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DAMS km WEIRS

AN ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON GRAVITY

DAMS AND WEIRS; ARCH AND BUTTRESS DAMS;

SUBMERGED WEIRS; AND BARRAGES

By W. G. ^LIGH

INBPBCTINa ENGINEER Off IRRIGATION WORKS

DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR, CANADA

MEMBER, INSTITtTTB CIVIL ENGINEERING (lONDON)

• ^ J J „ t

• • *^. * ' • * ^ ^

".. » * •

3 ■' J , ', - O - *• *

J *

•'-'•.yvjJv *w,.*j"'''->.-'

ILLUSTRATED

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

CHICAGO

1915

A^A.>

COPTBiaHT, 1916, BT

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

COPTRIOHTED IN OBKAT BRITAIN
ALL RIGHTS BB8BRYXO

» » » • • • •

"•• • •••••"•"•

CONTENTS

PAGB

Gravity dams 2

Pressure of water on wall 2

Method for graphical calculations 2

Conditions of "middle third" and limiting stress 3

Compressive stress limit. 4

Design of dams 4

Theoretical profile 4

Practical profile 8

Crest width 9

Rear widening 10

Variation of height 13

High and wide crest 13

Graphical method .- . , t 16

Analytical method 18

Pressure distribution 23

Graphical method for distribution of pressure 25

Maximum pressure limit 27

Limiting height 29

Internal shear and tension 30

Security against failure by sliding or shear 31

Influence lines 31

Actual pressures in figures 34

Haessler's method 36

Stepped polygon 37

Modified equivalent pressure area in inclined back dam ... 37

Curved back profiles 39

Treatment for broken line profiles 41

Example of Haessler's method 42

Relations of R. N. and W 43

Unusually high dams 43

Pentagonal profile to be widened 47

Silt against base of dam 50

Ice pressure ^ 51

Partial overfall dams. . -QQ^-^f^-r^ ^^

CONTENTS

PAGB

Notable existing dams 63

Cheeseman Lake dam 53

Analytical check r 55

Roosevelt dam 56

New Croton dam 58

Assuan dam 59

Cross River and Ashokan dams 65

Bmrin Juick dam 65

Arrow Rock dam. 67

Special foundations 69

Aprons aflfect uplift 70

Rear aprons decrease uplift 71

• Rock below gravel 72

Gravity dam reinforced against ice pressure 73

Gravity overfall dams or weirs 75

Characteristics of overfalls 75

Approximate crest width 77

Pressures affected by varying water level 79

Method of calculating depth of overfall 82

Objections of *'Ogee'' overfalls 85

Folsam weir 85

Dhukwa weir 90

Mariquina weir 92

Granite Reef weir 92

Nira weir 95

Castlewood weir 96

American dams on pervious foundations 97

Arched dams. 101

Theoretical and practical profiles 102

Support' of vertical water loads in arched dams 104

Pathfinder dam 104

Shoshone dam 107

Sweetwater dam 109

Barossa dam Ill

Burrin Juick subsidiary dam 112

Dams with variable radii 112

Multiple arch or hollow arch buttress dams. . . 113

Multiple arch generally more useful than single arch dams. . 113
Mir Alam dam 114

CONTENTS

PAGa

Multiple arch or hollow arch buttress dams— continued

Stresses in buttress 117

Belubula dam 118

Ogden dam. . , 120

Design for multiple arch dam 122

Reverse water pressure 124

Pressure on foundations 125

Flood pressures , 129

Big Bear Valley dam 131

Hollow slab buttress dams 136

Formulas for reinforced concrete 137

Guayabal dam 141

Bassano dam 146

Submerged weirs founded on sand 151

Percolation beneath dam 152

Governing factor for stability 153

.Vertical obstruction to percolation 159

Rear apron 159

Example of design type A 164

Discussion of Narora weir 167

Sloping apron weirs, type B 169

Restoration of Khanki weir 171

Merala weir 171

Porous fore aprons 173

Okhla and Madaya weirs 177

Dehri weir 178

Laguna weir 179

Damietta and Rosetta weirs 179

Open dams or barrages 182

Barrage defined 182

Weir sluices of Corbett dam 189

General features of river regulators 193

Stability of Assiut barrage 194

Hindia barrage 194

American vs. Indian treatment 196

North Mon canal 200

Upper Coleroon regulator 201

St. Andrew^s Rapids dam 201

Automatic dam or regulator 205

i;t

INTRODUCTION

A N unused waterfall, no matter how beautiful, appeals to an
^^ engineer mainly as an economic waste, and he fairly aches to
throw a dam across the rushing torrents or to utilize the power of
the water which glides gracefully over the falls and dashes itself
into useless spray many feet below. His progress in the past
years has, however, in no way measured up to his desires, but
with the United States and other governments undertaking gigan-
tic irrigation projects in order to reclaim vast areas of tillable
lands and with hydroelectric companies acquiring the power
rights of our great waterfalls, the last few years have witnessed
wonderful progress in this type of engineering work. The use of
reinforced concrete as a standard material and the solving of the
many problems in connection with it has greatly simplified and
cheapened the construction, thus avoiding the greater difficulties
of masonry construction usually found in the older dams.

q All of this progress in the design of dams and weirs, however,
has served to multiply the types of design and has increased the
need for an authoritative and up-to-date treatise on the theoretical
and practical questions involved. The author of this work has
been a designing engineer for more than a generation and has
built dams and weirs in India, Egypt, Canada, and this country.
He is, therefore, abundantly qualified to speak, not only from the
historic side of the work but from the modern practical side as well.
In addition to a careful analysis of each different type of profile,
he has given critical studies of the examples of this type, showing
the good and bad points of the designs. A wealth of practical
problems together with their solution makes the treatise exceed-
ingly valuable.

q It is the hope of the publishers that this modern treatise will
satisfy the demand for a brief but authoritative work on the sub-
ject and that it will find a real place in Civil Engineering literature.

Si
g, I

5;!

DAMS AND WEERS

PART I

INTRODUCTION

1. Definitions. A dam may be defined as an impervious wall
of masonry, concrete, earth, or loose rock which upholds a mass of
water at its rear, while its face or lower side is free from the pressure
of water to any appreciable extent. The waste water of the reser-
voir impoimded by the dam is disposed of by means of a waste weir,
or by a spillway clear of the work, or in rare cases, by sluice openings
in the body of the dam.

Weirs, or overfall dams, although often confounded with bulk-
head dams, differ from the latter in the following points, first,
that the water overflows the crest, and second, that the tail water
is formed below the dam. These two differences often modifv the
conditions of stress which are applicable in the design of dams
proper, and consequently the subject of weirs demands separate
treatment.

2. Classification. Dams and weirs may be classified as
follows:

1. Gravity Dams

2. Gravity Overfalls, or Weirs

3. Arched Dams

4. Hollow Arch Buttress Dams

5. Hollow Slab Buttress Dams

6. Submerged Weirs

7. Open Dams, or Barrages

The subjects of earth, rock fill, and steel dams will not be
treated in this article, as the matter has been already dealt with in
other volumes. Graphical as well as analytical methods will be
made use of, the former procedure being explained in detail as
occasion demands.

J J J . I

, j • J

2 DAMS AND WEIRS

GRAVITY DAMS

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DAMS

A gravity dam is one in which the pressure of the water is
resisted by the weight or "gravity" of the dam itself.

3. Pressure of Water on Wall. The hydrostatic pressure of
the water impounded by a wall or dam may be graphically repre-
sented by the area of a triangle with its apex at the surface and its
• base drawn normal to the back line of the dam, which base is equal
or proportionate to the vertical depth. When the back of the wall

is vertical, as in Pig. 1, the area of this pressure triangle will be -^
H being the vertical height. When, as in Fig. 2, the back is inclined,
tins area will be — ^, H' being the inclined length of the exposed
surface, which equals H cosec <l>.

The actual pressure of water per unit length of dam is the
above area multiplied by the unit weight of water. This unit

Mi— I

PTg. 1. Water PnsBUn Area Tig. 2. Water Prceeuro Area with

mtb Back of Dam Vertical Back of Dam Inclined

weight is symbohzed by w, which is 62,5 pounds, or A short ton,or
jr long ton, per cubic foot.

Unit Pressure. The pressure per square foot, or unit pressuK
on the wall at any point, is measured by the corresponding ordinate
of the above triangle, drawn parallel to its base, and is evidently
the same in both Hgs. 1 and 2. The total pressure on the inclined
back as represented by the triangle in Rg, 2 will, however, be
greater than in Fig. 1.

4. Method for Graphical Calculations. For graphical calcula-
tions when forces of dissimilar unit weight or specific gravity are

DAMS AND WEIRS ^ 3

engaged^ as in the case of water and masonry, or earth and masonry,

it is the usual practice to reduce them to one common denominator

by making alterations in the areas of one or the other, the weight of

the masonry being usually taken as a standard. This result is

effected by making the bases of the triangles of water pressure

H
equal, not to H, but to — , p (rho) being the sign of the specific

P
gravity of the solid material in the wall. The triangle thus reduced

will then represent a weight or area of masonry 1 unit thick, equiva-
lent to that of water. This device enables the item of unit weight,
which is wXp to he eliminated as a common factor from the forces
engaged, i. e., of the water pressure and of the weight of the wall.
The factor thus omitted has to be multiplied in again at the close
of the graphical operation, only, however, in cases where actual
pressures in tons or pounds are required to be known.

Value of p. The values ordinarily adopted for p, the specific
gravity of masonry or concrete, are 2 J and 2.4, i.e., equivalent to
weights of 141 and 150 pounds, respectively) per cubic foot, while
for brickwork 2 is a sufficiently large value. The value of wp in the

3
former case will be .069 ton and in the latter .075, or -— ton.

In some cases the actual value of p mounts as high as 2.5 and
even 2.7, when heavy granite or basalt is the material employed.

The reduction thus made in the water pressure areas has further
the convenience of reducing the space occupied by the diagram.
The areas of the reduced triangles of water pressure in Figs. 1 and

2 are -7:— and — - — , respectively.
2p 2p

5. Conditions of "Middle Third'' and Limiting Stress. Sec-

tions of gravity dams are designed on the well-known principle of

the "middle third." This expression signifies that the profile of

the wall must be such that the resultant pressure lines or centers of

pressure due first to the weight of the dam considered alone, and

second with the external water pressure in addition, must both

fall within the middle third of the section on any horizontal base.

These two conditions of stress are designated. Reservoir Empty

(R.E.) and Reservoir Full (R.F.). The fulfillment of this condition

insures the following requirement: The maximum compressive ver-

4 DAMS AND WEIRS

tical unit stress (s), or reaction on the base of a (}am, shall not exteed
twice the mean compressive unit stress, or, stated symbolically,

9^2si

Now the mean vertical compressive unit stress *i is the weight 6t the
structure divided by its base length- i.e.,

2W
Hence, s, the maximum vertical unit pressure, should not exceed -7 —

Further comments on the distribution of the reaction on the base

of a dam will be made in a later paragraph.

6. G)mpressive Stress Limit. A second condition imposed is

that of the internal compressive stress Umit, that is: The ma ximum

permissible compressive unit stress which is developed in the interior

of the masonry of the dam, mus t rwt be exceeded. This value can be

experimentally found by crushing a cube of the material employed,

and using a factor of safety of 6 or 8. Cement concrete will crush

at about 2000 pounds per square inch, equivalent to 144 tons (of

2000 poimds) per square foot. The safe value of s would then be

144

—- = 18 tons per square foot. For ordinary lime concrete as

employeo. in the East, the limit pressure adopted is generally 8
'long" tons, equivalent to 9 tons of 2000 pounds. Ten "long"
tons, or 11.2 "short" tons is also a common value.

DESIGN OF DAMS

7. Theoretical Profile. The theoretically correct profile of a
so-termed "low" masonry dam, i.e., one of such height that the limit
stress is not attained under the conditions above outlined, is that
of a right-angled triangle having its back toward the water vertical,
and its apex at the water surface. It can be proved that the proper
base width b of this triangle is expressed by the formula

This profile, shown in Fig. 3, will be termed the "elementary trian-
gular profile", as on it the design of all profiles of dams is more or
less based. In this expression, H is the vertical height. The base^

DAMS AND WEIRS 5

width of -7=- insures the exact incidence of the vertical resultant (W)

(R.E.) and of the inclined resultant R (R.F.) at the inner and outer
edge, respectively, of the central third division of the base. The
condition of the middle third is thus fulfilled in the most economical
manner possible, a factor of safety of 2 against overturning is
obtained, and further, the angle of inclination of the resultant R
with regard to the base is usually such as to preclude danger of
failure by sliding. . ^

The fore slope or hypothenuse will be in the ratio 1 : Vp which,
when p = 2J, will equal 2:3, a slope very commonly adopted.

DOUBLE SCRLEl

(o)

Fig. 3. Elementary Triangular Profile for "Low" Masonry Dam

and with p=2.4 the ratio will be 1:1.549. The area of the ele-

mentary triangle is — ■== while, as we have seen, that of the water

2Vp

pressure is -7-—. 6 is the vertical angle between W and R, and
2p

sec e = -^5^= 1.187 with p = 2.4.
Vp

In Fig. is the resultant pressiu'e lines are drawn to intersect the
base so as to afford ocular proof of the stabiUty of the section under
the postulated conditions.

Graphical Method. The graphical procediu'e will now be briefly
explained, and also in the futiu'e as fresh developments arise, for

6 DAMS AND WEIRS

the benefit of those who are imperfectly acquainted with this valu-
able labor-saving method.

There are two forces engaged, P the horizontal, or, it may be Pi,
the inclined water pressure acting through the center of gravity of its
area normal to the back of the wall, and W the weight or area of the
wall. Of these two forces the item wpy or unit weight, has already
been eliminated as a common factor, leaving the pressures repre-
sented by superficial areas. As, however, the height H is also com-
mon to both triangles, this can Ukewise be eliminated. The forces
may then be represented simply by the half widths of the triangular
areas by which means all figuring and scaling may be avoided.

First, a force polygon has to be constructed. In Fig. 3a, P is
first drawn horizontally to designate the water pressure, its length
being made equal to the half width of its pressure area in Fig. 3.
From the extremity of P, the load line W is drawn vertically, equal
to the half width of the elementary triangular profile, then the
closing line R according to the law of the triangle of forces will
represent the resultant in magnitude and direction. Second, the
lines of actual pressures reciprocal to those on the force polygon
will have to be transferred to the profile. The incidence of the
resultant water pressure on the back is that of a line drawn through

the e.g. of the area of pressure, parallel to its base, in this case, at — ,

6t one-third the height of the water-pressure triangle, above the
base. Its direction, like that of the base, is normal to the back, in
this case horizontal, and if prolonged it will intersect the vertical
force JF, which in Uke manner acts through the center of gravity of
the elementary profile of the wall. From this point of intersection
the resultant R is drawn parallel to its reciprocal in Fig. 3a. Both
W and R are continued until they cut the base line, and these points
of intersection will be found to be exactly at the inner and outer
edges of the middle third division of the base. It will be seen that
when the reservoir is empty the center of pressure on the base is at
the incidence of W, when full it is shifted to that of R.

Analytical Method. The same proof can be made analytically
as follows: The weight of the two triangles W and P can be repre-
sented by their bases which are —j= and — , respectively. If moments

Vp p

DAMS AND WEIRS

be taken about the outer edge of the middle third, the lever arm of
the vertical force W is clearly — or —7= and that of P, the horizontal

force, is the distance of the center of gravity of the triangle of water

pressure above the base, viz, — . The equation will then stand

(^x^)-(fxD-

i?2

3p 3p

If the actual values of R and of W were required, their measured or
calculated lengths would have to be multiplied by Hand by wp in order
to convert them to tons, poimds, or kilograms, as may be required.
In many, in fact most, cases actual pressures are not required to be
known, only the position of the centers of pressures in the profile.
Thus a line of pressures can be traced through a profile giving
the positions of the centers of pressure without the necessity of
converting the measiu'ed lengths into actual quantities. In the
elementary triangle. Fig. 3, the value of the vertical resultant W is

— ?£— 5. That of R required in the older methods of calculation

jg HHu^lp+l

%/>^ JLV/'.%<VV& T W «/^

1^ V TT M.AM. ICrxy A

^~r tAAAVA. VU..rVJi \AM.a

P OB

Pounds per

Tons per

Specific
Gravity

Cubic Foot

1.414

.71

125

.0625

1.5

141

.07

2.4

1.55

.645

.417

150

.075=A

2.5

1.58

.633

156

.078

2.7

1.643

.609

.37

168.7

.084

Profile with Bdck Inclined. If the elementary profile be canted
forward so that its back is inclined to the vertical, it will be found
that the incidence of R will fall outside the middle third while that
of W will be inside. The base will, therefore, have to be increased

above -7=-.
Vp

DAMS AND WEIRS

When the back is overhanging, on the other hand, R will fall
inside and W outside the middle third. The vertically backed
section is consequently the most economical.

8, Practical Profile, In actual practice a dam profile must be
provided with a crest of definite width, and not terminate in the
apex of a triangle. The upper part of a dam is subjected to indefi-
nite but considerable stresses of an abnormal character, due to extreme
changes in temperature, consequently a solid crest is a necessity.

The imposition of a rectangular crest, as shown in dotted lines on

Yp* f-55

Fig. 4. Practical Pentagonal Profile for "Low"
Masonry Dam

Fig. 3, transforms the triangular profile into a pentagon. This has
the effect of increasing the stability of the section (R.F.) so that
the base width can be somewhat reduced, at the same time the
vertical resultant W (R.E.), falls outside the middle third, but to
so small an extent that this infringement of the imposed condition
is often entirely neglected. In order to provide against this, a strip
of material will have to be added to the back of the plain pentagonal
profile. Fig. 4 is a diagram explanatory of these modifications.
The dimensions of this added strip, as well as its position, can be

DAMS AND WEIRS

conveniently expressed in terms of (k) the crest width — ^i.e., AB

in Fig. 4. The line of pressure (R.E.) will begin to leave the middle
third at the depth AD, which is found by calculation which need

not be produced here, to be 2A:Vp. Below the point D, the
divergence of the line of pressure will continue for a further depth

DE, the point E, being close upon S.lkyip below the crest, or

l.lk^lp below P. Below point E, the line of pressure will no
longer diverge outward, but will tend to regain its original position,
consequently no further widening will be necessary, and the added

Eiietoj

Fig. 5. Profile of Chartrain Dam Showing Crest with Overhang

strip will be rectangular in form down to the base. The points D
and F being joined, this portion of the back will be battered. The
width of this added strip E¥ will be, with close approximation.

or .06i.

9. Crest Width. The crest width of a dam should be propor-
tioned to its actual height in* case of a "low" dam, and in the case of
a "high" dam to the limiting height — ^i.e., to that depth measured
below the crest at which the maximum stress in the masonry is first

DAMS AND WEIRS

reached. Thus in "high" dams the upper part can always be of
the same dimensions except, ^^here the requirements of cross com-
munication necessitate a widw crest.

The effect of an abnormally wide crest can be modified by
causing it to overhang the fore slope, this widening being carried
by piers and arches. A good example of this construction occurs
in the Chartrain dam, Fig. 5, The arches form a stifT but Ught
finish to the dam and have a pleasing architectural effect. The
same procedure, but in a less pronounced degree, is carried out in
the Croton dam, Fig. 27.
w^, The formula for crest

width can be expressed
either in terms of the limit-
ing height Hi, or of the
base b, where the limiting
height is not attained, and
a good proportion is given
by the following empirical
rule:

k=^Tr, (2)

Pentagoo*! Profile— Bacit V

k = .l5b (2a)
This latter formula makes
the crest width a function of the specific gravity as well as of the
height, which is theoretically sound.

10. Rear Widening. Where the rear widening of a 'low"
dam is neglected or where a uniform batter is substituted for the
arrangement shown in Fig. 4, the profile will be pentagonal in out-
hne. When the back is vertical the two triangles composing the
body of the dam are similar. If the ratio existing between the crest

(k) and the t

by T, then k=br, and h, the

depth of the vertical side in Rg. 6, = Hr and kxh= Ilbr^.

In order to, find what value the base width b should have, so
that the center of pressure (R.F.) will fall exactly at the edge of the
middle third, the moments of all the forces engaged will have to be
taken about this point and equated to zero. The vertical forces

DAMS AND WEIRS 11

consist of W, the lower, and Wi the upper triangle; the horizontal
of P, the water pressure.

1 !• Method of Calculation. The pressures can be represented
by the areas of the prisms involved, the triangle of water pressure
being as usual reduced by dividing its base by p. A further elim-

ination of common factors can be achieved by discarding — which

is common to all three forces, the area Wi being Represented by br

Hbr^
because the actual original value is — ^r — . The forces then are W,

H '

represented by b; Wi by br^; and P by — ; the actual value of the

' P
latter being -77—. The lever arm distances of the c.g.'s of these three

forces from A, the incidence of /?, are as follows: of TF, — , of Wi,

o
2 X7 1

— (6 — br), and of P, — . The equation will then stand, eliminating -,

6x6+6r2(26-2x6r)-— =

whence

62(l+2r2-2r3)-— =0

b^-^X-j=L= (3)

Vp Vl+2r2-2r3

The value of 6 thus obtained will prove a useful guide in deciding

the base width even when the back of the wall is not vertical, as only

a small increase will be needed to allow for the altered profile. When

h . . 1 .

—or r = .15 the reducing coefiicient works out to . _^- , the reciprocal
1.019

of which is .981. Thus with a profile 80 feet high with p = 2.5 and

80
r = .15, the base width of the pentagonal profile will be 6 = — X .981

V2.5
=49.64 feet; the decrease in base width below that of the elementary
profile without crest will be 50.60—49.64 = 0.96 feet. The crest
width will be 49.64 X. 15 = 7.45 feet. In actual practice, the dimen-
sions would be in round niunbers, 50 feet base and 7\ feet crest

DAMS AND WEIRS

width as made on Fig. 6. The face of the profile in Fig. 6 is made
by joining the toe of the base with the apex of the triangle of water
pressm-e.

Graphical Process. The graphical processes of finding the
incidences of W and of R on the base are self-explanatory and are
shown on Fig. 6. The profile is divided into two triangular areas,
(1), 45 square feet and (2), 2000 square feet. The two final result-
ants fall almost exactly at the middle third boundaries, W, as
might be conjectured, a trifle outside. Areas are taken instead of
^ widths, owing to H not being a common factor.

Analytical Process. The analytical process of taking moments
about the heel is shown below:

Area

Lever Arm

Moment

(1)

(2)

45
2000

2045

7.5X2
3

50
3

225
33333

33558

The value 33,558, which is the total moment of parts equals the
moment of the whole about the same point or

2045Xa:=33558

a; =16.41 feet

50
The incidence of W is therefore -r — 16.41 = .26 ft. outside the middle

third. To find that of R relative to the heel, the distance (see

^- 1'7^u^ TT/ AT>' PH 1280X80 102400 ^^^

section 17) between W and R is 17777= owoa^ik ^ ^iqk = ■^"•^^•

3W 3X2045 6135

The distance of R from the heel is therefore 16.69+16.41 = 33.10 ft.

2
The — point is 33.33 feet distant, consequently the incidence of R

is .23 foot within the middle third.

If the base and crest had been made of the exact dimensions
deduced from the formula, the incidence of R would be exactly at

the — point while W would fall slightly outside the one-third point.

DAMS AND WEIRS

12, Variation of Height. The height of a dam is seldom uni-
form throughout; it must vary with the irregularities of the river
bed, so that the maximum section extends for a short length only,
while the remainder is of varying height.. This situation will affect
the relationship between the crest width and the height, and also
the base width. To be consistent, the former should vary in width
in proportion to the height. This, however, is hardly practicable,
consequently the width of the crest should be based more on the
average than on the maximum height, and could be made wider
wherever a dip occurs in the foundation level.

13. High and Wide Crest. In case of a very high as well as

wide crest, i.e., one carried much
higher than the apex of the trian-
gle of water pressure, it is not
desirable to reduce the base width
much below that of the elemen-
tary triangle. The excess of
material in the upper quarter of
a "low" dam can be reduced by
manipulating the fore slope.
This latter, which is drawn up-
ward from the toe of the base,
in Fig. 7, can be aUgned in three
directions. First, by a line ter-
minating at the apex of the trian-
gle of water pressure; second, it
can be made parallel to that of
the elementary profile, that is, it can be given an inclination of

—j= to the vertical, and third, the slope or batter can be made

flatter than the last. This latter disposition is only suitable with

an abnormally high and wide crest and is practically carried out

in the Chartrain dam. Fig. 5, where the base is not reduced at all

, H
below ~7=.
Vp

Reduction to any large extent, of the neck of the profile thus
effected is, however, not to be commended, as the upper quarter of
a dam is exposed to severe though indeterminate stresses due to

BB, CB Off c/b,= 50.0' C^C,

Fig. 7. Profile Showing Different Disposition
of Fore Slope

14 DAMS AND WEIRS

changes of temperature, wind pressure, etc., and also probably to
masses of ice put in motion by the wind. The Cross River dam,
to be illustrated later, as well as the Ashokan dam, are examples of
an abnormally thick upper quarter being provided on account of
ice. Whatever disposition of the fore slope is adopted, the profile
should be tested graphically or analytically, the line of pressure, if
necessary, being drawn through the profile, as will later be explained.

From the above remarks it will be gathered that the design of
the section of a dam down to the limiting depth can be drawn by a
few Unes based on the elementary profile which, if necessary, can
be modified by applying the test of ascertaining the exact position
of the centers of pressure on the base. If the incidence of these
resultants falls at or close within the edge of the middle third divi-
sion of the base, the section can be pronounced satisfactory; if
otherwise, it can easily be altered to produce the desired result.

Freeboard, The crest has to be raised above actual full reservoir
level by an extent equal to the calculated depth of water passing
over the waste weir or through the spillway, as the case may be.
This extra freeboard, which adds considerably to the cost of a
work, particularly when the dam is of great length and connected
with long embankments, can be avoided by the adoption of auto-
matic waste gates by which means full reservoir level and high flood
level are merged into one.

In addition to the above, allowance is made for wave action,
the height of which is obtained by the following formula:

Au, = 1.5VF+(2.5-V^) (4)

In this expression F is the "fetch", or longest line of exposure of
the water surface to wind action in miles. Thus if jP=4 miles, the
extra height required over and above maximum flood level will be
(1 .5 X 2) + (2.5 - 1 .4) = 4.1 feet. If F = 10 miles, hy, will work out to
5 J feet. The apex of the triangle of water pressure must be placed
at this higher level; the crest, however, is frequently raised still
higher, so as to prevent the possibiUty of water washing over it.

14. Example. The working out of an actual example under
assumed conditions will now be given by both graphical and analyti-
cal methods. Fig. 8 represents a profile 50 feet in height with crest
level corresponding with the apex of the triangle of water pressure,

DAMS AND WEIRS

The assumed value of p is 2J. The outHne is nearly pentagonal,

H 2
the crest width is made .156 and the base width is the full -j==7:

Vp 3

X 50 = 33.3 feet, the crest width is thus 5 feet. The back slope is
carried down vertically to the point e, a distance of 8 feet, and from
here on, it is given a batter of 1 in 50. The outset at the heel beyond
the axis of the dam, which is a vertical line drawn through the rear

Fig. 8. Diagram Showing Suitable Profile for 50-Foot Dam

edge of the crest is therefore .84 foot. The toe is set in the same
extent that the heel is set out. The face line of the body is formed
by a Une joining the toe with the apex of the water-pressure triangle.
If the face line were drawn parallel to the hypothenuse of the ele-
mentary triangle, i.e., to a slope of 1 : Vp, it would cut off too much
material, the area of the wall being then but very little in excess of
that of the elementary triangle, which, of course, is a minimum
quantity. As will be seen later, the analysis of the section will show
that the adopted base width could have been reduced below what

16 DAMS AND WEIRS

has been provided, to an extent somewhat in excess of that given in
formula (3).

15, Qraphical Method. The graphical procedure of drawing
the resultant Unes W (R.E.) and R (R.F.) to their intersection of the
base presents a few differences, from that described in section 7,
page 6, with regard to Fig. 3. Here the profile is necessarily (hvided
into two parts, the rectangular crest and the trapezoidal body. As
the three areas (1), (2), and Pi, are not of equal height, the item H
cannot be eUminated as a common factor, consequently the forces
will have to be represented as in Fig. 6 by their actual superficial
areas, not by the half width of these areas as was previously the case.
In Fig. 8a the vertical load line consists of the areas 1 and 2 totaling
844 square feet, which form W. The water pressure Pi is the area

of the incUned triangle whose base is — . This is best set out graph-

ically in the force polygon by the horizontal Une P, made equal to

the horizontal water pressure, which is -;r-= =555 square

2p 9

feet. The water-pressure area strictly consists of two parts corre-
sponding in depth to (1) and (2) as the upper part is vertical, not
inclined, but the difference is so slight as to be inappreciable, and
so the area of water pressure is considered as it would be if the back of
the wall were in one inclined plane. In Fig. 8 the line Pi normal to
the back of the wall is drawn from the point of origin and it is cut
off by a vertical through the extremity of the horizontal Une P.
This intercepted length Oi is clearly the representative value of
the resultant water pressure, and the line joining this point with the
base of the load Une W is R, the resultant of W and of Pi. If a
horizontal Une ^P be drawn from the lower end of the load line W
it will cut off an intercept ( N) from a vertical drawn through the
termination of Pi. This line AB = P, and N is the vertical com-
ponent of R, the latter being the resultant of W and Pi as weU as
of N and P. When the back is vertical, N and W are naturally
identical in value, their difference being the weight of water over-
lying the inclined rear slope.

The further procedure consists in drawing the reciprocals of
the three forces Pi, W, and R on the profile. The first step consists
in finding the centers of gravity of the vertical forces 1 and 2 in which

DAMS AND WEIRS 17

the hexagonal profile is divided. That of (1) lies clearly in the
middle of the rectangle whose base is de. The lower division (2) is
a trapezoid. The center of gravity of a trapezoid is best found by
the following extremely simple graphical process. From d draw
dh horizontally equal to the base, of the trapezoid fg and from g,
gj is set off eqiial to de; join hj, then its intersection with the middle
line of the trapezoid gives the exact position of its center of gravity.
Thus a few lines effect graphically what would involve considerable
calculation by analytical methods, as will be shown later.

The next step is to find the combined c. g. of the two parallel
and vertical forces 1 and 2. To effect this for any number of parallel
or non-parallel forces, two diagrams are required, first, a so-termed
force and ray polygon and, second, its reciprocal, the force and
chord, or funicular polygon. The load line in Fig. 8a can be utiUzed
in the former of these figures. First, a point of origin or nucleus of
rays must be taken. Its position can be anywhere relative to the
load line, a central position on either side being the best. The
point Oi, which is the real origin of the force polygon at the extremity
of Pi can be adopted as nucleus and often is so utilized, in which
case the force line Pi and R can be used as rays, only one additional
ray being required. For the sake of illustration, both positions for
nucleus have been adopted, thus forming two force and ray poly-
gons, both based on the same load line, and two funicular polygons,
the resultants of which are identical. The force and ray polygon is
formed by connecting all the points on the load line with the nucleus
as shown by the dotted line a, 6, and c, and a', 6', and c'. Among the
former, a and c are the force lines Pi and R, the third, b, joins the
termination of force (1) on the load line with the nucleus. These
lines a, b, c, are the rays of the polygon. Having formed the force
and ray diagram, in order to construct the reciprocal funicular
polygon 86 the force lines (1) and (2) on the profile Fig. 8 are con-
tinued down below the figure. Then a line marked (a) is drawn
anywhere right through (1) parallel to the ray a, from its intersec-
tion with the force (1), the chord (b) is drawn parallel to the ray (6)
in Fig. 8b meeting (2); through this latter intersection the third
chord (c) is drawn backward parallel to its reciprocal the ray c.
This latter is the closing line and its intersection with the initial
line (a), gives the position of the e.g. of the two forces.

18 DAMS AND WEIRS

A vertical line through this center of pressure, which represents
W, i.e., W1+W2, is continued on to the profile until it intersects
the incUned force Pi drawn through the center of gravity of the
water pressure area. This intersection is the starting point of R,
drawn parallel to its reciprocal on the force polygon 8a. This
resultant intersects the base at a point within the middle third.
R is the resultant "Reservoir Full", while W, the resultant of the
vertical forces in the masonry wall, is the resultant "Reservoir
Empty". The intersection of the latter is almost eJcactly at the inner
edge of the middle third — ^thus the condition of the middle third is
fulfilled. The question of induced pressure and its distribution on
the base will be considered later.

The incidence of N, the vertical component "Reservoir Full",
on the base is naturally not identical ^dth that of W, the resultant
"Reservoir Empty", unless the back of the wall is vertical. The
line R is the restiltant of both Pi and W, and of P and N. If
it be required to fix the position of N on the profile, a horizontal
line should be drawn through the intersection of Pi with the back
of the wall. This will represent the horizontal component of the
water pressiu'e Pi, and it will intersect R, produced upward. Then
a line drawn vertically through this latter point will represent Ny
the vertical component (Reservoir Full). The position of N is
necessarily outside of W, consequently if N is made to fall at the inner
edge of the middle third of the base, W must fall within the middle
third. This fact will later be made use of when the design of the
lower part of a "high" dam comes under consideration.

16. Analytical Method* The analytical method of ascertain-
ing the positions of the incidences of W and of R on the base, which
has just been graphically performed, will now be explained.

The first step is to find the positions of the centers of gravity
of the rectangle and trapezoid of which the profile is composed,
relative to some vertical plane, and then to equate the sum of the
moments of those two forces about any fixed point on the base,
with the moment of their sum.

The most convenient point in most cases is the heel of the base;
this projects a distance (2/) beyond the axis of the dam, which axis
is a vertical line passing through the inner edge of the rectangular

gr^stt

DAMS AND WEIRS

As the areas of the divisions, whether of the masonry wall or
of the water-pressure triangle, are generally trapezoids, the follow-
ing enumeration of various formulas,
whereby the position of the e.g. of a
trapezoid may be found either with regard
to a horizontal or to a vertical plane,
will be found of practical utiUty . In Fig.
9, if the depth of the figure between the
parallel sides be termed H, and that of
the truncated portion of the triangle of
which the trapezoid is a portion be
termed d, and h be the vertical height
of the e.g. above the base, then

\ =^.

Fig. 9. Diagram Showing Centers
of Gravity of Water Pressure
Trapezoids

'^" 3 ^ H+2d

(5)

Thus, in Fig. 9, ^=13 and d= 6 feet, then

, 13/ 13+18 \ .o-f .
^=TVi3+12;=^-^^^'''

If the base of the triangle and trapezoid with it be increased or
decreased in length, the value of h will not be thereby affected,
as it is dependent only on H and d, which values are not altered.
If, however, the base of the triangle be inclined, as shown by the

'^f^/^yf^/Y^//////////^

TL^"^

Fig. 10. Diagram Illustrating Height of c. g. Trapezoid above Base

dotted lines in Fig. 9, the center of gravity of the trapezoid will
be higher than before, but a line dfawn parallel to the inclined
base through g, the c. g. will always intersect the upright side of
the trapezoid at the same point, viz, one which is h feet distant
vertically above the horizontal base,

20 DAMS AND WEIRS

The value of h can also be obtained in terms of a and 6, the two
parallel sides of the trapezoid, and is

For example, in Fig. 10, H = 12,a = 10, and b = 16, then

If the horizontal distance of the e.g. of a trapezoid from a ver-
tical plane is required, as, for example, that of the trapezoid in Fig.
8, the following is explanatory of the working. As shown in Fig.
11, this area can be considered as divided into two triangles, the
weight of each of which is equivalent to that of three equal weights
placed at it3 angles; each weight can thus be represented by one-
third of the area of the triangle in question, or by — ;- and — -, respec-

D t)

tively, H being the vertical depth of the trapezoid. Let y be the
projection of the lower comer
A beyond that of the upper
one B. Then by equating
the sum of the moments of
the comer weights about the
point A with the moment of

**r their sum, the distance {x) of

the e.g. of the whole trape-

Fig. 11. Method of Finding DiBUnce of Center -i. j _ -ii i Ui • j

of Gravity of a Trapfioid Irom Heel ZOld from A Will be obtamed

as follows:
Q+k^Hx=~ \bia+b)+a(a+y)+y{a+b)\

-t[('+»'+<3)] (^)

where y = 0, the formula becomes

For example, in Fig. 8, a or de = 5 feet, b = 33,3, and y = .84, whence

K'"'+ii)-"'"'"'

DAMS AND WEIRS 21

The similar properties of a triangle with a horizontal base, as
in Fig. 12, may well be given here and are obtained in the same way
by taking moments about A, thus

bh ^^ /L I \

2-Xar=— (b+y)

xJ-±-' (8)

In Fig. 12, 6 = 14 feet, y = 8 feet, and A = 10 feet, then

Reverting to Fig. 8, the position of the incidence of W on the
base is obtained by taking moments about the heel g of the base as
follows: Here W is the area of the whole profile, equal, as we have
seen, to 844 sq. ft. The area of the upper component (1) is 40 sq.
ft. and of (2) 804.

The lever arm of W is by hypothesis x, ^A — y — .*

that of (1) is 2.5+.84 = 3.34 feet, that of (2) j^^ \

by formula (7) has already been shown to be fyy/yC0y7K i

1 1 .63 feet. Hence, as the moment of the whole
is equal to the sum of the moments of the t^
parts, the equation will become

844a;=40X3.34+804Xll.63 = 9484.1 i^.^^^i'-^^. Method of

Finding Center of
• Gravity of a Triangular

• • Profile

ic= 11.23 feet
This fixes the position of the incidence of W relative to the heel.

The position of the inner third point is — , or— r^ from the heel.

The incidence of W is therefore 11.23— 11. 10 = . 13 foot within the

middle third, which complies with the stipulated proviso.

The next step is to find the position of R relative to the heel of

the base. As in graphical methods, only horizontal and vertical

forces are considered; the water-pressure area is split into two parts,

, . H^
one, P the horizontal component, the value of which is -r— , or 555

feet, and wz the reduced area of water overlying the rear projection

of the back. The latter area is a trapezoid of which the upper side

.22 DAMS AND WEIRS

(a) is 8 feet long and b, the lower side, 50 feet, the depth being .84
foot, hence the distance of its e.g. inside the heel of the base will be
by formula (6), '-^ (50+16) ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^j ^^^^ .^ 8+50^

.84 = 24.4 feet; this has to be divided by p or 2 J to reduce it to a
masonry base. The reduced area will then be 10.8 square feet,
nearly. The distance of the incidence of W from the heel of the
base has already been determined to be 11.23 ft. and that of wz
being .32 ft., the distance of the c. g. of the latter from W will be
11.23— .32 = 10.9, nearly. If the distance between the incidences of
W and R be termed x, the equation of moments about the incidence
of jR, will stand thus :

P^ = Wx+wz{x+lO,9)

555X^ = 844x+10.8a:+117.83
i.e.

R is therefore 10.7+11.23 = 21.93 ft. distant from the heel. The
§ point being 22.2 ft. from the same point, R falls .3 ft. (nearly)
within the middle third. This shows that a small reduction in the
area of the profile could be effected.

17. Vertical Component. If the position of N, the vertical
component of R and Pi, is required, as is sometimes the case,
it is obtained by the equation NXx={WXll.23) + {wzX.S2),
X being the distance from the heel of the base. Or in figures,

854.8a: = (844 X 1 1 .23) + (10.8 X .32)

a: = 11.1 feet

The incidence of N is, therefore, in this case, exactly on the limit of
the middle third. This of course does not affect the condition of
middle third, which refers to the resultant W (R.E.) not to the com-
ponent N (R.F.) but, as will be seen later, when the lower part of a
high dam comes to be designed, one condition commonly imposed
is, that the vertical component N must fall at the inner edge of the
middle third, in which case W will necessarily fall inside thereof.

DAMS AND WEIRS 23

It may here be noted that the space between the location of N and

P H
R, which will be designated (/), is —j^ because if moments are taken

about the incidence of R, then Nf=——-; therefore /=-^-jrf- The

actual value of W in tons of 2000 pounds will be the superficial area,

or 844 square feet multiplied by the eliminated unit weight, i.e., by

844X9 1

wp, viz, — — — = 59.3 tons, as ^=^ ton. That of the inchned

force R, is obtained from the triangle of forces P NR in which R,

being the hypothenuse =yl N^+P^, Here N=855 square feet,
equivalent to 60 tons, nearly, and P = 555 feet, equivalent to 39

tons, whence R = V6O2+392 = 71 .5 tons.

18. Pressure Distribution. In the design of the section of a

dam, pier, or retaining wall, the distribution of pressure on a plane

in the section and the relations existing between maximum unit

stress, symbolized by {s), and mean or average unit stress (^i) will

now be considered. The mean unit stress on any plane is that

which acts at its center point and is in amount the resultant stress

acting on the plane (the incidence of which may be at any point)

divided by the width of the lamina acted on. Thus in Figs. 3 or 8

take the resultant W. This acts on the horizontal base and its

W
mean unit stress ^i will be -r-. In the same way, with regard to N, the

vertical component of R the mean unit stress produced by it on the

N
horizontal base will be -7-. The maximum unit stress occurs at

that extremity of the base nearest to the force in question which is
R. Thus the maximum unit stress due to W is at the heel while
that due to a combination of P and N acting at the incidence of R
is at the toe of the base 6. It is evident that the nearer the inci-
dence of the center of pressure is to the center point the less is the
maximiun stress developed at the outer edge of the section, until
the center of pressure is actually situated at the center point itself.
The maximum pressure at the outer part of the section then equals
the average and is thus at a minimum value. The relation between
maximum and mean unit stress or reaction is expressed in the fol-

DAMS AND WEIRS

lowing formula in which it is assumed that any tension at the heel
can be cared for by the adhesion of the cementing material or of
reinforcement anchored down :

S = Si

0-?)

(9)

or, letting m equal the expression in brackets,

(9a)

In formula (9a), q is the distance between the center point of the
basip and the center of pressure or incidence of whatever resultant

pressure is under considera-
tion, and ^1 is the mean stress,
or the resultant pressure di-
l/'-'^'f vided by the base.

In Fig. 8 as explain^ in
section 16, the incidence of R,
i.e., the center of pressure
(R.F.), falls .3 ft. within the
middle third of the base, con-
sequently the value of q will be

-^_.3 = ?|?-.3=5.25ft.,and
6 6

in formula (9a) m = 1 + -^

= 1

31.5

= 1.95. The maxi-

33.3
mum reaction at the toe

always designated by s = —j—

Fig. 13. Diagram Showing Pressure Distribution
on a Dam with Reservoir Empty and
Reservoir Full

1.95X60

= 3.51 tons per sq.

33.3
ft. For the reaction (R.F.) at

the heel, m = 1 — .95 = .05, and ^2 = ' = .09 tons. The distribu-

oo»o

tion of pressure due to the vertical component of R is shown hatched
in Fig. 8 as well as in Fig. 13.

From formula (9) the facts already stated are patent. When
the incidence of the resultant force is at the center of the base.

DAMS AND WEIRS 25

q=0, consequently m = l and s = si, that is, the maximum is equal
to the mean ; when at one of the third points, q = — , m = 2, and s = 2si;

W
when at the toe, m = 4, and s = 4^1, or 4rj-,

If the material in the dam is incapable of caring for tensile
strain, the maximum vertical compression, or s, obtained by formula
(9) will not apply. Formula (24) , section 86, should be used when-
ever R falls outside the middle third.

In designing sections it is often necessary to maneuver the
incidence of the resultant stress to a point as close as possible to the
center of the base in order to reduce the maximum stress to the least
possible value, which is that of the mean stress. The condition of the
middle third, insures that the maximum stress cannot exceed twice
the mean, and may be less, and besides insures the absence of tensile
stress at the base.

19. Graphical Method for Distribution of Pressure. The
graphical method of ascertaining the distribution of pressure on the
base of a masonry wall, which has already been dealt with analyti-
cally, is exhibited in Fig. 13, which is a reproduction of the base of
Fig. 8. The procedure is as follows: Two semicircles are struck
on the base line, having their centers at the third division points

and their radii equal to — . Frofn the point marked e, that of the

incidence of R, the Kne eg is drawn to g, the point of intersection of
the two semicircles. Again from g a line gn is set off at right
angles to eg cutting the base or its continuation at a point n. This
point is termed the antipole of e, or the neutral point at which pres-
sure is nil in either sense — compressive or tensile. Below and
clear of the profile a projection of the base is now made, and from
g a perpendicular is let fall, cutting the new base in g' while, if the
line be continued upward, it will intersect the base at K» This
latter point will, by the construction, be the center point of the base.
The Une Kg is continued through g' to h\ g'h' being made equal to
the mean unit pressure, =1.8 tons. A perpendicular is let fall
from n cutting the new base line at rii; the points n\ and h' are then
joined and the line continued until it intersects another perpendicu-
lar let fall from the toe of the base. A third perpendicular is drawn

DAMS AND WEIRS

ft_ ~-=-|^*

'=s>^-\ ri^

from the heel of the base, cutting off a comer of the triangle. The

hatched trapezoid enclosed between the last two lines represents the

distribution of pressure on the base. The maximum stress will

scale close upon 3.51 and the minimum .09 tons. If W be considered,

W 59.3
5 =-7- =—-^=1.78 tons, the maximum stress at the heel will be
66,6

3.52 and the minimum .04, at the toe.

20. Examples to Illustrate Pressure Distribution. In Fig. 14
is illustrated the distribution of pressure on the base, due to the

incidence of i?, first, at the toe of
the base, second, at the two-third
point, third, at the center, and
fourth, at an intermediate position.
In the first case (/?i), it wall be
seen that the neutral point n\ falls
at the first third point. Thus two-
thirds of the base is in compression
and one-third in tension, the maxi-
mum in either case being propor-
tional to the relative distance of the
neutral point from the toe and heel
of the base, the compression at the
toe being four times, while the ten-
sion at the heel is twice the mean
stress. In the second case (-R2)
intersects at the two-third point,
and the consequent position of n is
exkctly at the heel. The whole base
is thus in compression, and the max-
imum is double the mean. In the
third case (i?3), the line gn is
drawn at right angles to jg. The
latter is vertical and gn will conse-
quently be horizontal. The distance to n is thus infinite and the
area of pressure becomes a rectangle with a uniform unit stress s.
In the fourth case (A), the neutral point lies well outside the profile,
consequjently the whole is in compression, the condition approximatmg
to that of i?3.

TCNSlOtf

-Jc.

Fig. 14. Pressure Distribution on

Base of Dam under Various

Conditions

DAMS AND WEIRS 27

21 • Maximum Pressure Limit. The maximum pressure
increases with the depth of the profile imtil a level is reached where
the limit stress or highest admissible stress is arrived at. Down to ^
this level the design of the section of a dam, as already shown, con-
sists simply in a slight modification of the pentagonal profile with
a vertical back, the base width varjang between that of the ele-
mentary profile or -pr, or its reduced value given in formula (3).

Beyond this limiting depth, which is the base of the so-termed
"low" dam, the pentagonal profile will have to be departed from
and the base widened out on both sides.

22. Formulas for Maximum Stress. The maximum unit stress
in the interior of a dam is not identical with (s), the maximum vertical
unit reaction at the base, but is a function of ^i. In Fig. 8, a repre-
sentative triangle of forces is shown composed of N the vertical
force (R.F.), P the horizontal water pressure, and R the resultant

of N and P; therefore R = ^ N^+P^ = also N sec d. If the back

were vertical, N and W would coincide and then R = ylW^+P^,
Various views have been current regarding the maximum internal
stress in a dam. The hitherto mojt prevalent theory is based on
the assumption, see Fig. 8, that the maximum unit stress

mR -yJm+P^ mN ^ ,.^ ^

c=—^ = m 7 — r-= — — sec5 (10a)

Another theory which still finds acceptance in Europe and in the
East assumes that the maximum stress is developed on a plane
normal to the direction of the resultant forces as illustrated by the
stress lines on the base of Fig. 8. According to this, the mean

/? /?

stress due to R would not be — but — , and the maximum stress will

be —J — . But 7-= — -, and R= N sec d, consequently the maxi-

mum unit stress would be

c = ^sec2^ (10b)

Recent experiments on models have resulted in the formula for
maximum internal unit stress being recast on an entirely different
principle from the preceding. The forces in action are the maxi-

28 DAMS AND WEIRS

mum vertical unit force or reaction s combined with a horizontal

shearing unit stress *«=^-. The shearing force is the horizontal

HHo
water pressure, or -r— symbolized by P, which is assumed to be

equally resisted by each unit in the base of the dam; the unit shear-

ing stress will thus be -7-. These forces being at right angles to

each other, the status is that of a bar or colunm subject to compres-
sion in the direction of its length and also to a shear normal to its
length. The combination of shear with compression produces an
increased compressive stress, and also a tension in the material.
The formula recently adopted for maximum unit compression is

as follows:

c = is+yli.s^+s,* (10)

mN P

In this 8=msi,=—r-. As before Ss^-r-, substituting we have

mN , hmNy . P* mN+^l{mN)^+^P^ ,^^.

When m = 2, as is the case when the incidence of R is exactly at the
outer boundary of the middle third

c = =-y (1+ sec 6) (IO2)

23. Application of All Three Formulas .to Elementary Profile.

In the case of elementary triangular profile which has a vertical

Vn4-1

back, N=W and sec 6= Z. (section 7, page 5) and m = 2; then
formula (IO2) becomes

c4a+^.,.f(i+^S)

Now _

W _ffi ,,Vp _ Hwp
'p

^=^Xp«;X-g-=-2

Hwp
c = — ^

(l+^£±j) (H)

DAMS AND WEIRS 29

Eocample.

3
Let H in elementary triangle = 150 feet, p=2.4, ti?p = — ton.

When, according to (11), c = ^^^^ (1+1.187) = 12.3 tons per

ZX4U

square foot.

Taking up formula (10a)

mW sec 5 2WBecd

^=— y— =— T-

, W Hwp
as above -7-=

c = HwpJ^ = Hw^'^ylH^l ( 1 la)

^ p

Example with conditions as before

^ 150X1 XL55V3J 7 0AS/1CA 19 Q*

c= — = 7.26X1.84 = 13.3 tons

With formula (10b), c= r , or in terms of H,

c= Hwp (— ) = Hw(j>+1) (lib)

Therefore, with values as above,

150X1X3.4 -.^^

c = = 15.9 tons

From the above it is evident that formulas (10b) and (lib) give
a very high value to c. Tested by this formula, high American
dams appear to have maximum compressive imit stresses equal to
20 tons per square foot, whereas the actual value according to
formula (10) is more Uke 14 tons. However, the stresses in the
Assuan dam, the Periyar, and other Indian dams, as also French
dams have been worked out from formula (10b) which is still in use.

24. Limiting Height by Three Formulas. The Hmiting height
(Hi) of the elementary triangidar profile forms a close guide to
that obtaining in any trapezoidal section, consequently a formula will
be given for each of the three cases in connection with formulas (10),
(10a), and (10b). Referring to case (10), we have from formula (11)

Hwp

ow^

30 DAMS AND WEIRS

Whence Hi, the limiting height =

('+^'=f')

Example,

With c=16 tons and p = 2.4, Hi, the limit height of the ele-
«i -n u 2X16X33 1024 ,^. « ^
mentary profile ^^.ll be 2.4 (2.187) ===5:254 = ^^^ ^^^^'

Referring to case (10a), we have from formula (Ha)

c= IIw VpVp+1

Hi =

WpVp+1

Example.

With data as above II = j-rz — 7-777 = 180 feet, nearly.

1.55 X l.o4

Referring to case (10b), we have from formula (lib)

c=Hiv{p+l)

' w{p+\)
Example,

With same data Hi= — — - — = — — = 150 feet.

3.4 3.4

Thus the new formula (10) gives much the same results as that
formeriy in general use in the United States (10a), while in the
more conservative formula (10b) the difference is marked.

25. Internal Shear and Tension. We have seen that the
combination of compressive and shearing stresses in a dam (R.F.)
produces an increased unit compression. It further develops an
increase in the shearing stress and also a tensile stress. The three
formulas are given below.
Compression as before

1 , N^ , 2 miV +V(miV)^+4P^ ,|Hx
c=y^ + \j+V or — (10;

Tension

i 1 \''' . 2 m..V-V( miV)^+4P^ ..^.

DAMS AND WEIRS 31

Shear

The tensile and shearing stresses are not of sufficient moment to require
any special provision in the case of a gravity dam. The tension is
greatest at the heel, diminishing toward the toe. This fact suggests
that a projection of the heel backward would be of advantage. The
direction (a) of c to the vertical is not that of R but is as follows:

2s, 2P mN 2P

Tan 2a =

s b b mN

p
whenm = 2,tan2a = ^r9. In Fig. 8, P = 555 and iV = 855. .'.tan 2a =

^ = .649 whence 2a = 33° 00' and (a) = 16° 30'. The inclination
85^

of R to the vertical, or 0, is 33° 50', i.e., twice as large as that

of c. The direction of t is at right angles to that of c, while that of

Sh the shear, lies at 45° from the directions of either c or t.

26. Security against Failure by Sliding or Shear. Security
against failure by sliding depends on the inclination of W to P, i.e.,
on the angle between W and R. Thus tan should be less than the
angle of friction of masonry on masonry, or less than .7. This is the
same as stating that the relation of W and P must be such that
shall not be greater, than 35°, or that the complement of be not less
than 55°. The adoption of the middle third proviso generally insures
this. With regard to sliding on the base, this can be further pro-
vided against by indentations in the base line or constructing it
inclined upward from heel to toe.

27. Influence Lines. It is sometimes desirable for the purpose
of demonstrating the correctness of a profile for tentative design,
to trace the line of pressures corresponding to the two conditions
of reservoir full and empty, through the profile of a dam. This is
far better effected by the use of graphic statics.

There are two different systems of graphic construction that
give identical results, which will now be explained and illustrated.

The first method, which is most commonly adopted, is exhibited
in Fig. 15, which is the profile of a lOO-foot high dam with specific
gravity 2|. It thus lies within the limiting depth, which for the
elementary profile would be 190 feet.

32 DAMS AND WEIRS

The profile is pentagonal, with a vertical back, and has the full
base width of the elementary profile, viz, —= which in this case is

Vp
|xl00=66.7 feet. The crest k is ^'H = 10 feet wide. The water-
pressure triangle has a base of — . The profile, as well as the water-

P
pressure triangle, is divided into five equal laminas, numbered 1

>r TrttcinE Lines of PntwuTe dq Dam of PentscoiisL Profile

to 5 in one case and 1' to 5' in the other. The depth of each lamina,

which is — is, therefore, a common factor and can be eliminated as
5

well aa the item of unit weight, viz, wp. The half widths of all

these laminas will then correctly represent their areas and also their

weights, reduced to one denomination, that of the masonry. In

Fig. 15a a force polygon is formed. In the vertical load line the

several half widths of the laminas 1 to 5 are first set oS, and at

DAMS AND WEIRS 33

ill right angles to it the force line of water pressure is similarly set
out with the half widths of the areas V to 5'. Then the resultant
lines of the combination of 1 with 1', 1, 2, with 1' 2' and so on marked
i?i to /?6 are drawn. This completes the force polygon. The next
step is to find the combinations of the vertical forces on the profile,
viz, that of 1 and 2, 1, 2, and 3, etc. This, as usual, is effected by
constructing a force and ray polygon, utilizing the load line in
Kg. 15a for the purpose. Then the centers of gravity of the several
individual areas 1 to 5 are found by the graphical process described
in section 15, and verticals drawn through these points are projected
below the profile. On these parallel force lines Ito 5, the funicular
polygon Fig. 15b is constructed, its chords being parallel to their
reciprocal rays in Fig. 15a. The intersection of the closing lines
of the funicular gives the position of the centroid of the five forces
ngaged. By producing each chord or intercept backward until it
intersects the initial line, a series of fresh points are obtained which
denote the centers of gravity of the combinations of 1 and 2; 1, 2, and
3, and so on. Verticals through these are next drawn up on the profile
so as to intersect the several bases of the corresponding combinations,
thus 1, 2, and 3 will intersect the base of lamina 3; and 1, 2, 3, and
4 will intersect that of lamina 4; and so on. These intersections
are so many points on the line of pressure (R.E.). The next step
is to draw the horizontal forces, i.e., their combinations on to the
profile. The process of finding the centers of gravity of these areas
is rendered easy by the fact that the combinations are all triangles,
not trapezoids, consequently the center of gravity of each is at J
its height from the base. Thus the center of gravity of the com-
bination l'+2'+3' is at i the height measured from the base of
3' to the apex, in the same way for any other combination, that of
1', 2^ 3', 4', 5', being at J the total height of the profile. The back
being vertical, the direction of all the combined forces will be hori-
zontal, and the lines are drawn through, as shown in the figure,
to intersect the corresponding combinations of vertical forces.
Thus 1' intersects 1, 1' 2' intersects 1 2, and so on. From these
several intersections the resultant lines i?i, R2, to i?5 are now drawn
down to the base of the combination to which they belong, these
last intersections giving the incidence of Ri, R2, etc., and are so
many points on the line of pressures (R.F.). The process is simple

34 DAMS AND WEIRS

and takes as long to describe as to perform, and it has this advan-
tage, that each combination of forces is independent of the
rest, and consequently errors are not perpetuated. This system
can also be used where the back of the profile has one or
several inclinations to the vertical, explanation of which will be
given later.

28. Actual Pressures in Figures. In the whole process above
described, it is noticeable that not a single figure or arithmetical
calculation is required. If the actual maximum unit stress due to'
R OT to W is required to be known, the following is the procediu'e.
In Fig. 15a, N scales 174, to reduce this to tons it has to be mul-

tipUed by all the eliminated factors, which are —- = 20 and wp =

9X1 ^, ^. ^ 174X20X9 ^..^
— -, thatis, N= ^^3^ =244 tons.

Assuming the incidence of R exactly at the third division,

the value of g is -r and that of m is 2; P also scales 112, its

value is therefore — - — — — = 157 tons. Applying formula (IO2),

„ , VlV^+pJ 244+V2442+I572 534 o , ,^

'-^ + —r- = 66J = 667 = ^ *^"^ P"^ ^^- **•'

roughly. As 8 tons is obviously well below the limiting stress, for
which a value of 16 tons would be more appropriate, this estimation
is practically unnecessary but is given here as an example.

29. Analytical Method. The analytical method of calculation
will now be worked out for the base of the profile only. First the
position of W, the resultant vertical forces (R.E.) relative to the
heel of the base will be calculated and next that of R, The back of
the profile being in one line and vertical the whole area can be con-
veniently divided into two right-angled triangles, if the thick-
ening of the curvature at the neck be ignored. As the fore slope

has an inclination of 1 : Vp the vertical side of the upper triangle
(1) is /cVp in length; its area will then be — - — = — ^ = 75

sq. feet. The distance of its c. g. from the heel of the base, which

.20
in this case corresponds with the axis of the dam, is — feet = 6§ feet.

DAMS AND WEIRS 35

75X20
The moment will then be — - — = 500. With regard to the lower

o
JJ2 2

triangle, its area is — ;= = 5000 X- = 3333.3 sq.feet. The length of

2Vp 3

its lever arm is one-third of its base, or 22.2 feet. The moment

about the axis will then be 3333.3X22.2 = 74,000. The moment of

the whole is equal to the sum of the moments of the parts. The

area of the whole is 75+3333 =3408. Let x be the required distance

of the incidence of W from the heel, then

a:X3408 = 74,500

a:=^^ = 21.9feet
3408

The inner edge of the middle third is — or 22.2 feet distant from the

heel; the exact incidence of W is, therefore, .3 foot outside the middle
third, a practically negligible amount. With regard to the position
of R the distance (/) between the incidence of R and that of W is

— rr^; in this P the water-pressure area= — ^ = 2220. .'./=

—- — ^^^^ =21.7 feet. The total distance of R from the heel will
3X3408

then be 21.7+21.9 = 43.6 feet; the outer edge of the middle third

is 44.4 feet distant from the heel, consequently the incidence of R

is 44.4— 43.6 = .8 foot within the middle third, then g=-; — .8=— f-

6 6

- .8 = 10.3 ft., and m = (\ +^ j = 1 + .93 = 1 .93. At this stage it

will be convenient to convert the areas into tons by multiplying

2.25
them by pWy or -^. Then iV and W become 239.6, and P becomes

156.3 tons. Formula (10) will also be used on account of the high
figures; then

„ ^ mW 239.6X1.93 „ „„ . , P 156.3 „„,

Here a=-Y-= r^-z =6.93 tons, and «,=—=— ——=2.34

66.7 6 66.7

6.93 , . 6.93

J6.93

tons, therefore, c=^+\^^+(2.34)' = 3.46+ Vl7.48=7.64 tons.

38 DAMS AND WEIRS

17 *i, ■ **i. I, I 1 ^ /VT 239.6X0.07
l'orsj,ormeconipressionattheheeI,m = l — p = .07. 3% = ^^ttz —

D0.7

= .251 ton. The area of base pressure is acx»rdingly drawn on Rg. 15.
If W (R.E.) be considered, g = -^+.3 = n.42, and m = H-

6X11.42 ^n-i *i. r ^^^' 239.6X2.03 _ „„ ^ ^

— — -= — =2.03; therefore, s = —7— = 7:^^; — = 7.30 tons. The

06.7 66.7

base pressure is therefore greater with (R.E.) than with (R.F.);

Fig. 16. DiscTBiu Stowing Haesder'a Mathod for Locating Lizieo ot PresBure on ■ Dun

there is also a slight tension at the toe of ,11 ton, a neghgible
quantity. This pressure area is shown on Fig. 16.

30. Haessler's Method. A second method of drawing the
Hne of pressures which is termed "Haessler's" is exhibited in Fig.
16, the same profile being used as in the last example. In this
system, which is very suitable for a curved back, or one composed
of several inclined surfaces, the forces are not treated as independent
entities as before, but the process of combination is continuous
from the beginning. They can readily be followed on the force
polygon, Fig. 16a and are 1' with 1 producing Rr, Ri with 2', i,e.,
1', 1, 2', the last resultant being the dotted reverse line. This last
is then combined with 2 producing Ri, and so on.

DAMS AND WEIRS

The reciprocals on the profile are drawn as follows: First the
c.g.'s of all the laminas 1, 2, 3, etc., 1', 2', 3', etc., are obtained by
graphical process. Next the water-pressure lines, which in this case
are horizontal, are drawn through the profile. Force line (lO inter-
sects the vertical (1), whence Ri is drawn parallel to its reciprocal
in Fig. 16a through the base of lamina (1), until it reaches the hori-
zontal force line (20. Its intersection with the base of (1) is a point
in the line of pressure (R.F.). Again from the intersection of Ri
with (20, a line is drawn backward parallel to its dotted reciprocal
line in Fig. 16a imtil it meets with the second vertical force (2).
From this point i?2 is then drawn downward to its intersection with
the horizontal force (30, its intersection with the base of lamina
(2) giving another point on the line of pressures. This process is
repeated until the intersection of i?6 with the final base completes
the operation for (R.F.). It is evi-
dent that Rh as well as all the other
resultants are parallel to the cor-
responding ones in Fig. 15, the same
result being arrived at by different
graphical processes.

31. Stepped Polygon. Fig.
16b is a representation of the so-
called "stepped" polygon, which
is also often employed; the form
differs, but the principle is identical with that already described.
Inspection of the figure will show that all the resultant lines are
drawn radiating to one common center or nucleus (0).

The process of finding the incidence of W on the bases of the
several lamina is identical with that already described with regard
to Fig. 15, viz, the same combination of 1+2, 1+2+3, and so on,
are formed in the funi-cular 16c and then projected on to the profile.

32. Modified Equivalent Pressure Area in Inclined Back Dam.
When the back of a dam is incUned, the area of the triangle of water
pressure ABC, in Fig. 17, will not equal the product of H, but of Hi
with its half width, which latter is measured parallel to the base,
consequently the factor H cannot be eliminated. The triangle
itself can, however, be altered in outline so that while containing
the same area, it will also have the vertical height ^ as a factor

Fig. 17. Transformation of Inclined
Pressure Area to Equivalent
with Horizontal Base

DAMS AND WEIRS

^'4iPJM 2

DAMS AND WEIRS 39

in its area. This is efTected by the device illustrated in Fig. 17,
and subsequently repeated in other diagrams. In this figure ABC
is the triangle of water pressure. By drawing a line CD parallel
to the back of the wall AB, sl point D is obtained on the continu-
ation of the horizontal base line of the dam. A and D are then
joined. The triangle ABD thus formed is equal to ABC, being
on the same base AB and between the same parallels. The area

BT)
of ABD is equal to ——XH, and that of the wall to half width

EF X H. Consequently we see that the half width —^ of the

triangle ABD can property represent the area of the water pressure,
and the half width EF that of the wall. The vertical height B.
may, therefore, be eliminated. What applies to the whole triangle
would also apply to any trapezoidal parts of it. The direction of the
resultant line of water pressure will still be as before, normal to the
surface of the wall, i.e., parallel to the base BC^ and its incidence on
the back will be at the intersection of a Une drawn through the e.g.
of the area in question, parallel to the base. This point will natur-
ally be the same with regard to the inclined or to the horizontally
based area.

ZZ. Curved Back Profiles. In order to illustrate the graphical
procedure of drawing the Une of pressure on a profile having
a curved back, Figs. 18 and 19 are put forward as illustrations
merely — not as models of correct design. In these profiles the
lower two laminas of water pressure, 4' and 5', have inclined
bases. Both are converted to equivalent areas with horizontal
bases by the device explained in the last section. Take the lowest
lamina acrf6; in order to convert it into an equivalent trapezoid
wath a horizontal base, de is drawn parallel to ac; the point e is
joined with A, the apex of the completed triangle, of which the trap-
ezoid is a portion. When a/ is drawn horizontally, the area acej will
then be the required converted figure, the horizontally measured

half width of which multiplied by — will equal the area of the original

trapezoid acdh; — can then be eliminated as a common factor and

the weights of all the laminas represented in the load line in

DAMS AND WEIRS

DAMS AND WEIRS 41

Fig. 18a, by the half widths of the several areas. The lamina 4' is
treated in a similar manner.

The graphical processes in Figs. 18 and 18a are identical with
those in Fig. 15. In the force polygon 18a the water-pressure forces
1', 2', 3', etc., are drawn in directions normal to the adjoining portion
of the back of the profile on which they abut, and are made equal
in length to the half widths of the laminas in question. The back
of the wall is vertical down to the base of lamina 3, consequently
the forces, 1', 2', and 3', will be set out on the water-pressure load
line in Fig* 18a from the starting point, horizontally in one line.
In laminas 4 and 5, however, the back has two inclinations; these
forces are set out from the termination of 3' at their proper direc-
tions, i.e., parallel to their inclined bases to points marked a and b.
The direction of the resultants of the combinations, 1' and 2', and
1', 2', 3', will clearly be horizontal. If Aa and Ab be joined, then
the directions of, the combination 1' 2' 3' 4' will be parallel to the
resultant line Aa and that of 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' will be parallel to Ab,
Thus the inclination of the resultant of any combination of inclined
forces pla.ced on end, as in the water-pressure load line, will always
be parallel with a Une connecting the terminal of the last of the
forces in the combination with the origin of the load line.

34. Treatment for Broken Line Profiles. The method of
ascertaining the relative position and directions of the resultants
of water pressure areas when the back of the wall has several inclina-
tions to the vertical is explained as follows: This system involves
the construction of two additional figures, viz, a force and ray
polygon built on the water-pressure load line and its reciprocal
funicular polygon on one side of the profile. These are shown con-
structed, the first on Fig. 18a, the nucleus of the vertical force
and ray polygon being utilized by drawing rays to the terminations
of 1', 2', 3', 4', and 5'. In order to construct the reciprocal funic-
ular polygon. Fig. 18c, the first step is to find the c.g.'s of all the
trapezoidal laminas which make up the water-pressure area, viz,
1' to 5'. This being done, lines are drawn parallel to the bases of
the laminas (in this case horizontal Unes), to intersect the back of
the wall. From the points thus obtained the force lines 1', 2', 3',
etc., are drawn at right angles to the portions of the back of the wall
on which they abut. On these force lines, which are not all parallel,

DAMS AND WEIRS

the chord polygon (18c) is constructed as follows: First the initial
line AO is drawn anywhere parallel to its reciprocal AO, in Fig. 18a.
From the intersections of this line with the force line 1' the chord
marked 01' is drawn parallel to OV in Fig. 18a and intersecting
force line 2'. Again from this point the chord 02' is drawn inter-
secting force 3' whence the chord 03' is continued to force 4', and
04' up to the force line 5', each parallel to its reciprocal in Fig. 18a.
The closing line is 05. The intersection of the initial and the closing
lines of the funicular polygon gives the position of the final resultant
line 1' 2' 3' 4' 5', which is then drawn from this point parallel to its
reciprocal Ob in Fig. 18a to its position on the profile. The other

resultants are obtained in a sim-
ilar manner by projecting the sev-
eral chords backward till they
intersect the initial line OA, these
intersections being the starting
points of the other resultants,
viz, l'-4', l'-3', l'-2', and 1'.
These resultant lines are drawn
parallel to their reciprocals in
18a, viz, l'-4' is parallel to Aa,
while the remainder are hori-
zontal in direction, the same as
their reciprocals.

This procedure is identical
with that pursued in forming the funicular 18b, only in this case the
forces are not all parallel.

35. Example of Haessler's Method. In Fig. 19 the profile
used is similar to Fig. 18, except in the value of p, which is 2^,
not 2.4 as previously. The graphical system employed is Haessler's,
each lamina as already described with reference to Fig. 16 being
independently dealt with, the combination with the others taking
place on the profile itself. In this case the changes of batter coin-
cide with the divisions of the laminas, consequently the directions
of the inclined forces are normal to the position of the back on which
their areas abut. This involves finding the c. g.'s of each of the water-
pressure trapezoids, which is not necessary in the first system, unless
the funicular polygon of inclined forces has to be formed. In spite

Fig. 20. Diasram Showing Third Method of
Determining Water Pressure Areas

DAMS AND WEIRS 43

of this, in most cases Haessler's method will be found the handiest
to employ, particularly in tentative work.

36. Example of Analytical Treatment. In addition to the
two systems already described, there is yet another corresponding
to the analytical, an illustration of which is given in Fig. 20. In
this the vertical and horizontal components of R, the resultants
(R.F.), viz, N and P are found. In this method the vertical com-
ponent of the inclined water pressure Pi is added to the vertical
weight of the dam itself, and when areas are used to represent
weights the area of this water overiying the back slope will have to
be reduced to a masonry base by division by the specific gravity of
the masonry.

37. Relations of R. N. and W. The diagram in Fig. 20 is a
further illustration showing the relative positions of R, P, Pi, N,
and W. The line R starts from a, the intersection of the horizontal
force P with N, the resultant of all the vertical forces, for the reason
that it is the resultant of the combination of these two forces; but
R is also the resultant of Pi and W, consequently it will pass through
a', the intersection of these latter forces. The points a and oi are
consequently in the resultant R and it follows as well that if the
position of R is known, that of N and W can be obtained graphically
by the intersection of P or Pi with R. These lines have already
been discussed.

UNUSUALLY HIGH DAMS

38. "High** Dams. An example will now be given. Fig. 21, of
the design of a high dam, i.e., one whose height exceeds the limit
before stated. As usual the elementary triangular profile forms
the guide in the design of the upper portion. We have seen in
section 24 that the Umiting depth with p = 2.4 and c = 16 tons =
195 feet, whence for 18 tons' limit the depth will be 219 feet. In
Fig. 21 the tentative profile is taken down to a depth of 180 feet.
The crest is made 15 feet wide and the back is battered 1 in 30; the
base width is made 180X.645 = 116 feet. The heel projects 6 feet
outside the axis line. The graphical procedure requires no special
explanation. It follows the analytical in dealing with the water
pressure as a horizontal force, the weight of the water overlying
the back being added to that of the solid dam. For purposes of

DAMS AND WEIRS

calculation the load is divided into three parts (1) the water on
the sloping back, the area of which is 540 sq. ft. This has to be
reduced by dividing it by p and so becomes 225 sq. ft. As tons,
not areas, willbe used, this procedure is not necessary, but is adopted
for the sake of uniformity in treatment to avoid errors. The e.g.
of (1) is clearly 2 feet distant from the heel of the base of (3), about
which point moments will be taken. That of the crest (2) is 13.3 feet
and that of the main body (3) obtained by using formula (7) comes
to 41.2 feet. The statement of moments is then as follows:

No.

Abea

Tons

Levbr Arm

Moment

225

17'

360

13.3

359

10280

771

81 r.

41.2

31765

Total

10866

32158

oo-i pro

Then the distance of N from the heel will be -Trrr- = 39.4 ft. ; it thus

81o

falls 39.4 -38.7 = .7 ft. within the middle third. The distance (/)

between N and R is

SN'
H

Now P = the area of the right angle

triangle whose base is — , or 75 feet, and is 6750 sq. ft. equivalent

. 6750X3 ._ , rru • ^i. k / 506X180

to — — = 506 tons. Ihe expression then becomes j = -7— -7-rr-

40 CiXolO

= 37.2 feet. The incidence of R will then be 37.2+39.4 = 76.6 feet

2
distant from the heel of the base. The — point being 77.3 from the

heel, R falls .7 ft. within. Thus far the tentative profile has proved
fairly satisfactory, although a sUght reduction in the base width is
possible. The position of W, or the resultant weight of the portions
2 and 3 of the dam is obtained from the moment table already
given, and is the sum of the moments of (2) and (3) divided by (2)

+ (3) or ^^=40.2 ft. This falls 40.2-38.7 = 1.5 ft. within the

DAMS AND WEIRS

middle third. The value of a (R.F.) is -^-.7= 19.33 -.7 = 18.6

feet, and m=| 1+^ I

69\_

-.+11M...96.

Then by formula (lOi), N being 815 and P, 506

1.96X815+V(1.96x815)*+4 (506)'

232

1597+V2551367+1024144
232

= 15.03 tons per square foot

Extension of Profile. This value being well below the limit
of 18 tons and both resultants (R.F.) and (R.E.) standing within the
middle third it is deemed that the same profile can be carried down
another 30 ft. in depth without widening. The base length will
now be a trifle over 135 feet. The area of the new portion (4) is
3769 sq. ft. =283 tons. The distance of its e.g. from the heel by
formula (7) is found to be 63.4 feet. The position of W will be
obtained as follows, the center of moments being one foot farther
to right than in last paragraph.

No.

Tons

Lever Arm

MOMEXT

3
4
Total

771

283

1081

14.3
42.2
63.4

386

* 32536

17942

50864

x= =47.0 feet from heel of new base to W

lUol

As — is -^ =45 ft., the incidence of Wi is 2.0 ft. within the base,

o o

which is satisfactory.

To find Ni, the moment of the water on whole back can be
added to that of W first obtained. The offset from the axis being

210X7
now 7 ft., the area will be — - — = 735 equal to an area of masonry

735
of -^=306 sq. ft. equivalent to 23 tons, neariy. The lever arm

DAMS AND WEIRS 47

7
being — , or 2.3 feet the moment about the heel will be 23 X 2.3 = 52.9,

say 53.0 ft.-tons. This amount added to the moment of Wi will
represent that of Ni and will be 50,864+53 = 50,917. The value of
Ni is that of Wi+ the water on back or, 1081+23 = 1104 tons.

The distance of Ni from the heel is then -r-r-r =46.2 feet. To

1104

obtain that of Ri the value of /=— — =43.7 feet; this added

to 46.2=89.9 ft., the incidence of Ri is therefore — 89.9 =

90 — 89.9 = .1 ft., within the middle third boundary. Th^n g = —

-.1=22.5-.1=22.4 ft., and m = l+^ = l+^^ = 2.00, nearly.

135

To find c, formula (10) will be used, the quantities being less than

• f 1 /IAN XT ^^ 2.00X1104 .n. ^ 1

m formula (lOi). Here * = -t— = 77^ = 16.4 tons and s,

135

P 689 . . . rp.

= ^-=-—=5.1 tons, ihen
135

' c=i|^+^^^^+(5.1)2=8.2+9.7 = 17.9 tons

The limit of 18 tons, being now reached, this profile will have to
be departed from.

39. Pentagonal Profile to Be Widened. The method now to
be adopted is purely tentative and graphic construction will be
found a great aid to its solution. A lamina of a depth of 60 ft.,
will be added to the profile. It is evident that its base width must
be greater than that which would be formed by the profile being
continued down straight to this level. The back batter naturally
will be greater than the fore. From examination of other profiles it
appears that the rear batter varies roughly from about 1 in 5 to 1
in 8 while the fore batter is about 1 to 1. As a first trial an 8 ft.
extra offset at the back was assumed with a base of 200 feet; this
would give the required front projection. Graphical trial lines
showed that N would fall without the middle third, and W as well;
the stress also just exceeded 18 tons (R.E.). A second trial was
now made in which the back batter was increased and the base
shortened to 180 feet. In this case c exceeded the 18 ton limit.

DAMS AND WEIRS

Still further widening was evidently required at the heel in ordei
to increase the weight of the overlying water, while it was clear
that the base width would not bear reduction. The rear offset
was then increased to 15 feet and the base width to 200 feet. The
stresses now worked out about right and the resultants both fell
within the middle third; By using formula (6) the distance of the
e.g. of the trapezoid of water pressure, which weighs 112 tons, was
found to be 7.2 feet from the heel of the base, and by formula (7)
that of the lowest lamina ^5) from the same point is found to be
91.8 feet; the weight of this portion is 754 tons. These two new
vertical forces can now be combined with Ni whose area and posi-
tion are known and thus that of Nz can be ascertained. Ni is 46.2
ft. distant from the heel of the upper profile; its lever arm will,
therefore, be 46.2+15 = 61.2 feet. The combined moment about
the heel will then be

' 1

Weight

LxYBR Arm

Moment

Water

(5)
Total

112
1104

754
1970

7.2
61.2
91.8

806

67565

69217

137588

1 ^7^5iS

The incidence of N2 is then ..^^^ =70 feet from the heel; as the

1970

200

middle third boundary is --- = 66.6 feet distant from the same point,
Nt falls 3.4 feet within. The distance between N2 and Rt (viz, f)
Now Pj, or the horizontal water pressure, has a reduced area

1139X270

PH2

3JV2*

of 15187 feet, eqiuvalent to 1139 tons, consequently /= o -^1070

=52.0 feet. This fixes the incidence of Ri at 70+52.0 = 122.0 feet
distant from the heel; the § point is 133.3 feet distant, consequently

Ri falls well within the middle third and as g = 122.0 — ^^ ^2.0 feet,

,.6X22.0 , .„ J "i^ 1.66X1970 ifio+„„„
m=H — ^br- = l-66, and5=— r-= rrrr: =16.3 tons.

200

DAMS AND WEIRS

Now

Pt 1139
200

= 5.7 tons

Whence by formula (10),

16.3 |265

+32.5=8.15+9.9 = 18.05 tons

which is the exact limit stress.

The value of S2 (the pressure at the heel) is obtained by the

130 8
same formula, using the minus sign, viz, m = l — — ^ = .34, there-

fore, «2=— 7-^=* — — — =3.4 tons, nearly. These vertical reac-

tions are set out below the profile. With regard to W2 it is com-
posed of Wi+{5). The table of moments is as follows:

Weight

Leyeb Abm

Moment

(5)

1081
754

1835

62.0
91.8

67022
69217

136239

The distance of Wi from the heel is ^^„, = 74.3. Wi, therefore,

1835

200

falls 7.6 feet within the middle third; q=— — 74.3=25.7 feet,

6X25 7
and m = lH — ' =1.77, and m = l — .77 = .23; therefore, 5 =

200

mW^ 1.77X1835 ' ^ . , 90^1835 ^. . ^,

— r~~ oTtT; =16.2 tons, and *2 = .23X-7^7r;r =2.1 tons, ihese

200 200

pressures are shown below the profile.

The value of B in all three cases is less than 35° which is also
one of the stipulations.

In continuing the profile below the 270-foot depth the proba-
bility is that for a further depth of 50 or 60 feet the same fore and
rear batter would answer; if not, the adjustment is not a difficult
matter to manipulate. As previously stated, the incidence of iV
should be fixed a little within the middle third when that of W and
R will generally be satisfactory.

50 DAMS AND WEIRS

In the force diagram the water part of N is kept on the top of
the load line W. This enables the lengths of the N series to be
clearly shown. The effect is the same as if inclined water pressure
lines were drawn, as has already been exhibited in several cases.

40. Siit against Base of Dam. In Fig. 21, suppose that the
water below the 210-foot depth was so mixed with silt as to have a
specific gravity of 1.4 instead of unity. The effect of this can be
shown graphically without alteration of the existing work. In the
trapezoid lying between 210 and 270 the rectangle on ab represents
the pressure above 210 and the remaining triangle that of the lower

60 feet of water. The base of the latter, be is, therefore, — =

p 2.4

25 feet. Now the weight of the water is increased in the proportion

^'Xl 4
of 1.4 : 1, consequently the proper base width will be — ' =

60X1.4

— 5~T~"~^^ ^^*' ^^ triangle acd then represents the additional

pressure area due to silt. The normal pressure on the back of the
dam due to the presence of silt is shown graphically by the triangle
attached, whose base = cd = 10 feet; its area is 310 square feet,
equivalent to 23 tons. This inclined force is combined with JR2 at
the top right-hand comer of Fig. 21a and the resultant is R3; on the
profile the reciprocal inclined force is run out to meet R2 and from
this intersection R3 can be drawn up toward P2. This latter inter-
section gives the altered position of N2, which is too slight to be
noticeable on this scale. The value of c and the inclination of R
are both increased, which is detrimental.

If the mud became consolidated into a water-tight mass the
pressure on the dam would be relieved to some extent, as the earth
will not exert liquid pressure against the back. Liquid mud pres-
sure at the bottom of a reservoir can consequently be generally
neglected in design.

41. Filling against Toe of Dam. Now let the other side of the
dam be considered. Supposing a mass of porous material having an
immersed s. g. of 1.8 is deposited on the toe, as is often actually the

case. Then a pressure triangle of which the base equals Hx-^ =
45 feet is drawn; its area will be 1755 and weight 132 tons; the

DAMS AND WEIRS

resultant Pa acting through its c. g. is run out to intersect ft. At the
same time from the lower extremity of i?2, in the force diagram, a
reciprocal pressure line Pa is drawn in the same direction equal in
length 132 tons and its extremity is joined with that of Pj; the result-
ing line Ra is then projected on the profile from the previous inter-
section until it cuts the force line Pa; this gives a new resultant Ra
and a new position for N, viz, Na, which is drawn on the profile ; W also
will be similarly affected. The load on the toe of the dam increases
its stability as the value of is lessened, the position of W is also
improved, but that of Ra, which is nearer to the toe than ft, is not.
To adjust matters, the c. g. of (5) requires moving to the right which

fee Fheasvre % ^ ^

S9ZTon9

Fig. 22. Diagram Showing ££fect of loe Pressure

is affected by shifting the base line thus increasing the back and
decreasing the front batter, retaining the base length the same as
before.

42. Ice Pressure. Ice pressiu^ against the back of a dam
has sometimes to be allowed for in the design of the profile; as a
rule, however, most reservoirs are not full in winter so that the
expansive pressiu^ is exerted not at the sununit but at some distance
lower down where the effect is negligible. In addition to this when
the sides of a reservoir are sloping, as is generally the case, movement
of ice can take place and so the dam is relieved from any pressiu*e.
In the estimates for the Quaker Bridge dam it is stated that an
ice pressure of over 20 tons per square foot was provided for. No

DAMS AND WEIRS

definite rules seem to be available as to what allowance is suitable.
Many authorities neglect it altogether.

The effect of a pressure of ten tons per foot run on a hundred-
foot dam acting at the water level is illustrated in Fig. 22. For
this purpose a trapezoidal section has been adopted below the sum-
mit level. The crest is made 15 feet wide and 10 feet high. This
solid section is only just suflScient, as will appear from the incidence
of R' on the base. The area of this profile is 4150 sq. ft., while one
of the ordinary pentagonal sections as dotted on the drawing would

Fig. 23. Two Profiles for Partial Overfall Dams

contain but 3325 sq. ft. The increase due to the ice pressiu*e is
therefore 825 sq. ft. or about 25 per cent. The graphical procedure
hardly needs explanation. The ice pressure p is first combined
with W the weight of the dam. and their resultant R cuts P at a
point from which the final Ri is run down to the base parallel to its
reciprocal in the force diagram. It falls just within the middle
third of the base. An actual example is given in section 56.

43. Partial Overfall Dams. It not infrequently happens that
the crest of a dam is lowered for a certain length, this portion acting as
a waste weir, the crest of the balance of the dam being raised above
the water level. In such cases a trapezoidal outline is generally
preferable for the weir portion and the section can be continued
upon the same lines to form the upper part of the dam, or the upper
part can be a vertical crest resting on the trapezoidal body. In a

DAMS AND WEIRS 53

: k

trapezoidal dam, if the ratio of — be r, the correct base width is
obtained by the following formula:

~Vp Vl+r-r2 Y^

This assumes the crest and summit water level to be the same.
In Fig. 23, p is taken as 2.4 and r as .2. The base width with a

TJ 1

vertical back will then be -7=^ X , : = 50X.645X.935 = 31.3

Vp V1+.2-.04

feet, and the crest width k will be 31 .3 X .2 = 6.3 feet. In the second
figure the profile is shown canted forward, which is desirable in
weirs, and any loss in stability is generally more than compensated
for by the influence of the reverse pressure of the tail water which
influence increases with the steepness of the fore slope of the weir.
The base width is, however; increased by one foot in the second figure.
As will be seen in the next section, the crest width of a weir

should not be less than ^ H+^i; in this case i7 = 45 and d = 5.

This would provide a crest width of 6.7+2.2 = 9 feet, which it nearly

scales.

NOTABLE EXISTING DAMS

44. Cheeseman Lake Dam. Some actual examples of dam
sections will now be exhibited and analyzed. Fig. 24 is the section
of the Cheeseman Lake dam near Denver, Colorado, which is one
of the highest in the world. It is built to a curvature of 400 feet
radius across a narrow canyon. It is considered a gravity dam,
however, and will be analyzed as such. The section can be divided
into three unequal parts 1, 2, and 3, and the lines of pressure (R.F.)
and (R.E.) will be drawn through the bases of these three divisions.
Of the vertical forces (1) has an area of 756 sq. ft., (2) of 3840, and
(3) of 13,356 the total value of W being 17,952 sq. ft., which is marked
off on the load line in Fig. 24a. With regard to the water-pressure
areas the most convenient method, where half widths are not used,
which can only be done with equal divisions, is to estimate the
areas of the horizontal pressures only and set them off horizontally,
the values of the inclined pressures being obtained by construction.
For this purpose the triangle of horizontal water pressure is shown
adjacent to, but separate from, the profile. The three values of P

DAMS AND WEIRS

which are equal to -77— will be 270, 2631, and 7636, respectively, the

total being 10,537 sq. ft. In this computation the value of p is
assumed to be 2.4. These several lengths are now set out hori-
zontally from the origin in Fig, 24a, and verticals drawn upward
intercept the chords, 1', 2', 3', which latter are drawn from the
origin 0, parallel to their respective directions, i.e., normal to the
adjacent parts of the wall. The rest of the process is similar to that
already described, with reference to Pigs. 16 and 18, and need not
be repeated. In Pig. 24a N scales 19,450, equal to 1457 tons, and

moos<i.n

Fig. 24. Profile of Cheeseman Lake Dam

on the profile q scales 15 feet, therefore, in formula (9), m = 1-|-

1.51. Therefore, * =

m^ 1.51X1457

4.45; then by formula (10)

176

= 12.5 tons, and 5« = -7" = tzt^ =

6 176

c=i|^+^^lM!+(4.45)2 = 6.25+V59 = 13.9 tons, approx.

With regard to W, q scales about 20 ft., m then works out to 1.7,

, , mW 1.7X1346 ,^^.

nearly, and «=— r— = 7=7; — =13.0 tons.

17d

As an exercise the inclined final resultant P is drawn on the

profile. This line is parallel to Oc in Fig. 24a, its location is worked

out by means of the funicular polygon, the construction of which

need not be explained after what has gone before.

DAMS AND WEIRS

45. Analytical Check. In order to check this result analyt-
ically the procedure will be, first, calculate the position of the e.g. of
the trapezoids (2) and (3) relative to the rear corner of their bases
by formula (7) and also the positions of the resultants of the vertical
components of the water pressure overlying the back with regard
to the same points by formula (6). Second, convert the areas into
tons by multiplying by -£1^. The statement of moments about the
heel of the base, with the object of finding the position of W is given
below.

Moment of (1)

Moment of (2)

Moment of (3)
Total TF =

56.7 X32.5

288 X47.9

1001_ X75
1346 tons

= 1843

= 13795

= 75075
90713

The distance of W from the heel will then be

90713
1346

= 67.5 ft. In

order to obtain N, the moments of the water weights will have to
be added as below.

Moment of W

Moment of Wi

Moment of v}2
Total N=

1346X67.5
10X21.6
107X9

1463 tons

= 90713

= 216
= 963
91892

and

91892 ^^^/ ^
^=l463" = ^2-^^^?'

To find the incidence of R and its distance (q) from the center
point, that from the known position of N must be computed from

the formula /=^=?^^^^ = 40 ft., therefore, g = (62.8+40.0)

176

dN 3X1463
= 14.8 feet. This is close to the value obtained graphically

which was taken as 15 feet. The value of iV is also seen to be close
to that obtained graphically. The value of q with regard to W (R.E.)

is as follows, q = —z — 67.5 = 20.5 feet, almost exactly what it scales on

DAMS AND WEIRS

the diagram. In this profile the upper part is light, necessarily made
up for in the lower part.

At the upper base line of (2) the incidence of W is exactly at
the middle third edge, while R falls within it. At the final base tlie
position of N is 62.8 distant from the heel and the inner third point

1 7ft

is —-=58.6 distant, consequently the incidence of N lies 4.2 feet
o

within the boundary.

If the position of N were made obligatory at the inner edge of

the middle third, the value of W would be increased, but R would

-k

fAUUS 410'

r^t^

Fig. 25. Profile of Roosevelt Dam across Salt River, Arisona

be decreased. There may have been special reasons for limiting the
maximum stress (R.E.). On Fig. 24 the position of N is obtained
by the intersection of the horizontal resultant P with R prolonged
upward. If the stress were calculated on the supposition that the
structure was an arched dam, it would amount to 21 i tons by the
"long" formula, given in section 78, Part II.

46. Roosevelt Dam. In Fig. 25 is given the profile of the
Roosevelt dam, and Fig. 26 is the site plan of that celebrated work.
For some years, the Roosevelt dam was the highest gravity dam in
existence. It spans a very deep canyon of the Salt River in Arizona

DAMS AND WEIRS 57

and impounds the enormous quantity of 1 1 million acre-feet of water,
which will be utilized for irrigation. This work is part of one of
the greatest of the several large land reclamation projects under-
taken by the U. S. Government for the watering and settling of
arid tracts in the dry zone of the western states.

The profile is remarkable for the severe simplicity of its out-
line. It closely follows the elementary profile right down to its
extreme base and forms a powerful advocate for this simple style
of design. The graphical procedure is similar to that in the last
example. The section is divided into three divisions. As the
first two are comparatively small, the triangle of forces in Fig. 25a

Fig. 26. SLie Plan tot Rooaevelt Dam

is first plotted at a large scale in pencil and the inclinations of the

resultants thus obtained are transferred to the profile; this accounts

for the long projecting lines near the origin of the force diagram

which also appear in some previous examples, A neater method

for overcoming this difficulty is that adopted in the next figure,

when the forces (I) and (2) are first amalgamated into one before

being plotted on the force diagram.

In Fig. 25a, N scales roughly 19,000 sq. ft., equivalent to 1425

120
tons, q also measures approximately 20 ft., then m = l+-j-;7 = 1.75,

. mN 1425X1.75 ,,,^ P 826 ^ , ^ „

and s=—, — =■ -■ - =15.5 tons, s,= s- = T7:7i = ^-^ tons, dv

IbO 160

fonnula (10)

58 DAMS AND WEIRS

c=l^+J5^+(5.1)»=7.75+V86 = 17 tons roughly

With regard to W, q measures 23 ft. and m works out to 1.86

^, . mW 1.86X1378 ,.^ -^

therefore s =—7—= 7777; — =16 tons per sq. ft.

b 160

This dam is built on a radius of 410 feet, measured from the
axis; if measured from the extrados of the curve at the base it will
be 420 feet and the arch stress as calculated from the "long** formula
used in "Arched Dams" will amount to 23.3 tons.

The site plan given in Fig. 26 forms an instructive example of the
arrangement of spillways cut in the solid rock out of the shoulders
of the side of the canyon, the material thus obtained being used in
the dam. These spillways are each 200 feet wide and are excavated
down to five feet below the crest of the dwarf waste weir walls which
cross them. This allows of a much greater discharge passing under
a given head than would be the case with a simple channel without
a drop wall and with bed at the weir crest level. The heading up,
or afflux, is by this means diminished and that is a matter affecting
the height given to the dam crest.

47. New Croton Dam. The profile of the New Croton dam
constructed in connection with the water supply of New York City
is given in Fig. 27. This dam has a straight aUgnment and is 1168
feet long. Waste flood water is accommodated by an overfull weir
1000 ft. in length, which is situated on one flank forming a continua-
tion of the dam at right angles to its axis. The surplus water
falls into the Rocky River bed and is conveyed away by a separate
channel. An elevation and plan of this work are given in Figs.
28 and 29.

The system of graphical analysis employed in this case is differ-
ent from that in the last two examples and is that illustrated in Fig.
18, where independent combinations of vertical and incUned forces
are used. The profile is divided into four divisions, the first being
a combination of two small upper ones. The further procedure after
the long explanations already given does not require any special
notice except to point out that the directions of the combined forces
1', l'+2', l'+2'+3' etc., in (d) are drawn parallel to their reciprocal
lines on Fig. 27a, namely to the chords Oa, Ob, Oc, and Od, respec-
tively. The final resultants are Ra (R.F.) and W (R.E.). The

DAMS AND WEIRS

value of W is 1380 tons and that of N is 1484 tons, consequently
applying formula (10), g in the first case scales 26 feet and m works

mW 1:82X1380

out to 1.82 therefore s =

190

— 13.2 tons =c, as with

W, a and c are identical.

With regard to N, q scales 7 feet, consequently m = 1 -f-
1.22X1484

190

1.22, « =

190

= 9.5 tons only. As P= 10,010 =750 tons.

-7- =4 tons; therefore c
I

9.5 , 1(9.5)

(4) 2 = 1 1 tons, which is very

moderate. It is probable that other external pressures exist due

4,^

1700 t/^

'1380 TONS

.5»

lOOlO'

Y50 Tons

Fig. 27. Diagram of Profile of New Croton Dam Showing Influence Lines as in Fig. 18

to filling in front and rear, as also ice pressure, which would materi-
ally modify the result above shown. This dam, like the Cheese-
man, is of the bottleneck profile, it is straight and not curved on plan.
48. Assuan Dam. The section, Fig. 30, is of the Assuan dam
in Egypt, which notable work was built across the Nile River above
the first cataract. As it stands at present it is not remarkable for

DAMS AND WEIRS 61

its height, but what it lacks in that respect, as in most eastern
works, is made up in length, which latter is 6400 feet. No ^ngle
irrigation work of modern times has been more useful or far-reaching
in beneficial resuhs upon the industrial welfare of the people than
this dam. Its original capacity was 863,000 acre-feet and the back
water extended for 140 miles up the river. The work is principally
remarkable as being the only solid dam which passes the whole
discharge of a large river like the Nile, estimated at 500,000 second-
feet, through its body, for which purpose it is provided with 140
low and 40 high sluices. These are arranged in groups of ten, each

low sluice is 23 feet deep by 6J feet wide with the dividing piers
16| feet wide. The diminution of the weight of the dam due to
sluices necessitates an excess of width over what would be sufficient
for a sohd dam; in addition to which the maximum pressure in the
piers is limited to the extremely low figure of 5 tons of 2000 pounds.
The designers have thus certainly not erred on the side of boldness;
the foundation being solid granite, would presumably stand, with
perfect safety, pressure of treble that intensity, while the masonry,
being also granite, set in cement mortar, is certainly capable of
carrying a safe pressure of 15 tons, as many examples prove.

gAsrem nesatT hill^

J s8 J
Hi 1

DAMS AND WEIRS 63

This dam has proved such a financial success that it has recently
been raised by 23 feet to the height originally projected. The
water thus impounded is nearly doubled in quantity, i.e., to
over I3 milhon acre-feet; exceeding even that of the Salt River
reservoir^in Arizona. As it was decided not to exceed the low unit
pressure previously adopted, the profile has been widened by 16^
feet throughout. A space has been left between the new and the
old work which has been subsequently filled in with cement grout
under pressure, in addition to which a series of steel rods has been let

Fig. 32. View ot Amuso Dam before Brang Haghtened with Sluices in Operation

into the old face by boring, and built into the new work. The enlarge-
ment is shown in the figure. The sluices are capable of discharging
500,000 second feet; as their combined area is 25,000 square feet
this will mean a velocity of 20 feet per second. Owing, however, to
the possibility of adjustment of level, by manipulation of the sluice
gates, they will never be put to so severe a test.

A location plan and longitudinal section shown in Fig. 31, a
view of the sluices in operation. Fig, 32, and a view of the new work
in process, Fig. 33, will give a good idea of the construction features.

DAMS AND WEIRS

49. Cross River and Ashokan Dams. Two further sections are
given in Figs. 34 and 35, the first of the Cross River dam, and the
second of the Ashokan dam in New York. Both are of miusually
thick dimensions near the crest, this being specially provided to
enable the dams to resist the impact of floating ice. These profiles
are left to be analyzed by the student. The Ashokan dam is pro-
vided with a vertical line of porous blocks connected with two inspec-
tion galleries. This is a German innovation, which enables any

Fig. 34. Profile of Cross River Dam

Fig. 35. Profile of Ashokan Dam

leakage through the wall to be drained off, thereby guarding against
hydrostatic uplift. This refinement is now frequently adopted.

SO. Burrin Juick Dam. The Burrin Jiiick dam in Australia,
Fig. 36, which is generally termed "Barren Jack", is a close copy of
the Roosevelt dam. Fig. 25, and is a further corroboration of the
excellence of that profile. It is built across the Murrumbidgee
River in New South Wales not far from the new Federal Capital.
Its length is 784 feet on the crest, the maximum height being 240
feet. The fore batter is 3 vertical to 2 horizontal, and the back
batter 20 vertical to 1 horizontal, both identical with those adopted
in the Roosevelt dam; the crest width is 18 feet. It is built on a
curve to a radius of 1200 feet. This dam will impound 785,000
acre-feet. The material of which the dam is composed is crushed
sandstone in cement mortar with a plentiful sprinkling of large
'''plums" of granite. The ultimate resistance of specimen cubes

DAMS AND WEIRS

was 180 "long" tons, per square foot; thg high factor of safety of
12 was adopted, the usual being 8 to 10. The maximum allowable
stress will, therefore, reduce to 15 "long" tons = 16.8 American
short tons.

With regard to the maximum stresses, for Reservoir Full, N =
16,100, equivalent to 1210 tons, and q scales about 16 feet, conse-

issta

ASSUMED FULL
SUFFLY LEV^CL

^^y^s^^^yi^^yy^^yyy^y^yy^yyy^

/§3*

Fig. 36. Analytical Diagram Showing Profile of Burrin Juick Dam in Australia

xi . 1 ^o J ^^ 1.62X1210 ,^.^ ,

quently m comes to 1.62, and * = — r-= tti- =lo.o tons, and

145

-T- = — — = 4.8 tons. Whence
6 145

c=|-+^ j+*.*=^+^^^^+(4.8)^ = 15 tons

for Reservcnr Empty, W= 15,580 feet or 1170 tons, g=24, m=2

mW 2X1170

« «

» =

145

= 16 tons, nearly

DAMS AND WEIRS

The above proves that the stress (R.E.) is greater than that of
(R.F.). Probably allowance was made for masses of porous filling
lying at the rear of the dam, which would cause N and W to be
shifted forward and so equalize the pressure. It will be noticed
that the incidence of N, tne vertical component (R.E.) falls exactly
at the edge of the middle third, a condition evidently observed in
the design of the base width.

/frvo- 7^5q.fl.»58Tbn3

^^ IT"

l&OTbns

Fig. 37. Profile of Arrow Rock Dam, Idaho, Showing Incidence of Centers of Pressure on Base

The dam is provided with two by-washes 400 feet wide; the
reservoir will be tapped by a tunnel 14X13 feet, the entrance
sluices of which will be worked from a valve tower upstream, a
similar arrangement to that in the Roosevelt dam. It is interesting
to note that an American engineer has been put in charge of the
construction of this immense work by the Commonwealth Govern-
ment.

51. Arrow Rock Dam. The highest dam in the world now
just completed (1915) is the Arrow Rock on the Boise, Idaho,
project, a U. S. reclamation work. From the crest to the base the
fore curtain is 351 feet. A graphical analysis of the stress in the

68 DAMS AND WEIRS

base is given in Fig. 37. For Reservoir Empty, W=2609 tons, and

222
1.73X2609 ,„„, P 1610

22.6 tons. These values are, of course, but

\ 4

approximate.

Thus the compressive stresses (R.F.) and (R.E.) are practically
equal, and the incidence of W and also of N is close to the edge of

the middle third. The dam is built on a radius of 661 feet at the
crest. The high stresses allowed are remarkable, as the design is on
the gravity principle, arch action being ignored. The curvature
doubtless adds considerably to safety and undoubtedly tends to
reduce the compressive stresses by an indeterminate but substantial
amount. It is evident that formula (10) has been applied to the

DAMS AND WEIRS 69

de^gn. Reference to Figs. 38 and 39 will show that the dam is
divided into several vertical sections by contractioa joints. It is
also provided with inspection galleries in the interior and vertical
weeper drains 10 feet apart. These intercept any possible seepage,
which is carried to a sump and pumped out. These precautions are

Fig. 39. ElevatioD of Arrow Rock Dun

to guard against hydrostatic uplift. The simplicity of the outline,
resembling that of the Roosevelt dam, is remarkable.

SPECIAL FOUNDATIONS
S2, Dams Not Always on Rock. Dams are not always founded
on impervious rock but sometimes, when of low height, are founded
on boulders, gravel, or sand. These materials when restrained
from spreading, and with proper arrangements to take care of sub-
percolation, are superior to clay, which latter is always a treacher-
ous material to deal with. When water penetrates underneath the
base of a dam, it causes hydrostatic uplift, which materially reduces
the effective weight of the structure. Fig. 40 represents a wall
resting on a pervious stratum and upholding water. The water
has ingress into the substratum and the upward pressure it will
exert at c against the base of the wall will be that due to its depth,
in this case 30 feet. Now the point of egress of the percolation will
be at b, and, as in the case of a pipe discharging in the open, pressure
is nil at that point; consequently the uplift area below the base will

be a triangle whose area equals — - — . The diagram. Fig. 40, shows

the combinations of the horizontal water pressure P with the hydro-
static uplift V and with the weight of the wall W. P is first com-
bined with F, fii resulting, whose direction is upward. Ri is then

DAMS AND WEIRS

combined with W, R2 being their resultant. The conditions with-
out uplift are also shown by the dotted line drawn parallel to dc in
Fig. 40. The line ab is termed the hydraulic gradient; it is also the
piezometric line, i.e., a line connecting water levels in piezometer
tubes, were such inserted.

Fig. 41 shows the same result produced on the assumption that
the portion of the wall situated below the piezometric line is reduced
in weight by an equal volume of water, i.e., the s.g. of this part may
be assumed reduced by unity, i.e., from 2.4 to 1.4. The wall is

Fig. 40. Effect of Uplift on Dam Shown Graphically

thus divided diagonally into two parts, one of s.g. 2.4 and the other
of s.g. 1.4. The combination of 1+2 with P is identical in result
with that shown in Fig. 40. In the subsequent section, dealing
with "Submerged Weirs on Sand'^ this matter of reduction in weight
due to flotation is frequently referred to.

53. Aprons Affect Uplift. Fig. 42 is further illustrative of the
principle involved in dams with porous foundations. The pentag-
onal profile abc, is of sufficient base width, provided hydrostatic
uplift is absent. Supposing the foundation to be porous, the area

DAMS AND WEIRS

of uplift will be aibc, in which 6ai, equals ab. This area is equal
to abCf consequently practically the whole of the profile lies below
the hydraulic gradient, may be considered as submerged, and hence
loses weight; its s.g. can thus be assumed as reduced by unity, i.e.,
from p to p— 1. The correct base width will then be found by

making b =

H H
instead of -7= The new profile will then be adb;

Vp-1 Vp

the base width having been thus extended, the uplift is likewise
increased in the same proportion. Now supposing an impervious
apron to be built in front of the toe as must be the case with an
overfall dam; then the area of uplift becomes baie, and the piezo-

-20-

^ 1*400 xe.4 '960 '^'^

F-450

a- 30'

Fig. 41. Diagram Showing Identical Result If Weight Is Considered Reduced

Due to Submersion

metric line and hydraulic gradient, which in all these cases happen
to be one and the same line, is ae. Under these circumstances the
comparatively thin apron is subjected to very considerable uplift
and will blow up imless sufficiently thick to resist the hydrostatic
pressure. The low water, or free outlet level, is assumed to be at
the level e, consequently the fore apron lies above this level and is
considered as free from fiotation due to immersion.

54. Rear Aprons. Decrease Uplift. Another case will now be
examined. In Fig. 42 suppose the fore apron removed and a rear
apron substituted. In this case the point of ingress of the percolat-
ing water is thrown back from 6 to V the hydraulic gradient is a'c^

72 DAMS AND WEIRS

the triangle of hydrostatic uplift is b'osc. This uplift from b' to 6
is more than neutralized by the rectangle of water a'abb', which
overlies the rear apron; the latter is therefore not subject to any
uplift and, owing to its location, is generally free from erosion by
moving water, consequently it can be made of clay, ■which in this
position is water-tight as concrete masonry. A glance at Fig. 42
will demonstrate at once the great reduction of uplift against the
base of the wall effected by the expedient of a rear apron, the uplift
being reduced from ajx to fbc, more than one-half. Thus a rear

fig. 42. DiBirtun Showing Uplift with and without Pore Hud R«ar Aprons

apron is a sure remedy for uplift while the fore apron, if solid, should
be made as short as possible, or else should be formed of open work,
as heavy slabs with open Joints. In the rear of overfall dams stanch-
ing clay is often deposited by natural process, thus forming an
effective rear apron. Many works owe their security to this fact
although it often passes unrecognized.

55. Rock Below Gravel. Fig. 43 represents a dam founded
on a stratum of pervious material beneath which is solid rock. A
fore curtain wall is shown carried down to the impervious rock.
The conditions now are worse than those resulting from the imper-

DAMS AND WEIRS

vious fore apron in Fig. 42 as the hydraulic gradient and piezometric
line are now horizontal. The reduced area of vertical hydrostatic
pressure is 1066 against which the wall can only furnish 1200; there
is, therefore, an effective area of only 134 to resist a water pressure
at the rear of 800, consequently the wall must fail by sliding or
overturning as the graphical stress lines clearly prove. The proper
position of a diaphragm curtain wall is at the heel, not at the toe of
the dam; in this location it will effectively prevent all uplift. In
the case where an impervious stratum does not occur at a reasonable
depth the remedy is to provide a long rear apron which will reduce
hydrostatic uplift to as small a value as may be desired, or else a
combination of a vertical diaphragm with a horizontal apron can be

PtCZOMETiriC LINE

H'60'

JJ 30UJ> ROCK

Fig. 43. Effect of Impervious Fore Curtain Wall on Upfift

used. In many cases a portion only of the required rear apron need
be provided artificially. With proper precautionary measures the
deposit of the remaining length of unfinished apron can safely be
left for the river to perform by silt deposit, if time can be afforded
for the purpose.

56. Gravity Dam Reinforced against Ice Pressure. This sec-
tion will be concluded with a recent example of a gravity dam rein-
forced against ice pressure, which is given in Fig. 44, viz, that of the
St. Maurice River dam situated in the Province of Quebec. The
ice pressure is taken as 25 tons per foot run, acting at a level corre-
sponding to the crest of the spillway, which latter is shown in Fig.
58. The profile of Fig. 44 is pentagonal, the crest has been given

74 DAMS AND WEIRS

the abnormal width of 20 feet, while the base is \ of the height,
which is about the requireinent, were ice pressure not considered)
The horizontal ice pressure, in addition to that of the water upheld.
will cause the line of pressure to fall well outside the middle third!
thus producing tension in the masonry at the rear of the section'
To obviate this, the back of the wall is reinforced with steel rods to]
the extent of l\ square inches per lineal foot of the dam. If tht
safe tensile strength of steel be taken at the usual figure of 16,00C

Fii. 14. Profile of Sunt Msuiice Rlvei' Dam at Quebec

pounds, or 8 tons per square inch, the pull exerted by the reinforce-
ment against overturning will be 12 tons per foot run. This force
can be considered as equivalent to a load of like amount applied at
the back of the wall, as KhowTi in the figure. The section of the
dam is divided into two parts at El 309 and the incidence of the
resultant pressure at this level and at the base is graphically obtained-
The line of pressure connecting these points is drawn on the pro-
file. The line falls outside the middle third in the upper half of
the section and within at the base, the inference being that the

lideft.

tkHj

3(ls:f
[fill

DAMS AND WEIRS 75

section would be improved by conversion into a trapezoidal outline
with a narrower crest and with some reinforcement introduced as
has been done in the spillway section, shown in Fig. 58.

It will be noticed that the reinforcement stops short at El
275. This is allowed for by assuming the imposed load of 12 tons
removed at the base of the load hne in the force polygon. The
line Rs starting from the intersection of i?4 with a horizontal through
El 275.0 is the final resultant at the base. This example is most
instructive as illustrating the combination of reinforcement with a
gravity section in caring for ice pressure, thus obviating the undue
enlargement of the profile.

GRAVITY OVERFALL DAMS OR WEIRS

57. Characteristics of Overfalls. When water overflows the
crest of a dam it is termed an overfall dam or weir, and some modi-
fication in the design of the section generally becomes necessary.
Not only that, but the kinetic effect of the falling water has to be
provided for by the construction of an apron or floor which in many
cases forms by far the most important part of the general design.
This is so pronounced in the case of dwarf diversion weirs over wide
sandy river beds, that the weir itself forms but an insignificant part
of the whole section. The treatment of submerged weirs with aprons,
will be given elsewhere. At present the section of the weir wall
alone will be dealt with.

Typical Section. Fig. 45 is a typical section of a trapezoidal
weir wall with water passing over the crest. The height of the crest
as before, will be designated by H, that of reservoir level above
crest by" d, and that of river below by D. The total height of the
upper still water level, will therefore, be H+d.

The depth of water passing over the crest should be measured
some distance upstream from the overfall just above where the
break takes place; the actual depth over the crest is less by reason
of the velocity of the overfall being always greater than that of
approach. This assumes dead water, as in a reservoir, in the upper
reach. On a river or canal, however, the water is in motion and has
a velocity of approach, which increases the discharge. In order to

allow for this, the head (h) corresponding to this velocity, or —

DAMS AND WEIRS

multiplied by 1.5 to allow for impact, or h = .023ZV^, should be
added to the reservoir level. Thus supposing the mean velocity
of the river in flood to be 10 feet per second 100 X. 0233 or 2.3
feet would have to be added to the actual depth, the total being
15 feet in Fig. 45. The triangle of water pressure will have its
apex at the surface, and its base will, for the reasons given
previously, be taken as the depth divided by the specific gravity
of the material of the wall. The triangle of water pressure will

* e.S '/.5hn AFFLUX^ 1^ h,

AFFLUX

Fig. 45. Typical Section of Trapezoidal Weir Wall

be truncated at the crest of the overfall. The water pressure acting
against the back of the wall will thus be represented by a trapezoid,

not a triangle, whose base width is and its top width at crest

level

Its area therefore (back vertical) will be I ■ - _[_^_ ij^
P \ P P/ ^

(

H+d d\

If the back is inclined the side of the trapezoid becomes Hi. The
general formula is therefore

(15)

DAMS AND WEIRS 77

Hi being the inclined length of the back of the wall. The vertical
distance of its point of application above the base according to

formula (5) page 19 u ft=— f rr, oi l arid will be the same

whether the back is vertical or inclined.

58. Approximate Base Width. With regard to the drop wall
itself, owing to the overfall of water and possible impact of floating
timber, ice, or other heavy bodies, a wide crest is a necessity. A
further strengthening is effected by adopting the trapezoidal profile.
The ordinary approximate rule for the base width of a trapezoidal
weir wall will be either

b= — 1=- ^.lo)

The correctness of either will depend on various considerations,
such as the value of d, the depth of the overfall, that of hi or velocity
head and also of D, the depth of the tail water; the inclination given
to the back, and lastly, whether the weir wall is founded on a porous
material and is consequently subject to loss of weight from uplift.
Hence the above formulas may be considered as approximate only
and the base width thus obtained subject to correction, which is
easiest studied by the graphical process of drawing the resultant on
to the base, ascertaining its position relative to the middle third
boundary.

59. Approximate Crest Width. With reference to crest width,
it may be considered to vary from

k = <ll+d (17)

k = ^TI+^Jd (18)

the former gives a width sufficient for canal, or reservoir waste weir
walls, but the latter is more suitable for river weirs, and is quite so
when the weir wall is submerged or drowned.

In many cases, however, the necessity of providing space for
falling shutters or for cross trafiic during times when the weir is not

78 DAMS AND WEIRS

acting, renders obligatory the provision of an even wider crest.
With a moderate width, a trapezoidal outline has to be adopted, in
order to give the requisite stability to the section. This is formed
by joining the edge of the crest to the toe of the base by a straight

line, the base width of ^^ — 1=— being adopted, as shown in Kg. 45.

When the crest width exceeds the dimensions given in formida

(18), the face should drop vertically till it meets the hypothenuse

of the elementary profile, as is the case with the pentagonal profile

of dams. An example of this is given in Fig. 52 of the Dhukwa

weir. The tentative section thus outlined should be tested by

graphical process and if necessary the base width altered to conform

with the theory of the middle third.

In Fig. 45 is given a diagram of a trapezoidal weir 60 feet high

with d = 15 feet. According to formida (17) the crest width should

be V75 = 8.7 feet, and according to (18), 7.74+3.87 = 11.6. An aver-

age of 10 feet has been adopted, which also equals —^ The profile

therefore, exactly corresponds with the elementary triangle canted
forward and truncated at the overfall crest.

60. Oraphical Process. In graphical diagrams, as has already
been explained, wherever possible half widths of pressure areas are
taken off with the compasses to form load lines, thus avoiding the
arithmetical process of measuring and calculating the areas of the
several trapezoids or triangles, which is always liable to error. There
are, however, in this case, three areas, one of which, that of the
reverse water pressure, has an altitude of only half of the others.
This difficulty is overcome by dividing its half width by 2. If one
height is not an exact multiple, as this is of H, a fractional value
given to the representing line in the polygon will often be found to
obviate the necessity of having to revert to superficial measures.
The application of the reverse pressure Pi here exhibited is similar
to that shown in Fig. 16; it has to be combined with R, which latter
is obtained by the usual process. This combination is effected in
the force polygon by drawing a line Pi equal to the representative
area, or half width of the back pressure, in a reverse direction to P.
The closing line Pi is then the final resultant. On the profile itself
the force line Pi is continued through its center of gravity till it

DAMS AND WEIRS 79

intersects R, from which point Ri is drawn to the base. If this por-
tion of the face of the weir is very flat, as is sometimes the case, Pi
may be so deflected as to intersect R below the base altogether as
is shown in Fig. 50. In such event, Ri is drawn upward instead of
downward to intersect the base. The effect of Pi is to throw the
resultant Pi farther inward but not to any great extent. It im-
proves the angular direction of P, however.

Reverse Pressure. A dam is usually, but not invariably, exempt
from the effect of reverse pressure. This reverse water pressure is
generally, as in this case, favorable to the stabihty of the weir, but
there are cases when its action is either too slight to be of service or
is even detrimental. This occurs when the face of the weir wall is
much inclined, which points to the equiangular profile being most
suitable. An example illustrative of the above remarks is given
later in Fig. 50 of the Folsam dam.

As the moments of the horizontal pressure of water on either
side of the weir wall vary almost with the cubes of their height, it
is evident that a comparatively low depth of tail water will have but
small influence and may well be neglected. When a vertical back
is adopted, the slope is all given to the face; by which the normal
reverse water pressure is given a downward inclination that reduces
its capacity for helping the wall.

61. Pressures Affected by Varying Water Level. Calculations
of the depths of water passing over the weir or rather the height of
reservoir level above the weir crest, designated by d, and of the
corresponding depth D in the tail channel, are often necessary for
the purpose of ascertaining what height of water level upstream,
or value of d, will produce the greatest effect on the weir wall. In
low submerged or drowned weirs, the highest flood level has often
the least effect, as at that time the difference of levels above and
below the weir are reduced to a minimum. This is graphically
shown in Fig. 46, which represents a section of the Narora dwarf
weir wall, to which further reference will be made in section 124,
Part II. In this profile two resultant pressures, P and Pi, are
shown, of which Pi, due to much lower water level of the two stages
under comparison, falls nearer the toe of the base.

The Narora weir, the section of the weir wall of which is so
insignificant, is built across the Ganges River in Upper India at the

DAMS AND WEIRS

head of the Lower Ganges Canal, Fig. 93. The principal part of
this work, which is founded on the river sand, consists not in the low
weir wall, although that is f mile long, but in the apron or floor,
which has to be of great width, in this case 200 feet.

As will be seen in Fig. 46 the flood level of the Ganges is 16 feet
above the floor level, while the afflux, or level of the head water, is
two feet higher. The river discharges about 300,000 second-feet
when in flood. When full flood occurs, the weir is completely
drowned, but from the diagrams it will be seen that the stress on
the wall is less when this occurs than when the head water is

Fig. 46. Section of Narora Dwarf Weir Wall across Ganges River in Upper India

much lower. This result is due to the reverse pressure of the
tail water.

The rise of the river water produces, with regard to the stress
induced on the weir, three principal situations or "stages'* which are
enumerated below.

(1) When the head water is at weir crest level; except in cases
where a water cushion exists, natural or artificial, the tail channel
is empty, and the conditions are those of a dam.

(2) When the level of the tail water lies below weir crest level
but above half the height of the weir wall. In this case the recip-
rocal depth of the head water above crest is found by calculation

DAMS AND WEIRS 81

(3) At highest flood level, the difference between the head
and tail water is at a minimum. In an unsubmerged weir or over-
fall dam the greatest stress is generally produced during stage (3).
In a submerged weir the greatest stress is produced during stage (2).

62. Moments of Pressure. The moments of the horizontal
water pressure on either side of a wall are related to each other in
proportion to the cubes of their respective depths. In cases where
the wall is overflowed by the water, the triangle of pressure of the
latter, as we have seen, is truncated at the weir crest. The moment
(M) of this trapezoidal area of pressure will be the product of its
area with h, or the product of the expressions in formula (1) and
formida (5) as follows:

M=^ (H+3d) (19)

Dhv
That of the opposing tail water will be M = — — , the difference of

these two being the resultant moment. For example, in the case

shown in Fig. 46, during stage (1) H = 10, D = 0, unbalanced moment

=1^ = 166.6—. In stage (2) i/ = 10, d=3.5, and Z> = 10. Then
6p p

the unbalanced moment will be ;^ [(100 X 20.5) - 1000] =175— .

6p p

In stage (3) if =10, P = 16; d = 8, and Z>-i/ = 6feet. There will

thus be two opposing trapezoids of pressure, and the difference in

their moments will be

t(?(100X34) ii?(100X28) ^^w

= luu —

op op p

Thus stage (2) produces the greatest effect, the least being stage
(3). In this expression {w) symbolizes, as before, the unit weight
of water, per cubic foot or, ^ ton.

In spite of this obvious fact, many weir wall sections have been
designed . under the erroneous supposition that the overturning
moment is greatest when the upper water is at crest level and the tail
channel empty, i.e., at a time when the difference of levels above and

DAMS AND WEIRS

below the weir is at a
maximum, or at full
flood when the differ-
ence is at a minimum.
63. Method of
Calculating Depth of
Overfall. During the
second stage of the
river the value of d,
the depth of the over-
fall, will have to be
calculated. To effect
this the dischai^ of
the river must first be
estimated when the
surface reaches the
crest level of the weir,
which is done by use
of the formula, Q =
Ac^TS, given in sec-
tion 35, page 47 of
"Hydraulics, Ameri-
can School of Corre-
spondence", A being
the area, equal' to d
times length of weir
(c) Kutter's coeffi-
cient, (r) the hydraulic
mean radius, and s,
the surface grade or
slope of the river. The
discharge for the whole
river should now be
divided by the length
of the weir crest, the
quotient giving the
unit discharge, or that
perfootrunof the weir.

DAMS AND WEIRS 83

The depth required to pass this discharge with a free overfall
is found by use of Francis' formula of 3.33d* or a modification of it
for wide crest weirs for which tables are most useful. See "Hydrau-
lics", section 24, p. 30.

For example, supposing the river discharge with tail water
up to crest level is 20 second-feet per foot run of the weir. Then

3.33# = 20. Whence rf* = 6 and ^=^^6^ = 3.3 feet. This ignores
velocity of approach, a rough allowance for which would be to
decrease d by (hi) the velocity head, or by .0155F2.

64. Illustrative Example. Fig. 47 illustrates an assumed case.
Here the weir is 15 feet high, 3 stages are shown:

(1) When head water is at crest level;

(2) When tail water is 7^ feet deep, and the reciprocal depth of the

head water is assumed as 4 feet; and

(3) With tail water at crest level and head water assumed 7 feet

deep above crest.

The three resultants have been worked out graphically. From
their location on the base the greatest stress is due to i?2, i.e.,
stage (2).

The hydraulic gradients of all three stages have been shown with
an assumed rear and fore apron on floor. In (1) more than half the
weir body lies below the piezometric line, which here corresponds
with the hydraulic gradient, while in (2) nearly the whole lies below
this line and in (3) entirely so.

Owing to this uplift it is well always to assume the s.g. of a weir

wall under these conditions as reduced by immersion to a value of

p— 1. In these cases the triangles of water pressure are shown with

H H H

their bases made ; , or -— , instead of ;r— . Actually, however, the

p — 1 1,4 ZA

resistance of the weir wall to overturning relative to its base at floor

level is not impaired by flotation, but as weight in these cases is a

desideratum, the weir wall should be designed as if this were the case.

The rear apron is evidently subject to no uphft, but the fore apron is,

and its resisting power, i.e., effective weight, is impaired by flotation.

See section 52 and also the later sections on " Submerged Weirs in

Sand'', Part II.

65. Examples of Existing Weirs. Some examples of existing
weirs will now be given. Fig. 48 is a profile of the LaGrange over-

DAMS AND WEIRS

fall dam at the head of the Modesto and Tuolumne canals. Fig. 49.
No less than 13 feet depth of water passes over its crest, 2 feet being

id Tuolumne Cumb

added to allow for velocity of ap-
proach. It is built on a curve of
300 feet radius. The graphical
analysis of the section shows that
the resultants (R.E.) and (R.F.)
drawn on the profile fall within
the middle third. In this process
the reverse pressure due to tail
water has been neglected. Its
effect will be small.

It is a doubtful point whether
the reverse pressure actually exer-
cised is that due to the full depth

Fi,.49. I«»t»uPt«.ofL.Gra>«eW«r ^f ^^^ ^^jj ^^j^^ r^^^ oVeifloW

causes a disturbance and probably more or less of a vacuum at
the toe of the weir wall, besides which the velocity of impact causes
a hollow to be formed which must reduce the reverse pressure. In
some instances, as in the case of the Granite Reef dam, I^g. 55, the

DAMS AND WEIRS 85

effective deptb of the tail water is assumed as only equal to that of
the film of C'verflow. This appears an exaggerated view. How-
ever, in a xiigh overfall dam, the effect of the reverse is often so small
that it can well be neglected altogether. In cases where the tail
water rises to f or more of the height of the dam its effect begins to
be considerable, and should be taken into account.

66. Objections to "Ogee" Overfalls. Professional opinion
seems now to be veering round in opposition to the "bucket'' or
curved base of the fore slope which is so pronounced a feature in
American overfall dams. Its effects are undoubtedly mischievous,
as the destructive velocity of the falUng water instead of being
reduced as would be the case if it fell direct into a cushion of water,
is conserved by the smooth curved surface of the bucket. In the
lately constructed Bassano hollow dam (see Figs. 84 and 85, Part II),
the action of the bucket is sought to be nullified by the subsequent
addition of baffles composed of rectangular masses of concrete fixed
on the curved slope. The following remarks in support of this
view are excerpted from "The Principles of Irrigation Engineering"
by Mr. F. H. Newell, formeriy Director of United States Reclamation
Service. "Because of the difficulties involved by the standing wave
or whiripool at the lower toe of overflow dams, this type has been
made in many cases to depart from the conventional curve and to
drop the water more neariy vertically rather than to attempt to
shoot it away from the dam in horizontal lines."

67. Folsam Weir. Fig. 50 is of the Folsam weir at the head
of the canal of that name. It is remarkable for the great depth of
flood water passing over the crest which is stated to be over 30 feet
deep. The stress lines have been put on the profile with the object
of proving that the reverse pressure of the water, although nearly
40 feet deep has a very small effect. This is due to the flat inclina-
tion given to the lower part of the weir, which has the effect of
adding a great weight of water on the toe where it is least wanted
and thus the salutary effect of the reverse pressure is more than
neutralized. The section is not too heavy for requirements, but econ-
omy would undoubtedly result if it were canted forward to a nearly
equiangular profile, and this applies to all weirs having deep tail water,
and to drowned weirs. It will be noted that a wide crest allows
but very little consequent reduction in the base width in any case.

86 DAMS AND WEIRS

The stress diagram in Figs. 50 and 50a are interesting as show-
ing the method of combining the reverse pressures with the ordinary
Haessler's diagram of the direct water pressure. The profile is
divided into three parts as well as the direct water pressure, whereas
the reverse pressure which only extends for the two lower divisions
is in two parts. The stress diagrams present no novel features till
Rt is reached. This force on the profile comes in contact with reverse
force 1* before it reaches its objective 3^. The effect of the reverse

pressure is to deflect the direction of the resultant in the direction
of Rs, which latter, as shown in the force polygon. Fig. 50a, is the
resultant of l", set out from the point b, and of i?a. The new result-
ant ifa continues till it meets 3'. The resultant of ifj and 3' is the
reverse line drawn upward to meet the vertical force 3, parallel to
its reciprocal in Fig. 50a, which is the dotted line joining the termi-
nation of 3S i.e., (a) with that of 1".

Following the same method the resultant Rt is next drawn
downward to meet 2", which latter in the force polygon is set out

DAMS AND WEIRS 87

from the ternination of the vertical (3). The resultant of J?4 and
2" is the final Rb. This line is drawn upward on the profile inter-
secting the base at B. If the reverse pressure were left out of con-
sideration, the force R2 would continue on to its intersection with
3^ and thence the reverse recovery line drawn to meet (3) will be
parallel to ba (not drawn) in the force polygon. This reverse hne
will intersect the line (3) in the profile almost at the same spot
as before.

The final line will be parallel to its reciprocal ca (not drawn
in Fig. 50a) and will cut the base outside the intersection of R^. To
prevent confusion these lines have not been drawn on; this proves
that the effect of the reverse pressure is detrimental to the stability
of the wall, except in the matter of the incUnation of Rb. If the
profile were tilted forward this would not be so. If Pi the resultant
water pressure at the rear of the wall be drawn through the profile
to intersect the resultant of all the vertical forces, viz, 1+2+3+t?^
+1^, this point will be found to be the same as that obtained by
producing the final R^ backwards to meet Pi.

Determination of Pi. To effect this, the position of Pi has to
be foimd by the following procedure: The load line db, Fig. 50a, is
continued to I, so as to include the forces 3, Vi, and V2> The rays
oc, oj, and ol are drawn; thus a new force polygon dol is formed to
which the funicular. Fig. 50b, is made reciprocal. This decides the
position of JF, or of 1+2+3, viz, the center of pressure (R. E.) as
also that of W+V1+V2 which latter are the reverse pressure loads.
The location of Pi is found by means of another funicular polygon C
derived from the force polygon oad, by drawing the rays oa, of, and
oe; Pi is then drawn through the profile intersecting the vertical
resultant last mentioned at A. The Une AB is then coincident
with Rb on Fig. 50. The vertical line through A is not N, i.e., is
not identical with the vertical in Fig. 50, for the reason that N is
the resultant of all the vertical forces, whereas the vertical in ques-
tion is the centroid of pressure of all the vertical force less wi, the
weight of water overlying the rear slope of the wall. The location
of N is found by drawing a horizontal P through the intersection
of Pi with a Une drawn through the e.g. of the triangle of water
pressure w, this will intersect the back continuation of BA at c.
A vertical CD through this point will correspond with that marked

88 DAMS AND WEIRS

N in Rg. 50. The profile, Fig, 51, is a reproduction of that shown
Ilg. 50 in order to illustrate the analytieal method of calculation or
that by moments.

'68. Analytical Method. The incidence of the resultant R is
required to be as ascertmned on two bases, one the final base and
the other at a level 13 feet higher. The section of the wall as before,
h divided into three parts: (1) of area 840 square feet, (2) of 1092, and
(3) of 838 square feet. The position of the e.g. of (1) is found by for-
mula (7) to be 15.15 feet distant from a the heel ofthe base and will be

Tig. GI. Ducrem of Falsam Weir IllustiatiDc Anslyticsl Method of Calculation

15.65 feet from 6. That of (2) is 32.3 feet distant from its heeU. Th*
reduced area of the water overlying the back down to b is estimated
at 26 square feet and by formula (6) to be .5 feet distant from b.
Again the reduced area of the reverse water overlying the fore

slope Ti is 92 square feet and the distance of its eg. from b is 55 — 5^

= 48.8 feet. The moments of all these vertical forces equated
with that of their sum (N) about the point b will give the position
of N relative to b.

DAMS AND WEIRS 89

Thus

(1) 840X15.65=13146

(2) 1092X23.3 =25443
(w) 26X .5 = 13
(vi) 92X48.8 = 4490

2050 X a; = 43092 = Moment of N
.'. X = 21 feet, nearly

To obtain the distance / between N and R, /= — ^-rz — ?•. Now

the reduced area of P=1257 and the height of the eg. of the
trapezoid having its base at b, and its crest level with that of the
wall is calculated by formula (6), to be 22.1 feet. Again the reduced
area of the reverse water pressure triangle pi is 120 square feet,
the height of its eg. above base is 8 feet. Consequently:

^_ (1257X22.1)- (120X8) _ 26820 _,o ^ .
^~ 2050 "2050""*^*

For the lower base, the statement of moments about c is as fol-
lows, Vt being 240, and its distance 65 feet by formula (6).

( i\0 2050 X (21 + .3) = 43665
(3) 838X32.3 =27067
(w) 10 X .15 = 2
(vt) 240X65 =15600

Total 3138Xa: =86334

x-^^^ ^27 A feet
3138

Now/i= — ^' TV7 ^^^^^ , /i being the distance between iVi and J?i.

iVi

The value of Pi, the trapezoid of water pressure down to the base
c, is 1747 square feet and the height of its e.g. by formula (19) or
(5) is 27 feet, that of (P1+P2) is 285 square feet and its lever arm

^=12 J feet. Then

. (1747X27)-(285X12^) 47169-3514 43655 ,

^^ 3138 3138 3138

The positions of N and Ni being obtained, the directions of
R and i?i are lines drawn to the intersections of the two verticals

90 DAMS AND WEIRS

N and A'^i with two lines drawn through the c.g.'s of the trapezoid of
pressure reduced by the moment of the reverse pressure, if any, or by
(P— p). This area will consist, as shown in the diagram, of a trape-
zoid superposed on a rectangle; by using formula (5) section 1, the
positions of the e.g. of the upper trapezoid is found to be 12.58 feet
above the base at a, while that of the lower is at half the depth of
the rectangle, then by taking moments of these areas about 6, the
height of the e.g. is found to be 23.6 feet above the base at b, while
the height for the larger area [Pi— (P1+P2)] down to c is 27 feet.

In the graphical diagram of Fig. 51a the same result would be
obtained by reducing the direct pressure by the reverse pressure
area. Thus in the force diagram the vertical load Une would remain
unchanged but the water-pressure load Une would be shorter being
P—p and Pi— (P1+P2), respectively. This would clearly make no
difference in the direction of the resultants R and Pi and would save
the two calculations for the c.g.'s of P and Pi.

This weir is provided with a crest shutter in one piece, 150 feet
long, which is raised and lowered by hydraulic jacks chambered
in the masonry of the crest so that they are covered up by the gate
when it falls. This is an excellent arrangement and could be imi-
tated with advantage. The shutter is 5 feet deep. The width

at base of lamina 2 of this weir is 55 feet, or very nearly — r=r-,

formula (16).

69. Dhukwa Weir. A very similar work is the Dhukwa weir
in India, Fig. 52, which has been recently completed.

This overfall dam is of x)entagonal section. Owing to the width
of the crest this is obviously the best outUne.

The stress resultant lines have been drawn on the profile, which
prove the correctness of the base width adopted. The tail water
does not rise up to half the height of the weir. Consequently the

formula — p- is appUcable in stage 3. The effect of the tail water

is practically nil. According to this formula the base width would

2
be 63 X — = 42 feet, which it almost exactly measures — a further

demonstration of the correctness of the formula. The crest width

should be, according to formula (18), V50+Vl3 = ll feet. The

DAMS AND WEIRS 81

width of 17 feet adopted is necessary for the space required to work
the collapsible gates. These are of steel, are held in position by
struts connected with triggers, and can be released in batches by
chains worked from each end. The gates, 8 feet high, are only 10
feet wide. This involves the raising and lowering of 400 gates, the
weir crest being 4000 feet long. The arrangement adopted in the
Folsam weir of hydraulic jacks operating long gates is far superior.
An excellent feature in this design is the subway with occasional side
chambers and lighted by openings, the outlook of which is under-
neath the waterfall, and has the advantage of relieving any vacuum
under the falling water.

Fig. SZ. Graphical Analysis ot Profilfl o! Dhukwa W«i[ in India

The subway could be utilized for pressure pipes and for cross
communication, and the system would be most useful in cases where
the obstruction of the crest by piers is inadvisable. The weir is
4000 feet long and passes 800,000 second-feet, with a depth of 13
feet. The discharge is, therefore, 200 second-feet per foot run of

200
' 13 ''

feet per second. With a depth of 13 feet still water, the discharge
will be by Francis' formula, 156 second-feet per foot run. To produce
a dischai^ of 200 feet per second, the velocity of approach must be
about 10 feet per second. This will add 2.3 feet to the actual value

DAMS AND WEIRS

of d, raising it from 13 to 15.3 feet which strictly should have been
done in Fig. 52.

70. Martquina Wcir. Another high weir of American design.
Fig. 53, is the Mariquina weir in the Philippines. It has the ogee
curve more accentuated than in the LaGrange weir. The stress
lines have been drawn in, neglecting the effect of the tail water
which will be but detrimental. The section is deemed too heavy
at the upper part and would also bear canting forward with advan-
tage, but there are probably good reasons why an exceptionally solid

t—/7*

A rrmx^h {assumed) \

coNcnTE rei'.s

Fig. 53. Profile of Mariquina Weir in the Philippines

crest was adopted. The ogee curve also is a matter on which
opinion has already been expressed.

71. Granite Reef Weir. The Granite Reef weir over the
Salt River, in Arizona, Figs. 54 and 55, is a work subsidiary to the
great Roosevelt dam of which mention was previously made.

It is founded partly on rock and partly on boulders and sand
overlying rock. The superstructure above the floor level is the
same throughout, but the foundations on shallow rock are remark-
able as being foimded not on the rock itself, but on an interposed
cushion of sand. (See Fig. 54.) Reinforced concrete piers, si)aced
20 feet apart, were built on the bedrock to a certain height, to clear

DAMS AND WEIRS

all inequalities; these were connected by thin reinforced concrete
side walls; the series of boxes thus formed were then filled level
with sand, and the dam built thereon. This work was completed
in 1908. The portion of the profile below the floor is conjectural.
This construction appears to be a bold and commendable novelty.
Sand in a confined space is incompressible, and there is no reason
why it should not be in like situations. A suggested improvement
would be to abandon the piers and form the substructure of two
long outer walls only, braced together with rods or old rails encased
in concrete. Yig. 55 is the profile on a boulder bed with rock below.

72. Hydraulic Condi-
tions. The levels of the
afflux flood of this river are
obtainable so thatthe stresses
can be worked out. In most
cases these necessary statis-
tics are wanting. The flood
downstream has been given
the same depth, 12 feet, as
that of the film pas^ng over
the crest. This is clearly
erroneous. The velocity of
the film allowing for 5 feet
per second approach, is quite
12 feet per second, that in
the river channel could not
be much over 5 feet, conse-

quently it would require a depth of

12X12
5

28 feet. The dam

would thus be quite submei^ed, which would greatly reduce the
stress. As previously stated, the state of maximum stress would
probably occur when about half the depth of flood passes over
the crest. However, the graphical work to find the mcidence
of the resultant pressure on the base will be made dependent on the
given downstream flood level. After the explanations already
given, no special comment is called for except with regard to the
reverse water pressure. Here the curved face of the dam is altered
into 2 straight lines and the water pressure consists of two forces

DAMS AND WEIRS

having areas of 17 and 40, respectively, which act through their
c.g/s. Instead of combining each force separately with the result-

>h//}////f///////////////^///////^^/^y

yyy/yyy////yy/yy//yyyy\,yyy^yyy/yy.

Xy///y/yyy//A

J
-ft

-<0

1
o

ant (7?) it is more convenient to find their resultant and combine
that single force with (/?.) This resultant Pi must pass through
the intersection of its two components, thus if their force Hnes are

DAMS AND WEIRS 95

run out backward till they intersect, a point in the direction of Pi
is found. Pi is then drawn parallel to its reciprocal in the force
polygon which is also shown on a larger scale at the left of the pro-
file. The final resultant is Pi which falls just within the middle
third of the base. P2 is the resultant supposing the water to be
at crest level only. The water in the river is supposed to have
mud in solution with its s.g. 1.4. The base length of the triangle

. , -u *u u {H+d)X(p-l) 32X1.4 .^'^

of water pressure will then be -^^ — — -= — ^r-, — = 18.66.

p 2.4

The other water-pressure areas are similarly treated. If the rear

curtain reaches rock the dam should not be subject to uphft. It

coidd, however, withstand sub-percolation, as the hearth of riprap

and boulders will practically form a filter, the material of the river

bed being too large to be disintegrated and carried up between the

interstices of the book blocks. The effective length of travel would

then be 107 feet; add vertical 52 feet, total 159 feet, H being 20 feet,

— works out to -— - = 8 which ratio is a Uberal allowance for a boulder
II 20

bed. The fore curtain is wisely provided with weep holes to release

any hydrostatic pressure that might otherwise exist underneath the

dam. The Granite Reef dam has a hearth, or fore apron of about

80 feet in width. A good empirical rule for the least width for a

solid or open work masonry fore apron is the following:

L = 2H+d (20)

in which H is the height of the permanent weir crest above floor,
and d is the depth of flood over crest. In this case H=20, d = 12;
least width of floor should then be 40+12 = 52 feet. The Bassano
dam is 40 feet high with 14 feet flood over crest, the width of hearth
according to this formula should be 94 feet, its actual width is 80
feet which is admittedly insufficient. With a low submerged weir,

formula (34) , Part II, viz, L = 3 Vc H, will apply. Beyond the hearth
a talus of riprap will generally be required, for which no rule can
well be laid down.

73. Nira Weir. Fig. 56 is of the Nira weir, an Indian work.
Considering the great depth of the flood waterdown stream, the pro-
vision of so high a subsidiary weir is deemed unnecessary, a water
cushion of 10 feet being ample, as floor is bed rock. The section of

DAMS AND WEIRS

the weir wall itself, is considered to be somewhat deficient in base
width. Roughly judging, the value of H+d, on which the base
width is calculated, should include about 3 or 4 feet above crest
level. This value of d, it is believed would about represent the height
of head water, which would have the greatest effect on the weir.
The exact value of d could only be estimated on a knowledge of the
bed slope or surface grade of the tail channel. The above estimate

would make (ff+d)=36 feet, and with p = 2l, — ;=-=24 feet.

— — . '^

The top width, 8.3, is just Vj^+Vd, in accordance with the

rule given in formula (18).

A section on these lines is shown dotted on the profile. The

provision of an 8-foot top width for the subsidiary weir is quite

Fig. 56. Section of Nira Weir in India Showing Use of Secondary Weir

indefensible, while the base width is made nearly equal to the
height, which is also excessive. For purposes of instruction in the
principles of design, no medium is so good as the exhibition of plans
of actual works combined with a critical view of their excellencies
or defects. The former is obtainable from record plans in many
technical works, but the latter is almost entirely wanting. Thus
an inexperienced reader has no means of forming a just opinion and
is liable to blindly follow designs which may be obsolete in form
or otherwise open to objection.

74. Castlewood Weir. The Castlewood weir. Fig. 57, is of
remarkable construction, being composed of stonework set dry,
enclosed in a casing of rubble masonry. It is doubtful if such a
section is any less expensive than an ordinary gravity section, or

DAMS AND WEIRS 97

much less than an arched buttress dam of type C. Shortly after
construction, it showed signs of failure, which was stated to be due
to faulty connections with banks of the river; but whatever the
cause it had to be reinforced, which was effected by adding a solid
bank of earth in the rear, as shown in the figure. This involved
lengthening the outlet pipes. In the overfall portion the bank must
have been protected with riprap to prevent scouring due to the
velocity of the approach current.

75. American Dams on Pervious Foundations. In the United
States a very large number of bulkhead and overfall dams and regu-
lating works, up to over 100 feet in height have been built on foun-

Fig. 57. Section of Caatlewood Weir Showina Constraction o( Stone Work Set Dry.
Enclosed in RubEle Masonry

dations other than rock, such as sand, boulders, and clay. Most
of these, however, are of the hollow reinforced concrete, or scallop
arch types, in which a greater spread for the base is practicable
than would be the case with a solid gravity dam. Whenever a core
wall is not run down to impervious rock, as was the cp.se in the
Granite Reef Overfall dam. Fig. 55, the matter of sub-percolation
and uplift require consideration, as is set forth in the sections on
"Gravity Dams" and "Submei^ed Weirs on Sand", If a dam 50
feet high is on sand or sand and boulders, of a quality demanding
a high percolation factor of say 10 or 12, it is clear that a very long
rear apron and deep rear piling will be necessary for safety.

All rivers bring down silt in suspension. When the overfall
dam is a high one with a crest more than 15 or 20 feet above river-

98 DAMS AND WEIRS

bed level, the deposit that is bound to take place in rear of the
obstruction will not be liable to be washed out by the current, and
additional light stanching silt will be deposited in the deep pool of
comparatively still water that must exist at the rear of every high
dam. For a low weir however this does not follow, and if deposit is
made it will be of the heavier, coarser sand which is not impermeable.

The diflSculty and expense of a long rear apron can be sur-
mounted by the simple expedient of constructing only a portion of
it of artificial clay, leaving the rest to be deposited by the river
itself. To ensure safety the dam should be constructed and reser-
voir filled, in two or three stages, with intervals between of suflBcient
length to allow the natural deposit to take place. Thus only a frac-
tion of the protective apron need be actually constructed. Many
works are in existence which owe their safety entirely to the fortu-
nate but unrecognized circumstance of natural deposit having
stanched the river bed in their rear, and many failures that have
taken place can only be accounted for from want of provision for
the safety of the work against underneath scour or piping and also
uplift. The author himself once had occasion to report on the fail-
ure of a head irrigation work which was designed as if on rock,
whereas it was on a pervious foundation of boulders. When it
failed the designers had no idea of the real cause, but put it down
to a "treacherous river", "ice move", anything but the real reason,
of which they were quite ignorant. Had a rear apron of suflBcient
width been constructed, the work would, be standing to this day.

76. Base of Dam and Fore Apron. The fore apron and base
of an overfall dam or weir must be of one level throughout its
length, if the foundation is of any other material than rock. The
foundation core walls may have to vary more or less with the surface
of the river bed, which is deep in some places, and shallow in
others, but the apron level should be kept at or about low water
level throughout. When a horizontal wall as an overfall dam is
built across a river bed it obliterates the depressions and channels
in it, the discharge over the weir is the same at all points or nearly
so, consequently the tendency will be to level the bed downstream by
fining the hollows and denuding the higher parts.

Under these conditions it is evidently sheer folly to step up the
apron to coincide with the section of the river bed, as the higher

DAMS AND WEIRS M

parts of the bed are bound to be in time washed out by the falling
water and deposited in the deeper channels, and portions of the
dam may easily be undermined. This actually occured in one case.
77. Section of Spillway of St. Maurice River Dam. Fig. 58 is
a section of the spillway portion of the reinforced bulkhead gravity
dam, illustrated in Fig. 44, Owing to the absence of the heavy
crest of Fig. 44, the back of the spillway profile is provided with

FIe. 58. Duciuu Sboning Profile of Spillway Poition of Ssiat Maurice Rivcc Dun
(See Tig. 44)

double the amount of reinforcement shown in the fonner example.
One half, viz, 1| inches, extends right down to the base, while the
other half stops short at El 280, This is arranged for in the stress
diagrams in the same way as explained in section 55, Ri being the
final resultant on the base. The line of pressure falls slightly out-
side the middle third in the upper half of the section. The effect
would be to increase the tension in the reinforcement pomewhat
above the limit of 8 tons per square inch. The adoption of a trape-
zoidal profile, would, it is deemed, be an improvement in this case
as well as in the former.

DAMS AND WEIRS

PART II

ARCHED DAMS

78. General Characteristics. In this type, the whole dam,
being arched in plan, is supposed to be in the statical condition of
an arch under pressure. As, however, the base is inunovably fixed
to the foundations by the frictional resistance due to the weight of
the structure, the lowest portion of the dam cannot possess full
freedom of motion nor elasticity, and consequently must act more or
less as a gravity dam subject to oblique pressure.

However this may be, experience has conclusively proved that
if the profile be designed on the supposition that the whole is an
elastic arch, this conflict of stresses near the base can be neglected
by the practical man. The probability is that both actions take
place, true arch a ction at the crest, gradually merging into transverse
stressnear the base; the result being that the safety of the dam is
enhanced by the combination of tangential and vertical stresses on
two planes.

In this type of structure, the weight of the arch itself is conveyed
to the base, producing stress on a horizontal plane, while the water
pressure normal to the extrados, radial in direction, is transmitted
through the arch rings to the abutments. The pressure is, therefore,
distributed along the whole line of contact of the dam with the sides
as well as the ground. In a gravity dam, on the other hand, the whole
t)ressure is concentrated on the horizontal base.

Arch Stress. The average unit stress developed by the water
pressure is expressed by the formula

^^^RHw "Short" Formula (21)

^^RHw "Short" Formula (21a)

»i

102 DAMS AND WEIRS

in which R is the radius of the extrados, sometimes measured to the
center of the crest, // the depth of the lamina, b its width, and w
the unit weight of water or ^ ton. Into this formula p, the specific
gravity of the material in the arch, does not enter. This simple
formula answers well for all arched dams of moderate base width.
WTien, however, the base width is considerable, as, say, in the ease
of the Pathfinder dam, the use of a longer formula giving the maxi-
mum stress (s) is to be preferred. This formula is derived from the
same principle affecting the relations of s and Si, or of the maximum
and average stresses already referred to in Part I on "Gravity Dams".
The expression is as follows, r being the radius of the intrados:

_2R___RHw _2R
'"''{R+r)" b ^R+r

or in terms of R and b

s= ^^\. "Long" Fonnula (22)

R V rJ

also

= R(l-yj

1 - 2^^ "Long" Formula (22a)

79. Theoretical and Practical Profiles. In a manner similar
to gravity dams, the theoretical profile suitable for an arched dam
is a triangle having its apex at the extreme water level, its base
width being dependent on the prescribed limiting pressure. Success-
ful examples have proved that a very high value for s, the maximum
stress, can be adopted with safety. If it were not for this, the profit-
able use of arched dams would be restricted within the narrow limits
of a short admissible radius, as with a low limit pressure the section
would equal that of a gravity dam.

The practical profile is a trapezoid, a narrow crest being nece#
sary. The water pressure area acting on an arched dam, is naturally
similar to that in a gravity dam, the difference being, however,
that there is no overturning moment when reverse pressure occurs
as in a weir. The difference or unbalanced pressure acting at any
point is simply the difference of the direct and the reverse forces.
The areas of pressure on both sides, therefore, vary with the squares
of their respective depths.

* ^ ^ ^ ^ \^ *• , --^

«* V V

DAMS AND WEIRS 103

The water pressure on an arch acts normally to the surface of
its back and is radial in direction; consequently the true line of pres-
sure in the arch ring corresponds with the curvature of the arch and
has no tendency to depart from this condition. There is, therefore,
no such tendency to rupture as is the case in a horizontal circular
arch subjected to vertical rather than radial pressure. This prop-
erty conduces largely to the stability of an arch under liquid
pressure. This condition is not strictly applicable in its entirety
to the case of a segment of a circle held rigidly between abut-
ments as the arch is then partly in the position of a beam. The
complication of stress involved is, however, too abstruse for practical
consideration.

80. Correct Profile. As we have already seen, the correct
profile of the arched dam is a triangle modified into a trapezoid
with a narrow crest. With regard to arch stresses, the mostj avorable.
ou tline is that with the back of the extrados vertical. The reason for / ^
this is that the vertical stress due to the weight of the arch, although '
it acts on a different plane from the tangential stresses in the arch'
ring, still has a definable influence on the maximum induced stress!
in the arch ring. The vertical pressure produces a transverse expan-
sion which may be expressed SisWxEXm, in which E is the coeffi-
cient of elasticity of the material and m that of transverse dilation.
This tends, when the extrados is vertical, to diminish the maximum
stress in the section; whereas when the intrados is vertical and the
back inclined, the modification of the distribution of pressure is
unfavorable, the maximum stress being augmented. When the
trapezoidal profile is equiangular, an intermediate or neutral condi-
tion exists. A profile with vertical extrados should, therefore, be
adopted whenever practicable.

In very high dams, however, the pressure on the horizontal
plane of the base due to the weight of the structure, becomes so
great as to even exceed that in the arch ring; consequently it is
necessary to adopt an equiangular profile in order to bring the center
of pressure at, or near to, the center of the base, so as to reduce the
ratio of maximum pressure to average pressure to a minimum.
As stated in the previous section, when a vertical through the
center of gravity of the profile passes through the center of the base,
the maxlmmn pressure equals the average, ot s=Si.

104

DAMS AND WEIRS

81. Support of Vertical Water Loads in Arched Dams.

When the back of an arched dam is inclined, the weight of the
water over it is supported by the base, the horizontal pressure of
the water alone acting on the arch and being conveyed to the
abutments. In the case of inclined arch buttress dams, however, a
portion of the vertical load is carried by the arch, increasing its
thrust above what is due to the horizontal water pressure alone.
This is due to overhang, i. e., when the c. g. falls outside the base.

82. Crest Width. The crest width of arched dams can be
safely made much less than that of gravity dams and a rule of

Jk=4Vff

(23)

would seem to answer the purpose, unless rein-
forcement is used, when it can be made less.

EXAMPLES OF ARCHED DAMS

The following actual examples of arched
dams will now be given.

83. Bear Valley Dam. This small work.
Fig. 59, is the most remarkable arched dam in
existence and forms a valuable example of the
enormous theoretical stresses which this type
of vertical arch can stand. The mean radius
being 335 feet according to formula (21) the
unit stress will be

— 7 — = 60 tons, nearly

Rg. 69. Section of Old Bear This scctiou would be better if reversed. The
a ey am actual strcss is probably half this amount.

This work has now been superseded by a new dam built below it,
Fig. 77, section 103.

84. Pathfinder Dam. This immense work. Fig. 60, is built
to a radius of 150 feet measured to the center of the crest. That,
however, at the extrados of the base of the section is 186 feet and this
quantity has to be used for the value of R in the long formula (22).
The unit stress then works out .to 18 tons, nearly. The actual stress
in the lowest arch ring is undoubtedly much less, for the reason

DAMS AND WEIRS 105

that the base must absorb so large a proportion of the thrust that
very httle is transmitted to the sides of the canyon. The exact
determination of the proportion transmitted in the higher rings
is an indeterminate problem, and the only safe method is to assume
with regard to tangential arch stress that the arch stands clear of

Fig. 60. Section of Pathfinder Dun

the base. This will leave a large but indeterminate factor of safety
and enable the adoption of a high value for s, the maximum unit
stress.

The profile of the dam is nearly equiangular in outline. This
is necessary in so high a dam in order to bring the vertical resultants
(W) R. E. and (iV) R. F. as near the center as posable with the
object of bringing the ratio of maximum to mean stress as low as

The estimation of the exact positions of W and of JV is made
analytically as below.

106 DAMS AND WEIRS

There arc only two areas to be considered, that of the water
overlying the inclined back (v) and that of the dam itself (FT).
Dividing v by 2^ (the assumed specific gravity of the material),
reduces it to an equivalent area of concrete or masonry.

^= ^o"^ll'^ = 1470 =103 tons
2X2.25

104
W= i^X 210 = 10920 = 768 tons

Total, or N= 12390 = 871 tons

Using formula (7), Part I, the e.g. of IF is 50.8 distant from the

toe of the profile, then q or the distance of the incidence of W from

94
the center point of the base is 50.8 — — = 3.8.

The value of ^i, or the mean unit stress is -p, or -^r— =8.1 tons

and m = l+^ = l+^§?^=1.24; then 5=^=1.24X8.1=10.1

6 94 6

tons.

For Reservoir Full, to find the position of iV, moments will be
taken about the toe as follows

Moment of tJ = 103X83.5= 8600

Moment of yF= 768X50.8 =39014

Total i\r=871 =47614

then x=-r;r— =54.6; whenceg = 54.6 — — = 7.6 feet and 5i=-r = ----
871 ^2 6 94

=9.26. By formula (9), Part I, m = l^~^ = lA^.

5=9.26X1.48 = 13.7 tons
From this it is evident that the unit stress in the base, due to
vertical load only, is a high figure. It could be reduced by still
further inclining the back; on the contrary, if the back were vertical
N would equal W. Let this latter case be considered. The distance
of the c. g. of the profile from the heel will then be by formula
(7a), Part I

94
and the value of q will be — —31.66 = 15.33 feet

DAMS AND WEIRS

107

Then

Si as before =—=8.1 tons

m = l+^ = 1.98 and * =8.1X1.98 = 16 tons
94

This stress is greater than that of N in the previous working which
proves that the forward tilt given to these high dams is necessary
to reduce the maximum unit stress on the base to a reasonable limit.
A more equiangular profile would give even better results.

85. Shoshone Dam. The Shoshone dam^ Fig. 61 ^ is designed
on lines identical with the last example. It has the distinction of
being the highest dam in the world but has recently lost this

H'Z45'

Fig. 61. Profile and Force Diagram for Shoshone Dam

preeminence, as the Arrow Rock, quite lately constructed, Fig. 37,
Part I, is actually 35 feet higher. This work is also in the United
States. The incidents of the resultants Reservoir Empty and
Reservoir Full, which will be explained later, have been shown
graphically, and the analytical computation is given below. The
vertical forces taken from left to right are (1), area 6480; (2),
14,450; (3), water overlying back, reduced area 1880; total 22,810.

Taking moments about the toe of the base, the distance of
(1) is 54 feet, of (2) calculated by formula (7), Part I, is 58.3, and
of (3) is 95 feet, roughly.

108 DAMS AND WEIRS

Then (6480 X 54) + (14450 X 58.3) + (1880 X 95) =22810Xa:.
.'. a; =60 feet, nearly.

The value of q for N then is 60 — -- =6 feet.

Now «,==4^=;^±2iy=211^ and by formula (9), Part I, *= 211X
108

(108+36) ^g, . . 281X2.4 ^_ ,

^^ — —— — =281 square feet = — r — =21 tons, nearly.

1 Oo Oji

The maximum arch unit stress by formula (22) is as follows: the
radius of the extrados of the base being 197 feet the fraction — =Trz

2HW 2X245X1

= .55 and H = 245 therefore s =

iK-i)

.55X1.45X32

—-=19.2 tons.

Below the level 60 ft. above base, the stress on the arch does
not increase. The arch stress is less than that due to vertical
pressure N. This base should undoubtedly have been widened,
the battered faces being carried down to the base, not cut off by
vertical lines at the 60-foot level.

Center of Pressure — New Graphical Method. In order to find the
center of pressure in a case like Fig. 61, where the lines of forces (1)
and (2) are close together, the ordinary method of using a force and
funicular polygon involves crowding of the Unes so that accuracy is
difficult to attain. Another method how will be explained which is
on the same principle as that of the intersection of cross lines used
for finding the c. g. of a trapezoid.

In Fig. 61, first the c.g.'s of the three forces are found (1) the
water pressure area divided by p or 2.4 which equals 1880 square
feet, (2) the upper trapezoidal part of the dam area 14,450, and (3)
the lower rectangular area 6480. Then (1) is joined to (2) and this
line projected on one side in any location as at b in Fig. 61a.

From a, ac is set off horizontally equal to (2) or 14,450 and
from 6, bd is drawn equal to (1) or 1880; cd is then drawn and its
intersection with ab at e gives the position of the resultant 1-2, which
can now be projected on the profile at G, To obtain the resultant
of the components (1-2) with (3) the line (j-3 is drawn on the profile

DAMS AND WEIRS 109

and a parallel to it drawn from e on Fig, 6Ia, intersecting the hori-
zontal through (3) at /, From e, eg is laid off horizontally equal to
(3) or 6480 and from/, fk equal to (1+2) or 1880+14,450= 16,330.
kg is then drawn and its intersection with ef at j is the centroid of the
three forces, which projected on the profile to Gi on the line G-3 gives
the location of the vertical resultant of 1+2+3.

86. Sweetwater Dam. The profile of the Sweetwater dam
in California is given in Pig. 62. The ori^nal crest of the dam

Fig. 62. Gianbical Analy»4 of Sweetwater
Dmn, Ciilifoniia

was at El. 220, or 95 feet above the base. Under these conditions
the dam depended for its stability on its arched plan. If con-
sidered aa a gravity dam with allowable tension at the heel, the
vertical pressure area is the triangle abe, here q = 16.5 and m works

out to 3.15. N = 22G tons and 6 = 46 feet whence s = ^ =

3.15X226

= 15.5 tons which is set down from a to b.
h

2 V
The tension at the heel = Si — r- = 15.5 - 9.82 = 5.7 tons

DAMS AND WEIRS

111

Value of S When Heel Is Unable to Take Tention. If the heel is
unable to take tension, the pressure triangle will then be ode in which
ac = 3 times the distance of the incidence of R from the toe, or
3X6.5 = 19.5 feet and s is ob-
tained by the following formula -

(24) -

_ i NorW

ffAIL
RCIMFORCEMENT

here s —

4X226

=23.2 tons

3X46-33

This dam has lately been raised

to El 240, or by 20, feet and by

the addition of a mass of concrete

at the rear transformed into a

gravity dam. The resultant due

to this addition is R\ on the

diagram, s works out to 10.6

tons and there is no tension at

the heel. Any bond between the

new wall and the old has been

studiously avoided. The new

work is reinforced with cross bars and the rear mass tied into the

superstructure. Fig. 63 is a plan of the dam as altered.

Fig. 64. Profile of Barossa Dam

Fig. 65. Site Plan of Barossa Dam

87. Barossa Dam. This dam, Fig. 64, is an Australian work,
and although of quite moderate dimensions is a model of good
and bold design.

112 DAMS AND WEIRS

The back is vertical and the fore batter is nearly 1 in 2.7. The
outline is not trapezoidal but pentagonal, viz, a square crest imposed
on a triangle, the face joined with the hypothenuse of the latter by
a curve. The crest is slender, being only 4 J feet wide, but is strength-
ened by rows of 40-pound iron rails, fished together, built into the
concrete. The maximum arch stress works out to 171 tons, the
gorresponding vertical stress on base to 6f tons. Fig. 65 is a site
plan of the work.

88. Uthgow Dam. Another example very amilar to the last
is the Lithgow dam, No. 2, Fig. 66. The arch stress in this works
out by the short formula to nearly 13 tons; the radius is only 100
feet, the vertical stress works out to 7 tons.
Arehed dams abut either on the solid
rocky banks of a canyon or else on the end of
a gravity dam. In cases where a narrow deep
centra! channel occurs in a river, this por-
tion can advantageously be closed by an
arched dam, while the flanks on which the
arch abuts can be gravity dams aligned
tangential to the arch at each end. The dam
will thus consist of a central arch with two
inchned straight continuations. The plan of
the Roosevelt dam. Fig, 26, Part I, will give
Fi*.6a. PBaeofLithgow an idea of this class of work.

89. Burrin Juick Subsidiary Dam. In
Fig. 67 is shown the profile of a temporary reinforced arched dam
for domestic water supply at Barren Jack, or Burrin Juick, Australia.
The reinforcement consists of iron rails. The unit arch pressure
at the base works out to 21 tons, nearly. Reinforcement of perma-
nent dams down to the base is not desirable, as the metal may cor-
rode in time and cause failure, although the possibility is often
stoutly denied. The main Burrin Juick dam is given in Part I,
Fig. 36.

90. Dams with Variable Radii. The use of dams of the type
just described, is generally confined, as previously noted, to narrow
gorges with steep sloping sides in which the length of the dam at the
level of the bed of the canyon is but a small proportion of that at the
crest. The radius of curvature is usually fixed with regard to the

DAMS AND WEIRS 113

length of chord at the latter level, consequently at the deepest

level, the curvature will be so slight that arch action will be absent

and the lower part of the dam will be subject to beam stresses, i.e.,

to tension as well as compression. In order to obviate this, in

some recent examples the radius of curvature at the base is made

less than that at the crest, and all the way up, the angle subtending

the chord of the arc, which is variable

in length retains the same measure

throughout. This involves a change in

the radius corresponding to the variable

span of the arch. The further advantage

is obtained, of reduction in the unit stress

in the arch ring and in rendering the

stress more uniform throughout. In

very high dams, however, the base width

cannot be much reduced as otherwise the

limit stress due to the vertical loading

will be exceeded. This arrangement of

varying radii is somewhat similar to that

used in the differential multiple arch

given later.

MULTIPLE ARCH OR
HOLLOW ARCH
BUTTRESS DAMS

91. Multiple Arch Qenerally More
Useful Than Single Arch Dams. It is

evident that a dam which consists of a

single vertical arch is suitable only for a pjg gy p„fi,e of Bumn juick
narrow gorge with rock sides on which the subsidiary Dam

arch can abut, as well as a rock bed; consequently its use is strictly
limited to sites where such conditions are obtainable. A rock
foundation is also essential for gravity dams, the unit compression
on the base of which is too high for any material other than rock.
The advantages Inherent in the vertical arch, which are con-
^derable, can however be retained by use of the so-termed multiple
or scallop arched dam. This consists of a series of vertical or
inclined arches, bemicircular or segmental on plan, the thrust ol

114 DAMS AND WEIRS

which is carried by buttresses. The arrangement is, in fact, iden-
tical with that of a masonry arched bridge. If the latter be con-
sidered as turned over on its side, the piers will represent the but-
tresses. In the case of a wide river crossing, with a bed of clay,
boulders, or sand, the hollow buttressed and slab buttressed dams
are the only ones that can well be employed with safety. The wide
spread that can be given to the base of the structure in these two
types enables the unit pressure on the base to be brought as low as
from 2 to 4 tons per square foot.

As has already been noticed in section 78, the arch is peculiarly
well suited for economical construction. This is due to the fact
that the liquid pressure to which the arch is subjected is normal
to Ijie surface and radial in direction. The pressure lines in the
interior of the arch ring correspond with its curvature and con-
sequently the arch can only be in compression; thus steel reinforce-
ment is unnecessary except in a small degree near the crest in order
to care for temperature stresses. In slab dams, on the other hand,
the deck is composed of flat slabs which have to. be heavily rein-
forced. The spacing of the buttresses for slabs is Umited to 15
to 20 feet, whereas in hollow arch dams there is practically no
limit to the spans which may be adopted. Another point is, that
the extreme compressive fiber stress on the concrete in deck slabs
is limited to five hundred to six hundred and fifty pounds per square
inch; in an arch, on the other hand, the whole section is in com-
pression which is thereby spread over a much greater area. For the
reasons above given the arch type now under consideration should
be a cheaper and more scientific construction than the slab type in
spite of the higher cost of forms.

92. Mir Alam Dam. The first example given is that of the
Mir Alam tank dam. Fig. 68. This remarkable pioneer structure was
built about the year 1806, by a French engineer in the service of
H. H. the Nizam of Hyderabad in Southern India. The alignment
of the dam is on a wide curve and it consists of a series of vertical
semicircular arches of various spans which abut on short buttress
piers. Fig. 69. The spans vary from 83 to 138 feet, the one in Fig.
68 being of 122 feet. The maximum height is 33 feet. Water
has been known to overtop the crest. The length of the dam is
over 3000 f^et.

M.V

DAMS AND WEIRS 115

On account of the inequality of the spans, the adoption of the
semicircular form of arch is evidently a most judicious measure,
For the reason that an arch of this form under liquid pressure exerts
o lateral thrust at the springing. The water pressure being radial
in direction, cross pressure in the half arches in the line of the spring-
ing is balanced and in equilibrium. Whatever thrust is exerted
is not in the direction of the axis of the dam but that of the buttress
piers. On the other hand, if the arches were segmental in outline
the terminal thrust is intermediate between the two axes, and when
resolved in two directions one component acts along the axis of

of Mir Alftm Dam

OG. and caanaMd of 21 sucb archea.

the dam. This has to be met, either by the abutment, if it is an

end span, or else by the corresponding thrust of the adjoining half

arch. The other component is carried by the buttress; therefore,

if segmental arches are used, the spans should be equal in order to

avoid inequality of thrust. Longer buttresses will also be requisite.

The whole of this work is built of coursed rubble masonry in lime

mortar; the unit stress in the arch ring at the base, using the short

, , ,.,, {RHw) , ^^ 68X33X1 .^ , rp,

formula (21), ^ — r — - works out to — -- — -—— = 5 tons, nearly. The

dam, therefore, forms an economical design.

116

DAMS AND WEIRS

The buttress piers are shown in section in Fig. 70, the section
being taken through AB oi Fig. 68. In this work the buttress
piers are very short, projecting only 25 feet beyond the spnng line
of the arches, and being altogether only 35 feet long This length
and the corresponding weight would clearly be inadequate to with-

Fig. 69. Plan of EnUre Mir Alain Dam

stand the immense horizontal thrust which
H* 33»X1X1'

equivalent to

- = 2500 tons, nearly.

2 2X32

It is evident that if the buttress pier slides or overturns, the
arches behind it must follow, for which reason the two half arches and
the buttress pier cannot be considered as separate entities but as
actually forming one whole, and consequently the effective length
of the base must extend from the toe of the buttress right back
to the extrados of the two adjoining arches. At, or a little in the

Fig. 70. Sectioi

D throuEh AB of Fi(. 6

rear of the spring line, the base is split up into two forked curved
continuations. The weight of these arms, i.e., of the adjoining
half arches, has consequently to be included with that of the but-
tress proper when the stability of the structure agdnst overturning
or eliding is estimated.

DAMS AND WEIRS 117

93. Stresses in Buttress. In the transverse section. Fig. 71,
taken through CD of Fig. 68, the graphical calculations establish
the fact that the resultant line R intersects the base, thus lengthened,
at a point short of its center; the direction of the resultant R is
also satisfactory as regards the angle of frictional resistance.

Ri is the resultant on the supposition that the buttress is
nonexistent. Its incidence on the base proves that the arch is
stable without the buttress, which is therefore actually superfluous.
With regard to sliding on the base, P = 2500 and W = G82S tons.

Vig. 71. Tnasrerw Sectba of Mir Alam Dun Taken throush CD. Fig. OS

The coeflBaent of friction being .7 the factor of safety against sliding
is nearly 2. If the arch were altered on plan from a semicircle
to a segment of a circle, the radius would of necessity be increased,
and the stress with it; a thicker arch would, therefore, be required.
This would not quite compensate for the reduced length of arch,
but on the other hand, owing to the crown being depressed, the
effective base width would be reduced and would have to be made
good by lengthening the buttress piers. '\Miat particular dis-
po^tion of arch and buttress would be the most economical is a

118

DAMS AND WEIRS

matter which could only be worked out by means of a number of
trial dedgns. The ratio of versed sine to span should vary from
J to J. Arcs subtending from 135 to 120 degrees are stated to be
the most economical in material.

94. Belubula Dam. There are not as yet very many modem
examples of arch buttress dams, but each year increases their niim-

Frofile Sections a

:e DiHgrsm for Belubu

II, New Souli W«lm

ber. The Mir Alam dam has remained resting on its laurels without
a rival for over 100 years, but the time has come when this type
is being largely adopted. Fig. 72 shows an early example of a
segmental panel arch dam. It is the BelubuU dam in New South
Wales. The arch crest is 37 feet above the base, very nearly the
same as in the last example. The arches, which are inclined 60 degrees
to the horizontal are built on a high solid platform which obliterates

DAMS AND WEIRS 119

inequalities in the rock foundation. This platform is 16 to 23 feet
high^ so that the total height of the dam is over 50 feet. The spans
are 16 feet, with buttresses 12 feet wide at the spring line, tapering
to a thickness of 5 feet at the toe ; they are 40 feet long. The buttress
piers, which form quadrants of a circle in elevation, diminish in
thickness by steps from the base up, these insets corresponding
with similar ones in the arch itself. These steps are not shown
in the drawing; the arch also is drawn as if in one Straight batter.
The arches are elliptical in form, and the spandrels are filled up
flush with the crown, presenting a flat surface toward the water.

Some of the features of this design are open to objection: Fird,
the filling in of the arch spandrels entirely abrogates the advantage
accruing to arches under liquid pressure. The direction of the water
pressure in this case is not radial but normal to the rear slope, thus
exactly reproducing the statical condition of a horizontal arch
bridge. The pressure, therefore, increases from the crown to the
haunches and is parabolic, not circular, in curvature. The arches
should have been circular, not eUiptical, and the spandrels left
empty to allow of a radial pressure which partly balances itself.
Second, the stepping in of the intrados of the arch complicates the
construction. A plain batter would be easier to build, particularly
in concrete. Third, the tapering of the buttress piers toward the
toe is quite indefensible; the stress does not decrease but with the
center of pressure at the center of the base as in this case, the
stress will be uniform throughout.

95. Inclination of Arch to Vertical. The inchnation of the axis
of the arch to the vertical is generally a desirable, in fact, a necessary
feature when segmental arched panels are used; the weight of water
carried is of value in depressing the final resultant line to a suitable
angle for resistance to shearing stress. As noted in section 90,
the weight of the water overlying the arch does not increase the
unit stress in the arch ring. Consequently, any inclination of
axis can be adopted without in any way increasing the unit stresses
due to the water pressure.

When an arch is vertical it is clear that the water pressure is
all conveyed to the abutments and the weight of the arch to its
base. When an arch Ues horizontally under water pressure both
the weight of the water and that of the arch itself are conveyed

120 DAMS AND WEIRS

to the abutment; when in an intermediate position part of the weight
of the arch is carried to the base and part to the abutments.

With regard to water pressure, the thrust being normal to
the extrados of the arch the whole is carried by the abutments.
In the case of arches which do not overreach their base the weight
of water overiying the incUned back is conveyed to the base. In

any case the unit stress in the arch -^^ — r — - cannot exceed that due

to horizontal thrust. The total water pressure is greater with an

incUned back, as the length of surface acted on is increased. In

the diagram, Fig. 72a, the vertical load Une W represents the

weight of one unit or one cubic foot of the arch ring which is equal

to wp. This force is resolved in two directions, one p, parallel

to the axis of the arch, and the other n, normal to the former. The

force n = TF sin 0, $ being the inclination of the arch axis to the

vertical and p = W cos 0, The unit stress developed by the radial

force n is similar to that produced by the water pressure which is

also radial in direction and is Bin; but Ri, the radius in this case,

is the mean radius, the pressure being internal, not external. The

unit stress -^i will then be

*i = Riwp sin (25)

When is 30'' sin 0=-^; when 45°, sin 0=^.

It will easily be understood that this unit stress due to n does
not accumulate, but is the same at the first foot depth of the arch
as it is at the bottom; the width of the lamina also does not affect
it. However, the component p does accumulate, and the expression
wp cos should be multiplied by the inclined height Hi, lying
above the base under consideration. As Hi= H sec 0, the unit

compressive stress at the base will be r — - , in which 6i is the mean

width of the arch. If the arch were a rectangle, not a trapezoid,
s would equal Hwp simply.

96. Ogden Dam. The Ogden dam, the profile and sectional
details of which are shown in Fig. 73, is a notable example of the
arch and buttress type. Its height is 100 feet. The inclination
of the arches is less than J to 1, or about 25 degrees to the vertical.

DAMS AND WEIRS

121

The profile of the buttress is equinangular except for a small out-
throw of the toe. On the whole it must be pronounced a good
design, but could be improved in several particulars. For example,
the arch is unnecessarily thick at the crest, and could well be reduced
from 6 to 2 feet, thus effecting considerable economy. The designers
were evidently afraid of the concrete in the arch leaking, and so
overlaid the extrados with steel plates. A greater thickness of
arch causing it to possess less liability to percolation under pressure,
could have been provided by increasing the span and radius of the

3£CTm ON AA ^ 3£CTm(HIBB PLAH OYOiALL

Fig. 73, Profile sad Seclioiu o( Ogden Dam

arches. The design consequently would be improved by adopting
larger spans, say 100 feet; buttresses, say, 25 feet thick, their length
being dependent on the width of base required to provide sufficient
moment of resistance; and further, the inclination of the arches
might require increasing to bring the center of pressure at, or close
to the center of the buttress. The finish of the crest by another
arch forming a roadway is an excellent arrangement, and is well
suited for a bulkhead dam; for an overfall, on the other hand, the
curved crest is preferable on account of the increased length of
overflow provided. The stress diagram shows that the value of the

122 DAMS AND WEIRS

vertical load N is 156,000 cubic feet or 10,598 tons, p being taken
at 2J. The incidence of R on the base, is 5 feet from the center,
whence q=5, and by formula (9), Part I

^^f-i^^\ 10598 ,,140 e__

the dimensions of A, the area of the base, being 110X16 feet. The

pressure on the arch ring at the base by the short formula works

. . 24X100 ^..
out to ^ ^^ =9.4 tons.
8X32

The contents of the dam per foot run amounts to — r^- — =

2,177 cubic feet; that of a gravity dam would be about 3,500 cubic
feet per foot run, making a saving in favor of the arched type of
nearly 30 per cent. With a better disposition of the parts as indi-
cated above, the saving would be increased to 40 or 50 per cent.
Actually the saving amounted to only 12 per cent; this was owing
to the steel covering which, as we have seen, could have been
dispensed with.

97. Design for Multiple Arch Dam. Fig. 74 is a design for
a segmental arch panel dam, or rather, weir. The height of the
crest is 64 feet above base with 5 feet of water passing over; the
apex of the triangle of water pressure will then be 69 feet above
the base. The inclination given the axis, which is coincident with
that of the spring line and the intrados, is 60 degrees with the horizon.

In designing such a work, the following salient points first
require consideration.

(1) Width of Span. This, it is deemed for economical reasons
should be not less than the height of crest unless the state of the
foundation requires a low unit stress. In the Mir Alam dam
the span is over four times the depth of water upheld. In the present
case it will be made the same, that is, 64 feet.

(2) Thickness of Buttress Piers. As with bridge piers, the
width should be at least sufficient to accommodate the skew-backs
of the two arches; a width of 12 feet or about i span will effect this.

(3) Radius and Versed Sine. The radius will be made 40
feet; this allows a versed sine of ^ span, or 16 feet, which is con-
sidered to be about the flattest proportion to afford a good curva-

OS
P4

$
1

•s

s
s

o
<d
2

124 DAMS AND WEIRS

ture, the greater the length of the arc, the more its condition will
approximate to that of a circular arch, under liquid pressure.

(4) Thickness of Arch. This must first be assumed, as its
thickness depends on R, the radius of the extrados, as well as on
the value assigned to ^i, the limiting pressure. This latter will
be fixed at below 15 tons, a value bv no means excessive for arches
under liquid pressure. With a base width of 7 feet, the radius
of the extrados will be 47 feet. The base will be considered, not
at the extreme depth of 64 feet below crest, but at the point marked
D, where a line normal to the base of the inclined intrados cuts
the extrados of the arch. H will, therefore, be 60 feet, allowing
for the reverse pressure. The stress due to the water pressure,
using the short formula (21), section 78, will be

RHw 47X60 X1 ,^.^

Si= j = — z — r^;; — = 12.6 tons

b 7X32

To this must be added that due to the weight of the arch ring from

formula (25), ^i = Riwp sin (the angle being 30° and its sine = |),

*. . . 43.5X3

which in figures will be =1.6 tons, the total stress being

a trifle over 14 tons. The 7-foot base width will then be adopted,
p is taken as 2.4 and wp = ^V ton. The depth of water producing
this pressure is taken as 60, not as 65, feet which is ( H+d), the reason
being that the reverse pressure due to the tail water, which must
be .at least level with the water cushion bar wall, will reduce the
effective depth to 60 feet, during flood conditions.

98. Reverse Water Pressure. The influence of the reverse
pressure of water is much more considerable when hydrostatic
pressure alone is exerted than is the case with overturning moment.
In the case of an upright arch acting as an overfall weir the pres-
sure of the tail water effects a reduction of the pressure to the extent
of its area. Thus if A be the area of the upstream water pressure,
and a that of the downstream, or tail water, the unbalanced pressure
will be their difference, or ^ — a, and will vary as the square of their
respective depths. When overturning moment is concerned, the
areas have to be multipUed by a third of their depths to represent
the moment on the base. The difference of the two will be in
that case as the cubes of their respective depths.

DAMS AND WEIRS 125

99. Crest Width of Arch. The crest width of the arch, accord-
ing to formula (23), should be iV// = 3f feet, nearly. It will be
made 3 feet, with a stiffening rib or rim of 3 feet in width. The
crest width could be made proportional to the base width, say .36,
and if this falls below 2 feet, reinforcement will be required.

The length of the pier base is measured fropi the. extrados of
the arch, the two half arches forming, as already explained in section
92, a forked continuation of the buttress pier base.

The battering of the sides of the pier w^ould clearly be a correct
procedure, as the pressure diminishes from the base upward. A
combined batter of 1 in 10 is adopted, which leaves a crest width
of 5.6 feet. The length of the pier base, as also its outline, were
determined by trial graphical processes, with the object of maneu-
vering the center of pressure as near that of the base as pos-
sible, so as to equalize the maximum and the mean unit stress as
much as possible. This has been effected, as shown by the inci-
dence of the final resultant on the elevation of the buttress pier.

ICO. Pressure on Foundations. The total imposed weight
is measured by N in the force diagram, and is equivalent to 150,000
cubic feet of masonry, which at a specific gravity of 2.4 is equal to

-^ — '——- — -- =11,250 tons. The average pressure is this quantity

divided by the area of the base, or by 125X12 = 1500 square feet,
the quotient being 7^ tons, nearly. The maximum pressure will
be the same owing to the incidence of R at the center of the base.
This 7^ tons is a very moderate pressure for a hard foundation;
if excessive, additional spread should be provided or else the spans
reduced. It will be noticed that N greatly exceeds W. This is
due to the added weight of water represented by the inclination
given to the force line P, which represents the water pressure.

Economy of Multiple Arches, The cubic contents per foot

rim work out to — ^ — =850 cubic feet, nearly, the denominator in

76 y jy

the fraction being the distance apart of the centers of the buttress piers.

2
The contents of a gravity weir with base width - (Il+d) and

top yJ H+d, works out to 1,728 cubic feet; the saving in material
is therefore over 50 per cent.

126 DAMS AND WEIRS

101. Differential Arches. Fig. 75 is a study of a difPerential
buttress arch weir. The principle of the diflFerential arch consists
in the radius increasing with the height of the arch, the unit
stress is thus kept more uniform, and the stress area corre-
sponds more closely with the trapezoidal profile that has necessarily
to be adopted, than is the case when a uniform radius is adopted as
in Fig. 74.

The arches are supposed to stand on a concrete or masonry
platform ten feet high above the deepest part of the river bed,
so that sluices if required could be provided below L,W.L. which
is idientical with the floor or fore apron level. The height is 35 feet
to crest level. The depth of film passing over the crest is assumed
at 5 feet and the reciprocal depth of tail water is 12 feet. Graphical
analyses will be made at two stages, first, when water is at crest
level and the river channel below is empty, second, at full flood.
The inclination given to the intrados of the arch is 3 vertical to 2
horizontal. The buttresses are placed 31 feet centers, allowing
a span of 25 feet at base, here they are 6 feet wide, tapering to 2
feet at crest. The span of the arch thus gradually widens from
25 to 29 feet. The versed sine of the arc is made 5 feet at base
and 2^ feet at crest. The radii at these positions are therefore 18.1
and 43.3, respectively, measured to the intrados of the arch. These
radii are horizontal, not normal to the intrados as in Fig. 73, and
thus vary right through from 18.1 to 43.3 corresponding to the
altered versed sine which decreases from 5 to 2^ feet, that half
way up being 22 feet.

The thickness of the arch at base is made 2 feet.

Arch Unit Stress. Taking the base radius as 18.1, the base

unit stress due to water pressure will be by formula (21), s = — - — ;
adding that due to the transmitted weight of the arch, formula (25),
s = Rwl-r+psinOj, sin being .6, the expression becomes

l8Aw I— +(2.4X.6) I , p being taken at 2.4, ii? at A ton, whence

s = 10.4 tons, a moderate stress for a vertical arch.

The real thickness of the arch is more like 2^ feet than 2 feet
as properly it should be measured horizontally, not normally*

DAMS AND WEIRS

127

l/fyxrPOfiio be Tiein forced
for Tempera/ure y Shock

^CO-UneTlfru /Jrch
'Pi

v/-0rd

Fig. 75. Design Diagrams for Differential Buttress Arch Weir

128 DAMS AND WEIRS

Load Line, In the force polygon the load line is made up of
five weights: (1) that of the overlying water has a content of

= 13860 cubic feet, equivalent to 433 tons; (2) the arch

145 tons; (3) the contents of the pier underlying the arch is found
by taking the contents of the whole as if the sides were vertical
and deducting the pyramid formed by the side batters. Thus the

contents of the whole is =2310, that of the pyramid is

=513, difference 1797, or 135 tons; (4) the weight of

the horizontal arch of the crest of the weir, 12 tons; (5) the contents

of the buttress, by the prismoidal formula comes to -^ Z (^i+ 4^,»+

^2) in which A\ and A% are areas of the ends and ^m of the middle

S5 6
section. Here ^i=0, ^« = — X— =52.5, and ^2 = 35X4 = 140;

therefore (5)=-^X35X[0+(4X52.5) + 140] = 2042 cubic feet equiv-

alent to 153 tons.

The total load foots up to 878 tons.

P the horizontal water pressure = i^>-^ X / = ^ X-~r^ X 31 = 593

tons.

The position of the several vertical forces is obtained as follows:
That of 1, a triangular curved prism is at \ its horizontal width;
of 2 is found by formula (7), Part I, and by projection of this level
on to the plan. The position of 3 has to be calculated by moments
as below.

The lever arm of the whole mass including the battered sides
is at \ width from the vertical end of 7 J feet while that of the pyram-
idal batter is at \ the same distance, or 5^ feet.

The statement is then

2310 X 7J = (1797 X a:) + (514X5.5) whence a;=7.84 feet

The position of 5, the battered sloping buttress is obtained by

taking the center part 2 feet wide and the outer side batters sep-

1 35

arately. The e.g. of the former is at — the length, — = 1 1§ from the

o o

DAMS AND WEIRS 129

352
vertical end, and its contents are --^X2 = 1225 cubic feet =92 tons.

The weight of the whole is 153 tons, so that the side batters will

35
weigh 153— 92 = 61 tons, and be —-=8.75 ^eet distant from the end.

Taking moments about the vertical end,' we have

153a;= (92X11.67) + (61X8.75)

a:=--— - = 10.5 feet
153

Therefore, the incidence of the resultant on the base line meas-
ured 6.5 feet upstream from the center point.

In Fig. 75a, iV=878 tons and — = 14; h being 63 feet and

g=6.5 feet, whence m = 1.62 and the stress on the buttress, if only 1

foot wide, =14x1.62 = 22.7 tons. The compression at the toe

2iV
=-r — 5 = (28—22.7) =5.3 tons. These quantites have now to be

divided by the base widths to obtain the unit stresses, which are as

follows: at heel, —-^ = 3.8; at center, — = 2.3; at toe, -^= 2.6 tons.

o 6 2

This stress area is shown hatched in Fig. 75f .

This stress diagram is useful as showing that owing to the
incidence of R being behind the center point the total stress dimin-
ishes toward the toe of the buttress, consequently it should be
tapered on plan, as has been done. In Fig. 74 it has been shown
that the stress being uniform by reason of the incidence of jR at
the center point of the base, the buttress has been made rectangular
in plan at its base. The indicated imit stresses are very Ught
which is a great advantage on a bad foundation.

102. Flood Pressures. The second, or flood stage, will now be
investigated. Here the vertical load line iV in Fig. 75e is increased
by 140 tons, the additional weight of water carried by the arch. The
horizontal water pressure Pi is now 763 tons and iV = 1018, their
resultant being i?i. The reverse pressure due to a depth of
12 feet of water is 70 tons, this combined with i?i, in Fig. 75a,
results in R% the final resultant. The value of B is 35° 15' which is
satisfactory. As q scales 5 feet, the unit stresses work out as
follows:

'^S]

DAMS AND WEIRS 131

At heel 3.9 tons, at center 2.7, and at toe, 4.2 tons.
The stress in the arch under a head of 38 feet comes to 11.5
tons. Thus the stresses in stage 2 are higher than is the case with
stage 1.

At the end of a series of these scallop arches near either abut-
ment the thrust of the arch resolved axially with the weir has to
be met either by tying the last two arches by a cross wall and rein-
forcing rods, or abutting the arch on an abutment supported by
wall or a length of solid dam. This design would, it is considered,
be improved if the versed sine of the arcs were made somewhat
greater, as the arches are too flat near the crest.

The following remarks bear on the curvature of the arch men-
tioned in section 101. When a segmental arch is inclined, the
spring line is at a lower level than the crown, consequently the
water pressure is also greater at that level. But the thickness
should vary with the pressure which it does not in this case. This
proves the advisability of making the circular curvature horizontal,
then a section at right angles to the incUned spring line will be an
elUpse, while a horizontal section will be a segment of a circle.
) The reverse occurs with arches built in the ordinary way. There
appears to be no practical difficulty in constructing forms for an
inclined arch on this principle.

103. Big Bear Valley Dam. Fig. 76 is a plan and sectional
^ elevation of the new Bear Valley reinforced concrete multiple
i arch dam which takes the place of the old single arch dam men-
* tioned in section 83. The following description is taken from
ir ^'Engineering News", from which Fig 78 is also obtained.

The new dam consists of ten arches of 30| feet, clear span at

top, abutting on eleven buttresses. The total length of the dam

r is 363 feet on the crest; its maximum height from crest to base is

, 92 feet (in a pocket at the middle buttress only), although, as the

elevation in Fig. 76 shows, the average height of the buttresses

r is much less than that figure. The water face of the structure

and the rear edge of the buttresses are given such slopes as to bring

'^the resultant of the water-pressure load and that of the structure

through the center of the base of the buttresses at the highest

portions of the dam, Fig. 79. The slope for the water face

» up to within 14 feet of the top is 36° 52' from the vertical, and

132 DAMS AND WEIRS

from that point to the crest is vertical. The slope of the down- ;
stream edges of the buttresses is 2 on 1 from the bottom to the top,
the vertical top of the face arches giving the piers a top width of 10
feet from the spring bne to the back' edge. The buttresses are 1.5
feet thick at the top and increase in thickness with a batter of
0.016 feet per foot of height or 1 in 60 on each side to the base for ,
all heights. The areh rings are 12 inches thick at the top and
down to the bend, from which point they are increased in thick- ,
ness at the rate of 0.014 feet per foot to the base, or 1 in 72.5.

Fig. 77. ^ww of Bi« Bear Vatley Dsm with Old Dsm Shown in Foreground

The arc of the extrados of the arch ring is 140° 08' from the
top to bottom the radius being maintained at 17 feet and the rise
at 11.22 feet. The extrados is, therefore, a cylindrical surface
uniform throughout, all changes in dimensions being made on the I
intrados of the arch. Thus at the top, the radius of the intrados
is 16 feet, the arc 145° 08', and the rise 11.74 feet. Af 80 feet from*,
the top, Fig. 79, the thickness of the arch ring will be 2.15 feet, I
the radius of the intrados 14.85 feet (the radius of extrados less '
the thickness of the wall), the arc 140°" 48' and the rise 10.59

DAMS AND WEIRS 133

feet. In all cases of arch-dam de^gn the clear span, radius, and
rise of the intrados decrease from the top downward.

Strut-tie members are provided between the buttresses to
stiffen and take up any lateral thrusts that might be set up by
seismic disturbances or vibrations, these consisting of T-beams

134

DAMS AND WEIRS

and supporting arches all tied together by heavy steel reinforcement.
The T-beams are 12 inches thick and 2.5 feet wide, with a 12-
inch stem, set on an arch 12 inches square at the crown and thick-
ening to 15 inches toward the springing lines, with two spandrel
posts on each side connecting the beam and arch, all united into
one piece. There are provided copings for the arches and the tops
of the buttresses with 9-inch projections, making the arch cope
2.5 feet wide and that on top of the buttresses 3 feet wide. The
beam slab of the top strut members is built 4 feet wide to serve
as an extra stiflFener, as well as a comfortable footwalk across the
dam. This footwalk is provided with a cable railing on both sides

ScoleiO'-i'

Fig. 79. Profile and Sections of Big Bear Valley Dam

to make it a safe place upon which to walk. To add to the archi-
tectural effect of the structure, the arches of the strut members
terminate in imposts, built as part of the buttresses. The struts
are reinforced with twisted steel rods, all being tied together and
all being continuous through the buttress walls. The ends entering
the buttresses are attached to other reinforcement passing cross-
wise into the buttress walls, forming roots by which the stresses
in the beams may be transmitted to and distributed in the buttress
walls. The ends of the strut members are all tied onto the granite
rock at both ends of the structure by hooking the reinforcement
rods into drill holes in the rock. The buttresses are not reinforced,
except to be tied to the arch rings and the strut members, their

DAMS AND WEIRS 135

shape and the loads they are to carry making reinforcement super-
fluous. The arch ribs are reinforced with f-inch twisted rods hori-
zontally disposed 2 inches from the inner surface and variably
spaced. These rods were tied to the rods protruding from the
buttresses. For reinforcing the extrados of the arch ring ribs of
l|Xl^X A-inch angles were used, to which "ferro-inclave" sheets
were clipped and used both as a concrete form for the outer face
and a base for the plaster surface.

104. Stress Analysis. On Fig. 79 a rough stress analysis
is shown for 80 feet depth of water. As will be seen the resultant
jR cuts the base just short of the center point. The value of N
is estimated at 4100 tons, the area of the base ^ = 110X4.2=460

N 4100
sq. feet whence — = -r— = 9 tons nearly, evenly distributed {m being

JL 4oU

taken as unity). The stress on the arch, 80 feet deep, neglecting

.. . , . RHw 16X80X1 on 4- IT,., ^u

its weight IS — ; — —— = 20 tons, nearly. Ihis shows the

^ b 2.2X32 "^

1 3

necessity for the reinforcement provided to take — or — of this stress.

2 8

The tangent of = ^ = ^ = .78. .\e = 39°.

N 4100

This is a large value, 35 degrees being the usual Umit, 33 degrees

better. If the arch thickness were doubled, reinforcement would not

be necessary except near the crest and the additional load of about

320 tons would bring d down to 35 degrees. If not, a greater inclination

given to the arch would increase the load of water on the extrados.

It is quite possible that a thicker arch without reinforcement would

be actually cheaper. The downward thrust acting on the arch

due to its own weight is on a different plane from the arch thrust.

Its effect is to increase the unit stress to a certain extent, as is also

the case with the combination of shearing and compressive stresses

in the interior of a dam as explained in Part I. This increase can,

however, be neglected. A considerable but undefined proportion

of the water pressure near the base is conveyed to it and not to

the buttresses; this will more than compensate for any increase

due to vertical compression and consequently it can be ignored.

The ribs connecting the buttresses form an excellent provision for

stiffening them against buckling and vibration and are universally

136 DAMS AND WEIRS

employed in hollow concrete dams. The buttresses in this instance
are not reinforced.

HOLLOW SLAB BUTTRESS DAMS

105. Description of Type. There is a class of dam and weir
similar in its main principles to the arch buttress type which is
believed to have been first introduced by the Ambursen Hydraulic
Construction Company of Boston. In place of the arch an inclined
flat deck is substituted, w^hich has necessarily to be made of rein-
forced concrete. For this reason, the deck slabs cannot exceed a
moderate width, so numerous narrow piers take the place of the
thick buttresses in the former type. A further development is a
thin deck which covers the downstream ends of the buttresses or
piers, forming a rollway. The enclosed box thus formed is occa-
sionally utilized as a power house for the installation of turbines,
for which purpose it is well suited.

The inclination given to the flat deck is such that the incidence
of the resultant (R.F.) will fall as near the center of the base as pos-
sible and at the same time regulate the inclination of the resultant
to an angle not greater than that of the angle of friction of the
material, i.e., 30 degrees with the vertical. By this means any
tendencv to slide on the foundation is obviated.

Ellsworth Dam an Example, A good example of this style of
construction is given in Fig. 80 of the Ellsworth dam in Maine. In
this design the inclination of the deck is 45° or very nearly so; the
piers are 15 feet centers with widened ends, so that the clear span
of the concrete slabs is 9' 1" at the bottom.

The calculations necessary to analyze the thickness of the
slabs and the steel reinforcement at one point, viz, at EL 2.5, will
now be given. In this case the pressure of water on a strip of the
slab, one foot wide, the unsupported span of which is 9' 1", is Hlw.
Here ff = 67 feet and ti? is ^ ton per cubic foot; therefore, W=
67X9.1X^ = 19 tons. To this must be added the weight of the
slab. As this latter lies at an angle with the horizontal its weight
is partly carried by the base and is not entirely supported by the
piers. The diagram in Fig. 80c is the triangle of forces. The weight
of slab w is resolved in two directions, a and b, respectively, parallel

DAMS AND WEIRS

137

and normal to face of slab. The angle being 45 degrees, a = 6=— =•

Consequently the thickness, 37 inches, can be considered as reduced

The

coo/

QUO±
OOS'

to ?4 = 2.2 feet.
1.4

portion of the weight of
the slab carried to the
piers will, therefore, be

9.1 X2.2X-:^ = 1.5 tons,
40

tKe weight of the con-
crete being assumed at
the usual value of 150
pounds per cubic foot.
The total distributed
load in the strip will then
be 19 + 1.5 = 20.5 tons.
Nowthe momentof
stress on a uniformly
loaded beam with free

8
20.5X109

ends is

or itf =

= 279 inch-

8
tons.

This moment must
I li be equaled by that of
the resistance of the
concrete slab.

106. Formulas for
Reinforced Concrete.
For the purpose of
showing the calcula-
tions in detail, some
leading formulas con-
nected with reinforced
beams and slabs will
now be exhibited:

138 DAMS AND WEIRS

fsPJ

or, approximately.

if.P

bcP= ^'
ifJcj

or, approximately,

(26)
(26a)

(27)
(27a)

From these are found d, the required thickness of a slab up to
centroid of steel, or Mg+Mc the bending moments, in which b is
width of beam in inches; d depth of centroid of steel below top
of beam; Me and 3f, symbolize the moments of resistance of the
concrete and steel, respectively; /« safe unit fiber stress in steel,
12,000 to 16,000 lb., or 6 to 8 tons per square inch; fc safe extreme
stress in concrete 500, 600, or 650 lb., or .25, .3, or .325 ton per square

inch; p steel ratio, or yi

Ideal steel ratio v = — — - — r (28)

2(r+m;

A area of cross-section of steel; k ratio of depth of neutral axis below
top to depth of beam

k = ^2pn+{jmy-ini (29)

j ratio of arm of resisting couple to d

j=(l-P) (30)

n ratio -=^, Ea and Ec being the moduli of elasticity, ordinary values

£jc

f A

12 to 15; r ratio y-. As p = — , when reinforced slabs are analyzed,

J c

formulas (26) and (27) can be transposed as below.

From (26) Ms=fsAjd (31)

From (26a) Ms^lf^Ad Approximate (31si)

From (27) Mc^hfckM (32)

f bd^
From (27a) Mc=-^-^ Approximate (32a)

In the case under review the reinforcement consists of three
one inch square steel rods in each foot width of the slab. Using the

DAMS AND WEIRS 139

approximate formulas (31a) and (32a), /« = 8 tons, /c = .3 ton,
d = 35- inches and 6 = 12 inches; then

7
il/, = 8X3X-^X35 = 735 inch-tons

Af c = :^ X — X 420 X 35 = 735 inch-tons

2_
10' 6

the results being identical. As already noted the moment of stress
is but 279 inch-tons. The end shear may have governed the thick-
ness. Testing for shear the load on a 12-inch strip of slab is 20.5
tons of which one-half is supported at each end. Allowing 50 lb., or
.025 ton, as a safe stress, the area of concrete required is 10.25 -^ .025
= 410 square inches the actual area being 37 X 12 = 444 square inches.
107. Steel in Fore Slope. The reinforcement of the fore slope
is more a matter of judgment than of calculation, this deck having
hardly any weight to support, as the falling water will shoot clear
of it. The piers are not reinforced at all, nor is it necessary, as the
stresses are all compressive and the inclination of the upstream deck
is such that the resultant pressure makes an angle with the vertical
not greater than that of friction, i.e., 30 degrees. Fig. 80a is a force
diagram of the resultant forces acting on the base at EL 0.00. The
total weight of a 15-foot bay is estimated at 783 tons while that of P,
the trapezoid of water pressure, is 1700 tons. The force Une P in Fig.
^ 80 drawn through the e.g. of the water pressm*e area intersects the
vertical force W below the base line. From this intersection jR is
drawn upward parallel to its reciprocal in the force polygon, cutting
the base at a point some 9 feet distant from the center point.

The maximum stress will occur at the heel of the base. A =

''■ 107X2=214 sq. ft.; 4=??? = 9.34 tons; q being 9 ft., m=^^?±^

A 214 107

' = 1.5 and 5 = 9.34 X 1 .5 = 14 tons. Formula (9) , Part I. The hori-

i zontal component of P = 1200 tons. The base being 2 ft. wide,

Ss=- — 77^ = 5.6 tons; therefore by formula (10), Part I, c = 7 +

V49+31.4 = 16.5 tons, a decidedly high value. The usual limit to
\ shearing stress is 100 lb. per sq. inch, equivalent to 7.2 tons per

sq. ft, reinforcement is therefore not necessary and is not provided.

There appears to be no reason why a steeper slope should not

* have been given to the deck so as to bring the center of pressure up

140 DAMS AND WEIRS t

•

to the center of the base and thus reduce the unit stress. Possibly a
higher river stage has been allowed for. The position of W as well
as the weight of the structure were obtained from the section given
in Schuyler's Reservoirs. Fig. 80 is of the so-termed "Curtain"
type of dam. The "Half Apron" type, Fig. 82c, is sometimes used for
overfalls, the main section of Fig. 82 illustrating the "Bulkhead" type.
108. Slab Deck G)mpared with Arch Deck Dam. The Ambur-
sen dam, wherever the interior space is not required for installa-
tion of turbines, is undoubtedly a more expensive construction than
the multiple arch type. This fact has at last been recognized and in
one of the latest dams erected, scallop arches were substituted for
the flat deck, thus obviating the expense of reinforcement. By

Fig. 81. Section of Arch with 30-Foot Span

increasing the width of the spans, the piers, being thicker in like
proportion, will be in much better position for resisting compressive
stress, as a thick colunm can stand a greater unit stress than a thin
one. Another point in favor of the arch is that the effective length
of the base of the piers extends practically to the crown of the arch.
The arch itself need not be as thick as the slab. Owing to the liquid
radial pressure to which' it is subjected it is in a permanent state of
compression and does not require any reinforcement except possibly
at the top of the dam. Here the arch is generally widened, as in
the case of the Ogden dam. Fig. 73, and thus greatly stiffened at the
point where temperature variations might develop unforeseen stresses.
Fig. 81 is a sketch illustrative of the saving in material afforded
by doubling the spans from 15 to 30 feet and conversion to multiple
arch type. The radius of the extrados of the arches is 18.5 ft. H
is 67 at elevation 2.50 and w= ^ ton; hence the thickness of the
arch by formula (21) (^i being taken as 15 tons), will be

, RHw 18.5X67X1 oaf ^
^=-r= 32X15 =^-^^^^'

DAMS AND WEIRS

141

It is thus actually thinner than the reinforced slab of one-half
the span, or 15 feet. The greater length of the arch ring over that
of the straight slab is thus more than compensated. The area of
the arch, counting from the center of the pier, is 35X2.6 = 91 square
feet, that of the slab is 30X3.1 = 93, that of the bracketing at junc-
tion with the piers, 13, giving a total of 106 square feet. The saving

due to decreased length of the piers is 25 square feet. Thus in the
lower part of the dam over 40 cubic feet per 30' bay per foot in height
of concrete is saved, also all the steel reinforcement. If a rollway
is considered necessary in the weir, the deck could be formed by a
thin reinforced concrete screen supported on I-beams stretching
across between the piers.

109. Guayabal Dam. Fig. 82 is a section of the Guayabal
dam recently constructed in Porto Rico, its height is 127 feet and
it is on a rock foundation. The following are the conditions govern-

142 DAMS AND WEIRS

ing the design; maximum pressm-e on foimdation 10 tons per square

foot; compression in buttresses 300 pounds per square inch or 21.6

tons per square foot; shear in buttresses 100 pounds per square

inch, or 7.2 tons per square foot; shear in deck slabs 60 pounds, or

.03 ton per square inch; fc for deck slabs 600 pounds or .3 ton per

square inch; /, for deck slabs 14,000 pounds, or 7 tons per square

inch.

The concrete in the slabs is in the proportion of 1:2:4, in the

E . /

buttresses 1:3:6; n=-^ is taken as 15 and r=j =23.3. The deck

tic fe

slab is 55 inches thick at El. 224, d is taken as 53, allowing 2 inches
for covering the steel, bd or the area of the section one foot wide =
53 X 12 = 636 square inches. Now A the area of the steel = pbd. By

formula (28), P=2(^)= 2(23.3)^+23.3Xl5 =-^^"^' ^^°^ *^"
required area of steel will be 636 X. 01044 = 6.64 square inches, i
provided d is of the correct value. The calculation will now be
made [for the thickness of the slab which is actually 55 inches.
The load on a strip 12 inches wide is j

... ^ 109X13 , . ^ .

Water pressure — — — = 44.3 tons .

To this must be added a portion of the weight of the slab

which latter amounts to I — — — I^^iT?;)^^'^ ^^^^' ^ ^^ '

4 5

-^=3.2 tons must be added to the 44.3 tons above, 44.3+3.2=47.5 ;

tons. The bending moment M is — ^= — '■ — = 927 inch-

o o

tons. The depth of the slab can be estimated by using formulas
(26) or (27) or the approximate ones (26a) and (27a). For the
purpose of illustration, all four will be worked out. First the values ^
of k and j will be found by formulas (29) and (30).

A; = V.313+.0245-.156 = .582-.156=0.426
i = (l=|-) = l-.142 = .858

DAMS AND WEIRS 143

d = V1234 = 35.07 inches

By fomul. (27). ■^-i^.- i2>,.3Sx.858 -'^

d= 1406 = 37.5 inches
Now the approximate formulas will b^ used. By (26a)

^ = 8X927 =.1854 = 1210

7X12X7X.0104 1.53

by (27a)

d=Vl210 = 34.8 inches

6X927^556_2^
12 X. 3 3.6

d=Vl542 = 39.3 inches
The approximate formulas (26a) and (27a) give higher results than
(26) and (27) . The result to select is 37.5 inches, formula (27), which is
higher than by (26) . The depth of beam would then be 40 or 41 inches.
It is actually 55. This discrepancy may be due to the water having
been given a s.g. in excess of unity, owing to the presence of mud

. in suspension, say of 1.3 or 1.5, or shear is the criterion.

The corresponding steel area will be ^=p6d = . 0104X12X37.5
= 4.7 square inches. 1 ^ '' round rods spaced 3 inches would answer.
With regard to direct shear on the slab, W as before = 47.5 tons of

r which half acts at each pier, viz, 23.7 tons. The safe resistance is

2S 7
6dXiS. = 12X55X.03 = 20 tons, nearly. The shear = ^^ = .036

': ton = 72 pounds per square inch. This figure exceeds the Umit of

60 pounds. The deficiency is made up by adding the shear of the
steel rods. The sectional area of this reinforcement is 4.7 square
inches the safe shearing of which is over 20 tons. These rods are
usually turned up at their ends in order to care for the shear.

Shear in Buttresses. With regard to shear in the buttresses, the
horizontal component of the water pressure as marked on the force
diagram is 3400 tons. The area of the base of the buttress at

El. 224 is 138X3.2 = 441.6, the shearing stress or s, then =f^=8
J 441.6

tons per square foot, nearly. The allowable stress being only 7.2

tons the difference will have to be made good by reinforcing rod^

of which two of |-inch diameter would suffice.

144 DAMS AND WEIRS

Now with regard to compressive stresses on the buttresses the

graphical working shows that the resultant R strikes the base at El.

224 almost exactly at the center, the angle

$ also is 30 degrees. The value of iV" is

5650 tons; si the mean and s the tnaximuin

of the base, equals 138x3.2 = 442 sq. ft.;

therefore, s = ^ = 12.78tons. Thecom-
s 442

« pression on the foundation itself, which

2 is 4 feet lower will not be any less for,

5 although the base width is greater, N as

g .2 well as P are also increased. Thus the

2 I pressure on the foundation is in excess

H ^ of the limit and widening to a further

J I extent is required.

■^ ° The maximum internal stress c, in

1 1 the buttress at El. 224, will be bj- formula

It (10)> I'art I, is+-yjj+s,^ Here* = 12.8

J J and s, as we ha\'e seen is 8 tons, therefore,

« * ITTu '

^1 c = 6.4+-^i^+G4=I6.6tons. Thelimit

E 3 compression in the buttressis 300 pounds
J per square inch, or 21.6 tons per square
•I foot.

* In the bulkhead portion of the dam,

g shown in Fig. 82b, e^'cry pier is run up
14 inches thick through the deck to form
a support for a highway bridge, the spans
of wliich are therefore 16 feet 10 inches
in the clear; the roadway is carried on
slabs which are supported by arches of
reinforced concrete. The buttresses are
laterally supported by several double rein-
forced sway beams, 16"xl4", and below the crest a through road-
way is provided. The spillway section is shown on Fig. 82c. The

DAMS AND WEIES

146 DAMS AND WEIRS

ground level is here on a high bench at EL 295. The crest being
El. 325, the fall is 30 feet. The spillway is of the 'Tialf apron type".
The roadway here is carried on four reinforced concrete girders, a
very neat construction; the piers are run up every alternate span
and are therefore at 36-foot centers; they are beveled on both faces
to reduce end contraction. The spillway will pass 70,000 second-
feet; its length is 775 feet.

The bulkhead section of the dam (see also Kg. 83) has 51 spans
of 18-foot centers, total length 918 feet; that of the spillway consists
of 21 spans of 36-foot centers. The whole length is 1674 feet. The
depth of the tail water is not known, it would probably be about
20 feet and its effect would be but trifling. This is one of the largest
hollow dams ever constructed. The arrangement of the haunches
or corbels of the buttresses is a better one than that in the older
work of Fig. 80.

1 ID, Bassano Dam. Another important work is the Bassano ;
dam illustrated in Figs. 84 and 85. This is an overfall dam built over '
the Bow River at the head of the eastern section of the Canadian
Pacific Railway Company's irrigation canal and is estimated to pass i
100,000 second-feet of water at a depth of 14 feet. Though not so
high nor so long as the Guayabal dam it presents several features of
interest. First its foundations are on a thick blanket of clay some
twelve feet deep which overlies boulders and gravel. • This material ^
is very hard blue clay of excellent quality. The great advantage of
this formation, which extends over 1000 feet upstream from the work,
is that it precludes all uplift, or very nearly so, consequently no -^
special precautions have to be adopted, such as a long apron to
ensure length of percolation, as would be necessary in case of a
foundation composed of porous and loose materials. It has also
disadvantages. The allowable pressure on the clay is limited to
2| tons per square foot. This influences the design necessitating
a wide spread to the buttresses, laterally as well as longitudinally. '
The whole of the dam is an overfall and the general arrangements
are very similar to those prevailing at Guayabal. The hearth or
horizontal fore apron, a provision not necessary in the last example,
is at EL 2512. The crest is at 2549.6 a height of 37.6 feet above
the apron and corresponds with the level of the canal intake floor. ^
Water is held up to elevei; feet above crest level by draw gate^

DAMS AND WEISS

|E^^^«

148 DAMS AND WEIBS

eleven feet high, and this full supply level is three feet below that of
the estimated afflux, which is fourteen feet above the crest.

For overturning moment the water-pressure area will be a
truncated triangle with its apex at afflux level plus the height h or

1.5 -r- to allow for velocity of approach, as explained in section

57, Part I. This, in the Bow River with a steep boulder bed will be

144
about 12 feet per second; h therefore will equal 1.5X-Tr =3.4 f^t and

the apex of the truncated triangle will be at a point 14+3.4 = 17.4

feet above the crest level. The depth of the tail water at full flood

is not known, the ratio — with a steep bed slope will not be under .5,

consequently with d = 14, D will have a value of about 25 to 28 feet,
d being depth over crest and D that of tail water. The overturning
moments direct and reverse can be represented by the cubes of the
depths up- and do\\Tistream and the unbalanced moment by their
difference. The upstream head is 37.0+14+3.4 = 55 feet and the
downstream head say 25 feet. Their cubes are 166^375 and 15,625
the difference being 150,750, thus the reverse pressure will not have
much effect in assisting the stability of the structure. The cor-
responding representative moment when water is held up to 11 ft.
above crest will be 49^ = 117,64&, supposing the tail channel empty.
This quantity is less than the 150,750 previously stated, consequently
the afflux level is that which has to be considered when estimating
the overturning moment. In the case of direct water pressure on
the deck slabs, the acting head at full flood will be the difference of
the flood level up- and downstream, which is 30 feet, as the tail
water is allowed access to the rear of the deck slabs. This is less
than the head, 49 feet, which exists when the gates are closed and
water is held up to canal full supply, i.e., to EL 2560.6, consequently
the head that has to be considered is that at this latter stage.

Analysis of Pressures on Bassano Dam. With this data the
design can be analyzed, the procedure being identical with that
explained in the last example, excepting that the reverse pressure
might be taken into account as it will modify the direction and
incidence of i? in a favorable sense though not to any great extent. \
The limit stresses are those given in the last example with the fol-

DAMS AND WEIRS ' 149

lowing additions: Footings, compression in bending, 600 pounds
per square inch, shear, 75 pounds per square inch.

Some explanation will now be given of the method of calcu-
lation of the footing to the buttresses and the Guayabal dam will
be referred to, as the pressures on the base of the buttresses are
known quantities. In section 109 the value of N is 5650 tons and

— = — — =41 tons, nearly. This is the unit pressure per foot run
b loo

on the base of the buttress. Supposing the limit pressure on the

foundation was fixed at 3 tons per square foot, then the requisite

41
base width of the footing would be —=13.7 feet. The footing con-

sists of two cantilevers attached to the stem of the buttress. The

bending moment M at the junction with the buttress of a strip 1

Wl
foot wide will be -jr-. The buttress being 3.2 feet wide the pro-

13.7—3.2
jecting length of footing on each side will be — '— — ^ = 5.25 feet.

The reaction on a strip one foot wide will be 5.25X3X1 =
15.75 tons. The moment in inch-tons about the edge of the section

of the buttress will be — ir~^ — *' ir ^ = 498 inch-tons.

According to formula (27a), 6(P=^. /. d= J||<i^=V830 =

Jc 1^ X«o

28.8 inches. Then 6(i= 28.8X12 = 346 and A the area of the steel
at the base will be p&d=. 0104X346 = 3.61 inches, this in a 12-inch
wide strip will take IJ-inch bars 4 inches apart. When the weight
on the buttress is considerable the depth of footing slab thus esti-
mated becomes too great for convenience. In such cases, as in Fig.
85, the beam will require reinforcement in compression at the top.
This complicates the calculation and cases of double reinforcement
are best worked out by means of tables prepared for the purpose.
The footings shown in Fig. 85, were thus double reinforced, in fact
through bars were inserted at each step, the lower being in tension
the upper ones in compression. The lower bars were continuous
right through the base of the dam. This reinforcement of the
footing is not shown on the blue print from which Fig. 85 is derived.
111. Pressure on Foundation Foredeck. A great many

150 * DAMS AND WEIRS

Ambursen dams have been constructed on river beds composed
of boulders and gravel, which require a pressure limit of about
4 tons per square foot. This can always be arranged for by widen-
ing the footing of the pier buttresses, the same can of course be
done with arch buttressed dams. The base of the arch itself can
be stepped out in a similar manner. In the Bassano dam the
sloping fore deck is unusually thick and is heavily reinforced in
addition; this is done with the idea of strengthening the structure
against shock from ice, as well as from the falling water, and with
the fiulher idea of assisting the buttresses in carrying the heavy
load of the piers and superstructure. It is doubtful if any calcu-
lations can well be made for this; it is a matter more of judgment
than of estimation.

Buttresses. As with the Guayabal spillway, every alternate
buttress is run up to form the piers of the superstructure, which latter
consists of a through bridge which carries the lift gear for manipu-
lating the draw gates. The so-termed bUnd buttresses — ^that is,
those that do not carry a pier — ^are of thinner section and are appar-
ently not reinforced. Both kinds of buttresses have cross-bracing
as shown on the profile. In hollow dams the location of the center
of pressure moves with the rise of water from the heel toward the
center within the upstream half of the middle third. In soUd dams,
on the other hand, the movement is along the whole of the middle
third division, consequently in hollow dams there is no tendency
to turn about the toe as with solid dams, rather the reverse, namely,
to upset backward. This latter tendency must cause tension in
the buttresses which the cross-bracing is intended to care for.

Baffles, As noted already in section 66, baffles have been built
on the curved bucket with the object of neutralizing this mischiev-
ous arrangement which it is hoped will soon [become as obsolete in
western practice as has long been the case in the East.

Hearth and Anchored Apron. The dam is provided with a solid
horizontal fore apron or hearth 76 feet long and beyond this the
device of an anchored floating apron of timber 30 feet in length has
been added. The apron is undoubtedly too short and should have
been made 100 feet or 2 (H+d) in length, with cribbed riprap
below it. The wooden sheet piling in the rear of the work is con-
sidered to be worse than useless; it merely breaks up the good clay

DAMS AND WEIRS 151

blanket by cutting it in two. A wide solid curtain of concrete, not
so deep as to penetrate the clay blanket, would have been a superior
arrangement. The inclined piling below the bucket is provided to
guard against sliding. This dam is provided with a number of sluice
openings. Their capacity is such that one half will pass ordinary
floods, allowing the other half of the dam to be cut off from the river
by sheet piling during construction. On completion of the work
these sluices were all closed from the inside by slabs of concrete
deposited in position.

SUBMERGED WEIRS FOUNDED ON SAND

1 12. Description of Type, There is a certain type of drowned
or submerged diversion weir which is built across wide rivers or
streams whose beds are composed of saiid of such depth that a solid
foundation on clay is an impossibility. Consequently, the weir has
to be founded on nothing better than the surface of the river bed,
with perhaps a few lines of hollow curtain walls as an adjunct. Of
this class of weir but one is believed to have been constructed in
the United States, viz, the Laguna weir over the Colorado River
at the head of the Yuma irrigation canals.

This type originated in India and in that country are found
numerous examples of weirs successfully constructed across very
large rivers of immense flood discharge. For instance, the Goda-
veri River in Southern India has a flood discharge of 1,200,000
second-feet and the weirs across it are nearly 2^ miles in length.
Not only is the length great, but as will be seen, the width has to be
very considerable. The Okhla weir. Figs. 101 and 102, situated on
the Jumna below the historic city of Delhi is 250 feet wide and
f mile long. The height of these submerged weirs is seldom over
12 feet, their r61e being purely diversion, not storage. No doubt
more of this type of low diversion weirs will in the future have to be
constructed in the United States or in Mexico, so that a knowledge
of the subject is a necessity for the irrigation engineer.

Principles of Design. The principles underlying the successful
design of these works are a comparatively recent discovery. Designs
were formerly made on no fixed principles, being but more or less
modified copies of older works. Fortunately some of these works
failed, and it is from the practical experience thus gained that a

152

DAMS AND WEIRS

knowledge of the hydraulic principles involved has at last been
acquired.

A weir built on sand is exposed not only to the destructive
influences of a large river in high flood which completely submerges
it, but its foundation being sand, is liable to be imdermined and
worked out by the very small currents forced through the under-
lying sand by the pressure of the water held up in its rear. In spite
of these apparent diflSculties, it is quite practicable to design a work
of such outline as ^lU successfully resist all these disintegrating
influences, and remain as solid and permanent a structure as one
founded on bed rock.

113. Laws of Hydraulic Flow. The principle which underlies
the action of water in a porous stratum of sand over which a heavy
impervious weight is imposed is analogous to that which obtains in

Heodrntier/t

Fig. 86. Diagram Showing Action of Water Pipe Leading Out of Reservoir

a pipe under pressure. Fig. 86 exemplifies the case with regard to
a pipe line BC, leading out of a reservoir. The acting head (if)
is the difference of levels between ^i a point somewhat lower than
-4, the actual summit level and C the level of the tail water beyond
the outlet of the pipe. The water having a free outlet at C, the
line A\C is the hydraulic gradient or grade line. The hydrostatic
pressure in the pipe at any point is measured by vertical ordinates
drawn from the center of the pipe to the grade line A\C. The uni-
form velocity of the water in the pipe is dependent directly on the
head and inversely on the f rictional resistance of the sides of the pipe,
that is, on its length. This supposes the pipe to be straight, or
nearly so.

114. Percolation beneath Dam. We will now consider the
case of an earthen embankment thrown across the sandy bed of a

DAMS AND WEIRS

153

stream, Fig. 87. The pressure of the impounded water will natu-
rally cause leakage beneath the impervious earthen base. With a
low depth of water impounded it may well be understood that such
leakage might be harmless; that is, the velocity of the percolating
under ciurent would be insufficient to wash out the particles of
sand composing the foundation of the dam. When, however, the
head is increased beyond a safe Umit, the so-termed piping action
will take place and continue until the dam is completely undermined.
115. Governing Factor for Stability. The main governing
factor in the stability of the sand foundation is evidently not the
superimposed weight of the dam, as the sand is incompressible;
although a load in excess of the hydraulic pressure must exercise
a certain though possibly undefined salutary effect in delaying the
disintegration of the substratum. However this may be, it is the

enforced length of percolation, or travel of the under current, that
is now recognized to be the real determining influence.

In the case of a pipe, the induced velocity is inversely propor-
tional to the length. In the case under consideration, the hydrauKc
condition being practically identical with that in a pipe, it is the
enforced percolation through the sand, and the resulting friction
against its particles as the water forces its way through, that efiFects
the reduction of the velocity of the undercurrent, and this frictional
resistance is directly proportional to the length of passage. In the
case of Fig. 87, the length of enforced percolation is clearly that of
the impervious base of the earthen dam. The moment this obstruc-
tion is passed the water is free to rise out of the sand and the hydro-
static pressure ceases.

116. Coefficient of Percolation. This length of enforced per-
colation or travel, which will be symbolized by L, must be some

154 DAMS AND WEIRS

multiple of the head //, and if reliable safe values for this factor can
be found, suitable to particular classes of sand, we shall he enabled
to design any work on a sand foundation, with perfect confidence in
its stability. If the percolation factor be symbolized by c, then L, or
the length of enforced percolation, will equal c H, II being the head of
water. The factor c will vary in value with the quality of the sand.

Fig. 88 represents a case ^milar in every respect to the last
except, instead of a dam of earth, the obstruction consists of a
vertical wall termed the weir or drop wall, having a horizontal
impervious floor attached thereto, which appendage is necessary to
prevent erosion of the bed by the current of falling water.

At the stage of maximum pressure the head water will be
level with the crest, and the level of the tail water that of the floor;
consequently the hydraulic gradient will be HB, which is also the
piezometric line and as in the previous case of the pipe line, Fig.

Fig. SS. IHagram Showing Dtaiga of Profile to Reduce Fercoladon

86, the ordinates of the triangle BAB will represent the upward
hydrostatic pressure on the base of the weir wall and of the floor.

117. Criterion for Safety of Structure. The safety of the
structure is evidently dependent on the following points:

First, the weir wall must be dimensioned to resist the overturn-
ing moment of the horizontal water pressure. This has been dealt
with in a previous section. Second, the thickness, i.e., the weight
of the apron or floor must be such that it will be safe from being
blown up or fractured by the hydrostatic pressure; third, the base
length, or that of the enforced percolation L, must not be less than
cH, the product of the factor c with the head H. Fourth, the
length of the masonry apron and its continuation in riprap or con-
crete book blocks must be sufficient to prevent erosion.

It is evident that the value of this factor c, must vary with the
nature of the sand substratum in accordance with its qualities of

DAMS AND WEIRS 155

fineness or coarseness. Fine light sand will be closer in texture,
passing less water under a given head than a coarser variety, but at
the same time will be disintegrated and washed out under less
pressure. ReUable values for c, on which the design mainly depends,
can only be obtained experimentally, not from artificial experiments,
but by deduction from actual examples of weirs; among which the
most valuable are the records of failures due to insufficiency in
length of percolation. From these statistics a safe value of the
relation of L to H, the factor c, which is also the sine of the
hydraulic gradient, can be derived,

1 18, Adopted Values of Percolation Coefficient The follow-
ing values of c have been adopted for the specified classes of sand.

Class I: River beds of light silt and sand, of which 60 per cent
passes a 100-mesh sieve, as those of the Nile or Mississippi; percola-
tion factor c= 18.

Class II: Fine micaceous sand of which 80 per cent of the
grains pass a 75-mesh sieve, as in Himalayan rivers and in such as
the Colorado ; c = 15.

Class III: Coarse-grained sands, as in Central and South
India; c=12.

Class IV: Boulders or shingle and gravel and sand mixed; c
varies from 9 to 5.

In Fig. 88 if the sand extended only up to the level C, the length
of percolation would be CD, the rise from D to B not being counted
in. In that case the area of hydrostatic pressure acting beneath
the floor would be the triangle HAB. As, however, a layer of sand
from A to C interposes, the length will be ACD, and outline HiB.
The step HIIi occurring in the outline is due to the neutralization
of head symbolized by h, effected in the depth AC. Supposing
^C to be 6 feet and the percolation factor to be 12, then the step
in the pressure area, equal to h, will be 6-5-12 = 6 inches. The
resulting gradient HiB will, however, be flatter than 1 in 12; conse-
quently the termination of the apron can be shifted back to BiDi,
HiBi, being parallel to HB; in which case the area of hydrostatic
pressure will be HiABi. The pressure at any point on the base is
represented by the ordinates of the triangle or area of pressure.
Thus the upward pressure at E, below the toe of the drop wall,
where the horizontal apron commences, is represented by the line

156 DAMS AND WEIRS

FG. Supposing the head HA to be 10 feet, then the total required
length of percolation will be c if =12X10 = 120 feet. This is the
length A CD i . The neutralization of head, h, effected by the enforced
percolation between H and 6? is represented by GJ, and supposing
the base width of the drop wall CE to be 9 feet, AC being 6 feet,

A = ^ = 1J feet. The upward pressure FG is {H-h) = 10-ll

= 8f feet.

The stepped upper line bounding the pressure area as has been
noted in Part I, is termed the piezometric line, as it represents the
level to which water would rise if pipes were inserted in the floor.
It is evident from the above that when no vertical depressions
occur in the line of travel that the piezometric Une will coincide
with the hydraulic gradient or virtual slope; when, however, vertical
depressions exist, reciprocal steps occur in the piezometric line,
which then falls below the hydraulic grade line. The piezometric
line is naturally always parallel to the latter. The commencement
of the floor at E is always a critical point in the design as the pres-
sure is greatest here, diminishing to zero at the end.

119. Simplifying the Computations. In the same way that
the water pressure is represented by the head producing it, the
conmion factor w, or the unit weight of water, may also be elimi-
nated from the opposing weight of the floor. The weight of the
masonry, therefore, is represented by its thickness in the same way
as the pressiu'e, and if t be the thickness of the floor, tp will represent
its weight. Now the floor Ues wholly below low water level. Con-
sequently, in addition to the external hydrostatic pressure repre-
sented by H, due to the head of water upheld, there is the buoyancy
due to immersion. The actual pressure on the base CDi is really
measured by HC, not HA. Thus if a vertical pipe were inserted
in the floor the water would rise up to the piezometric hne and be
in depth the ordinate of the pressure area plus the thickness of the
floor. But it is convenient to keep the hydrostatic external pres-
sure distinct from the effect of immersion. This latter can be
allowed for by reduction in the weight of these parts of the struc-
ture that lie below L. W. L. See sections 52 and 53, Part I.

Effect of Immersion. When a body is immersed in a liquid it
loses weight to the extent of the weight of the liquid displaced.

DAMS AND WEIRS 157

Thus the unit weight of a solid is wp. When immersed, the unit

weight will be w{p~l). As w is a discarded factor, the unit

weight being represented

only by p, the specific

gravity, the weight of

the floor in question will

g be /(p — 1) if immersed.

I We have seen that the

^ hydrostaticpressureact-

5 ing at F is 8| feet. To

I meet this the weight, or

^ effective thickness, of

5 the floor must be equal

i to 8i feet of water +i

for safety, or, in sym-

j) I Assuming a value for p

f/ I quired to counterbal-

I I ance the hydrostatic

of 2, the thickness re-
quired to coun
ance the hydn
pressure will be

The formula for
thickness will then stand :

'-3

m) ('')

I JJ-pl'-ft on Fore

Apron. It is evident

^ that in Fig. 88 the long

e floor is subjected to a

very considerable uplift

measured by the area

H^B, the weight of the

apron also is reduced in

the ratio of p :{p — 1) as it lies below L.W.L., consequently it will

have to be made as already noted of a depth of 11,6 feet which is a

158 DAMS AND WEIRS

quite impossible figure. The remedy is either to make the floor pK>roxis
in which case the hydrauKc gradient will fall below 1 in 12, and failure
will take place by piping, or else to reduce the effective head by "the
insertion of a rear apron or a vertical curtain wall as has been already'
mentioned in section 63, Part I. In these submerged weirs on
large rivers and in fact in most overfall dams a soUd fore apron, is
advisable. The length of this should however be limited to abso-
lute requirements. This length of floor is a matter more of individixal
judgment or following successful precedent than one of precise
estimation.

The following empirical rule which takes into account the nature
of the sand as well as the head of water is believed to be a good guide
in determining the length of fore apron in a weir of this type, it is

L=Syl7H (34)

In the case of Fig. 89, the head is 10 feet and c is assumed at 12, conse-
quently, i = 3Vl20 = 33 feet, say 36, or 3c. In Kg. 89 this length
of floor has been inserted. Now a total length of percolation of 12
times the head, or 120 feet = 10c is required by hypothesis, of this
3c is used up by the floor leaving 7c to be provided by a rear apron
and curtain. Supposing the curtain is made a depth equal to l^c,
this will dispose of 3 out of the 7 (for reasons to be given later),
leaving 4 to be provided for by the rear apron, the length of which,
counting from the toe of the weir wall, is made 4c or 48 feet. The
hydrauUc gradient starts from the point H' which is vertically
above that of ingress A. At the location of the vertical diaphragm
of sheet piling, a step takes place owing to the sudden reduction of
head of 3 feet, the obstruction being 3c in length counting both
sides. From here on, the line is termed the piezometric line and the
pressure area is the space enclosed between it and the floor. The
actual pressure area would include the floor itself, but this has been
already allowed for in reduction of weight, its s.g. being taken as
unity instead of 2.

The uplift on the weir wall is the area enclosed between its
base and the piezometric line. In calculating overturning moment,
if this portion were considered as having lost weight by immersion
it would not quite fully represent the loss of effective weight due to Cj
uplift, because above the floor level the profile of the weir wall b

DAMS AND WEIRS 159

not rectangular, while that of the pressure area is more nearly so.
The foundation could be treated this way, the superstructure above
AF being given full s.g. and the upUft treated as a separate vertical
force as was the case in Fig. 40, Part I.

120. Vertical Obstruction to Percolation. Now with regard
to the vertical obstruction, when water percolates under pressure
beneath an impervious platform the particles are impelled upward
by the hydrostatic pressiu'e against the base of the dam and also
there is a slow horizontal current downstream. The line of least
resistance is along the surface of any solid in preference to a shorter
course through the middle of the sand, consequently when a vertical
obstruction as a curtain wall of masonry or a diaphragm of sheet
piling is encountered the current of water is forced downward and
the obstruction being passed it ascends the other side up to the base
line which it again follows. The outer particles follow the lead
of the inner as is shown by the arrows in Fig. 89. The value of a
vertical obstruction is accordingly twice that of a similar horizontal
length of base. Valuable corroboration of the reliability of the
theory of percolation adopted, particularly with regard to reduction
of head caused by vertical obstruction, has been received, while this
article was on the press, from a paper in the proceeedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers entitled ''The Action of Water
under Dams" by J. B. T, Coleman, which appeared in August, 1915.
The practical value of the experiments, however, is somewhat
vitiated by the smallness of the scale of operations and the dispro-
portion in the ratio H:L to actual conditions. The length of base
of the dam experimented on should not be less than 50 feet with a
head of 5 feet.

121. Rear Apron. The extension of the floor rearward is
termed the rear apron. Its statical condition is peculiar, not being
subject to any upward hydrostatic pressure as is the case with the
fore apron or floor. Inspection of the diagram. Fig. 89, will show
that the water pressiu'e acting below the floor is the trapezoid enclosed
between the piezometric line and the floor level; whereas the down-
ward pressure is represented by the rectangle HiAiHA, which is
considerably larger. Theoretically no weight is required in the
rear apron, the only proviso being that it must be impervious and
have a water-tight connection with the weir wall, otherwise the

160 DAMS AND WEIRS

incidence of H may fall between the rear apron and the rest of the
work, rendering the former useless. .Such a case has actually
occurred. It is, however, conadered that the rear apron must be
of a definite weight, as otherwise the percolation of water under-
neath it would partake of the nature of a surface flow, and so pre-
vent any neutralization of head caused by friction in its passage
through sand. Consequently, the effective thickness, or rather
( (p — 1 ) should not be less than four feet. Its level need not be the
same as that of the fore apron or floor. In fact, in some cases it
has been constructed level or nearly so with the permanent crest

Fig. 90. View of Grand BstTBge over Nile River

of the drop wall. But this disposition has the effect of reducing
the coefficient of discharge over the weir and increasing the afflux
or head water level, which is open to objection. The best position
is undoubtedly level with the fore apron.

Another point in favor of the rear apron is the fact that it is
free from either hydrostatic pressure or the djTiamic force of falling
water, to which the fore apron is subject; it can, therefore, be con-
structed of more inexpensive material. Clay consolidated when
wet, i.e., puddle, is just as effective in this respect as the richest
cement masonry or concrete, provided it is protected from scour
where necessary by an overlay of paving or riprap, and has a reli-

DAMS AND WEIRS

161

i-r^

able connection with the drop wall and the rest of the work. In old
works these properties of the rear apron were not understood, and
the stanching of the loose stone rear apron commonly provided, was
left to be effected by the natural deposit of silt. This deposit
eventually does take place and is of the greatest value in increasing
the statical stabiUty of the weir, but the process takes time, and
until complete, the work is liable to excess hydrostatic pressure and
an insufficient length of enforced percolation, which would allow
piping to take place and the foundation to be gradually undermined.
122. First Demonstration of Rear Apron. Thf value of an
impervious rear apron was first demonstrated in the repairs to the
Grand Barrage over the Nile, Fig. 90, some time in the eighties.
This old work was useless owing to the great leakage that took
place whenever the gates were lowered and a head of water appUed.
In order to check this leakage, instead of driving sheet piling, which

"/■••M-'.wa*trW

~S 3 ' BC. Concnefe

Pier

SB'

?^^:^^^^^:5??^<r7:^:':?^:^^

L.W.L.-\

*•-

' ^36'-

W Old
Wooden
Piles

Fig. 91. Section Showing Repairs Made on the Grand Barrage

it was feared would shake the foundations, an apron of cement
masonry 240 feet wide and 3.28 feet thick. Fig. 91, was constructed
over the old floor, extending upstream 82 feet beyond it. This
proved completely successful. By means of pipes set in holes
drilled in the piers, cement mortar was forced under pressure into
all the interstices of the rubble foundations, fiUing up any hollows
that existed, thus completely stanching the foundations. So effec-
tually was the structure repaired that it was rendered capable of
holding up about 13 feet of water; whereas, prior to reconstruction,
it was unsafe with a head of a little over three feet. The total
length of apron is 238 feet, of which 82 feet projects upstream
beyond the original floor and 44 feet downstream, below the floor
itself, the latter having a width of 112 feet. The head U being

238
13 feet, and L being 238 feet, c, or the percolation factor is -75- =

18, which is the exact value assigned for Nile sand in Class I,

162

DAMS AND WEIRS

section 118. This value was not originally derived from the Grand
Barrage, but from another work.

The utility of this barrage has been further augmented by the
construction of two subsidiary weirs below it, see Figs. 92 and 106,
across the two branches of the Nile delta. These are ten feet high
and enable an additional height of ten feet to be held up by
the gates of the old barrage, the total height being now 22^ feet.
The increased rise in the tail water exactly compensates for the
additional head on the work as regards hydrostatic pressure, but
the moment of the water pressing on the base of the masonry piers

will be largely increased, viz, as from 13' to 22'— 10*, or from 2197
to 9648.

The barrage, which is another word for "open dam" or bulk-
head dam, is, however, of very solid and weighty construction, and
after the complete renewal of all its weak points is now capable of
safely enduring the increased stress put upon the superstructure.
We have seen, in section 119, that the width of the impervious
fore apron should be Ii=3Ve//, formula (34). This width of the
floor is affected by two considerations, first, the nature of the river
bed, which can best be represented by its percolation factor c and
second, by the height of the overfall including the crest shutters
if any, which will be designated by Ha to distinguish it from H,
which represents the difference between head and tail water and also

DAMS AND WEIRS

163

TABLE I
Showing Actual and Calculated Values of Li or Talus Width

Formula (35), L, =10c^^X\^r

River

— — ~ •

Type

•

Lenqth Li

Name of work

Calculated

Actual

Ganges

Narora

150

140-170

Coleroon

Coleroon x

100

Vellar

Pelandorai

100

108

101

Tampra-
pami

Srivakantharn

102

106

Chenab

Khanki

150

182

170

Chenab

Merala

150

182

203

Jhelum

Rasul

155

160

135

Penner

Adimapali

184

172

184

Penner

Nellore

300

228

232

Penner

Sangam

147

168

145

Godaveri

Dauleshwiram

100

158

217

Jumna

Okhla

140

210

Kistna

Beswada

223

236

220

Son

Dehri

, 66

100

Mahanadi

Jobra

100

140

163

143

Madaya

280

207

235

Colorado

Laguna

below

140

200

minim uni

Type A has a direct overfall, with horizontal floor at L. W. L., as in
Figs. 91, 93, and 95.

Type B has breast wall followed by a sloping impervious apron, Figs.
96 and 97.

Tjrpe C has breast wall followed by pervious rock fill, with sloping surface
and vertical body walls, Figs. 101 to 106.

from lib the height of the permanent crest above L. W. L. Tak-
ing the Narora weir a3 standard, a length of floor equal to SVei/
es3Vl5Xl3=42 feet, is deemed to be the correct safe width for

164 DAMS AND WEIRS

a weir 13 feet in height; where the height is more or less, the
width should be increased or reduced in proportion to the square
root of the height and that of the factor c.

123. Riprap to Protect Apron. Beyond the impervious floor
a long continuation of riprap or packed stone pitching is required.
The width of this material is clearly independent of that appro-
priate to the floor, and consequently will be measured from the
same starting point as the floor, viz, from the toe of the drop wall.
The formula for overfall weirs is

ix=lOc^fx^|^ (35)

10 X 75

For sloping aprons, type B, the coeflScient of c will be 11
Then

/i=llc->J

wU <«")

This formula is founded on the theory that the distance of the
toe of the talus from the overfall will vary with the square root of
the height of the obstruction above low water, designated by Hb,
with the square root of the unit flood discharge over the weir crest
g, and directly with c, the percolation factor of the river sand. The
standard being these values; viz, 10, 75, and 10, respectively, in
Narora weir. This height, Hb is equal to H when there are no
crest shutters, and is always the depth of L. W. L. below the per-
manent masonry crest of the weir. This formula, though more or
less empirical, gives results remarkably in consonance with actual
value, and will, it is beUeved, form a valuable guide to design.
Table I will conclusively prove this. As nearly all the weirs of
this class have been constructed in India, works in that country
are quoted as examples.

124. Example of Design Type A. Another example of design
in type A will now be given. Fig. 93, the dimensions being those of
an actual work, viz, the Narora weir over the Ganges River, the
design being thus an alternative for that work, the existing section
of which is shown in Rg. 95 and discussed in section 125. The
data on which the design is based, is as follows: sand, class 2; per-
colation factor c = 15; H or difference between head and low water,
the latter being always symbolized by L. W. L., 13 feet, unit dis-

DAMS AND WEIRS

1G5

•S

— /^-'-f-^

-■X-<:'.

Vi-

;J'A^_'.

d
o

•c

flS

a
<a
m

d
o

•-4

bi)

charge over weir g = 75 second-feet, the
total length of the impervious apron and
vertical obstructions will, therefore, have
to be L = c// = 15 X 13 = 195 feet.

The first point to be determined is
the length of the floor or fore' apron.
Having fixed this length, the balance of
L will have to be divided among the
rear apron and the vertical sheet piling.
It is essential that this minimum length
be not exceeded, as it is clearly of advan-
tage to put as much, of the length into
the rear apron as possible, owing to the
inexpensive nature of the material of
which it can be constructed. According
to formula (2) , L = 42 feet, which is neariy
equivalent to 3c, or 45 feet, there thus
remains 10c to be proportioned between
the rear apron and the vertical curtain.
If the latter be given a depth of 2c, or 30
feet the length of travel down and up will
absorb 4c, leaving 6c, or 90 feet for the
rear apron. The measurement is taken
from the toe of the drop wall. The
neutralization of the whole head of 13
feet is thus accomplished. A second cur-
tain will generally be desirable at the
extremity of the fore apron as a pre-
cautionary measure to form a protec-
tion in case the loose yiprap downstream
from the apron is washed out or sinks.
This curtain must have open joints to
offer as little obstruction to percolation
as possible. The outline of the pressure
area, that is the piezometric line, is
drawn as follows: c// = 195 feet is meas-
ured horizontally on the base line of the
pressure area, that is, at L. W. L. from a

DAMS AND WEIRS

167

^:-t

<»

fe"j!S

*:-;•.

^in

! I V.

"!§

•S.-2

® a
- ►

2 e
.a e

.
Si

1 3

z|
"s.a

* Im

O) o
• «

fa ,13

line through ^ to B. The point 5 is
then joined with A on the head water
level at the commencement of the rear
apron. The hydraulic gradient will
thus be 1 in 15. The intersection of
this line BA with a vertical drawn
through the first line of curtain is the
location of a step of two feet equal to
the head absorbed in the vertical travel
at this point. Another line parallel to
the hydraulic gradient is now drawn
to the termination of the fore apron,
this completes the piezometric line or
the upper outline of the pressure area.
With regard to the floor thicki^ess
at the toe of the drop wall, the value
of h, or loss of head due to percola-
tion under the rear apron, is 6 feet,
from the rear curtain, 4 feet; total 10
feet. H—h is, therefore, 13 — 10 = 3.
The thickness of the floor according
to formula (33) where {H—h)=S feet
comes to f X3=4 feet, the value of p
being assumed at 2. The floor natur-
ally tapers toward its end where the
uplift is nil. The thickness at this
point is made 3 feet which is about the
minimum Umit. There remains now
the talus of riprap, its length from
formula (35) is

-^^ = 150feet=10c

The thickness of the talus is generally
four — often five feet — and is a matter
of judgment considering the nature of
the material used.

125. Discussion of Narora Weir.
The Narora weir itself, Fig. 94, forms

= lOcY

168 DAMS AND WEIRS

a most instructive object lesson, demonstrating what is the least
correct base width, or length of percolation consistent with absolute
safety, that can be adopted for sands of class 2. The system of
analyzing graphically an existing work with regard to hydraulic
gradient is exemplified in Fig. 95 under three separate conditions;
firsty as the work originally stood, with a hydraulic gradient of 1 in
11.8; second^ at the time of failure, when the floor and the grouted
riprap blew up. On this occasion owing to the rear apron having
b.een washed away by a flood the hydraulic grade fell to 1 in 8;
thirdy after the extension of the rear apron and curtailment of the
fore apron had been effected. Under the first conditions the hori-
zontal component of the length of travel or percolation L from A
to E is 123 feet. The total length is made up of three parts: First,
a step down and up in the foundation of the drop wall of 7 feet ;
second, a drop down and up of 12 feet either side of the downstream
curtain wall; third, the horizontal distance 123 as above. The rise
at the end of the floor is neglected. The total value of L is then
123+7+12+12 = 154. This is set out on a horizontal line to the
point C AC IS then the hydraulic gradient.

This demonstrates that the hydrauUc gradient was originally
something under 1 in 12, and in addition to this the floor is very
deficient in thickness. The hydrostatic pressure on the floor at the
toe of the drop wall is 8 feet. To meet this the floor has a value of
ip of only 5 feet. The specific gravity of the floor will not exceed
2, as it was mostly formed of broken brick concrete in hydraulic
mortar. The value of p — 1 will, therefore, be unity, the floor being
submerged. In spite of this, the work stood intact to all external
appearance for twenty years, when a heavy freshet in the river set
up a cross current which washed out that portion of the rear apron
nearest the drop wall, thus rendering the rest useless, the connection
having been severed.

On this occurrence, failure at once took place, as the floor had
doubtless been on the point of yielding for some time. In fact, this
state of affairs had been suspected, as holes bored in the floor very
shortly before the actual catastrophe took place showed that a large
space existed below it, full, not of sand, but of water. Thus the
floor was actually held up by the hydrostatic pressure; otherwise it
must have collapsed. The removal of the rear apron caused this

DAMS AND WEIRS 169

pressure to be so much increased that the whole floor, together with
the grouted pitching below the curtain, blew up.

The hydrauhc gradient BC is that at the time of the collapse.
It will be seen that it is now reduced to 1 in 8. The piezometric
Une is not shown on the diagram.

In restoring the work the rear apron was extended upstream as
shown dotted in Fig. 95, to a distance of 80 feet beyond the drop wall,
and was made five feet thick. It was composed of puddle covered
with riprap and at its junction with the drop wall was provided
with a soUd masonry covering. The puddle foundation also was
sloped down to the level of the floor base to form a ground connec-
tion with the drop wall. At its upstream termination sheet piling
was driven to a depth of twelve feet below floor level.

The grouted pitching in the fore apron was relaid dry, except
for the first ten feet which was rebuilt in mortar, to form a continua-
tion of the impervious floor. Omitting the mortar has the effect
of reducing the pressure on the floor. Even then the upUft would
have been too great, so a water cushion 2 feet deep was formed over
the floor by building a dwarf wall of concrete (shown on the section)
right along its edge. This adds 1 foot to the effective value of tp.
It will be seen that the hydrauhc gradient now works out to 1 in 15,
A value for c of 15 has been adopted for similar light sands from
which that of other sands, as Classes I and III, have been deduced.

It will be noticed that the crest of this weir is furnished with
shutters which are collapsible when overtopped and are raised by
hand or by a traveling crab that moves along the crest, raising the '
shutters as it proceeds. The shutters are 3 feet deep and some
20 feet long. They are held up against the water by tension rods
hinged to the weir, and at about J the height of the shutter, i.e.,
at the center of pressure.

126. Sloping Apron Weirs, Type B. Another type of weir,
designated B, will now be discussed, in which there is no direct
vertical drop, the fore apron not being horizontal but sloping from
the crest to the L. W. L. or to a little above it, the talus beyond
being also on a flat slope or horizontal.

In the modem examples of this type which will be examined,
the height of the permanent masonry weir wall is greatly reduced,
with the object of offering as Uttle obstruction as possible to the

170

DAMS AND WEIRS

passage of flood water. The canal level is maintained by means of
deep crest shutters. In the Khanki weir, Fig. 96, the weir proper,
or rather bar wall, is 7 feet high above L. W.L., while the shutters
are 6 feet high. It, therefore, holds up 13 feet of water, the same
as was the case with the Narora weir.

The object of adopting the sloping apron is to avoid construc-
tion in wet foundations, as most of it can be built quite in the dry
above L. W. L. The disadvantage of this type Ues in the con-
striction of the waterway below the breast wall, which causes the
velocity of overfall to be continued well past the crest. With a
direct overfall, on the other hand, a depth of 7 feet for water to
chum in would be available at this point. This would check the
flow and the increased area of the waterway rendered available

TtSCO

vOloek9Zit*Thic»^

•Jk Originol ff

' .^f

, '9 ^ yi^^ j^^toa'

Fig. 96. Profile of Khanki Weir, Showing Restoration Work Similar to that of

Narora Weir

should reduce the velocity. For this reason, although the action
on the apron is possibly less, that on the talus and river bed beyond
must be greater than in the drop wall of type A.

This work, like the former, failed for want of sufficient effective*
base length, and it consequently forms a valuable object lesson.

As originally designed, no rear apron whatever, excepting a
small heap of stone behind the breast wall, was provided. The
value of X up to the termination of the grouted pitching is but 108
feet; whereas it should have been cll or 15X13 = 195 feet. The
hydraulic gradient, as shown in Fig. 96b, is only 1 in 8.3. This
neglects the small vertical component at the breast wall. In spite
of this deficiency in effective base width, the floor, owing to good
workmanship, did not give way for some years, until gradually
increased piping beneath the base caused its collapse.

DAMS AND WEIRS 171

■

Owing to the raised position of the apron, it is not subject to
high hydrostatic pressure. At its commencement it is ten feet
below the summit level and nine feet of water acts at this point.
This is met by four feet of masonry unsubmerged, of s.g. 2, which
almost balances it. Thus the apron did not blow up, as was the case
with the Narora weir, but collapsed.

Some explanation of the graphical pressure diagram is required,
as it offers some peculiarities, differing from the last examples.
The full head, or H, is 13 feet. Owing, however, to the raised and
sloping position of the apron, the base line of the pressure area will
not be horizontal and so coincide with the L. W. L., but will be an
inclined line from the commencement a to the point b, where the
sloping base coincides with the L. W. L. From b where L. W. L. is
reached onward, the base will be horizontal. With a sloping apron
the pressure is neariy uniform, the water-pressure area is not wedge
shaped but approximates to a rectangle. The apron, therefore, is
also property rectangular in profile, whereas in the overfall type
the profile is, or should be, that of a truncated wedge.

127. Restoration of Khanki Weir. After the failure of this
work the restoration was on very similar lines to that of the Narora
weir. An impervious rear apron, seventy feet long, was constructed
of puddle covered with concrete slabs, grouted in the joints. A rear
curtain wall consisting of a line of rectangular undersunk blocks
twenty feet deep, was provided. These additions have the effect
of reducing the gradient to 1 in 16.' The masonry curtain having
regard to its great cost is of doubtful utility. A further prolonga-
tion of the rear apron or else a fine of sheet piling would, it is deemed,
have been equally effective. Reinforced-concrete sheet piling is
very suitable for curtain walls in sand and is bound to supplant the
ponderous and expensive block curtain walls which form so marked
a feature in Indian works.

128. Merala Weir. Another weir on the same principle and
quite recently constructed is the Merala weir at the head of the
same historic river, the Chenab, known as the "Hydaspes" at the
time of Alexander the Great.

This weir, a section of which is given in Fig. 97, is located in the
upper reaches of the river and is subjected to very violent floods;
consequently its construction has to be abnormally strong to resist

DAMS AND WEIRS

the dynamic action of the water. This
is entirely a matter of judgment and
no definite rules can possibly be given
which would apply to different condi-
tions. From a hydrostatic point of
view the two lower hues of curtain
blocks are decidedly detrimental and
could well be cut out. If this were
done the horizontal length of travel
or percolation will come to 140. The
head is 12 or 13 feet. If the latter, »
having the value 15 as in the Khanki
weir, the value of L will be 15X13-195
feet. The horizontal length of travel
is 140 feet and the wanting 55 feet
will be just made up by the rear cur-
tain. The superfluity of the two fore
lines is thus apparent with regard to
hydrostatic requirements. The long
I impervious sloping apron is a necessity
i to prevent erosion.

It is a question whether a line of
steel interlocking sheet piling is equally
efflcient as a curtain formed of wells
of brickwork 12X8feet undersunk and
connected with piling and concrete
filling. The latter has the advantage
of solidity and weight lacking in the
former. The system of curiam walls
of undersunk blocks is peculiar to
India. In the Hindia Barrage, m
Mesopotamia, Fig. 115, interlocking
sheet piling has been largely employed
in places where well foundations would
have been used in India. This change
. is probably due to the want of skilled
weU sinkers, whoinlndia are extremely
expert and form a special caste.

DAMS AND WEIRS 173

The rear aprpn, in the Merala weir is of as solid construction
as the fore apron and is built on a slope right up to crest level; this
arrangemeiit facilitates discharge. The velocity of approach must
be very great to necessitate huge book blocks of concrete 6X6X3
feet being laid behind the slope and beyond that a 40-foot leng:th
of riprap. The fore apron extends for 93 feet beyond the crest,
twice as long as would be necessary with a weir of type A under
normal conditions. The distance L of the talus is 203 feet against
182 feet calculated from formula (35a), That of the lower weir at
Khanki is 170 feet. This shows that the empirical formula gives
a fair approximation.

The fore apron in type B will extend to the toe of the slope or
glacis. It is quite evident that the erosive action on a sloping apron
of type B is far greater than that on the horizontal floor of type A; the

Fig. 9S.' Diagram ShOHinc Effect of Peicolatioa under a Wall
BuiJt on Saod

uplift however is less, consequently the sloping apron can be made
thinner and the saving thus effected put into additional length.
129. Porous Fore Aprons, The next type of weir to be dealt
with is type C. As it involves some fresh points, an investigation
of it and the principles involved will be necessary. The previous
examples of types A and B have been eases where the weir has as
appendage an impervious fore apron which is subject to hydro-
static pressure. There is another very common type which will be
termed C, in which there is no impervious apron and the material
which composes the body of the weir is not solid masonry but a
porous mass of loose stone the only impervious parts being narrow
vertical walls. In spite of this apparent contrariety it will be
found that the same principle, viz, that of length of enforced per-
colation, influences the design in this type as in the others.

174 DAMS AND WEIRS

Fig. 98 represents a wall upholding water to its crest and resting
on a pervious substratum, as sand, gravel, or boulders, or a mixture
of all tliree materials. The hydraulic gradient is AD; the upward
pressure area ACD, and the base CD is the travel of the pereolation.
Unless this base length is equal to AC multiplied by the pereolation
factor obtained by experiment, piping .will set in and the wall be
undermined. Now as shown in Fig. 99, let a mass of loose stone
be deposited below the wall. The weight of this stone will evi-
dently have an appreciable effect in checking the disintegration and
removal of the sand foundation. The water will not have a free
untrammeled egress at D; it will, on the contrary, be compellejl to
rise in the interstices of the mass to a certain height EE determined
by the extent to which the loose stones cause obstruction to the flow.

Fig. BO. EBecl

The resulting hydraulic gradient wll now be AE — flatter than AD,
but still too steep for permanency.

In Fig. 100, the wall is shown backed by a rear apron of loose
stone, and the fore apron extended to F. The water has now to
filter through the rear apron underneath the wall and up through
the stone filling in the fore apron. During this process a certain
amount of sand will be washed up into the porous body and the
loose stone will sink until the combined stone and sand forms a
compact mass, offering a greater obstruction to the passage of the
percolating water than exists in the sand itself and possessing far
greater resisting power to disintegration. This vAW cause the level
of water at E to rise until equilibrium results. When this is the
case the hydraulic gradient is flattened to some point near F. If a
sufficiently long body is provided, the resulting gradient will be
equal to that found by experiment to produce permanent equilibrium.

DAMS AND WEIRS

The mass after the sinking process has been
finished is then made good up to the original pro-
file by fresh rock filhng. At F near the toe of

the slope the stone offers but little resistance |
either by its weight or depth; so it is evident that

the slope of the prism should be flatter than the |

hydrauhc gradient, *

The same action takes place with the rear I

apron, which soon becomes so filled with silt, as E

to be impervious or nearly so to the passage of "^

water. But unless silt is deposited in the river I

bed behind, as eventually occurs right up to crest |

level, the thin portion of the rear slope, as well as |

the similar portion of the fore slope, cannot be S

counted as effective. Consequently out of the "

whole base length this part GF, roughly, about J

onenjuarter, can be deemed inefficient as regards "3

length of enforced percolation. As the consoli- |

dated lower part of the body of the weir gains t

in consistency, it can well be subject to hydro- «

static pressure. Consequently, the value of tp of f

the mass should be in excess of that of H — k, just !|

as was the case with an impervious floor. E

130. Porous Fore Aprons Divided by Core 2

Walls. In Fig. 101 a still further development is |

effected by the introduction of vertical body or -S

core walls of masonry in the pervious mass of the a

fore apron. These impervious obstructions mate- ^

rially assist the stability of the foundation, so J

much so that the process of underscour and set- g

tlement which must precede the balancing of the sS

opposing forces in the purely loose stone mass =

need not occur at all, or to nothing like the same &
extent. If the party walls are properly spaced,

the surface slope can be that of the hydraulic -

gradient itself and thus ensure equilibrium. This S
is clearly illustrated in the diagram. The water
passing underneath the wall base CD will rise to

DAMS AND WEIRS 177

the level F, the point E being somewhat higher; similar percolation
under the other walls in the substratum will fill all the partitions full
of water. The head AC will, therefore, be split up into four steps.

Valiie of Rear Apron Very Great. The value of water tightness
in the rear apron is so marked that it should be rendered impervious
by a thick under layer of clay, and not left entirely to more or less
imperfect surface silt stanching, except possibly in the case of high
dams where a still setthng pool is formed in rear of the work.

131. Okhla and Madaya Weirs. In Fig. 102 is shown a
detailed section of the Okhla rock-filled weir over the Jumna
River, India. It is remarkable as being the first rock-filled weir
not provided with any lines of curtain walls projecting below
the base line, which has hitherto invariably been adopted. The
stability of its sand foundation is consequently entirely depend-
ent on its weight and its effective base length. As will be
seen, the section is provided with two body walls in addition to
the breast wall. The slope of the fore apron is 1 in 20. It is
believed that a slope of 1 in 15 would be equally effective, a hori-
zontal talus making up the continuation, as has been done in the
Madaya weir, Fig. 103, which is a similar work but under much
greater stress.

The head of the water in the Okhla weir is 13 feet, with shutters
up and weir body empty of water — a condition that could hardly
exist. This would require an effective base length, X, of 195 feet;
the actual is 250 feet. But, as noted previously, the end parts of
the slopes cannot be included as effective; consequently the hydraulic
gradient will not be far from 1 in 15. The weight of the stone, or
<p, exactly balances this head at the beginning, as it is 10X1.3 = 13
feet. If the water were at crest level and the weir full of water,
tp would equal 8 feet, or rather a trifle less, owing to the lower level
of the crest of the body wall. The head of 13 feet is broken up
into four steps. The first is 3 feet deep, acting on a part of the
rear apron together with 30 feet of the ^f ore apron, say, 1 in 15; the
rest are 1 in 20. A slope of 1 in 15 for the first party wall would
cut the base at a point 40 feet short of the toe. Theoretically a
fourth party wall is required at this point, but practically the rip-
rap below the third dwarf wall is so stanched with sand as not to
afford a free egress for the percolation; consequently the slope may

178

DAMS AND WEIES

,*■

it^Y

•§

•■•4

•c

d
o

be assumed to continue on to its inter^
section with the horizontal base. Asl,
already noted^ material would be saved
in the section by adopting a reliably
stanch rear apron and reducing the fore
slope to 1 in 15, with a horizontal con-
tinuation as was done in the Madaya
weir.

Economy of Type C, This type C
is only economical where stone is abun-
dant. It requires Uttle labor or masonry
work. On the other hand, the mass of
the material used is very great, much
greater, in fact, than is shown by the sec-
tion. This is owing to the constant sink-
ing and renewal of the talus which goes
on for many years after the first construc-
tion of the weir.

The action of the flood on the talus
is undoubtedly accentuated by the con-
traction of the waterway due to the high
sloping apron. The flood velocity 20 feet
below the crest has been gaged as high
as 18 feet per second. This would be
very materially reduced if the A type of
overfall were adopted, as the area of
waterway at this point would be more
than doubled.

132. Dehri Weir. Another typical
example of this class is the Dehri weir
over the Son River, Fig. 104. The value
of L, if the apexes of the two triangles of
stone filling are deducted and the jcur-
tain walls included, comes to about 12 F,
12 being adopted for this class of coarse
sand. The curtain walls, each over 12,500
feet long, must have been enormously
costly. From the experience of Okhla,

DAMS AND WEIRS 179

a contemporary work, on a much worse class

of sand, curtain protection is quite unneces-
sary if sufficient horizontal base width is

provided. The head on this weir is 10 feet,

and the height of breast wall 8 feet, tp is,

therefore, 1.3X8 = 10.1, which is sufficient,

considering that the full head will not act

here. The lines of curtains could be safely
dispensed with if the following alterations
^■ere made: (1) Rear apron to be reliably
stanched in order to throw back the incidence
of pressure and increase the effective base
length; (2) three more body walls to be intro-
duced; (3) slope 1 in 12 retained, but base to J
be dredged out toward apex to admit of no s
thickness under five feet. This probably J
would not cause any increase in the quantities ?
of masonry above what they now are, and S
would entirely obviate the construction of |
nearly five miles of undersunk curtain blocks. |

133. Laguna Weir. The Laguna weir 5
over the Colorado River, the only example of "^
type C in the United States is shown in Fig. ■|
105. Compared with other examples it might *
be considered as somewhat too wide if regard ^
is had to its low unit flood discharge, but the g
inferior quality of the sand of this river

probably renders this necessary. The body

walls are undoubtedly not sufficiently numeiv

' ous to be properly effective. The provision

of an impervious rear apron would also be .

advantageous.

134. Damietta and Rosetta Weirs. The
location of the Damietta and Rosetta subsid-
iary weirs. Fig. 106, which have been rather ^
recently erected below the old Nile barrage, g
is shown in Fig. 92. These weirs are of type |
C, but the method of construction is quite *"

DAMS AND WEIRS

novel and it is this alone that renders this
work a valuable object lesson. The deep
foundation ot the breast wall was built
without any pumping, all material having
been deposited in the water of the Nile
River. First the profile of the base was
dredged out, as shown in the section. Then
the core wall was constructed by first
depositing, in a temporary box or enclosure
secured by a few piles, loose stone from
barges floated alongside. The whole was
then grouted with cement grout, poured
through pipes let into the mass. On the
B completion of one section all the appliances
; were moved forward and another section
I built, and so on until the whole wall was
' completed. Clay was deposited at the base
' of the core wall and the profile then made
i up by loose stone filling.
» Tliis novel system of subaqueous con- ■

; stniction has pro\'ed so satisfactory that in
i many cases it is bound to supersede older
^ methods. Notwithstanding these innova-
i tions in methods of rapid construction, the
s profile of the weir itself is open to the objec-
tion of being extravagantly bulky even for
the type adopted, the base having been
dredged out so deep as to greatly increase
the mean depth of the stone filling.

It is open to question whether a row
or two rows of concrete sheet piles would
not have been just as efficacious as the deep
breast wall, and would certainly have been
much less costly. The pure cement grout-
ing was naturally expensive, but the admix-
ture of sand proved unsatisfactory as the
two materials of different specific gravity
separated and formed layers; consequently,

DAMS AND WEIRS 181

pure cement had to be used. It may be noted that the value of L
here is much less than would be expected. At Narora weir it is lie,
or 165 feet. Here, with a value of c of 18, it is but 8^c, or 150 feet,
instead of 200 feet, according to the formula. This is due to the
low flood velocity of the Nile River compared with the Ganges.

135. The Paradox of a Pervious Dam. From the conditions
prevailing in ty^ C it is clear that an impervious apron as used in
types A and B is not absolutely essential in order to secure a safe
length of travel for the percolating subcurrent. If the water is
free to rise through the riprap and at the same time the sand in the
river bed is prevented from rising with it, the practical effect is the
same as with an impervious apron. "Fountaining", as spouting
sand is technically termed, is prevented and consequently also
"piping". This latter term defines the gradual removal of sand
from beneath a foundation by the action of the percolating imder
current. Thus the apparent paradox that a length of filter bed,
although pervious, is as effective as a masonry apron would be.
The hydraulic gradient in such case will be steeper than allowable
under the latter circumstance. Filter beds are usually composed
of a thick layer of gravel and stone laid on the sand of the river
bed, the small stuff at the bottom and the larger material at the top.
The ideal type of filter is one composed of stone arranged in sizes as
above stated of a depth of 4 or 5 feet covered with heavy slabs or
book blocks of concrete; these are set with narrow open intervals
between blocks as shown in Figs. 96 and 97. Protection is thus
afforded not only against scour from above but also from uplift
underneath. Although the subcurrent of water can escape through
a filter its free exit is hindered, consequently some hydrostatic
pressure must still exist below the base, how much it is a difficult
matter to determine, and it will therefore be left out of considera-
tion. If the filter bed is property constructed its length should be
included in that of L or the length of travel. Ordinary riprap,
unless exceptionally deep, is not of much, if any, value in this
respect. The Hindia Barrage in Mesopotamia, Fig. 115, section 145, is
provided with a filter bed consisting of a thick layer of stone 65.5 feet
wide which occurs in the middle of the floor. The object of this
is to allow the escape of the subcurrent and reduce the uplift on
the dam and on that part of the floor which is impervious.

182 DAMS AND WEIRS

136. Crest Shutters. Nearly all submerged river weirs are
provided with crest shutters 3 to 6 feet deep, 6 feet being the
height adopted in the more recent works. These are generally
raised by means of a traveling crane running on rails just behind
the hinge of the gate. When the shutters are tripped they fall
over this railway. In the case of the Merala weir. Fig. 97, the
raising of the shutters is effected from a trolley running on overhead
wires strung over steel towers erected on each pier. These piers or
groins are 500 feet apart. The 6-foot shutters are 3 feet wide,
held up by hinged struts which catch on to a bolt and are easily
released by hand or by chains worked from the piers. On the
Betwa weir the shutters, also 6 feet deep, are automatic in action, '
being hinged to a tension rod at about the center of pressiu'e, con-
sequently when overtopped they turn over and fall. Not all are
hinged at the same height; they should not fall simultaneously but

ease the jflood gradually. The advantage of deep shutters is very
great as the permanent weir can be built much lower than other-
wise would be necessary, and thus offer much less obstruction to
the flood. The only drawback is that crest shutters require a resi-
dent staff of experienced men to deal with them.

The Laguna weir. Fig. 105, has no shutters. The unit flood
discharge of the Colorado is, however, small compared with that of i

the Indian rivers, being only 22 second-feet, whereas the Merala
weir discharges 150 second-feet per foot run of weir, consequently J

shutters in the former case are unnecessary.

OPEN DAMS OR BARRAGES

137. Barrage Defined. The term "open dam", or barrage,
generally designates what is in fact a regulating bridge built across
a river channel, and furnished with gates which close the spans as
required. They are partial regulators, the closure being only
effected during low water. When the river is in flood, the gates
are opened and free passage is afforded for flood water to pass, the
floor being level with the river bed. Weir scouring sluices, which
are indispensable adjuncts to weirs built over sandy rivers, belong
practically to the same category as open dams, as they are also
partial regulators, the difference being that they span only a por-
tion of the river instead of the whole, and further are subject to great

DAMS AND WEIRS 183

scouring action from the fact that when the river water is artificially
raised above its normal level by the weir, the downstream channel
is empty or nearly so.

Function of Weir Sluices. The function of weir sluices is two-
fold: First, to train the deep channel of the river, the natural
course of which is obliterated by the weir, past the canal head, and
to retain it in this position. Other^^vise, in a wide river the low
water channel might take a course parallel to the weir crest itself,
or else one distant from the canal head, and thus cause the approach
channel to become blocked with deposit.

Second, by manipulating the sluice gates, silt is allowed to
deposit in the slack water in the deep channel. The canal is thereby
preserved from silting up, and when the accumulation becomes
excessive, it can be scoured out by opening the gates.

The sill of the weir sluice is placed as low as can conveniently
be managed, being generally either at L. W. L. itself, or somewhat .
higher, its level generally corresponding with the base of the drop
or breast wall. Thus the maximum statical head to which the work
is subjected is the height of the weir crest plus that of the weir
shutters, or Hi.

The ventage provided is regulated by the low-water discharge
of the river, and should be capable of taking more than the average
dry season discharge. In one case, that of the Laguna weir, where
the river low supply is deficient, the weir sluices are designed to take
the whole ordinary discharge of the river excepting the highest
floods. This is with the object of maintaining a wide, deep channel
which may be drawn upon as a reservoir. This case is, however,
exceptional.

As the object of a weir sluice is to pass water at a high velocity
in order to scour out deposit for some distance to the rear of the
work, it is evident that the openings should be wide, with as few
obstructions as possible in the way of piers, and should be open at
the surface, the arches and platform being built clear of the flood
leA^el. Further, in order to take full advantage of the scouring
power of the current, which is at a maximum at the sluice itself,
diminishing in velocity with the distance to the rear of the work,
it is absolutely necessary not only to place the canal head as ctose
as possible to the weir sluices, but to recess the head as little

184

DAMS AND WEIRS

Scale of Feet

ZO O ZO ^^O 60 so

£:ievafions refer to beaLe^i

"^"^"^^^^

Fig. 107. Plan of Laguna Weir-Scouring Sluices

DAMS AND WEIRS 185

as practicable behind the face line of the abutment of the end
sluice vent.

With regard to canal head regulators or intakes, the regulation
effected by these is entire, not partial, so that these works are sub-
jected to a much greater statical stress than weir sluices, and conse-
quently, for convenience of manipulation, are usually designed with
narrower openings than are necessary or desirable in the latter.
The design of these works is, however, outside the scope of the
subject in hand.

138. Example of Weir Scouring Sluice. Fig. 107 is an excel-
lent example of a weir scouring sluice, that attached to the I*guna

Fie. lOS. View of Yuma Cuial and Bluioeway Showing Sluioe
Gst«B UDdcT Construction

weir, the profile of which was given in Fig. 105. The Yuma
canal intake is placed clear of the sandy bed of.the river on a rock
foundation and the sluiceway in front of it is also cut through solid
rock independent of the weir. At the end of this sluiceway and just
past the intake the weir sluices are located, consisting of three spans
of 33| feet closed by steel counterweighted roller gates which can be
hoisted clear of the flood by electrically operated winches. The
gates are clearly shown in Fig. 108, which is from a photograph
taken during the progress of the work. The bed of the sluiceway
is at El. 138.0, that of the canal intake sill is 147.0, and that of the

186 DAMS AND WEIRS

weir crest 151.0 — hence the whole sluiceway can be allowed to fill ^
up with deposit to a depth of 9 feet, without interfering with the

discharge of the canal, or if the flashboards of the intake are lowered
the sluiceway can be filled up to El. 156 which is the level of the top
of the draw gates, i.e., 18 feet deep. The difference between high

DAMS AND WEIRS

DAMS AND WEIRS 189

water above and below the sluice gates
is ] 1 feet, consequently when the gates
are lifted immense scour must take place
and any deposit be rapidly removed.
The sluiceway is in fact a large silt
trap,

139. Weir Sluices of Corbett Dam.

The weir sluices of the Corbett dam on

the Shoshone River, Wyoming, are given

in Figs. 109, 110, and 111.

I The canal takes out through a tun-

-_ nel, the head of which has necessarily to

I be recessed far behind the location of the

^ weir sluices. Unless special measures

M were adopted, the space between the

S sluice gates and the tunnel head would

u fill up with sand and deposit and block

p= the entrance.

1 To obviate this a wall 8 feet high is

2 built encircling the entrance. A "divide"
J wall is also run out upstream of the weir
I sluices, cutting them off from the weir
■| and its approaches. The space between
t these two walls forms a sluiceway which
I draws the current of the river in a low
I stage past the canal head and further
(^ forms a large silt trap which can be
" scoured out when convenient. Only a
* thin film of surface water can overflow

the long encircling wall, then it runs down
a paved warped slope which leads it into
the head gates, the heavy silt in suspen-
sion being deposited in the sluiceway.
This arrangement is admirable.

The fault of the weir sluices as built

■ is the narrowness of the openings which

' consist of three spans of 5 feet. One

span of 12 feet would be much more

190 DAMS AND WEIRS

effective. In modern Indian practice, weir sluices on large rivers
are built with 20 to 40 feet openings.

140. Weir Scouring Sluices on Sand. Weir scouring sluices
built on pure sand on as large rivers as are met with in India are
very formidable works, provided «nth long aprons and deep Bnes
of curtain blocks. An example is given in Fig. 112 of the so-termed
undersluices of the Khanki weir over the'ChenabRiverin the Pun-
jab. The spans are 20 feet, each closed by 3 draw gates, running
in parallel grooves, fitted with antifriction wheels (not rollers), lifted
by means of traveling power winches which straddle the openings
in which the grooves and gates are located.

The Merala weir sluices of the Upper Chenab canal have 8
spans of 31 feet, piers 5J feet thick, double draw gates 14 feet high.

Fig. 113, View of Merala Weir Sluli^ea, Upper Chenab Canal

These are lifted clear of the flood, which is 21 feet above floor, by
means of steel towers 20 feet high erected on each pier. These carry
the lifting apparatus and heavy counterweights. These gates, like
those at Laguna weir. Fig. 108, bear against Stoney roller frames.

Fig. 113 is from a photograph of the Merala weir sluices. The
work is a partial regulator, in that complete closure at high flood is
not attempted. The Upper Chenab canal is the largest in the world
with the sole exception of the Ibramiyah canal in Egypt, its dis-
charge being 12,000 second-feet. Its depth is 13 feet. The capacity
of the Ibramiyah was 20,000 second-feet prior to head regulation.

141. Heavy Construction a Necessity. In works of this
description solid construction is a necessity. Light reinforced con-
crete construction would not answer, as weight is required, not only

DAMS AND WEIRS 191

to withstand the hydrostatic pressure but the dynamic effects of
flood water in violent motion. Besides which widely distributed

weight is undoubtedly necessary for works built on the shifting
sand of a river bed, although this is a matter for which no definite
rules can be formed.

192 DAMS AND WEIRS

The weir sluices at Laguna and also at the Corbett dam^ are
solid concrete structures without reinforcement.

In the East, generally, reinforced concrete is not employed nor
is even cement concrete except in wet foundations, the reason
being that cement, steel, and wood for forms are very expensive
items whereas excellent natiu^al hydraulic lime is generally avail-
able, skilled and unskilled labor is also abundant. A skilled mason's
wages are about 10 to 16 cents and a laborer's 6 to 8 cents for a
12-hour day. Under such circumstances the employment of rein-
forced cement concrete is entirely confined to siphons where tension
has to be taken care of.

In America, on the other hand, the labor conditions are such
that reinforced concrete which requires only unskilled labor and is
mostly made up by machinery, is by far the most suitable form of
construction from point of view of cost as well as convenience.

This accounts for the very different appearance of irrigation
works in the East from those in the West. Both are suitable under
the different conditions that severally exist.

142. Large Open Dams across Rivers." Of open dams built
across rivers, several specimens on a large scale exist in Egypt.
These works, like weir sluices are partial regulators and allow free
passage to flood water.

Assiut Barrage. In the Assiut barrage, Figs. 114 and 115,*
constructed across the Nile above the Ibramiyah canal head
in lower Egypt, the foundations are of sand and silt of a worse
quality than is met with in the great Himalayan rivers.^ The
value of c adopted for the Nile is 18, against 15 for Himalayan rivers.
This dam holds up 5 meters of water, the head or difference of
levels being 3 meters. Having regard to uplift, the head is the
difference of levels but when considering overturning moment, on

the piers, — is the moment, H and h being the respective

6 6

depths of water above and below the gates. It is believed that in

the estimation of the length of travel the vertical sheet piling was

left out of consideration. Inspection of the section in Fig. 115

* In Figs. 1 15 and 1 16 and in the discussion of these problems in the text, the metric dimen-
mons used in the plans of the works have been retained. Meters multiplied by the factor
3.28 will give the proper values in feet.

DAMS AND WEIRS

193

shows that the foundation is
mass cement concrete, 10 feet
deep, on which platform the
superstructure is built. This
latter consists of 122 spans of 5
meters, or 16 feet, with piers 2
meters thick, every ninth being
an abutment pier 4 meters thick
and longer than the rest. This
is a work of excessive solidity
the ratio of thickness of piers
to the span being .48, a propor-
tion of .33 S would, it is con-
sidered be better. This could
u be had by increasing the spans
§ to 6 meters, or 20 feet right
g through, retaining the pier thick-
I ness as it is at present.
I 143. General Features of

° River Regulators. Alltheseriver
£ regulators are built on the same
general lines, viz, mass founda-
. ^ tions of a great depth, an arched
S highway bridge, with spring of
arch at flood level, then a gap
left for insertion of the double
grooves and gates, succeeded by
a narrow strip of arch sufficient
to carry one of the rails of the
traveling winch, the other rest-
ing on the one parapet of the
bridge.

The piers are given a bat-
ter downstream in order to bet-
ter distribute the pressure on
the foundation. The resultant
of the weight of one span com-
bined with the horizontal water

194 DAMS AND WEIRS

pressure must fall within the middle third of the base of the pier,
the length of which can be manipulated to bring this about. In
this case it does so even with increase of the span to 6 meters.
This combined work is of value considered from a military point
of view, as affording a crossing of the Nile River; consequently
the extreme solidity of its construction was probably considered a
necessity.

In some regulators girders are substituted for arches, in others
as we have noted with regard to the Merala weir sluices, the super-
structure above the flood line is open steel work of considerable
height.

144. Stability of Assiut Barrage. The hydraidic gradient in
Fig. 115, neglecting the vertical sheet piling, is drawn on the profile
and is the line AB, the horizontal distance is 43 meters while the
head is 3 meters. The slope is therefore 1 in 14 J. The uplift is
the area enclosed between AB and a horizontal through B which is
only 1.4 meters at its deepest part near the gates. Upstream of
the gates the uplift is more than balanced by the weight of water
overlying the floor. The horizontal travel of the percolation is from
A to B plus the length of the filter as explained in section 135.

The horizontal travel is therefore 51 1 meters and the ratio -ry, or

.51.5
c, is —^ = 17.2. The piezometric line has also been shown, includ-
o

ing in this case the two vertical obstructions. Their effect on the

uplift is very slight, owing to the fore curtain which raises the grade

Kne. The slope in this case is obtained by adding the vertical to

the horizontal travel, i.e., from B to D, BC and CD being 8 meters

each in length, AD is then the hydraulic gradient which is 1 in 23.

Steps occur at points b and c; for instance the line AB is part of

AD, the line be is parallel to AD drawn up from C, and the line

cB is similarly drawn up from B forming the end step.

This work is the first to be built with a filter downstream,

which has the practical effect of adding to the length of percolation

travel irrespective of the hydraulic grade.

145. The Hindia Barrage. The Hindia barrage, quite recently
erected over the Euphrates River near Bagdad, is given in Fig. 116.
This work, which was designed by Sir William Willocks, bears a

DAMS AND WEIRS

195

pcou

> U

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close resemblance to
the Egyptian regu-
lators, viz, the Assiut,
the Zifta, and other
works constructed
across the river Nile.
The piers are reduced
to 1.50 meters from
the 2-meters thick-
ness in the Assiut
dam, Fig. 115, and
there are no abut-
ment piers, conse-
quently the elevation
presents a much
lighter appearance.
The ratio of thick-
ness to span is .3.
In order to reduce
the head on the work,
a filter bed 20 meters
wide is introduced
just beyond the plat-
form of the founda-
tion of the regulat-
ing bridge. The
upward pressure is
thus presumed to be
nil at the point D.
The head is the dis-
tance between the
summer supply level
upst(|am, and that
downstream above
the subsidiary weir,
this amounts to 3.50
meters. The length
of compidsory travel

196 DAMS AND WEIRS

from A to B including .50 meter due to the sheet pihng is 36.50

36 5
meters. AB is then the hydraulic gradient, which is 1 in -^r^

o.o

= 1 in 10.4. The piezometric line DFC is drawn up from D parallel
ixy AB. The area of upUft is DGHEF; that part of the uplift
below the line DE is however accounted for by assuming all
masonry situated below EL 27.50 as reduced in weight by jflota-
tion, lea\dng the area DEF as representing the uplift still unac-
counted for.

Beyond the filter is a 21-meter length of impervious apron con-
sisting of clay puddle covered by stone paving, which abuts on a
masonry subsidiary weir. This wall holds the water up one meter
in depth and so reduces the head to that extent, with the fiui;her
addition of the depth of film passing over the crest at low water
which is .5 meter, total reduction 1.50 meters.

This is the first instance of the use of puddle in a fore apron,
or talus; its object is, by the introduction of an impervious rear
apron 21 meters long, to prevent the subsidiary weir wall from being
imdermined. The head being 1| meters, the length of travel
required, taking c as 18, will be 18X1.5 = 27 meters. The actual
length of travel provided is vertical 15, horizontal 41, total 56
meters, more than double what is strictly requisite. The long
hearth of solid masonry which is located below the subsidiary drop
wall is for the purpose of withstanding scour caused by the over-
fall. Beyond this is the talus of riprap 20 meters wide and a row
of sheet piling. The total length of the floor of this work is 364
feet, with three rows of sheet piles. That of the A^siut barrage
is 216 feet with two rows of sheeting. The difference in head is
half a meter only, so that certain unknown conditions of flood or
that of the material in the bed must exist to account for the excess.

146. American vs. Indian Treatment. In American regulat-
ing works it is generally the fashion where entire closure is required
to locate the draw gates and their grooves inside the panel or bidk-
head wall that closes the upper part of the regulator above the
sluice openings. Thus when the gates are raised they are concealed
behind the panel walls. In Indian practice the gate grooves in the
piers are generally located outside the bulkhead wall; thus when
hoisted, the gates are visible and accessible. Fig. 117 is from a

DAMS AND WEIRS 197

photograph of a branch head, illustrating this. The work is of
reinforced concrete as can be told from the thinness of the piers.
In an Indian work of similar character the pier noses would project
well bejond the face wall of the regulator and the gates would be
raised in front, not behind it.

The use of double gates is universal in Eastern irrigation works;
they have the following unquestionable advantages over a single
gate: First, less power for each is required to lift two gates than
one; second, when hoisted they can be stacked side by side and so
the pier can be reduced in height; third, where sand or silt is in
suspension, surface water can be tapped by leaving the lower leaf
down while the upper is raised; find fourth, regulation is made easier.

Fig. 117. Typical American Regulating Sluices in Reiaforced-
Concrete Weir

In the Khanki weir sluices, Fig. 112, 3 jrutcs running in 3 grooves
are employed.

147. Length of Spans. In designing open dams the spans
should be made as large as convenient, the tendency in modern
design is to increase the spans to 30 feet or more; the Laguna weir
sluices are SSg feet wide and the Merala 31 feet. The thickness of
the piers is a matter of judgment and is best expressed as some
function of the span, the depth of water by which the height of the
piers is regulated, forms another factor.

The depth of water upheld regulates the thickness more than
the length. The length should be so adjusted that the resultant
line of pressure combined of the weight of one pier and arch, or
superstructure and of the water pressure acting on one span falls
within the middle third of the base.

198 DAMS AND WEIRS

For example take the Assiut regulator, Fig. 115. The con-
tents of one pier and span allowing for uplift is roughly 390 cubic
meters of masonry, an equivalent to 1000 tons. The incidence of
W is about 2 meters from the middle third downstream boundary.

The moment of the weight about this point is therefore 1000 X
2=2000 meter tons. Let H be depth of water upstream, and h

downstream, then the overturning moment is expressed by ^^

Here H = 5,h = 2 meters, ti? = l.l tons per cubic meter, the length I

of one span is 7 meters; then the moment =^^ '■ = 150

meter tons. The moment of resistance is therefore immensely in excess

of the moment of water pressure. The height of the pier is however

governed by the high flood level, the width by the necessity of a

highway bridge. At full flood nearly the whole of the pier will be

immersed in water and so lose weight. There is probably some

intermediate stage when the water pressure will be greater than

that estimated, as would be the case if the gates were left closed

while the water topped them by several feet, the water downstream

not having had time to rise to correspond.

\4S. Moments for Hindia Barrage. In the case of the Hindia

barrage. Fig. 116, H = 5 meters, A = 1.5, then

The weight of one span is estimated at 180 tons. Its moment
about the toe of the base is about 180X6.5 = 1170 meter tons.

The factor of safety against overturning is therefore -rT^=8.

145

The long base of these piers is required for the purpose of
distributing the load over as wide an area as possible in order to
reduce the unit pressure to about one long ton per square foot.
This is also partly the object of the deep mass foundation. The
same result could doubtless be attained with much less material by
adopting a thin floor say tw o or three feet thick, reinforced by steel
rods so as to ensure the distribution of the weight of the super-
structure evenly over the whole base. It seems to the writer that
the Assiut barrage with its mass foundation having been a success

DAMS AND WEIRS

200

DAMS AND WEIRS

TABLE II
Pier Thickness — Suitable for Open Partial Regulators and Weir Sluices

SPAN

DEPTHS OF WATER

15FBBT

20Fi;et

25 Feet

SOFrkt

10 feet
15 feet
20 feet

25 feet

.25
.24
.23
.21

2.5
3.6
4.6 !
5.3 1

.27
.26
.25
.-24

2.7
3.9
5.0
6.0

.29
.28
.27
.26

2.9
4.2
5.4
6.5.

.31
.30
.29

.28

3.1
4.5

5.8
7.0

M is multiplier of span for thickness T,

as regards stability, is no reason why a heavy style of construction
such as this should be perpetuated.

149.. North Mon Canal. In Fig. 118 is shown the head works
of the Mon right canal in Burma. The weir is of type A, with crest
shutters and sluices of large span controlled by draw gates. In the
canal head, the gates are recessed behind the face wall as in American
practice.

150. Thickness of Piers. Table II, though purely empirical
will form a useful guide of thickness of piers in open dams or partial
regulators.

If reinforced, very considerable reduction can be made in the
thickness of piers, say §, but for this class of river work a heavy
structure is obligatory.

151. Advantages of Open Dams. Open dams have the follow-
ing advantages over solid weirs, or combinations of solid and over-
fall dams: First, the river bed is not interfered with and conse-
quently the heading up and scour is only that due to the obstruction
of the piers, which is inconsiderable. This points to the value of
wide spans. Second, the "river low" supply is under complete
control. Third, a highway bridge across the river always forms
part of the structure which in most countries is a valuable asset.

Open dams, on the other hand, are not suitable for torrential
rivers as the Himalayan rivers near their points of debouchure
from the mountains, or wherever. such detritus as trees, logs, etc.,
are carried down in flood time.

DAMS AND WEIRS 201

152. Upper Coleroon Regulator. Fig. 119 is from a photo-
graph of a regulating bridge on the upper Coleroon River in the
Madras Presidency, southern India. Originally a weir of type A was
constructed at this site in conjunction with a bridge. The constric-
tion of the discharge due to the drop wall, which was six feet high,
and the piers of the bridge, caused a very high afflux and great scour
on the talus. Eventually the drop wall was cleared away altogether,
the bridge piers were lengthened upstream and fitted with grooves
and steel towers, and eounterweighted draw gates some 7 feet deep

Fie. 119' View of Reculatiug Biidie an the Upper Coteroon River, Southern India

took the place of the drop wall. In the flood season the gates can
be raised up to the level of the bridge parapet quite clear of the
flood. The work was thus changed from one of a weir of type A,
to an open dam. The ori^nal weir and bridge were constructed
about half a century ago.

153. St. Andrew's Rapids Dam. Another class of semi-open
dam consists of a permanent low floor or dwarf weir built across
the river bed which is generally of rock, and the temporary dam-
ming up of the water is effected by movable hinged standards being
lowered from the deck of an overbridge, which standards support

DAMS AND WEIRS

DAMS AND WEIRS 203

either a rolled reticulated curtain let down to cover them or else a
steel sliding shutter mounted on rollers.

The St. Andrew's Rapids dam, Fig. 120, a quite recent construc-
tion, may be cited as an example. The object of the dam is to raise
the water in the Red River, Manitoba, to enable steamboats to navi-
gate the river from Winnipeg City to the lake of that name. To
effect this the water level at the rapids has to be raised 20 feet
above L. W. L. and at the same time, on account of the accumu-
lation of ice brought down by the river, a clear passage is a necessity.
The Red River rises in the South, in the State of North Dakota
where the thaw sets in much earlier than at Lake Winnipeg, con-
sequently freshets bring down masses of ice when the river and lake
are both frozen.

Cam6r6 Type of Dam. The dam is of the type known as the
Cam6r6 curtain dam, the closure being effected by a reticulated
wooden curtain, which is rolled up and down the vertical frames
thereby opening or closing the vents. It is a French invention,
having been first constructed on the Seine. The principle of this
movable dam consists in a large span girder bridge, from which
vertical hinged supports carrying the curtain frames are let drop
on to a low weir. When not required for use these vertical girders
are hauled up into a horizontal position below the girder bridge and
fastened there. In fact, the principle is very much like that of a
needle dam. The river is 800 feet wide, and the bridge is of six
spans of 138 feet.

The bridge is composed of three trusses, two of which are free
from internal cross-bracing, and carry tram lines with all the work-
ing apparatus of several sets of winches and hoists for manipulating
the vertical girders and the curtain; the third truss is mainly to
strengthen the bridge laterally, and to carry the hinged ends of the
vertical girders.

It will be understood that the surface exposed to wind pressure
is exceptionally great, so that the cross-bracing is absolutely essen-
tial, as is also the lateral support afforded by a heavy projection of
the pier itself above floor level.

In the cross-section it will be seen that there is a footbridge
opening in the pier. This footbridge will carry winches for wind-
ing and unwinding the curtains, and is formed by projections thrown

204 DAMS AND WEIRS

out at the rear of each group of frames. It will afford through
communication by a tramway. The curtains can be detached
altogether from the frames and housed in a chamber in the pier
clear of the floodline.

The lower part of the work con^sts of a submerged wmr of
solid construction which runs right across the river; its crest la 7
feet 6 inches above L. W. L. at El. 689.50. The top of the curtains
to which water is upheld is El. 703.6, or 14 feet higher. The dam
actually holds up 31 feet of water above the bed of the river.

5i* £ir¥afi«^- Secli<^ Half nsnt Serofi'on

Fig. 121. Lauchli AuMmatic Sluice Gate

This system is open to the following objections: Plrst, the
immense expense involved in a triple row of steel girders of large
span carrying the curtains and their apparatus; and second, the
large surface exposure to wind which must always be a menace to
the safety of the curtains.

It is believed that the raising of the water level could be effected
for a quarter of the cost if not much less, by adopting a combination
of the system used in the Folsam weir, Fig. 50, with that in the
Dhukwa weir, Fig. 52, viz, hinged collapsible gates which could be
pushed up or lowered by hydraulic jacks as required. The existing
lower part of the dam could be utilized and a" subway constructed

DAMS AND WEIRS 205

through it for cross communication and accommodation (or the
pressure pipes, as is the case in the Dhukwa weir. This arrange-
ment which is quite feasible would, it is deemed, be an improvement
on the expensive, complicated, and slow, CamSrfe curtain system.

154. Automatic Dam or Regulator. Mr. Lauchh of New York,
writing for Engineering News, describes a new design for automatic
regulators, as follows:

In Europe there haa been in operation for some time a type of automatic
dam or sluice gate which on account of ita simplicity of conatruction, adapt-

ability to existing etructuies, exact mathematical treatment, and especially
its euecessful operation, deserves to attract the attention of the hydrauhe engineer
connected with the design of hydroelectric plants or irrigation works. Fig.
121 shows a cross-section and front elevation of one of the above-mentioned
dams now in course of construction, and the view in Fig. 122 gives an idea of
a small automatic dam of the same type which has been in successful operation
for several seasons, including a severe winter, and during high spring floods.

Briefly stated, the automatic dam is composed of a movable part or
panel, resting at the bottom on a knife edge, and fastened at the top to a com-
pensating roller made of steel plate and filled with concrete. This roller moves
along a track located at each of its ends, and is so designed as to take, at any
height of water upstream, a position such as will give the apron the inclination
necessary for discharging a known amount of water, and in so doing will keep
the upper pool at a constant fixed elevation.

With the roller at its highest position the panel lies horizontally, and
the full section is then available for discharging water. Any debris, such as

206 DAMS AND WEIRS

trees, or ice cakes, etc., will pass over the dam without any difficulty, even
during excessive floods, as the compensating roller is located high above extreme
flood level.

The dam now in course of construction is located on the river Grafenauer
Ohe, in Bavaria, and will regulate the water level at the intake of a paper mill,
located at some distance from the power house. The dam has a panel 24.27
ft. long, 6.85 ft. high, and during normal water level will discharge 1400 cu. ft.
per sec., while at flood time it will pass 3,530 cu. ft. per sec. of water. As shown
in Fig. 121, the main body of the dam is made of a wooden plank construction
laid on a steel frame. The panel is connected with the compensating roller
at each end by a flexible steel cable wound around the roller end, and then
fastened at the upper part of the roller track to an eyebolt. A simple form of
roof construction protects the roller track from rain and snow. The panel
is made watertight at each extremity by means of galvanized sheet iron held
tight against the abutments by water pressure. This type of construction has
so far proved to be very effective as to watertightness.

It may be needless to point out that this type of dam can also be fitted
to the crest of overflow dam of ordinary cross-section, and then fulfill the duty
of movable flashboards.

The probability is that this type will become largely used in
the future. A suggested improvement would be to abolish the cross
roller having instead separate rollers on each pier or abutment,
working independently. There will then be no practical limit to
the span adopted.

INDEX

PAGE
A

Aprons .

decrease uplift, rear aprons 71

fore, base of dam and , 98

hearth and anchored _ 150

porous fore . 173, 175

rear . 159, 161

riprap to protect - _ 164

sloping 169

uplift, affect _ 70

Arched dams 101

characteristics 101

crest width ^ 104

examples 104

Barossa 111

Bear Valley 104

Burrin Juick subsidiary ^ 112

Lithgow 112

Pathfinder 104

Shoshone 107

Sweetwater 109

profiles 103

correct 103

theoretical and practical 102

variable radii, with 112

vertical water loads, support of :. 104

Arrow Rock dam 1 67

Assiut barrage 192, 194

Automatic dam or regulator 205

Barossa dam 111

Barrages _ 182

Bassano dam __ 146

Bear Valley dam _ 104

Burrin Juick subsidiary dam 112

C
Castlewood weir. _ 96

Damietta and Kosetta weirs 179

Dams and weirs 1

INDEX

PAQB

Dams and weirs — continued

arched 101

deiinit ion _ 1

gravity ..._ 2

grtfvity overfall 75

hollow slab buttress 136

multiple arch or hollow arch buttress 113

open dams or barrages 182

submerged weirs founded on sand 151

Dehri weir _ 178

Dhukwa weir -. _ 90

E
Ellsworth dam 136

F
Folsani weir __ 85

Granite Reef weir 92

Gravity dams 2

design 4

analytical method 18, 34, 43

broken line profiles, treatment for 41

calculation, method of 11

crest, high and wide 13

crest width _- 9

failure by sUding or shear, security against 31

graphical method 16

Haessler's method 1 36, 42

height, variation of 13

influence lines - 31

maximum stress, formulas for 27

elementary profile, application to 28

limiting height by 29

pressure area in inclined back dam, modified equivalent ._ 37

pressure distribution 23, 25, 26

pressure limit, maximum 27

pressures in figures, actual 34

profile, practical 8

profile, theoretical 4

profiles, curved back 39

rear widening 10

shear and tension, internal 30

stepped polygon , 37

vertical component 22

discussion 2

graphical calculations 2

"middle third" and limiting stress 3

pressure of water on wall 2

INDEX

Gravity dams — continued
discussion

stress limit, compressive 4

examples 53

Arrow Rock 1 — 67

Assuan _ 59

Burrin Juick 65

Cheeseman Lake 53

Cross River and Ashokan 65

New Croton _., 58

Roosevelt -- 56

foundations, special _-^ 69

aprons affect uplift 70

aprons decrease uplift, rear 71

ice pressure, gravity dam reinforced against 73

rock below gravel *. 72

"high" 43

base of dam, silt against 50

partial overfall 52

pentagonal profile to be widened 47

pressure, iqe 51

toe of dam, filling against 50

Gravity overfall dams or weirs 75

American dams on pervious foundations 97

analytical method 88

base width, approximate , 77

, characteristics 75

crest width, approximate : 77

depth of overfall, calculation of _ 82

examples 83

Castlewood 96

Dhukwa . 90

Folsam 1 85

Granite Reef .-___.. 92

Mariquina 92

Nira 95

"Ogee"._ 85

St. Maurice River 99

fore apron, base of dam and 98

graphical process 78

hydraulic conditions 93

pressure, moments of 81

water level, pressiu'es affected by 79

Guayabal dam 141

Haessler's method 36, 42

Hindia barrage 194, 198

Hollow slab buttress dam 136

INDEX

PAGX

Hollow slab buttress dam — continued

description _..' 136

examples 146

Bassano 146

Ellsworth .--^ 136

Guayabal 141

fore slope, steel in 139

foundation foredeck, pressure on 149

baffles-. - 150

buttresses ,. 150

hearth or anchored apron : 150

reinforced concrete, formulas for 137

slab deck compared with arch deck 140

K
Khanki weir - 171

Laguna weir 179

Lithgow dam 112

Mariquina weir 92

Merala weir 171

Mir Alam dam. _ 114

Multiple arch or hollow arch buttress dams 113

arch, crest width of 125

arches, differential 126

design _ 122

examples

Belubula 118

Big Bear VaUey 131

Mir Alam 114

Ogden 120

inclination of arch to vertical 119

pressure

flood 129

foundation, on - 125

water, reverse 124

stresses -1 117

value , 113

N .

Narora weir ,__ 167

Nira weir: 95

INDEX

PAGB

*'Ogee" gravity overfall dam. _ 85

Okhlaand Madaya weirs 177

Open dams or barrages . 182

advantages 200

American vs. Indian treatment 196

automatic 205

Corbett dam, weir sluices of __ _ 189

definition _ _ 182

examples _

Assiut _-. 192,194

Hindia. _ 194,198

North Mon _ 200

Upper Coleroon 201

St. Andrew's Rapids 201

Cam€r6type _ 203

heavy construction _ 190

moments for Hindia barrage _ _ 1 198

piers, thickness of _. 200

regulator, Upper Coleroon _ 201

river regulators, features of 193

rivers, across 192

spans, length of 197

weir scouring sluice, example of 185

weir scouring sluice on sand - 190

P
Pathfinder dam __ 104

St. Andrew's Rapids dam i 201

Shoshone dam ._ 107

Stepped polygon _ 37

Submerged weirs on sand __ 151

apron, rear — __ 159, 161

computations, simplif3ring 156

crest shutters _ . _ 182

description _ _ 151

examples __

Damiettaand Rosetta 179

Dehri.. 178

Khanki 171

Laguna _ 179

Merala .__ _ 1___ 171

Narora _. 167

Okhla and Madaya 177

fore aprons, porous _ _ __ 173

core walls, divided by_ . 175

INDEX

PAQE

Submerged weirs on sand — continued

hydraulic flow, laws of 152

percolation

coefficient of 153

beneath dam 152

values of coefficient of 155

vertical obstruction to 159

pervious dam, paradox of a __ 181

riprap 164

safety, criterion for 154

sloping apron 169

stability, governing factor for 153

Sweetwater dam 109

Tables

pier thickness 200

values of Li or talus width 163

• U

Upper Coleroon regulator 201

(

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