87&-
H4-
UC-NRLF
HE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL
Including a General Accoun of the Educational
System of Denmark
By MARTIN HEGLAND, M.A.
C aduate Scholar and Foreign ResearcK t Kolar,
Teachers College, 1911-1912
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Require-
ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in
the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University
NEW YORK CITY
1916
EXCHANGE
THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL
Including a General Account of the Educational
System of Denmark
By MARTIN HEGLAND, M.A.
Graduate Scholar and Foreign Research Scholar,
Teachers College. 1911-1912
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Require-
ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in
the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University
US 13c.K.^. oild, Bu//.//-.^^,/f/^
NEW YORK CITY
1916
Uft876
H 4
CONTENTS.
Page.
Letter of transmittal 5
Prefatory note 6
Paet I. The Educational System of Denmark.
Chapter I. — Historical development 7
II. — Organization and administration of education 19
III. — Elementary education 29
IV. — Secondary education 53
V. — University and vocational education 64
Paet II. The Danish People's High School.
VI. — Origin of the people's high schools 73
VII. — Growth of the people's high school 84
VIII.— The schools and their life ; 99
IX, — Aims, curricula, and methods 113
X. — Influence and results 129
XI. — People's high schools in other countries 142
XII. — Conclusion 154
Appendix A. — Statistical tables 167
B.— Bibliography 172
Index 181
3
333570
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Education,
Washington^ Septemher 23, 1915.
Sir: The folk high schools of Denmark and other Scandinavian
countries are so unique and contain so much of interest to all who are
concerned in the preparation of young men and women for higher
and better living and for more efficient citizenship that, although
two or three former bulletins of this bureau have been devoted to a
description of these schools and their work, I recommend that the
manuscript transmitted herewith be published as a bulletin of the
Bureau of Education for the purpose of giving a still more com-
prehensive account of the subject. Those who read this and the
former bulletins referred to will have a fairly complete account, not
only of these schools, but also of the whole system of rural education
of which these schools are an important part.
Respectfully submitted.
P. P. Claxton,
C onmiissioner.
The Secretary of the Interior.
5
PREFATORY NOTE
For the sake of reference, the following facts relating to Denmark
are stated here:
Area. — 16,042 square miles. This is very nearly equal to the com-
bined areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey, or to one-fifth the area
of Minnesota.
Population {1906). — ^2,588,919. This is almost identically equal to
the population of New tlersey (1910) and is about half a million
greater than the population of Minnesota (1910).
The monetary unit is the krone^ equal to about 27 cents of Ameri-
can money. The ore is one one-hundredth part of a krone.
The Danish foot equals 12.35 inches; the Danish mile equals 4
English miles ; and the Danish pound equals 1.1 poimds avoirdupois.
6
THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL
PART I. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
Chapter I.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.
An early culture. — Runic inscriptions bear evidence of a culture in
the Old Norse world extending as far back as 500 A. D.^ The very
existence of these inscriptions suggests practices of a distinctively
educational nature — a supposition that is abundantly borne out by
the contents of the folk songs and saga literature of this early period.
From this material it is possible to gain a fairly definite idea of the
status of education among these people of the north before the intro-
duction of Christianity.^
Educational practices. — The child's early training was received at
the hands of his mother. Her supervision was mild. The child was
given large freedom in his play and activity, and very early was left
to solve his own problems. Thus began that training in individual
initiative which produced the viking who boldly set forth upon the
seas in the quest of new lands and adventures.
When the boy was old enough to be removed from the immediate
care of his mother, his training was either continued in the home or
given over to a foster father.' Many well-to-do people chose the
latter course for various reasons.^ If he remained at home, the
many slaves and servants, hoping for favors from the future master,
might spoil the child by overindulgence. Furthermore, the removal
of the boy from immediate parental supervision would tend to de-
velop individuality in thought and action. The foster father was
chosen with great care, the selection being made from among such
wise men as possessed the requisite knowledge for a leader or chief-
tain. These men were found chiefly among the district rulers, who
were also priests. Serving in such double capacity, they were in-
itiated into the civil laws as well as the religious teachings of the
1 Ottosen, Nordens Historic, p. 6.
"Worm, Forsog til en Skolehistorie, p. 345.
■ Lagerstedt, Svenska Uppfostringsvasendets Historia, p. 6.
8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
community. These men were frequently also historians and poets.^
The relationship between a foster father and child was exceedingly
intimate and loving. Between children fostered in the same home
there was also formed a close bond of friendship, which sometimes
ripened into love, as so beautifully pictured by Tegner, in his poetic
version of Fritjof's Saga. Often, too, there was established between
men fostered together the institution of " foster brotherhood," a
brotherhood of arms. If a child was brought up in the home, his
training was intrusted to some particular liberated slave, who might
frequently be a captive from some foreign country and a person of
considerable culture. Such a person would usually devote himself
heartily to the child intrusted to his special care, a devotion which
was generally rewarded in kind by the ward.
Aim of Old Norse education. — The aim of Old Norse education
for the boy was manliness, which was conceived as physical and
intellectual vigor, courage, complete self-possession in the most criti-
cal situation, large-mindedness, generosity, and above all utter dis-
regard of death.^ These qualities the chieftains sought to develop
by all manner of strong incentives, even resorting to abusive words
to stimulate the boy to manly deeds. The training was, of course,
obtained largely through imitation, seeing and doing the things that
parents and elders did. In this way they became proficient in vari-
ous peaceful and warlike exercises. The boys matured at a very
young age, many a chieftain's son going to war at the age of 12.
While the education was thus prevailing!}^ moral, its method being
activity, and action its culmination, it nevertheless possessed a con-
siderable intellectual content. Knowledge of the religion, laws, his-
tory, and poetical literature of the people was considered essential
to the equipment of a leader. Composition of impromptu poetry
was a favorite diversion of chieftains around the festive board,
while the writing of history and poetry was a recognized profession.
The transfer of this intellectual heritage and the training of the
boy in manly qualities and deeds constituted the special office of the
foster father or special guardian. Thus the education of leaders in
this early period had become a conscious process, and although there
were no schools or teachers in the modern professional sense, it may
be said that there had been developed a special teaching function.
The education of the boy was completed by military campaigns and
excursions, by travel and residence abroad.
Young men of the northern nobility frequently spent much time at court, at
home and abroad, in Scandinavia, Greece, Russia, England, France, Scotland,
and acquired thus a knowledge of the world, higher training, and fine manners,
as well as honor, riches, and influential connections."
1 Hertzberg, Opdragelsens og Skolens Historic, p.
» Lagerstedt, op. cit., p. 6.
14.
HISTOKICAL DEVELOPMENT. 9
The education of girls seems to have been less specialized. At an
early age they engaged in the industries of the home — sewing, em-
broidery, spinning, and weaving. They participated in various
amusements and mingled freely with the people at festivals and pub-
lic meetings. Their intellectual training was not entirely neglected,
however, for women busied themselves also with poetry. But chiefly
by work, play, and free activity were trained the mothers of a
sturdy race.
The Middle Ages. — With the introduction of Christianity schools
were immediately established. The first Christian school is re-
ported to have been erected in the beginning of the ninth century
by the Apostle of the North, St. Ansgar, " for 12 young children
whom he, together with his assistants, instructed in Christian learn-
ing."^ Throughout Europe during this period there were three
chief types of schools — monastic, cathedral, and burgher schools.
Monastic schools were kept by the monks and consisted of two divi-
sions, an interior school for novices who were to become monks and
an exterior department for the boys of the community who desired
an education chiefly for secular purposes. The studies pursued were
religion, reading, writing, singing, and the subjects of the trivium
and quadrivium. For the novices there was, in addition, instruction
in the rules of the order and some of the principles of canonical
law. Cathedral schools were established in connection with the
cathedral chapters and were training schools chiefly for the priest-
hood.
The schools were in charge of a master, scholasticus^ and gave
instruction in the most necessary subjects, such as reading — especially
the Bible — writing, singing, Latin, the church fathers, canonical law,
and the duties of the priestly office. These schools, though degen-
erating to low standards in the later Middle Ages, were attended
by large numbers of students, the school at Roskilde being reported
to have had 900 students and the one at Ribe 700.^ Neither of the
above types of schools met the demands of the citizen classes, who
felt a growing need of education for the performance of their various
pursuits. The citizens therefore began to establish schools on their
own account. In addition to religion, instruction was given in read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, a little history, geography, and sometimes
also German. Such schools under various names — burgher, Danish,
German, or writing schools — seem to have been established before the
Reformation in all leading commercial towns.^
Elementary education was least well provided for. There were
no common schools, in the modern sense. Provision was made, how-
1 Worm, op. clt., p. 346.
»Idem, p. 362.
• Ottosen, Vor Folkeskoles Oprindelse eg Udvikling, p. 8.
10 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
ever, for instruction by the parish priest in the elements of the
Christian religion. This consisted of memorizing the Lord's Prayer,
the Apostolic Creed, Ave Maria, and, in the latter Middle Ages, per-
haps the ten commandments. Children were to commit these ele-
ments to memory between their seventh and fourteenth years, after
which they were subject to fines if they did not know them when
tested at confession.
Facilities for university education were provided in the north when
the University of Upsala, in Sweden, was founded in 1477 and that
of Copenhagen in 1478. Previously, and for a long time afterwards,
students who desired advanced training went abroad, the Universities
of Paris, Bologna, Orleans, Oxford, Lowen, and Rostock drawing
the largest numbers.
Educational plan of Reformation. — The Reformation was intro-
duced into Denmark by act of Parliament in 1536, and a church
ordinance of 1539, formulated by Bugenhagen, regulated ecclesias-
tical and educational affairs. The King became head of the church,
and under him were ordained seven superintendents, who were,
however, popularly called bishops. The monasteries were dissolved
and their properties and incomes were devoted to the support of
Latin schools and the university. The cathedral schools were trans-
formed into Latin schools by the guidance of Melanchthon's school
plan for Saxony. These Latin schools continued to be training schools
for the ministry until 1629, when a theological examination requiring
university study was introduced for candidates for the ministry
and for teachers in the higher classes of the Latin schools. Further-
more, the above-mentioned church ordinance required that there
should be one Latin school in every provincial city. The old mon-
astery schools were partly dissolved and partly transformed into
Latin schools of the new type. Later, schools were founded by the
King. Their function was to equip for secular as well as for
clerical life.
Ultimately there developed two fairly definite types of " learned "
or Latin schools, higher schools in the larger cities and lower schools
in the smaller towns. These latter became essentially preparatory
to the former. The higher schools became training institutions for
the office-holding class, which included, of course, the ministry. The
administration of a higher school was in the hands of a head master
or rector. He was assisted by four or five " hearers," and the schools
were divided into classes, ranging in number from four to seven.
Needy students in the upper class were given the office of parish
clerks in the surrounding parishes and received the income attached
to those offices. The curriculum of these schools consisted of religion
and Latin. Students in the upper class who were able to read and
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 11
write Latin well were permitted to study a little Greek, but not to
the neglect of Latin. The mother tongue was not only neglected,
but students were severely punished if they by chance spoke Danish.
Contemporaries complain of the fruitlessness of the instruction and
of the inhuman discipline maintained.
The lower Latin schools in the smaller towns had only three or
four classes and one or two teachers besides the head master. In
addition to their chief function of preparing for the higher schools,
they served as a sort of burgher school. To be sure the chief element
in the curriculum was Latin, but at that time knowledge of this
language was necessary for any person who wished to be deemed
cultured. The other subjects of instruction were religion, writing,
and singing.
Both these types of schools were placed under the supervision of
the clergy, and their development was much emphasized. For their
benefit the existing Danish, German, or citizen schools were to be
discontinued, so that there would be only one school in each city.
While the church ordinance of 1539 abolished the above-mentioned
private schools, it provided that the Government should erect " writ-
ing schools for boys and girls and others who are not capable of
learning Latin." The rationale of abolishing existing schools and
immediately erecting new ones of about the same function was evi-
dently to establish a system of public rather than private schools, for
the new schools were to be erected by the Government. The Govern-
ment must have taken the matter lightly, however, for no public
schools, other than Latin schools, were established for a long time
to come.^
The ordinance of 1539 makes no mention of rural schools. This
was evidently not to be thought of. That every father should be a
teacher of his own household, however, was an idea much encouraged.
In addition to such home instruction, the ordinance provided that
" The parish clerk shall instruct the young peasants in the catechism
once a week at such time and place as the parish pastor may pre-
scribe." 2 In 1555 a resolution was adopted by the college of bishops
to the following effect:
Every parish clerk in a rural town shall, in the days of the three great
church festivals, repair to other rural towns,' and there in a citizen's house
call together the young people, instruct and hear them in the catechism, suit-
ably encourage them, sing a hymn with them, and let them afterwards play
decorously in the street.*
The obligation was also placed upon the pastors, in addition to
the sermon proper, " each Sunday and in each church to explain a
1 Ottosen, op. cit., p. 11.
« Quoted by Ottosen, ibid., p. 12.
» Where there was no church.
* Quoted by Ottosen, ibid., p. 13.
12 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
portion of the Christian elements — for example, a commandment,
an article of faith, a prayer, etc. — and continue this constantly, so
that when they had reached the end of the catechism they should
begin again from the beginning." ^ Such was the educational plan
of the Reformation in Denmark.
Development of elementary education. — The period immediately
following the Reformation was marked by a live interest in educa-
tion, which manifested itself especially in the instruction in the
homes. When the language of the religious services was changed
from Latin to Danish, the desire to read instead of merely commit-
ting to memory something read for them stimulated instruction in
reading. Soon there were whole communities, especially in Jutland,
where nearly every person could read. Whether this work of instruc-
tion was at first 'entirely a family affair or a cooperative effort of
several families involving the hiring of a teacher is not clear. It
does appear, however, that by the time of Christian IV (1588-1648)
schools had been established by such private initiative, and were
pointed to by the King as examples worthy of emulation by other
communities.^ Efforts at popular enlightenment continued to be
made also by the kings and clergy. King Christian IV labored for
a more thorough training of ministers and the appointment of capa-
ble parish clerks. He regarded the chief function of these latter
officials to be the instruction of the young, and this duty he urged
uponthem conscientiously to perform. A significant ruling of 1645 pre-
scribed that no young man or woman could become betrothed or mar-
ried before he or she was found well versed in the Christian elements.^
But great obstacles were encountered. There was such a lack of
pastors that it was necessary to combine many parishes into one
charge, the manifold duties of which made it practically impossible
for pastors to do much in the way of instructing the young. Further,
many of them lacked the necessary qualifications for the work.
The same discrepancies existed in the case of parish clerks. The
income and honors attached to these latter offices were so small as to
fail to attract capable men. The result was that the offices were
generally filled by men who already held other positions, by students
in the upper class of the Latin schools, or by men who had failed
in their examinations. It is small wonder that complaints of their
inefficiency and laziness were general and bitter. Added to these
difficulties was the unwillingness of many parents to have their chil-
dren instructed. They were threatened with increasingly severe
punishments if they failed to send their children for instruction.
This fact indicates perhaps a falling off of interest on the part of
i-Quoted by Ottosen, Ibid., p. 13.
» Ottosen, op. cit., p. 15.
* Hertzberg, op. cit., p. 58.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 18
the people fully as much as a heightening of the ideals of bishop and
pastor. When the religious life, which had been stirred by the
Reformation, fell back into formalism, the desire for reading the
Bible also waned, and with it interest in education. Some educa-
tional advance was made by the Danish law of Christian V (1683).
This law prescribes that only such students as were certificated by the
bishops should be appointed parish clerks, and they must not hold
any other office. Thus was legally abolished also the practice of fill-
ing the clerks' offices with students in the Latin schools. This prac-
tice, which had grown hateful to the people, continued, however, for
many years in certain localities. It was further provided by law
that the parish clerks should give instruction in the catechism on one
week day in addition to Sunday. For this purpose the clerks kept
ambulatory school in homes centrally located at various points in the
parishes.
Influence of pietism. — The pietistic movement, furthered by
Francke and Spener in Germany, exerted a tremendous influence
upon the Danes. So lifeless and formal had religious life become
that this movement from the south was felt as a refreshing breeze.
Especially the clergy were stirred, and in order that the young might
be instructed in vital Christianity, they stimulated a marked revival
of interest in education. In Copenhagen two pastors, Thestrup and
Worm, were so active in their efforts for enlightenment that they suc-
ceeded in having free schools established for the poor in their par-
ishes in the first decade of the eighteenth century. Subsequently,
similar schools were established in the other three parishes of the
city. The schools were supported by free-will contributions. In-
struction was given in religion, Danish, writing, and arithmetic.
The girls received instruction also in sewing and spinning. These
schools formed the foundation for the present public-school system
of Copenhagen. Also other cities established free schools for the
poor at this time.^
The greatest contribution to education during this period, how-
ever, was made directly by King Frederick TV (1699-1730) . Within
six years' time he built 240 substantial schools, many of which still
stand. He accompanied his building ventures with specific instruc-
tions regarding the conduct of the schools. Teachers were to be
nominated and certificated by the local pastors and appointed by the
county chairman. The schools, which were for both boys and girls,
whether rich or poor, were to be kept six days in the week, and
parents punished if they did not send their children. Instruction in
the most elementary subjects was free, but tuition might be charged
1 Ottosen, op. cit., p. 27.
14 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
for instruction in special or advanced subjects. In general the
teachers' cash salaries were paid by the King, and the salaries in kind
by the local communities, a certain levy being made on each unit
of land.
Frederick IV died before the fruits of his efforts were evident, but
his work was continued with great zeal by his son and successor,
Christian VI (1730-1746). He introduced, in 1736, the institution
of confirmation for the young at the age of 14 or 15. Before they
could be confirmed, however, they must be instructed in a consider-
able body of knowledge. The plan met with much opposition from
the people. They themselves had had no such extended instruction,
and they thought it a hardship that it should be required of their
children. The King and most of the clergy remained firm, however,
and as the instruction the pastor could give in the limited time at
his disposal was insufficient to meet the standard established, there
came about a feeling of a real need for schools. This was the very
thing the King desired, for thus the ground was prepared for his
plan of a common-school system for the entire country.
E stahlishment of a State system. — The 240 schools erected by
Frederick IV were built upon the lands devoted to the support of the
army and directly subject to the Crown. His educational work was
therefore in a sense of an individual nature. His son. Christian VI,
however, extended the idea and conceived a national system of edu-
cation. To prepare for the establishment of such a system a commis-
sion was appointed to learn the status of education in the country
and to submit plans. On the basis of its report there was enacted
the " Ordinance of 1739, concerning schools in rural districts," which
remained practically unchanged until 1814. This law laid down the
following principles, which have ever since been followed in Danish
education : (1) Every parish is in duty bound to establish and main-
tain schools. (2) Children are in duty bound to receive instruc-
tion during a certain period of their lives. If this is not otherwise
provided for, they are to be instructed in the public schools. (3)
The school is confessional, i. e., an Evangelical Lutheran parish
school.
The instruction in Christianity, which had previously been a
function of the church and given by its officers, was now delegated
to a separate institution, the school, which, therefore, received its
own professional staff. Schools were to be of two kinds — stationary
where the population was sufficiently dense, and ambulatory in the
more sparsely populated areas. The parish clerks were' to keep
school, but as their number was far too limited, there were to be
appointed in addition as many persons to keep school as the bishops
HISTOEICAL DEVELOPMENT. 15
deemed necessary. All children between the ages of 7 and 10 or 12
were to attend school every day that school was kept in the com-
munity, and neglect of parents in sending children to school could
be punished even by a prison sentence. Instruction embraced religion
and reading for all. Writing and arithmetic were taught to such as
paid a special fee. It soon appeared, liowever, that the law was far
ahead of its time. The chief difficulties encountered in putting it into
practice were the incapacity and unwillingness, or both, of the
public to support the schools and the lack of qualified teachers.
After the death of Christian VI the attitude of the Central Gov-
ernment toward education became less firm, and the provisions of
the law were not carried out in full. Christian VI had been suc-
cessful, however, in establishing the principle that education is a
function not only of the home and church, but also of the State.
On this foundation the Government continued to build.^
Inftuence of EnlightenTnent and naturalism. — The influence of
eighteenth century educational thought took definite form in Den-
mark in the erection of training schools where teachers might be
made acquainted with the new ideas of enlightenment and naturalism,
and thus be equipped to train up " a new, better, and happier genera-
tion " The first teachers' training school within the then-existing
bounds of Denmark was established in 1781, at Kiel. In 1789 there
was appointed by Christian VII the " Great School Commmission,"
to prepare a new plan for the school system of the country. The
first problem to which the commission devoted itself was the train-
ing of teachers, and in 1791 there was established under its super-
vision the Blaagaard Normal School in Copenhagen. The influence
of the Enlightenment is plainly evident in the curriculum of Blaa-
gaard. The instruction embraced —
the theoretical and practical teachings of the Christian religion, with proofs
from the Scriptures and reason, Bible study, catechization, history, geography,
mother tongue, nature study, physics, logic, laws and ordinances, writing,
arithmetic, geometry, German, music. Later were added anthropology, agri-
culture, horticulture, household sciences, industries and gymnastics.*
This formidable program was the model on which other schools
were built, but their histories were comparatively brief. The spirit
of the Enlightenment, however, operated powerfully in the work of
the Great Commission, whose plan, after having been tried out in
practice and modified by criticism, was enacted into law in 1814.
This law made possible the enforcement of compulsory education,
placed the burden of support upon the local communities, fixed the
salaries of teachers, and provided for a small pension. The subjects
of instruction were to be religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, sing-
1 Based chiefly on Hertzberg, op. cit., p. 73flf.
2 Quoted by Hertzberg, op. cit., p. 108.
3334°— 15 2
16 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAEK.
ing, gymnastics for the boys, and, when possible, a little history and
geography.
The poor economic and social conditions of Denmark during the
first part of the nineteenth century and diminution of interest in
enlightenment made the enforcement of the law very difficult. Con-
sequently, salaries and equipment became meager and the instruction
very inferior. The systems of Lancaster and Bell were seized upon
in many places as a means of general education at a low cost and
as a result the instruction became very formal and mechanical.
Recent reforms. — After 1830 educational interest took an upward
trend. The psychological tendency was making itself felt. Teachers
formed associations, issued educational journals, and held meetings
for the discussion of educational problems; and progress was made
in many directions. A distinctly Danish contribution to educational
thought and practice was made at this time by Bishop Grundtvig
and somewhat later by Kristen Kold. Both of these men are of
special interest in connection with the history of people's high
schools, but their agitation for a more free and spiritual instruction
also exerted a tremendous influence on elementary education.
The granting of general suffrage by the Danish free constitution in
1848 and the increasing prosperity of the country further stimulated
interest in education, but progress was delayed for a time by a sharp
conflict in Parliament over the question of centralization.^ The re-
sults of reform and discussion were embodied in the school law of
1856, which, among other things, improved salaries, gave to local
communities the right to nominate teachers, and required the State
to assume a small part of school expenses.
Legally and administratively reforms continued to be made in the
supply, training, certification, and salaries of teachers, extension of
the curriculum, and methods of instruction. In the sixties local
communities were given more power in regard to their school affairs
and the interest of the people increased. Serious defects, especially
in the matter of low salaries, were existent, however, and in response
to the growing appreciation of modern educational needs a series of
laws in 1899, 1903, and 1904 placed elementary education on its pres-
ent footing, the exposition of which will be undertaken in another
chapter.
Secondary education since the Reformation. — Having thus traced
briefly the development of elementary education from the Reforma-
tion up to the present time, it is in order to glance at the history of
secondary schools which took its course more or less independently of
elementary education during this period. The influence of Comenius
and realism were but slightly felt in Denmark and the Latin schools
1 Larsen, Folkeskolen in Danmarks Skolevaesen, p. 31.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 17
continued supreme in the field of secondary education. The higher
Latin schools gradually became preparatory to university study, in-
stead of training directly for the ministry. In smaller towns where
the Latin schools were but poorly attended, efforts were made to sub-
stitute Danish schools where children might be instructed in the
Christian elements, arithmetic, writing, bookkeeping, and seaman-
ship, but the efforts were without avail. Nor did the eighteenth
century witness any essential changes in secondary schools. The
ordinance of 1739 prescribed that the mother tongue should be given
more attention and textbooks should be written in Danish, but the
law remained virtually a dead letter. A number of the smaller
Latin schools were, however, transformed into Danish schools.
It was noU before the first decade of the nineteenth century that
any essential reform in secondary education took place. This con-
sisted in a betterment of finances, buildings, and salaries. The mother
tongue and modern languages — French and German — together with
some science, were given a place in the curriculum. The old sub-
jects, however, maintained their claims to a position of the first rank,
and as teachers were lacking in ability to handle the new subjects,
difficulties were at once encountered. The first half of the century
is thus marked by a struggle between the old and the new. There
were complaints of overcrowded curricula, and efforts at remedies
were made, the development moving along the same lines as in Ger-
many. Gradually, however, more independence in reforms became
evident.^ By 1871 the Latin school had been divided into two lines,
the linguistic-historical and the mathematical-scientific, both pre-
paring for the university. By 1881 there had been worked out a Real
school of four years, preparing for practical life, with a leaving ex-
amination at the age of 15 or 16. Latin was still considered essential
for anyone contemplating university study, and four years of it were
required even in the mathematical-scientific course of the Latin
school. The Real school, with four years, continued practically un-
changed until replaced by the new system introduced by the law of
1903. The new system recognizes the growing appreciation of the
educational value of modern languages and literatures by giving
them a large place in the curriculum.
Another large element in the reform of 1903 was the desire for a
unified school system embracing a continuous course of instruction
from the primary grade to the university. Previously elementary
and secondary education were distinct and parallel from the bottom
up. A child began his career in the one or the other, the choice
usually depending upon the social position of his parents. The new
* Linderstrom-Lang, Drenge-og Faellesskoler in Danmarks Skolevaesen, p. 7.
18 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK.
system provides for the education of all children together during the
first five years of school life, regardless of the social position of the
parents or the future career of the child. This is accomplished by
superimposing on the fifth year of the elementary school a system of
secondary education which provides a four-year middle school, fol-
lowed by a Real course of one year or a Gymnasium course of three
years.
Secondary education of girls. — The record of higher education for
girls does not go back more than 150 years in Denmark, and during
the eighteenth century such schools are known only by the criticism
directed against them.^ The Enlightenment, however, included also
women in its program, and in 1787 was issued by Emmanuel Balling
a " Plan for a Real School for Our Daughters." This plan indicates
a high ideal of womanhood, and proposes an extensive educational
program for girls. A few excellent schools were established, but
most of them were short lived. The conditions of the early nine-
teenth century in Denmark were not conducive to large or persistent
effort in behalf of women's education.
Gradually, however, as the new ideas of women's capacities and
work gained ground, a persistent demand for suitable educational
facilities for girls made itself felt. The person who did most to
advance the cause of girls' higher education in Denmark was Miss
N. Zahle, who, as the head of a large renowned girls' school in Copen-
hagen, is said to have created the modern girls' school. She was the
first to prepare girls for the teacher's, examination when they were
admitted to it in 1860, for the preliminary Real examination, which
girls were permitted to take for the first time in 1882, and finally was
the first to prepare girls for the university, when she felt that the
time was ripe for such a step. A large number of excellent private
girls' schools were built in the latter half of the nineteenth centur}^,
and the quality of girls' higher education came to be regarded as
being on a par with that for men. By the law of 1903 coeducation
was introduced into the State schools and has become very general
also in the communal secondary schools which have recently sprung
up in the cities and towns. Girls and boys are thus given equal op-
portunities for secondary education, and the number of women en-
tering the university is steadily increasing.
During the last two decades there has been manifest in Denmark
a wonderful educational activity. Old forms and institutions have
been subjected to criticisms and analysis, reforms have been under-
taken to perfect the instruments in use, curricula have been enriched
and modernized, the aids to instruction have been multiplied, supple-
mentary types of education have been introduced, a variety of voca-
1 Lang, Den hoiere Pigeskole in Danmarks SUolevaesen, p. 19.
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 19
tional schools has come into being to meet the new conditions, teach-
ers' associations have been active in spreading professional literature
and stimulating educational thought, and school people in general
have displayed an eager desire to acquire and test the best educa-
tional ideas, whether domestic or foreign.
Chapter II.
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDU-
CATION.
The system — Terms de-fined. — Primary, secondary, and university
education in Denmark is now organized into a State system, with
continuity from the bottom up. The figure given on page 21 may
serve to make the system clear to the reader and help to define
the three degrees of education as they apply to Denmark. As the
figure indicates, the system is built upon a substructure of elementary
education. Theoretically, at least, all children receive the same edu-
cation during the first five years of their school life. Then occurs a
parting of the ways. Those children who are to receive secondary
education enter at this point into the middle school, while those
whose life career does not embrace secondary education continue for
two or three years in the elementary school, usually until confirma-
tion, at 14 or 15 years of age. The term elementary education is
therefore used in this study to cover the instruction given to all
children during the first five years of school life and the further cul-
tural instruction given to those children who do not enter the sec-
ondary schools. The term will thus include also continuation schools.
Secondary education, as stated, begins at the end of the fifth year
of school work, normally when the child is 11 years of age. It em-
braces first the middle school of four years, ages 11 to 15. Many
children go no further. A continuation may be made, however, in
the one-year Real course or in the three-year Gymnasium which
offers three courses: Classical, modern language, and mathematical-
scientific. The term secondary education thus embraces instruction
given 'in these three types of schools, middle school. Real course, and
Gymnasium. The people's high schools, which constitute the special
subject of this study, are somewhat difficult to classify. They are not
a part of the formal organization of secondary education, but in
their cultural purpose and in the content of their curricula they
classify more properly under secondary than under any of the other
degrees of education.
The Gymnasium prepares for the university, which is a profes-
sional school. To be sure, the first year in the university is devoted
20 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
to an introductory study of psychology and the history of philosophy,
but thereafter the student pursues studies under the faculties of
theology, law, medicine, philosophy, or science, with a view to his
vocational equipment.
Administration — The ministry, — As education in Denmark is or-
ganized into a State system, it is also administered as such. Mat-
ters of fundamental importance constitute subjects for legislation
by Parliament. Matters of lesser range, though still weighty, may
be covered by royal resolution. The King also participates to a small
extent in the administration of the schools, notably by appointing
head teachers and principals on the recommendation of the ministry.
The immediate administration of educational affairs, however, is in
the hands of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruc-
tion. Denmark has a form of State church (Folkekirke) — the Evan-
gelical Lutheran — the administration of which is combined with that
of education under one head, as the title of the ministry indicates.
The minister is appointed by the King and has a seat in the cabinet,
together with the eight other ministers.
Educationally, it is the function of the ministry to issue adminis-
trative directions of a general nature pertaining to education, such
as announcements, circulars, regulations, and instructions, provided,
however, that the matter in question is not a subject for royal reso-
lution.^ The ministry also acts as a court of last resort in all the
more important matters pertaining to education, and, in general,
exercises supervision over the organization and state of the instruc-
tion in all the public schools in the country, both elementary and
advanced.
Division of work. — The educational work of the ministry is divided
between two departments, each with its department chief and assist-
ants. Under the first of these departments classify matters pertain-
ing to elementary education, normal schools. State teachers' college,
people's high schools, schools of domestic science, school libraries,
stipends for foreign study, Danish school museum, orphan homes,
and schools for defectives. The other department has to do chiefly
with secondary and higher schools, the university, polytechnical in-
stitute, schools of pharmacy and dentistry, the Royal Archives, Royal
Library, Royal Theater, Royal Academy of Fine Arts, scientific and
fine arts collections, grants to science and arts, and stipends to stu-
dents at the university and abroad.^
Advisers and inspectors. — In the administration of educational
affairs the ministry is further assisted by several permanent advisers
1 For the material in this and the following chapter the author has drawn freely upon
the work by Henrik Lehmann, Haandbog i Lovgivningen om den Danske Folkeskole. It
is an excellent compilation of legal and administrative measures relating to elementary
education In Denmark and has proved a source book of the highest value.
2 Hof-og Stats Kalender, 1912.
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION.
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22 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE DENMARK.
and inspectors. There is a counselor in matters pertaining to ele-
mentary education, whose function it is to pass judgment on ques-
tions submitted to him by the ministry, submit plans for improve-
ments in the school system, and judge of the serviceableness of school
materials. Further, the counselor assists the ministry in his inspec-
tion of the normal schools. Another counselor gives advice in mat-
ters pertaining to libraries.
There are four inspectors of special subjects, who report to the
ministry concerning the work of the schools in their respective sub-
jects and express opinions on questions submitted to them by the
ministry. Of these, three are inspectors, respectively, of music, gym-
nastics, and sloyd for elementary, secondary, and normal schools. A
fourth inspects drawing in State and private normal schools and
technical schools. There are, furthermore, an inspector of complete
secondary schools, one for middle and Keal schools, and one for
people's high schools, agricultural schools, and schools of domestic
science.
The accompanying table aims to give a comprehensive view of the
civil and ecclesiastical divisions of Denmark, together with the educa-
tional boards.
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OP EDUCATION.
23
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24- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
Civil and ecclesiastical divisions. — The smallest civil unit is the
commune. Of these there are three kinds: (1) Copenhagen (popu-
lation, 426,000) is in a class by itself, enjoying self-government in a
high degree. (2) Provincial cities (Kobsteder) are those centers of
population, usually the larger, which enjoy a city form of govern-
ment. There are 12 with a population of over 10,000; 25 with be-
tween 4,000 and 10,000; and 37 below 1,000. (3) Rural communes;
in these there are many villages which are of considerable size, but
are not incorporated as distinct governmental units.
The rural communes are combined to form the next larger civil
units {Herreder) which, for want of a better term, w^e may call town-
ships. These together with the cities again form the amter or coun-
ties, the largest civil subdivisions of the county.
Largely parallel with these divisions are the ecclesiastical units.
In large city communes there may be several parishes. In the rural
districts, however, the parish usually coincides territorially with the
commune as does the next larger ecclesiastical unit, the deanery,
with the township. There the parallelism stops ; the next and largest
ecclesiastical subdivision, the bishopric, comprises several counties
and corresponds to no civil unit.
Each subdivision has its administrative head, and some of the
civil units have governing boards, as the table indicates. The table
also shows the position of educational boards, whose composition and
functions will be discussed hereafter. Several of the civil and ecclesi-
astical officers and civil boards act also in an educational capacity,
supplementing the work of educational authorities proper, wherefore
a consideration of their functions in so far as they relate to educa-
tion must be included in the presentation.
Bishops. — In addition to their ecclesiastical functions, it is the
duty of bishops to keep closely in touch with all the elementary
schools within their respective bishoprics, inspect them by personal
visits, and receive reports from the school boards and school com-
missions. As a part of th«ir inspections, which occur about every
other year, the bishops examine the pupils to determine how they
have been instructed, endeavor in general to learn how the teachers
do their work, and give needed guidance as well as censure neglect
of duty. They report to the ministry. The bishop has, furthermore,
the right to ap]3oint teachers to certain positions formerly held by
parish clerks and issue to all teachers in public schools hollats^ which
is a document certifying that the teacher has been regularly ap-
pointed to office and recommending him to the good will of the resi-
dents of his school district. Finally, by royal resolution of 1903,
the inspection of teachers' training in the State normal schools is
made a duty of the respective bishops in whose territory the schools
are located.
^H boai
OEGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 25
ounty school hoards. — The county school board is a composite
board for each county, made up of the members of the several district
school boards within the county. Its chief function is, in conjunction
with the county school council, to administer the county school fund.
It meets at least once each year for the purpose of preparing the
school budget for the coming fiscal year.
County school council. — We have referred previously to the county
school council. This board is made up of the members of the county
civil council and, in addition, of certain members elected by the pro-
vincial cities within the county. The number of elective members
must bear the same relation to the number of members in the county
civil council as the population of the city bears to the rural popula-
tion of the county. The participation of this body in fixing the
school budget has been mentioned. It furthermore administers the
capital of the school fund, and no money may be expended from this
without the sanction of the council.
Requests from school districts for building loans are submitted
to the ministry through the county school council, and in the event
of requiring a community to make alterations in its school build-
ings action is not taken by the ministry without an opinion from
this council. It keeps a list of teachers employed in the county,
with their periods of service, fixes widows' pensions, and by the
consent of the ministry may appropriate financial aid to certain
teachers and widows who are not entitled to pension.
District school hoard. — As appears from the table, there is a
school board for each of the 73 ecclesiastical divisions of the country,
deaneries, composed of (1) the county chairman, who is thus a member
of the several boards within his county; (2) the dean; and (3) a
third member elected by the county school council, within or outside
of their own number, usually for a period of three years. The
district boards serve as a medium between the ministry and the local
authorities. Communications from the ministry to the local authori-
ties, as well as from the latter to the ministry, pass through the dis-
trict school board, who are thus enabled to add such comments as
may be desired. The boards are usually the final authority in ap-
proving school programs. They approve plans and specifications
for erection or remodeling of school buildings coming within the
limits of the law, and such approval is necessary. They normally
elect permanent teachers in the common schools, and the election of
temporary teachers must have their approval. They exercise super-
vision over the schools within their respective districts and are
invested with authority over the schools and teachers. The dean,
as a member of the board, personally inspects the schools and reports
thereon to the ministry. It is his duty to observe tjaat laws and
26 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
regulations are enforced, such as the employment of an additional
teacher when the number of pupils exceeds the legal limit, and the
imposing and collection of fines for illegal absences. The boards
report to the ministry.
Local civil council. — The local civil council, both in the provincial
cities- and in rural communities, administers the finances of the local
schools, and no economic question, such as that of salaries, can be
decided without the action of the council. It has charge of the
erection and maintenance of school buildings, enforces compulsory
attendance laws, imposes and collects fines for their violation, sanc-
tions the continuance of a child in school beyond the compulsory
age, and decides, with reference to the furnishing of school mate-
rials, whether or not a child's parents shall be deemed poor. The
local council furthermore nominates teachers, with the advice of the
school commission, and fills temporary vacancies. It participates
in mapping out school programs and courses of study and approves
choice of textbooks.
In cities the councils usually delegate various duties to standing
and special committees, while in rural communities the councils may
delegate particular duties to individual members, but may give no
general authority to act on behalf of the council.
School commission. — The immediate supervision of the schools and
the work of teachers is in the hands of a local school commission,
whose composition appears from the table. If the commission has
four elective members, two of these shall be fathers or widows with
children of school age. No other women are eligible to membership.
In rural districts the pastor is chairman, and the .commission meets
at his call or that of a majority of the members. In cities the chair-
man is elected, and the commission meets at his call or that of a
pastor. The duties of the commission are much the same in rural
and city districts. Its members may visit the schools personally.
In the rural districts, universally, and to some extent in the smaller
cities, the inspection is performed by the clerical member of the
commission. During visits in the schools the inspector, by listening
to the instruction, talking with children and otherwise, is to gain
an insight into the professional work of the teachers and condition
of the schools generally, to observe that laws and regulations are
enforced, and the program of studies carried out. The chairman of
the commission has the right to require the pupils examined in his
presence in any subject desired, and he may himself put questions to
individual pupils. If the commission finds anything to criticize, this
is brought to the attention of the teacher concerned and possibly
communicated to the local civil council or district board. The com-
mission is the authority nearest to the teacher, possesses the right
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 27
discipline, and issues testimonials regarding the work of teachers.
The supervision extends also to private schools. In these as well
as in public schools the commission holds and chooses censors for the
required school examinations.
The commission initiates improvements in the schools by making
recommendations to the local civil council or the district school
board and makes recommendations to the local council as to choice of
textbooks and supply of school materials. It furthermore partici-
pates in arranging school programs and courses of study, and its
members have a seat, though without a vote, in the meeting of the
local civil council, in which teachers are nominated or temporary
vacancies filled. It is the duty of the commission also to observe that
the attendance laws are enforced, that pupils are vaccinated, and
regulate with medical assistance the attendance of children suffering
from contagious diseases. Annually, as soon as possible after the
close of the calendar year, the commission submits its report on the
condition of its schools to the district school board.
Participation of teachers in administration. — In cities the teachers
in each school constitute a teachers' council, of which the head
teacher or principal is chairman. In case of several schools a joint
council is formed, presided over by the superintendent. The council
meets at least twice a year, and otherwise as often as its chairman or
the school commission finds it necessary. In rural districts there is no
corresponding council, but the permanent teachers, individually or
collectively, may give their opinion on certain questions. To the
teachers' council are submitted all questions relating to the instruc-
tion in the particular school, daily life of the school, vacations,
course of study, time table, procuring of new materials, promotions,
departmental or class teacher systems, expansion of a school by addi-
tion of middle or Real school, erection of new buildings, alteration
of districts, new teaching positions, granting of free places, rewards,
additions to libraries, and some other minor matters.
The purely administrative routine in each school is in the hands
of the teacher or of the head teacher or principal. The principal
supervises all the activities of his school. In his relation to the
teachers' work he observes that the instruction begins and ends at
the proper time, that the teachers carry out the course of study
prescribed, for which purpose he may visit classes. He is n )t
considered an authority over the teachers. This rests with the com-
mission, but in most cities the commission has delegated to princi-
pals certain powers with regard to the teachers, which give them a
position of very considerable authority. The principal also super-
vises the conduct of the pupils, arranges with teachers to supervise
playgrounds during recesses ; he oversees the caretaking of buildings,
28 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAEK.
grounds, and equipment; enrolls, assigns to classes, and discharges
pupils; keeps the records for the school as a whole, and prepares the
required reports. He procures substitutes in case of teachers' tem-
porary absence, submits to the commission recommendations as to
examinations, transfers, school programs, vacations, and, if required,
submits estimates for the school budget. He may also be delegated
by the ministry to inspect the private schools in his city.
In the larger cities with several schools there are appointed school
superintendents, whose duties are specified and approved by the
ministry. To such officer the commission delegates a very large part
of its functions, notably as to leadership of the school system and
supervision of teachers, and his position is thus much like that of an
American city superintendent.
Administration of schools in Copenhagen. — Educationally as well
as politically the capital city enjoys self-government in a much larger
degree than other cities. It is governed by a board of 42 citizen
representatives elected by the people, a president appointed by the
King, and four city department heads elected by the board of repre-
sentatives. The president and the department heads constitute the
magistracy. The highest educational authority is the board of educa-
tion, of three members — the president of the city government, that
division head under which schools classify, and a resident dean or
pastor appointed by the ministry.
The leadership of the school system is assigned to a superintendent,
who is the executive officer of the board and has a seat in that body,
though without a vote. He is nominated by the magistracy, elected
by the board of representatives, and his election is approved by
the King. The superintendent is assisted by two vice superin-
tendents, one of whom inspects communal secondary and all private
schools, which have not the right to hold secondary examinations.
Private schools, both in and out of Copenhagen which have this
privilege are under the immediate supervision of the ministry. The
other vice superintendent inspects the public elementary schools.
There are furthermore special inspectors of gymnastics, drawing,
music, needlework, and school kitchens. The principal of each school
is its executive head, and he is also the professional leader and
supervisor of his teachers. Complaints are heard, however, that
clerical duties are too numerous to permit of sufficient attention to the
latter function. Efforts are made to remedy this difficulty by the
appointment of a man and woman to serve as vice principals. These
are found in nearly all schools, and assist the principal with routine
and clerical duties, as well as officiate in his absence.
Proposed modiiications. — Thus in brief is the manner in which the
Danish school system at present is administered. A bill providing
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 29
for a considerable readjustment of the administration and supervi-
sion of elementary education has been up for consideration in Par-
liament. One feature of the bill looks to a reduction of ecclesiastical
control and inspection and the substitution of professional super-
vision. Late reports indicate that the bill has not yet been enacted
into law, although sentiment favoring a change obtains generally
among educational leaders.
Chapter III.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.
De-pnition. — In the legal and narrow sense the elementary schools
of Denmark {Folheskole) include the public communal schools in
which children of school age receive such specified instruction
as the laws make obligatory for every child. The term " elementary
education," as used in this study, has previously been defined as em-
bracing the instruction given in the first five years of school life to
all children and the further cultural instruction given those who
after five years of schooling do not enter a secondary school. In this
broad sense the term will include both public and private schools;
but ordinarily it will have reference to the elementary education
given in the public schools.
Gompulsory education. — From 7 to 14 years of age every child in
Denmark must receive instruction in public or private schools or in
the home. If a child is defective, so as not to profit by the ordinary
form of instruction, his training is legally provided for in suitable
institutions. That the compulsory-education laws are efficiently en-
forced is evident from the fact that of every 1,000 children of school
age in 1909 the number not receiving instruction was a fraction less
than 4.^ In Copenhagen alone the number was a fraction more than
4.^ And the absence of these 4 may be accounted for by various
causes, such as not yet enrolled, continued illness, or mental defects.
It may be of interest to note a little more particularly the means
employed to produce this result. Responsibility for keeping children
in school is placed primarily upon parents and guardians, who, as
will appear, may be called to account for neglects. The school cen-
sus, which gives so much trouble in American cities, with their
shifting population, is kept rigorously up to date. In the cities re-
sponsibility for it rests upon the city council, it being obtained and
checked up in connection with a general population census or by
special enumerators. In the rural districts it is the duty of the
teacher or the head teacher to keep the census up to date, and the
iDan. Stat, FolkeskoleA'aesenet, 1909, p. 82.
•Annual School Report, 1910, p. 16.
30 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP DENMARK.
school commission is instructed to see that this is done and that no
name is legally stricken from the lists.
But the State goes further and places upon parents and guardians
the duty of reporting to the local civil council the removal of a
child from one district and its arrival in another. Failure to do this
incurs a penalty of from 66 ore ^ to 4 kroner ^ a week. Furthermore,
the name of a removed child must not be stricken from the census in
the district where he has attended until satisfactory evidence is at
hand to show that the child is in attendance elsewhere and his name
entered on the census there. Failure to make such a report within a
reasonable time incurs a penalty in the district from which the child
has been removed, even if meantime he has actually been in attend-
ance elsewhere.
It is obligatory upon every child enrolled in public schools to at-
tend every day that school is in session. The laws fix the minimum
amount of schooling a year for each pupil at 41 weeks of 18 hours in
the rural districts and 21 hours in the cities. Ordinarily the only
valid excuses are illness of children, contagious disease in family, bad
weather, impassable roads, and attendance upon confirmation classes.
Absence without valid excuse incurs automatically a penalty of 12
ore for each day within a month. If illegal absence occurs in more
than one month within a half year, the fine is automatically doubled
for each succeeding month, but not to exceed 1 krone per day. Not
later than the 5th of every other month the teachers must submit to
the local council lists of absences, both excused and unexcused, occur-
ring in the two previous months, with alleged reasons for absence.
By the 15th of the month the lists must be considered in a meeting of
the local council and penalties imposed as per legal requirements.
The council has the right to refrain from imposing penalties in
certain cases where humanitarian or like interests dictate it. Fines
are then collected, if necessary, by compulsory measures. Failing
collection, a term in prison may be imposed, the length of which cor-
responds to the amount of the fine. A copy of the lists, with infor-
mation as to penalties imposed, must then be sent to the district
school board, in order that this body may know how the laws are
being enforced in each locality, and possibly modify the actions of
the local council.
School districts. — In rural sections the school district may comprise
a whole commune, a part of one, two, or more. In 1901 there were
3,224 rural districts.^ Their size is determined by two considera-
tions— the number of children within its limits, and the distance
from the schoolhouse. The. average size of rural districts is 12
square kilometers, and the average distance from center to outside
1 See Prefatory Note.
a Dan. Stat. Folkeskolevsesenet, 1901, pp. 96-99.
ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION". 31
IS 2 kilometers. It is obligatory upon the communes to keep the
roads passable at all times of the year. Cities constitute single dis-
[tricts, there being 75 of these in the whole country.
Grounds and buildings. — Danish school sites are generally high
and open, with ample supply of light and air. In rural districts and
villages school grounds are generous, and 25 per cent of the schools
have their own or rented gymnasia.^ Practically every city school
has its own gymnasium, while a none too large paved court yard,
around which the buildings are grouped, constitutes the open-air
plaj^grounds.
A regulation one-room school must have at least 5,000 cubic feet
of air space, the minimum height from floor to ceiling being 10 feet.
City schools generally surpass the minimum requirements.
Jacketed stoves are the ordinary means of heating, though central
heating is being introduced, especially in new buildings in cities,
together with central ventilation systems. Facilities for ventilation
are inadequate in many buildings, but school people are awake to
the situation and improvements are on the program.
Danish school people, generally speaking, do not seem to have
awakened to a feeling of any need for extended blackboard space.
A beginning toward larger facilities, especially for the lower grades,
is being made, however, in some new buildings and model schools.
Desks and seats, usually for two pupils, are built together on a mov-
able frame which, by means of a platform, raises the feet about 4 or
6 inches above the floor. Whether intended or not, this would seem
to afford excellent protection for the feet against the cold air along
the floor.
In some schools slippers are furnished free for the use of those
children who wear w^ooden shoes, and their use is then compulsory ,
upon those children who do not furnish their own. The provision
is a very wise one, protecting as it does the health of children., clean-
liness of schoolrooms, and perhaps not least the teachers' nerves. It
is curious to see the slippers or the wooden shoes, as the case may be,
ranged in rows on little shelves in cloak rooms or hallways.
A striking and pleasing feature of nearly all Danish schoolrooms
is the abundance of excellent prints which adorn the walls. Archi- /
tecture, sculpture, and painting, both ancient and modern, are repre-
sented, especially in the upper grades and in secondary schools.
Responsibility for keeping the school buildings and equipment
clean rests upon the local civil council. The regulations in regard
to the hygiene of school buildings are detailed and excellent.
Kinds of schools. — Within each rural district there is either one
school with pupils of all ages or a head school for the older children,
iKmidsen, Gymnastikens Tilstand, 1910, p. 25.
3334"— 15 3
32 THE EDUCATIOl^rAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK.
ages 11 to 14, and one or more preparatory schools for the younger
children from 6 to 10 years of age. Preparatory schools are found
only in some rural districts and are taught by teachers of only one
year's professional training.
In addition to the regular type of schools, there are found in some
poorer and thinly populated areas "infant" schools for children 6
to 9, taught by teachers of inferior training ; " winter " schools, where
instruction is given only during the winter months, and " ambula-
tory " schools.
Schools in rural sections and smaller cities are generally coeduca-
tional. In Copenhagen boys and girls attend in the same buildings,
but have separate classrooms and playgrounds. As a usual thing,
boys are taught by men and girls by women. The younger boys,
however, are frequently taught by women.
Free and pay schools. — In Copenhagen and some other cities pub-
lic elementary schools are of two kinds — free schools and pay
schools. The object in maintaining pay schools is evidently not to
produce revenue, for the tuition is very low, being 1 krone a month
per pupil. The reason is to be sought rather in the effort to dis-
courage the many inefficient but costly private schools which formerly
flourished by reason of the unfavorable attitude of certain classes
toward the heterogeneous public free school. The establishment of
public schools where tuition is charged satisfied many of these upper
classes of the masses. The public pay school has therefore come into
favor to the destruction of many private schools.
The tuition, even though small, is sufficient to keep out the very
poor, and thus there results a school with a better clientele to which
parents, even of the better classes, do not hesitate to send their chil-
dren. Pedagogically, too, it has seemed advantageous to have the
children grouped in schools according to the station of the parents.
The school people seem satisfied that there exists a positive correla-
tion between limited means and intellectual incapacity. Be the theor-
etical truth what it may, there is perhaps considerable evidence to
support the view stated. Children in Copenhagen are on a half -day
schedule, and the poor children very generally spend the part of the
day that they are not in school in work to help support their house-
holds. Consequently they come to school in a fagged-out condition,
especially for the afternoon session, and are physically incapable of
the best school efforts. This situation is not so true of children in the
better homes, wherefore teachers feel that better work is possible in
their case, and consequently a division along the lines of means pro-
duces groups of children more homogeneous in point of available
capacity.
The city is laid out into districts in such a way that both a free
school and a pay school are within reasonable distance of all homes.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 33
though ordinarily efforts have been made to avoid overlapping. It
is not so true of Copenhagen, however, as of some larger American
cities that the poorer classes are grouped in districts. Rich and poor
live frequently in the same neighborhood. This constitutes an addi-
tional reason for sorting the children. The small tuition serves in
Copenhagen as a selective instrument to accomplish somewhat the
same result as that brought about by geographical distribution in
some American cities.
Organization. — The number of teachers in a school is determined
by the number of pupils. In rural districts the average enrollment
must not exceed 37 in two successive years for each teacher em-
ployed. But as there are normally two classes meeting on alternate
days or half days, the actual maximum number of children to a
teacher is twice the above — 74 for one and 148 for two teachers. In
cities the maximum per teacher is 35 pupils. Whenever the enroll-
ment surpasses the legal limit facilities must be provided b}^ the ad-
dition of another teacher or a new school or by the transfer of pupils
to another school.
As to internal organization, a one-teacher school is usually divided
into two classes for ages 6 to 10 and 11 to 14, respectively. In a two-
teacher school the classes number four — ages 7 to 8, 9 to 10, 11 to 12,
and 13 to 14. A complete classification gives seven classes. In some
districts, however, there is an eighth, and in a few schools even a
ninth class.^ There are no kindergartens in the public school system.
A few are found in the cities operated by private persons, but they
are not at all general.
Half-time schedule. — Each class is to have separate instruction.
This means that in a one-teacher school with two classes the instruc-
tion must be given alternately. Thus each class is, so to speak, on
half time. Instruction is provided for each class either every other
day or in half-day sessions.
Even in Copenhagen, as noted above, the children are on a half-
day schedule. One group attends in the morning from 8 to 1 o'clock
and another in the afternoon from 1 to 6. This is the case through-
out the city, and is not a mere temporary expedient, but a deliberate
arrangement. The system is economically advantageous, to be sure,
in that only about half as many plants are required as for whole- day
instruction. There may also be some advantage in this — that many
children of poor parents can use a large part of every day for re-
munerative work. A large number of children are thus engaged out-
side of the home. The work is mostly of an incidental nature, such
as delivery of milk, papers, and merchandise, and various forms of
messenger service. While it may be advantageous both for poor
» Dan. Stat., op. cit, p. 130.
34 THE EDUCATIOlSrAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
parents and the children themselves that they add to the family in-
come by honorable work, it is evident that for children of school age
much energy spent in that direction must detract from their work in
school. One writer puts it thus:
Cliildren from 12 to 14 years of age are driven up at half past 4 or 5 o'clock
in the morning in order to ride about through all the long forenoon on a shaky
milk wagon and run up and down kitchen stairs from basement to attic with
heavy baskets of bottles on their shoulders. When they are finally released
about noontime, tired and fagged out, they have more need of a warm meal
and a good long after-dinner nap than to be sent to school for full five hours
to be instructed/
School people are aware of the disadvantages attendant upon the
half-day scheme, and occasionally their and other voices are raised
against the system, but the tremendous expenses of building and
equipping a duplicate number of school buildings will probably op-
erate to continue the present system for many years to come, especially
since the city's school population is growing so fast as to require
frequently new buildings even with the half-day program.
Each half day is divided into five hours of 50 minutes for in-
struction and 10 minutes for intermission. During the intermission
all children are marched to the courtyards and the rooms are aired
out. The hours are all the same length for all the classes, higher and
lower, but the lowest has usually only four hours a day. The hours
seem long for young pupils. As a matter of fact, however, some
five minutes in addition to the intermission are usually consumed in
moving from and to classrooms. In lower classes, too, songs and
recreative exercises are sometimes interspersed throughout the in-
struction.
All in all, one gets the impression that school is a serious business,
and teachers are not afraid to express the opinion that a little " mor-
tification of the flesh " is a good thing for the young citizen.
Discipline. — Discipline, however, can by no means be considered
severe. In fact, in some schools it is exceedingly lax. An attempt
is made to have the children form and keep in line when marching
to and from the playgrounds, but the attempt is not always highly
successful. There is nothing of German militarism. In classrooms
some teachers show a wonderful capacity by the strength of their per-
sonality for putting children at ease, and yet retaining control. It
is not uncommon to see a man lean on a desk and put his arm around
a little fellow's neck, playfully pull another's ear when he does
not answer correctly, or poke another with a pointer. In other rooms
the picture is less attractive. Whispering, shuffling of feet, and a
variety of other diversions busy the unoccupied and uninterested
1 Bitack, Demoralization i Kobenhavns Kommuneskoler, p. 9.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.
35
children until the teacher is aware of an unusual commotion and
stops proceedings in order to administer a general rebuke, the effect
of which is frequently not long lasting.
Teachers complain about the lack of discipline, and some criticize
severely the restrictions placed upon corporal punishment, which
practically prohibit its use. The system may not be blameless, but
one rather feels that if discipline is weak it is rather the fault
of the people immediately in charge, who are in many cases not
making full use of their opportunities. Unless the Danish nature
and traditions as to law and order are fundamentally different from
the American, there would seem to be possible a more consistent and
helpful discipline without running over into militarism, and the
means to produce it would seem to lie ready in the hands of the teach-
ing force.
Curriculum. — In rural districts the required subjects of the cur-
riculum are Danish, religion, writing, arithmetic, history, geog-
raphy, singing, gymnastics for boys, including swimming and play,
and needlework in case a female teacher is employed. Optional sub-
jects are the following: Nature study, hygiene, sloyd, gymnastics
for girls, and school baths. The subjects are optional only with
reference to being entered in the course of study by the school com-
mission. Once there, they are compulsory for the pupils. City
schools and many rural schools have a somewhat richer curriculum
than the above.
The following are the time-tables ^ for the Copenhagen schools in
1910-11, the curriculum being identical for pay schools and free
schools :
Table 2. — Time taUe for hoys, Copenhagen public schools, 1910-11.
Subjects.
Classes.
Total.
First.
Second.
Third.
Fourth.
Fifth.
Sixth.
Seventh.
Eighth.
Religion
2
10
3
6
2
2
9
3
6
3
2
3
9
3
6
3
9
\
3
8
2
4
2
7
2
4
2
6
1
4
2
5
A
19
63
17
35
Daiiish
Writing
Observational instructin
and home geography
5
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
4
2
1
2
5
2
4'
3
Geogranhv
10
8
6
9
Natural science
German
Bookkeeping
2
Singing
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
4(2)
(2)
2
4(2)
(2)
1
2
4(2)
(2)
6
14
Drawing
2
2
23 (m
(6)
Sloyd
Toral
24
27
30
30
30
30
30
30
231
lAnnuai School Report, 1910, p. 4.
36
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
Table 3. — Time table for girls, Copenhagen public schools, 1910-11
^
Subjects.
Classes.
Total.
First.
Second.
Third.
Fourth.
Fifth.
Sixth.
Seventh. Eighth.
Religion
2
9
3
4
2
2
8
2
5
3
2
3
8
2
5
3
8
2
4
3
7
2
4
2
7
2
4
1
2 1 5»
19
Danish
6
5
58
Writing
13
Arithmetic
4
2
32
Observational instruction
and home geography
History
5
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
6
1
3
6
14
Geography
10
Nature study
g
Natural science
5
German
6
Singing
..
1
1
2
4
1
2
4
1
3
4
1
3
4
1
3
4
7
Gymnastics
16
Needlework
4
4
34
Domestic science
4
Total
24
27
30
30
30
30
30
30
231
Religion. — Keligion is taught in all classes.^ Through the seven
years the instruction is based on material from the Old and New
Testaments. In the first three years the instruction is oral, supple-
mented largely by the use of pictures, of which many excellently
adapted for the purpose are found in the schools. In the following
years books of Bible history are used, and through conversation with
the children about the biblical stories the chief elements of the Chris-
tian faith are taught. These are further explained and amplified by
committing to memory selected hymns that bear on the subject under
consideration, as also Scripture passages from an authorized text-
book, the body of which is not to be committed to memory, but may
be used as a guide to the instruction. In the upper classes the pupils
are trained in looking up the references to the New Testament. In
the leaving class there is given an elementary course in the history
of the Christian church. That the instruction in religion is very
formal in many instances is rather to be expected, but it must also
be said that to a great many teachers the work in religion is a very
vital matter. Voices are heard for the removal of religion as a sub-
ject from the public schools of the country, but the great inajority
of the people entertain strong convictions as to the wisdom of its
retention.
Normally, at the close of the seventh year of school children are
confirmed. For half a year previously they participate in a con-
firmation preparatory class conducted by the pastor of the parish.
Sessions are usually of two hours twice a week. They are sometimes
held in the evening, but more commonly from 12 to 2 p. m., so that
forenoon and afternoon pupils, respectively, miss only one hour
from school.
1 The remarks here made on the curriculum have reference particularly to the public
schools of Copenhagen.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 87
Danish. — Danish is easily the major subject in the elementary
school, comprising 27 per cent of the total hours of instruction for
boys and 25 per cent for girls. The instruction includes reading,
composition, and grammar. Beading is begun by learning the alpha-
bet, and the first steps in spelling by the writing-reading method.
The phonetic method may be used, and is recommended where con-
ditions make it possible to use it. The aim of the first year's work
is that the children may be able to read short, easy stories to the
amount usually found in one of the larger first readers. The empha-
sis is placed upon a good pronunciation and the comprehension of
the contents rather than upon facility in reading. The writer will
not soon forget the shock experienced upon entering a first-year class
toward the close of the year. The little fellows were reading w^ords
instead of sentences in an unnatural tone of voice and with the meas-
ured regularity of drum beats. His suprise was perhaps just as
great when entering a second-year class to hear some most excellent
reading by sentence and thought grouping. It is marvelous that
such a change can be brought about, but the teachers seem to think
that if the pupils once get complete control of the symbols the read-
ing of the thought follows naturally as a matter of course. Be the
explanation what it may, the fact remains that there is some excel-
lent reading in the grades above the first. A characteristic feature
of the work throughout is requiring the pupils to tell in their own
words what they have read. This is almost invariably done from
the first grade up and constitutes one of the chief exercises in oral
language. The same process continues in modern-language instruc-
tion later, and it is quite remarkable how much a child, after years
of this training, can reproduce of a story or paragraph after one
reading or hearing it told. Non multa^ sed multum seems to be the
general watchword in Danish instruction, arid perhaps nowhere more
evidently observed than in the reading instruction. Every portion
read is worked over and over again by reproduction, by questioning
as to meanings of w^ords, phrases, and allusions, so that it becomes
the child's very own and he can reproduce the thought entire- Only
one book of some 100 to 150 pages is gone through in a year in the
lower classes. This is read and reread until it seems that the pupils
know pretty much the entire thought contents by heart. The mere
mention of the title of a story raises a score of frantic hands, indi-
cating the eagerness to tell it, and they do it in good language with
realistic detail.
The above indicates, too, the manner in which material is pre-
pared for composition. After a story has been thus made the pupils'
own, they reproduce it in writing. Later of course original compo-
sitions are written, but the subject matter for these, too, is prepared
by oral conversation before writing. In the three upper classes one
3.8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
composition a week is written. Spelling is taught in connection
with both the reading in the lower classes and composition w^ork.
Formal grammar includes phonetics, word formation, parts of
speech, inflection, and some syntax. Below the sixth class no text-
book in grammar is permitted, and teachers are warned against
devoting too much time to formal grammar.
Timining in observation. — Very characteristic is the work called
observational instruction and home geography. The purpose of this
instruction is to develop the observational and imaginative powers
of the children, stimulate their self-activity, and encourage them to
give free and natural expression to their thoughts and impressions.
The work is done as much as possible in connection Avith actual
objects and conditions. If this is not possible, models and pictures
are used, as well as representations on the blackboard by the teacher.
The pupils are also encouraged to express themselves through draw-
ing. The teachers strive to lead the pupils to make their own obser-
vations and draw their conclusions, building on the basis of pupils'
nearest interests and stock of information.
A review lesson, undertaken to give an idea of the instruction,
proceeded somcAvhat as follows: Topic — a trip to the woods wdiich
the teacher and pupils had previously made. A suitable song w^as
sung. The school was located on a sectional map and the road to the
railway station traced, the streets passed through being named. On
a smaller scale map the railway journey was traced. The directions
were noted, and the points of the compass were discussed, the posi-
tion of the sun and its movements, and length of days. Through-
out the year the position of the sun had been noted by the shadow
cast by the casing of a certain window on the 21st of each month
and the curve of the sun's course platted on a chart. Having
reached the woods, the objects encountered were recalled and dis-
cussed by means of pictures taken and objects picked up. The
characteristics and usefulness of the trees were noted. On a map
of the region visited, which had been constructed by teacher and
pupils, were pointed out the walks taken, a lake, island, peninsula,
and hill with sand pit. On a cross-sectional draAving of the sand pit
were shown loam, sand, and clay, and their characteristics were dis-
cussed. On top of the hill was a tree. Its supply of light and
moisture and the service of the roots were noted. The rain process
was reviewed, evaporation, condensation, fresh water from salt,
water sinking into the ground down to the clay, origin of spring,
brook, and lake. A fox's hole and deer had been observed ; the food
and habits of these animals were discussed. The hour closed with a
number of songs Avhich had been suggested by the lesson. The
pupils talked very eagerly and freely and displayed a surprising
grasp of the processes and the life going on about them.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 39
Drawing. — In the first years of school there is no ordered instruc-
tion in drawing, but the children are encouraged to give graphic
expression to their observations and ideas. With the third class,
however, systematic instruction in free-hand drawing is begun and
carried through to the end of the course, the aim being to ena]:)le
every child to represent correctly on paper any ordinary object ob-
served. The work begins by training the eye by use of the measuring
pencil to determine points, straight lines, and relationships in figures
on flat surfaces. Gradually more complicated figures and curved
lines are attempted. When these are mastered, objects are introduced
and drawn by faithfully adhering to the principles already estab-
lished. The objects progress in difficulty from a regularly shaped
block of wood or a box to a bird or animal, shading and sometimes
coloring being included. The instruction is seriously planned, and
executed as worthy of a distinct place in the curriculum. It is taken
for granted that children can not draw correctly without systematic
instruction any more than they can w^rite a composition. The acquisi-
tion of this tool or mode of expression requires, therefore, serious
and continued application. Once acquired, its practical usefulness
in other school subjects and in life is apparent.
The representation on paper of an observed object by the use of
eye and hand being the function of free-hand drawing, this purpose
is aimed at from the beginning and consciously striven for. The
results reached by elementary school pupils are indeed very remark-
able and truly merit the commendation which they have received
at home and abroad wherever excellence in drawing is valued.
Strangely enough, girls are not favored with instruction in this
subject in the elementary school. One reason for this is undoubtedly
the inability to see the practical importance of this art in the subse-
quent life of the girl, while in the later technical or professional
training of the boy its usefulness is readily apparent. Girls, how-
ever, are given a course in the middle school.
Other subjects. — In the history instruction, story telling by the
teacher and reproduction are very common. In the upper classes the
essentials of general history are included, in addition to the history
of Denmark. The geography instruction is very practical. The sub-
jects that are of much importance because of Denmark's geographical
location are emphasized. Maps, especially physical, and pictures
are much used.
Nature study, though elementary, is on a scientific basis and is
aided by splendid botanical and zoological materials. A good collec-
tion of mounted specimens and models is found in every school, from
which the material when needed is taken to the different classrooms.
The study culminates in human physiology and hygiene. In physics
the instruction is built on the general observation of the pupils and
40 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
experiments in the classroom. The work includes the elements of the
main divisions of physics and is calculated to give a somewhat rea-
soned comprehension and appreciation of the child's environment.
A supply of physical apparatus is at hand for this work.
The study of German aims at a reading and speaking knoTvledge
by a direct method, with emphasis on only the most essential points
of grammar. Sight reading and conversation occupy considerable
time in the second year's work.
The work in arithmetic is not particularly characteristic. Mental
computation is emphasized a great deal, and the material used
throughout seems to be closely related to the interests and activities
of the people. The course in bookkeeping aims to give the knowledge
required for keeping a tradesman's books, cashbook, journal, and
ledger.
In writing, the semislant system is used, and the art is taught
exceedingly well. Singing includes considerable of musical theory,
and singing from notes is the rule throughout. The teacher in-
structs and leads the singing by the use of a violin, which all normal
school students must learn to play. Some experiments are being
made with rhythmic gymnastics.
In place of drawing in the elementary school, girls enjoy a thor-
ough training in needlework, which extends through the course.
Domestic science is being rapidly introduced. Excellently equipped
school kitchens are being installed.
The same is true of sloyd for boys, which is quite universal, the
lack of suitable room and facilities having hindered its introduc-
tion in some schools. The work is regarded as having pedagogic
as well as practical significance, especially in the opportunity given
for self-activity and creative expression.
The attention given to gymnastics is quite remarkable throughout
all Denmark, and in Copenhagen every school is equipped with a
roomy and well-furnished gymnasium. For all boys and all but
the two lower classes of girls gymnastics are required unless they
are exempted by medical orders. A somewhat modified form of
the Swedish Lyng system is used. Throughout, free directed play
is combined with the formal gymnastics, in the gymnasium in the
winter months and in the open air in summer, association foot ball
being the chief outdoor game for the larger boys and "long ball"
for the girls and smaller boys. Compulsory bathing, the girls one
week and boys the next, is required in more than half the com-
munal schools. Instruction in swimming is given from June to
August.
Specialists displaced. — Some of the above subjects, as drawing
and gymnastics, have been taught hitherto to a considerable extent
by specialists, artists, and Army officers, who have not had a normal-
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 41
school training. Hereafter no teacher can be appointed in the
elementary schools in Denmark who has not passed through a nor-
mal school or holds a degree from the university. The reason
seems to be chiefly that professionals in art and the like lack the
necessary pedagogic training. Furthermore, the criticism is offered
that the work of these specialists is not well balanced with reference
to the rest of the curriculum, that it does not support the work in
the other subjects, and in general fails to correlate. The idea is
not to dispense with departmental work in these subjects, but to
have the departmental work done by teachers whose training has
given them a balanced view of the curriculum. The prophecy is
made, and perhaps with truth, that the work in the special subjects
will suffer, but this loss it is thought will be more than compensated
for by the greater correlation that will result. Needless to say, a
keen fight over the question has been going on in which the more
or less creditable war cry "The elementary schools for the normal
graduates" has been adopted by the advocates of the reform.
Along with the change goes a demand for better training in the
normal schools in the special subjects. Especially is this the case
with drawing, whose advocates are making a hard fight to retain
for drawing the place and excellence it has attained in the schools.
Aids to instruction. — Materials that are used only in the school-
room are furnished by the commune. Books and materials used
only or partly in the home must be furnished by the parents, except
in case of poverty, when these also are furnished by the community.
These include textbooks in the various subjects, pens, pencils, and the
like.
Many communities equip their schools very sparingly. But others,
again, especially in the larger cities, furnish practically everything
free. Many schoolrooms have splendid collections of illustrative
matter, such as industrial, geographic, and historical pictures, bo-
tanical, zoological, and physiographic illustrations, and a wealth of
illustrative material for observation lessons and nature study.
In this connection may be mentioned the work of the Danish
School Museum, which has as one of its objects the education of
teachers and school officers in the value and selection of school mate-
rials. It aims to display in its museum in Copenhagen practically
all the aids to instruction that are on the market. The results of
these efforts are evident in the schoolrooms.
Botanical school gardens. — In connection with four schools in
Copenhagen are maintained botanical school gardens in which are
cultivated such type plants as are of especial importance for the
instruction in botany. Schools that are not too far distant receive
from these gardens specimens of all except the rarer varieties. In
42 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
one garden are represented 75 plant families, with from 200 to 300
varieties. After the 1st of April notices are sent to the schools about
every two weeks stating what plants are available for study. The
plants are cut in the morning, arranged in bunches, labeled, and sent
by messengers to the schools. Some schools receive specimens of all
the plants included in the course of study, delivered twice a week
through the summer. The work has been extended rapidly from
supplying material for 150 hours of instruction in 1905 to 10,000
hours in 1910.^
Examinations. — Formerly examinations were semiannual as a rule.
Now they are more generally held annually, usually at the close of
the winter semester in April. Examinations for promotion and finals
are not very formidable in the lower grades. They usually consist of
a composition or dictation and number work on slates. In upper
grades the written part is somewhat more extensive. The oral exam-
inations are held in the schoolrooms and are always public. The
school commission must be represented at the examination, usually
by the clerical member, and there must also be a censor appointed by
the commission. All children must be present at the examinations.
Illegal absence is punishable by a fine of from 60 ore to 2 kroner.
The oral examinations are a rather interesting procedure. The
pupils are seated at their desks, which for the occasion are frequently
moved to the sides of the room, leaving an open space in the center.
Here at a table are seated the teacher as examiner, and the censor.
Visitors are present, frequently in large numbers, notably other
teachers. One or two children at a time are called to the desk and
are quizzed individually by the teacher for a few minutes. Members
of the school commission, especially the pastor, may take a hand in
the questioning, as is frequently done. Generally the pupils do not
seem to mind the ordeal, as the teacher quizzes in a manner very
similar to that of an ordinary review lesson, and some teachers make
an effort to dispel any uneasiness that a child may display.
Sometimes, after four or five pupils have been examined, pupils
and visitors must leave the room in order that the examiner and
censor may confer about the result of the examination while the
memory of each child's work is still fresh. The pupils then reenter
the room and the process is resumed.
Each child must thus be examined in every subject and given a
grade in all except religion. Theoretically the examination is held
to determine the question of the pupil's promotion; but this is de
facto decided beforehand. About the only direct effect of the annual
examination is a share in fixing the pupil's standing in the various
subjects, and thus in determining his place in the class roll for the
^Annual School Report, 1910, pp. 143-144.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 43
coming year. In the final examinations the oral part plays a some-
what more significant role.
Promotions. — The question of promotion is usually decided by the
class teachers, sometimes in conference with the principal. The
pupil's work in language and arithmetic is the deciding considera-
tion. In Copenhagen a child who can not be promoted with his
class is assigned to a coaching or helping class, in which the number
of pupils to a teacher is only one-half as large as in the regular
classes. In these helping classes, which are taught in the same
school building as other classes, the teachers who are assigned to the
duty make special efforts by individual assistance and attention to
help these backward children and endeavor to bring them up to
grade.
Of pupils in such classes on March 31, 1911, a median of 9 per
cent were promoted to a higher regular class and 65 per cent to a
higher helping class; 17 per cent were restored to a regular cla'ss of
the same grade, and 3 per cent were retained in a helping class of
the same grade. The sj^stem has, however, not been in use long
enough to test its merits thoroughly. New helping classes are being
established each year.
For children who are on the border line of weak-mindedness there
is still another type of classes, the so-called " protecting " classes.
The instruction is graded through four classes. Imbecile children
are, of course, in institutions.
Medical inspection. — Upon entering school in Copenhagen all
children are examined by school doctors, and defects discovered
are treated by these or other doctors. During 1910-11, of the 7,999
pupils entered in school 3,361 were found to be ailing. Of 53,212
children in the various classes, 6,679 were presented for examination
by the school doctors. There are 20 doctors devoting a part of the
time to the work.^
Free meals. — In Copenhagen free schools, warm dinners are served
absolutely free to all children through the three months of January
to March. Boys are served one day and girls the next, so that each
child gets three dinners a week. The dinners consist of two courses.
In 1909-10 there were served to 10,032 children 289,735 meals, cost-
ing 48,056.94 crowns. The cost per meal thus amounts to 15.41 ore.
The expense is borne by " The Association for Providing Meals for
Children in Free Schools." No free meals are served in pay schools.^
Continuation schools. — Continuation schools are practically found
only in the form of evening schools, and these, strange to say, are
almost exclusively in the rural districts, and are purely voluntary.
1 Annual School Report, 1910, p. 147.
* Op. cit, p. 148.
44 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP DENMAKK.
Of cities it is only Copenhagen and Frederiksberg that make a seri-
ous attempt to maintain evening continuation schools. In rural dis-
tricts the evening schools are usually taught by the regular public-
school teachers through the winter months two evenings a week, with
sessions of two hours. The curriculum consists of Danish, writing,
arithmetic, natural sciences, and history.
In Copenhagen in 1909-10 there were 10 evening schools with a
total of 110 classes and an enrollment of 2,531, of whom 1,128 were
men and 1,403 women.^ The schools were in session from October
to April, inclusive, the average attendance per month being 1,918.
The subjects in which instruction was given were Danish, arithmetic,
writing, bookkeeping, mathematics, stenography, typewriting, Eng-
lish, German, and French.
In addition to the above subjects, 1,764 women enrolled for in-
struction in housekeeping and cooking, of whom 1,156 were grouped
in 44 evening classes and 326 in 14 day classes. Classes in singing
were conducted in six divisions, five for women and one for men,
with an enrollment of 556. The course closed with a public concert
in the courthouse hall before an audience of 2,500 people. Most of
the pupils in these continuation schools are below 18 years of age
and are engaged in learning a trade.
Private schools. — Private schools play a somewhat important role
in elementary education in Denmark. In rural sections some 200
of the private schools are maintained by the Grundtvigian religious
movement. In cities, on the other hand, the reason for the prevalence
of private schools is to be found chiefly in the social attitude, which
regards a private school of select clientele, especially if it is costly,
as a better place for the training of the future man and citizen than
a public school in which the child rubs elbows with a complex of
humanity. It is not our function here to discuss the merits of the
view, but merely to observe that the attitude is responsible for the
existence of a number of schools which, to say the least, do not add
to the educational reputation of the country.
All private schools in which children of school age are taught are
subject, .however, to essentially the same regulations as the public
schools. They must give instruction in the same subjects as the
public schools, and the pupils must be examined in each under the
censorship of the school commission. If found to be not as far ad-
vanced at the various ages as pupils instructed in the public schools,
children may be taken away and placed in public schools. This is
not done, however, as generally as efficiency might require.
To schools that give evidence of satisfactory excellence, permis-
sion is given to have the examinations held in their own buildings.
»0p. cit., p. 120.
ELEMENTABY EDUCATION. 45
Very rarely pupils in private schools are requested to participate in
the regular examinations in the public schools. The school build-
ings must be hygienic and properly kept, and children attending
must be vaccinated. Private schools must furnish all the statistical
information asked for in regard to their equipment and activities.
Full information is therefore contained in the State reports as to the
attendance in the schools, teachers and their training, classification,
curriculum, size of classes, school buildings, and the like. It is
rather remarkable, however, that outside of Copenhagen no profes-
sional certification is required for teachers in private schools. The
slowly but steadily decreasing percentage of children in private
schools is estimated to be due to the progressive improvement of the
public schools.
The teaching force. — There are in general two classes of teachers
in the Danish elementary schools, the permanently and the non-
permanently appointed. Teachers are civil servants, and a per-
manent appointment holds for life, or as long as the teacher is
capable of efficient service. Persons holding nonpermanent appoint-
ments are such as are either serving probationary terms, or are
engaged to fill temporary vacancies, or do not possess the qualifica-
tions for permanent appointments. Teachers holding permanent
appointments and probationaries are paid by the year; all others
are generally paid by the hour.
In the rural schools 28 per cent of the teachers are women.^ The
percentage in cities ranges from 40 to 48, while in Copenhagen 57 per
cent of the teachers are women. Men, therefore, play a much more
important role in Danish than in American schools. The percentage
of women teachers, however, is on the increase.
Training of teachers. — Teachers are trained in 4 State normal
schools, all for men, and in 13 State-aided private normal schools, of
which 3 are for men, 4 for women, and 6 for both sexes. The normal
schools stand in immediate relation to the ministry, whose supervision
of them is performed by the bishops and by the counselor in matters
pertaining to elementary education. Principals and teachers in
State normals are appointed by the King. They are recruited usu-
ally from the ranks of those most successful and experienced teachers
in the elementary schools who have received advanced training. Be-
fore receiving ermanent appointment they usually serve temporarily
fcr a year or 'wo.
Private normal schools that measure up in all respects to the re-
quirements set for State normals are recognized by the State, hold
their own examinations, are supervised in the same way as State nor-
mals, and receive State aid.
^Dan. Stat. Folkeskolevsesenet, 1909, p. 107.
46
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK.
In connection with all schools there is a practice school which may
be the local communal school or one established especially for the
normal. The practice teaching in these is done under the supervision
of the principal of the normal school.
In order to be admitted to the lowest class of any normal school the
candidate (1) must be 18 years of age by the close of the calendar
j'-ear ; (2) must have taught under the direction of an able teacher for
a period of one year and present evidence from the school commission
or the teacher concerned that he possesses desire and adaptability for
the teaching profession. This preliminary practice teaching may be
done in public schools, in a private school with approved teachers, or
in the practice department of a normal school. (3) He must present
the required certificates of birth, health, character, and morals, and
(4) must have passed the entrance examinations, which require a
thorough knowledge of elementary-school subjects.
In some schools there is a preparatory class in which candidates
spend a year in order to fit themselves for the entrance examinations.
in this year the required teaching experience may also be gained, as
indicated above.
The normal course is three years in length. The first two years are
devoted mainly to liberal studies, while the third year is intended to
give professional training.
The curriculum of the Kanum State normal school is fairly
typical.^
Table 4.-
-Suhjects and hours per tveek in the Ranum State Normal School,
1910-11.
Subjects.
I class.
n class.
Ill class.
Gymnastics and physiology .
Singing
Drawing
Writing
Arithmetic
Higher mathematics
Natural science
Nature study
Geography
History
Danish
Bible and church history . . .
Bible study and doctrine. ..
Pedagogy
Practice teaching
Total.
.36
Normal training for preparatory-school teachers is afforded in one
State and three State-aided private schools. These have a course of
from one to one-and-a-half years, largely of a practical nature. In
order to enter, candidates must be between 18 and 30 years of age.
^Annual Report, Banum Statsseminarium, 1911, p. 14.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 47
of good health and character, possess ability to sing, and pass the
entrance examination. These schools are all for women. Courses
for the training of winter and ambulatory teachers are found in some
people's high schools and are aided by counties and the State.
State teachers' college. — For the advanced training of teachers in
service there is maintained in Copenhagen a splendidly equipped
State teachers' college, with an excellent staff of instructors. The
principal course extends through a period of one year and offers ad-
vanced instruction in any subject in or related to the elementary
curriculum. Special short courses are offered during the vacation
months in a wide range of subjects. The college is much sought by
teachers desirous of advancement and serves as an efficient stimulus
in many ways.
Examination and certification. — The teachers' examinations, which
are both written and oral, are given in two parts, one at the end of
the second year and the other at the end of the third year of the
normal-school course. The second part can not be taken earlier
than in the year in which the candidate completes his twenty-first
year, but must be taken not later than three years after the first part.
Two of these years may be spent outside of the normal school, in
teaching.
Under special circumstances and by the permission of the minis-
try, candidates who have not passed through a normal school may
take the final teacher's examinations, provided they are 21 years of
age and fulfill the essential requirements for entrance to a normal
school.
When a candidate has passed his final teacher's examination, he
is certificated by the State to teach in any elementary school in the
country.
Appointment of teachers. — In order to receive permanent appoint-
ment in a city system or in a one-teacher rural school, a teacher must
be at least 25 years of age, be in good health, of good character, be
a member of the State church, have passed the teacher's final exami-
nation and have taught sucessfully for two years after passing the
final examination. For temporary appointments the requirements
as to age, education, and experience are, of course, not so high.
Principals in city schools are appointed by the King, upon the
recommendation of the ministry. Permanent appointment to
nearly all other positions, both in city and rural schools, are made by
the district school board upon the nomination of the local civil
council. When a vacancy occurs the position is advertised in the
official organ by the appointing authority, who also receives applica-
tions accompanied by the proper testimonials as to fitness. The
applications are then sent to the local civil council, who after con-
3334**— 15 1
48 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
sultation with the local school commission nominate first, second,
and third choice. Of these nominees the appointing authority elects
the applicant who seems best fitted for the position, and issues to him
a formal call. If the applicant accepts he must take the oath of
office prescribed for servants of the Government, and is formally
installed.
In many cases a permanent appointment to a vacancy does not take
place at once, but is preceded by a period of probation called " consti-
tution." This is the case especially in cities, but probation may be
dispensed with in case the teacher elect has held a permanent posi-
tion in another city system. In rural districts "constitution" is
frequently resorted to to cover cases where the candidate does not
possess at the time of appointment all the legal requirements as to
examination or teaching experience. He may then be " constituted "
until he has fulfilled the requirements, when permanent appoint-
ment may take place. A "constituted" teacher has no ipso facto
claim to permanent appointment. Such action requires the joint
sanction of the district school board and the local civil ccmncil.
" Constitution " does not ordinarily last more than two years. In
Copenhagen, however, teachers must serve probationary terms of
three years. And before receiving probationary appointment, the
prospective teacher must ordinarily have served as substitute for
periods ranging from a few months to two years. A list of qualified
candidates is maintained by the school director, out of which the
principals choose substitutes when needed. Permanent teachers are
appointed for the city, not for a particular school, and are obliged to
serve where a place is assigned them.
Teachers and the church, — There are three groups of church
offices which devolve upon teachers in the elementary public school:
(1) To the office of precentor any teacher in the parish may be
elected by the local council and is under obligation to serve. In
addition to leading the singing of the regular church services, which
constitutes his chief duty, he assists the pastor with ministerial acts
coming within the regular Sunday services. (2) The teacher or head
teacher in a village where a church is situated must, ex officio, serve,
as the pastor's secretary in keeping the ministerial records. (3)
Every teacher or head teacher in a district must, ex officio, act as the
pastor's assistant in the performance of ministerial acts in the dis-
trict occurring on week days and outside of the regular services on
Sundays. He is also to assist in the Sunday service, in addition to
other minor duties, by offering the prescribed prayers at the opening
and close of the service.
In cities certain of the teachers are appointed by the district school
board upon nomination by the local council to perform essertially
the same duties as outlined above.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 49
(4) In addition to the above offices, the position of church organist
may be fulfilled in both city and rural districts by a teacher elected
to this position, but there is no compulsion resting upon the teacher
to accept this office, unless this is specifically stated in his call to the
teaching position. It is almost universally the case, however, that
the organist position is held by a teacher.
Salaries of teachers, — Salaries of teachers in the public elementary
schools are graded according to the nature of the positions and length
of service. There are two scales of salaries provided by law for city
systems, a lower and a higher scale. In the lower scale the range is
from a basic salary of 1,500 kroner a year to 2,800 kroner after 20
years of service. The corresponding figures in the higher scale are
1,600 and 3,000 kroner. Salaries of principals range from 3,000 to
4,200 kroner a year. The question as to which scale is to be used is
determined by the ministry after the matter has been considered and
reported on by the local civil council. The adoption of a certain
scale fixes the minimum salaries for that system. Nothing prevents,
however, the payment of higher salaries if the local authorities so
decide. In Copenhagen a maximum of 3,600 kroner a year is paid.
For principals the maximum is 5,200 kroner.
In rural schools, first and one teacher positions pay (1) a mini-
mum cash salary ranging from 900 to 1,500 kroner a year, besides
(2) free residence, fuel, use of a barn large enough for two cows and
six sheep, fodder, a well of good water, and a garden for vegetables.
(3) In addition to the above, there may be an income from church
offices amounting to 220 kroner or more a year.
The above figures all apply to men. Women are paid, on the
average, 25 per cent less than men.
Compulsory insurance. — Every married teacher must provide for
the support of his wife in the event of his death. This is usually
done in one of two ways: The teacher may pay annually to the
State Insurance Institute one-eighth of his income. In the event of
his death the widow receives anually one-eighth of the income which
her husband was earning at the time of his death. Or, if he chooses,
the teacher may buy life insurance in the State Insurance Institute
to an amount which must be at least fifteen times one-eighth of his
annual income. The policy is made payable to the ministry of
ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction, and the resulting funds
are administered for the widow by this department.
Pensions. — After the age of 30, teachers who have served by
permanent appointment for five years are entitled to a pension,
provided they are dismissed for a cause for which they are not respon-
sible or do not enter upon other remunerative work. The amount of
50 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
the pension varies with length of service, the maximum, tvzo-thirds
of the average salary for the last five years, being reached after 30
years of service. At the age of 70 every teacher is entitled to un-
conditional release with pension. At this age, too, he may be
dismissed by reason of age, even against his will, but always with
pension. In addition to income from compulsory insurance, a widow
is entitled to a pension amounting to one-eighth of her husband's
annual income at the time of his death.
Support of elementary education — The State. — There are three
administrative units involved in the support of elementary educa-
tion— the State, the county, and the local commune. The State
derives its moneys for this purpose from taxation, there being no
permanent school fund for elementary education. The necessary
appropriations are annually made by Parliament. An idea of the
participation of the State in the support of elementary education
may be derived from a study of the budget for a certain year. The
appropriation for 1912-13 was as follows : ^
State Appropriation fob Elementary Education in 1912-13.
Kroner.
1. For salary increases' in provincial cities and rural districts 4,100,000
2. To county school funds, for payment of interest and principal of
loans of local communes* necessitated by erection or enlarging
of school buildings 370,000
3. To county school funds annually for aid to needy communities
whose school expenses are disproportionately large* 50,000
4. For pensions, the State paying one-half and the county school
funds the other half 780, 000
5. Extra appropriation for increases in pensions and for support
of widows 45,000
6. To the city of Copenhagen, a grant toward the expenses of its
school system 375, 000
7. Training of teachers in State and private normal schools and
in special courses 487,537
8. Advanced training of teachers, mainly chargeable to elementary
education 238,500
iFinanslov for 1912-13, pp. 265-270.
2 The State pays all such salary increases as are provided for in the legal salary
schedules.
8 Each school district may receive one-half the amount annually expended for payment
of interest and principal, but not to exceed 450 kroner a year. It is therefore to the
advantage of the commune to arrange the payments in increasing amounts, so as to use
each year the full amount available from the State. The State will not give aid toward
the same loan, however, for a longer period than 28 successive years. Application for
such aid Is made by the commune to the ministry through the district school board and
the county school council.
*The grants may be used for improvements, special types of education, or current
expenses.
ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION. 51
Kroner.
9. To private schools in rural districts * 110, 000
10. To private schools in provincial cities, distributed on essen-
tially same terms as above 45, 000
11. To pension fund for teachers in private schools 4, 000
12. For evening continuation schools taught by public-school
teachers 36, 000
13. For continuation schools other than the above 12, 000
14. Supervision of instruction, chiefly singing and gymnastics 17, 600
15. Miscellaneous :
(a) For procuDing aids to instruction 7,500
(6) Support of pupils' libraries 13, 800
(c) Support of teachers' libraries 5, 000
(d) Danish School Museum 10,400
(e) To association for the promotion of school hygiene 300
(/) To association for the promotion of school gardens 2, 200
Total 6, 709, 837
As appears from the above budget, the State is guided in its sup-
port of elementary education by the principles of equalizing the
burden of support upon the various communities, aiding needy com-
munities, encouraging special forms of education, and stimulating
local effort.
County school funds. — The county school fund serves as an admin-
istrative medium between the State and the local communities, and
is intended to supplement the efforts of the individual school dis-
tricts within the county. The sources of the county school funds are
chiefly the appropriations from the State referred to. Another large
source is taxes. Their amount is determined by the needs of the
school fund for each county, and are levied on rural communities
and provincial cities in proportion to their population. Minor
sources are incomes from productive funds and fines.
Out of the county school funds are disbursed the amounts received
from the State, for which the school funds' administration acts
merely as disbursing agent, such as for building loans, salary in-
creases, and the like. One-half the amount of pensions and special
maintenance grants to teachers within the county are also paid from
the county funds. In addition there are grants toward the part pay-
ment of substitutes for teachers who by reason of illness or other
adequate cause are unable to serve for a time, grants to such teachers
themselves who find themselves in severe financial distress, to needy
communities, and for special activities, such as evening schools. In
» Of the sum distributed to private schools, 100,000 kroner are distributed to such
schools as in the opinion of the school commission rank on a par with the public schools
and have been in successful operation for at least one year. The basis of distribution is
the average enrollment of children of school age. The grant per pupil must not exceed
12 kroner. The balance, 10,000 crowns, is applied according to the discretion of the
ministry. Applications are made to the ministry through the district school board.
62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK.
some of the above cases the grants are required as a condition for
State aid to the same object.
Local support. — Local communities derive their school moneys
partly from grants from State and county, regular and special, as
indicated above.
In rural districts fuel and forage are furnished by landowners,
in proportion to the taxed valuation of their property, either in
natura or, by common agreement, in cash, or the amount may be
included as a part of the regular taxes. In some communities there
is income from school land, from tuition in schools giving advanced
instruction, tuition of pupils from other communes, fines for illegal
absence, voluntary gifts, and the like. Other moneys needed are
obtained from the funds of the commune, which are derived chiefly
from direct taxation.
The local community assumes all expenses not otherwise provided
for, such as erection, equipment, and maintenance of school build-
ings, with playgrounds, gymnasium, and residence with garden
for teacher; all basic salaries of permanent teachers, salaries of all
other teachers, except as elsewhere noted, and salaries for church
offices; for school materials and aids to instruction used by all chil-
dren; books and materials for poor children, teachers' and pupils'
libraries, and teachers' administrative expenses.
Local communities grant aid to private schools, which supple-
ment the public school system and thus reduce the burden of support.
A grant of 6 kroner per pupil may be made to State-aided private
schools, without sanction of the county civil council. Beyond that
amount such sanction is required.
Many communities make large expenditures for evening and cx)n-
tinuation schools and for other special forms of education. This is
largely the result of the policy of the State in making its grants
dependent upon the efforts put forth by the local community.
The total average cost of Danish elementary education per en-
rolled child is $13.45 a year.^ Exactly comparable statistics for the
United States are not available. The nearest approach is the average
expenditure per capita of average attendance in common school sys-
tems. For the United States as a whole this figure is $34.71 per
child. Four States spend less than Denmark, two about an equal
amount, while the rest spend more. The figure for Minnesota is
$45.96, while in Massachusetts $50.39 are expended per child.^ It
must be borne in mind, however, that these figures are subject to two
main corrections. In the first place, the basis of average cost in
Denmark is enrollment, while the above figures for the United States
1 U. S. Com. of Ed. Report, 1912, vol. 2, p. 657.
« Idem, p. 18.
SECONDARY EDUCATION. 53
are based on average attendance. This difference tends to lower the
average cost for Denmark as compared with the United States.
Furthermore, the purchasing power of a dollar is considerably
greater in Denmark than in the United States, perhaps from one-
fourth to one-third more.
Chapter IV.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
Definition. — As previously noted, the term secondary education is
used in this study to cover the instruction normally given in three
types of schools, middle school of four years, for children from 11
to 14 years of age. Real course of one year, from 15 to 16, and Gym-
nasium of three years, 15 to 18, with its three courses, classical, mod-
ern language, and mathematical-scientific. Many secondary schools
have preparatory classes covering the five years of school life pre-
ceding the middle school, but such classes are regarded in this study
as a part of the system of elementary education.
Ownership and control. — Secondary schools are of three kinds as
to ownership and control. State, communal, and private. The State
schools, 14J[n number,^ are for the most part on cathedral school
foundations, are owned by the State and administered directly
through the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction.
Communal schools, which number 48, are established and adminis-
tered as part of the communal school systems. Private schools,
numbering 141, are the most numerous of all. Many factors con-
tribute to give private schools such an important role in secondary
education in Denmark. To begin with, there is the historic origin.
Private schools sprang up before the State or communes made ade-
quate provision for secondary education. The idea prevailed that
the expense of higher education ought properly to fall upon the
parents whose children were to receive the benefits of such education,
and not upon the public at large. When once established, it is much
more economical from the standpoint of the Government to encourage
private schools to continue to do their work than to take them over
as State institutions. Therefore their continuance is encouraged by
State aid, and the privilege of holding their own examinations.
There is, furthermore, a well-intrenched belief in Denmark that
private initiative in education is highly beneficial to the cause of edu-
cation itself. New ideas and educational experimentation prosper in
private schools in a way that is scarcely possible in a State school
^Asmussen, Meddelelser angaaende de hojere almeuskoler, 1909-10, Tables 1-9.
54 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
controlled according to legislative enactments and governed by a
central administrative bureau. This is not mere theory either, for
some private schools have done much to break new paths in the edu-
cational field. The right of educating their children privately is also
highly prized by the Danes. It is one of the fields of activity in
which private judgment, religious conviction, and cultural view-
point like to operate independently and unhampered. Perhaps a
more powerful factor than any of the above in some localities is the
social attitude which finds in the private school the proper en-
vironment for higher education, just because it is not public.
Supe7'vision. — Reference has been made above to the organization
of the department of education at the central office, whereby second-
ary education classifies under the second of the two departments.
The inspection and supervision of secondary schools is accomplished
chiefly through two inspectors, one for middle and Real schools,
and one for the complete secondary schools, i. e., those which have
a gymnasium. The later inspector is, next to the ministry, at the
head of the secondary school system.
He visits all schools. State, communal, and private, in order to
observe their condition and the quality of their work.^ He may on
his own responsibility advise rectors or administrators of the schools,
who are to give him all needful assistance and information for the
furtherance of his work. He may make recommendation to the min-
istry touching the entire status of a school or special matters therein,
and may recommend new arrangements in the secondary field. He
supervises the arrangement and holding of all State examinations
according to the legal directions. He is required to advise the min-
istry in all matters pertaining to secondary education that are sub-
mitted to him, such as courses of study, appointment, promotion, and
dismissal of teachers, dispensations from rules, and the like. He is
also in charge of the professional training of secondary teachers. In
regard to this function more will be said below.
Statistics' of schools and attendance. — In 1909-10 there were 204
schools, of which 44 were complete secondary schools, including all
of the 14 State schools, besides 5 communal and 25 private schools.^
Of the 160 schools without gymnasium, 43 were communal and 117
private. Real courses were found in 147 schools. Of all secondary
schools, 28 were for boys, 31 for girls, and 145 coeducational.
The total attendance of students in the secondary schools in 1909-10
was 22,968, distributed as the following table indicates : ^
1 Ministerial Instruction, Sept. 8, 1906.
•Asmussen, op. cit., ibid.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
Table 5. — Attendance in Danish secondary schools, 1909-10,
65
Middle
school.
Real
course.
Gym-
nasium.
Former
classifica-
tion.!
Total.
10,052
7,204
1,061
821
1,649
454
1,185
542
13,947
Girls
9,021
Total
17,256
1,882
2,103
1,727
22,968
J The caption "Former classiflcation" refers to students in Real schools of the old type, which had not
entirely disappeared at the time these statistics were gathered.
Life in the schools. — The school year in State and private secondary
schools generally begins in the latter part of August or the first part
of September and closes in June or early part of July. Communal
schools begin and close with the common schools in April or May.
Normally, vacations and holidays, not including Sundays, must not
exceed 63 days in the year.
The school day usually consists of 6 hours, 50 minutes in length,
with a 10-minute intermission after each. In some schools there is
one continuous session from about 8 or 9 a. m. to 2 or 3 p. m., with an
intermission of 20 minutes for lunch, while in other schools there
are two sessions, with a lunch period of an hour or more. School
extends through six days in the week ; a free day is granted, however,
once a month or fortnightly in case no fixed holiday occurs within
that period.
Most of the schools are day schools. Only two of the State
schools — Soro and Herlufsholm — are boarding schools, and these are
for boys. The school at Soro is famous for its rich endowment. It
was founded in 1586 with funds from the cloister at Soro, and later,
in 1747, was endowed by the entire baronial estate of the great Dano-
Norwegian dramatist, Ludvig Holberg. At various times through
its history it has had united with it a knights' academy {Ridderaha-
demie), which, however, did not minister to its success as an educa-
tional institution. It is notable for the 'many men prominent in
Danish history and literature which have studied within its walls, as
also by the dream which Bishop Grundtvig cherished for it — a trans-
formation into a people's high school. The school has a most beauti-
ful location on the banks of the little Lake Soro and is splendidly
furnished with buildings and equipment for about 300 boys. The
surplus income from its endowment is used by the State for other
educational purposes. Aside from the two State boarding schools,
there is a small number of private schools in which the students re-
side, but many of these schools also have day pupils.
Life in the boarding schools is much like that in American institu-
tions of the same type, except that the school day is much longer and
sports are not so prevalent. Association football, tennis, and a kind
56
THE EDUCATIOITAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
of baseball are played, and a little rowing indulged in. In the day
schools there is not much of any school life. There are no student
organizations to speak of. A social gathering of students and
teachers may take place once or twice a year. Sports, such as foot-
ball and "long ball," are being encouraged, but do not seem to have
taken a hold to any marked extent. One must bear in mind, of
course, that the students in these schools are very young, finishing the
Gymnasium at about the same age that the American youth com-
pletes the high school, and that the last three years are occupied with
serious study preparatory to a very severe State examination.
One gets the impression that there is not much joyousness in the
secondary school life of the Danish youth, except that which comes
from the consciousness of work well done. The boy or girl is kept
pretty busy six days in the week with six recitations a day and
preparation for the next day's tasks. It is not surprising that there
is little time or energy left for sports or other supplementary activi-
ties. These come in their own fashion in the first years at the uni-
versity, for those who are so fortunate as to reach that stage.
CuTTiGula: The middle school. — Secondary curricula are deter-
mined in broad outline by the law of 1903. A detailed program is
fixed by the department of education for State schools and serves
consequently as a guide for the instruction also in communal and
private schools. While considerable latitude is allow^ed even State
schools in modifying details of the course of study to meet local
conditions, there is large uniformity in the curricula of the schools
throughout the county. The following is the program outlined by
the ministry for middle schools : ^
Table 6. — Weelcly program, Danish middle schools.
Subjects.
I class.
II class.
III class.
IV class.
Total.
Religion
2
5
6
2
4
3
5
2
2
2
2
5
1
2
2
4
3
4
3
2
2
2
6
1
1
1
5
3
4
2
2
2
2
7
1
7
18
English
15
13
History
3
2
2
2
4
2
2
10
Geography
8
8
Sciences
8
22
Writing
5
Drawing
6
Total
30
30
30
30
120
4
2
4
2
4
1
4
Singing . ..•••.
Remarks on the curriculum. — The instruction in religion is based
on Bible history and aims to familiarize the students with the Bible
*Glahn, Lov om hojere Almenskoler m. m., p. 66.
SECONDARY EDUCATION. 57
itself and its essential teachings, with a view to developing the child's
religious nature and making the truths function in the child's life.^
Danish includes a thorough training in oral and written expression
and grammar, together with the study of a considerable range of
Danish and Norse and some Swedish literature.
German may be taken up before English if the local authorities so
choose. The State schools are equally divided on English and Ger-
man as the beginning language.^ The aim in modern language in-
struction is correct pronunciation, ability to read and understand
ordinary prose at sight, and to form grammatically correct sentences.
A speaking knowledge of the language is a part of the ultimate pur-
pose striven for. The direct method is used throughout. From the
first day on the language being learned is used to the greatest possible
extent by the teacher as the medium of instruction. Some of the very
best work done in Danish schools is seen in the modern language in-
struction. Teachers go abroad in large numbers to obtain more per-
fect mastery of their methods. Some idea of the result of the work
in middle schools may be obtained from one feature of the final ex-
amination in a modern language. The examinee is given a selection
in the foreign language about half a page in length to read aloud.
After one reading he closes the book and by the use of the foreign
language reproduces freely the content of the selection.
Instruction in history embraces a general view of the world's
progress. Particular emphasis is placed on modern and Danish his-
tory. Geography is regarded as a very important subject and extends
through the course.
Nature study includes the elements of zoology and botany. Speci-
mens are collected and studied in type groupings. Physics constitutes
the major part of the work in science. Chemistry receives minor at-
tention. Mathematics embraces arithmetic, elementary algebra, and
portions of plane geometry.
The instruction in writing aims at a neat and legible hand. In
drawing, the correct representation of an object by the free-hand
method is aimed at by graded exercises.
Gymnastics and singing are required, but are regarded more as
helpful diversions than as parts of the accredited course.
In some schools, as modifications of the above program, are found
needlework and domestic science for girls and sloyd for boys. Latin
and French are also optional subjects. All the State schools offer
Latin four hours a week the last year. French in like amount is
found in four State schools. The introduction of these subjects
sometimes necessitates a reduction in the time devoted to other sub-
iThe scope of this study does not permit of a full discussion of the curricula and
methods of the secondary schools. Remarks are offered merely to make the time-table
intelligible or to call attention to characteristic features.
*Asmussen, op. cit., pp. 104-106.
58
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
jects. In other cases the brighter students are permitted to carry one
of these subjects in addition to the full course.
Real course. — The Real course is a sort of finishing year for such
students as can not take the full Gymnasium course. These Real
courses are not operated in separate institutions, but are found in the
complete secondary schools and are attached to many middle schools.
There is no fixed schedule for the work of this Real year, the local
needs and the requirements of the students serving largely to fix its
character.^ The following program, suggested by the department,
is a fair type of the work done in these courses :
Weekly program — Real course.
Hours.
Danish 4
Two modern languages 8
Practical mathematics 4
History and geography 4
Sciences 4
Electives 6
Gymnastics 4
The electives may be chosen from a wide range of subjects, such as:
Religion, a third modern language, Latin, geometry, bookkeeping,
stenography, drawing, sloyd, and singing. Special electives for girls
are practical accounting, needlework, and domestic science. If this
course is to close a young person's school career, he may, by a proper
combination of subjects, fit himself for a business, governmental, or
other vocational position.
Gymnasium — Courses. — Entering the gymnasium the student has a
choice of three courses — the classical, modern language, and mathe-
matical-scientific— each three years in length. The popularity of the
various courses is indicated by the attendance.^ The pro-modern
tendency is clearly evidenced by the large percentage of attendance
in the modern-language course and the very small percentage in the
classical department. Only eight State schools and four private
schools maintain the classical course. Practically all schools — State,
communal, and private — maintain the modern-language and the
mathematical-scientific courses.
Table 7. — DistriMtion of students in Danish gymnasium courses, 1909-10.
Course.
Boys.
Girls.
Total.
Percent-
age.
Classical
178
806
665
89
312
53
267
1,118
718
13
Mnrtom InTumfliTO ...........
53
Mathematical scientific
34
1 Glahn, op. cit., p. 142.
^Asmussen, op. cit, Table 9.
SECONDAEY EDUCATION.
59
Program, — As in the case of middle schools, the State department
of education outlines the program of studies also for the Gymnasia.
The programs as suggested by the department ^ and modified to some
extent by practice are indicated in the subjoined table:
Table 8. — Weehly programs, Danish Gymnasia,
Subjects.
I class.-
AU three
courses.
n class.—
All three
courses.
m class.—
All three
courses.
Religion
1
4
4
3
2
4
1
4
4
3
2
4
I
Danish ,
4
French
4
History
4
Music -
2
Gymnastics
4
I class.
II class.
m class.
Subjects.
Clas-
sical.
Mod-
em.
Mathe-
matical-
scien-
tific.
Clas-
sical.
Mod-
em.
Mathe-
matical-
scien-
tific.
Clas-
sical.
Mod-
em.
Mathe-
matical-
scien-
tific.
English
2
5
4
4
2
2
5
4
4
2
2
6
4
3
2
German.. - ...............
Latin
6
6
I
1
5
6
} i
Greek
ArchsBolosry ....
1
2
2
{ i
1
2
2
{ !
1
2
2
1
Geography and nature study.
Sciences
} I
i •
Total
36
36
36
36
.^fi
36
36
:iR
36
Some very general remarks on the programs must suffice. It will
be noted that all the courses have much in common. There is special-
ization, to be sure, but the courses are not unbalanced.
The names of the courses indicate the major emphasis in each case.
As to languages, Greek is offered only in the classical course, and
Latin is not offered in the mathematical-scientific course. French
is common to all courses. In the modern-language course both Eng-
lish and German are studied, the one or the other being selected as
major. In the other two courses only one of these two languages
can be taken up, the selection being made by each school. But it has
been noted that both English and German are studied in the middle
school. The general statement may therefore be made that a person
may graduate from the Danish Gymnasium and thus become a
student in the European sense without having studied either Latin
or Greek, but he must have studied three modern languages.
Sciences and mathematics have a place also in the language courses,
but constitute the major subject in the mathematical-scientific course.
In this course these subjects embrace geography; geology; min-
»Glalm, op. cit, p. 198.
60 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK.
eralogy ; biology ; human physiology ; astronomy ; physics ; inorganic,
organic, and physical chemistry ; algebra ; trigonometry ; plane, solid,
and analytical geometry.
The work in archselogy in the classical course is fairly well in-
dicated by the name itself, but in the modern language and mathe-
matical-scientific courses, where one hour a week throughout the
three years is devoted to it, the scope of the work is much broader
than the term indicates. In these courses the subject is calculated to
give a knowledge of classical civilization and culture somewhat com-
mensurate with that obtained from study of the classics in the origi-
nal. Selected portions of Greek and Latin literature are read in
translation and a study made of artistic and other monuments of the
ancient world. Thus these courses, while so strictly modern, are
endeavoring to transmit also some of the best of our inheritance from
classic culture.
Examinations. — Examinations in the secondary schools are held
at the close of each school year, and a final examination at the end
of each course. All examinations consist of two parts, a written and
an oral test. Final examinations are all conducted by the State,
through approved representatives, the question for the written tests
being prepared by the ministry. All oral examinations are public.
A censor appointed or approved by the State is present at each ex-
amination, and his grade is averaged with that given by the ex-
aminer in each subject. The grades range from 0 to 6, the higher
numbers indicating the better standing. The average of the averages
of examination and class marks in all subjects constitutes the final
grade. An average of 3.50 is required to pass. All standings, with
names of examinees, are published in the annual bulletins of the
schools and in the State reports. From this practice may be gained
some idea of the importance attached to examinations in Denmark.
Schools and professions are graded in the minds of the people ac-
cording to the severity of the examinations which they require, and
individuals are more or less marked for life by the published reports
of their school examinations.
Privileges. — The middle-school examinations, besides admitting to
the real course and gymnasium, is considered as fitting for an ordi-
nary industrial or business career. The Real examination fits for
certain governmental positions, such as postal and railway service,
certain better business positions, and admits to certain technical
schools. The student examination, with which the gymnasium closes,
admits to all courses at the university and to certain of the higher
business and governmental positions.
Girls'^ examination. — The secondary scheme of education, as
adopted in 1903 and outlined in this study, seems not to have proved
entirely satisfactory for girls. The higher girls' schools, which were
SECONDARY EDUCATION. 61
in a sense displaced by the adoption of the present system, carried
the instruction up to a leaving examination at 17 years of age. The
examination in the present system corresponding most nearly to the
former leaving examination of the girls' schools is the Real examina-
tion, but this comes at 16 years of age, and thus cuts off the last year
of the former girls' schools. To meet the objection raised on this
ground, there was introduced a special girls' examination at the age
of 17 as a modification of the present system. In Copenhagen, where
the higher girls' schools draw their students largely from well-to-do
homes, the girls stay in school longer, and the postponement of the
final examination to the age of 17 is very common. Outside of Copen-
hagen, however, the plan of 1903 has met with general favor. Girls'
schools in the provincial cities have found great difficulty in holding
the girls who do not expect to go to the university longer than until
the age of 16. The Real examination of the present system, there-
fore, satisfies their needs admirably, and as a result the girls' schools
outside of Copenhagen are being shaped more and more by the
present system of secondary education.
Teachers and salaries. — There are three classes of permanently ap-
pointed teachers in the secondary schools — the head masters, called
rektors^ regular teachers, and adjuncts. In State schools, teachers
in these positions begin with a basic salary of 4,800, 3,600, and 2,400
kroner, respectively. Increases come every four years, until the
salaries reach, respectively, 5,600, 4,800, and 4,000 kroner. Rektors
receive, in addition, free residence or equivalent. Before becoming an
adjunct teacher, the candidate must have served a probationary term
of one or two years.^
Besides the above classes of teachers there are in some schools tem-
porarily appointed teachers, who are paid by the hour. A teacher
of gymnastics is found in every school, and there is also a personage
called pedel^i who serves as a sort of administrative secretary.
Training of secondary teachers. — Since 1908 no person can become
a teacher in a complete secondary school who does not pass the State
examination in the theory and practice of teaching. Preparation for
this examination is normally afforded in the pedagogical seminary
established in 1906 and maintained by the State. Before entering
upon the work of this seminary, the candidate must, as a rule, hold
a degree from the university. The seminary embraces a half year of
theory and another half year of practice. The theoretical instruction
includes: The history and principles of education and methods of
teaching; a study of the development and present organization of
Danish education; school hygiene, including the physiology and
hygiene of adolescence. Professors of university rank are in charge
1 Glahn, De til om hojere Almenskoler horende Retsregler, II Del., pp. 83-84.
62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK.
of the instruction. The examination covers the work of the course,
and is both written and oral.
For the practical training in teaching the candidates are assigned
to State or designated private secondary schools. Each candidate
must select one subject as major and one as minor, which choice
usually determines the teacher under whose supervision and guid-
ance the candidate's practice teaching is to be done. At first the can-
didate visits classes in his chosen subjects and discusses methods
employed with the teacher in charge. Then the candidate himself
teaches a few periods in the presence of his adviser, who offers such
suggestions as may be helpful. Finally, the candidate takes full
charge of the instruction, his adviser not being present. He must,
however, each day render an account of the instruction he has
given and the methods employed. Aside from teaching in his
major and minor subjects, the candidate must visit other classes,
both in secondary and elementary schools. A preliminary examina-
tion in this part of the candidate's training consists of two hours of
teaching in his major subject and one in his minor, in the presence
of his adviser, the head master of the school, and the State inspector
of complete secondary schools. The above examinations in theory
and practice being passed, the candidate must serve a probationary
term of one year in a secondary school. A final test of his teaching
ability is then made by a committee consisting of the head master
of the school and the State inspector or other designated persons,
who observe the candidate's teaching through a period not exceeding
two days. A written document, signed by the examining commit-
tee, constitutes the candidates final testimonial of teaching ability.
He is then eligible for a permanent position in a complete secondary
school.
The arrangement and conduct of the training and examination of
secondary teachers is in the hands of the State inspector of com-
plete secondary schools, who receives applicants for training, assigns
candidates to schools for their practice teaching, and arranges the
various examinations. By this connection with teachers in training
he is eminently qualified to make valuable recommendations as to
appointments.
In secondary schools that do not have Gymnasium departments,
the requirements for appointment are not so high as in the complete
secondary schools. Many teachers from the elementary schools have
by special training, especially in the State Teachers' College,
equipped themselves for teaching in middle schools.
A special examination for women teachers in girls' higher schools
has been arranged, which meets the characteristic requirements of
SECONDARY EDUCATION". 63
these schools. Candidates who have passed this examination are in
great demand in the girls' higher schools.^
Pensions. — By State action there have been established two pen-
sion bureaus, one for teachers in complete secondary schools and
another for Keal and middle schools. Each teacher pays to the
pension fund 2 per cent of his salary annually. To this is added
appropriations from the schools and State aid to the amount of
30,000 kroner annually. After 25 years of service the teachers are
entitled to an annual pension of two-thirds of their average salary
during the last 10 years of service.^
Sup'port of secondary education — State schools. — State schools
derive their funds in part from the income of lands devoted to the
support of churches and schools and from productive funds. Tu-
ition fees and other minor sources contribute a share, and the bal-
ance is covered by appropriations from State moneys. Tuition in
the middle schools is 120 kroner a year, in the Gymnasium and Real
course the amount is 144 kroner. At the boarding school at Soro
400 kroner a year are paid for room, board, tuition, and incidentals.
Free places are maintained for a number equal to one-sixth of the
total enrollment.^
Communal schools. — Communal secondary schools are supported by
funds obtained from the State, the county, the local community, and
in some cases from tuition fees. Some communal middle schools are
absolutely free to all children, some are free to all within the dis-
trict, and some are free only to poor children. In cases where tui-
tion is charged, the amount per child is graded in an ascending scale
from the lower to the higher classes. Fees range from 1^ kroner a
month in the lowest class of one school to 14 kroner in the highest
class of another school. Perhaps the most common amount is 5 or 6
kroner a month.*
Private schools. — In the case of private secondary schools the
sources of income are various. Most of them receive some State
aid, some grants from county or commune. Other sources are:
Endowments, gifts of societies and private persons, and tuition
moneys. Private schools depend much on tuition fees, which are
therefore, as a rule, higher than in State or communal schools. In
Copenhagen the usual rate is 20 to 23 kroner per month. Outside
of Copenhagen the fees are not so high, however, ranging from 10
to 20 kroner.*
Even with these higher tuition fees the private schools are ex-
periencing financial difficulties. This is especially true since the
1 Lang, Den hojere Pigeskole in De Nordiska Landernas SkolvSsen, 1905-1910, p. 96.
8 Linderstrom-Lang, Drenge og Fsellesskoler in Danmarks Skoievsesen, p. 16.
« Glalin, Lov om hojere Almenskoler, pp. 11-12.
*Asmussen, op. cit., pp. 104ff.
3334°— 15 5
64 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
erection of free or low-rate communal secondary schools. In order
to better their financial status, several of the leading private boys'
schools in Copenhagen banded together in 1901 into a federation
under one business management. Some schools that indicated lack
of sufficient patronage were discontinued and their teachers were
transferred to other schools in the federation. The persistent de-
mands of teachers for better pay have made necessary increasingly
higher tuition fees. Parents finally became alarmed, and in 1908
organized a parents' association to counteract the " teachers' union."
A bitter struggle between the two associations has ensued. More
generous State aid has been pointed to as one element in the solu-
tion of the difficulty.^
Conclusion, — The last decade has been a period of reorganization
in the Danish secondary school world. School people have some-
times been at a loss to know how to adjust themselves to the new
order of things, and full satisfaction with the present system has
not always been in evidence. In general, however, the system of
middle school. Real course, and Gymnasium as at present arranged,
seems to meet the requirements in an acceptable manner. Each
year the new forms are becoming more familiar, and in the quiet
pursuance of their various functions the schools will undoubtedly
perform a valuable service for the Danish youth. State, commune,
and private initiative are operating together to give Denmark the
best secondary school system within its reach. The recent activity
of the local communities in establishing and maintaining free pub-
lic middle schools is a particularly significant sign of progress.
Throughout there is a marked tendency toward democracy in edu-
cation and a careful adaptation of educational agencies of the sec-
ondary type to the needs of the people.
Chapter V.
UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
The university — Organization and teaching force. — At the top of
the educational system of Denmark stands the University of Copen-
hagen. Founded in 1478, the institution is quite venerable with age,
and has exerted a tremendous influence upon the cultural life of
northern Europe. The work of the university is organized under
five faculties, with a teaching force of 149, divided as follows : The-
ology, 14; law, 17; medicine, 47; philosophy, 44; and mathematical-
» Martensen-Larson, " Skal Privatskolen leve?"
TJNTVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 65
scientific, 27.^ The rectorship rotates among the faculty members,
the period of office being one year. The highest coimcil is the Con-
sistoriiim of 18 members, and the rector and prorector, if these are
not already members. The 18 members comprise the 5 deans of fac-
ulties and 13 members elected by the academic teachers' council
among those of their number who are faculty members.
The teachers are of four degrees — professor ordinary, professor
extraordinary, docent extraordinary, and privat docent. The salary
of a professor ordinary is 3,600 kroner, with an increase of 600
kroner every fifth year up to 6,000 kroner. Salaries are considered
unreasonably Iotv, and a bill has recently been introduced into Par-
liament to have them raised.
Matriculation. — The university student body numbers at present
about 3,000. They come, as previously noted, from the Gymnasia
of the country. Students graduating from the Gymnasium do not
receive the degree of bachelor. That term is not used in Denmark.
They are granted by the university, however, a Letter of Academic
Citizenship, which bestows about the same honors and privileges
that we in America associate with the academic bachelorhood and
admits to the university without examination.
Courses and degrees. — During the first year in the university all
students must pursue the same course, leading to the degree candidate
of philosophy, the examination for which is generally taken at the
end of the first year. The subjects required are logic, psychology,
and an elementary course in the history of philosophy. The above
examination is very insignificant, however. The "big" examina-
tions come later. The length of the various professional courses in
the university is not as definite as we ordinarily think of them in
American schools. The following is an estimated average of the
time required for the various degrees, including also the first year in
the -university: Candidate of theology, 5 J to 6 years; candidate of
medicine, 7 to 8 years; candidate of law, 5 J to 6 years; candidate of
politics, 5J to 6 J years; master of arts and master of science, 4 to 5
years; and the teaching degree, candidatus magisteri, about 6 years, j
As noted in the review of secondary education, the Danish youth j
finishes his university preparatory course about the time that the '
American youth completes the high school. The professional courses
in Denmark are considerably longer, however, than in America, so
that while the youth gets a shorter general course he gets a longer
specialized training.
/Student life and residence halls. — Student life at the university
centers around two types of institutions, the residence houses and the
lAarbog for Kjobenhavns Unlversitet, Kommunitetet, og den Polytekinske Laereanstalt,
1906-7.
66 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP DENMARK.
student associations. The student residences, of which there are about
half a dozen, with rooms for 10 to 100 students, have been estab-
lished and endowed by people of means. In these, students who are
fortunate enough to get in enjoy free residence and, in some, a cash
stipend in addition. . The most famous of these residences is
Regensen^ established in 1623, for 100 students. Free residence and
an allowance of 50 kroner a month are granted each occupant. There
is no boarding establishment in connection, but a couple of small
kitchens in which some of the students prepare their lunches. In
Regensen have lived many men famous in Danish literature and his-
tory. In a room now used as a reading room Grundtvig preached
his famous trial sermon on, "Why is the Lord's Word Departed
from His House ? " which stirred up the clergy of Copenhagen.
Much is done for the encouragement of poor students. Com-
munitet is the name of an endowment, established about 1580 and
managed by the university, out of which are paid 185 stipends of
40 kroner a month to needy students.
Student associations. — ^The other phase of student life is very
characteristic. It is that provided by the student associations. The
general association is the Studenterforening^ with about 800 mem-
bers, students past and present. This association has a most splendid
building, recently erected by support from the State and various
other sources. In it are reading rooms, dining rooms, smoking
rooms, lecture halls, and the like, very beautifully equipped. This
building furnishes a center and home for a great many students.
There are, however, no opportunities for students to room in this
building. Students both in and out of Studenterforeningen are
furthermore organized into groups with a particular politico-
religious coloring.
There are two confessed Christian associations, Studenterhj em-
met and Kristeligt Studenterforhund^ while Studentersamfundet is
radical both with reference to religion and politics. All the asso-
ciations have their own centers, with reading and lounging rooms,
but no rooming places. They meet on Saturday evenings and have
a lecture on a religious, political, literary, historical, scientific,
or other subject. A discussion follows, during which students do
not hesitate in the least to take issue with the lecturer, be he a
world-famed scholar or a mere tyro. At intervals or after the dis-
cussion a social time with refreshments is enjoyed. Both men and
women are members and participate in the student association life.
Support. — The university has to some extent its own funds, but
receives from the State, for all its activities, nearly 1,000,000 kroner
a year. There is no tuition, properly speaking, there being only a
few minor fees.
UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 67
Poly technical Institute. — The Polytechnical Institute, both as to
entrance requirements, quality of work, and student life, is much on
a par with the university and there is some connection between the
students of the two institutions. It has a faculty of 33 members,
and students numbering 776. Through five and six year courses it
trains chemical, mechanical, construction, and electrical engineers.
It has splended new buildings, elaborate and expensive equipment,
and costs the State about 345.,000 kroner a year.^
Courses in dentistry and pharmacy do not constitute a part of the
university, but are given in separate institutions. Mention can
merely be made of other semiprofessional schools, such as fine arts,
military and naval academy, and seven schools of navigation.
Veterinary and agricultural college. — A very significant institu-
tion for Denmark is the Veterinary and Agricultural College in
Copenhagen, for around its work center many of the problems of
this agricultural and dairy country. The institution was founded in
1856. At present 32 teachers instruct 442 students, 28 of whom were,
in 1910, from Norway.^ Formerly the number from that country
was much greater, but since Norway established and equipped a
splendid agricultural college at Aas, near Christiania, the number
of agricultural students going to Denmark has been much decreased.
Courses in the Danish college range from one and two-thirds to five
years, and include theoretical, experimental, and practical work in
veterinary science, agriculture in all its phases, animal husbandry,
horticulture, and forestry.
In addition to the veterinary clinics there are operated in connec-
tion with the institution chemical and bacteriological laboratories for
testing soils and foods and combating tuberculosis and other diseases
in domestic animals. There is also a laboratory for the study of
animal physiology. An ambulator}^ department of the school insti-
tutes experiments in dairy methods, feeding, and breeding of ani-
mals on selected farms throughout the country. Every year are
held at the college butter exhibitions, to which every creamery oper-
ating in the country must, upon order by telegraph or telephone, send
at once a sample of its butter already manufactured. The butter is
tested and graded with reference to its excellence as an export prod-
uct, and any creamery whose butter sample does not measure up to
the standard, may temporarily be denied the use of the trade-mark
of the Danish butter-export association. The obligation of every
creamery to send, without previous warning, a sample of its butter at
any time an order may come, tends to keep the creameries always up
to the highest mark of efficiency.
1 Op. cit.
•Beretning fra Den Kongelige Veterinaerspog Landbohojskole, 1909-10.
68 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
The activities of the agricultural college require from the State
an appropriation of 540,000 kroner annually.^ The other agricul-
tural schools throughout the country, which together with the agri-
cultural college constitute the system of vocational training for rural
Denmark, are so closely bound up with the people's high schools that
they will be treated of under that heading, in the second part of this
study.
Industrial schools. — Denmark does much in many ways to en-
courage every youth to acquire proficiency in his chosen vocation,
and to place educational facilities for this purpose within his reach.
Thus are worthy of special notice the technical and trade schools
which are found all over the country, and are largely attended.^ In
1911 there were 160 such schools with a total attendance of over
18,000. They are mostly evening schools in which young persons
from 14 years upward, who are learning a trade, may supplement
their training by courses in Danish, arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
bookkeeping, free-hand drawing, descriptive geometry, geometrical
construction, and foreign languages, usually English and German.
In addition to these more general subjects there are also trade courses
for masons, carpenters, joiners, tinners, turners, coach makers,
smiths, mechanicians, electricians, and the like. Some schools also
give instruction in painting, clay modeling, and art industries. Still
another type of instruction is given in the trade schools proper, which
are generally maintained by trade unions and supported by local and
State aid. Thus there are evening trade schools for shoemakers,
tailors, watchmakers, bookbinders, barbers, hotel clerks, cooks, dress-
makers, milliners, servant girls, and the like.
The instruction is usually given from 7 to 10 o'clock through the
months October to March, and the same student usually continues
through the several years during which he is learning his trade.
More than half of the schools have their own buildings. The rest are
conducted in public-school buildings. The teachers are frequently
public school-teachers or men and women proficient in their trades.
During the summer months the State maintains special training
courses for such teachers.
Some of the larger schools in the cities have established day
schools, in which instruction is given in a wider range of cultural
subjects and in branches that are required for proficiency in the more
difficult trades, such as draftsmanship, building construction, and
decoration.
ScJwol for servant girls. — A most interesting and unique trade
school is operated in Copenhagen by the Servant Girls' Union. There
1 Landokonomisk Aarbog, 1912, pp. 12-15.
2 Andersen, Summary of the Development of Technical Insti'uction in Denmark. (Manu-
script)
UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 69
is a six months' course for beginners and advanced courses of two
months for special training in cooking, dining-room service, and the
like.^ The girls live at the school and pay 10 kroner a month for
tuition, board, room, and laundry. Theoretical instruction in the
six months' course embraces nutrition, hygiene, and care of the sick
and children. For the practical instruction the girls are divided into
three sections, for kitchen, housemaid, and laundry work, respec-
tively. By rotation every week the girls thus do all the actual work
connected with the school, and by so doing under competent super-
vision receive instruction in preparation of food, baking, housework,
setting table, serving, sewing, washing, ironing, and household
accounts.
When graduates of the school accept positions they are bound by
the rules of the union. Some of the rules of service are : The work-
day extends from 6 or 7 o'clock in the morning to the same hour in
the evening, with one or one and a half hours for rest during the day ;
every other Sunday and holiday free from 2 o'clock in the afternoon,
and two evenings a week, after 7 o'clock, when the girl may leave the
house i^ she chooses; at least eight days' vacation a year; overtime
to be paid for at the rate of 25 ore per hour or 15 ore for the half-
hour. Needless to say, many housewives are incensed at the regula-
tions of the union and refuse to employ union girls. Others recog-
nize the superior quality of the girls that have received the training
of the school and are willing to pay the higher wages they ask and
grant the desired liberties in return for the superior excellence in
service. The school and the terms of service tend to raise the social
status of servant girls, and may therefore be a significant contribution
to the solution of the problem that is vexing housewives in all
countries.
Schools of housekeeping and domestic science. — Schools of house-
keeping and domestic science have recently experienced a rapid
growth in Denmark. There are now some 20 schools in the country,
13 of which received State aid in 1912-13.- Nearly all the schools are
boarding schools. By doing in part the actual work connected with
the institution, under competent supervision, the girls receive practi-
cal training in all phases of housekeeping and domestic science.
Usually two courses of five months each are operated each year, one
from May to September and the other from November to March.
The theoretical subjects embrace nutrition, hygiene, and household
accounts. Many schools also include some liberal subjects in their
courses. The schools are largely frequented by girls from the better
class of homes, who seek the training of the schools to equip them for
presiding over their own future homes. Three schools are devoting
* Bulletin, Kobenhavns Tjenestepigeforenings Fagskole.
"Fortegnelse over Husholdningsskoler, 1912-13.
70 THE EDUCATION-AL SYSTEM OF DENMARK.
themselves to training teachers for these and other schools in which
similar instruction is given. One of these normal schools has a
three-year course, and the others maintain courses of two-years' work.
For 1912-13 the State appropriated 468,000 kroner to technical
schools, 68,000 kroner to trade schools, and 12,000 kroner to schools
of housekeeping and domestic science.^ The schools are not a part of
the public school system. They are established and maintained by
private persons or associations, but are not conducted as money-
making ventures.
Commercial schools. — The same is true of another numerous and
important type of schools, the commercial schools, of which there are
in the country 8 day schools and 59 evening schools, Avith a total of
over 6,000 students. As technical and trade schools serve for the in-
dustries, so the commercial schools suppplement the training of the
young people who enter the commercial field. It is customary in
Denmark for business houses to take in young men to learn their busi-
ness at about the age of 14. They serve an apprenticeship of from
four to five years, during which period it is generally required that
the learners attend the evening commercial school. The course runs
usually through three years of 10 months each, with 6 hours a week.
A selection of subjects may be made from Danish, German, English,
French, Spanish, Russian, arithmetic, writing, correspondence, geog-
raphy, bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, commercial law, com-
modities of commerce, and gymnastics.^
The day commercial schools are usually attended by older pupils
who have served their apprenticeship or have completed the middle
school. Real school, or Gymnasium and require the student's whole
time while pursuing a course. It seems difficult in Denmark for
prospective young business men to set aside a year of their time in
order to attend a day commercial school. The sysfem of recruiting
business men by the apprenticeship system takes them directly from
the elementary schools and they are therefore not well equipped to
do the work of a higher commercial school, even if they have attended
an evening commercial school. Furthermore, after spending four or
five years as an apprentice, the young man begrudges the time neces-
sary for a year course in a day school. The evening commercial
schools are therefore the most popular method of supplementing the
education of the business man.
Some day schools are found, however. They all have courses ex-
tending over one year, except Brock's Commercial College, in Copen-
hagen. This school has a two-year course and serves as a central
school for the whole country, drawing students who are desirous of
1 Finanslov, 1912-13.
» De danske Handelsskoler, Fremstilling av deres indretning og virksomlied.
UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 71
advanced commercial training. In addition to more elementary sub-
jects its two-year course embraces economics, commerce, exchange,
tariffs, statistics, technology, commodities of commerce, and the com-
mercial phases of history, geogi'aphy, chemistry, and law.
To the support of commercial schools the State appropriates an-
nually 60,000 kroner.!
This, in brief compass, is the system by which Denmark strives to
educate her people culturally and vocationally. The outline provides
the setting for a somewhat more detailed study of what is perhaps
the most interesting feature of Danish education, the work of the
people's high schools and the related agricultural schools. These
institutions constitute the subject of the second part of this study.
iQp. cit, p. 13.
PART II. THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL
Chapter VI.
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS.
People's high school defined. — The Danish people's high school is
a unique institution, and a preliminary statement of its nature and
purpose may therefore serve to make more intelligible the discussion
that follows. The people's high schools {FolJceh0jskoler) are
boarding schools for adult young people, chiefly from the rural com-
munities. They are not vocational, but cultural in their purpose.
The typical . course extends through five months in winter for boys
and three months in summer for girls. A second winter is frequently
spent by the boys in one of the agricultural schools, which have grown
out of the high-school movement. These agricultural schools are
so closely related to the people's high schools in their historical
development and method of work that they are here, as generally,
treated together, such special mention being made of them as from
time to time may be necessary for a correct presentation. Both
types of schools are privately owned but receive State aid. To-
gether they number 99, and have an annual attendance of over 8,000
young people. It is estimated that from one-third to one-fourth of
the entire rural population of Denmark at some time or other attend
these schools. Their influence in the country is therefore very great,
and as a type of school activity they present many phases of interest
to students of popular education.
Grundtvig''s early life. — The father of the people's high schools
was Bishop N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783-1872), theologian, historian,
poet, patriot, and educator. On both his father's and mother's side
his ancestry included distinguished theologians and scientists. His
father was a clergyman in southern Zealand. There, in a home of
culture set amidst the beauties of nature, Grundtvig spent his early
years. By stories and legends his mother awakened the boy's his-
torical sense, which continued to be fed by the reading of historical
books, huge of bulk, whose profound contents taxed the father's and
mother's capacity to explain.^
lA good biography of Grundtvig is L. Schroder's N. F. S. Grundtvig's Levned.
73
74 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Preparatory education. — At the age of 9 Grundtvig was sent to be
prepared for the Latin school by a bachelor clergyman who had pre-
viously served as tutor for Grundtvig's elder brothers. This clergy-
man served a parish in Jutland on the border of the great heath,
where the natural and human environment was far different from
that of Grundtvig's home, and served during his six years' stay to
broaden his knowledge and sympathies. He said later that he here
became familiar with " seriousness and quietness in nature and in the
thought life of the soul." Here, too, he had to find his companions
among the peasants and workingmen, and developed thus an interest
in the common people which was rare in a man of his origin and
station. He also traveled some during this period, learned to know
more of his country, and became familiar with the dialects peculiar
to the different sections. Thus from first hand he gained that uni-
versal knowledge of his native language which afterwards made him
a master of expression.
At the university. — After what he calls two useless years at the
Latin school in Aarhus, he went to Copenhagen, where he took the
student examination and entered upon theological studies at the uni-
versity at the age of 17. He had no particular interest at that time
in theological studies, but his parents wished him to take that course,
and, besides, it was the line of study usually entered upon by men
of his class. Grundtvig seems not to have been much impressed by
any teachers at the university except his cousin Steffens, who had
just returned from Germany, much influenced by the German philos-
ophers. The free and spirited lectures of Steffens captivated
Grundtvig and exerted an influence which clearly came to light later
in his poetry.
Crises. — After completing his theological studies, Grundtvig
served for some years as tutor. While in this capacity he formed an
unfortunate attachment for the mother of the children he taught.
While this experience shattered his too great self-confidence, it also
served to awaken his poetic nature, which gradually unfolded itself
into an activity that placed him in the very forefront of northern
poets. Later a religious crisis made him a devout student of the
Bible and of the influence of Christianity in history. These ex-
periences and studies produced the reformer, burning with a desire
to reestablish a live Christianity among his people.
Service as pastor. — Grundtvig was ordained to the ministry in
1811, and became his father's curate. His trial sermon before ordi-
nation was on the text, " Why is the Lord's Word departed from His
house"? It stirred up the clergy of Copenhagen and shows the
spirit of the religious enthusiast. On the death of his father, in
1813, he moved to Copenhagen, where he served as pastor until the
unfriendliness of the city clergy, resulting from his uncomfortable
OKIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 75
activity, led to his withdrawal. After seven years he resumed office,
but in 1828, for similar reasons, withdrew again. Eleven years later
he resumed the work of the ministry, in which he continued for the
balance of his life. As a mark of recognition of his services the title
of bishop without diocese was conferred upon him.
Grundtvig's service to the cause of education must be considered
in the light of his great life purjDose, namely, to effect a nation-wide
awakening of his people. This purpose gradually formed itself
more and more clearly in his mind, and he labored to discover the
means by which it might be accomplished.
Humiliation of Denmark. — In order to appreciate the need for
such awakening and the passion that burned in Grundtvig's breast
to bring it about, it is necessary to note the humiliation of Denmark
at this time. In bygone centuries the people of the north had lorded
it over a large part of Europe. Their conquering Viking expedi-
tions pressed boldly forth into unknown regions, subdued peoples,
and set up new kingdoms. They built up an independent cultural
civilization with a literature which, since it has again been brought
to light, never ceases to call forth admiration. But later, while the
other European nations were forming themselves and gaining in
strength, the countries of the north went backward. Politically
their territories were retrenched and their influence lessened. Cul-
turally they lost their individuality, and everything foreign came
into high favor. Northern culture was practically extinct ; even the
native languages were being displaced by German and French as
media of culture.^ Added to this, Denmark experienced one catas-
trophe after the other during Grundtvig's early life. The Napo-
leonic wars were in progress. Denmark tried to remain neutral, but
when this was no longer possible, she cast in her lot with Napoleon,
and immediately lost her fleet to England. The capital itself was
bombarded, and a long and disastrous war followed. In 1813 the
country was officially declared bankrupt, and in 1814 Norway, which
had been united with Denmark for 400 years, was separated from
her. Instead of being aroused by these events, the Danish people
were stupefied and sank down into a hopeless apathy, expecting
national extinction.
Grundtvig'^s efforts for an awakening. — Grundtvig, who had lived
himself into the past glories of the race, saw with pain and bitterness
the calamities that overtook his country and the indifference of the
people, in whom the spirit of national pride seemed absolutely dead.
He began at an early age to cherish the idea, which later developed
into a passion, to arouse the national feeling of his people. For a
time he turned for inspiration to northern mythology. He thought
* Cf. HoUmann, Den Danske Folkeh^jskole, pp. 3ff.
76 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
he saw in the traits of the old Norse gods the elements of true in-
dividual and national greatness. The product of his devotion to
mythology was several books which he hoped would stir the slum-
bering qualities of the people. For the time being, however, their
only effect seemed to be to establish his reputation as an author, lie
also gave himself to the task of modernizing for the people of his day
the classics of northern history and poetry. During his first period
of enforced leisure from the ministry he translated Snorre Stur-
lasson's Saga from Icelandic. The chronicles of Saxo Grammaticus
from Latin, and Beowulf from Anglo-Saxon.
Yisits to England. — After his second withdrawal from the minis-
try, in 1829, he spent, by the aid of State stipends, three successive
summers in England, studying the neglected Anglo-Saxon manu-
scripts in London, Oxford, Cambridge, and Exeter. His interest in
these matters lay chiefly in his desire to familiarize the Danish people
with their spiritual inheritance, in order that their national spirit
might be stirred to action. Grundtvig's visits to England were fruit-
ful, however, in other than philological respects. He was struck with
the active political life of the English people, who were then in the
midst of their reform legislation. He was impressed, also, by the
freedom for individual initiative and expression, which to him was
the secret of the pulsating life and the business energy that he saw
about him. All this was in marked contrast to the conditions at
home, and he longed to see among his own people some of this activity
which was making a great England.^
Loss of faith in hoohs. — These experiences of an active and achiev-
ing life drew Grundtvig out from the retreat of the study into the
open field of action. Hitherto his life had been spent almost exclu-
sively in the study and production of books, for he had labored under
the impression that the press was the most effective means of influ-
encing his fellow men. As the years went on, however, he became
disappointed with the results of his literary activity, for the effort
of his pen failed to arouse the people as he had hoped. The years
and labor he had spent on his books seemed practically wasted. The
people did not read them ; or, if they did, it was without the reaction
Grundtvig had looked for. Having lost faith in the magic of books,
he determined to move to action. The " living word " of speech was
now to accomplish what the "dead words" of books could not do.
For a time he seems to have desired a professorship at the university,
where he might give expression to his ideas and enthusiasm, but no
such opportunity was offered. Even if it had come, however, it could
scarcely have become the means of awakening the rank and file of his
fellow citizens.
1 Thornton, Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe, English Special Ee-
ports, vol. 17, p. 112.
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 77
The people^s high-scJiool idea. — It was then that the ideas about a
people's culture which he had long entertained became clarified and
took distinct form. He saw now more clearly than ever that a
permanent national awakening must begin with a spiritual enlighten-
ment of the common people, and as a means to the accomplishment
of this purpose he made, in 1832, his first definite suggestion of a
people's high school. This was to be an institution—
where the mother tongue should be the ruling factor and the fatherland the
living center to which all hearts might be drawn, and around which the light
should move, so that, after having too long worshipped that which was foreign,
the people might once more truly learn to know and love their home/
Grundtvig''s attitude toward existing schools. — In order to appreci-
ate the need which Grundtvig felt for this new type of institution, it
is necessary to know his attitude toward the existing agencies for
higher education. He brings a general indictment against all types
of existing schools :
Every school, great or small, which begins with the alphabet and ends with
book knowledge — consequently, everything which for centuries has been called
school and all that is still so called — is a " school for death." *
He criticizes the prevailing aims of education:
Enlightenment has never been altogether neglected in Denmark, but it has
hitherto clearly failed in its purposes. Its aim has been to give all men a Ger-
man comprehension of heaven and logic, and to the professional class a Roman
comprehension of the whole world, but it has given to none a sound under-
standing of the things that lie nearest to us all — nature, the fatherland, and
the conditions that make for its welfare.'
Opposition to the Latin school. — He is particularly dissatisfied
with the Latin schools, as appears from numerous passages in his
writings :
And although the Latin school, according to my conviction, is not only un-
necessary, but very harmful and the mother of all our woes, it ought still to
remain as long as many consider it to be the necessary support of the church, a
Chinese wall against barbarism, and a nursery for all historical science. For
this groundless but deeply- rooted prejudice will vanish as soon as people see
that the Danish school really makes the church more alive and fruitful for the
Danish people and inculcates much more love for Denmark and understanding
of its needs. Such a school may become the cradle of an historical science
which does not fetter its devotees with chains to the dead languages and their
graves or grammars, but unites them in a living relationship with past genera-
tions and especially with our northern forefathers.*
The reasons for Grundtvig's hatred of the Latin schools were
many.^ He contended that humanistic studies as pursued by mere
children in the schools made them strangers to their own language,
» Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 22.
« Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 12.
•Grundtvig, Akademlet i Soer, p. 32.
* Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 11.
• Ct Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 270.
78 THE DAinSH people's HIGH SCHOOL.
literature, and national spirit, while it gave them no real insight into
classic culture. Their acquisition was a mere formal knowledge of
grammar and syntax and a quantity of historical facts. Moreover,
he despised Roman civilization, which to him was organized selfish-
ness and force, producing nothing great out of itself , but borrowing
everything from Hellenism. He was deeply grieved that the influ-
ence of such a civilization had overwhelmed the Germanic peoples,
who had in themselves the elements of true individual and national
greatness. Under the influence of Christianity, which permits the
individual to reach his fullest development, the Germanic peoples
had made notable progress in the development of a truly humanistic
Christian culture. Therefore to have inflicted upon them as the chief
means of culture the literature and history of a people foreign in
spirit and ideals was to Grundtvig a real calamity. It is difficult for
him to speak calmly about the situation :
I confess that it is my firm conviction that all child science is preposterous,
and that the bookworm system, seclusion from the world, the setting aside of
the mother tongue, and the deification of the Latin writings constitute the most
unsuitable education for royal Danish leaders that I can conceive of.*
Grundtvig was opposed to the Latin schools also because of the
aristocratic standard of culture for which they stood. To a man who
was trying to open a way to a common culture for the common peo-
ple the wearing of a " Latin cloak " could not be a true criterion of
culture. Grundtvig held that culture finds its source and means in
that which is " of the people." Another chief objection which is still
a very pronounced line of demarcation between the people's high
schools and the ordinary type of secondary schools was the emphasis
on examinations. Examinations played and still play a tremendous
role in Denmark. Openings to nearly all positions of importance
in the country are via examinations. Examinations open the way to
a " sure living," and preparation for examinations seemed to Grundt-
vig to be the chief function of the " learned " schools. With despair
he beheld this eternal striving for a " sure living," but saw no real
desire for culture for its own sake.
Criticism of the Real school. — The mathematical Real school finds
as little favor with Grundtvig as the Latin school :
Likewise I believe it is perfectly clear that even if it were an excellent round-
about way or training for citizenship to go through the mathematical purgatory
it would be such only on the condition that the boys could be relieved of all
their learnings, lay all reckonings and demonstrations on the shelf, dismiss all
bookwormishness from their minds, put on industriousness with their everyday
clothes, and each eagerly take up his handicraft. Otherwise they would at the
very best be fit to be professors of mathematics or teachers in schools of the
same kind. If so, we should have a circle of schooling, examinations, and a
» Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 25.
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 79
sure living similar to that of the Latin schools, but on a much larger scale.
Such a system would exhaust the resources of even the richest nation, to say
nothing of the poorest/
Work of people^s high schools outlined. — Finding that none of the
institutions of his day afforded the means of a true people's culture,
Grundtvig felt the need of a new type of school, a " school for life,"
whose aim should not be " examinations and a sure living," but " a
culture and enlightenment which is the individual's own affair, and
is its own reward." ^ Grundtvig never formulated any definite plan
for the activity of his people's high school. He tells why he can not
do so:
As to the arrangement of the Danish high school I can not enter upon that,
for everything human fares as we do. We must be born before it can be known
what caps will fit our heads, to say nothing of how high a destiny we shall have
and what knowledge we may be able to acquire. I should not even have men-
tioned this matter, if we had not become so perverted in the " schools for
death " that we can scarcely imagine a school whose whole life is not mapped out
before it begins. This can easily be done with the bookish art, which consists
in memorizing a certain number of glossaries and rules, and at its best in study-
ing and imitating such unchangeable and dead things as books. But just as
this method is impossible of application to the development of life, which pre-
cludes stagnation and can follow no rules but those of nature, so neither can it
be applied to education, which must adjust itself to life as it really is."
Grundtvig does, however, indicate the general lines along which
he thinks the institution should operate:
One can therefore say that at a people's civic high school in our and our
children's time there ought, as far as possible, to be opportunity for learning
foreign languages, mathematics, history, and everything that an individual
has a desire for and longs to study, either for the sake of its usefulness or
enjoyment.*
The chief purpose, however, the living unifying soul of such a
school, Grundtvig says, can not be described. Poetically he feels
it to be a life-giving, light-spreading, heart-warming function, but
it defies schematic representation. One thing is clear to him, that
books and all that resembles them should play as small and unim-
portant a role as possible in the people's high school, where the aim
must by no means be " examinations and a livelihood," but culture
and enlightenment. In order to know what culture should be at-
tained, it is necessary to ask what an educated citizen should know
in order to be able to serve the State with efficiency. As parts of
such knowledge and culture he mentions especially —
a clear notion of civic society and the conditions of its welfare, an apprecia-
tion of the national characteristics of his people, sincere devotion to " King
» Grundtvig, op. cit., p. 39.
*Idem, p. 13.
' Grundtvig, Akademiet 1 Soer, p.
* Idem, p. 60.
3334<'_15 6
80 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
and fatherland," ability to express himself orally in his mother tongue, with
ease and vigor, freedom and propriety, and, finally, a definite knowledge of
what we have and what we lack, based upon reliable reports on the conditions
of the country/
Curriculum and methods. — From these and other passages in his
writings it is possible to obtain a fairly definite idea of the curricu-
lum and methods which Grundtvig had in mind for his cherished
institution. In the very first place must be put the mother tongue.
For the school was to be distinctly Danish, not Latin, nor German.
By the mother tongue as an element in the curriculum Grundtvig
means training in free and forceful expression, appreciation for
folk songs, familiarity with the ancient Danish myths, legends,
arid epics, and also an introduction to modern Danish writers. The
second large element in the curriculum was to be history, especially
of Denmark, but also of Christianity and the world. Other subjects
definitely suggested are economics, embracing a study of the re-
sources, industries, and economic activities of Denmark, and civics,
with special reference to national and communal government in
Denmark, in order to prepare for intelligent participation in these
forms of activity.
The uniqueness of the new institution, however, was to be in its
method. As has been noted, books were to be used as little as pos-
sible. Grundtvig came to have an almost unreasonable hatred of
books as school implements. He held that the constant application
to books resulted in a bookworm existence and severance from ordi-
nary interests. In the new school, therefore, human speech, instead
of books, was to be the means of imparting spirit and ideas. In-
formal lectures, without notes, was his ideal of method; talks, with
a large human element in them, and conviction born of personal
experience. The lectures ought furthermore to be given in a lan-
guage that the people could understand. Grundtvig virtually created
a new Danish speech. He broke away from the academic language
of the day, and from his intimate knowledge of Danish, as spoken
by the people, he built up a language which, in diction and idioms,
was felt to be the people's own. In this language he wrote, and in
this language he wished the work in his people's high school to be
done. By hearing and speaking such idiomatic Danish, not by
grammatical drill nor continuous essay writing, the young people
would be taught to use and love their mother tongue. Grundtvig
says that " a genuine Danish high school will make it possible for
our descendants after hundreds of years to feel, think, and speak
Danish."
1 Grundtvig, Akademiet i Soer, p. 61,
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 81
Another characteristic of method was to be the nationalistic ap-
proach to all studies. Whether the subject matter be literature, his-
tory, economics, or civics, the bearing of it all on Denmark was to
receive the emphasis. History was to be presented, not critically but
culturally, to show the progress of the race and for the light that it
has to cast on present problems. Economics and civics were not to
be taught theoretically by the agency of textbooks and statistics, but
by having men of large knowledge of the country, its activities and
institutions, talk to the young people and discuss matters with them
personally. There were to be no examinations of any kind. It was
not Grundtvig's idea that the high school should prepare its students
for any learned studies. The culture was to be sought for its own
value, and the work of the school must consequently be of such a
nature as to have worth and attractiveness in itself. The instruc-
tion was intended for grown-up young men who were already en-
gaged in some life work, and the purpose of the high school was not
to change their vocation. They were to return to their work, but with
a greater inner jo}^, greater desire to work, greater love for country,
and greater appreciation for a higher, more ideal conception of work
and life.^
Place in the educational system. — Grundtvig does not seem to
have thought out clearly the place of the people's high school in
the scheme of education. At times he speaks of a school for citizen-
ship, which all the people should attend, where they would learn
to know and love their mother tongue and country, and thus be
fitted f OBI their duties as citizens. In speaking of various types of
schools, he says it is the school for citizenship he wishes to dwell on
especially —
inasmuch as it is the only one that can be common to us all. All of us can
and should be intelligent and useful Danish citizens, but clearly only a very
few at a time should be professors and learned men. But while we have more
than suflScient schools for training pastors and professors, we have no schools
at all to train Danish citizens.'
This training for citizenship he thinks the existing schools are
absolutely unfitted to give. Therefore there is a deficiency in the
school system.
Even though the rest of our school system be excellent and adapted to our
purposes, it is still very deficient as long as we do not have a high school for
that social and civic life in which we all can and should partake.' This must,
moreover, be considered the natural root and source of all our endeavors, so
much so that if the demands of this civic life are despised and neglected all
other enlightenment will become lifeless in itself as well as fatal to the people
and destructive to the Kingdom.'
1 Cf. Hollmann. Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 45,
* Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 21.
82 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
A school for leaders. — Especially does Grundtvig^ see the need of
a school of citizenship and a common folk culture for that portion
of the population which are to be leaders, but do not study for a
professional career. As has been noted in our survey of Danish
education, the differentiation between elementary and secondary edu-
cation was made very early at this time, in fact generally upon the
child's entrance into school. The kind of education a child was to
receive was determined by the type of school he entered and this
again by the social position of his parents. Once registered in the
elementary school, his fate was sealed. His cultural opportunities,
as far as school was concerned, would terminate at the age of con-
firmation. This was the fate of the masses of the people. To be
sure the University of Copenhagen was always open to all, regard-
less of academic preparations, but it is easy to see that, by reason of
its nature and method, the work carried on there, even if it were all
that might be expected of it, could never become an appreciable
means of culture for any but the academically trained. Therefore,
barred from the secondary schools by a too early differentiation and
from the cultural opportunities of the university by lack of prepara-
tion, the nonacademic people were living in intellectual and cultural
destitution. Grundtvig says :
The difficulty is that few or no places have a high school for scientific and
civic training of the people, which can give a modicum of culture to those
people who do not receive academic training, but who desire to belong to the
cultured classes.^
In such a school —
all those officers of State who do not need learning, but life, vision, and practical
ability, and all those people who desire culture may have the desired oppor-
tunity to develop themselves and learn to know each other.'
A school for the common people. — A school of this type, Grundtvig
thought, was necessary not for leaders only, however. It had a func-
tion to perform for the ordinary citizenry.
If now a Danish high school, as kingly, free, and popular as possible, is neces-
sary for training officers of State, pray, is it less so for that large portion of the
people who can not or do not desire to hold office, but who must support them-
selves and the rest? That this root and stem of the people, renters and own-
ers, great and small, mechanics of all kinds, seamen, and merchants, need no
other enlightenment or culture than that obtained behind the plow, in the
workshop, in the tops, or in the merchant's booth, may be the thought of bar-
barians and tyrants. Such, however, has never been the northern mode of
thought, either among the kings or the people, and it could never be, for here,
if nowhere else, it is true that we are all of one blood, so that the same capacity
for culture is found in the cottage as in the palace.'
1 Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 22.
2 Idem, p. 24.
"Grundtvig, Akademiet i Soer, p. 29.
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 83
Source of the people'^s high-school idea, — It is not laiown whether
or not Grundtvig owes the origin of his people's high school idea to
any other source than himself. A possible influence of Rousseau via
Germany has been pointed out. Nordal-Peterson says :
During a visit in eastern Prussia, Herder, one of Rousseau's admirers, saw
how oppressed nations suffered under a foreign yoke. Tlirough the influence
of Rousseau's ideas the thought comes to him that one might help the oppressed
toward a national awakening by erecting a national young people's school,
and he outlines the plan in one of his books. Herder never realized his plan,
but it is probable that Grundtvig had read the book in question. His " World's
History" (1812) shows that he had read Herder with interest, and it is not
impossible that from his writings Grundtvig had received an impulse toward his
great idea.^
Estimate of Grundtvig^s influence. — Whether the people's high-
school idea be original with Grundtvig or not, the fact remains that
he not only developed and propagated the idea, but presented a
philosophy of life and education which has become the pedagogical
foundation of the schools. While the chief emphasis in his writings
is upon the service of a people's high school in the awakening and
regeneration of the nation, he also stresses the value of such a school
for the young people themselves, in helping them to realize them-
selves most fully. In fact, as Grundtvig saw it, the latter service of
the school is a prerequisite for the former. Ludvig Schroder, one
of the closest students of Grundtvig, compares him with Rousseau.^
As Rousseau proclaimed the " gospel of childhood," so Grundtvig
proclaimed the " gospel of youth."
As childhood has its own interests and prerogatives and is not a
mere transition period to becoming grown up, so youth has a right
to an independent value and is not to be regarded as a meaningless
passing over from childhood to manhood. The period of youth is a
most unhappey one in the lives of many. It is a time when intellec-
tual and moral problems beset the young person, when he is wrestling
with the question of his life mission and perhaps that of his life
mate. It frequently becomes a mere existence without content, a
drifting about from one impulse to another. Grundtvig held that,
if youth is to be a joyous and fruitful period, the individual must
come to his rights and be wisely guided in his aspirations in order
that his personality may be built on a sound foundation and de-
veloped in all its capacities. Here was the opportunity for a peo-
ple's high school.
Hollmann has pointed out a kinship with Ruskin's ideas : ^
Grundtvig's view of life has much in common with that of Ruskin, who,
continuing in a sense the ideas of Grundtvig, would make a festival of life as
a whole and make work secondary. Both thinkers are as one in striving for
1 Nordal-Petersen, Danmarks Hojskoler, p. 3.
• Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, Ch. I.
« Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 26.
84 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
this, that life may be lived completely, that personality may be uniformly
developed, and that all people may obtain a deeper appreciation of life's values.
But while Ruskin nearly always moves on the border line of the impossible
in his requirements, Grundtvig is a practical man, who knows what he wants
and what is possible of realization. Grundtvig wants nothing else than this —
to give the individual his youth, a time in which he may live in the realm of
beautiful and noble aspirations.
That Grundtvig has exerted a powerful influence upon the cul-
tural life of his country is evident when intelligent students soberly
apply to him such epithets as "Prophet of the north" and "The
greatest folk educator of the north." Even his unsympathetic critic,
George Brandes, estimates him as the largest cultural factor in Den-
mark in the nineteenth century. The German Hollmann describes
him as —
a man of large historic vision, with creative thoughts and a depth and
breadth of feeling which was capable of embracing his people, the nation in its
future development. It may appear as if the wheel of history moves according
to eternally fixed laws. Occasionally, however, a strong man may take a hand
and strive to lift it out of its rut. If he is fortunate, others lend a hand and
progress takes a new course. Grundtvig grasped the wheel of historical de-
velopment and gave it a new direction. Without him there would now pre-
sumably be no Danish Kultur, and therefol'e he is a genius in the eyes of his
people.^
Chapter VII.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL.
I. THE FIRST PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL.
Grundtvig'^s plan futile. — Grundtvig had in mind the establishment
of one large people's high school for the whole country. It was to be
a school with a faculty of scholars on a par with those of the uni-
versity, from whom streams of influence might flow forth to refresh
and regenerate the nation. For a long time he cherished the plan
that the richly endowed academy at Soro might be transformed into
such a high school. For this he wrote and labored assiduously. He
succeeded finally in gaining the favor of King Christian VIII and
Queen Caroline Amalie for the plan, but the King died in 1848, be-
fore the idea could be realized. The party which subsequently came
into power was " too much bound by classical tradition to believe in a
characteristically Danish culture." ^ Grundtvig's efforts for the Soro
plan thus came to naught, and the idea has never been realized,
although it is even to-day a live subject of discussion.
1 Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 4.
■Begtrup. Folkehojskolen i Danmark, p. 4.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 85
Scene of the ftr^t school. — Meanwhile the seed which Grundtvig
had sown took root and began to bear fruit in another way. Although
his efforts to have his cherished people's institution established by
royal favor proved futile, the essential people's high school idea was
being realized by the rank and file of the common people. The scene
was north Schleswig. This was at that time a part of Denmark, and
the people were becoming aware of the danger of German influence,
which threatened to destroy their national identity. The situation is
well described by Begtrup ; ^
North Schleswig, whose population was Danish, had been governed for many
years by German-trained officials, who had studied at Kiel. When the nation-
alistic movement began to be felt in Europe the citizens of north Schleswig also
awakened to a consciousness of their Danish character and sought to free them-
selves from the spiritual guardianship of the German officials. Then began a
cultural struggle in which the majority of the educated classes were found in
the German camps. Friends of the common people perceived that it was neces-
sary for the plain people to be equipped with a better education in order that
they might themselves defend the rights of their Danish speech. Such education
must necessarily be given in Danish, since the people did not know any foreign
language, and its content must serve to strengthen their appreciation of national
values. Here was a practical need for Grundtvig's school idea.
The leaders of this nationalizing movement, among whom Chris-
tian Flor, professor of Danish at the University of Kiel, was a promi-
nent figure, had become familiar with Grundtvig's ideas and were
much influenced by his writings. When Grundtvig's request and
plan for a high school at Soro appeared in 1840 and had been favor-
ably received by Flor, a citizen of north Schleswig pointed out in a
newspaper article that nowhere was a high school such as that pro-
posed more needed than in north Schleswig.
The first school established at Rodding. — Other interested citizens
gave the idea their support, stock was subscribed, and in 1843 the
Schleswig Association was formed with the erection of a people's
high school as one of its chief aims. A suitable property was pur-
chased at Rodding, and upon application to King Christian VIII
permission was granted in 1844 for the establishment of the school.
In the plan which accompanied the application, appeared the follow-
ing passage relating to the purpose and scope of the school :
The aim we have set before us is to found an institution where peasant
and citizen may acquire such knowledge and accomplishments as may minister
to his usefulness or enjoyment, with reference not so much to his particular
vocation and work as to his function as his country's son and citizen of the
State. The institution should have, therefore, a beneficent influence upon his
private and home life, as well as upon his public and civic activity. We call
it a high school because it is not to be an ordinary boy's school, but an educa-
tional institution partly for young men past the age of confirmation and partly
1 Begtrup, Folkehojskolen i Danmark, p. 4.
86 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
for full-gi-own boys and men. We call it a people's high school because persons
of every station may attend it, even if it is especially arranged for the rural
class and expects its students from that source.^
The plan further provided that the board of directors should con-
sist of seven members, three of whom must always belong to the
rural class. The curriculum was to comprise Danish language and
literature, history, civics, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, surveying,
German, Swedish, natural sciences, singing, and gymnastics. Each
semester was to be complete in itself, but the work so planned that a
complete course extended over two years. The school began its ac-
tivity in November, 1844, with 20 students and 2 teachers. Its prin-
cipal was John Wegener, a university man and graduate in theology.
Career and influence of the school. — The school at Rodding expe-
rienced a checkered career. Its finances gave the most trouble. At
times its friends despaired of maintaining it, but by earnest en-
deavors it was possible to keep the school going. Much credit for
this is due to Flor, who gave up his chair at Kiel to become its
principal for a time. Certain problems were encountered and solved
in this school and principles established that are of general interest
in the people's high-school movement. The first was the question as
to whether the school should be an out-and-out vocational school for
agriculturists, or a school of general culture. The original purpose
of the school had been to arouse the national spirit and save the
mother tongue from its threatened extinction. When, after the war
of 1848-49, these ends were largely attained, many thought that the
school no longer had any sufficient reason for its existence, as origi-
nally planned, and therefore should be transformed into an agricul-
tural school. This party held that if able farmers were desired, the
best plan was to go at the training of farmers directly with a pure
agricultural school. However, the principal of the school, Sophus
Hogsbro, Flor, and others championed the cause of general culture
with such ability that they won the victory, and the institution was
enabled to continue as a school of the Grundtvigian type. An inter-
esting testimony in this connection came from the able agricultu-
ralist, Testdorph, who later became president of the Royal Danish
Agricultural Society:
It is difficult to render a larger service to the country than to give wide-awake
farmers some such an opportunity for a higher spiritual development as will
operate beneficently and fruitfully for all the people. We have to do with an
Institution that has successfully stood the test to which it has been subjected.
We are not dealing with projects; we know what we are devoting our money
to ; we know that we will get it back with high interest ; we know that we are
really doing the country a great service by aiding the Rodding high school. Let
me add that as nearly as I can learn, all the foreign countries in which I have
* Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 46.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 87
traveled would grasp with eagerness an opportunity such as this to advance
in a similar way the interests of the backbone of the country, the agricultural
class.*
Another attempt to modify the nature of the school was made by
the minister of education, Monrad, by suggesting the introduction of
a preliminary examination which might admit students to some
courses at the agricultural college in Copenhagen. The reply of
Principal Hogsbro, opposing this suggestion, is based solidly upon
Grundtvigian high-school ideas, and the principle fixed in this case
became a precedent for all future people's high schools :
The aim of the school is to awaken and nourish appreciation for the life of
the spirit. Especially is it concerned with increasing love of country by giving
information about its language and literature, nature, and history, its condi-
tions in the past and present. In addition, however, it does not lay less stress
on giving students love for and knowledge of agriculture.
With this aim the subjects of instruction can not be the same as
those required for the " preliminary examination," nor the emphasis
the same.
With reference to method, too, the school must be different from the ordinary
type. To be. sure, it does not minimize the value of positive knowledge and a
training of the intellect in keenness and clarity of thought; its purpose, how-
ever, is essentially educative, the development of feeling and the will being
considered more significant than the training of memory or intellect. It desires
to do for the life of the people what the church desires for the Christian life.
Therefore it must lay emphasis on the concrete, the living, the stimulating. An
hour of instruction in which it has been possible to arouse appreciation for the
higher and nobler elements in human life, or to stimulate to effective and active
service in their behalf, is of much greater importance in the work of the people's
high school than an hour which has added to one's store of knowledge or in
which the intellect has learned to understand a new grammatical exposition or
a mathematical conclusion. These forms of instruction are also included, but
merely to serve the chief purpose. Instruction is given, not for school, but for
life. What we wish for our students is that they might leave us with a desire
to participate in the work of the world, the spiritual as well as the material,
and with capacity to use the means which life offers. What they may lack in
the form of knowledge they will know how to obtain. As they work, their intel-
lects will receive that development of which they are capable. For such a
method of instruction the preliminary examination is altogether unsuitable.'
After the war of 1864, when Schleswig was wrenched away from
Denmark by Germany, the school had to be moved north of the
new boundary. A place was found for it at Askov, where, under
the efficient leadership of Ludvig Schroder, the institution became a
power in the cultural life of Denmark. Its equipment and instruc-
tion have been extended so as to make it the leading people's high
school in the country.
1 Quoted by Schroder, op. clt, p. 70.
« Quoted by Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 54.
88 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
II. WORK AND INFLUENCE OF KOLD.
Deficiencies of the Rodding peopW^s high schoob. — While Grundt-
vig's educational ideas were first tried out in the school at Rodding,
it was not there that the characteristic Danish people's high school
as it exists to-day took its beginnings. There were several reasons
why this school did not at first wield the large influence for a
people's culture that was exerted later by this and other schools.
On account of rather high tuition rates and expenses, only some
of the well-to-do farmers' sons could afford to attend. Furthermore,
a full course extended over two years, the summers included. It is
evident that only comparatively few grown up men could find it
possible to spend so much time away from their work. Again,
while the teachers at Rodding were inspired by love for their work
and a desire to lead the young men out into a new light, they were
generally academicians from a higher station in life and could not
quite appreciate the situation and the peculiar needs of the peasant
boys. Grundtvig himself, though a man of the people in his in-
terests and sympathies, was a partial stranger to the sons of the soil.
Kristen Kold {1816-1870) . — It was left for a shoemaker's son to
meet the common peasantry on their own ground and by the attrac-
tiveness of his personality drew them to cultural studies pursued
under conditions that were practically within the reach of all. This
man was Kristen Kold (1816-1870). While still a child in his
humble home by the Limfjord, in west Jutland, he learned the
magic power of the spoken word, which he himself later possessed
in a remarkable degree. When he and his brothers and sisters be-
came tired of play and unruly, their mother would often call them
to her and tell them a story which would have a wonderful effect
on their conduct. Kold says of this:
Always, when she had told us a story, we would become happy and begin to
play again — to build up instead of tear down. At that time I could not under-
stand how a little fable about Great Peter or Little Peter, or what it might
be, could have power to make us well-behaved and happy. Later, however,
I gradually came to understand the secret, that the word upon our tongue
possesses this power over children.^
Education. — Kold participated in the ordinary elementary school-
ing of his day and ranked at the head of his class. At 11 he was to
begin learning his father's trade, but was so awkward with the awl
that his father despaired of his ever amounting to anything. After
one and a half days' apprenticeship his mother took him out of the
shop. The boy's whole desire now was to be a teacher. At the age
of 13, after giving a trial lesson in a rural school before the dean
and the children's parents, he was appointed monitor to teach chil-
1 Quoted by Austlid, Ein Folkelaerar, p. 22.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 89
dren larger than himself and about as old. His work, however, was a
decided success. After confirmation he served as tutor ' for three
years, when, having reached the required age of 18, he entered the
normal school at Snested. He seems not to have profited much by
the instruction there until a religious revival aroused him spiritually
and intellectually and made him an eager student.
Teaching. — After graduation from the normal school, Kold spent
some years in tutoring, and participated in some revivals in which
he began to experience his own powers of speech. At this time he
also read some of Ingemann's romances. He saw how great Den-
mark had once been, and how low it had sunk, and was seized with
a desire to lend a hand in raising it again. " Oh, that 1 possessed the
kind of words that are necessary to make Denmark great, and strong,
and happy ! " ^ Moving to southern Jutland, where he continued as
tutor, he found the people dead to patriotic impulses, and having read
still more historical romances, he felt that he must do something to
stir the people. " I felt now that I could have no peace until I had
gotten this work started — to raise Denmark again to what it had
once been." 2 Kold had an idea that much could be and must be
done with the rising generation. Therefore as an experiment during
the winter of 1840-41, he gathered about him 15 young men every
Wednesday evening and read to them chiefly from Ingemann's ro-
mances. They talked together about the contents and sang patriotic
songs. This was something new, and people laughed at it. But his
experience with these boys gave Kold the idea which he developed
later into his high-school plan.
Varied experiences. — Kold became dissatisfied with the methods
in vogue in elementary instruction and instituted a reform in his
own work. Instead of compelling the children to memorize vast por-
tions of textbooks, he told the contents to the children in story form.
The children were delighted, remembered perfeotly what he told
them, and then the process of learning which before had been so
laborious took care of itself.
This revolutionary method, however, brought him into difficulties
with pastor, bishop, and department, and the antagonism became so
great that he soon found himself without an appointment. Saddened
by this opposition and denial of opportunity to do the only work he
wished and was able to do, he learned bookbinding, and went to
Smyrna as a missionary's servant and helper. Terminating his serv-
ices with the missionary, he spent some years there at his trade. The
longing for his native land became too great, however, and he
returned, walking from Trieste, some 800 miles, and drawing his
belongings in a little wagon. This experience gave him an excellent
lAustlid, op. cit., p. 43.
*Idem, p. 44.
90 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
opportunity to study the common life of the people in the sections
through which he passed. He enlisted for the war of 1848-1850, but
finding himself poorly adapted for musket drill, he resigned. The
war served him a purpose, however, for it awakened Denmark, and
he could now see how a spiritual force operates on a large scale with
a whole people; previously he had seen it only in the case of
individuals.
Founds a people^s high school. — Kold burned with desire to help
perpetuate the spirit which the war had aroused in his people, but
realized that sporadic efforts with a speech here and a speech there
would avail but little. His experiences, notably his Wednesday even-
ing class of boys, taught him that he must gather the young people
in a school in order that they might be under his continuous influence
for a considerable time. Thus only could he hope to effect an awak-
ening and build up an enthusiasm that would last. By the aid of
Grundtvig and other interested friends, he was enabled to make a
humble beginning of a school in 1851 at Ryslinge, in Fyen. A pro-
spectus of the new school announced that instruction would be given
only during the winter, from November 1 to April 1. Tuition, in-
cluding board and lodging, was fixed at 60 kroner for the entire five
months. The instruction was to embrace an outline of general, Bible,
and church history, northern mythology and history of Denmark,
geography, especially of Denmark, selected readings from Danish
literature, and singing. Instruction was also to be given in the com-
mon-school branches with a view to their practical use in life.^ The
school began its work with 15 students and 2 teachers. Kold had at
last entered upon the realization of his cherished dreams, and was
happy.
Characteristics of Kold^s school. — The first year the students at
Kold's school ranged in age from 14 upward, but this year's ex-
perience taught him that for such a school the students must be
grown up, i. e., 18 years of age or more, as Grundtvig had maintained.
The work with the younger boys was not nearly so satisfactory as
with the older. After the first year 18 was set as the minimum age
for entrance. This became the settled policy for all later schools.
Another characteristic feature of this school was the short term, only
five months during the winter. On this point, too, Kold's school set
a precedent which has been followed by the other schools. It is the
time when^ men can most easily be spared from the work of the
farms. Likewise, the expenses at Ryslinge were set so low as to bring
the school within the reach of all young men of energy. The ex-
penses were only 12 kroner a month. At Rodding the amount was
40 kroner.^ The intimate character of the association of teachers
1 Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 59.
■These amounts equal about $3.25 and $10.80, respectively.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 91
and students is shown by the arrangement whereby Kold and his
assistant teacher slept with the boys in one large sleeping room. The
boys could thus listen to the teachers' conversation about worthy
things until they fell asleep.
KoldJ's continued work and inftuence. — After two years Kold
moved his school to Dalby, where he remained for six years. Here
he experienced a hard struggle before winning the people's favor
for his school venture. Force was given to the opposition also by
Kold's activity in behalf of elementary schools conducted in accord-
ance with his ideals as opposed to the spiritless memorizing and fact
cramming of the public schools. While his influence widened, his
enemies also increased. By a protest of these to the ministry, signed
by 344 persons, the State aid of 800 kroner, which Kold's school had
been receiving, was held up for a year. Kold's life was embittered
also by newspaper attacks and the dire poverty to which he was re-
duced. However, he was warmly defended by friends and students,
who sent a counter protest to the ministry. Finally the local school
commission served notice that they would inspect the school and
judge for themselves of its work and merits. They came as avowed
enemies of. the school, nine men strong, including the county chair-
man, two deans, and the parish pastor. They proposed to examine
each individual student in the several subjects, as was the customary
method of procedure in the public schools; but this Kold resisted
with force and dignity.
No, Dean Rohmann ; if that is the method the commission desires to employ,
to examine my boys one by one, then I must inform you that I do not want
any examination; and the boys do not want it, either. They are here on their
own account, pay their own school expenses, and we have no right to force
them. If that is your plan, the school is hereby closed from this day on/
According to Kold's philosophy, the function of his school was
essentially to arouse his boys spiritually and intellectually. To test
the results of such work by an examination of the amount of facts
acquired by his students was unfair and contrary to the fundamental
principle of the school. Kold was then asked to proceed with the
work of the school in the usual way, and the dean put questions to
the school as a whole. The results were surprising and pleasing.
The students gave evidence of a remarkable fund of knowledge
despite the fact that they had not been cramming books. During the
examination in general history the dean put the question, " Can you
tell me the name of the Roman general that defeated Attila ? " This
staggered the school for a moment, but a little fellow answered,
"Aetius." "This answer saved our school," Kold said afterwards.^
The result of the inspection was entirely satisfactory. The teachers
»Austlid, op. cit, p. 117. « Idem, p. 118.
92 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
and students were praised, the delayed State aid was forthcoming,
and the standing of the school was assured.
Subsequently Kold built a still larger school at Dalum, where the
number of students increased to more than 100. Upon manifold re-
quests of girls to attend the school he started in 1863 a three months'
summer course for young women. This proved so successful that it
became a permanent feature, and has since been an essential part of
nearly all people's high schools.
It is thus seen how the character of Kold's schools established the
policy of the Danish people's high schools in the matter of the stu-
dents' mature age, the five months' course, low expenses, a summer
course for girls, and intimate association of teachers and students.
It was due to his influence also that stimulation and development
of personality and spiritual life came to be regarded as the chief
function of the schools. At a meeting in Copenhagen in 1866, at
which Kold was the chief speaker, he closed his address with these
words :
I do not know as much about enlightenment as I do about enlivenment. I
enliven first, and enlighten afterwards, or at least enliven and enlighten at the
same time. This, I believe, is right, for enlivenment is what is needed.
He says he learned this when he worked —
among people who could receive no enlightenment before they had been
enlivened. They were plain folk who, so to speak, knew nothing of enlighten-
ment. They needed to be enlivened. I believe, too, that the more one learns
to know the Danish people, both in and out of Copenhagen, the more one will
experience that they can not be truly enlightened before they have been en-
livened.*
Estimates of Kold. — By the time of his death, in 1870, Kold had
had some 1,300 students under his charge, and a host of other people
had received lasting impressions for good from his sturdy person-
ality. He became known and loved throughout Denmark as the man
who had given his life for the spiritual and national regeneration of
the common people. Mr. Thornton, an Englishman, estimates him
thus:
Kold was a sort of rustic blend of Socrates and Pestalozzi ; he had a ready
store of idiomatic Danish, had thought much of life and its problems, had a
keen insight into human character, possessed an unlimited store of illustrations
and experiences, and was consumed by a passion for communicating to others
what had brought light and help to himself.'
Comparing Kold's work and influence with that of Grundtvig,
Dr. Hollmann says:
Measured by Grundtvig's large ideas of a national people's culture, Kold's
little peasant school seems insignificant, but history makes no mistake when
1 Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 122.
2 Thornton, Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe. English Special Re-
ports, vol. 17, p. 114.
GKOWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. • 93
it attributes to the little step forward in practical application a decisive signifi-
cance in the development of the people's high schools. To Grundtvig is due
the underlying thought of the people's high school, but Kold's plain peasant
school was all that was possible of realization under the circumstances. By
Kold's powerful influence, the people's high school was given a solid footing
among the rural population of Denmark. He has given the people's high
schools their external form and has put into practice the method which
Grundtvig indicated within the limits that circumstances allowed.^
Grundtvig himself testified that Kold, in the very best manner,
had transformed his ideas into realities.^
III. LATER DEVELOPMENTS.
Grundtvig'^8 high school. — The idea of a large central people's
high school was not abandoned after the failure of the plan to trans-
form the Soro academy into a people's high school. Especially did
the feeling prevail that there ought to be a school where Grundtvig
could make his influence felt. Accordingly, on the occasion of his
seventieth birthday, friends raised a sum of money which was pre-
sented to him for the purpose of founding a high school. The chief
donor and most active worker for the cause, C. D. Brandt, came of
an aristocratic family in Copenhagen and entertained large ideas
for the school. He aimed to build not a mere peasants' school, such
as Kold's, which was being copied everywhere. This was to be a
pretentious institution where Grundtvig might be given a suitable
chair.
Grundtvig's wife was opposed to this aristocratic notion. She
wanted a school of the Kold type, and preferably Kold himself as
principal. Grundtvig himself was undecided. Though the wisdom
of the view held by Grundtvig's wife was afterwards proven, Brandt
gained his point for the time being. The school was erected near
Copenhagen in 1856 and given the name " Grundtvig's High School."
Brandt was chosen principal, and Grundtvig delivered a series of lec-
tures. Students did not flock to the school, however, as Brandt had
hoped. During the first term there were 20 students, and when in
the third year the number dwindled down to 12, Brandt resigned.
The school was subsequently moved to Lyngby, some distance farther
from the city. Under the succeeding principals the institution was
transformed more and more into a school of the Kold type, and be-
came one of theleading people's high schools in the country.^
People's high schools and the rural population. — The experience of
Grundtvig's high school indicates the trend of the development — ^the
people's high schools came to be attended almost exclusively by the
1 Begtrup, Folkehojskolen i Danmark, p. 6.
* Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, Ch. VL
94 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
rural population. This was not in accordance with Grundtvig's
ideas. He conceived of a school for all classes of the population with-
out reference to geographical or vocational distribution. In attempt-
ing to indicate why the development took this direction, it is not
possible to point to one or two causes as offering a complete explana-
tion. The situation was complex and a variety of influences was at
work, among which it is by no means easy to distinguish between
cause and effect. Some students consider the chief factor to be the
religious movement which Grundtvig inspired.^ This took hold
especially upon the rural population, and since the people's high
schools owe so much to the influence of Grundtvig, it is natural that
the schools should be sought by the^ Grundtvigian sympathizers.
There is undoubtedly much truth in this view. Especially was this
factor operative in the early history of the schools, but it is scarcely
an adequate explanation in later years when the schools have lost
much of the partisan religious coloring they may have had. The
schools may now be regarded as a part of the national system of
education, and not the property of any particular religious group.
A large cause for the popularity of the people's high schools among
the rural population is undoubtedly the fact that they began their
work among this social class. The school at Rodding was announced
as a school for the rural class especially, and it was Kold's con-
stant thought to make his school attractive to even the poorest sons
of the soil. Expenses were placed as low as possible, and life at
school was maintained very simply and plainly, so that the farmers'
boys might feel at home. The schools were in fact called " peasant
schools," which name alone, with all that it implied, kept away many
young people of cities and towns and even children of the well-to-do
farmers. The schools became in consequence the special institution of
the middle and lower classes of the rural population. The capacity
and appreciation of these classes for culture was at the same time a
cause and effect of the popularity of the schools among them. It
was a case of " appetite growing with what it feeds on."
Again, political developments contributed to make the people's
high schools sought by the plain rural people. After 1870 the exi-
gencies of politics brought the middle and lower classes of the
rural population, representing democratic ideas, into sharp opposi-
tion to the large landowners and the professional class, who occupied
a conservative position. The plain country people found the people's
high schools an excellent instrumentality for equipping them for this
political contest. In fact, the schools were accused by the conserva-
tive party of lending themselves to partisan agitation. This was de-
nied, and with truth, it is contended. Nevertheless, the people's high
schools were largely sought by the democratic element, and likewise
* Cf. Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 68, ff.
GKOWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 95
shunned by the conservatives, who built agricultural schools to com-
pete with them. The democratic party won out in 1901, and the
King appointed a "peasant ministry.'' The peasantry are still in
power and vote a' generous amount of State aid to the people's high
schools.
An attempt at an explanation of the preponderance of rural stu-
dents in the people's high schools must not fail to take account of
the time element. In the case of young men, it is comparatively
easy to be released from the farm during the winter months. The
young man in the city, on the other hand, has no such season of com-
parative leisure, and finds it exceedingly difficult to obtain leave of
absence from his work for so long a period as a people's high-school
course requires. In the case of girls the situation is perhaps not far
different. When it is borne in mind that the people's high school
does not contemplate a change in the student's vocation, but a return
to work where he left off, the lack of time under the pressing con-
ditions of modern city employment perhaps offers the largest single
reason for the absence of city youth in the people's high schools.
People's high schools and agricultural schools. — Since the people's
high schools became institutions for the rural population in such a
marked degree, the question is pertinent : " Why did they retain
this form rather than become out-and-out agricultural schools?"
In a sense this entire study is an attempt to answ^er that question,
and its various phases are touched upon from time to time. Mani-
festly, therefore, a full answer can not be attempted here. It may
be serviceable, however, to point out at this stage the lines of thought
that have been operative historically. Three ideas have been cham-
pioned with more or less vigor: First, that the schools should all
be agricultural schools; second, that they should be a mixture of
people's high and agricultural schools ; and, finally, that there should
be both kinds of schools, each kind doing its distinctive work.
The advocates of agricultural schools exclusively held, as noted
in the history of the Rodding high school, that the best school for
farmers is a school of agriculture. They contended that it was an
ill use of time and effort for farmers' sons to spend a winter pursu-
ing studies that would not directly help them in the culture of
their farms. Others for various reasons held that the peasantry
were incapable of general culture and that it was foolishness to at-
tempt it with them. Others, again, were opposed to the people's
high schools for political reasons, as noted, and championed agri-
cultural schools as the proper and useful kind of schools for the
tillers of the soil. Prompted by one reason or another men erected
agricultural schools independent of people's high schools, and in
several cases in opposition to them, with a view to final suppression
3334°— 15 1
96 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
of the high schools. The schools founded on such ideas and oper-
ated in opposition to the high schools were, however, generally short
lived. They were not popular, did not draw students, and were
financially unable to continue their activities.
The mixed school has been tried sometimes with fair success, but
more generally accompanied by failure. The plan was tried at Rod-
ding, but was abandoned when it was found impossible to reconcile
the conflicting elements in the faculty. Other schools, pressed by
competition, have offered agricultural work in order to draw stu-
dents, and some agricultural schools have for like and other reasons
offered high-school subjects. The leading high-school men have been
opposed to the mixed school. They contend that the vocational de-
partment affects disastrously the cultural work of the school, while
at the same time no satisfactory work can be done in the agricultural
subjects. The time is too limited to attempt a double program, the
result being a school that is "neither fowl nor fish." The develop-
ment has been strongly in the direction of pure people's high schools
and pure agricultural schools. Advocates of pure high schools are
opposed to agricultural schools in place of people's high schools, but
nre not opposed to them in addition to people's high schools. On
the contrary, the fruitful development of agricultural schools has
been in the hands of people's high-school men. While agricultural
schools founded independently of the high-school movement or in
opposition to it have proved failures, agricultural schools born of
the high-school movement and operated in its spirit have proved
successful and fruitful. Thus it is said that " the Danish agri-
cultural school is a child of the Danish people's high school and
likewise must have a Christian foundation resting on the life of the
people." '
The view that has come to prevail holds that the young man should
first attend a people's high school and be awakened, learn to know
himself as a human being with a destiny, as a citizen of the State,
and a member of a social group, and thus have his personality devel-
oped. Then he may with much more profit take a course at an agri-
cultural school. This view was clearly stated by Principal Svendsen,
of Tune agricultural school, in his annual report in 1890 : ^
To what extent intellectual maturity affects the results of agricultural In-
struction we have had an opportunity to observe by comparing those of our stu-
dents who have previously attended ci people's high school with those who have
had only an elementary education. The difference is perhaps less striking if
the comparison is made with students who at a continuation or evening school
have acquired such knowledge of school subjects as to place them in this
respect on a level with students who have participated in people's high-school
instruction. But even if they are apparently equally well prepared for partici-
pation in agricultural instruction there is very often this defect in their prepa-
' SchrSder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 153.
2 Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 292.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL.
97
ration: That tlieir personality has been developed but little; wherefore such
students, in spite of their intellectual ability, so frequently show a lack of
power to comprehend and assimilate what they have learned. Even if the
comparison is applied to such students as have acquired the knowledge requi-
site for the preliminary examination, by going through a Real school, other
things being equal, the advantage is without doubt on the side of the people's
high-school students. In the case of reasonably gifted students the instruction
has an awakening and enlivening effect which develops intellectual receptive-
ness in a high degree and therefore makes the young people excellently fitted to
acquire knowledge.
Instead of the feeling of completion which the preparation for
and passing of an examijiation is apt to give —
the student who comes from the people's high school brings with him a firm and
vivid impression that he has just entered upon his development and the goal
is far ahead. When he enters the agricultural school in this frame of mind
it is easy to understand that he preeminently possesses the qualifications for
getting the most out of the institution. It would therefore be very desirable if
all young persons who wish to attend an agricultural school would previously
attend a people's high school for at least one term.
Statistical growth. — Affected by these varying ideas, the people's
high schools and agricultural schools have grown up together, some-
times in opposition, sometimes in harmony. While the Danish na-
tion was stirred by the war of 1818-1850, and several people's high
schools were founded in consequence, it was the disastrous war of
1864 which thoroughly awakened Denmark to an appreciation of her
national needs. With determination and zeal she set to work to make
the most of what still remained to her. With the motto "Outward
loss, inward gain," to inspire them, the Danish people proceeded to
"re-win Schleswig-Holstein on the Danish heath." From now on
began an era of intensive development. As an agency in this domes-
tic conquest, people's high schools were erected in large numbers.
Statistically the development is represented by Table 9, which shows
the growth in the number of schools.^
Table Q.— Number of schools, 18U-1911,
Years.
People's high schools.
Erected.
Discon-
tinued.
Agricultural schools.
Number
at end of Erected,
period.
Discon-
tinued.
Number
at end of
period.
1S44-18.51.
1851-1861.
1861-1871.
1871-1881.
1881-1891.
1891-1901.
1901-1905-
1906-1911.
Total.
143
63
80
35
16
19
Dan. Stat. Folkehojskoler og Landbrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 6 ff.
98
THE DANISH PEOPLE S HIGH SCHOOL.
As appears from the table, the greatest activity in the erection of
people's high schools was manifested in the sixties and seventies, the
number increasing from 11 to 64 in 20 years. There has since been a
steady gain in the number of schools up to the present time. The
gain in agricultural schools has been largest in recent years.
In the enthusiasm of this rural educational movement many schools
have been erected without a sufficiently solid basis and have had to
discontinue their activities. This has been the fate of 63 people's
high schools and 16 agricultural schools. Most of these were in activ-
ity for only a brief period, as shown by the following table :^
Table 10. — Careers of discontinued schools.
Years of existence.
1-5
&-10
n-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
41-45
56-60
Total.
People's high schools
Agricultural schools
25
6
9
4
9
3
10
0
5
0
4
2
1
0
0
1
63
16
A rather more interesting study is that of attendance.^ A re-
markable growth took place in the decade after the war, 1865-1875,
when the attendance increased about eightfold. Since then the in-
crease has been slower but steady, so that the number in the early
seventies, some three thousand, has been more than doubled at the
present time. The development of agricultural education is best
shown by the number of agricultural students in percentage of the
total attendance at both people's high schools and agricultural
schools. In the early years before the people's high schools won
favor with the people, the number of students in agricultural schools,
though small, absolutely considered, was relatively very large, con-
stituting for a time about 50 per cent. The percentage then de-
creased until it reached the low figure of 10 in the late sixties and 5
in the early seventies. While a gradual tendency upward is notice-
able after that time, the largest increase has occurred in the last
decade. The number of students in agricultural schools in the single
year 1910-11 constituted 19 per cent. This increase is said to be
due to the growing appreciation of scientific methods in agriculture.
The increase in girls' attendance has been steady up through the
years, both absolutely and relatively, their number having reached
at the present time nearly 50 per cent of the total number of students
in people's high schools. The number of girls in agricultural schools
is relatively small, a large number of those attending taking courses
1 Dan. Stat, op. cit., p. 7.
* See table in appendix, p. 167.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE.
99
in horticulture and dairying, rather than in agriculture, strictly
speaking.
Thus in brief is the story of the people's high-school movement in
Denmark. Beginning with 1 school and 20 students in 1844, it has
moved on and expanded until it has gathered over 8,000 young
people in 99 schools, working together as powerful agencies for the
cultural and vocational education of rural Denmark.
Chapter VIII,
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE.
Size of schools. — On account of the historic origin, similarity in
methods, and close interaction it is advantageous to deal with the
people's high schools and the agricultural schools together. This is
the more in order as all the schools are under one State inspection
and statistically are treated together. The size of the schools is
determined by the number of year students in each, i. e., the total
number of. students in attendance during any one year times the
months of attendance divided by 12.^ The average number of year
students in people's high schools in 1910-11 w^as 29 ; m agricultural
schools, 36. Five years previously the corresponding numbers were
32 and 37. The number of schools has increased more rapidly than
the number of students, wherefore the average attendance has de-
creased somewhat.^
The range of attendance is very great, the extreme limits in the
case of people's high schools being 3 and 150 year students. The posi-
tion of the schools on the scale of attendance appears from the fol-
lowing table : ^
Table 11. — Distribution of schools on basis of number of year students, 1910-11.
1 to 10 year st u dents .
10 to 20
20 to 30
30 to 40
40 to 60
60 to 80
People's
high schools.
25
26
10
6
5
2
80 to 100 year students.
100 to 120
120 to 140
140 to 160 -
People's
high schools.
3
1
3
1
Total
80
It will be seen that much more than one-half of the people's high
schools had fewer than 20 year students, and in five years these small
iThus 48 boys for 5 months and 40 girls for 3 months, divided by 12 (240 + 120 -i- 12),
gives 30 as the number of year students.
« Dan. Stat Folkehojskoler eg Landbrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 7.
100
schools have grown in number from 38 to 49. The median school has
15 year students.^ This, then, is the size of the type school, in the
sense of the one most frequently met with. As the usual school terms
are five months in winter and three months in summer, with a differ-
ent group of students each term, the type school has 22J boys in
winter and the same number of girls in summer. A total of 45
young people is thus reached by the type school each year.
On the basis of total distribution of year students, hoAvever, the
median school is found manifestly higher up, for the small schools,
though numerous, have only a small total attendance. Thus the 49
smallest schools had in 1910-11 a total attendance of 552, or not quite
one-fourth, while the five largest schools had a total of 626 year
students, or a little more than a fourth of the total number in all the
schools. On the basis of total distribution of year students, the
median school is found to have 41 year students, or 61^ students in
each of the two terms, giving a total of 123 different students reached
during the year. This is the type school in the sense of being the one
most generally frequented by students. Measured by whatever
standard, it is therefore far from the mark to say, as frequently has
been done, that the typical people's high school has about 150 stu-
dents in attendance at one time.
The agricultural schools range in size from 7 to 111 year students.
On the basis of frequency the median agricultural school has 27 year
students, while on the basis of total attendance the median school has
61 year students.
In 1910-11, of the 80 people's high schools, 64 had both boys and
girls in attendance; 7 were for girls only, while 8 had boys only,
although 7 of these had formerly had some girls.
Location and equipment. — Almost without exception, the schools
are located in the open country, a mile or two from village or city.
The reasons for this are chiefly the desire to place the students in a
rural environment, so as not to train them away from rural life, and
the conviction that such a location offers fewer temptations and dis-
turbs least the quiet needed for thought and study.
Most of the schools are boarding schools, where the students live a
community life with the teachers. In many cases the plant consists
of one large building. The first floor is devoted to offices for the
principal and home for his family, a common dining room, with the
necessary culinary department attached, a common sitting room, one
large lecture hall sufficient to accommodate all the students at one
1 The median school is the middle school, arrived at by counting in equal numbers from
either extreme. The statistical data on which the above and following computations iire
based are too extensive to warrant publication here. The data may be found in Dan.
Stat., op. cit.. p. 50CE!.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LI:FE. 101
time, several smaller classrooms, library, ro*)ms containing physical
and chemical apparatus and natural science collections, and a gymna-
sium. On the upper floors are the dormitories, equipped for two or
four persons in a room. In the case of schools which have more than
one building, there may be a separate gymnasium, dormitories, and
the like. Many of the schools have considerable land, with farm
buildings in connection, where articles of food for the boarding estab-
lishment are produced.
The agricultural schools have in the main the same features as the
people's high schools, but have more elaborate scientific equipment
and laboratories where students do individual work. They also have
land in connection for experimentation in agriculture and horticul-
ture. Most of these schools also have museums attached, which show
the progress made in agriculture by labor-savin'g machinery, and
designs showing the advance toward perfection in agricultural imple-
ments. Testing stations are also generally maintained for demon-
strating the value of seeds and fertilizers.
The furnishings of all the schools are simple — at times meager.
The food, too, though substantial and sufficient, is very plain. Most
of the students come from modest rural homes, where they are not
accustomed to many luxuries. The aim of the schools is to have the
young people return to their homes with a spiritualized view of life,
to be sure, but not educated away from their work and station.
Therefore, to surround them at the schools with luxuries would be
bad psychology. " Plain living and high thinking " is the people's
high-school principle.
Community life in the schools. — It has been an almost universal
custom in the schools since Kold's time for the principal and his
family to take at least the principal meal of the day with the stu-
dents in the common dining room. This gives the school more the
color of a large family than a mere boarding school. Frequently,
too, other teachers are seated at different tables throughout the room,
and their influence for culture is thus extended. A like influence is
exerted by unmarried teachers who live in the school dormitories,
and thus come into very close personal touch with the students.
Discipline, in the sense of enforced order, is practically unknown
in the people's high schools. The young men and women who attend
are grown-up people with a desire for self -improvement, and with
the full daily program provided for them there is no trouble about
order. To be sure, in a body of a hundred or more young men who
have not had the benefit of many refining influences there w^ill be
found habits and propensities which need to be discouraged. For
this purpose, and in order to check any irregularities, the school
principals exercise fatherly and wise supervision and lend their
102 THE DANISH PEOPLE ^S HIGH SCHOOL.
influence to the building up of a healthy moral atmosphere. In some
schools a form of student government is in vogue, whereby the stu-
dents adopt certain regulations touching good order, which they
mutually bind themselves to observe. Some principals hold, how-
ever, that the terms are too short to develop an esprit de corps suffi-
ciently strong for effective self-government.
While the schools are pervaded with a deep-seated religious spirit,
no compulsion rests upon students in religious matters. The prin-
cipal usually conducts devotional exercises in the morning. These
the students are free to attend, and their participation is very gen-
eral. Grace is said at meals, and some schools have voluntary even-
ing devotions. Attendance upon church services is also voluntary.
There is no formal instruction in religion, but in the treatment of
history, biographj^, and literature the religious factor is emphasized.
Thus while the teachers bring no compulsion to bear upon students
in matters of religion, they do consciously and sincerely make use of
the religious element for the development of personality.
The life in the schools is very attractive to the rural young people.
"They take to it as ducks do to water." Many look forward for
years to the time when they can afford to attend a people's high
school. They go of their own free will and at their own expense.
They are drawn by high anticipations of the wonderful things they
are to experience there and by a keen desire for self -improvement.
Coming into a group w^ith the same interests and aspirations as them-
selves, their joyous community life begins at once, and the days of
their sojourn pass all too quickly.
Daily program. — The daily program of necessity differs much in
the various schools, for the institutions strongly reflect the per-
sonality of their principals. A fair idea of a day's work and life
may, however, be obtained from the program at Roskilde, one of the
larger schools, during the winter of 1911-12:
Daily Program at Roskilde, 1911-12.
A.M.
7.00. Rising bell.
7.30. Morning meal.
7.50. Devotion. A hymn is sung, principal reads a selection from
devotional literature; the Lord's Prayer is said: and another
hymn is sung.
8.00 to 9.00. Natural sciences. Elements of physics, astronomy, botany, and
zoology.
9.00 to 11.00. Danish and gymnastics, alternately by sections,
11.00 to 12.00. Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday — discussion of social and
church problems. Questions from students encouraged.
Thursday, Friday, and Saturday — lectures on history of
Europe in the nineteenth century.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE.
103
P.M.
12.10 to 12.30.
12.30 to 2.15.
2.15 to 3.15.
3.00 to 3.30.
3.30 to 5.30.
5.45 to 6.45.
6.45 to 7.15.
7.15 to 8.00.
8.00 to 9.00.
10.30.
Dinner.
Free hours. Students take walks, write letters, read, or
study.
Civics and economics. Largely discussions.
Afternoon coffee in common dining room.
Arithmetic, bookkeeping, drawing, and essay writing. In sec-
tions,
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday — lectures on general his-
tory. Thursday, Friday, and Saturday — lectures on history
of Denmark since 1800.
Evening meal.
Free hours.
In first weeks of term, reading of literary selections. Later
individual work by students.
Retiring hour.
Where students come from. — As before noted, the students in the
people's high school come almost exclusively from the rural districts.
In 1910-11 only 5 per cent of the students came from cities, while of
the total population in Denmark 40 per cent live in cities. The pro-
portion of students from the cities and from the country has re-
mained practically constant in recent years. A somewhat larger
number of the girls than the boys came from the cities, the percent-
ages being 7 and 4, respectively. In 1910-11 437 students came from
countries outside of Denmark proper, by far the greater number of
these being from south Jutland, the territory lost to Germany in
1864.1
Table 12. — Students from Denmark proper in relation to one generation of the
rural population, 1910-11.
Students.
People's
high
schools.
Agricul-
tural
schools.
Total.
Tne gen-
eration
of rural
young
people.
Percentage of students in
one generation of young
people.
People's
high
schools.
Agricul-
tural
schools.
All
schools.
Boys
3,419
2,941
1,275
185
4,694
3,126
13,041
12,530
26
23
10
1
Girls
Total
6,360
1,460
7,820
25,571
31
Table 12 shows the number of students from Denmark proper in
relation to one generation of the rural population.^ All the people
in the country, outside of Copenhagen and 74 provincial cities, are
classified as rural. The class embraces, therefore, many villages of
considerable size. The unusual meaning of one generation in these
1 Dan. Stat., Folkehojskoler og Landbrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 19.
> laem, p. 20.
104 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
statistics should be noted, namely, the group of people who are born
in a given year. For people's high-school purposes one generation is
computed to be the total rural population between ages 20 and 25,
divided by 5. This age group is selected because the greatest number
of students are of this age. The percentages in the table are subject
to two main corrections. In the first place, the students from the
cities have been included, as it was not practicable to separate them.
This number constitutes about 5 per cent, as before noted. Secondly,
to determine how many of one generation attend the schools it is
necessary to deduct the number of those who have previously at-
tended one of the schools. This element constitutes about 16 per cent
of the student population. A total reduction of 21 per cent of the
percentages is thus necessary. Furthermore, it should be borne in
mind that these computations are for only one year, 1910-11. The
percentages in recent years have, hoAvever, been fairly constant. It
will be seen that the attendance at people's high and agricultural
schools comprises 31 per cent; with the corrections applied, the result
is about 24 per cent. Thus about one-fourth of the entire rural popu-
lation of Denmark attend either a people's high school or an agricul-
tural school or both.
The percentage of boys' attendance is perhaps particularly inter-
esting and significant, 26 per cent in people's high schools and 10 per
cent in agricultural schools. These give a total of 36 per cent; cor-
rected, about 28 per cent. In Jutland alone the corrected percentage
of boys is 33, and in one county, Aarhus, the corrected percentage of
boys' attendance rises to 40.
It is of interest to note the location of students' homes with refer-
ence to the schools they attend; 29 per cent attend schools in the
county in which they live; a little less than 20 per cent attend in a
neighboring county; while a similar number attend schools in
another county in the same section of the country. Finally, 31 per
cent go to another section of the country to attend school.^ This indi-
cates that those young people who do leave home go to a considerable
distance rather than into the next county. Among the reasons for
this tendency, which has been growing, may be mentioned increasing
wealth and low railway fares. The practice is encouraged, as it is
felt that a visit to another section of the country is in itself a part
of their education. The girls go a little farther away from home
than the boys, and the boys in agricultural schools a little farther
than those in people's high schools.
Social station of students. — The station in life from which stu-
dents come is of interest.^ More than one-half of the students are
1 Dan. Stat, op. clt, p. 24.
* See table in appendix, p. 292.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE.
105
children of the larger farmers, operating 20 or more acres of land.
The relative percentages through a series of years, 1890-91, 1900-
1901, 1905-6, 1910-11, are, respectively, 58, 53, 52, and 54. Thus this
element, which for a time was decreasing, is now increasing again.
The children of smaller farmers constitute the next largest group,
20 per cent. Their number has been slightly decreasing in recent
years, the percentages for the four years mentioned above being, re-
spectively, 21, 24, 22, 20. People's high-school friends are alarmed
at this tendency, which is increasing the percentage of the well-to-do
students at the expense of the poorer. In the spirit of the people's
high-school movement they contend that the permanent stability and
welfare of the civic and social structure demand a people's culture
that shall embrace all classes of the population from the bottom up.
They therefore regard as baneful any movement which tends to re-
move cultural opportunities from the lower social group.
Another tendency which is also regretted is that which is giving
the schools a distinctive social coloring, so that they are coming to
be regarded as schools for the well-to-do or the reverse. The fol-
lowing table is based on the reports of those people's high schools
only which had no vocational departments whatsoever.^ This group
seems most significant for the present consideration.
Table 13. — Character of people's high schools as determined hy social station of
students' parents.
Percentage of large
farmers.
Number of schools.
1905-6
1908-9
1910-11
10 to 20
1
2
8
14
8
7
2
1
1
3
7
10
7
14
3
1
1
20 to 30
i
3
10
10
9
4
30 to 40
40 to 50
60to60
60 to 70
70 to 80
80 to 90
90 to 100
Total schools
37
43
47
The distribution of the schools shows an increase in the variation
from the mode with a seeming trend toward the formation of two
modes, one with a higher and one with a lower percentage of children
of large farmers. This would mean children of the well-to-do going
to one type of school and poorer children to another type. This is
a truly regrettable tendency, as the very foundation of the people's
high-school movement is laid in democracy, and a cleavage along the
line of wealth can not but hamper the service of the schools.
^Dau. Stat., op. cit., p. 18.
106 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
In addition to the large and small farmers, in 1910-11 laborers
furnished 3 per cent of the student population and artisans 10 per
cent. The miscellaneous group is made up of teachers, civil servants,
and the like, furnishing 4 per cent ; merchants, 3 per cent ; and other
vocations, 6 per cent.
Information as to the occupations of the students themselves is
available in the case of those who hold scholarships.^ By far the
largest number of the students hold the position of employees of one
kind or another, 67 per cent of the boys and 82 per cent of the girls.
Of the boys, the artisan group is also of considerable size, 23 per
cent. Among the other occupations, dairy workers and seamstresses
are most largely represented. Very few are reported as living at
home. These ambitious young people have already begun the serious
business of life, but feeling their lack of adequate equipment they go
to the people's schools to prepare for larger living and more efficient
service.
Age of students. — The question of the students' occupations is of
course closely related to their ages. The general statement has pre-
viously been made that the students are adults. By far the largest
age group is 18 to 25 years.^ Its lead has been increased in recent
years, the percentages for 1890-91, 1900-1901, 1905-6, and 1910-11
being, respectively, 68, 75, 78, and 79. The decrease has taken place
especially in the group below 18 years. In general it will be noticed
that the girls are slightly younger than the boys, and that students
in agricultural schools are older than those in people's high schools.
The latter is, of course, to be expected, since many of the students
in agricultural schools have previously attended a people's high
school.
Students'^ previous training. — Since students are so advanced in
years, it is pertinent to ask what previous school training they have
had. The great majority have had no regular school work beyond
the elementary school.^ Sixteen per cent have previously attended
a people's high school. Most of these are boys, and it is especially
the boys in the agricultural schools that have previously attended a
people's high school, their number constituting 45 per cent of the
total. Further, 167 boys had had Real school or Gymnasium train-
ing ; 64 of these took people's high-school work, the balance pursuing
vocational courses.
Courses pursued hy students. — As previously noted, the schools are
not all pure people's high or agricultural schools. They overlap
more or less, and several vocational departments aside from agricul-
1 See table in appendix, p. 293.
' ■ See table in appendix, p. 294.
•Dan. Stat., op. cit., p. 19.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE.
107
ture are maintained. The departments maintained in 1910-11, to-
gether with the attendance, appear from table 14 : ^
Table 14. — Attendance in people's high schools and agricultural schools, by
departments.
Departments.
People's high
schools.
Agricultural
schools.
Total.
Boys.
Girls.
Boys.
Girls.
People's high school
2,851
101
534
55
62
3,047
9
2i'
27
5,898
1,439
547
1,146
13
183
Gymnastics
76
89
Horticuliure
57
138
7
6
63
Dairying . .
138
Live stocif and feeding experts
7
Total
3,603
3,104
1,361
189
8,257
In the high schools the vast majority of students are, of course,
pursuing people's high-school courses proper, Avith the department
for artisans second in importance. In the agricultural schools dairy-
ing and horticulture chiefly occupy the attention of those who are not
devoting themselves to agriculture itself. The courses in gymnastics
train teachers of gymnastics for schools and village gymnasium
clubs. The continuation courses supplement the work of the ele-
mentary schools and prepare for the people's high-school courses.
Length of attendance. — In the great majority of cases the people's
high-school courses for boys extend through five months — November
to March — and for girls three months — May to July. Several of
the agricultural schools extend their work over six months, to the
end of April, while some even have nine months' courses. Table 15
gives the attendance by months in 1910-11.^
Table 15.
-Attendance hy months in people's high schools and agricultural
schools, 1910-11.
Month.
April
May
June
July
August
September
People's
high
schools.
328
2,761
2, 755
2,744
48
129
Agricul-
tural
schools.
518
345
340
335
77
Month.
<^ctober...
November
December.
January..
February.
March
People's
high
schools.
161
3,643
3,684
3,914
3,893
3,779
Agricul-
tural
schools.
104
1,223
1,231
1,263
1,257
1,232
The uniformity of the attendance throughout the five winter and
the three summer months indicates that the students remain to the
»Dan. Stat, op. cit., p. 13.
108 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
end of the term. In the case of the boys in people's high schools,
however, it appears that some 200 do not enter until January, and
about 100 drop out at the end of February. But this mortality must
be regarded as very small, considering that there is no compulsion
resting upon the students to remain. The persistency of their attend-
ance is perhaps the most significant commentary on the hold which
these schools have upon the people.
Students^ expenses. — Undoubtedly one of the chief reasons for the
success of the people's high schools is the small expense to the stu-
dents. The costs are fixed by the Danish High- School Teachers'
Association and are uniform throughout the schools. For room and
board students pay 22 kroner per calendar month. For tuition the
rates are 20 kroner for the first month, 20 for the second, 15 for the
third, 10 for the fourth, and nothing for the fifth month. This
makes a total of 175 kroner. If 10 kroner be added for books and
school materials and 2 kroner for medical attendance, the total ex-
penses for a five months' term amount to 187 kroner.^ The expenses
for a three months' term total 108 kroner. At the advanced high
school at Askov and at agricultural schools the expenses are about
25 per cent higher than the above.
Scholarships. — Even these expenses, though so moderate, would
operate as a barrier against many young people of small means and
meager opportunities for earning money. The State has accord-
ingly pursued a very generous policy in granting scholarships to
needy students. The amount of the appropriation for this purpose
has been increased from time to time until at present 250,000 kroner
is available each year. In 1910-11 there were 4,710 applications for
scholarships, of which 2,658, or 56 per cent, were granted.^ The
number of students holding scholarships constituted 32 per cent of
the entire student population. In the agricultural schools, vv^hich
more well-to-do students attend, the percentage was 23. The amount
of a scholarship per student per month was about 20 kroner in the
high schools, and 25 kroner in the agricultural schools. These
amounts constitute somewhat more than one-half of the total ex-
pense to the student. With such low expenses and with such gen-
erous aid from the State, it may safely be said that no student of
merit need be barred by financial considerations from a course at a
people's high school or agricultural school.
The teaching force. — In 1910-11, 589 teachers gave instruction in
people's high schools and 168 in agricultural schools.^ Teachers in
both types of schools may be conveniently grouped under four
heads — principals, wives of principals, permanently appointed teach-
»At current rates of exchange, 187 kroner equal about $51.
8 Dan. Stat, op. cit., p. 26ff.
'Idem, p. 35.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. 109
ers, and instructors paid by the hour. In the high schools, women
constituted about 27 per cent of the teaching force, while in agricul-
tural schools only 17 per cent were women. Of high-school princi-
pals only 6 were women. The average number of teachers was 7^
in high schools and 9 in agricultural schools. In the case of the high
schools this average is not very significant, however, since many
teachers give instruction during the winter only and others only
during the summer. The resultant average is therefore too high to
represent correctly the typical teaching force in charge at any one
time. Correction for the duplication being made, the average teach-
ing force numbers about 5^ in people's high schools.^ Many schools
have, however, only 3 teachers, some only 2. That a school of con-
siderable size can be operated by so small a number of teachers is
due to the fact that- throughout the greater part of the instruction
the whole student body constitutes one group, so that only one teacher
at a time is in charge. Division into sections with two or more teach-
ers in charge takes place only in the case of subjects involving drill,
such as Danish, arithmetic, and gymnastics.
As to amount of teaching done, about one-third of the teachers
have not more than 6 hours of instruction per week and only one-
fifth have more than 18 hours.^ As might be expected, instructors
paid by the hour teach the fewest number of hours. The amount of
teaching done by principals is surprisingly large. Women teach
fewer hours than men, and teachers in agricultural schools do less
quantitative teaching than those in the high schools. This is partly
due to the fact that division of students into sections, with a conse-
quently larger number of hours of teaching, is less common in agricul-
tural schools than in the high schools. The agricultural instruction
requires, too, a larger number of specialists whose work is intensive
rather than extensive.
Many persons do other work in addition to teaching in the people's
high and agricultural schools. In some cases the teaching is their
major interest and sometimes their minor. Thus a few hours a week
are frequently taught by teachers from public or other schools, and
by the local pastors. Artisans give some instruction in mechanical
drawing, and practical farmers supplement the work of the regular
teachers in the agricultural schools, as do also Government inspec-
tors, live-stock experts, and veterinarians.
A particularly large place in the life and work of the people's high
schools is filled by the principal's wife. In many cases she does con-
siderable teaching, especially in the field of household arts. Fre-
quently, in the position of matron, she superintends the purchasing
of supplies, manages the culinary department, and in general stands
1 statistical information for determining the median is not available.
8 See table in appendix, pp. 168, 169.
110 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
in the relation of mother to the students. Many a school owes its
success and influence largely to the noble woman who, as partner in
the principalship, has helped solve the innumerable problems that
arise, and has exerted that gentle influence which makes the people's
high school such a unique type of school activity.
Additional light is thrown upon the character of the teachers by
information as to their ages.^ Many of them are young, 46 per cent
of the men in people's high schools being below 35 years. High-
school teachers have a greater age range than those in agricultural
schools, there being more below 30 and above 65 years. Other things
being equal, this Avould indicate a superior class of teachers in the
agricultural schools. Women are considerably yo'.mger than the
men. More than half of them are below 30 years. While the propor-
tion of young teachers is thus very large, the number of teachers in
the higher age groups affords ample proof that many persons, espe-
cially men, choose and pursue teaching in these schools as their life
work.
Education of teachers. — As to professional equipment, there are
three chief groups of teachers in the people's high schools — the uni-
versity trained, normal school graduates, and those trained in the
people's high schools themselves — constituting 15, 22, and 28 per cent,
respectively. The balance are trained by a variety of agencies, such
as Gymnasia and other secondary schools, agricultural college, teach-
er's college, and special courses for people's high-school teachers.*
In the university group many are graduates in theology. This kind
of training in preparation for high-school teaching has been regarded
with much favor. It not only selects the men who by temperament
are likely to prove successful teachers in a school whose object is pri-
marily the awakening of the spirit, but it also gives an insight into
the historic workings of those large religious, cultural, and social fac-
tors that are still operative in building character. In recent years,
however, the number of universit5^-trained men has been decreasing,
while the proportion of teachers trained in the people's high schools
has been on the increase. It is notably the advanced people's high
school at Askov that trains teachers.
While the w^ork of this school, which will be noted later, is of high
grade and much more advanced than that of other high schools, the
institution scarcely suffices as an adequate training school for teachers
in these schools. Since 1895 university summer courses for people's
high-school teachers have been held every year, chiefly in Copenhagen
and at Grundtvig's high school in Lyngby. Recognized scholars and
experienced teachers have contributed much to make these courses
* See table in appendix, p. 169.
THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. Ill
helpful and stimulating to high-school teachers. Excursions, visits
to museums, and other educative efforts connected with the courses
have added to their value. While the summer courses are of un-
doubted service to teachers, the work attempted in these must be
regarded as supplementary rather than fundamental in the serious
business of training teachers. Leading people's high-school men are
therefore much concerned about the problem of teachers' training.
They point to the need of an institution of university rank, but per-
vaded by the spirit of the people's schools as a training school for
their teachers. It is in this connection that Grundtvig's plan for
transforming the richly endowed academy at Soro into a school for
the people is receiving renewed attention. Whatever may be the
solution of the problem of training teachers, it would seem but a
question of time when the present method of inbreeding and the em-
ployment of teachers who have no adequate training for their work
will prove destructive to the best interests of the people's high schools.
Though the spirit of popular education which has brought the
people's high schools into being and has made them powerful instru-
ments for public service is still robust, it is nevertheless not strong
enough to maintain the efficiency of the high-school movement unless
it is supported by a thorough educdtional and professional training
of the men and women who are to do its work.
Among teachers in the agricultural schools the chief group, as
might be expected, is composed of graduates of the State agricultural
college, 47 per cent of the total; 18 per cent are trained in people's
high schools.^
Teachers' association. — In 1891 was organized an association of
teachers in people's high schools and agricultural schools. This
association has been an instrument of large value to the high-
school movement. It has established uniform tuition rates and has
influenced legislation in behalf of the schools. To the efforts of this
association is due the establishment of the many supplementary
opportunities for the improvement of teachers in service. It has in-
stituted conventions of people's high-school teachers from all- the
Scandinavian countries and published reports of its various meet-
ings. It is largely the medium of fraternalism and exchange of
ideas between people's high-school teachers in and out of Denmark.
The organ, '^Hojskolehladet^^'' is published under its auspices.
Maintenance. — All the people's high schools and agricultural
schools are private institutions owned and operated by individuals
or corporations. Table 16 indicates that principals are the owners
in the great majority of cases.^
1 See table in appendix, p. 170. * Dan. Stat, op. cit, p. 7.
3334°— 15 8
112 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Table 16.-
—Otcnership of schools.
Owners.
People's
high
schools.
Agricul-
tural
schools.
Total.
Principals
62
1
17
11
1
7
73
Other private persons . ...
2
Corporations
24
Total
80
19
99
In recent years the number of schools owned and operated by cor-
porations has been on the increase. Most principals, however, seem
to prefer owning their schools themselves. It leaves them much
more freedom than otherwise to operate the schools according to
their own ideas. Their personalities may then have full play. The
history of the founding of schools may be illustrated by the follow-
ing instance : A man who had taught successfully in several people's
high schools was encouraged to start a school of his own in an un-
occupied locality. In addition to what money he himself possessed,
he borrowed as much as he could from friends and interested per-
sons. With this money he ])urchased land and placed a mortgage
on it to raise money for a building. With tuition moneys and State
and local aid, he operates the school, pays interest on the debt and a
part of the principal each year.
State aid has been granted to people's high and agricultural
schools from the beginning, not only for scholarships to needy stu-
dents, but also to defray a part of the operating expenses of the
schools. In 1892 the amount of the State aid which had gradually
been increasing, was raised to 120,000 kroner; in 1902 to 140,000
kroner, and in 1908 to 150,000 kroner, together with 1,500 kroner
to each additional school approved after that date. In order to
share in the State aid, a school must be approved by the State. Be-
fore this can take place, the school must have been in successful
operation for at least two years, and have had each year at least 10
students for 12 months, 20 students for 6 months, or 40 students for
3 months. None of these students may be less than 16 years of age,
and not more than one-fourth may be between 16 and 18 years.
By law of 1908 the sum to each school was fixed at 500 kroner a
year, plus a sum proportional to the previous year's expenditures for
salaries, equipment, maintenance, and interest on debt, though not to
exceed one-third of the amount of these expenditures. The amount
of the appropriation directly to the schools for 1912-13 totals 171,500
kroner. There is an additional appropriation of 6,200 kroner for
equipment, in which people's high and agricultural schools may share
together with technical and commercial schools.^
In addition to State aid many schools receive aid from coimty
school funds. Thus 38 people's high schools and 11 agricultural
1 Finanslov for 1912-13.
AIMS, CURBICULA, AND METHODS. 113
schools received, respectively, 10,875 and 4,500 kroner in 1910-11
from this source. Local communes aided 3 schools to the extent of
830 kroner, and 10 schools received 6,305 kroner from associations of
various kinds.^
Even though the schools are thus aided by local and State funds it
is no easy task for a principal without large means to build and
operate a people's high or agricultural school. The tuition rates are
very low, as previously noted, and State and local aid is relatively
not great. None but principals who combine a variety of qualities —
busines ability, intellectual gifts, ready and forcible speech, winning
personality, and popular instincts — can succeed. The number of men
possessing this combination of qualities is necessarily small, and the
State has therefore pursued the policy of giving such men full liberty
in the conduct of their schools. There is a mild form of inspection,
there being one State inspector for all the people's high and agricul-
tural schools, who also inspects the schools of domestic science. His
visits are therefore very infrequent. Most of his work consists in
gathering statistical information relating to the schools to satisfy
himself and the State that the schools are doing the work for which
the State subsidizes them. He has no authority over the schools or
teachers to interfere with courses of study, methods, or the like. The
teachers claim and receive absolute freedom. Attempts to estimate
the efficiency of the schools by the introduction of a State examina-
tion have been stubbornly resisted. In fact many schools would sur-
render their State grants rather than be subjected to an examination
test. It is held that the best criterion of the efficiency of the schools
is the judgment of the students themselves, who as grown-up men
and women are capable of estimating merits and demerits. Compe-
tition among the schools and the free movement of the young people
from one part of the country to another serve as stimuli to keep the
schools up to grade. If they fall below, the verdict is registered in
the dwindling of the student body. Whatever fallacies there may or
may not be in this laissez faire policy of the State the fact remains
that the efficienc}^ of the schools in performing tlieir avowed service
has never been seriously questioned.
Chapter IX.
AIMS, CURRICULA, AND METHODS.
Aims. — While the Danish people's high schools of necessity vary
in many respects, they are united on three cardinal points — aim.
chief elements in curriculum, and method. We have previously noted
the purposes and aims entertained for the people's high schools by
» Dan. Stat., op. cit., p. 9.
114 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
their educational forerunners and founders. Without any essential
change, these aims continue to guide the work of the schools at the
present time. Speaking now of the people's high schools, apart from
the agricultural schools, all judgments seem to agree that their pur-
pose is not vocational, nor merely informational, but broadly cul-
tural. An analysis of this cultural aim, as expressed by leading high-
school men and students of the movement, indicates the following
elements to be most clearly apprehended: (1) To impart a harmoni-
ous view of life by showing that there is a divine purpose running
through history and by giving an insight into the unifying princi-
ples of nature; (2) to awaken the minds and kindle the imaginations
of the students to see the glory of an ideal humanity, participation
in which raises them above the clods of the earth into a fellowship
with God and men; (3) to establish their characters on a sound
Christian foundation; (4) to develop an appreciation for the beauti-
ful and noble; (5) to instill a patriotic love for their country, its
history, language, and literature; (6) to inform the students about
the spirit and workings of their political institutions, in order that
they may make full use of their free constitution; (7) to impart
useful knowledge.
Favorable conditions. — ^Undoubtedly such aims cherished for a
short people's high-school course seem pretentious, but it is w^ell to
bear in mind the conditions which a people's high school in Denmark
may premise for its work at the present time. In the first place it
has to do not with children, but with grown peoph^ whose age is
about on a par with that of university students. This in itself,
regardless of cultural opportunities, gives the schools a student body
whose maturity makes possible a higher grade of work than in an
ordinary continuation school. But it must not be supposed that the
young people who come to the high school have had no cultural
opportunities. The high schools have been at work for over half a
century and have raised the entire cultural level of the population.
A young person reared in a home influenced by this culture can not
but have absorbed something from it. Furthermore, one may safely
assume that a young person who hopes to go to a high school at 20
will not in the meantime neglect the opportunities which will pre-
pare him for such a course. Continuation schools, the local church,
young people's societies, the village lecturing society, newspapers
and magazines, universally read, afford manifold educative oppor-
tunities to the young person whose interests draw him in that direc-
tion. Even though the preparation consists in nothing more than
a longing for the high school, cherished through years of waiting,
this alone cultivates in the young person an intellectual thirst which
is of prime importance in the search for knowledge. In order to be
able to take a high-school course, the young man has perhaps been
AIMS, CURKICULA, AND METHODS.
115
saving up his hard-earned money for years and has accumulated a
store of energy, hopes, and anticipations that make him an eager
student. Add to these considerations a sturdy health, which affords
the physical basis for energetic intellectual work, and there results
a student body eminently equipped, for fruitful study.
Curriculum. — The situation presented each year by the people's
high schools is undoubtedly unique in the educational field through-
out the world. Over 7,000 grown-up young men and women, largely
from rural homes, and usually with an education of only elementary
character, come to receive in five or three months the elements of a
cultural education. How shall the schools meet this unique oppor-
tunity ? What sort of a curriculum are they to offer ? Clearly they
can not proceed in the manner of an ordinary higher school which
has years for the attainment of its purpose. A different set of prin-
ciples must determine the curriculum. Every element suggested for
the course of study must be subjected to the question, What edu-
cational value does the subject possess to entitle it to a place in a
three or five months' people's high-school course? No subject, even
though in itself valuable, can be given a place if it does not con-
tribute to the fulfillment of the special aim of the people's high
school. The limited time available precludes all subjects except
those possessing a maximum of potentiality for attaining this aim,
and, finally, every subject must be selected with reference to the
capacities and ages of the student body. Tested by these criteria a
vast amount of material found in ordinary school curricula is of
course discarded. The result of the application of the above princi-
ples is shown by Table 17,' which indicates the subjects found in
the average high-school curriculum, together with the number of
hours devoted to each.
Table 17. — Subjects in people's high-school curriculum, with the average number
of hours of instruction per week in each.
Subjects.
Boys' course
(five months)
Girls' course
(three
months).
Danish
Penmanship . . .\p. .•#
History of literature and literary readings.
History and civics
Geography
Sciences and hygiene
Arithmetic
Drawing
Singing
Gymnastics
Household arts
Agriculture, etc
other subjects
8.0
1.1
5.2
9.5
2.4
4.2
5.0
2.5
1.1
5.4
.0
4.2
1.5
Total.
50.
7.7
.8
5.9
9.3
2.3
3.8
3.6
.8
1.3
5.6
9.6
.0
1.0
51.7
> Dan. Stat., Folkehojskoler og Landbriigsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 44.
116 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Absence of disciplinary subjects. — The program is interesting, in
the first place, for what it does not contain. Foreign languages are
altogether lacking in the average school. Some instruction in Ger-
man and English is given in the advanced courses at Askov and in
one or two other schools. Disciplinary mathematics, too, are missing.
In general, subjects relying for their justification upon a disciplinary
conception of education have no place in the people's high-school
curriculum.
Danish. — The table clearly indicates that Danish and history oc-
cupy the largest places in the curriculum. Strictly speaking, Danish
includes reading, grammar, orthography, and composition. A total
of eight hours a week is devoted to these in boys' courses. The num-
ber of hours is increased by 5.2 if the history of literature and literary
readings be added. Table 18^ indicates the average number of
hours in a term devoted to each of these subjects. Formal instruc-
tion in Danish is pursued only so far as is strictly necessary to enable
the students to use correct orthography and to speak a language free
from colloquialisms. The instruction in language is by no means
regarded as an exercise in general mental discipline. Its aim is ex-
ceedingly specific and utilitarian. That it gives a cultural by-
product— love for the native tongue — is in perfect accord with the
central purpose of the high school. The history of literature con-
cerns chiefly Denmark, although it is not limited to this country.
The cultural influence of the chief movements and representative
men is treated, and literary selections illustrative of each are read
and stu. ied.
Table 18. — SuJ}jects and average niim'ber of hours of instruction in Danish in
hoys' five months'' course.
Hours.
Reading 39
Grammar 38
- Orthography 46
Composition 26
History. — Table 19^ indicates something of the range of work in
history. Scandinavia (Denmark especially) receives the greatest em-
phasis, while general history holds a place of secondary importance.
The place given to Bible, church, and missionary histofy is relatively
large for a school of general culture. This fact indicates very dis-
tinctly the importance which the people's high schools attach to the
religious element in the history of the world's culture. The work in
civics, which is statistically included with history, occupies a little
less than one hour a week. It aims to give an appreciation of the
constitution and the forms of State and local government, so that the
iDan. Stat, op. cit, p. 461.
AIMS, CURBICULA, AND METHODS. 117
students may intelligently face their duties, privileges, and problems
as citizens.
Table 19. — Suhjects and average number of hours of instruction in history in a
boys' five months' course.
Hours.
Scandinavian history • 73
General history 57
Church, Bible, and missionary history 33
Miscellaneous lectures 7
The people's high school has been called an historical high school,
and with truth. The historical point of view is uppermost through-
out; even the sciences are approached historically, as will later ap-
pear. The number of hours actually devoted to instruction in his-
tory is so large as also to warrant that epithet being applied to the
school. When, how^ever, the statement is made that two-thirds of
the time in these schools is devoted to history, the actual state of
affairs suffers misrepresentation. If to history and civics (9.5 hours
a week) be added history of literature (2 hours), and if the science
instruction (4.2 hours) be also classified as history, the total of all
these gives only 15.7 hours a week. This constitutes less than one-
third (31 per cent) of the total number of hours of instruction per
week in all subjects.
Arithmetic. — Of much importance, as measured by the time ele-
ment, is arithmetic. This subject is included because of its extreme
utility. The work, however, is limited to the exact needs of the
students, only such portions of arithmetic, geometry, and accounts
being included as are necessary for the average farmer or artisan in
his vocation.
Table 20. — Subjects and average number of hours of instruction in sciences in
boys' five months' course.
Hours.
Physics 38
Zoology and botany 11
Chemistry 13
Hygiene 18
/Sciences. — Sciences and hygiene occupy 4.2 hours a week. The
relative importance of each subject in this group appears from
Table 20.^ Physics holds the first place, as might be expected.
Clearly, however, the work in this, as well as the other subjects, must
be limited to the elements. Nevertheless, the sciences hold an estab-
lished place in the schools, for the hours that are assigned to them,
even though few, give the students a reasonably intelligent apprecia-
tion of their environment.
1 Dan. Stat., op. cit., p. 46.
118 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Geography. — Geography, handled in a large way, affords an ex-
cellent means of familiarizing the Danish young people with their
native country. A study is made of its physical characteristics, the
means of access to its various parts, its resources, how these may be
developed, and the economic problems arising therefrom. In imagi-
nation the entire country is traversed, the occupations and habits of
the people in the various parts being studied. Attention is also
given to a comparative study of neighboring countries and the com-
mercial relations in which Denmark is involved. Geography treated
in a patriotic spirit is one of the chief instruments in the hands of
the schools for instilling love of the fatherland.
Drawing and penmanship. — Drawing is included chiefly in order
to afford an avenue for self-expression and to give a sense of form.
That it possesses practical usefulness, too, for the farmer boy, is
not difficult to demonstrate. The small average amount of time de-
voted to penmanship, 1.1 hours a week, is explainable by the fact
that many schools give no time to this subject, while none gives a
great deal. It is not necessary, for writing is one of the arts exceed-
ingly well taught by the elementary schools.
Singing. — Singing holds a much larger place in the people's high
school than is indicated by the 1.1 hours a week assigned to it. It is
formal instruction in singing which occupies this insignificant place,
many schools giving no time to this subject. But the singing of
songs is an essential characteristic of every people's high school.
The day begins with song. Usually a song is sung at the beginning
and sometimes at the end of every hour of work. A person inter-
ested in the education of the plain people finds his heart beating
faster when he sees and hears 150 brawny young farmers singing
with all their hearts one of the stirring songs that have moved people
to action. The songs are of the most varied character, dealing with
religion, patriotism, love, home, geography, history, and folk lore.
A book containing hundreds of songs has been edited and published
by the teachers' association for use in the schools. Some unfriendly
critics of the people's high school have facetiously made the charge
that the students do not learn anything but singing. There may ap-
parently be some reason for the criticism, but it is perhaps not a
serious danger that comes from this passionate devotion to song.
Agriculture. — As previously indicated, the work in agriculture
and related subjects is not essential to a people's high-school course.
In many schools, however, which do not pretend to give instruction
in agriculture, series of lectures on agricultural subjects are given
which are statistically listed under this caption. This accounts in
part for the relatively large number of hours (4.2) devoted to this
subject.
AIMS^ CUKEICULA^ AND METHODS. 119
Gymnastics.— ^ysi&o[\?it\G gymnastics constitute a part of every
day's program. A gymnasium is considered as essential as a lecture
room to the equipment of a school. In fact it is largely due to the
influence of the people's high schools that gymnastics have been
so generally introduced into the school life of Denmark. A modified
form of the Swedish Lyng system is used, and every student is given
the special attention his needs require. Gymnastics are not looked
upon as a hateful drill by these sturdy rural people, but as a joyous
opportunity for physical movement and for building up their bodies
into still more robust health.
Variations in emphasis. — Additional light is thrown upon the cur-
riculum by the differences in attention devoted to the various sub-
jects.^ Danish, historj^, geography, arithmetic, and gymnastics are
found in all the schools. The variation in the number of hours de-
voted to these is very large, but there is a fairly well-defined mode
in each subject, most clearly marked in the case of gynmastics.
Physics is found in all but one school, literary readings in all but
three, drawing in all but six, agriculture in all but seven, and hy-
giene in all but nine. The remaining subjects are missing in a large
number of the schools. Least uniformity is present in the case of
literary readings and agriculture.
Features of girls'^ curriculum. — Boys and girls pursue essentially
the same program except that the girls have no agriculture and de-
vote considerable time to household arts. Sciences, arithmetic, and
drawing also show fewer hours per week for girls. The distinctive
feature of the girls' program is the attention given to household arts.
This work consists largely in the weaving of fabrics of artistic pat-
tern. A revival of this household art has swept over the Scandi-
navian countries, and the courses in the people's high schools are at
once the cause and effect of the revival. Perhaps in no other way do
the schools so w^ell demonstrate their devotion to that which is of the
people as by their furtherance of this art. They love the homemade
and the genuine. Sewing and embroidery also occupy some of the
time devoted to household arts.
An interesting feature of gymnastics in girls' courses is the atten-
tion given to folk dances. These, too, have been revived and adapted
to educational purposes. They form a very pleasant variation in the
work of formal gymnastics, affording a means of healthful recreation
and of developing grace of movement.
Advanced courses at Ashov. — Work of a somewhat higher grade
than in ordinary people's high schools is done in the advanced school
at Askov. Before entering here students have attended a people's
high school or other school of more than elementary character. The
1 See table in appendix, p. 170.
120
THE DANISH PEOPLE S HIGH SCHOOL.
work at Askov extends over two terms of six months each. Table 21
indicates the scope of the instruction.^ As will be noticed, the total
number of hours per week is even greater than in the ordinary peo-
ple's high school. In explanation of this large total it may be in
order to mention that a great many of the hours of work require no
preparation on the part of the students. Even so, it is plainly evi-
dent that the students in these schools lead a very busy life.
Table 21. — Curriculum of advanced people's high school at Askov.
Subjects.
Danish
Scandinavian literature
General history
Scandinavian history. .
Geography
Civics
Mathematics
Historical physics
English or German
Drawing
Singing
Hours of instruction
per week.
First
Second
year.
Subjects.
Arithmetic
Hygiene
The life of language
General lectures
Literature of the world.
History of religion
Nature study
Gymnastics
Total.
Hours of instruction
per week.
First
52
Second
year.
Methods. — While the people's high schools possess unusual cur-
ricula, the institutions are perhaps still more unique in their methods.
Ordinary higher schools, that deal with youth through a series of
years, proceed to impart a mass of formal knowledge. When the
young person has developed sufficient powers of generalization, he
will come to see this knowledge as a whole with the parts properly
related. He can estimate the relative value of each and thus get a
harmonious view of life. The people's high schools likewise en-
deavor to give the essentials of culture, to put their students into an
intelligent relation to the spiritual possessions of the race. But
their method must be different. The limited time available does not
permit of this slow process. Furthermore, they are not dealing with
children, but with grown people who are capable of seeing the broad
lines of development when mapped out for them, and who have
developed a sense of values which enables them to judge between
essentials and details. Cultural materials must be presented to
these adult students in such a way that they can see the inherent
values involved, and the data must be organized in such a way that
the students recognize the rational connection.
In other words, " the people's high schools must give the mate-
rials for a philosophy of life in their organic relationships, so that
the youth not only "may take away with him a mass of facts, but
^Announcement for 1912-13,
AIMS^ CURRICULA, AND METHODS. 123
see the organic relations among them." ^ In order to affect him per-
manently, the subject matter must be woven into the warp and woof
of his personality.
Method in history. — The method used is illustrated in the best way
by the treatment of history. If a people's high school teacher is to
discuss the Persian Wars/ he will previously have told about the
older nations and, most recently, of the Persian empire. He will
also have had opportunities of giving the students some notion of
the spirit and life of the Greek people, and of how 'these differed
from the Asiatic in mode of thought. Having thus awakened a
desire to pursue the historical movement westward, he takes up the
Persian Wars. With as much detail as is necessary for a vivid pic-
ture he tells how the Persians and the Greeks approached nearer and
nearer to each other until they finally clashed on Greek soil, and
how the little Grecian nation dared to enter the unequal fight to pre-
serve its liberty. He tells of the great men who by the magic of
their spirit kept their countrymen awake, led them in battle, and
supported their courage in moments of distress. He tells of the
glorious combats at Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea.
He must, of course, tell the story well, so that the heroic figures of
Miltiades, Leonidas, and Themistocles stand out vividly before the
eyes of the students. He must, furthermore, narrate the events so
that in the very story the students may see the deep, hidden con-
nection between events. They must feel something of that which
drove the Greek people into this crucial fight. In addition he must
seek to fix the lessons of the story by clarifying and amplifying the
idealistic elements involved. He must therefore complete his nar-
rative by a historical-philosophical elaboration. It must not appear
as an accident that the Darius and Xerxes millions were humbled
by the little Grecian band. The students must be led to see the law
of history and of life according to which the result was inevitable.
They must understand the fundamental superiority of the little
band which, " obedient to the laws of Sparta," in love of freedom,
country, and honor braided their hair and decked themselves as for
a festival when they went out into the great combat to die the death
of heroes. They must understand the moral superiority of these
people over the blindly driven masses of Persians. They must like-
wise be led to see that the sacrifice of Leonidas was not a senseless
act of a man " who lets his people be cut down in a mountain pass
by a superior force and even then does not win," but that this well-
considered act was really a deed with large decisive results.
The teacher must furthermore make it clear to the students how
the achievement of the Greeks was possible for a people of their
* Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 109flf.
122 THE DAITISH people's HIGH SCHOOL.
spirit and history. For this purpose he must explain the character-
istic contents of Grecian mythology and folklore, and by the help
of translations and stories give them some idea of the Homeric
poetry. He must show that out of the differing beliefs and spirit of
the peoples arise differing deeds and lives. Along with this, he must
awaken in the souls of his hearers a desire to live a similarly full,
generous, and beautiful life, for their own satisfaction and for the
gain and glory of their country. All that is great and noble in the
history of past nations must, by the instrumentality of the teacher,
be permitted to sink itself into the lives of the students and call
forth the elements of a similar life.
Use of lectures. — It is clear that such a presentation of history can
be successfully made only by the use of the human voice in lectures.
It has been the experience of the Danes, as perhaps of many other
peoples, that efforts at the enlightenment of the common people by
means of learned books have proved futile. Books appeal primarily
to the intelligence which is least developed in the case of the meagerly
educated. The Danish people's high schools are concerned with peo-
ple whose intellectual level must be called primitive in comparison
with the materials with which they deal. They must therefore ap-
peal not so much to the understanding of the students as to their
hearts and their personalities. For this, vivifying human speech far
surpasses the " dead words " of books. In lecturing, the teachers use
no notes, or at least very few. Students likewise take no notes during
the progress of a lecture. The eyes of teacher and students meet.
This the teachers consider essential to success. They want the stu-
dents' undivided attention. They want to see the students' faces
and know whether their spirits are responsive to their own. Much
of the teachers' inspiration in their work comes from the gleaming
eye and the sympathetic look that meets them as they watch the
faces of their hearers. On the other hand, if their discourse is fail-
ing to reach home, this verdict, too, is immediately recorded in the
faces before them, and the teachers can make the adjustments neces-
sary to regain attention.
Secret of success — Mastery of subject. — One may ask how it is
possible to speak with profitable results to such people about themes
which seem to lie above their comprehending level. This is one form
of the problem that has been faced over and over again by people
who really believe in culture for the common people. It is therefore
worth while to study the method used by the teachers in these insti-
tutions which, it is agreed, have with large success bridged the gap
usually existing between the common people and the cultural posses-
sion of their country and race.
AIMS, CURRICULA, AND METHODS. 123
As the scientific writer of history, so the people's high-school
teacher of history must have attained to a certain view of the chief
lines of historical devolpment by the study of the historical materials
bearing upon the period under discussion. He can not transmit an
abridged form of general history, but must give the development in
large generalizations formed on the basis of wide study. As library
aids, therefore, the teachers do not use textbooks or syllabi, but such
works as those of Schlosser, Eanke, Taine, Gibbon, Hume, Macauley,
or Ullstein. In Scandinavian history they make large use of the
readily available source material. The teacher must have lived him-
self so thoroughly into the historical situation that he speaks with
conviction and enthusiasm, as it were, out of his own life experience.
Selection of materixil for treatment. — Having acquired this knowl-
edge and insight into historical trend, it remains to find the proper
means and manner of expression. He may not bring into his pres-
entation the materials which have contributed to form his present
viewpoint. "He tells things straightforwardly, just as he now sees
them to be." Neither does he discuss in abstract form the laws that
govern the historical phenomena, but endeavors to find the crucial
point in the development and then let the operations of the laws ap-
pear through the concrete event or individual. In short, the teacher
must have his eyes fixed upon the great course of the world's history
and the points where the current is the strongest. When he sees
this clearly he selects the individual men and events which mark the
main stream and its currents. These, then, he treats so fully that
they arouse the vivid participation of the hearers.
By this manner of treatment a great many things that are found
in a textbook in history are of course left out. Thus, while a n^ove-
ment in one country may be treated vety fully, a parallel movement
in another country may be passed over with a mere mention. Instead
of saying something about a long series of kings, a single representa-
tive may be chosen for treatment while the rest are left untouched.
A single battle may represent a long war, and many wars are passed
over altogether as contributing nothing to the world's progress. The
great, the significant, the decisive is always selected for treatment.
Full treatment of selected material. — As a result of this selection
the portions that are presented are given so much greater attention
and fuller treatment. Prominent personages and events are made to
stand out clearly, and, as a result, impress themselves upon the memory
and influence personality. From the standpoint of the people's
high school it is infinitely more fruitful, for instance, in the treat-
ment of American history, to say something significant about Thomas
Jefferson and his service to republicanism than to present in order
the dates and events of all the early presidential administrations.
124 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Individual men are given great prominence, so much so that history
at times seems to resolve itself into a series of biographies. In pre-
senting an individual's part in history, however, the teacher does not
merely give a personal biography. He seeks to show the man as the
exponent of a principle, the central force in a movement, or the
" man of destiny " called forth to meet a crisis. The German Refor-
mation is tied up with the personality of Luther, while Bismarck
symbolizes the spirit of German nationalism. Thus is presented a
philosophy of history which the student can understand. As em-
phasis is placed upon history-making men and events, so efforts are
also made to show the large workings of the moral laws in history
and the great forces that make for and against national stability.
Severe demands on teachers. — It need not be stated that this type
of history teaching makes severe demands upon the teachers. It
requires not only sound scholarship but forceful personality and
power of expression. The ability possessed by some of the teachers
to make history speak to these rural young people is indeed a revela-
tion of the possibilities of their method. By constant and long-
continued practice they have acquired the ability to handle their
subjects so skillfully, with such clarity of thought and such simple
language that even the unlettered youth can follow the development
of the thought. To be sure misfits are occasionally met with, but
the free movement of students throughout the country serves to weed
out the unfit. Only those suited for the work can succeed. Success
requires intellectual ability, but it also demands the qualities of
heart which enable the teacher to live and feel with his subject and
with his students. Bredsdorff says : ^
Onfy that history instruction ha^ power which is in such close compact with
life itself that life's deep forces mingle themselves in it, and life's essence moves
through it with the power of reality. It is clear then that effective history
Instruction is that in which life is felt as a stream rising in the remotest past
and rushing on toward the sea of eternity. We ourselves are in the midst of it,
Its waters foam around us and through us, so that we feel ourselves as part of
It and through joys and sorrows we are carried on to the unending.
Method in sciences. — Since the historic approach to a subject,
especially by the people's high-school method, places the student in
such vital, personal contact with it, there has been developed a
method by which also the sciences are studied historically. Instead
of presenting the body of scientific knowledge systematically, the
progress of the discovery of scientific truth is traced up through the
centuries. By this method the students are constantly trained to
look at natural phenomena, not apart but in their relation to man.
Furthermore, the student comes to share in the problems and the
» Quoted by HoUmann, op. clt., p. 121.
AIMS, CURKICULA, AND METHODS. 125
joys of the inventor and discoverer, and thus acquires scientific
knowledge more personally and more thoroughly than otherwise.
The method which is used in practically all branches of science is
best described by the master of the art, Paul la Cour, who alone, or
in collaboration with others, has published several textbooks in
science built upon the historic method. In a lecture^ setting forth
the possibilities of the metliod as applied to astromechanics he says
in part:
In this connection attention is directed to the great thinker Archimedes, who
is already well known from general history. The students should first be made
acquainted with his life and his exploits in defense of Syracuse. Thereupon
they are told that he considered this service of small importance, but wished
that his tombstone might bear the image of a cone, sphere, and cylinder in mem-
ory of the fact that his intellect had been able to solve the relation beween the
volumes of these bodies. Then the students are excellently prepared to follow
out the mechanical principles of Archimedes with interest and attention. These
are so necessary in order to experience the pleasure of one's own ability of
thought, but are often lacking when mechanical principles are presented sys-
tematically and abstractly.
After the discovery of America sciences are again revived in Europe. Galileo
begins where Archimedes left off some 17 or IS centuries before. Galileo's life
and discoveries, like those of Archimedes, are eminently suitable as material
for instruction. They need merely to be told very simply.
After having mentioned a few Aristotelian misconceptions in regard to the
characteristics of air, one passes on to the discovery of atmospheric pressure
by Galileo's pupil, Torricelli. Thereupon follows Pascal's convincing proof of
the correctness of this discovery and the commotion produced by it all over the
civilized world. Then are told the stories of Otto V. Guerick's hasty attempt
at making a fire engine into an air pump and his experiments before the Ger-
man Parliament, and also Robert Boyle's successful construction of an air
pump and scientific experiments with it. Some time later follow the invention
of the balloon and the discovery of the elements of the air, which, so to speak,
opened the door for the great advance in chemistry during the last century.
Dynamics are studied in connection with Galileo and Stevin, the Hollander
Huyghens, the inventor of the pendulum, and his great English contemporaries.
Finally, modern astronomy is taken up. Copernicus makes such a thorough
historic study of the Grecians that he not only announces anew that the earth
moves around the sun, but adds — what the Greeks did not say — that also the
planets revolve around the sun.
Then Tycho Brahe builds up from the bottom by making ingenious and care-
ful measurements with excellently constructed instruments. His pupil, Kepler,
formulates the results into the three laws which make his name immortal, and
Isaac Newton explains celestial mechanics so thoroughly that it was said in
the Royal Scientific Society in London that " there was nothing more to be
done." After this trio, whose works ought never to be studied otherwise than
in their historic connections, one naturally considers several contemporary
and later astronomers, as Ole Romer, Bradley, Bessel, Jansen, and others.
1 Delivered at a meeting of people's high-school teachers at Hvilan, Sweden, 1890.
Printed in proceedings, p. 81 fl.
126 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
General use of lecture method. — The lecture method is used in all
subjects capable of its application. Opportunity for the use of the
"living word," for the contact of spirit with spirit, is sought for
always. In addition to the subjects already mentioned, history and
sciences, the method is used in literature, civics, geography, hygiene,
and, to some extent, in the study of Danish. The reading aloud of
literary selections is a favorite form of spending one of the evening
hours.
Use of texthoohs. — In general, textbooks are used only in subjects
which do not lend themselves well to the use of the lecture method.
In recent years, however, there has been in certain quarters an in-
crease in the use of books and in the emphasis on work by the students
themselves. In most schools now several hours a day are spent by
students in individual work, chiefly in Danish and arithmetic. In
some schools the practice of students making notes of lectures heard
iii a previous hour is required or encouraged.
No examinations . — It has previously been stated that the people's
high schools have no examinations either at the beginning or end
of their courses. A certificate of attendance is furnished to those
who desire it, but no grades or diploma of graduation are given.
There is no inducement of any kind to cram. Without the stress of
preparing for formal knowledge tests, the students who have come
from plow and bench are permitted to live their life quietly during
these months while the treasures of culture are being opened to them
and they are getting an insight into the wonderful world about them.
With new and enlarged vision they return to the work they left.
Aim of agricultural schools. — Since the purpose of the agricultural
schools is vocational, they necessarily differ somewhat from the peo-
ple's high schools. The difference is most marked in the case of aims
and curricula. Naturally the agricultural schools aim to train agri-
culturalists. They endeavor to equip young farmers to cultivate their
land and care for their live stock more intelligently and efficiently.
The same service is performed for young men who have no land of
their own, but who desire to assume the management of large farms.
Some schools have as their sole purpose the instruction of very
small farmers in the conduct of their limited acres. A model farm is
usually conducted, on which the boys spend part of their time in
actual farm work with a view to learning the best methods.
Some of the schools also maintain courses for the specific purpose
of training gardeners, managers of creameries, and experts to be
employed by the " societies of control." Domestic-science courses in
some schools aim to meet the vocational demands of girls.
While the leading purpose of the agricultural schools is specifically
vocational, the humanity of the students is not lost to view. Along
AIMS, CURKICULA, AND METHODS. 127
with the technical instruction the schools endeavor to exert a broadly
cultural influence in order to cultivate in the young man or woman
an appreciation for the higher values.
Curricula of agricultural schools. — Detailed information in regard
to the curricula of agricultural schools is not available. In broad out-
line their work is indicated by the subjoined table/ which states the
average number of hours devoted to the various subjects in five and
six months' courses, respectively. It would seem that the six months'
course is more pronouncedly vocational than the five months' course,
for, although a month longer, it has a considerably smaller number
of hours devoted to cultural subjects. This fact is perhaps explain-
able by the very circumstance of the longer term, which permits of
a more adequate treatment of the large amount of technical material.
The vocational function is apparently more clearly apprehended and
more specifically pursued than in the five months' course, which re-
tains more the nature of a general people's high school. The place
held by cultural subjects in both courses is significantly large and
indicates the close kinship existing between the agricultural and the
people's high school.
Table 22. — Curricula jof agricultural scfiools, 1910-11,
Subjects.
Average number of
hours of instruction.
Five
months'
course.
Six
months'
course.
Sciences
Plants and cereals
Live stock and dairying
Other agricultural subjects .
Cultural subjects
211
159
143
97
295
237
181
176
136
251
Methods of agricultural schools. — Due allowance being made for
the difference in the curricular material, the agricultural schools
resemble the people's high schools very much in point of methods.
Informal lectures constitute the chief medium of instruction. A
difference is discernible, however, especially in the teaching of the
sciences. In these individual work in experimentation is carried on.
The purpose is to train the students in habits of observation and to
familiarize them with such technical terms and processes as are
employed in scientific agriculture, rather than the development of
technical skill. Thus the student does work in analysis of soils,
fertilizers, and the like, not with a view to testing the qualities of
1 Dan. Stat., op. dt., p. 47.
3334°— 15 9
128 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
these materials himself when he goes back to his farm, but to enable
him to understand the results of such analysis and testing when
performed by an expert. The value of such intelligence to the
Danish farmer is very large. Experimentation in methods of culti-
vation and rotation of crops is done to some extent. In some schools
the students are divided into sections to assist in the work on the
experimental farm, each group doing a different kind of work in
rotation. In dairy schools experiments are made with different kinds
of separators, churns, pasteurizing and cooling plants, and the like.
Thus each specialized function of the schools employs to some extent
the distinctive methods best suited to its purpose.
Alumni reunions. — It must not be supposed that the usefulness of
these people's schools in the lives of their students terminates with
the close of the term. Once the student has come in touch with a
school there is established a permanent bond of connection. To
keep alive and stimulate this interest, mutually advantageous to
the student and the school, there is held by most schools an alumni
reunion each year. For a period of one or more days former students
come back to renew acquaintance with fellow students and teachers,
review experiences, recall forgotten events, and sing the old songs
together. An intellectual treat of high order is also provided for
them, to instruct and stimulate. These social and intellectual fea-
tures make the alumni reunion a red-letter day in the lives of many
farmers' sons and daughters.
Autumn meetings. — The autumn meeting provides another means
of binding former students and the people of the community to the
school. These autumn meetings, which are a feature of nearly
every school, extend over a period of several days, and in many
features are comparable to our American Chautauquas. Upward of
1,500 former students and friends, almost exclusively from the agri-
cultural classes, attend. The varied program consists of lectures,
discussions, and excursions of an educational nature, under the
guidance of experienced teachers, all adapted to the needs and the
interests of the participants. Naturally the social features of these
meetings constitute one of their chief attractions.
Extension work. — As the service of the schools is not limited by
time, so neither is it by distance. From every people's high school
the forces that make for culture flow out in widening circles. By
the production of books ably and popularly written, by large con-
tributions to newspapers and magazines, and by frequent lectures
in the village societies the teachers in the people's schools are exert-
ing an influence for enlightenment, economic efficiency, culture, and
morality, throughout Denmark.
INFLUENCE AND RESULTS. 129
Chapter X.
INFLUENCE AND RESULTS.
Estimate difjiGult. — What are the results of the operation of these
unique educational agencies? Extravagant statements regarding
the beneficent results of the people's high-school movement have
undoubtedly been made by uncritical enthusiasts. Unfriendly
critics, on the other hand, have unduly minimized the significance
of the schools. The truth lies somewhere between these extremes.
Well-informed Danes and the many foreign students of the schools
agree in assigning to the people's high-school movement a remark-
able influence. The difficulty and complexity of the problem of
tracing out these influences and results are very great, and the
foreign investigator can not hope to succeed fully. He must con-
tent himself with pointing out certain facts and conditions which
give evidence of sustaining an appreciable relation to this educa-
tional movement.
Cultural results: Lecturing societies. — Since culture is the avowed
purpose of the people's high schools, it is pertinent to inquire as to
results in this particular. As a direct outcome of the high-school
movement there have been established in practically every village
and town the so-called lecturing societies. These are local organiza-
tions meeting about once a month with a program of literary or
social nature. Sometimes a lecturer from the outside is engaged,
and for this purpose high-school teachers are in great demand. At
other times the program is made up of local talent, papers being read
or debates engaged in. Men and women who have been away to
high school naturally take the lead in these matters.
These lectures and debates are most eagerly attended by all the people in
the neighborhood, some men and women often walking 4 or 5 miles in order
to hear the lectures or join in the debates. The result of this form of social
intercourse is that the oldest inhabitant feels that he has by no means finished
his education. To give an example of the subjects chosen for these lectures:
An eclipse of the moon was shortly to take place, and it is highly probable
that a vast number of lectures were given in the villages on astronomy, ex-
plaining the reasons for these natural phenomena. Any subject which may
be the means of raising higher ideals and thoughts on higher objects than the
mere means whereby wealth may be produced is chosen, and thus the subjects
are mostly of a general nature, but at the same time giving food for thought
and tending toward the higher and healthier cultivation of mind and body.*
It is estimated that there are in Denmark 1,000 such societies, with
an average of 10 meetings a year, and 100 people in attendance at
each meeting. The product of these figures is 1,000,000, which num-
1 Report of a Deputation Sent from Ireland, 1903, p. 133.
130 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
ber gives some idea of the cultural influence exerted by these in-
stitutions.
Another form of cultural activity is carried on in some of the
high-school homes. These are modest hotels in the larger towns,
where high-school men and women may meet and carry on work of
a high-school character.
High intelligence. — The direct and indirect influences of the peo-
ple's high schools have contributed to produce a general intelligence
of a very high order. The Norwegian poet, Bjornson, describes the
Danish rural population as "the most enlightened peasantry in the
world." This superlative estimate is, of course, difficult of demon-
stration, but there is abundant evidence to show that the Danes oc-
cupy a very high position on the cultural ladder.
There is in the first place the Danish antipathy toward ignorance.
This is the one thing that a Dane is ashamed of. The tradition of
education is strong and of long standing. Sometimes the school
opportunities during childhood years have been meager. But with
all the more zest, men and women seem to seize upon every oppor-
tunity for extending their knowledge, by a course at school, hearing
lectures, or by home reading.
A nation of readers. — The Danes are voracious readers. In
1910-11 there were published in Denmark 261 newspapers and 1,187
magazines,^ and this in a country with a population of about two
and a half millions.
It is a well-known fact that, although the Danish newspaper is of small size
and not always a very attractive print in the eyes of a foreigner, a far larger
number of copies proportionally are in circulation than in any other com-
munity in the world. It may truthfully be said that scarcely a home may be
found in all Denmark which does not subscribe to at least one daily newspaper,
and in many cases to several, not to mention the large number of weeklies
specially edited for the peasantry, which are to be found everywhere. The
price of the Danish newspaper is nominal, rarely exceeding 5 ore, and even
very small towns and every borough town in the country issues two or more of
these papers. The illustrated journals published every week have in some
cases close upon 100,000 subscribers.'
Love of hoohs. — Newspapers and magazines do not constitute the
only mental food of the Danes, however. Their love of books war-
ranted the publication, in 1910-11, of 3,485 separate titles, and 31,335
brochures.^ The prevalence of libraries is indicated by the following
table :»
1 Statistik Aarbog, 1912, Table 128.
"Report of a Deputation Sent from Ireland, 1903, p. 113.
• Statistik Aarbog, 1912, Table 129.
rBTFLUENCB AND EESITLTS.
Table 23. — State-aided libraries in DenmarTc, 1910-11,
131
Libraries.
Rural.
City
Total.
Publlclibraries:
655
305,000
564,000
554
57,000
368,000
361
10,000
50
122,000
394,000
91
39,000
337,000
95
17,000
705
427, 000
Lo&ns ....'.................................. ..................
958,000
School libraries:
645
Volumes
96,000
705,000
Teachers' libraries:
Number
456
Volumes
27,000
It is significant to bear in mind, in a comparison of libraries in
city and rural communities, that the city population of Denmark
now constitutes 40 per cent. To students familiar with the cultural
conditions of rural communities in some other countries the facts of
the above table regarding rural Denmark must prove a revelation,
indeed.
In addition to these public library facilities practically every home
has a well-selected library of standard authors, and the books serve
not merely as ornaments; they are read. In 1884 there was organ-
ized a committee for the publication of cheap and instructive books
of moderate size. Among other achievements the committee has pub-
lished thousands of pamphlets on scientific subjects, popularly pre-
sented, at an average price of 2J cents a copy. These books have
been of immense importance in spreading general intelligence among
the working and agricultural classes in the country.^
Love of art. — Love for and appreciation of art are also marked
characteristics of the Danes. Excursions under capable guidance are
frequently made to the cities to visit museums and other places of
interest. Even in the humblest homes one is surprised at the refined
taste shown in the selection of decorative materials. The influence
of the people's high schools in the development of this cultural trait
also deserves to be taken into account.
Economic results. — Since material prosperity is so essential to the
happiness of a people, it is proper to inquire into the effect of the
people's high schools upon economic conditions. As is generally
known, the economic rise of Denmark during the nineteenth century
was remarkable. Low lands were drained, heath lands reclaimed,
and the production of butter, beef, bacon, eggs, sugar, roots, and
grains moved forward with giant strides.^ As a result Denmark rose
from a condition of national bankruptcy in the beginning of the
century to the position of second place in per capita wealth in
Europe, according to the estimate of the statistical expert, Mr. Mul-
hall.«
1 Report of a Deputation Sent from Ireland, 1903, p. 114.
a See tables iu Appendix, pp. 299-301.
« Smith, The Best Methods of Organization for Agricultural Cooperation and Credit, p. 9.
132 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
This remarkable advance in economic prosperity seems attributable
to three causes — peasant proprietorship of land, the universal system
of cooperation in vogue, and the popular system of education.
Peasant proprietorship. — The subject of peasant proprietorship,
which is very interesting in itself, concerns us here only in so far as
it is bound up with education and cooperation in the explanation of
the country's prosperity. Before 1792 the land in Denmark was held
principally by a few large proprietors. To these the peasants were
subject as tenants, and their condition was not much better than that
of the serfs in Russia at a later day. Industrial depression and gen-
eral discontent prevailed throughout the country. Agitation for
peasant proprietorship was begun, and the land was gradually trans-
ferred from the large landowners to the peasants themselves. The
process moved very slowly, however, until 1851, when a great stimu-
lus to the desire for ownership was given by the establishment of
State-controlled companies that offered long-time loans secured by
mortgages on the land to be transferred. Mortgages were taken up
to 50 and 60 per cent of the purchase price of the land, and the time
of payment ranged from 50 to 100 years. Under this system the
transfer of lands went on rapidly.
Rates of interest were rather high, however, and the annual pay-
ments constituted a heavy drain upon the farmers. A betterment
took place in the latter part of tlje last and the beginning of this
century by the organization of cooperative credit associations.
Through these agencies long-time loans may now be had at 4 per
cent. If a prospective buyer has one-tenth the purchase price of a
parcel of land, he can borrow the other nine-tenths on that margin
of security. The annual payments of 4 per cent are sufficient not
only for the payment of the interest, but also for a sinking fund,
which repays the principal of the debt in 50 years' time.^ These
methods have accelerated the transition from tenancy to proprietor-
ship until at the present time about 90 per cent of the occupiers of
land are proprietors.
Peasant proprietorship has stimulated the self-respect of the Dan-
ish peasants and has presented a favorable field for the work of the
people's high schools. Growth of intelligence again stimulated
others to become proprietors instead of tenants, and thus the two
factors have gone hand in hand.
System of cooperation. — Peasant proprietorship could not have
succeeded so well, nor become so general, however, without the re-
markable system of cooperation which has sprung up. This move-
ment, too, it will appear, is bound up with the people's high schools.
1 Sinclair, Report of Wisconsin State Board of Public Affairs on Agricultural Coopera-
tion, p. 11.
INFLUENCE AND EESULTS.
133
The Danish system of cooperation is indeed a marvel of efficient or-
ganization. It has become the object of study and the pattern for
imitation by agricultural communities throughout the world. The
Danish farmers raise their crops, select, buy, and feed their stock,
prepare and market their products, buy their supplies, and supply
their own means of credit all by the aid of cooperation.
The movement began in 1882 with the establishment of a co-
operative creamery. The idea took root at once and grew until,
in 1912, there were 1,177 cooperative creameries, handling prac-
tically all the milk in the country. The movement has spread also
to other lines of activity, until to-day there is scarcely a field that
has net been entered by cooperative organization. Some idea of the
extent to which cooperation has been developed may be derived from
the following figures for 1912 : ^
Table 24 — Cooperative societies in Denmarlc, 1912.
Societies.
Number.
Members.
A gri-^ult ural so^iotios
Socii'tifts of renters and small farmers
S(x-ictles for purchase ani sale of agricultural produce, 1903
Societies for the breeding of horses
Sof-isties for the breeding of cattle
Societies for the breeding of swine
Societies for the breeding of sheep
Societies of control for the oversight of dairy herds
Cooperal ive creameries
Cooperative bacon factories
Farmers loan societies or credit banks, 1900
Ho
820
640
280
1/45
238
104
521
1,177
39
147
89,800
45,000
46,000
In addition to the above there are cooperative societies for horti-
culture, seed growing, poultry farming, beekeeping, sugar-beet farm-
ing, sugar manufacture, fisheries, forestation, reclamation of heath
lands, insurance, pensions, lectures on agricultural economics, and
so on almost without limit.
In many of these lines of activity the local societies are federated
into one organization for the district or county, and these organiza-
tions elect representatives to a board for the entire country. By
these various steps all the individuals are organized under one central
administration, usually with headquarters at Copenhagen. The
Royal Danish Agricultural Society is a union and a clearing house
for all cooperative associations connected with agriculture in the
country.
Nearly all these cooperative organizations receive aid from the
State. The usual procedure is for the State to make the appropria-
tion to the central board. This body apportions the funds to the
various district or county organizations, which in turn apply the
funds available to the several societies in such a manner as best to
1 Larsen, Landokonomisk Aarbog, 1912.
134 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
serve the purpose intended by the State. In this way the State may
easily and intelligently reach with expert advice and material support
any particular line of activity that seems to be in need of develop-
ment.
Advantages from cooperation. — By this universal application of
the principle of cooperation to agriculture in all its phases there
have been derived, according to the estimate of Mr. Dymond, an
English investigator, the following advantages: (1) Yield has been
increased, (2) quality has been improved, (3) cost of production has
been lessened, and (4) better prices have been obtained.^ The
phenomenal economic rise of the country, which is due so largely to
agriculture, would seem to give weight to this estimate. In the
matter of marketing alone the small farmers, who are very numerous
in Denmark, have been very materially aided. Ey the help of
cooperation they have been enabled to dispose of their products on
terms equally good with those of the large farmers. The result of
the various fpctors working together is indicated by very tangible
evidence in that the exports of the three chief products — butter,
bacon, and eggs — increased fivefold in value in 20 years.^
Economic contribution of peopWa high schools. — The question is
now pertinent. What relation do the people's high schools sustain to
these cooperative and economic movements? The thoughtful reader
will ere this have formed an opinion of his own as to the degree of
intelligence that must exist among the farmers to make such co-
operation possible. It requires no small amount of intelligence on
the part of the people to see the advantage of all these various forms
of cooperation, to grasp, for instance, the fact that good marketing,
which involves a consideration of the conditions in other countries,
is as much a part of good farming as the production of the crops.
A broad outlook, too, is required to appreciate the truth that the
interests of the group are the interests of the individual, and vice
versa. Furthermore, the many duties which devolve upon committee
members and managers of all these cooperative organizations also
make large demands upon the intelligence.
It will be recalled that from one-fourth to one-third of the entire
rural population attend these people's high schools at some time in
their lives, and these are virtually the only schools above the ele-
mentary schools that are open to the farming class. It seems, there-
fore, almost a truism to say that the people's high schools have con-
tributed largely to that high intelligence and that broad sympathy
among the rural population which makes successful cooperation
possible. The people's high schools are described as " hotbeds " of
the cooperative movement. It thrives best in their soil. Statistics
» Quoted by Thornton In Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe, p. 125.
« See tables in appendix, pp. 299-301.
INFLTJENCE AND EESULTS. 135
show that more than one-half of all members of committees in co-
operative societies and nine-tenths of all the managers of cooperative
creameries are former high-school men.^
Production of a particular type of mind. — The attitude of the
Danish farmers to the cooperative movement is only a particular
manifestation of the type of mind which the people's high schools
have produced among the rural population. It is to this background
of broad intelligence and intense patriotism that we must direct our
attention if we would even partially understand the economic rise of
Denmark.
The high state of perfection of Danish agriculture would naturally
lead one to think that its excellence is due to the vocational instruc-
tion in agricultural schools. While the work done in these schools
in Denmark is of a high order, yet no one will contend that in this
respect Denmark is superior to some other countries in Europe, such
as Germany or Hungary. Furthermore, the agricultural schools are
attended by only a very small proportion of the farmers. The ex-
planation of Danish agricultural excellence is not to be found so
much in the possession of expert intelligence by the farmers them-
selves, but rather in a condition of mind that is capable of receiving
and profiting by expert intelligence contributed by specialists.
Clearly but a small proportion of farmers in any community can be-
come school-trained agricultural experts, but it is possible to have a
body of farmers capable of being guided b}^ experts. The production
of an agricultural population that reads and possesses a mind open
to receive new ideas, a willingness to listen to expert advice, a spirit
of enterprise that is not afraid of making new adjustments, and a
patriotism that is vitally concerned about the nation's prestige — this
is the great economic contribution of the people's high schools.
Reading hahit. — That the Danish rural people are a reading popu-
lation is attested by the fact that no fewer than 53 journals ?.nd
papers relating to agriculture and allied interests are required to
supply the demand.^ This takes no account of the general news-
papers and journals, the wide circulation of which has previously
been mentioned.
Open minds. — And not only do these people read, but their minds
are open to receive new ideas, whether from at home or abroad.
This trait is cultivated by the high schools. The young men and
women are trained to look everywhere for good ideas, not to absorb
them uncritically, but to observe and to choose. One high school
maintains a department styled "A window to the West," an evi-
dence of a desire to let in light from England and America.
1 Thornton, in Educational Times, November, 1905.
* Landokonomisk Aarbog, 1912, p. 120.
136 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Respect for the Expert; societies of Kontrol. — ^^A peeuliarly sig-
nificant result of this openness of mind is the willingness of the
farming class to profit by the aid of experts. This respect for the
expert is admirably illustrated by the success of societies of Kontrol^
that have been established in every corner of the land, for the over-
sight of dairy herds. The writer can not do better than quote here
the description of the operation of these societies as given in the re-
port of a deputation from Ireland :
The system, briefly, is as follows: The farmers of a district form a society
on cooperative lines for the purpose of Kontrol, and about 1,000 cows in a so-
ciety would be sufficient for one inspector, to be appointed by the Royal Danish
Society, to take charge of the local society. His duties would be as follows:
He keeps a set of books of each farm in duplicate, one set being retained by the
farmer. He makes an inspection of each farm in the society about once every
18 days, and there enters fully all particulars relating to the farm since his
last visit. Some of those particulars consist of the following examples: The
total amount of milk from each cow since his visit (the milk is regularly
weighed and entered in a rough book by the farmer) ; the percentage of fat
contained in the milk (samples kept by the farmer) ; the calculation of butter
produced from the milk; the amount of food required per cow (each cow on its
merits) ; the amount of butter produced in relation to the amount of food con-
sumed; the total amount of milk, in pounds per annum, of each cow, and date
of calving. He advises as to manures, change of crops, if thought desirable
to deviate from the formula; to which bull the cows should be taken; to which
boar the sows should go. If a farmer is in possession of a cow which does not
produce good milk, the inspector advises that she should be sold, and that she
should not be used for breeding purposes. The farmers, when questioned as
to whether this advice was generally accepted, were unanimous in saying that
they undoubtedly preferred to retain only those cows which were worth keep-
ing— from a breeding and milk-producing point of view — even though they had
to dispose of those at a loss which were not up to the standard.
The accounts are also made up for the farmer in every item, so that he has
an exact knowledge of his position. The charge for this work varies according
to each society, but the minimum is 1 krone, the maximum 2 kroner per cow
per annum. This money goes toward the payment of the salary of the Kon-
troller, which is supplemented by State aid.
The value to the farmer of this form of Kontrol is enormous, as by joining a
Kontrol society he is able to possess an exact knowledge of his economic posi-
tion. It might be urged that this form of assistance, viz, account keeping, etc.,
would tend to make the farmer rely less on himself, but use the society as a
leaning prop; but this is by no means the case. The man is in better com-
mand of his position when he knows how he stands, and the visits of this
expert do for the farmers what the auditor does for the business man. The
farmer, in short, by means of his society obtains at small cost the benefit of an
expert audit of the business of his own farm.
On farms where cows are carefully bred and great attention paid to every
detail in their breeding, it is usual to have a tablet at the head of the stall of
each, giving the name; date calved; sire and dam, names and numbers; total
milk production for the previous year; date when she calved; date of expected
calf and name and number of its sire. In this way visitors to the farms see
at a glance the performance of the cow and also her breeding. It is to estab-
lishments of this kind that farmers desirous of improving their stock turn
rNTLTJEKCE AND REStTLTS. 137
when in search of a good cow or bull, and often the option is given on calves
before they are born, such is the desire on the part of the farmers to have t>
really good class of animals in general on their farms/
The value of the instruction and assistance of these peripatetic
agricultural and dairy experts is so great that their services are by
some investigators regarded as explaining in a large measure the
economic prosperity of the country. That is a superficial estimate
of their influence, however, which does not take into account the
unusually high intelligence and openness of mind of the rural popu-
lation which the people's high schools have produced.
One might suppose that the " little learning " the farm boys get in
tl^ comparatively short high-school courses would be " a dangerous
thing." But so far from making the boys satisfied with their attain-
ments the high-school teachers have a wonderful way of instilling
into their minds a spirit of modesty. They learn to see that the little
they know is but an infinitesimal part of the totality of knowledge.
The idea of finality is kept very far away from them. The value of
specialization is emphasized. They are taught that no single indi-
vidual can become master in many fields, not even in the various
branches of agriculture. Therefore, if the ordinary man shall prosper,
he must accept the aid of experts in matters where his knowledge is
deficient. There is as a result a marked contrast between the spirit
displayed by these Danish farmers and the disdain with which scien-
tific methods and " the professor from the agricultural college " are
so frequently mentioned by the farming laity in this country. A
group of people have really advanced very far when they have come
to the point where they are willing to discredit their own knowledge
in a field where they are not specialists and are eager to listen to the
advice of experts. In cultivating modesty among the rural popu-
lation as to their own knowledge and in teaching them the superior
value of scientific methods and the advice of trained experts, the
Danish people's high schools have rendered a service that sustains a
decidedly important relation to the economic prosperity of the
country.
In passing, mention may be made of the fact that many of the
agricultural and dairy experts have themselves been students in the
people's high schools. They have thus been affected by the spirit of
these institutions and are therefore in harmony with the movement
for a people's culture both for its own value and as a basis for eco-
nomic elT'ciency.
Capacity for making adjustments. — Another large service of edu-
cation to economics is that which has made possible the wonderfully
rapid adjustments that Danish agriculturists have made in periods
of crisis. When, in the seventies, the Danish lands were depleted
1 Report of a Deputation from Ireland, 1903, pp. 130-131.
138
THE BANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
by long-continued grain farming and the price of grain fell to a low
figure, the Danish farmers found themselves in distress. Some
change had to be made in their methods. Economists and agricul-
turists combined their efforts at a solution and reached the con-
clusion that instead of selling grain, Denmark should buy it, feed it
to her dairy herds and live stock, and sell the products of this altered
form of agricultural production. The word was passed along to
the farmers by their advisers. A campaign of education was set on
foot, and in a few years' time the economic policy of the country in
the matter of grain shipments was completely reversed. One phase
of the change is represented by the following table.^
Table 25. — Shipments of grain in Denmark — Average per year.
Years.
Excess of
exports
over
imports.
Years.
Excess of
imports
over
exports.
1800
Million
pounds.
68
153
273
608
246
48
1885 to 1889
Minion
pounds.
221
1820 to 1824
1890 to 1894
439
1840 to 1844
1895 to 1900. .„
1.128
1870 to 1874
1875 to 1879
1880 to 1884
As the table shows, the excess of exports over imports of grain
fell from over five hundred million pounds in 1870 to zero in about 20
years' time. Then imports began to exceed exports until, in 20 years
more, Denmark was buying grain in such quantities that the excess
of imports over exports was more than twice the greatest amount of
the former excess of exports over imports. This change in economic
policy was accompanied by a wonderful transformation of the agri-
cultural industries. The change is generally spoken of as a shift
from grain farming to dairying and cattle raising. A more correct
description is to say that it was a development and extension of the
dairy and other industries in addition to grain production. For
while the exports of butter rose by leaps and bounds, the surprising
fact remains that the amount of grain produced has not decreased,
nor merely held its own, but has actually increased, as the appended
table indicates.^
Table 26. — Size of grain crop in Denmark — Average per year.
Barrels.
ISOO— 4. 500, 000
1845 11. 000. 000
1S05 to 1S68 18, 200. 000
1875 to 1878 18,982.000
1885 to 1888 21,620.000
1805 to 1S9S 23,371,000
iDen Landbohistoriske Udstilling, 1900, p. 30.
'Idem, p. 27.
INFLUENCE AND RESULTS. 139
Rise of cooperative creameries. — Thus did the Danish farmers
meet and solve their first great crisis. Another was encountered in
the eighties. England was the chief consumer of Danish butter, and
it soon appeared that if the product was to be sold advantageously
in England it must be presented in a more uniform way and in
larger quantities under the same trade-mark. Then arose as if by
magic the cooperative creameries. These receive the milk from an
entire neighborhood, remove the cream by the centrifugal separators,
and manufacture it into butter of a uniformly high grade. By these
adjustments and improved methods the excess exports of butter rose
from eight million pounds in the late sixties to ninety-eight millions
at the end of the century, an increase of more than twelvefold.^
Rise of hacon factories. — Other crises have been met and solved.
In the eighties high-tariff legislation in Germany made that country
a less favorable market, and Denmark was forced to look elsewhere
for a better market for her live stock. England was accessible, but
the transportation of live stock across the channel was difficult.
For instance, in 1887 swine fever caused the export of swine to fall
from 232,000 to 16,000.^
This crisis was met by the establishment of cooperative and private
bacon-curing factories, which now dot the land to the number of 61.
As a result the exportation of live swine has been almost abandoned,
while the excess exports of the bacon factories rose in 20 j^ears from
twelve million pounds to one hundred and twenty-five millions, an
increase of more than tenfold. In the same period of time the value
of the excess exports of eggs rose from 2,000,000 kroner to 11,000,000,
an increase of more than fivefold.^
After making due allowance for wise leadership, the rapidity and
skill with which these adjustments were made are very largely at-
tributable to the work of the people's high schools. By the agency
of these institutions there had been prepared a sufficient body of
young men who, unhampered by tradition, were able to grasp the
value of the new ideas and quickly prepare themselves for responsi-
ble positions as managers and leaders of the new activities.*
Concern for national prestige. — There is still another result of the
work of the people's high schools that has an economic bearing. It is
the development of an intense patriotism. By their large emphasis
upon Danish history, song, language, literature, and ideals the peo-
ple's high schools have stimulated a deep love of country which can
not bear to see Denmark fall behind in the race of the nations in
those lines of activity in which she is in any way qualified to com-
lOp. cit, p. 30.
« Smith, The Best Methods of Organization for Agricultural Cooperation and Credit,
p. 10.
« Den Landbohistoriske TJdstllling, pp. 28 and 31.
* Paulsen, A Lecture Delivered in Oxford, 1894, p. 15.
140 THE DANISH people's HIGH SCHOOL.
pete. Looking back with grief at her national disasters, her people
realized that she could not compete upon the international arena of
diplomacy or war. But though by reason of its small extent the
country must hold a subordinate place in these and some other re-
spects, her leaders saw that the nation could take high rank in other
lines by developing herself internall}''. Even though she could not
build many battleships, she could produce butter, bacon, and eggs of
a quality unsurpassed. And this sort of constructive development
is clearly calculated to produce a higher state of national happiness
than the efforts expended on instruments of destruction. Thus,
though a small nation, the beloved fatherland could still be wealthy
and happy and strong.
This is the doctrine that has been inculcated in the people's high
schools. And with rare vision and fervent patriotism the young
people have gone forth to develop all the resources of the country.
Their high intelligence reenforced by the love of country has en-
abled them to seek out new and better means of production, exchange,
and credit. Thus by giant strides Denmark has moved forward to
the very front rank among nations in per capita wealth and happi-
ness.
Interest in public ajfairs. — A third sphere in which the people's
high schools have exerted a profound influence is that of public
affairs. Mention has previously been made of the uses to which
these schools were put by the rural class in their advance toward
political supremacy in the State. When the new democratic Par-
liament assembled in 1901, it was found that 30 per cent of the mem-
bers of the upper and lower houses had been students in people's
high schools.^ Later the King appointed a "peasant" ministry,
with J. C. Christiansen, a former people's high-school student, at
the head. Men identified with the people's high-school movement
have since held important positions in the ministry, among them the
present minister of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction, Jacob
Appel, principal of the Askov High School. The citizens of Copen-
hagen regarded this peasant domination with no great delectation.
But a series of laws have recently been enacted by this same majority,
which have become models for imitation by other nations.
In any event it is an imposing spectacle to see a social group which a few
centuries ago belonged to the lowest and most oppressed class of society put
forward a body of representatives that have shown in the few years of their
activity that they posses creative ideas of statesmenship and the energy to
make them effective.'
If people's high-school men hold position of influence and trust
so high in the political realm, their number in the councils of county,
* Thornton, op. clt, p. 129.
■Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 73.
IN-FLITENCE AND RESULTS. 141
town, and parish must be very large indeed. The contribution of
these people's institutions to good citizenship is one of their largest
services.
Social results. — The broadening effect of popular education has
also served to eliminate in a large measure the class distinctions
which were formerly very marked. The people's high schools are
sought by the children of the well-to-do as well as by the poorer
classes. And "the people who toil" have by the agency of the
people's high school been raised to a position of true dignity and
respect in the eyes of the total population. The social life of rural
communities has been enriched. The village hall forms a social
center for the local population. There they gather as one large
family to enjoy a lecture, a debate, a program of readings or song.
There, too, the boys come together on certain evenings for gymnastic
exercises, and still other evenings are devoted to the various forms
of amusement, such as folk dances or games.
The high-school homes or hotels constitute other centers of social
intercourse, where travelers and residents may meet for companion-
ship and interchange of ideas. The people live sober and indus-
trious lives. Poverty is almost unknown in rural districts. The
only objects of benevolence are unfortunates and cripples. These
are generally taken care of by the local community and thus enabled
to spend their days in plain comfort in the midst of their fellow
villagers. That the total paid police force in all of Denmark
numbers only a little over 300 ^ constitutes a significant commentary
on the lives of the people.
Religious results. — A freer and richer church life has been fostered
by the people's high schools. This is best understood in connection
with the growth of the free church or Valgmenighed movement.
There were three principal steps in this movement.^ In 1855 the tie
that bound the parishioner to his parish church was loosed, and he
was permitted to attach himself elsewhere. The second step was
taken in 1868, when power was given to 20 heads of families at their
own expense to build a church of their own and choose their pastor
out of the number of those legally qualified for office. Their choice
would then be ratified by the King, and thus they would be saved
from becoming dissenters. Finally, in 1903, permission was given
such free congregations to use the parish church at such times as it
was not required by the regular congregation. These free congrega-
tions have given larger opportunities than the established churches
for laymen's activity, and a richer church life has thereby become
possible. Many forms of social activity have been set on foot by these
congregations. In fact, some of the city churches may be said to be
/ 1 Report of a Deputation from Ireland, p. 134.
« Thornton, op. cit., p. 126.
142 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
institutionalized. The free-church movement may not be called a
product of the people's high schools, but this form of organization
is fostered by them, and flourishes best in their vicinity. Pastors of
the churches frequently speak and teach in the people's high schools,
and teachers in the schools reciprocate by taking nn active part in
the work of the congregations. Thus there is developed, it is claimed,
a more virile Christianity, and wider opportunities are opened up
for religious activity.
Summary. — In this chapter has been presented evidence bearing
upon the influence of the people's high-school movement upon the
cultural, economic, political, social, and religious life of Denmark.
Additional evidence for the influence of the Danish institution is
to be found in the extension of the people's high-school idea to other
countries. A review of this widening movement constitutes the pur-
pose of the next chapter.
Chapter XI.
PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.
Norway — Schools founded, — People's high schools were introduced
into Norway by Grundtvigian sympathizers in 1864. The ground
had previously been prepared by the work of the teacher, poet, and
editor Ole Vig, who was imbued with a passionate desire for popular
enlightenment. The first high school was established at Hamar by
Anker and Arveson. Danish influence in their case was direct and
powerful. Another high-school man, Christoffer Bruun, performed
a large service by pointing out the importance of a broad cultural
training of the plain people and by laying down valuable principles
for the prosecution of the work of enlightenment.
Hindrances. — The career of people's high schools in Norway has,
however, been beset by difficulties and hindrances, official and other-
wise. The reasons are several. In the first period of their develop-
ment the schools were very closely identified with the Grundtvigian
religious movement, which was by no means favorably received by
the orthodox party in Norway. Generally, too, the people's high
schools have taken a decided stand in favor of the introduction of
the national language, the Landsmaal^ in place of the present official
language. The Landsmaal is a composite language constructed on
the basis of the leading dialects in the country and is, therefore,
more thoroughly Norse than the official language, which came into
use during the Danish domination. The attitude of the people's
high schools in this contest has operated to estrange from them a
large part of the population which is not in favor of this linguistic
change. A similarly partisan attitude has been taken by some of the
143
schools in political matters, whereby they iiave come to be regarded
as the exponents of a particular political creed. These forms of
partisanship have undoubtedly hurt the high-school movement in
Norway.
Contest with the county high schools. — In 1875 there was estab-
lished by governmental agency a sj^stem of schools which, whether
intentionally or not, became serious competitors of the people's high
schools. These are the Amtsskoler^ or county high schools. They
resemble the people's high schools in that they require attendance
through a series of months, but until recently took pupils much
younger than the people's high schools. They are also more utili-
tarian and practical in their curricula.
The contest between the people's high schools and the county high
schools for favor and recognition constitutes the most interesting
and instructive feature of the popular high-school movement in Nor-
way. Due to the reasons assigned above, and possibly others, official
favor for a time was on the side of the county high schools. They
were public institutions and served a large constituency. The friends
of the people's high schools contended, however, that the large num-
ber reached by the county high schools was due to their taking very
young pupils with whom work of high-school character could not
successfull}^ be carried on. Furthermore, it was urged against the
county high schools that their influence had not been of exactly the
right kind. They became stepping stones to the normal and other
advanced schools, thus drawing some of the brightest boys away
from the farms instead of —
enabling them to live the farmer's life as enlightened and interested citizens
with the living sense for their father's life and ways and the ends their fathers
sought to reach. And so they have helped on the belief which has become only
too common among many j^oung people that the farmer's life and work is some-
thing rather low and simple, which may be good enough for the more ignorant
and uneducated, but is something to be avoided by those Who are gifted and
well off.*
By the influence of the minister of education, Wexelsen, the offi-
cial attitude toward the people's high schools became more friendly.
In 1900 direct State aid was voted the people's high schools as well
as the county high schools. An additional amount of State subsidy
was granted to certain people's high schools that maintained an ad-
vanced course for students who had previously spent a year at a
people's high school or county high school. The two types of schools
then prospered side by side. But the practice of the county high
schools in taking very young pupils brought about a competition un-
favorable to the people's high schools. These latter insisted upon a
1 Quoted by Thornton Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe, p. 120.
3334°— 15 10
146 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Danish high-school men to write for his paper. The matter of erect-
ing people's high schools was also discussed at conferences and con-
ventions, especially at the meetings of the National Conference of
the North in 1867.
Three schools founded. — As a result of the campaign of education,
there was founded in 1868 a school at Herrestad, which was after-
wards moved to Lunnevad. The first principal was the above-men-
tioned Dr. Aalund. He was replaced by Dr. P. A. Godecke, one of
the strong personalities in the Swedish people's high-school move-
ment. The school has been under the management of its present
principal, Dr. Herman Odhner, and his capable wife and coworker
for more than 30 years, and has filled a large place in the annals of
the people's high schools in Sweden.
In the same year in which the above school was founded there
were erected by more or less independent movements two other
people's high schools in the south of Sweden. Due to the efforts of
Dr. C. A. Bergman, a school was begun at Onnestad. To what ex-
tent Danish influence was operative in the founding of this school
may be discerned from the words of Dr. Bergman :
The object of this school is to communicate to young men from 18 to 25
years of age the higher civic enlightenment which must now be considered as
necessary for every member of the free peoples of the north. In order to reach
this end the activity of the school ought first and foremost to aim at awaken-
ing and developing in the young man the higher life slumbering within him,
reflection, love of country, and love of men in general; and next, to sharpen
the judgment, to extend the pupil's spiritual outlook, to awaken pleasure in
the work and activity he has chosen, in order and seemliness, and in the at-
tainment of fresh light on, and practice of, everything which relates to our
activity as Swedish citizens, as members of a parish, as heads of a family, as
thoughtful householders, farmers, or members of any other profession. The
teachers must give the instruction preferably by word of mouth, in familiar
lectures, or in answers to questions. The principal must be a man who is armed
not only with a living fear of God, a love of his country, and good knowledge
of his subjects, but also with power to impart what he knows in a bright and
living way ; he ought to cherish a love of working folk, be familiar with their
circumstances, and be able at once to win his pupils' affection and respect for
the ends he wishes to attain.*
The third school, founded in the same year, came to be the largest
in Sweden. It is located at Hvilan, and was presided over for 40
years by Dr. L. P. Holmstrom, a noted geologist, but preeminently an
enthusiast for a people's culture.
Compared with Danish schools. — Following these beginnings
other schools were founded until there is now no considerable section
of the country without its people's high school. Compared with the
Danish schools, those in Sweden are somewhat more practical in
1 Quoted by Thornton, op. cit., pp. 122-123.
people's high schools in other countries. 147
their curricula. History and literature have a smaller place, while
the sciences are given greater attention. Textbooks are more gener-
ally used, and individual work by the students receives greater em-
phasis than in Denmark.
In general aims, however, the schools correspond closely to those
in Denmark. The statutes of one of the schools express them thus:
The purpose of the people's high schools is (1) to inspire young men of the
district with a fervent and steadfast Christian faith, a vigorous patriotism
founded on an acquaintance with the natural conditions and history of Sweden,
and a sound I^nowledge of the rights and duties of the Swedish people; (2) to
give these young men an elevating insight into the concordant phenomena of
creation, the forms, powers, and evolutions of nature; and (3) to teach them
how to work as law-abiding citizens, .everyone in his profession, with loyalty
and disinterestedness, to the benefit of his native country and himself. All
instruction in the people's high schools to be pithy, simple, and clear, its aim
being to warm the heart, raise the intelligence, purify the imagination, mold
the character into firmness and stability, and thus to make the young men
fully ripe, to make them skilled laborers and go-ahead citizens/
As to teaching force, the schools rank somewhat higher than in
Denmark. The principal, who is generally a doctor of philosophy,
bears the title of Rektor^ which in itself is significant of the rank
gf the schools. The balance of the teachers are also frequentlj^ uni-
versity trained, it being considered just as creditable to teach in a
people's high school as in a secondary school of the ordinary type.
Characteristic feature. — The most characteristic feature of the
people's high-school arrangements in Sweden is the maintenance of
an agricultural school in connection with nearly every people's high
school. As a prerequisite for entrance to the agricultural school a
previous year's work in a people's high school is required. The
impression has therefore come to prevail that a complete course at
one of these people's high schools embraces two terms, one in the
people's high school proper, and one in the agricultural school.
About one-third of the boys return for this second year's work.
Present status. — State aid has been granted directly to the people's
high schools since 1872, the amount at present aggregating over
200,000 kroner annually, besides 35,000 kroner for scholarships.^
In 1912 provision was made by act of Parliament for a special in-
spector of people's high schools whose work is to be chiefly advisory.
There were, in 1909, 43 people's high schools in Sweden. Nine of
these are coeducational, while in the rest the boys attend in winter
and the girls in summer. The total attendance in the people's high-
school departments was 2,251, of whom 1,193 were boys and 1,058
girls.^ From the beginning of the movement in 1868 up to the pres-
ijonsson. The People's High Schools in Sweden, p. 4.
*De Nordiska Lfindernas Skolvtlsen, 1905-1910, p. 12.
150 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
against German influence. One school was erected in 1906 at iVU-
bersdorf, in Holstein, and another the following year at Mohrkirch-
Osterholz, in Angel. According to a report on the nature of the
work by the principal of the Allbersdorf school, Fr. Lembl^e, it ap-
pears that these schools are built more on the Swedish than the
Danish model. He gives expression to the wish that the time be
not far distant when one may speak not only of Scandinavian, but
also of Germanic people's high schools.^
England — A recent attenfipt. — A most interesting attempt to build
an adult school with the same general purpose as the Danish has
recently been made at Fircroft, near Birmingham, England. Some
three years before he became principal of this school, Mr. Tom
Bryan visited at the people's high school at Vallekilde, Denmark,
and was strongly impressed by the spirit and purpose of the Danish
people's high school, as summarized in the statement :
The main object of tliis school is rot to impart to our pupils a mass of use-
ful information; that is only a secondary aim. The principal aim is to impart
to them a spiritual view of life, so that they may see there is some sense in
their existence.'
Perhaps even more powerful Danish influence is traceable through
the person of Mr. J. S. Thornton, who for a generation has made a
special study of education in Scandinavia and has persistertly
pointed out to Englishmen the benefits accruing to those countries
from the people's high schools. Furthermore, the adult schools and
university settlements have given the English soil a tillage which
should afford the people's high school a prosperous growth. As the
village lecturing societies in Denmark serve as recruiting agencies for
the people's high schools, so these adult schools in England draw
out the idealists and seekers after truth to whom a school like Fir-
croft should prove particularly attractive.
Character of the Fircroft school. — The Fircroft school, founded in
1909, is situated in the outskirts of the model residence village for
workingmen, Bournville. It is also near the Woodbroke University
Settlement, the courses of which are open to students at Fircroft.
Courses at Fircroft extend through terms of 12 weeks each, there
being three terms a year. The work in each term is complete in
itself, but there is also a continuity of instruction running through
the three terms, for the advantage of such as can remain for a longer
period than one tarm. The work includes courses in history, liter-
ature, economics, mathematics, nature study, gardening, and the
Bible. Gymnastics and song also hold a large place, as in the Dan-
1 Stauri, Folkehogskulen, p. 306.
■ Quoted by Thornton, Reprint from The Educational Times, May, 1911.
t>EOPLE^S HIGH SCHOOLS m OTHEB COtJKTKIES. 151
ish schools. The informal lecture and discussion methods are
largely employed.
Community life, brotherliness, broad culture, and a spiritualizing
of life, rather than vocational training, seem to be attractive fea-
tures of Fircroft, as of the Danish schools. A London letter sorter
describes thus the product of a stay at Fircroft : " Physical develop-
ment, an enlargement of one's view of life, toleration of the point
of view of opponents, a realization that the past has produced men
whose words are living truths to-day." He admits there are no
bread-and-butter subjects taught there, but adds : " That is not its
special work. Its aim is to perfect the side of a man that is not
catered for in technical schools and commercial colleges. * * *
Fircroft is an inspiration."^
The school has had a fair attendance of term students from the
start, and many more have come for shorter periods and for week
ends. For women, courses extending through a period of one week
have been maintained during the summer and have been largely at-
tended. Strangely enough, while the Scandinavian schools have been
recruited largely from the rural districts, this school at Fircroft has
drawn men and women largely from the cities. Thus one group of
students was made up of two gardeners, a shoemaker, a cabinetmaker,
a baker, a clerk, a bricklayer, a painter, a miner, a metal turner, a
printer's reader, a weaver, a fitter, two railway men, and several
laborers.^
DifficuUies and possibilities. — There are real difficulties in the way,
however, in making a people's high school fit into English conditions.
The employers are loth to grant a furlough extending over so long a
period as three months. The ordinary workman, moreover, has diffi-
culty in perceiving the advantage to be gained by spending such a
period of time in cultural studies. But the Fircroft school has made
a good beginning, and as a supplement to the adult school movement
it would seem to point the way to a still greater extension of the
people's high-school idea.
Whether such a school can become as widely popular here as in Denmark
remains to be seen. If Lancashire and Yorkshire had each 50 such schools
dotted about their country spots, and other counties had them in the same
proportion, we should still have fewer for our population than they have in
Denmark. But they would be enough to uplift not a man here and there, as
already happens, but to leaven the whole lump. For Englishmen are of the
same race as Danes, Norsemen, and Swedes; and what has happened on the
east of the North Sea may just as well happen on the wt^st. There is no
Sunday school, no council school, no town or parish council, no cooperative
* Quoted by Thornton, op. cit.
154 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
been successful and as having a future before them. Students nearly
always return to the work they left, and thus the schools serve the
purposes intended. One principal points to a misunderstanding
of the character of the schools as one of the hindrances to success.
In considering the success or failure of these Danish -American peo-
ple's high schools, it must be borne in mind that the schools are
exclusively operating among Danish- Americans, and are therefore
subject to the operation of a particular set of conditions. A con-
sideration of the adaptability of the people's high school to normal
American conditions belongs more properly in the next chapter.
Chapter XII.
CONCLUSION.
Success of Danish education — Adaptation. — Statements about the
success of the Danish system of education are frequently made and
generally admitted to be true. Wherein does its excellency lie?
This question does not permit of a single answer. There are many
elements entering into the consideration. The course of social
progress is from the simple to the complex, and the Danish school
system is indeed complex. Every class of society, from peasantry
to royalty, every trade and profession, from the shoemaker's assist-
ant to the prime minister, has a form of education suitable and
adapted to its purpose.
The Danes believe thoroughly in training, and every inducement
is held out to the youth to attain proficiency. Their ideal is first
to lay a foundation with as good a general education as the parental
means and the child's capacities allow. As has been noted in the
scheme of education, there is an opportunity to complete a course
of general training at almost any year in the young person's life.
If the child can only go through the elementary school, he finishes
at 14; if he can enter the 'middle school at 11, he finishes at 15; if
he can take the additional Real course, he finishes at 16. For girls
there are courses finishing at 17, while the complete gymnasium
course carries the student to 18. Then he may enter the imiversity,
with opportunities before him limited only by his inclinations and
purse. To those who do not receive academic training, there lie open
the facilities of the continuation and the people's high schools. And
the fact that 10 per cent of students in these people's high schools
are over 25 years of age indicates the prevalence of the idea that
one's education is never limited by age.
Having obtained as good a general education as possible, there
remains to prepare for a vocation. The multitudinous industrial
CONCLUSION. 155
and trade schools, commercial and agricultural schools, and the uni-
versity with its professional colleges, minister to the needs for voca-
tional training.
Many of the Danish schools are not models of excellence, and the
methods are not always such as are considered the best in the most
modern educational circles, but a sincere effort is made to reach
every child with the best cultural and vocational training possible
under the circumstances. Denmark has employed in the culture of
her children the same methods of patient detail and intensified effort
that she has applied to the culture of her farms and dairy herds,
and she must be credited with achieving success in both particulars.
This character of detailed adaptation of educational agencies to the
needs of her people is undoubtedly the chief strength of the Danish
educational system.
Cooperation of public and private endeavor. — The system is made
possible largely through the wonderful cooperation between private
and public enterprise in education. The State does not abrogate to
itself the entire privilege and responsibility. It takes the attitude
that the problem of adequate educational facilities is so large that
every means for furthering its solution should be encouraged. No
individual who has money to invest in education and no group or
society which has educational effort as a part of its program is
discouraged. The contributing efforts of all are welcomed. This
does not imply that inefficiency is encouraged. By its systems of
inspection and reports the State endeavors to protect the people
against educational fraud.
Compulsory attendance. — Not only does Denmark offer to every
child the opportunity of an education, but she insists that he shall
make use of it. Her success in the enforcement of the compulsory
school law up to the age of 14 is indeed noteworthy. This insures
a fair education to every child and constitutes a significant element
of excellence.
Dignity of the teaching profession, — That her schools are staffed
with so large a percentage of men who make teaching their life work
indicates that Denmark regards educational work with high respect.
Teaching is not looked upon as a stepping-stone to something better,
but as a profession having worth and dignity in itself. Thorough
training is required for appointment, the tenure is stable, a profes-
sional spirit is cultivated, the social station of teachers is high, sal-
aries are comparatively good, and a suitable pension automatically
provides for the needs of old age. The public recognizes the sig-
nificance of educational work by providing better and better equip-
ment for its prosecution.
158 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
have fastened themselves upon the curriculum of the ordinary school
have been pared away and discarded. The principles which deter-
mine the curriculum in a people's high school are, of course, not the
same as those which operate in other types of schools, but the spirit
and the tendency of making the curriculum conform is the lesson
which these schools would teach.
Method. — In point of method the success attained by the people's
high-school teachers in presenting ideas is suggestive not only for
teachers, but also for all persons who are engaged in conveying ideas
through public address. An attempt has been made to give some
idea of the method in the chapter dealing with that subject. Briefly,
it consists of such wide reading and a mastery of the subject so
thorough as to make the teacher not only independent of a textbook,
but actually able to live his theme with his pupils. Having gained
such mastery, it remains to select the vital and climatic and present
it with detail sufficient to make the presentation vivid, and in such
lucid and simple language as to be easily understood by all. The
desirability of masteiy in this kind of teaching will be granted, even
though its attainment is admittedly not easy. Thi success of even
the average people's high-school teacher would indicate, however,
that it is attainable by a far greater number of teachers than do
possess it.
Personality. — Success with this method is undoubtedly bound up
with personality. We have previously made reference to the Danish
respect for this quality in teachers, and nowhere is this more true
than in the people's high school. In fact, the personality and indi-
viduality of the teachers may be said to be the core of the schools.
The teachers are so tremendously in earnest and enter w^ith such
zest into their teaching that impression and conviction are bound to
follow. The writer has had the privilege of hearing some public
speakers of renown, but he must confess that, when preparing a
subject for public presentation, there frequently emerges into the
forefront of his consciousness the image of a certain people's high-
school principal standing before 150 farmer boys. It was at 5
o'clock in the afternoon, " between the dusk and the daylight." He
had himself chosen the hour. His theme was a Danish poet previ-
ously known to the writer only by name. With eye meeting eye in
tense attention and sympathetic understanding, the teacher lived the
beautiful life of that poet over again with those farmer boys. He
dwelt on the significant moments in the poet's life, the moments of
decision, of disappointment, and of triumph. Eeciting poem after
poem from memory, he pictured the ardor of the poet's desire to
reach the hearts of his countrymen and draw them up to higher
things. Virtually the poet himself was reincarnated into living
form, and it is superfluous to add that the message went home.
CONCLUSION. 159
Adaptability in the United States. — Is the idea of the Danish peo-
ple's high school adapted to American conditions? This is a ques-
tion frequently asked. It can be answered only by pointing to factors
that are favorable as well as those that are unfavorable, and by
indicating what adjustments must be made, in order to present at
least an opportunity for success, and what plan is most likely to fit
conditions in the United States.
Struggle for existence not so keen, — Some conditions in America
are without doubt unfavorable to the reception of the people's high-
school idea. The struggle for existence has perhaps not become so
keen in the United States as in Denmark and other European comi-
tries. Americans do not appreciate so well the supreme need of
intelligence in meeting the situations which life presents. The
Danes have learned that only the intelligent can hope to succeed.
The ignorant will be driven to the wall, in agricultural as well as
other lines of work. Hence the people eagerly seize upon educa-
tional agencies as means to make them more efficient breadwinners.
Such keen appreciation of the necessity of education for the farmer
boy is perhaps not current in this country.
In the United States, with its hitherto wide expanse of unoccupied
territory, the farmer boy, rather than develop himself and his home
farm intensively, has gone West, where a livelihood and even wealth
might be had with but a small capital of money and intelligence.
Clearly, however, such conditions can not long obtain. Intensive
eifort must be the method in the future, and Americans are begin-
ning to appreciate the fact that successful intensive effort can not be
made without education of the farmer boy.
Change of occupation. — Another factor militating against success
for the people's high school in this country is the unsettled state of
the farmer boy's mind. He is by no means sure, at the age of 18,
that he will always be a farmer. With American traditions of the
possibility of rising from the lowest to the highest position in busi-
ness, politics, or other forms of activity, the farmer boy dreams of
conquests in other lines than agriculture. Toiling hard from morn-
ing to night, he is tempted to look with longing at the supposed
easy life of the city man, who may wear good clothes and has no
chores to do in the evening. If he goes away to school at a young
age, he enters the high school or academy with the intention of pre-
paring for college or some vocation other than farming. If he does
not go until 18 or later, he generally attends the business college, to
equip himself for a clerical position off the farm. It does not occur
to him or to his parents or friends to go away to school with the in-
tention of returning to the farm. Why go away to school at all, if
he can not improve his situation? This generally means getting
3334°— 15 ^11
160 THE DANISH people's HIGH SCHOOL.
into some other vocation than farming. To a population controlled
by such ideas and ideals the people's high school does not look par-
ticularly attractive. But in this respect, too, the United States is
progressing. The life of the farmer is becoming more attractive
every day, and is growing in dignity. The back-to-the-farm move-
ment, rural-life commissions, the telephone, daily delivery of mail,
good roads, rapid transit, and the high price of agricultural produce
are making the farmer's life more and more worth while. Not only
is this change welcomed by the sociologist who loves his country, but
it is recognized as a compelling necessity in order that the backbone
of the Nation — the rural population — may be made strong to resist
the growing attractions and injurious influence of city life. An es-
sential element in this new rural development is proper educational
facilities. Thus by the growing pressure of the struggle for exis-
tence, the increasing attractiveness of farm life and the need of
strengthening its hold upon the people, the United States is being
driven to seek out new^ lines of educational supply for the rural
population.
The people's high-school idea. — To the solution of this educational
problem the Danes contribute their people's high-school idea. But
here it must be borne in mind that the Danish people's high school
is a school of general culture, not a vocational school. The Danes be-
lieve that broad culture provides the best equipment for the young
farmer. They do not underrate specialized skill. That is highly
valuable and necessary in addition to broad intelligence and sym-
pathy, and they provide for it in their agricultural schools. But if
only the one side can be had in school, they choose the broad train-
ing, and trust that actual work will develop the requisite skill.
American ideas of education for the farmer boy and girl are, per-
haps, not so liberal. There has been much haranguing at the futility
of the liberal education of our high schools as a training for a
people who work with their hands, and perhaps the curriculum
and spirit ol the average school merit the censure they have re-
ceived. The pendulum appears to have swung to the other extreme,
however, where Avorship is accorded the golden calf of practical edu-
cation. Shrines to this god are springing up on every hand and the
chant rings out : Let us teach our boys how to plow the land, rotate
the crops, feed the cow, and breed the hog. This may be all ver}'
well, but the Danes tell us it is all wrong if this great truth is over-
looked— that the farmer is first of all a man, a spiritual being of
divine destiny, with capacity for wide human interests, capable of
enjoying the beautiful in art and literature, and with a heart that
may throb with the love of home and country. Efforts at making
a good farmer will fail fundamentally so long as there is not de-
veloped the personality of the man.
CONCLUSION. 161
In their opposition to academic education, the Danes have been
more moderate than the people of the United States. With vision
and sympathy they have built up their system of people's high
schools, giving a culture that is suitable for the plain people, and on
this foundation they are building their vocational training. Until
this principle is recognized, that the man is above the farmer and
that thought must precede skill, the atmosphere can not be favor-
able to the reception of the central idea of the Danish people's high
school. There is at least some evidence that in America, too, the
pendulum is about to swing back to this happy mean. If such be the
course of development, the usefulness of the people's high-school
idea would not seem to be precluded from the American system of
rural education.
Necessary adjustments. — In order to make it possible for the peo-
ple's high schools to thrive on American soil, they must be acclima-
tized. This is a double process. In the first place, the American
people, and especially teachers, must be familiarized with the genius
of the people's high schools. They must learn to know what the
schools are, what is their aim, their spirit, their content, and their
method. On the other hand, the schools must be adapted to the
genius of the American people. They can not simply be trans-
planted to our soil. If they are to thrive, they must undergo certain
modifications and changes.
A tentative flan. — It would seem, in the first place, that existing
higher schools for general culture, which are located in agricultural
communities, might advantageously arrange short courses of a peo-
ple's high-school nature for adult rural young people. In connection
with such an idea, several considerations must be kept in mind.
The courses must be short and given at such times of the year as
make it possible for the young people to attend. Thus courses for
young men would have to be conducted in the winter time, when
their services are not in such large demand on the farms. For girls'
courses, it would seem that the many empty school buildings might
be utilized during tho long summer vacations current in this country.
It does seem regrettable that buildings in which such large capital
has been invested should stand idle for a fourth of the year. Such
lack of use of a factory plant would be condemned by even a tyro in
economics.
Furthermore, the courses must constitute a whole in themselves,
not be mere fragments of a high school or academy course. Their
content too must be selected with particular reference to the needs
of rural young people who expect to return to the farm when the
course is completed. There are schools enough which tend to take
the young people olf the farms ; a people's high-school course should
162 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
encourage to stay on the farm, and the instruction should be planned
accordingly. Finally, the courses must be made available for so
small an outlay by the students or with such financial assistance in
the form of scholarships that no worthy applicant would be barred
by lack of funds.
A public school. — ^The last consideration, particularly, leads to the
conviction that successful people's high schools in this country would
have to be supported by public funds. But few private schools are
so strong financially as to be able to offer courses at such low rates
as to place them within the reach of rural young people of limited
means. And since in this country cooperation between private and
public enterprise in education is virtually impossible, the only re-
course would seem to be to public support. The most natural gov-
ernmental unit to assume the establishment and maintenance of a
rural people's high school would seem to be the county. This unit
would bring to the support of the schools the efforts not only of the
strictly rural sections, but also of the villages and cities, which, in
an agricultural section, are so largely dependent for prosperity upon
the welfare of the surrounding rural districts. To equalize the
burden of support and make available State school funds, the prin-
ciple of granting State aid ought properly to be called into play.
And if the Federal Government could see its way clear to contribute
something to the support of such a system of people's schools, the
burden of support would seem not insurmountable. No worthy
person need then be barred from attendance for financial reasons.
Organization. — The experience of successful people's high schools
in Denmark and elsewhere would suggest a location in the open
country, a mile or two from village or city. Such a location would
remove the students from the immediate influence of city tempta-
tions and allurements, and still would leave them within reach of
the local churches and exceptional cultural opportunities that the
city might from time to time offer. Land should be available suffi-
cient for experimental purposes. The boarding feature would seem
essential, both by reason of the location of the schools, away from
centers of population, and in order to make them attractive to the
young people.
As previously emphasized, courses must be short. The best time
for boys would clearly be in winter. For girls the season of the year
would seem less significant, but the proper utilization of the plant
would require their attendance during the summer. The writer sees
no valid reason, however, for having the girls' courses shorter than
those for boys. If boys should attend five months, from November
to March inclusive, and girls five months, in summer, there would be
a month available in the spring and fall for an overhauling of the
plant.
CONCLUSION. 163
A satisfactory program would seem to require two terms, the
first year's course being for general cultural purposes, and the second
for vocational training, agriculture for boys, housekeeping and do-
mestic science for girls. The age limit for entrance should be set
so high — 17 or 18 — as to admit only those young people who are
mature enough to profit by the instruction and who have virtually
decided upon agriculture as their vocation.
Curricula. — The above characterization of courses roughly indi-
cates their content. There would seem to be a place in the life of
rural young people for a cultural course which may open to them the
treasures of our inspiring history, literature, and song; acquaint
them with the lives and thoughts of men and women who have
shaped the course of events; reveal to them the elementary prin-
ciples of the physical and biological sciences in order to make their
environment intelligible; introduce them to some of those social,
economic, and civic problems which their station in life will confront
them with; and let them return to the farm with enlarged vision
of duties and opportunities and a new estimate of life's values.
To outline even in the rough the curricula for the vocational
courses seems unnecessary. The names suggest with sufficient clear-
ness the principal subject matter. Let it be said, however, that ac-
cording to Danish experience a certain amount of cultural work
fits in very well even in a vocational course.
Methods. — It would seem that the contribution of the Danish
people's high schools in point of method ought to be utilized in any
scheme of people's schools. The wonderful success attending the
informal lecture method, whereby personality is given full play,
suggests its use in as large a measure as practicable. The antipathy
to the use of textbooks displayed by certain people's high-school
men must, however, be guarded against. The Swedish schools sug-
gest that considerable work by the students themselves is accom-
panied by beneficent results.
Care should be taken to avoid the idea that such a rural people's
high school is preparatory to some other school or some other vo-
cation than agriculture. It should be regarded as a finishing school
for the rank and file of the farming population. The granting of
diplomas admitting to other schools or vocations should therefore
be avoided. Certificates of attendance, industry, and character
should suffice for all exigencies that might arise in the subsequent
career of a student. The door to advancement in any line of activity,
and further educational facilities should not be closed to a young
person who has passed through such a people's high school. Ex-
ceptional young people should be afforded exceptional opportuni-
ties. But exceptional individuals should not establish the normal
164 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
course of procedure. Experience shows that the genius generally
discovers himself and finds a way of his own. The chief concern
of the average school must be for the average student.
Place in the educational system. — The question arises, How will
such a school fit into the American scheme of education? Is there
a place for it ? Is not the field covered by existing schools or schools
in the process of building? As far as cultural education for the
rural population is concerned, there seem to be very few schools that
are not mapped out along the lines of the traditional high school or
academy course. And these courses have been cordially condemned,
both because of their unsuitable curricula and because of their tend-
ency to draw the young people's interests away from the farm.
Efforts are being made to remedy the situation by adding agricul-
tural subjects and other features, but there still remains the objec-
tion of the long terms and the many years which virtually exclude the
mass of the rural young people. Only an exceptionally favored child
here and there can take advantage of such four-year courses of nine
months each year. And anything but a complete course of such a
character is but a fragment.
For vocational education, State and county agricultural colleges
are subject to the same objection of the length of time involved in
completing a course. These schools have undoubtedly filled a va-
cancy in the school system, and will continue to hold a place of in-
creasing significance, but clearly the masses of rural young people
will remain untouched by them in their present form. When one
considers that the Danish people's high schools and agricultural
schools gather within their folds frrm 25 to 33 of every 100 of the
rural population, it is evident that by comparison present facilities
in the United States for rural education are not generous. There
would seem to be a place in the scheme of rural schools for an institu-
tion that may take the adult young people who have decided to stay
on the farm, for such a period of the year as they can get away from
their work, and give them, at a minimum of expense, a reasonably
complete course in general culture and in the most necessary techni-
cal phases of their vocation.
A training school for teachers. — A highly desirable feature of any
system of people's high schools would be a training school where
teachers might be equipped for service in the schools. Such school,
receiving candidates of a broad general training, should endeavor
particularly to impart a knowledge of the history and principles of
popular enlightenment; the unique aims and spirit of the people's
high school, and the means and methods by which it is sought to
attain the ends in view. It should also afford training in the actual
conduct of people's high-school work.
CONCLUSION, 165
Conclusion. — ^Whatever the difficulties attendant upon the estab-
lishment and operation of a system of people's high schools ; whatever
the necessary variations and adjustments in their organization, ad-
ministration, content, or method, it would seem that the central idea
of the people's high-school movement — the raising of the entire cul-
tural level of the plain people — is good for any country. Judging
by the service which they have performed for Denmark and other
countries in the direction of cultural, economic, civic, social, and re-
ligious advancement, it would seem that these people's schools have
an especially significant contribution to make to a nation living un-
der a government of, by, and for the people.
APPENDIX A.
STATISTICAL TABLES.
Table 28. — Average number of students in people's high schools and agricultural
schools each year from 1844 to 1911}
People's high schools.
Agricultural schools.
Grand
total.
Ratio of
agricultu-
ral stu-
dents to
grand
total.
Ratio of
girls in
Years.
Boys.
Girls.
Total.
Boys.
Girls.
Total.
people's
hilh
schools to
total in
schools.
1844-45 to 1845-46
184fr-47 to 1850-51
1851-52 to 1855-56
1856-57 to 1860-61
1861-62 to 1865-66
1866-67 to 1870-71
1871-72 to 1875-76
1876-77 to 1880-81
1881-82 to 1885-86
1886-87 to 1890r-91
1891-92 to 1895-96
1896-97 to 1900-1901
1901-2 to 1905-6
34
20
135
209
331
1,320
2,060
2,182
2,151
2,180
2,626
2,732
3,249
3,385
3,603
6
14
29
35
65
371
1,038
1,242
1,424
1,587
2,189
2,612
3,033
3,153
3,104
40
34
164
244
396
1,691
3,098
3,424
3,575
3,767
4,915
5,344
6,282
6,538
6,707
36
42
61
75
89
186
153
349
443
418
516
849
1,083
1,175
1,361
2
4
1
2
7
2
12
18
82
43
6
43
156
189
36
44
65
76
91
193
155
361
461
500
559
855
1,126
1,331
1,550
76
78
229
320
487
1,884
3,253
3,785
4,036
4,267
5,374
6,199
7,408
7,869
8,257
Per cent.
47
56
28
24
19
10
5
10
11
12
10
14
15
17
19
Per cent.
15
41
18
14
16
22
34
36
40
42
45
49
48
1906-7 to 1910-11
48
Single year, 1910-11
46
Danmarks Statistik, Folkehojskoler og Landhrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 11.
Table 29. — Social station of students' parents}
Total.
Large
farmers.
Small
farmers.
Laborers.
Artisans.
3,603
1,361
Per cent.
55
60
Per cent.
22
16
Per cent.
3
2
Per cent.
11
5
3,104
189
50
42
21
24
3
3
10
13
6,707
1,550
53
58
21
17
3
3
11
6
4,964
57
20
3
9
3,293
8,257
49
54
21
20
2
3
11
10
Miscel la-
Boys in—
People's high schools ,
Agricultural schools
Girls in—
People's high schools
Agricultural schools
Boys and girls in—
People's high schools
Agricultural schools
Boys in people's high schools and agri-
cultural schools
Girls in people's high schools and agri-
cultural schools
Students in all schools ,
Per cent.
17
11
1 Op. cit., p. 15.
167
168 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
Table 30. — Occupation of students holding scholarships, 1910-11}
students.
Total:
Boys
Girls
People's high schools:
Boys
Girls
Agricultural schools:
Boys
Girls
Living
at home.
Per cent.
4
13
Servants.
Per cent.
67
S2
64
82
78
82
Artisans.
Per cent.
23
Other oc-
cupations.
Per cent.
■ Op. cit., p. 30.
Table SI.— Age of students, 1910-11}
students in all schools.
Boys in—
" People's high schools
Agricultural schools
Girls in—
People's high schools
Agricultural schools
Boys and girls in—
People's high schools
Agricultural schools
Boys in people's high schools and agricultural schools.
Girls in people's high schools and agricultural schools.
students in all schools.
Total.
8.257
1,361
3,104
6,707
1,550
4,964
3,293
8.257
Below 16
years.
Per cent.
1
16 to 18
years.
Per cent.
7
1
18 to 25
6,541
Per cent.
81
Above 2.5
years.
1,158
Per cent.
11
33
I Op. cit., pp. 14 ff.
Table 32. — Teachers in people's high schools and agricultural schools, distrib-
uted according to numl)er of hours of instruction per weeJc, 1910-11?-
i. PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS.
Hours of instruction per week.
Not re-
ported.
Total.
1 to 6
7 to 12
13 to 18
19 to 24
25 to 30
31 to 36
37
Principals:
Men
3
1
6
16
22
107
19
18
4
7
45
24
8
18
31
19
3
1
1
1
76
6
Wives of principals
Permanently appointed:
Men
1
90
24
6
9
14
53
14
2
3
15
1
6
4
2
3
1
229
Women
88
By the hour:
Men
126
Women
50
Total:
Men
126
48
71
53
127
34
74
17
18
1
6
2
1
7
4
431
158
Grand total....
174
124
161
91
19
6
3
11
589
* Op. cit., p. 36.
STATISTICAL TABLES.
169
Table 32. — Teachers in people's high schools and agricultural schools, etc. — Con.
IL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.
Hours of instruction
per week.
Not re-
ported.
Total.
lto6
7 to 12
13 to 18
19 to 24
25 to 30
31 to 36
37
Principals men
12
27
2
3
3
1
21
1
1
4
19
Wives of principals
Permanently appointed:
Men
1
6
2
50
5
4
5
4
2
2
1
1
7
65
Women
13
By the hour:
Men
61
Women
1
1
1
8
Total:
Men
56
8
42
2
25
2
8
6
4
3
2
1
8
1
145
Women
23
Grand total....
64
44
27
14
7
3
9
168
Table 33. — Age of teachers}
19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70
Not re-
ported.
Total.
People's high
schools:
Men
Women
0
1
39
36
88
39
70
18
44
14
49
42
31
7
29
19
1
12
6
10
2
8
1
32
14
431
158
Total
1
75
127
88
58
61
38
36
20
18
12
9
46
589
Agricultural
schools:
Men
Women
0
0
8
3
26
6
25
5
20
2
16
1
10
1
12
1
6
0
5
0
1
0
1
0
15
4
145
23
Total
0
11
32
30
22
17
11
13
6
5
1
1
19
168
1 Op. cit., p. 39. -•
Table 34. — Education of teachers}
1. PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS.
Gradu-
ates of
gym-
nasia.
University
trained.
Gradu-
ates of
normal
schools.
Gradu-
ates of
agricul-
tural
college.
Trained
in
people's
high
school.
Other-
wise
trained.
Gradu-
ates in
theol-
ogy.
Other
univer-
sity
degrees.
Total.
Principals:
Men
3
16
1
30
2
2
17
3
7
72
44
13
8
7
1
7
39
36
30
35
76
Women *
6
W^ives of principals ....
14
Permanently appointed:
Men . .
3
26
8
52
8
29
6
29
14
229
88
By the hour:
Men
2
1
31
7
126
Women
50
Total
9
73
16
127
45
164
155
589
Op. cit., p. 38.
170
THE DANISH PEOPLE S HIGH SCHOOL.
Table 34. — Education of teachers — Continued.
II. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.
Gradu-
ates of
gym-
nasia.
University
trained.
Gradu-
ates of
normal
schools.
Gradu-
ates of
agricul-
tural
college.
Trained
in
people's
school.
Other-
wise
trained.
Gradu-
ates in
theol-
ogy.
Other
univer-
sity
degrese.
Total.
Principals, men
1
15
2
2
6
11
4
5
1
5
2
29
3
19
Wives of principals
2
Permanently appointed:
Men
1
1
4
48
65
Women
13
By the hour:
Men
1
2
3
6
16
61
Women
g
Total
1
3
4
11
79
30
40
168
Table 35. — Variations in emphasis in people's high-school curricula.
[Table shows the distribution of 68 pure people's high schools on basis of number of hours ol instruction
devoted to each subject in a five months' course, 1910-11.']
Average
number
hours
in five
months'
course.
Number of schools.
1
o
B
o
.a
!
8
OP
.a
1
!
'7
1
M
£}
f
S
o
.a
o
X3
i
o
a,
1
152
21
63
201
46
??
13
18
95
48
20
103
20
59
15
28
3
16
27
14
6
2
68
Penmanship
21
3
16
6
26
13
3
10
1
23
15
2
3
1
6
24
4
7
2
3
2
2
2
17
68
11
8
3
68
History ,
14
16
68
Geography
35
39
8
10
10
1
21
19
6
3
1
1
2
68
Physics
1
38
33
9
10
19
21
48
'68
Zoology and botany
68
68
Hygiene
68
Arithmetic
14
9
17
2
26
43
2
....
1
1
68
Drawing
6
23
4
17
68
Singing
68
Gymnastics
9
3
7
1
6
9
9
1
2
68
Surveying...
25
7
23
41
21
17
31
7
14
11
11
5
68
5
2
68
Civics
68
Other subjects
3
1
1
1
68
' Op. cit., p. 46.
Table S6.^— Excess of exports over imports of Danish hutter — Avera-ge per year.
Years.
Amount.
Value.
Years.
Amount.
Value.
1800
Pounds.
1,070,000
3,584,000
2,733,000
3,763,000
.3,212,000
. 8,786,000
Kroner.
397,000
1,111,000
1,014,000
l,39(i,000
1,400,000
7,400,000
1870-1874
Pounds.
17,057,000
21,379,000
22,223,000
39, 862, 000
Kroner.
17, 700, 000
1820
1875-1879
21,700,000
1830-1834
1880-1884
22,200,000
35, 200, 000
1835-1839
1885-1889
1840-1844
1890-1894
72,136,000
98,700,000
67,300,000
1865-1869
1895-1899
92,200,000
' This and the following tables are from a centennial publication. Katalog over den Landbohistoriske
Udstilling, published in connection with agricultural expositions in Oaense in 1900, pp. 27 ff. This publi-
cation has, of course, not been continued, and exactly comparable statistics for later years are difficult to
obtain.
STATISTICAL TABLES.
171
Table 37. — Excess of exports over imports of Danish pork and teans — Average
per year.
Years.
Amount.
Value.
Years.
Amount.
Vnlue.
1763-1771
Pounds.
9,000
15, 760
36,530
110,970
185,470
Kroner.
86,000
158,000
1,500,000
10,200,000
15,200,000
1880-1884
Pounds.
274,860
136,570
130,290
23,740
Kroner.
22,400,000
8,200,000
10,000,000
2,000,000
1821-1825
1885-1889
1805-1869
1890-1894
1870-1874
1895-1899
1875-1879
Table 38. — Excess of exports over imports of Danish eggs — Ai^erage per year.
Years.
Quantity.
Value.
Years.
Quantity.
Value.
1865-1869
Millions.
0.6
11.0
24.8
47.6
Kroner.
24,000
479.000
1.218,000
2,241,000
1885-1889
Millions.
93.3
127.6
207.6
Kroner.
4,183,000
6,572,000
11,220,000
1870-1874
1890-1894
1875-1879
1895-1891}
1880-1884
Table 39. — Size and value of potato crop — Average per year.
Years. •
Amount.
Value.
Years.
Amount.
Value.
1837
Barrels.
1,600,000
2,685,000
Kroner.
1885-1888
Barrels.
3,937,000
5,009,000
Kroner.
13,324,000
16,546,000
1875-1878
13,283,000
1895-1898
Table 40. — Roots other than potatoes — Average per year.
Years.
Amount.
Value.
Year-!.
Amount.
Value.
1875-1878
Barrels.
3,686,000
17,641,000
Kroner.
6,078,000
16,894,000
1895-1898
Barrels.
36,570,000
Kroner.
36,892,000
1885-1888
Table 41. — Total excess of exports over imports of the chief agricultural prod-
ucts in Denmark — Average per year.
Years.
Value.
Years.
Value.
1763-1771
Kroner.
4,320,000
7,620,000
61,730,000
1880-1884
Kroner.
90, 50,000
122,270,000
1820
1895-1899
1865-1869
APPENDIX B,
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL WORKS.
Thomassen, Fb. Fortegnelse over Dansk padagogisk Literatur. TJdgivet af
Dansk Skolemnsenm. Copenhagen, 1896. 143 p.
Supplements published from time to time.
United States. Bureau of Education. List of publications of the United
States Bureau of Education. Washington, Government printing office, 1911.
(Bulletin, 1911, no. 17.)
See Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in alphabetical index.
GENERAL WORKS.
Carlson, J., Olrik, Hans, and Starcke, C. N. Danmarks Kultur ved Aar 1900.
Copenhagen, 1900.
Contains some account of education.
Danmarks Skolevsesen. Oversigt over Det danske Skolevsesens Ordning, af
Forretningsudvalget i den danske Bestyrelse for det 9de nordiske Skole-
mode. Copenhagen, 1906. 56 p.
A good brief account of elementary and secondary education and people's high
schools.
De Nordiska Lsendernas Skolvsesen : 1905-1910. Utarbetad for det lOde Nor-
diska Skolmotet i Stockholm, 1910. Stockholm, 1910. 135 p.
Discusses most recent educational movements in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and
Finland.
Healey, Elizabeth. Educational systems of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark;
with special reference to the education of girls and adults ; being the report
presented to the trustees of the Gilchrist educational trust. London,
1892. 5-56 p.
Very brief.
Hertzberg, N. Opdragelsens og Skolens Historie. Christiania, 1910. 156 p.
A brief history of education, with special reference to Norway and Denmark.
Hippeau, Celestin. L'instruction publique dans les 6tats du nord; SuMe.
Norvege, Dauemark. Paris, 1876. 35-320 p.
A good account, but out of date.
Kobel, Oskar. Eine padagogische Studienreise nach Danemark, Schweden
und Norwegen. Seyffarth-Liegnitz.
Thornton, J. S. Recent educational progress in Denmark. In Great Britain.
Board of Education, Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1897.
Vol. 1, p. 587-614.
Schools, public and private, in the north of Europe. In Great Britain.
Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London,
1907. Vol. 17. 7-136 p.
Best single reference.
172
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 173
United States. Bureau of Education. Circular of information, 1877, no. 2,
p. 36^6. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1889-90. Vol. 1, p.
519-548. 1896-97. Vol. 1, p. 71-101. Information in former reports, p. 72.
Historical data; chronological survey, p. 99-101.
Vestrup, August. Vore Dotres Fremtid. Veiledning til Uddannelse af unge
Piger til Beskaeftigelse i Hjemmet og Selverhverv. Copenhagen, 1894. 96 p.
A treatise on existing educational opportunities for Danisli girls.
Weyher, Ernst. Was lehren einem Schulmanne Danemark und Schweden?
Schilderung einer Studienreise unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der tech-
nischen Unterrichtsfacher. Breslau, 1912. 116 p.
HISTORICAL WORKS.
Balling, E. Plan for en Realskole for vore Dotre. Copenhagen, 1787. 29 p.
Curriculum, p. 10-18.
Hertzberg, N. Opdragelsens og Skolens Historic. Christiania, 1910. 156 p.
A brief history of education, with special reference to Norway and Denmark.
Koch, L. Den danske Landsbyskoles Historie til 1848. Copenhagen, 1882.
115 p.
Kromen, K. Om Maal og Midler for den hojere Skoleundervisning. Copen-
hagen, 1886. 329 p.
Aims, content, and methods of secondary education, treated historically.
Lagerstedt, N. G. W. Svenska Uppfostringsvsesendets Historia ; kort Of versikt.
Stockholm, 1900. 70 p.
A brief account of Old Norse education, p. 5-7.
Larsen, JoAKiM. Bidrag til den danske Folkeskoles Historie 1784-1818. Copen-
hagen, 1893. 322 p.
Based largely on primary sources, from which are copious citations.
Bidrag til den danske Folkeskoles Historie 1818-1898. Copenhagen,
1899. 524 p.
Extensive treatment of reform movements culminating in law of 1899.
Bidrag til Kobenhavns offentlige Skolevsesens Historie. Copenhagen,
1881. 214 p.
Nyerup, R. Udkast til en Historie om de latinske Skoler i Danmark og Norge.
Copenhagen, 1804. 367 p.
Contains an interesting time-table covering fifteen years, prepared in 1604 by pro- '
fessors of the university, by order of the King, The course consists mostly of
Latin grammar and classics. Greek is begun in the eleventh year.
Ottosen, K. Vor Folkeskoles Oprindelse og Udvikling. Et Folkeskrift. Aarhus,
1901. 182 p.
A good account of the history of elementary education.
Pai.udan, Dr. J. Det hoiere Skolevaesen i Danmark, Norge og S verge. Copen-
hagen, 1885. 809 p.
An historic presentation for each country, with special attention to the nineteenth
century. Also a comparison of existing conditions (1885).
THOStfASSEN, Fr. Dansk Skolemuseum, gennem 25 Aar, 1887-1912. Udgivet
av Bestyrelsen. Copenhagen. 1912. 60 p.
Traces growth of movement for betterment of school equipment.
174 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL.
WoBM, J. Forsog tel en Skolehistorie for Reformation. Videnskabemes Sel-
skabs Skrifter, v. XI. 1777. pp. 345-398.
An interesting account of education in Denmark before the Reformation. Sur-
prisingly modern in Its treatment of educational source material.
Zahle, N. Om den kvindelige Uddannelse her i Landet. Copenhagen, 1883.
55 p.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.
Bang, Niels. Nye Former for Forssettelsesundervisningen. [Pamphlet]
A discussion of vocational schools continuing the work of elementary education.
Bauditz, Sophus. Undervisningsplan for Kobenhavns Kommuneskoler af 4de
December, 1907. Copenhagen, 1907. 38 p.
Benthin, W. Th., and Poulsen, Cael. Danmarks Folkeskole, 1910. Udgivet
med understottelse av Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet, af
Danmarks Laererforening. Odense, 1911.
Contains a directory of elementary school teachers
Beretning om Det Kobenhavnske Borger- og Almueskolevaesens Tilstand for
Aaret 1910. 156 p.
Annual publication.
Betaenkning angaaende Folkeskolens Tilsyn m. m. av den af Ministeriet for
Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet under lite. December, 1909, nedsatte Kom-
mission. Copenhagen, 1911. 108 p.
An extended discussion of present status of elementary school supervision in Den-
mark and suggested reforms.
BiTACK, Mois. Demoralisation i Kobenhavns Kommuneskoler. [Pamphlet.]
Copenhagen, 1912.
A criticism of the rules governing discipline In the public schools of Copenhagen.
Danmarks Statistik. Folkeskolevaisenet m. m. udenfor Kobenhavn 1 Aaret 1909.
Udgivet af Statens statistiske Bureau. Copenhagen, 1911.
Oflacial State report on elementary schools. Published annually.
Knudsen, K. a. Beretning om Statens Kursus i Gyranastik og om Gymnas-
tikens Tilstand i de danske Skoler i 1910. Copenhagen, 1911. 26 p.
Lehmann, Henrik. Haandbog 1 Lovgivningen om den danske Folkeskole.
Systematisk Fremstilling. Copenhagen, 1909. 458 p.
An excellent presentation of the legal status of elementary education in Denmark.
Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet. Cirkulser af 6te April, 1900
Copenhagen.
Contains directions relating to Instructions in the elementary school subjects.
Olrik, Hans. Beretning om Statens Laererhojskole i Skoleaaret 1909-1910.
Copenhagen, 1910. 75 p.
Published annually.
Danmarks Laererhojskole 1856-1906. Copenhagen, 1906.
An historical sketch of the State teachers' college.
EiGSDAG. Lov om forskellige Forhold vedrorende Folkeskolen, Amalienborg,
den 24de Marts, 1899.
The fundamental elementary school law In force at the present time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 175
Kaiieloven af 30 Marts, 1894, med dertil horende ministerielle bekendt-
gc5relser, cirkulaerer og skrivelser. Copenhagen, 1899.
Thomassen, Fe. Skolestiiens TJdstyr. Udgivet af Dansk Skolemuseum.
Copenhagen, 1908. 16 p.
Suggestions as to suitable equipment of elementary schools.
Tilheg til Skoleloven ; Lov af 29de Marts, 1904, om forskellige forhold vedror-
ende Folkeskolen, udgivet paa foranstaltning af Ministeriet, ved Henrik
Lehmann. Copenhagen, 1906.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
AsMussEN, A. F. Meddelser angaaende de hojere Almenskoler I Danmark for
skoleaaret 1909-1910. Copenhagen, 1911. 408 p.
Official State report on secondary schools, published annually. In addition to this
collective report, nearly all secondary schools publish annually a form of report
which afiford a considerable source of information.
Barfod, A. Meddelser angaaende Soro Akademi for Aarene 1899-1908. Copen-
hagen, 1909. 218 p.
Mabtinsen-Laksen, M. Skal Privatskolen Leve? Copenhagen, 1912. [Pam-
phlet.]
A contribution to a current discussion of the future prospects of private secondary
schools, with particular reference to finances and administration.
Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet, Anordniug om og Bekentgorelse
angaaende Proven i Pa^dagogik og Undervisningsfairdighed for Laerere og
Lsererinder ved Statens hojere Almenskoler. Copenhagen, 1905.
Samllng af Eksamenbestemmelser vedrorende det hojere Skolevsesen.
Copenhagen, 1899. 58 p.
RiGSDAG. Lov om hojere almenskoler m. m. Copenhagen, 1903.
This is the now famous secondary school law of 1903.
Thornton, J. S. Cooperative schools. Educational times (London), Febru-
ary, 1902.
A discussion of the experiment in cooperative management of private secondary
schools in Copenhagen.
TuxEN, S. L. Gymnasieundervisningen — Erfaringer og lagttagelser. [Pam-
phlet]
A discussion of the effect of recent changes and movements in secondary education.
Westergaard, Harald. Privatskolen og Foraeldrene. Copenhagen, 1912. [Pam-
phlet.]
A contribution to the current discussion relating to private secondary schools.
UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. *
Aarbog for Kjobenhavns Universitet, Kommunitetet og den polytekniske Lsere-
anstalt, indeholdende Meddelelser for det akademiske Aar 1906-1907.
Copenhagen, 1911. p. 335-32.
Forelsesninger og Ovelser ved Kobenhavns Universitet og Den polytekniske
Lnereanstalt i Foraars-Halvaaret 1912. Copenhagen, 1012.
Foss, Alexander. Industrial Denmark. American-Scandinavian review, No-
vember, 1913, p. 5-14.
A study of the industrial rise of Denmark and the new demands made on edu-
cation.
3334°— 15 12
176 THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL.
Great Britain. Foreign Office. Report on commercial education in Denmark.
London. (Diplomatic and consular reports. Miscellaneous series, no. 495.)
Hannover, H. I. Ueber die praktische ausbildung an der koeniglichen tech-
nischen hochscbule in Kopenbagen. Internationaler Kongress fiir Hoebern
Tecbniscben Uuterricbt. Brussel. 30 p.
De danske Handelsskoler. Fremstilling av deres indretning og virksombed,
udarbeidet af undervisningsinspektoren for de statsunderstottede bandels-
skoler, i anledning af en fra udlandet forekommen foresporgsel. Copen-
hagen, 1906. 13 p.
Plan for de Handelsskoler der staar under Tilsyn af Provinshandelsforening-
ernes Fsellesudvalg for Skolevsesen, 1910. Kolding, 1910.
Steen, Adolph. Den polytekniske Laereanstalts forste Halvbundrede Aar 1829-
1879. Copenbagen, 1879. 208 p.
PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS.
In addition to tbe following references, scattered information regarding
people's bigb scbools will be found in tbe general works dealing witb education
In Denmark.
AusTLiD, Andreas. Ein Folkelaerar (Kristen Kold). Copenbagen, 1911. 177 p.
Begtrup, Holger. Et Vindu i Vest. (Ssertryk af " Hoj skolebladet " 1911.)
A plea for an open door in the people's high school for influences from England
and America.
Folkebojskolerne i Danmark, 1908. [Pampblet]
Folkebojskolens Opgave. [Pamphlet.]
A consideration of some criticism directed against the work of people's high
schools.
Beunn, Kristoffer. Folkelige Grundtanker, Hamar, 1878. 396 p.
A series of essays dealing with fundamental principles in popular education, with
special reference to the work of people's high schools.
Danmark. Statens Statiske Bureau. Danmarks Statistik. Danmarks
Folkebojskoler og Landbrugsskoler i 1906-11. Copenbagen, 1907.
Official State report on people's high schools and agricultural schools. Published
every five years.
Det kongelige danske Landbusholdningsselskab. Aarsberetning om dets Virk-
sombed ,i 1910-1911. Copenbagen, 1911.
Has some information of interest because of close relation between people's high
schools and agricultural practices.
Dymond, T. S., comp. Report on tbe visit of tbe Essex farmers' party to Den-
mark, May and June, 1000. Cbelmsford, Eng. (Out of print.)
Egan, Maurice Francis. Notes on agricultural conditions in Denmark, which
served as a basis for a series of lectures delivered in tbe United States,
1913. Washington, Government printing office, 1913. 34 p. (Senate docu-
ment no. 992.)
ESKESEN, Morten. Samliv med Kold. Christiania, 1910.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 177
Fay, C. R. CJooperation at home and abroad. A description and analysis.
New York and London, 1908. 403 p.
Numerous references to Denmark.
The first people's high school in England.
This leaflet may be had from Mr. Francis Hodgson, 89 Farringdon St., London, E. C
Gbundtvig, N. F. S. Academiet i Soer. Copenhagen, 1838.
Den historiske Hojskole. Copenhagen, 1872.
Skolen for Livet. Copenhagen, 1838.
Haggard, H. Rider. Rural Denmark and its lessons. London, 1911. 335 p.
Devotes some attention to people's high schools and agricultural schools.
Hansen, Fritz. Om Folkehojskolen og Almendannelsen. Copenhagen, 1877.
HoLLMAN, A. H. Entwicklung der danischen Landwirtschaft. Berlin, 1900.
Die Danische Volkshochschiile und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Entwicklung
einer volkischen Kultur in Danemark. 1909. Translated into Danish by
A. Vedel. Copenhagen, 1910. 160 p. .
An excellent treatment of the educational philosophy and methods of the people's
high-school movement.
HOLMSTROM, Leonard. Afhandling om Folkehojskolesagen. Nordisk Tidskrift.
[1889.]
Ireland. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. Report
on cooperative agriculture and rural conditions in Denmark. Dublin, 1903.
148 p. (Miscellaneous series. Bulletin no. 7.)
This excellent report of a deputation sent to Denmark devotes much attention to
the work of the people's high school as related to the prosperity of the country.
LaCour, Paul. Foredrag, holdt paa den anden nordiske landbrugskongres i
Stockholm, 1897.
A discussion of method in teaching science and mathematics in people's high
schools.
. Katalog over den Landbohistoriske Udstilling under den 18 danske
Landmandsforsamling i Odense den 30, Juni 8, Juli, 1900. Odense, 1900.
133 p.
Traces statistically the growth of economic prosperity in Denmark.
Larsen, H. C. Landokonomisk Aarbog for 1912. Copenhagen, 1912.
Statistical information.
Le mouvement cooperatif en Danemark Public H I'occasion du congr&s
international des associations agricoles et de demographic rurale. Copen-
hagen and Bruxelles, 1910.
Nordahl-Petersen, a. Danmarks Hojskoler i T-ekst og Billeder. Ringe, 1908.
447 p.
Nygaard, Fr. Kristen Kold, Folkehojskolens Banebryder. 2 vols. Odense,
1895-96.
PouLSEN, Alfred. Hojskolen og Statistiken. Hojskolebladet, 24 Mai, 1912.
p. 729-736.
A contribution to a current discussion regarding status of people's high schools.
The Danish popular high school. A lecture delivered in Oxford, August,
1894. Oxford university extension gazette, September, 1894.
Also printed separately. Odense, 1907. 19 p.
178 THE DANISH PEOPLE ^S HIGH SCHOOL.
RosENDAL, H. Danmarks Folkehojskoler og Landbrugsskoler, 1844-1894. Med-
deleser fra Skolerne, udgivne af Foreningen for Hojskoler og Landbrugs-
skoler, i Anledning af Halvliundredaars-Jubilaeet, Odense, 1894. 177 p.
Contains statistical summary up to 1894.
Grundtvigs Hojskole, 1856-1906. Kolding, 1906.
RoNBERG, Madsen. Grundtvig und die danishen Vollshochschulen. Padago-
gisches Magazin. pt. 253. Langensalza, 1905. VI-124 p.
Rysgaard, J. M. Agricultural co-operation in Denmark. A paper read before
the Fortnightly Club of Grand Forks, N. D. 6 p.
Sandstbom, Anna. Grundtvig och den nordiske folkhogskolen. Tidsskriftet
Verdandi, 1897. Stockholm.
Schroder, Ludvig. Den Nordiske Folkehojskole ; Bidrag til dens Historie.
Copenhagen, 1905. VI-487 p.
The most complete history of the people's high school movement.
Den Danske Folkehojskole. Et brev til en Engelsk Laerer. Copenhagen,
1889. 32 p.
N. F. S. Grundtvigs Levned. Copenhagen, 1901. 223 p.
Om skoler for Voksne. Copenhagen, 1878. [Pamphlet.]
Sellers, Edith. Testrup peasant's high school. Cornhill magazine. Reprinted
in American-Scandinavian, Spokane, Wash., October, November, and De-
cember, 1909.
Sinclair, John F. Agricultural cooperation. Wisconsin state board of public
affairs, Madison, 1912.
Denmark, p. 9-16.
Advance sheets.
Smith, . The best methods of organization for agricultural cooperation
and credit. In Ireland. Department of Agriculture and Technical In-
struction. Dublin, 1903. 102 p. (Miscellaneous series. Bulletin 6.)
Stauri, Rasmus. Folkehogskulen i Danmark, Norge, Sverige og Finland.
Christiania, 1910. 315 p.
Thornton, J. S. Recent educational progress in Denmark. Great Britain.
Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1897.
TOl. 1.
People's high schools, p. 592-600.
Schools public and private in the North of Europe. Great Britain.
Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London,
1907. vol. 17.
People's high schools, p. 105-129.
See articles in Educational Times (London), October, 1900, and November, 1905,
Journal of Education (London), October, 1895.
Warming, Jens. Staab Hojskolen Stille. Hojskolebladet, May, 1912.
p. 633-636.
A discussion of the present status of the people's high school movement, based on
the latest statistical report.
Washington, Booker T. How Denmark has taught herself prosperity and
happiness. The rural high schools which have made over a nation. World's
Work, June, 1911, p. 14486-94.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 179
NORWAY.
Anderson, David Allen. The school system of Norway. Boston, Gorham
press, 1913. 232 p.
Bibliography : p. 225-228.
The first reasonably complete account in English of education in Norway. An
illuminating and scholarly presentation. A ratljpr serious omission, however,
is the total absence of any reference to the work of the county and people's
high schools, (amtsskoler and folkehojskoler).
Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects.
London, 1902, vol. 8, p. 1-94 ; 1906, vol. 16, index ; 1907, vol. 17, p. 36-65.
United States. Bureau of Education. Circular of information, July, 1871.
Report of the Commissioner of education, 1889-90, vol. 1, 475-517 p.;
1896-97, vol. 1, 103-123 p.
SWEDEN.
Education in Sweden. Stockholm, 1909. 57 p. Prepared for Alaska-Yukon-
Pacific Exposition, 1909.
Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects.
London, 1898, vol. 3, p. 649-671 ; 1902, vol. 8, p. 95-158.
Johnson, J. V. The people's high schools in Sweden. Orebro, 1904.
SuNDBARG, . GusTAV, ed. Bducatiou in Sweden. In Sweden and its people.
Stockholm, 1904. 69 p.
United States. Bureau of Education. Circular of information, July, 1871.
Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1888-89, vol. 1, p. 197-221;
1891-92, vol. 1, p. 423-^49; 1898-99, vol. 1, p. 237-257; 1904, vol. 1, p.
767-797.
INDEX.
Administration of education, 19-29.
Agricultural education, 67-68, 95-97, 126-128.
Agricultural products, statistics, 170-171.
Arithmetic, teaching, peoples' high schools, 117.
Askov, advanced courses, 119-120.
Attendance, school, 107-108.
Bergman, C. A., on the peoples' high school, 146.
Bibliography, 172-179.
Bishops, educational duties, 24.
Boards of education, 23, 25-27.
Botanical school gardens, 41-42.
Butter, Danish, excess of exports over imports, 170.
Civil divisions, 24-25.
Claxton, P. P., letter of transmittal, 5.
Colleges and universities, 64-68.
Commercial schools, curriculum, 70-71.
Commimal secondary schools, 63.
Community life in schools, 101-102.
Compulsory education, 29-30.
Continuation schools, 43-44.
Cooperative societies, activities, 133-140.
Copenhagen, administration of schools, 28; pay
schools, 32-33; time-tables of public schools, 35-36.
County school boards, 25.
Coimty school council, 25.
Curriculum, agricultural schools, 127; commercial
schools, 70-71; elementary schools, 39-40; middla
schools, 56-58; normal schools, 46-47; peoples' high
schools, 115-128, 170; secondary schools, 56-60;
university, 65. See also under special subjects.
Danish education, success, 154-165.
Danish language, instruction, 37-38.
Discipline. See School discipline.
District school board, 25-26.
Domestic-science schools, 69-70.
Drawing, teaching, 39, 118.
Ecclesiastical divisions, statistics, 23-25.
Economic contribution, peoples' high schools, 134.
Educational boards, statistics, 23.
Educational system, historical development, 7-19.
Elementary education, 12-13, 29-53- term defined,
19.
England, peoples' high schools, 150-152.
Enlightenment period, 15, 19.
Equipment for schools, 41.
Examinations, elementary schools, 42; peoples' high
schools, 126; secondary schools, 60-61.
Extension work, peoples' high schools, 128.
Finland, peoples' high schools, 148-149.
Fircroft School, England, 150-152.
Frederick IV (1699-1730), contribution to educa-
tion, 13-14.
Free meals, elementary schools of Copenhagen, 43.
Geography, home, instruction, 38.
German language, teaching, 40.
Germany, peoplej?' high schools, 149-150.
Girls, education in early times, 9; features of curric-
ulum, peoples' high schools, 119; secondary edu-
cation, 18-19.
Grain, shipments, 138.
Groimds and buildings, 31.
Grundtvig, N. F, S., career and Influence, 73-84.
Gymnasium, 19; curriculum, 58-60.
Gymnastics, instruction, 40; peoples' high schools,
119.
Half-time schedule, 33-34.
High schools. See Peoples' high schools.
Higher education, term defined, 19.
History, teaching, 116-117, 121-122.
Industrial schools, 68-70.
Kold, Kristen, career and influence, 88-93.
La Cour, Paul, on method of teaching science, 125.
Latin school, divided into linguistic-historical and
mathematical-scientific, 17; during the Reforma-
tion, 10.
Lecture system, peoples' high schools, 122.
Lecturing societies, 129-130.
Libraries, State-aided, 131.
Local civil council, 26.
Medical inspection of schools, Copenhagen, 43.
Methods of instruction, peoples' high schools,
120-127.
Middle Ages, education during, 9-10.
Middle schools, curriculum, 56-58.
Ministry of education, 20-21.
Naturalism, influence in eighteenth century, 15-16.
Normal schools, 46-^7, 110.
Norway, peoples' high schools, 142-145.
Observational instruction, 38.
Old Norse education, 7-9.
Organization and administration of education,
19-29.
Organization of elementary schools, 33.
Ownership of schools, 112-113.
Pay schools, Copenhagen, 32.
Peasant proprietorship, 132-133.
Pensions, teachers. See Teachers, pensions.
Peoples' high schools, growth, 84-99; origin, 73-84.
Pietism, influence, 15-14.
Polytechnic Institute, courses, 67.
Private elementary schools, 44-45.
Private schools, secondary, sources of income, 63-64.
Promotion, elementary schools, 43.
Ranum State Normal School, curriculum, 46.
Real course, weekly program, 58.
Reformation, educational plan, 10-12.
Reforms, recent, 16.
Religious education, 36, 141-142.
Rodding, first peoples' high school, 85-87.
Roskilde, daily program, 102-103.
181
182
INDEX.
Runic inscriptions, 7.
Salaries, teachers. See Teachers' salaries.
Scholarships, peoples' high schools, 108.
School buildings, 31.
School commission, 26-27.
School discipline, 34-35.
School districts, 30-31.
School funds, county, 51-52.
Schools, distribution on basis of number of year
students (1910-11), 99-100.
Sciences, teaching, 117, 124-125.
Secondary education, 53-64; girls, 18-19; since
Reformation, 16, 17-18; support of State schools,
63; term defined, 19.
Servant girls' school, 68-69.
Singing, teaching, peoples' high schools, 118.
Specialists, displaced in elementary schools, 40-41.
State system of schools, establishment, 14-15.
State teachers' college, Copenhagen, 47.
Student associations, 66.
Students, peoples' high schools, 10^-108, 167-168.
Sweden, peoples' high schools, 145-148.
Teachers, 108-111, 124, 168-170; and the church, 48-
49; appointment, 47-48; elementary schools, 45;
examination and certification, 47; training,
45-47, 61-63.
Teachers' associations, 111.
Teachers' councils. 27-28.
Teachers' pensions, 49-50, 63.
Teachers' salaries, 49, 61.
Teachers' training school, first established, 16.
Textbooks, peoples' high schools, 126.
Trade schools, 68-69.
United States, peoples' high schools, 152-154, 162,
164.
Universities, organization and teaching force, 64.
Veterinary and Agricultural College, work, 67.
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O
VITA
Martin Hegland, the author of this work, was born at
Merton, Minnesota, Jan. 20, 1880. In 1900 he graduated from
the high school at Owatonna, Minnesota, and in 1904 from St.
Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota, with the degree of Bachelor
of Arts. From 1904 to 1907 he served as superintendent of the
public schools at Fertile, Minnesota. In 1907-8 he studied
English philology, education, and philosophy at the University
of Minnesota and received from that institution the degree of
Master of Arts. After three years of study he graduated in
1910 from the Theological Seminary of the United Norwegian
Lutheran Church in St. Paul, Minnesota. As recipient of the
St. Olaf College Alumni scholarship in 1910, he entered upon
graduate study in education and sociology at Columbia Univer-
sity, New York. With educational administration as his major
field he spent three semesters in resident study chiefly in
Teachers College. For the school year 1911-12 he received
from Teachers College a Graduate Scholarship and a Foreign
Research Scholarship. The second semester of 1911-12 he spent
in the study of education in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway,
gaining first hand information and gathering materials for the
present work.
mr.''
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