthat some- not . he said. Theu now morning noon and
thing
wicastayatapi kiq hi eea akiyahcla. Ilehan waT)iia ki(H ki, hehan akidita
chief the come when took-him home. Then now with went then soldiers
home.
wozuha waijzi maheii oliiiag wi<?asi, ka miiiin ehpeya wieasi : ka waijiia
bag one within place them com- and water-in throw-him tlieni com- and now
manded. manded :
dial) wozuha en olinaka ka ayapi ka ikiyedaij aipi, hehan wi(?astayatapi
Cheezhon bag in placed and took and iiear-to carried liirn. then chief
kii}, Ito widakido ka akiyalida. Helian tuwe tahiijca ska iyasana
the, Hold, them call and take him homo. Then »orae one deer wliite shouting to
nahoq. Hehan Cizaij heya hiijhda: Widastayatapi duijwiijtku kidi uypi
he heard. Then Cheezhon Maid this suddenly: Chief daughter-his with being
wadii} sni ! Wida^tayatapi duijwiijtku kidi uijpi vvaciij sni ! eya yaijka.
I-want not! Chief daughter-his with l>eing I- want not! he-saying *(sat) was.
Hehan tahir)<5a ska awaijyake dii) en hi ka heya: De taku yaka he.
Then deer white watcheil-over the there came and this said : This what you mean f
Ur)kai) heya: He de widastayata])i duijwiijtku wai) kidi wauij kta keyapi,
And this-he said: That this clile'f daughter-his one with I-be shall they say,
ka widawada sni tuka ekta ainayaijpi ce, eya. Uqkar) hedehnana wicasta
and 1-wilIing not but there me-they-take . he said. And imme<liately man
kiij heya : Howo, miye e inde kta ce, eya. Hehan, Koyahaijna wo eca, eya.
the, this^said: Well, I that I-go will , he*^8aid. Then, * Hurry thou now, hesaid.
Hehan widaj^ta kiij wozuha kohaijna yuska iyeya, ka Cizaq naziij
Then men the bag quickly untied tore it,' and Cheezhon standing
hiyaya; ka wicasta kiij isto ohna ))ahta ehpeya, eca tahinda ska wanuqyaqpi
wen\: and man the himnow in tied they put him, then deer white tame animals
owasii) daqmahen kahain ewicayaya, ka hediya un yaijka.
all woodinto driving them took. and thert* wrh (sat) continued.
Hehan wai}na kitaijna tehaij hehan tahiijca wanuijyaypi optaye kii)
Then now little long then deer tame animalH tlock the
owasiij widastayatapi ti kiij en awicahdi, ka heya: Ho, car|nar)wapa
all 4'hief house the to them-bronght-home, and this said: Yes. far-out-in- the- water
ehpemayayapi uijkaijs heciya sugtaqka totopi ka tataijka kiij is he kiij
younie-haithrown if there horse blue-one^s and oxen the they horns the
inazaskazizipi tuka ce, eya. Hehan widastayatapi kiij lieya: Cizai), heceya
golden-ones but he-said. Then chief the this said: C'heezhon, so
widayaka he, eya. Hehan (-izaij; Ho, heceya widawaka ce, eya. Helian
are you true .' he »aid. Then Cheezhon, Yes, ho I-am-true ho said. Then
akidita tuwe token okihi ininin ehpeiviyapi waijka. Hehan e(kui wida^taya-
soldiers whoever so was-able into- water tlirew themselves (lay) were. Then so chiel"
tapi is eya minin ehpei(^iya ka ininin U\, keyapi. Heden Cizaij iye ni
he also in the water threw himself and in water died, they -say. So Cheezhon himself lived
naceda.
probably.
TRANSLATION.
There was once a widow who bad a son. When the boy was well grown bis
mother inquired what trade or business would suit him. The boy replied that he
would like to be a robber. The mother said she very much disliked that business.
But the boy repeated that he would have that, and then proposed to his mother to go
•Iyeya doe« not mean **to tear/' but conveys tb** idea of forcible or Huddeu action. — J. o. D.
128 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
and ask the spirits. While she was groiug on this errand he went around and reached
the house of spirits first, and he instructed them how to answer his mother.
The mother came home crying. When the boy asked her what employment had
been assigned to him, she had to reply, "The work that I think difficult.'' But the
boy said, "Never mind, mother, soon we will be rich.'' Then he went away and
brought home a horse; find again he brought home cows, sheep, and all kinds of
domestic animals.
One day his mother came home from the village crying, and told her son of a
plan to take oft' his head the next day at noon if he did not get iwssession of the chiers
wife's finger ring. He told her to be quiet, and said, " That is nothing." Then in
the evening he took his own clothes and stuffed them. He made a ladder, and taking
the stuifed man and the ladder he went to the chief's house. The ladder he placed
upright and looked in at a window. The chief was lying asleep with a pistol in his
hands. As the young man shoved up the window he held in it the grass man. The
chief was waked by the noise and fired his pistol. Cheezhon, which was the young
man's name, let fiill the grass man, a-nd while the chief went to seek the man he
supposed he had killed, Cheezhon made his way to the chamber, and said to the
chief's wife, "Hand me the finger ring; that was not Cheezhon, but I have killed
him." Whereupon she gave it, and he took it home. Afterwards the chief came in
and said to his wife, "Hand me the finger ring; that wa« not Cheezhon, but I have
killed him." To which she replied, " It was but just now you said that, and I gave
up the ring." To which he said, " Really, that was Cheezhon, and you gave it to him
after all!"
In the meantime Cheezhon reached his home, and saying to his mother, " See,
this is what you cried for," he handed her the ring.
Sometime after this his mother came home from the village again crying, when
Cheezhon said, "Mother, what do you meant When we were not rich you did not
cry, but now we are rich you are always crying." On which the mother said, " My
son, the chief said that he himself would come and take you." But Cheezhon made
light of this also, and said, "Mother, that is nothing." In the meantime he went on
making a small whistle, which he finished. Then he told his mother to fill a large
entrail with blood and put it under her clothes. "'When he comes," said he, "I will
stab you with this knife, but I will only run it into the entrail, but as there will be
blood he will think I have killed you; and when I blow on this whistle you will stand
up again."
On the morrow at noon the chief came and saw Cheezhon stab his mother. He
was much astonished, and said, " Cheezhon, you were always a fool, but this beats all
the rest." But ( 'heezhon replied, " What do you mean by saying that! I have done
this that 1 may l)ring my mother to life again." So he took up his whistle and blew
ui)on it, and his mother stood up.- The chief then oft'ered him any sum he might name
for the whistle. But Clu^ezhon said, "I have paid a great sum for the whistle, J^nd I
do not want to sell it. When anyone asks me to bring back to life one who is dead, I
can do it by means of this, so I value it very highly." But the chief repeated that he
would give him any sum, and Cheezhon named five hundred dollars.
This was given and the whistle tiiken home. Then the chief called all the people
together, and said he would do a thing. Then all the principal men came, and the
DAKOTA MYTHS. J 29
chief proposed to stab his wife, kill her, and then restore her to life. When he had
stabbed her and killed her he blew his whistle over her to bring her to life, but she
lay there dead.
He was thereupon much enraged. Then Cheezhon's mother came home and told
him that in the morning they planned to pnt him in a bag and cast him in the water.
But he laughed and said, "Mother, that is nothing."
It came to pass the next day at noon the chief came and took Cheezhon home
with him, and commanded his soldiers to put him into a bag and cast him into the
water. And when they had placed him in the bag and carried him^along and were
now near to the place, the chief said, "Call them and take him home."
Just then Cheezhon heard some one calling siieep, whereupon he cried out,
"I do not want to live with the chief's daughter! I do not want to live with the
chiefs daughter!" So the shepherd came and said, "What do you mean!" Said
Cheezhon, "They say I must live with a daughter of the chief, and I am not willing;
nevertheless, they are taking me there." The shepherd replied, "I will go." So they
tore open the bag, released Cheezhon, and bound the other man whom they put in
the bag.
In the meantime the flock of sheep was scattered, and Cheezhon, having his lib-
erty, drove them to the woods and there kept them.
After some time he brought the whole flock back to the chief's house and said,
"If you had thrown me far out into the water there would have been blue horses and
oxen with horns of gold." Then the chief said, "Are you indeed telling the truth!"
And Cheezhon said, "I am indeed telling the truth." Then the soldiers, as fast as
they were able, cast themselves into the water (to find the blue horses and the oxen
with horns of gold). And the chief also, they say, threw himself into the water and
was drowned. Thus Cheezhon saved himself.
7105— VOL IX 9
THE YOUNGER BROTHER; OR, THE UNVISITED ISLAND.
Wriiten in Dakota by M. Renville.
Ovate waq kaken tipi. Uqkai) en wi(5astayatapi waq <5ii)da yamni,
People one so lived. And then chief one children three,
hena hoksindaijtkiyapi. Nom widapi ka waqzi wiqyai). Uijkai) tokapa kiij
these boys beloved. Two males and one female. Then eldest the
he tawidutoi), heden suqkaku kiq hduha. Uijkar) haijkaku kiq ena sigedu
that Mrife-histook, so that younger- the he-had Then sisterin-law-his the then brotherin
brother-his his own. law-hers
kiq nagiyeya: Urjwaqke kte, eya kes, Hoho, diqyewaye diq misnana
the troubled: We-twolie together will, she-said although, No indeed, older A)Tother-mine the me-alone
temahirida, tokeq iwakihaha kta he, eya e6ee, keyapi.
thinks-much-of-me, how I-makehim- shall f he said always, they say.
ashamed
Ur)kar) kaketu : Wiqyai} tor) daq ^q i tin hdi(5u ]j:a heya ; Side, ito
And thus-it-waa: Woman the wood carry went house came home and this said; Brother- lo
in iU'law,
Siyo Ifeya kaq yukaqpi de, wai>zi makio ye, eya. Tuka, Ho, miye
Sjouse many yonder are , one shoot for-mo, she said. But, Not-so, I
nahahiq vvida^ta waoka hemada sni, tuwe tokeda kute yasi sni, eya. Tuka
as-yet man good-shooter such-me not, someone else shoot you-com- not, he-said. But
mand
diijdu kii), War)zi kio wo, eye, e heden waqhiijkpe ikikdu i:a iyaye ^a waqzi
brother- the. One forher-kill. said, that so that arraws betook and went and one
his
kio, ta, Hee de, idu wo, eye, ^a iduqom iyaya. Uqkar) wiijyaq \ox) ku ka
for-her- and. That is it, take it, he said, and to another- went. Then woman the is re- and
killed. place taming
deya hdi, ka hihnaku hediya : Nisuqka wadiqtaijka da ohiqni nagiyemayaij
crying has and liusbandher this said to Your younger persistent when always trcubles me
come home, him : brother
de, epa da, detuijmayahda 1j:oq, dena edamaoq de, eye <Ja ^iyo siha kiq oij
, 1 say when, you-medislielieve the, these h«^-has-done-to-me, she said and grouse claws the with
daqna kii} owaqdaya liduhdahdate ^a kipazo. Uijkai) heden widada, Ifa
thifhs the all over she-scratched-herself, and showed-him. And so he-believed-her. and
heya: Uqktomi kido ya po,^ eya. Heden Uqktomi hi. Uijkai), Uqktomi,
this said : Fijktomi to-call-him go ye, he said. So Uqktomi came. Then, (/qktomif
misuqka wita-ipi-sni ekta eehpeya wo, heden taijk^i duze kta de, eya.
my -younger- island they-go-to-not at there-take-and-leave, so sister-mine you have shall , he said,
brother
* Thin use of the plural for the Bingnlar (ya wo, go thou) occurs now and then in myths. — j. o. D.
130
DAKOTA MYTHS. 131
Heden waijna koska koq hdi, uijkaij hedeii Ur)ktomi heye: Sur)g,
So DOW young man the came homo, and thus Uijktomi thiHsaid: Brother,
ito wiijtka pahi uqye siii, eya. Tuka, Iliya, miye-na-hii), tuwe kasta
come eggs to gather we-twogo not, he said. But, No, l-amalone. Home one elae
kici de siii, eya. Uqkar) ciijcu kii), Kici ya wo, eya, Ur)kaq lie<5eu
with you-go not, he Haid. And brotherhis the, With him " go thou, he naid. Then thuB
kici iyaya. Wata waij en opapi ka wita kin ekta ipi, ka wir)tka pahipi:
with- he- went. Boat one in they- and iahmd thu to they and eggs gathered:
him followe^l came.
l^a war)na wata kii) ozuyaj)i, ur)kar| koska kiq heya; Waijna uqhde
and now boat the they AIUhI. then young-man the thiH*Baid: Now we-go-home
kte, eya e hecen waqna wata kiij en okipapi. Uijkan Ur)ktoini heya:
will, he said that so now boat the in they wont. Then Ui)ktomi this said :
Sur)g, kana ees wasteste 6e, ehake icu ye, eya. Tuka, Hi, waqna de ota kir).
Brother, those there are-very-good, the last take, he said. But, Why, now this much the,
eya. Tuka Uqktomi kitaij, uijkay iyaye ca idu, tuka Ui^ktomi wata kiq
he said. But Uijktomi persisted, and liewent and got them, but Uqktomi boat the
pacaqnaij iyeye ca hdicu. Uqkaq, Hi, Uijktorai, wata he au ye, eya.
head-out turned and started Then, Fie, Ui)ktomi, boat that bring piease, he said.
home.
Tuka, Tuwe, tokenken teniviya he, eya. Hi, au ye, eya. Tuka wicada
Bnt, Who, in-some-ways you kiVl 1 he said. Fie, bring please, he said. But he was
youiself willing
sni. Uqkaq, Uqktomi, wata kiij he au wo, ur)ki kiqhaq tai^ksi duze kte do,
not. Then, Ui)ktomi, boat the that bring, we-reach- if sister-mine you shall . .
home have
eya. Uqkai), De is he iyape inakiyapi oij hecaraoi) se, eya. Tuka
he said. And, That is it that wait-Cor-they-cau8*e-mo for this-I-do as if, he said. But
keya yaijka; uijkay taku sida hdute si, uqkaij edoi). Hehai) Uijktomi
this- he- was; then what bail his-own- com- and ho did it. Then Uqktomi
MkyiD£» [or, he sat] to-eat mande<l,
iha. Uijkaij, Wahte-sni sica niayahnaye do, eye <Ja ake ostehda. Uijkai),
laughed. Then, Good-not bad you-nave-decefved , he said and again ho cursed him. Then,
Huijktiya wo, Capoi)g taijka wai)dake kte do, eya. Tuka ake ostehda.
Go thou away Musquito-large you-see will , he said. But again he cursed him.
Uijkai), Hui)ktiya wo, Mato waijdake kte do, eya. Ake eya, urjkai).
Then. Go thou away Gray-bear you-Hee will , he said. Again he said it, when,
Hunktiya WO, Ispa-tahiijspa war)widadake kte do, eya. Tuka ake eya:
Go thou away Arm-awls them-yon-see will , he said. But again he said it:
Ur)kar), Huqktiya wo, Ta^uijke-ota waqdake kte do, eya. Tuka ake
Then, Go thuu along His-dogs-many you see will , he said. But again
eya. Urikaij, Hui^ktiya wo, Wiqyari-noqpapika waijwicadake kte do, eya,
he said it. Then, Go thou away Women-two them yon see will , he saidL
lj:a hecen kihda.
and so went home.
Ui)kaq koska kiij is hec^^en iyaye, uqkaij waqkan taku hmuijyaij u
Then young man the ho so went, and fh>m above something whizzing com-
ing
nahoi} kehai) capoijpa^ waq minin ihpaye <Ja ohtateya ehpeicjiya. Uqkai)
he heard when mosquito one in water fell, and underneath it he-ihrew-himself. And
iqyuij taku waij peliaijt^ina se hinaziij ka heya: Taku den oskaijskaij e
beuold something one crane-brown like coming stood and this said: What hen moving often that
en hibu koi] toki iyaye se eye va, Kozaij den uij kiqhar) kaken ecamor)
to[orIcome the [in some- has gone asif hesaid and, Indeed here was if so [in that I do
there) thepast] where manner]
'dapoi)ka is the usaal form. C^apoijg is a contraction of tbiH. — j. (». p.
132 DAKOTA GKAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
kta tuka, eye, <Ja (^apoijpa Ijoij pasu oq apa. Tuka pasu oyatake, heden
woald bat, he safd, and mosquito the bill ^ith ntruck. But bill he stuck in. so-that
[aforesaid]
iye itkom kte, ^a pasu bakse ca yuha iyaya. Ake taku iiahoq; uqkai)
he in-tnm killeil him, and bill cut-off and 'having went on. Again somethiug ho heard: and
mato wai} hoyeva u. Tuka ake wakanateca i<^i(?age ^a mini en wai}ka.
gray- War one sendiighU- voice came. But again raynterions dead randehimnelf and water in- lay.
Uqkar), Taku den oskaijskar) ur) e wau koq, eyaya. Mato koq hinaiir) 6r
Then. What here moving often was when I was coming, he repeated. Gray bear the came and when
[aforesaid] stood
heya; Kae kakes wate kta, eya; ka liop:ai) \e6si koij iyohnag^ iyeya: tuka
thi8*said: Yonder whatever I eat will, he'said: and fish dead the * intohis-moath-t^iok : bat
mdaska nakaes iyoha ur)ma en itokto ekta iyaye ('a e('eu otosa napda.
flat indeed 'jaws each in time-about to It-went and thus whole swalmwed.
Tuka tezi ekta isaq i<^u ^:a daqte kii) ba^puspu, ka kte, ka cuwi kiij bahdoke
But belly in knife lie-tuokand heart the cat io-pie<'es, and killed, and side the cut-holein
<Ja etai^har) hd\6i\ ka nape napin bakse ga yuha iyaye. Uqkar) dar)ku olina
and from came forth and forefeet both cutoff and 'having Vent. And road in
dar)ha wokeya war) sota izita hai} e ya ^ehai), Kpa-tahiijSpa eye (5ikoq deepi
* bark lodge one smoke burning stood to went when. Arm-awls he'said that [in thesean»
the past ]
6e e6ir), ^a sina yupsuijka adoksohai) ka tiyonaSdog iyaye <Ja datku
lie thought, and blanket * rolled-up ander-arm and tent-went-into and back-part
iyotarike <;a heya; Ito ui)<5ina tipi en wahi kta, eya. Tuka wakaijka nom
* sat-down and this said; Lo, grandmother house in I-come will, he said. Bat old-woman two
tianoijg yukaypi, ^a tiyopata takitih iyotaijg heyayapi. Uqkai) ake nazii)
house each-side were, and 'door-at fussing sitting they iept'sayhig. Then again rose-t(»
hiyaye <Ja, Ur)(5ina, tipi wahi tuka iyokipipi sni e wahde kta, eya, (?a nasa-
hls-fe«t and, Grandmother house I-came, but they-pleased not when I-go home will, lie' said, when blanket-
yupsuijka yus kihde koi^ze <Ja tiyopa en ehpeya. Ui^kai] ispa oi) napin
bundle holding go-home pretended and 'kooT in he-threw it. And arm with both
dapa-iheyapi, tuka sina edena (!^apapi nakaes sai^pa dakieipapi ka heyapi;
they stabbed-through, but blanket only they stabbed indeed beyond stabbed-eacti-otner and this said ;
Idepaij^i, niayakte ye, eyapi. Tuka, Taku deni(5e(5a makte wadaqnipi he.
Cousin. me you have killed. th*ey8aid. But, What like vou [yon are me-kill you thought f
sacn as thia]
eye, ('a napin wi(^akate va iyoopta-iyaya.
he said, and both them-kille<l and *' went-onward.
Ui}kai) tuwe tokata, Mitasuqke wo-wo, eya u niyaq.^ Suqg kidodo u
And some-one ahead, My-dogf» come come, saying was calling. Dog calling was
coming often com-
ing
I^ehai) poge ihduwewe ka waijhiqkpe kiq owasiq wekiye ca caqku kii] ohna
when nost^ made bleed often and arrows the all made-bloody and road the in
yumden-ehpeya ka ituijkam iwai)ka. ITijkai) mnaza ka inmutaqka henaos
scattered them and on-his-back lay down. Then lion and great-lynx these-two
tokaheya en lii})i l^a we kii} sdipapi. Tuka, Ustaij, iyoopta-iyaya po,
first ' there came and blood the they licked. But, Stop, go-ycon-1>eyond,
wakaijlieza tuwe oijsihaq ee, eya. Uqkai} iyoopta iyayapi. Uqkai) en u
child who poor is, he said. And * on they went. And to was
(^Miiing
ka, E, initakoza, wita-ipi-sni ekta eehpeyapi kevapi-^oi) he niye he, eya,
iind, "See, my grandchild, island-go-t4>-not at was-left they-fiaTe-told-aliout that you 1 he'said,
keyapi. Huijiktiya wo, mitasuqke nom hekta upi ce, henaos kate <5a
they say. tio thou along, my-dogs two behind they air. , those two kill and
coining
> Dr. Rig^H gives uiyaq in the dictionary as andtftly, with a loud voice, and eya niyaq ae to $ay
audibly, or with a loud voice, — j. o. D.
DAKOTA MYTHS. 133
widayuta wo, eya. He Tasuqke-ota ee : taku maka a^kaijskaij ui) kii}
them eat thoQ, he said. This His-many-dogs is: what earth on-iooving is the
iyulipa tasur)keya keyapi.
all hehas-it-fura'^dog they say.
Heden iiazii) l^a iyaya. Uqkai) wi<5a nom wohdag upi, tuka iiapiu
So h&-arufle and went. And raccoons two talking were but both
coming,
widakate (Ja i^ii) iyaya. Uijkar) <:*ar)ku ohna daijlia wokeya waij liaij e en
themkilled and carrying went on. And roail in baik lodse une stood that to
ya, l^a taijkan wi(5a i^oi) napin elinake <ia tin iyaya. Ui^kaij wakaijka nom
he and outride raccoons the both he laid and houss- ne went. And old-women two
went. in
tianog yukaijpi, kehar) datku kiq en iyotai)ka. Uijkaij lieyapi : Takcjza,
house ' were, when back part the In n«-sat-down. And this-tney-said : Grandson,
each side
wita-ipi-^ni ekta eehpeyapi koij he niye he, eyapi. Hena eke wakaijka
island-go-to-not at they left the that you ? they said. Those ones old-womafi
waste hedapi. Urikai) ur)/na heya : Taku ta noy kes wota 6e, wokihaq ye,
good such- were. And one this^said: What die as nit hoagh eats , boil thou for liim,
eya. Uijkaij he(!ien wokihaijpi, i^a wo l^upi, lea heyapi: Takoza, taku
she said. And so they boiled for him, and food gave, and thnasald: Grandchild, wliat
tehika ota elina yau tuka iyotai) kii} he tokata haij de, eyapi, kehai},
hard much through you have but most the that ahead stands , they said, when,
been coming
Ui^dina, wida nom den tai)kan ahiwahnaka de, idu po, eya. Heden
Grandmother, raccoons two here outside I brought- laid , take yo them, he said. So
idupi ^a ake owidahaijpi; ur)kai) ur)ma heya: Eya^e^, mitakoza tak ediyaye,
they took and again them boiled ; and the other this said : indeed my -grandchild some- say to him
thing (female sp.)
eya. Uijkai) heya: Takoza, Wii)yai)-noqpapika de tipi en yai kta, tuka
she said. Then tbis-sb'e-said : Grandchild, Woman-two this house there you* will, but
reach
taqyai) niduwapi kta; tuka haijyetu kiq he hehan nikteui kta de; tuka
well they you treat will; but night the that then you kiU will ; but
toke^ta en uijyakoijpi kta de, eye (Ja lii kir) wayzi yupsuij ku keyapi.
presently then * vro-be will , she said and tooth the one pulling out gave, they say.
Uijkar) uijma is wapahta war) ^u keyapi. Ur)ma hi yupsui) ku kiij he
And the other she bundle one gave they say. The ono tooth pulled out gavo tho that
manida ee. . Uijma wapahta waij tu kiij he hoka ee; noijksi kii) he apahte
gopher was. The other bundle a gave the that badger was ; oar tho that tied up
<Ja ku, keyapi. Tohar) ui}ma kidi inuqke dir)har) sina war) anidahpe va toka
and gave, they say. When the one with you lie if blanket a with you-cover and no way
yaniya ^ni kiijhaij hi kii} de oq Sina kit) palidog-iyeye (Ja oniya nuqke
you breathe not if tooth tho this with blanket the pierce-through and breathing you lie
kta de ; ka wapahta kii) de duSke kta de, eya keyapi. Ka wo niijupi kiijliaij
will ; aud • bundle the this you-untie will , she said they say. And food they give you if
makata eyatoijwe (Ja, Uijdina, toki idada hwo, ehe kta de, eyapi. TokeSta
earth to * yon look and. Grandmother, where have you f you say will they said. Presently
gone
hen ui3yakoi)pi kta de, eyapi.
there we-be will , they said.
Heden wai)na ekta iyaya. Uijkai) wakeya war) tar)ka e hai). Ur)karj
So now thither he went. And tent one large there stood. Aud
itaijkan daqha wokeya wai) he en ye <Ja wakeya kii} en tin iyaye da
outsidrt bark lodge one the to went and tent the in house-in lie went and
datku kir) en iyotaqke, tuka tuwena en yaqke Sni. Ur)kar) htayetu hehan
back-part the in sat down, but no-one in was not. And evening then
134 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND P]THNOGRAPHY.
toki wikoska iha niyaripi. Ui^kaij (^ar|ha wokeya waij tar)kan he dikoq hen
Aome- frirlH Ianghc<l aloud. And bark lodge ouo oatfHde it the the
where Ktood [aforeAaid]
wakarika wariyaka hee heya: Wihomni ista tar)ka inina kuni, eya. He(?eii
old- woman ho-naw Hhe-it-was thiA-said : Courtczau e^-es large Hilently come, she said. So that
iiijina tin hdicii kta, tuka en yaijkawai^yaka, ur)kaij, Wati takunina, eye ^a
the one houite- start would, but in he-wai» Hhe-saw, and, My-houHe Rmelln of Hhe-saidand
in home something
icidawiij iyaya. Ake uijma eye va iyaya. Ugkaij waijna napin tin hdipi
back went. Again the other said and went. And now both came home
hehan uijnia warina wokihaij; uijkaij widasta kanidapi okihe va ku, wak^ida
then the-one now boiled for-him; and man cut-up boile<l for and gave, disk
him
waij ohna ahikihde kehaij, paniahdena iyotaijke (^a, Ui}6ina, toki idada hwo,
one in placed -for- him, when head-bowed he-Hat and, Grandmother where have you f
gone
eye ('a makata etoriwaij, uijkaij iijyuij maka nmhentai)haij iskaya icam
he said and earthward he looked, and behold earth within-from white-mouth pushing
hiyotaijka e, hecen owas en okihnake (Ja waksicakiq kicu. Uqkaq, Mitaq,
*satdown there, so all in placed for him and dish the gave back. Then, My younger
sister
naka widadote wakai) uyke ye, eye. Uijkaij nqma kirj is ake wo ku: ake
now man-food mysteriouM we-two-have, she said. Then other the she again food gave: again
18 eya widasta-doniea ece ku; tuka icu ka ake; Uqdina, toki idada hwo,
she also man-flesh alone gave: but he- took and again; Grandmother where have yon gone /
eya. Uijkaij raaka niahentaijliaij iskaya hiyotaijka. Hecen owas en
he-said. And earth within-from white mouth coming sat down. So-that all in
okihnake (;a waksira kiq kidu. Uijkaij, Miduij, naka widadote wakaij
place<l for him and dish the returne<l. Then, My elder sister now man-food holy
ui)ke ye, eya.
we-have, she said.
Ileden waqna okpaza, ur)ma tokaheya kidi iwai)ke ; uijkaij sina waij
So now dark, the one flrst with him shc-lay-down ; and blanket one
akah})a, tuka nina tke liiijda e oq toka niya sni, kehaq nianica hi koq he oq
she-threw- but much heavy very, so that in no breathe not, when gopher touth the that with
over. way [aforesaidj
pahdog-iyeye ('a poge ohna niya wai)ka. Ui)kaij tnk eciq ka yutaq:
pushed-a-hole-through and nose through breathing lay. And some- thought and 'touched:
thing
wiijyaij kiij he liedoij. l^uka hehan wapahte dikoij he yuske, uijkaij wiijyaij
woman the that did it. But then bundle the that ho loosed, and woman
[aforesaid]
j^oij sina kiij kazamni-iyeye va, Mitai) naka wica okoye, eye Ca iyaye. He
the blanket the threw otf and, My-sido now man hole-made, she and went. That
[aforesaidj said
sina kii} kasota sina, keyapi. Ilehan ui)ina kiij is ake ki6i iwaijke, uqkaq
blanket the clear sky blanket, they say. Then other the .she i^guiu with him she lay down, and
taku waij akahpa, tuka nina tke e akahpe ca waijna ake toka niya sni keliaq
what one covered, but very heavy that covered and now again in no way breathe not when
manica hi ' koij he oij pahdog-iheye ^'a oniya waijka. Uqkaij ake yutarj,
gopher tooth the that with pushod-a-hole-iu and through- lay. And again h'e touched,
[aforesaidj breathing
tuka tokeca sni, he \a ke6\\) ka he(5or); tuka ake wapahte koi) hee yuske.
hut different not, that he she and she did it; but again bundle the that unloosed
died thought [aforesaid] he.
Uqkar), Mitai) naka wica okoye, eya hiijhda sina kazamni-iyeya. He
And, My side now man hole-made, she-said suddenly blanket she threw off. That
DAKOTA MYTHS. 135
mahpiya sapa sina keyapi. Hecen napin widayu waste keyapi; l^a iiapin
cloud black blanket they nay. So that both them-he-raade-good they say ; and both
widayuze.
them he took.
Urjkaij hewi(5akiye; Taku yatapi kiq de ehpeya po, eya. Urikaq,
Then this-to-themhe-Aaid ; What you-eat the this throw ye away, he said. And,
Taku uijtapi kta he, eyapi. E6\i) tuwe widasta yute kta he, lie sida ce,
What we-eat shall I they said. Indeed who men eat would ? that bad ,
eya. Tokesta taku yutapi tokeda waste ota de, eya. Urjkaij widadapi, ^a
he said. Presently what " Is-eaten different good much he said. And they -believed, and
heden wida^ta yutapi ^or) ayustai}pi. Hehaii waijua napin dii^da tOQpi;
so men they ate the [in they stopped. Then now both children had;
the past]
uijkai) sakim wida widayuhapi. Uijkar) ihnuhaijna tiyata ewadii} ^a
and both male them-had. And suddenlj' at-his-home he-thought and
iyokiside <;a inina yaijka. Uijkai) heyapi; Tokeda iniiia yaui) he, ediyapi.
was sad and silent waa [sitting]. And this they said: Why silent you are /> theysaiuto
him.
Uykai), lyomak^sida de, eya. Ur)kai), He etai)har) tehar)tu he, tokesta ekta
And. I am sad , he'said. And, That from far is ? presently to
uqhdapi hta d6, eyapi, \a hoqkupina kiq hediyapi ; Ina, deguka adeti, de
wegohome will , they said, and their mother the this said to: Mother, soft-stono bum, this
iyokisida e ekta ur)kayapi kta de, eyapi. Heden wakai^kana kiq deguka
is-sad there to we-take-hira will , they said. Thus old woman the soft-stone
adeti ka yustai). Urikai} hehan, Ate kipai), eyapi. Uijkar) mini kahda
burnt and ^finished. And then. Father call, they said. And water by the side of
inazirj, ^a, Widahiijda, kuwa, miduqksi hutata yapi kta ye, eya. Uqkai}
she stood, and, Old man, come, my daughters to-main-land go will indeed she said. And
0)
ihiiuhaqna taku waij mini kir) etaijhaij okapote ga u ka hihurini ; ur)kaq
suddenly what one water the from floated and was and came to land ; and
ccmiing
hihnakupi kirj wozuha waij en okihnakapi. Taku key he wakar)kana kiq
husband-theirs the bag one in they placed. What the that old woman the
[aforesaid]
hihnaku ka wiko^ka kii) heijaos diqda he Uqktehi keyapi. Heden wai)na
husbaud-hers and young woman the those-two children that UqkteUi they say. Thus now
Uqktehi koij u ka hihuijni ; uijkar) deguka adetipi koq hena ista kiq napin
Ui)kt«lii the was and arrived; and soft-stones burned the those eyes the both
[aforesaid] coming • [aforesaid]
ozuna okadapi, ka he kiq ota hena wahpaya kii} ekiksupi, ka hihnakupi
full they-sprinkled, and horns the many those baggage the they-piled-on, and husband-theirs
wahpaya idihnuni ekihnakapi. Ur)kai) heya : Cuq^, taku nimna se, eya.
baggage among they placed. And this he said : Daughter, something alive it seems, he said.
smells
Tuka ; Widahiijca sida, taku omnapi kta he, eyapi. Ui)kar), O, eya keyapi.
But; Old-man bad, what be-smelled will ? they said. And, O, he said they say.
Heden waqna iyayapi. Uqkai), Cni)i, mitakoza daijna etaqhai) yuke-
So now tbey-Vent. And, Daughter, my grandchildren sticks from [rather, have-
some]
widayakiyapi, ^a uwa^tena mda da he kiq makakokokapi kta de, eya ; lj:a
them-you-cause, and slowly I-go when horns the roe-they -drum-on will , he said ; and
nakun, Cuijs, nina wakitapi, eya. He Wakiijyai} aku kte diij he ka. Ediij
also, Daughter, much look out for, he said. That Thunder come will the that he For
meant.
kidi tokakidiya UQpi. Waqna mini kiq opta huta ku) ekta hdapi, ui}kaq
with foes to each oUier they-are. Now water the acrosa show the to they go home, and
136 DAKOTA GKAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
ii)yur) heya; Oui)6, taku ahai^zimayai) (5e, eya. He wai^ua mahpiya
behold this he said: Daus^hter, somothing shadeH-me^ , he said. That now clouda
ahdiiiai^pa, ur)kaij sdoijye va heya. Tuka, Taku ahaqziiiiye kta he, de
had-coii'ieover, and he-knew and this 'said. But, TVhat sliadt^you should ? this
kasota ye, eyapi. He hiiayaripi, warina mahpiya ahdinaqpa tuka heyapi.
sky -clear indeed they said. This thev-tleceiveil, already clouds had come over but they-said-that.
(?)
Hecen waijna huta kii) dehaijna, tuka Wakiriyai) kirj is kiyena aku. Tuka
&> now shore the nearby, but Thunder the he near comes. But
hula kiij en kihinjnii)! kehaij hihnakupi e tokaheya hevata ehpeyapi: hehan
shore the there they -reached when husband theirs that Urat a8*hore they carried; then
wahpaya kiq owasin icupi, ka hehan, Huqktiya, ate, Wakir)yai) kiyena aku
^t^t^gf^i^ the all they took, and then. Go along* lather. Thunder . near comes
(5e, eyapi. Uqkar), Hehe! cuijs, tai^ni he(?eee kta cikoij, eye ca kihda; tuka
, they said. And. Alas! dani^hter, long ago so bo would the [in he said and started home; but
the past]
e6eu Wakii^yay kii) kutepi ka mini kiij owarjdaya we hir)hda, oi) wi<5aita
so ThundW the shoot-him and water the all over* blood became, therefore man
kiij. Ho! tuijkaijsi koij, eya. Tuka heyapi: Hetaijhai) te kte sni, hedoi}pi
the, Alas! my-father-in-law the [in he'^said. But thi.s tHiey said : From-that die will not, this-they«do
the past]
ke^ te «ni ecee, eya])i, keyapi.
though dies not, always, they i«aid, they say.
Hec^en waijna hetai) ye dikor) en wahdi, tuka oyate kii) toki eyaya
Thus now whence he-went the [in there all-come- but people the when had-gone
the paMt] home,
tar)ii) sni kehar) heye; Den wakey a tikicaga po, ito, ekta mde kta de, eye
manifest not when this said; Here tent put-ye-up lo, there I-go will , he said
(•a ekta ye <;a miniyowe kii^ en ya; ur)kaq iijyuq winohii^da pa nisko u
and to went and spring the to went; and beiiold woman head so-large was
coming
waqyake. Ur)kar) tayksitku kor) hee keya, pa nisko, ite kiq is owas hdi
he saw. And sister-his the it is she he said, head so large, face the it all sores
[aforesaid ]
^a u waijka. E, liecen taqksi koij, eya; uqkai}, Timdo tor), eye, ^a
and was wan [she Indeed so my sister that he said; and, My brother that she said, and
coming lay] [aforesaid] ' [aforesaid]
poskiij kiyahpaya kehaq, Taijk^i, toketu hwo, eya. Uqkaq, Timdo,
heembracetl-her when, My sister, how-is-it f he said. And, My brother
Uqktomi oyate kiij owasig wicakasote i^a misnana omakapte; tuka nakui)
Uijktomi people the all them destroyed and me alone mehas-Ieft; but also
tehiya mayuha ce, eya keyapi: decen mini huwe wahi ka waki ca waqna
hardly me-liehas , she*^said they say: thus water to bring I-come and I-reach- when then
home
ake, Tuwe onidiya nace, eye va (?ahota kata ite kig amakada ecee, oq ite
again, ' Who has courted iterhaps, he-says and ashes hot face the sprinkles on me always there- face
YOU * fore
kiq owasiij mahdi ce, eya. Uijkaij, Huqktiya wo, mini kir) ahde, ^a ake
the all me-Hore , she said. And, Go-thon-along, water the tako home,. and again
eye ciqhaij, Oyate waij owasiij wicayakasote, tuwe ni uij l^a omakiye kta
he-say if. People one all thom-you-destroyed, who alive is and court-me would
he, eye (*a mini kiij apapsoij ka hiyu wo, den ahdi wati <5e, eya. Ugkaij
? say and water the throw on him and come thou, here I-ha*^e-come- , he said. And
home- to-d well
heden mini kiij ahde (;a tin kihda. Uqkai) wayna ake Uijktomi ite edede
so water the took home and house in she went. And now again Uijktomi face like
sni yaijke <;a waijna ake, Tuwe onidiya nade es, eya. Tuka, Na ye oyate
not was and now again, Some one has courted perhaps , he said. But, See * ! people
[sitting] you
DAKOTA MYTHS. 137
war) owasiq widayakasote di]j:or), tuwe ni uq da omakiye kta he, eya; ka
one all ih«ni you hare the [in the who alive is when coiirtrme will 1 nhesaid; and
destroyed past]
mini kii) apapsoi)-iyeya. Uqkai) iha, ka, WiT)yar), tahaq hdi he, eya. Nis
water the threw-on -him suddenly. And be and. Woman. Brother- he Uan ? said. You
laughed, in-law come home
wita ipi sni ekta eehpeniyaijpi ^e& yahdi ka, eye ca heden hiyu keyapi, j^a
island go-to not at you-were-taken if you come T she-said and so came they say, and
home towardH
timdoku ti kiq en hdidu. Uqkaq heye; Tai)ksi koyakihaij po, eye, ^a
brother-her house the there she started And he said: Sister be-ye-in-haste-for, he said, and
home.
heden mini kanyapi lj:a oq yuzazapi ka kidakdapi, ka heyake waste ur)kiyapi
so water they-neated and with washed-her and combed-her. and clothes beautiful put-on-her
ka datku kii) en ekihnakapi. Hehan diijda hoksina kirj napin, Huqktiya
and back-part the in they placed her Then children boys the both. Go ye a-
Uieir own.
po, Uqktomi kido ya po, ewidakiya. Uqkai) yapi ka; Uijktomi, ui)nidopi
long, Uqktomi to call go ye, to them he said. And they went and; Uqktomi, wc-you-invite
do, eyapi. Uqkaq, E, mitor)skapina taku wastepi ye, eye <;a widiyahna u
they said. And, Well, my little nephews what good " ! he-said and them-behind was
coming
]j:a tin hiyu. Uqkaq tawidu koi) taqyehiq ihduze <fa datku en yaqka wariyag
and tent came. And wife-his the well-very dressed and back-part in *" was to see her
into [aforesaid] herself [nitting]
hiyu. Tuka, Tiyopa kiq hen hiyotanka wo, eya. Urikaq, Haq, taharj,
he came But, £>oor the there sit thou down, he said. And, Yes brother-
towards. in-law,
token ehe <5iq eden edamoq kta, eya. Ka en iyotarjke cehai)^ Ur)ktorai
how thou- the so I-do will, he* said. And there be-sat-dowu when, Ui)ktomi
sayest
(taku ^ida wai) dazeyata ka) he hduta wo, eya. Uqkai) eden edoi) kej^api.
(what bad one he named and) that cat-thou-thy- he said. And so he-did they say.
own,
Is eya hedoi) si nakae^ toki^or). Hehan Makar) yaij'-ka wo, ka iihduta
Be also that-do com- indeed he avenged. Then Tamarack- weave thou it, aud yonr-own-
manded roots size
yaq'-ka wo, ka tahu kiq en yuoti^s idupi kta heden yaij'-ka wo, eya.
weave-thou-it. and neck the in tightly drawn will su weave-thou-it. he said.
Ur)kai) owasiq e6en yustarj. Ur)kaij, Ohna iyotaijka wo, eya. llijkar)
And all so he-finished. And, In-it sit-thou-down, heVaid. And
ohna iyotai^ka, tuka yuotir)8-idu lj:a peta iwaijkam otkeya. Nihiqdiya, tuka,
in-it lie sat down, but he-pressed it-in and fire above he-hung. AflVighted-was, but,
Caq ota aoi) po, eye, ^a Ur)ktomi sota t^V©, Qa daqte kir) idu lj:a pusye <Ja
Wood much pile-on yc, be said, and Ui)ktomi smoke killed, anu heart the he-took and dried and
kapai) ka pezihuta idahiye ^a dii}dana kii} napin widaku, ^a, Otiwota kig
pounded- and medicine mixed and children the both them-gave, and, Village ruins the
fin*)
owaijda okada po, eya. Uqkaq edoripi.
all over scatter ye it. he said. And they dia it.
Haijhaqna kehaq. Ho po, pezihuta oyakadapi kor) waijyaka po, eya.
Morning when, Come ye, medicine you aoatterea that look-ye-after,' he said.
[afort-saidj
Ekta ipi ka heyapi : Ate, taku wamdudarj se owarjcaya skaijskaijpi do,
Thither they and this said : Father, what worms like all over they are moving about .
went
eyapi. Ake ihaijhaijna kehar) ye-wida-si. Ur)kai), Ate taku kiij waijna
they said. Again morning next when them he sent. And, Father what the now
tarjkiqkiijyarjpi do, eya hdipi. Ake haijhaqna kehaij ekta yewidasi.
they are very large saying they returned. Again momiug when to he sent- them.
138 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHXOGEAPHY.
:a pasto-ilipayapina ecee do, eyapi. Itopa car) hehan oyate kiij ekidetu, Ifa
ad bru8hing they fell down always they said. Fourth day then people the perfected, and
along [little ones]
ipao tuka ce^apapi ^a paqpaijpi ^a eyaijpahapi, l^a owodutatoq, Ifa ko^ka
riight but kettle beating and yelling and crying the news, and great noise, and young
Ur)kaq hdipi, ka, Ate, liena wicastapi-na do: nazig wo uipak^, ©yapi>
And they returned, and, Father, those they are little men stand thou up thou art^rooked, they said,
^'
and
along^' [little ones]
aqpao tuka ce^i
daj'tight but ketti
man
Ifoq ti kir) ihduk^aq ho(?okatoi) ahitipi, ka Itai^caq kidagapi, keyapi.
the house the around in a circle they-pnttheir- and Chief they made ulm, they say.
[afore- tents,
said]
Uqktomi caqte kiq oq oyate kiij ekidetu, keyapi. Henana.
Ui)ktomi heart the by people the were- they say. That is alL
resurrected,
NOTES.
1. On furnishing this myth Mr. Renville remarked, ''It is another Joseph." By
which he did not meaii that the Dakota legend had received anything from the Bible
story; but that the impure desires of a wicked woman had worked out similar results.
In the whole structure of it there is evidence tliat this is a genuine Dakota myth.
2. It will be noticed that the language of the Dakotas has simple words to ex-
press younger brother, (suijka), elder -brother, (<?iijye), a mmi's sister-in-law, (hai)ka),
a womatCs brother inlaw, (sive), a manh brother-inlaic^ (tahaij), a man's father-in-law,
(tuijkaij), etc. These all are found in the myth, and others like them exist in the
language. However they may have been formed in the first place, tiiese words are
now beyond analysis. Now it is claimed that the existence in a language of such rad-
ical words expressing relationshi[)S is evidence of descent from a higher civilization.
Whence came the Dakotas!
3. In all Dakota myths Uijktoiui is represented as the incarnation of evil. Here
it overreaches itself and is properly punished. But the annihilation of it is only local
and temporary.
4. This myth gives the best characterization of this great water god, Uijktehi,
which answers to the Neptune and Poseidon of the Greeks and Romans. Also it
portrays vividly the eternal enmity that exists between hiin and their Jupiter
Tonans — the Wakiijyaij.
6. The word c'^eguka, translated soft stone, is of somewhat uncertain signification.
What was it the old woman burned and sprinkled in the eyes of Uijktehi to enable
him to swim so long in the light! The analysis would seem to be the skin of a kettle.
The word 6ega is now applied to all iron kettles as well as wooden buckets. But the
original <5ega was undoubtedly earthen. Then the uka, the skin, would mean the
glazing. This, too, would i>oint biwk to a higher civilization.
6. The element of the supernatural is prominent in all the Dakota myths. Here
in answer to his prayer the earth opens and the gopher comes to his assistance, while
the aid of the badger is no less needed for his deliverance and victory. And not only
is deliverance secured by supernatural help, but the race is elevated by a mixture
with the gods.
7. It is significant that, after this miraculous passage across the water, they find
the mainland uninhabited. The spirit of Evil has destroyed the race. But, as
Deucalion and Pyrrha repeopled the world by casting " the bones of the earth" behind
Dakota myths. 139
them, so here the Younger Brother repeoples his fatherlaud by burning up the E\il
One and sowing the ashes.
8. The use of sni in the following phrases is peculiar:
Tuwe tokeca kute yasi sni, TfAy do you not Ml some one eUe to nhootf
Who ditfereut to shoot you not
nt commaixl
Tuwe kasta ki<?i de sni, Why do you not go with someone elsef
Who Roever with him you go uot
In these two, sni has tlie force of tchy notf
Surjg, ito wirjtka pahi uijye sni, Younger brother, come, we hare not {yet) gathered
YouD^er oorae ogg to gather we two not
brother go
eggs. But this last implies a request, Come^ let us gather eggs. — J. o. D.
P. 134, line 1. He, from harj, to stand on end^ as an inanimate object. See p. 7,
§6, c— J. O. D.
TRANSLATION.
Once there was a people, the chief among whom had thre« beloved children, two
boys and one girl. The eldest son married a wife and the younger brother lived with
him. But the sister-in-law troubled her brother-in-law, »^ Let us lie together," often
saying to him. But he always answered, ** How can I make my older brother
ashamed, seeing he sets such store by me!"
One day, when the woman had brought home some wood, she said, '' Brother-
in-hiw, yonder are many prairie chickens; shoot one for me." To which he replied,
'*No; I am not a hunter; send some one else to shoot them." But his brother said,
*' Shoot them for her." So he took his arrows and shot one for her, and said, *' There
it is, take it," and so went away. After awhile the woman came home crying, and
said to her husband, *' Your younger brother persists in troubling me. But when I
tell you of it you do not believe me. See, this is what he has done to me," and she
showed him where she had scratched her thighs all over with the prairie chicken's
claws.
Then he believexl her, and s^iid, ''Go call Uijktomi." And Ui}ktomi came.
Then he said, '' Uijktomi, you take my younger brother to the Unvisit^d Island and
leave him there, and you shall have my sister for your wife."
The young man came home and ITijktomi said to him, '' My younger brother,
come, we will go and hunt eggs." But he said, " No, I can not. Go with some one
else." But the elder brother said, " Go with him," and he went with him.
They entered a canoe and went to the island and gathered eggs. And when
they had filled the canoe the ycmng man said, " Let us go home." And so they got
into the boat. But Uijktomi said, ** Brother, j'onder are some nice ones, get them
also." The young man rei^lied, '' No, we have now a great plenty." But Uijktomi
was persistent, so the young man went and got the eggs. In the meantime Uijktomi
had turned the head of the canoe outward and was starting home. '' Halloo, Uijktomi,
bring the canoe here," he said. But Uijktomi answered back, '* What are you killing
yourself about!" '' Halloo, bring it here," he repeated, but he would not. Then he
said, '' Uijktomi, bring the canoe here; when we reacrh home you shall have my sister
for your wife." He replied, ''That is what I am doing this for." The young man
contitiued to pleiid. Uijktomi bade him eat his own dung, which he would willingly
do if the canoe would come for him. Uijktomi laughed at him. Then the young man
140 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
said, " You meau, bad fellow, you have deceived me," and so he reviled him. Ui)ktomi
answered, " Go away, you will see the Great Mosquito." Again he reviled him. " Go,"
said XJi}ktomi, " you will see the Gray Bear." He repeated it, and Uqktomi said, " Ga
away, you will see the Arm-awls." Again he cursed him, aud the answer was, "Go,
you will see His-many-dogs." Then for the last time he reviled Uijktomi, who said,
" Go, you will see the Two Women," and then he came home. ,
Then the young man also departed, and when he heard something above come
whizzing along, the Great Mosquito fell into the water, and he threw himself under it.
But, lo ! something like a brown crane came and stood and said, '^ That thing that was
moving about here as I was coming has gone somewhere. Indeed, if it were here I
would do so to it," and he struck tbe mosquito with his bill. But as the bill stuck in,
he (that is, the young man) in turn killed the crane, cut his bill off, and carried it
along. Again the young man heard something, and the Gray Bear came crying out
against him. But the young man changed himself into a dead hsh and lay on the
water. Then said the Gray Bear, *' What was here moving about when I was coming
has gone." The Gray Bear came, and saying, " I will eat whatever is yonder," he took
the fish in his mouth. But, as it was flat, he turned it from one side of his jaws to
the other, and finally swallowed it whole.
But in the belly of the bear the young man resumed his shape, took his knife,
and cut the bear's heart to pieces, aud so killed him. Then he cut a hole in the side
and came out, and having cut oft* the two fore paws he took them along.
As he went along in the path there stood a bark lodge, from which smoke issued.
He immediately thought, *' These are what he called the Arm-awls," and so he wrapped
his blanket up into a bundle, and placing it under his arm he went into the lodge and
sat down in the back part, saying, **Lo! my grandmother, I would come into the
house." Now, there were two old women sitting, one on either side, and making a
disturbance about something at the door. Then, rising to his feet, he said, "Grand-
mother, I have come into the house, but you are not i)leased; I will go out again."
And as he said this he made pretense of going out, but threw his bundle at the door.
And they with their elbows both pierced it, but, as it was only a blanket, they thrust
through further than they had intended and stabbed each other. " My cousin, you
have killed me," they both said. But he said, " Did such as you think you would kill
mef " and at once he killed them both and went on.
Then he heard some one ahead saying aloud as he came, "Come, come, my
dogs." And while he came on calling his dogs, the young man made his nose bleed
and besmeared all his arrows with blood and spread them out in the path and lay
down on his back. Then there came a lion and a great lynx and licked them. But
the owner of the beasts said, " Let him alone, and go along, this is a poor child." So
they passed on. Then the man came and said this: "Ah! my grandchild, you are
the one that they say was left on the unvisited island. Go on, there are two of my
dogs coming behind, those you may kill and eat." This was the one called His-many-
dogs, because they say he has all things that move upon the earth for his dogs.
Then the young man rose and went on. And two raccoous came along, talking
to each other. He killed them and carried them with him. Then he came to a bark-
lodge which was standing in the path, and, laying down both the raccoons outside,
he went in. There were two old women, one on either side of the house, and he sat
down in the back part of the tent. Then they said: "Grandchild, are you the one
DAKOTA MYTHS. 141
who was cast away on the iinvisited islands These were good old women. Tlien
one said : " Even if one is almost dead he eats; cook something for him.'' Then they
boiled for him and gave him' food and said: "Grandchild, you have come through
many difficulties, hut the hardest is yet to come." And he said, '^ Grandmother, I
brought two raccoons and laid them outside, take them." So they took them and
boiled them. Then one said to the other, '*Give some counsel to my grandchild."
Whereupon she said: "Grandchild, you will go to the house of The Two Women.
They will treat you well, but at night they will seek to kill you. But we shall be there
with you." Saying this, she pulled out a tooth and gave to him. And they say the
other one gave him a bundle. The one who pulled the tooth and gave him was the
Gopher; and the other who gave him the bundle was the Badger; he tied up his ear
and gave him. Then one of the old women told him what to do. " When you lie with
one of the Two Women and she covers you with a blanket so that you can not breathe,
pierce a hole in the blanket with this tooth, Jind you shall breathe freely; then untie
the bundle. When they give you food, you will look to the earth and say: ' Grand-
mother, whither have you gone, and at once we will be there with you.' "
Then he traveled till he reached a very large tent. And outside of it there was
a bark lodge. He entered into the tent and sat down in the back part. But no one
was there. But when the evening was coming on he heard young women laughing
loudly. In the bark lodge he had seen an old woman, who now said; "Come quietly,
you big-eyed courtezans." So when one of them would have entered she saw him
there, and saying, *^My house smells of something," she turned back. Again the
other came and said the same thing and went again. But now, when both had come
home, one of them went to cooking for him. And she gave him the half of a man cut
up. This she put in a dish and placed before him. He bowed his head and looking
to the earth said : "Grandmother, where have you gone ? " Lo! from the earth there
came a white mouth pushing up and sat down. So he emptied it all in and handed
the dish back. And the young woman said, "My younger sister, now we two have
mysterious man food." Then the other young woman also gave him her man-flesh,
which he took, saying, ^'Grandmother, whither hast thou gonef" And from within
the earth a white mouth came and sat down. So again he poured all the food in the
mouth and handed the dish back. And the young woman said, " My older sister,
now we two have mysterious man-food."
When it w<as now dark one of the young women lay down with him, and covered
him with a blanket; but it was very heavy, so that he could not breathe. Then he
pierced a hole through it with the gopher's tooth and. with his nose through it he lay
breathing. The woman thought something was wrong and touched him. But just
then he untied the bundle, and the woman threw off the blanket and started off ex-
claiming, "A man has made a hole in my side." That blanket was the clear sky
olanket.
Then the other young woman in turn lay down with him, and put over him a
covering that was so very heavy that he could not breathe. Again he punched a hole
in it with the gopher's tooth, and lay breathing. Again there was the touch. She
thought he was dead. But he untied the bundle; when she suddenly exclaimed: "A
man has made a hole in my side," and threw off the blanket. This was the black
cloud blanket. In this way, as the story is told, he made them both good and married
them both.
142 DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
Then he said to them, ** You must change your food." But, '* What shall we
eat?" they said. To which he replied ; '• No one should eat men ; it is bad food; there
are plenty of other things good to eat." And they believed him, and so left off eating
men.
Now, in process of time they each had children, and both were boys. Then sud-
denly the liusband thought of his old home and was sad and silent. The wives said
to him, '^ Why are you silent?" He said, ** Because I am sad." '* It is not far away,
we will go home with you," they said; and then they said to their mother, '^Mother,
burn soft stones. He is sad and we will take him home." So the old woman burned
soft stone. Then the wives said, '*Call father." So the mother-in-law stood bv the
side of the water and said; *'OId man, come, my daughters will go to the main land."
Then immediately something floated up from the water and came to the shore.- The
wives put their husband in a bag. What appeared was the husband of the old
woman, and the young women were his children. They say it was UijkteUi. So when
the Uijktelii had come to the shore, they filled both his eyes with the burnt stones,
and on his many horns they piled the baggage, and their husband they placed among
the baggage. He said, "My daughter, I smell some live thing." But they said
''Bad old man, what is there to be smelled?" To which he replied "Oh." Thus they
set off. Moreover he said, " Let my grandchildren take little sticks and when I move
slowly let them drum on my horns." He also said, " My daughters, keep a sharp
lookout." This he said lest the Thunder should c^me. For the Thunder and the
Uqktehi are enemies.
Now, as they went over the water towards the mainland, he said, "My daugh-
ters, something overshadows me." He said this because it had clouded up and he
knew it. But they said, "What is there to shade you; it is all clear sky." In saying
this they deceived him, for already the clouds had come over. And now when they
approached the shore the Tliunder came nearer. But when they came to land they
put ashore their husband first and then took off all the baggage; and then they said,
"Go away, father; the Thunder is near." "Alas! my daughters, I thought so," he
said, and started home. But just then the Thunder shot him, and the water all over
turned to blood. The young man said, "Alas! my poor father-in-law!" But they
said, " He will not die of that. Although that is done, he never dies."
They had now returned to the place whence he went out, but where the people
had gone was not manifest. So he said, "Put up the tent here, while 1 go over yon-
der." He went towards the spring of water, when lo ! he saw a woman with a head
so large coming. "That is my sister," he said. She was coming — her head was the
proper size, but her face was all broken out in sores. "Yes, that was my sister," he
said; and as she said, "My brother that was," he embraced her, and said, "My sis-
ter, how is it?" " My brother," she said, "Uijktomi has destroyed all our people.
Me alone he has saved, but has treated me very badly. When I come thus for water
and go back, he says, 'Now somebody has been courting you,' and he sprinkles hot
ashes on my face, and so my face is all over sores." Then he said to her, "Go, take
home water, and if ho says that again, say to him, 'You have destroyed all the peo-
ple; who is there alive to say anything to met' Then throw the water on him, and
come hither; 1 have pitched my tent here."
So she took the water home and went in ; wherefore again Uijktomi's face was
flushed, and he said, "Now some one has been courting you indeed." But she replied,
DAKOTA MYTHS. 143
"See, you have destroyed all the people; who is there alive to say anything to me?"
And she dashed the water on him. Jle only laughed and said, " Woman, has my
brother-in-law come home!" She replied, "If you had been left on the unvisited
island would you ever have returned!" Then she left him and came to the tent of
her brother, who commanded his wives to hasten with the preparations for his sister.
So they heated water, washed her, combed her hair, put beautiful clothes on her, and
placed her in the back part of the tent. Then the man said to his two boys, "Go,
call Uqktomi." They went and said, ''Uijktomi, we call you." lie said, "Oh, how
beautiful my nephews are," and followed them to the tent of his wife's brother. He
was going in to see her who had been his wife, now dressed so beautifully and seated
in the back part of the tent; but the young man said, " Sit there in the door." To
which Urjktomi made answer, '*Yes, my brother-in-law, I will do what you say."
When he was seated, the young man said, '* Urjktomi, eat your own dung." And
they say he did so. This was done to be avenged, because Urjktomi had once told
him to do the same. Then the young man said, " Weave tamarack roots; weave the
basket just your own size and make it come close around your neck." And Uijktomi
did so. "Sit down in it." And Uqktomi sat down in it. So the young man pressed
Uijktomi in and hung it over the fire. Uijktomi squirmed, but the young man said,
"Pile on wood." So he killed Uijktomi with the smoke, took out his heart and dried
it, i)ounded it up line and made medicine of it. Then he gave it to his two boys, and
said, " (jro, scatter it on the ruins of the village." And they did so.
When the next morning came, he said to them, '* Go see the medicine you scat-
tered." They returned and said, "Father, all over there are things like worms
crawling." The next morning he sent them again. They returned and said, "Father,
the things are now very large." On the third morning he sent them again. They
brought back word, "Father, they are little men. * Stand up! You are crooked,'
they said to each other; an<l so they stumbled along," they said. On the fourth day
the people were perfected, and at daybreak, with drum beating, yelling, making
proclamations, and great noise, they came and pitched their tents around the tent of
the young man, whom they made their chief. Thus they say that by means of
Ui)ktomi's heart the people were brought to life again. That is all.
WAMNUHAJTAGO^A.
Bead Spittbb.
Written in Dakota by M. Renville.
Hok^in(5ar)tkiyapi way hee tohan tago^a e6a waranuha odaze kiq owasiq
Boy-beloved " one that is wben he spits then beads kinds the all
itago^a e6e; he6en taoyate kir) hena wokoyake yapi e<5e. Heoq oyate
he spiia out always or so-that his-people the those elotnes made-them always. Therefore people
regularly
ihduk^ai) taijhar) wikoska owasir) hihnaye au e<5e. Ur)kar) wikoska war)
round about from young-women all to-man^- they were always And young-woman one
him coming in or regn-
large num- larly.
oers.
is hihnaye ya, ugkaij igyiir) hekta tuwe iha niyaqpi. Heden inazii) ;
Hhe marry-him went, and behold behind who laughed they aloud. So-that she stopped;
ur)kar) wikoska nom en upi ^a heyapi ; Inama ! Car)ktewir) den nazir) de,
and maidenH two thither they and this-say; Wonderful! Heart- killer female here stands
were
coming,
eyapi: ka, Iho ye, (Jai)ktewir), Wamnuha-itagosa hihnaye ur)yar)pi (!fe,
they said: and. Come 'on. Heart-killer female. Beads-who-spits-out to-marry we are going ,
uriyaripi kte, eyapi. He(5en om iyaye. Wikoska kir) denaoza Wigyaq-
we-go will, they said. So with them she went. Maiden the those-two Women
Noqpapika ewidakiyapi. Oyate en idagapi 6ni, ituya idagapi ; hena taku
Two they were called. People among they grew not, wil^y they-grew; these some-
thing
wakai) hecapi, heden cazepi.
mysterious such they hence their name,
were,
Heden hena om ya, ka om iwagka, waqna htayetu heog. Heden
So thoHe with she went, and with she lay-down, now evening therefore. Thus
them
war)na istirjmapi kta, uijkar) ^iijyar) Norjpapika kii) hevapi: Ihoqye,
now they -sleep would, and Women-Two the this said : Come-^n,
Oarjktewir), haijhaijna uijkiktapi kighaq tarjpa wakiSida waq ohomni pahiq
Heart killer female, morning we awake if birch-bark dish one around quills
or) akisoqT)i e psiij tona e pa kir) haq aqpa kiqhaq he Wamnuha-itagosa
with braided that rice which that head the stands daylight if that Bead-spits-out
( 1) ever ( ?)
hihnaye kta, eyapi. Tuka har)hai)na uqkai) Car)ktewir) e pa kiq en
husband nave Mhall, they said. But morning then Heart-killerfemale that head the in
eden haij, keyapi. Heden yapi, ka mde war) yapi en taijka, huta tar)iq
so stood, they Hay. So th'by-went, and lake ime they went in large, shore appear
Sni e en ipi. Caijnar) wata war) tagka yaqka, hen Wamnuha-itagoSa
not that in they (3ut-on boat one large was (sitting), there Beads-spits-out
arrived.
144
DAKOTA MYTHS. 145
toqweye <5ir) hetu ; heder) paripi, ^a, Wamnuha-itago^a hihnaye ughipi ye,
dwells the there; so they called, and, Beads-spits-oat to-marry we have come,
eyapi. Hecen watopa waq u. Hi uijkaq heyapi : Wamnuha-itagosa
they said. Then rower one was Arrived and this they say: Beads-spits -out
coming.
hihnaye uqhipi (?e, eyapi. Ugkai), Iha, tuwe hec^iyapi sta sdor)waye sni,
to-marry we have come , they said. Then, No, who thus called although I know him not^
eye 6a iozuiia wamnuha iyohnake <Ja tagosa iyeya : Uijkaij wamnuha keya
hesaid, and mouth full beadn he-placed and spit them otit: Then beads abundantly
. in his mouth
kada iyeya : Urikai) ihaha paliipi ; ka heder) Wiriyai} Noqpapi kii) napin
Bcatt6red were: And laughing they pierced and so Woman -Two the both
them up:
wata kig opapi, ka waijzi kiq ki^idapi, Oarjktewir) ; Ako iyaya, eyapi, ^a
boat the wentin, and one the they sent her Heart-killer female ; Away go, they said, and
away.
ki(?i kihdapi. Tuka he Wamnujia-itagosa ee sni. Heden ugma Ijioi) e6er)
with they went home. But this Beads-spita-out that not. So otlier the thus
him [aforesaid]
(?eya yaqka. Ur)kar), iqyur), wata war) hinaqpa, ugkar) nina wiyatpa, niaza
cry'ing was (sitting). And, lo, boat one oame-in-sight, and very brilliant, metal
wata nakaes. Heden u ka en hi : eke Wamnuha-itagosa hee ; iye kiq
boat indeed. Thus it was and there arrived : this Beads-spits-out that was; ue the
coming
taku wiyatpa ede koyake nakaes nina okitaqii}. Heden, Taku or), wikoska,
some- bright alone wearn indeed, very appears. Then, Wliat for, maiden,
thing
deii yadeya he, eya. Uijkaij is, Wamnuha-itagosa hihnaye hi keya; l^a
here * yon <'ry f he*said. And she, Beads-spits-out to-marry came, she said : and
en Wiijyaq Noqpa token ecakidoqpi he okiyake. Uijkai), Ho wo, ughde
these Woman Two how they did to her that she told him. Then, Come on, we-two-
go-hoiue
kta de eye ca kidi ki.
will , he said, and with he arrived
her at Ills
home.
Ito injmapi kiij lie omdake kta. Hecen Wiqyar) Nor)papi kiq widasta
Now otlierR the that 1 tell will. Thus Women Two the man
kog kidi kipi. Uijkaij kiir)kisitku ti en ipi. Uqkai) iijyuT) tuwe heya;
the with thev reache<I Th<'n grandmother-bin house in they And lo some one this *Haid;
[afun^said] lionie. came.
Siyaka, Wamnuha-itagosa nido de, eya. Uqkar), Ho, token takeye se,
^oal, Bead Spitter you-calls , he-said. Then, Soho! somehow what-ne- it
says seems,
eya: Heden upi sni po, he taku wakaqyag edoqpi ede e tuwena wiqyar)
hiTHaid. Hence come ye not, this soroethiug myfiteriouRly they-oo alwayH that no-one woman
waijyake ^ni edee de, eya da iyaya. Tuka wiqyar) koq heyapi: Taku
sees not always , he said, and went. But women the thfs said : What
[aforesaid]
wakag kes waijyag uijyakoi) edee, ekta uqye kte, eyapi; \a en yapi.
mysterious even seeing we-two-are always, to it we-two-go will. they said; and there *^wont.
Uqkai) nina oko e heden w«akeya ohdoka wag ohna etoqwaijpi, uykai)
Then much noise that so tent hole one In they looked, and
hihnakupi kog hee nite kii) he awadipi: mjkar) tawidu kii) eyokasiypi e
hnsband-theirs the that-is bm>k the that they duncc<l on : and wives-his the Looking in that
[aforesaid]
waqwidayake; uijkar) nazii) hiyaye (-a, Mis siyaka nite awadipi owapa, eye
them-hc-saw; and he rose to hiH feet and, I teal's back dancing on I follow hesaid,
<Ja psipsida, keyai)i. He niagaksida war) Siyaka eyapi edee, liee koya])i.
and Jumped often, they say. This duck one *^teal called always, that-isit they say.
7105— VOL IX 10
146 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AJlD ETHNOGRAPnY.
HeoT) dehar)yar) magaksi<!^a kiij he nite kiq 6epe sni : uqkai) he oyate awa<5ipi
Therefore to-this-time duck the this hack the fat not: and this people they danced
on him
ka hededa, eyapi e<5e.
and so-it-is, they Hay regularly.
Hehan wiijyaq koi) hdidupi, ka sina nom, ugina tuhmaga mahen
Then women the they-starttMl and blanket two, the one bees within
[afur(>Haid] home,
ehnakapi, ka ugma tazihska mahen ehnakapi, ka iyayapi; ka uqma wiijyaq,
they-placed, and the other ants within they-plueed, and went on: and the other wouiaii,
Caijktewii) eciyapi koij he hoksindaijtkiyapi kiij kidi waykan yagka; tuka
Heart-killer she was the Mint boy-ljeloved tlie with above was [fitting] : but
female callc<l [aforesaid]
yu8 taqkan liiyuyapi, ka lye itaij-anof^ iyotaijkapi. Uijkaij Siyaka hde <Ja
tftking outside they thrust Iier, and tnej' ou-eaeh-side they sat down. Then T(<al went- and
home
ki ka sina uyinai) yu^aq, tuka tuhmaj^a kor) yazipe. Ake uijnia yu^^aij,
he and blanket the one opened, but bees the thev-stung- Again the other opened,
reaehe<l [aforenaid] liiro.
home
tuka tazuska kir) yazipe. Uijkag, Edii; taku wakag ota ce, eye va sina
but ants the * they bit Then, Indeed what m^'sterious many , lieVaid, and blank-
[aforesaid] htm. ets
yazamni, tuka tazuska tuhmaga ko ti ozuna; heden owasiij widakahapapi.
opened out. but anta liees also house full; so that all they were driven out.
Ileden ye (*a Wamnulia-itagosa Siyaka tawicu kiy napin om yaijka en i;
So he- and Bead Spitter xeal wives-hia the both with was there he
went [Hitting] arrived;
ka, Ciqye, hakakta kig he miru ye, eya. Tuka eraca tak eye sni. Ake
and, Older brother, lant the that return her to me, said. But noway something naid not Again
eya kes eca(5a tak eye sni. Uijkaij hecen Siyaka kiij hde (a dowaij nivaij
liie although not- some- said not. And so Teal the went- and he sang ajoud
Ha id at- all thing home
keyapi : Wamnuha-itagosa, wi hakakta niicu wo; mde akasaijpa kes caijsuska
they -say: Bead Spitter, woman-last return her to me; lake across even box -elder
ko okataijtai) ihewaya ce, eya dowaij niyar). Heon dehan woyazaij waij
also i)ouuding-iu-often I drive , he said he sang aumd. Therefore now siekness
one
tukten toijwicaye va nina. wicayazai) ece kiij he Siyaka wicao, eyapi kiq
when puH-forms and verj- they sick always the that ^^eal then-shoots thev-say the
hetaijhag he icupi.
hence this they -take.
Hehan liaijyetu kehai) I^ar)gar)hera isaij waij icu ka en ya: uTjkai)
Then night when Sharp-graHS knife one t(M>k and there went: And
Hoksincantkiyapi kiij wiijyaij kiij napin om istiijina waijka: tuka pa kiy
Boy-beloved the women the lioth with Hlc«]>ing holaj*: but head the
tahu kiij en baksa iyeye ^a liehan ti mahen wakeya kiij mahen yuha inaziq.
neck the in he-cut^off and there- house-in tent the within ' having he stood
there.
Helian oyate kii) sdoijyapi. Iloksinc'aijtkiyapi koi) pa (?ona war)ka e liecen
Then people the kncw-it. Boy-beloved the ht^id without lay that so
[aforesaid]
owodutatoT).' Hecen niyaka ti kii) ekta yapi; uijkaij koijkisitku kon
tumult-was TIius Teal houne tlie to they went; and grand mot her- his the
(afon^Maid]
owaijdaya toki ye ('a ti akan ekilide ka en yapi. Tuka hok'a <!:ina waij
all-over somc^- Hhe and house ui>on placed, and there they went. But heron bn>wn one
where went
kiijyai) iyaye, hecen wahu])ak()za waij liok'aj^icana eciyapi koij he siyaka
flymg Vent, ho that fowl one little brown heron is (tailed the that 'teal
(Hui|ie) (aforesaid]
DAKOTA MYTHS. 147
knqkisitku ee. Hecen 6edi kalimii) waij en iyahe. He(^en oyate kig en
graudinotherliis U. Then reed corner one in Hlie alip;htetl. So people the thuA
aye ca cedi wita kiij ecelma inapaypi ka inakukapi. Heceii 6edi hute kir)
wenv and reed island tlin entirely tramped down and stamped out. Hence reed roots the
owasii) sa^a eca k\i) hena Siyaka kuijkisitku we kii) hena ee, keyapi.
all red here when the those Teal grandmother-Ilia bloo<l the those are, they say.
antl there
Hehan Siyaka is Hoksin(;5ar)tkiyapi pa kiij yuha wic^astayatapi kiq
Then Teul be Boy-l>eloved head the liaviiig ' chief the
timahen wokeya kiij mahen yulia inaziij. l> jkaij Hoksincaijtkiyapi hoi)ku
house-in tent the within having he stood there. And Boy beloved mother
(?eye va, Wahte sni, sica, midigda kii; wowihahaye va iiite awadi widakiye
his crie<l and. Worthless, bad, my-child the debauched and l>ack on-dunce thera-he-made
cikoi) wahpaniniaye, eya ceva (^a, Toki he niiye nakaes hecamoij, eya e6ee.
that-one poor-me-made, said crying when, Well, that 1 indeed that-I did, he^said always.
Uijkaij Uijktomi kicopi, ka lioijku kiij lieya reya ca; Toki is hey a niyay
Then Uqktomi they called, and mother-his the this-said crytngwhen; Well, he this said afoud
e<^,e, he mi ye nae^ hecainoi}, eya ece; Eca iyukcar) wo, eyaj)i. Uijkar),
always, that 1 verily this I did, he said always; Indeed ctmsider thou, they said. And
Ugktonii witkotkoka eliapi de, tokeda idukdaqpi sni he. De wakeya kig
Ui}ktomi a fool yon say , why yon consider not f This tent the
mahen nazii), heya. Uijkar) wakeya kiq yuzuzupi, nrikar) Siyaka Hoksin-
within standing;, he said. Then tent the they tore down, and Teal lioy-
caijtkiyapi pa yulie, da ugma is isai} kor) yuhe ^a waqkan inaiig. Uijkaij,
beloved head *^ he-had. and other he knife the had and above he-stood there. Then,
(aforesaid)
Kun ku wo, yani kta ce eyapi. Tuka wagkan iyaye, ^a hagyetu wi kii)
Down come thou, you live shall , tlTeysaid. But upward fie- went, and night sun the
cokaya inaziq. Hecen tolian liaijyetu wi mima Qa taku waq taijiij kiij he
in-the-iniddlehe-slood there. Thus when night sun ronnd and something one appears, the that
Siyaka ee, nape sai^ni Wamnuha-itagosa pa kiq ynhe <5a ni}ma is Igaij^aijlieca
I'eal is, hand one BeailSpitter bead the 'holds, and other it Sliarp-grass
isaij kor) yulie ca naziij, keyapi.
knife the *^ holds and hestan.ts, they say.
[aforftsaid]
NOTES.
*
1. The form, Boy-beloved^ is said to be usotl only of the first-born or eldest son
of a chief, and so would stand for Prince. It is 'hoksidaij,' &oy, and 'dantekiya,' to
lave. This is x^ut in the plural and passive form, and so means Beloved-Son.
2. This myth shows that plurality of wives is a custom of ancient date among
the Dakota, and that the taking of sisters was a common form of it. Further, the
myth shows a very low state of social morality. To the question, what laws or im-
memorial usages among the Dakota, restrain them in their matrimonial alliances, M.
Renville answers, "There are no laws — that is, laws with penalties — to prevent a man
from taking his sister to wife, or even his mother, but we simply say such a man is
like a dog — he is a dog." That they often have largely transgressed the line of pre-
scribed consanguinity, in taking wives, is evidenced by the name Kiyuksa being worn
by a number of the sub-gentes in the Dakota nation. This dividing or breaking of
custom is uniformlv referred to their nuitrimonial alliances.
3. It is interesting to note in these myths the origin, or at least the explana-
tion, of certain singular forms of speech in the language, which it is impossible to
account for otherwise. For example, in this myth, we have * li^iyaka-o,' Teal-sfiotj
148 DAKOTA GEAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
which means a boUy tlie core of which is the mythical arrow of box-elder which the
Teal drives in, even from beyond the lake.
4. Rather a beautiful mythical idea is that the roots of the tall reeds are made
red by tlie blood of the snipe, which is the grandmother of the teal. Another, which
is quite as c;ood as our ^*^man in the moon," is the translation of the Teal, with the
gory head of Boy-belove<l, together with Sharp-grass and his executioner's knife, to
the broad land of the Night Sun.
TRANSLATION.
There was a Boy-beloved wliose spittle was all kinds of beautiful beads. So
abundant were they that his people arrayed themselves therewith. As the fiime of
tliis spread abroad, the y(mng women of surrounding tribes were all anxious to have
him for a husband. And as a certain maiden w«as going to makc^ him her husband, if
possible, slie heard behind lier someone langliing. She stopped, wlien lo! two women
came up and said, "Why, here stands Heart- Killer." And they added, "Come
along, Heart- Killer, we are going to make the Bead-Spitter our husband; let us go
together." So she went with them.
These two young women were called — "The Two- Women." They did not grew
from the pe4)ple, but grew wildly and were supernatural l>eings, hence their name,
"The Two- Women."
So Heart- Killer went with them and lay down with them, as it was now night.
But before they went to sleep the two women said, " Look here, Heart-Killer, when
the morning comes, at whosesoever head stands the birch-bark dish with (juill work
around it and filled with rice, she is the one who shall have Bead Sjutter for a
husband." So when the morning came it was standing at the head of Heart-Killer,
they say.
Then they went on and came to a large lake, whose farther shores could not be
seen. Out on the water was a large canoe. And as this was where Bead-Spitter's
village was they called an<l said, " We have come to get Bead-Spitter for our husband."
Some one came rowing. W^hen he arrived, they said, " We have come to make Bea<l-
Spitter our husband." To which he replied, " I do not know any one by that name;"
but Jit the same time he filled his mouth with beads, and then spat them out. The
beads were scattered all around, and, laughing, they gathered them uj). Then the two
women went into the canoe, but the other th(\v drove back, and said, "Go away,
Heart-Killer." So they went home with the man, but he was not Bead-Spitter.
Heart- Killer stood there crying, when, lol another canoe came in sight. It was a
very bright and beautiful one, for it was all metal. It came on and arrived. This
was the Bead-Spitter, and, as he wore very bright clothing, the appearance was very
splendid.
"Young woman, what are y^ni crying for heref" he said. So she told him she
had come to get Bead-Spitter for a husband and what the two women had done to
her. Then he said, " Come on, we two will go home." So she went home with him.
Let us return to the others.
The two women went home with the man whom they had met. His name was
Teal-Duck, and he livcMl with his grandmother. By and by some one said, "Teal-
Duck, Tiead Spitter calls you to a feast." The Teal said, " Indeed, somebody has
said scmiething;" and then to the women he said, "Do not come; they fire making
mystery; no woman looks at it." So he went. But the women said, "We, too, are
DAKOTA MYTHS. 149
accustomed to see tlie supernatural; we will go," and so they went. Wlieu they
reached the place there was inucli noise, and they came and looked in by a hole of
the tent, and lo! the inmates were dancinj^ on the back of Teal-Duck. He saw his
wives i)eeping in, and jumping up, said, " I, also, will join the dance on the Teal's
back," and so he jumped about. They say this was the duck that is called the '^Teal,"
and hence, to this day, that duck has no fat on its back, because the i)eople danced
on it, they rsay.
Then the two women stjirted bjick, and, taking two blankets, they put bees in
the one and tints in the other and went on. The other woman, who was called lleart-
Killer, was with the Boy- Beloved, ller they took and thrust out, and then placed
themselves on either side of him.
Then Teal-Duck came home, and when he had lifted one blanket the bees came
out and stung him; when he lifted the other the ants came out and bit him. Then
he said, '^ Indeed, here is much that is strange," and so he oiiened out the blankets
and the ants and bees swarmed out and drove everybody from the house. So he went
and found the two wives of Teal-Duck with Bead-Spitter, to whom he said, "My
elder brother, give me back the younger cme." There was no reply. Again he
made the demand, but no answer came. And so Teal-Duck went home singing this
song, they say:
" You Spitter of Pearls, give me ba<»k my younger wife;
For over the lake I always drive box-elder pegs."
And from this has come down to us this form of speech, viz : When sores come
out on people and pus is formed, they say, "Teal- Duck has shot them."
Now, when night came on, Shari>-Grass took his knife, and finding the Boy-
Beloved sleeping with the two women, he cut off his head, and, holding it in his hand,
took his station inside of the tent. When the people knew that the Boy-Beloved
lay hejidless there was a great tumult. So they went to the house of the Teal, but
his grandmother had placed him on the top of hia tent. They went in, but only a
little brown heron came Hying out. Hence the fowl that is called Little-Brown- Heron
(snipe) is the grandmother of the Teal- Duck. It tlewaway and alighted in the corner
of a reed marsh. Then the people went and trod down and trampled up thoroughly
the reed island. Hence, when all the roots of the reeds are red, they say this is the
blood of the Teal's grandmother.
Then Teal-Duck, having the heml of the Boy-Beloved, went and stood within
the tent of the chief. And the mother of Boy-Beloved cried, and said, " You bad,
worthless fellow who debauched my child and hjxd people (hmce ui)ou your own back,
you have impoverished me." While she cried, some one said, " Indeed, and was it I
who did this thing?" Then they calleil IJijktomi, and when his mother said, crying,
" Who is it who sjiys this {ih)ud, * Indeed, and was it I who did it!'" Then Uijktomi
said, "Now, ccmsider this: You say Uijktomi is a fool; why, don't you understand
this! It is he who stands within the tent who says this."
Then they tore down the tent and beheld Teal-Duck hohling the head of Boy-
Beloved and the other having the knife, and they st<x)d up high. " Come down,"
they said, "you shall live;" but up they went and stood in the moon. And so
now, when the moon is full, what Jippears in it is Teal-Duck holding the head of One-
who-spits-out-pearls, and the other is Sharp-Grass holding the knife in his hands.
This is the Myth.
PARABLE OF THE PRODIGAL SON— Luke XV, 11-32.^
Wicatita waij ciqhiijtku noijpa: uijkai) liakakata kiij he atkuku kig
Man a sonhia two: and youngest the that father-hie the
hei'^iya: Ate, woyulia initawa kte cii) lie niicu-wo, eya. Ugkar) woyuha
naid-to-hiin : Father, goodn mine will-be the that me-niine-give, he-said. And* goods
kiij yiiakipain wicaku. Uijkaij iyohakam aijpetu tonana, diqhiqtku liakakta
the dividing them-he gave. And aft<>r nay few, son-his youngest
koi) lie owasiij witava tpalii, ka itehaijyai) inakoce wai} ekta idimani ya;
that- that all together gathered and a-farolT country a to traveling went:
WR8 his-own,
ka lieu sihai) ohaijyaijpi kii; oi), taku yulie 6\i) owasiij lidutakunisni. Uykaij
and there bad doings the by. what *^ he-had the all ho-destroyed-his-oMii. And
owasiij waijna hdusote v-eliai;, makoce kii) he eu widaakiliag hiijt^; uijkaq
all now he-had-spent when, country the that in famine very; and
his own
liiijiiakalia widakiza. IJijkai) makoce kiij hen uijpi kii; waijzi ti kig ekta
consequently he-was-iu wiuit. And country the there dwelt the one house the to
i, ka kici yaijka; uijkaij he ma}>a kiij ekta kukuse wo widal^u kte yesi.
went, and with wan; and that-one field the to swine food themgive should sent.
Uijkaij kukuse taku yutapi kiij liees oij wipiicjiye warii); tuka tuwedai;
And swine what eat the even-that with filVhiniself desired ; but some-one
dot oku sill. Uijkaij waijua icjiksuye celiaij heya : Ate wi6ista opewidatorj
food gave- not. And now remembered- when this-said: My- man them-bought
him himself father
kuj lieda toua wicayuha, ka heiia aguyapi iyaki^uya yuliaj)i, tuka miye ke
the such how-many them has, and those bread moro-than -enough they have, but I myself
wotektelidapi kiij oi; atakuuisni aniayaij 6e. Ito nawaziij, ka ate ekta
hunger the by- I am 1>ecoming fe<;ble. Lo! I ntand and my- to
means-of (-arise), father
wahde v^, hewakiye kta; Ate, malipiya kiij ekta ka uiye iiakuq nitokam
I-go-home and, to-him-I-say-this will: Father, heaven the against and thee also thee-before
wawalitaiii; ka detaijhai} <5ii)6amayaye kta iyeniadece sni; wica.4ta
I-havo-sinned ; and from -this time, child -me- thou-have shouldst I am worthy not; man
opewicayatOQ kiij liees waijzi iyececa uiaka^a wo, epe kta de, eya. Uijkar)
hem-th >:i has't-bought the oven one like mo-make, I-say will , he-said. And
naziij liivaye, <Ja atkuku ekta ki. Tuka nahaliii} itehay ku, atkuku
he rose to his feet, and father-his to went-liome. But while-still far-off coming- fathcr-his
home,
waqlidake <Ja, oqsikida ka, ii^yaijg ye va, poskiii liduze <Ja, iikputaka. Uijkaq
saw-him and had-conipas- and running went, and by-the-neck claitpetl and kisseil-him And
his own sion on his own, * his own, his own.
diijhujtku kiij liediya: Ate, mali])iya kig ekta ka uiye iiitokain wawahtani,
son-his the this-saiil- Father, heaven the to and thee thoe-before I-have-sinnod,
to-him:
ka detarjhaij ciijeamayaye kte ciij he iyemacede sni, eya.
and from-thia-time child-me-thou-have shouldHt the that *I am worthy not, he-snid.
" The nccoiiipauying interliuear translations from the Bible appeared in the edition of 1852, just
after the Grammar.
150
DAKOTA MYTHS. 151
Tuka atkuku kiq taokiye kiq hewi<5akiya: J^iiia iyotarj wa^te kiq he
But father-bin tbe liis-Hcrvant the this-to-them-aaid: Blanket "^ must good the that
au-po, ka iijkiya-po; ka mazanapdupe wag nape kii) en iyekiya-po; ka
bring ye, and put-on-him-ye: and fiuger-ring a hand the on put-yo; and
siha haijpa ohekiya-po; ka ptezicadaq demyapi kii; he den au-po, ka kte-po;
feet moccaains put-on-him ye; and cow-oalf fatted the that here bring-ye, and kill-ye;
wauijtapi lj:a uqkiyuskiijpi kta 6e. Michjksi kir) de t^, ugkai) kini; taijiijsni
we-eat and we-rc^oioe will My -son the this dead, and Uvesagain ; lost
ka iyeyapi, eya. Uijkar) hii^nakaha wiyuskigpi.
and is-foana, he-said. And immediately thcy-rcuoiced.
Uijkai) diqhigtku tokapa kor), he ma^ata urj : uijkao tikiyadaq ku ra
And son-his eldest that- was, that fiuld-at was: and house-nearto was when
coming
home
dowaijpi ta wadipi nahoQ. Ur)kai) ookiye waqzi kipag, ka liena token
singing and dancing he-)ieard. And servant one hc-called-to, and these-tbings how
kapi heciyliai), he iwagjja. Uijkaij he<5iya : Nisuijka hdi ; uijkai; ni urj ka
meant if, that beinqnired. And he-Siudtbis- Thyyoiinger- has- and alive is and
to-him: brother come-home;
zaniyaij hdi kii) ; heog-etaghai) niyate ptezi<5adar| ceinyapi koi) he kikte 6e,
well has- the; therefore thy- father cow-calf fattod that- was that killed ,
<>omc-home for him
eya. Uijkai; hecen silida, ka tin kilide wadii) sni ; helian atkuku kiq
he-said. And so he- was -angry, and in to- the- he-go- desired not; then father-his the
house home
fcii)kan hiyu ka (5ekiya. Uqkaij hehan wayupte va atkuku kiij heciya:
out came and besought-him. And then he-answered and father-liis the tbis-said-to .
Iho, waniyetu ota wayna waociciye, <;a iyae 6'n) tohiijni kawape sni; liec^eca
Lo! winter many now I-bave-hclpod-thee, and thy- word the ever I-passed- not; thus
bevond
esta, kodawicawaye 6ii) om wimduskiq kta e tohirjni taciijdadaij wayzi
although, friend -them -I- have the with I-reJoioe might that at-any-time deer-child one
niayaku sni <Se: Tuka nidiijksi witkowiqpi kiij om woyuha nitawa kig
me-thou- not But thy-son harlots the with property thy tbe
gavest
temniciye cii) de hdi ca, wai^cake ])tezicadaij cemyapi kig he yecidata ce,
eaten-iipfor-theu the this come- when, at-once cow-calf fatted the that thou-for-him- ,
home bast-killed
eya. Uijkaij lieciya ; Ciijs, ohiijniyaij niici yaurj ; ka taku mduhe dii) he
he-said. And tlds-he-said- Son, always me-with thou-art; and what I-bave tbe that
to-liim :
iyuhpa nitawa. Nisugka kiij de ta ugkar) kini ; taijigsni, ugkaq iyeyapi
all thine. Thy-younger- the tliis was- and has-come- was-lost, and is-found
brother dead tolife ;
kiy heoi) etayhai) ito, daijte uqwastepi ^a urjkiyuskiripi kte 6ir) he hecetu
the therefore lo! heart we-good and we-rejoice should the that is-right
<Se, eya 6e.
, he-said
THE LORD'S PRAYER.
Itaqcai; tawodekiye kin.
Lord his-prayer tbe.
Ateur)yai)pi mahpiya ekta narjke 6ir); Nicaze aix) wakai)dapi kte;
Father- we-bave heaven in thou-art the; Thy-name the holy-refrarded shall;
Nitokicorize kiij u kte. Mahpiya ekta token nitawadiq edoijpi kig, maka akan
Thy-kiugdom the come shall. Heaven in bow tby-wiU is-done the, earth upon
152 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
liecen ecoi)pi nug we. Aypetu kig de tiiku-vutapi uijku-po:^ ta waiirjlitanipi
wi (lone may-it-bo. Day the this food us-givo: and our-trespaBseM
kiij ugkicicazuzu-po, ur)kis iyeceii toiia ecioKsniyaq uqkoki^ihayyaijpi liena
the era80-for-u8, wo Iike-a8 as-niay-aii wron^fy have-done-to-us thoHe
iyecen wicuijkicicazuzupi kiij. Wowawiyutaijye kiq lie en iyaye ugyaqpi
even-as thoni-we-forKive the. Temptation the that into to-go ug-cauae
sui-po, ka taku sica etaijhaij euijhdaku-po. Wokicoijze kiq, wowas'ake kiij,
not, and what bad from ii8 deliver. Kingdom the, strength the,
wowitaij kiij, henakiya owihaijke wauin iiitawa iiuijwe. Anieii.
glory the, all-theae end none thine may*be. Amen.
THE FOURTH COMMANDMENT.
Woaliope itopa.
Commandment fourth.
Aqpetu-okilipapi kiij he kiksuye c^ wakar) da-wo. Agpetu sakpe
I>ay-of-reet the that remember and holy reganl thou. Day six
htayaiii l^a nitohtani kii) owasiij ecauoi) kta. Tuka ai)petu isakowii) kiij he
thou-lalxir and thy-work the all thou-do shalt. But day seventh the that
aijpetu-okihpapi, Yehowa Taku-Wakaij nitawa kiij he tawa, he en wi(5ohtani
day-of-rc'st, Jehovah God thy the that his, that in work
takudai) ecanoij kte sni, iiiye ka nicigkSi, nicuijksi, wi^^asta nitaokiye, wigyaij
some-little thou-do shalt not, thou and thy-son, thy-daughter. man thy-servant, woman
nitaokiye, nitawoteca, ka tuwe tokeca nitatiyopa kiij en ug kiq henakiya.
thy-servant, thy-cattle, and wlnnn-er elsi* thy door the in is the so>maiiy.
Aqpetu sakpe en Yehowa mahpiya, inaka, miniwarjca ka taku ohnaka
Day six in Jehovah heaven, earth, water-all and what is-in
ko owasiij ka}>a; uijkaij aijpetu isakowiij kiij he en okihpa, liecen Yehowa
also all made; and nay seventh the that in rested, so Jehovah
aijpetu-okihpapi kiij he lidawa^te ka hduwakaij.
day-of-rest the that blesseil and hallowed
his own hilt own.
> Sumo of thu Dakota object to the use of the impeiative iu wo and po, iu addresslDg God, pre-
fcrring the eudiug ye, please. — j. o. D.
DAKOTA GRAMMAR TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
PART TllIRU.
ETHNOGRAPHY.
153
ETHNOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER 1.
THE DAKOTA.
The introduction to the Dakota Grammar and Dictionary, published:
by the Smithsonian Institution in 1852, commences with this paragraph:
The nation of Sioux Indians, or Dakotas, as they call themselv-es, is supposed
to number about 25,(M)0. They are scattered over an immense territory, extending
from the Mississippi River on the east to the Black Hills on the west, and from the
mouth of the Big Sioux River on the south to Devils Lake on the north. Early
in the winter of 1837 they ceded to the United Stiites all their land lying on the
eastern side of the Mississippi ; and this tract at present forms the settled portion
of Minnesota. During the summer of 1851 the Commissioner of Indian Affiiirs, with
Governor Ramsey, of Minnesota, negotiated with the Dakotas of the Mississippi and
Minnesota, or St. Peters Valley, for all their land lying east of a line running from
Otter-Tail Lake through Lake Traverse (Lac Travers) to the junction of the Big Sioux
River with the Missouri ; the Indians retaining for their own settlements a reservation
on the upper Minnesota 20 miles wide and al)out 140 long. This purchase includes all
the wooded lands belonging to the Dakotas, and extends, especially on the south side
of the Minnesota River, some distance into the almost boundless prairie of the West.
Beyond this, the Indians follow the buffaloes, which, although evidently diminishing
in numbers, still range in vast herds over the prairies. This animal furnishes the
Indian with food and clothing, and a house, and, during the summer, with the " bois
de vache" for fuel. In the winter these sons of the prairie are obliged to pitch their
tents at or in the little clusters of wood, which here and there skirt the margins of
the streams and lakes.
The interval of thirty years has made such changes in this people as
to require an ahnost entirely new statement. First, as regards numbers:
The above statement was made mainly by estimation, and not on actual
count. Only a small portion of the Dakota were at that time receiving
annuities. In this case the estimate was largely under the truth. Since
that time, when the western Dakota were at war with our Government,
they were variously estimated as numbering from 40,000 upward. But as
155
156 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
they are now gathered at the various agencies, viz, Cheyenne River, Crow
Creek, Devils Lake, Lower lirule, Pine Ridge, Rosebud, Sisseton, Stand-
ing liock, and Yankton, in Dakota Territory, with Poplar River in Mon-
tana, and Santee in Nebraska, they are reported at a little less than 30,000.
This does not include the more than 100 families of homesteaders at Flan-
dreau and Brown Earth. Nor does it include Sitting Bull's party, the
greater part of which has recently returned to the United States. In addi-
tion to these, are, Dakota-speaking people beyond the line, the Stoneys,
and Assiniboin, besides at least 1,000 of the refugees from our war of
1862, who have become })ermanent residents in the Queen's dominions.
We now conclude that 40,000 will be a low estimate of those who speak
the Dakota language.
Secondly, as regards habitat: This will be made plain by a brief state-
ment of the migrations and history of the ditforent tribes which constitute
the Dakota nation.
TKIBES.
Their name, the Dakota say, means leagued or allied; and they some-
times speak of tliemselves as the *^0(5eti sakowiij," Seven council fires.
These are the seven principal bands which compose the tribe or nation, viz:
1. The Mdewakaijtoijwaij, Village of the Spirit Lake. Their name is
derived from a former residence at Mdewakaij {Spirit or Sacred Lake), Mille
Lacs, which are in Minnesota, at the head of Rum River. This was the
old home of the nation, when Hennepin and Du Luth visited them two
hundred years ago. As these so-called Spirit Lake villagers occupied the
gateway of the nation, they were for a long time better known than the
other portions of the tribe, and came to regard themselves as living in the
center of the world. Thirty years ago tliis record was made of them :
They are divided into seven principal villages, three of which are still on the
western bank of the Mississippi, and the others on or near the Minnesota, within 25
or 30 miles of Fort Snelling. This portion of the Dakota people liave received an-
nuities since the year 1838, and their number, as now enrolled, is about 2,000. They
plant corn and other vegetables, and some of them have made a little progress in
civilization.
In that same year of 1851 they sold their land to the Government
and were removed to a reservation on the u})per Minnesota, and were the
principal actors in the emeute of 1862, wlii(»h resulted in their capture and
dispersion. Those who fled to the Dominion of Canada with Little Crow
have, for the most part, remained there, while those who lived through the
DAKOTA TRIBES. 157
ordeal of captivity are now a civilized people at the Santee Agency, in
Nebraska, and at the Flandreau Homestead Settlement on the Big Sioux.
The origin of the name Mdewakaqtoqway is accounted for by Mr. M.
Renville as follows: In the east country there was a large lake, and in the
lake there was a l^aku-Wakay, wliich was feared. But there they made
their village. And when the planting time came this local god always
made his appearance. But this gens di-eamed of it and worshiped it, and
no more feared it. Hence they got the name of ^^ Sacred-Lake Villagers."
This was an original gens of the Dakota people, which was afterwards
divided into seven gentes, viz: (1) Ki-yu-ksa, Breakers of custom or law,
said to refer to marrying into their own gens. (2) He-mni-(5ai) (Hay-
minnee-chan), HiU'Water-wood, the name of Barn Bluff at Red Wing. (3)
Ka-po-za (Kaposia), Light ones, those who traveled iniincumbered with
baggage. (4) Ma-ga-yu-te sni, Thry who do not eat geese, (5) He-ya-ta-
toij-we, The Back Villagers. Tliis was the Lake Calhoun band. (6) Oyate-
sica, BoaI people, (7) Tiy-ta-toy-we, Prairie Villagers,^
2. Tlie Wahpekute, Leaf-shooters, It is not now known from what
circumstances the Wahpekute received tlieir name. Thirty years ago
they were a roving band of about 500 or 600, who laid claim to the
country of Cannon River, the head waters of the Blue Earth, and west-
ward. They were guilty of the massacre of Spirit Lake, in Iowa, in 1857,
and were so demoralized thereby that they became rovers, and have lost
their place in the Dakota famil3\ After tlie sale of their land, in 1851,
they became connected witli the Spirit-Lake band, and, disregarding tlieir
gentes, some of them are now at Santee Agency and some at Sisseton
Agency, but the greater })art have fled to the Missouri River and to Canada.
3. The Walipetoywai), Village in the Leaves, probiibly obtained their
name from the fact that formerly they lived only in the woods. The old
home of this band was about the Little Rapids, w^hicli is some 45 miles by
water from the mouth of the Minnesota River. Thirty years ago it wiis
written :
About 300 still reside tliere, but the larger part of the band have removed to
Lac-qui-[)arle and Big Stone Lake. In all they number about 1,000 or 1,200 souls.
They all plant corn, more or less, aiul at Lac-ciui-piirle, one of the mission stations
occupied by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, they have
made some progress in learning to read and write their own language, and have
substituted, to some extent, the use of the plow for the hoe.
* Hakc-wawte, a chief of the Mdewakaijtoijwai), who was in Washington, I). C, in 1880, gave
the fifth and scventli gentes as ** Heyata otoijwe " and *' Tiytaotoi)we ; " but since tlien Kev. A. L. Kiggs
•
has given the forms ** Heyatatoijwaij " and **Tiijtatoijwai)." — J. o. D.
158 DAKOTA (iBAMMAR. TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
These Dwellers in the Leaves were more or less mixed uj) in the out-
break of 1862. Some of them fled to Manitoba, where they now have a
native church near Fort ElHn. Some of them were of the captivity, and
carried letters and religion into the prison, while some were prominent in
bringing about a counter revolution and in delivering the white captives.
They are now mixed with Sisseton on the Sisseton and Devil's Lake Reser-
vations and in the lirown Earth Homestead Settlement.
Mr. M. Reuville jiccounts for the origin of tbe name Leaf VilUigers in this wise:
'* First, tnulition says tbe clan were in tbe liabit of making bootbs witli tree
branches with tbe leaves attached. Secondly, when camping in a country of prairie
and woods they were in the habit of making their camp in tbe wood. Hence their
name. They were divided into three subgentes, viz: 1. Wah-pa-toij-wan.* 2. Ta-ka-
psin-tona. 3. Oteliatoijnji. They lived originally at Knife Lake, where there was a
beautiful prairie. A part of the clan became famous ball players, and hence the name
of Takapsintona. Another part were afraid of enemies, and so, when on journeys,
they sought a thicJcet in which to make their camp. Hence they were calle<l Otelii-
atoijwe, JhcellerH in ThickeUy
4. Tlie Si-si-toq-waij. Formerh' we were told that si-siy meant
swampy land; and so we translated the name Swamp Villagers, But the
evidence is in favor of another meaning and origin. M. Renville gives the
following: At Traverse des Sioux, at the Blue Earth, and on the Big Cot-
tonwood, they made their villages. They took many fish from the river
and lakes. These they cut up and dried, throwing tlu^ scales and entrails
in heaps, which appeared partly white and shining, and partly blac^k and
dirty. This appearance they called siy-siij. And lience when the young
men of other villages would go to see them they said. Let us go to the
Sisiatoqwai) — ^those who live on the sigsiij. Hence tlie people were called
Sisseton.
They were divided thus into subgentes: The white people brought
whiskey. The Sissetons got drunk and killed each other. By this means
they were scattered. Some went up to Lake Traverse, and some went to
the Two Woods west of Lac-qui-parle.
These last were called (1) Ti-zaptaijna, Five Lodges, These were
Thunder Face's people. Some were called (2) Okopeya. These were his
brother's followers. A part of the gens remained at Traverse des Sioux
*The following 18 a fiUl list of the geutes of the Wahpetoi^wai), as obtaiued from their mis-
sionary, Rev. Edward Anhley, in 1884: (1) Iijyai) ceyaka atoi)waij, Village at the Rapids ; (2) Takapsin
tOQwaqua, Those who Dwell at the Shinny -ground ; (3) Wiyaka otina, Dwellers on the Sand; (4) Otelii
atoi)wai), Village On-tke- Thicket (sic); (5) Wita otina. Dwellers Jii'the- Island; (6) Wakpa atoi)wai),
Village On-the- River ; (7) C^ai)-ka^a otina, Dwellers In-Log (hutst). When they camped with the
Sisitoijwai), a different order of these geutes was observed, as will be explained hereafter. — j. o. D.
DAKOTA TRIBES. 159
and at Little Rock. These were called (3) (5an-4da-(?i-ka-na, Little place
hare oftvood} These were Sleepy Eyes' and Red Iron's people. Another
portion wa« called (4) Amdo-wa-pus-kiya. They lived at Lake Traverse
and were great buffalo hunters. They often moved camp when their meat
was not dried, and so spread it out on the horses' backs and on the thills,
and hence were called Dryers on the Shoulder. These were Standing Buf-
falo's people. (5) Basdede sni. (6) Kapoza. (7) Olidihe.
Previous .to 1862 they numbered about 3,000. But, being in-
volved in the uprising of that year, they fled to the Missouri River and
to Canada. Some have returned, and are at the Sisseton and Devil's Lake
agencies.^
These Mississippi and Minnesota Dakotas are called, by those on the
Missouri, Isaqties or Santies, from Msayati' or 'isagyati;' which name seems
to have been given them from the fact that they once lived at Isagtamde,
Knife Lake, one of those included under the denomination of Mille Lacs.^
^ Mr. Ashley says that these were Sleepy Eyes' division of the KaVimi atoT)waij. — J. o. d.
^The followiug are the gentes and suhgentes of the Sisitoqwai), as given by their mission-
ary, Rev. Edw. Asliley, in 1884. Beginning at the north and to the right of the opening of the
tribal circle the tents were pitched in the following order: 1. (a) Wita waziyata otina, Dwellera at
the Northern Inland, (b) Obdihe. 2. (a) Basde^e sni, Thone who do not split (the backbone of the
buffalo), {b) Itokali-tina, Dwellers at the South. 3. (a) Kahmi atOQwai), Fillage at the Bend, Part of
these were called Oai)Hda oi^ana. (b) Mani-ti, Those who pitched their tetits away from the main vamp.
(c) Keze, Barbed^ as a fishhook ; a name of ridicule. The Keze tents were on the right of the south
end of the tribal circle. On the left of them came: 4. (jai)kute, Shooters at trees, another name given
in derision. 5. («) Ti-zap tai), /^ire Lodt/es. (6) Okopeya, /» rfan^er. 6. Kt^wozvLy Those who travel \c%tk
light burdens. 7. Amdowapuskiyapi, Those who place the meat on their shoulders in order to dry it. These
were divided into three subgentes, Maka ideya, Waijmdiupi duta, and Wai)mdi nahotoi). When only
a part of the tribe was together the following camping order was observed : The Wita waziyata otiua
pitched their tents from the right side of the opening at the north and as far as the east; next, the
Itokali-tina extended from the east to the south ; the Kapoza occupied the area from the south to the
west, and the Amdo-wapus-kiyapi filled the space between them and the Wita waziyata otina.
When the Sisitoqwai) aud WaTipetoi)waq camped together it was in the following order, begin-
ning at the right side of the opening at the north: 1. Wita waziyata otina (including Ohdihe). 2.
Basde6e sni (including I tokah tina). 3. Ii)yai) ^eyakaatoijwaq. 4. Takapsin toqwaijna. 5. Wiyaka
otina. 6. Otehiatoijwai). 7. Wita otina. 8. Wakpaatoqwai). 9. tiat)kagaotina(on the rightof the
south part of the circle). 10. Keze (on the left of the south part of the circle). 11. Kahmi atoi)wai).
12. Cai)kute. 13. Okopeya. 14. Tizaptaq. 15. Kapoza. 16. Amdo wapuskiyapi (on the left side of
the opening at the north). — J. o. D.
3 According to the context, we are led to make this last sentence of the author refer to four
divisions of the Dakota: Mdewakai)toi)waij, Wahpekute, Walipetoi)waij, and Sisitoqwai). But this
is commented on in ** The Word Carrier" for January, 1888, in a criticism of Kirk's Illustrated History
of Minnesota :
"One such'' error ^'we find on page 33, where the Mdewakantonwans are said to be one of the
four bands of the Santees. Instead of this, the Mdewakantonwans are the Santees. It is true that
white men on the Missouri River and westward, with utter disregard of the facts, call all the Minne-
sota Sioux 'Santees'; but a Minnesota writer should keep to the truth, if he knows it.*'
This led the undersigned to ask the editor of ** The Word Carrier," Rev. A. L. Riggs, the following
questions (in April, 1888) : (1) Why do you say that the Mdewakai)toi)wai) are the (only > Santees f (2)
How do you interpret the statement made in the first edition of ^The Dakota Language,' p. viii ('These
160 DAKOTA GEAMMAE, TEXTS, AND BTHNOGEAPHY.
5. The Iharjktoywai)^ or Yankton, Village at the End, were counted,
thirty years ago, at about 240 lodges, or 2,400 persons. They are now
reported at nearly that number by actual count. The outbreak did not
disturb them and they continue to occupy their old home at the present
Yankton Agency on the Missouri River, where they are making progress
in civilization. This is the headquarters of Rev. J. P. Williamson's Presby-
terian mission, and also of Bishop Hare's mission of the Episcopal Church.
6. The Iharjktoijwayna, one of the I^nd Village bands, were estimated
at 400 lodges, or 4,000 souls. The Dakota tents on the Minnesota do not
average more than about 6 inmates ; but on the prairie, where, though the
material for the manufacture of tents is abundant, tent-poles are scarce,
they make their dwellings larger, and average, it is thought, about 10 per-
sons to a lodge. The Ihaqktoijwaijna are divided into the Hurjkpatina;^
tlie Pabakse, Cut Heads; the Wazikute or Oayona, Pine Shooters;^ and the
Kiyuksa, Dividers or Breakers of Law, Formerly they were the ownei*s of
MiRHiHsippi and Minnesota Dakotas are called by those on the Missonri, Isanties/ to which your
father added in 1882, 'or Santees')f Who were those Mississippi and Minnesota Dakotas at the date
mentioned (1852) if not the Mdewakai)toi)waij, Walipekute, Walipetoqwai), and Sisitoi)wai)f (8) Has
there not bccii a change in the use of 'Santee' since 1852 f (4) Are not all the Dakotas on the 8aut«e
reservation known as Santees, or were they not thns known from the time of their settlement on that
reservation till they became citizens of the United States f"
To this Mr. Kiggs replie<l as follows: ^
''The point I nuvde with Prof. Kirk w!is this: That while there is a use of the name Sautee in
the Missonri Kivcr country to signify the Dakota Indians of the Minnesota and Mississippi, and those
removed from there, yet the original meaning was more specific and limited. And that it was inex-
cusable in a Minnesota historiun to have ignored the original and local signification of the term.
This did not conflict in the least with the statement made by my father in the Dakota Dictionary
* * * The Mdewakan and Isantamde are one and the same, t. e., one of the Mille Lacs, from whence,
as you know, oame the names Mdewakantonwan and Isanyati. These Mdowakantonwan are the
8ant«es of Sant<;o Agency, Nebraska, who were removed from Minnesota.*'
Such testimony ought to bo decisive; yet we find the father making the following statement (in
1882) in his ''Argument of Migrations (derived) from Names" which will be found in the present
volume : ''San tee. For a century or more i)ast there have been included in this name the Leaf Shooters
(Wahpekute)4ind also the Leaf Village (Wahpetoijwai))." — .i. o. D.
'The following names of the Yankton gentes were furnished by Ilehaka mani, a Yankton, in
1878: 1. Oaij-kute, Shoolera at Threes. 2. C^'a^u, JAyhis, or. Lungs. 3. Wnkmuha oiij, Pumpkin-rind Ear^
ring. 4. Iha isdaye, Mouth (rreasers. 5. Wac'-enqpa, Roasters. 6. Ikmui), Wild Cat (people). 7. Oyato
siea, Bad Nation. 8. Wasi^'Uij i^'iijea, White Men^s Sons, or, Half-Breeds (a modem addition). In
August, 1891, Kev. Jose]th W. (^ok, a missionary to the Yankton, obtained from several men the fol-
lowing order of their gentes in the cam])lng circle:— On the right: 1. Iha isdaye. 2. W.-ikmuha oii).
3. Ikmui). On the left: 4. Wa(*eui)pa. 5. (5ai) kut«. 6. Oyatesic^'a. 7. (5agu. The first and seventh
gentes always camped in the van. — j. o. D.
■^ See not« under the next division — Hui)kpapa.
^ It is said that the young men of a clan were poor shooters, and were led to practice by shoot-
ing at a mark, niid that was a pine tree. Hence both these names — Caij-ona, Hitting the Wood, and
Wazi-kute, Shmtting the Pine. From this clan of Pine Shooters the Assimboin, or "Ilolie" of the
Dakota, are said to have sprung.
DAKOTA TKIBEe. IGl
the James River country. Now they are distributed in the villages along
the Missouri, principally at Standiiig Rock.^
7. The Titorjwarj. In its present form this might mean Ilotise'dwellers,
But it is understood to be a contracted form of Tiijta-toijwaq, meaning
Dwellers on the Prairie^ or prairie villaaes. They constitute one-half or
more of the whole Dakota nation. For many years they have followed the
buffaU) west of the Missouri River, and now they are mainly confined to
the great Sioux Reserve in southwestern Dakota. Not a dozen years have
passed since they began to take steps towards education and civilization.
Hitherto the Episcopalians have done the most missionary work among
them. Within two years past they have taken some interest in sending
their children to Hampton and Carlisle to be educated. With the Shaiena
Shahiyela, or Cheyeimes, they have maintained friendly relations and
intermarried. They ai-e divided into seven ])rincipal tribes, viz: The
Sicaijgu, or Brules, Burnt Thighs; the Itazipco, or Sans Arcs, No BowSy or
Without Bows, SLH the word is understood to be contracted from Itazipa
dodaij; the Sihasapa, Black-feet; the Minikai^ye wozupi, or Minnekonjoos,
Who Plant by the Water ; the Oohenorjpa, Two Boilings or Two Kettles; the
Oglala, or Ogalala, and the Huijkpapa. Each of these names has doubtless
a liistory, which will be herewith given as far as we are able to trace it
Let us begin with the last:
HuTjkpapa: For a good many years we liave been anxiously seeking
to find out the meaning and origin of *'nuijkpa})a," and its near neighbor
**Hui)kpatina" — they both being name^» of large families or clans among
the 1 itoijwaij. But our investigations have hitherto been unsatisfactory.
Sometimes it has seemed to us tliat they nmst be formed from '^Huijka,"
which is an honorable name for tlie older male relatives, and for ancestors
generally: as in ^'Huijkake" ancestors, and ^^Huijkawaijzi" brothers, and
*^Huijkayapi" elders. The analysis would be reduced to its limit in
*^Huij" mother, ** Huijkpa" would be Huyka-pa meaning Family-Head;
and Huykpa})a would be a reduplication, while Huijkpatina would mean
Divellers of Family Head.
' In 1880, Nasiiua tuijl^n, Big Heady and Mato noijpu, Two Grizzly lietirs, said that their people
were divided into two ]>art8, each having seven gontes. (I) I'pper Ihai)ktoi)wai)na inclndeR the fol-
lowing: 1. Cai)-ona, Thoae nho Hit the Tree, or, Wazi-kute, ShooierH at the Pine. 2. Takini. 3. 6ikMi-
cena, Smalt had onen of different k'nidtf, 4. Bakihoij, Thonewho GaHhed-ThemHelves. 5. Kiyuksa, Breakers
of the Law OT Custom. 6. Pa-baksa, Cut /fforf* (divided into sub-gentes). 7. Name not remembered.
(II) Hui)kpatin.i, or Lower Ihai)ktoi]wai)na, includes the following: 1. Pute temini (»'«). Sweating
Upper-TAps, 2. Sni) ikoeka, Common Dogs {?), 3. Tahuha yuta, Eatei'S of the Scrapings of Skins,
4. Saijonri, Those Who Hit Something White or Gray (in the distance). These are called the Saijoneo
(One Sidersf) by the author. 5. Iha na, lied Lips. 6. Ite gu, Jinmt Fares. 7. Pte yute sni, Eat no
Buffnlu. The Ihaijkt4)ijwaijna are generally called Yanktouai. — J. o. i>.
7105— VOL IX 11
162 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
Then again we have endeavored to derive the words m question, from
He-ii)kpa or He-oiqkpa, which would give two meanings, Horn-end or That-
end. In this case we have supposed the names might have originated from
their dwelhng on the upper or smaller part of the Missouri River. But as
I said, neither of these have been quite satisfactory. Some other attempted
explanations by Indians have been still less so.
But the other day, Paul Mazakutemani, who is largely acquainted with
the habits and customs of the praine Indians as well as the more eastern
bauds, gave what seems to be a very natural account of the origin of both
the words. From time immemorial it has been the custom of the prairie
Dakota to travel under strict camp regulations. The tribes of the children
of Israel in the wilderness did not set forward with more formality, and
camp with more precision. The ^^Tiyotipi" or Soldier's Lodge took the
place of the Ai-k of the covenent. Under this leadership each band and
each family took its appointed place in the encampment. In two lines they
followed the lead of young men on horseback until the circle was completed.
At the farther end of the circle a space was left in which was pitched the
Tiyotipi. More commonly on the prairie this soldiers' tent was in the
center of the area. The ends of this gateway, which would be well repre-
sented by the honis of a buffalo cow turning inwards, were called
"Ilurjkpa," evidently from Hc-oiykpa. The families camping on either side
of this gateway were called HuffkpO'tina : whence the name came to be at-
tached to a clan of the Iharjktoijwaqna. The added ^^ pa" in Hurjkpapa is
probably only a reduplication.^ This is decidedly the best and most satis-
factory explanation of this difficult question in* philology, that has come to
my knowledge.
Oglala finds its corresponding term in Santee, in Ohdada, which means
to scatter one\s own in; and is understood to have originated in boys throw-
ing sand in each others' eyes.
The following important information is furnished by Rev. J. Owen
Dorsey :
In 1879 I received a letter from the Rev. John Robinson, missionary to the
Oglala at Red Cloud Agency, giving the origin of the names Huijkpapa, Oglala, etc.,
as told him by the Indians at that place:
** Ihiijkpapa, those ^vho camp at tlie head end of tlie (Dakota) circle; Huijkpati,
those who camp at tlie tail end of that circle. This latter probably includes both
' If there were a reduplication in this word, would not the fonu be " Hui)-kpa-kpa," iuHtead of
Hui)-kpa-pa? The final "pa" may be compared with the adverbial ending " wapa" in akowapa, etc.,
the locative euding " ta," and with the Biloxi endhigs ** wa" and ** waya"," denoting direction. — j. o. D.
DAKOTA TRIBES. 163
Iliai}ktoi)wai} (Yankton), or * End Village People,' and IliaijktoQwaijna (Yanktonnais),
or * People of the Smaller End Village.'
" Oglala originated in a quarrel between two women. One threw some flour ( f )
in the face of the other, thus giving rise to the name, which means ^ She scattered
her own.' The adherents of the injured woman separated from the rest, and
since then their people have been called the Oglala."
The Oglala are called. ' U-b^a'-<ja ' by the Ponka and Omaha tribes.
DIVISIONS OF THE TITOIJWAiJ.
A. Sidai)^ — Burnt Thighs, or Brules: List of Tatai)ka wakai) (1880): (1) lyaV^oza, Lump or
Wart on a horse's leg; (2) doka towela, Blue spot in the middle; (3) ^iyo tai)ka, Large Orouse; (4)
Homna, Smelling of Fieh; (5) ^iyosubula, Small (f) Grouse; (6) Kaijgi yuha, Keeps the Raven; (7)
Pispiza wida4a, Prairie Dog People (f); (8) Walesa uij wohai), Boils with the Paunch Skin; (9)
Wa<^eui)pa, Boasters; (10) Sawala, Shawnees (desceuded from former Shawnee captives); (11)
Ihai)ktoi)wai), Yanktous (descended from Yanktons — refugees!); (12) Nahpahpa, Take down leggings
(after returning from war) ; (13) Apewai) tai)ka, Large Mane,
List of Rev. W. J. Cleveland (1884): (1) Sidaijgu, Burnt Thighs proper; (2) KaVega, Making a
grating noise ; (3a) Hiijhai) suijwapa, Towards the Owl Feather; (6) iSuijkaha napii), Wears dog-skin
around the neck ; (i) HihakaT)haijhai) wii), Woman the skir of whose teeth dangles; (5) Hui)ku wanida,
Motherless; (6) Miniskuya kicui), Wears Salt; (7a) Kiyuksa, Breakers of the Law or Custom (*' Breaks
or Cuts in two his own") ; (J) Tiglabu, Drums-on-His-own Lodge; (8) Wadeoqpa, Roasters; (9) Wagluhe,
Inhreeders; (10) Isanyati, Santees (descended from the Mdewakai)toi)wai) f ) ; (11) Wagmeza yuha^
Has Com; (12a) Walesa oq wohaij. Boils with the Paunch Skin; (6) Wahna, Snorters; (13) Oglala
ididaga, Makes himself an Oglala; (14) Tiyodesli, Dungs in the Lodge; (14) Waiaza, meaning not given
(Osage f or Washf) ; (15) leska 6ii)6a, Interpreters* Sons, Half -breeds ; (17) Ohe noQpa, Two Boilings, or,
Two Kettles (descended from the Oohe noqpaf); (18) Oka^a wida^a, Southern People.
ii. Itazipdo — Sans Arcs, or. Without Bows: (1) Mini sala, Red Water; or, Itazip6o-h6a, Real
Itazipdo; (2) ^ina luta oiq, Red cloth ear-pendant; (3) Woluta yuta, Eat dried venison or buffalo meat
from the hind quarter; (4) Maz pegnaka, Piece of metal in the hair; (5) Tataqka desli, Buffalo Dung;
(6) l^ik^idela, Bad ones of deferent sorts; (7) Tiyopa o(;ai)nui)pa, Smokes at the Door (Bev. H. Swift, ^de
Waanatai), or, Charger).
C. Siha-sapa— i^facfc Feet: (1) Ti-zaptaij, Five Lodges; (2) Siha sapa Rda, Real Black Feet ; (3)
Hohe, Assiniboin, or, Rebels; (4) Kaijgi fiuij pegnaka. Raven Featlter In-the-hair; (5) Waiaie, '* Wash,"
or, Osage (f); (6) Wamnuga oil), Shell ear-j)endant (of the shape of a conch, but very small); (7) Un-
known or ertiuct (Rev. II. Swift, fide Charger, who denied that the last gens was called Qlagla he6a).
D. Minikoozu (Miuneconjou) — Those who Plant by the Water: (1) Ui)k<5e yuta, Dung Eaters;
(2) Glagla heoa. Untidy, Slovenly, Shiftless; (3) l^uijka yute &m. Eat no Dog; (4) Ni^e tai)ka. Big Belly
(fide Charger); (5) Wakpokiqyaij, Flies along the creek; (6) Ii)yai)-ha oii). Shell ear-ring, i. e., the
muscle-shell one ; (7) iiksu'.ii\&. Bad ones of different sorts ; (8) Waglefa oii), Water-snake ear-Hng ; (9)
Wai) uawcga, i.e., waijhii)kpe nawega Broken Arrows (about ext'mct, fide Charger). All but Nos. 4
and 9 were obtained in 1880. All nine were given in 1884 by Rev. H. Swift.
E. Oohe nonpa, Two Kettles, or. Two Boilings: (1) Oohe noi)pa; (2) Mawahota, Skin smeared with
whitish earth. (Rev. II. Swift, /de Charger.)
F. Oglala: List of 1879-80 : (1) Payabya (see 2 of next list); (2) Tapi^Ieca, Spleen; (3) Kiyuksa,
Breakers of the Law, or, Custom; (4) Wazaia, see Si<5ai)gu list; (5) Ite 6ida, Bad Faces, or, Oglala Ma,
Real Oglala; (6) Oiyuhpe, see next list; (7) Wagluhe, In-breeders (commonly called Loafers). List of
Rev. W.J. Cleveland (1884): (1) Itesica, /?adFacf«; (2) FAya.hyey &, Pushed aside; (3) Oyuhpe, TArotim
down, or, Unloaded; (4) Tapisleda, Spleen; (5) Pesla, Bald-headed; (6) (5eh huha toi). Pot with legs; (7)
Wablenica, Chphans (Rev. Mr. Swift makes this a society or order, not a gens) ; (8) Pesla pte<5ela.
Short Bald-head; (9) Ta.4uaheca, Gophers; (10) Iwayusota, Used up by begging for, or, Used up with the
mouth; (11) Wakai), Mysterious; (12 a) Iglaka tehila. Refused to remove the camp; (b) Ite bi<5a, Bad
Faces; (13) Ite sida etai)hai). Part of the Bad Faces; (14) Zuzeda kiyaksa, Bites the Snake in two; (15)
Wa^eoijpa, Roasters; (16) Wacape, Stabbers; (17) Tiyocesli, Dungs in the lodge; (18) Wagluhe, /»-
breedei's (Cleveland renders, ''Followers," or, *' Loafer^"); (19) Wagluhe; (20) Oglala; (21) leaka
^ii)6a, Interpreters' Sons, or, Half-breeds,
164 DAKOTA (;UA MM All, TEXTS, AND ETUNOOKAPHY.
Mr. Cleveland also gives as names for all the Oglala^ Oiyiilipe and Kiyaksa.
G. HuT)kpapa — List of 1880: (1) (Jaijka oliai), Broken hacks (f); (2) Ce ohba, Sleepy membrum
virile; (S) Tinazipo Ki^'a, Bad Boirs; (4) Talo nnpiij, Frvah meat necklacea; (5) Kiglaska; (6) Oekuake
okisela, Haifa hrecchcloth; (7) 8ik«icela, Bad onis of different sorts; (8) Wakai), Mysterious; (9) Hui)8ka
^'ai)toinha, '*Tobacco-ponch leggins/' prolmbly no called from using leggins ns tobacco pouches.
J. o. D.
(8) The Assiniboiu: Tlie majority of this tribe live iiortli of the forty-
niiitli parallel, but some of them are mixed in witli tlie Dakota proper at
Poplar River and elsewliere. That they branched off from the Yanktonai
some two centuries ago, is one of tlie traditions of the Dakota. They
speak the language as })urely as other portions of the parent stock. The
name Assiniboin is said to be a combination of French and Ojibwa, The
name given to the Dakota by their former enemies is ^* Bwaq." Hence the
Assiniboin are Sfone Dakota, The Dakota name for them is ^^Tlolie," the
origin and meaning of which we have hitherto failed to find out.^
PRIORITY.
Questions of priority and precedence among these bands are sometimes
discussed. The Mdewakaijtoijwai) think that the mouth of the Minnesota
River is pre(*isely over the center of the earth, and that they occupy the
gate that 0])ens into the western world. These ccmsideratitms serve to give
tliem importance in their own estimation. On the other hand, the Sisitoijwai)
and Ihai)ktor)waij allege, that as they live on the great water-shed of this
part of the continent, from which the streams run northward and eastward
and southward and westward, thvji must be about the center of the earth;
and they lu'ge this fact as entitling them to the precedence. It is singular
that the Titoijwaij, who are much the largest band of the Dakota, do not
appear to claim the chief place for themselves, but yield to the pretensions
of the Ihaijktoijwaij, whom they call by the name of Wiciyela, wdiich, in
its meaning, may be regarded as about e(piivalent to ''^theti are the people.^''
METHOD OF OOITXTINCJ.
(younting is usually done by means of their lingers. If you ask some
Dakota how many there are of anything, instead of directing their answer
to your organs of hearing, they present it to your sight, l)y holding up so
many fing(u*s. When they have gone over the fingers an<l thumbs of both
hands, one is tempornrily turned down for one ten. Eleven is ten more one,
or more conmionly at/a in one; tweh-e is a<ialn two, and so on; nineteen is the
'According to Dr. .J. Trumbull, the naiiu^ Assiniboin 'n'. derived from two Ojibwa w« rds,
"asiijui," stone, and *'bwai)," enemy. Some of the Sihanupa Dakota are called Ifohe. — .1. o. i).
METHOD OF EECKONIKG TIME. 165
other nine. At the end of the next ten another finger is turned down, and
so on. Twenty is two tens, thirty is three tefis, etc., as will be seen by refer-
ring to the section on Numeral Adjectives in the Grammar. Opawigge, one
hundred, is probably derived from pawigga, to go round in circles or to make
gyrations, as the fingers have been all gone over again for their respective
tens. Tlie Dakota word for a thousarul, kektopawiijge, may be formed of
*ake' and *opawiijge/ hundreds again, having now completed the circle of
their fingers in hundreds, and being about to commence again. They have
no separate word to denote any higher number than a thousand. Tliere is
a word to designate one-half of anything, but none to denote any smaller
aliquot part.
METHOD OF RECKONING TIME.
The Dakota have names for the natural divisions of time. Their
years they ordinarily count by winters, A man is so many winters old, or
so many winters have passed since such an event. When one is going on
a journey, he does not usually say that he will be back in so many days, as
we do, but in so many nights or sleeps. In the same way they compute
distance by the number of nights passed in making tlie journey. They
have no division of time into weeks. Their months are literallv moons. The
popular belief is that wlien the moon is full, a great number of very small
mice commence nibbling on one side of it, which tliey continue to do until
they have eaten it all up. Soon after this another moon begins to grow,
which goes on increasing until it has reached its full size only to share the
fate of its })redecessor ; so that with them the new moon is really new, and
not the old one reappearing. To the moons they have given names, whicli
refer to some prominent })hysical fact that occurs about that time in the
year. For the names of the moons most conunonly used by the Dakotas
living in the Valley of the Minnesota, with their significations and the
months to which they most nearly correspond, the reader is referred to the
word *'wi," Part I of the Dictionary.
Five moons are usually counted to the winter, and five to the summer,
leaving only one eacli to the spring and autunm; but this distinction is not
closely adhered to. The Dakotas often have very warm debates, especially
towards the (*lose of the winter, about what moon it is. The raccoons do
not always make their appearance at the same time every winter; and the
causes whicli produce sore eyes are not developed precisely at tlie same
time in each successive spring. All these variations make room for strong
1 66 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAUY.
arguments in a Dakota tent for or against Wicata-wi or Istawicayazaij-wi.
But the niain reason for their frequent ditference of opinion in regard to
this matter, viz., that twelve lunations do not bring them to the point from
which they commenced counting, never appeai-s to have suggested itself
In order to make their moons correspond with the seasons, they are obliged
to pass over one every few years.
SACRP^D LANGUAGE.
The Dakota conjurer, the war prophet, and the dreamer, experience
the same need that is felt by more elaborate performers among other
nations of a language which is unintelligible to the common people, for the
purpose of impressing upon them the idea of their superiority. Their
dreams, according to their own account, are revelations made from the
spirit-world, and their pro})hetic visions are what they saw and knew in a
former state of existence. It is, then, only natural that their dreams and
visions should be clothed in words, many of which the multitude do not un-
derstand. This sacred language is not very extensive, since the use of a
few unintelligible words suffices to make a whole speech incomprehensible.
It may be said to ccmsist, first, in employing words as the names of thing
which seem to have been introduced from other Indian languages; as, nide,
water; paza, wood, etc. In the second place, it consists in employing de-
scriptive expressions, instead of the ordinary names of things; as in callhig
a man a hipedj and the wolf a quudruped. And thirdly, words which are
common in the language are used far out of their ordinary signification;
as, hepai), the secofid child, if a boy, is used to designate the offer. When the
Dakota braves ask a white man for an ox or cow, they generally call it a
dog; and when a sachem begs a horse from a white chief, he does it under
the designation of tnoccasins. This is the source of many of the figures of
speech in Indian oratory; but they are sometimes too obscure to be beauti-
ful.
ARE THE INDIANS DIMINISHING!
One view of the question, and that hitherto the most common one,
considers that North America had a dense population before the coming of
the white race, and that since the Indians have been brought in contact
with the advance guard of civilization they have been diminishing, many
tribes ha\ang disappeared. But another view is gaining ground among
students of the Indian. It is now maintained that, in spite of wars, dis-
eases, exposures, and migrations, there are nearly iis many Indians to-day
ARE THE 1OT)IANS DIMINISHING! 167
in the United States as there were in the same territory in 1520, when the
Soaniards met the Indians of Florida.
While it must be conceded, as a matter of history, that some tribes and
bands which once inhabited the country occupied by the people of these
United States have greatly diminished, and a few have disappeared alto-
gether, other tribes have been on the increase. War and ^^ spirit water,"
and the diseases introduced among them by the white people, have wrought
out their legitimate effects. A different course of treatment would un-
doubtedly have greatly modified or entirely changed the character of these
results.
But there is one way in which a diminution of some tribes is taking
place, viz, by ceasing to be Indians and becoming members of civilized
society. In Minnesota all persons of mixed blood, i. e., of white and Indian
descent, are recognized as citizens. The same is true in other States; and
the privilege is extended to those who are not mixed bloods. Also, under
present homestead laws, Indians are becoming citizens by going off their
reserves. Let a well-an-anged severalty bill be enacted into a law, and
Indians be guaranteed civil rights as other men, and they will soon cease
to be Indians.
The Indian tribes of our continent may become extinct as such ; but if
this extinction is brought about by introducing them to civilization and
Christianity and merging them into our own great nation, which is receiving
accretions from all others, who will deplore the result ? Rather let us labor
for it, realizing that if by our eflforts they cease to be Indians and become
fellow-citizens it will be our glory and joy.
C H A P T E K r I .
MIGRATIONS OF THE DAKOTA.
Of tlie al)(>rigiiial tribes iiihabitiiifi^ this (»ountry, (xcorge Bancroft, in
liis History of the United States, lias assigned tlie first place, in point of
nnnibers, to the Algonqnin family, and the second place to the Dakota.
Those who have niad(^ a stndy of the ethnology and the languages of
the races have almost uniformly come to the conclusion that the Indians
of this continent are connected with the Mongolian races of Asia. The line
across from Asia to America by Bering Straits is regarded as perfectly
practicable for canoes. And in 10 degrees farther scmth, by the Aleutian
Islands, the distances are not so great but that small boats might easily pass
from one to the other, and so safely reach the mainland.
Lewis H. Morgan, of the State of New York, who has given nnich time
and study to solving the (piestion, *' Whence came the Indians?" has adopted
this theory, and makes them gather on the Columbia River, from whence
they have crossed the Kocky Mountains and s])read over these eastern lands,
lint it can l)e safely affirmed that, up to this time, ethnology and the com-
parative study of languages have not quite satisfactorily settled the ques-
tion of their origin.
In discussing the (juestion of the migrations of the Dakota or Si(mx,
there are two lines open to us, each entirely indei)endent, and yet both
telling the same story: First, the history, as written in books; second,
the history, as found in names.
ARGUMENT FROM IIISTOItV.
The book history runs l)ack nearly two and a half centuries. The
first knowledge of the Dakota nation obtained by the civilized world came
through the French traders and missionaries, and was carried along the
Hue of the Great Lakes through New France.
Early in the seventeenth century, a youn<:r manof mon* than ordinary
ability, by name .lean Ni(!olet, came from France to (^mada. He had trreat
aptness in accjuiring Indian languages, and soon became Algoncjuin and
4 J k^ k
lOS
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM HISTORY 1 69
Huron inteq^reter for the colony of New France. In the year 1639 he
visited the lake of the Winnebagos, or Green Bay, in the present state of
Wisconsin, and concluded a friendly alliance with the Indians on Fox
River. In the next year, Paul le Jeune, writing of the tribes who dwelt
on Lake Michigan, says, ** Still farther on dwell the Ouinipegon, who are
very numerous." And, ^'In the neighborhood of this nation are the
Naduessi and the Assiniponais." This appears to be the first mention made
by voyagers of the Dakota and Assiniboin. Le Jeune's information wa«
obtained from Nicolet, who claimed to have visited them in their own coun-
tries.
In 1641, at the Sault Ste. Marie, Jogues and Raymbault, of the
** Society of Jesus," met Pottowattomies flying from the Dakota, and were
told that the latter lived "about eighteen days' journey to the westward,
nine across the lake, and nine up a river which leads inland."
Two adventurous Frenchmen, in 1654, went to seek their fortunes in
the region west of Lake Michigan, and returning to Quebec two years
afterwards, related their adventures among '4he numerous villages of the
Sioux." And in 1659, it is related that the two traders, as they traveled
six days journey southwest from La Pointe in Lake Superior, came upon a
Huron village on the shores of the Mississippi. These Hurons had fled
from a fierce onslaught of the Inxjuois, and for the time had taken refuge
among the Dakota. In the vicinity of the Huron they saw the Dakota
villages, "in five of which were counted all of 5,000 men."
From the beginning of the intercourse of white men with Indians on
this continent the fur trade has been the chief stimulus to adventure and
the great means by which the location and condition of the aboriginal pop-
ulations were made known to the civilized world. Two other subsidiary
motives operated to bring white men into connection with the great Dakota
nation, viz, the desire to discover the great river on which they were said
to dwell, and the zeal of the church of Rome to convert the savages.
In the sunnner of 1660 Ren(3 Menard, the aged, burning with an
apostolic desire to make converts from among the pagans, bore the standard
of the cross to the shores of Lake Superior. At La Pointe, which was
already a trading poii:, he wintered. But in the following spring he started
on foot with a guide to visit *'four populous nations" to the westward.
By some means he became separated from his guide while passing through
the marshes of northwestern Wisconsin and was lost. Many years after-
wards a report was current in Canada that ''his robe and prayer-book
were found in a Dakota lodge," and were regarded as *'wakan" or sacred.
170 DAKOTA GEAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
The successor of Menard in the toils of raissionaiy life was Father
Claude Allouez. He established the mission of the Holy Spirit at I^a Pointe
and the Apostles' Islands in the year 1665, and four years later he com-
menced a mission among the Winnebago and others on Green Bay.
On reaching La Pointe, Allouez found the Huron and Ojibwa villages
in a state of gi-eat excitement. The Huron, who had fled to the Dakota
of the Mississippi for protection from the tomaliawk of the Iroquois some
years before, had behaved ungraciously toward their protectors by taunting
them with having no guns; whereupon the Dakota rose against them, massa-
cred many of them in a swamp, and drove them all back to the shores
of Lake Su})erior. The Ojibwa had formerly lived to the east of Lake
Michigan, but had been driven westward by the victorious Iroquois. Now
the Dakota, the Iroquois of the West, as they have been called, had shut
them up to the lake shore. The young men wei'e burning to be avenged
on the Dakota. Here was gathered a grand council of the neighboring
nations — the Huron, the Ojibwa, the Pottowattomi, the Sac and Fox, the
Menomoni, and the Illinois. Allouez commanded peace, in the name of
the King of the French, and offered them commerce and alliance against
the Five Nations.
In 1667 Father Allouez met a delegation of Dakota and Assiniboin
at the western end of Lake Superior, near where is now the town of Duluth.
They had come, they said, from the end of the earth. He calls them **the
wild and impassioned Sioux." "Above all others," he says, "they are sav-
age and warlike; and they speak a language entirely unknown to us, and
the savages about here do not understand them."
But Allouez resolved to abandon his work at La Pointe, "weary of
their obstinate unbelief," and was succeeded by the renowned Jacques
Marquette. This enterprising and estimable man entered at once upon the
work of i)erpetuating peace among tlie various tribes, and, in the autumn
of 1669, sent presents and a message to tlie Dakota, that he wished them to
keep a way open for him to tlie Great River and to the Assiniboin beyond.
But not from the mission of the Holy Spirit was he to take his joiu-ney to
the "Father of Waters." In tlie following winter it became apparent that
the Huron were not safe on the southern shores of Lake Su])erior, and
accordingly they a])andoned their village, and at the same time Marquette
retired to the Sault Ste. Marie, from which point, in the spring of 1672, he
proceeded, with Louis Joliet, to find the Great River, the "Messipi."^ They
' Probably in the language of the niiuois ludiaus, ^'iiicssi/' great, and "aepi," river.
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM HISTORY. 171
proceeded by way of Green Bay. They entered the mouth of Fox River,
followed up its windings, and were guided by Indians across to the head of
the Wisconsin, which they descended to the mouth, and down the great
river to the moutli of the Arkansas. They had wintered at Green Bay, and
so it was the 17th of June, 1673, when their canoe first rode on the waters of
the Mississippi. On their return they ascended the Illinois River, stopped
to recruit at the famous lUinois village, and, crossing over to Lake Michi-
gan, reached Green Bay in the latter end of September.^
The Jesuit relations of this period have much to say about the habits
of the Dakota; that about 60 leagues from the upper end of Lake
Superior, toward sunset, ^* there are a certain people, called Nadouessi,
di'eaded by their neighbors." They only use the bow and arrow, but use
them with great skill and dexterity, filling the air in a moment. " They
tuni their heads in flight and discharge their arrows so rapidly that they
are no less to be feared in their retreat than in their attack. ^They dwell
around the gi'eat river MessipL Their cabins are not covered with bark,
but with skins, well dried, and stitched together so well that the cold does
not enter. They know not how to cultivate the earth by seeding it, con-
tenting themselves with a species of marsh rye (wild rice), which we call
wild oats."
We now come to more definite information in regard to country occu-
pied by the Dakota two hundred years ago. Du Luth and Hennepin
approached the Dakota by different routes, and finally met each other at
the great villages on Mille Lacs and Knife Lake, at the head of Run River.
Daniel Greysolon Du Luth, who built the first trading port on Lake
Superior, "on the first of September, 1678, left Quebec "to explore the
country of the Dakota and the Assiniboin. On July 2, 1679, he caused
the King's arms to be planted " in the great village of the Nadouessioux,
called Kathio, where no Frenchman had ever been, and also at Songaski-
cons and Houetbetons, 120 leagues from the former."^
In September of that year Du Luth held a council with Assiniboin and
other nations, who came to the head of Lake Superior. And in the summer
of 1680 he made another trip down to the Mississippi, where he met with
Hennepin.
^Greeu Bay was called the Bay of tho Puant«, or Winnebago. In this ueighborboo<l tbere were,
at tbat time, tbo Winnebago, tbe Potto wattomi, tbe Menomoui, the Sac and Fox, the Miami, the Mas-
contin, the Kickapoo, and others. The Miami and Mascontin lived together and had their village on
the Neenah or Fox River. The Miami afterwards removed to the St. Joseph River, near Lake Michi-
gan. The Mascontin, or ''Fire Nation,'' is now extinct.
^It is stated, on what appears to be good authority, that Du Luth this summer visited Mille
Lac, which he caUed Lake Buade.
172 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
When Du Lutli was fitting out hh expedition by Lake Sui)erior to the
Dakota Nation and otliers, Robert I^a Salle was preparing to go to the great
river of the West ])y the south end of Lake Michigan.^ Louis Hennepin, a
Franciscan priest of tlie Recollect order, accompanied him.
La Salle stopped to build a ship on Lake Erie, which he called the
Chriffin. This so detained his expedition that it was late in the fall of 1679
when they reached Green Bay. There the Griffin wjis left for the winter,
and La Salle and Hennepin, with others, proceeded in canoes to the south
end of the lake (Michigan), and thence by portage into the Illinois River.
In the beginning of the year IG'SO, La Salle, after enduring incredible
hardships, built a fort a little below where is now the town of Peoria, which
he called *^ Crcive Coeur," thus making his heai-t troubles historical.
In the month of February, La Salle selected Hennepin and two voy-
aofeurs named Michol Accau and the Picard du Gay, whose real name wa.s
Antoine Auguel, to undertake the discovery of the Upper Mississippi. On
the last day of the month they embarked in a canoe laden with merchan-
dise, and the venerable Ribourde took leave of Hennepin with the charge,
**Viriliter age et confortetur cor tuum." On March 12 Hennepin and his
companions turned their canoe uj) the stream of the Great River, and on
April 11 they met a war party of 120 Dakota in thirty-three bark canoes.
This meeting took place near the mouth of the Wisconsin, where Marquette
had first seen the Mississippi, nearly seven years before. The Frenchmen
had found wild turkeys abundant on their voyage, and were at this moment
on the shore cooking their dinner. The Dakota approached with hostile
demonstrations, and some of the old warriors repeated the name *'Miamiha,"
giving the white men to miderstand that they were on the waqjath against
the Miami and Illinois. But Hennepin ex})lained to them, l)y signs and
marks on the sand^ that these Indians were now across the Mississippi,
beyond their reach.
The white men were the prisoners of the war party. What should be
done with them? Not without nuich debate, did they decide to abandon
the warpath and return home. Then, by signs, they gave the white men
to understand that it was determined to kill them. This wjis the i)olicy
and the counsel of the old war chief, *'Again-fills-the-pipe" bj- name,
(Akepagidaij), because he was mourning the 1(kss of a son killed by the
Miami. Hennepin and his companions endeavored to obtain the men^y of
their captors by giving them a large amount of presents. Th(?y spent an
anxious night. Hut the next morning, better counsels prevailed, and a
'The great village which ho calls " Kathiu" iniiMt have been in that region.
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM HISTORY. 173
younger chief, whose name was **Four Souls" (Nagi-topa), filled his pipe
with willow bark and smoked with them. And then made them mider-
stand that, as the war against the Miami was abandoned, and they would
now go back to their villages, the white men should accompany them.
This voyage up the Mississippi was not without continued apprehen-
sion of danger to the Frenchmen. When Hennepin opened his breviary
in the morning, and began to mutter his j)rayers, his savage caj)tors gath-
ered about him in superstitious ten'or, and gave him to understand that his
book was a ^'bad spirit" (Wakaij si da), and that he nmst not converse
with it.
His comrades besought him to dispense with his devotions, or at least
to pray apart, as they were all in danger of being tomahawked. He tried
to say his prayers in the woods, but the Indians followed him everywhere,
and said ^^Wakay di," Is it not mysterious? He could not dispense with
saying his office. But finally he chanted the Litany of the Virgin in their
hearing, which charmed the evil spirit from them.
But the old chief, Again-fills-the-jnpe, was still apparently bent on
killing a white man to revenge the blood of his son. Every day or two
he broke forth in a fresh fit of crying, which was accompanied with hostile
demonstrations towards the captives. This was met by additional presents
and the interceding of their first friend. Four Souls, in their behalf. It
looks very much like a species of blackmailing — a device practiced by
them — by which the goods of the white men should come into their posses-
sion without stealing. They were also required to bring goods to cover
some bones, which old Akepagidaij had with him, and over which they
cried and smoked frequently. At Lake Pepin they cried all night, and
from that circumstance, Hennepin called it the **Lake of Tears."
Thus they made their way up the Father of Waters where no white
man had ever traveled before. Nineteen days after their capture they
landed a short distance below where the city of St. Paul stands. Then the
savages hid their own canoes in the bushes and broke the Frenchmen's
canoe into pieces. From this point they had a land travel of five days, of
suffering and starvation to the white men, when they rea(*,hed the Dakota
villages at Mille Lacs, >y Inch was then the home of the Mdewakantons.
Hennepin estimated the distance they traveled by land at sixty leagues.
But it was probably not over one hundred miles. They passed through
the marshes at the head of Rum River, and were then taken by canoes '*a
short league" to an island in the lake, where were the lodges.
174 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AKD ETHNOGRAPnY.
This lake the Dakota called "Mdewakari," mysterious lake, from which
came the name of this branch of the Dakota family, Mde-wakar)-tor)wai).
They also called it '*Isar)-ta-mde," Knife Lake^ because there they fomid
their stone knives and an'owheads. From this came the name "Santee,"
which covers a much larger part of the tribe. (See footnote ^, pp. 159, 160.)
Thus, in Pere Louis Hennepin's narrative, we have the first exact,
locality of the eastern bands of the Dakota people, two hundred years
ago. The principal chief, at that time, of this part of the tribe, is called by
Hemiepin '^Washechoonde." If he is connect, their name for Frenchmen
was in use, among the Dakota, before they had intercourse witli them, and
was probably a name learned from some Indians farther east.
Tlie three white men, with their effects, were divided up among the
various villages. And, strange to say, Hennepin was taken home by the old
savage wlio had so much wished to kill him on the journey. He had now be-
come his friend, even his father; his five wives became Hennepin's mothers.
They treated him kindly — covered him with a robe made of dressed beaver
skins, ornamented with porcupine quills, rubbed him down after his jour-
ney, and set before him a bark dish full of fish. As the Franciscan fell
sick, his savage father made a sweating-cabin for him, and after the process
of sweating naked by means of heated stones, he was rubbed down by four
Indians. Thus he was reinvigorated.
As no mention is made by either Hennepin or the liistorian of Du Luth
of any planting at these villages, we may be quite sure that they did not
plant, but lived by hunting and fishing mainly, wliich was supplemented
by gathering roots and berries and wild rice.
During the stay of the wliite men tliere came four Indians from the far
west— Hennepin says, '^500 leagues" — who reported the Assiniboin villages
as only six or seven days' journey to the northwest. This would place this
branch of the Dakota peoj)le, at that time, within the present limits of
Minnesota, somewhere east of the Red River.
In the montli of July the whole encampment of Dakota, numbering
250 men, witli women and children, started on a buffklo hunt. The French-
men were to go with them. But Ileimepin, anxious to make his escape,
represented that a party of traders, '^spirits" or **wakan men," were to
be sent by La Salle to the mouth of the Wisconsin, and lie wished to meet
them there. The Indians gave them leave to go, but Accau, wlio disliked
Hennepin, preferred to stay among the savages.
They all camped together on tlie banks of the Mississippi, at the moutli
of Rum River, from which point Hennepin and Du Gay descended the gi-eat
MIGRATIONS— AEGUMENT FROM HISTORY. 175
river in a small birch-biirk canoe. At the falls, which Heiiiiepiu named
St. Anthony, for his patron saint, they made a portage and saw half a dozen
Dakotas, who had preceded them, offering buffalo-robes in sacrifice to
Uijktehi, the great water god.
As they paddled leisurely down the stream by the beautiful bluffs in
this month of July, now and then shooting a wild turkey or a deer, they
were suddenly overtaken by Hennepin's Dakota father, the old savage
Akepagidar), with 10 warriors in a canoe. The white men were somewhat
alarmed, for he told them he was going down to the mouth of the Wisconsin
to meet the traders, who were to be there according to the words of the
Franciscan. They passed on rapidly, found no one at the place named,
and, in a few days, they met them on their return, when the savage father
only gave his son Hennepin a good scolding for lying.
They were then near tlie mouth of the Chippewa River, a short dis-
tance up which a large party of those with whom they had started were
chasing buffalo. This infonnation was given to the white men by the
Indians as they })assed up. Hennepin and Du Gay had but little ammuni-
tion, and for tliis reason they determined to turn aside and join the buffalo
hunt. In this party they found their former comrade. A grand' hunt was
made along the borders of the Mississippi. The Dakota hunters chased the
buffalo on foot and killed them with their flint-headed arrows. At this
time they had neither guns nor horses. Wlien they first saw the white
men shoot and kill with a gun they called it ** maza-wakaq," mysterious
iron. And, in after years, when the horse came to their knowledge they
called it " shuyka wakar)," mysterious dog.
While they were thus killing the buffalo and drying the meat in the
sun there came two Dakota women into camp with the news that a Dakota
war party, on its way to Lake Superior, had met five ** spirits" — washe-
choor).^ These })roved to be Daniel Greysolon Du Luth with four well-armed
Frenchmen. In June they had started from Lake Superior, had probably
ascended the Burnt Wood River, and from that made a poi-tage to the St.
Croix, where they met this war party and learned that three white men
were on the Mississippi. As this was Du Luth's preempted trading country,
he was anxious to know who the interlopers were, and at once started for
the hunting camp. We can imagine this to have been a joyful meeting of
Frenchmen.
The hunt was now over. The Indians, laden with dried meat and
accom]>anied by the eight white men, returned to tlieir rcvSting place at Knife
* WaHicuij.
176 DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
Lake. And when the autumn came the white men were permitted to leave,
with the promise tliat in the following year they would return with g^oods
to trade for the abundant peltries. They descended tlie Mississippi in bark
canoes. At the Falls of St. Anthony two of the men took each a buffalo-
robe that had ])een sacriliced to the god of the waters. l)u Luth greatly
disapproved of the act as both impolitic and wrong, but Hennepin justified
it, saying they were offerings to a false god. As the wliite men were about
to start uj) the Wisconsin River they were overtaken ])y a party of Dakota,
again on the war-path against the Illinois. The white men, remem])ering
the stolen robes, were alarmed, but the Dakota i)assed on and did them no
hami.^
These Nadouessioux, or Sioux, of tlie east of the Mississippi, whose
acquaintance we have now formed somewhat, appear at this time to have
been divided into Matanton, Watpaaton, and Chankasketon. These are
band names. But the headquarters of all wa,s tlie Mde-wakai; or Isaij-ta-
mde. From tliis point they issued forth on their hunting expeditions and
their war parties. Tlie latter penetrated into Iowa and central Illinois to
Lake Superior and Lak<3 Michigan. Sometimes we find them at peace with
the Ojibwa and at war with the Fox. Then, again, we find the Fox and
loway joining the Dakota war parties against the Ojibwa. The war which
separated the Assiniboin fnmi the Dakota had not ceased at this period,
and the impression is that the separation had taken place not many years
before they became known to history.
Nichohus PeiTOt was sent by the governor of Caniula, in 1683, to take
charge of the trading interests among the loway and Dakota. And in 1689
the first recorded public document was signed in which the land of the
Dakota was claimed for the French king. In this document Father Marest,
of the Society of Jesus, is spoken of as missionary among the Nadouessioux,
and Mons. Le Sueur, to whom we are indebted for the next ten years of
history^ was present.
Le Sueur was first sent to La Pointe to maintain peace between the
Ojibwa and Dakota. And in the year 1695 he erected a trading post on
an island of the Mississippi, above Lake Pephi and ])elow the mouth of St.
Croix. In the summer of the same year he took to Montreal delegations
from several western tribes, including one Dakota, ''Teeoskatay'^^by name.
This man died in Montreal, and one hundred and fifty years afterward the
' Le Clercq, the historian of the Sieiir Dii Luth, corroborate.-» the Htory of Hennepin in regard to
ueetiug at
'^ Tioskate.
their meeting at Knife Lake.
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM HISTORY. 177
writer of this sketch heard him spoken of by those wlio (claimed to be liis
descendants, then on the Miimesota River.
Becoming impressed with the idea that there were valuable mines in
the land of the Dakota, Le Sueur obtained a royal license to work tliem.
He was hindered in various ways, and not until the summer of 1 700 do we
find him ascending the Mississippi. On the 30th of July he met a war party
of Dakota in seven canoes, who were on the warpath against the Illinois.
Le Sueur bought them off with presents and turned tliem back home. Ad-
vjincing up as far as the Galena River he called it tlie River Mino. On the
19th of September he entered the mouth of the Minnesota, or as he proba-
bly named it then, and long afterwards it continued to ])e called, the **St.
Pierre." And by the 1st of October he had reached the Blue Eartli River,
where he built a trading post and expected to make his fortune out of the
blue earth of its shores.
While Le Sueur was building his stockade on the Blue Earth he was
visited by Dakota from the east of the Mississippi, wlio desired liim to
locate at the mouth of the St. Peter or Mhinesota, since the country of the
Blue Earth, they said, belonged to the western Dakota and to tlie Iowa and
Oto. However, a short time after this Le Sueur was informed that the
Iowa and Oto had gone over to the Missouri River to join tlie Omaha. At
this time it is recorded that the Iowa and Oto planted corn, but the Dakota
did not. Le Sueui- offered to furnish com to the latter for planting.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century we have the Dakota
nation, so far as known, described by bands. Some of the names it is now
impossible to read with cert^ainty. Some have disappeared or given place
to others, while some of them are old landmarks by which we can read the
history of their migrations. Living at tliat time to the east of the Missis-
sippi, whose headquarters were about Knife Lake, were the Spirit Lake
Village (MdewakaijtoTjwar)), Great Lake Village (Matanton — perhaps origi-
nally Mdetiirjk-toijwaij), Wild Rice Gatherers (Psiij-omani-toijwaij), River
Village (Watpatoijway), Boat Village (Watomanitoijwaij), Fortified Village
(CankaskatoQwaij). The Western Dakota are thus given, viz: Pole Village
(Canhuasinton?), Red Wild Rice Village (Psiycatoijwan), Small Band Vil-
lage (WagalespetonI), Great Wild Rice Village (Psiijhutaijkiq-torjway),
Grand Lodge Village (Titaijka-kaga-toij ?), Leaf Village (Walipetoywaij),
Dung Village (Uijkdekce-ota-toqwaij), Teton Leaf Village (Wahpeton-
Teton), and Red Stone Quarry Village (Ilinhaneton). This last must be
the Red Pipe Stone, and the Dakota who guarded it were doubtless the
7105_-VOL IX 12
178 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
Yankton/ It is possible that the *4le(l Stone" may have signified the
Des Moines River, which was so called.
These bands were all at that time within the present Stute of Minne-
sota, and mainly having their homes north of the forty-fifth parallel, except
the last, who are said to have been living at the Red Stone Quarry. This
can be no other than the Red Pipe Stone in the neighborliood of the Big
Sioux. Le Sueur says the Assiniboin lived on the head waters of the Mis-
sissippi.
For the next fifty years the Dakota appear t^ have kept within their
old limits, sometimes at war with the Ojibwa, and then again in league with
them against the Fox and Sauk. Already the quarrel between the English
colonies and the French had commenced. The Fox took the side of the
English, but were defeated at the port of Detroit and elsewhere, and obliged
to flee for protection to their enemies, the Dakota. For a while it appears
that the Fox lumted north of the Minnesota River.
Tlie maps made in France about 1750 locate the Dakot^i, as we have
already seen, partly on the- east and partly on tlie west side of tlie Missis-
sippi. They occupied Leech Lake, Sandy Lake, and probably Red Lake
at that time and for some years afterwards. At the source of the Minnesota
River there is put down a large lake called ^^Lake of the Teetons."
Whether this was intended for Big Stone Lake, or for what we now call
Devil's Lake, in Dakota, may admit of a doubt. Besides this, these maps
locate a portion of the Teton" (Titoijwaij) and the Yankton (Iliaijktoywaij)
on the east side of the Missouri, down in Iowa, wlience came tlie names of
the streams, liig and Little Sioux.
Li the ^'French and Indian war," the Dakota nation took no part.'* But
very soon after tlie P^nglish came into possessiim of Canada and the French
ports in the nortliwest, a company of Dakota braves visited Green Bay to
solicit the trade of the Englishmen. They told the officer in charge that if
the Ojibwa or other Lidians atti^mpted to shut up the way to them (the
Dakota), to send them word, and they would come and (*ut them off*, *^as
all Indians were their dogs."
Previous to this time, the '^ Sioux of the East" had given the number
' nil) liar)etoi) Will) approximatcH ni»i)ktoi)\v:ii). Na.saliziii^ the "ii's" will make tliin change. —
J. o. D.
^ Perhaps the iirescnt IhaT)ktoi)waT) goiiR of the Si('rai)jju (Titoi)wai)) — ace list ofTatai)ka-wakai) —
includes those whose ancestors intermarried with the Yanktcm propter, when part of tin? Titoi)wai)
were neigh hors of the Yankton. — .i. o. i>.
^The (uily thing I find which h^oks like participation at all, is a rect»rd of arrivals at Montreal
in 1746, July 31. "Four Sioux came to ask for a commandant.'"
MKIUATIONS— ARGUMENTS FROM HLSTOHY. 179
of the "Sioux of the West" as '^more than a thousand tepees." It is added,
"They do not use canoes, nor cultivate the earth, nor gather wild rice.
They remain generally in the prairies, which are between the Upper Missis-
sippi and the Missouri Rivers, and live entirely by the chase."
Jonathan Carver, a native of New England, was the first English
traveler who visited the country of the Dakota and added to our knowledge
of their history. He left Boston in June of 1766, and by the way of Green
Bay and the Wisconsin River he reached the Mississippi at the town whose
name he writes "La Prairie les Chiens," Consisting, as he says, of fifty
houses This was then, and for many years after, the great fur mart of the
Upper Mississippi. The villages of the Sauk and Fox he passed on the
Wisconsin River. The Dakota he first met near the mouth of the St. Croix.
For yeai's past they had been breaking away from their old home on Knife
Lake and making their villages along down the river. Hence the name of
"River Bands," a term that then comprised the "Spirit Lake," the "Leaf
Villagers," and the " Sisseton." The Nadouessies of the plains, he says, were
divided into eiglit bands, not including the Assiniboin.
Cai'ver ascended the St. Pierre River for some distance and wintered
with a camp of Indians. In tlie spring he descended, with several hundred
Dakota, to the mouth of the river. When they came to deposit their dead,
in what seems to have been a general place of interment, in the cave, since
called "Carver's Cave," Jonathan claims to have obtained fi-om them a deed
of the land. This purchase, however, has never been acknowledged by the
Sioux.
Carver found, in 1766, the Dakota at war with the Ojibwa, ana was
told that they had been fighting forty years. Before the year 1800 the
Ojibwa had driven the Dakota from what hold they had on the Sandy Lake
and Leech Lake country. As the Indian goods commenced to come to them
U2) the Mississippi, they were naturally drawn down to make more perma-
nent villages on its banks. Tlien two forces united diverted the Dakota
miOTation to the south and the west.
The Govennnent of the United States, in the year 1805, sent into the
Dakota and Ojibwa countries Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike, for the purposes
of regulating the trade and making alliances with the Indians. He met
the Dakota first at Red Wing, a short distance above Lake Pepin, and then
at Kaposia, a short distance below where is now St. Paul. The respective
chiefs were Red Wing and Little Crow. He also visited a Dakota village
a short distance up the Minnesota River, and held a grand council with the
Dakota assembled on the point where Fort Snelling was afterwards built.
18l) DAKiJTA GBAMMAK^ TEXTS, AND ETUNIJOKAPHY.
On hw downward trip in the followincr .spring, he met Wabasha w's band,
tlie KiyuLsa. below Lake Pepin. As he a^scended the Mississippi as far as
Leei:h I^ke. and found the coantr\' alNive the Falls of St. Anthonv. in the
main« r^-rupied by i >jibwa, the inference is that the I>ak«»ta had, in the pre-
^-ioa?* years, been driven by their enemies from that |>art of the country.
One reas^m for this was. that the Djibwa were fumisheil with fireanns be-
fore the I>akota A second reas4>ii was fr»und in the dniwin^r of the fur
trade. And a thinl was the jrradual <lisiip|>earance of the buffalo in the
w^KKle^l comlt^^' r»f the Misslssip[ii. At this date the Sisseton and Yankton
were on the head waters of the Minnesota. DelegJitions of these bands met
Lieut Pike in the sjiring, and pnx*ee<led to a grand council at Prairie du
Cliien.
Old men still living relate how the Wah|>eton, or Leaf Village, when
they retirefl from the bullets of the ( )jibwa on the e;ist of the Mississippi,
pitched their tents towards the northwest comer of what is now the State of
Iowa, and when they returned they establisheil their planting vilhige at
what has been calle<l Little HapirLs, on the lower part of the Minnesota
River. In alxmt 1810, a p4irtion of them removed up ti> an island in Big
Stone Lake, and afterwards a larger part settled at Lac qui Parle.
Until after the middle of this centurv, the habitats of the Dakota were,
for the Mflay-wakan-ton (Mde-wakaij toijwaij), the Mississippi River froiu
Winona to the Falls of St, Anthouy . and up the Minnesota as far as Shakojiee.
The Leaf Sho^>ters (Wahpekute) were on the Cannon River, where Fari-
bault now is; and the Wah[>eton (Leaf Village) were, as stated, at the Little
Rapids, and Lac qui Parle and the lower end of Big Stone Lake. The
Sisseton rjccupied the Blue Earth country and the southern bend of the
Minnesota, while the great Ixxly of them were at the \nllages on Lake
Traverse. Tlie Yankton, Yanktonai, Cut-heads, and Titoijwai) were on
the great prairies to the westwai*d.
When Lieut. Pike made his tour up the Mississippi, in the years 1805
and 1806, he found much f»f the trade, in the Dakota and Ojibwa countries,
in the hands of men who were in sympathy with Great Britain. The trad-
ers, many of them, were Englishmen, and the gomls were British goods.
It is not strange then that, in the war of 1812, the Dakot'a, together with
other Indians of the Northwest, were enlisted in the war against the United
States. This was brought about mainly by Roljert Dickson, a Scotchman,
who was at this time at the head of the fur trade in tliis part of the coun-
try'. Under his leadership the Dakota, the Ojibwa, the Winnebago, the
Menomonie, the Sauk and Fox, and others, were brought into action,
MIGRATIONS— AIUIUMENTS FKOM HISTORY. 181
against the soldiers of the States, at Mackinaw, at Rock Island, and at Prai-
rie du Cliien. Of the Dakota villages, Little Crow and Wabashaw are
especially mentioned. Joseph Renville, afterwards of Lac qui Parle, and
other traders, were the lieutenants oi Col. Dickson. History tells us of but
two Dakota men who kept themselves squai'ely on the American side
during the war. One of these was the special friend (Koda) of Lieut. Pike,
his name being Ta-ma-he, meaning the pike fish. Probably he took that
name as the friend of Pike. He went to St. Louis at the commencement
of the war, and was taken into the employ of Gen. Clarke. He lived until
after the middle of this century, always wore a stovepipe hat, had but one
eye, and claimed to be the only *' American" of his tribe.
It does not appear that the war of 1812 changed the location of Da-
kota. They still occupied the Mississippi above the parallel of 43^°, and
the Minnesota, and westward. In 1837-38, the ** Lower Sioux," as they
were called, ceded to the Government their title to the land east of the
great river. In 1851, all the Mississippi and Minnesota Dakota sold to
the Government all their claim to the country as far west as Lake Traverse,
except a reservation on the Upper Minnesota. A year or two afterwards
they removed to this reservation, and were there until the outbreak of
August, 1862, which resulted in the eastern Dakotii, or tliose coming under
the general name of Santees, being all removed outside of the lines of Min-
nesota. A part of those Indians fled to Manitoba, and a part across the
Missouri, supposed to be now with (Tatayka lyotayke) Sitting Bull — a
pai-t were transported to Crow Creek on the Missouri, who afterwards were
permitted to remove into the northeast angle of Nebraska. This is now the
Santee Agency, from whence a colony of sixty families of homesteaders
have settled on the Big Sioux. Still another portion were retained by the
military as scouts, which have been the nuclei of the settlements on the
Sisseton and Fort Totten reservations.
About what time the Dakota in their migrations westward crossed
over the Missouri River, to remain and hunt on the western side, is a ques-
tion not easily settled. There are various traditions of other neighbor tribes,
which indicate pretty certainly that the Sioux were not there much over
one hundred years ago.
Dr. Washington Matthews, of the U. S. Army, relates that the Ber-
thold^ Indians say, "Long ago the Sioux were all to the east, and none to
the West and South, as they now are." In those times the western plains
must have been very sparsely peopled with hostile tribes in comparison
^ These may be the Hidatsa, Mandan, and Ankara tribes.— J. o. D.
182 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGRAPIIY.
with the present, for the old men now living, and children of men of the
past generation, say that they traveled to the southwest, in search of scalps,
to a country where the prairie ceased, and were gone from their village
twenty-one moons. Others went to the north to a country where the sum-
mer was but three moons long.
The French maps of tliis western country, nuide about one hundred
and twenty-five years ago, are, in many things, very inaccurate, but may
be received as indicating the general locality of Indians at that time. In
one of the maps the Ponka, Pawnee, and some of the Oto, together with
the Panimaha,^ are placed on the Platte and its branches. Other villages
of the Malia (Omaha) are placed, apparently, above the mouth of the James
or Dakota River, on the eastern side of the Missouri. The Iowa, the Oto,
and the Yankton and Teton Dakota are placed down in what is now the
State of Iowa.
When Lewis and Clarke ascended the Missouri, in the autumn of 1803,
they met the Yankton Dakota about the mouth of the James or Dakota
River, where Yankton now stands. Their village was some distance above,
})erhaps about the site of Bon Ilonnne. They met the Teton Dakota at the
mouth of the Teton or Little Missouri (Wakpa sica), where old Fort Pien-e
stood. These were of the Oglala band. Tradition says that the Oglala
were the first to cross the Missouri, and that this was the place of crossing.
At first they went over to hunt. The buftalo wei-e found to be more
abundant. They returned again. But after several times going and
returning they remained, and others followed. At the commencement of
this century some Teton were still on the east side of the river, but their
home seems to have been then, as now, on the west side.
As this is the only notice of their meeting Teton on their ascent, we
infer that the main body of them were not on the Missouri, but far in th(^
interior.'"'
ARGUMENT FROM NAMES OF NATIONS, TRIBES, ETC.
In all primitive states of society the most reliable history of indi\'iduals
and nations is found written in names. Sometimes the removals of a
people can be traced through the ages by the names of rivers or places
' Skidi or Pawnee Loup.
2 III the winter count of American Horse (4t]i An. Hop. Bur. Eth., p. 130), Standing- Bull, a
Dakota, discovered the Black Hills in the winter of 1775-76. The Dakota have of late years claimed
the Black Hills, ])robahly hy rij^lit of discovery in 1775-76; but the Crow were the former possessors,
and were found in that region by the Ponka before the time of Marquette (i. <., prior to the date of
his autograph map, 1673). — J. o. d.
MIGKATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM NAMES. 183
which they have left behind them. The Dakota people, on the other hand,
carry with them, to some extent, the history of their removals in the names
of the several bands.
DAKOTA.
The Sioux people call tliemselves Dakota.^ They say ^* Dakota" means
^'league" or ^'alhance" — they being allied bands. And this meaning is con-
firmed by other uses of the word in the language. Tlie name Sioux, on the
other hand, was given to them by their enemies. In the preceding account
the word ** Nadouessi," or *^ Nadouessioux," is of frequent occurrence. Tlie
Huron, and perhaps other western Indians, called the Iroquois Nadowe or
Nottaway, which is said to mean enemy. Because they were ever on the
war-path, as were the Six Nations, the Dakota were styled the Iroquois of
the West, and, for distinction's sake, were called Nadouessioux, enemies.
The last part of the word stuck, and has become a part of their history.
The Ojibwa, it appears, called the Dakota by the name of Bway, which
comes out in the name Assiniboin, Stone Dakota,; and a small band, or
family, of the Assiniboin are called Stoneys, living in the Dominion of
Canada.
Spirit Lake Villages. — We have seen that Du Luth and Hennepin first
visited the villages of the Dakota on the islands and shores of Mille Lacs,
which was their Mde-wakaij, and hence the name Mde-wakaij-toijwar).
This name has come down througli more than two centuries, and still
attaches to a portion of the people, and is abiding evidence of their having
lived on the head of Rum River.
Not long after their first discovery by white men, if not at the time, a
portion of this same band of Dakota were called Matanton, which name
appears to be a contraction of Mde-tai)ka-toijwaij, meaning Village of the
Great Lake. This was only a designation given to a portion of Mille Lacs.
Before the end of that century these people began to make their villages
along down Rum River, and perhaps also on the Mississippi, and so ob-
tained the name of Wakpa-atoijwai), Village on the River. But, after one
hundred and fifty years, this, with the name preceding, passed out of use.
As previous to this time the Ojibwa had contented themselves with
the shores of Lake Superior, but were now getting an advantage over the
Dakot<a in the first possession of firearms, we find the Dakota, who pitched
their tents westward and northward, toward Leech Lake and Sandy Lake,
earning the name of ' ^ Chonkasketons " (Caijkaske-toijwai}), Fortified Vil-
In tbo Tetou dialect this is Lakota.
184 DAKOTA GEAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGEAPHY.
lages} From the name we read that they were in a wooded country and
made wooden protections from the assaults of their enemies.
Some of the famihes appear to have made the gathering of the wild
rice in the hikes a specialty, and so for a century or more we find them
known as the Villages of Wild Rice Gatherers.
When the Frenchmen, in 1G80, joined the buffalo hunt of the Dakota,
they remarked that they killed them with stone-headed an'ows and cut up
the meat with stone knives. The sharp flint stone used for this purpose
they found on the banks of the Thousand Lakes, and hence the name of
" wakai)," or mysterious. And from this fact also they called the lake, or
a part of it, by the name of ** Isai)-ta-mde," Lake of Knives, or Knife Lake.
From living there the whole of those eastern Sioux were called **Isaij-ya-ti" —
Knife Dwellers — which has been modified to
SANTBB.
For a century or more past there has been included in this name The
Leaf-shootei-s (Wahpekute), and also Leaf Village (Wahpetoijwaij).'^ Both
these last-named bands continued to* dwell, for the most part, in the wooded
country, as their names indicate. In the list of Dakota bands furnished by
Le Sueur, about the beginning Of the eighteenth century, the Wahpatons,
or Leaf Villages, are classed with what was then called **The Sioux of the
West" And a somewhat singular combination occurs in the name **Wa-
hpeton-Teton," indicating that some of the Leaf Village band had become
" Dwellers <m the Prairie."
Other names of divisions at that period, such as "Great Wild Rice Vil-
lage," "Grand Lodge Village," "Dung Village," etc., have gone into disuse.
Nor is it possible, at tliis time, to discover to what families they belonged.
Two hundred years ago, the Dakota nation was said to consist of seven
Council Fires. Of these we have already spoken of three, viz: Spirit Lake
(Mdewakaijtoijwaij), Leaf Shooters (Wahj)ekute), and Leaf Village (Walipe-
toqwaij).
SISSETON.
Coming next to these is the Sisseton band. The meaning of the name
is not quite clear; but Mr. Joseph Renville, of Lac-qui-parle, in his day re-
garded as the best authority in Dakota, understood it to mean "Swamp
' Another version of this namu is '* Bravo-heurtH," as if from (?a!)te, hearij and kaska, to bind.
^Sve testimony of Rev. A. L. Kiggs in foot-note - on jip. 159, 160.
MIGRATIONS— AEGUMENT FROM NAMES. 185
Village."^ This well accords with the early history, which places them in
the marshy parts of the country. From the head waters of the Mississippi
they journeyed southward to the country of Swan Lake and the Blue Eartli,
and above, on tlie Minnesota Riv^er. Here they were found early in the
eighteentli century, and here a portion of them still remained until after
1850. But the great body of them had removed up to the Lake Traverse
region before the war of 1812. The great Sisseton chief of those times was
Red Thunder (Wakiijyaq duta), still spoken of by his descendants. Since
1862 the Sisseton live on the Sisseton and Wahpeton Reservation, and at
Devil's Lake, both of which are in Dakota.
YANKTON.
The Ihai^ktoqwai), now shortened to Yankton, were the ^* Villages of
the Border." The ^*End," or ^'Border," appears to have been that of the
wooded country. Connected with them, and to be treated in the same cate-
gory, are the
YANKTONAI.
They were both Borderers. The name of the latter (Ihaqktoijwaqna)
is, in the Dakofei, simply a diminutive of the former; but for more than a
century — possibly more than two centuries — the distinction has been recog-
nized. The Assiniboin branched off from the Yanktonai. Other divisions
of them, rea(*liiug down to the present time, are the Sanonee^ (or One
Siders?), the Gut Heads (Pabakse); Kiyuksa or Dividers; Breakers of the
law; the Pine Shooters (Wazikute), and the Huykpa-tina, or Hoonkpatee.
This last name is explained in other parts of this volume. The same word
is found in the name of one of the Teton divisions, now become somewhat
notorious as the robber band of " Sitting Bull," viz: The Hui^kpapa, or, as
it is incorrectly written, Unkpapa. Both of these bands have for many
years roamed over the Upper Missouri countiy — one on the east and the
other on the west side. The name of "Pine Shooters," by which one
division of the Yanktonai is still called, they brought from the pine country
of Minnesota,^ and must have retained through at least two centuries.
As the Yankton, who now live on the Missouri River, at the Yankton
Agency, claim to have been placed by the Taku Wakaij as guardians of
* For another explanation of this terra, see ^'Sisitoijwaij " in the preceding chapter, p. 158.
*The Saijona. See p. 161, footnote. — J. o. i).
'The (Muaha say that when their ancestors found the Great Pipe Stone Quarry, the Yankton
dwelt east of them in the forest region of Minnesota, so they called them Ja"a^a nikaci"ga, or People
of the iorest. See 3d Rep. Bur. Eth., p. 212.— j. o. D.
186 DAKOTA GKAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
the great Red Pipe Stone QuaiTy, there is scarcely a doubt but that they
were the "Village of the Red Stoue Quarry" mentioned in Le Sueur's
eimmeration. Fifty years after that, we find them placed on the French
maps about the mouth of the Little Sioux River. In those times they
hunted buffalo in the northwestern part of Iowa and down the Missouri to
its mouth and up to their present location or above, and eastward over the
James River and the Big Sioux to the Red Pipe Stone, where was the gath-
ering of the nations.^
TETON.
These have been known for two Imndred years — and how much longer
we know not — as **Dvvellers on the Prairie." The full name was Tiyta-
toyivay, Prairie dwelling, contracted now into Titoqwaij, and commonly
written Teton.
As we have already seen, the French, in their maps, made a gi'^at lake
at the head of the Minnesota River, which they called **Lake of the
Tetons." The name gives us nothing more than Inhabitants of the
Prairie. There is abundant evidence that, as far back as our knowledge of
the Dakota Nation extends, the Teton have formed more than half the
tribe, and causes have been in operation which have increased their number,
while in some cases the more eastern bands have been diminished. The
buffalo hunt has always tended to increase the Teton somewhat by immi-
gration ; and by furnishing a supply of wild meat their children have grown
up, while many of those who came to use flour and pork have died off. The
late wars of the Minnesota Dakota with the whites have operated in the
same way.
As the result of the massacre of Spirit Lake, on the border of Iowa, in
the spring of 1857, a large portion of the small band of Leaf Shooters,
under the leadership of Iqkpaduta's family, have disappeared from the east
of the Missouri and become absorbed by the Teton. The same thing is
true of hundreds of those engaged in the nuissacre of 1862. While a large
number fled north into the Dominion of Canada, others, in 1863, crossed
' Near the mouth of the Missouri, whore in one of its beuds it approaches the Mississippi, is a
place called Portage dea Sioux. Here, evidently, the Dakota, a «5entury ago, carried their canoes
across from one river to the other, when on their huntiug and war expeditions. This fact quite agrees
with what we are told of their war parties descending the Mississippi two centuries ago, to attack
the niinois and Miamis.
The Yanktonai passed over to the Upper Minnesota, and from thence, and from the Red Hiver
of the North, tboy have journeyed westward to the Missouri, led on by the buffalo, from which they
have obtained their living for more than a century and a half. Thus they have occupied the country
as it was vacated by the more numerous of the " Seven Council Fires."
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM NAMES. 187
the Missouri and joined the various northern divisions of the "Dwellers on
the Prairie."
It is curious to find the number sevefi occurring so frequently in their
tribal and family divisions.^ Of the whole tribe there were seven bands
or "council fires;" of the Spirit Lake band there were seven villages, and
of this great body of the Dakota Nation there are still seven divisions or
subgentes.
First — The Brules: This is the French translation of Sidaqgu — "Burnt
Thighs." They occupy, at present, the mouth of Makaizite River^ and up
to Fort Thompson. The origin of this name is uncertain. They are
divided into Uplanders and Lowlanders.
Second. — The Two Kettles, or Oohe noijpa, literally, "Two Boilings:"
One story is, that the name originated in a time of great scai-city of pro-
visions, when the whole band had only enough of meat to put in two
kettles. The present headquarters of this band, as well as of the two that
follow, is at the Cheyenne Agency and at Standing Rock, on the Missouri.
Third. — The Minnekanjoo: The full name is Mini-kaqye-wozupi
(Water-near to-plant), " Planters by the Water." We ask, "What water?"
They do not remember. It looks very much as though the name had a
history — possibly in Minnesotii — more than a century ago.
Fourth — The Sans Arcs: This is the French translation of their own
name, Itazip6o; which written in full is, Itazipa-dodaij, "Bows without" or
"No Bows." It is ejisy to imagine a few families of Dakota appearing, at
some time of need, without that necessary implement of the chase and war,
and so, having fastened upon them a name, which they would not have
chosen for themselves.
Fijlh. — The Uglala, or Ogalala, meaning Scatterers : This name em-
bodies the peculiar characteristics of the Teton dialect of the language,
viz: The frequent use of the hard "g" and the "1."
Sixth. — The Black Feet, or Silia sapa: This band of the Western
Dakota must not be confounded with the Black Feet^ of the mountains,
which are connected with the Piegans and Bloods. The Oglala and Black
Feet Dakota mainly constitute the camps of Spotted Tail and Red Cloud.
But the bands are all a good deal mixed up by marriage and otherwise.
Seventh. — The Huijkpapa: This band has for many years roamed over
'I have found many exaoiples of the use of mystic iiiimbers amoug cognate tribes, e. g.y seven
(4-f 3),/oMr, ten (7-|-3), iwelre (4x3), and, in Oregon, /pc. I hope to publish an article on this sub-
ject. See **A Study of Siouan Cults," in 11th An. Rep. of the Director, Hur. Ethu. — j. o. D.
'^Froui niaka, earth, and izita, to smoke, %. e., the White Earth River of South Dakota. — j. o. D.
3 Slk'-slk-a.
188 DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGKAPHY.
the couiilry of the Upper Missouri. The war of 1876 made it somewhat
notorious under its war chief ^* Sitting Bull," or '* Sitting Buffalo," a*s Tataijka
iyotaqke ought to be translated.
This article, on the Migrations of the Dakota, will not be complete,
without a brief notice of the affiliated tribes. The Dakota family, as shown
by similarity of language, is quite extensive.
ASSINIBOIN.
I. Evidently the first to claim our attention, outside of the Dakota
themselves, is the Assiniboin tribe. Indeed they are a part of the great
Dakota Nation. Their language differs less from the Dakota in general,
than the dialects of the Dakota do from each other. In our historical nar-
rative of the Dakota, we found the knowledge of the Assiniboin coming to
white people at the same time, and along with that of the Dakota proper.
More than two centuries ago Assiniboin and Dakota met the French traders
at the head of Lake Suj)erior. The Assiniboin are said to have broken off
from the Pine Shooters (Wazikute), a branch of the IhaijktoQwaijna.
At that time the split, by which they ranged themselves as a separate
people, appears to have been a recent thing. The name **Bwaij," aj)plied
by the Ojibwa to the whole Dakota peo[)le, fastened itself on that branch.
They are Stone Dakota. And at the present time, we have information of
a small family of the Assiniboin people living on the Saskatchewan, which
goes by the name of Stonies. The name given to the Assiniboin by the
Dakota is Ilohe,^ the origin and meaning of which are in the darkness.
At the time we first learn anything of the Assinibohi, they appear to
have l)een occupying the country of the Red River of the North, probably
both on the eastern and western side. Tlieir migrations have been north-
ward and westward. About the middle of the seventeenth century a
French })ilot, by name Grosellier, roamed into the country of the Assini-
boin, near Lake Winnipeg, and was taken by them to Hudson Bay. In
1803 Lewis and Clarke met Assiniboin at their winter camp near where
Fort Stevenson now is. But their movement westward seems to have been
mainly farther north up the Assiniboin and Saskatchewan rivers. At pres-
ent they are found in the neighborhood of Fort Peck, on the Upper Mis-
souri, but the most of them are within the Dominion of Canada.
I Pronounced ho'-liay. There in also a Holie ^ons among tlie Sihasapa Titoqwar). Kobe \h 8aid
to mean " Kebels." — j. o. i).
MIGKATIONS— ARGUMENT FKOM NAMES. 189
WINNEBAGO.
Two centuries and a third ago the French traders and missionaries
from Montreal and Quebec came in contact with the Puants, living on the
"Bay of the Puants," now Green Bay, in Wisconsin. These Indians were
called Winnepekoak, or " People of the fetid water," by their Algonkian
neighbors; but their name for themselves is Hotcangara, '* People of the
Original Speech," modified to Hotayke by the Dakota, and Hu;anga by
the Omaha and Ponka, though these modified names signify "Big Voices"
in their respective languages.
The Wmnebago language is closely allied to the Dakota.^ One can
not but think that less than a thousand years ago they were a part of the
same people.
They may have separated at an early period from these cognate tribes,
and even reached " salt water," whence their Algonkian name. Examples
of such separation are found in the Biloxi of Mississippi and the Yesa° or
Tutelo, formerly of Virginia and North Carolina, now in Canada.
But, confining ourselves to history, two centuries ago the Winnebago
were on Lake Michigan. During the eighteenth century they had drifted
slowly across the State of Wisconsin. In 1806 Lieut. Pike met the Puauts-
with the Fox at Prairie du Chien. In the war of 1812 the Whmebago, with
the tribes of the Northwest generally, ranged themselves on the side of the
British. While a small portion of the tribe remained in the interior of Wis-
consin, the majority were removed across the Mississippi into Iowa and
located on Turkey River about the year 1840. Thence they were taken
up to Long Prairie, in Minnesota. Not being at all satisfied with that
country, they were again removed to what was to be a home in Blue Earth
County, back of Mankato. They were supposed to have had some sympathy
with the Dakota in their outbreak of 1862, and accordingly they were
removed with the captured Dakota, in the spring following, to the Missouri
River. Tlieir location at Crow Creek was highly distasteful to them, and,
accordingly, they made canoes and floated themselves down to the . Omaha
Reservation, in Nebraska, on a portion of which the Government arranged
to have them remain.
It should be mentioned that the Winnebago were largely engaged in
the French and Indian War. Forty-eight were present in 1757 at the
'See " Compariitivo Phouology of Four Sioiiuu Lauguages," in Smithsou. Kept., 1883. — j. o. i>.
2 The uaine PiiaDts meaub Stiukers. There is no doubt bat that the French traderH at iirst
underHtood the name Winnebago to mean Mtiukiug water. But it is believed they were in error, and
that its proper meaning is s;ilt water.
190 DAKOTA GKAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
battle of Ticonderoga, together with large numbers of the Ojibwaand other
Western bands.
OMAHA AND PONKA.
These tribes have a common dialect and are closely related to the
Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa. The first are the Maha of the old French
maps. The five tribes form the (fegiha (or Dhegiha) group of the Siouan
family. According to their traditions, their ancestors dwelt east of the
Mississippi River, on the Ohio and Wabash. When they reached the
mouth of the Ohio, part went down the Mississippi, becoming the Kwapa
(U>[aqpa, Ugaqpa), or ^' Down-stream People," who afterwards met I)e Soto.
The others ascended the Mississippi; hence the name " Up-stream People,"
or U-ma"-ha° (Umaijhag), now Omaha, ap[)lied at first to those who subse-
quently became four tribes (Omaha, I\)nka, Osage, and Kansa). Another
separation occured near the mouth of the Osage River, where the Omaha and
Ponka crossed the Missouri, and went north, being joined on the way by a
khidred tribe, the Iowa. These three wandered through Iowa and Minne-
sota till they found the Great Pipestone Quarry, where they made a set-
tlement. At that time the Yankton (perhaps including the Yanktonnai)
dwelt in a wooded region near the source of the Mississippi, being called
^' People of the Forest" by the Omaha and Ponka.^
The three tribes were finally driven off by the Dakota, wandering
westward and southwestward till they reached the Missouri River, which
they followed as far as the mouth of White Earth River. There the Ponka
left their allies, ascending the White Earth River till they drew near the
Black Hills, which they found in the possession of the Crows. Retracing
their course, they joined the Iowa and Omaha, and all three went down
along the southwest side of the Missouri River till the Niobrara was reached.
There was made the final separation. The Ponka remained at the mouth
of the Niobrara; the Omaha settled on Bow Creek, Nebraska; the Iowa
went beyond them till they reached Ionia Creek (probably lotva Creek at
first), where they made a village on the east bank of the stream, not far
from the site of the present town of Ponka. The subsequent migrations of
these tribes have been given in the paper mentioned in the preceding foot-
note (^), as well as in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
(p. 213). The three tribes occupied different habitats as far back as Mar-
(juette's time, and they are thus located in his autograph map of 1G73.
'The DiigratioiiH of the Kausa, Kwapa, Osage, etc., have boon treatt^d by tht^ editor in a recent
paper^ ^'Mi«;ratioiiH of Siouan Tribes," which api>eared in the American Naturalist for March, 1886
(Vol. 2*2, pp. 211-222). See ''Omaha Sociolo«.rv," i i the Third Ann. Kept, of the Director Bur. Kth.,
pp. 211-213. — J. O. D.
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM NAMES. 191
When, in 1803, Lewis and Clarke made their voyage up the Missouri
and across the Rocky Mountains, they found the Ponka (Poncara) near their
present location. They say, "The Maha (Omaha) were associated with
them for mutual protection." But the Omaha were there only on a visit.
It is quite certain that they had not lived together for many years pre-
vious to this. The Omaha were in northeastern Nebraska, south of Sioux
City, Iowa.
IOWA AND OTO.
The two tribes Iowa and Oto are associated here because they are
mentioned together by Le Sueur, in 1700, as having, previous to that time,
had the occupancy and the hunters' right to the country of the Blue Earth
and of southern Minnesota.^ They appear to have retired before the
aggressive Sioux down the Des Moines into central Iowa, the Oto going on to
the Missouri and down into Kansas. While in possession of the country of
the Blue Earth, we have notices of their having hunted on the St. Croix, in
northern Wisconsin. It is also stated, which appears to be a matter of
tradition only, that at a much later date, not far from the commencement
of the present century, the Iowa, in war, cut off entirely a small tribe, which
dwelt south of the St. Croix, called the Unktoka, which means. Our Enemies-
Ten Iowa wamors were present at the battle of Ticonderoga.
There are, near the Minnesota River, old fortifications, or earthworks,
which were probably made by these tribes to protect themselves against
the incursions of the more powerful Dakota. One such is found a few miles
above the mouth of the Yellow Medicine River. But possibly this was an
old Cheyenne fortification, which would seem to be the reading of Dakota
tradition.
MANDAN AND HIDATSA.
These two small tribes live together at Fort Berthold in connection
with the Ree. They are both small tribes. The Mandan at present num-
ber less than 400. Years ago they numbered many more, but wars and
smallpox have almost annihilated them. From rather a remarkable fact,
that many of this people have sandy hair, it has been affirmed that tliey
are of Welsh origin — supposed to be a lost Welsh colony. George Catlin,
'This must have been long before 1673, the date of Marquette's autograph map. The Oto did
not accompany the Iowa, Ponka, and Omaha. They were first mot by the Omaha and Ponka, accord-
ing to Joseph La Fl^chei on the Platte Kiver in comparatively recent times. —j. o. D.
192 DAKOTA GUAMMAli, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
the celebrated Indian portrait painter, takes this view of their parentage,
and affirms that their language bears more than a Hkeness to the Welsh.*
The Mandan tradition of their origin is, that ages ago they lived
underground by a great lake. The root of a grapevine pushed itself down
through the crust of the earth. One by one they took hold of it and
climbed up by its help, coming out into the light of day. By and by a
very fat woman took hold of it and the vine broke, leaving the remainder
of the Mandaus by the lake underground. Could this legend have any
connection with a passage over the ocean?
Ever since they have been known to the whites they have lived on
the Upi)er Missouri. In the winter of 1803-04, Lewis and Clarke wintered
near their villages, only a short distance below where they now are.
The Ilidatsa are better known by the names Minnetaree and Gros
Ventres.'*^ There is no apparent reason why the latter name should have
been given them by the French. Minnetaree means *S:)ver the water," and
was given to them when they crossed the Missouri, coming as they did from
the northeast and crossing to the southwest. They number about 500.
These Hidatsa have often been confounded with the *^ Minnetaree of the
Plains," or **Gros Ventres," who belong to another linguistic family.
Both the Hidatsa and Mandan belong to the Siouan or Dakotan family.
Whether it is from the conunon likeness to the tongue of their enemies, or
for some other reason, it is a remarkable fact that many persons of each
tribe can speak Dakotii.
AHSAROKA OR CROW.
This tribe and the Hidatsa speak dialects of the same language. It is
said that the Amahami, now extinct, were a branch of the Absaroka.
When the Ponka reached the Black Hills country, several hundred
years ago, they found it in the possession of the Absaroka, whose habitat
included the region now known as the western part of Dakota (south of the
Missouri River) and the eastern part of Montana.
* I have made a careful examination of the Mandan vocabularies of Kip]>, Hayden, Wied, and
others. The following conclnsions have been reached: (1) The Mandan is closely related to the
Winnebago, Iowa, Oto, and Missouri dialects. (2) The fancied resemblance to the Latin, based on
what was thought to be ''sub*' in throe compound nouns, has no foundation. Snk, snke, kshuk, or
kshuke means smaH. — J. o. d.
* liiij raiinch (Gros Ventre) must have referred to a buffalo paunch over which a quarrel arose
resulting in the separation of the Hiiatsa and Crow. See Kihatsa in Matthews's Kthnog. and Philol.
of the Hidatsa ludiaiis. — J. o. D.
MIGRATIONS— ARGUMENT FROM NAMES. 193
OSAGE, KANSA, KWAPA» AND, MISSOURI.
All these tribes belong to the Siouan stock. The Missouri, who call
themselves Nyu-t'a-tci, speak a dialect allied to those of the Iowa and Oto,
wliile the dialects of the others are related to that of the Omaha and Ponka.
The Osage connect themselves by tradition with the heavers. The first
father of the Osage was hunting on the prairie all alone. He came to a
beaver dam, where he saw the chief of all the beavers, who gave him one of
his daughters to wife. From this alliance sprang the Osage.*
ARIKARA OR RICKAREE.
This tribe, commonly called Ree and sometimes Pawnee, has been
heretofore counted as belonging to the Dakota family. . But the Ree
language, as spoken at Berthold, appears to have no resemblance to the
Dakota, and indeed to be radically different in its construction. So that,
without doubt we must deny them a place in the Dakota linguistic family.
But the Ree, the northern branch of the tribe now at Fort Berthold, num-
bering more than 1,000 souls, have been for many years intermingling with
• the Dakota, and probably separated from their southern kindred, the
Pawnee proper, on account of an intrusion of the Dakota.^ In 1803 Lewis
and Clarke found the Ree on the Missouri River, near the mouth of Grand
River.
SHAYENNE OR CHEYENNEE.
This name is variously wi'itten. The tribe comes into the same cate-
gory as the last named — Ree and Pawnee. We can not admit them into
the Dakota linguistic family. The name they bear is of Dakota origin, by
whom they are called ^'Sha-e-a-na."^ Sha-e-a,*in Dakota, means "to talk
red," that is, unintelligibly, as " Ska-e-a"^ means *'to talk white" — intelligi-
bly — that is, to interpret. The Shayenne language then, we under-
stand, is not like the Dakota. But, though sometimes enemies of the
Dakota, they have more generally been confederates. Two hundred years
> This is probably the tradition of part of the Osage, the Beaver people, not that of the whole
tribe. See '* Osage Traditions " in the Sixth Ann. Rept. of the Director Bur. Eth., pp, 373-397.— J. o. D.
'^According to Omaha tradition, the Ree and Skidi (or Pawnee Loups) were allies of the Winne-
bago and the ancestors of the Omaha, Ponka, Osage, Kansa, Kwapa, Iowa, etc., when all these people
dwelt east of the Mississippi. It is doubtful whether the Ree were ever neighbors of the Grand, Re-
publican, and Tappage Pawnee, since the latter have been west of the Missouri. The latter conquered
the Skidi, with whom they do not intermarry, according to Joseph la Fl^che, formerly a head chief
of the Omaha. The Skidi met the three southern Pawnee divisions at a comparatively late date, ac-
cording to Pawnee tradition. If all hve were ever together, it must have been at an early period, and
probably east of the Mississippi River.— J. o. D.
•^6a-i-ye-na. *Sa-ia. ^Ska-ia.
7105— VOL IX 13
194 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
ago, or thereabouts, the Shayemie villajife was near the Yellow Medicine
River in Miimesota, where are yet visible old earthworks. From thence,
accordinj^ to Dakota tradition, they retired before the advancinj^ Dakota,
and made their village between Big Stone Lake and Lake Traverse. Their
next remove appears to have been to the south bend of the Cheyenne, a
branch of the Red River of the North. The foi-tification there is still verv
plain. While there they seem to have had both the Ojibwa and Dakota
for their enemies. Bloody battles were fought and finally the Shayenne
retired to the Missouri. This is supposed to have been about one hundred
years ago or more. After that time the Dakota became friendly to them.
The Shayenne stopped on the east side of the Missouri and left their name
to the Little Cheyenne. Soon after they crossed over and took possession
of the country of the Big Cheyenne. There they were, hunting out to the
Black Hills, in 1803, when Lewis and Clarke ascended the Missouri.
CHAPTEK III.
GENS AND PHRATRY OF THE DAKOTA.
THE (JENS.
In the Dakota Nation the man is the head of the ianiilv; tlie woman
was not considered worthy of honor. No Dakota woman ever aspired to
be a chief. The chieftainship descended from the father to his sons, the
eldest son takin«- the })recedence. But in the makin<jf up of the gens the
woman was an equal factor w^ith the man. Thus a child counts his father's
brothers all fathers, and his father's sisters all aunts; while his mother's
sisters are all mothers, and his mother's brothers are only uncles. Hence,
a man's brother's children are counted as his own children, and his sister's
children are nephews and nieces. On the other hand, a woman's sister's
children are counted by her as children, while her brother's children are
nephews and niec^es.^ These same distinctions are carried down through
the generations. In this circle intermarriages are not allowed by Dakota
custom. This is the gens, but there is lacking the totem to bind them to-
gether. The real foundation for the totemic system exists among the Da-
kota jis well as the Iroquois, in the naines of men often l)eing taken from
mythical animals, but the system was never earned to perfection. Some-
times indeed a village was called through generations after the chief of the
clan, as Black Dog's, Little ( Vow's, etc*.
THE PHKATKY.
Among the eastern Dakota the Phratry was never a permanent organi-
zation, but resorted to on special occasions and for various purposes, such
as war or buffalo hunting.
THE TIYOTIPI.
The exponent of the Phratry was the **Tiyotipi" or Soldiers' Lodge.
Its meaning is the '* Lodge of Lodges." There were placed the bundles of
black and red sticks of the soldiers. There the soldiers "fathered to talk
and smoke and feast. There the laws of the encampment were enacted,
» See Kiusbip System of the Omaha in 3d Anu. Rept. of the Director, Bur. Eth., pp. 252-258. — J. o .i).
1U5
196 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AIJJD ETHNOGRAPHY.
aud from thence they were published by the camp crier. It is said that
in the camps of the Prairie Dakota, the real buffalo hunters, the Soldiei's'
Lodge was pitched in the center of the circular encampment. This area
was called ho-do-ka; and the gateway of the camp, which was always left
at the front end, was called ho-a-na-pa. The encampment was then in the
form of a horseshoe, or, more properly, in the form of the horns of a buf-
falo cow, which turn inward toward each other. The ends of the horns
were called ** Huij-kpa," from *' he," a horn, and ** igkpa," i^mall end. Hence
those camping at these ends of the horns would be called ** Hugkpa-tina."
And hence the name of two of the gentes, which have developed into larger
clans of the Dakota Nation, \nz., the Hurjkpatina and the Hui}kpapa.
While, within the historical period, no political organization has been
known to exist over the whole Dakota Nation, the traditional alliance of
the ^' Seven Council Fires " is perpetuated in the common name Dakota.
FELLOWnOOD.
One of the customs of the olden time, which was potent both for good
and for evil, and which is going into desuetude, was that of fellowhood.
Scarcely a Dakota young man could be found who had not some special
friend or Koda. This was an arrangement of giving themselves to each
other, of the David and Jonathan kind. They exchanged bows, or guns,
or blankets — sometimes the entire etiuipment. In rare cases they exchanged
wives. What one asked of the other he gave him ; nothing could be de-
nied. This aiTangement was often a real affection, sometimes fading out
as the years pass by, but often lasting to old age.
In order to exhibit properly and as fully as may be Dakota national
and individual life, I \nll here introduce a pen picture of a very prominent
man of the last generation.
STANDING BUFFALO.
In ccmnection with Standing Buffalo, the last great chieftain of the
Sisseton Dakota, will be found a description of the "Tiyotipi," already
referred to.
Ta-taij-ka-na-zii), or Standing Buffalo, was the son of The Orphan, and
hereditary chief of (juite a large clan of Sisseton Dakota. Their planting
})lace, before the outbreak in 1862, was in that rich and beautiful valley
which lies between the head of Lake Traverse, whose waters communicate
with the Red River of the North and Big Stone Lake, through which the
GENS AND PHRATRY OF THE DAKOTA. 197
Minnesota River runs to the Mississippi. Through this isthmus, between
the two lakes, now known as Brown's Valley, the Minnesota, as it comes
down in small streams out of the Coteau, winds its way.
As soon as Standing Buffalo had come to man's estate, or when he was
probably about twenty-five years old, the father abdicated his chieftainship
in favor of his son. Henceforth he wore his fiither's medals, carried his
father's papers, and was the recognized chief of his father's people. As
already stated, the Dakota custom is that the rank and title of chief descend
from father to son unless some other near relative is ambitious and influential
enough to obtain the place. The same is claimed also in regard to the rank
of soldier or brave, but this position is more dependent on personal bravery.
At the time of the outbreak Standing Buffalo was a man in middle life.
He was tall and well-featured — rather a splendid looking Dakota. Pre-
vious to 1852 he and his people received no annuities, but raised a good deal
of corn. Still they depended chiefly, both for food and clothing, on the
buffalo, and much of the year they spent in the chase.
Although congregating in vast herds on the great prairies and moving
in certain directions witli a great deal of apparent force, the buffalo are
nevertheless easily driven away. And hence the Indians find it necessary
to protect the hunt by regulations which must be enforced. In this neces-
sity probably originated the Ti-yo-ti-pi, or so-called Soldiers' Lodge, which
is both the hall of legislation and the great feasting place.
Some patriotic woman vacates her good skin tent and goes into a
poorer one that she may furnish the braves with a fitting place for their as-
semblies. This tipi is then pitched in some central place, or in the gate-
way of the circle, and the women take delight in furnishing it with wood
and water and the best of the meat that is brought into camp, for every
good deed done for this Soldiers' Lodge is proclaimed abroad by the crier
or eyaijpaha.
A good fire is blazing inside and we may just lift up the skin door and
crawl in. Towards the rear of the tent, but near enough the fire for con-
venient use, is a large pipe placed by the symbols of power. There are
two bundles of shaved sticks about 6 inches long. The sticks in one bun-
dle are painted black and in the other red. The black bundle represents
the real men of the camp — those who have made their mark on the war-
path. The red bundle represents the boys and such men as wear no eagle
feathers. Around this fire they gather together to smoke. Here they dis-
cuss all questions pertaining to the buffalo hunt and the removal of camp;
198 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ErUNOGKAPHY.
ill short, all public interests. From these headquarters they send out from
time to time runners, who brinj^ back information of the whereabouts of the
bison herds. From this lodge goes out the camp crier, who makes procla-
mation of the time and place of the buffalo sun'ound. And from this same
central place of power go forth the young men who are commissioned to
cut up the tent and tlie blankets, or break the gun and kill the horse of one
who has transgressed the laws of tlie Ti-yo-ti-pi. And when the hunt of
the day is past, and the buffalo meat brought in, the breast or some nice
piece is roasted or boiled liere, and the young men gather to eat and smoke
and sing and tell over the exploits of the day. It will not then surprise
any one to know that this Soldiers' Lodge became the central force in the
outbreak of 18(32.
In the summer before the outbreak took place, there was quite a trou-
ble at the Yellow Medicine. The payment was promised to these annuity
Indians when the strawberries were ripe, that is the last of June or the first
of July of each year. This season the Sisseton came down earlier perhaps
than usual, and the annuity money and goods were delayed much beyond
time. About 4,000 Indians were gathered at the Yellow Medicine, where
they waited about six weeks. * The small amount of provisions on hand
Agent Galbraith wished to keep until the time of making the payment.
The (*orn and potatoes planted by Indians living in the neighborhood had
not yet matured. Conseciuently this multitude of men, women, and chil-
dren were for more than a month on the borders of starvation. Some flour
was obtained from tradei's, and the agent gave them small quantities; they
gathered some hemes in the woods and occasionally obtained a few ducks.
lUit by all these means they scarcely kept starvation off. They said the
children cried for something to eat.
Standing Buffalo was the principal chief of these northern Indians.
They w(^ni encamped in a large circle on the prairie immediately west of
the ag(»ncy. It was now along in the first days of August. Hunger pressed
Upon tlu^m. 'Hiey knew there was flour in the warehouse which had been
pui'chuHtKl for them. It would not be wrong for them to take it in their
pi'^tMoiit ncu'essitous circumstances. Thus they reasoned; and although a
ilt^taohnunit of soldiers from Fort Ridgeley had their camp near the ware-
ht^Mo, till* Indians planned to break in and help themselves.
So it was, on a cei'tain day, the men came down to the agency five or
nix huudrtMl strong and surrounded the soldiers' camp. The white people
thi»u>»ht they had come to dance; but while they stood around in great
GENS AND PHRA1?RY OF THE DAKOTA. 199
numbers, a selected few broke in the door of the warehouse with axes and
carried out a large quantity of flour and pork. To this the attention of
Agent Galbraith was immediately called, who made an inefi*ectual effort to
have it carried back. The howitzer was turned towards the Indians and
there was a prospect of a collision, but the numbers were so disproportion-
ate that it was judged best to avoid it. Scarcely had they reached their
own camp when those four hundred tents were struck, and all removed off
to a distance of 2 or 3 miles. Tliat was supposed to mean war.
The next morning the writer visited the agency, having heard some-
thing of the trouble. When I met the agent he said, *^Mr. Riggs, if there
is anything between the lids of the Bible that will help us out of this diffi-
culty, I wish you would use it." I said I would try, and immediately drove
up to Standing Buffalo's camp. I represented to him the necessity of having
this difficulty settled. However perfect they might regard their right to the
provisions they had taken, the Government would not be willing to treat
them kindly until the affair was arranged. The breaking in of the ware-
house was regarded as a great offense.
He promised to gather the chief men immediately and talk the thing
over and come down to the agency as soon as possible.
It was afternoon when about fifty of the principal men gathered on the
agent's porch. They said they were sorry the thing had taken place, but
they could not restrain the young men, so great was the pressure of hunger
in the camp. They wished, moreover, the agent to repair the broken door
at their expense. Some of the young men who broke it down were present,
but they did not want to have them punished. It was rather a lame justi-
fication, but Agent Galbraith considered it V)est to accept of it and to give
them some more provisions, on condition that they would return immedi-
ately to their planting places at Big Stone Lake and Lake Traverse. This
he desired them to do because the time when the payment could be made
was unknown to him and their own corn patches would soon need watching.
Standing Buffalo and his brother chiefs accepted the conditions, and in a
couple of days the northern camp had disappeared.
Four or five weeks after this, these warriors came down again to the
Yellow Medicine and the Red Wood ; but it was not to meet the agent or
any white people, but to see Little Crow and the hostile Indians and ascer-
tain whereunto the rebellion would grow. It is reported that, on this occa-
sion, Standing Buffalo told Little Crow that, having commenced hostilities
with the whites, he must fight it out without help from him; and that, failing
200 DAKOTA GliAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETUNOGRAPHY.
to make himself master of the situation, he should not flee through the
country of the Sisseton.
But although as a whole these northern Dakota refused to go into the
rebellion with the Santee, it is very ceitain that quite a number of their
young men joined in the raids made upon the white settlements; and more-
over, the attack U})on Fort Abercroml)ie, at which several hundreil Dakota
warriors were said to have been present, must have been made almost
entirely by these same Sisseton.
In the autunm which followed they all fled to the Upper Missouri
country or into the Queen's dominions. It was reported soon after that
Standing Buffklo had gone on the warpath and was killed.
THK TIYOTIPI.
[TranHlatcd from M. Renville's Dakota version.]
When Indians would hunt the buffalo, they do it in this way: When-
ever they hear that there are buffalo, they look out a young man and ask
him for his tent. If he consents, then no woman or child is allowed in the
tent ; men alone go into it. And so the man whose the tent is is called
Tiyoti, and is the master hi it.
Then also they do in this way: They shave out small round sticks all
of the same length, and paint them red, and they are given out to the men.
These are to constitute the Tiyotipi. This done, they choose four men
whom they make the chiefs, who make all the an'angements. Also one
who is called Eyaijpaha (crier), who makes proclamation of everything
that is determined on. In addition to these, they select two young men
who are called Touchers. These attend to all the provisions that are
brought to the Tiyotipi.
Then, of all the painted sticks that were given around, not one is brought
in empty. When one is to be brought to the Tiyotipi, food is brought
with it. And when these are all brought in, they are tied in a bundle. In
the back part of the tent, by the fire, the ground is carefully cleaned off,
and a pipe and a pipe rammer and incense leaves are all brought and placed
together.
These are all completed in this way and then about two young men
are selected, and the pipe is filled and passed to them, which is done by the
Eyai)paha. When this ceremony is finished they are sent out into that part
of the country in which they heard the buftalo were. Hence they are
GENS AND PHRATRY OF THE DAKOTA. 201
called Wakdagya and also Wayeya, that is Oue-who-finds-out, and also
One Sent.
Whither they were sent they go, and when they know the buffalo are
there, they return to camp. When they coine near they run, and by this
it is known that they are bringing tidings. Thus they come directly to the
Tiyotipi, which is already filled with those who want to hear. Tlien in the
back part of the tent, which has been made sacred, where the pipe and the
tobacco are, there the Eyaqpaha fills the pipe and puts it to their mouths.
Then privately they tell the news to the Eyai)paha, who says, *'Hayen,
hayen," and spreads his hands out to the earth. All in the tent do the same,
and then the news is told openly. The Eyai)paha then goes out and makes
proclamation to the whole camp. But this he does in a somewhat different
style: ** When a boy comes home to me from another place, and brings me
word of so many large pieces of buffalo meat, let every ghost in all your
families hear it; so far on the other side the earth is not visible, they say."
While he cries this through the camp^ all who are able whistle, which they
do for joy.
When the Eyaqpaha has returned to the Tiyotipi, then the four
masters of the assembly consider and determine when they will go on the
hunt. This being determined, the Eyai)paha again makes proclamation to
all the people. This is what he says: ^'Bind on your saddle, for a piece
of a day I will kill valuable children." Then all get themselves ready
and they start out together.
Only the four chief men give the commands. When they come near
to the buffalo, the party is divided and the approach is made from both
sides. This is done whether there be one herd or two. They go on both
sides. It is determined to conduct the chase in a proper manner. But if
in doing this one side gets in a hurry and drives off the game, then their
blankets and even their tents are cut to pieces. This they call ^'soldier
killing."
When they come home from the buffalo chase, all who can bring fresh
meat to the Tiyotipi. Then the Touchers cook it. When it is cooked they
cut off some pieces and put in the mouths of the four chief men, and then
they all eat as they please. In the meantime the Eyaqpaha stands outside
and praises those who brought the meat.
The summing up of the whole is this: The back part of the Tiyotipi,
near the fire, is cleared off carefully; and there are placed two grass fenders,
about a foot long each, on which the pipe is laid. The pipe is never laid
202 DAKOTA GRAMMAE, TEX'TS, AND E'tHNOGfeAPH\\
back after the common custom. Also they shave a round stick, sharpening
one end and cutting the other off square. This is driven in the ground, and
on it, when the pipe is smoked out, they knock out the ashes. They
always do this. Then of all the round-shaved sticks, some of which
were painted black and some painted red, four are especially marked.
They are the four chiefs of the Tiyotipi that were made. And these
men are not selected at random for this pla(*e; but men who have
killed ' many enemies and are the most able, are chosen. The things
desired are, that the chase may be conducted in the best way, that
the people may have a plenty of food, and that everything may be done
properly-^so they determined, and so they do. The ashes of the pipe are
not emptied out carelessly, so that when they command each other, and
give each other the pipe, it may be done only in truth. That is the reason
for doing it.
Also in the deer hunt they have a Tiyotipi, but in that they do not
send out persons to re(*>onnoiter. Nevertheless, in that also, if anyone goes
to hunt on his own motion, they '^soldier kill" him, that is, cut up his blanket
and coat.
These are the customs of the Otiyoti.
Thus far the translation — to which may be added some words of
explanation.
1. The special making of the sticks is done on the line of personal
history. Whatever is indicated bv the kind of eaffle feathers a man is
entitled to wear in his head, and by the notches in them, this is all hiero-
glyphed on his stick in the Tiyotipi. Tlien these bundles of sticks are used
for gambhng. The question is, 'H)dd or even?" The forfeits are paid in
meat for the Tiyotipi.
2. I'he announcements of the crier show the rhythmical character of the
language. This especially a})pears in the order for the hunt:
A^iij iyaka^ka:
Aiceca teftike,
Aijpetu haqkeya,
EC^awabaij ktti ('^e.
The saddle biud :
Children dear,
For half a day,
r will kill.
C H A P T E 1? IV.
UNWRITTEN DAKOTA LAWS.
THE FAMILY.
In the comraencement and growth of the Dakota people and language
we may properly assume that the words ^^a-te," father^ and *^i-na" and
^*lmij," mother (^^nihuij," thy mother^ '4mi)ku," his mother), were among the
very first. They are short, and not capable of further analysis. **Wi<5a/'
m^de, and ^^wiq" or ''wiqna" and "wiijyari," female, would be the first
words to designate the man and tvoman. From these would gi-ow naturally
the present names, wi-<5a-^ta,* or the Yankton and Teton form, **wi-6a-sa"
(male-red), man, and winohiqca" (female-very), woman. There would be
father-in-law before grandfather; and hence we find the former designated
by '^tuy-kaij,"^ the shorter one, and the latter by *'turj-kar|-si-na." *^Tui)-
kai) " is also the name of the stmie god, which may indicate some kind of
worship of ancestors. The shortest word also is found in mother-in-laiv,
**kuij" (*^nikui)," thy mother-in-law, '*kui)ku," his motJter-in-law), A woman
speaking of or to her mother-in-law and grandmother calls them both
**uij(5i," making the latter sometimes diminutive **ui)<5ina."
Some words for child should be at least as old, if not older than, father
and mother. Accordingly we find the monosyllables **ciijs," son, and
''duqs," daughter, used by the parents when speaking to the children, while
**cii)(:^a" is the common form.
In the line of "wii)" being the oldest form word for tvoman, we have
the Dakota man calling his wife ^^mitawiij," my tvoman. The word as wife
is not used without the affixed and suffixed pronominal particles (mi-ta-wiij,
nitawii), tawicu), which would indicate property in the woman. On the
' While wica sa may raeau ** male red," how shall we render wi6a 8taf Wica = uika (Cegiha), c
male of the human species; and wi<^a sa or wi<?a sta = nikaci"ga ((/"egiha). a person: an Indian. — J. o i>.
^Shortened to winoti(^a.
^Tui)kai)8idai), in Santee; tiii)kai)aina, in Yankton; tui)kai)8ila, in Teton.
203
204 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
other hand, the woman calls her husband ''mihihna," mii husbatid. The
latter part of the word we can not analyze satisfixctorily.^
Thus we come into the family as constituted, the man calling his
woman '*mi-ta-wii)," and she calling- her man *'mi-hihna," and each calling
the child ''ciijs" or ^^cuijs," as the case may be. The taking of each
other makes each related to the family of the other. But somehow shame
has come into the tipi, and the man is not allowed to address or to look
towards his wife's mother, especially, and the woman is shut off from
familiar intercourse with her husband's father and others, and etiquette pro-
liibits them from speaking the names of their relatives by man'iage. This
custom is called **wisten kiyapi," from **isteca," to be ashamed. How it
grew is not apparent. But none of their customs is more tenacious of life
than this. And no family law is more binding.
thp: household.
The '^tipi" is the house or llvhig place. There is no word for home
nearer than this. The Dakota woman owns the "tipi;" she dresses the
skins of which the '* wakeya" or shelter is made; she pitches and takes down
the tipi, and carries it on her back oftentimes in the mai'ch. It should
belong to her. But when jt is pitched and the ground covered with dry
grass, her man takes the place of honor, which is the back pait opposite the
door. The wife's place is on the left side as one enters, the right side as
one sits in the back part. The children come in between the mother and
father. The place of the grandmother or mother-in-law or aunt is the
comer by the door opposite the woman of the house. If a man has more
wives than one, they have separate tipis or arrange to occupy the
different sides of one. When a daughter marries, if she remains in her
mother's ti})i, the place for Irerself and husband is on the side opposite
the mother, and back near the *'(5atku," the place of honor. The same
place is allotted to her in her husband's mother's tent. The back part of
the tent, the most honorable place, and the one usually occupied by the
father, is given to a stranger visitor.
'Mr. Dorsey is right, undoubtedly, in regarding ^^bna" as the root, or at least one root, of
"mi-hi-hnii, my hunhandj **hi-hna-kn," her husband. And the meaning of it is rather that of placing
than of deceiving f relating it to *'ohnaka" to place in, as if in the woman's family, rather than with
'^hnayai)," to deceive. But what account shall we make of the ''hi," or "hiij," as many Dakotas per-
sist in writing itf Does that mean hair, and so send the word back to an indelicate origin f Quite
likely. — s. r. r.
Compare the Dakota tawii)toij, tawiijya, and tawitoij, *^to have as his wife,'' used only of
coition. See footnote ('), p. 207. — .t. o. d.
UNWRITTEN DAKOTA LAWS. 205
The young man who goes to live with his wife's relatives is called
** widawoha," which literally means man-cached^ as if the man, by so doing,
buried himself. Mothers, who have daughters to be married, are often de-
sirous of having the sons-in-law come and live, for a while at least, with
them, since, if the young man is a good hunter, this arrangement secures to
them plenty of game. But on the other hand, the young man's parents are
quite as likely to require his services and that of his wife in addition. So
that, in this regard, there is no prevailing law. As soon as the young
couple are able to procure a tent, and if the man is a good hunter and buf-
falo are plenty, that may be very soon, they set up for themselves. This
usually takes place soon after their first child is born, if not before.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE.
Before proceeding farther with the laws of the family, it is proper to
describe how it becomes a family. Girls are sometimes taken very young,
before they are of marriageable age, which generally happens with a man
who has a wife already. The marriageable age is from fourteen years old
and upward. The intercourse of young men with maidens is not always
open and honorable, but the public sentiment of a Dakota community,
while it does not prevent much that is illicit, makes it more or less dishon-
able, especially for the girl. A boy begins to feel the drawing of the other
sex and, like the ancient Roman boys, he exercises his ingenuity in making
a ^*dotai}ke," or rude pipe, from the bone of a swan's wing, or from some
species of wood, and with that he begins to call to his lady love, on the
night air. Having gained her attention by his flute, he may sing this:
Stealthily, secretly, see me.
Stealthily, secretly, see me.
Stealthily, secretly, see me;
Lo ! thee I tenderly regard ;
Stealthily, secretly^ see me.
Or he may commend his good qualities as a hunter by singing this
song:
Cling fast to me, and you '11 ever have plenty;
Cling last to me, and you '11 ever have plenty j
Cling fast to me.
When the family are abed and asleep, he often visits her in her mother's
tent, or he finds her out in the grove in the daytime gathering fuel. She
has the load of sticks made up, and when she kneels down to take it on her
206 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
back possibly he takes her hand and helps her up, and then walks home by
her side. Such was the custom in the olden time. Thus a mutual under-
standing is reached. He wants her and she wants him. He has seen her
ability to supply the tipi with fuel as well as do other necessary things,
and she has often seen him bringing to his mother's tent a back load of
ducks, or, it may be, venison Capt. R. H. Pratt, of Carlisle school, tells a
capital story of a Kiowa young man who, under a variety of circumstances,
never '* cared for girl.'' '*But when Laura say she love me, then I begin
to care for girl."
The young man then informs his father and mother, and they approv-
ing, together with other family friends, make up the hundle-of -purchase.
It may be a horse. If so, it is led by one of his friends and tied by the
tent of the girPs parents. Or guns and blankets are contributed, which are
carried by an aunt or other female relative, and the load is laid down at the
tent door. It is *'wo-hpa-pi," laying down, and the young man thus lays
doivn or tenders his offer for the girl. If this is not satisfactory, either from
the small amount or the character of the young man, the offerings are earned
back, and the young folks have a chance to elope, unless they are restrained
by higher considerations.
Sometimes it happens that a young man wants a girl, and her friends
are also quite willing, while she alone is unwilling. The purchase bundle
is desired by her friends, and hence compulsion is resorted to. The girl
yields and goes to be his slave, or she holds out stoutly, sometimes taking
her own life as the alternative. Several cases of this kind have come to the
personal knowledge of the writer. The legends of Winona and Black Day
Woman are standing testimonies. The comely dark-eyed Winona wanted
to wed the successful hunter, but the brilliant warrior was forced upon her,
and therefore she leaped from the crag on Lake Pepin, which immortalizes
her name. For a like reason, Black-Day Woman pushed her canoe out
into the current, above the Falls of Saint Anthony, and sang her death song
as it passed over. These are doubtless historical events, except that the
years are not known.
When the offer is accepted the girl is taken by some relative to the
tent of the buyer. In the olden time it is said the custom was that she
rode on the back of some female friend. Thus they become man and wife,
with the idea of pro})erty strongly impressed upon the mind of the man.
He has purchased her, as he would do a horse, and has he not a right to
command her, and even to beat her? The customs of his people allow it.
UNWRITTEN DAKOTA LAWS. 207
If she pleases him not, he may throw her away (ehpeya), for is she not his
property? Nevertheless this was the honorable way for a girl to be taken.
On many accounts it was better than to be stolen or taken unlawfully.
And this custom of wife-purchase maintains its hold upon the Dakota people
until they have made much progress in civilization.
The diiference in the pronouns used in mi/ wife and my hushaml seems
to mark the difference of the property idea. Two kinds of possession are
indicated by the affixed possessive pronouns, one easily alienated, as in
**mita-sui)ke," my horse; and the other not transferable, as in ^'mi-nape,"
my hand. The man uses the first form, where possession sits lightly, as
'^mitawii);" while the woman uses the other, **mihihna."^ But it nmst not
be infen-ed from this that a Dakota woman does not often run awav from
her husband. In that case, unless he endeavors to win her back, the laws
of his nation allow him to cut off her nose, or otherwise mutilate her for
infidelity.
THE BABY.
The young father is away on pui'pose. He has gone to his own
father's people, or perhaps on a hunt with his comrades. The mother is
left with the older women, her own mother and other female relatives.
Many of the middle-aged women become skillful mid-wives; and the Dakota
women, who are healthy, have less labor at such times than women in
more civilized communities. The baby is born, and, like the infant Saviour
of the world, is wrap})ed in swaddUng V)ands. **Hoksi" appears to be
the root form of **ho-ksi-na,'' hoy;'^ and hence to tlie ''hoksi" is added
*'iyokopa," the hoard to which the child is honnd^ and we have the long
descriptive name for ^''hahyj^ '^hoksiyokopa," and sometimes *'hoksiyopa"
and ''hok6i(?opa." This board is shaved out ni(*ely, and often ornamented
in various ways, witli b^ads and quills, having a sta,v board around the
^This is another iustancu of the necessity of observing great caution in the analysis of Indian
words. Mitawii) hardly falls in the category to which niitaMnr)ke belongs. It is better, for several
reasons, not to lay too much stress upon the derivation of mitawii) from mita, m^, and wii), woman.
(1) We should consider all the persons of each kinship term in any one language. (2) We shonld
compare the Dakota terms with the corresponding ones in cognate languages. (3) We do not find
any kinship terms which make their possessives in initial ta, but in final ku, cu, or tku (see what the
author himself shows in $ 69, b, p. 44). In Dakota we find, tahai), a (not his) brother-in-law; tahat)-
ku, /!i« ditto; tahai)si, a man's male cousin (or, my ditto); tahai).si-tku, Ma male cousin; tawi-cu, hi9
wife; tawii), a wife. Tawiij answers to the xoiwere stem tami, in i-tami, his wife, where i- is the
possessive fragment pronoun, hia or her. Other j^.iiwere kinship terms in which ta- occurs are as
follows: i-takwa, his or her grandson; i-takwa-mi, his or her granddaughter; i-taha", his l>rother-in-
law, in all of which i-, not ta-, is the sign of the possessive. — j. c>. i>.
^Hoksidat) in Santee; hok^ina in Yankton : hoksila in Teton. Tlic initial ' ho' answers to • to,'
etc., of the cognate languages. — j. o. d.
208 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
foot, and a strap board or handle standing out over the head of the child,
which serves both for protection and to tie the mother's strap to. In this
nicely arranged cradle, which is often hung u}) in the daytime, the baby
has his home for the most part, being taken out at night, and at other
times when needing care. So it grows, crying sometimes as other babies
do, but needing and receiving much less care than a civ^ilized child. In
the meantime the mother has, })erhaps on the first day, or if not on that day
very soon after, gone to the stream or lake and washed away her unclean-
ness. If it is winter she cuts a hole in the ice to do it. When they begin
to take on civilized habits, the Dakota women find they can not continue to
follow the customs of their grandmothers.
What will they call the baby? If it l>e a little girl, and is the first
born, then it inherits the beautiful name of Winona. When the second
child comes, if that is a girl, it is called *'IIa'-|)ai);" tlie third, *'Ha'-pi-
sti])na;" the fourtli, '*Waijske;" and the fiftli, "Wi-hake." Some of these
names are said not to be used bv tlie Sioux on the Missouri. On the other
hand, if the first bom is a boy, his inherited name is *^Caske," and the
second diild, if a boy, will be called **He-paij;'' and tlie third, ** He-pi;"
and the fourth, Ca-taij;-' and tlie fifth, **na-ke." Some children have no
other names given them, and wear these alone when they are grown up.
But if all fiimilies were content with this limited circle, much confusion
would exist, especially as they have no family name. Hence the necessity
of giving other names. This is done often by the father, and sometimes by
some relative of consideration. Frequently a feast is made by the father
to mark the o(*casion, and the child's ears are bored that it may wear
oniaments.
Girls' names generally terminate in **wiij" or **wii)iia," but not always.
I recall a family of girls who were named ^*Aijpao," 3/brwm//, ''Ahiyaijke-
wiij," Woman ComV'tO'Stajf^ '*Mahpi-wiijiia,"C7om/ Woman, **Haijyetu-ku-wiij,"
Coming Xif/ht Woman, etc. But tlie boys, either in their childhood or when
they are grown, receive the imposing and honorable names of ancestors,
as, Gray Bear, Standing Buffalo, Standing Soldier, The (h-jihan, Burning
Earth, etc. Oftentimes new names are given when young men signalize
themselves in war or otherwise. Then there is feasting, music, and dancing.
CHIi.l) LIFK.
The children have now come into the family. How will they gi'ow
up ? What shall they be taught ? Who shall be their teachers! What the
UNWEITTEN DAKOTA LAWS. 209
father and inotlier do they will do. What the father and mother know they
will know. What the father and mother are they will be. One can hardly
say there is nmch government in a Dakota family. Children are scolded
often, they are pushed, or shoved, or shaken sometimes, and they arc
whipped rarely. They are petted and indulged a good deal, but not more
than children in civilized lands. But somehow or other, with exceptions,
they manage to grow up affectionate and kind, the pride of fiither and
mother. The love of the parents has wrought this. Not unfrequently tlie
grandfather and grandmother are the principal teachers.
TRAlNlNa OF THE BOY.
The old man sits in the tipi and shaves out a bow and aiTow for the
little boy. In the mean time he tells him stories of history and war. The
boy's father, it may be, has been killed by the enemy. The gi-andfather
tells the story over and over again. It burns itself into the boy's heart.
It becomes the animus of his life. He shoots his first bird and brings it
into the tent. He is praised for that. **When you become a man you
must kill an enemy," the old man says. "Yes; I will kill an enemy," is the
boy's reply. He dreams over it. He witnesses the "Scalp Dance" and the
"No Flight Dance" in his village. His heart is growing strong. When he
is fifteen or sixteen he joins the first war party and comes back with an
eagle feather in his head, if so be he is not killed and scalped by the enem v.
All this is education. Then there are foot racings, and horse racings, and
ball playing, and duck hunting, and deer hunting, or it may be the whole
village goes on a buffalo chase.
These are the schools in which the Dakota boy is educated. In the
long winter evenings, while tlie fire burns l)rightly in the center of tlie lodge
and the men are gathered in to smoke, he hears the folk lore and legends
of his people from the lips of the older men. He learns to sing the love
songs and the war songs of the generations gone by. There is no new
path for him to tread, but he follows in the old ways. He becomes a
Dakota of the Dakota. His armor is consecrated by sacrifices and offerings
and vows. He sacrifices and prays to the stone god, and learns to hold up
the pipe to the so-called Great Spirit. He is killed and made alive again,
and thus is initiated into the mysteries and promises of the Myster}' Dance.
He becomes a successful hunter and wan-ior, and what he does not know
is not wortli knowing for a Dakota. His education is finished. If he has
7105— VOL IX 14
210 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY,
not already done it, he can now demand the liand of one of the beautiful
ft'
maideus of tlie village.
TRAINING OF THE GIRL.
Under the special care and tuition of the mother and grandmother and
other female relatives the little girl grows up into the })erformance of the
duties of tent life. She plays with her **made child," or doll, just as children
in other lands do. Very soon she learns to take care of the baby ; to watch
over it in the lodge, or carry it on her back, while the mother is away for
wood or dressing buffalo robes. Little girl as she is, she is sent to the
brook or lake for water. She has her little workbag with awl and sinew,
and learns to make small moccasins as her mother makes large ones. Some-
times she goes with her mother to the wood and brings home her little bun-
dle of sticks. When the camp moves she has her small pack as her mother
can'ies the larger one, and this pack is sure to grow larger as her years in-
crease. When the corn is })lanting, the little girl has her part to perfonn.
If she can not use the hoe yet, she can at least gather off the old cornstalks.
Then the garden is to be watched while the god-given maize is growing.
And when the harvesting ('omes, the little girl is glad for the corn roasting.
So she grows. She learns to work with l)eads and porcupine quills and to
embroider with ribbons. She becomes skilled in the use of vermilion and
other paints. A stri})e of red adorns her hair and red and yellow spots are
over her eyebrows and on her cheeks. Her instincts teach her the arts of
ft
personal adornment. She puts cheap rings on her fingers and tin dangles
in her ears and strands of beads around her ne(*k. Quite likely a young
man comes around and adds to her charms as he sings:
Wear this. I say;
Wear this, I say;
Wear this, 1 say;
Tliis little finder rin^.
Wear tliis, 1 say.
Thus our Dakota girl b(M*omes skilled in the art of attracting the young
men, while she is ambitious in the line of carrying bundles as well as in
(cooking venison. In all these ways she is educated to be a woman among
Dakota women. It is a hard lot and a hard life, but she knows no other.
W^HEN DEATH COMES.
In the wild life of the Dakota the birth rate exceeded the death rate.
So that, without doubt, notwithstanding famines sometim(*s and pestilences
UNWRITTEN DAKOTA LAWS. 211
and wars, the Dakota nation has increased for the last two hundred years.
This has bean proved true witliin the last few decades at villages where
actual count has been made. But in their entering upon the habits and
environments of civilization, it is usually found that a wave of death goes
over the people. They do not know how to live in the changed conditions,
and the death rate is fearfully increased. ''We die, we all die, we are con-
sumed with dying," is the sad refrain of many a Dakota family.
Living mu(;h in the outdoors and within airy tipis, and subsisting
on wild meats and such roots and fruits as they cimld gather, the children
usually lived. But, neveitheless, even then death came. The baby in the
motiier's arms or strapped to her liack sickened ; or the little boy or girl
occasiaually succuml)ed under the hardships and privations; or the mother
was taken with insidious consumption. The young father, it may be, ran
too long and hard after that deer ; he never ran again, but sickened and
died. Then the old aud the blind and the lame passed away, because they
had reached the limits of life. So death comes to Indian tipis as to
white men's hovels and palaceti. But it is no more welcome in the one
case than in the other. The Dakota mother loves her infant as well as the
white woman her baby. When the spmt takes its flight a wild howl goes
up from the tent. The baby form is then wrap})ed in the best buffalo calf-
skin or the nicest red blanket and laid away on a scaffold or on the branch
of some tree. Thither the mother goes with disheveled hair and the oldest
clothes of sorrow — for she has given away the better ones — and wails out
her anguish, in the twilight, often abiding out far into the cold night. The
nice kettle of hominy is prepared and carried to the place where the spirit
is supposed to hover still. When it has remained sufficiently long for the
wanagi to inhale the ambrosia, the little children of the village are invited
to eat up the remainder.
But let us take another case. A young man is lying sick in yonder
tent. He has been the best hunter in the village. Many a time he has
come in carrying one, two, or more deer on his back, and has been met and
relieved of his burden by his wife or mother. The old men have praised
him as swifter than the antelope, while they have feasted on his venison.
But now some spirit of wolf or bear has come into him and caused this
sickness. The doctors of the village or (*,onjurers are tried, one after
another. The blankets, the gun, and the horse have all been given to
secure the best skill ; but it is all in vain ; the hunter dies. The last act
of the conjurer is to sing a song to conduct the spirit over the wanagi
212 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
taeai)kii, th^'. spirits roadj as the milky way is called. The friends are in-
consolable. Tliey give away their good clothes, and go into mourning
with ragged clothes and bare feet, and ashes on their heads. Both within
the lodge and without there is a great wailing. Micii)ksi, micJiqksi, my
son, my son, is the lamentation in Dakota land, as it was in the land of
Israel.
The departed is wrapped in the most beautifully painted buffalo robe
or the newest red or blue blanket. Dakota custom does not keep the dead
long in the tipi. Young men are called and feasted, whose duty it is to
carry it away and place it on a scaffold, or, as in more recent times, to bury
it. The custom of burial, liowever, s()f)n after death was not the Dakota
custom. It would interfere witli their idea that the spirit had not yet
bidden a final farewell to the body. Therefore the laying up on a scaffold
which was erected on some mound, where it would have a good view of
the surroundhig country. After a while the bones could be gathered up
and buried in the mound and an additional quantity of earth carried up to
cover it. This is partly the explanation of burial mounds made since the
period of the mound-builders.
Thus the lodge is made desolate. It must be taken down and pitclied
in a new place. The young wife cries and cuts her flesh. The mother and
other female relatives wail out their heart sadness on tlie night air. The
father, the old man, leans more heavily on his staff as he goes on to the
time of his departure. The brothers or cousins are seen wending their
way, in the afternoon, to the place of tlie dead, to lay down a brace of
ducks and to offer a prayer. A near relative makes up a war party. The
feathers and other ornament, together with tlie clothing of the young man,
are taken by this company on tlie warpath and divided among themselves
in the country of their enemies. This is honoring the dead. If they suc-
ceed in bringing home scalps their sorrow is turned into joy. For will not
this make glad the spirit of the departed? So, then, this will be gladness to
the dead and glory to the living. The young men and maidens dance
around the war trophies until the leaves come out in the spring or until
they fall off in the autumn.'
THE SPIRITWOULI).
If sorrow brings mankind into a common kinship, a white man may
understand somethincj: of an Indian's feelinjifs as he stands bv the side of his
'For TetoQ burial customs, etr., seo ''Teton Folk-lore," trauslated by tho editor and published
in the Amer. AnthropologiHt for Ajuil, 1SH9, pp. 144-148. — J. o. d.
UNWEITTEN DAKOTA LAWS. 213
dead and looks over into the land of spirits. What has gone? And whither
has it gone I The belief of the Dakotas in the existence of spirit is deeply-
inwrought into their language. The *^nagi," or shadow, in the concrete
form* meaning primarily the shade or shadow made by any" material thing in
the sunlight, is used to indicate the human soul or spirit, as well as the
spirit of all living beings. It is, moreover, put into the abstract form as
^'wanagi," and also into the human absolute, *'wica-nagi," human spirit
They speak also of the '*wanagi tipi," house of spirit^j and say of one who
has died, ^^wauagiyatd ly ay 'dj^\c/one to the spirit land. And the road over
which it passes is called **wanagi tax^ayku," spirit's path. The war prophet
also, in his incantations, sings:
I have cast in here a soul ;
I have cast in here a soul;
I have cast in here a buffalo soul;
1 have cast in here a soul.
In the sacred language of conjuring man is designated by the ''mythic
buffalo." •
Thus we have abundant evidence, in the language and customs of the
people, of the common belief of the nation in the existence of spirits. But
having said that, there is little more that can be said. The vista is dark.
No light shines upon the path. But looking out into this dark avenue, the
sad heart of the Dakotii sings a song for the dead. Take this mourning
song of Black-Boy for his grandson as a specimen. The object appears to
be that of introducing the freed spirit of the child to his comrades in the
world of spirits.
''The unearthliness of the scene," says Mr. Pond, "can not be de-
scribed, as, in the twilight of the morning, while the mother of the deceased
boy, whose name was Makadutawii), lied'Earth- Woman, wa;S wailing in a
manner w^hich would excite the sympathies of the hardest heart, Hoksidai}-
sapa. Black-hoy, standing on the brow of a hill, addressed himself to the
ghostly inhabitants of the spirit- world, in ghostly notes, as follows:
''Friend, pause and look this way;
Friend, pause and look this way;
Friend, pause and look this way;
Say ye,
A p:randson of Black-boy is coming."
CHAPTER V.
THE .SUPEKHUMAN.
The existence of spirits and the ueoessity for the superhuman are facts
fullv recojjrnized bv the Dukotas. The unknown and unknowable fonn a
broad belt in which liumbuygeiy can be. practiced by the Dakotas as well
as other nations. The powers are evil. The lightning strikes suddenly
and kills. The thunder god is angry and merciless. The north god
sweeps down upon them with teirible snow storms, and buries their
encampments, killing their ponies, and making buffalo hunting impossible.
Or in the spring floods, the Uijktehi, or god of the waters, is malignant and
kills now and then a man or a child. And all through the year the demon
spirits of the wolf and the bear and the lynx and the owl and the snake are
doing their mischievous work, scattering disease and death everywhere.
Who shall cope with these evil-minded j)owers? How shall deliverance
come to the people? AVill not fasting and praying and self-inflicted sufifer-
ing bring the needed power ? To the Dakota thought this is surely among
the possibilities. Hence, naturally, grows uj) the wakay man, or the so-
called ** medicine man.'' His applied power and skill are denominated
reueivlnfi ovfixhtf/ ovrr — **wapiyapi:" and the man is called a tr newer. He
works rather by magic than by medicine. His singing, and rattling the
gourd shell, and sucking the place where the pain is, are all for the purpose
of driving out the evil spirits. It is a battle of spirits. The greater a man's
spirit power is the more successful he is as a doctor. And the secret of
spirit power is the alliance with other sj)irits. Hence the efficacy of fasting
and })raying. Praying is ** crying to." Hence also the augmented power
obtained in the Sun Dance. The singing, the back cuttings, the thongs,
the buft'alo head, the dancing unto entire exhaustion, all these })ring one
into the realm of the spirits. Also the experiences in passing through the
death and the resurrection of the Mystery Dance must bring added super-
human power. Still more, the vision seeking, the fasting, the prayer to the
night winds, the standing on a mound where men have been buried, or
getting down into a hole nearer the bones, this will sm'ely bring conuuuni-
214
THE sijperhitma:n. 215
cations from the spirit world. Thus, armed by all these experiences and
aids, the man becomes a wic^asta wakai) indeed, a man of mystery, a healer
of diseases, a war-prophet and a leader on the war-path.
The conjuring, the powwowing, that is, the magic of the healing art,
may always have called to its aid, in some small degree, a knowledge and
use of barks and roots and herbs. But as the magic declined the use of
roots and medicines increased, so that the doctor comes to be designated
Pezihuta widasta, the Grass Root Man. As the knowledge of letters and
Christianity have come in, their faith in vision seeking and necromancy
has been undermined and the power, they say, has departed.
The Dakota beliefs in regard to diseases, and the common way of
treating them, as well as the progress of thought, and change of practice,
consequent upon the introduction of Christianity, will be well illustrated in
the following sketch of a full blood Dakota man, who was a member of the
Presbyterian General Assembly of 1880, and who before that body made
a speech on Indian rights in the capitol of Wisconsin.
EHNA-MANI.
The *^One who walks through," as his name means, is now a man of
fifty winters or more and the pastor of the Pilgrim Church at the Santee
Agency, in Knox County, Nebraska. He was born at Red Wing on
on the Mississippi, which place the Dakotas called He-mini-(?ai) — hill-
ivater-wood — thus finely describing the hill, standing so ^lose to the water,
with its river side covered with trees.
At his baptism Ehna-mani was called Artnnos, Tall and athletic, en-
ergetic and swift of foot, as a young man, he appears to have made his
mark on the war path, in the deer hunt, on the ball ground, and in the
dancing circles. Even now he can sing more Dakota songs of love, war
songs, and songs of the sacred mysteries, than any other man I have seen.
During last summer* I journeyed with Artemas and others, on horseback,
many hundred miles up the Missouri River, and across to Fort Wadsworth
and Minnesota, and often beguiled the tedious prairie rides with listening
to these scmgs, hearing his explanation of the enigmatical words, and then
stopping my pony to note them down.
Because of the light that came through the increasing intercourse of
the Dakotas with white people, the father of Artemas was afraid he might
be induced to forsake the religion of his ancestors, and so made him
promise that, while he had his children educated in the civilization and
2H> Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography.
Christianity brought to them by the missionaries, he himself would be time
to his ancestral faith. Under all ordinary providences, Artemas thinks he
should have so lived and died.
But when the trouble came in 1862, he found himself at the ferry,
without gun or war-ctlub, when Captain Marsh's men were fired upon and
nearly half of them killed, and because he too was wounded there, he was
imprisoned. This change of circumstances produced a change of life.
With the younger men he learned to read and write, became a Christian,
and was elected elder or leader of the Red Wing class, while in prison at
Davenport, Iowa. This place he tilled with great credit to himself and
profit to others.
It was during the last winter of their imprisonment that the question
of conjuring came before them in its moral and religious aspects. Will
Christianity grapple successfully with the customs of the fathers? Will it
modify or abolish this system of Dakotii conjuring ?
Among all the nations of men disease and death are common. Heathens
die as fast as Christians, perhaps faster. And when sickness comes into a
family it would be inhuman not to make some efibrts to alleviate and cure.
This feeling belongs to our humanity. It is greatly influenced and shaped,
but not created, by the Christian religion.
Among the Dakotas, and probably all Indian tribes, the method of
treating the sick is tliat known to us as powwotving or conjuring. Disease,
they say, comes from the spirit world. The gods are oft'ended by acts of
omission or connnission, and the result is that some spirit of animal, bird,
or reptile is sent, by way of punishment, and the man is taken sick. The
process of recovering must accord with the theory of disease. It will not
be met by roots and herbs, but by incantations. Hence the Indian doctor
nuist be a wakaij man; that is, he must be inhabited by spiritual power
which will enable him to deliver othei's from the power of spirits. The
process includes chants and prayers and the rattling of the sacred gourd
shell.
From the commencement of the Dakota misvsion we had never taken
any fancy to powwowing. It seemed to us that such terrible screeching,
groaning, singing, rattling, and sucking would make a well man sick rather
than a sick man well. This was education. An Indian did not think so.
But, soberly, we thought it was not a civilized and Christian way of ap-
proaching a sick person.
THE SUPERHUMAN. 217
We had also an opinion about it as wrong and wicked thus to come
in contixct with tlie evil spirits over the suffering body of one sick. Hence
Dr. Williamson always refused to practice medicine in a case where the
conjurer was also employed. And it had been generally understood that
we reofarded the Dakota method of treating: the sick as inconsistent with a
profession of Christianity. Still the question could not be considered as
settled.
In October of 1865 it came up for discussion and settlement in the
prison on this wise: During the previous summer, when no missionary was
with them, a number of men had yielded to various temptations. Some
had drunk beer, and perhaps something stronger, to an extent that they
could hardly be sober. Some had been persuaded and hired by white men
to dance an Indian dance, and others had either powwowed or • been the
subjects of the powwow.
In the adjustment of these cases, one man admitted that he had prac-
ticed as a Dakota conjurer, and claimed that it was right. His fathers
practiced in this way, and were often successful in healing the sick. He
grew up in this system of doctoring, and had also practiced it with success.
He was not skilled in any other mode of treating disease. The white
peojde had their medicine men. No one was willing to see a friend die
without making some efforts to prolong his life. It was merciful, it was
right. Jesus Christ when on earth healed the sick and cast out devils.
Besides, they — the prisoners — were in peculiar circumstances. More
than one hundred had died since their first imprisonment. And the white
doctor, who was appointed to treat their sick, cared not whether they died or
lived. Indeed, they thought he would rather have them die. When a good
many of them were sick and dying with smallpox, he had been heard to
say that his Dakota patients were doing very well! Thus they were
under the necessity of endeavoring to heal their own sick, by the only
method in which they were skillful. This was the argument.
The missionary would not decide the case, but referred it to the
elders — Ehnamani and his brethren. After two weeks they signified that
they were prepared to give their decision. When they were come together
for this purpose, they were told that the Gospel of Christ molded the cus-
toms and habits of every people by whom it was received. There might
be some wrong things in a national custom which could be eliminated, and
the custom substantially retained. Or the custom might be so radically
absurd and wrong, that it could not be redeemed. In that case, Christian-
218 DAKOTA GRAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
ity required its abamloiirnent. It was for them, with their knowledge of
the teacliings of the Bible, and the requirement*; of Clirisfs rehgion, to
decide on tlie character of this custom of their fathers.
There were twelve elders. Very deliberately each one arose and stated
his opinion. Two thought the circumstances were such that they could
not altogether give up this, their ancestral method of curing disease. They
were shut up to it. Hut Ai-temas and nine others agreed in saying that
the practice of conjuring was wrong, and inconsistent with a profession of
the Christian religion. Thev said the notion entertained by the Dakotas,
that disease was caused by spirits, they believed to be eiToneous; that
sickness and death, they now understand, come not out of the gi'ound, but
by the appointment of the Great Spirit; and that the system of conjuring
brings men into contact with the evil spirits and tends to lead them away
from Christ.
This decision was regarded as a finality in the prison on that point
and is accepted throughout the mission churches.
When the prisoners were released, Artemas met his wife and family
with great gladness of heart; and as soon thereafter as possible he was
married according to the Christian form. For he said that, when a heathen
he thought she was his wife, but the Bible had taught him that he had not
truly taken her.
A few months after this he was licensed to preach the gospel, and in
the next year was ordained as one of the pastors of the Pilgrim church.
In the autunni of 1868, he attended a large gathering of ministei's at Min-
neaj)olis, and was cordially received by all classes of Christians. The
Congregational and Methodist Sunday Schools were entertained with the
story of his turning from the warpath to the ** strait and narrow way;" and
from seeking after a chaplet of eagle's feathers as the reward of prowess
on the battlefield, to his reaching forth for the prize of the high calling in
Christ — even the crown of Life.
CHAPTER VI.
ARMOR AND EAGLE'S FEATHERS.
For more than two hundred years we know that the Dakota have been
noted as the most warlike nation of the northwest. Hennep'n and his
comrades were captured by a flotilla of canoes coming down to make war
on the lUini and Miami of Illinois. And the reputation of good fighters
has come down to recent times, as we know from the Custer massacre.
The making and keeping them a nation of warriors has, in my judgment,
been accomplished mainly by three customs, viz: The scalp dance, the
wearing of eagle's feathers, and consecrated armor. In their natural order
the last comes first.
In the ancient times the exhortation to a young man was, ** Guard well
your sacred armor;" and that consisted of the spear, an arrow, and a bundle
of paint, with some swan's down painted red, to which were sometimes
added some roots for the healing of wounds. These were wrapped together
in strips of red or blue cloth, and could be seen in pleasant days carefully
set up outside of the lodge. These were given by an older man, who was
believed to have power over spirits, and who had, in the act of consecra-
tion, made to inhere in them the spirit of some animal or bird, as the wolf,
the beaver, the loon, or the eagle. Henceforth these, or rather the one
which became each one's tutelar divinity and his armor god, were sacred
and not to be killed or eaten until certain conditions were fulfilled. Cer-
tain customs of this kind are finely illustrated in the following personal
naiTative of
SIMON ANA WANG-MANX.
Simon was all that a Dakota brave could be. In his early years he
must have been daring even to recklessness. There was in him a strong
will, which sometimes showed itself in the form of stubbornness. His eye,
even in a later day, showed that there had been evil, hatred, and malicious-
ness there He was a thorough Indian, and for the first dozen years of his
niaidiood, or from his eighteenth to his thirtieth year, no one of his com-
219
220 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
rades had followed the warpath more, or reaped more glory on it, than he
had. None had a right to wear so many eagle's feathers ; no other one was
so much honored.
Dakota war-honors are distributed in this manner : A party of young
men have gone on the warpath against the Ojibwa. They find a man
and kill him. Five braves may share this honor and be entitled therefor
to wear each a feather of the royal eagle. The one who shoots the enemy
is one of the five, but is not the chief He who runs up and first plunges
his battle-ax or scalping ki\ife into the foe is counted the first. Then
others may come up and strike him and be partakers of the glory. Each
wears for that act an eagle's feather. If it is only a woman that is killed
and scalped, the mark of honor is only a common eagle's feather.
There is another distinction worth noting. The only real punishment
existing among the Dakota, having the sanction of law or immemorial
usage comes under the name of ** soldier-killing." This is carrying out the
decrees of the braves or warriors. The shape it takes is the destruction of
property, cutting up blankets or tents, breaking guns, or killing horses.
But the same immemorial custom places an estoppage on this power. A
man who has killed more enemies than anyone else in the camp can not be
** soldier-killed" by anyone else. Or if he has killed an enemy in more
difficult circumstances than the others, as, for instance, if he has climbed a
tree to kill one, and no other man has performed a like feat, no one has a
right to execute on him any decree of the ** Soldiers' lodge." In this way
he is placed above the execution of law.
To this eminence Simon had risen. By the customs of the nation no
one in that part of the country had a right to publicly cut up his blanket
or tent, or break his gun, or kill his horse. This was surely an honorable
distincticm
Another custom prevails among the Dakota which may be mentioned
in connection with Simon. The reception of the w^o-ta-we, or armor, by the
young man places him under certain pledges which he must, if possible,
redeem in after life. It taboos or consecrates certain parts of an animal, as
the heart, the liver, the breast, the wing, etc. Whatever part or parts are
tabooed to him he may not eat until by killing an enemy he has removed
the taboo. Simon had removed all taboos, and in this respect was a free
man. His armor was purified and made sacred by the blood of his enemies.
His manhood was established beyond all dispute. All things were lawful
for him.
ARMOR AND EAGLE'S FEATHERS. 221
This Dakota name, Auawaijg-mani, means *^One who walks^ gallop-
ing upon." It may have had its significance. It may have been given
after his war exploits, and had reference to the fury with whi(*h he rushed
upon the foe. This is a common thing. Young men distinguish themselves
on tlie wai'path, and come home with the scalps of their enemies. Their
boy-names are thrown away and new names given to them. And so the
giving and receiving of a new name was not among them a new or strange
thing. It was a mark of distinction. Hence the desire that all had, when
making a profession of the Christian religion, to have new names — Christian
names — given them. They were to be new people. There was a fitness
in it, for Christ had said, ''1 will write uj)on him my new name."
At his baptism the **()ne who walks galloping upon" was called Simon,
and by that name he is extensively known among white j)eople and Indians.
He learned to read and write in the first years of the mission at Lac-qui-
parle, though he never became as good a scholar as many others, and he
became a convert to Christianity about the beginning of the year 1840.
The energy and independence which had characterized him on the hunt
and the warpath he carried with him into his new relations. By dressing
like a white man and going to work, he showed his faith by his works.
This was all contrary to the customs of his people, and very soon brought
on him a storm of opposition. He built for himself a cabin, and fenced a
field and planted it. For this his wife's friends opposed and persecuted him.
It is true, as already stated, no man in the village had more Dakofci
honors than he had. No one had taken more Ojibwa scalps, and no one
could cover his head with so many eagle feathers; and hence no one could
'* soldier-kill" him. But now he had cut off his hair and abjured his Dakota
honors, and no one was found so poor as to do him reverence. As he
])assed through the village, going to his work, he was laughed at, and the
childi'en often said, '* There goes the man who has made himself a woman."
The men who before had honored him as a Dakota brave now avoided
him and called him no more to their feasts. But those forms of opposition
Ife met bravely and was made stronger thereby.
It happened that, about the beginning of the year 1844, Simon went
down with his family to the then new mission station at Traverse des
Sioux. While there he cut rails for the mission and taught as an assistant
in the Dakota school. The Dakota men at this place, although even more
openly opposed to the new religion than were those at Lac-(pii-i)arle, never-
'Thnt is, coDtinues. — J. O. I).
222 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AKD KEHNOGRArilY.
theless pursued a very different crourse with Simon. They honored liini
and invited him to their dofr feasts. They praised him; told him he was a
good fellow; that he had taken many- Ojibwa scalps, and so they wanted
him to drink spirit water with them. How much Simon resisted the impor-
tunities is not known. He fell. He was ashamed. He put off his white
man's clothes and for some time was an Indian again.
For several vears his liistorv in regard to fire water was one of sin-
ning and repenting. Again and again he was drawn away. His appetite
for spirit water wouhl return, and the desire to obtain horses by trading in
it led him farther astray So we mourned sjidly over his fall. He repented
and promised reformation only to fall again; and each time he appeared to
go down deeper than before. For years he seemed to work iniquity with
greediness. Yet during all this time we had hope in his case. We often
urged him to come back to the path of life; and something seemed to say,
"Simon will yet return." Sometimes we obtained from him a promise, and
sometimes he came to church, but was so much ashamed that he could not
be persuaded to enter, but would sit down on the doorstep.
Thus he came up gradually, getting more and more strength and
courage. And so in 1854 he returned to the dress and customs of the white
men and to his profession of love to Jesus Christ. Since that time he has
witnessed a good confession before many witnesses as a ruling elder and
class leader, and recently as a licensed local preacher.
When the outbreak of 1862 occurred Simon and his family were living
in a brick house near the Hazelwood mission station. Subsequently Little
Crow and the whole camp of hostile Indians removed up to that part of the
country, and they forced the Christian Indians to leave their houses, which
were all afterwards burned. While the hostile and loyal parties were
camped there near together on Rush Brook, Mrs. Newman, one of the (cap-
tives, and her three children, came to seek food and ])rotection in Simon's
tipi. She had been badly treated by her captors, and now cast off to go
whither she could. She afterwards told me that she felt safe when she
found herself and children in a family where they prayed and sang praise
to the Great Spirit.
Little Crow ordered the camp to be removed from the vicinity of
Hazelwood up to the mouth of the Chippewa. At this time, when all had
started, Simon fell behind, and leaving his own family to take care of them-
selves, he and one of his sons placed Mrs. Newman and her children in a
ARMOR AND EAGLE'S FEATHERS. 223
little wagon and brought them safely down to Gen. Sibley's camp at Fort
Ridgley.
The bringing in of these and some others not only caused great glad-
ness in our camp, but gave us hope that God wouhl enable us to rescue
the remaining captives. Indeed, this was to us the first certain knowledge
of that counter revolution, which was brought about by the daring and
energy of the Christian Indians. It was the lifting up of the dark cloud of
almost despair that had for weeks been setting down upon us.
CHAPTER VII.
DAKOTA DANCES.
The function of the dance among the Dakota may be stated as four-
fold: First, amusement; secondly, gain; thirdly, superhuman help; and,
fourthly, worship. Two or more of these objects may be combined in one
dance, but usually one idea is predominant. In a purely heathen Dakota
camp there is always a great deal of drumming, some by day and more by
night. This is a kind of practice and preparation for more important occa-
sions as well as a nightly amusement for the young men. All dances have
musical accompaniments.
SINGING TO.
There is one especially, which is called "Adowaq" and ''Wadowai),"
that is, Singing to or over. This is a begging dance. Sometimes it is
called *'Zitkadai) pa adowai)," Singing over the heads of birds. A man
gathers some beautiful woodpeckers' heads and sings over them to another
person. They are a gift to that person, and, of course, the honorable deeds
of that j)erson are mentioned and his praises sung. In return a horse or
something quite valuable is expected. It has been related to me that
articles of clothing or other skins or curiously wrought pipes were, in years
gone by, taken by the Dakota of Minnesotii to the Missouri, and this cere-
mony of singing over was practiced upon the heads of a man's childi'en,
who, in return for the honor, gave several horses.
BEGGING DANCE.
But the common begging dance, which was often seen among the
eastern Dakota forty years ago, included a variety of fashionable dances,
all of which were made for the purpose of begging. Sometimes it was
called the buffalo dance, when the dancers made themselves look hideous
by wearing the honis and hmg hair of that animal. Doubtless women
alone could dance a begging dance, but all that I ever saw were of men
alone. Dressed in their best clothes and painted in the most approved
styles, with all their eagle's feathers properly arranged in their heads, the
224
DAKOTA DANCES. 225
men collect and dance in a ring. Their bodies lean forward, and their knees
are bent accordingly, and thus witli a motion up and down, keeping time
to the drum and the deer-hoof rattle, they dance and sing their almost
monotonous song, concluding with a shout and the clapping of the mouth
with the hand. Then some warrior steps out into the middle, and, with
abundance of gesture, recites some war exploit. This is received with a
shout, and the dance begins again. Presently, at one of these intervals,
an old man, sitting outside, makes a speech in praise of the man or the
people who are expected to make the presents. If the dance is made to a
trader, he loses no time in sending out tobacco, or powder and lead, or pro-
visions, or, it may be, all together. If one Indian village is dancing to
another village, the women hasten to bring their presents of food and cloth-
ing from the different lodges. Another dance of thanks is made, the pres-
ents are distributed, and the party breaks up or goes elsewhere. Consider-
ing that begging dances must be very demoralizing, white men have often
been greatly to blame for encouraging them.
NO-FLIGHT DANCE.
In the organization of an army and its preparation for effective service
a large amount of drill is found necessary. Something very like this, in
its objects, is resorted to by the Dakota war captain hi preparing the young
men and boys for the warpath. It is called the ^*No flight dance."^ This
gathers in the young men who have not yet made their mark on the battle
field, and drills them by the concerted motions of the dance, while, by the
recital of brave deeds, their hearts are tired and made firm for the day of
battle. Tlie instructions given are lessons in Indian warfare.
All this is j)reparatory to the war prophet's organizing a party for the
warpath. But before starting he nmst propitiate tlie spirits of evil and
obtain the help of the gods. This was sought for in a variety of ways, one
of which was by tlie **Yunmi Wacipi," or Circle dance.
(TRCLE DANCE.
A preparation for this, and for god-seeking in general, was through
the purification of the vapor bath or initipi. This finished, the wakai) man
had a tent set for him, joined to which a circle was made of about forty
feet in diameter, b\^ settin<»* sticks in the <^round and wreathing them with
willows. Four gateways were left. In the center stood a pole twenty
' Nape Kui kagapi, literally, They pretend not to flee.
7105— VOL IX 15
226 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETHNOGRAPHY,
feet high, with bark images suspended at the top. Near the fogt of this
the ground was scooped out and a small willow booth made over it. At
the entrance to this was a fire of coals, a stone painted red, and a pipe.
When everything was thus prepared, and the night previous liad l)een spent
in drumming and fasting and praying, the old man came out of the tent,
naked except a wisp of grass around his loins. He earned his di-um and
rattles. Before the painted stone he stood and trembling prayed, *' Grand-
father have mercy on me ! " This done, he entered the little booth and
commenced to sing and drum. The dancers then entered the circle and
danced around, a dozen or more at once, and all fixed up in paint and
feathers. Three or four women followed. The men sang and the women
answered in a kind of chonis. This continued for ten minutes perhaps,
and they retired for a rest. The dance was resumed again and again, each
time with an increased frenzy. When the last act was finished several men
who had guns shot the wolf image at the top of the pole, when the old
man gave forth his oracle, and the dance was done.
SCULP DANCE.
When tlie spirits had been propitiated and the vision had appeared,
the leader made uj) his party and started for the country of the enemy.
We will suppose they have been successful, and have obtained one or more
scalps. They come home in triumph. Tliis is wakte-hdipi, having killed^
they come home. But having killed enemies, they i)aint themselves black
and let their hair hang down. Before reaching their village they sit down
on some knoll and sing a war dirge to the souls they have disembodied,
when tliey are met by some of their own people and stripped of their
clothes, whicli is (*alled wayuzapi or taking-all. And tlieir blankets may
be taken from them on each occasicm of painting tlie scalps red, which
ceremony is connnonly performed four times.
Then the scalp dance commences. It is a dance of self-glorification,
as its name, ^^Iwakicipi," seems to mean. A hoop 2 feet in diameter, more
or less, with a handle several feet long, is prepared, on which the scalp is
stretched. The young men gather together and aiTange themselves in a
semicircle; those who participated in taking the scalp are painted black,
and the others are daubed with red or yellow paint, according to their
fancy; and all dance to the beat of the drum. On the other side of the
circle stand the women, airanged in line, one of whom carries the scalp of
the enemy. The men sing their war chants and praise the bravery and
DAKOTA DANCES. 227
success c^' those who have returned from tlie warpath, and the women, at
intervals, smg an answering chorus. As with other nations a new song is
often made for the occasion; but the old ones are not forgotten. This may
serve as a sample:
Soinetliiug: Vvo killed, and I lift up my voice;
8oraetbiiig Fve killed, and 1 lift up niy voice;
The northern buffalo I've killed, and 1 lift up my voice;
Something I've killed, and I lift up my voi(»e.
The '^northern buti'alo" means a black bear; and the **black bear"
means a man. The ^^lifting up the voice" is in mouniing for the slain
enemy. Night after night is the dance kept uj) by the young men and
women, until the leaves fall, if commenced in the summer; or, if the scalp
was brought home in the winter, until the leaves grow again. On each
occasion of painting the seal]) a whole day is spent dancing around it.
And these days are high days — days of making gifts, feasting, and general
rejoicing.
The influence of the scalp dance on the morality of the people is quite
apparent. In so loose a state of society as that of the Dakotas, such fre-
quent and long-continued night meetings tend greatly to licentiousness.
But the great wrong of the scalj) danc»e consists in its being a c^rime against
our common humanity. '^If thine enemy hun^^er feed him, and if he
thirst give him drink." What a contrast is the spirit of those divine words
with the sj)irit of the '*Iwakicipi." The eagle's feather and the scalp dance
tended greatly to keep up the intertribal wars among the Indians.
Shice the *^^u'cle dance" and the *' scalp dance" have become things
of the i)ast among our partly civilized Dakotas, what is called the ** grass
dance" has been revived. It is said to have derived its name from the
custom, in ancient times, of dancing naked, or with only a wisp of grass
about the loins. Only the men appeared in this nude state. It is a night
dance, and regju'ded as extremely licentious, although now they are repre-
sented as dancing in their Indian dress or even clothed as white men.
MYSTERY DANCE.'
This is a secret organization, which is entered through mysterious
death and mysterious resurrection. As it appears to have been confined
mainly to the eastern portion of the Dakota Nation, it is supposed to have
been derived from some other Indians at no very remote date, The
» Wakai) wiK-ipi. [See Msuidan least, p. 273, and Wacicka dance, pp. 342-6, 3d. Ann. Kept, of the
Director Hur. Eth — J. o. d.]
228 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS, AND ETKN^OGRAPHY.
Dakote. themselves, however, claim that it was communicated to them by
the great Uriktelii or god of the waters. It is a form of religion which has
doubtless largely supplanted older forms of worship. The badge of the
order is the 'Svakai)" sack, or sack of mystery. The great water god
ordained that this should be the skin of the otter, raccoon, weasel, squirrel,
loon, or a species of fish and of snakes. It should contain four kinds of
medicine and represent fowls, quadrupeds, herbs, and trees. Thus grass
roots, the bark of tree roots, swan's down, and buflfalo hair are the symbols
which are carefully preserved in the medicine sack. This combination is
supposed to produce
A charm of iwwerful trouble.
Like a bellbroth, boil aud bubble.
Certain good rules, in the main, are laid down, which must govern the
conduct of members of this organization: They must revere the **wakai}"
sack; they must honor all who belong to the dance; they must make
many ^* sacred feasts;" they must not steal nor listen to slander, and the
women must not have more than one husband. The rewards promised to
those who faithfully perfonned the duties were honor from their fellow
members, frequent invitations to feasts, abundance of fowl and venison,
with supernatural aid to consume it, long life here with a crown of silver
hair, and a dish and spoon in the future life.
After the proper instruction in the mysteries, the neophyte practiced
watchings and fastings and was pmified for four successive days by the
vapor bath. Then came tlie great day of initiation. The ceremonies were
public. A great deal of cooked j)rovisions was prepared. At the sacred
dance which I witnessed four decades ago, there were a half dozen large
kettles of meat. The airangements for the dance consisted of a large tent
at one end, whose open front was extended by other tents stretched along
the sides, making an oblong with the outer end open. Along the sides of
this inclosure sat the members, perhaps a hundi-ed in number, each one
having his or her ''sack of mystery." At a given signal from the officiat-
ing old men, all arose and danced inward until they became a solid mass,
when the process was reversed and all returned to their seats. Near the
close of the performance those who were to be initiated were shot by the
"sacks of mystery," and falling down they were covered with blankets.
Then the mysterious bean or shell which they claimed had produced death
was extracted by the same mysterious power of the sack of mystery, and
DAKOTA DA:NCES. 229
•
the persons were restored to a new life. But this new life came only after
the throes and the bitteniess of death. Then he has a *'sack" given him,
and is thenceforth a member of the order of the sacred mysteries.
A necessary adjunct of the Wakaq-w^acipi is the ^^Wakag-woharipi,"
or Sacred Feast. This is made very frequently when there is a plenty of
food in the village. Of course, as a general thing, only those are invited
who belong to the order. Forty yeai's ago I was honored with an invitation
to one of their feasts, in a wild Teton village at Fort Pien-e on the Missouri.
It is in part a worship. The pipe is lighted and held up to the gods with
a prayer for mercy. Then they smoke around, after which the food is
dished out. The guests bring their own wooden bowl and horn spoon.
Each one must eat up all that is given him or pay a forfeit. This is a
blanket or gun or such article as the person can give. I have known a
community, in time of plenty, run wild over the idea of stuffing each other
and getting all the forfeits possible. Their god is their belly.
Quite likely there are other forms of the dance in other parts of the
Dakota country, or dances which have other names than those spoken of
here; but these are sufficient. There i-emains, however, to be mentioned
the greatest exemplification of self-sacrifice and worship in the sun-dance.
SUN-DANCE.
The following graphic account of the sun-dance held in June, 1880,
by the Teton under Red Cloud, is an abstract of what was published in the
Daily Journal of Sioux City, Iowa. It is a very trustworthy and more than
usually vivid description of a ceremony which is becoming rarer under the
influence of Christianity.
This sun-dance began at 5 a. m., June 24, 1880. The lodges, 700
in number, were arranged in a circle of about six miles in circumference
on a level plain near White Clay Creek, Nebraska. The dance began
with a grand charge within the circle. It is estimated that about 4,000
men and women took part in the charge. Nearly all were on horse-
back, and they charged back and forth over the ground, yelling for an
hour, for the alleged purpose of frightening away the ghosts and bad
spirits from the grounds. A hard rain set in at 6 o'clock, and nothing more
was done until 1 o'clock, when the sky cleared and the people went up on
a branch of White Clay Creek to cut the sacred pole. Around the tree to
be felled a ring was formed, and no living object was allowed to enter
therein except the persons who took part in felling the tree. The master
230 DAKOTA GKAMMAK, TEXTS, AND ETllNOGKArHV.
of ceremonies was a colored mau, capttu-ed when a child, and at the time of
this dance attached to the band of Little Wound. It was his duty to keep
intruders out of the circle. After much ceremony, dancin}^, and giving
away of horses, six men walked slowly up to the tree and each gave it a
hack, after which it was felled by the wife of Spider. When it went down
a charge was made on it, and the tree, l)ranches and all, was taken up and
carried by men and women to the sun-dance grounds, a distance of two
miles. On reaching the grounds, they made another charge to drive away
any ghosts that might be lingei'ing there. Then Tasui)ke kokipapi,^ the
younger (commonly called Young-Man-Afraid-of-his-Ilorses), announced
that there was nothing more to be seen till 10 o'clock on the following day,
Friday, June 25.
The evening of the 24th and the forenoon of the 25th were spent in
raising the pole and erecting a tabernacle. The latter was formed in a
circle of aljout 500 yards in circumference, 12 feet high, and was con-
structed l)y putting posts in the ground and covering them with green
boughs. The pole was placed in the center and decorated with red,
white, and blue flags, said to be gifts to the Great Spirit. There were
within the inclosure about 1,000 men sitting around, and 300 dancers,
besides 25 men ridino- their horses around the rin«:. The 300 dancers
marched around the pole, dancing, singing, and shooting up at the pole.
Each man had from one to tlu-ee belts of caiiridges strung around his
body. He had little clothing besides his breechcloth, and his bare body
and limbs were painted in various colors. This performance lasted for
two hours, then all firing ceased, and twenty children entered the ring
to have their ears pierced. The parents of each child gave away two
horses to the poor. When a horse was turned loose, the first man who
caught hold of it owned it. Persons competing for the horses were placed
outside the gate of the inclosure in two parallel rows 30 feet apart, one row
on each side of the road. When a horse was turned out there was a
scramble to see who could reach it first.
The child to be honored was laid by its mother on a pile of new
calico. Then six old men sprinkled water on its head, repeating the fol-
lowing words: *H) Wakaijtaijka, hear me! this man has been a good and
brave man, and the mother is a good woman. For their sake let this child
live long, have good luck and many children." Then, with a long, slender,
shar|)-pointed knife, two holes were made through each ear, wherein were
' Literally, They (the foe) fear even hia horse. — J. o. D.
DAKOTA DANCERS. $31
m
placed rinji;*s of German silver. When all the children had had their ears
pierced, ten men placed by the pole the skull of some large animal, crying
over it and making sundry passes. Then all the young unmarried maidens
who had obeyed their parents and had been chaste during the year went
up and touched the tree, raised their right hands to the sun, bowed to the
skull, and then retired from the inclosure. The young women had been
told that if anv of them had been unchaste the touchin«^ of the tree would
insure fatal conse(iuences to them, as the large animal represented by the
skull would carry them off to the spint land.
At 8 o'clock the sun-dancers proper, seventeen in number, entered the
ring. These men had been fasting, no food or water having been given
them for three days and nights previous to their entering the inclosure.
Men who take part in tliis dance say what they are going to do before they
are placed on record — /. c, they intend going one, two, or more days with-
out food and water, and whether they intend being cut and tied U}) to the
pole. After making such a declaration they lose all control of their own
wills. They are obliged to fast, and are placed on buffalo robes in a sweat-
house until they become as gaunt as grayhounds. In this condition were
the seventeen brought into the ring by guards, and each one had a whistle
])laced in his mouth and a banner with a long stiiff placed in his htmd.
Then ten large bass drums, beaten by sixty men, struck up a hideous noise,
the seventeen men danced, whistled, gazed steadily at the sun, and kept
time with the drums. This scene w^as kept up with little or no change until
the morning of the third day.
The white visitors reached the grounds at 10 a. m. Saturday, the 26th.
The same noise was there, and the seventeen were still dancing and wliist-
ling. The clubs used as drumsticks had horses' tails fastened to them
instead of the scalps which would have been used in earlier days. At 11
a. m. seven of the seventeen were laid down on blankets, and after much
ceremony and giving away of horses and calico, each man was cut and tied
up to the pole. This operation was performed by raising the skin of the
right breast and then that of the left, cutting a hole about an inch long
tlu:ough the skin at each place. A roimd wooden skewer was inserted
through each hole, fastened by sinews, the sinews tied to a rope, and the
rope to the i)ole. One fellow had j)ins inserted in each arm, tied with
sinews, and fastened to a horse which was stimding beside him. The first
and second dancers seemed to be veterans, as they went forward to the
pole, made a short })rayer, and then ran backward, breaking loose and fall-
232 DAKOTA GRAMMAR, TEXTS. AND ETHNOGRAPHY.
ing flat on their backs. The thinl man, seeing the others break loose, took
courage, braced up, and made a desperate struggle. He succeeded not
only in breaking from tlie pole, but also from the horse. This feat pleased
the Indians, who shouted lustily. Little Big ilan, who was mounted, was
so delighted that he shot an arrow straight up into the air, whooping with
all his might. The aiTow came down on the back of a large fat woman,
who was standing outside the inclosure. The old woman jumped up and
ran howling across the prairie. An Indian on the outside happened to be
on horseback, so he ran uj) to her and lield her while the others extracted
the arrow. Little Big Man was obliged to part with three horses to satisfy
the woman.
The four remaining dancers were young and inexperienced, so they
could not break their bonds. Conseciuentlv thev c]:ave awav three horses
each and were cut loose. One of them fainted, and on being resuscitated
he became unruly, making a break from the ring, tumbling over several
women, and when finally seized he was standing among several infants
that had been stowed awav under blankers in the comer of the lodge. He
was brought back, a whistle made of an eagle's feather was put into his
mouth, and he was set to dancing. Then an old man with a looking-glass
in his hand and a buffalo skull on his head performed mystery rites over
him, to drive out the evil spirit which they thought had entered into the
vounj^ man. Meantime two breathless infants were taken out into the air
ixnd resuscitated. Another old man said that he was readv to aive to anv
worthy woman the mysterious anointing. A large number went up and
received this ancient rite. This was administered by cutting a hole in the
rii^ht arm and introducinir medicine under the skin. Women entitled to
this privilege were those who had at any period of their lives held a horse
or l)orne arms in battle. At H p. m. the sun disappeared under the clouds,
and the old man with the Vniffalo skull on his head uttered a few words
and dismissed the audience. Then the dance ended, and an hour later the
hwlores were taken down and most of the Indians started homeward.
INDEX.
Absaboka and JlidatM, Kindn'd dialects of
— , Owneniliip of Black hilUby
AOCKXT, Peculiarities of
AOCOUCRBXKNT of DakotA WumCD
Action, Variable, in Dakota verbs
Page.
192
192
5
207
22
Adjectives 4o, 46, 56, 72
— , Abstract nouns forro<>d from 41
— , Adverbs formod from 51
— . Clian^e of, to verbs 20
—.Numeral 47,73
— , Pronominal 73
—, Syntax of 72
— , Verbal roots used ah 25
Adverbs 50, 74
— , Derivationsof 50, 51, 52
— , Numeral 49
—.SynUxof KH
AoKnt, Nouns of person or 40
Alqonquian name for t he Winnebago 189
—. Place as8ignc<l to, by Bancroft 168
AixouKz, Claude, Koference to work of 170
Alphabet, Dakota xii, 3, 4
Amdo WAPUSKIYA gens 150
American Horse, Bcfereuce lo winter count of 182
Animals. Nouns referring to 40
Animate oiuects, Plural for 42
AORI8T, Syntax of 6(B
— tense 25
Arikara found on Missouri river 193
Abm-awi,s killed by younger brother 139
Armor, Sacreilness of 219
— , Taboos connects with 220 i
Article, Definite 18, 6u, 61, 80
—.Indefinite 18,62
AsHLET, Edward, List of Wuliiietoqwai) ««'Pt©8 by. 158
Aspirated soauds (c, s, z) 3. 4
AssiMBOiN an offshoot of the Yanktonai 164
— and Dakota, Reference to no
— , Derivation of name 160, 164 |
— , De8(-ription of 169. 178, 188 |
-.History of 160.164.171,174
Aunt. Place of, in the tipi 204
Altumn reckoned as one m<K)n 165
Auxiliary verbs. SyuUx of es
Baby. The 207
Badge of the MyMiery d.mrr 228
Badobr, Referenc«M) to 101. 102, 141
Bad SpiRrr, 109
i
Bakihoij gons. Reference to 161
Bancroft, Georqe, Clasaification of IikdU^iH by 168
BasdeCb 6ki, Description of 1S0
Beaver. Reference to 108
Beooino dance. Description of SM
Beliefs. Primitive 00, 101, 108, 113, 120. 121. 122, 138
130, 148, 140, 164. 165. 103, 211. 214, 216, 210, 220, 228
Bbbthold Indians. Tradition of. respecting the Da-
koU 181
BiQ Sioux river, Orig.'n of name of 176
Bio Stone lake, Indians on island In 180
Bnoxi kinship terms xix, zzi
— , Reference to 180
Birth-names. Remarks on xvi,.46
Black bundle. Symbolism of 107
Black Day Woman. Lt^^end of ZOB
Blackfeet, Notes on 187
Black hills, Reference to 182
Black otter. Lament of 123
Black i>aint Use of 226
Blizzard, Belief respecting 88
Blood-clot boy, Myth of 95, 101, 103, 104
Blueearth region. Reference to 177. 180
Bluebarth river. Trading post on 177
Boat Village. A DakoU" band" 177
Boils, Belief concerning 147. 148
Bow creek. Omaha settlement on 100
Bow, Belief concerning a 03
Bov-BELOVED. Meaning of term 147
Boys, Naming and training of 208. 200
Breviary. Dakota fi'ar of 173
Brothers, Myths concerning 123. 130, 143
BRULhis. Description of 187
Bundle of purchaMe 206
Burial customs 211, 212
BwAN. Meaning of 183
OAdugens 160
Calendar, Primitive 165
Camp, IJHage concerning 162, 106
Oaiit-ka^^a otina gens 158
Oan-ka^ke TO.-ywAJf, Derivation of name 183. 184
OA^f kute gentcs 150, 160
Ca.Y o.na gens 160. 161
Oa-'it-Ada (^i^ana. Remarks concerning 158. 150
Cardinal numerals 47
Carver. Jon atha n. Travels of 170
Case, genitive 15,43.44
— of pronouns 11,16
233
234
INDEX.
Causative action implied by modal prefi x 20
CeOuka, Meaning of 138
Ckrebrals, Definitiou of 4
^Ee, Definition of 101
Changes of letters 6, lo
the moon, Belief eonrornii-g 165
Chamkasketon, Definition of 176
ChbbzhuN. Legend of 134. 129
Cheyenne, Account of the 193
— , Friendship of Titoijwaq toward 161
Chickadee, Belief concerning 120. 122
Chieftainship, Descent of 195
Child life, DakoU 208, 230
Children, Xamea of 45
Chonkasketons, Identification of 183
Chbistian Indians, Character and position of 217, 222
CiBCLE dance, Description of 225
Citizenship, Indian 167
Cold, Effect of, implied by modal prefix 20
OoiXBCTiVB plural of verbs of motion 23
OoiAUt Symbolism of 226
CONJCOATION, Dakota 21,26,28,32
CONJUNCTIQSS 53, 78
Conjuring, Beliefs concerning 216, 217, 218
Consonants 3, 4, 8. 9
Continuattves, Remarks on xvi
Contraction 10
Councils, Indian 170, 179, 180
Counting, Method of 164
Courtship and marriage 205
Crow creek. Reference to 181
Crow Indians, Remarks concerning 183
Cut-head Indians, Remarks on 180, 185
Cuttlvo, Action by 202
(pEGiHA kinship terms xviii, xx
Dakota, Remarks on eastern 177, 181
— , Bancroft cited on the 168
— beliefs. ... 90. 101. 108, 113, 120, 121, 122, 138, 139. 148, 149, 164
165, 193, 211, 214, 216, 219, 220, 228
— calendar 165
— custom of wife purchase 207
— dances xxxii,224
— , Ethical sense of the 205
— fear of breviary 173
— , General account of the 155
— grammar 3
— habitots 156. 169, 180, 181
— , History of the 1«8. 1 71. 176, 178, 179. 180, 183, 190
— , Industries of th«' 184
— kinship terms xviii, xx
— legends 105, 124, 206
— , Meaning of name 183
— migrations 168
— mourning customs 212
myths... 81,90. 95,101,110, 11 ;M 15. 121. 130, 1J9, 144, 148
— names for natural time divisions 165
— population 155, 169
— , Sociology of the 158, 177, 179, 183, 195, 203
— , Use of stone implenient.s by the 184
— war customs 220
Dances 224
Days, Counting of, by the Dakota 165
Death and burial customs 211. 212
DsFiNrrE articles 18
Demonstratives, Use of 89
Paife.
Drsieb, Expression of strong 101
Dialogue, Repetition of verb in 83
Dickson, Robert, Enlistment of Indians by 180
Diminutives 41
Disease, Beliefs concerning 215, 216
Division of time among the Dakota 165
Divorce, Primitive 207
Dorset, J. Owen, Criticism on kinship terra.** by ... 207
— , List of kinship terms by zvii, xxi
— , Notes by, on hok6idag, etc 207
Dakota dances — xxxii
myths XXX, xxxii
mihihna 204.207
—.Quotations from 162
— , Remarks by, on cardinal birth-names xvi
nimerals xxiii, xxix
continuattves xvi
kinship terms xxii, xxiii
pronouns xiv, xv, 31
the Gros Ventre 192
Mandan 192
Double verbs, Dakota 35
Dual number, Dakota 11.16,23,46
DuLhut, Daniel Greyselon, Ileforences to work of. 171. 175
Dung Village (lJi)k<^k<3e <^,ota toqwai)) Indians 177
Ears, Piercing of, during sun dance 230
Earth, Belief concerning repeopling of 139, 143
Eastern Sioux, Designation of.
Egg, Mention of, in legend
Shna-mani, Account of
Elision, Substitution and
Emphasis
ENCAMPME.VT, Form of the
English, Indian trade by the. . .
Evil, Beliefs concerning
ExPLOsrvB sounds
EvAiifPAHA the crier
Falls of Saint Anthony in Indian history
Family, The primitive
Fasting and prayer. Efficacy of
Father, Place of, in tent
Father-in-law, Usage concerning
Fellowhood, Custom of
Fingers, Use of, in oountin;;
Flint, Occurrence of
Food for the dea<l
Foot, Action by the
Forpzits, Payment of
Fornication, contlenmatiun ot
Fortified Village '* band "
Fox Indiums, Remarks concerning
French records and maps. Referenc*^ to 108,
Frenchmen, Dakota name for
Frequency of action, Denotation of
184
109
215
6
3.4
196
180
138
4
200
180
196,203
214
204
203, 204
196
164
184
211
20
202
205
177
176, 178
178. 182
174, 175
41
Gambling among the Dakota 202
(r arvie, Jambr, Reference to writings of 124
Gender 42
Genitive case, Dakota 15, 43, 44
Gens, Remarks on the 195
GBNTBSof the Dakota 157,161.163,164
INDEX.
235
OlRLS, Myth concerniog 122
-, XameHof 208
— , Usage coiicerniDg 205, 206. 210
Grand Lodge Village Indiana 177
Grand Pawnee, R©fen>nre to 193
Grandmoi'HER, Place uf, in tipi — 20-4
Grass liance. Reference to 227
Orat Bear, Myth concerning 102, 139
( I RBAT MoAQi'iTO, \f ontiou of, in myth 139
Great Pipestone quarry, DiHOovery of 193
Great Spirit, Beliefs conoernins; 106
Great Wild Rice Villaoe Indiana 177
Green bay. Trilwa on 169. 171
(rREY Cloud, David. Reference to writin^ja of 95. 110
Grob Ventre, Remarks on the name 192
Gitttubals. Dakou 3
Hakaykayna, Referenot' to 120, 123
105
148
20
157
17i
175
Head or Gold, Legend of
Heart Killer. Reference t<»
Heat, Effect of, implied by modal prefix . . .
IiE-MNi<^A.*f gi-ns
Hknnkimn, Loi'is, Adoption of, by Indians.
— and I>u Lhut, Meeting of
. I
— , Confounding of. with other Minitari
History, Argument from
HoiiE gena
HoKiilDA!f, Note on
Home, Dakota word for
Homestead Uwh, Observance of, by Indians
Honor, Place of. in tout or tipi 204
HoTCAJiOARA, meaning of 189
HortTBAT^JNs, Remarks on 171
*• House of spirits*," Dakota 313
HousEfioU), The Indian 204
Human HjMH-ies, Nouns referring to 40
Hu?f KPA, Meaning of 162
Hu.>'KPAPA, Remarks on HU. 162, 163, 164, 188
Uv>fKPATi, Meaning (»f 162
UU!9KPATINA division 160, 161
HUNTIN(» customs 201
Huron, Remarks on the 169, 170
Husband, Rights of 204, 206
IlIA ISDAYE gens 160
liiA>fKTO>fWA>f tribe 160, 163, 164
Iha sa gens 161
lKMU.>i gens 160
IixiNols, Ri^fercuce to 172, 176, 177
Illinois river, Ascent of 171
I mmokality condcmne<l by the Dakota 205
Imperative mode 24,64
Impkrsonal forms of verbs 31
Inanimate obitn^ts. Plural termination of names of . . 42
Indefinite article 18, 62
Indian population, OpiniitnH as to 166
— trmle. Early 180
Indians, Conclusion respecting the 168
— eulisteil against the United States 180, 181
Indicative mode 23
Infants, (^iHtoms resiiecting 121
I>-FU«iTivE mode
Initiatiov, Description of
I^KPA-DUTA people. Union of, with the Teton
Intercourse, Illicit, condemned
Interjections, Dakota
Intermarriage. Prohibition of
Intbbtribal wars fo8tere<1 by scalp dance
Involuntary action of inanimate objects
l^YAif (^EYAKA ATOJfWAJf gens
Ionia creek, Reference to
Iowa, Remarks concerning 176,
Iowa, Reference to the. 170, 177, 182,
Iroquois. Reference to the
Irregular verbs
ISAlifTA mde, Origin of name
ISA?fY ATI gens and tribe
Ita2IP<?o tribe
Ite du gens
ItokaA TINA division
J EsuiT Relations on the Dakota —
JoGUEs, Father, cited on the Dakota.
JOUBT, Louis, Journey of
Page,
24,66
228
18«
215
51,70
196
227
20
138
190
180,182
190, 191
170, 183
36
184
103,184
161,183
161
150
171
160
170
KaAmi ATO!y wa^*, division 150
Kansa, Reference to 103
— kinship terms xviii,zx
Kaposia village, Reference to 170
KApo^A gens ISJ^ 150
Kathio village. Reference ti» 171
KczE division 150
KiCKAPOO, Rt^fereuce to 171
Kinship names, Siouan \ vii, xzii, 45, 138, 203, 207
— system of the Omaha. Referenn- to 106
Kiowa lover, Story of the 206
KiTAKSA, Meaning of 164
KlYUKBA gentes 157, 160, 161. 163. 180, 185
Knifb lake, Origin of name 174, 184
KwAPA, Reference to 100, 103
— kinship terms xvlii. xx
L of the Titonwan dialect
Lakota, Teton equivalent of Dakota 183
Land, Cession of, by Indians 181
Language, Sacred 166
La Pointe mission. Reference to 170
La Salle, Robert, Reference t4» 172
Laws, Unwritten Dakota 105, 203
Leap A'illaob di^i8ion 177, 170
Leech lake region, Account of 178, 170
Legend of Black Day woman 206
the head of gold 105
Winona 206
Le Jeune, Paul, Reference t<i 160
Le Sueur, References t4) 170, 177, 178
Letters, Changes of 6, 10
Lewis, Merri wether, Explorations of 182. 191, 192
LUUT, Daniel GrBYSELON. Sieur I>U. Reference to
work of 171,176
LnTLE Crow, Career of 179,181,222
Little Rapids, Reference to 180
Little Sioux biver. Origin of name of 178
Lord's prayer 151
236
r^.
yAMTO. Prtaoniil Bnil fMnilj- itI. ivll,
Jlli,4«,4S,IM.
....' 'iM
>lAiu<OniiLl]a),I<oe*ll'miir. u:i u^rlv m.-ip
"r
S(nnta.Dok<itii. l^40.11,t^,U
ol.-.
"mm^
IUmst FathIB, IttfonncP owor'iof
X,-.,BEU.l,cl.msia5loadJ«Uv«
10.44
40,47,«
17S,1M
KarthDld
1M.174
i5,iJ7,m.m,i8o
1lATA?ITOTdW.lon
IndlM-by
Mde-waeak. IteCereDcc to
llDEWAKA-lTO^WJIf triljc
SI
JIlDlclst Stuglci bobumUkI wilh pra-'licn
nf...
UllTOMiiKI.Snhireiici'lo
.... m.m
OoD.oK.E>-is "PlaylDgof, brgunblan ..
UoLALitrtboaaJgem
.. lM.iaa.is2
MiaBATionsof alaiiantrilK!!
MnuKTA, Ani.lj.1. «f
MlIXT WAT. l^kutammotor
IM. 171. 171
isi,ie3.i8;
T0.I70,17B,16(»
187
OH.\UAlDdlikni,Ob)MrviitlgTUCoiH»rniiigIhi
177.180.100,191
u...t«
fln.l
OSAOE, T rndltioBii c'ijii<i.TiiiH({
BO
< livi. Ol»erv«iinn» cuniMwiibg
iK,m
23,2*,ss!«
Oi-TDBiAK,B«ultofjDJlnr
181
MOWIAK. L>w« H-. Tneory of. rupeclin
MoTHKB-BLAW Cu.toiu, .ffectlng
Indluis . ICg
203,314
Ta-baua gene
J«0,1«
an,227.2SH
.189.144,148
'" 171 IM
.... ,«.
!l.ia<
-«r.wnl. h-uuMof
40
INDEX.
237
„ r
Page.
Pemom AL pitiDouns, Tables of 16
Phonology 3, 9
I*HRATRY. Character of the 195
PiKB, Zebilon M., Keferenctui to 179, 180
PiNE-SHOOTEBH (livisiOD 185
Plural number 11, IB. 23.42, 13»
Plurauty of wives 147
Pole Village division 177
Political organization anions the Dakota 196
Polygamy, DakoU 147, 204
Polysyllabic wonls, Aweutuatiou of 5
PONKA, Obscn'ations cou(H'ruin<; 182. 190. 191
— name for the Oglala 162
Population of the Dakota 155
POBSBSSION anions the Dakota 1 4. l.'>. 43, 2u7
POTEWTIAL, Syntax of flC
Pottowattomie, References to 169, 171
Power Symbolsof 197
Prairie DU Cuien, Council at 180
Pratt, R. H., Story by, of a Kiowa lover 200
Prayer, Tho Lord s 151
— to the night winds 214
I'REPOsiTioNs, Dakota 52,77
— used as verbs 21
PBE8MUKE, Action by 20
Priority among the Dakota 164
I'ROCLAMATION of the £yai)i>aha 201, 202
Prodigal Son, Parable of the — 150
Pronouns xiv, xv, 6, 11, 12. 13, 14. 16. 17. 30. ."»u, .'>3. .S8, 59. 60
— . Incoriwrated 12, 16. 55, 56. 57
— , Inserted 27, 28, 32, 33
— .Numbersof 11,16,57
—, Person of 11
— . Pre!ixe<l 15.16,26.27,32,33
57
34
i
161
189
2«»
207
206
20
— , Separate
— , Sumxed
Pronunciation, Peculiarities of
Pte yute isi cens
PUANTS, Application of name . . .
Punching, Action by
Punishment of runaway wife
Purchase, The buudlc of. ...
Pushing, Act ion by
Kaymuault. Father, I'ited on tlu^ Dakota
Red UiNDLE, Mythic significance of
Red Cu)UD, Pt*ople of
Red Iron, P«^ple of
Red lake region. Reference to
Red painting of scalps
Red Stone v^uakry Village Imliaus
Red Thunder, Reference to
Red Wild Rice Village Indians
Redwinu. Reference to
Reduplication
Relations. Names of family
Renville. Jo.-^EPU, R<»fereuco to
Renville, Michel, Reference to writ iiijr« «»f 83.
Republican Pawnee, Referen<'«' to
RiGGS. A. L.. Claasitication of substantixf vrrb.H by.
— cited on the name Sante*'
genitive caw*
RiGGS, S. R., iCcmarks on ^ub.ntantive verbs by
the supernatural in myths by
1({9
197 ,
187 ;
150
178
226 ,
177 I
185
177 '
170 :
46.69 '
45.138
IHl
115,1,30, '
144,158
103 '
70 '
159,160 I
43
89 !
90 ,
Pag&
RiGGS, T. L., Suggestion of. oonc«rning prepositions. 52
River bands of the Dakota, Inference to 179
River Village baud 177
Robinson, John, cited on the numen OgUIa, etc 102, 103
R(X)TS, Verbal 19
RuBBLVO. Action by **)
Rules of conduct 201.204.228
Runaway wife, Punishment ot 207
Sac and Fox tribe.Notes on 171. 180
Sacred armor 219
— feast. Account of 229
— language. Description of 166
Sacrifice, Primitive 176
Salle, Robert, P^re de la. Explorations of. 172
Sandy lake region, Reference to 179
Sa>»ona gens 101
Sa.'^onee gens 185
Sans Arcs. Origin of name 187
Santee, Observations concerning the 159, 180, 181, 184
— dialect. Texts in the. 83. 95, 110, 115. 124. 130. 144. 150, 151, 152
Sauk and Fox, Notes on 171, 180
Sault Ste. Marie, Inference to 170
Sawala gens 103
Sawing, Action by 26
•* Say, " Rciietition of word in dialogue 89
Scalp dance. Influence of. on morality 229. 22*
Scouts, Selection of 200. 201
Seven, a mystic number 156. 184. 137
" Shadow " or na};i, Various meaning.'^ ot 213
Sharp Grass. Reference to 149
Shaving. Action by 20
Shepherd. liclief concerning 129
Shooting, Action by 20
SiCan^u tribe and gens 101,103
SiHA SAPA tribe and gentes 101, 103
SlKdiCENA gens 161
Simon A nawa^'gmani, Account of ^19
"Singing TO," Definition of 224
SiouAN tribes. Migrations of 190
Sloi'X, Observations (m name 183.184
SlsiTorj WAN. gens 158. 159. 101. 179. 190
SissFmiN, Remarks concerning 180, 184, 185
Sister 122
Sitting Bull, Reference to 188
SiVAKA o. Uofereuco to 147.148
Skidl Tradition respecting 193
Sleeps, Days counted by 105
Sleepy K yes' people. Reference to 159
Small Band Village Indians 177
Sni, Peculiar use of 139
Snipe, Mythical origin of 149
Sociology of the DakoU 158. 177, 179, 183, 195,203
"S«>ldier- KILLING," Exemption from 220
SoNGASKieoNs, Reference t«» 171
.Sounds peculiar to Indian wonls xii, 3, 4
Spirit lake band 179
— villagers 150. 177. 183
Spirits, Dakota iMdief in the existence of 212, 213
SPtnTEU Tail, Referi'uce to 187
SpRiNu i-eckoiied as one nuK>n 105
Standing Buffalo. Account of 182. 190
Star born, Myth of 91 92.93,94,121
Star land. Mythical world «)f 90
Stone implements used by the Dakota 184
238
INDEX.
Pago.
Stoneyb, a band of AsRiniboiD 183
Stranger, Place of, in the tipi 204
Strikinq. Action by 20
SuBJUNcrrvE, Sv-ntax of 65
SUBBTANTIVE VERBS, Dakota 70. 89
SUBsnrirTiON and elmion 6
Summer reckoned aa fl vt* nioouA 165
Sr» DANCK, Obwrvations on 214. 22y. 230
J^UN ikOeka genH 161
Superhuman, Beliefe concerning tlie 214
Superior, Lake, Reference to 171, 176
SUPKRNATURALISM in Dakota my tlm 90, 138
Sweat lodge, DeHcription of 101
Syllabication 3
Symbolic couibj* 197, 200. 202. 226
"Ta,' Meaning of 207
Taboos, Kenioval of 220
Tahuha yuta genH 161
Takapsintona, Origin of naino 158
TAKAPSIN TOlJfWAIfNA gens 158
Takini gena 161
Tamahe, Reference to 181
Tappagb Pawnee 193
TA8I9TAYUK1KIPI, Explanation of 120,121
Tbal duck, Belief concerning 149
Tense, Dakota 25, 66, 67
Tbnt given to be naed for the tiyotipi 197
Teton, Account of the 182.186.212
— dialect. Remarks concerning 7
Teton Leaf Village Indians 177
Texts in the Santee dialect 83, 95. 110,
115. 124. 130, 144, 150, 151. 152
Yankton dialect 105
Thunder-being, Belief concerning 142
TicONDEROGA, Reference to battle of 189, 191
Time, Method of reckoning 165
TiJTTA TOJJ WE gena 157
TiPi, Obaervat iona concerning the 204
TrrOffWAij Refcrenceu to the 161. 164, 180, 182, 187
-— dialect, Obaervation-n on 8, 9
TiYOTi, Meaniugof 200
Tiyotipi, Observations on 162, 195, 196, 200
TiZAPTAij, Reference to 158,159
Touchers, Selection of 200
Traditions of the Omaha and Fouka 190
Traverse Lake, Reference to 158
TUTELO kindship terms xix, xxi
Two Kettles, Origin of the name 187
Two ^70MEN 141, 142, 148, 149
XOiwERE kinship terms xix, xxi
UNKTErti 138,142
XJjf KTOK A tribe 191
UiyKTOMI 104. 111. 1 13. 114. 138. 139, 142, 143
TTplanders division 187
Fpper IhaNKToi^wa.-VNA gentes 161
Verbal roots, Dakota 19. 25
Verbs, Dakota 6. 19, 21, 22. 23,
27. 28, 30, 31, 32. 33. 35, 51, 62. 63, 69
— , Adjective 31
Page.
Verbm. Ad verl*^ formed from 51
— . Auxiliary 68
— . Causative 21, 23, 68
— . Defective 30. 35
— , Formation of 19, '20. 21, 26, 27, 28. 32. 33, 34
— , Forms of 21, 22, 23, 31
— . Government of 63
— , Position of hfi.Q2
— , Syntax of. 62, 64. 69
Village of Wild Rice Gatherers, Origin of name. 184
Village on the River, 183
Violators of hunting laws. Treatment of 202
VoCATi\'E8 of kinship terms 120
Vowels and vowel changes 3, 8
Wabashaw band. Reference to 180
Wa<?eoi!,ta gentes 160, 163
Wahpekute tribe 157, 180. 184, 186
Wahpeton. Remarks on the 180
Wahpeton-Teton, Explanation of 184
WaApetoijwai^ tribe 157, 158. 179. 180. 184
Wakan men. Beliefs cono^miug 214, 216
— SACK, Mythical origin of 2*28
WAKi^AiirTA, Meaning of 201
WAKHifYAiy, Meaning of 138
Wakmuha oiij gens 160
Wakpa ATOifWAij gens 158. 183
Walking Fxk, Writings of 105
WAMNUdA-rrAdo^A, Description of 143
War, Indian 170. 177
— honors. Distribution of 220
— prophet. Song of the 213
WA6l<?u:y. Meaning of 174, 175
160
20
176
201
163
160
WasiCuj? OiJfCA band
Water, Effects of running, shown by prefix.
Watpaaton, Dakota divi.Hion
Wayeya, Meaning of
Wa^aSKa gens
Wazikltte, Origin of name
Waziya, Myth of 92, 93
Weeks not reckoned by the Dakota 165
Western Dakota divisions 177
White earth riyer. Ascent of 190
White man, Siouan terms for xxx
WiOA.'fflPi Hl>rApAYA, Myth of 83
Wi<?A^A, Analysis of 203
WiCawoha, Meaning of 205
Widow, Reference to. in legend 127, 128
Wife, Position of the 204. 206, 207
Wild Rice Gatherers' l>and 177
WiLUAMSON, A. W., Suggestion of, respecting pro-
nouns 31
Wind, Effect of, shown by prefix 20
— , prayer to 214
Winnebago, Observations on the 160, 170 180. 189
— kinship tenus xix, xxi
WiNNKPEKOAK, Algonquian name for the Winne-
bago 189
Winona, Legend of 206
Winter, Rec koning of, in calendar 165
Winter count of American horse. Reference to the
peculiar 182
Wisconsin river. Descent of, by Marqueite and
Joliet 171
WidTENKiYAPl, Dakota custom of 204
INDEX.
239
WiTA OTINA genH l'>8
WiTAKA OTINA geuil VtS
WoftPAPi. Explanation of 206
Woman, Social position of lli."i. 204
— , Easy accoachmnent of 207
— , Myth conccmiog 90
— , Names of 4r»
-, Temptation of hiiAbamrs brotbor by 139
Wood duck, Myth concerning 114
Yankton, Explanation of name 185
-dialect, Text in the 105
-, Migrations of the 178, 180, 182, 185. 18S
Yanktonai, Migrations of the 180. 186
-, Origin of 185
YBAR8, i;ounting itf, by the Dakota 165
Yellow Medicine bivek, Reft?rencc to 1«4
Yesa" or Tutelo, Meaning of 180
YouNORR BROTHER, Mythic adveutureit of i:i9. liV
A
3 bias oil 7Aa sis
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