Cover photo: Acacia albida in Central Sudan
(photo Christel Palmberg)
Databook
on endangered tree
and shrub species
and provenances
Forest Resources Division
FAO Forestry Department
The designations employed and the presentation of
material in this publication do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country territory, city
or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries,
M-31
ISBN 92-5-102522-3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system.
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, withe
the prior permission of the copyright owner Applications lor such permission, with a stateme
ot the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publicatio
Division. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Via delle Terme di Caracal
00100 Rome. Italy
> FAO 1986
- ill -
ABSTRACT
Based on a list of species in need of attention
drawn up by the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene
Resources, 8l monographs on endangered woody species
and provenances were prepared in collaboration with
researchers and institutes from all over the world.
The monographs Include information on the botany
and silvics of the species, as well as their status
in terms of genetic depletion; and outline action
needed to conserve existing genetic variation in them.
- iv -
FOREWORD
At its 3th Session in Rome in 19&1, the FAO Panel
of Experts on Forest Gene Resources included in its list
of species in need of attention, 8l species considered
threatened with extinction or subject to severe, genetic
depletion. These 8l species, endangered either at the
species or provenance level, form the basis for the
present book. Some of these were also described in FAO's
1981 Draft Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree Species
and Provenances elaborated in cooperation with IUFRO
(International Union for Forestry Research Organizations)
and UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme).
The list of species included is by no means a
complete list of endangered woody species, but represents
a cross-cut of those species which the Panel considered
should urgently be included in genetic resources
programmes. Many national lists exist on endangered
flora and fauna, and these complement the present
list of species of international socloeconomic
importance. Information from national lists is regularly
collated and computerized by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),
which concentrates on recording information on species
considered endangered, threatened and vulnerable,
at the species, rather than intraspecific, level.
The main purpose of the present book is to. draw
the attention of decision-makers, scientists and
international and national organizations to the
conservation needs of the species Included in the
book.
To facilitate conservation activities, the book
gives information on distribution, ecology, biology;
actual or potential uses; silviculture; genetic status;
and remedial action underway or recommended to safeguard
the genetic resources at species and provenance levels;
The book attempts to give as reliable an account as
possible of each species, and over fourty scientists from
more than twenty institutes worldwide have contributed to
the Data Sheets (See acknowledgements).
_ V -
Information for many species is, however, still
far from complete and conservation action will thus
have to be complemented by further, basic studies
on the species in question.
The catalytic work of FAO's Forest. Resources Division
in the field of forest genetic resources, under the
guidance of the PAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene
Resources and within the framework of the Tropical
Forestry Action Plan, continues to focus on the inter-
related activities of exploration, collection, evalua-
tion, conservation and utilization. The work is
carried out in collaboration with, and through support
to, national institutes especially in tropical
countries.
It is hoped that the present Data Book will lead
to conservation action in both the species listed
and in species identified at the national level; and,
as the need emerges, to the description and conservation
in and ex situ of additional species threatened with
extinction or genetic depletion.
Forest Resources Division
Forestry Department
- vi -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The assistance and contribution of the following
institutions and individuals to this work is gratefully
acknowledged :
Australia
Bermuda
Brazil
J.W. Turnbull
CSIRO Division of Forest Research,
P.O. Box 4008
Canberra, A.C.T. 2600
(Eucalyptus globulus )
J. Davidson
Eucalyptus and Forestry Services,
P.O. Box 419
Armldade, N.S.W. 2750
(Eucalyptus deglupta)
G.R. Groves
Formerly Dept. of Agriculture
and Fisheries
Botanical Gardens
Paget P.O. Box 83^, Hamilton 5
(Juniperus bermudiana)
R. Chlaranda, M. Ferreira,
P.Y. Kageyama, H.F. Luz,
M.L. Marques, I.E. Plres and
M. Tomazello
Forestry Department - ESALQ
Unlversldade de Sfto Paulo
Cx. Postal 9, Piracicaba CEP 13.400
Sao Paulo
(Araucaria angustifolia, Aspidospenna
leuron , Astronium uruhdeuva,
Tourodendron riedellanum,
Dalbergia nigra, Dipterix alata,
si leloc
Esenbeckia
locarpa,
pan
Macl
Ilex
:aguaiensis, Joannensia princeps,
rosa,
inia
terla
ghaerium villosum, Ocptea
Piptadenia peregrina, Plai
foliosa,"^Pterogyne nit en a ,
tuberculosa )
- vii -
Brazil
( cont . )
Chile
China, Peoples
Republic of
Ecuador
C.E.S. Nasclmento and I.E. Pires
EMBRAPA/CPATSA
P.O. Box 23
Petrolina, PE
( Anadenanthera macrqcarpa, Mimosa
caesalpiniaefolia, M. verrucosa,
Schinopsis brasiliensis, Tabebuia
ImpetiginosiT)
L.G.S. Costa, S.T. Ohasi and
0. Daniel
Forestry Department
Faculdade de Ci&nclas Agrarias
do ParA
P.O. Box 917
Bel 6m, ParA
(Aniba duckei , Bertholetia excelsa,
Didymopanax morotoni )
Corporacl6n Nacional Fores tal (CONAF)
Avenida Bulnes 285, OF. 703
Santiago (Transmitted by R.Romero
Alpe)
(Acacia caven, Atriplex repanda)
Pan Chlh Kang
The Arboretum
Chinese Academy of Forestry
Wan Shou Shan
Beijing
( Cercidiphyllum Japonicum, Fagus
longipetlojLata7 ulyptostrobus
lineatus, Pseudotsuga gauss enii,
Pseudotsuga sinensls, Taiwania
uga
rio
cryptomerioides, Taiwana flousiana)
Pablo Rosero
Batan 405
Av. 6 de Diciembre
Quito
(former CATIE, Turrialba 4170,
Costa Rica)
(Alnus acuminata)
- viii -
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
Italy
Japan
Kenya
S.P.K. Britwum
Forest Products Research Institute
University of Science
and Technology
Kumasi
(Pericopsis elata)
K. Panetsos
Laboratory of Forest Genetics
Aristotelian University
School of Agriculture and Forestry
Thessaloniki
( Platanus orientalis)
J.M. Saraiva, J.E. Sosa and C. Glrdn
Institute Nacional Forestal (INAFOR)
Cludad de Guatemala
(Abies guatemalensis)
R. Morandini
Istituto Sperimentale per
la Selvicoltura
Arezzo, Italy
(Abies nebrodensis, Cedrus libani,
Pinus eldarica)
H. Takehara and G. Asakawa
Forestry and Forest Products
Research Institute
Tsukuba Nor in Kenku, Ibaraki
( Pinus armandii var. amamiana,
Pinus koraiensis, Pinus pentaphylla)
J.A. Odera
Forestry Research Dept.
Klkuyu
and
Mrs. Christine H.S. Kabuye
East African Herbarium
National Museums of Kenya
Nairobi
(Brachylaena hutchinsii . Caesalpinia
dalei, Cordia milleni," Gigasiphon
macrpsiphpn, Loyoa swynnertonii t
Populus ilicifolia, Stuhlmannfa
moavi, Vepris glandulosa)
- ix -
Mauritius
The Netherlands
Nigeria
Norway
Papua New Guinea :
Sudan
A.W. Owadally
Conservator of Forests
Forest Department
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Natural Resources
Curepipe
(Diospyros hemiteles)
H.M. Heybroek
Dorschkamp Research Institute
Wageningen
The Netherlands
(Ulmus wallichiana)
P.R.O. Kio, J.C. Okafor,
F.O. Adewole and D.A. Ovat
Forestry Research Institute of
Nigeria
Federal Ministry of Science
and Technology
Ibadan, Nigeria
( Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum,
Irvingi a gabonensis, NesogordonTa
papavlferaT
T. Hedegart
Saatvedt
Skollenborg
(Tectona hamlltoniana, Tectona
philippinensis)
N.H.S. Howcroft
Office of Forests
Forest Research Station
Bulolo
Morobe Province
(Araucaria Cunningham! i, Araucaria
hunsteinii)
Ahmed El Hour! Ahmed
Forest Research Institute
Soba, Khartoum
(A. tortilis subsp. raddiana,
*• tortilis subsp. tortilis)
- X -
Thailand
United Kingdom
U.S.A.
Venezuela
A. Kaosa-Ard
Teak Improvement Center
Royal Forest Department
Bangkhen
Bangkok
(Tectona hamiltoniana)
J.B. Hall
University College of North Wales
Dept. of Forestry and Wood Science
Bangor
Gwynedd LL57 2UW, Wales
(Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum,
Juniperus procera, NeibgordoniaT"
papavifera)
C.E. Hughes, P.S. McCarter,
P.J. Stewart and B.T. Styles
Oxford Forestry Institute
University of Oxford
South Parks Road
0X1 3RB
(Abies numidica, Bombacopsis quinata,
Cedrela f is sill's, C. odor at a,
Cup re BUS atlantica, C. dupreziana,
Entandrophragma ang
yraciflua,
itu
senegalensis, Liqu
igolense, Khaya""
ildambar styracl
Pinus patula
eudostr
Loyoa swynnertonii,
subsp. tecunumanii,
W.G. Dyson
UK, f
(Vepris glandulosa)
W.J. Libby
School of Forestry ft Conservation
University of California
Berkeley, California
(Pinus radiata)
M. Quijada
Secci6n de Gen£tlca
Institute de Silvicultura
Unlversidad de los Andes
M£rida
(Bombacopsis quinata)
robus)
- xi -
The author(s) of each species monograph is duely
mentioned in the text.
Special thanks are also due to Dr. B.T. Styles
(Oxford Forestry Institute), who undertook the
verification of botanic details and made the final
botanical editing.
- xii -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Foreword iv
Acknowledgements vi
Table of contents xii
Institutional acronyms/abbreviations xiv
Species monographs
Abies guatemalensis 1
A. nebrodensis 11
A. numidica 16
Acacia albida 21
A. caven 29
A. tortilis subsp.tortilis 36
A. tortilis subsp. raddiana 42
Alnus acuminata 48
Anadenanthera macrocarpa 54
Aniba duckei 60
Araucaria angustifolia 69
A. cunninghami i 85
A. hunsteinii 96
Aspidosperma polyneuron 106
Astronium urundeuva 116
Atriplex repanda 126
Balfourodendron riedelianum 136
Bertholetia excelsa 145
Bombacopsis quinata 155
Brachyleana huillensis 163
Caesalpinia dalei 168
Cedrela fissilis 173
C. odorata 178
Cedrus libani 184
Cercidiphyllum japonicum 189
Chlorophora excelsa 194
Cordia milleni 200
Cupressus atlantica 205
C. dupreziana 210
Dalbergia nigra 216
Didymopanax mo rot on i 228
Diospyros hemiteles 238
- XI 1 I -
Dipterix alata 242
Entandrophragma angolense 248
Esenbeckia leiocarpa 254
Eucalyptus deglupta 262
E. globulus subsp. globulus 271
Fagus longipetiolata 279
Gigasiphon macrosiphon 283
Glyptostrobus lineatus 289
Gossweilerodendron balsam if erum 296
Gymnostemon zaizou 304
Ilex paraguaiensis 307
Irvingia gabonensis 314
Joannesia princeps 320
Juniperus bermudiana 326
J. procera 331
Khaya senegalensis 341
Liquidambar styraciflua 347
Lovoa swynnertonii 35S
Machaerium villosum 361
Mimosa caesalpin iaef ol ia 368
M.verrucosa 373
Nesogordonia papaverifera 378
Ocotea porosa 387
Pericopsis elata 394
Pinus armandii var.amamiana 401
P. eldarica 406
P. koraiensis 410
P. patula subsp. tecunumanii 415
P. penthaphylla 421
P. pscudostrobus 426
P. radiata 431
Piptadenia peregrina 436
Platanus orientalis 441
Plathymehia foliosa 448
Populus ilicifolia 454
Prosopis cineraria 459
Pseudotsuga gaussenii 464
P. sinensis 467
Pterogyne nitens 470
Schinopsis brasiliensis 477
Stuhlmannia moavi 482
Tabebuia impet iginosa 485
Taiwania cryptomerioides 496
T. flousiana 494
Tectona hamiltoniana 498
T. philippinensis 503
Ulraus wallichiana 506
Vepria glandulosa 512
Zeyheria tuberculosa 518
- xiv -
INSTITUTIONAL ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT
BASA Banca da Amazonia, Bel 6m, Brazil.
CAMCORE Central America and Mexico Coniferous
Resources Cooperative, School of Forest
Resources, North Carolina State University,
USA.
CATIE Centro Agron6mico Tropical de Investigacion
y Ensefianza, Turrlalba, Costa Rica.
CITES Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Woodland Fauna and
Flora.
CONAF Corporaci6n Nacional Fores tal, Chile.
CONIF Corporaci6n Nacional de Investigaci6n y
Fomento Forestal, Colombia.
CNPq Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Cientifico e Tecnologico, Brazil.
CPATU Centro de Pesquisas Agricolas dos Tr6picos
Umedos , Belem , Brazil .
CPATSA Centro de Pesquisas Agricolas dos Tr6picos
Semiaridos, Petrolina, Brazil.
CSIRO Commenwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization, Melbourne, Australia.
CTM Centro de Tecnologia Madeirelra, Para,
Brazil .
DID Departamento de Informagao e Difusao,
EMBRAPA.
EMBRAPA Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria,
Brasilia, Brazil.
ESALQ Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de
Queiroz", Universidade de Sao Paulo, Brazil.
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, Italy.
- XV -
FPRI Forest Products Research Institute, Ghana.
IBDF Institute Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento
Florestal , Brazil •
IFSP Institute Florestal de Sao Paulo, Brazil.
INAFOR Institute Nacional Forestal, Republica
de Guatemala.
INDERENA Institute Nacional de los Recursos Natu rales
Renovables, Colombia.
INPA Institute Nacional de Pesquisas da AmazSnia,
Brazil .
IPEF Institute de Pesquisas e Estudos Florestais,
Brazil.
IPT Institute de Pesquisas Tecnol6glcas do
Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil.
OFI Oxford Forestry Institute, UK.
PNPF Programa Nacional de Pesquisas Florestais,
Brazil .
PNUD Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el
Desarrollo (= United Nations Development
Programme).
PRODEPEF Projeto de Desenvolvimento e Pesquisa
Florestal ( PNUD/FAO/IBDF ) .
RENARE Direccl6n Nacional de Recursos Naturales
Renovables , Panam& .
SIF Sociedade de Investigates Florestais,
Vicosa, Brazil.
UFPB Universidade Federal da Paraiba, Brazil.
UFV Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Brazil.
URPFCS Unldade Regional de Pesquisas Florestais
do Centre Sul, Brazil.
- xvi -
USDA United States Development Agency
USP Universidade de S&o Paulo.
- 1 -
Abies guatemalensis Rehder -
SYNONYMS
Pinus religiosa sensu Parl. (1868)
A.tacanensis Lundell (1940)
A. guatemalensis Rehd. var. jaliscana Mart. (1948)
A . guatema lens is Rehd. var. tacanensis (Lundell) Mart. (1963)
(A. religiosa (HBK.) Schlecht. + Cham, is closely related
to A. guatemalensis , and is occasionally, and wrongly
cited as a synonym of it. This species is widespread in
C. and E. Mexico, but also occurs further south on a few
high mountains in N.W. Guatemala. The two species are,
in fact, easily separated on vegetative material alone,
and any nomenclatural confusion probably dates back to
Parlatore's citation of Pinus religiosa (above) for a
specimen of A. guatemalensis. Following the division
of the genus Pinus into Picea, Abies and Pinus, Pinus
religiosa became A. religiosa. )
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Paxaque or Pajachac (local Guatemalan dialects) ;
Pinbete (Spanish); Guatemalan fir, Guatamala fir
(English); Sapin du Guatemala (French)- Guatemalatanne
(German) .
I/ Based on the work of i) P.S. McCarter (Oxford Forestry
Institute, Dept. Plant Sciences, University of Oxford,
0X1 3RB, U.K.) and ii) J.M. Saraiva, J.E. Sosa and
C. Giron (Institute Nacional Forestal, INAFOR,
Republica de Guatemala).
- 2 -
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An impressive and quite magnificent forest tree, which
can attain a height of 45 m, with a trunk of up to 1 m
in diameter. Branchlets of the current year purplish-
red, turning a deeper blackish red-purple, slightly
grooved and with a sparse pubescence of greyish-brown
hairs. Leaf scars ovate to round. Winter buds long-
ovate to ovoid, about 5 cm long, resinous; the scales
broadly triangular-ovate, obtuse at apex, keeled outside.
Branches spreading, or slightly ascending, whorled and
growing gradually shorter, resulting in a conical spire-
like crown.
Fruit
Cones sessile or shortly peduncled, oblong-cylindrical,
8-12 cm long, 4-5.5 cm wide, obtuse or rounded and
truncate, purplish-brown, with concealed bract scales.
Bract scales broader than long, 18-22 mm long, 26-30 mm
wide, with puberulous external margins. Seeds
cuneate-obovoid, 8-9 mm long, light brown; wings broadly
and obliquely obovate 1O-13 mm long by 1O mm wide;
erose along the outer margins.
Foliage
Leaves more or less pectinately arranged, 12-25 mm or.
more long, 1.2-1.4 mm wide, obtuse or broadly emarginate,
with two teeth at apex, slightly twisted at base. Upper
surface shining green, curved downwards with a deep
central furrow; lower surface with two white bands each
of four to six lines of stomata - one on either side of
a broad midrib. Marginal resin canals two - which lie
close to the lower epidermis, one on each side of the leaf.
- 3 -
Bark
Bark greyish, rough and fissured with small , irregular
plates, 1.5 mm thick in older trees, but smooth with
resinous blisters in young plants.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Compared with many of its coniferous associates, the
timber of A. guatemalensis is softer , weaker and less
durable. In spite of this, or perhaps because of it,
it is more readily worked by crude tools and is
frequently used locally as a sawn timber for building.
It is also reputed to be valued by the local Indian
population for the construction of hand looms for
weaving. Its pulping properties are reported to be
acceptable.
Other Uses
Probably the greatest value of the species, however,
is simply in providing the cover for mountainous
watersheds which is so critical for the maintenance
of high quality, well regulated streams. A. guatema-
lensis also produces a viscous, acrid, aromatic and
semi-transparent resin, which is used by the pharma-
ceutical industry as a balsam, and in the manufacture
of varnish. Recently there has been interest in the
potential of the species for tropical highland
afforestation.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
A. guatemalensis is the most southerly occuring of the
forty or so species of the genus, which is restricted
to the northern hemisphere. It is one of the few
- 4 -
boreal species of fir found wild within the subtropics.
Its distribution is rather limited, spanning sporadically
a latitudinal range of just under 5°. The most northerly
recorded site at 19° 35 ' is in the State of Jalisco,
Mexico. Here the species also reaches its lowest
elevation of about 1 80Om. There is then a large gap of
some 5OO km to the south-east where it is next found in
the States of Guerrero and Oaxaca. It is in the mountains
of central Oaxaca, S.Mexico that some of the most
extensive stands of the species still occur, mainly
between 2 8OO and 3 2OO m. In the state of Chiapas it
is recorded over a wide altitudinal range of between
2 OOO to 4 O83 m, the latter on Volcan Tacana. (This
is one of the highest tree lines anywhere in the world.)
In Guatemala, the species is found only in the West of
the country, in the Departments of Huehuetenango,
Tontonicapan, Quetzaltenango and San Marcos. It is also
reported to occur in the Departments of Solala and
Jalapa, but no herbarium material is available to
confirm the identity of these citations. The common
altitude range here is between 2 50O and 3 OOO m,
although once again it is found almost at the tree line
of Volcan Tajumulco at about 4 OOO m. In Honduras the
species has been recorded at or near the summits of the
countries two highest mountains, MontarTa Celaque in the
Department of Lempira between 2 TOO and 2 85O m and
Montana Santa Barbara (2 5OO-2 750 m) in the Department
of the same name.
Finally, the southernmost recorded occurence of the
species at latitude 14° 24 'N is in El Salvador, where
- 5 -
it is found at between 1 9OO and 2 4OO m on Montana Bajo
close to La Palma in the Department of Santa Ana.
CLIMATE
The climate is distinctly temperate - rainy with dry
winters. Mean annual rainfall is in the range 1 2OO-
1 80O mm, and mean annual temperature is of the order of
12° C. Maximum temperatures range from 20°-35° C and
minimum temperatures from -5° to -10° C. In part of its
range the species probably experiences upwards of 2OO
days per year of frost.
SOILS
In general the soils are sandy loams, up to 2 m deep and
acidic (pH 5-6). All are in the process of podsolisation.
Although well drained, they are moist all the year
round. Organic matter content is high.
HABITAT
The natural range extends from moist, subtropical, low-
montane forest through moist, subtropical, mountainous
to very moist, subtropical mountainous forest.
Throughout this range, A. guatemalensis is commonly
associated with Pinus ayacahuite and Cupressus lusita-
nica. At the lower altitudes it has been recordered in
association with P. pseudosfrobus and Taxus globosa,
along with various Quercus spp. and Arbu tus spp. At
the upper end of the range, P. hartwegii is found in
mixture with it.
SEED HANDLING
Throughout its natural range the cones of A. quatema-
lensis are ripe between October and December. The
- 6 -
period available for collection is short - less than
a month between fruit ripening and the beginning of
seed dispersal. Since the cones disintegrate at
maturity , collection is not possible after dispersal
begins. The germinative capacity of Abies seed increases
almost up to the time of dissemination, and significant
improvement of the germinability of seed can be obtained
by storing the cones for several weeks or months post-
harvest. Sacks of cones should not be stacked, however:
good air circulation is needed to prevent heating and
moulding. Processing of the seed is similar to that
of other conifers. The seed is extracted from dried
cones by tumbling and shaking with screening to remove
the impurities. The seed is fragile and easily damaged
and care should be taken with dewinging. Viability
losses with storage are frequently the result of
processing damage. The seed can remain viable for 5
years or more if stored at a low moisture content
(9-12%) in sealed containers at or near -15°C. Under
ordinary storage conditions (room temperature, -open
containers) Abies seed retains little or no viability
after 1 year. Germination is improved by cold moist
stratification for about 1 month. Without this treat-
ment germination is of the order of 10-25%. The
germinative capacity is however, typically low « 5O%) ,
reflecting the presence of many unfilled or partially
filled seeds.
SILVICULTURE
In the nursery seedlings have a slow initial growth.
Stock is usually outplanted as 2-3 year old seedlings
or 3-4 year old transplants. When seedlings are being
- 7 -
transplanted in their definitive location they should
be 2O - 25 cm tall and spaced 2 x 2m apart. This
arrangement will provide an initial density of 2 500
plants per ha. The tree is cultivated in Guatemala both
for woodworking purposes and to produce Christmas trees.
Growth is relatively fast; even though the tree grows
rather slowly during the first eight years, it develops
quite rapidly therafter.
STATUS
In large parts of its range, particularly in Guatemala
and southern Mexico, the species is extremely rare and
in imminent danger of extinction. Where it does remain,
dysgenic fellings have greatly impoverished the gene
pool.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Human pressure on land for agricultural cultivation is
the main cause of the destruction of these forests.
Local demand for lumber and firewood, too, take their
toll. The cone crop is frequently poor, and what
regeneration does emerge is grazed by sheep and other
livestock. The popularity of saplings of A. guatemalensis
for Christmas trees and the frequent lopping of branches
of mature trees for decoration of houses and churches
during religious festivals has undoubtedly also
contributed to its general decline.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
With the backing of 86 member countries concerned about
the imminent danger of extinction of A. quatemalensis,
this species was included in Appendix 1 of the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of
- 8 -
Woodland Fauna and Flora (CITES) signed in Washington,
March 3, 1983* The above stipulation had then already
been approved by Decree No. 63 - 79 of the Republic of
Guatemala, issued October 2, 1979. Furthermore, based
on the National Palace Accord of June 7, 1983 (Art. 1°) ,
the harvesting of small Christmas trees was forbidden,
and the cutting or marketing of trees from natural
forest stands was outlawed. The practices were however
allowed to continue in man-made plantations. Guatemala's
Institute Nacional Forestal (INAFOR) currently forbids
the marketing of small Christmas trees of this species,
which originate from natural stands. Clandestine
depredation never-the-less still occurs, due to the
religious value placed on the young trees for use at
Christmas. The marketing of wood from A. guatemalansis
was restricted in Guatemala, from June 1981 to
February 1984 by an internal provision of Guatemala's
forestry authorities. This stipulation was later
abolished because it did not meet all the legal
requirements for full observance. Some seed i.s
collected annually by the National Seed Centres in
Guatemala and Mexico. CAMCORE (Central America and
Mexico Coniferous Resources Cooperative) , based at the
North Carolina State University, USA, collect seed of
A. guatemalensis for their members in most of the
known stands of the species in Mexico and Guatemala for
the establishment of ex-situ conservation and breeding
stands. Much of the forest already occurs on protected
Government land, but this has done little for in~situ
conservation.
- 9 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dallimore, W.and
Jackson, A.B.
1966
A handbook of Coni ferae and
Ginkoaceae 4th ed. Revised by
Harrison, S.G. Edward Arnold Ltd.,
London. 729 p.
Institute Te'cnico de Manual de Viveros Forestales. 2nd ed.
Capacitacion y Pro- Guatemala City. 244 p.
ductividad, (INTECAP),
Guatemala 1979.
Liu, Tang-Shui,
1971.
Martinez, M.
1963.
Render, A.
1939
Schmutzenhof er , H ,
1975
Standley, P.C.
1941
Standley, P.C.
1945
Standley, P.C. and
Steyermark, J.A.
1958
Styles, B.T. and
Hughes, C.E
1983
A monograph of the genus Abies.
Dept. of Forestry, National
Taiwan University Taipai, Taiwan.
608 p.
Las pinaceas Mexcanas. 3rd ed.
Universidad Nacionnal Autohoma de
Mexico, Mexico D.F. 400 p.
The Firs of Mexico and Guatemala.
Journal of the Arnold Arboretum
20 (3) : 281-287.
Mapa de los pinares de El Salvador.
Proyecto PNUD/FAO/ELS/74/004.
Unpublished.
The forests of Guatemala.
Tropical Woods 67: 1-18.
Notes on some Guatemalan trees.
Tropical Woods 84: 1-18.
Podocarpaceae, Pinaceae and Taxaceae
in Flora of Guatemala, ne.ldina Bot.
24 (1) : 20-63.
Notes on the taxonomy and nomencla-
ture of the pines and related
gymnosperms in Honduras and adjacent
Latin America republics. Brenesia
21: 269-291.
- 10 -
Veblen, T.T. Guatemalan conifers Unasvlva
1978 29: 25-30.
USDA Seeds of Woody Plants in the United
1974 States. Agriculture Handbook
No. 450. Washington. 883 p.
- 11 -
Abies nebrodensis (Lojac.-poj .) Mattel i/
SYNONYMS
Abies pectinata Gauss. (1844)
A. pectinata var. nebrodensia Lojac.-Poj. (1904)
A. alba nebrodensis (Lojac.-Poj.) Svob. (1964)
A. alba ssp. nebrodensis (Lojac.-Poj.) Nitz. (1969)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Abete dei Nebrodi (Italian);
Sicilian fir (English).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A medium-sized tree reaching 8-15 m in hight and 35 cm or
more in diameter. Trunk straight, with an expanded,
almost semi-orbicular crown. Branchlets of the current
year greyish green, turning to yellowish brown; furrowed
and alternately ridged, smooth, glabrous, rarely with
short-brown hairs. Leaf -scars rhomboid-orbicular,
light-red, tinged with a white centre.
Winter buds resinous, ovate, acute at apex, with 3-4
series of scales; the scales triangular-ovate, somewhat
mebranous and slightly laciniate on margins.
I/ FAO acknowledges the assistance of R. Mcrandini
Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura ,
Viale S.Margherita 80-821, I - 52100 Arezzo, Italy
- 12 -
Fruit
Cones shortly pedunculate, cylindrical, acute or conical
at apex, 7-8 cm long, 3-3.2 cm wide, with slightly
exserted, reflexed bract-scales; pale greenish brown or
yellow in colour. Cone-scales obovate- rhomboid or
cyathiform-flabellate, 2.8 cm long and 3.3 cm wide, with
reddish pubescence; upper margin convex, undulate or
entire, lateral margins denticulate, with two short wings
above the base, curving and obscurely auriculate on
each side of the cuneate claw. Bract-scales linear-
spathulate, with lamina erose-denticulate on margins,
slightly obcordate at apex, with a slender tip
extended from the midrib.
Foliage
Leaves irregularly arranged in two lateral sets,
spreading horizontally; those on cone-bearing branchlets
curved upwards forming many series in a single plane;
linear or ligulate-linear, 13-20 mm long, 2-3 mm wide;
stiff flat, truncate, obtuse or slightly emarginate,
those on old branchlets rounded with a minute rigid
point or a short acumen; sometimes cuspidate at apex;
upper surface with a central furrow, with broken lines
of stomata near the apex; lower surface with white
stomatal bands, each of 6-11 lines and with the
midrib broader than its two lateral revolute margins.
Resin-canals marginal; hypodermal cells in a continous
band only interrupted by rows of stomata on lower
surface.
Bark
Bark fissured into small irregular flakes on the old
trees.
- 13 -
000D PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
As for Abies alba
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Sicilian fir is found growing on Monte Scalane, Polizzi
Generosa (Palermo) , Sicily , at elevations between
1 4OO and 1 600 m altitude.
It is said that Sicilian Fir was once widely distributed
on the higher mountains of the northern part of Sicily;
in ancient times or some time before 1750, but it is
now very scarce. It is cultivated in the Arboretum
vallombrosa, Italy, Arboretum des Barres in Paris and
in the Rock Garden at Bayfordbury. Also specimens of
this fir are found at Kew and Bedgebury in England.
CLIMATE
Montane mediterranean climate
HABITAT
This fir has probably formed extensive forests in the
past on all the higher mountains in Sicily, Italy.
SILVICULTURE
As for Abies alba.
STATUS
Abies nebrodensis, a fir endemic to Sicily, has been
almost completely destroyed. At the beginning of this
century it was considered as an extinct species. Later
investigations led to the discovery of a few trees.
In order to start the protection conservation and
reconstitution of this fir on a sound basis, an
- 14 -
inventory of the remaining living trees has been carried
out: the following firs are the actual remnants:
- 21 native (wild) trees, at Monte Scalone (Sicily);
- 1 tree, grown from seed, but artificially planted,
in Polizzi, Generosa (Sicily);
- 3 trees, grown from seed, artificially planted, in
the Arboretum at Vallombrosa (Florence) ;
- 3 grafted trees at Villa Lanza di Gibilmanna (Sicily);
- 3 grafted trees in the Arboretum at Les Ba r res (France) ;
- 2 grafted trees in the Arboretum at Amance-Nancy
(France) ;
- 1 grafted tree at Borde Hill, Sussex (Great Britain).
Some of the native firs are fertile.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Exploitation and increasing human pressure.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The area where the 21 wild firs grow has been declared
a natural park. Young plants are grown from seed and
planted in the same region to establish new groups.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 15 -
Castrif F. di, et al.
1981
Morandini, R.
1969
Liu, Tang-Shui,
1971
Mediterranean-Type Shrublands,
Ecosystems of the World II,
Elsevier Scientific Publishing
Company Oxford.
Abies nebrodensis (Lojac.)
Mattei. Inventario 1968.
Pub31cazioni dell'Istituto
Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura,
Arezzo, No. 18.
A Monograph of the Genus Abies,
Dept. of Forestry, National
Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan,
China. 608 p.
- 16 -
Abies numidica de Lann.-
SYNONYMS
Abies pinsapo var. baborensis Coss (1861)
Pinus pinsapo var. baborensis Christ (1865)
Abies baborensis Coss (1866)
Pinus numidica R. Smith (1875)
Abies pinsapo var. numidica Salomon (1884)
Abies numidica var. aurea Blaringhen (1929)
A. numidiensis Alphand (1929)
£• Pinsapo var. numidica svob. (1953).
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Taument (Berber)
Algerian fir / Algerian silver fir (English)
Sapin de Numidie, Sapin d'Algerie , Sapin de Babors
(French)
Numidische Tanne, Numidsche Weisstanne, Algierische
Tanne (German) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree attaining 15-2O m in height and 5O8O cm in diameter
near the base, usually with a dense pyramidal crown.
Trunk short, stout, often free of branches to a height
of three to four metres; occasionally more or less
I/ Based on the work of P.J.Stewart, Oxford Forestry
Institute, Dept. Plant Sciences, University of Oxford,
OXI 3RB, UK.
- 17 -
twisted and often divided into several stems. Branches
slightly pendulous; 1st and 2nd order branchlets smooth,
often becoming grey-brown.
Fruit
Cones shortly pedunculate, surrounded by three series of
scales at the base; cylindrical, 12-18 cm long, 4-6 cm
in diameter; mucronate at apex, rounded at base or
slightly tapering at both ends, with completely hidden
bract-scales; brown in color tinged with purple.
Seeds (with wings) a little shorter than the cone-
scales; wings oblong, truncate at apex, about 1^ times
as long as the body of seed. Cotyledons five to seven
in number, about 2 cm long.
Foliage
Needles broad and thick, 15 to 25 mm long by 2 to 2.5 mm
broad, apex rounded: longer and upward curving on
underside of shoot, parted along upper side. Upper
surface of needle finely furrowed dark green; lower
surface with two bands of stomata. Needles more thickly
set and sharply pointed on fertile shoots. Buds ovoid,
brown, only slightly resinous.
Bark
Bark grey and smooth when young, becoming fissured scale
on the surface of old trees.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
No serious study of the timber appears to have been
made, presumably because its rarity at present
precludes commercial use. But there should be no
- 18 -
reason to suppose that its wood is very different from
that of other firs.
Other Uses
It is greatly appreciated as an ornamental tree.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Endemic on Mounts Babor and Tababor in Algeria
(5°30 East, 36°30 North) covering about 200 ha on the
former, in mixture with oak and cedar, and being
represented by a few old trees on the latter. At
altitudes between 1 800 m and 2 000 m.
CLIMATE
Mediterranean climate with summer dry season of several
weeks; rainfall c.2 500 mm, temperatures probably with
average summer maximum of 18 C and winter minimum of
-1°C, with extreme frosts of -8°C or -10°C.
SOILS
The trees occur on brown forest soils with a limestone
base.
HABITAT
It forms dense forests almost always in association with
other conifers and broadleaved trees at higher
elevations and even grows towards the mountain summit.
SEED HANDLING
As for other firs.
- 19 -
SILVICULTURE
No special measures are called for: the usual procedures
for firs are successful.
STATUS
In danger of slow decline
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Grazing; clandestine removal of wood for local use.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The naturally occurring firs are within the limits of
the National Park of the Babors. This, however,
is not included in the United Nations list of National
Parks. The species is well represented in arboreta
and botanic gardens, but most of these specimens
probably derive from the seed of only a few trees.
Systematic seed collection should be undertaken and
protective measures should be reinforced.
- 20 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Debazac, E.F.
1964
FAO,
1981
Gaussen, H.
1964
Mayer, H.
1983
L*ui, Tang Shui
1971
}uezel, P.,
L956
Manual des ConifeVes. Ecole Nationale
des Eaux et Forets, Nancy (m. 34 and
plates viii and ix) .
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances,
FO: Misc/81/11, pp 2-3, FAO, Rome.
Les Gymnospermes Actuelles et Fossiles.
Travaux du Laboratoire Forest ier de
Toulouse. Tome II Vol. I, Fasc. VII pp.
349-50, 402-4.
Waldanliche Probleme in Gebirgeswaldern
des Magreb (Nordafrika) . Zentralblatt
fur das Gesamte Forstwesen, 10O (1): 1-15
A monograph of the genus Abies, Dept.
of Forestry, National Taiwan University,
Taipei, Taiwan, China 608 p.
Contribution a 1' etude des Forets de
CheVies a Feuilles Caduques d'Algerie.
Publications de Service des Forets
d'Algerie No. 1, Algeria (esp. pp. 18-24).
- 21 -
Acacia albida Del.
SYNONYMS
A. albida Del. var. senegalensis Benth. (1842)
A. saccharata Benth. (1842)
A. gyrocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich. (1847)
A. mossambicensis Bolle (1861)
Prosopis ? kirkii Oliv. (1871)
A. albida Del. var. microfoliolata ,De Wild. (1925)
A. albida Del. var. variofoliolata De Wild. (1925)
Faidherbia albida (Del.) A. Chev. (1934)
A. albida is a very distinct and systematically
isolated species , without any close relatives.
Brenan (1959) mentioned the presence of two well-
defined geographical races within A. albida
based on leaflet size and the presence or absence of
pubescence. In his study of West African Acacias,
Nongonierma (1978) also indentified several
intraspecific categories within the species.
Although there is no concensus on the taxonomic status
of the reported intraspecific categories, an
important conclusion which may be drawn from such
reports is that A. albida shows important intraspeci-
fic variation. This suggests a wide genetic base and
therefore a high potential for genetic improvement.
FAMILY
Leguminosae - Subf. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAME
Haraz (Arabic)
- 22 -
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree 4-30 m high, sometimes shrub-like. Trunk
usually single up to 2 (rarely 6) m in diameter.
Young shoots ashen grey to whitish. Crown rounded
in outline , spreading, with branches often drooping
in mature trees. Spines paired, 0.2-3.2 cm long,
stipular in origin, straight, never enlarged or
inflated, often tipped with orange or brown,
especially when young.
Inflorescence
Flowers in a spicate inflorescence, 3.5 - 15.7 cm
long, borne on peduncles O.8-6.3 cm long; flowers
creamy yellow, sweetly scented. Stamen filaments
shortly tubular at base. Anthers 0.2-0.4 mm wide,
eglandular in bud.
Fruit
Pods bright orange to reddish brown, falcate,
curved into a circular coil or twisted; when
straightened out 6-35 cm long and 1.4-6 cm wide,
indehiscent. Seeds 11-29 per pod, lying transversely
to the long axis of pod.
Foliage
Leaves bipinnate; petiole eglandular. Pinnae 2-12
pairs, with a single conspicuous gland on the
rhachis at the junction of each pair. Leaflets
6-23 pairs per pinna, glabrous to pubescent,
2.5-12 mm long, 0.7-5 mm wide. Leaves shed at start
of dry season, new leaves produced at the beginning
- 23 -
of the rainy season. This may occur twice per year
where, (as in East Africa), there are two rainy seasons.
Davidson & Jeppe (1981) state that trees may bear leaves
all the year round where there is no waterlogging.
Bark
Bark brown to dull grey or whitish, rough and somewhat
corky, scaly and fissured.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The sapwood is dirty white. The soft, yellowish-white
heartwood is subject to attack by borers and termites.
Although it is easy to work, it springs and twists
after sawing, even when the wood is seasoned. It is
used for furniture, joinery, interior fittings, boxes,
shutters and for structural purposes. In Nigeria the
stems of mature trees are fastened together to make
dugout canoes; stems are also used for constructing
Nile ferry boats. The wood is used locally for
mortars, pestles, oil presses, drums and light
carpentry. In some areas it is also used for charcoal
burning.
Other Uses
The foliage is a valuable fodder for all types of stock.
Young leaves and shoots are usually avidly browsed.
Livestock that eat Acacia albida remain in good
condition during the dry season when it is often the
only green growth available. The tree is often lopped
and branches carried to camels, cattle, sheep, and
goats. The pods, too, are eaten by livestock,
especially cattle, and also by elephants, antelope,
- 24 -
and baboons. The nutritional value does not deterio-
rate on drying, (which is the case with many other
acacias) . Thus A. albida is fed dry in many parts of
Africa. In the Sudan, trees produce an average of
135 kg of pods per tree and the yield from a stand
of 12 trees in the Sudan has been calculated to be
200 kg of crude protein from the pods alone.
The seeds contain up to 27 percent crude protein and
are eaten by people in Zimbabwe during times of famine.
The seeds are boiled to loosen the skin and then
reboiled to separate the kernels. A mature tree can
produce more than a million seeds a year. Acacia
albida pods may be mixed with maize and ground nut
meal for food, or combined with hay and succulents
for fodder. The old bark is rich in tannin (28 per-
cent) , the roots and pods are not (5 percent) . In
northern Nigeria, the pounded bark makes a packing
material for pack saddles for oxen and donkeys. In
West Africa and Tanzania the tree yields a gum of
good quality.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The natural distribution range of A. albida extends
from Senegal to Ethiopia, and southwards through
East Africa to the Transvaal and Lesotho. The
largest concentration of the species occurs on the
sandy alluvial soils of the Jebel Mara drainage
system in the Sudan, where pure stands are found in
belts often a mile wide. Outside Africa, A. albida
occurs in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan and reportedly
in Yemen. It has been introduced to Cyprus and
Pakistan and is presently being tested in India and
- 25 -
Peru under the FAO project on Genetic Resources of
Arid and Semi-Arid Zone Arboreal Species for the
Improvement of Rural Living.
CLIMATE
In Africa A. albida is found wherever there is a
prolonged dry season.
SOILS
The tree occurs on a wide range of different types of
soil (alluvial, sandy alluvial, reddish brown clays,
dunes and basalts) , but often with a preference to
good moisture conditions. Leaf-litter decay and
excreta from grazing animals during the dry season
enrich the soil, which has resulted in greatly
increased yields.
HABITAT
In southern and eastern Africa, A. albida is
always found in riparian communities, but in West
Africa it also grows away from river banks and
watercourses? often in cultivated lands, however,
access to ground water seems to be important. Its
distribution patterns vary widely; sometimes the trees
grow singly, sometimes in groups, whose upper
branches grow together forming a canopy. Although it
can be found at altitudes up to 1 800 m in Uganda,
and as high as 2 3OO-2 500 m in the Sudan, it more
usually occurs below 1 2OO m.
SEED HANDLING
Fresh seeds with soft seed coats require no pre-
treatment or can be soaked in cold water for 24 hours
before sowing. More mature seed can be soaked in
- 26 -
concentrated sulphuric acid for 20-60 minutes.
No. of seeds /kg: 10 OOO-40 OOO.
SILVICULTURE
Although generally there seems to be adequate seed
production, natural regeneration by seed may be limited
because of heavy seed predation and high seedling
mortality. Regeneration by vegetative means is often
more successful under natural conditions, and
suckers may develop in a radius as wide as 20-25 m
from the mother tree. Vegetative reproduction is the
main means of natural regeneration where the natural
stands produce little viable seed. Growth of A.
albida seedlings may be relatively slow during the
first few years after planting, while the plant
develops a deep tap root. Saplings and young trees
are relatively fast growing. In Chad it has been
recommended to plant 100 seedlings per hectare which
should be five times the optimum number of mature
trees. This planting area consists of marginal
farmlands just north and south of the 400 mm
rainfall belt, with annual rainfall ranging from less
than 200 mm up to 700 mm.
STATUS
A. albida as a species in not in danger of extinction.
However, some stands in Israel may be threatened,
because the species is regarded as being of little
value to the country and no priority is given to
conserving the stands for national -purposes .
Because of its reportedly disjunct distribution in
Israel, A. albida is considered to be a Sudano-Deccanian
- 27 -
relic, its habitats being fragments of a formerly
continous area of distribution in Palestine during
the Oligocene and Miocene. This disjunct distribution
should be explained by historical reasons rather than
by particular site factors limiting its occurrence
under present climatic conditions.
REASON FOR DECLINE
Increasing human pressure including use as fuelwood, fod-
der and browse and changing land-use patterns.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Is one of the species included in the FAO/IBPGR
Project on Genetic Resources of Arid/Semi-arid Zone
Arboreal Species for the improvement of Rural Living.
Seed collections for species provenance-trials and
conservation have been implemented in Israel and
Senegal and are planned in the Sudan.
In Israel the collection sites are:
Shimron (Nahalal) on the road from Nazareth to Haifa;
Menahamia; Emeh Haela (valley of the Pistacea) , Ashod.
- 28 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bonkoungo, E.G.
1985
Brenan, J.P.M.
1983
Doran. J.C.
et.al.
1983
FAO
1980
Karschon, R.
1961
Kirmse R.D. &
B.E. Norton
1984
NAS
1975
Palmberg, C.
1981
Wickens, G.E.
1969
Acacia albida Del. - A multipurpose Tree
for Arid and Semi-arid zones; in
Forest Genetic Resources Information
No. 13.
Manual on Taxonononny of Acacia species.
FAO , Rome .
Handbook on Seeds of Dry-Zone Acacias.
FAO , Rome .
Genetic Resources of Tree Species in
Arid and Semi-arid Areas - based on
the work of F.B. Armitage. P. A.
Joustra and B.Ben Salem,
FAO/IBPGR, Rome.
Acacia albida Del, in Israel and the
Near East. La-Yaaran 11(2): IV-VIII
The Potential of Acacia albida for
Desertification Control and Increased
Productivity in Chad. Biological
Conservation 29: 121-141
Underexploited Tropical Plants with
Promising Economic Value. National
Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C.
A Vital Fuelwood Gene Pool is in Danger,
Unasylva 33 (133) : 22-30.
A study of Acacia albida Del.
(Mimosoideae) . Kew Bull. 23 (2) :
181-202.
- 29 -
Acacia caven (Mol;) Mol.-
SYNONYMS
Mimosa caven Mol. (782)
Acacia cavenia (Mol.) Hook & Arn. (183O)
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Wild, var cavenia (Hook. & Arn.)
O.Kuntze (1898)
Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arnott fma cavenia
(Mol.) Spreng. (1923)
FAMILY
Lequminosae Subf. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Espinillo , chusqui , aromita (Argentina) ;
espinillo, espino , caven (Chile)? churqui
(Bolivia) .
Thornbush (english).
Quirinca (fruits) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A small tree, averaging 6 m high. Crown almost
perfectly hemispherical; trunk gnarled, up to 50 cm in
diameter. Branches thick, crooked, scored, mottled.
Branchlets flexible, knotty, pubescent. Spines
stipular, paired, horizontal, delicate; varying
a great deal in size: 5 - 25 mm long; very sharp,
light grey in colour and pubescent at the base; dark
and glabrous toward the apex.
I/ Based on the work of Corporacion Nacional Forestal,
CONAF,(Avda. Bulnes 285, Santiago, Chile).
- 30 -
Inflorescence
Inflorescences of dense rounded heads, 1 cm in diameter;
yellow-gold to orange-yellowish; slightly aromatic;
peduncle 5-10 mm long, flowers growing together with the
leaves; flowers hermaphrodite, sessile, 5-7 mm long.
Calyx reddish, 4-6 toothed, corolla yellowish, five-
toothed? stamens polydelphous, numerous (i.e, 40-60);
ovary, oblong, pubescent, unilocular, multiovulate;
style glabrous, 5 mm long, stigma hardly noticeable.
Fruit
Fruit ovoid-cylindrical, either straight or recurved.
Although it is generally shorter, thicker or even much
smaller, it may attain a length of 10.5 cm and a
diameter of 2,5 cm; torulose; the surface smooth, or
with faint lengthwise striations; sutures barely visible;
pericardium somewhat fibrous, though sometimes harder?
little or no resin.
Foliage
Leaves deciduous, bipinnate, fascicled; axillary
primary rhachis pubescent, 1- 4cm long, with 7-12 pairs;
of opposed, secondary axes, 5-10 mm long. Leaflets,
12-20 pairs; entire, opposite, sessile, oblong,
glabrous; 1-2 mm long and about 0.5 mm wide.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Bark blackish thick, fissured lengthwise. Used for
fuelwood and charcoal. Wood hard, heavy and very
compact, used in handicrafts and for tool handles.
- 31 -
Other Uses
During periods of scarce forage, the foliage is browsed
by animals.
Flowers may be removed to manufacture perfume or left on
the tree to promote honey production. With its
vigorous root system, the species is a soil stabilizer,
which is optimal for harnessing rainfall, and
consequently regulating the water supply on watersheds.
This unquestionably helps to increase agricultural
production. The fruit characteristics are such that it
can be predicted that in the future it might be used
as concentrated cattle fodder. The
protein composition of the seed has been examined and
compared to egg protein. The main results show a
relatively high sulphur amino acid content and an
adversely low content of valine. Because
many other plant proteins have a deficit in sulphur
amino acids, A. caven seed protein could be useful as
a diet supplement.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
It occurs in semi-arid and semi-humid areas of steppe,
savannah or dry forest ; from the inter-Andean region
of Bolivia,in the civil jurisdictions of Chuquisaca
and Tarija up to elevations of 2 OOO - 3 5OO m,to Chaco
and Mesopotamia in Argentina; western Uruguay; the
central region of Coquimbo and Aconcagua as far as the
37th parallel south of Nuble, Chile.
CLIMATE
Rainfall 1OO - 1 OOO mm; dry winters, with an average
temperature of approximately 17° C, and a minimum of
-8° C.
- 32 -
SOILS
It adapts to a large variety of soils, preferably with
a clayey or sandy texture, with pH close to neutral.
Can tolerate saline and slightly acid soils.
HABITAT
Often found as the main woody species in savannah (Chile)
areas together with Prosopis chilensis and Prosopis
tamarugo. Vegetation in the area ungrazed by domestic
livestock has two characteristic strata, one shrub-
stratum normally not higher than 2.5 m, and a second
stratum of annual ana herbaceous plants.
SEED HANDLING
Thornbush seeds have an impermeable layer of surface
cells which form a barrier preventing absorption of the
water essential for germination, and therefore the
percentage of natural germination is normally low, around
15 percent. Prior to planting, therefore, the seed
must be pretreated to ensure a high final germination
rate as well as rapid, uniform germination after
sowing. Experiments in the central region have
produced the following recommendation: soak seeds in
concentrated sulpheric acid (H-SO-) for 90-120 minutes.
Approximately 10 000 seeds per kg.
SILVICULTURE
In Chile the following practical guidelines are
recommended:
a) nursery; the best time for sowing is September-
October to November (springtime in the southern
hemisphere) at the latest. Recommended sowing depth
is twice the size of the seed. Once the seeds have
- 33 -
germinated and the first true leaves appear, they
should be replanted in 10 cm x 20 cm plastic tubes, with
a preprepared substrate, a blend of leaf litter, sand
and soil in equal proportions, i.e. one-third each. The
mixture should be presterilized with methyl bromide or
its equivalent. The seedlings must be planted under
shade, which should be gradually withdrawn until the
plants are in full sunlight. This will allow them to
lignify slightly in preparation for transplanting;
b) transplanting; the best time to plant is usually
during the rainy months, beginning soon after the first
rains, roughly by the end of May in the central region.
The planting process may go on all winter, with the
peak period in June and July. The most common soil
preparation techniques are ploughing or digging planting
holes.
A caven also resprouts readily and adventitious buds
are easily observed in secondary roots which give rise
to true shoots.
STATUS
The species is endangered in parts of its geographical
range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Increasing human pressure including use of fuelwood and
changing land-use patterns with intensive livestock
grazing (Espinal, Chile).
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Is one of the species included in the FAO/IBPGR Project
on Genetic Resources of Arid and Semi-Arid Zone Arboreal
- 34 -
Species for the Improvement of Rural Living. Seed
collections for species provenance trials and
conservation have been implemented in Chile.
- 35 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burkart, A.
1952
Castri,F.et al.
1981
CONAF
1984
Doran,J.C.et al.
1983 ~
FAO
1980
Flinta, C.M.
1960
Gutierrez, J.E.
& Fuentes, E.R.
1979
Palmberg, C,
1981
Rodriguez, R.O.,
Matthei, L.M. ,&
Quezada, M.
1983
Stoehr, F.
1969
Las Leguminosas Argent inas, Silvestres y
Cultivades, ACME-Agency, Buenos Aires.
Mediterranean - type shrublands.
Ecosystems of the World II.
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company -
Oxford, New York.
Descripcion de las especies Acacia caven
y Atriplex repanda. Corporacion Nacional
Forestal, Santiago, Chile, unpublished.
Handbook on Seeds of Dry-Zone Acacias,
FAO, Rome.
Genetic Resources of Tree Species in Arid
and Semi-Arid Areas. FAO, Rome.
Practicas de Plantacion forestal en
America Latina. Coleccion FAO: Montes
No. 3, FAO. Cuadernos de fomento
forestal, No. 15. FAO, Rome.
Evidence for Intraspecies Competition in
the Acacia caven (Leguminosae) savanna
of Chile.
A Vital Fuelwood Gene Pool is in danger.
Unasylva, 33: (133) 22-30.
Flora Arborea de Chile, Editorial de la
Universidad de Concepcion, Chile.
Metodos de reforestacion con espino
(Acacia caven Mol. Hook, et Arn.) en la
zona semiarida de Chile. Tesis Facultad
de Agronomia. Universidad de Chile,
Santiago.
- 36 -
Acacia tortilis subsp. tortilis (Forssk.)
SYNONYMS
Mimosa tortilis Forssk. (1775)
£• spirocarpa var. minor Schweinf. (1867-8)
/ Brenan (1983) recognises four subspecies of Acacia
tortilis
subsp. tortilis
subsp. raddiana
subsp. spirocarpa
subsp. heteracantha
subsp. raddiana is sometimes treated as a distinct
species (Karschon, 1961)^7
FAMILY
Leguminosae subf. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Umbrella thorn (Africa)
Israeli babool (India)
Sayal, Samor (Egypt, Sudan)
Seing, Tortilis (Senegal) , Mgunga (Tanzania)
Kandilif Bisaw (Niger}, Seyal, Seyyal (Arabic)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Shrub or small tree 2-6 m high, with flattened crown.
Young branchlets densely to sparsely pubescent or
glabrous to subglabrous. Spines paired, some short
1/FAO acknowledge^ the assistance of Ahmed El Houri
Ahmed (Forest Research Institute, Soba, Khartoum, Sudan)
- 37 -
and hooked; up to 5 mm long, others long and
straight, slender , whitish, 1.2-8 (-10) err long, never
enlarged or inflated. Petiole usually with a gland.
Inflorescence
Flower cluster (heads) 1-4, on slender stalks at leaf
base. Flowers white or yellowish-white, scented, in
round fluffy heads 0.5-1.1 cm in diameter; on axillary
peduncles 0.4-2.5 cm long; flowers composed of a
5-toothed calyx 1 mm long, 5 petals, 2 mm long and
many threadlike stamens; pistil with a thread-like
style.
Fruit
Pods appressed-puberulous, shortly pubescent, slightly
narrowed between seeds, not opening.
Seeds several, beanlike, elliptical, 6-7 mm long,
light brown.
Foliage
Pinnae 2-10, occasionally up to 14 pairs (Ross, 1979),
on a short rhachis up to 2 (-4) cm long; usually
glandular between the upper 1-3 and lowest 1-2 pairs
of pinnae. Leaflets 6-20 pairs per pinna, glabrous
to densely pubescent, 0.5-2. 5 (-6) mm long,
0.2-l(l-.5)mm wide.
Bark
Grey or dark brown to blackish, rough deeply furrowed,
scaly.
- 38 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood reddish with whitish sapwood, heavy; it warps
upon drying and is often riddled by borers; used
mainly for superior firewood and charcoal production;
also used for fenceposts and small implements.
Other Uses
Protein-rich, nutritious pods are eaten from the
ground by livestock and wildlife. Foliage, including
new shoots and seedlings, also browsed. Plants
survive heavy grazing.
Trees form attractive ornamentals, and provide good
shade. The gum from the trunk is said to be edible.
Pods can be strung into necklaces.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Subsp. tortilis occurs in Somalia, Ethiopia, and the
Sudan, northwards to Egypt and Israel and extending
to the Yemen Arab Republic, P. D.R.Yemen, Oman, Saudi
Arabia, Abu Dhabi and Qatar.
CLIMATE
An extremely drought resistant species which can
survive in climates with less than 1OO mm annual
rainfall and long, erratic dry seasons. It does well
in hot climates with maximum temperatures as high as
50°C, and grows where minimum temperatures are close
to 0°C.
SOILS
Occurs on a wide range of soils provided they are
well drained and non-saline.
- 39 -
HABITAT
Common in dry savannas, forming groves, and in other
types such as bushlands, thornbushr bushveld, lowveld.
The last woody species bordering the desert.
SEED HANDLING
Trees flower freely and produces seed copiously which
is ready for collection in June-July. Seeds are
3-5 mm long by 2-3 mm wide, 5O OOO per kg, but with as
many as 40% affected by Bruchid larvae by the time
they are collected.. Pre- treatment: a) Soak in
concentrated sulphuric acid for 20-120 minutes,
optimum soaking period will vary with different seed-
lots; b) Immerse in boiling water for 5-30 seconds
or pour boiling water on to the seeds and afterwards
allow them to remain in water until it cools to room
temperature, c) Make holes or cracks mechanically
in the seed to allow water to enter.
SILVICULTURE
Coppices vigorously and tolerates lopping of large
limbs.
STATUS
This subspecies is endangered in parts of its
geographical range .
REASON FOR DECLINE
The reason for its decline is pressure fror
humans and their animals which is beyond the recupe-
rative resilience of the species. Some trees, if
allowed to survive, are dwarfed by continous
- 40 -
grazing where the new growth (before the thorns
become rigid and protective) are eaten. However, if
it is allowed to grow it can produce a huge crop of
pods which are highly nutritious to animals.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Is one of the species included in the FAO/IBPGR
Project on Genetic Resources of Arid/Semi-arid Zone
Arboreal Species for the Improvement of Rural Living.
Seed collections for species/provenance-trials and
conservation have been made in India, Israel, Yemen
and Senegal.
- 41 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmed, A. El Houri
1982
Brenan, J.P.M.
1957
Brenan, J.P.M.
1983
Doran, J.L. et.al.
1983
FAO
1980
Karschon, R.
1961
Little, E.L.
1983
NAS
1979
Palmberg, C.
1981
The Autoecology of Acacia tortilis
(Forsk.) Hayne. Ph.D. Thesis -
University of Khartoum.
Notes on Mimosoideae III. Kew Bull.,
1957: 86-89.
Manual on taxonomy of Acacia species,
- FAO, Rome, 1983.
Handbook on seeds of dry-zone
Acacias. FAO, Rome.
Genetic Resources of Tree Species
in Arid and Semi-arid Areas -
FAO , Rome .
Conditions to the Arboreal Flora of
Israel: Acacia raddiana Savi and
A. tortilis Hayne.
La-Yaaran 11 (3-4): VI-XVI.
Common Fuelwood Crops. Communi-
tech Associates, Morgantown.
Tropical Legumes: Resources of the
Future National Academy of Sciences,
Washington D.C.
A vital fuelwood gene pool is in
danger. Unasylva 33(133): 22-3O.
- 42 -
I/
Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana (Savi) Brcnan
SYNONYMS
A. raddiana Savi (1830)
A_. fasciculata Guill. & Perr. (1832), non H.B.K.
A. tortilis var. lenticellosa Chiov. (1932)
A. tortilis forma raddiana (Savi) Roberty (1984)
h' tortilis subsp. raddiana var. pubescens A.Chev. (1927)
£• fasciculata var. pubescens (A. Chev.) A.Chev. (1928)
A. tortilis var, pubescens Aylmer ex Burtt Davy (1930),
(illegitimate name)
A. raddiana var. pubescens (A.Chev.) A.F. Hill (1940)
/""Brenan (1983) recognizes four subspecies of Acacia
tortilis:
subsp. tortilis
" raddiana
" spirocarpa
" heterocantha
subsp. raddiana is sometimes treated as a distinct
species, A. raddiana Savi, (Karshon, 1961).
Brenan divides A. tortilis subsp. raddiana into two
variants: var. raddiana and var. pubescens. Var.
pubescens maybe a hybrid between subspecies tortilis
and subspecies raddiana?*
FAMILY
Leguminosae subf. Mimosoideae
I/ FAO acknowledge the assistance of Ahmed El Houri
~ Ahmed (Forest Research Institute, Soba, Khartoum, Sudan)
- 43 -
VERNACULAR NAMES
Umbrella thorn (Africa)
Israeli babool (India)
Sayal, Samor (Egypt, Sudan)
Seing, Tortilis (Senegal) , Mgunga (Tanzania)
Kandili, Bisaw (Niger), Seyal, Sayyal (Arabic)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree 1.2-1O m high, with more or less rounded crown.
a) var. raddiana; young branchlets and leaves glabrous
or subglabrous.
b) var. pubescens ; young branchlets shortly more or
less pubescent.
Inflorescence
Flower cluster (heads), 1-4, on slender stalks at leaf
base. Flowers white or yellowish - white, scented, in
round fluffy heads O. 5-1.1 cm in diameter; flowers
many, crowded, stalkless, about 4mm long, composed of
a 5-toothed calyx 1 mm long, 5 petals 2 mm long, and
many threadlike stamens; pistil with thread-like style.
Fruit
a) var. raddiana;
pods glabrous or nearly so, eglandular
b) var. pubescens;
pods appressed puberulous, eglandular, 6-9 mm wide.
Foliage
Pinnae 2-1O, occasionally up to 14 pairs, on a short
rhachis up to 2 (-4) cm long, usually glandular between
the upper 1-3 and lowest 1-2 pairs of pinnae.
- 44 -
Leaflets 6-2O pairs per pinna, nlabrous to densely
pubescent, O.5-2.5 (-6) mm long, O.2- K-1.5) mm wide.
Bark
Grey or dark brown to blackish, rough, deeply
furrowed, scaly.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood reddish with a whitish sapwood, heavy. It
warps upon drying and is often riddled by borers, it
is used mainly for superior firewood and charcoal,
also used for fenceposts and small implements.
Other Uses
Protein-rich, nutritious pods are eaten from the
ground by livestock and wildlife. Foliage, including
new shoots and seedlings also browsed. Plants
survive heavy grazing.
Trees form attractive ornamentals and provide good
shade. The gum from the trunk is said to be edible.
Pods can be strung into necklaces.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
a) var. raddiana: occurs in northern Africa from
Senegal eastwards to the Sudan, Somalia and Kenya.
Its status (native or introduced) in Kenya is
uncertain. It also extends through Egypt to
Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. It is cultivated
in India (Pakistan) .
b) var. pubescens; has been found in Mali, Algeria
and the Sudan.
- 45 -
CLIMATE
The species has a relatively wide temperature tolerance,
being controlled in its distribution by temperature
rather than precipitation. In Israel, its northern
limit corresponds more or less to the 300 mm isohyet
and a mean annual isotherm of 20 C.
SOILS
Occurs on various soils, including sand dunes, sandy
loams and rocky and alkaline substrates.
HABITAT
Because of its relatively high demand for water, it is
often found in hilly regions where the sharp relief
has deeper wadis.
SEED HANDLING
Trees flower freely and produce copious seed.
Seeds are 3-7 (6) mm long by 3.5-4.5 (4) mm wide.
There are about 19 000 per kg but as much as 40% of
crop is normally completely destroyed by Bruchid larvae
when collected.
Pre-treatment :
a) Soak in concentrated sulphuric acid for 20-120
minutes; optimum soaking period will vary
with different seedlots.
b) Immerse in boiling water for 5-30 seconds
or pour boiling water on the seeds and
afterwards allow them to remain in water
until it cools to room temperature.
- 46 -
c) Make holes or cracks mechanically in the
seed to allow water to enter.
SILVICULTURE
The tree coppices vigorously and tolerates lopping of
large branches. It has an extensive and deep root
system, which enables the tree to thrive in dry desert
wadis where sufficient accessible soil moisture at
deepest levels is available throughout the year.
Tolerates low temperatures and occasional frosts.
STATUS
This subspecies is endangered in parts of its
geographical range.
REASON FOR DECLINE
The reason for its decline is pressure from
humans and their animals which is beyond the
recuperative resilience of the species. Some trees,
if allowed to survive, are dwarfed by continous
grazing where the new growth (before the thorns become
rigid and protective) are eaten. However, if it is
allowed to grow it can produce a huge crop of pods
which are highly nutritious to animals.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Is one of the species included in the FAO/IBPGR Project
on Genetic Resources of Arid/Semi-Arid Zone Arboreal
Species for the improvement of Rural Living. Seed
collections for species/provenance trials and
conservation have been made in India (maybe A.tortilis) ,
Israel, Senegal, Sudan and Yemen.
- 47 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmed, A. El Hour!
1982
Brenan, J.P.M.
1957
Brenan, J.P.M.
1983
Doran, J.L. et. al,
1983
FAO
1980
Halevy, G. &
G. Orshan
1972
Karschon, R.
1961
Karshon, R.
1975
Little, L.jr.
1983
Palmberg, C.
1981
The Autoecology of Acacia tortilis
(Forsk.) Hayne Ph.D. Thesis - University
of Khartoum.
Notes on Mimosoideae III. in Kew
Bull. 1, 1957: 86-89.
Manual on Taxonomy of Acacia species.
FAO, Rome, 1983.
Handbook on seeds of dry-zone Acacias.
FAO , Rome
Genetic Resources of Tree Species in
Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, FAO, Rome.
Ecological Studies on Acacia species
in the Negev and Sinai.
Contribution to the Arboreal Flora
of Israel: Acacia raddiana Savi
and A. tortilis Hayne.
La-Yaaran 11 (3-4) : VI-XVI .
Seed Germination of Acacia raddiana
Savi and A. tortilis Hayne as
related to Infestation by Bruchids -
Division of Forestry, Agricultural
Research Organization, Leaflet
No. 52, Ilanot, 1975.
Common Fuelwood Crops. Communi-Tech.
Associates, Morgantown, West Virginia.
A vital fuelwood gene pool is in
danger. Unasylva 33 (133): 22-30.
- 48 -
I/
Alnus acuminata O.Ktze
SYNONYMS
Alnus ferruginea H.B.K.
A. jorullensis H.B.K.
FAMILY
Betulaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Jaul (Costa Rica)
Aliso (Argentina, Peru)
Lambran (Peru)
Alder (English)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree up to 30 m in height, which depending upon the
habitat, is either straight or irregularly shaped.
Stem 20-50 cm or more in diameter; stem form semi-
circular, elliptical or triangular.
Inflorescence
The alder is a monoecious plant, the inflorescences
appear in catkins with 4 to 9 very short female
aments on each branchlet which gradually transform into
ovoid, lignified "cones" with permanent scales. Female
flower bracteate, each bracht bearing 2 flowers,
with 2 styles. When cones become
I/ Based on the work of P.Rosero (Batan 405, Quito,
Ecuador) .
- 49 -
mature , they are 16 to 22 mm in length and 1O to 12 mm
in diameter and adhere to the plant long after the
seeds have been shed. From 3 to 5 male catkins occur,
c. 5 cm from the end of each inf lorescence-bearina
branchlet. Each bract bears 3 flowers and 4 bractlets.
Fruit
The furit is a monospermous indehiscent, nut , dark
yellow to light bronze in colour, with expanded tissue
in the form of wings , and 2 persistent styles that
turn black when mature. The seeds are located along
the axis of the scales of the cone, one or two per
scale.
Foliage
Leaves simple, alternate, ovate, with somewhat wavy
serrate edges, asymmetric, tips slightly acuminate or
pointed, base obtuse. The surface of the leaf
darkish green and glabrous; the underside, light green
or pale pinkish. The underside of very young leaves
is covered with a mucilage; nervation prominent and
somewhat pubescent. Size of leaves varies from 6 to
15 cm in length and 3 to 7.5 cm in width, with 1O to
14 pairs of nerves on adult leaves. Stipules caducous
Petioles from 1.5 to 3 cm in length, colour from
light green to pinkish.
Bark
Outer bark normally smooth, in places wrinkled or
with certain parts splitting and fissured; lenticels
arranged in horizontal rings which enclose the
brownish or greyish-coloured heart wood.
- 50 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Used for fuel and small construction work. The wood
is pale brown or superficially bronze coloured, with
low luster. Odourless and tasteless when dry.
Light in weight, but firm.
Other Uses
Of potential value as a soil improver especially on
eroded soils; the bark and leaves are used for tanning
and dyeing and their astringent properties are also
useful in local medicine.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In Mexico and the Cordillera of Central America, from
Guatemala to Costa Rica and in the Andes of South
America (Argentina, Bolivia, Equador and Peru).
Altitudinal range from 1,500 m (Costa Rica) up to
3,800 m (Peru) .
CLIMATE
In Costa Rica this alder is found in the area where
dairy cattle are raised; the area has an average
annual rainfall of 3 100 mm and temperatures ranging
from 4° to 27°C; it is a zone of constant fog. The
foggy weather starts in May and persists until the
month of November, although foggy days also occur
during other months of the year. In Peru it prefers
a rainfall in the range from 1 500 to 2 000 mm and
a mean annual temperature of 18°C.
- 51 -
SOILS
It occurs on both fertile (Costa Rica) and less fertile
soils (Andes) . In Peru it is found in humid situations.
HABITAT
In its area of distribution, up to altitudes around
2 OOO m, A. acuminata is found along small streams.
At higher altitudes it grows in small valleys protected
from the cold and dry winds coming from the highest
mountains. On the best sites the development of the
species has been the same whether it has been planted
at the river-banks or in drier localities.
SEED HANDLING
Around 2 OOO OOO seeds/kg. , germination normally above
30%, no pre-treatment is needed before sowing.
SILVICULTURE
Artificial regeneration of Alnus is carried out using
normal silvicultural practices, and bare-rooted plants
of 30-90 cm in height. The tree can also readily be
reproduced from cuttings of 1 to 1% cm in diameter,
taken from adult trees. The rate of growth depends on
management practices, which are adapted to the end-
use of the tree. Yield also varies according to soil
type and altitude. With a rotation of 18 to 22 years,
the yield in a stand, grown for timber, is around
10-15 m3/ha/an.
In Costa Rica alder is, as a rule, grown at a wide
spacing (15 x 15 m) to improve pastures for dairy cattle.
Under this management regime, trees will average 37 cm
in diameter and 15 m in height at age 11, and over
- 52 -
4O cm in diameter and 29 m in height at age 32.
As with all species of the genus Alnus, Alnus
acuminata is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen through
its root nodules. The formation of nodules (symbiosis
between bacteria and the tree) depends on soil texture
and aeration. Along slopes and riverbanks there is
a better formation of nodules than when the trees are
grown in combination with grazing or agriculture on
relatively rich soils.
STATUS
Further study is needed. The species is likely to be
endangered in parts of its geographic range. It is in
danger of genetic impoverishment.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Although A. acuminata regenerates very easily naturally,
the trend to substitute native by introduced, fast-
growing species has led to a gradual decrease in its
natural area. Since the species requires deep,
well-drained soils for optimum development, it also
often competes with agricultural crops.
- 53 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alvarez, H.
1956
Cardenas, M.
1945
Castallanos,A.
1944
Gonzalez, R.
1970
FAO
1981
Holdridge , L . et . al ,
1947
Perez Arbelaez,E,
1947
Record, S.J. &
R.W.Hess 1943
Sicco,G.
1971
Universidad
Nacional Agraria
1984
Weberauer ,A.
1945
Estudio forestal del "Jaul" (Alnus
jorullensis HBK) en Costa Rica. Tesis
Mag. Agr. Institute Interamericano
de Ciencias Agricolsa,Turrialba,
Costa Rica. 87 p.
Aspectro general de la vegetacion en
Bolivia. In: Verdoom Frans (Ed.)
Plants and plant science in Latin
America. Walt ham, Mass. Chronica
Botanica Co. pp. 312-313.
Los tuberculos radiculares del aliso
(Alnus jorullensis HBK var. pachii
Regel). Lilloa 10 (2): 413-4TST
Relacion entre el peso especifico Y
algunas propiedades mecanicas del
Alnus jorullensis HBK. Tesis Mag. Sc.
Institute Interamericano de Ciencias
Agricolas, Turrialha, Costa Rica.91p.
Data book on endangered forest tree
species and provenances. FAO,
FO:MISC/81/11, Rome 1981. p. 4-6.
The forests of western and central
Ecuador. U.S. Forest Service,
Washington D.C. 134 p.
Plantas utiles de Colombia. Bogota,
Imprenta Nacional. 531 p.
Timbers of the New World, Yale
University Press, New Haven.
Notas silviculturales sobre el
Alnus jorullensis de Caldas, Colombia,
in Turrialba, Vol. 21 (1): 83-88.
Conservacion in situ de recursos
genet icos forestales Estudio de Caso:
Peru, Paper prepared for FAO (unpbl.)
El mundo vegetal de los Andes peruanos; estu-
dio fitogeografico. Ed.rev.Y anpl.Estacicn
Experimental Agrioola,La Molina, Lima, Feru.776p
- 54 -
I/
Anadenanthera macrocarpa (Benth.) Brenan
SYNONYMS
Acacia grata Wild. (18O9)
Adenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var. cebil (Gris.)
Alts.
Piptadenia macrocarpa Benth. (1842)
Piptadenia microphylla Benth. (1842)
FAMILY
Leguminosae subfam. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAME
Angico- vermelho , angico , angico- bravo , angico-preto ,
angico raj ado, cambui-ferro, guarapiraca, angico do
campo, arapiraca, curupahi, angico castanho.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree with a crooked or straight trunk sometimes
reaching heights above 15 m, a 30 to 50 cm diameter.
Angular branching at the top of the crown; lacking
thorns in the adult phase.
Inflorescence
Flowers in a globose capitulum, clustered and axillary
flowers small, whitish in colour, with a 1-2 mm
tubiform calyx with a serrate margin; corolla flat,two
times larger than calyx. Flowering takes place from
August to December, in trees of 4 to 5 years of age.
I/Based on ~tfie~~w6rk of^TTE.Pires and C.E.S.Nascimento,
EMBRAPA/CPATSA, P.O.Box 23, Petrol ina, PE, Brazil.
- 55 -
Fruit
A flat pod 32 cm long; brownish-yellow in colour,
with a rough, wrinkled surface with small out-growths
and few veins; 15 to 30 cm long by 2 to 3 cm wide.
Foliage
With up to 30 pairs of pinnae measuring from 4 to 8 cm,
folioles in 50 to 60 pairs? opposite, sessile;
membranaceous, lance-shaped, rounded and asymmetrical at
the base, with a well pronounced midrib. Leaflets
measure approximately 3 to 6 mm in length and 1 to 2 mm
in width.
Bark
Greyish in colour, smooth, sometimes presenting small
wrinkles or lengthwise fissures, with few thorns. When
young, it has a thickness of about 2 to 5 mm.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
A chestnut-yellow colour, becoming a dark-red with
distinguishable growth rings; yellow or rose sapwood,
that is easily distinguished from the heartwood. It
is a heavy hardwood (specif ic gravity 1.07), which is
resistant to deterioration. The wood is used for
construction, pillars, posts, fence posts, carpentry,
beams, rafters, tile blocks, fuel, charcoal and other purposes,
Other Uses
Bark is used in the leather industry due to its high
tannin content, up to
- 56 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species occurs from the state of Marnhao to the
state of SSo Paulo, including the "caatinga" in the
Northeastern region, and the "cerrados" and the dry
forest of Central Brazil. It is also found in Northern
Argentina, Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay.
CLIMATE
Although widely distributed and found in the most
diverse climatic conditions, from dry sub humid
tropical to arid tropical, this tree prefers
dry climates.
SOILS
It thrives best in deep soils. In the "caatinga11
it is normally found on deep tableland soils and
alluvials, and does not withstand excessively humid
conditions.
HABITAT
Can be found isolated as well as along with other
species, sometimes in dense and uniform formations.
Generally in low mountain tropical forest of the Atla-
ntic Coast, while in the Northeast it prefers the
borders of streams and creeks.
SEED HANDLING
To obtain healthy seeds with good germination,
the fruits must be collected when physiologically
mature and before falling. In the Northeastern Brazil,
physiological ripening is reached approximately 220
- 57 -
days after fruit setting begins. Storage in open
conditions as well as in cold chambers provides an
average germination above 80% after 5 months,
independent of the type of packaging used.
The seeds of this species do not present dormancy
problems, and will germinate without treatment within
a period of 10 days. One kg may contain from 11000 to
17000 seeds.
SILVICULTURE
The cultivation of this species for commercial purposes
is not common. However, based on the existing
experiments, it is possible to establish pure stands.
At 6 years of age, the stand renders wood for fence
posts, fuel and charcoal. Studies in the Northeastern
region, showed high survival and height for the
species, under the semi-arid conditions of this area.
STATUS
The species is suffering a slow decline.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
No measures have yet been taken, neither for ex situ
nor in situ conservation to preserve the original
genetic pool. The studies underway on this species
are limited to pure stands. Studies of the reproductive
system and establishment of base populations is
recommended, to preserve the genetic variation and to
provide reproductive material.
- 58 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Braga, R.
1976
Brune , A.
1975
Brune, A.
1981
Correa, M.P.
1926
PAO
1986
Plantas do nordeste, especialmente do
Ceari. 3. ed. Mossuro, Escola
Superior de Agricultura. 540 p.
Preservagao das reservas geneticas
de arvores nativas brasileiras.
Brasil florestal, Rio de Janeiro,
(24): 19-21.
ImplantagSo de populacoes base de
especies florestais. Documentos.
EMBRAPA/URPFCS , Curitiba: 1-9.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil
e das ex6ticascultivas. Rio de
Janeiro, Servijo de Informaqao
Agricola, v.l. p. 127, 326.
Some medicinal forest plants of Africa
and Latin America. FAO Forestry
Paper 67. Rome.
Golfari, L.;
Caser, R.L. &
Moura, V.P.G.
1978
Lima, D. de A.
s.d.
Lima, P.C.F.;
Souza, S.M. de &
Drumond, M.A.
1982
Rizzini, C.T.
1971
Zoneamento ecologico esquematico
para reflorestamento no Brasil.
Serie te'cnica. PRODEPEF, Brasilia,
(11) : 1-66.
Contribution to the study of the
flora of Pernambuco, Brazil. New
York. 154p. (Tese - Mestrado -
University of New York).
Competigao de especies florestais
nativas em Petrolina - PE. ^
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo,
16A (parte ; : 1139-48.
Arvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil:
manual de dendrologia brasileira.
Sao Paulo, Edgard Bliicher. 294 p.
- 59 -
Silva, H.O. da
et alii
1980
Comport amen to de essencias florestais
nas regioes arida e semi-arida do
nordeste (resultados preliminares) .
Documentos. EMBRAPA/DID, Brasilia:
1-25.
Souza, S.M. de
1983
Souza, S.M. de;
Pires, I.E. &
Lima, P.C.F.
1980
Tigre, C.B.
1976
Vasconcelos
Sobrinho, J.
1970
Curso sobre prodi^ao de sementes e
mudas. Petrolina, EMBRAPA/CAPTSA,
3-14 outubro. 27 p.
Influencia da embalagem e condiqoes
de armazenamento na longevidade
de sementes florestais. Boletim de
pesquJsa. EMBRAPA. Petrolina,
(2): 15-24.
Estudos de silvicultura especializada
do nordeste. Mossor6. Escola
Superior de Agricultura. 176 p.
As regioes naturais do nordeste, o
meio e a civilizacao. Recife,
Conselho do Desenvolvimento de
Pernambuco. 441 p.
- 60 -
Aniba duckei Kostermans—
SYNONYMS
Licaria guianensis Aublet (1775)
Aniba rosaeodora Ducke (1926)
Aniba rosaeodora var. amazonica Kostermans (1938)
FAMILY
Lawaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Pau-rosa, pau-rosa-mulatinho, pau-rosa-itauba and
pau-rosa-imbuba .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Inflorescence
A multi-flowered panicle, flowers with a small pedicel ,
flowering occurs between April and May; ferrugineours.
Fruit
With a very thick cupule.
Foliage
Narrow leaves, 4 to 5 cm in width, slightly curved or
flat, acute at the base and with a pointed apex,
semicoriaceous, the secondary ribs diverging from
the primary rib at 45° to 60° angle.
I/ Based on the work of L.G.S. Costa, S.T.Ohashi and
O.Daniel. Department of Forestry, Faculdade de
Ci£ncias Agrarias do Para, P.O.Box 917, Belem, Para,
Brazil.
- 61 -
In a primary tropical forest, near Manaus this species
presents yearly leaf changes, always during the dry
period, which does not happen for the flowering and
fruit setting phases. Due to irregular flowering and
fruit setting and attacks on the fruits by birds, the
seed supply is jeopardized.
Bark
The bark is a brownish yellow, and falls off in large
plates or sheets.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy (0.80 to 0.90 g/cm ); a brownish-yellow
heartwood with pink highlights; yellow sapwood; a
regular to irregular grain; medium texture, a shiny,
smooth surface; an attractive aroma, which becomes
stronger when the wood is cut; astringent and pungent to
taste. Indians use this wood for making canoes and
other similar purposes. In carpentry, the wood is
described as easy to work with, and with an elegant
finish. However, the use of this wood for carpentry
purposes is rare, due to its economical importance to
the perfume industry.
Other Uses
An essence (linaloil), which is widely used in the
perfume industry, is extracted from distilled wood,
leaves, and roots.
- 62 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In Surinam, this tree grows in the Tapanahoni and
Gonini River basins, and, in French Guiana, it grows in
Oiapoque. It extends to Peru (Iquitos, Rio Napo and
Pucalpa) , Colombia and Ecuador. In Brazil, besides the
State of Amapa, and on the border of French Guiana, it
prefers the high and mid Amazon region.
SOILS, CLIMATE
The climate where this species occurs naturally are
of the Am and Aw type in the Ko'epen classification. I/
It is found in clayey as well as sandy phase yellow
and red latosols, and also on gley podzols. Its largest
productivity is in soils originating from the upper
carboniferous formations.
HABITAT
Aniba duckei occurs mainly in high land rain
forests.
SILVICULTURE
This is an intolerant species, natural regeneration
taking place only when there are clearings in the forest.
The first planting of Aniba duckei took place in 1933
when plantings were established with 18 000 trees,
of which a total of 8 000 remain. In general,
plantations of this species shows very little
development. The main limiting factors for seed
germination are related to the harvest of the seeds.
I/ See page 219.
- 63 -
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
In the Amazon Aniba duckei has long been a victim of
excessive exploitation. Very often the root systems of
the cut trees are torn out, eliminating the
possibilities of asexual regeneration, thus contributing
to the extinction of the species.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
For conservation of the species some basic, biological
information will be needed. It is therefore strongly
recommended to step up research on floral biology,
seed technology (germination and storage), and
propagation methods (including vegetative propagation);
and to initiate studies on the specific light,
temperature and nutrient requirements during the initial
growth phase, with the aim of developing appropriate
si Ivi cultural methods. Drawing on knowledge of the
above establishment of pilot plantations and of base
populations for genetic conservation, jLn and ex situ,
is recommended.
- 64 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Araujo, v.c. de
1967
Bastos, A. de M.
1943
Bastos, A. de M.
1946
Borge, R.
1944
Brasil Sudani.
1971/72
Brasil Sudam.
DPN/CTM
1979
Car va Iho , J . 0 . P . de
1983
Clovis, G.C.P. &
Rama Iho, S.S.
1970
Correa, D.de B.&
Gottlieb, O.R.
1975
Correa, M.P.
1978
Sob re a germinagao de Aniba(Lauraceae):
1 " Aniba duckei Kostermans (pau-rosa
itauba) . Manaus, INPA. 14 p.
Os paus-rosas da industria de essehcia.
Rocjriguesia, Rio de Janeiro,
7(16) : 45-54.
As madeiras do Para - caracteres
gerais e caracteres anatomicos.
Arquivos do Servijo Florestal, Sab
Paulo, 2(2; .
* ^
Oleoginosas alimenticias da Amazonia.
Boletim Ministerio da Aqricultura,
Rio de Janeiro, 33(2): 89-94.
O extrativismo do pau-rosa (Aniba
duckei Kostermans) - A. rosaeodora.
Duckei. Sudani. Cocum. , Belem,
3(1/4): 5-55.
Pesquisas e informacoes sobre
espe~cies florestais da Amazonia
Belem. Ill p.
Abundancia, frequencia e grau de
cVgreqajSb do pau-rosa (Aniba duckei
Kostermans) na F Lores ta Nacionai do
Tapd jos. Belem, EMBRAPA/CPATU . 18 p.
Pau-rosa: analise conjuntural. Belem,
BASA, DESEC.
Duckein, an alkaloid from Aniba
duckei. Phytochemistry, l 4 (I) :
271-2.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasi
e ex6ticas cuitivadas. Brasilia,
IBDF. 6v.
- 65 -
Ducke, A.
1938
Ducke, A.
1939
Gonggryp, J.W.
1948
Gottlieb, O.R.
1947
GOTTLIEB, O.R.
1957
Gottlieb, O.R.&
l"ors,W.B.
1958
Gottlieb, O.R.&
Mors,W.B.
1958
Gottlieb, O.R.et al,
Guenther ,E.
1941
Guenther, E.
1942
Lauraceas aromaticas da Amazonia
brasileira. In: 1? AReuniao
Sul-Americana de Botanica. v. 3.
Notes on some highly aromatic
Lauraceae of Brazilian Amazonia.
Tropical woods, New Haven,
(60): 1-10.
Quelques remarques sur 1'emploi
d' essences exotiques et indigenes
dans la sylviculture tropicale.
Bois et forc?t des tropiques,
Nogent-sur-Marne (3): 251-7.
Novo metodo rapido para a deter-
minayao quantitativa do linalol.
Revista de quimica industrial, Rio
de Janeiro, lb (188). 1-7.
Pau-rosa, potencial de riqueza.
Revista de quimica industrial,
Rio de Janeiro, 26 (307): 15-8.
*•
A quimica do pau-rosa . Rio de Janeiro,
Institute de Quimica Agrfcola. 20 p.
The chmistry of rosewood: 2 - isola-
tion and identification of cotoin
and pinocembim. Journal Amer.
Chem. Soc., 80 (9): 2263-5.
Notes on Brazilian rosewood. Per-
fumery and essential oil record,
London, 55 (4) : 253-7.
Oil of bois de rose. New YOrk,
American Periumary.
Essential oils and thftir production
in the Western hemisphere. New York,
Fritzche Brathers Inc. 30 p.
- 66 -
Harrar,E.S.
1946
Hoffmann, A. &
MaffeI,F.J.
1947
Kissin, I.
1952
Leitao,E.L.
1939
Loureiro,A.A.4
Silva,M.F.
1968
Loureiro,A.A.
1976
Loureiro,A.A. ?
Silva,M.F.&
Alencar,J.da
1979
MagalW3fes,L.M.S.&
Alencar,J.da C.
1972
Moraes,A.A.
de et al.
1972
Moraes,A.A.
de et al.
1976
Note on starch grains in septate
f ibertracheids. Tropical woods, New
Haven (55).
A determinacab do linalol. Anai« da
AssociacSo Quimica do Brasil. Rio de
Janeiro, 6 : 93-7.
A industria do pau-rosa. Anuario
brasile^ro de economia florestal,
Rio de Janeiro, 5 (5): 214-30.
Algumas notas sobre q, oleo de pau-
rosa. Revista de quimica industrial,
Rio de Janeiro, 8.
rataloqo das madeiras da Amazonia.
Belem, Sudam. 2v.
Estudo anatomico marco e microsc(?pico
de 10 especies do genero Aniba
(Lauraceae) da Amazonia. Acta
amazShica, Manaus, 6 (2): 5-85, jun.
Essencias madeireiras da Amazonia.
Manaus, INPA. 2v.
Fenologia do pau-rosa (Aniba duckei
Kostermans) , Lauraceae, em
floresta primSria na Amazonia
central. Acta amazoViica, Manaus 9
(2): 227-32, jun.
Essential oils of species of the
genus Aniba . Acta amazonica. Manaus,
2 (1) : 41-4.
Congresso Internacional de Oleos
Essenciais, 5, S"ao Paulo.
- 67 -
Mors,W.B.;
Gottlieb, O.R. &
Vattimo,!.
1959
Naves ,Y.R.
1956
Occhioni,P.&
Souza,A.H. de
1948
Ranchel Galindo,A.
1950
Record, S.J. &
Hess,R.W.
1942
Teixeira,B.C.
1963
Van Den Berg,M.E &
Maciel,V.N.
1982
Van Den Berg,M.E.
1982
Vattimo,!. de
1975
Vattimo,!. de
1978
The phylogeny of the genus Aniba
Aubl.: a comparative morphological
and chemical observation. Nature,
London, 184 (4698) .
s
Etudes sur les matieres vegetales
volatiles CXXXIX: (1). Contribution
a letude des sesfuiterpenes de
1'huile essentielle de bois de rose
du Brasil (Aniba rosaepdora var.
amazonica A Ducke) . Bull.Soc.Chim. ,
Paris, (2): 292-7.
Pau-rosa brasileiro e o seu otimo
essencial. Lillo a. 16.
El comimo crespo-madera preciosa de
los bosques Colombianos. Agric.trop.,
Bogota', 6(1): 25-7.
American timbers of the family
Lauraceae. Tropical woods, New Haven,
(69) : 7-33.
As Lauraceae do Estado de Sao Paulo
(Brasil): 1. Beilschmiedia ,
Endlicheria, e Aniba. Boletim do
Institute de Botanica, sSb Paulo (1) :
31.
Lauraceas uteis da Amazonia brasi-
leira. In: Congresso Nacional de
Botanica, 33.
Aproveitamento alternative de esse-
ncias florestais amazSnicas. Silvi-
cultura, S^o Paulo, 16 (1): 226-31.
Leaf anatomy of pau-rosa. 11 - key
for identifying the species. Acta
amazonica, Manaus , 59"0: 147-52.
Contribuigao do conhecimento da
distribuijao geogra*fica das
Lauraceaea. Rodriquesia, Rio de
Janeiro, 30 (47): 83-103.
- 68 -
Vieira,A.N.
1969
Vieira,A.N.
1969
Vieira,A.N.
1970
Vieira,A.N.
1970
Vieira,A.N.
1972
Estudos preliminares sobre o incre-
mento volum^trico de Aniba duckei
Kostermans "pau-rosa". Ci§ncia e
cultura, S'So Paulo, 21 (2) :446-7.
Propagacjao vegetativa de Aniba
duckei Kostermans e Cedrelinga
catenae formis Ducke. Ciencia e cul-
tura, Sab Paulo, 21 (12): 446.
Aspectos silviculturais do "pau-
rosa11 (Aniba duckei Kosterrnans) :
1 - estudos preliminares sobre o
increment© volumetrico. Manaus. 15p.
Aspectos silviculturais do "pau-
rosa" (Aniba duckei Kostermans) :
2 - estudos sobre metodos de propa-
gacao. Acta amazonica, Manaus, 2
(1) : 51-8.
The silviculture of pau-rosa
(Aniba duckei) : 2 - studies on
methods of propagation. Acta amazo-
nica, Manaus, 2 (1): 51-8.
- 69 -
Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O.Ktze-
FAMILY
Araucariaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Pinho brasileiro, pinho do parana, pinheiro brasileiro,
pinheiro das misscJes, curiuva, curi, araucaria-pinho
(Brasil) . Parana pine, parana wood, brazilian pine
(England). Pino Brasil, pino de missiones, pirfo parana'
(Spain) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree, flat topped at maturity; when growing in open
situations it is said to resemble the Chile Pine (A.
araucana) "Monkey Puzzle". As the tree matures in
forest conditions, the habit changes, the side branches
being suppressed and lost, and those of upper whorls
turning upwards to the light in the manner often
referred to as 'candelabra1 shaped. Branches ; -
verticillate, 4-8 in number, drooping with age; at
first arranged so as to give the young tree a conical
shape, which later becomes campanulate or, in old trees,
a corymb or umbrella shape; phorb of branches
horizontal, the tips curved slightly upwards or, less
often, downwards; initially greenish-blue, becoming
dark green and shiny. Trunk : - straight, occasionally
forked, cylindrical and straight base.
I/ Based on the Work of Mario Tomazello (Forest Dept,,
University de Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sab Paulo, Brazil).
- 70 -
Inflorescence
A dioecious tree, bearing male and female flowers on
different individuals .
- Male flowers; grouped in catkins or cylindrical cones,
full of scales, crowning the short, lateral young
shoots; they may be solitary or more often in pairs,
attached to thin, downward-curving, somewhat flexible
branches, slightly pointed, 8-17 cm long and 1.5 -
3.0 cm in diameter when ripe; they bear scales tightly
attached to each other, which only become detached at
maturity; scales narrow, thickened on the outside and
enclose on the inside 15-26 anthers, about 5-6 mm long;
the wind is responsible for pollination.
- Female flowers; - arranged in a multiseriate helix
on a thick, fusiform axis, forming an exillary
strobilus or cone, solitary, in the centre of a
bracteate capsule, ellipsoidal or ovoid, green in
colour, 7-8 x 5-6 cm; the surface is erinous because
of the tips of the hard, prickly scales; scales
triangular, flat with a rigid outer appendix, 15-20 mm
long; each scale bearing a single ovule, by virtue of
the complete and invisible fusion of the ovuliferous
scale with the bract scale.
Flowering; - April to June.
Fruit
Cone s ; After fertilization, which occurs during
September and October, the cone grows and the ovules
develop into seeds; these are called "pinhoes" and
the cones "pinhos". The cones are globose-ovoid in
shape and 20-25 cm in diameter; a cone is ripe and
- 71 -
opens 20-22 months after fertilization, when it
drops the seeds; among these there are many empty,
narrow, delicate, angular and elongated sterile
scales; each cone may contain between 40 and 100 seeds,
4-7 cm long and 1.5 - 2.0 cm in diameter, which look
exactly like the scales; due to the long period of
ripening, large ripe cones as well as small ones may
be found on the same tree; one tree may bear between
5O and 8O cones.
Seed; - consists of a nut, protected by a coriaceous-
woody shell; this shell is rusty-brown in colour, with
a smooth, shiny surface; underneath this is a thinner
layer of wood fibre, and lastly a membranous skin,
attached directly to the seed itself. This is ovate-
oblong, white, starchy, 2.5 - 3.0 cm long.
Foliage
Leaves; simple, persistent, supporting several
vegetative cycles, alternate, net-veined, oblong-
lanceolate, acuminate, with a sharp point, dilated
at the base, sessile, pronouncedly glaucous green,
coriaceous, with a longitudinal concavity of the
ventral face, turned towards the end of the branches,
2-6 cm long by 5-25 mm broad.
Bark
Dark, thick (2-15 cm), spongy and resinous; bearing
thick, sunken plaques and rings at more or less
regular intervals (former knots) ; exuding large
amounts of resin, which hardens in contact with the
air.
- 72 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
When first cut, there is only little difference between the
heartwood and sapwood, because both are whitish-yellow
in colour; as time passes, the heartwood turns more
ochreous; the design is softly outlined by the different
density of the spring and summer layers; the veins are
sometimes grey , but more often pink; of a medium to
thin texture, grain straight to oblique; light in
weight, easy to work; the growth rings distinctly
visible. In Brazil it is the most important wood on
the market. Much used in civil construction work and
for all uses which require soft resistant wood,
easy to work. Used on a large scale for the manufac-
ture of medium or good quality plywood. However, a
more rational use is for the manufacture of chemical
pulp or mechanical pulp for paper in general and
more particularly for newspaper.
(For Macroscopic and General Descriptions see
Mainieri & Pereira, 1965).
Other Uses
The seeds are much in demand as food, preferably
eaten cooked. The thick, spongy, resinous bark is
a good fuel and can be fermented to make a pleasant
drink. It has medicinal properties, and its ashes are
rich in potassium.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Araucaria angustifolia occurs naturally throughout
southern and south-eastern Brazil, between latitudes
19°30' and 31°30* S and longitudes 41°30' and 54°30f W,
including part of the province of Misiones in Argentina.
- 73 -
The region can be delimited as follows (Fig. 1):
Southern limit; in Rio Grande do Sul it is a very
common forest species, but restricted to the mountai-
nous regions in the north of the State; to the south
X*
of Jacui there are a few isolated araucarias, but
no continous forests.
Eastern limit; - nowhere does araucaria grow near the
sea, either in isolation or in forests; generally
the limits of the araucaria forests coincide with
the watershed of the Serra do Mar; this leaves a
strip of land, 20-40 km wide, between it and the
coast - a strip which is even wider in the State of
Sao Paulo.
Northern limit; in recent literature on the subject
the northernmost recorded finding is near the Rio
Doce, at about 18°.
Western limit; - Araucaria forests extend into
Argentina, into the Province of Misiones and apparently
there are even some isolated specimens west of the
Parana River. Recordings of the species in Goias and
Cuiaba are incorrect, according to Schenck.
(Hueck, 1972; Shimizu & Oliveira, 1983).
CLIMATE
The species thrives within the climatic types classi-
fied, according to the Koppen's system, as "CfaM and
"Cfb" (humid subtropical without dry season and mild
to hot summer) . Such climatic types are predominant
through the southern highlands where araucaria forests
are concentrated. Within the given range of latitudes,
these types of climate are found from lower altitudes
in the north. Exceptions to these altitudinal
- 74 -
limits are also found, especially in the south, where
the species occurs at altitudes of about 3OO m in Sao
Martinho and Tenente Protela (Mattos, 1972) and as
low as 25O m (Pitcher, 1975) and 198 m (Gurgel Filho
& Pisani, 1975) in Lauro Muller, near the coast of
Santa Catarina. As mentioned by Maack (1968),
Araucaria angustifolia extends to altitudes lower
than 5OO m only where cool air flows from the
highlands towards the valleys. Normal mean tempera-
tures in the araucaria region are 2O to 21° C in the
summer and 1O to 11° C in the winter (Oliveira, 1948) .
Not only cool to mild temperatures but also plenty
of rainfall throughout the year is required for this
species. Annual rainfall figures ranging from 127O
to 2494 mm (Golfari, 1971) are usual but not less than
1 OOO mm (Hueck, 1972). A. angustifolia is intolerant
of water deficit and this is the main reason for its
restriction to altitudes above 80O m in the northern
part of its distribution area.
SOILS
A. angustifolia grows on a variety of soils derived
from granites, basalts, diorites, phyllites, sand-
stones, schists and slates. It can survive on poor
and shallow soils. The amount of plant food
available in the soil plus the ability of the soil
to retain moisture, appear to be of greater
importance than soil texture. Because of its long
taproot, deep fertile soil is absolutely essential
for optimum growth; otherwise the plants very often
die after 6-8 years when the roots reach stony layers
or hardpan. Parana Pine requires good drainage.
- 75 -
HABITAT
As regards the growth patterns of araucaria forests in
the southern states, it can be stated as follows:
Rio Grande do Sul; - In the southernmost state of
Brazil, parana pine forests are the dominant plant
formation of the plateau; south of the Vacacai and
the Jacui there are some isolated specimens. In
the northeast, between the Guarita and Turvo rivers,
there are isolated specimens as far as the River
Uruguai , even extending into Argentina. In the
northwestern part of the state the forests join with
the parana pines of the state of Santa Catarina.
Santa Catarina: - In this state the parana pine is
the main feature of the landscape on the high ground
of the Serra da Fortuna, that is, on the watershed
between the River Chapeco and the Rio Chopim, in the
river basin of the middle and upper reaches of the
Uruguai, Peixe, Pelotas, Cavairas and Marombas rivers.
Parana pine forests are also the dominant elements
along the border with the State of Parana*. There are
even virgin forests in the municipal districts of Sao
Joaquim, Curitibanos and Chapeco. In the region of
<
the coastal rivers, particularly in the River Itajai
valley, which penetrates deep into the State, parana
pine forests lose their predominance and even dis-
appear in places.
Parana': - The protected area of parana pine in Parana"
includes mainly the regions north and south of the
middle reaches of the Iguaqu, the region around the
source of the Piquirr and part of the region around
. 76 .
the upper reaches of the Ivai , i.e. mainly the western
half of the State. As in the southern States ,
parana pine grows mainly on the plateau. Lower land
is covered by subtropical rain forest. Today the
parana pine forests join up to the east with the area
which is now the most highly populated region of the
State, where formerly it never formed extensive
forests. This region extends as far as the western
side of the Serra do Mar and the Serra da Virgem Maria,
interrupted by expanses of steppe with few or no trees.
Sab Paulo; - In Sab Paulo, parana pine is restricted
to the south. On both sides of the road from Curitiba
to Capab Bonito its area of distribution extends
beyond the limits of the two States. East of Capab
Bonito the parana pine forests break up into isolated
clusters. Around the city of Sa"b Paulo some parana
pine forests still remain, for example in the Serra
da Cantareira.
The lower limit of parana pine forests in the south-
west of Sab Paulo is 2OO - 3OO m higher than in the
southernmost states, i.e. it occurs at a minimum
altitude of 7OO-750 m. There follows a vast blank area
in terms of parana pine distribution until, only 1OO km
northwest of Sab Paulo, a new, more extensive area of
distribution appears, in the Serra da Mantiqueira.
The best-known parana pine forests are the ones of
Campos do J or dab, at altitudes of between 1 4OO and
1 BOO m, penetrating deep into the State of Minas Cera is.
South of the Vale do Paraiba there are some highly
exploited forests in the region of Paraibuna, in the
Serra do Quebra Cangalha and the Campos da Bocaina.
-77 _
Rio de Janeiro; - The best-known parana pine forests
in this region are those of Itatiaia in the Serra da
Mantiqueira. They grow at an altitude of 1 4OO to
1 6OO m, and usually form the upper forest limit. More
specimens are to be found in the Serra dos Orgafos.
Isolated trees can be found near Rio de Janeiro,
especially on Corcovado and in the Tijuca forest. These
are probably, at least in part, native trees.
Minas Gerais; - Various specimens exist in the southern
part of this state. The area of distribution extends
from the states of Sab Paulo and Rio de Janeiro,
encompassing a large portion of the northern slopes of
the Serra da Mantiqueirs. The centres of distribution
are above all the countryside around Campos do Jordab
(for the most part in the State of Safe Paulo) and the
region of Passa Quatro. The altitude is normally
between 1 3OO and 1 6OO m. On the pateau north of
Itatiaia, open parana pine forests extend as far as
Livramento, although they are now nothing but remnants.
To the east of this there are specimens in the Serra
da Mantiqueira, as far as Juiz de Fora. Further west
parana pine occurs even in Minas Gerais, in the higher
parts (about 1 OOO m in the Serra Mata da Corda,
particularly in Santo Gotardo, where, however, it is
not the dominant species, but grows in the midst of
primary forest vegetation, occasionally forming large
clusters.
Espirito Santo; - There are no definite reports of
the occurrence of native parana pine in this state,
but naturalized specimens originating from plantations
are often mentioned.
- 78 -
Goias and Ma to Grosso; - References in literature to
the occurrence of this tree in the region Cuiaba and
Goias are almost certainly mistaken.
Argentina: - In Argentina/ Araucaria angustifolia
is restricted to the Territory of Misiones. There are
forests on the western slopes of the Sierra Central de
Misiones, i.e. in the lateral valleys of the Peperi-
Guazu River, a right-bank tributary of the Uruguai,
at altitudes up to 8OO m. As a native tree Araucaria
does not extend to the province of Corrientes.
SEED HANDLING
Seeds are regularly produced annually, and in Brazil
they mature from late April to late May. The cones
are said to take three years to ripen. Seeds:
1OO - 180/kg. The seed does not retain its viability
for long and not longer than six weeks when stored at
atmospheric temperatures. Because of its short
viability, seed should be sown within one month of
collection. Seeds larger than 6 cm in length produce
significantly better seedlings. Treatment against pests
with methyl bromide gas at the rate of 20 cc per cubic
metre of seed for 24 hours in heat-sealed plastic bags
is recommended. After 24 hours the treated bags
should be opened and the gas allowed to disperse.
SILVICULTURE
Germination is hypogeous, the cotyledons remaining
within the seed, but they may emerge a little above
the ground, forming a strong hypocotyl that continues
below in the primary root, which will give rise to
a strong axial root. The seedling is a strong light
demander, which does not develop under forest shade.
The early method of establishment was by direct seeding
in previously prepared areas. In the nursery it is
best grown with high shade, giving about 50% light.
After root-pruning the seedlings remain in the seed
beds for about five months. For transplanting a spacing
of 2 m x 2 m is recommended , but correct spacing and
ideal basal area will vary from place to place.
Correct tending in the first two years is particularly
important. Pruning and thinning would depend on the
object of management.
Parana pine's major demands are undoubtedly on the soil,
so much so that, paradoxically, only 20 percent or
less of the area of its natural range offers the right
conditions for commercial cultivation. Its initial
growth rate, is lower than that of both P. taeda and
£• elliottii , and its demands for better quality soil
are the main reasons why cultivation of parana pine is
limited. With the practice of direct sowing its
growth during the first year is very slow, and this
obliges the planters to employ a number of cultural
treatments which raise the costs of planting. However,
this is not sufficient reason for abandoning cultiva-
tion of this conifer, which has many merits. It is an
indigenous species, almost immune to diseases and
epidemics of economic importance. Under particular
environmental conditions it reproduces at a very
satisfactory rate and supplies a wood which constitutes
an excellent material for sawing, plywood and mechanical
and semi-chemical pulp. In the Serra da Mantiqueira
its cultivation is economically viable in areas of
-80 -
former forest, on slopes or in humid valleys with
fertile soils and good drainage. It is not suitable
for cultivation in open space, where the limitations
are nutrient deficiency, aluminium toxicity and the
shallowness of the soil, which causes the tree to
become very sensitive to the effects of drought during
the winter season. (Golfari, 1971; Golfari et.al.,1978)
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its natural range.
REASON FOR DECLINE
Araucaria forests have been the main source of high
quality timber for construction, frame work, furniture,
veneer, pulp and other uses. Saw timber and veneer
have been exported to several countries for a long
period; at times they were rated second only to coffee
in export value. The araucaria reserves in the State
of Sab Paulo were exhausted in the period between
1930 and 194O (Krug, 1964), As estimated by Maack
(1968), 7.4 million hectares of natural araucaria
forest which existed in the State were further reduced
to 433 - 580 ha (Machado, 1975) in 1967 and 316-620 ha
(FUPEF/BDF, 1978) in 1977, the latter being only
4.3% of the original area.
Araucaria timber production in all States increased
from 1.5 million cubic metres in 1945 to 3.3 million
in 1950. From that year to 1966, the output was
steady around 2,8 million cubic metres a year. Then
until 1972, it decreased to an annual output of 1.8
million cubic metres (Parana", 1976). (Shimizu &
Oliveira, 1983).
- 81 -
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Reforestation with araucaria was done at first by a few
companies as well as by the Federal Government. Close
to 90,OOO ha had been planted by 1979 , according to
the estimates from several sources. Araucaria
angustifolia is not considered a fast growing species
in Brazil. Due to this, plantation rates have declined
sharply during the last years (not more than 300 ha a
year) , giving place to the introduced Pinus elliottii,P.
taeda and Eucalyptus which are less site demanding and
have higher growth rates.
A few planted or natural stands have been maintained
for seed production areas by the Brazilian Institute
for Forestry Development (IBDF) and some companies as
well. Further experiments for the study of provenance
and progeny variation are under way, in connection
with the formation of genetic base populations for
improvement work, under the coordination of the
Brazilian Working Group on Forest Tree Improvement.
Preliminary seed zones have been determined based on
these experiments. The material will be followed
closely up to rotation age, to ascertain the accuracy
of these zones.
- 82 -
ucaria forest
type? of forest
plains/open spaces
FIGURA 1 - Area de distribui^ao da bVLucasiici anguAtifiobia no sul do Brasi!
e Argentina (seggndo HUECK, 1972).
Figure 1 - Distribution of Araucaria anaustifolia in southern
Brazil and Argentina (according to HUECK, 1972)
- 83 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FUPEF/IBDF
1978
Golfari, L.
1971
Golfari, L. ;
Caser,R.L. &
Moura,V.P.G.
1978
(Fundagao de Pesquisas Florestais do
Parang & Institute Brasileiro de Desen-
vovimento Florestal) - Inventario
Florestal do pinheiro no sul do Brasil:
Curitiba. 199 p.
Coniferas aptas para reflorestamento nos
Estados do Parana", Santa ^Catarina e Rio
Grande do Sul. Boletim tecnico. IBDF,
(1): 1-71.
Zoneamenio ecologico esquematico para
reflorestamento no Brasil: 23 aproxima-
gao. Serie tecnica. PRODEPEF, Brasilia,
(11): 1-66.
Gurgel Filho,Q.A. Analise bioestatfstica de pinhoes de
&Pisani,J.F.
1975
Hoog , R . J , ;
Dietrich, A. B. ft
Ahrens,S.
1978
Hueck, K.
1972
Krug, H.P.
1964
Maack,R.
1968
Machado,S.A.
1975
Mainieri, C ft
Pereira, J.A.
1965
cinco diferentes proveniencias.Silvicul-
tura em Sab Paulo, Safo Paulo, 9: 73-85.
•w *
Classif ica9ao de sitio, tabelas de volu-
me e de produ^ao para povoamentos
artificiais de Araucaria anausfoiia.
Brasil florestal, Brasilia, (9) : 58-82.
As florestas da America do Sul. Sao
Paulo, Editora Poligno, 466 p.
Fontes^de abastecimento atuais e
previsao. Silvicultura em £ao Paulo,
3: 333-69.
Geografia fisica do Estado do Parana.
Curitiba, M. Roesner, 350 p.
Florestas naturais do Estado do Parana
Brasil florestal, Rio de Janeiro, 6
(22): 16-23.
Madeiras do Brasil: sua caracteriza9ao
macroscopica , usos comerciais e^i'ndices
qualitativos fisico-meclfnicos. 'Anuario
Brasileiro de economia florestal, Rio
de Janeiro, (separata 17); 1-282.
- 84 -
Mattos, J.R.
1972
Muniz,P.J.C.
1966
Ntima, 0,0.
1968
01iveira,B.
1948
Paran^T Univer-
sidade Federal
1976
Pitcher ,J.
1973
Pitcher, J.
1975
Ramalho,R.S.
1973
Rizzini, C.T.
1971
Shimizu,J.Y &
Oliveira, Y.M.M.
1983
0 pinheiro brasileiro. Sab Paulo,
Gremio Polite'cnico, 638 p.
Inventario do pinheiro no Parana*:
Relatorio da Coordena9ao do Projeto de
Recursos Florestais. Curitiba. 40 p.
The araucarias fast growing timber
trees of lowland tropics. Oxford,
Commonwealth Forestry Institute.
As regioes de ocorrencia normal de
Araucaria. Anuario brasileiro de
economia florestal, Rio de Janeiro,
1 (1) : 185-99.
Estudos das alternativas te'cnicas,
econdmicas e sociais para o setor
florestal do Parana': subprograma
mercadeo, anexo 4 - Comtfrcio externo
de madeiras segundo o porto de
embarque, £ especie e o grau de indu-
strializa9ab. Curitiba, Iv.
The Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.)
O.Ktze. gene resource in Brazil. In:
FAO - Forest genetic resources infor-
mation, No. 2 Roma, p. 43-7
Report on a FAO project to establish
international provenance trials of
Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O.Ktze.
In: FAO - Forest genetic resources
information, No. 4 Roma, p. 59-64
Dendrologia 1: notas de aula. Vicjosa,
UFV, Escola Superior de Florestas,92p.
Arvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil:
manual de dendrologia brasileira.
Sao Paulo, Edgard Blucher/EDUSP, 294p.
Distribui9?ro, varia9*ao e usos dos
recursos geneticos de arauciricas no
sul do Brasil. Silvicultura, Sao
Paulo, 28 (30): 287-90.
- 85 -
I/
Araucaria cunninghamii Alton ex Lambert
SYNONYMS
Altingia Cunningham ii D. Don t.79 (1830)
Araucaria cunninghamii Sweet (1830)
Araucaria cunninghamii D. Don (1839)
Araucaria beccari Warb. (190O)
Araucaria cunninghamii Ait. var. papuana Laut. (1913)
FAMILY
Araucariaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Papua New Guinea:
Wasik (Bulolo) , Gobe (Waria) , Gobe (Mai.ama) , Kuru
(Mt. Kumme) , Mau (Agaun) , Nimola (Fergusson Is.),
Toe'okera (Suwaira) , Beneba (Lufa) , Gapma'aa (Warabung) ,
Gama (Sina Sina) , Kumane (Poinduma) , Manemoi (Manegoima),
Gilman (Kurumul) , Taya (Pogera-Paiela) , Wiru (Erave) ,
Escera (Pimaga) , Escila (Kutubu) , Bantu'ump (Bumbu) ,
Bontuan (Kaigorin) , Alloa (Arfaks) , Ningwik (Fak Fak Mts.)
Sari (Bembi) , Warir (Gurumbu) , D'Li (Oksapmin-Telefomin),
Musalo Wutung, Pien (Kebar Valley) .
Australia:
Richmond River Pine (New South Wales), Hoop pine.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A large, unbuttressed, symmetrical tree, 50-70 m high.
Bole straight, cylindrical, self-pruning, clean to 30 m
I/Based on the work of N.H.S.Howcroft (Office of Forests,
Forest Research Station, P.O. Box 134, Bulolo Morobe
Province, Papua New Guinea).
- 86 -
or more on mature trees, 1.2-1.7 m diameter. Crown
pyramidal to flat.
Branches in whorls of up to six, more or less
horizontal, with second to fifth order branchlets.
Trunk internodes variable, 1-4 m.
Seedling: Cotyledons four, small, narrow linear,
10-30 x 1-4 mm, glabrous, flat.
Inflorescence
Monoecious. Male strobili usually borne on lower and
mid-crown branches, terminal, green, yellow at anthesis.
Red-brown later, elongated, about 9Ox 10 mm. Pollen
spheroidal, without air sacs, wind dispersed. Female
strobili borne mostly in upper crown, terminal, green
consisting of clustered, spirally arranged ovuliferous
scales fused with ligulate scales.
Fruit
Cone: green, ovoid 7O-10O x 60-80 mm; the cone is .
covered with short spines, 9-10 mm long, porrect or
de flexed.
Seed; in the form of ovulate cone scales, more or less
flat, woody, triangular with two thin wings,
indehiscent. Scale terminating in a sharp spine;
reddish brown in colour; seed (excluding wing) ,
20- 3O x 9-10 mm.
Foliage
Juvenile foliage: Leaves longer and flatter than adult,
23-27 x 2O-25 mm. Persist until trees are bout 1O
years old.
- 87 -
Adult foliage; Leaves crowded in overlapping whorls
on ends of branches, persistent, without petioles ,
narrow to broadly triangular, slightly curved, 8-10 mm
long, glabrous, dull green colour.
Bark
Outer bark dark plum, red-brown or grey coloured, rough,
peeling off around circumference in stringy papery
layers; middle bark reddish brown; inner bark mottled
white.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood cream to almost white in colour. Exudate thick,
viscous, white and resinous. It is an important tree
for the saw-milling and plywood industry in Papua New
Guinea and has potential for wood pulp and chips.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In the island of New Guinea, this conifer has a
discontinous distribution ranging from the headwaters
of the Saga Aho River in the Milne Bay area of Papua
at latitude 10°04fS, longitude 15O°15'E, altitude
550-900 m a.s.l., up to the north-western end of the
Vogelkop of West Irian near Sausapor at latitude
0°03'S, longitude 132°05'E, altitude approximately
800 m a.s.l. (Aubreville, 1965; Gray 1971; Havel, 1971;
Zieck, 1975 pers. comm. ) . This species is also
indigenous to Australia and West Irian. It has a
discontinuous and narrow distribution along the east
coast there, ranging from Kempsey in New South Wales
at latitude 31°S to Cape Grenville on Cape York
Peninsula in North Queensland at latitude 12°S. It
- 88 -
occurs naturally from sea level to over 1 OOO m a.s.l.
throughout its range in Australia (Re illy 1974) .
CLIMATE
The altitudinal range of the species in New Guinea is
from 6O to 2 745 m a.s.l. Due to the remoteness of
many of the known stands, there are no accurate mete-
orological data from them. Mean monthly maximum
temperatures range from 25°C on the coast to less than
15°C in the highlands. The mean monthly minimum
temperature for stands at extreme elevations (e.g.
Mt. Suckling, altitude 2 745 m a.s.l.) is not known
but it is probably quite low. The species is likely
to be sensitive to frost. Mean monthly relative
humidity ranges between 78 and 9O percent on the
coast, 6O and 8O percent in the highlands. Mean
annual rainfall at localities near natural stands in
Papua New Guinea ranges from 1 929 to 4 787 mm
(McAlpine et al. 1975) The climate of south-eastern
Queensland is sub-tropical with warm humid summers and
mild winters. Near the sea there are no frosts, but
inland at altitudes up to 7OO m there are up to 20
frosts a year. The annual rainfall is mainly in the
range of 1 OOO-l 5OO mm with more than half falling
from December to March. Even during the driest period
from July to September, however, there is seldom less
than 35 mm a month.
SOILS
Stands of A. cunninghamii occur on loam, clay, sand or
peat soils derived from breccias, agglomerates,
coralline or limestone formations, lacustrine deposits
or old volcanic deposits.
- 89 -
HABITAT
Papua New Guinea: A. cunninghamii occurs in isolated
remnant pockets or in fairly dense stands on ridges.
In some instances it is found on swampy terrain. It
is often associated with Araucaria hunsteinii,
Castanopsis, Lithocarpus, Flindersia, Elaeocarpus ,
Podocarpus and Toona (Havel, 1971; Gray, 1975) and
may be found less frequently associated with Nothofagus.
Australia; Hoop pine mainly occurs as scattered,
predominant trees over an understorey of rain-forest.
Only rarely does it form pure forests. Amongst the
more important associated rain-forest species in
Australia are yellow-wood (Flindersia xanthoxyla) ,
crow's ash (F. australis) , southern silver ash
(F. pubescens) , various mahoganies (Dysoxylum spp. )
members of the laurel family (Lauraceae) , and the
family Celastraceae, to which orange boxwood (Celastrus
dispermus) and ivorywood ( S iphonodon australe) belong.
In New South Wales a principal associate of hoop pine
is coachwood (Cera tope talum a pet alum) .
SEED HANDLING
There are approximately 4 OOO dry seeds per kg.
No special pre-treatment is needed.
SILVICULTURE
Seedlings can be raised by the pregermination
technique as used for klinkii pine or by sowing into
beds. These techniques are adequately covered by
such publications as "Technique for establishment
and maintenance of hoop pine" (Qld. For.Dept. 1963);
the handbook "Silvicultural Techniques in Papua New
- 90 -
Guinea Forest Plantations11 (Dept. Primary Industry
Office of Forests, Papua New Guinea); Ntima (1968);
and Howcroft (1974).
Araucaria cunninghamii can be successfully grafted by
using scion budding (patch grafting) with material
taken from the apical leader of the main stem, or by
side approach grafting and bottle grafting using the
apical shoot of the main stem. Grafted branch
material produces plagiotropic grafts and has little
use other than for pollen production.
STATUS
Not endangered as a species but endangered in parts
of its geographic range, especially in New Guinea
where the species has been reduced to relic pockets
in the wild. Two large stands are left - MacAdam
National Park and the Susu Mt. Nature Reserve.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
There appear to be five main reasons for the decline
of the species in some areas of New Guinea. Several
of these are related:
(i) Demand for arable land.
(i) A number of stands are known to have been
seriously reduced by the fires started by natural
causes or by man for agricultural or hunting
purposes, or through indiscriminate burning of
adjacent grasslands or old gardens* Vigour and
regenerative capacity of survivors in burnt
- 91 -
stands are reduced and soil erosion can become
a significant problem.
(iii)In small remnant stands domesticated and feral
pigs can completely destroy regeneration of
Araucaria seedlings and adversely affect the
health of maiden stand trees (western highlands
of Papua New Guinea) .
(iv) Industry in some areas has reduced large stands
of this conifer to small pockets of remnant
regeneration. Sometimes these logged areas are
occupied by gardens and the small population of
survivors is reduced further in size.
This situation can deteriorate further with
termite infestation to which hoop pine is
susceptible and, as viability declines rapidly
without storage at 12°C, there is no reserve
of dormant seeds in the soil under natural stands;
replacement of destroyed or logged, mature
stems must wait for any existing seedlings to
reach reproductive age which commences around
age 15.
(v) There are signs that some stands are over-mature
and in some of these there is little or no
regeneration due to low seed vigour and viability
or destruction of cones by cockatoos, animals
and insects.
- 92 -
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
A number of reconnaissance and seed collecting trips
were made from 1972 to 1975, to assess tree
characteristics, accessibility of stands, size of cone
crops, best time for cone collection, and to collect
seed if available. The reconnaissance of Araucaria
stands covered sections of the south-east of Papua,
the Morobe Province, Eastern, Western and Southern
Highlands Provinces and the West Sepik Province of
Papua New Guinea and the Arfak Mountains of West
Irian. Successful seed collections were made in the
Morobe and the three highland provinces of Papua New
Guinea and an unsuccessful but informative attempt was
made in West Irian (see Forest Genetic Resources
Information No. 6, FAO 1977). Seedlings of six Papua
New Guinea provenances have been raised to establish
small conservation stands and a provenance trial has
been recently planted at Bulolo to test four
provenances. These are as follows:
1. Bulolo - lat. 7°13'S, long. 146°45'E, alt.
1 158 m a. s.l. Rainfall (p. a.) 1 615 mm
2. Elaro - lat. 7°27'E, 146°47fE, alt. 1 500 m a. s.l.
Rainfall - 1 88O mm
3. Bumbu - lat. 6°42IS, long. 147°00'E, alt.
1 219 m a. s.l. Rainfall* 1 916 mm
4. Pumaga - lat. 6°30'S, long. 143°30'E, alt. 750 m
a. s.l. Rainfall 3 405 mm.
- 93 -
Further collections are required from the Milne Bay
Province covering the northern slopes of Mt. Nelson and
Fergusson Island; in the Papuan province near Mt.Oberee,
Woitape and Mt. Suckling; in the Morobe Province from
Paiaway; in the Chimbu Province from the Tua
River and Chuave; in the Western Sepik Province from
Oksapmin; Telefomin and Wutung; in West Irian from
Anggi lakes; Arfak Mts., Babor, Japen Island, Sausapor
and other accessible areas.
- 94 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aubreville, A.
1965
Cameron , M.A.
1958
Dallimore, W. &
Jackson, A.B.
1966
FAO
1981
Francis, W.D.
1970
Gaussen, H.
1970
Gibbs, L.S.
1916
Gray , B .
1974
Gray , G .
1975
Havel, J.J.
1971
Higgins, M.D.
1969
Howcroft, N.H.S.
1974
Les reliques de la flores des conif^res
tropicauxen Australia et Nouvelle
Caledonie. Adansonia 5: 481-497.
The flowering and fruiting of hoop pine
(Araucaria cunninghamii) . Queensland
Naturalist, 16: 23-26.
A handbook on con i ferae,
pp. 111-114.
Fourth ed.
Data book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenenances,
FO:MISC/81/11, p. 7-1O.
Australian Rain-Forest Trees. Third ed.
Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra, pp. 6O-65.
Les Gymnospermes actuelles et fossiles,
20: 30-34.
A contribution to the Phytogeography
and Flora of the Arfak Mts., pp. 83-84.
Distribution of Araucaria in Papua New
Guinea. P.N.G. Dept. Forest Research
Bulletin, No. 1, pp. 1-56.
Size composition and regeneration of
Araucaria stands in New Guinea.
J.Ecol. , 63: 27J-269.
The Araucaria forests of New Guinea
and their regenerative capacity.
J.Ecol., 59: 203-214.
Grafting of Hoop Pine in Queensland.
Queensland Forest Dept. (Limited publ.),
pp. 1-76.
Pregermination Technique for Araucaria
hunsteinii P.N.G. For Dept. Trop. Res.
Note SR27 pp. 1-10.
- 95 -
Howcroft, N.H.S.
1978
Just, T.
1964
McAlpine, J.R. f
Keig, G. &
Short, K.
1975
Ntima, 0.0.
1968
Reilly, J.J.
1974
Exploration and provenance seed
collections in Papua New Guinea
1976/77: Araucaria cunninghamii
and A. hunsteinii. Forest Genetic
Resources Information No. 8, Forestry
Occasional Paper 1978/2. FAO, Rome.
Araucariaceae. In: "Encyclopedia
americana", 2: T34- 137.
Climatic Tables for Papua New Guinea.
C.S.I.R.O. Aust. Land Use Research
Technical Paper No. 37 : 1-177.
The Araucarias. Fast-growing timber
trees of the lowland tropics,
1-14, 24-59
Geographic variation of Hoop Pine.
Dept. For. Qld. Res. Paper, No. 4.
- 96 -
I/
Araucaria hunsteinii K. Schumann
SYNONYMS
Araucaria schummaniana Warb. (190O)
Araucaria klinkii Laut. (1913)
/There are two distinct varieties of this Araucaria
species. One variety has green leaves, flowers and
cones, and the other, which is the original Araucaria
klinkii Laut., has dusky glaucous grey blue leaves
that become dark green with ageA7
FAMILY
Araucariaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Klinkii pine (trade name), Pa's (Watut.Bulolo) ,
(Waria-Kaisinik) , Gerau* (Waria) , Bimu (Toma) ,
Yanguman* (Agaun) , Yomojo (Kotte-Pindui) , Karina
(Bembi, Madang) , Rassu (Ongoruna) , Nd'uk (Wareng) ,
Kembaga, Saa'vara (Taiora) , Sowes (Erave, Mt.Matmuri) ,
(*Blue-grey or glaucous variety) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A large, unbuttressed, symmetrical tree, 5O-8O m
high, bole straight, cylindrical, self pruning,
clear to 35 m or more, up to 2 m diameter. Crown
pyramidal to rounded. Branches in whorls of 5 or 6,
I/Based on the work of N.H.S.Howcroft (Office of Forests,
Forest Research Station, P.O. Box 134, Bulolo Morobe
Province, Pauua New Guinea).
- 97 -
mostly horizontal, partly denuded, with second order
branches clustered at the end of the first order
branches. Second order branches pendant or partly
erect. Trunk internodes regular per tree but
variable within stands, 0.5-2 m long.
Inflorescence
Monoecious. Male strobili borne at the apex of second
order branches in the mid and lower crown, sessile,
cylindrical; immature strobili green or blue green,
with or without white exudate depending on the variety,
yellow brown at anthesis, brown later, elongated, up
to 21.0 x 1.1 cm. Female strobili borne in mid and
upper crown, terminal, green or grey-blue, consisting
of clustered, spirally arranged ovuliferous scales
fused with ligulate scales, developing into large
cones that fragment at maturity.
Fruit
Cone; Obovoid, cylindrical, apex conical to slightly
depressed, basal portion flattened, up to 25 x 14-16 cm,
consisting of overlapping seed scales spirally around a
central axis, c. 1O-14 x 1.5 cm in size. Cone covered
with sharp spines.
Seed; Seed scales broadly triangular, to 6 cm long
x 8 cm wide, consisting of a firm but not woody,
central portion, 4.5-6 x 1 cm, grading into two
persistent membraneous lateral wings. Apex of each
scale with a rhomboidal marginal swelling or apophysis,
bearing a sharp brittle spine 9-15 mm long, giving the
cone its spiny appearance. Seed ovate in shape,
- 98 -
lenticular in section , borne centrally on the seed
scale, 3-4 x 1 cm.
Foliage
Juvenile foliage; Leaves in whorls, glabrous, light
green to green, lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate,
mostly shorter, narrower and flatter than the adult,
sessile, 3.5-9.O x O.5-1.5 cm. Trees retain juvenile
foliage in mid and lower crown at least until 19 years
of age or until they become emergent.
Adult foliage; Leaves in overlapping whorls, persistent,
sessile, lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate, broadly
channelled with apex slightly rounded or inflexed,
abaxially slightly keeled near apex, up to 11.5 long x
1.5 cm wide, green dusky grey or very dark green.
Bark
Outer bark red to grey-brown, rough, peeling in small
or large broad coarse pieces around circumference
of bole; middle bark reddish, inner bark yellow-white.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood creamy pink to yellowish white. Exudate thick,
viscous, white and resinous.
*• hunsteinii often develops into a larger tree than
the other indigenous species A. cunninghamii (Gray 1975).
It is regarded as having a bole form superior to that of
A. cunninghamii, particularly in plantations, and due
to this it is highly valued in the sawmilling and
plywood industry in Papua New Guinea. The timber
of this species, as for other species, is excellent
- 99 -
for interior work such as moulding, joinery , cabinet
work and for flooring, match and match boxes as high
quality plywood, including marineply. It is
recommended for aircraft frame construction.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This conifer is restricted to Papua New Guinea
(Fig. 1 and Table 1) and occurs as scattered stands
within the area 142°74!E to 150°OlfE, 5°11'S to
100ll'S (Gray 1973) .
The species occurs at altitudes ranging from 520 to
2 100 m a. s.l. The size and location of nearly all
known stands has been discussed at length by Gray (1973)
CLIMATE
Due to the remoteness of most stands of A.hunsteinii
there is no accurate meteorological data for them.
Known climatic details for sites near mature klinkii
stands are as follows: rainfall 1 615*4 586 mm p. a.,
mean monthly maximum temperatures 22.8° to 31.1°C,
mean monthly minimum temperatures 12.3° to 20.8°C, and
mean monthly relative humidity 50 to 89 percent
(McAlpine et al. 1975). Klinkii pine is likely to be
frost sensitive.
SOILS
The species occurs on acid clay loams derived from
breccias, agglomerates, lacustrian laterites or old
volcanic deposits.
- 100 -
HABITAT
A.Hunsteinii occurs as isolated remnant pockets of
forest or as fairly dense stands on mountain sides and
ridges. It is most frequently associated with Castano-
psis, Calophyllum, Garcinia, Eleaocarpus , Podocarnus ,
Toona , Flindersia, Gnetur, Litsea, Cryptocaria , Pometia
and in a number of instances, with Araucaria cunningha-
mii.
SEED HANDLING
There are 2OOO-2500 dry dewinged seeds per kg. Seedlings
can be raised by the pregermination technique or by
sowing into beds with overhead shade (White and Cameron
1965, Ntima, 1968; Howcroft, 1974).
SILVICULTURE
A. hunsteinii can be grafted using budwood patches
taken from the apical leader of the main stem, or by
using side approach or bottle grafting techniques. The
techniques are the same as those used to graft hoop
pine as outlined by Higgins (1969) . Grafted branch
material produces plagiotropic grafts that are only
useful for pollen production.
STATUS
Not endangered as a species , but endangered in parts of
its geographic range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Shifting agriculture, fire and local and commercial
demands for timber are the main causes for the decline
of stands in various areas. The Agaun stand has been
reduced since 1949 from more than 2OO trees to about
50 trees by intensive gardening and fire. Feral pigs
have disturbed and destroyed much of the natural
- 101 -
regeneration in this area (Howcroft, Dept. Report 1975).
Similar examples may be found at Bulolo, Wau. Garaina
and the Finisterre Range (locality No. 5) , the Gimi
Valley and Tagari (Gray 1973) . Saw milling operations
have depleted stands in the Settleberg Range. Kudjip,
Bulolo and Wau areas.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
A number of field trips were made between 1972 and 1977
to numerous natural stands to assess tree characteristics,
accessibility of stands, size of cone crops, best time
for cone collection and to collect seed, where available.
Stands investigated so far are those in the Garaina-
Waria region in the Morobe Province, Toma in the
Northern Province, Agaun in the Milne Bay Province and
the Jimi Valley in the Western Highlands Province. A
previously unknown stand was located south west or
Erave near Mt.Matmuri in 1976. Successful seed collec-
tions were made at Garaina and in the Jimi Valley.
Seedlings from three provinces have been raised to
establish conservation stands and provenance trials.
These provinces are as follows:
1. Bulolo - Lat. 7°13'S, Long. 146°45'E. Alt. 1 158 m
a.s.l., rainfall 1 615 mm per annum.
2. Garaina - Lat. 7°54'S, Long. 147o10'E.Alt. 60O-950 m
a.s.l., rainfall 2 8O6 mm p. a.
3. Jimi Valley - Lat. 5°33'S, Long. 144°5O'E. Alt.l 500m
a.s.l., rainfall 3 OOO mm p. a.
Other stands which need to be investigated are those at
the Sattleberg Range and Paiawa in the Morobe Province,
Bomai-Karimui in the Chimb u Province, and the Tagari
and Adzugari stands as these are the most western known
- 1 02 -
occurrences of the species. Collections from the
Toma stand would also be desirable but access may be
difficult without the use of a helicopter to reach
the major portions of the stand.
Further studies are required to evaluate the potential
of the glaucous variety and to determine its range.
- 103 -
TABLE 1
KEY TO LOCALITIES ON MAP (FIG. 1)
Loca-
lity
No.
Name of Stand Localities
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
(metres)
1
Damura River
10°10'00"
150°02'30"
+ 650
2
Agaun
09°55'45
149°23'00
1 200
3
Mt.Suckling-Didana Range
09°45'00
148°58'00
800-1 100
4
Baryi and Musa Valley
09°15f30
148°16f30
550-1 100
09°12'30
148°23'45
Not known
5
Mt.Oberee
09°28'00
148°02'45
900-1 200
6
Kokoda gap&Kailili Creek
08°53fOO
147°47I00
750-1 500
7
Mambare and Chirima River
08°38'15
147°36'30
+ 1 000
8
Garaina
07°54'00
147°10' 30
800
9
Bulolo-Wau-Watut
07°11I30
146°39'00
760
10
Pindiu Sattleberg
06°29'00
147°32I00
884-950
11
Finisterre Range
05°35'30
145°33'30
+ 600
12
Bismark Range
05°56'00
145°36'30
950-1 000
13
Jimi
06°33'00
145°24'00
+ 2 100
14
Tua River
06°22'00
144°38<00
750-1 500
15
Erave
06°40f10
144°OOfOO
+ 1 000
16
Kudjip Mission
05°50'1Q
144°30'10
i 1 550
17
Jimi Valley
05°32'00
144038'00
915-1 525
18
Tagari River
05°45'30
143°00I00
1 000-1 550
19
Adzugari
05°33'30
142°44 '00
Not known
- 104 -
150°
DISTRIBUTION OF ARAUCARIA HUNSTEINII IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
7"
I J
^*^ ^
% jfHOSKINS C
~^^^ *>
^^\^«*^ "^W TA
WO 0 KK) 200 300 400 Km
• X- KNOWN LOCALITIES OF THE GLAUCOUS VARIETY
- 105 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree Species
1981 and Provenances, FO:MISC/81/11, p. 11-16.
Gray,B. Distribution of Araucaria in Papua New Guinea.
1973 Papua New Guinea Forest Research Bulletin No.l,
pp. 31-56.
Gray,B. Size composition and regeneration of Araucaria
1975 stands in New Guinea. J. Ecol. 63: 273-289.
Hall,N.et.al. Forest Trees of Australia. Australian Govern-
1970 ment Publishing Service, Canberra.
Higgins,M.D. Grafting hoop pine in Queensland Forest Dent.
1969 (Limited Publ.) pp. 1-76.
Hcwcroft,N.H.S. Pregermination technique for Araucaria hunsteinii.
1974 P.N.G. Forest Department Res. Note SR 27
pp. 1-10.
Howcroft,N.H.S. Exploration and provenance seed collections
1978 in Papua New Guinea 1976/77: Araucaria
cunninghamii and A. hunsteinii. Forest Genetic
Resources Information No. 8 Forestry Occa-
sional Paper 1978/2, FAO, Rome.
McAlpine,J.R.; Climatic tables for Papua New Guinea, CSIRO
Keig,G.& Aust. Land Use Research Technical Paper No. 37
Short, K. pp. 1-77.
1975
Ntima,0.0. The Araucarias. Fast Growing Timber Trees of
1968 the Lowland Tropics No. 3. Commonwealth
Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Wiite,K.J.4 Silvicultural techniques in Papua New Guinea
Cameron, A. L. Forest Plantations. Division of Silviculture.
1965 Dept, of Forests. Bull. No. 1 pp. 8-30.
- 106 -
Aspidosperma poly neuron Muell. Arg.~
SYNONYMS
Aspidosperma peroba Fr. All. (1865)
Aspidosperma duqandii Standl. (1933)
FAMILY
Apocynaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Peroba rosa, amargoroso, peroba mirim, peroba amarela,
peroba rajada, peroba a<yu, sobro, peroba amargosa,
peroba de S5b Paulo, peroba paulista.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A large tree, with a height varying from 25 to 3O m,
cylinder shaped stem of 12 to 15 m in length and
O. 7 to 0.8 m in diameter, sometimes reaching 1.0 m;
crown thin with ascendant branches, and typical
corymb-type ramification.
Inflorescence
An axillary inflorescence on the ends of the branches,
forming a small dichotomous cyme 1 to 4 cm in length.
Small green-yellow flowers, hermaphrodite, 4 mm in
length; calyx consists of a tube with five laciniate
lobes ; corolla consists of a tube which is longer than
the calyx. Flowering occurs in November -December; for
I/Based on the work of M. Tomazello,M.L. Marques , and
"" R.Chiaranda. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O.Box 9, Piracicaba, S.P., Brazil.
- 107 -
the Southern region during the months of April- May;
other authors report flowering in June - July.
Fruit
A dehiscent capsule almost always paired, brown, striped
lengthwise with yellow spots. Fruits approximately
5.5 to 6.0 cm in length and 1.0 to 1.5 cm in width. The
shape of the fruits is similar to a short pod, wider
towards the apex, pointed, sessile, with a somewhat
prominent cyst; outside heavily covered with easily
visible lenticels. Fructification occurs in October
and during the months of June - August in the
Southern region; other authors have reported fruit
setting in October-November.
Foliage
Leaves varies in shape, oblong to eliptic - obovate
with an obtuse apex, and narrower at the base;
membranaceous ; dark green on the upper side and lighter
colored underneath; 6 to 8 cm long and 2 to 4 cm wide;
alternate arrangement, short petiole (1 cm in length),
leaf blade glabrous, with numerous secondary veins.
Branches are round, trichotomous, with leaves on the
ends.
Bark
The trunk is slender, with a slightly cracked grey
bark, rigid, brownish color, lactiferous, bitter,
rhytidome with a pinkish tinge internally and the
alive portion of yellow color.
- 108 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy, heartwood varying from a pink-yellow
to a lightly rose colored burnt-yellow , uniform or
with vein or dark patches; the surface is smooth
but not shiny; indistinct smell, a slightly bitter
taste; straight; fine texture. In laboratory trials,
peroba-rosa wood revealed low resistance to rot
and to dry wood termite attacks. As the peroba-rosa
has many minute pores which are partially obstructed
by oil-resin and tyloses, it has a low permeability
to preservative solutions in treatments under pressure.
The peroba-rosa wood is primarily used in civil
construction, mainly in the state of Sao Paulo, for
beams, rafters, laths, door- jambs, shutters, gates,
frames, boards and tiles for floors, stairs, etc.. As it has
a medium mechanical resistance and medium retractabi-
lity, it is recommended for heavy furniture, school
desks, for the production of veneers, construction
of wagons, truck-bodies, etc.. It is also used for
sleepers, not so much because of its durability, which
to-date is around 6 years, but due to the relative
facility in acquiring this wood, its workability, and
mainly due to the good fixation of nails. Presently the
railways are using a good part of the
sleepers that have undergone treatment with preser-
vatives under pressure.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The original area of natural distribution of this
species is vast, covering Southern and South Eastern •
Brazil, although in some States of this region the
- 109 -
occurrence of this species is minute. It is found in
the state of Bahia (extreme South), Minas Gerais,
Mato Grosso, Sab Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and
Rio Grande do Sul. This species is also found in
Argentina, Paraguay and Peru (Hueck, 1972; Rizzini and
Mors, 1976). Presently, due to the intense exploitation
of the species, its occurrence has been signifi-
cantly reduced (IPEF/EMBRAPA, 1981).
CLIMATE
The climate in the areas of occurrence varies and
includes the following types:
a) subtropical moderate humid: annual average tempe-
rature between 18 and 22°C ; average annual precipi-
tation varying beteeen 1250 and 2000 mm, with a
uniform distribution in the Parana river basin, and
a seasonal distribution in the Central Eastern part
of the State of Sao Paulo, Southern Minas Ferais,
South-eastern Espirito Santo) ; b) subtropical or
tropical subhumid: average annual temperature between
21° and 24°C, and annual average precipitation varying
between 1200 and 1500 mm, with a seasonal distribution
and a water deficit in the winter.
SOILS
Depending on the region in which it is located,
A.polyneuron may occur from 150 to 1100 m in altitude,
thriving in several soil types; developing well in
soils of decomposed basaltic and diabasic rocks
(Klein, 1963), and humid deep soils (Klein, 1972).
- 110 -
HABITAT
This species is found in several types of forest
formations, such as low altitude forests in the
Parana river basin; however it is not found in the
Uruguai river basin (Klein, 1972); seasonal evergreen
mountainous forests, and seasonal evergreen forests.
In the state of Parana, the species penetrates
sometimes into Araucaria forest (Araucaria angustifo-
lia) ,were it becomes dominant in the understory
(Klein, 1963) .
SEED HANDLING
Germination which takes place 16 days after sowing,
does not require pre-germination treatments. One
kg contains approximately 11500 seeds. In terms of
substrate and temperature for seed germination, the
temperature has a more significant influence on
germination than the substrate utilized. A germination
percentage of between 76 and 90% was obtained at
temperatures of 20 and 25°C using several substrates
(vermiculite, green blotter paper etc.).
SILVICULTURE
In a trial carried out in the Vale do Rio Doce. MG, an
average height of 7.8 m; a DBH of 9.7 cm; and a 76. 4#
survival at 12 years of age were observed. On the
other hand, in Santa Rita doPassa Quatro-SP an
average height of 6.5m; and a DBH of 6.1 cm at 13 years
of age were obtained. In Bauru - SP, in a provenance
trial, an average height of 4.7 m and a DBH of 5.6 cm
at 12 years of age was noted.
- Ill -
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
Due to its wood resistance and durability, this species
has been exploited intensively during the last decades
and the lands have been taken over by pastures and
agriculuture. Today the surviving trees of this species
are found in small remaining clusters of forests.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
In 1964, the Institute Florestal de Sao Paulo out-
planted a provenance trial in Bauru - SP, using two
provenances. Results from this trial have shown
genetic variation between the provenances. This
Institute has another mixed stand where
A. polyneuron with 35 other species are maintained.
Three base populations propagated from 76
selected trees, resulting from a contract between the
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e
Tecnologico (CNPq) and the Programa Nacional de
Pesquisas Florestais (PNPF) with the Institute
Florestal do Estado de Sao Paulo has been implemented.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 112 -
Associayao Paulista de
Normas Tecnicas.
1964
British Standards
1955
Brown, H.L.
1978
Boutelje, J.B.
1980
Correa, M.P.
1926
Chudnoff, M.
1980
Fanner, R.H.
1975
Fraaa, M.V.G.
1946
Galvao, A. P.M.
1982
Seminar io de madeiras. Rio de
Janeiro. 258p.
Nomenclature of commercial
timbers - including sources
of supply. London. 144 p.
Timbers of the world: 2 South
America. London, Timber Research
and Development Association
TRADA. 121 p.
EnryclopecHa of world timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest
Products Research Laboratory,
398 p.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do
Brasil. Brasilia, IBDF,
5v. 687 p.
Tropical timbers of the world.
Madison, USDA. Forest Products
Laboratory, 826 p.
Handbook of the worlds Timbers
2 ed. London, Princes Risborough
Laboratory. 243 p.
'Ensaio de indice da flora
dendrol£gica do Brasil.
Arquivos do Servi9o Florestal,
Sao Paulo, 2 (2): 69-156.
Contribuicab da EMBRAPA/IBDF-
PNPF para 'a pesquisa com
esp£cies nativas e florestas
naturals do Brasil. Silvicultura
em Sab Paulo, 16A (parte 1) :
150-159.
- 113 -
Golfari, L.;
Caser, R.L. &
Moura , U . P .
1978
Gurgel Filho, O.A.
& Pasztor, Y.P.de C.
1963
Gurgel Filho, O.A.
1975
Hueck, K.
1972
IPEF/EMBRAPA
1981
Klein, R.M.
1963
Klein, R.M
1972
Kribs, D.A.
1970
Kukachka, B.F.
1970
Zoneamento ecologico esquematico
para reflorestamento no Brasil.
Se"rie T*fcnica, PRODEPEF, Brasilia,
11: 1-66.
Fenologia e comportamento em
alfobre de especies florestais e
ornamentais. Silvicultura em
Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo, 1 (2i:
291-304. dezembro.
Essehcias indfgenas - Silvi-
cultura em Sab Paulo, S3To Paulo,
9: 47-52.
As florestas da America do Sul,
S3b Paulo, Poligono/Ed.
Universidade de Brasilia. 466 p.
Conservac,£o de recursos
ge notices de ess£ncias
florestais: relatorio final.
Piracicaba - SP. 117 p.
Sugestoe? ecol<5gicas de algumas
arvores na.tivas proprias para
serem emprega.ias no refloresta-
mento norte e oeste paranaense
In: I simposio de refloresta-
mento da regiab da araucaria
(anais) . Curitiba, p. 157.174.
irvores nativas da floresta
subtropical do alto Uruguai.
Sellowia.Itajai. 24 (24):
9-62.
Commercial foreign woods on the
American Market. University
Park, Penssylvania State
University. 203 p.
Properties of imported tropical
woods. USDA. Forest Service
FPL researcn paper, Madison.
(125): 1-67.
- 114 -
Mainieri, C.
1958
Mainieri, C. &
Pereira, J.A.
1965
Mainieri, C.
1970
Mainieri, C.
1978
Mainieri, C. ;
Chimello, J.P. &
Alfonso, V.A.
1983
Mar land, E. et.al.
1982
Mendes, C.J. et al.
1983
Nogueira, J.C.B &
Siqueira, A.C.M.F.
1976
Identificagab das principals
madeiras de com£rcio no Brasil.
Bol*tim, IPTr S3b Paulo, (46);
1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracteri-
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e Indices qualitativos fisicos
e mecanicos. Anuario brasileiro
de economic florestal, Rio de
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Madeiras brasileir^g: caracterT-
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Manual de identificac'ao das
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brasileiras. Sao Paulo,
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Reconstituicjao de florestas de
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Plantios homogeheos com 8
especies nativas no vale do Rio
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8 (28): 350-352.
Plantio de peroba-rosa
(Aspidosperma polvneuron Muell.
Arg.) de 2 procedSncias para
Estudo Comparative. Silvicul-
tura em SSo Paulo, Sao Paulo,
10: 61-63.
- 115 -
Pasztor Y.P. de C.
1963
Pereira, J.A.
1933
Metodos usados na calheita de
sementes, Silvtcultura em Sab
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Identifica9ao micrografica das
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1950
Ramalho, R.S.
1973
Ramos, A. &
Bianchetti, A,
1984
As principals arvores queo dao
madeira: metodo pratico para
seu reconhecimento. Anu£rio
brasileiro de economia florestal,
Rio de Janeiro, 3 (3): 158-87.
Dendrologia: notas de aula.
Viqosa, UFV, 95 p.
Influencia da tempera tura e do
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sementes florestais. In: x
Simposio Internacional: Metodos
de ProdujSb e Controle de
QuaJidade de Sementes e Mudas
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Record, S.J. &
Hess, R.W.
1949
Rizzini, C.T.
1971
Timbers of new world. 4. ed.
New Haven, Yale University Press,
640 p.
«* ^
Arvores e madeiras uteis do
Brasil: manual de dendrologia
brasileira. Sab Paulo, Editora
Edgard Blucher/EDUSP. 294 p.
Rizzini, C.T. &
Mors W.B.
1976
Botahcia Economica Brasileira.
Sab Paulo, EPU/Ed, Universidade
de Sab Paulo. 207 p.
- 116 -
I/
Astronium urundeuva (Fr. All. ) Engl.
SYNONYM
Myracroduon urundeuva Fr. All. (1862)
Astronium juglandi folium Griseb. (1879)
FAMILY
Anacardiaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Aroeira, aroeira do sertUo, aroeira legit ima, aroeira
da serra, aroeira do campo, urundeuva , arindeuva,
arendeuva, aroeira preta, orindeuva.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Small tree in the "cerrado", approximately 5 m in height
and 0.15 m in diameter, and large in the tropical
forest, where it may reach up to 30 m in height and
1 m in diameter.
Inflorescence
Flowers purple or cream in colour, small, in very
congested panicless on the ends of leafless branches,
with little pubescence; the inflorescence is
approximately 1O to 15 cm in length; flowering occurs
from July to August.
Fruit
Small ovoid globose drupes, with a short apiculus,
approximately 4.5 mm in diameter, maturing in the
months of September - October. In the Amazon, fructif icatior
V Base en the work of M.Tomazello F , R.Chiaranda and
M.L. Marques. Forestry Department, ESALCJ/US^,
P.O. Box 9, Piracicaba, S.P., Brazil.
- 117 -
occurs during the period of January to February.
Fruiting in a pure 3 year old stand has been
noted.
Foliage
Leaves composite , imparipinnate, alternate, with 7-15
folioles oblong or oval; wide, with a rounded or a
shortly acuminate apex; the orbicular base is somewhat
oblique; sub coriaceous with delicate veins; margins
ciliated on both the sides; somewhat hairy, slightly
serrated or crenate, 3-6 cm in length by 2-3.5 cm
in width; petiole pubescent; 2-4 mm long, strong odor.
Branches: When young, flaccid and pubescent, lenticelate ,
light grey.
Bark
Trunk: Straight, its base exibiting few distinct
characteristics, normally straight; in young trees the
bark is smooth, grey and lenticeled; in adults, the
bark is dark brown, and sub-divided into scaly sheets.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Very heavy with a high mechanical resistance; heartwood
pinkish beige or light brown when recently cut, later turning
dark brown-red in colour; sapwood slightly distinguish-
able, white to slightly pink in colour; a somewhat
shiny surface and smooth, medium texture, uniform;
irregular to interlocked grain; no distinct odor or
taste.
It is considered as the wood with the highest resistance
to decay; its vessels are excessively obstructed by
- 118 -
tyloses of oil resin? extremely reduced lumen fibers?
its permeability to preservative solutions is extremely
low in treatments under pressure. It is recommended
for external structures such as framework of bridges,
stakes, posts, fence posts, sleepers, etc. In civil
construction it may be used for beams, floor tiles,
etc. May also be used for the manufacturing of carved
pieces.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The areas of most frequent occurrence are in
Northeastern Brazil, the western part of the States
of Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo, the southern part of
the States of Goias and Mato Grosso. It also occurs
in Argentina and Paraguay.
SOILS/CLIMATE
This species occurs in a wide range of climates,
varying from semi-arid tropical with periodical rains
to subtropical humid with periodical rains, with an
average annual temperature varying between 19 and
28 C, and an average annual precipitation varying
between 7OO and 2000 mm. In Northeastern Brazil this
species occurs in several soils that are of pre-
cambrian as well as tertiary /quartenary origin, which
are generally poor and shallow. It is also common in
terrain undergoing transition from "cerrado" soil to
"terra roxa" soil.
- 119 -
HABITAT
Is found in the most varied types of vegetation, from
the "caatinga" to the tropical rain forest, passing
through "cerrado" formations. In the forest formations
the species appears to be associated with Piptadenia
spp. , Choriza speciosa, Tabebuia impetiginosa and
Hymenea stilbocarpa. In the secondary forests it may
be found in almost pure stands, with plants of varying
ages .
SEED HANDLING
Seeds are not naturally released from the fruit and
should be collected when physiologically ripe, but
before they are extremely dry, as they are easily
dispersed by the wind. One kg consists usually of about
47 OOO seeds. Only 14 000 per kg has also been reported.
Seeds stored in the open, as well as in a cold
chamber, maintain a germination percentage above 70%
up to 13 months in storage. In the nursery, germination
takes place within two weeks.
SILVICULTURE
In trials carried out in Petrolina - PE, an average
height of l.?0 m and a survival above 75#, at 3 years
of age was obtained. In Assis - SP, an average
height of 9.60 m and a DBH of 9.70 cm, at 9 years of
age was noted.
In Safo Jose do Rio Preto - SP, as average height of
5.11 m was obtained at 4 years of age. Any spacing
influence on the tree growth at this age was not
found .
- 120 -
Behavior of the "aroeira" in homogeneous as well as
mixed stands has been studied. In Petrolina - PE,
research workers from EMBRAPA are studying its
behavior in the enrichment of the natural vegetation
("caatinga") .
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
Due to the durability of the wood when in contact with
soil, this species has been intensively exploited for
posts and fence posts. For this reason, it is now
difficult to find it in natural stands that can satisfy
present demands; however, the few existing adult trees
are being gradually cut down for obtaining fence posts
and wood for construction, consequently endangering
the species.
Other factors that contribute to the extinction of
this species are the exploitation for medicinal
purposes and for obtaining tannin to the leather
industry.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
In 1981 the Institute Florestal do Estado de Sab Paulo
implemented a test using 5 provenances, with a total
of 91 progenies, with the objective of determining
this species' genetic variability and at the same
time guarantee the preservation of the material* An
evaluation of this trial at 36 mounths of age with
respect to height did show genetic variability for some
of the provenances.
- 121 -
A planting of 6 base populations, from 109 selected
trees, as a result of a contract between the Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico
(CNPq) , and the Programa Nacional de Pesquisa Florestal
(PNPF)/ is reported.
- 122 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Associa?ao Paulista de
Normas Tecnicas.
1964
Boutelje, J.B.
1980
Correa, M.P.
1926
Fraga, M.V.G,
1946
Galvao, A. P.M.
1982
Garrido, M.A.O.
1975
Garrido, M.A.O.
1981
Seminario de madeiras.
Janeiro. 258 p.
Rio de
Garrido, M.A.O.&
Souza, A.C.
1983
Encyclopedia of World Timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest Pro-
ducts Research Laboratory, 398 p.
Dicionario das plantas iiteis
do Brasil. Brasilia, IBDF, 6v.
Ensaio de indice da dendrologica
do Brasil. Arquivos do Servi9O
Florestal, Sab Paulo, 2 i2) :
69-156.
Contribui9ao da EMBRAPA/IBDF-PNPF
para a pesquisa com e species
florestais nativas do Brasil.
Silvicultura em S^o Paulo, Sao
Paulo, 16A (parte 1): 150-9.
Caracteristicas silviculturais
de algumas espe'cies indig^nas
sob povoamentos piyros e mistos.
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, S£o
Paulo, 9 : 63-71.
Caracteres silviculturais e
conteudo de nutrientes no
folhedo de alguns povoamentos
puros e mistos de especies
nativas. Piracicaba, 118 p.
(Tese - Mestrado - ESALQ) .
Manejo cientffico de povoamentos
florestais de especies indigenas.
Silvicultura, Sao Paulo, 8(28):
60-3.
- 123 -
Golfari,L;
Caser,R.L.&
Moura,V.P.
1978
Kribs,D.A.
1970
Lima, P.C.F. ;
Souza, S.N. de &
Drumond, M.A.
1982
Mainieri,C.
1958
Mainieri,C. &
Pereira, J.A.
1965
Mainieri, C.
1970
Mainieri, C.
1978
Mainieri, C. ;
Chinvelo, J.P. ft
Alfonso, V.A.
Zoneamento ecologico esquematico
para ref lorestamento no Brasil.
Serie tecnica. PRODEPEF,
Brasilia, (11) : 1-66.
Commercial foreign woods on the
American Market. University
Park, Pennsylvania State
University. 203 p.
Competi^ab de especies florestais
nativas em Petrolina - PE.
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, 16A
(parte 2): 1139-48.
Identifica^ao das principais
madeiras de comercio no Brasil,
Boletim. IPT, Sab Paulo, (46): 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil:
macroscopica, usos comuns e indies
qualitativos ffsicos e mec3neiro,
Anuario brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro,
17 (17): 1-282.
X
Madeiras brasileiras: caracteristicas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrencia,
dados hot an i cos e usos. Sab Paulo,
Secr£taria da Agricultura do Estado
de Sab Paulo. 109 p.
Ficha de caracteristicas das
madeiras brasileiras. Sab Paulo,
Institute de Pesquisas Tecnologicas
do Estado de Sab Paulo, v.l.
Manual de identif icacjao das
principais madeiras comerciais
brasileiras. SSo Paulo,
Secretaria da IndiTstria, Comercio,
CiShcia e Tecnologia. 241 p.
- 124 -
Mattos,F.J.A.
1982
Nogueira,J.C.B.
1977
Nogueira, J.C.B.
et al.
1962
Nogueira, J.C.B.
et.al.
1983
Pasztor,Y.P. de C.
1963
Pereira, A. P.
1982
Pereira, J.A.
1933
Rama 1 ho, R.S.
1973
Record, S.J. &
Hess, R.W.
1949
Apr ove it amen to de plantas
medicianais na regiab nordeste.
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Safo
Paulo, 16A (parte 1): 219-25.
Reflorestamentp heterogeneo com
essencias indfgenas. Boletim
tecnico. Institute Florestal,
Sao Paulo, (24): 37-7.
Conserva9ao genetica de^
essencias nativas atraves de ensaios
de progenie procedencia. Silvicultura
em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo, 16A
(parte 2): 957-69.
Conservacao genetica de essencias
nativas atraves de ensaios de
progenie e procedencias.
Silvicultura, Sao Paulo, 8 (28) .
Metodos usados na colheita de
sementes. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo,
Sab Paulo, (1) : 303-23.
Caracteristicas tecnol<5gicas e
silviculturais de 18 especies
nativas. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo,
Sab Paulo, 16A (parte 2): 1332-9.
Identifica9lfo microgrSfica das
nossas madeiras. Boletim
Escola Politecnica, SaTo Paulo
(9): 1-165.
Dendrologia: notas de aula.
Vifosa, Universidade Federal de
Vi9osa. 95 p.
Timbers of new world. 4 ed.
New Haven, Yale University Press.
640 p.
- 125 -
Rizzini, C.T.
1971
Rizzini, C.T. &
Mors, W.B.
1976
Siqueira, A.C.M.
de F. et al.
1980
Silva, L.B.X. da
1978
Souza, S.M. ;Pires,K.E.ft
Lima, P.C.F.
,
Arvores e madeiras uteis do
Brasil: nanual^de dendrologia
brasileira. Sa"o Paulo, Edgard
Blucher/EDUSP. 2O4 p.
Botanica economica brasileira.
SSTo Paulo EPU/EDUSP. 207 p.
Conservacao de recursos geneti-
cos de algumas especies nativas
do Brasil. Sab Paulo, Institute
Florestal. 10 p.
Avaliacjao do comport amen to
inicial de diversas ess&icias
nativas e exoticas. In:
Slmposio nacional de ecologia,
1, Curitiba, 26-29 setembro
1978. Curitiba, Secretaria da
Agricultura do Estado do
Parana".
Efeito do tipo de embalagem
e condic'oes de armazenamento na
preservayab de sementes de
Astronium urundeuva Engl.
Boletim de pesguisa EMBRAPA/
CPATSA Petrolina, (2): 2b-30.
- 126 -
I/
Atriplex repanda Phil.
FAMILY
Chenopodiaceae
VENARCULAR NAMES
Pasto salado, Sereno (Chile) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A* repanda is a perennial shrub; its longevity is
estimated to more than 40 years; it is of medium size,
greyish in colour and has evergreen leaves. Mature
plants reach 1 - 2m high and 1 - 2 m wide. Branching
is abundant from the base; branches are rigid; woody
and brittle. The corky crown of older branches is
scored by longitudinal fissures. The plant has a
highly developed taproot with numerous secondary
rootlets.
Inflorescence
Flowers are not very colourful; stamens and pistils
occur on the same plant (monoecious) . Male flowers
small and yellowish in colour; appearing in racemes
at the apex of the young shoots during spring and
summer* Female flowers green, sessile, grouped along
the shoot in the leaf axils.
I/ Based on the work of CONAF (Corporacion Nacional
Forestal) Avda. Bulnes 285, of. 703, Santiago, Chile),
- 127 -
Fruit
Fruit develops gradually during the summer, ripens and
falls during autumn. Even though the plant bears
fruit in its very first year, production does not
really begin until the second year.
Foliage
Leaves dark green, small, oblong. They have a wedge-
shaped base, obtuse apex, toothed edges, ashen-green
colour on the underside and brighter green on the
upper surface, not more than 3 cm long and 3 - 8 mm
wide. Foliage remains throughout the winter, although
a small proportion does fall off during the coldest
months .
USES
This very productive species is extremely valuable
as a fodder shrub. It is highly palatable to sheep and
goats, recovers well after browsing, and grows the
whole year round, especially during the spring and
summer months. During the dry summer the plant
continues to grow despite the extremely low water
content of the soil. The plant is low enough to be
accessible to livestock and has a high fruit and foliage
ratio with respect to trunk area and primary
branching. It is highly resistant to pests and diseases.
Gasttf and Caviedes (1976)/ estimated that optimum
productivity was achieved with plants 18-30 months
old at densities of c. 1 300 and 1 060 plants/ha,
with a total Individual output of roughly 1.6-1.8 kg
of total aerial dry matter per plant.
- 128 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
A. repanda is indigenous to Chile1 s North Chico,
the region between Ouilimarf and the valley of the
Huasco River, between latitudes south 28° 3^' and
32° 07'. In the past, this area hosted an
extensive natural distribution of the plant.
Badilla (1975) concludes that the original habitat
of this species must have been lowland areas with
groundwater close to the surface and high salinity,
as is typical of river mouths. The main species
with which Atriplex repanda was associated were
Frankenia erecta, Distichlis sp. and Lycium sp. ;
at that time A. repanda also covered areas with no
other vegetation.
CLIMATE
Mean annual rainfall is 126.3 mm and the median is
107.2 mm. The variation is due to the extreme conditions
of some years when precipitation is exceptionally
abundant. This occurs only once every several years.
Consequently, the vegetation cannot utilize most of this
moisture efficiently. Neither can the moisture be
stored in the soil for use during subsequent years. It
is therefore, more realistic to use the median figure,
which eliminates the rainfall of the extreme years from
the calculation of average precipitation. Precipitation
occurs in the form of rain during the colder months
of the year, usually three or four months. However,
the seasons vary so much from year to year, that it is
not unusual for a year to have dry periods of ten,
eleven and even twelve months. The effects of
the climatic conditions on the vegetation are
- 129 -
those characteristic of dry and semi-arid mediterranean
regions , and give rise to vegetative formations
which physiologically resemble shrub underbrush and
thicket.
SOILS
The soils are varied. There are soils with a grey-
cinnamon humus horizon 5 cm thick and soils with a
more reddish metamorphic horizon of 50 cm, forming
fragmentary soils under alluvial conditions in acid
rocks, and similar soils formed in sasalto rocks.
Lailhacar (1976) concludes that Atriplex repanda
is able to behave as a salt-loving plant in saline or
alkaline areas. Its presence in such areas may
well be determined by a move away from less saline
environments as a result of grazing. Badilla (1975)
links the distribution of the species directly to wet
lands (with groundwater) and saline areas, as well as
highly altered habitats.
Badilla points out that the soil pH of the sites
sampled in his study, varied from 5.5 to 10.1 with
good species behaviour in both areas. How the species
responds to other different soil variables was studied
by Lailhacar (1976) in California, where he worked
with A. repanda and A. polycarpa on 44 sample soil
sites in central and southern California.
Lailhacar Investigated the dependency of aerial and
root growth on soil variables, under wintertime
conditions. He found that the soil variables which
gave the highest aerial biomass yield In A. repanda
were, In order of importance: phosphorus, ammonium,
- 130 -
nitrogen and nitric nitrogen. He attributed the
lesser dependence, of yields on nitrogen, as compared
to the phosphorus demand, to the low content and
poor distribution of nitrogen in the soils sampled.
Gargano (1978) undertook a similar study sampling 20
soil sites on the coastal sector of IV region (Chile) .
Both Badilla (1975) and Gargano (1978) points out that
the aerial biomass of A. repanda responds positively to
sodium. Arentsen (1972) and Badilla established the
fact that A. repanda , like A. semibaccata. can
absorb water in the atmosphere and transfer it to the
soil.
SEED HANDLING
Seed collection from February onwards. Estimated
25O OOO - 1 120 000 seeds/kg. Natural germination
normally very low (less than 3%). Sulphuric acid
treatment is recommended. The best period of treatment
depends on the age of the fruit. One-year-old fruits
need 7 hours in sulphuric acid to show high percentage
of germination, whilst 5 year old fruits must be
exposed only for 2 hours. Dry and 24 hours water-
pretreated fruits have showed different response
when exposed to various sulphuric acid exposures.
Seed-age is fundamental both for the germination
percentage obtained and the time required for
germination. 6-year old fruits have shown better
germination than fruits between 9 months and 4 years
old. Fruits immediately after harvest have shown
total dormancy during 7 months.
- 131 -
SILVICULTURE
Best results have been achieved with a sowing depth
of 0.5-1.0 cm in sandy soils when maximum gas exchange
between seed and atmosphere is possible. Partly removal
of the soil also tends to promote gas exchange; soil
removal 15 days after sowing is therefore recommended
(Olivares and Johnston, 19?8).
The method of direct seeding has not been completely
mastered as some elements of the seed handling tecniques
related to germination are, as yet, unknown. Gasto and
Contreras (1972) recommend sowing in the winter and
indicate that 40-100 nuts were required for each plant
established.
Sowing should be in rows 3 to 4 m apart at rates of
30O-600 seeds per metre. At these rates, 3-6 Kg of
seeds would be needed per hectare. Pena (19?8) did
research on vegetative propagation by cuttings. His
conclusions are that the best time of the year to
collect cuttings and propagate them is in the spring
(September to December); light and temperature
conditions being optimal at that time of the year.
In addition, root development capability apparently
undergoes seasonal cycles, springtime being the peak
season. The best results with rooting and sprouting
of £• repanda are achieved in the spring, using apical
shoots with leaves. The shoots should be planted in
plastic tubes with a good substratum, exposed to the
open air, with no environmental control (except wind
control). About 90 percent of the plants rooted,
produce good quality, highly vigorous plants (Pena, 1978).
- 132 -
The results of hormone applications were not conclusive
(Pena, 1978) . Propagation by shoots is now extensively
practised in forest nurseries with excellent results.
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its natural range.
REASON FOR DECLINE
The manner in which A. repanda was formerly exploited,
especially its over-utilization for livestock, reduced
natural occurrence so drastically that only isolated
populations in very limited areas may be found nowadays,
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
After analysing the results of specific investigations
into the status of A. repanda , Chile's national
forestry corporation (CONAF) started a massive
plantation programme in 1976. Plantation efforts
were rapidly extended as a result of the governmental
Decreto 701, which was promulgated expressly to
stimulate the planting of forests.
In 1975, only four hectares of A. repanda shrubs were
planted; the following year, the area was 4O4 ha; in
1977, a total of 1 115 ha was planted and in 1978,
the figure reached 2 800 ha. The 1979 season was so
severely drought-stricken and moisture conditions were
so unsuitable that planting took place in only a
few very small sectors in the extreme south of
Region IV. Thus, the surface area planted that year
was a meagre 200 ha. Plantations have also been
- 133 -
attempted in other areas of the country with only
limited success. The future of Atriplex repanda
depends, to a significant extent, on the success of
such plantations.
- 134 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arentsen, O.J.
1972
Anon.
1977
Badilla, S.I,
1975
CONAF
1984
FAO
1980
Fernandez, H.
1978, a
Fernandez, H.
1978, b
Gargano, L.A.
1978
Cast 6, C.J. y
Contreras, T.D.
1972
Absorcion foliar de humedad atmosferica
y relaciones hidricas en Atriplex
semibaccata y Atriplex repanda Phi 1 .
T£sis Ing. Agr6nomo, Santiago,
Facultad Agronomia, Universidad de
Chile. 49 p.
Implantacion de Especies Forrajeras
en la IV Regi6n. Chile Forestal No. 18.
Caracterfsticas ecologicas y fitosocio-
logica de Atriplex repanda Phil. Tesis
Ing. Agr., Santiago, Facultad de
Agronomia. Universidad de Chile. 347 p.
Descripcion de las especies Acacia
caven y Atriplex repanda , Corporacion
Nacional Forestal, Santiago, Chile, UNPL.
Genetic Resources of Tree Species in
Arid and Semi-Arid Areas - Based on the
work by F.B.Armitge, P.A.Joustra and
B. Ben Salem - FAO, Rome.
Influencia de la edad en la germinaci6n
de Atriplex repanda. Phyton 36 (2) :
lll^TTST
Aumento de la germinaci6n en Atriplex
repanda . Tratamento con a'cido
sulfurico. Phyton 36 (2).
Influencia de algunas variables de
suelos del Norte Chico en el crecimiento
inicial de Atriplex repanda Phil. T€sis
Mg. Sc., Santiago, Universidad de
Chile. Programa permanente para
graduados en Ciencias Agropecuarias
y Forestales de la Republica de Chile.
75 p.
Bioma pratense de la Regi6n mediterranea
de pluviometrfa limitada. Universidad
de Chile. Fac. Agron. Est. Exp.
Agrondmica. Bol. T£c. 35: 3-29.
- 135 -
Gasto, C.J. y
Caviedes de la R.
1976
Lailhacar, K.S.
1976
Olivares, A. &
Johnston, M.
1978
Olivares, E.A. &
Juan Gastd, C.
1981
Pena, C.A.
1978
Interferencia intraespecif ica de
Atriplex repanda en el secano
mediterraneo de Chile. Universidad de
Chile, Fac. Agron. Est. Exp.
Agrondfmica Bol. Tec. 41: 3-18.
Effect of soil parameters on the components
of biomass production in Atriplex
polycarpa (Torr.), Wats. , and
Atriplex repanda Phil. Tesis Ph.D.
University of California, Davis, 57 p.
Alternatives de mejaramiento en la
emergencia de Atriplex repanda ,
Phil. Phyton 36(2): 129-137.
Atriplex repanda - Organizacion y
Manejo de Ecosistemas con Arbustos
Forrajeros - Universidad de Chile,
Departemento de Producci6n Animal -
Ciencas Agricolas No. 7. 300 p.
Estudio de la propagaci6n vegetativa
en las especies de Acacia cyanophilla
Lindl., Atriplex nummularia Lind.
Universidad de Chile, Facultad
Ciencias Forestales (Memoria
Ingeniero Forestal) Santiago, 120 p.
- 136 -
I/
Balfourodendron riedelianum Engl.
SYNONYMS
Ba 1 f ourodendron eburneum Mello (1877)
Esenbeckia riedeliana Engl. (1863)
Helietta multiflora Engl. (1863)
FAMILY
Rut ace ae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Marfim, pau marfim, farinha seca, guatambu, pau liso,
guataia, guamixinga, pau cetim, guarataia,
pequia*, pequiaf mamona, pequiaf mamao, muxinga.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree with moderate growth rate, reaching 25 m to 35 m
in height and 40 to 90 cm in diameter.
Inflorescence
A terminal panicle, pilose, white and small, clustered
on the ends, each one with a short pedicel and
a bract; flowering occurs from September to November.
Fruit
An achene with four large wings, broad, green, yellow
when ripe, veined; auriculated at the base; 2. 5-4 en in
length by 2-3 cm in width; 4 seeds per loculus that may
I/Based on the work of R.Chiaranda,! .E.Pires and
M.Tomazello F°. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O. Box 9, Piracicaba, S.P.Brazil.
- 137 -
reduce by aborting; fructification occurs from August
to September; fruit is samara type and thus dispersed
by the wind. Seeds ellipsoid, black, approximately 4
or less per fruit, 8-9 mm in length.
Foliage
Leaves opposite, digitate, long-petiolate with three
oblong-obovate folioles; pointed or with short
ends, glabrous or with hairs on the veins of either side,
entire, membranaceous, pale, the underside with numerous
black dots and domacias, 5 - 13 cm in length by 2 - 5cm
in width; the medial foliole is larger and petioled:
petioles 3 - 8 cm in length.
Bark
Straight trunk, with a smooth grey bark that is very
lenticellate.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy; heartwood is straw-white to yellow,
darkening to a pale yellow; uniform; sapwood indefini-
te, white with a yellow tinge; surface smooth with
a medium shine; grain is irregular to interlocked;
texture fine; taste somewhat bitter; odor indistinct.
Pratical observations of the "pau-marfimw wood have
shown a low natural resistance to rot. In an
experiment, treatment under pressure, revealed a
good permeability to preservative solutions.
The "pau-marfim" wood which may have a light colour,
a handsome aspect and a medium mechanical resistance,
is recommended for furniture, decorative veneer,
- 138 -
frames, carved pieces, pieces for sports and other
artefacts. It may be used for civil construction as
beams, rafters, laths, skirting boards and floor tiles,
as well as for tool handles etc.. It is frequently used
for furniture, agricultural instruments, propellers for
small airplanes, shoe patterns, pool balls, rulers,
linings, doors, and other internal objects. It is also
widely used in carpentry.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species occurs in Southern Brazil (States of Sao
Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul) ,
Paraguay and Argentina.
SOIL/CLIMATE
The tree is frequent on fertile land, occurring in
stony as well as in deep soils, in altitudes up to
7OO meters. The climate in the areas where the species
occurs is subtropical moderate humid (average annual
temperatures between 18 and 21°C, and precipitation
between 1250 and 2000 mm, evenly distributed
throughout the year) and subtropical sub-humid (average
annual temperature varying between 21 and 24°C, and
annual average precipitation varying between 1200 and
1500 mm, evenly distributed).
HABITAT
B. rledellanum is common in the forests along the
Parand and Uruguay rivers (wet forests) where it is
normally abundant; is also found In regions where the
forest becomes "cerrado". It grows in the secondary
forests also, becoming dominant in some locations along
- 139 -
with Aspidosperma polyneuron. It is a pioneer species
and not common in high land forest, thriving better on
gentle slopes.
SEED HANDLING
Germination occurs 40 days after sowing, without brea-
king of dormancy; a 3O% germination in the laboratory
has been observed. One Kg includes approximately
2 300 seeds.
SILVICULTURE
Average heights of O.9 m at age 1 year; 4.56 m at 4 years;
5.89 m at 8 years; 7.56 m at 12 years have been measu-
red. In s"ao Simao - SP, in an experiment implemented
in 1958, an average height of 10.96 m and a survival
of 97.4$. is reported at 14 years of age. At 6
years of age, there were no significant differences
among spacings. A relative superiority for the height
of Baufourodendron riedelianum in a mixed stand at
Cascavel, in Campo Mourab, during the first year is
reported whilst testing the competition among species
in mixed stands set up in 4 localities. It was obser-
ved that at 7 years Baufourodendron riedelianum
presented higher average height and diameter, as well
as a larger survival percentage. In Santa Rita do
Passa Quatro, in a homogeneous stand set up in 1956,
an average height of 21.2 m and a DBH of 20.5 cm were
observed at 26 years of age. This species has a great
affinity for mixed planting.
- 140 -
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
As this species occurs naturally in regions with large
urban and agricultural development, and as its wood has
favorable and useful characteristics, it is becoming
scarse, due to exploitation, in these areas.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
This species is found in some conservation units.
However, these areas are not sufficient to guarantee
its conservation neither in situ, nor ex situ.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 141 -
Associacao Paulista
de Normas Tecnicas
1964
Biella,L.C.&
Capelanes,T.M.C.
1984
Seminario fie madeiras. Rio de
Janeiro. 258 p.
Produ9ao e Tecnologia de sementes
de Especies Florestais Nativas na
Companhia Energetica de Sao Paulo.
In: 1? Simposio Brasileiro Sobre
Tecnologia de Sementes Florestais,
Belo Horizonte.
Brown, W.H.
1978
Boutelje,J.B.
1980
Carvalho, P.G.R.
1982
Carvalho, P.G.R.
1982
Correa, M.P,
1926
Chudnoff ,M.
1980
Garrido M.A.O.;
Nocrueira, J.C.B &
Garrido, C.M.de A.G.
1982
Timbers of the world: 2 - South
America. London, Timber Research
and Development Association -
TRADA. 121 p.
Encyclopedia of world timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest Products
Rresearch Laboratory. 398 p.
Comportamento de Essencias Flores-
tais Nativas e Exoticas em 2
locais do Estado do Parana*.
Silvicultura, S3b Paulo, 8(28):
262-66.
Resultados experimentais de Espe'-
cies Madureiras Nativas no Estado
do Parana'.^ Silvicultura em Sao
Paulo. Sao Paulo, Vol. 16A
(parte 2) : 747-65.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do
Brasil. Brasilia, IBDF, 5.v. 687 p.
Tropical timbers of the world.
Madison, USDA. Forest Products
Laboratory. 826 p.
Caracteristicas Silviculturais^ do
pau-marfim. Silvicultura em Sao
Paulo, Safo Paulo, Vol.
(parte 2) : 1081-5.
- 142 -
Golfari,L.
1978
Gurgel Filho,O.A&
Pasztor ,Y.P.de C.
1963
Gurgel Filho,O.A.
1975
Gurgel Filho,O.A;
Moraes, J.L.E
Garrido,L.M.
de A.G.
Huek,K.
1972
Klein, R.M.
1963
Klein, R.M.
1972
Kribs,D.A.
1970
Mainieri,C.
1958
Mainieri,C &
Pereira,J.A.
1965
Zoneamento ecologico esquematico para
reflorestamento no Brasil. Se'rie
T^cnica. PRODEPEF, Brasilia, (ll):l-66.
Fenologia e comnortamento em Alfobre
de Especies Florestais e Ornamentals.
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo.
1; 291-304.
Essencias indigenas. Silvicultura em
Sao Paulo, Sab Paulo. 9: 47-52.
^ -»
Silvicultura de Essencias Indigenas
sobre Povoamentos Homoticos Coetameos
Experimentais de Balfourodendron
riedelianun (pau-marf in) . Silvicultura
em STo Paulo, S*ab Paulo. 16A (Parte 2):
867-71.
As Florestas da America do Sul - Sao
Paulo, Pollqono/Ed. Universidade de
Brasflia. 466 p.
Sugest'Ses e dados ecologicos de algumas
arvores nativas prtfprias para serem
empregadas no reflorestamento norte e
oeste paranaense. In: I Simposio
de Reflorestamento da Regi'ab da
Araucaria. (Anais) . Curitiba. p. 157-74.
.X
Arvores nativas da floresta subtropical
do alto Uruguai. Sellowia, Itajai'J
24 (24) : 9-62.
Commercial foreign woods on the Ameri-
can Market . University Park, Pennsy-
lvania State University. 203 p.
Identificacao das principals madeiras
de comercio no Brasil. Boletim IPT,
Sao Paulo, (46) : 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracterizacao
macroscopica, usos comuns e fndices
quaJLLtativos ffsicos e mecanicos.
Anuario brasileiro de economica
florestai, Rio de Janeiro, 17(17):
1-282.
- 143 -
Mainieri,C.
1970
Mainieri, C.
1978.
Mainieri, C. ;
Chimelo, J.P. &
Afonso,V.A.
1983
Maingeieri,C.
1970
Nogueira, J.C.B,
1977
Nogueira, J.C.B,
et al.
1982
Nogueira, J.C.B.
et.al.
1983
Pazstor Castro
de Y.P.
1963
Pereira,J.A.
1933
Pickel,J.B.
1950
Madeiras brasileir^s- caracteristicas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorr§ticia,
dados botanicos e usos , ScTo Paulo,
Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado de
Sab Paulo. 109 p.
Ficha de caracteristicas das madeiras
brasi lei rap . Sab Paulo, IPT. v.2.
0^
Manual He identif icaqao das orinripais
madeiras comerciais bra.si leir^s - Sao
Paulo, Secretaria da Inaustria,
Comercio, CiSncia e Tecnologia. 241 p.
Madeiras do Paraue Estadual Morro do
Diabo. Silvicultura em SaTo Paulo,
Sab Paulo, vol. 7; p. 147-150.
Ref lorestamento heterogeneox com ess^r
ncias indigenas. Boletin Tecnico. Sao
Paulo, Institute Federal - (24):
54-55.
Ensaio de Competicab de algumas
essehcias nativas em diferentes
regioes do Estado de s'ab Paulo,
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo,
(Parte 2) : 1O51-63
Conservapab genetica de essencias
nativas atraves de ensaios de proge-
nies e procedencia. Silvicultura,
Sab Paulo, 8 (28) : 391-7.
Metodos usados na colheita de sementes.
Silviculture em Sab Paulo, Sao Paulo.
1. p 303-23.
Identif iclTco micrografica das nossas
madeiras. Boletim Escola Politecnic*.
Sab Paulo, (9) : 1-165.
As principals arvores que dab madeira:
m^todo pra'tico nara seu reconhecimento*
Anu^rio brasileiro de economia flores-
tal, Rio de Janeiro, 3 (3): 158-87.
- 144 -
Pickel,J.B.
1951
Rama 1 ho, R.S.
1973
Record, S.J. &
Hess, R.W.
1949
Reitz, R.;
Klein, R.&
Reis, A.
1979
Rizzini, C.T.
1971
Silva, L.B.X. da
1978
As principals arvores que dao madeira:
metodo pra*%ico para seu reconhecimento.
Anuario brasileiro de economia f lores-
tal, Rio de Janeiro, 4 (4): 142-72.
Dendrologia: notas de aula. Vi^osa,
UVF, 95 p.
Timbers of new world. 4 ed. New Haven,
Yale University Press. 64O p.
Madeiras do Brasil - Santa Catarina.
Floriano'polis , Editora Lunardelli.
320 p.
Arvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil:
manual de dendrologia brasileira.
Sao Paulo, Editora Edgard Blucher/
EDUSP. 294 p.
Avalia9ab do comportamento inicial de
diversas essentias nativas e ecoticas.
In: Simposio Nacional de Ecologia,
1, Curitiba, 26 - 29 setembro 1978.
Curitiba, Secretaria da Agricultura do
Estado do Parana.
-145 -
Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.-
FAMILY
Lecythidaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Castanha-do-Para', Castanha-do-Brasil as well as Castan-
ha-do-Maranhao. The local tribes have their own
denominations: arai , for the Chahuas; inia, nha , nicT
for the Chipayas, tcai for the Parecis; tuca tucari,
ya, and invia in the region of the Vale do Orenoco;
and touca for the old Portuguese. In English para
nut or brazil nut and in French noix du Bresil.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Large majestic and frondose tree, reaching up to 5O m
in height, and diameter 2 to 4 n at the base. The
stem is cylinder shaped without branches to the crown.
The crown is formed of long and numerous branches that
are curved towards the end. It reaches up to 4 m in
diameter.
Inflorescence
Inflorescence is of an axillary type or a terminal
panicle, with little ramification, rachis erect,
reaching up to 4O cm in length; pubescent, with
pedunculate, sub-sessile or sessile flowers, with
2 or 3 ovate bracts at the base. The calyx is light
green, and at anthesis is bilobate. The corolla has
JyBased on the work of S.T.Ohashi, O.Daniel and L.C.da
S.Costa. Forestry Department. Faculdade de Ciencias
Agrarias do Para, P.O.Box 917, Belem, Para, Brazil.
- 146 -
six unequal petals, thick and fleshy at the base;
whitish -Bellow in colour, perfumed; oblonn-ovate and
crossed two-by-two.
Fruit
The fruit is a pyxidium with a thick tegumen, ligneous
and hard, commonly known as "ourico"; sphere or sub-
globose in shape with a variable weight and size, with
a small operculum on the top side. Each fruit contains
18 to 22 seeds, which are in a series on the placentary
column; the seeds are called "castanhas"; these are
angular, with a hard tegument, wrinkled, with somewhat
triangular faces. When young the seeds are yellow,
and with age they turn a dark grey almost brown in colour,
Foliage
The leaves are oblong or ovate-oblong, with a sharp
base, a rounded-obtuse apex and slightly pointed?
coriaceous, bright green on the superior face and
a light green on the inferior face, margin wavy; up
to 36 cm in length by 12 cm in width; the main rib is
prominent on the underside, numerous secondary ribs
which are parallel at a 60 angle; the petiole is semi-
cylindrical, canaliculate 5 to 6 cm in length, tomentose.
Bark
The bark is dark and cracked.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The wood is moderately heavy (0.70 to 0.75 cr/cm ) with
a brownish-pink heartwood, somewhat different from the
brownish yellow sapwood; irregular to regular grain?
- 147 -
medium texture, indistinct smell and taste. Easily
worked, with an elegant finish with a medium shine.
Uses
The "castanheira" is known as one of the rrost noble and
valuable plants of the amazon forest, as both the wood
and the fruit may be used, although the greater
commercial value is that of the fruit through the
industrialization of the nut (exported mainly to
Europe and USA). However, the wood of this tree is
of good quality, and may be used for civil or naval
construction, walls, floors, stakes, etc. The bark
is good for ship caulking.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The "castanha do Brasil" occurs naturally in several
countries such as Venezuela, Columbia, Peru and
Bolivia. However, it is Brazil where it is most
abundant, in the States of Para", Maranhao, Ma to Cirosso,
Amazonas, Rondonia, Acre, and the Territory of Amapcf.
CLIMATE
The "castanha-do-Brasil" has its natural occurrence in
locations of three climatical types prevailing in
Amazon: Aw, Am and Af (Koeppen)- . However, it is
concentrated in areas of Aw or Am climates, which
reveals that the "castanha-do-Brasil" has a better
development in humid tropical climates, with relatively
short dry spell.
SOILS
The Brazil nut, under natural conditions, is found in
deep and rich soils, mainly oxisols and ultisols.
T/See top of page 5T<57
- 148 -
HABITAT
The habitat of the Brazil nut extends throughout Amazon,
in rain forest located on upland "terra firme". It grows
in several climate types, but does not withstand swamp
or humid conditions. In some locations it is found
in clusters that are somewhat extensive and called
"castanhais" . However, B.excelsa is always associated
with other large tree species, and never constitutes a
pure forest.
SEED HANDLING
The seed from the Brazil i nut does not easily
germinate as it has a very hard and resistant tegumen,
which makes seedling production a very time consuming
process. It takes about 12 to 18 months, to
germinate under normal conditions, with a low and
irregular germination percentage. The tegumen does
not prevent initial water absorption, so the dormancy
could possibly be attributed to tegumen and/or endos-
perm impermeability to gas exchanges, and/or the
presence of germination inhibitors, or maybe immature
embryos .
Mechanical scarification followed by soaking of the
seeds has no influence on germination; however the
scarification of the germination poles has rendered
promising results, which may be attributed to tegumen
resistance or embryo expansion. Other treatments,
stratification and heat shocks, do not give good results
Presently , sowing of the seeds without the coat is
recommended, and yields a 78* germination if the seeds
- 149 -
are young and of good quality. With this process,
seedling emergence begins 20 to 30 days after sowing,
considerably reducing the period for seedling production.
SILVICULTURE
Previously, the long period required for seed germina-
tion, along with a long juvenile period, hindered the
rational cultivation of this species. To-day,
techniques have been developed to overcome these
problems, and are fundamental for the good establishment
of plantations. These techniques, which include breaking
the dormancy by removal of the tegumen and vegetative
propagation by bud grafting, are now being used in
pioneer stands, and proving to be viable. When
planted under direct sunlight and under understorey
conditions, respectively, great differences in the
behaviour of the plants occur. Greater development and
early flowering are obtained under direct sunlight.
This shows the species' aptness to locations that are
completely open. Another problem related to the
species in plantations is its pollination, as there is
a specific pollinator (wild bees) of the flower
which is important for the production of fruit. As
the natural habitat of the pollinator is the forest
and the "capoeiras" (open woodland), these should be
conserved around the areas of the plantations.
- 150 -
STATUS
Researchers, technicians and politicians in Brasil are
already concerned with the preservation and rational
cultivation of the species. Due to the great
importance of its fruit in Brazil, laws have already
been passed, prohibiting this tree to be cut down in
natural forests, and seeking its preservation. In
many cases the prohibition alone does not guarantee
its survival, as the transformation of forests into
agricultural areas by clearing and burning, along with
the lack of suitable conditions for the survival of
the pollinator, contribute to the extinction of this
tree.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Several reasons for the decline of the species could
be cited: the colonization programme in the region
where this species occurs; the construction of
hydroelectrical power plants, which flood vast areas;
the lack of conscientiousness towards the preservation
of the Brasil nut and the negligence of the
industrial sector in establishing plantations, etc*
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria has
a germplasm bank for the Brazil nut. However,
establishing base populations including many
provenances is of great importance for conserving
genetic material. These populations will serve for
conservation as well as for species improvement
programmes.
- 151 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Albuquerque , F . C . de
I960
Almeida, C.P.de
1963
Buaes, A.
Carvalho, J .O.P.de
1980
Cattete Pinheiro
1967
Corr£a, M.P.
1931
Diniz,T.D.de A.S &
Bastos, T.X.
1974
Diniz,T.D. de
A.S. et al.
1984
Ducke, A.
1946
PAO
1986
Mancha parda das folhas da castanhe-
ira do Para*, causada por uma nova
esp^cie de fungo. Boletim t£cnico.
IPEAN, Belem, (38): 3-32.
Castanha do Para, sua exporta9<aoe
import ancia na economia Amazonica.
Rio de Janeiro, Ministerio da
Agricultura. 86 p.
Castanha do Para SUDAM documenta,
Belem, 1 (1): 39-57.
Fenologia de especies florestais de
potencial economico que ocorrem na
Floresta Nacional do Tapajos.
Boletim de pesquisa. EMBRAPA/CPATU,
Belem, (20) : 1-15,
A economia da castanha e os incenti-
ves fiscais. In: la. Conferehcia
Nacional da Castanha do Para^.
Plantas uteis do Brasil. Rio de
Janeiro, Ministerio da Agricultura.
v.2. p. 7
Controbuipao ao conhecimento do
clima ti'pico da castanha do Brasil.
Boletim tecnico. IPEAN? Belem,
(64): 59-71.
Condicfces climaticas em areas de
ocorrencia natural e de cultivo de
guarana', cupuacu, bacuri e castado
Brasil. Pesquisa em andamento.
EMBRAPA/CPATU, Belem, (133): 1-4.
Plantas ^da cultura pre^colombiana
na Amazonia brasileira. Belem,
IPEAN. 8 p.
Pood and fruit bearing forest species.
3: Examples from Latin America. PAO
Forestry Paper 44/3. Rome.
- 152 -
Flguelredo V.H.de ft InfluSncia da casca e da in j eg So
Muller, C.H*
1978
Figueiredo,F. J .C ,
et.alii
1980
Le Cointe, P.
Loureiro,A.A.&
Silva,M.F. da
1968
Loureiro,A.A. ;
Silva,M.F. da $
Alencar,J.da C.
1979
Medri,M.E.&
Lleras, E.
1979
Ministerio do
Interior.
1976
Ministerio do
Interior
1979
Ministerio do
Interior
1981
Ministerio do
Interior
1981
de acido giber£lico na absorgao de
agua pelas sementes de castanheira
(Bertholletia excelsa, H.B.K.).
Comunicado tecnico. EKBRAPA/CPATU
Bel6m, (2): 1-7.
* ->-
Tratamento fisico na germina^ao de
sementes de castanha do Brasil
(Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.).
Boletim de pesquisa. EMBRAPA/CPATU ,
Belem, (12): 1-13.
s ,,
Arvores e plantas uteis. Belem,
Livraria Classica. 486 p.
Catalogos das madeiras da Amazonia.
Belem, SUDAM. v.l, 287-89 p.
Essencias madeireiras da Amazonia.
Manaus, INPA. 121-5 p.
Ecofisiologia de plantas da
Amazonia: 2 - anatomia foliar e
ecof isiologia da Bertholletia ^
excelsa H.B.K. (Castanha do Para)
Lecythidaceae. Acata amazohica.,
Manaus, 9 (1) : 15-23.
Estudos e pesquisas sobre a
castanha dp Para. Belem, SUDAM-
DRN-CTPTA. 100 p.
Pesquisas e informa9oes sobre
espe'cies florestais da Amazonia
Belem, SUDAM-DRN. 32-4 p.
Rendimento em serraria de^trinta
espe'cies de madeiras amazonicas.
Belem, SUDAM-DRN. 196 p.
Grupamento de espe'cies tropicals
da Amazonia por similaridade de
caracterfsticas basicas e por
utiliza9ao Belem, SUDAM-DRN. 237 p,
-153 -
Moraes , V.H . de F.&
Muller,C.H.
1978
InflueVicia da casca e da injeffao de
acido giberelico na absorpab de a'gua
pelas sementes da castanheira
(Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.) .
Comunicado te^cnico. EMBRAPA/CPATU ,
Belem, (26): 1-9.
Muller,C.H. et.al,
1980
Muller, C.H.
1981
Muller, C.H.
1982
Muller, C.H.&
Calzavara, B.B.G.
1984
Neves, C.A. das -
1941
Oliveira, E.de &
Souza, P.de
1981
Pinheiro, E.
1967
Reis,G.G. dos et.al,
1979
Reis, G.G.dos
1979
Schreiber, W.R.
Castanha do Brasil: resultados de
pesquisa. Belem, EMBRAPA/CPATU. 25 p.
Castanha do Brasil, estudos
agronomicos. Documentos
EMBRAPA/CPATU Belem (1): 1-25
Quebra da dormencia da semente e
enxertia em castanha do Brasil.
Documentos. EMBRAPA/CPATU, Belem,
(16): 1-40.
Castanha do Brasil: conhecimentos
atuais. In:^I Simpcfsio do Tr<5pico
Humido, Belem.
A castanheira do Para". O camoo,
Rio de Janeiro, 12 (135): 11-5.
Ocorrencia de micorriza vesicular-
arbuscular em solos tropicais:
3 - ocorrincias em mudas de
castanha-do-Brasil. Pesquisa em
andamento. EMBRAPA/CPATU, Belem,
(56): 1-2
Propagacao vegetativa da castanheira
(Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.):
observances preliminares . Bele'm,
IPEAN. 10 p.
Calibra9ao do teste de tetrazolio
em semente de castanha-do-Brasil.
romunicado tecnico. EMBRAPA/CPATU,
Belem, (17): 1-9.
Absorcao de agua pelas sementes de
castanha-do-Brasil. Pescjuisa
agropecuaria brasileira, 14
v4): 394-400.
The prodigious Brazil nut.
Agriculture in the Americans,
2 (4) : 72-4.
- 154 -
Souza, A.H. de Castanha do Para, estudo botanico,
1963 qufmico e tecnologico. Estudos
tecnicos, Rio de Janeiro , (23) :
1-69.
Srur, U.O.S. Process amen to da castanha do Brasil
1976 (Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.).
Campinas. 60 p. (Tese - Mestrado -
UNICAMP) .
- 155 -
I/
Bombacopsis quinata (Jacq.) Dugand
SYNONYM
Bombacopsis fendleri (Seen) Pittier (1916)
FAMILY
Bombacaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Pochote (Nicaragua, Costa Rica)
Cedro espino (Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama)
Saquisaqui (Venezuela)
Ceiba tolua, Ceiba roja, Ceiba colorada (Colombia)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An impressive forest tree reaching a height of 2O-4O m
with a stem diameter up to 2 m. Butresses up to 4 or
5 metres in height generally develop on mature trees.
Tree crowns are well developed, wide and irregular, up
to 3O m in diameter.
Inflorescence
The flowers vary in length from 1O to 15 cm and have
linear strap-shaped petals and numerous white stamens.
The flowers mainly open at night under conditions of
low temperature (below 25°C) and high humidity
(relative humidity over 69%) and shed the petals and
stamens the following morning.
I/Based on the work of C.. E.Hughes, Oxford Forestry Inst,
Univ. of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, U.K. and
Narcellno Quijada R., Pac. de Ciencias Forestales,
Univ.de Los Andes, Me* r Ida, Venezuela.
- 156 -
Fruit
The fruit is a dehiscent capsule with 5 loculi reaching
between 4 and 10 cm in length and 2-4 cm in width. Each
fruit contains on average 45 seeds covered in a light
fluffy cotton which facilitates seed dispersal by wind.
The ripe fruits are orange-brown in colour.
Foliage
Alternate leaves are composite with three to seven
oblong or obovate glabrous leaflets.
Bark
The bark is pale greyish-brown in colour and the trunk
and branches generally covered by hard, stout spines
up to 2 cm long. The degree of spinyness is extremely
variable and some trees are completely spineless.
Progeny experiments in Venezuela indicate that this
character is under close genetic control.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
As indicated by the vernacular name Cedro espino, the
wood of Bomb a cops is quinata in many ways resembles that
of the highly appreciated Spanish cedar, Cedrela spp.
The wood is uniform pale pinkish or pinkish brown
when freshly cut becoming light to dark redish
brown on exposure. It is fairly resistant to attack
by insects and fungi, apparently due to the presence of
a rubbery exudate Basic specific gravity ranges from
0.38 - 0.45. The straight grained wood has been
reported as easy to work, easy to nail/ and finishing
smoothly. It is used locally for general construction,
interior finish , millwork, furniture stock, veneer and
- 157 -
plywood/ particle board and pulp and paper products.
In the past the species has been important in many
parts of its natural range commanding a high price.
In the period 1963-65 it was the second most important
species in Venezuela in terms of volume produced
(Finol and Melchior, 197O) and today remains the most
important timber species in the Llanos Occidentales
region. It is considered an important reforestation
species in northern Colombia for veneer and plywood.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
B. quinata is distributed in tropical America from 2°N
to 13°30 N. It reaches its southerly limit in the
Llanos Orientales of Colombia probably extending into
the extreme limits of the Amazon basin near the Rio
Yari. It occurs widely in the Llanos Orientales of
Colombia and the northern portion of the Orinoco basin
in the Llanos Occidentales of Venezuela. Further north
it occurs extensively on the north costal plains of
Colombia, through the Darien region on Panama and
throughout the Pacific side of the Central American
isthmus as far north as Honduras where a few scattered
stands are found around the Golfo de Fonseca. It has
not been reported to date from El Salvador.
CLIMATE
The species occurs from sea level up to 75O m
elevation and is found in tropical rainforest with
a short dry season of less than four months and in
seasonally dry tropical forest with a longer, more
severe dry season of up to six months' duration. Mean
annual precipitation is in the range 1 500 to 2 500 mm.
- 158 -
SOILS
ILi quinata occurs on a range of different soil types
from well drained gravelly soils on low hills and ridges
to deeper less well drained black vertisols. In these
areas the clay content is generally high and water-
logging occurs. In some parts temporary flooding
occurs, but the species does not appear to thrive in
these parts. In the dry season soil fissuring is
common .
HABITAT
§JL quinata is commonly found in association with
Cedrela odorata, Anacardium excelsum, Hura crepitans ,
Ceiba pentandra, Enterolobium cyclocarpum and Samanea
saman.
SEED HANDLING
Flowering occurs during the dry season in January and
February and fruits generally ripen from mid-March to
early April. There is considerable variation in
ripening time both between trees and even within trees ,
and this, combined with the explosive dehiscence of
the capsules on ripening, means that capsules need
to be collected slightly before full ripeness is
reached. Artificial ripening has been successfully
carried out in Honduras in cool dry conditions
(Hughes, 1981). On average there are 45 seeds per
capsule. Frequently a high proportion of fruits are
damaged by parrots. Viable seeds are usually rounded,
with a smooth surface and a certain resistance to
flattening by the fingers. Seeds that are not viable
are usually wrinkled and can easily be flattened by
- 159 -
a slight pressure of the fingers.
Seeds selected in this way have a germination of up
to 100 percent for three months after collection and
without special storage. If the seeds are stored in
cold rooms/ good viability can be maintained for two
years. The seeds are usually small (4 to 5 mm) .
The number of seeds per kilo ranges from 20 000 to
45 000, with averages of 32 000.
SILVICULTURE
Cultivation is straight forward. No seed pre-treatment
is required (preliminary soaking in natural water for
24 hours can be applied) and stump planting is generally
successful. The species is strongly light demanding
and a wider than normal spacing is usually employed.
The species coppices readily and vegetative propaga-
tion is easy.
STATUS
The species is severely threatened at the provenance
level. The main undisturbed reserves are in the
Darien region of Panama and the southern part of the
Llanos Occiden tales in Venezuela. Even here , active
exploitation is rapidly reducing the remaining stands.
In all other parts stands have been cleared leaving
only a few degraded remnants. The stands in southern
Honduras, North-West Nicaragua and the Los Santos
Peninsula in southern Panama are under particular
threat of extinction.
- 160 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
The timber is highly sought after and this has led to
extensive felling throughout its range in the past.
The seasonally dry Pacific coastal plains in Central
America, along with the Llanos areas and north coastal
Colombia are all well-suited to extensive agricultural
development and many areas have been cleared for cotton,
sugar and cattle production.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
In Central America two areas where degraded stands
still survive have been included in National Parks.
These are the Santa Rosa National Park in Guanacaste,
Costa Rica and the Masaya National Park in Nicaragua
and should contribute to in-situ conservation. In
Venezuela considerable work on genetic improvement of
B. quinata in the Llanos Occidentales was carried out
by the Universidad de los Andes in Me^rida. Seed was
collected from selected trees and seed orchards have
been established. There is a need to expand this
work to incorporate a wider genetic base.
Sporadic seed collections have been carried out by the
Commonwealth Forestry Institute in Oxford, UK in recent
years and seed is now available for limited range
provenance trials. Limited plus-tree selection work
has also been carried out in Costa Rica and Northern
Colombia.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 161 -
Carton de Colombia S.A.
1982
FAO
1982
Finol,U.H.:Melchior,G.H,
1970
Hughes, C.E.
1981
Martinez, M. A.
1981
Quijada R.,M.
1980
Robyns,A.
1963
Reforestation in the Atlantic
Coast 1973-1982. 7th Annual
Meeting of Forest Research
Luruaco, Colombia, May 1982.
Caracteristicas y usos de 19
especies con valor comercial en
Panama. Proyecto de Desarrollo
Forestal de Panama FAO/UNDP
PAN/82/004.
Unos apuntes sobre la
conservaci6n de reservarios de
genes de especies forestales
indigenas de actual valor comer-
cial en Venezuela. Revista
Forestal Venezolana. 19/20:73-81.
Notas sobre cuatro especies poco
conocidas en Honduras. Banco de
Semillas, Escuela Nacional de
Ciencias Forestales, Siguate-
peque, Honduras 15 pp.
El suministro de semillas como
base de la reforestaci6n.
RENARE, Panama.
Floraci6n, producci6n de semillas
y polinizaci6n artificial en
Bomb a cops is quinata.
in FAO (ed.) Mejora Genetica de
Arboles Forestales Estudios FAO
Montes 20: 288-290.
Essai de monographie du genre
Bombax s.l. (Bombacaceae) Bru-
xelles Bulletin du Jardin
Botanique de 1'Etat 33(2):
145-316.
- 162 -
Rodriguez G., N.I., El Pochote (Bombacopsis,
Ligia M. Queiros Q. & quinatam) :
Jacob T.Sterringa Revision de Literatura.
1985 Document© de Trabajo No. 20,
13 p. USAID/PNUD/FAO MAG-
DGF. San Jose' Costa Rica.
Venegas, T.L. Distribucion de once especies
1978 forestales en Colombia.
Proyecto de Investigaciones
y Desarrollo Industrial
Forestales COL/74/005
INDERENA/PNUD/FAO/CONIF .
. 163 -
Brachylaena huillensis O.Hoffm.
SYNONYMS
Brachylaena hutchinsii Hutch. (191O)
FAMILY
Compos itae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Kenya & Uganda: Muhuhu (standard name) Muhugu (trade
name) Mvumo, Mschenze, Watho,
Kipungupungu, Avud Mubuubu.
Tanzania: Muhugwe (Zigua) , Muhuhu, Mkarambaki
(Swahili) , or Magogo (Masai).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Dioecious tree 1O-20 m high and up to 1 . 3 m in
diameter, with a fluted and often curved bole, making
large dimension timber difficult to obtain.
Inflorescence
Capitula small, white, cylindrical, in axillary woolly
panicles, up to 2.5cm long. Male capitula shortly
pedicellate and about 12-flowered; female subsessile
and about 5- flowered. Pappus in 1 row of scabrid
bristles; flower heads white, in small terminal pani-
cles or racemes; flowers tubular or discoid.
I/Based on the work of J~.A. Odera (Forestry Research
Dept., Kenya Agricultural Research Ins titute,Kikuyu, Kenya)
and Ms.C.Kabuye(East African Herbarium, National
Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya).
- 164 .
Fruit
Small winged achene in a white capitulum .
Foliage
Leaves entire or dentate, oblanceolate, up to 13 cm
long and to 2.5 cm wide; grey felty below; apex acute,
base long cuneate; petiole 1*2 cm long.
Bark
Bark grey, smooth or rough with longitudinal cracks.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The timber is pale yellow to pale brown with
characteristic storeyed structure, scented somewhat
like sandalwood, straight-grained with conspicuous
growth rings; texture very fine, even, strong and
stiff, but failure in bending is sudden and complete.
It is hard but works and turns well with sharp tools,
takes a high polish, but splits easily along the grain.
Extremely durable in the ground and sea water.
Used for fencing posts, flooring blocks, furniture,
joinery and wood carving. It is considered a first
class flooring timber and an excellent fuel. Basic
specific gravity (even dry weight/green volume) 0.75.
Other Uses
Oil distilled from the wood has a pleasant vetiver-
like perfume.
- 165 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Coastal area of Tanzania and Kenya; it has also been
recorded in Uganda and Central Kenya, Mozambique, Angola,
and Transvaal.
CLIMATE
Rainfall from around 6OO mm.
SOILS
Bright red soil
HABITAT
Dominant in evergreen bush. It is common in dry
coastal forests and is also found in lowland dry
forests, and in semi-decidous dry upland forests
155O-2OOO m above sea level.
SEED HANDLING
Easy to germinate •
SILVICULTURE
Trees are easy to raise in plantations. Increment is
fast on average on good soils, with mean annual
rainfall from 7OO to 1,8OO mm.
STATUS
Endangered.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Settlement and cultivation. Its wood is in great
demand. Firewood, charcoal, fencing posts and wood
carving being the chief reasons for removal.
- 166
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The forest department (Kenya) has planted a few plots
at the coast province. Tight control on exploitation
has been introduced country wide.
Recommended Protective Measures are:
1. Detailed local surveys to determine population
size so that conservation measures can be taken.
2. An ecological study to identify the requirements
of the species with the aim to bring it into more
intensive cultivation.
3. Reservation of selected blocks for conservation.
4. Provision of alternative material for wood
carving.
- 167 .
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Borota, J.
1967
Brenan, J.P.M. &
P. J.Greenway
1949
Bryce, B.M.
1967
Chudnoff, M.
1980
Dale, I.R. &
Greenway, P.J.
1961
Eggeling, J.W. &
Dale, I.R.
1951
The Growth of Brachylaena hutchinsii
Hutch, in Tanzania. Tanzania Silvicul-
ture Research Note, No. 3 May 1967.
Check lists of the Forest Trees and
Shrubs of the British Empire,
Tanganyika Territory, No. 5, Part II.
Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford.
The commercial Timber of Tanzania.
United Republic of Tanzania, Tanzania
Food Division, Utilization Section,
Moshi.
Tropical Timbers of the World. U.S.
Department of Commerce, National
Technical Information Service.
Kenya Trees & Shrubs. Hatchards.
London .
The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda
Protectorate. Crown Agents for the
Colonies, Millbank, London.
- 168 .
I/
Caesalpinia dalei Brenan & Gil let "
SYNONYMS
Caesalpinia sp. nov. in Dale & Greenway.
Although fruits and seeds of this species have yet
to be collected it almost certainly belongs in the
genus Caesalpinia, Its position within the genus
however is distinctly isolated among the african
species.
FAMILY
Leguminosae subfam. Caesalpinioideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
None recorded
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A small thornless tree or treelet up to 1O m tall;
crown spreading; bole buttressed at the base,
somewhat corrugated. Young branchlets clothed with
a short, velvety, dark brown indumentum, composed of
a mixture of glands and hairs.
Inflorescence
Racemes terminal on main or lateral branches 2 - 8 cm
long, simple, very densely clothed in a short velvety
dark brown indumentum like the young stems, bracts
I/Based on the worJTof J. A.Odera (Forestry Research
nept., Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Kikuyu,
Kenya) and Ms.C.Kabuye(East African Herbarium,
National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya).
- 169 -
1 mm long; pedicels 4-11 mm; sepals 5.5 - 6 mm long,
brown-velvety especially outside. Petals bright yellow,
the upper one with brown spots, narrowly obovate-
spathulate, 9 - 10 mm long, 3 - 4 mm wide; the upper
petal bent upwards at apex of claw, but without a
transverse projection on inner side. Anthers
glabrous, ovary and lower part of style densely
covered with brown glands and pubescence.
Fruit
Fruit and seeds unknown.
Foliage
Leaf -petiole with rachis 1.5 - 10 cm long, stipels
absent, pinnae 1-3 pairs, 1-8 cm long; leaflets
(2-) 3-4 pairs per pinna, elliptic or narrowly
elliptic, slightly obliquely rhombic, 1.2 - 8.2 cm
long 0.6 - 3 cm wide, obtuse at apex, glabrous except
for inconspicuous pubescence on midrib beneath and
for sessile reddish peltate glands scattered on lower
surface; venation raised and reticulate on both
surfaces.
Bark
Smooth and grey
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Hard
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Kenya: (1) Kwale District at Mwachi
(2) Kilifi District - Mbwaka HKayaM forest.
- 170 -
So far only these 2 sites have been recorded. Repeated
searches have failed to locate the tree elsewhere and it
is perhaps otherwise extinct.
CLIMATE
Coastal dry, evergreen forest
SOILS
Sandy, gley, or on red soil over limestone
HABITAT
Evergreen forest and in a wooded gully; 150 m.
SILVICULTURE
There is no record of cultivation of this species
and occurrence of its seeds is unknown.
STATUS
Endangered - a few trees were growing near the
railway at Mwanchi: 1936.
Collected again in 1978 at Mbwaka 'Kaya1 forest and
in 1981 (Hawthorne, pers. comm. )
Only a very small population of this species is known
to exist where it is likely to be critically endangered.
Its area of distribution is very small, the forest
in which this tree grows is becoming depleted each
year giving way to human settlement.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Intensive agricultural cultivation.
- 171 .
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
No protective measures are recorded to have been taken.
1. The Kaya forests in Kilifi and Kwale districts
should be preserved as nature reserves or national
monuments. Today, 1985, some Kayas are still held
as sacred forest stands by the local people. But
the majority of Kayas have been plundered for wood
and many opened by cultivation.
2. Detailed local surveys of existing sites are
needed, in particular to assess the number of
remaining individuals on each site, so that
protective measures can be formulated.
3. Further research should be done, to bring the
species into cultivation.
- 172 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brenan, J.P.N. Notes on African Caesalpinioideae.
Kew Bulletin 17 (2): 198-9.
Brenan, J.P.M. Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpi-
1967 nloicieae in Milne-Redhead, E. and
Polhill, R.M. (eds.), Flora of
Tropical East Africa , Crown Agents,
London .
Dale, I.R. and Kenya Trees and Shrubs. Hatchards,
Greenway P.J. London 1961.
1961
- 173 -
I/
Cedrela fissilis Veil.
SYNONYMS
Cedrela brasiliensis A. Juss. (1829)
C. tubiflora Bert. (1918)
C. macrocarpa Ducke (1922)
FAMILY
Meliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Cedro (throughout S. America); Cedro Colorado, Cedro
misionero, Cedro rosado, Cedro bianco (Argentina) ,
Cedro branco, Cedro diamantina, Cedro rosa (Brazil).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A deciduous tree up to 3O m high (40 m also recorded) ,
with a straight cylindrical bole and rounded crown.
Inflorescence
A very large, much-branched panicle 6O-80 (-95) cm long.
Flowers greenish-white, sometimes with a pinkish tinge,
scented; monoecious, but male and female flowers very
similar; sepals and petals 5, small; stamens 5, free.
Ovary (in female flowers) globose, with 5 locules, each
with numerous ovules.
I/ Based on the work of B.T. Styles, (Oxford
"" Forestry Institute, University of Oxford.
0X1 3RB England) .
.174 _
Foliage
Leaves very large, from 25-8O (-12O) en long, paripin-
nate, densely tomentose or very shortly pubescent;
leaflets numerous, 12-18 pairs, generally sessile or
subsessile or rarely with a short petiolule; broadly
lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate,
19-15 (-2O) cm and 3-5 cm broad.
Fruit
An oblong to ovoid, rarely pear-shaped, pendulous
5-valved capsule; from 4.5-8.5 (-11) cm long, valves
4-6 mm thick, woody; dark brown or brownish-black,
surface rough with raised lenticels. Columella with
5 broad wings. Seeds dark chestnut-brown, 2.5-4.5 cm
long, (including the wing) , from 30-5O per capsule.
Flowers appear from October to February, fruits mature
9-10 months later.
Bark
Bark is very similar to that of C. odorata. All parts
similarly smell of garlic when crushed.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
This tree produces a dark reddish timber, but which
lacks the scent of C. odorata Locally it is used for
general carpentry, furniture and cabinet-making. It
is claimed that it is less susceptible to Hypsipyla
attack,
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Now very scattered and sparse distribution from Costa
Rica to Argentina.
_ 175 .
CLIMATE
Tropical moist
SOILS
In Brazil the tree occurs on we 11 -drained soils (terra
firme) , but nowhere it is as common as C. odorata.
Like the latter species it also thrives best on more
fertile sites, and is a strong light demander.
HABITAT
Particularly in lowland rain forest up to 800 m a.s.l.
SEED HANDLING
As for C. odorata
SILVICULTURE
As for C. odorata
STATUS
The best phenotypes of many provenances have mostly
disappeared, although the species as a whole is not
under threat.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Over-exploitation of the best stands by logging
contractors. It is now a rare tree in lowland
Amazonia. In other areas only trees of poor form
survive. The species as a whole is suffering from
severe genetic erosion.
- 176 .
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
A few superior populations from Brazil have been
included in both of the provenance trials organized
by the Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford. These have
already been established as ex situ experiments in
various parts of the tropics. Their performance is
being assessed at the present time.
- 177 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burley, J. &
Lamb, A.F.A.
1971
Chaplin, G.E.
1980
FAO
1971
Smith, C.E.
1960
Styles, B.T. in
Pennington,T.D. &
Styles, B.T.
1981
Status of the C.F.I. International
provenance trial of Cedrela odorata
(including C. mexicana and C.tubiflora)
Comm. For Rev. 50(3) : 234-7.
Progress with provenance exploration
and seed collection of Cedrela spp.
Commonwealth Forestry Institute,
Oxford, England. 17 pp.
Silvicultural Research in the Amazon,
based on the work of L.C.Dubois.
FAO Technical Report 3. FO:SF/BRA 4
p. 128-129.
A revision of Cedrela (Meliaceae) .
Fieldiana (Botany) . 29 (5): 295-341,
Cedrela in Flora Neotropica,
Monograph No. 28. 361-367 p.
I/
Cedrela odorata L.
SYNONYMS
(Selected)
Cedrela guianensis A. Juss. (1830)
C. paraguariensis Martius (1837)
2- mexicana M.J. Roem. (1846)
C. occidentalis C.DC. and Rose (1899)
C. sintenisii C.DC. (1907)
FAMILY
Meliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Cedro (throughout Latin America and the Caribbean) ,
Cedro rojo (Belize, Venezuela, Mexico); Cedro real
(Nicaragua and £1 Salvador); Cedro Colorado (Peru,
Venezuela); Cedro hembra, Cedro cubano (Cuba); Acajou
(French speaking countries) ; Cedar, cigarbox cedar,
red cedar (English) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A deciduous tree with a rounded crown of several
large, arching branches, normally up to 35m;
exceptional heights of 50-60 m have been recorded.
Bole up to 1.5 m diameter, sometimes with low,
blunt buttresses up to 1m high.
I/ Based on the work of B.T. Styles (Oxford Forestry
Institute, University of Oxford, 0X1 3RD).
- 179 .
Inflorescence
A large, much branched panicle , 2O-4O cm long. Flowers
white or greenish, monoecious, but male and female
flowers very smilar; sepals and petals small; stamens
5, free; ovary (in female flowers) globose, with 5
locules, each with numerous ovules.
Foliage
Leaves generally between 3O-6O cm long; imparipinnate ;
leaflets sessile or with a short petiolule; in
6 i2 + opposite pairs; ovate-lanceolate to oblong-
lanceolate; glabrous or with short hairs on the midrib
beneath, 7-15 cm long and 3-5. O cm broad.
Fruit
An oblong-ellipsoid to ovoid, pendulous, 5-valved
capsule 2-3.5 (-4.O) cm long, dehiscing from the apex;
valves thinly woody. Columella with 5 broad wings.
Seeds light brown 2-3 cm long (including the wing) from
3O-4O per capsule. Fruits mature in March to May,
almost a year after the tree flowers.
Bark
Bark very characteristic, greyish-brown to grey-black,
regularly and evenly furrowed or fissured longitudi-
nally; all parts of tree strongly smell of garlic when
cut or crushed.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
£• odorata provides the famous Spanish cedar of
commerce which has been widely used for all types of
joinery including cabinet making. It is still the
preferred wood for the manufacture of cigar boxes. The
-180 -
timber is light-weight, pinkish in colour and very
fragrant. The rapid growth of the tree and its good
form make it an excellent plantation subject in some
old world countries.
Other Uses
In some areas used as a shade tree over coffee.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species has an enormous distribution from Sinaloa
in northern Mexico to Chiapas in the south and on the
subtropical atlantic coast from Nuevo Le6n to Yucatan.
Throughout lowland Central America and South America
as far south as northern Argentina (Misiones) . Also
on most of the Caribbean islands.
CLIMATE
It survives in wet areas with a rainfall of 2 000 mm -
3 000 mm p. a. and in semi-arid regions with precipita-
tion as low as 600 mm.
SOILS
Preferring the richer well-drained soils.
HABITAT
Formerly a major constituent of both dry and moist
lowland decidous forest, up to 1 200 m alt. It is
a pioneer species and a strong light demander,
appearing as a fast growing tree in secondary forest
or on abandoned pastures and agricultural land.
- 181 -
SEED HANDLING
Germination of fresh seed is quick and easy. Seed
collected after 4 years and maintained under refrigera-
tor still shows a high percentage of viability.
SILVICULTURE
Polypots , stumps and striplings are best used for
planting directly into the field. Mixed plantations
of conifers and Cedrela spp. are also recommended for
rainforest sites.
STATUS
Not endangered as a species, though provenances with
the best trees have mostly been lost through over-
exploitation (dysgenic selection) . In some parts of
the range it is now a rare tree (Amazonia) . Large
trees of good form only occur in inaccessible areas.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Over-exploitation of the best phenotypes through
selective logging and 'creaming1 of the natural forest
besides clearing of lowland forest. Plantation crops
have frequently failed because of the depredations
of the shoot borer Hypsipyla.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The O.F.I. Oxford has organised two separate sets of
research trials where seed of provenances of the
species has been collected from a limited part of
the natural range and which is being grown on in
and ex situ sites throughout the tropics. Hypsipyla
grandella however attacks all trees in the Neotropics.
- 182 .
Some seed is still available from O.F.I, free of charge
for any one wishing to establish a trial or
conservation stands.
.183 _
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chaplin, G.E.
1980
Earle Smith C.E.
1960
Lamb, A.F.A.
1968
Styles, B.T.
1972
Styles, B.T. in
T.D.Pennington &
B.T. Styles
1981
Progress with provenance exploration
and seed collection of Cedrela spp.
Cornm. Forestry Institute, University
of Oxford. 17 p.
A revision of the genus Cedrela.
Fieldiana (Botany) 29(5) : 295-341
(1960) .
Fast-growing timber Trees of The
Lowland Tropics No. 2 Cedrela odorata.
Comm. Forestry Institute, University
of Oxford. 46 p.
The floral biology of Meliaceae and
its bearing on tree breeding.
Silvae Genetica 21: 174-182.
Cedrela odorata, in Meliaceae, Flora
Neotropica, Monograph 28: 374-379.
- 184 -
Cedrus libani A. Rich.-''
SYNONYMS
Pinus cedrus L. (1753)
Cedrus libanensi Juss. ex Mirb. (1805)
Cedrus patula K.Koch (1853)
Cedrus libanitica Trew ex Pilger (1926)
Cedrus libanitica subsp. stenocoma O.Schw. (1944)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Sedir (Turkey) ; Lebanon Cedar (English) ;
Cedre du Liban (French speaking countries)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A majestic tree, 20-35 m high, with a massive trunk
5-8 m or more in girth. Branches of young tree often
erect or ascending, the leading shoot usually drooping
or bent at the tip. Trunks of old trees often divided
into several stout, erect branches; side branches
horizontal, sometimes extending for a considerable
distance from the trunk. Branchlets numerous and
spreading so as to form a wide, table-like surface. '
I/ FAO acknowledges the assistance of R.Morandini,
Institute Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura, Viale S.
Margherita 80-82, I - S2100, Arezzo, Italy.
- 185 -
Fruit
Cones ovoid to barrel-shaped, 7.0-11.0 cm long; 4.5 -
6.5 cm wide; scales up to 15 mm wide, seed about 1.2 cm
long, seed and wing together 2.5 - 2.8 cm lonq; wing
wedge-shaped.
Foliage
Leaves 10-40 mm long, green or glaucous, needle-like,
frequently with silvery stomatal lines, somewhat
flattened, acute.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The oily, sweet-scented wood is very durable and has
been a valuable source of timber (King Solomon's
Temple) .
Other Uses
Ornamental plantings
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In Syria it grows in the Lebanon mountains at
elevations as high as 3 400 m, and in the Kedisha
valley, at approximately 2 000 m. Also in Turkey in
the Taurus and Anti-Taurus ranges, from 1 000-2 000 m.
CLIMATE
Continental cold, mediterranean or temperate cold
climate with winter rainfall. It is an adaptive
species but does not withstand high atmospheric
humidity. It has proved very frost resistant.
- 186 -
HABITAT
Dominant tree or in mixed forest.
SEED HANDLING
Germination normally around 45%. The cones may be
opened by soaking them for 48 hours in warm water.
After the scales are dry, they can be put through a
screen-covered sieve to remove the seed. Seed keeps
its vitality for at least 4-5 months in ordinary
storage conditions. No pre-treatment is needed as
the germination is quick (3-5 weeks). 10-15 000/kg.
SILVICULTURE
In Lebanon it has been found necessary to establish
terraces and do soil preparation.
STATUS
In Lebanon natural stands are found in seven different
localities (Ehden, 140 ha; Tannourine and Hadeth,
85 ha; Barrouk, 40 ha; Ain Zahalta, 40 ha; Jabal
Quammoa, 30 ha; Bcharre 7 ha; Jaje, 2 ha). Total
area: 344 ha.
In Turkey extensive natural stands are found on the
Taurus mountains. Natural regeneration is often
very abundant and vigorous.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Exploitation and grazing, especially in Lebanon, has
been a major problem because it destroys the natural
regeneration.
- 187 -
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
In Lebanon the Government has forbidden the felling
of trees in the natural stands. A large reforestation
scheme, which will include C. libani, has also been
planned.
In Turkey some old stands are protected as natural
reserves .
- 188 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anon.
Notes on Cedrus libani Bar.
Library.
FAG Forestry
Da] limore,W. &
Jackson, A. Bruce
1966
Heit,L.E.
1968
Davis P.H.
1965
Paule ,L.
1975
A Handbook of Coniferae & Ginkqoaceae.
Revised S.G. Harrison, Edward Arnold
(Publishers) Ltd., London.
Propagation for seed, in American Nurseryman
Vol. CXXVIII, No. 6.
Flora of Turkey Vol. I.
Edinburgh, University Press.
Der Zustand der Zedernwalder Libanons.
Arch. Naturschutz u. Landschaf tsforsch. ,
Berlin, 15: 265-27O.
- 189 -
Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sieb.et Zucc.-'
The genus Cercidiphyllum was widely distributed in the
northern hemisphere during Upper Cretaceous and
Tertiary period, but nowadays is known only from Eastern
Asia, with 2 species in Japan and a variety (Cercidi-
phyllum japonicum var. sinense Rend, and Wils.) in
China.
FAMILY
Cercidiphyllaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Katsura Tree
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A huge deciduous tree up to 3O m in height and 2 m in
diameter; branchlets dull brown, with numerous
prominent transverse lenticels; shoots reddish with
small greyish lenticels. Winter-buds purplish-red,
covered by 3 scales; the terminal bud absent, the
shoot branching pseudo-dichotomously in the next
season.
Inflorescence
Flowers in May before it leafs; dioecious, developing
from axillary or terminal buds on dwarf-shoots;
perianth absent. Staminate inflorescences nearly
I/ FAO acknowledge the assistance of Pan Chin Kang.
The Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry,
Beijing, China.
- 190 -
sessile, composed of 2-4 bracts and 15-35 stamens;
anthers red, linear, apiculate by the prolongation of
the connective. Pistillate inflorescences pedicelled,
consisting of 2-6 carpels, each subtended by a bract;
ovary fusiform, cylindrical, dark green, with an
extrorse ventral suture; style elongated, stigmatic
only on the outer dark, scarlet surface.
Fruit
Follicles 2-6 in a stalked cluster, ripening dark
brownish grey in October, with a 2-layered pericarp,
dehiscent and exposing numerous winged seeds,
imbricated in 2 rows.
Foliage
Leaves on long shoots opposite or subopposite, ovate or
ovate-orbicular, with a more or less acutish apex;
leaves on dwarf-shoots solitary, obtuse or nearly
rounded at the apex; blade crenulate with glandular
tips on the margin, glabrous, palmately 7-nerved
with anastomosing veinlets.
Bark
Bark dark-greyish brown, deeply furrowed, separating
into flakes.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The katsura-tree is one of the most important trees
producing valuable timber in Japan. The wood which
is light and soft and fine grained, is largely used
for the interior finish of buildings, furnitures,
cabinet-works etc. Specific gravity: 0.51-O.63.
- 191 -
Other Uses
In some places used as an ornament.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Mostly in the northern part of Japan; with a scattered
occurence throughout the southern part. In China the
variant Cercidiphyllum japonicum var. sinense is
found in Western Hupeh, and Western Szechuan (at
elevations between 1 OOO-2 6OO m in Western Szechuan,
9OO - 1 350 m in western Hupeh,and 820 - 1 450 m
in Anhwei) .
CLIMATE
Cool - temperate,
SOILS
Prefers neutral to acid soils, and sites where the
soil is very moist or wet.
HABITAT
In Japan it is often found in valleys in the cool-
temperate beech forests together with Aesculus
turbinata. These beech forests are widely distributed
throughout the islands of Japan. The valley forests
are formed on rather moist concave slopes and on
relatively stable colluvial or flooded soils of
valley bottoms. In China it is mainly found in
Mixed mesophytic forest and Evergreen Oak and Schima
forest.
- 192 -
STATUS
Certain provenances are endangered (in China) .
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
None at present. In China there is need for botanical
and genecological exploration.
- 193 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Japan Forest
Association
1964
Numata M.
1974
Wang, Chi-Wu
1961
In Chinese:
Cheng Wan-chun
1982"
Illustrated Important Forest Trees of
Japan, Chikyu Shuppan Co. Ltd.,
Akasaka, Tokyo, Japan.
The flora and vegetation of Japan -
Kodansha Limited, Tokyo, Elsvier
Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, London, New York.
The Forest of China - Maria Moors
Cabot Foundation, publication No. 5 -
Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts .
Sylva Sinica - Vol.1, p. 542-544-
. 194
Chlorophora exoelsa (Vfelw.) Benth. & Hook. f.
FAMILY
Moraceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Ghana: Iroko (trade name) Odum, Elunli, Elui, Ala,
Edi.
Kenya: Iroko (standard name), Mvule (trade name),
Mururi, Minarui, Mutumba, Murumba, 01 ua.
Uganda :Mbara, Mutumba, Kimrumba.
Senegal and Guinea: Toumbohiro Noir
Guinea: Simme
Siere Leone and Liberia: Semli
Ivory Coast, Ghana and Togo: Odoum
S. Nigeria, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea: Rokko,
Oroko, Iroko.
Central Africa Republic, Zaire: Kambala, Moloundou,
Bangni .
Angola: Mereira
Mozambique: Mufula, Mvule, M'Gonde
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Large deciduous tree occurring in forest and savanna.
In forest it frequently attains 50 m, with a straight
- 195 -
cylindrical bole 17-27 m long? in savanna it rarely
exceeds 30 m, usually branching within 13 m from the
ground. Crown large, composed of a few stout
widely spreading limbs; ultimate branchlets often
pendulous, especially in male trees. Buttresses small
or absent. Surface roots usually extensive.
Inflore'scence
Flowers green, dioecious. Male flower-spikes pendulous,
slender, up to 15 cm long; female spikes erect, stout,
closely packed, to 6.4 cm long.
Fruit
The fertilised female inflorescence develops into a
green mulberry-like or fleshy caterpillar-like
syncarp of which the individual fruits are small
achenes.
Foliage
Leaves very variable, those on flowering shoots
entire, very shortly acuminate, oblong-elliptic,
12-15 cm long, 7.5 - 10.2 cm broad; those on young
trees and coppice shoots serrate, much larger,
usually long-acuminate.
Bark
Bark thick, pale ash-grey to dark brown or almost
black, scaling slightly at the base.
- 196 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The timber of male and female trees is practically
identical; sapwood yellow-white, sharply defined,
very liable to borer attack and not durable; heartwood
yellow to yellow-brown when freshly cut, darkening to
deep golden-brown or russet-brown with lines of
paler tissue, sometimes marked with darker streaks,
becoming deep brown if repeatedly oiled or if
treated with lime. The wood is somewhat variable
in hardness and weight; it is fairly coarse in
texture and has a typically interlocked, sometimes
wavy, grain; it is scentless and tasteless, almost
teredo and termite proof, very resistant to fungi,
and classified as fire resistant. The wood of male
trees is very slightly denser than that of female
trees and is consequently slightly more difficult to
saw. It turns easily, material from the denser male
trees giving the best results, bends moderately, nails
well, and takes a fine polish. The high quality
timber is used as a teak substitute. The best finish
for the timber is its natural colour with wax polish.
Other Uses
The bark is used for roofing houses and also for
dyeing leather and clothes, and contains a fibre.
The bark, its ashes, the leaves and the latex all
have uses in local medicine.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
C.excelsa occurs naturally in tropical and sub-tropical
Africa. It is found in Sierra Leone, Gabon, Cameroon,
- 197 -
Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Congo, Zaire, Malawi, Uganda,
Kenya and Tanzania.
CLIMATE
The lower limit of average rainfall is about 760 mm per
annum, but this will not enable C. excelsa to regenerate
itself naturally. The upper limit is about 2 500 mm,
provided that soils do not get waterlogged.
In Uganda C. excelsa grows in areas with about 1 250 mm
annual rainfall.
SOILS
The soil preferred is a deep, light red loam and
freely drained. In Africa this is formed by disinte-
gration through weathering of the underlying rocks.
The type that appears to make the best soil is
granite gneiss.
HABITAT
In Tanzania the tree occurs naturally in the moister
areas. Normally it grows at elevations from sea level
up to altitudes of about 1 200 m. In Tanzania it has
even been found on Kilimanjaro at about 4 500 m above
sea level. Elsewhere it is found in the transitional
region between closed forests and savanna. In Kenya
also by the coast.
SEED HANDLING
Ripe fruits fall on the ground from where they may be
collected and seed extracted. The seed loses viability
quickly. If the fruit is fully ripe, four days
- 198 -
soaking in water is sufficient to rot the pulpf
and longer soaking reduces the viability.
SILVICULTURE
C. excelsa has been recorded as striking readily
from stem cuttings. But it is an expensive propagation
method and produces trees of very bad form. It also
regenerates naturally by seed, coppice and root
suckers. To germinate and grow well there should be
adequate moisture, no root competition, some soil
tilth and some shade.
Root suckers are provided when roots are wounded in
any way. C. excelsa stumps or striplings should be
planted on areas where all the herbaceus vegetation
has been cleared, line piled and burnt. It will
also thrive beneath a suitable canopy, but at the
same time it is extremely sensitive to competition.
Growth is in particular depressed by grass.
STATUS
Endangered
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Extensive logging.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
None known.
- 199 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anon.
1973
Revue Bois et Forets des Tropiques,
No. 148, Mars-Avril.
Dale, I.R.&
Greenway, P.J.
1961
FAO
1986
Kenya Trees and Shrubs,
Buchanan's Kenya Estates Limited,
Nairobi. Hatchards, London.
Some medicinal forest plants of
Africa and Latin America. PAO Forestry
Paper 67. Rome.
Irvine, F.R.
1961
Mugasha, A.G.
1981
Woody Plants of Ghana, with special
reference to their Uses, Oxford
University Press, London.
The Silviculture of Tanzanian
Indigenous Tree Species III
Chlorophora excelsa. Tanzania
Silviculture Technical Notes. No. 53.
Silvicultural Research Station,
Lushoto , Tanzania .
- 200 -
Cordia Milleni Baker
SYNONYMS
C. longipes Bak. (1894)
C. irvingii Bak. (1895)
C. unyorensis Staff (19O6)
C. ugandensis S. Moore (1916)
FAMILY
Boraginaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Ghana: Drum Tree, Akaboa Kyenedua (i.e. drum tree)
Kyeneduru, Twenboa, Tweneboakadua, Kyeneboa ,
Tweneduru.
Kenya: Mungoma
Uganda: Mukebu, Mutumba, Ketumba, Mujugagoma
(Musical instruments)
Nigeria: Omo
Cameroon: Ebe
Tanzania: Mzingatti, Mkibu
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree up to 35 m high or more, with spreading crown.
Bole thick, rarely straight, usually short (10-13 n) .
Buttresses short and blunt.
^/ Based on the work of J.A.Odera (Forestry Research
Dept., Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Kikuyu,
Kenya) and Ms.C.Kabuye (East African Herbarium,
National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya).
- 201 -
Inflorescence
Flowers longer than calyx, yellowish; stamens exerted
in crowded cymes.
Fruit
Fruit ovoid , 3.8 - 4.4 cm long, about 1.9 cm diameter
cupped in the enlarged calyx.
Foliage
Young parts pale brownish tomentose; leaves alternate,
obovate - suborbicular to orbicular, usually 15. O -
25. O cm long and 6.4 - 11.4 cm broad. (occasionally
up to 3O cm long and 18 cm broad) ; entire or
crenulate; scabrid above, tomentose-pilose beneath;
apex usually rounded, base rounded to cordate;
petiole usually 3.8 - 7.6 cm long, occasionally up to
15.2 cm long.
Bark
Bark pale brown, fibrous.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood fairly soft and close-grained, yellow and
lustrous, with brownish heartwood. It makes durable
roof shingles lasting 4 years, and useful furniture.
It seasons and finishes well, and it is said to be
impervious to termites. It is much used to make
drums, including the Ashanti "talking drums" (cf.kyne
'drum'), bowls, and other domestic utensils.
In Uganda, the wood is used for making musical
instruments. Easily adzed and floating well, it is
used to make canoes (Eggeling, Uganda) and canoe
- 202 -
keels, and is useful when dry as firewood. In Ghana
the wood is used for shingles. Basic specific
gravity about 0.34.
Other Uses
It is used as a shade tree in Yoruba villages and
sometimes regarded as a sacred tree. The leaves are
boiled and the liquid bottled and administered two
spoonfuls morning and evening for roundworms. A leaf
decoration, of the dried leaves is smoked as tobacco
and used in Nigeria for asthma, colds, cough, etc. The
pulverized seeds mixed with palm-oil are used against
ringworms .
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Widely distributed in tropical Africa.
SOILS
Very variable.
HABITAT
Found in closed deciduous forests and old secondary
formations.
SEED HANDLING
None recorded
SILVICULTURE
It is commonly planted in towns.
- 203 -
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
Rare in Kenya; known only from a few scattered
localities. Populations in these localities tend to
be shrinking as the forests in which they grow are
becoming further reduced in size each year.
Where found it is commonly prefered for musical
instruments like drums.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
None recorded.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES PROPOSED
1. Conservation of the forests where the species are
found .
2. Surveys to determine full extent of distribution.
3. Research to study the ecological requirements and
possible cultivation of the species.
- 204 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chudnoff, M.
1980
Dale, I.R. &
Greenway, P.J,
1961
Eggeling, W.J.&
Dale, I.R.
1952
Irvine, F.R.
1961
Tropical Timbers of the World. U.S.
Department of Commerce, National
Information Service.
Kenya Trees and Shrubs. Buchanan's
Kenya Estates Ltd., Nairobi, Hatchards
London.
The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda
Protectorate. The Government
Printer, Entebbe, Uganda and Crown
Agents for the Colonies, Millbank,
London .
Woody Plants of Ghana with special
references to their uses. London,
Oxford University Press.
- 205 -
I/
Cupressus atlantica Gaussen
Some authorities still regard this species as a small-
coned population of Cupressus sempervirens L. , but
there appear to be sufficient differences to justify
its separation.
SYNONYM
Cupressus maroccana (name erroneously attributed to
Gaussen by L. Emberger (I960)).
FAMILY
Cupressaceae
VERNACULAR NAME
Azel (Berber)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Medium-sized tree/ up to 35 m high and 4 m in diameter.
Conical form with straight trunk, no fastigiate forms
have been recorded. Branches set at a wide angle,
upward curving. Branchlets of first and second order
distichous. First order shoots are slightly flattened
in section, very fine (diameter O.5).
Seedling with two apiculate cotyledons and apiculate
leaves/ glaucous .
I/ Based on the work of P.J.Stewart, Oxford Forestry
Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University
of Oxford, U.K.
- 206 -
Inflorescence
Monoecious: male strobili, terminal, yellow, elonganted,
c. 5 - 2 mm; female strobili terminal, 8 mm broad.
Fruit
Cones globose, 18 to 22 mm in diameter, with 6 to 10 cone
scales. Mucro of scales hardly visible. Seed with
very narrow wing.
Foliage
Adult foliage: leaves of cupressoid scales, opposite,
decussate, imbricate, appressed, acuminate, strongly
keeled; 1 mm long with a very prominent and active
resin gland. General aspect of foliage fine-grained,
slightly glaucous, especially on young trees.
Bark
Bark grey-brown, longitudinally fissured: not
exfoliating.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
It produces long, high-grade sawlogs and has an
attractive aromatic wood.
Other Uses
Wood very durable and potentially valuable for
dendrochronology .
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species is endemic to the High Atlas Mountains of
Southern Morocco where there are several stands and a
number of isolated trees, over a total area of about
- 207 -
200 km2 around 11° West, 31° North. The largest
stand is in the Forest of Aghbar, in the valley of
the Oued Nefis, where the species occupies about
6 OOO ha. The altitude is between 1 1OO and 2 OOO m.
CLIMATE
The climate is mediterranean with a summer dry season,
and rainfall is from 35O mm to 70O mm. There are no
direct data on temperatures: summer maxima are likely
to average at about 30° and winter minima at -1°,
or less. Extreme frosts of -15° are thought to
occur and have been measured at an arboretum where
this species has survived.
SOILS
The soils are more or less eroded, on parent materials
consisting mainly of schists and basaltic rocks.
HABITAT
The species is extremely long-lived, the oldest specimen
being at least 2 OOO years old according to known growth
rates. The species is drought resistant and extremely
frost resistant and adapts itself to a variety of soils.
SEED HANDLING
Germination normally low. No special pre- treatment
is recommended. Around 140 OOO seeds /kg.
SILVICULTURE
No special methods are necessary: the usual procedures
for temperate conifers are suitable for raising and
planting Atlas Cypress. Cuttings and grafts can be
- 208 -
used, presumably by the same techniques as those
required for Cupressus dupreziana, q.v.
STATUS
Endangered at the species level.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Exploitation and increasing human pressure.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The forests of Atlas Cypress are managed by the
Moroccan Forest Service with the objective of
maintaining and improving them. However, the
future of the forest depends on natural regeneration,
and it remains to be seen how successful the
conditions for this can be re-created despite conti-
nued grazing. The Forest Research Station of Rabat
has undertaken a long-term programme of research
on the species, including the designation of plus trees
for seed collection. The species has been little
planted outside North Africa and France. It should be
introduced into many more countries for experimental
planting in regions subject to drought and frost, and
for tree breeding programmes.
- 209 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boudy, P.
1950
Boulhol, P.
1946
Destremau, D.X.
1974
FAO
1981
Gaussen, H.
1968
Economie Fores tiere Nord-Africaine.
Larouse, Paris, Vol. II, p. 764-72 and
Vol. Ill, p. 230-98.
Le Cyprus en Afrique du Nord. Rev.
Geog. Ma roc. No. 1
Precisions sur les Aires Naturelles
des Principaux Conif^res Marocairxs.
Ann. Rech. Forestiere Maroc, Rabat.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances, FO:MISC/81/11
FAO, Rome, p. 17-18.
Les Gymnospermes actuelles et fossiles,
fasc. xii. Les Cupressacees. Trav.
Lab. Forestier Toulose.
- 210 -
I/
Cupressus dupreziana Camus
SYNONYM
C. lereddei Gaussen (1950)
FAMILY
Cupressaceae
VERNACULAR NAME
Tarout (Touareg)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Medium-sized tree, able to attain more than 2O m height
and up to 3 m diameter. All known fully-grown trees are
too badly mutilated for the natural form to be seen.
Young specimens grown in protected conditions show
bushy form at first but with subsequent development
of a straight central axis. Branches leave trunk at
large angle, curving upwards. Branching of first and
second order shoots tends strongly to be in two planes;
first order shoots are considerably flattened.
Seedlings: with two cotyledons and aciculate leaves,
glaucous; juvenile leaves sharp, 2-3 mm long.
Inflorescence
Monoecious; male strobili terminal, yellow, elongated,
c.6 x 3 mm; female strobili terminal, purple, ovoid,
c. 2*5 mm.
I/ Based on work of P.J.Stewart, Oxford Forestry Xnsti-
~ tute, University of Oxford 0X1 3RB, UK.
- 211 -
Fruit
Cone: Elongated c. 18-24x16-20 mm, grey-brown, matt,
with 12 sometimes lO scales, each with a very small,
rounded mucro.
Seeds: reddish-brown, oval, flattened 4x5 mm to
5x6 mm, with wide, thin wings. Pollen grain 38
microns in diameter - a specific character.
Foliage
Adult foliage: leaves of cupressoid scales, opposite,
decussate, imbricate, slightly appressed, acuminate,
1 to 1.5 mm long; resin gland elongated, not noticeable
except on base of old leaves. Dull green in colour,
slightly glaucous, especially on the young tree.
Foliage very dense.
Bark
Reddish-brown, with deep longitudinal fissures? no
exfoliation.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The wood is suitable for the most exacting uses,
being of medium density, stable and aromatic. The
stems are straight in cultivated trees and the
branches fine.
Other Uses
Potential value for afforestation in arid regions.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Confined to an are
Tamrit) Plateau of Tassili N'Ajjer massif in Central
2
Confined to an area of some 2OO km on the Edehi (or
- 212 -
Sahara, around 9°E and 25°N, in eastern Algeria. 153
living specimens have been counted and many more dead
ones. The altitude varies between 1 OOO m and 1 8OO m.
CLIMATE
The climate is not known by direct measurement: the
average maxima and minima in summer are estimated at
30°C and 2O°C, those in winter at 13° and 1°C. Frosts
down to 7°C are probable. The average annual
rainfall is perhaps 3O mm, with great irregularities.
SOILS
Alluvial gravels and sands
HABITAT
The trees are in wadi bottoms. Only two cases of
naturally occurring seedlings have ever been recorded,
and there are no trees younger than at least a
century (only five trees are recorded with a diameter
of 50 cm or less, the smallest being 13 cm) . Fossil
pollen shows that the species was once widespread
in the Sahara. The trees are extremely long- lived,
the oldest being probably at least 2 OOO years old.
SEED HANDLING
The seed of this cypress is reputed to germinate with
difficulty. However, this is not a general rule.
Sowing can be carried out in the usual way, with
thorough precautions against fungal infection.
SILVICULTURE
Cuttings can be grown under mist as with other conifers.
- 213 -
Grafting has been successfully achieved onto Cupressus
sempervirens by scion-budding, by crown-grafting and by
inarching. The latter method can be used for cuttings
if the base of the scion dips into water and is
perhaps the most successful. Growth is reportedly a
little slower than that of Cupressus sempervirens in
similar conditions. This is one of the most drought-
resistant species known, with considerable frost tole-
rance.
STATUS
In imminent danger of complete disappearance from its
natural range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Nomads often shelter under the trees and their herds
destroy any regeneration. There is still sporadic
exploitation of living branches for firewood , but
systematic cutting of the cypresses has been brought
to an end by their rarity and remoteness. There were
still many living trees in 1863 according to the
first European report and they were a major source of
timber for local use.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Expeditions at various dates have made unsystematic
collections of cones, and seedlings have been raised
at many botanic gardens in France and Algeria. The
biggest collection was made by the Algerian Forest
Service in 1969 and several hundreds of trees were
successfully germinated. The Forest Research Centre
at Ariana, Tunis, possesses a good collection of young
- 214 -
trees. Seeds from two adult trees in Lebanon have
been distributed to interested persons and
institutes, i.e. CSIRO, Canberra (Australia). There
seems little prospect for protecting the surviving
natural population, scattered over 200 km at a
density of less than one tree per km . A more
promising approach would be to take cuttings from
every specimen and to grow a complete set in a number
of places so as to save the whole surviving gene
resource and to duplicate it as an insurance against
accident. The fullest possible use should be made
of the Saharan specimens, both living and dead.
A collection of material for dendrochronological
purposes should be organized at the earliest possible
date. There is a danger that almost all the dead wood
will be. taken for local use before it can be examined
scientifically.
- 215 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barry, J.P.et.al,
1970
Camus, A.
1926
FAO
1981
Franclet, A.
1967
Hethener, R.
1967
Leredde, C.
1957
Simoneau, P.&
Debazac, A.F.
1961
Steward, P.J.
1970
Essai de Monographic de Cupressus
dupreziana A.Camus, Bull. Soc. Hist.
Nat. d'Afrique du Word, Algiers.
61: 95-178
Le Cupressus dupreziana A. Camus,
Cyprus Nouveau au Tassili, Bull. Soc.
Dendrol. Franc., 58: 39-44
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances
FO:MISC/81/11, FAO, Rome, p. 19-21
Une N^thode de Greffage du Cupressus
dupreziana sur C. sempervirens Rev.
Forest. Franc., 338-342 p.
Activite Microbiologique des Sols £
Cupressus dupreziana au Tassili.
Bull. Soc. His
58: 39-100.
1st. Nat. Afrique du Nord.
Etude Ecologique et Phytosociologique
du Tassili. Institut de Recherches
Sahariennes, Algiers.
Le Cyprus de Ajjer, Rev. Forest.
Franc., p. 90-97.
Cupressus dupreziana. Threatened
Conifer of tne Sahara. Biological
Conservation, Vol.2.
- 216 -
I/
Dalbergia nigra Fr. Allem.
FAMILY
Leguminosae sub f am. Papilionoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Jacarnda-da-Bahia , jacarand£ , jacarand£-caviuna ,
jacaranda-preto, jacaranda-rajado, jacarand£-coco,
cavitina, cabiuna, pau-preto, uruuna. (Brazil).
Brazilian rosewood, palisander (England) , palissandre
(France)/ Jacarandaholz, Palisanderholz (Germany),
madera de palisandro (Spain), legno di jacaranda,
palissandro (Italy) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree with heights varying between 15 and 25 metres;
trunk relatively thin, most measuring between O.30 and
O.40 m in diameter; irregular and slightly conical at
the base. Trees with a thick trunk are rarely found
nowadays .
Branches dark, roundish, tomentose when young, fairly
broad, growing in a slightly zig-zag fashion.
Inflorescence
Flowers pale violet, scented, small, approximately'
9 mm long, arranged in short axial bunches, 5-6 cm
long, shorter than the leaves, appearing on leafless
shoots and may join together to form panicles about
20 cm long, with reddish hairs. Calyx, campanulate
\J Based on the work of Mario Tomazello (Forest Dept.
University de Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil)*
- 217 -
fairly smooth, with 5 long teeth, one longer than the
rest. Corolla yellowish-white with 1O monodelphous
stamens. Flowering from October to Noveirber (Ramalho,
1973; Rizzini, 1971); November to December (Pickel,
1951) .
Fruit
An elliptical or oblong samara, shiny, with prominent
longitudinal venation, 3-8 cm long by 12-15 cm wide.
Seeds 1 or 2 per fruit, central, kidney-shaped,
flattened, black and smooth.
Foliage
Leaves compound, imparipinnate, alternate, with 12-18
small folioles, 7-15 mm long by 4-8 mm wide;
alternate, elliptical, oblong or somewhat obovate and
emarginate, pilose on both sides when young, later
becoming glabrous, or always glabrous; delicately
veined; petioles glabrous or more often pilose.
Bark
Thin, grey, rough bark with irregular parallel
fissures, scaling fairly slowly, with a tendency for
small plaques to curve outwards.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The heart wood is dark greyish-purple in colour with
black stripes or markings; it may occasionally be
pinkish-beige with orange stripes or very pale, almost
without design, which reduces its commercial value.
The surface is irregularly shiny and smooth and has
a distinctive, pleasant, subtle smell and a sweet
- 218 -
taste. It is hard, heavy and resistant, and splits
easily. The sap wood is pale yellow, almost white.
It is the most valuable Brazilian wood, particularly
in demand for furniture-making, although nowadays only
for veneers for plywood. Because the tree is now so
rare, it is difficult and expensive to produce
furniture wholly made of this timber.
Other Uses
The wood is often found as decoration in a great
variety of forms, domestic utensils and even women's
jewellery, mainly in places where its ornamental
aspect can be displayed.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
South of Bahia as far as Minas Gerais, including Rio
de Janeiro and Espfrito Santo (fig.l). Felling is
restricted to the area south of Bahia. In the Mata
area, in Minas Gerais, young specimens are abundant
and regeneration is fairly easy. A study carried out
by Leao & Vinha (1975) in the southern part of the
State of Bahia showed that the species is present
around Teixeira de Freitas, Itamaraju, Itabela,
Guaratinga, EunSpolis, Itagimirim, Itapebf, Itaimbe,
Gurupa-Mirim, Potiragua, Mascote, Camaca, Arataca, .
Jufari, Uru9uca, Uguaf, Forgoes, Banco Central,
Itapitanga, Gongogi, Ubata, Ibirapitanga, Itagibi,
Itagi, Aiquara, Ipiarf, Apuarema, Itamari, Wenceslau
Guimaraes, Ipiuna and between Valencia and the BR-101.
- 219 -
CLIMATE
There are four different climatic types in the area:
Af, Am, Aw and Bsh (Koeppen-classif ication) . Af is a
hot, damp climate, with no dry season, rainfall over
1 300 mm/year; Aw is a humid, savanna- type cliamte, with
a dry winter season; Am is a transition between Af and
Aw; and Bsh is a hot, semi -arid climate, with
serophilous vegetation (fig. 2).
SOILS
According to Domingos & Keller (1958) , the southern
part of Bahia State consists of sandy terrain of
marine origin, barren tablelands and hills. To
the west the land rises in a series of crests and
ledges in a general SW-NE direction which look like
steps leading up to the South Bahian Plateau. The
surface here is eroded, moulded in gneiss and granite,
and the average altitude is 750 - 85O metres. From
an edaphic point of view, the region is fairly
complex: oxisols are predominant - deep soils with
low natural fertility. There are also fairly
extensive areas of alfisols, entisols and mollisols -
fertile soils used for the cultivation of cacao and
as pasture land. Near the coast and in the channels
of the rivers there are inceptisols, histosols,
entisols and spodosols. To the north-east, where the
climate is semi-arid, there are aridisols. The study
indicated that in 89 percent of cases, Dalbergia nigra
occurs on undulating or mountainous terrain, on the
tops and sides of hills where the soil is clayey
and clayey-sand, deep and well-drained. The results
of the study indicate that palisander is not a
- 220 -
species that requires phosphorous and that it prefers
soils with a low content of aluminium.
HABITAT
It was further observed that specimens occur with
greater frequency in a specific belt of hilly and
mountainous land extending northwards from the river
Jequiri<ja (fig. 1). To the east, the species rarely
reaches the coast, probably due to edaphic factors -
the occurrence of low-fertility soils (oxisols) . To
the west, it reaches the escarpment of the South
Bahian Plateau, being found mainly in the valleys of
the Cachoeira, Contas and Almas rivers.
South of the Pardo river, the largest concentration
of the species is to be found on the boundaries of
climatic zones Af and Am, while to the north it is
found in climatic zones Af and Am and in the
transition zone between climatic zones Am and Bsh
(fig.2). Due to the length of time during which this
species has been utilized, it has become rare in the
more accessible and unprotected areas.
SEED HANDLING
Fructification: September to October (Ramalho, 1973;
Rizzini, 1971); January (Pickel, 1951).
One kilogramme may contain 14 000 seeds capable of
germinating within 12-25 days.
SILVICULTURE
Few experiments have been carried out on palisander
cultivation in Brazil. Data obtained in the Biological
Reserve of Pau Brasil in Porto Saguro (BA) indicate
- 221 -
that 34 one-year-old specimens, planted with a spacing
of 2.O x 2.O m, measured 3.0 cm in diameter and
2.0 m in height (Leao & Vinhaf 1975). Palisander is
generally considered to be a slow-growing species,
but Mattos Filho & Coimbra Filho (1975) state that in
Rio de Janeiro palisander grows better than various
species of Machaerium with a spacing of 1.5 x 1.5 m
(the first pruning being effected when the tree is
4 years old and already covers the ground) .
Heringer (1957) states that growth is rapid in the
state of Minas Gerais. Golfari & Caser (1977)
mention the existence of only a few experimental
specimens of between 1 and 10 years of age in the
northeastern region. According to these two authors,
palisander grows in a great variety of forms, from
a bushy type with branches growing up from the base
to specimens with relatively straight trunks. They
also report the existence of an experimental specimen,
8 years old, 8 m high and with a diameter of 0.10 m,
in Linhares-ES.
Galvao et al . (1979), analysing experimental cuttings
from a palisander tree in the region of Manaus,
57 months old, growing in yellow latosol of low
fertility in climatic zone Am, according to Koeppen,
concluded that this species would have great potential
if grown in Amazonia.
STATUS
In danger of extinction
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Palisander is the most valuable of the innumerable
- 222 -
species that grow in Brazil. Because it has been
intensively logged, it is on the way to extinction.
Unfortunately there are, as yet , no commercial plantations
of this species and research on the possibilities
of cultivating it are only just beginning.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Lack of interest in the cultivation of palisander is
due largely to the widespread misconception that it
is slow-growing. But bearing in mind the great value
of its wood and the fact that it belongs to the
Leguminosae/ some members of which have the ability
through symbiotic microbial reduction to convert
nitrogen from the air into nitrogen-components that
can be assimilated by plants, research should be
carried out into the conservation of this important
genetic resource both in situ and ex situ.
- 223 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Almeida, D.G.de
1978
Chudnoff, M.
1980
Correa, M.P.
Domingos, A.J. &
Keller, E.C.S.
1958
Galvao, A. P.M.;
Ferreira, C.A. &
Teixeira, L.B.
Golfari, L. &
Caser, R.L.
1977
Heringer, E.P.
1947
LeSo, A.C. ft
Vinha, S.G. da
1975
Mainieri C. ft
Pereira, J.A.
1965
Fichas dendrologicas comerciais e
industrials de madeiras brasileiras.
Anuario brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro, 11 (11):
342-72.
Tropical timbers of de world. Madison,
USDA, Forest Products Laboratory.
826 p.
Dicionario de plantas uteis do Brasil
e exoticas.
Bahia. Guia de excursao n? 6. In
Congresso Internacional de Geografia,
18. Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional
de Geografia. 310 p.
ObservacCes sobre o comportamento do
jacaranai da Bahia (Dalbergia nigra)
em povoamento puro na Amaz6nia. IPEF,
Piracicaba, (19): 47-59.
Zone amen to eco!6gico da regiao
nordeste para experimenta<jao florestal.
Serie t§cnica. PRODEPEF, Brasilia,
(10): 1-116.
ContribuicjSfo do conhecimento da
flora da zona da mata do Estado de
Minas Gerais. Boletim do Serviqo
de Pesquisas Agronomicas, Rio de
Janeiro, 2:5-187.
Ocorrencia do jacaranda no sul da
Bahia. Cacau atualidades, Ilheus,
12(4): 22-9.
Madeiras do Brasil: sua caracteriza^So
macroscopica, usos comuns e Indices
qualitativos ffsicos-mecanicos.
Anufirio brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro (separa 17):
1-282.
- 224 -
Mattos Filho, A.de &
Coimbra Filho, A.F.
1957
Mello, E.G.
1951
National Academy of
Sciences. 1979
Pickel, J.B.
1951
Ramalho, R.S.
1973
Record , S.I. &
Hess, R.W. 1949,
Rizzini, C.T.
1971
Tavares, M.F.R.
1976
Tomazello Filho, M.
1982
Ensaios e comportamentos sobre
Dalbergia nigra. Arquivos do
Servi<jo Florestal, Rio de
Janeiro 11: 157-74.
Estudo dendrologico de
essencias florestais do Parque
Nacional do Itatiaia. Boletim.
Ministerio da Agricultura, Rio
de Janeiro, (2) : 1-172.
Tropical legumes: resources for
the future. Washington, 331 p.
As principals arvores que dao
madeira - mfitodo pr<ktico para
seu reconhecimento. Anu&rio
brasileiro de economic florestal,
Rio de Janeiro, ^ (4): 142-72.
Dendrologia 1: notas de aula.
Vi^osa, UFV, Escola Superior
de Florestas. 92 p.
Timbers of new world. New Haven,
Yale University Press. 640 p.
Arvores e madeiras uteis do Bra-
sil: manual de dendrologia
brasileira.SSo Paulo, Edgard
Blucher/EDUSP. 204 p.
Efeito do tamanho na sobrevive-
ncia de mudas de jacarandci
da Bahia - Dalbergia nigra.
Seiva, Vi<;osa, 38 (85):42-6.
Dendrologia - vegeta^So brasi-
leira. Curso de atualiza^ao,
dos conhecimentos em recursos
naturais. Sao Paulo/
Secretaria da Agricultura e
Abastecimento do Estado de Sao
Paulo. 153 p.
- 225 -
Tuset, R. &
Duran, I.
1970
Wangaard, F.F.;
Stern , W.L. &
Goodrich, S.L.
1955
Descripcion y clave macrocopicas
de maderas comerciales en Uruguay.
Boletin. Facultad Agronomia,
Montevideo. (114) .
Properties and uses of tropical woods.
Tropical woods, 103:1-139.
- 226 -
SOUTHERN BAHIA REGION
FIGURE 1 - Occurrence of palisander, Da I berg i a nigra,
in Southern Bahia (Leio t Vinha, 1975)"
- 227 -
SOUTHERN BAHIA REGION
•CLMOM7C
TYPES OF CLIMATE
ACCORDING TO
MOEPPBJ
o 20 4O to mo too
FIGURE 2 - CMaatic sketch of the Southern part of the
State of Bahia (Leao ft Vinha, 1975).
- 228 -
I/
Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Decne & Planch.
SYNONYMS
Panax morototoni Aubl. (1775)
Didymopanax calophyllum Decne and Planch. (1878)
Didymopanax chrysophyllum Decne and Planch. (1878)
Didymopanax speciosum (Willd.) Decne and Planch. (1878)
Panax chrysophyllum Vahl (1796)
Panax speciosum Willd. (1806)
Panax spinosa Poiret (1811)
Schefflera morotoni (Aubl.) Frodin (ined.).
FAMILY
Araliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Brazil: Morototd", Mucututu', Para'-para", Marupauba -
flaso, Sambacuim, Mandioci", Mandioqueira,
Pixixica, Marupauba, Pau-caixeta, Marupa*.
French Guiana: Co'rdovan, Bois de maf, Bois de Sanit Jean.
Guiana: Karohoro, Matchwood, Morototo.
Surinam: Morototo, Cassavehout, Bigi boesie, Papaja-
hoedoe , Kasabahoedoe .
Peru: Sanch-uva, Anonillo.
I/ Based on the work of O.Daniel, L.G. da Costa and
S.T.Ohashi, Forestry Department of the Faculdade de
Ciencias Agrarias do Para, P.O. Box 917, Belem,
Para, Brazil.
- 229 -
Bolivia : Guitarrero .
Columbia: Yrumero, Yagrume .
Venezuela: Yarumo de Savana, Y. Macho, Orumo Macho ,
Sun-sun, Higuereto, Tinajero.
Argentina : Ambay-guazu'.
Costa Rica: Pava , Pavilha, Probado, Pino del general.
Panama: Jagueme, J. Macho, Pyume Pyume Macho, Pava,
cimarrona, Grayumo, Yagrume, Y. Macho,
Yarumero, Manabe', Gorgoram.
Trinidad: Match-wood, Jereton.
Dominican Rep.: Palo de sable, sablito, Yagrumo Macho.
Cuba: Sapaton, Yagrumo Macho, Arriero, Gavilan,
Badana, Cordoban, Padero, Papayon.
Mexico: Chancaro bianco, Robla bianco.
Nicaragua: Costilla de danto.
Honduras: Mountain trumpet,
Puerto Rico: Yagruma Macho, Pava cinuanoria.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A tree with ornamental possibilities due to its rapid
growth and handsome aspect, medium sized, 8 to 30 m
in height, cylinder-shaped bole that is straight and
may reach up to 80 cm in diameter at the base- crown
- 230 -
small with ramification only at the apex; the branches
are not numerous; scars on the leaf peduncles occur.
Inflorescence
A terminal/ panicule, 2O to 4O cm in length, with
groups of multi-flowered umbels (3O f lowers )/ forming
the following types:
Type "A" - The umbels form on the tertiary petiole,
with solitary flowers appearing below
the umbels;
Type "B" - The umbels form on the fourth peduncle;
Type "CM - Of intermediary structure; umbels are
on the tertiary peduncles, on the lower
half the inflorescence and, on the other
half, aborted flowers in quaternary
peduncles.
In Panama, the trees begin to cease flowering when
rainfall reaches levels above 300 mm/month, from
August to December. In Brazil, they flower from
November to January. The flowers may be pedicelate
or sessile; not articulated; calyx with five sepals
that are heavily pubescent; corolla with five petals
in eliptical buds; five stamens alternate with the
petals, with very small filaments.
Fruit
The fruits are drupes, transversally eliptical; wider
than long, measuring 11 to 12 mm in width by 8 to 9 mm
in length; 4 to 6 mm and 7 to 9 mm respectively are
also reported.
- 231 -
In Panama , Brazil and Peru, fructification is from
November to December, and the number of seeds per 1OO g
is 5 900.
Foliage
Leaves large, compound, digitate, 15-40 cm long
alternate, long petioled (30-60 cm), with well deve-
loped stipules; inserted obliquely on the stem; 10 to
11 folioles, with eliptical lance-shaped limb, acumina-
te, undulate, sinuate on the margin, semi coreaceous,
dark green on the upper surface and brown-red
underneath, where it is heavily pilose.
Bark
The Bark has a whitish colour with a smooth surface.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood is moderately heavy, light cream in colour with
some grey; regular grain; medium texture; shiny and
smooth surface; indistinct odor and taste. Easily
worked with a fine finish.
Wood is used in general carpentry, veneer, ceiling
construction etc.; match sticks, boxes and cartons,
pencils, pulp and paper. It frequently appears on the
market as "Marupa" - (Simaruba amara) .
Other Uses
In Panama the petioles are used for making bird cages.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species has a wide distribution, being found in
Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia,
- 232 -
Antilles, Costa Rica, Panama, Guatemala, Mexico and
Bolivia.
SOIL/CLIMATE
In Brazil, according to the classification made by
Koeppen, Didymopanax morototoni grows in Am and Aw type
climates- . In other countries where this tree grows
naturally, the climates are also tropical with and
without dry seasons, with the exception of Argentina
which has a sub-tropical climate. It occurs frequently
in clayey, acid soil.
HABITAT
Frequently found in the upland forests , in old open
woodlands. In Peru it is common on the savana
margins. It prefers open forests with abundant light.
In surveys made on the region between the Tapajo's
and Xingu rivers, 60.8% of Didymopanax morototoni
trees with more than 25 cm of dbh, was found in the
dominant stratum.
SILVICULTURE
Didymopanax morototoni is a light-demanding species, abundant
mainly in openings, secondary forests and on road sides. These
locations are susceptible to fires in dry periods,
and this species is essentially favored due to the *
resistance of its seeds. Soon after burning, which
practically cleans the soil, the seeds germinates.
1/See^top of page 219.
- 233 -
Didymopanax morototoni has been cultivated mainly for
the manufacturing of match sticks in the Brazilian
Amazon. At three years of age a better growth in height
(4.66 m) was obtained in a 3 x 2 m spacing and the
larger diameter (9.3 cm) with a 4 x 4 m spacing. The
average annual increase in diameter from 1951 to 1978
in stands in Puerto Rico was 0.82 cm/year. In Brazil
this figure should be higher. An expected production
of 15 - 18 m /ha/year in uniform stands is forecasted.
STATUS
Didymopanax morototoni is a species that is very
abundant in secondary forests of all Central and
South American countries, where there is a tropical
or sub-tropical climate. Its regeneration is due to
dispersal by birds. The genetic variability is
large, but exploration is still necessary to discover
new provenances. However, even with the availability
of abundant native raw material, forest enterprises
do need this wood in such large quantities that they
are already concerned with reforestation, which has
shown good tree development and form. This species
is not generally in genetic deline, and good provenances
are found throughout the area of its natural distri-
bution.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
As already stressed, this species is not undergoing
extinction at the moment. However, due to its wide
use, which is becoming more intense in the pulp
- 234 -
and paper industry, and as a white wood for many
purposes, some recommendations may be made:
(a) more in-depth study on the management of its
natural regeneration and on its silviculture.
(b) planting of base populations for the preservation
of provenances.
(c) study on the genetic variability among and within
populations.
- 235 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beard, S.S.
1944/45
Chacon, J.F.A.
1964
Chacon, J.F,
1964
Correa, M.P.
1978
Dawkins, B.C.
1961
FAO
1971
Harms, H.
1939
Heinsdijk, D.
1957
Hladik,
1970
Loureiro,A.A.
et al.
1979
A silvicultural technique in Trinidad
for the rehabilitation of degraded
forest. Carib. Forest., Puerto Rico,
(6): 1-33.
The characteristics of some forest
species with regard to their use in the
Match Industry. Turrialba, Costa Rica,
14 (1) : 38-9.
Las caracteristicas de algunas especies
forestales con miras a su utilizacion
en la industria fosforera. Turrialba,
Costa Rfca, 14 (1): 38-9.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil
e das exdticas cultivadas. Brasilia,
IBDF. v.5 238-9 p.
Estimating total volume of some caribean
trees. Carib. Forest., Puerto Rico,
22 (314) : 62-3.
National Forestry School. Curitiba,
Brazil: Silvicultural research in the
Amazon, based on the work of J.L.C.Dubois.
Rome. 184 p.
Enumeration of the Araliaceae collected
by L.S. Brass in New Guinea.
J.Arnold Arbor. 20:321-2.
The upper story of tropical forest.
Tropical woods, New Haven, (107): 66-84.
Contribution a I1 etude biclcgique d'une
Araliaceae d'Amerique tropicale:
Didymopanax morototoni . Adansonia.
s.i.p. 383-407.
Essencias madeireiras da Amazonia.
Manaus, INPA v.2.
- 236 -
Loureiro, A. A,
Lisboa,P.L.B.
1979
Mainieri, C.
1958
Mainieri/C.
1967
Marques ,L.C.T.
et al.
1983
Marques, S.L.T.
et al.
1983
Marshall, R.C,
1931
Ragonese, A.M.
1961
Record ,S.J.&
Kuylen,H.
1926
Stanley, P. C.
1930
Madeiras do Municipio de Aripuana e
suas^utilidades (Mato Grosso) . Acta
amazonica, Manaus, 9 (1-suplemento) :
1-38.
Madeiras denominadas caixeta.
Publicapab. Institute de Pescjuisas
Tecnologjcas, S"So Paulo, (572).
Madeiras leves enpregadas em caixotaria:
estudo anatomico, macro e microsconico.
Anuario brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro, 18 (18) :121-46.
Determinapao da epoca adenuada de
repicagem para morototo" - Didymopanax
morototoni (Aublet) Decne. Pesquisa
em andamento. Belem, (112):l-2.
Influencia do substrato no crescimento
de rudas de morototo' - Didymopanax
morototoni (Aublet) Decne. Pesquisa em
andamf»ntor Belem, (120) : 1-3.
Notes on the silviculture of the more
important timber trees of Trinidad and
Tobago with information on the
formation of woods. Tropical woods,
New Haven, (27) : 28-9.
Estructura del xilema secundario de las
Araliaceas Argentinas. Revista de
investigaciones agrfcolas , Buenos Aires/
15(3):375-78.
Trees of the lower Rio Motagua Valley,
Guatemala. Tropical woods, New Haven
(7): 13.
Araliaceae. Flora of Costa Rica.
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, 18 (parte 3): 851-2.
-237 -
Yared,J.A.G. et al.
1983
Weaver, P.L.
1982
Williams, L.
1936
Influencia do espacamento nas
caracteri'sticas de crescimento e
forma de freijo' (Cordia goeldiana)
e morototo' (Didymopanax morototoni) .
Pesquisa em andamento, Belem,
(116) : 1-2.
Tree diameter increment in an
Upper Montane Forest of Puerto Rico.
Turrialba, Turrialba, 32 (2) :119-22.
Araliaceae. Woods of Northeastern
Peru. Field Museum of Natural
History/ cnicago, 15:399-401.
- 238 -
Diospyros hemi teles J. B.K.Richardson—
Of the fourteen species of Diospyros endemic to the
Mascarenes, twelve are from the island of Mauritius
in the Indian Ocean, one D. borbonica is from Re'union
Island and one, D. diversicolor is from Rodrigues.
£• arqulata, one of the Mauritian species may have
become extinct already. Diospyros hemi teles is
now known by only one female specimen. It is a tree
growing at midelevatlon which has a height of 8 meters.
SYNONYMS
Diospyros polyandra sensu Vaughan
FAMILY
Ebenaceae
VERNACULAR NAME
Bois d'Ebene
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Inflorescence
Flowers unisexual, male flowers stalkless, mostly
solitary in the leaf axils, the parts in 6 to 8;
calyx cup-shaped, 12-15 mm broad, corolla up to 3.5
cm wide when expanded, with reflexed white lobes,
silky on the outside. Stamens numerous (c.6O per male
flower); female flowers with 2O-3O st ami nodes.
I/ Based on the work of A.V.Owadally (Conservator
of Forest, Forestry Service, Curepi'pe, Mauritius).
- 239 -
Fruit
Fruit ovoid to ellipsoid , 2-3 cm wide, with a
persistent, slightly winged/ woody and enlarged
calyx attached to the base.
Foliage
Leaves oblong-elliptic, blunt tipped, 6-12 x 2.5 cm,
subcoriaceous, dark green with lighter translucent
veins.
Bark
Dark-grey, more or less smooth.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
No annual ring present. Wood brittle.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Mauritius, Indian Ocean; west and south west of the
island.
CLIMATE
Hot rainy season, December to April. Cool dry season
with occasional showers, April to November.
SOILS
Lithosols with basalt parent rock. Soil shallow.
HABITAT
The single female tree occurs at c. 35O m in mid-
altitude of a forest of other indigenous species.
It grows just beside a road and is only a short
distance from the edge of the forest.
- 240 -
SEED HANDLING
Seed rare. Must be sown in a rich soil immediately
after collection. It may take up to six months to
germinate.
STATUS
Endangered. As mentioned in the introduction only
one individual of this potentially valuable tree
is now known. It grows along Magenta road in the
forest of Cabinet on the western slopes of Trois
Mamelles Mountain. This tree is a female and unless
a male is found and measures taken to obtain seed, the
species is clearly doomed to extinction. It is over
100 years old so it is likely to be near the end of
its life. Recently half a dozen other trees
have been found, but they have not yet been fully
identified.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Cultivation, illegal wood cutting, monkey and
deer damage, and invasion by vigorous introduced weedy
species.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Propagation tried by cuttings but so far not successful.
- 241 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bosser, J.et.al. Flire des Mascareignes - Family 117
1981 Ebenacees
IUCN
1978
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book
- compieled by G.Lucas and H.Synge,
Merges, Switzerland pp. 193-194.
Richardson, J .B.K. Diospyros hemi teles. Kew Bull. 34:731
1980
- 242 -
Dipterix alata
SYNONYMS
Dipterix pterota Mart ex Benth. (1838)
Coumarouna alata Taub. (1891)
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Papilionoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Combaru, baru, baru jo, coco feijao, combaru, emburena
brava, feijao coco, pau camariT.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree with a tall, straight stem, reaching up to 15-25 m
in height and 0.50-0.90 m in diameter.
Inflorescence
A divaricate branchy, panicle, from 20 to 23 cm in
width, with angular and pubescent branches; flowers
pinkish-white, calyx campanulate. Flowering occurs
from October to January.
Fruit
An elliptical, long pod, 5 cm in length by 4 cm in '
width; with a coriaceous epicarp. Fructification
occurs from May to June.
I/Based on the work of P.Y.JCageyama; M.L.Maroues and M.
Tomazello F°. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O.Box 9, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.
- 243 -
Foliage
Leaves: Alternate , winged , compound, with 6-12 alternate
folioles, with a short petiole, ovate-oblong or almost
elliptical, roundish at the apex and shortened at the
base, up to 12 cm in length, the midrib nearer the
right side has oleaginous glands visible to the naked
eye. Branches: well developed, with high resistance
to wind; large crown.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy. Heartwood brownish-yellow with an atte-
nuated fibrous aspect, emphasizing stripes of
vascular lines; distinct white-yellow sapwood, surface
with little shine; no distinct odor or taste; irregular
or interlocked grain; is considered as a wood with
high rot-resistance. The heartwood of the
"combaru" is likely to have low permeability to
preservative solutions in treatments under pressure.
The combaru wood is very similar in terms of anatomical
constitution to that of the faveiro - Pterodon
pubescens Benth., which renders it the same uses. It
is recommended for the construction of external
structures, stakes, fence posts, sleepers, etc. and in
civil construction for beams, door frames, floor
boards and tiles etc., as well as for truck bodies
and agricultural implements etc.
Other Uses
The fruits (seeds) are used for food and medicinal
purposes. Dipterix alata is recommended for planting
as a street tree.
- 244 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species is wide-spread in Brazil throughout the
states of Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, Goias, Maranhao
and Piaui".
SOIL/CLIMATE
D.alata is found in soils of moderate fertility and
acid pH, with preference to lateritic, sandy-clay
with predominance of the coarse fraction. According
to the area of occurrence and the habitat of the
species, it is found in subtropical or tropical, humid
or subhumid climates/ with average annual temperatures
varying between 19 and 25°C, and average annual
precipitation between 1100 and 2 000 mm, relatively
evenly distributed throughout the year, with water
deficiency varying from moderate to high.
HABITAT
Dipterix alata is common in dry open woodland, the
"cerrados", but never occurs in the high forest. It
occupies the same habitat as Astronium fraxinifolium,
Hymenaea stigneoerpa , Bowdidria sp. and Pterodon sp.
SEED HANDLING
Seed germination is influenced by irrigation, tempera-
ture and drying. It is necessary to remove the almond
from the fruit. Germination in a period of 20-57 days
after sowing gave between 55% and 75% success (without
treatment for breaking dormancy) . Seeds per kilo vary
between 32-48 although 525 have been reported.
- 245 -
SILVICULTURE
Planted in the understorey of a Pinus elliottii stand
after the second thinning, D. alata presented an
average height (at 8 years of age) of 3.74 meters ,
a dbh of 3.11 cm, and a 96% survival.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
The natural distribution area of this species is in the
regions of Brazil that present the highest rates of
forest devastation, due to the expansion of agriculture.
The wood of D. alata is of excellent qualitv and its
seeds can be used for human and animal consumption, as
well as for medicinal purposes , thus contributing to
its intensive and disorderly exploitation and decline.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
In 1980 and 1982 a provenance/progeny trial was set up
in the region of Pederneiras-SP, through the tree
improvement programme of the Institute Florestal do
Estado de Sao Paulo, using 4 provenances and approxi-
mately 25 progenies per provenance, aiming at the gene-
tic conservation of the species.
- 246 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aguiar, I.E.
et alii
1983
Alencar, J.C.&
MagalKaes, L.M.
1979
Berg,M.E.V.D.
1982
Boutelje, J.B.
1980
Correa, M.P.
1926
Deus,C.E. ;
Brueno,C.S.C.&
Nogueira,M.C.G.
1982
Ducke, A.
1948
Figueiras,T.S.&
Silva,E.
1979
Gol£ari,L. ;
Caser,R.L. &
Moura,V.P.G.
1978
Edeitos do espayamento no comportamento
silvicultural de Coumarona alata (Vog.).
Tamb. Silvicu] tura, SETo Paulo, 8(28):
126-128.
Poder germinativo de sementes de doze
especies florestais da regiSo de
Manaus, Acta Amazon ica, Manaus,
9(3): 411-418.
Apr ove it amen to alternative de essencias
florestais da Amazonia. Silvicultura
em Sao Paulo, 16A (Parte 1): 226-2J1.
Encyclopaedia of world timbers - names
and technical literature, stockolm,
Swedish Forest Products Research
Laboratory. 398 p.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil.
Brasilia IBDF. v.2. 707 p.
Conservaqao de recursos naturais do
Estado do Acre. Silvicultura em San
Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (Parte. 1):
1551-1567.
As espdcies brasileiras do genero
"Coumarouna" Aubl. ou "Dipteryx" Schub.
s
(Famflia Le^uminosae Papilionatae
Dalbargieae) . Anais da Academia
Brasiieira de Ciencias, 20(1): 39-56.
Estudo preliminar do Baru (Leg. Faboidae).
Brasil Florestal, Rio de Janeiro, *
6l22): 33-39.
Zoneamento ecologico esquematico para
reflorestamento no Brasil. Se'rie
Tecnica, PRODEPEF, Brasfla (il): 1-66.
- 247 -
Mainieri, C.
1970
Mainieri, C.
1978
Mainieri, C.;
Chinelo,J.P. &
Afonso,V.A.
1983
Pereira,A.P.
1982
Record , S.J.&
Hess,R.W.
1949
Rosot, N.C.;
Machado, S.A. &
Figueiredo Filho,A.
1982
Madeiras brasileiras: caracteristicas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrencia,
dados botSnicos e usos. Sao Paulo,
Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado de
Sao Paulo. 109 p.
Ficha de caractertsticas das madeiras
brasileiras. Sao Paulo, IPT. v.l.
Institute de Pesquisas Tecnologicas.
196 p.
Manual de identificapao das principals
madeiras comercials brasileiras. Sao
Paulo, Secretaria da Industria-
Come'rcio, Ciencia e Tecnologia. 241 p.
Ensaios em viveiro florestal e
f rutif ica^fSo de algumas e species
amazonicas. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo,
Sao Paulo, 16A (Parte 2): 1135-1138.
Timbers of new world.
Vale University Press.
4 ed. New Haven,
640 p.
Analise estrutural de uma floresta^tropical
GOTO subsiclio basico para elaboracjao dB urn
piano de mane jo florestal. Silvicultura em
Sab Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (Parte 1) :
468-490.
Siqueira,A.C.M.F. Teste de progenie e procedencia do
et alii Cumbaru - Djpterix alata Vog^.
1982 Silvicultura em S3o Paulo, Sao Paulo,
16A (Parte 2) : 1076-1080.
Toledo Filho D.V. Ess'encias indigenas sombreadas,
& Parente,P.R. SUvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sao Paulo,
1982 16A (Parte 2): 948-956.
- 248 -
I/
Entandrophragma angolense (Welw.)C.DC.
SYNONYMS
Swietenia angolensis Welw. (1859)
Entandrophragma macrophyllum A. Chev. (1909)
E. angolense var. macrophyllum (A.Chev.) Panshin (1933)
E. septentrionale A. Chev. (1909)
E. rederi Harms (1910)
E. leplaei Vermoesen (1921)
Leipotyx congensis Pierre ex. De Wild (19O8)
Entandrophragma pierrei A. Chev. (1909)
FAMILY
Meliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Muyovu, Kikura, Cedu Nohor, Mukusu, Koupri, Lokoa
Popo, Edinam, Kikura, Zougou Bari, Cedar, Muyovu,
Ziziezara, Tiama, Budongo Mahogany.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Deciduous forest tree up to 56 m tall, with bole clean
up to 27m. Branches usually few, frequently steeply
ascending. Buttresses generally only moderately
strong, but sometimes prominent and extending as much
as 7 m up the stem. Inflorescences in very showy
panicles, inserted in the axils of the terminal leaves/
I/ FAO acknowledge the assistance of B.T. Styles
Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford,
0X1 3RB, U.K).
- 249 -
3O to 4O cm long. Axes puberulous. Flowers greenish-
white, scented, 5-6 mm long. Calyx cupuliform with
5 short, obtuse, glabrescent lobes. Petals oblong,
concave, glabrous, spread out almost flat in the
fully-open flower. Staminal column, sub-conical,
glabrous, with serrulate edges, 4 mm long. Disc,
reddish, stipitiform, fairly distinct from the ovary.
Ovary conical, narrowing to a very distinct style
as long as the anthers. Stigma, capitate. Ovary of
5 loculi with 5-8 ovules in each, in two series.
Fruit
Cylindrical, pointed at both ends. The apex somewhat
pointed, sometimes rather obtuse and a little
acuminate. 15 to 2O cm long, 4 to 5 cm wide. Valves
thick, woody, black on the outside and purplish-
black inside, 2.5 to 3 cm wide. Columella, purplish
or reddish-black, shiny, with 5-6 fairly deep
depressions on each face, where the seeds are attached.
Clearly winged, with very straight edges to the loculi.
Valves detach themselves from the fruit and fall. The
columellas then remain hanging from the tips of the
branches and the seeds are dispersed by the wind.
Seeds subquadrangular, brown with a very long wing,
occupying almost the entire width of the seed.
Foliage
Terminal bud, green, glabrous. Leaf-rachis, dark
green, glabrous. Petiole biconvex with two indistinct
lateral ridges, bent back at the point of insertion
in the branch. Leaves are sometimes 60 cm long, with
9 to 12 pairs of subopposed or opposed leaflets;
- 250 -
lamina oblong or obovate-oblong, 10 to 16 cm long
completely glabrous, shiny above. Apex rounded or
attenuated abruptly prolonged by a very short,
obtuse point. The edges of this small point are
usually bent upwards. Base of leaflet sometimes
rounded, often fairly acutely cuneiform. The median
nerve, very prominent below, is often covered with
dense reddish hairs on each side of the median crest.
Ten or so lateral nerves. The network of small veins
is very faint. The first simple leaves of the seed-
lings are obovate, oblong, acuminate, cuneiform at
the base and with completely glabrous nerves.
The pubescence appears on the nerves and later on
the composite leaves of the older plants. The
leaflets of E. angolense vary considerably: a broad
oblong type with a rounded tip in some trees, a narrow
oblong, markedly smaller one, in very old trees,
sometimes with an attenuated but not rounded tip.
This polymorphism has resulted in several closely
related species having been given different names; it
has not been thought necessary to maintain these, as
there are intermediate forms which connect the
apparently distinct types of these species.
Bark
Bark smooth, pale grey-brown with pinkish or rusty-
orange patches, scaling in large or small, irregular
flakes, which leave concave scars. Slash soft, blood
red with distinct vertical white or yellowish streaks.
- 251 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Sapwood pale pink; heartwood with a wide colour-range,
varying from the normal dull uniform , dark red or
purple-brown to a pale pink, very similar to the sap-
wood. In dark-coloured wood the cells are heavily
infiltrated with gun; inflight-coloured wood the gum
is almost entirely lacking. The darker wood is
appreciably denser, and has rather better working
qualities and takes longer to season than the light-
coloured wood, which is wooly and more difficult to
saw. In both types the grain is broadly interlocked
and produces a rather wide and often irregular
stripe on the quarter-cut surface, used for cabinet
wood, joinery and furniture. It is considered inferior
in quality to E. utile and E. cylindricum.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Guinea to Angola, Central African Republic, Zaire,
Sudan and Uganda.
CLIMATE
Annual rainfall, 1 450 - 1 800 mm.
SOILS
Moist tropical high forest soils.
HABITAT
Lowland tropical rain-forest
- 252 -
SEED HANDLING
The seeds soon lose their viability, if not kept under
adequate refrigeration. About 2 000 - 4 000 seeds/kg.
Acid or other pretreatment not required.
SILVICULTURE
Cannot be grown easily in monoculture and enrichment
line planting has not proved successful either.
Germination is often prolific.
STATUS
Distinctly threatned in some parts of West Africa.
Severe genetic erosion has been noted in Nigeria and
very few large trees are known to exist. It is still
fairly common in the lake-side forests in Uganda.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Creaming of forests in commercial exploitation of this
species has completely wiped it out in many parts of
West Africa. In East Africa it is only known in
quantity from Uganda where it is under threat for
similar reasons.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Formation of forest reserves in National Parks. Greater
attempt to get more trees (in mixture with others) '
grown in plantations. Pure monocultures have failed
because of Hypsipyla attack in young stages.
- 253 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
AubreVille, A.
1959
Eggeling,W. J.R
&"Dale, I.R.
1951
Hutchinson, J.C.
& Dalziel,J.M.
Revised by
Keay,R.W. J.
1958
Irvine, F.R.
1961
Styles, B.T.
1974
La Flore Forestiere de la Cote d'lvoire,
Centre Technique Forestier Tropical,
Nogent-sur-Marne .
The Indigenous Trees of Uganda Protec-
torate. Crown Agents for the
Colonies, Millbank, London.
Flora of West Tropical Africa. Ed. 2.
Crown Agents for Overseas Governments
and Administrations, London Vol.2.
Woody Plants of Ghana. Oxford
University Press, London.
Meliaceae in Uganda, East Africa.
Agriculture and Forest Journal
39 (4) : 407-423.
- 254 -
Esenbeckia leiocarpa Engl.
FAMILY
Rutaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Guaranta, anta forte/ pau duro, guarataia.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Trees small to large/ with heights varying between
20 to 30 m, and with a diameter of approximately 0.50m,
Inflorescence
Inflorescence of small flowers, 2-3 cm in length,
light colored, pilose, short-pedicillate , in terminal
panicles; flowering occur in the period from November
to January.
Fruit
Capsules obovate, pilose, smooth; c. 3 cm in diameter,
dehiscence in 5 smooth loculi. . Fructification is
between the months of June- July.
Foliage
Leaves alternate, sometimes sub-opposite/ simple,
large, entire, oblong, pointed or acuminate at apex
membranaceous somewhat pubescent or glabrous with
I/ Based on the work of P.Y.Kageyama, M.L. Marques, and
M.Tomazello F°. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O. Box 9, Pircicaba, SP, Brazil.
- 255 -
prominent ribs underneath; 7 - 20 cm in length by
4 - 7 cm in width? generally auriculate at the base;
giving a nauseous odor when crushed.
Branches: In general, horizontal , round, green- grey,
lenticellate, with scars of the leaves.
Bark
Straight trunk with a grey bark with small lengthwise
crevices.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Very heavy; with bright yellow heartwood, uniform when
first cut, darkening to a golden yellow when exposed;
smooth and shiny surface; medium texture, uniform,
straight grain; indistinct odor and taste. The
guaranta wood is considered as one of the most
resistant to decay.
The guaranta wood has a very high density, resistant
to rot and a high mechanical resistance, and is
particularly recommended for construction and external
structures, sleepers, posts, fence posts, stakes, etc.
In civil constructions it is used as beams, rafters,
door frames, boards and floor tiles, etc. Also
recommended for structures subject to dynamic
efforts, such as tools , handles, truck bodies,
etc. .
- 256 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species occurs in the humid forests in the Southern
State of Bahia in the States of Rio de Janeiro, Sao
Paulo and the southern part of the State of Goi&s and
Mato Grosso do Sul. Also in Eala region of Zaire,
Africa.
SOIL/CLIMATE
Esenbeckia leiocarpa is typical of sandy but fertile
soils, and is rarely found in "terra roxa" and wet
valley bottoms. The climate in the main areas of
occurence is subtropical, moderately humid (average
annual temperatures between 18° and 22°C, with
occasional frosts, average annual precipitation
between 1 2OO and 1 TOO mm, seasonal distribution,
with a water deficit varying from little to moderate in
the winter) , and subtropical or tropical sub-humid
(average annual temperature varying between 21° and
24°C, with rare frosts, average annual precipitation
varying between 1 1OO and 1 5OO mm, seasonal distri-
bution with a periodical water deficit in the winter) .
HABITAT
This is a shade species, distributed throughout the
humid forests in the regions of its natural occurrence.
SEED HANDLING
Germination occurs up to 2O-30 days after sowing
without pregermination treatments. A Jff% germination
has been observed using paper filter as substrate in
the laboratory. This species has around 12 000 seeds
per kilogram.
- 257 -
SILVICULTURE
In a trial set up in Santa Rita do Passa Quatro * SP.
it was observed that the species reached a height of
12.36 m, requiring permanent pruning to define the
stem.
In a mixed stand, the guarantTT grown along with
Pinus elliottii, showed an average height of 4.7
meters and an 87% survival, at 8 years of age after
the second thinning. For guaranta grown along with
Piptadenia comunis, a height of 10.2 meters is
reported, at 23 years of age.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
The regions of natural occurrence of this species are
those which have undergone the most severe forest
devastation during this last century, due to clearence
of the natural vegetation for development of
agriculture, and livestock or plantation projects
using fast-growing species. As E. leiocarpa is of
economic value, the last trees are being gradually
cut down.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The Institute Florestal de Sao Paulo has studied the
E. leiocarpa since 1953, when this species was planted
in a mixed stand with 35 other species at the
Estayao Experimental in Tupi - SP. In 1959, the
species was planted in a 1.5 ha area along with
Piptadenia comunis . Such a small area is, however,
not of significance for the genetic conservation.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 258 -
Associacjao Paulista
de Normas Tecnicas
1964
Bergamasco,A.
1982
Biella, L.C. &
Capelanes,T.M.C.
1984
Boutelje, J.B.
1980
Correa, M.P.
1926
Crestana, C.S.M.
et alii
1983
Seminario de Madeiras.
Janeiro, 2t>8 p. .
Rio de
Comport amen to do guaranta
(Esenbeckia leiocarpa) frente a
enxertia como me"todo de propaga9ao.
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo, Sao
Paulo, 16A (Parte 2): 917-8.
Produpab e tecnologia de sementes
florestais nativas na Companhia
Energe'tica de Sab Paulo. In:
Simpb'sio Brasileiro Sobre Sementes
Florestais, 1. Curitiba.
Encyclopaedia of world timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest Pro-
ducts Research Laboratory, 398 p.
Dicionario das Plantas uteis do
Brasii. Brasilia, IBDF,3v. 646 p.
Biologia floral do guarantsT
(Esenbeckia leiocarpa Engl . )
Silvicultura, Sab Paulo, 8(28)
35-8.
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Golfari, L.;
Caser,R.L. &
Moura, V.P.G.
1978
Gurgel Filho,O.A
Pasztor,Y.P.de C.
1963
Ensaio de indice da flora dendro-
Irfgica do Brasii. Arquivos do
Servico Florestal, S3b Paulo,
2 (2): 69-156.
Zoneamento ecologico esquematioo
para re f lore stamen to no Brasii.
Serie Tecnica. PRODEPEF, Brasilia,
(11;: i-66.
Fenologia e^ comportamento em alfo-
bre de especies florestais e
ornamentais.^ Silvicultura em
Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo. 1:291-304,
- 259 -
Gurgel Filho,O.A.;
Moraes,J.L. &
Garrido,L.M.A.G.
1982
Silvicultura de essencias indigenas
sob povoamentos homdclitos coetaneos
experimentais de guaranta (Esenbeckia
leiocarpaK Silvicultura em S§b
Paulo, Sab Pauio, 16A (parte 2):
847-bl.
Kribs,D.A.
197O
Mainieri, C.
1958
Mainieri ,C . &
Pereira, J.A.
1965
Mainieri, C.
1970
Mainieri, C.
1978
Mainieri, C. ;
Chimello, J.P.&
Alfonso, V. A.
1983
Mariano, G.et al,
1982
Commercial foreign woods on the
American Market. University Park,
Pennsylvania State University. 203 p.
Identif icaclfo das principais
madeiras de come'rcio no Brasil.
Boletim IPT, Sao Paulo, (46): 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracterizacao
macroscdpica , usos comuns^ e
indices qualitativos fisicos e
mecaViicos. Anuario brasileiro de
economia florestal, Rio de Janeiro,
IV U7) : 1-282.
Madeiras brasileiras: caracteristi-
cas gerais, zonas de maior ocorre-
ncia, dados botanicos e usos. Sab
Paulo, Secretaria da Agricultura do
Estado de S"ao Paulo. 109 p.
Ficha de caracteristicas das
madeiras brasileiras. Sab Paulo,
Institute de Pesquisas Tecnol6gicas .
v.2.
Manual de idenf if icacaio das
principais madeiras comerciais
brasilpiras. Sao Paulo, Secretaria
da Industria, Come'rcio, Ciencia e
Tecnologia. 241 p.
Reconstituicao de floresta de
essencias indfgenas. Silvicultura
em Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (parte
2) : 1086-1091.
- 260 -
Nogueira,J.C.B.
1977
Pasztor,Y.P.de C.
1963
Pereira,J.A.
1933
Pickel,J.B.
1953
Pickel,J.B.
1955
Pinheiro,G.S. ;
Veiga,A.A. &
Mariano,G.
1982
Ramalho,R.S.
1973
Record, S.J. &
Hess, R.W.
1949
Revista Madeira
1978
Reflorestamento heterogeneo com
essencias indigenas. Bole-
tim te'cnico. Sab Paulo, Institute
Florestal, (24) : 35-37.
Me'todos usados na colheita de^
sementes. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo,
Sao Paulo, 1 (2): 303-323.
Identif icasJao micrograf ica das
nossas madeiras. Boletim. Escola
Polite'cnica, Sao Paulo, (9) 1-165.
As principals a'rvores que dao
madeira: metodo pratico para seu
reconhecimento. Anua"rio brasile-
iro de economia fiorestal, Rio de
Janeiro, 6 (6; : 58-86.
As principals ^rvores que dab
madeira: metodo pratico para seu
reconhecimento. Annario brasileiro
de economia fiorestal, Rio de
Janeiro, 6 (8) : 56-87.
Estudo do comportamento de pau-
jacare' e guaranta sob povoamento
misto. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo.
Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2) : 1032-1035.
Dendrologia: notas de aula. Viyosa,
UFV. 95 p.
Timbers of new world. New Haven,
Yale University Press. 640 p.
0 guaranta, uma essencia brasileira
valiosa. Revista madei ra, Sao
Paulo, (322): 10-12.
- 261 -
Rizzini, C.T. &
Mors, W.B.
1976
Toledo, A.C.D.
1958
Toledo Filho,D.U.&
Parente, P.R.
1982
Botanica economica brasileira.
Sao Paulo, EPU/EDUSP. 207 p.
Algumas observa9oes sobre o
guaranta . Piracicaba ,
ESALQ/USP. 9 p.
Essencias indigenas sombreadas.
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo,
Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2): 948-56,
- 262 -
I/
Eucalyptus deglupta Bl.
SYNONYMS
E. multiflora (A. Rich.) A. Gray (1854)
E. naudiniana F. Muell. (1886)
E. schlechteri Diels (1922)
FAMILY
Myrtaceae (sub-family Leptospermoideae)
VERNACULAR NAMES
Kamarere, Bagras , Kaju Leda
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Large tree, 35-60 m high, 0.5-2.0 m diameter,
occasionally reaching 80 m height and 3 m diameter.
Buttressing to 3-4 m heigh occurs where soils unstable.
Inflorescence
Terminal or axillary panicle 5-2O x 5-18 cm, umbels
3-7 flowered; peduncles terete or slightly angular,
0.5-1.0 cm long; pedicels about 5 mm long, young buds
small, green, with double opercula, developed buds
pale green or cream, globular, apiculate,
0.2-0.4 x 0.2-O.5 mm, operculum hemispherical,
apiculate and wider than long; flowers with many white
to pale yellow stamens 2-10 mm long, strongly reflexed
in the unopened bud, anther dehiscing by separate
slits.
I/Based oh the work of J.Davidson (Eucalyptus and Forestry
Services, P.O. Box 419,Armidale,N.S.W. 2 350 Australia) .
- 263 -
Fruit
Fruit pedicellate, hemispherical, valves 3-4, thin,
deltoid, exserted to 2 mm making the capsule appear
globular , 3-5 x 3-5 mm, disc very narrow. Mature
fruits brown to dark brown, containing 3-12 well formed
seeds per valve. Seeds minute, brown, flattened, with
a small terminal wing.
Foliage
Seedling leaves: opposite, thin, petiolate, ovate,
ovate lanceolate or oblong lanceolate, first 1-3 pairs
2-4 x O.5-1.5 cm then 6-1O x 2.5-4.0 cm; lateral veins
visible, very few, initially 40-50° to the midrib then
curving to form the remote intramarginal vein; upper
surface light green to green, lower pale green to
purplish.
Juvenile leaves; opposite, thin, shortly petiolate,
broadly ovate, ovate lanceolate, oblong lanceolate or
acuminate/ 7-11 x 5-7 cm; lateral veins visible, few,
curved to form an irregular, remote intramarginal vein;
upper surface green to dark green and slightly shiny;
lower surface light green to greenish purple and dull.
Intermediate leaves; no discernible intermediate stage.
Adult leaves; opposite to sub-opposite, rarely
alternate, shortly petiolate, ovate to ovate lanceolate
or acuminate, thicker than juvenile leaves,
1O-2O x 6-10 cm occasionally larger; lateral veins
visible, few initially inclined about 60° to the mid-
vein, then curving to form the intramarginal vein,
upper surface green to dark green and shiny, lower
surface pale green and dull. Leaves and terminal
- 264 -
branches held horizontally/ terminal branchlets and
twigs mainly square or flattened in cross-section,
often with four longitudinal keels.
Bark
A gum, 3-8 mm thick, expoliating in strips of varying
shape and size, leaving a smooth white to pale green
surface which ages through light green, green, grey,
pink, red and orange to a deep purple.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Light to dark red-brown, more like a coarse-grained
rain- forest wood than a eucalypt; moderate strength
but not durable; density 56O-80O kg/m in mature
natural stands and 27O-4OO kg/m in young plantations.
Useful for building and joinery, wood pulp and
wood-based panels.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species occurs between tropical latitudes 9°N and
11°S in a markedly discontinuous distribution through
Mindanao, Celebes, Ceram, Irian Jaya and Paupa New
Guinea. The best developed stands occur on riverain
sites less than 150 m above sea level in East New
Britain. The full range of altitude is from sea level
to 2 500 m.
CLIMATE
Type: summer rainfall; with 3 750 - 5 000 mm per ann.
No dry season. Mean maximum of hottest month 24-32°C,
mean minimum of coldest month 20-22°C; no frost.
- 265 -
SOILS
E.deglupta has been planted on a wide variety of soils.
Papua New Guinea reports that it can grow successfully
on coarse-textured sands and loamy soils, volcanic ash
and on lime stone -de rived soils (pH 6 to 7.5) but that
best growth occurs on deep, well-drained sandy alluvial
loams. In the Congo it is reported to grow better on
the heavy clays of Loudima than on the infertile,
free-draining ochraceous sands at Pointe-Noire. In
British Solomon Islands the main soils to be planted
are deep weathered volcanic clay soils of low nutrient
status, but good performance has also been shown on
shallower clay soils of moderate nutrient status
overlaying coral and limestone.
HABITAT
!• deglupta is the only species of eucalypt occurring
naturally north as well as south of the equator and is
adapted to thrive in conditions of uniformly high rain-
fall and temperature throughout the year, in which
other species may be susceptible to disease. In these
conditions it is fast growing and of reasonably good
form. It is very susceptible -to fire. It flowers and
sets seed at an early age and cuttings from young trees
can be rooted readily, but coppicing ability is so
poor that this is not a practicable method of regene-
rating plantations.
SEED HANDLING
15 000 - 18 000 seeds/g .
Plants can be grown from seed in carefully sterilized
- 266 -
soil. Damping off is a problem where seed trays,
implements and soil are not disinfected prior to use,
The seed germinates in about five days at 30°-34°C.
SILVICULTURE
Prospects for planting: Possibly very valuable in high-
rainfall equatorial localities with no pronounced dry
season. Provenance testing is necessary because of the
wide discontinuous natural occurrences. These are
proceeding and it is apparent that there are variations
in the species.
With an altitudinal range from sea-level to 1 800 m
(Turnbull, 1974) and a geographical distribution which
covers a number of widely separated islands between
9°N and 11°S, E. deglupta is likely to exhibit
considerably differences between provenances. Prove-
nance trials are still in their early stages, but
Papua New Guinea has reported that in trials on the
main island, early performance of provenances from
New Britain (Keravat) , Mindanao and Sulawesi has in
general been superior to provenances from mainland
Papua New Guinea. In eastern Mindanao (Philippines),
the majority of trees planted of a Papua New Guinea
provenance have been attacked by a borer (Agrilus
sexignatus) . Therefore emphasis was shifted to local
provenances, which, at the time, were observed to be
apparently highly resistant to the borer. However
with the phasing out of stands of Papua New Guinea
origin, increasing attack on the native provenances
has been observed.
- 267 -
Most early introductions outside Southeast Asia have
been of the New Britain provenance. Since the species
is an early and profuse seeder, many introducing
countries can already produce their own seed.
At Turrialba in Costa Rica two apparently distinct
provenances have been introduced but the seed origins
are not known. They are known locally as "red"
or "green" from the general appearance of both foliage
and bark. Hybrid offspring have been produced which
are of superior form to either parent and of rapid
growth. The F, generation produces fertile seed and
the resulting F~ generation shows surprising uniformity.
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its geographic range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
There are three main reasons for the decline of the
species in several areas: (i) The species is intolerant.
Older stands are invaded by rainforest. There is no
regeneration of E. deglupta under itself, (ii) Older
stands are being heavily logged for building timbers
and firewood, (iii) The species occurs on fertile river
flats which are rapidly being cleared for food gardens
and agricultural purposes, especially in Mindanao and
Indonesia. For example, it is estimated that more than
60 percent of the finest stands on the Caliawan River,
an east-bank tributary of the Agusan River in Mindanao,
has been destroyed ahead of agricultural activity. This
destruction is continuing and, unless the stand is
reserved for seed collection purposes, it will be
virtually non-existent in a few years. This is one of
- 268 -
the largest riverain stands in Mindanao and has been
used by the Bislig Bay Lumber Company as a seed source.
This particular provenance has been determined to be
one of the best for forestry purposes in ecologically
similar areas.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Bislig Bay Lumber Company and its associated Company,
Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines CPICOP),
are now using E. deglupta, in reforestation activities
and some areas are being reserved for future seed
collection. The Government of the Philippines has
declared an area of Cotabato Province a forest
reserve in order to protect the only good stand of
in that Province from logging activities.
Seed collections were made in Mindanao and Celebes in
1969. These have been combined with Papua New Guinea
provenances for comparative trials at three locations
in Papua New Guinea.
During 1980-83 seed collections have been carried out
in natural stands of E. deglupta Blume in the west and
east New Britain provinces of Papua New Guinea. The
collections have been done within the framework of an
PAO/Office of Forests, Papua New Guinea, programme.
The seed is now available for international provenance
trials. (Information can be requested from the Forest
Resources Division, FAO, Via delle Terme de Caracalla,
00100 Rome, Italy) .
- 269 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boland,D.J. ;
Davidson, J &
Howcroft, N.
1977
Cossalter, C.
1977
Davidson, J.
1968
Davidson, J.
1968
Davidson, J.
1968
Davidson, J.
1972
Eucalyptus deglupta and Araucaria
cunninghamii Lambert Provenance Seed
Collections in Irian Jaya,
Indonesia, 3-17 June 1975. Forest
Genetic Resources Information No. 6.
FAO Occasional Paper 1977/1.
p. 3-15- FAO, Rome.
Location and Ecological Data of Some
Provenances of Eucalyptus deglupta
Blume in the Celebes and Ceram
Islands - Characteristics of the
Natural Stands. Forest Genetic
Resources Information No. 6. FAO
Occasional Paper 1977/1, p. 16-23.
FAO , Rome .
Forest tree improvement in New
Guinea. II Kamarere. Ninth Commonw.
For. Conf., India.
Forest tree improvement - Kamarere.
Tropical Forestry Research Note.
SR. 6, Department of Forests, Port
Moresby, Papua New Guinea.
Improving production from Eucalyptus
deglupta in the territory of Papua
New Guinea. Tropical Forestry
Research Note SR. 5. Department of
Forests, Port Moresby, Papua New
Guinea.
Variation, association and
inheritance of morphological and
wood characters in an improvement
programme for Eucalyptus deglupta
Blume. Ph.D. Thesis, Aust. Nat.
Univ. , Canberra.
- 270 -
Davidson, J.
1973
Davidson, J.
1974
Davidson, J.
1974
FAO
1979
FAO
1981
Ferguson ,J.H. A.
1950
Grijpma, P.
1969
Heather, W. A.
1955
A tree improvement programme for
Eucalyptus deglupta in Papua New Guinea -
a summary of progress. Tropical
Forestry Research Note. SR. 3,
Department of Forests, Port Moresby,
Papua New Guinea.
Grafting Eucalyptus deglupta , N.Z.J. For
Sci.: 4 (TT
Reproduction of Eucalyptus deglupta by
cuttings. N.Z.J. For. Sci. 4 (2).
Eucalypts for Planting. FAO Forestry
Series No. 11, FAO, Rome.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances, FO: MISC/81/11,
FAO, Rome, 22-24 p.
Eucalyptus deglupta Bl. Tectona 40:
51-61.
Eucalyptus deglupta Bl. una especie
forest a 1 prometedora para los tropicos
humedos de America Latina. Turrialba
19 (2) : 267-283.
The Kamarere forests of New Britain.
The Empire Forestry Review.
34 (3) : 255-278.
- 271 -
I/
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. subsp. globulus
SYNONYMS
Kirkpatrick (1974) grouped E. maidenii, E. bicostata,
and E. pseudoglobulus together as subspecific forms of
E. globulus
FAMILY
Myrtaceae (sub-family Leptospermoideae) .
VERNACULAR NAMES
Tasmanian blue gum, southern blue gum, blue gum.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A medium to large tree, typically 30-5O m tall but up
to 8O m high and 2.25 m in diameter.
Inflorescence
Flowers axillary, inflorescence usually only 1-f lowered,
occasionally 3; peduncles very short or absent. Buds
top shaped, 4-ribbed, warty, the surface glaucous;
1.5-2.3 x 1-2 cm? opercula flattened with a very
distinct central knob. Anthers very numerous spreading,
creamy-white in colour.
Fruit
A woody "capsule ", 2.5 cm diameter, broadly top 'shaped
or globose, sessile, with a broad, flat or convex
Eased on the work of J.W.Turnbull (Seed Centre,
Division of Forest Research, P.O. Box 4008, Canberra
A.C.T. 2 600, Australia).
- 272 -
thickened disc extending over the valves. The capsule
is warty, glaucous, 4-ribbed.
Seeds: small, black with reddish brown chaff,
approximately 75 seeds per gram.
Foliage
Heterophyllous, the juvenile leaves opposite, sessile;
the base cordate to amplexicaul; ovate or broadly
lanceolate; margin entire; apex blunt or apiculate.
Leaf surface covered with grey waxy bloom; 11-15 x 5-11
cm. Adult leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate or
falcate-lanceolate; apex acuminate; margins entire.
Upper surface dark, glossy green; 12-25 x 1.7-3 cm.
Bark
Rough and fissured to 3 m at the base of the trunk,
expoliating in long strips from the remainder of the
trunk and branches, leaving a smooth bluish-grey
surface.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
General characteristics: heartwood pale yellow-brown;
sapwood greyish-white. Grain usually interlocked;
texture moderately coarse without distinctive odour
or taste. It frequently contains gum veins that may
detract from the appearance .
Moderately durable; air dry density about 9OOkg/m .
The timber is used in both heavy and light construction
work, and is highly regarded for purposes in which
bending is necessary. It is used for poles, piles,
sleepers and in the manufacture of pulp and paper.
- 273 -
Outside Australia it is one of the most widely planted
of all eucalypts and forms the basis of forest
industries in some countries. E. globulus is also a
valuable fuelwood. The leaves are used for the
extraction of essential oils. Honey production has
also shown to be successful.
Other Uses
It is valuable for erosion control, amenity and road-
side plantings, windbreaks and shelterbelts and other
watershed and environmental purposes.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The main occurrence is in eastern Tasmania from Om-
450 m above sea level. It also occurs on Flinders
Island, King Island and Rodondo Island in Bass Strait.
Isolated, very small relict stands, occur on the west
coast of Tasmania. In Victoria there are small occu-
rrences in the Otway Ranges and South Gippsland. The
distribution of populations in Victoria is somewhat
fragmented, the situation is complicated by the inter-
mediate populations of E. globulus subsp. globulus
grading into E. globulus subsp. pseudoglobulus in South
Gippsland and into E. globulus subsp. bicostata
(syn. E. st. johnii) in the Otway Ranges (Kirkpatrick
1971, 1973) .
In early published references to the species in the
more northern part of Victoria and southern New South
Wales, there was confusion with the closely-related
E. globulus subsp. bicostata.
- 274 -
CLIMATE
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 2O-23°C. Mean
minimum of coldest month: O-8 C. Dry season up to 3
months, not severe. Total rainfall in the range from
6OO to 1 4OO mm. The rainy period differs from a
primarily winter maximum to uniform rainfall throughout
the year.
SOILS
It grows best on moderately fertile loams or rather
heavy soils with good drainage and adequate moisture.
Natural stands do not occur on poorly-drained sites or
alkaline soils.
HABITAT
The Tasmanian blue gum is a dominant or sub-dominant
species in moist temperate open- forest and tall open-
forest. It is seldom found in extensive pure stands,
usually being associated with at least one other
species of eucalypt. Within a particular area it is
closely tied to a restricted range of habitats and as
a result a mosaic pattern is formed with local stands
of E. globulus subsp. globulus being separated by
stands of species occupying different habitats
(Kirkpatrick, 1973).
SEED HANDLING
The seeds are not difficult to store, they can be held
for several years if they are air-dried and then
stored in sealed containers at a temperature of 1-4°C.
An acceptable germinative capacity can be maintained
for a year or two in unsealed containers at room tenperature •
- 275 -
Dormancy is not usually a problem but if present can be
broken by storing the seed in moist dark conditions for
two weeks at 1-4 C.
SILVICULTURE
E. globulus is easily raised from seed. Germination
usually takes 7-10 days and the seedlings may be potted
after 6 weeks. Planting out may be done as soon as the
seedlings have become established. Established trees
coppice readily.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
The following two main areas can be identified:
A. Tasmania; A relatively large area of E. globulus
subsp. globulus on the east coast, is well regenera-
ted in the State Forest Reserves. The populations
at the highest altitudes in Tasmania (c. 450 m)
are on private land and cannot be considered safe.
There are also some very small relict stands near
the west coast of Tasmania. Before settlement , the
forests of King Island were dominated by E. globulus
subsp. globulus. They are partially included in a
National Park. A small population on the uninhabi-
ted Rodondo Island is intact although its ability
to regenerate itself appears to be related to the
frequency of chance fires caused by lightning.
B. Victoria; There is threat to subsp. globulus in
parts of Victoria. The Otway Range populations are
relatively safe as some are included in Forest
Commissions Parks but there is some clearing for
pines on the inland slopes. In South Gippsland,
- 276 -
apart from in Wilson's Promontory National Park, the
populations are not safe. Distinct populations
intermediate between subsp, globulus and subsp.
pseudoglobulus around Yarram and Neerim South are on
private land with the hills to the north of the Lat-
robe Valley. On the northern slopes of the South
Gippsland hills there is a threat to the populations
as a result of forest clearing and replacement
with other species. In the Crown Forests, clearing
and progressive alienation pose a future threat.
Within the South Gippsland area one population is
conserved in the Morwell National Park.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
There are many populations of E. globulus subsp. glo-
bulus included in National Parks and Forest Parks and
these will ensure the survival of the species and
much of its genetic variation.
There are some disjunct populations in South Gippsland
and Tasmania which are not well protected. Where
these populations occur on Crown Land the local
authority could create one or more reserves to ensure
their survival. Where the trees are on private land
their preservation in situ may not be possible and the
collection of seed from a large number of individuals
and the establishment of ex situ conservation stands
in reserved areas may be a more practical measure to
conserve the gene resource.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 277 -
Blakely, W.F.
1965
Bo land, D.J.;
Brooker, M.I.H.;
Chippendale, G.M.;
Hall, N.;
Hyland, B.P.M.;
Johnston, R.D.;
Kleinlng, D.A. &
Turner, J.D.
1984
Chudnoff, M.
1980
FAO
1979
PAO
1981
Hall, N.;
Johnston, R.D.;
Chippendale, G.M.
1970
Hillis, W.E. &
Brown, A.G.
1978
Kelly, S.
1969
Kirkpatrick, J.B.
1971
A Key to the Eucalyptus. 3rd
Ed. Forestry and Timber Bureau,
Canberra.
Forest Trees of Australia.
4th Ed. Thomas Nelson and
CSIRO, Melbourne.
Tropical Timbers of the World -
U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Technical Information
Service.
Eucalypts for Planting, FAO
Forestry Series No. 11, Rome.
Data Book on Endangered Forest
Trees Species and Provenances.
FO:MISC/8l/ll, FAO, Rome -
p. 25-27.
The Natural Occurrence of the
Eucalypts. Leaflet No. 65.
2nd Ed. For. Timb. Bur.
Canberra.
Eucalypts for Wood Production
CSIRO, Australia.
Eucalypts.
Melbourne .
Thomas Nelson,
A Probable Hybrid Swarm in
Eucalyptus • Silvae Genet.
20: 157-159.
- 278 -
Klrkpatrlck, J.B. The numerical intraspecific
1974 taxonomy of Eucalyptus
TT(T
obulus Lablll. (Myrtaceae)
Bot. J.Linn. Soc. 69, 89-104.
KirkpatricK, J.B. Geographical Variation in
1975 Eucalyptus globulus Lablll.
Bull. No. 4l\ F6T7 Timb. Bur.
Canberra.
Orme, R.K. Eucalyptus globulus provenances,
1978 In Proceedings of 3rd World
Consultation on Forest Tree
Breeding, Canberra, 1977.
Vol. I, p. 207-221 - CSIRO,
Canberra.
- 279 -
I/
Fagus longipetiolata Seemen
SYNONYMS
Fagus sylvatlca var. longipes Oliver (1936)
Fagus sinensis Oliver (1936)
Fagus longipes Leveille (1914)
FAMILY
Fagaceae
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree up to 25 m in height.
Inflorescence
Staminate flowers in a spherical inflorescence up to
1.50 cm in diameter, pendulous on slender pedicels, up
to 7 cm long; perigynous; corolla lobes 6, narrow,
lanceolate, brown, externally piloses; stamens
8-12; filaments longer than the perigynous recaptacle;
anthers ovate, the connective elongated to small point.
Pistillate flowers erect, on pedicels up to 3 cm long;
pedicels thickly piloses towards upper end only, grey-
brown; bracts 2, linear lanceolate, up to 2 cm long,
1.5 cm broad, membranaceous , brown, sparsely pilosous,
towards the point with long cilia; cupule capitate,
approximately 1 cm long and 1.50 cm broad, surrounded
i/1 Fao acknowledge the assistance of Pan Chih Kang.
The Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing,
China.
- 280 -
by subulate, piloses excrescences; per 2 flowers
involucre; perigynous; bell-shapedf 5-6 segments ,
piloses, brown; style with 3 segments, piloses;
stigmas 3, glabrous.
Fruit
Cupule erect, ovoid up to 2 cm long and 1.50 cm broad,
thickly pi loses, brown; petiolate, up to 5 cm, opening
by 4 segments; with long-subulate excrescences, nutlets
2, ovate, pointed, triangular, up to 13 mm long, 6 mm
broad, smooth, brown.
Foliage
Leaves ovate pointed or acuminate, narrow at the base,
up to 8 cm long, and 4.5 cm broad, long-pet iolate;
up to 2.5 cm long; margin sharply-serrate; young
leaves completely glabrous; leaf blade with the upper
side dark/ glossy green; lower side dull; midrib and
lateral veins on the upper side of the leaf depressed,
on the lower sharply raised; lateral veins 10-11,
obliquely parting from midrib, straight and ending in
a serration of the leaf margin.
Bark
Bark of old branches brown with grey dots; of young
branches grey, sparsely pubescent.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Although nowhere very abundant, this is the common
beech of Central, Western China: (Upper Yangtze)
and Southern China, Western Hupeh: Patung Hsien;
Chang-yang Hsien; Eastern Szech'uan: Wushan Hsien,
- 281 -
south of Yangtsze River; Western Szech'uan: Mupin;
west of Kuan Hsien ascent of Niu-tou-shan; Yunnan.
Altitude: 1 OOO-2 600 m.
CLIMATE
Temperate
SOILS
Wet mountain, yellow soils.
HABITAT
In southwestern Hupeh it occasionally forms pure
forests of limited extent, but it more usually grows
in association with Quercus, Schima, Pas an i a and
Castanopsis.
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its natural range.
- 282 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rehder, A. &
E.H.Wilson
1916
Seeman, V.O.
1897
Steward, A.N.
In Chinese:
Botanical
Research Insti-
tute, Chinese
Academy
1980
Fagaceae in Sargent C.S.: Plantae
Wilsonianae Vol III (III)
The University Press, Cambridge.
p. 190-191.
13 Neue Arten Fagaceen aus dem Herbar
des Koniglichen Botanischen Museums
zu Berlin. Engl. Jahrb. 20 (3)
Beibl. 1 (viii): 56.
Manual of Vascular Plants of the
Lower Yangtze Valley, China. Oregon
State College, Corvallis.
Iconographia Cormophytorum Sinicorum,
Tomus 1 , p . 408 .
- 283 -
I/
Gigasiphon macrosiphon (Harms) Brenan
SYNONYMS
Bauhinia macrosiphon Harms (1915)
Gigasiphon humblotianum sensu K.T.S.
FAMILY
Leguminosae subfam. Caesalpinioideae
VERNACULAR NAME
Mnondo (Tanzania)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Large , round-topped forest tree up to 20 m.
Inflorescence
Flowers with 5 slender, long-pointed sepals 5-8 cm
long, alternating with 5 obovate to elliptic petals
9-13 cm long, pure white except for a yellow splash
on oneyor white flushed creamy-pink; stamens 10.
Fruit
Pod large and flattened, up to 30 cm long by 6-7 cm
wide, containing 6 purplish -brown seeds each 2-3 cm
across and almost encircled by the narrow U-shaped
scar of attachement.
i/ Based on the work of J.A.Odera (Forestry Research
Dept., Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Kikuyu,
Kenya) and Ms. C.Kabuye (East African Herbarium,
National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya).
- 284 -
Foliage
Leaves broadly ovate to subcordate 8-17 cm long and
large.
Bark
Whitish or pinkish-grey.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Sapwood white
Use
The large beautiful flowers makes it of potential use
as an ornamental.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In Kenya and Tanzania, it is known from only 4
localities:-
1. On Mrima Hill in Kwale District Kenya (where it
was found in 1959 and 1960)
2. Between Msambweni and Lungalunga in Kwale
District, Kenya (found there in 1964)
3. On the 'Rondo plateau in Lindi District, Tanzania
(found there in 1951 and 1952)
4 . At Amani in Tanga in the eastern Usambara
Mountains, Tanzania (cultivated specimens found
there in 1937) .
- 285 -
The forest at Mrima Hill is a very good example of
lowland evergreen forest, of a type probably once
wide-spread along the coast but now nearly all
destroyed.
The flora is of great interest, possessing as it
does three distinct floristic elements and including
several of the apparently quite endemic Kenyan
coastal species.
The Rondo plateau (c. 265 sq. km), is partly covered
by what was the finest Chlorophora excelsa forest in
East Africa before it was cut over in the late
forties and early fifties. Although part has been
cleared and replanted with various exotics, including
teak and pine, a large part remains unchanged. The
Rondo forest is by far the best representative of a
number of dissected plateaux carrying forest in the
coastal plain of southern Tanzania.
CLIMATE
Kenya: Lowland rain forest/120 - 910 m. Tanzania:
From dry lowland forest of coastal type to woodland.
SOILS
The Kenya population is associated with a deposit
of rare earth elements, but there is no evidence at
present that this association is causal.
HABITAT
In lowland, evergreen, tropical forest, 120-90O m.
- 286 -
SEED HANDLING
Seeds ripen between November and January, c. 3 seeds
per pod. Seeds germinate easily. Around 200 seeds/kg.
SILVICULTURE
A few trees recorded cultivated at Amani, Tanzania in
1937. Cultivation not recorded elsewhere.
STATUS
Rare or endangered. A species of very restricted
distribution.
It is known from the 4 scattered localities mentioned
above and the populations, where found, tend to be very
small.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
It has been affected in the long term by climatic
changes decreasing the area of forests, but more
recently by forest clearings for settlement and
cultivation.
The site at Mrima Hill In Kenya Is at risk from mineral
exploitation (see also under distribution).
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Conservation measures taken: part of the Rondo plateau
(Tanzania) is a Central Government Forest Reserve.
- 287 -
Conservation Measures Recommended:
1. The Mrima Hill Forest (Kenya) should be urgently
considered as a possible National Park.
2. Further protective measures should be considered
for the Rondo Plateau.
3. Protection of the existing trees and possible re-
introduction into conservation areas should be con-
sidered.
4. Detailed local surveys of existing sites are needed,
in particular to assess the number of the
remaining individuals on each site, so that
protective measures can be formulated.
5. Further research should be done to bring the
species into cultivation.
- 288 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brenan, J.P.M. Notes on African Caesalpinioideae -
1963 Kew Bulletin 17 (2): 214 .
Brenan, J.P.M. Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpi-
1967 nioideae. In Milne-Redhead, E. &
Polhill, R.M. (eds)f Flora of
Tropical East Africa. Crown Agents,
London p.2O4 and Fig. 45.
IUCN The IUCN Plant Red Data Book,
1978 compiled by G.Lucas and H.Synge.
Morges, Switzerland, 279-280 p.
Lucas, G. In Hedberg, L.& 0., (eds) .
1968 Conservation of Vegetation in
Africa South of the Sahara.
Acta phytogeogr. suec. 54 : 153 -
159.
Polhill, R.M. Tanzania - In Hedberg, L. & 0 (eds).
1968 Conservation of Vegetation in
Africa South of the Sahara.
Acta phytogeogr. suec. 54: 166-178.
Verdcourt, B. Notes from the East African Her-
1960 barium: XI. Kew Bulletin 14(3):
348 - 349.
- 289 -
I/
Glyptostrobus lineatus (Poiret)Druce
SYNONYMS
Thuja pensilis Staunton (1798)
Thuja lineata Poiret (1817)
Juniperus aquatica Roxburgh (1824)
Taxodium heterophyllum Brongniart (1833)
Taxodium sinense Forbes (1839)
Glyptostrobus heterophyllus (Brongn) . Endlicher (1847)
Glyptostrobus pensilis (Stamt.) K.Koch (1873)
Glyptostrobus sinensis Henry ex Loder (1919)
Glyptostrobus aquaticus (Roxb.) Parker (1924)
FAMILY
Taxodiaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Shui Sung, Cui Sung, Shui Ts'ung, Then-Tsong, Thon-
Song, Water Pine, Chinese Deciduous Cypress, Chinese
Swap Cypress, Chinese Water Pine.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
The tree grows to a maximum height of 24 m, generally
8-10 m. It has a trunk which is strongly swollen below
and can be buttressed and fluted. The swollen base is
especially noticeable in old trees, and in specimens
which are affected by the raising and lowering of the
water level. It has an irregular growth habit with a
i/ FAG acknowledge tne assistance of Pan £hihK«R
(the Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing,
China) .
- 290 -
crown, which when young is pyramidal, but later
becomes flat-topped and bushy. The branches are sparse,
horizontally spreading, the upper ones ascending.
Inflorescence
Glyptostrobus is monoecious. Male cones are erect,
terminal, short-lived; female cones are persistent,
erect or on perennial short shoots. Male and female
cones are borne on perennial short shoots which are
covered with spirally cupressoid leaves. Male cones
typically occur in clusters of 30-40 cones, while
female cones tend to occur in clusters of 4-10. Just
prior to the shedding of pollen the male cones are
turbinate (shaped like an inverted cone) and flat
topped, measuring 3.0-5.0 mm x 1.5-3.O mm.
Before it is pollen receptive, the immature female
cone is subglobose, flat topped, measuring about
2.0-3.0 mm x 1.5-2.5 mm. It consists of approximately
20 loosely imbricated, somewhat fleshy scales,
approximately 6 outermost scales being in series with
the cupressoid leaves and bearing white stomatal dots.
Fruit
The mature female cone tapers at base, with 4 woody
scales which bear thin narrow bracts with the tip
reflexed; 12 mm long, 5 mm across, greenish-brown in
colour. The seeds stand erect with their micropyle
upward, two seeds under each scale.
Seeds are ovoid to oblong, pointed at the lower,
attached end, flattened adaxially and convex abaxially
with a terminal wing which is continuous over the whol<
- 291 -
adaxial surface of the seed and covers nearly 1/2 the
abaxial surface. The body of the seed is 5.5-7.5 mm
x 3.0-3.5 mm, the free part of the wing being
5.O-7 x 2.O-3.5 mm.
Foliage
The foliage of the tree is heterophyllus, three types
of leaves being produced. One type of leaf is linear
and dorsiventrally flattened and resembles the normal
foliage characteristic of Taxodium. This is referred
to as 1 taxodioid leaf. A second type of leaf is
pointed at the apex, quadrangular in transverse section
and curved like a sickle. This type of leaf resembles
the normal foliage of Cryptomeria and is referred to
as a cryptomeroid leaf. A third type of leaf is
scale-like/ as a Cupressus and other members of the
Cupressaceae, and this is referred to as a cupressoid
leaf. The perennial branchlets bear cupressoid
leaves or two kinds of leaves, cupressoid leaves at
the base followed by cryptomeroid leaves. Annual
branchlets bear taxodioid foliage if the tree is young,
but bear cryptomeroid foliage on older trees.
Bark
The back has been described as fibrous and stringy
and brown in colour, formed in irregular plates with
the inner bark reddish brown.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The wood is considered rot-resistant. Specific
gravity 0.37-0.42. It is in general considered as a
- 292 -
good timber and has especially been used for boat-
building and as fuelwood.
Other Uses
Fruit and seeds are used for extracting Indigo dye and
the bark for making brushes. In some regions the tree
is cultivated because it is an object of superstition
in the local culture. It is believed to bring good
luck. It has also been used for embankment along
river banks.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
There is no known occurrence of the plant in the wild
state. The tree may have been native in the marshes
of the Heungshan district of Kwantung, an area east
of Macao. A second area of cultivation is centered
on Foochow, Fukien Province, but it is known to have
been cultivated here only since 1890. The trees
discovered by Hu in Southern Kiangsi,. although tall
(20m) are apparently cultivated there. The original
report of G.lineatus was in a list of plants "collecte
in Shan-Tung and Kiang-nan" (i.e.f Shantung and Anhwei
Provinces) . It has later been cited that the distribute
of G. lineatus is in the vicinity of Canton and
FoochoWj and specifically noted is its absence in the
intervening treaty port of Swatow and Amoy. It has
been widely cultivated in the region of Yangtze river.
CLIMATE
The climate where G.lineatus occurs is warm and humid.
Average annual rainfall varies from 1 2OO - 2 000 mm
- 293 -
and mean annual temperature is 16-22°C. It is not
a cold-resistant species.
SOILS
Soils are variable and include grey-brown podsols in
the hills, red earths and non-calcareous alluvial
soils in the coastal belt, and in other parts purple-
brown forest soils and yellow laterites. It grows best
in alluvial soils and prefers neutral to slightly
alkaline soil (pH 7-8) but it is also found on acid
soils.
HABITAT
There is no record of G.lineatus growing as a natural
component of vegetation. It has been reported to have
died out in the wild state. Apparently it is a plant
which has survived solely because man has chosen to
cultivate it. In China G. lineatus is cultivated in
wet, swampy soil on the margins of fields, on the banks
of canals and water courses, where it is significant
in the prevention of soil erosion. It is also
cultivated near monasteries and in gardens, but it is
generally not clear whether these are situations with
nonswampy soils. Some have suggested that the spe-
cies has been cultivated longest in the vicinity of
Canton, and that its introduction into the Foochow
region probably only dates from approximately 1890.
SEED
18 OOO seeds/kg; germination 50-60%.
- 294 -
SILVICULTURE
Normally 2 year old seedlings are used for outplanting.
The extent of its cultivation in China indicate that
it is usually propagated from seed, but it can
easily be grown from cuttings. It is a tree that
grows in wet soil and can stand periodic inundation
and is therefore useful in the stabilization of soil
in wet areas.
STATUS
Natural populations are extinct.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
The genus Glyptostrobus has played a conspicuous role
in the forest vegetation of the northern hemisphere
and also once extended into the southern hemisphere.
As stated above, it is nowhere known to occur in the
wild state. Presumably it was saved from extinction
only because man revered it, found it useful, and
cultivated it in south-eastern China.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Cultivated by local villagers as described above.
There are some suggestions that G.lineatus should be
used widely in afforestation projects.
- 295 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Butala, J.R.
1973
FAO
1982
Richardson, S.P.
1966
Shun-Chung,L.
1935
Steward, A.N,
In Chinese:
Agendae Academiae
Sinicae
1978
Investigation of Glyptostrobus,
Washington State University, Dept.
of Botany.
Forestry in China,. FAO Forestry
Papers - No. 35, FAO, Rome.
Forestry in communist China. The
Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
Maryland.
Forest Botany of China. The
Commercial Press, Limited,
Shanghai, China.
Manual of Vascular Plants of the
Lower Yangtze Valley, China.
Oregon State College, Corvallis.
Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae
Tomus 7. p. 229-303.
Cheng Wan-chun
1982
Sylva Sinica Vol. 1 p. 316-318
- 296 -
I/
Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum (Verm.) Harms
SYNONYM
Pterygopodium balsamiferum Verm. (1924)
FAMILY
Leguminosae subf. Caesalpinioideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Agba, (trade name t Niger ia ), Achi, Losfn-Erin, Emongi
(Nigeria) , Tola blanc (Congo) , Tola branca (Angola) ,
Nitola (Zaire).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An evergreen or deciduous forest tree, sometimes
emergent, reaching as much as 60-70 m in height but
more often around 40 m. DBH often reaches 1.5 or even
3 m. Crown spreading, hemispherical and rather open.
Bole generally straight and cylindrical with no
buttresses or other irregularities except for
frequent, spiral grain. The length of the tree bole
is generally 20-25 m, but may reach 35 m. Where the
tree develops in open conditions, branching may be
low.
I/ Based on the work of John B.Hall (Department of
Forestry, University of North Wales, Bangor, U.K.)
and P.O. Adewole, Nigeria , FAO also acknowledge
the assistance of P.R.Kio (Director Forestry
Research Institute of Nigeria) .
297 -
Inflorescence
Finely pubescent, developing at the ends of the shoots,
consisting of spikes 5-8 cm long arranged in panicles
5-15 cm long. Bracts small; 1-1.5 mm long and 0.5-1 mm
wide, soon falling off. Flowers apetalous, borne on
pedicels about 1 mm long. Bracteoles about 0.5 mm long/
found only in newly opened flowers. Calyx of 4 or 5
broadly ovate, whitish sepals, 1.5-2 mm in length
and width. Sepals slightly pubescent, pellucid-dotted,
ciliate at the margins. Stamens equal, 8-10; filaments
pubescent in the lower half, 3-3. 5 nn long; anthers 0.5mm
long. Ovary stalked, 0.5-1 mm long, hemispherical to
elliptic in shape, villous, about 1.5 mm long,
containing a single pendulous ovule. Style about 2 mm
long. Flowering has been recorded in Nigeria during
the dry season, with fruits developing two to four
months later.
Fruit
Shortly pedicellate and samara-like but with the seed
enclosed in the distal end; glabrous 9-17 cm long and
at its broadest, in the distal half of the wing, 3-5 cm
wide. Wing is oblong to ovate-lanceolate with one
margin almost straight and the other markedly more
rounded and less strongly thickened. Stipe/ 10-15 mm
long f separates wing from the remains of the calyx.
Wing green when immature, at maturity yellowish-brown
with a conspicuous lax reticulation of nerves. Distal
end of fruit swollen , containing a solitary seed,
terminating in a short, thick apiculus curved inwards.
The surface of the swollen part of the adjacent part
- 298 -
of the wing is pustular. Integument thin and papery,
remaining attached to the fruit wall.
The seed lies with part of its edge just inside the
straighter margin of the fruit. Its point of
attachment is close to the apiculus of the fruit and
it is here that the seed is thickest; towards the ends
of the cotyledons the seed becomes progressively
thinner. Shape of seed roughly oval to elliptic ,
flattened;length 2-3 cmr breadth 1.5-2 cm.
Foliage
Leaves alternately arranged, compound (simply pinnate),
entirely glabrous. The combined length of petiole
and rhachis varies from 5-18 cm and the lowest leaflet
is borne 5-25 mm from the base. Petiole and rhachis
slender and shallowly grooved above, petiole swollen
at the base. Leaflets alternate and one is terminal.
Number of leaflets per leaf 6 to 9 but may be as low
as 3 or as high as 11; uppermost leaflets slightly
larger than those below. Petioles glabrous, 2-4 mm
long and often slightly twisted. Lamina papery,
both surfaces dull, although they contrast with the
abaxial Whitish and the adaxial green. Midrib promi-
nent on both sides of the lamina and on the adaxial
bears a shallow groove towards the leaflet base.
Leaflets ovate-elliptic to oblong or oblong-lartceolate
in outline and usually slightly asymmetrical, 2-13 cm
long and 1.5-5 wide, with entire margins. Leaflets
narrow to a blunt apex in most cases and although
occasionally acuminate, the tip is always obtuse. Each
leaflet bears about 20 irregular lateral nerves on
299 -
each side of the midrib. Numerous pellucid glandular
dots are scattered over the lamina.
Bark
Thin (4-15 mm)f generally dark grey but partly
greenish. The surface features of the bark change
as the tree ages, being somewhat wrinkled in young
trees but later becoming smooth except in scattered
patches where there are narrow longitudinal cracks.
In old trees, where these cracks become deeper , roughly
rectangular flakes of bark may become detached.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND USES
The timber is resistant to decay, easy to work and has
good nailing, screwing and glueing properties. Its
principal use is in plywood manufacturing, for
furnishings, flooring and household fittings plus in
light construction work.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Gossweilerodendrpn balsamiferum occurs from the
western border of Nigeria through the lowland forests
further east as far as central Zaire. The northern
and southern limits appear to be the boundaries of
the main Nigeria/Zaire forest block. It is absent
or rare in some parts of this range, such as the drier
forests on basement complex rocks in Nigeria.
Areas where high concentrations of the species have
been reported are Temvo (5°30'S, 13°00'E) in Zaire
(Vermoesen 1923) and the Owan (6°45fN, 5°45'E) and
Sapoba (6°04'N, 5°50'E) areas of Nigeria (Kennedy 1936),
- 300 -
CLIMATE
The climate in the area of occurrence of the species
is seasonal in nature with dry periods of up to 1OO
days, sometimes of up to 150-160 days in length
(Mayumbe locality) . Mean annual rainfall is generally
1 4OO - 2 6OO mm. Mean monthly minimum temperatures
vary between 14 and lS°Cf corresponding maxima between
28 and 32°C.
SOILS
The relationship with soils and geology is not
particularly clear from the available records. However,
there appears to be some tendency for the species to
be associated with sedimentary rocks. In Nigeria,
the concentration of the species is highest on
ferrallitic soils derived from the tertiary coastal
plains sands and on ferruginous tropical or ferrallitic
soils derived from basement complex rocks. It is
possible that the most influential of the edaphic
factors involved is texture, the species being
particularly favoured by deep sandy and free-draining
soils. In Zaire, very high concentrations of the
species have been reported from Mayumbe on sandy
soils overlying basement complex rocks.
HABITAT
G.balsamiferum normally grows in mature, little-
disturbed forest.
- 301 -
SEED HANDLING
There are about 280 de-winged seeds per kg. Seed
viability is reported to be lost within two weeks.
SILVICULTURE
Although some studies have been made on the growth and
development of the species under natural conditions
only limited information is available on the behaviour
of the species under plantation conditions.
As in most shade-tolerant species, early growth is
slow during the first 10 years. Line-planting has
been tried on an experimental scale. Using this method,
heights of 18 m and girths (dbh) of 60 to 120 cm
were achieved in 22 years.
STATUS
Further study needed, but likely to be endangered in
parts of its geographic range, especially at the
extremes. Ilaro, in Nigeria; Cabinda, at the
southern limit; central Zaire at the eastern limit.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
The continued heavy exploitation of the species, the
lack of a plantation programme and the rapid
conversion of forests into plantations of other
species.
- 302 -
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
In addition to the endangered provenances listed
above, the gene pools of the high density populations
of the Sapoba area in Nigeria and of Mayumbe in
Zaire also merit attention. The populations of these
hilly districts - somewhat more secure, although less
concentrated - may contain genetic material of interest
for any future plantation programme. Both in situ and
ex situ conservation of the species merit early
attention.
- 303 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aubreville, A.
1968
Aubreville, A.
1970
Bonnier, C.
1957
FAO
1965
FAO
1981
Hutchinson, J. &
Dalziel, J.M.
1958
Keay, R.W.J.;
Onochie,C.F.A. &
Stanfield,D.P.
1964
Leonard, J.,
Hauman, L &
Hoyle, A.C.
1952
Legumineuses - Caesalpinioidees.
Flore du Gabon, 15, 148-150.
Legumineuses - Caesalpinioidees.
Flore du Cameroun, 9, 149.
Symbiose Rhizobium-Legumineuses en
region equator iale. Publ. INEAC,
Serie scient. , 72.
Land use survey of the western region
of Nigeria. FAO, Rome.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and prevenances. FO
MISC./81/11. p. 28 - 32.
Flora of West Tropical Africa,
2nd ed. (Ed. by R.W.J. Keay)
Crown Agents, London.
Nigerian trees, Vol.2, Federal
Department of Forest Research,
Ibadan.
Caesalpiniaceae: Cynometreae et
Amherstieae. Flore du Congo Beige
et du Ruanda-Urundi 3: 375-376.
- 304 -
Gymnostemon zaizou Aubrev. & Pellegr.
FAMILY
Simaroubaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Zaizou/ Zal£, Gouatoue
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A very tall tree with Entandrophragma - 1 j ke habit.
Bole flared at the base, but with no buttresses. Thick,
brittle, and yellowish-brown in cross-section. The tree
exudes resin.
Inflorescence
Inflorescences in terminal panicles. Flowers small,
downy; polygamous. Calyx short, 2 mm long with 5 small
teeth. Petals 5, 4.5 mm long, 2 mm wide, slightly
imbricate at the top, downy on both sides. Disc
fleshy, lobed, thick and pubescent. Stamens 10, 3 mm
long, broader at the base and pubescent; no basal
scales present. Ovary with 5 free, villous carpels
with united styles. Carpels uni-ovulate.
Fruit
A very large ovoid indehiscent drupe, the size of
a fist, up to 10 cm long and 8 cm in diameter; borne
on very thick, short peduncles, with a grey, pustulous,
scaly surface. One very big seed in each fruit.
Fruits are mature in April.
- 305 -
Foliage
Leaves grouped at the ends of thick branches; with
7 to 13 pairs of opposite or subopposite folioles.
Rachis 2O to 45 cm long. Folioles oblong, acuminate,
with an obtuse, asymmetric base; sub-sessile; 8 to 13.5
cm long and 2 to 4.5 cm wide, coriaceous, with slightly
curved edges and 12 to 16 pairs of lateral nervures
almost perpendicular to the median nervure, prominent
on the under side. Tertiary nerves less marked,
parallel to these. The apex and the upper part of the
lamina are often dotted along the edges, on the upper
surface, with small glandular points.
Bark
Smooth bark, with longitudinal cracks developing in
very old trees.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
G.zaizou is a species endemic to the forests in the
eastern part of the Ivory Coast (the forests of
Sassandra and Cavally) . It is located especially in
the hinterland of Tabou. It only occurs as single
individuals, the tree never growing in populations.
WOOD
Studies have not yet been made.
CLIMATE
Tropical rainforest, also semi -deciduous forest.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Nothing has so far been attempted. It is only
common in the two forests mentioned above.
- 306 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aubreville, A.& Gymnostemon A. et P. genre nouveau
Fr.p£ll£grin de la CCte d'lvoire, voisin d'un
1937 endemique de Madagascar. Bull. Soc.
Botaniaue de France. 88: 181-183.
Aubreville, A. La Flore Fores tie re de la Cdte
1959 d'lvoire. Centre Technique Forestier
Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne (Seine),
France.
- 307 -
Ilex paraguaiensis St. Hilaire"
I/
SYNONYMS
Ilex mate St. Hil. (1824)
Ilex curitibensis Miers (1861)
Ilex domestica Reiss. (1861)
Ilex sorbitis Reiss. (1861)
Ilex theazans Bonpl. ex Reiss (1861)
Ilex vestita Reiss. (1861)
FAMILY
Aquifoliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Erva congonha, congonha, congonheira, erva- mate,
congoin, caaguaju, congonha grande, orelha de burro,
ca£, erva periquita.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Medium to tall tree, up to 10 - 15 m in height, with
a 20 - 40 cm diameter; trunk straight.
Inflorescence
Normally a clustered inflorescence, originating on the
floral axis; female flowers, with a short peduncle,
5 - 7 mm in diameter. Flowers occurs from September
to December. Flowers are dioecious with non-speci-
alized pollinators.
I/ Based on the work of M.L. Marques, M.Tomazello and
I.E.Pires. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP, P.O. Box 9,
Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.
- 308 -
Fruit
A drupe, black or a black-red when dry, globose or
ovoid-globose, 4 - 5 nun in diameter, occurrina
from December to March.
Foliage
Leaves simple, alternate, spiral, obovate and attenua-
ted at base, obtuse apex; crenate revolute margin,
average size approximately 9.5 x 3.0 cm; peninerved,
with petiole of approximately 1.0 cm; two small
stipules , coriaceous .
Branches thin with no marked characteristics.
Clustered ramification, almost horizontal, forming an
elongated crown.
Bark
Trunk: Generally straight, or somewhat twisted; bark
dark greyish-brown; outer bark rough cracked,
tending to separate into small scales. Internal bark
of a yellow colour, which oxidizes and turns into a
dark brown, sandy texture, with a compact heterogenous
structure,
USES
The leaves are used for tonic and stimulant drinks.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The tree occurs in subtropical and temperate regions
of South America, between 18 to 30 degrees latitude
South; is found in Brazil as well as Argentina,
- 309 -
Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Bolivia, Peru and
Ecuador. In Brazil it occurs in natural formations
and in peculiar ecological environments formed by
the large Parana, Paraguay and Uruguay Rivers, always
in distinctly developed associations of Araucaria
angustifolia.
SOIL AND CLIMATE
i. paraguaiensis grows between 500 and 1 500
meters in altitude on several soil types,
often being of basaltic rock origin. It prefers
compact land, humid and slightly hilly. The climate
in the principal areas where this species occurs is
humid temperate, and subtropical humid, with average
annual temperatures varying between 12° and 21°C, with
frosts during the winter. The average annual
precipitation varies between 1250 and 2500 mm, evenly
distributed, without water deficit.
HABITAT
It is a species of the mixed Araucaria and temperate
hardwood forest, where it occurs in the intermediate
stratum, frequently in association with Ocotea porosa,
Sloanea lasiocoma, Ileve dumosa , Matoyoba eleagnoides
and, less frequently, in association with Ocotea
puchella. It is also found as cultivated stands.
SEED HANDLING
Seeds should be harvested from very ripe fruits.
Ripening may be irregular on the same tree, causing
a large heterogeneity in the germination percentage.
- 310 -
Dormancy is broken by natural "stratification" in the
soil. The seeds presents tegumen dormancy and the
artificial processes employed to break this have not
to date rendered many results.
SILVICULTURE
The formation of production stands is made by thinning
the other species in forests with Ilex paraguaiensis,
or by enriching native "erva-mate" formations with
new Ilex paraguaiensis seedlings; or by establishment
of plantations. As there are some difficulties in
producing seedlings from seeds, vegetative propagation
has been used as the most economical and efficient
method.
In a mixed cropping with corn, it has been observed
that at 6 months of age, Ilex paraguaiensis reached
greater heights in the more dense corn stands. No
significant influences of the corn density on "erva-
mate11 survival (average 82%) were observed.
In a plant spacing experiment in Misiones - Argentina,
the smaller spacings presented greater leaf production.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
Due to the properties of its leaves I. paraguaiensis
was already exploited during the last centuries, and
the distribution of this species was thus greatly
reduced. The cultivation in pure artificial stands
is not enough to fulfill the present demand, todays
exploitation in areas of natural occurrence has
further reduced the distribution of this species
drastically *
- 311 -
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
One of the priorities of the Unidade Regional de
Pesquisa Centro-Sul (PNPF/EMBRAPA) , is to improve
the silvicultural technology for Ilex paraguaiensis.
1 research project on phenology, 2 on genetic
conservation and 2 on genetic improvement have been
set up.
In 1967, IBDP took over all the functions of the
Institutio Nacional do Mate, promoting initiatives for
protecting and expanding I. paraguaiensis f in view
of its economic importance.
- 312 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bras 11 Madeira
1980
Carpanezzi ,A.A.
1982
Correa, M.P.
1926
Ferrelra, A.G.et al,
1983
Fraga, M.V.G.
1946
Galvao,A.P.M.
1982
Golfari, L.;
Caser,R.L. &
Moura,V.P.G.
1978
Klein, R.M.
1972
Klein, R.M.
1979
Klein, R.M.
1980
Orientates sobre a erva-mate.
Brasil Madeira. (48): 28-34.
Pesquisas da URPFCS-EMBRAPA sobre
e species brasileiras. Silvicultura
em S%o Paulo, SSb Paulo, 16A
(parte 2) : 928-33.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do
Brasil e das exdticas cultivadas.
Rio de Janeiro, MinistdVio da
Agricultura. 4v.
Proporjao de sexo e polinizaySo em
Ilex paraguaiensis St. Hill. Brasil
florestal, Brasilia, 13 (53):
29-33, Jan. /mar.
Ensaio de indice da flora dendrolo-
gica do Brasil. Arquivos do Service
Florestal, S3o Paulo, 1M2) : 69-156.
Contribuiyao da EMBRAPA/IBDF - PNPF
para a pesquisa com especies nativas
e florestais naturals do Brasil.
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sab
Paulo, 16A (parte 1): 150-9.
Zoneamento ecologico esquematico
para o ref lorestamento no Brasil.
Se'rie tecnica. PRODEPEF Brasilia,
(11) : 1-66.
Arvores nativas da floresta
subtropical do alto Uruguai. *
Sellowia, Itajal, 24 (24): 9-62.
Ecologia da flora e vegetacao do
Vale do Itajai: 1. Sellowia, Itajai,
31 (31): 1-164.
Ecologia da flora e vegetacUo do ^
Vale do Itajai: 2. Sellowia, Itajai/
32 (32): 165-389.
- 313 -
Kricun, S.A.P. ;
Swier,R &
Aranda,A.
1982
Oliveira, Y.M.M.4
Rotta,G.
1983
Reitz,R;
Klein, R.M. &
Re is, A.
1978
Determinacion del distanciamiento
y disposicion apropriada para la
implantacion de nuevos yerbaler en
la zona de Esperanza, Provincia de
Misiones. Notas tecnicas. INTA,
Missiones, (31): 1-21.
Levantamento da estrutura vertical
de uma mat a de Araucaria do prime iro
planalto paranaense. Silvicultura,
Sab Paulo, 8 (28): 1O6-11.
Projeto madeira de Santa Catarina.
Sellowia, Itajal, (28/30): 7-32O.
Reitz, R.;
Klein, R. &
Reis, A.
1979
Rotta, E.
1977
Schrgr,H.G.
1982
Sgitz,R.A.A.
1982
Siqueira,J.D.P,
1982
Sohn , S .
1982
Madeiras do Brasil - Santa Catarina.
Florian<5polis, Editora Lunardelli.
320 p.
Identificapao dendrolcSgica do Parque
Municipal da Barreirinha. Curitiba.
271 p. (Tese - Mestrado - UFPr.).
Consorcio das culturas da erva-mate
e milho. Silvicultura em Sao Paulo,
Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2): 812-3.
Regenerayao natural de Araucaria
angustifolia. Silvicultura em S3b
Paulo, Sa*o Paulo, 16A(parte 1):
412-20.
Expressab economica e social das
essencias nativas. Silvicultura
em Safo Paulo, Sab Paulo, 16A
^parte 2) : 1444-64.
Express'ab volumetrica de comunidade
florestal pinheiro com imbuia^.
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo,
16A (parte 1): 559-62.
- 314 -
Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex 0'Rorke)Baill7
As a result of a recent taxonomic study of Irvingia
gabonensis, two varieties have been recognized within
the species by Okafor (in press), namely I. gabonensis
var. gabonensis and I. gabonensis var. amara .
SYNONYMS
Mangifera gabonensis Aubry-Lecomte ex O'Rorke (1857)
Irvingia tenuifolia Hook, f . (1862)
Irvingia barteri Hook, f . (1862)
FAMILY
Irvingiaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Wild Mango; Duiker nut; Manguier sauvage; Bobo
(Sierra Leone); Boboru; Wanini (Ivory Coast)? Andok
(Cameroon); Meba, Mueba (Zaire); Oro, Oba (Nigeria).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Evergreen forest tree, up to 25 m high and 2 m in
girth, occasionally more; with dense compact, conical or
umbrella shaped crown. The bole is usually fluted
or with plank-like buttresses.
I/ Based on the work of J.C. Okafor, Forestry Research
Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria.
- 315 -
Inflorescence
Flowers greenish yellow, small, profuse and fragrant ,
arranged in clusters on axillary panicles among the
leaves and about as long as them, or on branchlets
and younger branches; appearing mainly in January to
February or in June and October. Floral parts
pentamerous , with 5 free, greenish yellow sepals,
5 free, strongly reflexed cream petals, soon falling
off, 10 free stamens with white filaments, and yellow
anthers, and a green ovary surrounded by conspicuous
bright yellow disk; pedicels slender about 5 mm long.
Fruit
Yellowish, broadly ellipsoid, 5-7.5 cm long, with
sweet edible or bitter inedible, fibrous pulp, surro-
unding a large stone, the latter enclosing edible
kernels with dark brown or tan or yellowish brown
testa. The fruit ripens in the rainy season, April
to July and September to October, or in the dry
season, January to March.
Foliage
Leaves dark green and glossy above, leathery, 5-15 cm
long by 2.5-6 cm broad, narrowly elliptic or broad and
obovate, with one margin often a little more rounded
than the other; base generally cuneate or rounded,
apex acute or shortly acuminate, sometimes rounded or
retuse; petiole 3-11 mm long, frequently varying on
the same specimen; lateral nerves range from 7 to 13
- 316 -
on either side of the midrib , the lower ones running
out vaguely to the margin, the upper ones looped;
minor nerves more or less parallel and at right angles
to the laterals; veins forming a close network.
Stipules 4-27 mm long and curved , forming a protective
sheath over shoot buds.
Bark
In young trees grey to brown and smooth, in older trees
irregularly platy; slash yellowish-brown to light
yellow, hard, fibrous and brittle, sometimes with a
clear liquid.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Heartwood pale green-brown or orange-yellow, fading on
exposure to grey-brown, sometimes with dark grey
streaks; sapwood lighter, not always differentiated.
Basic specific gravity (oven-dry weight/green volume)
O. 6 7-0. 75. It is used in heavy construction,
railroad crossties etc.
Other Uses
The pulp of the fruit is sometimes eaten, although it
is bitter and gives off a strong smell of turpentine.
The oily seed is edible and consumed in numerous parts
of West Africa. The fruits are often left to ferment,
which removes the smell that adheres to the seeds.
The kernel of the seed is crushed, grilled and used to
prepare a sort of butter: this is the dika, odika or
pain de dika, also known as "chocolat du Gabon". One
can also extract an oil used in soap making, and
which is of some alimentary value. For cattle, the
oil-cake has a food value equal to that of the oil-cake of coconut.
- 317 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species occurs from the Casamance region of
Senegal to Zaire and in Angol^i and Uganda. It is
often found in towns or at the edge of villages.
CLIMATE
Tropical rainforest.
SOILS
The species is site demanding, growing well only on
loamy to clayey soils which are moderately wet and
well drained.
HABITAT
It is a species of dense, moist forests, in gallery
forests and in semi-deciduous forests; often found near
riverbanks and reaches its optimum in the dense
evergreen rainforest.
SEED
No information available
SILVICULTURE
Propagation from seeds is not difficult. The species
can also be propagated vegetatively by budding,
thereby reducing its fruiting age to 3% years instead
of 1O years or more.
STATUS
Further study needed, but likely to be in danger of
genetic impoverishment throughout its geographic
range .
- 318 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Logging operations and settlement. Natural regenera-
tion is scarse as the fruits are collected as soon as
they ripen and fall from the trees.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
There is a need to establish plantations and possibly
ex situ conservation stands of the species.
- 319 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dalziel, J.M.
1936
FAO
1981
FAO
1982
FAO
1985
Keay, R.W.J.?
Onochie,C.F.A.&
Stanfield,D.P.
1964
Okafor,JC.
1971
Okafor,J.C.
1973
Okafor,J.C.
1974
Okafor,J.C.
1975
The Useful Plants of West Tropical
Africa: Appendix to the Flora of Wfest
Tropical Africa by J.Hutchinson 6
J.M. Dalziel. The Crown Agents for the
Colonies, London.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species FO: MISC/81/11, FAO, tore. p. 31-34.
Fruit-bearing forest trees, FAO
Forestry Paper No. 34 FAO, Rome.
In-situ conservation of forest
genetic resources in Cameroon. Forest
Genetic Resources Information
14: 15-31, FAO, Rome.
Nigerian Trees, Vol. 11, Department
of Forest Research, Ibadan. Nigeria.
Interim Report on Breeding of some
Nigerian Food Trees. Paper presented
at the Second Conference of the
Forestry Association of Nigeria,
Zaria, August 1971.
Prospects for large-scale production of
Irvingia gabonensis (Irvingiaceae)
Paper presented at the 4th Annual
Conference of the Forestry Association
of Nigeria, Enugu, December 1973.
Varietal delimitation in Irvingia
gabonensis (Irvingiaceae). Nigerian
Jornal of Forestry 4 (2): 80-88.
Varieta delimitation in Irvingia
gabonenais ( Irvinaiaceae) Bull .
Jard.
rabonensis (Irvingiaceae) Bull
Bot. Nat. Belg. 45: 211-221.
- 320 -
I/
Joannes ia princeps Veil.
SYNONYMS
Anda brasiliensis Raddi (1820)
Anda gomes ii A. Juss. (1816)
Andicus pentaphyllus Veil. (1825)
Anda pisonis Mart, ex Stend. (1840)
FAMILY
Euphorbiaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Cotieira, anda-cu, oco de purga, purga de paulistas,
fruta de arara, anda' assu, castanha de arara, coco d
gentio, fruta de cotia, inda assu', boleira.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree with dense, clustered, ramification that reaches
a height of 20 m. When isolated, it develops a very
open crown, growing less in height.
Inflorescence
Flowers white or purple in colour, monoecious, small,
numerous, without petals, with 5 paniculate sepals and 7-10
stamens. Flowering occurs in the months of February,
March, July and December.
I/ Based on the work of M. L. Marques. , M.Tomazello F
and I.E.Pires. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O. Box 9, Pircacicaba, SP, Brazil.
- 321 -
Fruit
A dehiscent capsule, with a thick pericarp; up to 12cm
in diameter, with 2-3 seeds. Fructification occurs in
January to March.
Foliage
Leaves petioled, digitate, 3-7, elliptical with smooth
petioled folioles, variable in size, up to 20 cm in
length and 8 cm wide.
Branches: Circular, grey, with lenticels, which exude
a water liquid, when injured.
Bark
Bark white coloured, almost smooth, trunk normally
straight.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
White, slightly yellow or hay coloured; sapwood not
distinct; with a slightly rough surface, and not very
shiny; straight grain; rough texture; aroma and
taste indistinct. It is light and has a low mechanical
resistance. In laboratory trials it showed a low
resistance to rot. Impregnation under pressure in
the laboratory, revealed a high permeability to
preservative solutions.
Chemical analysis of "boleira" wood gave a Cross ft
Beven level of celulose of 50. 1*, and a lignln
content of 21.8*.
- 322 -
"Boleira" wood may be used for cellulose production
for high quality paper as well as for boxes.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
"Zona da Mata", eastern region of the state of Ninas
Gerals; valley of Rio Doc ej and from the northern part
of Espirlto Santo to the south of the state of Bahla.
SOILS AND CLIMATE
As Indicated by the wide geographical distribution of
this species, It tolerates several soil and climate
types. However, It does not withstand extremely dry
conditions such as those of the arid and semi -arid
regions. It withstands pronounced dry seasons and
grows best In deep soil.
HABITAT
Nay be found Isolated, as well as In association with
other species In the forests. It prefers the more
humid areas of the tropical rain forest.
SEED HANDLING
Seeds oval shaped, large, with a hard texture, presen-
ting coat dormancy. One kg contains 180 to 340 seeds.
An 80JS germination rate was obtained with mechanical
scarification, after 243 days storage In a cold chamber.
SILVICULTURE
In a trial set up In Narll£ria -KG, a 15 m height and
an 11 cm DBH was measured at five years of age. A
- 323 -
23.3 m height and a 50.9 cm DBH was observed, at 26
years of age in Santa Rita do Passa Quatro - SP.
In-spite of the high growth rate and the excellent
wood properties, this species is not planted on a
commercial scale.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
The regions of natural occurrence of the species are
among those that have undergone most severe devastation,
due to clearence of the natural vegetation for
development of agriculture, and livestock or
plantation projects using fast growing species.
Presently, the few remaining trees are being
gradually cut down as a result of the high demand
of this economic valuable species.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
£• princeps grows in the State Park of Rio Doce
in Minas Gerais. However, this unit is not sufficient
for conservation, as it does not represent its total
natural distribution.
3 base populations, propagated from a total of 90
selected trees, have been implemented through a contract
between the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq) and the Programa
Nacional de Pesquisa Florestal (PNPF) in collaboration
with the Sociedade de Investigacoes Florestais (SIF).
- 324 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biella, L.C.&
Capelanes,T.M.C.
1984
Correa,M.P.
1926
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Galvao,A.P.M.
1982
Gurgel Filho,O.A.;
Morres, J.L. &
Garriro, L.M.
do A.G.
1982
Jesus, R.M.
1984
Lopes, A.C.
1983
Mainieri,C.
1970
Produ9ao e Tecnologia de semen tes de
especies florestais nativas na Compan-
hia Energetica de Sab Paulo. 1°.
Simposio brasileiro sobre tecnologia
de semen tes florestais, Belo Horizonte,
novembro .
Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil.
Brasilia, IBDF,Vol. 1 747 p.
Ensaio de Indice da flora dendrol6gica
do brasil. Arquivos do Service Flores-
tal, Sao Paulo, 2 (2): 69-156.
Contribuisao da EMBRAPA/IBDF-PNPF para
a pesquisa com especies nativas e
florestas naturais do Brasil.
SilvJcultura em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo ,
16A (parte 1): 15O-159.
Especies nativas enxilofora. Silvicultura era
Sab Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2) :
890-994.
Tecnologia e produ<jao de sementes de
espe'cies florestais nativas desenvolvi-
das na Florestas Rio Doce S.A. 1°.
Simposio brsileiro sobre tecnologia de
sementes florestais, Belo Horizonte,
novembro .
Estudo comparative entre essencias ^
nativas e exoticas. Silvicultura, Sao
Paulo, 8 (28): 87-89.
Madeiras brasileiras: caractertsticas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrehcia/
dados botanicos e usos. Sab Paulo,
Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado de
Sao Paulo. 109 p.
- 325 -
Mainieri, c. Ficha de caracterlsticas das madeiras
1978 brasileiras. Sab Paulo, IPT, v.D.
Institute de Pesquisas Tecnol6gicas .
197 p.
Ramalho,R.S. Dendrologia: nota de aula. Vicosa, UFV.
1973 95 p.
Record, S.J.& Timbers of new world. 4.ed. New Haven,
Hess,R.W. Yale University Press. 640 p.
1949
Rizzini, C.T. Tratado de Fitogeograf ia do Brasil.
1979 S3b Paulo, Mucitec/ED. Universidade
de Sao Paulo, 374 p.
Sampaio,A.J. Nomes vulgares de plantas do Distrito
s.d. Federal e do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
Boletim do Museu Nacional. Rio de
Janeiro. 161-293.
- 326 -
I/
Juniperus bermudiana L.
SYNONYMS
Juniperus barbadensis L. (1753)
J.fragrans Hort.
J.virginiana var. australis Endlicher (1846)
£• virginiana var. barbadensis Gordon (1858)
FAMILY
Cupressaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Bermuda cedar, Bermuda juniper, Red cedar, Southern
red cedar.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An evergreen tree up to 20 m high and up to 1 m in
diameter. Branching irregular, wide, giving the tree
a conical outline when young, becoming round-topped
with age. The spread of the branches is usually
greater than the height of the tree.
Inflorescence
Staminate cores are yellow.
Male and female flowers on different trees (dioecious)
I/Based on the work of G.R. Groves. Dept. of Agriculture
& Fisheries, Botanical Gardens, Paget, P.O.Box 83*,
Hamilton 5, Bermuda.
- 327 -
Fruit
Depressed, globular, about 0.6 cm in diameter,
glaucous, each scale marked by a depression with
a minute point; seeds 2-3, shining chestnut -brown,
ovoid furrowed*
Foliage
Leaves linear-acicular, ascending, 5-15 mm long and
about 1 mm wide, whitish above and light green beneath.
Leaves of mature tree scale-like, closely appressed
and imbricated.
Bark
Thin, grey, flaky.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The Bermuda Cedar produces a good wood for furniture
making and also for the manufacture of souvenirs. The
finished article is highly polished and the reddish-
brown hue of the wood adds dignity to the home in which
it is used. It is also a valuable firewood which is
burnt in open fire grates during the cool evenings
from December to April.
Other Uses
Windbreaks
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Formerly abundant throughout the Islands of Bermuda.
There is no sound evidence that the tree occurs in
the wild elsewhere.
- 328 -
SOILS
Limestone-derived soil.
HABITAT
In the past forming almost complete forests on the
hillsides and along marshes.
SEED HANDLING
The plants are easily propagated from seed, which is
provided annually in the late autumn. The seed
however, takes from 3-5 months to germinate.
SILVICULTURE
In some protected areas, patchy cedar regeneration
was clearly visible among dead trees in I960. By 1970
these same seedlings had grown to an average of about
1-2 m, but the sparseness of the foliage at their tops
indicated that they had been attacked by the juniper
scale (see below) . Evidently the juvenile growth
habit and vigour initially provides sortie degree of
tolerance to the scale insect, but as the tree matures,
its resistance declines.
STATUS
Approximately one percent of the original Cedar has
survived the scale outbreak.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Approximately 90% of the trees died between the years
1944 and 1950 as a result of severe insect infestation.
Two scale insects, the juniper scale (Carulaspis
visci) and the oyster shell scale (Lepidosaphis
- 329 -
newsteadi) were responsible. A few of the old trees
are still growing and young stands of the species are
developing well in the undisturbed areas, but this
species is no longer a dominant tree in Bermuda.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The fact that the species has survived the insect
infestation is probably due to the biological method
of control adopted in the 195O's; this shows that with
care, the species can be perpetuated. Pure stands
are being established on Government land and
particularly on a little island known as Nonsuch Island
at the eastern end of the Bermuda Islands. Nonsuch
Island, which was once devastated by goats, is now a
living museum of Bermuda's flora and fauna with the
Bermuda Cedar as the dominant tree.
- 330 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Britton,N.L.
1918
Challinor,D.&
Wingate,D.B.
1971
Dallixnore, W.&
Jackson, A. B.
1966
FAO
1981
Groves, G.R.
1955
Hooker, W.J.
1943
IUCN
1978
Prat,H.
1955
Waters ton, J.M.
1946
Waters ton, J.M.
1949
Flora of Bermuda. Scribner's, New York,
p. 410.
The Struggle for Survival of the
Bermuda Cedar. Biol.Conserv. 3: 220-222.
A Hand book of Coniferae and Ginkgoa-
ceae. (Ed. S.G.Harrison) . Edward
Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances,
FAO/MISC/81/11, Rome, p. 35-36.
The Bermuda Cedar.
7 (9): 1-5
World Crops,
Brief descriptions, with figures of
Juniperus bermudiana, the Pencil-
Cedar Tree. Lond. J.Bot. 2:141-144,
t.I.
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book. Eds.
G.Lucas and H.Synge. IUCN, Morges,
Switzerland, p. 49-50..
Le Genevrier des Bermudes est-il
menac£ d1 extinct ion? Bull. Soc. bot.Fr.
102: 17-23.
Control of Pests Attacking the Bermuda
Cedar. Report of Plant Pathologist,
Department of Agriculture, Bermuda.
The pests of Juniper in Bermuda. Trop.
Agric. (Trinidad) 26: 5-15
- 331 -
I/
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl.
Suggestions have been made (e.g. Lewis I960, Kerfoot
1975) that this tree is not separable from J.excelsa
Bieb., the range of which extends to Central Asia.
Here the traditional view of the African taxon is
retained, pending wider formal acceptance of the
broader concept proposed for J. excelsa.
SYNONYMS
Juniperus abyssinica Hort. ex C. Kock (1853)
Sabina procera (Hochst.) Antoine (1857)
FAMILY
Cupressaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
African Pencil Cedar? Mutarakwa (Kikuyu, Kenya),
01-tarakwa (Masai, Kenya and Tanzania), Tarakwet
(Nandi, Kenya), Tedh (Amharic, Ethiopia).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An afromontane tree| usually the tallest species present,
reported to reach 50 m, though more commonly 30-35 m.
Bole straight but sharply tapered, often with a
pronounced twist; commonly heavily fluted; diameter
I/ Based on the work of John B.Hall, Dept.of Forestry,
University College of North Wales, Bangor, U.K.
- 332 -
reaches 2 m, sometimes up to 2.9 m. Branching heavy,
usually from near the ground. Crown pyramidal in
youth, spreading in older trees, branchlets slender,
terete, O.5-1 mm in diameter, bearing sessile, scale-
like leaves in decussate arrangement.
Inflorescence
Dioiecious. Male cones solitary, terminal on short
branchlets, small (about 3 mm long), ellipsoid to
subglobose, yellowish in colour, consisting of 5-6
pairs of decussate, subpeltate, obtuse or blunt
apiculate scales, each with 2-3 pollen sacs. Female
cones solitary, terminal, on short lateral shoots,
consisting of 3-4 pairs of decussate fleshy scales,
and bearing a solitary, erect ovule.
Fruit
Berry-likQ globose or subglobose, reddish-brown to
blue-black in colour, waxy and composed of the conflu-
ent, swollen, fleshy scales of the female cone, the
tips of the scales just distinguishable. When ripe,
4-8 mm in diameter, containing 1-4 seeds with a woody
testa, each flattened or triangular, brown and about
5 mm long. Additional 1-3 smaller, aborted seeds
common .
Foliage
Mature leaf grey or glaucous, about 1 mm long, acute,
hooded and keeled at the apex and with a narrow trans-
lucent margin and an elliptic oil gland on the back,
near the base. Juvenile leaves in whorls of three
on shoots, 1-2 cm long, linear and spine-tipped, the
- 333 -
lower part being decurrent on the branch. Oil
gland on abaxial surface linear, extending three-
quarters of the length of the leaf. Juvenile leaves
deciduous. As plant ages the leaves gradually change
until foliage characteristic of mature tree is produced.
The term "intermediate" is used to describe leaves not
reduced to the adult form but with the characteristic
decussate adult arrangement.
Bark
Pale brown to reddish brown r thin and fibrous, with
shallow longitudinal fissures, exfoliating in thin,
papery strips.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The wood of J.procera is fine- textured, straight-
grained and of medium hardness. The heartwood is very
resistant to termites and durable against rotting
in the ground. It is easily worked, takes a good
polish and glues and whittles well. The main use of
the wood of J. procera is for construction, transmission
and other poles, pencils, flooring and wooden stru-
ctures exposed to the weather. The wood is also used
for furnishings, and there are some prospects for its
use in the manufacturing of hardboard and particle-
board .
Other Uses
In addition to the above, Cedar Wood Oil was earlier
distilled from the sawdust and used in the cosmetic
industry.
- 334 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Widely distributed from Arabia southward to Zimbabwe,
Range fairly continuous in Ethiopia and Kenya: outlying
isolated populations extend the range of the species to
the Horn of Africa in the East and Zaire in the West.
Outlying populations are also found in the south of
the species1 range, south of latitude 4°30'S.
CLIMATE
The overriding restricting climatic factor seems to be
temperature, J.procera being restricted to sites with
a mean annual temperature of below +19°C. In East
Africa this corresponds to a minimum elevation of
1 350-2 000 m. Further from the equator the minimum
temperature tolerated by the species is reduced, the
lower limit of mean annual temperature for the
tree being + 7°C to + 10°C. A clear relationship
exists between distribution of the species and rainfall,
the optimum mean annual rainfall lying between 400 and
1 200 mm. The tree will grow in higher rainfall areas
under plantation conditions, when competing species
are artificially suppressed. In natural conditions,
under rainfall regimes with 8 or more months receiving >
50 mm of rain and with a mean annual rainfall of >
1000 mm, J.procera is unable to compete with other
species. Likewise, the species is not competitive under
natural conditions in areas with a mean annual rainfall
of 800-1000 mm and 7 or more months per year with over
50 mm rainfall. Where mean annual rainfall is below
800 mm, the tree seems to have become established in
- 335 -
all sites with suitable temperatures, it has reached.
At 60O mm mean annual rainfall, or less, the competitive
advantage over other species is strongest. However,
in areas with less than 600 mm of rainfall, the areas
where the species can be found receive additional
moisture from mist and low-lying clouds.
SOILS
J.procera occurs on rocks as diverse as limestones,
gneisses, and granites of the Basement Complex, and
basalts, but especially on the latter. The concentra-
tion of the tree on areas of volcanic rocks is a
consequence of the history of its entry and spread
into Africa; there is no direct evidence that it is
restricted to certain types of rock.
In terms of soil type, there is little information but
it is clear that the drainage must be good, and that
the species rarely grows in soil heavier than sandy
clay. In other respects it appears tolerant of
widely varying soils. Soil depth does not appear to
be a critical factor.
HABITAT
The species occurs in highland and mountain areas,
mostly at 1 750 m - 2 500 m altitude; in particularly
favourable niches it may occur as high as 3 5OO m.
Details on elevational range are complicated by
interactions of temperature, extent of high ground
and site. On isolated mountains and in other places
where low temperatures prevail at unusually low
elevations, the species has been reported to occur at
only 1 350-1 400 m.
- 336 -
SEED HANDLING
Seed is readily available but has short viability, 6
to 12 months. 1 kg contains c. 42 750 seeds: the
germination 6 weeks after collection is around 40%.
Phenological information is limited but seed is reported
available at Shume in the Usambaras (4°42'S, 38°12'Er
1 86O m) from January to May (i.e. the latter half of
the rainy season) and on Mount Kilimanjaro, at
Rongai (2°58'S, 37°27'E; 213O m) towards the er
July (i.e. the first half of the dry season).
SILVICULTURE
Early in this century a number of plantations were
established especially in Kenya, until attention
switched to faster-growing species during the 1960s.
Recently, however, interest in J.procera has revived
and new plantings are under way in Tanzania; unlike the
earlier plantings, there is more interest today in
trying to identify good provenances. Seedlings are
ready to plant out after 1-2 years in the nursery. In
the field, close initial spacing (2 m x 2 m) is advoca-
ted to limit low crown development, and form is further
improved by a series of early prunings; in Tanzania
these have been undertaken at 2.5 and 6 years. Initial
thinning in Tanzania has been 50% at 5 years. It is
essential that weedings be carried out at least, once
a year during the establishment phase.
STATUS
Outlying populations endangered. In Zimbabwe one
single tree presently survives? in Zaire and Malawi
the numbers of trees remaining in the populations are
very low.
- 337 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Changing land use patterns, discontinuous distribution
range of the species, coupled with wildfires hampering
the establishment of regeneration; browsing pressure,
particularly from buffalo and elephant; logging for both
local use and for export; the gradual switch from
local species to fast-growing exotics in plantation
forestry, are all reasons for the decline of J. procera,
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
Exploration and evaluation through the establishment
of internationally coordinated, range-wide provenance
trials, which are likely to promote conservation
measures and the increased use of J. procera in
plantation forestry, are recommended. Ex situ
conservation as a complementary practice is advocated.
Improved management, protection of areas against fire
and domestic and wild animals, is required for natural
stands, to enable regeneration, and serve as
conservation in situ.
- 338 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bo rota, J.
1971 A.
Borota, J.
1971 B.
Borota, J.
1975
Breitenbach,
F.von
1963
Brenan,J.P.M.&
Greenway, P.J.
1949
Chapman ,J.D.
1957
Chapman, J.D.&
White, F.
1970
Coetzee,J.A.
1967
Dale,I.R.&
Greenway , P . J .
1961
Eggeling,W.J.&
Dale, I. R.
1951
FAO
1981
The growth of the tree species at Kigogo
arboretum. Tanzania Silviculture Research
Note, 20: 1-7.
The growth of tree species in Lushoto
arboretum. Tanzania Silviculture
Research Note, 23: 1-24.
Provenance studies of the major and
economically important species in Tanza-
nia. Zbornik Vedeckych Prac, 17: 99-119.
The Indigenous Trees of Ethiopia, 2nd
edn. Ethiopian Forestry Association,
Addis Ababa.
Tanganyika Territory. Check lists of
the Forest Trees and Shrubs of the
British Empire, 5: 1-653.
The Indigenous Conifers of Nyasaland.
Nyasaland Department of Forestry.
The Evergreen Forests of Malawi.
Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Pollen analytical studies in East and
Southern Africa. Palaeocology
of Africa, 3: 1-146.
Kenya Trees and Shrubs,
tes, Nairobi.
Buchanan Esta-
The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda
Protectorate, 2nd edn. Government
Printer, Entebbe.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
species and provenances FO: MISC/81/11,
FAO, Rome, p. 33-36.
- 339 -
Gilliland,H.B.
1952
Greeway ,P. J.
1955
Hall,J.B.
1984
Kerfoot,0.
1964
Kerfoot ,0.
1975
Lewis, J.
1960
Melville, R.
1958
Mugasha,A.C.
1978
Ndosi,O.M.
1980
Ojiambo, J.A.
1978
Poulsen,G.
1975
The vegetation of eastern British
Somaliland. Journal of Ecology,
40: 91-124.
Ecological observations on an extinct
East African volcanic mountain. Journal
of Ecology, 43: 544-563.
Juniperus excelsa in Africa: a biogeo-
graphical study of an Afromontane tree.
Journal of Biogeography , 11: 47-61.
The distribution and ecology of Juniperus
procera Endl. in East Central Africa,
and its relationship to the genus
Widdringtonia Endl. Kirkia, 4: 75-86.
Origin and speciation of the Cupressa-
ceae in Southern Africa. Boissiora,
24; 145-150.
cymnospermae (Flora Zambesiaca, 1:79-88).
Gymnospermae. (Flora of Tropical East
Africa ed. by W.B.Turrill & E.Mihno-
Redhead) . Crown Agents, London.
Tanzania Natural Forests1 Silvicultural
Research - review report. Tanzania
Silviculture Technical Note (New Series),
39: 1-41.
Some factors affecting the Regeneration
of Juniperus procera in Arusha National
Park, Tanzania. Unpublished special
project report, Division of Forestry,
University of Dar es Salaam.
The trees of Kenya. Kenya Literature
Bureau, Nairobi.
Silvicultural practices in montane
forest areas. Unpublished manuscript,
Division of Forestry, University of
Dar es Salaam.
- 340 -
Robyns,W. Sur 1' existence du Juniperus procera
1946 Hochst. au Congo Beige. Bulletin du
Jardin Botanique de Etat, 18: 125-131.
Utilization Timbers of Tanganyika: Juniperus procera
Section (African Pencil Cedar). Utilization
1966 Section, Forest Division, Moshi.
White ,F. The Afromontane region. Biogeography and
1978 Ecology of Southern Africa (Ed. by
M.J.A. Werger) , pp. 463-513. W.Junk,
The Hague.
Wild, H. & Vegeration Map of the Flora Zambesiaca
Grandvaux area, 1:2 OOO OOO. Supplement to Flora
Barbosa ,L . A . Zambesiaca .
1967
- 341 -
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss.i/
SYNONYM
Swietenia senegalensis Desr.
FAMILY
Meliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Eri, Kirai, Mario, Tido (Uganda)
Acajou d'Afrique, Acajou du Senegal, Kuka CaTlcedrat,
Cail-C£drat, Jallo, Khaya , Kuhi, Kaye, Senegal
Mahogany, African Mahogany, Dry Zone Mahogany.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Cailc£drat (Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A.Juss.) is a
very large tree, whose heavily branched and very
developed crown may reach a height of 35 metres. The
buttressed trunk is rarely very long; on deep, wet
soil it is fairly straight and exceeds 1O metres,
while under less favourable conditions the tree is
low-branched, but nevertheless attains a very large
diameter.
Inflorescence
Glabrous panicles of masses of small white flowers
(about 5 mm long). Calyx with 4-5 imbricate sepals.
4-5 free white petals. White staminal corona,
with 8-10 short lobes at the top; 8-1O alternate,
i/ PAO acknowledge the assistance of B-T. Styles
Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, 0X1, 3RB, England)
- 342 -
serrated sessile anthers, completely enclosed. Red or
orangey disc bearing a glabrous ovary with 4-5 multi-
ovulate loculi. Discoid stigma. Flowering season:
December to April.
Fruit
Globular capsules , borne above the top of the trees,
which in the sun appear white before dehiscence.
They are usually 5-6 cm in diameter, but these
dimensions are not invariable. The capsules open into
4 valves, the flat, brown, suborbicular seeds with
foliated edges are attached to a central columella
with four or five sides and seem crammed together.
There are 15-2O seeds per pile on each face of the
columella. They ripen from March on.
Foliage
Oblong folioles, some extremely markedly narrow, with
a short, obtuse acumen, grey underneath, 3-6 pairs,
usually 3-4 pairs, 7-12 x 3-5 cm. 8-10 pairs of lateral
nervures .
Bark
Dark grey, covered with small scales. The red cross-
section exudes a little reddish liquid.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The sapwood is not very distinct and is only slightly
paler and browner than the pink-brown heartwood which
darkens to deep red-brown, with a purplish tinge*
It has a slight aroma when worked, and because of the
resin it contains it stores well under water. It is
- 343 -
only moderately hard and heavy, yet is the heaviest of
the African mahoganies (Khaya) . Care is needed to pre-
vent its warping and splitting, but little is, as yet,
known about its seasoning. It was the first used of
the African mahoganies, and was exported from the
Gambia over a century ago, and used in Europe for
furniture. It is durable, and has proved to be parti-
cularly resistant to termites in Sudan, but the sapwood
is liable to attacks by Lyctus and Longhorn beetles.
The Zande (Sudan) use it for drums (Culwick) . It works
well with all tools, though it is harder and less
easy to work than K. ivorensis. It is used locally for
temporary buildings, furniture, and railway carriages.
It would be suitable for furniture and interior
decoration, either solid or as veneer, and for most
of the other purposes for which mahogany is used. The
timber of K. senegalensis is not only heavier but also
darker than the other species in the genus.
Other Uses
The tree contains a gum which is golden yellow and is
semi-soluble in water. It is best collected in the
dry season. The bark yields a brown dye (kuntunkuri)
used for dyeing hunters1 clothes. It is sometimes
used in tanning and contains 10.2 percent of tannin.
The leaves are used as fodder for cattle and camels.
The dried and powdered bark found in markets is used
for medicinal purposes.
- 344 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
K. Senegal ens is is a native of tropical Africa along a
band more or less parallel to the equator, stretching
from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean through tropical
West Africa (Mali, northern Nigeria), northern
Cameroon, northern Uganda, and southern Sudan. It is
not known from any other areas in Africa.
CLIMATE
The natural distribution band corresponds to the
Sudanian climate: rainfall 730 to 1 300 mm per annum
with a dry season lasting 5 to 7 months*
SOILS
For good growth the species requires rich soil, rather
wet, although it can withstand long periods of drying out
SEED HANDLING
The collection time varies according to the locality.
3 000 - 7 000 seeds/kg. No pre-treatment is required.
Good fresh seed will give a germination of 90% or more.
Seed does not keep well. Germination occurs in 10 days,
and reaches its maximum in 18 days. (Refrigeration for
medium-term storage is required) .
SILVICULTURE
Either one-year-old striplings or stumps may be used.
In the first case (striplings) seeds are sown thickly
in a shaded bed, at a depth of 1 to 2 cm. When 3 months
old the young plants are pricked out into nursery beds,
20 x 20 cm apart. They are planted out some ten months
- 345 -
later, when 0.5O to 1 m high. The plants are more or
less completely stripped (only 1 or 2 branches are
left) and the main root is cut back to about 30 cm.
In the second case (stumps), sowing is done directly in
rows 15 cm apart and the young plants are left in place
until they are one year old, though thinned out to
bring them up to 10 x 15 cm. They are then prepared as
stumps according to the usual method, leaving 2 to 3 cm
of stem and 25 to 30 cm of roots. In both cases
(striplings and stumps) the plants are planted out
2x2 metres apart, in holes previously loosened.
STATUS
Not under immediate threat but populations of best
trees are in danger of genetic erosion (particularly in
W.Africa) .
REASONS FOR DECLINE
As the largest tree in the savanna flora with the most
usable timber, the best individuals of K. senegalensis
are being gradually cut down.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
K. senegalensis is best protected in gazetted forest
reserves and natural parks (as in Uganda and Zaire)
with strict supervision.
- 346 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aubreville, A.
1950
CTFT
1959
Flore Foresti^re Soudano-Guinlenne
A.O.F. Cameroon - A.E.F. Soci£te
d1 Editions, Paris.
Khaya senegalensis et Khaya grandifo-
liola in Revue Bois et ForSts des
Tropiques n. 61, Novembre - D^cembre
1959, p. 15 - 20.
FAO
1986
Irvine, F.R.
1961
Keay,R.W.J.
1958
Knees, S.G.&
Gardiner, M.F.
1984
Styles B.T.
1974
Some medicinal forest plants of Africa
and Latin America. FAO Forestry Paper
67. Rome.
Woody Plants of Ghana
Oxford University Press - London.
In Hutchinson J. and J.M. Dalziel*.
Meliaceae in Flora of West Tropical
Africa 1 (2): 698-699
Mahoganies; candidates for the Red
Data Book. Oryx 17(2): 88-92.
Meliaceae in Uganda, East Africa
Agric. and For. Journal 39(4):
407-423
- 347 -
Liquidambar styraciflua 1.-
SYNONYMS
Liquidambar macrophylla Oerst (1863)
k* styraciflua var. mexicana (Oerst.) Ndz. (1891)
L. styraciflua var. macrophylla (Oerst.) Ndz. (1891)
FAMILY
Hamamelidaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Ocozote; copalme; balsamo; estoraque; yaga-bizigui;
ingamo; mola; suchete; icob; ko'ma; copalillo; quira-
mbaro; somerio; copalome;cotoraque; komaliso; slu'to'nko;
ien-gau-o; nijte-pijto; nite-biito; yaga-huille;
xochicatscuahuitl; (in Mexico) . Ocop; occob; ocom;
quiramba; tzote; (in Guatemala). Liquidambar (through-
out Central America) .
Sweet gum; red gum; sycamore gum; satin walnut,
yellow gum; starleaf gum; bilstead; alligator tree;
hazel wood; hazel pine; (in USA).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A medium to large deciduous tree, capable of attaining
heights of more than 50 m, and up to 1.5 m in diameter.
Inflorescence
A monoecious species, flowers are borne in terminal or
axillary panicles on short, lateral, woody pubescent
branchlets, 5-10 cm long; male flowers situated on the
T/ Based on the work of P.S.McCarter and C.F.Hughes
(Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford.
0X1 3RD England) .
- 348 -
upper part of the panicle, each bundle of flowers on
a short branchlet 2-20 mm long, subtended by one or
several ovate, papery, caducous, ciliolate bracts;
perianth absent. Stamens numerous, free, with oblong,
glabrous anthers; borne on a short thick stalk
5-10 long; ovary lacking. Female flowers in small
heads 6-8 mm in diameter held on a short stalk up to
1 cm long? flowers regular; subtended by bracts similar
to those in the male flowers; perianth very short with
4-6 acute or truncate fleshy, papillose lobes; stamens
absent. Ovary semi-inferior with two partially free
carpels, particularly in the upper part; bilocular
with several ovules per loculus; each carpel with
a thick glabrous, curved, basal style up to 4 mm long;
stigmatic region papillose. Flowering occurs mid
January to March.
Fruit
Grouped in small heads from 2.5-4 cm in. diameter,
on pendulous, glabrous, penduncles, 5-6.5 cm long;
heads globose, spiky, woody, brown or shiny black.
Fruit a bivalved capsule, dehiscing at the apex,
containing many brown winged seeds from 6-8 mm long.
Foliage
Buds up to 1.5 cm long covered in acute or obtuse,
brown, glabrous, shining scales; margin ciliolate.
There are 2 stipules, approximately 5 mm long,
lanceolate, glabrous and caducous. Leaves simple,
3-5 lobed; the lobes triangular with a serrated margin;
spirally arranged, the laminas much broader than long:
- 349 -
from 4 x 5 to 11 x 15 cm; apex generally broadly
acuminate , the base of the leaf truncated or weakly
cordate; opaque dark green on the upper surface and
light green beneath, changing to reddish or yellow when
old and becoming glabrous; nervation palmate and
prominent on the under surf ace, with a bunch of hairs
in the nerve axils. The leaves have an agreeable
resinous smell when crushed. The petioles range from
1.5-9 cm long/ greyish-brown and glabrous. Young
leaves bright green and soft. Trees loose their leaves
completely between November and March/April in
temperate regions, and this deciduous habit is
maintained throughout the tropical part of the species1
natural range, although this leafless period may be
reduced to less than one month.
Bark
The bark on the main trunk is furrowed and greyish,
and may be over 1 cm thick on old trees; younger
branches red-brown in colour, often with corky ridges
or thick wings.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
In the USA the wood of Liquidambar is widely used by
the furniture and cabinet-making industries. The
heartwood is a distinctive red-brown colour, sometimes
beautifully figured with deep markings. Other major
uses include boxes, crates, pallets, plywood,
particleboard and pulp.
- 350 -
Other Uses
A balsamic exudate obtained from the sap of the tree
is used by the medical and perfume industries.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Liquidambar occurs widely in the southeastern states of
the USA - the Carolinas, Georgia/ Alabama, Maryland -
extending northwards as far as Connecticut (41° N) ,
westwards to Missouri/ Arkansas and Oklahoma and south-
wards to central Florida. It is estimated that the
species makes up some 3O% of the hardwood growing
stock of the Southern USA.
There is a gap of some 8OO km from the most southerly
of these US populations to the most northerly recorded
site in Mexico/ in the state of Tamaulipas. From here
the species occurs in fairly small disjunct populations
along the eastern Sierra Madre through the states of
San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo/ Veracruz/ Oaxaca and
Chiapas. The range continues sporadically through
Guatemala and Honduras reaching its southern limit
in central Nicaragua at a latitude of 13°N. The
species has recently been reported from two additional
locations. Firstly from the Mayan mountains in
southwest Belize and secondly from Chihuahua and
Durango States in northwest Mexico. These outlying
populations are likely to be of particular interest
genetically.
CLIMATE
Because Liquidambar spans such a broad latitudinal
range (almost 30°) it is difficult to give general
- 351 -
climatic information. In the USA mean annual rainfall
varies from approximately 1 OOO mm in the north to
1 SOOirm in the south , whilst throughout the tropics
slightly higher rainfall (1 50O-1 8OO mm) is recorded.
Here, a dry season (any month with less than 60 itm rainfall) of
between O and 6 months is reported.
On account of its broad distribution there are marked differences
in the frost tolerance of provenances of the species.
The northermost populations (Connecticut) regularly
experience minimum temperatures of the order of
-24°C; those in Florida - 7°C. The Mexican and Central
American populations probably never experience frost,
and it seems unlikely that they would show any degree
of tolerance of it.
SOILS
The species, whilst tolerant of a wide range of
site conditions, does most certainly prefer and reach
its best development on the richer, moister, well
drained, acidic alluvial clay and loam soils of river
bottoms .
HABITAT
Throughout its native range in north and middle
America, Liquidambar is often found in mixed or
"transition11 forest, mainly associated with pine or
oak, between the altitudes of 900 and 1 6OO m. It has,
however, been reported growing at elevations as low
as 65O m in E. Honduras, where it occurs as a canopy
species in lowland tropical broadleaf forest, and also,
at over 2 OOO m in Mexico. One of the most impressive
- 352 -
attributes of the tree from a forestry viewpoint is its
excellent form, with straight stems , light branching and
narrow crowns. It grows happily in very dense pure
stands. The species coppices readily and also
regenerates by means of root sprouts.
The deciduous habit of Liquidambar has been retained in
the tropics , (to where it migrated, from temperate
regions, during the last ice-age), although the leaf-
less period is greatly reduced from over 6 months at
the northern extreme of the natural range to 1 or
2 months in southern Central America.
SEED HANDLING
The seed is easy to collect: the fruit heads are
collected when mature or almost mature, before seed
dispersal. These fruit heads are spread out for
4-7 days to dry in the shade. One or two days in full
sun should be sufficient to open them. Vigorous
shaking will complete the extraction .The seed can be
stored in sealed bags at 2° - 7°c with a moisture
content between 1O% and 15% for several years without
loss of germi native capacity. No pre-sowing treatment
is necessary for the tropical provenances, (seed from
US sources requires cold moist stratification of
15-90 days to achieve acceptable rates of germination).
SILVICULTURE
Because it has been managed extensively both in natural
stands and in plantations in the USA, a wealth of
information is available on the silviculture of Li-
quidambar . Field establishment is straight forward
benefitting from effective weed control.
- 353 -
Liquidambar depends on an endomycorrhizal association
for optimum growth. Suitable fungi are commonly found
in tropical soils, and difficulties are only evisaged
if, for example soil sterilents are used on nursery
seed beds.
STATUS
Not endangered as a species, although endangered in
some of the tropical parts of its natural range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Land clearance for agriculture is the main reason in
Central America. The mid-elevation fertile sites
where Liquidambar (and several species of pine e.g.
P.patula subsp. tecunumanii, P.maximinoi) is often
found, are under severe pressure by a rapidly expanding
rural population. Subsequent grazing pressure prevents
the regrowth of coppice shoots.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
With a financial contribution from FAO, the Oxford
Forestry Institute, Oxford, England, in collaboration
with the National Forest Seed Centres of Central
America and the Institute Nacional de Investigaciones
Forestales (INIF) in Mexico, made seed collections
of 13 provenances of Liquidambar from its southern
limit in Nicaragua to just south of the Tropic of
Cancer, Tamaulipas, Mexico, in September/October 1983.
An average of 40 trees were sampled for each of these
provenances with mild phenotypic selection for
stem straightness and branching characters applied.
- 354 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Powells, H.A.
1965
Gillis, M.
1979
McCarter, P.S. &
Hughes, C.E.
1984
Pennington , T . D . &
Sarukhan, J.
1968
Standley,P.C.&
Steyermark , J . A .
1946
Williams, G.T.&
McMillan, G.
1971
Silvics of the forest trees of the
United States. Agric. Handbook No. 271,
USDA, Washington.
Secretariat Note on Liquidambar styraci-
Lquj
alC
styraciflua L. Technical Consultation on
Fast Growing Plantation Broadleaved
Trees for Mediterranean and Temperate
Zones, Lisbon, Portugal. 16-20 October
1979. FAO. FO:FGB-79-7/l.
Liquidambar styraciflua L. - a species
of potential for the tropics .
Commonwealth Forestry Review 63 (3):
207-216.
Manual para la identifacion de campo
de los principales arboles tropicales
de Mexico (INIF) . FAO, Rome.
Hamamelidaceae, Flora of Guatemala.
Fieldiana Bot, 24 (4): 426-430.
Frost tolerance of Liquidambar
styraciflua native to the United States
Mexico and Central America. Canadian
Journal of Botany 49: 1551-1558.
- 355 -
Lovoa swynnertonii Bak.f .
FAMILY
Meliaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Nabulagala, Omukumbo Mukusu, Omukankoma (Uganda).
Brown Mahogany (Zimbabwe) .Mukonguro, Mutunguru,
Nabolagala (Kenya) . Mboto, Msau (Tanzania) .
Kilimanjaro Mahogany (English ) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree up to 5O m tall, trunk only slightly buttressed
at base, up to 2 m height, bole fluted*
Inflorescence
Panicles grey-pubescent when young; flowers white,
paniculate; petals about 0.3 - 0.35 cm, staminal tube
about 0.2 cm with 8 bifid lobes at the margin whose
segments are narrowly elongate-triangular.
Fruit
Capsule ellipsoid, about 5.5 cm long; valves 4, semi-
stiff, recurving first from apex, but remaining
attached at the base for some time before falling.
Seed 3.2 - 5.O cm long including the wing.
Based on the work of J.A.Odera (Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute, Kikuyu, Kenya), Ms.C.Kabuye
(East African Herbarium, Nat. Museum, Nairobi Kenya)
and Dr. B.T. Styles (Oxford Forestry Institute,
University of Oxford, OX1 3RD. England).
- 356 -
Foliage
Leaves 15-30 cm long, pubescent when young. Rachis
angular; leaflets 6-16, subopposite or opposite,
oblong, 5.0-14.5 cm long, apex subacuminate,base
cuneate .
Bark
Bark grey-brown with rusty patches. New bark
cinnammon coloured. Bark on branches and twigs silvery
grey. Slash red, conspicuously layered, slightly
scented.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Sapwood dull white, heartwood dark grey-brown, handsome
frequently cross-grained and difficult to work?
very durable, resistant to borers. When seasoned
timber is dark reddish brown, producing beautiful
furniture boards .
The timber is used for building bridges (Meru District,
Kenya) .
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Kenya ; Kwale District (Mrima Hill) and Meru District.
300-1 300 m a. s.l .
Uganda t Mengo, Ankole (Kalinzu Forest), Toro '(Kimbala
Forest) , Kigezi and Bunyoro (rare) .
Tanzania: Mtibwa Forest Reserve, Turiani, Rau Forest
(Morogoro District) .
Mocambique; Garuso Forest.
- 357 -
Zimbabwe; Chirinda Forest (Chipinga Dist.), up to 300 m
alt.
Also located in E. Zaire.
Although the area of distribution of this species is
enormous, the occurrence of it in any one locality is
very sparse. It was formerly fairly common in the Lake
Forests of Uganda, but recent decline has been
extending rapidly.
CLIMATE
In moist tropical forest, generally in wetter parts. In
Kenya rainfall c. 1 250 mm.
SOILS
Kenya: On sandy or loamy soils
HABITAT
Kenya ; Kwale district: lowland wet evergreen forest,
with some dominant storey trees including Newtonia
paucijuga, Chlorophora excel sa and Antiaris toxicaria.
Meru District: Upland wet evergreen forest with
Newtonia buchanannii and Ocotea usambarensis.
Uganda ; wet , evergreen forest.
Tanzania; wet, evergreen forest.
SEED HANDLING
The seed which is winged may be carried away several
metres from the mother tree. Germination is good,
though, as with all Meliaceae (particularly Swieteni-
oideae) , viability declines rapidly if proper storage
conditions are not followed.
- 358 -
SILVICULTURE
There are past records of enrichment planting in Meru
forest. Natural regeneration is poor and cultivation
in plantation uncertain due to damage by shoot borers.
Establishment is easy, though saplings are often atta-
cked by Hypsipyla.
STATUS
Rare. It is only known from a few sites and the
populations on these sites are very small. The forests
in which it grows are becoming depleted each year
usually to give way for agricultural cultivation.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
1. Excessive exploitation of large specimens is
occuring, reducing the number of seed trees,
primarily the best ones.
2. Seedling establishment is difficult.
3« Natural regeneration is poor.
4. Prospects for cultivation in plantation are
handicapped by shoot borers.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Some enrichment plantings has been attempted on a
limited scale in Uganda by line planting and the *
usual silvicultural practices of encouraging natural
regeneration. Several of the best stands now occur
in Protected Forest Reserves e.g. Rau Forest (Tanzania) ,
Chirinda Forest (Zimbabwe) , and Meru Forest (Kenya) .
- 359 -
1. The Mrima Hill Forest (Kenya) should be considered
as a possible National Park.
2. Germination studies and studies on possible control
of shoot borers should be carried out to bring
the species into cultivation.
3. An ecological study should be made to identify the
requirements of the species and the factors
limiting its distribution.
- 360 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brenan,J.P.M.&
Greenway , P . J .
1949
Dale, I.R. ft
Greenway, P.J.
1961
Eggeling,W.J. ft
Dale, I.R.
1951
Styles, B.T.
1974
Styles, B.T. ft
White, F.
(in preparation)
White, F.ft
Styles, B.T.
1963
Check-list of the forest trees and
shrubs of the British Empire, No. 5
Tanganyika Territory Part II,
Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Kenya Trees and Shrubs.
Hatchards , London .
The indigenous trees of the Uganda
Protectorate, Crown Agents for the
Colonies, Millbank, London, SW.
Meliaceae in Uganda. East Africa Agrc.
and For. Journal 39 (4): 407-423.
Meliaceae in Flora of East Africa
Meliaceae in Flora Zambesiaca 2(1):
285-319.
East African Herbarium (Nairobi - Kenya) sheets.
- 361 -
Machaerium villosum Vog.
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Papilionoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Jacaranda-pardo , j acaranda-paul is ta , j acarandsf-do-
cerrado, jacaranda-do-mato, jacarandaf-roxo, jacaranda"-
tef, jacaranda-pedra, jacarandef-escuro, jacaranda-una,
jacaranda-amarelo.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree medium to tall, reaching a height of 12 m, with
a bulgy crown, ascendent branches and cymose ramifica-
tion.
Inflorescence
Flowers small, white in short axillary paniculate in-
florescence with a cupuliform, pilose calyx, densely
pilose standard, 10 stamens, forming a tube; filaments
are varied and pilose, ovary pilose, with a very short
style. Flowering occurs from October to December.
Fruit
An indehiscent samara, with a long wing, thin, smooth
and curved, with a thick part that encases the seed.
The fruit setting period is very irregular, sometimes
not bearing fruit for up to 2 to 3 years. Fructification
occurs from August to October according to some authorities.
I/ Based on the work of M.Tomazello,M.L. Marques, and
R.Chiaranda. Forestrv Dept. ,ESALQ/USP,P.O.Box 9,
Piracicaba, S.P., Brazil.
- 362 -
Foliage
Leaves alternate, imparipinnate , 32 cm long, with 7 to
11 pairs of opposite folioles, sometimes alternate,
petiole villous; petioled folioles, entire, lance-
shaped, pointed, with a rounded base, rough and shiny
on top and villous and opaque underneath.
Branches: Round, greenish-grey, rough due to lenticels,
with swollen buds.
Bark
Straight trunk with cracked bark, sometimes the trunk
is slightly crooked.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy (O.8O to 0.90 g/cm ); the heartwood is light
brown-yellow, grey-brown or dark dusky purple, with
eventual purple-black highlights, stripes or shadows;
irregular shiny surface; fibrous aspect, weak,
pleasant odour, but somewhat pungent; indistinct
taste, rough texture, undulated grain.
Used in the manufacture of fine furniture, balconies,
lambrins, dowels, floor tiles, sashes, veneers,
sleepers, etc.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
From Minas Gerais to Parana. Common in the regions
between affluents of Paranafba and Rio Grande; also
common in Southern Goi£s and Western Minas Gerais.
SOIL AND CLIMATE
It is found on both poor and fertile soils, and
sporadically in "terra roxa" (very fertile soil). As
indicated by the wide area in which this tree grows naturally, it
- 363 -
is subject to the most diverse climate types, varying
from tropical sub-humid to tropical and subtropical
humid.
HABITAT
The tree is found in dry forest of the highlands of
"Serra do Mar" and "Mantiqueira" . Sometimes also found
on the "cerrado".
SEED HANDLING
Seed winged, easily dispersed by the wind. One kilogram
includes about 3 50O seeds. When sown in the nursery,
without pre-treatment, germination begins after 30
days. There is a large number of seeds per fruit.
SILVICULTURE
In a stand established in Santa Rita do Passa Quatro - SP
an average height of 6.1O m and a dbh of 8.4O cm, at
22 years of age, were observed.
In Pederneiras - SP. an average height of 0.44 m at
2 years of age was obtained.
However, planted in the understorey of a Pinus
elliottii stand, after the second thinning, an
average height of 2.97 m, a dbh of 2.52 cm, and a 100*
survival was obtained at the age of two years.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
This species is gradually disappearing due to the
exploitation of its wood as well as to clearence of
the natural vegetation for pasture development or
plantation Projects using fast-growing species. The
area in which this species grows naturally is one of
the regions which has undergone the most severe forest
devastation.
- 364 -
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Planting of 6 base populations from 49 selected trees,
as a result of a contract between the Conselho Nacional
de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq) and
the Programa Nacional de Pesquisa Florestal de Sao Paulo
(IFSP)y is reported. A trial in agreement with Instituto
Florestal de Sao Paulo using 5 provenances and progeny
from 25 trees per origin was established in 1981 , in
Pederneiras - SP by the IPSP. Variation among progeny
from different trees and within progeny from the same
trees was observed during the first year.
The above programmes have been implemented to evaluate
the genetic variation and at the same time serve the
conservation of the species.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 365 -
Associacao Paulista
de Noemas Tecnicas
1964
Baitello,J.B.&
Aguiar,O.T.
1982
Barbosa,0.et al.
1977/78
Bertoni,J.E,A.
et alii
1982
Boutelje, J.B
1980
Brown, W.H.
1978
Coimbra F. ,A.F.
1950
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Seminirio de madeiras. Rio de
Janeiro. 258 p.
Flora arborea da Serra da Cantare^
ira. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Safo
Paulo, 16A (parte 1): 582-90.
Identificayao e fenologia de
e species arboreas da Serra da Can-
tareira. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo,
Sao Paulo, 11/12: 1-168.
Nota previa: comparacao fotosso-
ciologica das principals especies
de florestas de terra firme e
ciliar na Reserva Estadual de Porto
Ferreira (SP) . Silvicultura em Sao
Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 1):
563-71.
Encyclopaedia of world timbers:
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest Products
Research Laboratory. 398 p.
Timbers of the world: 2 - South
America. London, Timber Research
and Development Association -
TRADA. 121 p.
Contribuijfao ao estudo dos jacara-
ndas do genfiro Machaerium.
Anurfrio brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro, 3(3):
345-52.
Ensaio de £ndice da flora dendro-
logica do Brasil. Arquivos do
Serviyo Florestal, S?fo Paulo,
2(2): 69-156.
- 366 -
Galvao,A.P.M.
1982
Gurgel Filho,O.Aft
Pasztor,Y.P.de C.
1963
Gurgel Filho,O.A.
et alii
1982
Hoehne,F.C.
1941
Hueck,K.
1972
Mainieri,C,
1958
Mainieri,C ft
Pereira,J.A.
1965
Mainieri,C.;
Chimelo,J.P.ft
Alfonso, V. A
1983
Nogueira,J.C.B,
et alii
1982
Contribui9ifo da EMBRAPA/IBDF -
PNPF para a pesquisa com esp^cies
nativas e florestas naturals no
Brasil. Silvicultnra em Sao Paulo,
Sab Paulo, 16A (parte 1): 291-304.
Fenologia e comportamento em
alfobre de esp^fcies florestais
e ornamentals. Silvicultura
em Sao Paulo, Sab Paulo, 1:291-304.
Especies nativas euxiloforas.
SHvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sab
Paulo, 16A (parte 2)? 89O-4.
Flora brasflica: leguminosas,
papilionadas - genero Machaerium
paramachaer im . Sab PauTo Secreta-
ria da Agricultura, Industria e
Com^rcio. v. 15 p. 128-128a.
As florestas da America do Sul.
Sab Paulo, Polignono/Ed.
Universidade de Brasilia. 466 p.
Identif ica9ao das principals
madeiras de corner cio no Brasil.
Boletim IPT, Sab Paulo, (46):
1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracteriza9ao
macrosuopica, usos comuns e
Indices gualitativos fisicos e
mecdnicos. AnuSrio brasileiro de
econnmia florestal. Rio de Janeiro
17 (17): 1-282.
Manual de identif ica<}5o das prin-
cipals madeiras brasi leiras'.^
S3b Paulo, Secretaria da Industria,
Comercio, Ciencia e Tecnologia.
241 p.
Conserva<jao genetica de essencias
nativas atrav^s de ensaios de
progShie procedencia. Silvicultura
em Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2):957-69.
- 367 -
Nogueira, J.C.B.
1977
Pasztor,Y.P.de C.
1963
Pereira,J.A.
1933
Pickel,J.B.
1953
Pickel,J.B.
1955
Record, S.J.&
Hess,R.W.
1949
Rizzini,C.T.
1971
Rizzini,C.T,&
Mors,W.B.
1976
Toledo Filho,D.V.A
Parente,P.R,
1982
Re f lore stamen to heterogeneo com
essencias indigenas. Boletim
tScnico IF, Sao Paulo, (24): 54-55.
Metodos usados na colheita de
sementes. Silvicultura em Sao
Paulo, Sao Paulo, 1:303-23.
Identifica9ao micrografica das
nosaas madeiras. Boletim Escola
Politecnica, Sao Paulo, (9):1-165.
As principals arvores que dab
madeira :m£todo pratico para seu
reconhecimento. Anuirio brasileiro
de economia florestal, Rio de
Janeiro, 6 (6): 58-86.
As principals arvores que dlo
madeira: metodo prStico para seu
reconhecimento. Anuario brasileiro
de economia florestal, Rio de
Janeiro, 8(8) : 56-87,
Timbers of new world. 4 ed. New
Ha^en, Yale University Press.
640 p.
Arvores e madeiras uteis do
Brasil: manual de dendrologia
brasileira. Sao Paulo , Edgard
Blu'cher/EDUSP. 294 p.
Bol-.*Snica econSmica bras 11 el ra.
Sao Paulo, EPU/EDUSP, 207 p.
Essencias indigenas sombreadas.
Silvicultura em S2To Paulo, S£o
Pauio, 16A (parte 2): 948-56.
- 368 -
I/
Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia Benth.
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAME
SabiaT
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree which reaches up to 8 m in height, with branching
from soil level, and a crooked trunk; the trunk when
young, has few thorns that disappear when the tree
reaches adult age. The rootsystem has nodules with
nitrogen fixation capacity.
Inflorescence
A cylindrical spike of 5 to 10 cm in length, consi-
sting of axillary and terminal panicules.
Flowers are white, small, and in a capitulum, and are
rich in nectar production. Flowering takes place
from March to April and August to October; however,
the seeds produced during this later period are the
most healthy.
Fruit
The fruit is an articulated legume (pod), 7 to 10 cm in
length by 10 to 13 mm in width, with a stipe of
approximately 10 mm, segmented and held together by
I/ Based on the work of I.E.Pires & C.E. de S.
Nascimento, EMBRAPA/CPATA, P.O. Box 23, Petrol ina,
Pernaxnbuco , Brazil .
- 369 -
fibrous filaments that bears the petiole at the end
of the legume; one seed in each segment.
Foliage
Leaves bipinnate with six opposite pinnae and six
opposite folioles sometimes 4 to 8, with prominent
ribs? petioles 2 to 5 cm in length, with winged
stipules about 3 mm long with or without curved thorns.
The leaves have a high forage value, containing
approximately 17% protein.
Bark
The bark is 3 to 5 mm thick , light brown in colour, with
parallel fissures that show lengthwise bands, which
scale off slowly.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
It has a yellow-brown to dark purple coloured heartwood
and a cream coloured sapwood; darkens with time to
red-brown. The surface is shiny and smooth.
Appropriate for external use for stakes, and pillars
due to its high durability even when in contact with
the soil; suitable also for the production of fuel wood
and charcoal due to its high calorific value.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The "sabid" grows in Northeastern Brazil, in the
State of CearA, and is also found from Maranhao to
Bahia.
- 370 -
CLIMATE
The dry climate of Northeastern Brazil is the most
appropriate for the "sabia". Climate varies however
from dry subhumid tropical or subtropitcal to semi-
arid tropical or subtropical, with average temperatu-
res between 2O and 28°C, yearly average precipitation
between 5OO to 1 3OO mm, with a dry period of 6 to
12 months, and water deficit varying between 20O and
1OOO mm.
SOIL
Grows preferably in deep soils, principally in the
aluvials, and in the deep sandy alluvials. Good
performance in shallow soils is observed, in accor-
dance with the low nutrient requirements of the species.
HABITAT
"Sabia" developes naturally in association with other
xerophytic species such as Anadenanthera sp. ,
Tabebuia sp., Astronium sp. , and Torresea sp.
SEED HANDLING
•
The seeds are tiny and light, with about 12,000
seeds /kg. Care must be taken with regard to the
harvesting time, due to attack of the seeds by the
Coleopteran, Bruchus pisorus L. , while the seetfs are
still on the tree. In nature the seeds maintains
viability till the first winter after the seed fall.
Germination takes places 5 to 10 days after the first
rains. Although the coat dormancy of the "sabid"
seeds is not a problem, it is recommended that they
be treated in boiling water for 1 to 2 minutes to
obtain the most uniform germination.
- 371 -
SILVICULTURE
Although this species is not intensively cultivated,
existing experiments show its potential for
afforestation for the production of wood for stakes, fuel-
wood and charcoal. Results obtained in the swamp
region of Paraiba, demonstrate that the most convenient
planting spacings are 2.0 x 2.0 and 3.0 x 1.5 m,
the latter being the most appropriate when planted
with Vigna sinensis Endl. during the first year.
On fertile soils, trees may be cut when three to four
years old. In a coppice regeneration system, it is
possible to carry out four cuttings (rotations).
Natural regeneration after cutting from the stumps, as
well as through root sprouting and seed germination
is reported. The need for thinning in order to manage
the stands for regeneration is stressed.
STATUS
The species is suffering a slow decline.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
No measures have been taken neither for ex situ nor
in situ conservation of the original genetic pool. The
studies underway on this species are limited to studying
its behaviour in pure stands. In-situ preservation, is
highly recommended. However, the fact that the geogra-
phical distribution of this species is widespread,
along with the non-existence of homogeneous and/or
continuous stands means that, this would require very
vast areas. Studies of the reproductive system of this
species and establishment of base populations are
recommended, to preserve the original genetic variation
and to provide reproductive material.
- 372 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Braga,R. Plantas do Nordeste, especialmentc do CearaT.
1976 3 ed. Escola Superior de Agricultura. 540 p.
Brune,A. Preservagao das reservas gen£ticas de arvores
1975 nativas brasileiras. Brasil Florestal, Rio
de Janeiro, (24) : 19-21.
Brune,A. Implantacao de populagoes bases de esp£cies
1981 florestais. Documentos, EMBRAPA/URPFCS ,
Curitiba: 1-9.
Correa,M.P. Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil e das
1975 extfticas cultivadas. Rio de Janeiro ,IBDF.
v.6 . , p.l.
Costa, 0 Sabia. Boletim Tecnico, UFPB, Areia, (4) :
M.G. da 1-16.
1983
Ducke,A. Estudos botanicos no Ceara. Mossord Escola
1979 Superior de Agricultura - CE. 130 p.
Golfari,L.& Zoneamento ecol5gico da regiao Nordeste para
Caser,R.L. experiznenta9ao florestal. Sfrie Tecnica,
1977 PRODEPEF, Brasilia. (10): 1-116.
Rizzini,C.T. Arvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil: Manual
1971 de dendrologia brasileira. Edgard Blucher
Ltda., sTo Paulo. 294 p.
Silva,H.D. Comportamento de essencias florestais nas
da et al. regioes arida e semi-arida do Nordeste
1980 (Resultados preliminares) . Documentos,
DIO-EMBRAPA, Brasilia: 1-25.
Souza, Curso sobre produ9'ab de sementes e mudas,
S.M. de Petrolina. EMBRAPA - CPATSA, 3 a 14 de
1983 outubro. 27 p.
Tigre,C.B. Estudos de silvicultura especializada do
1976 Nordeste. Mossoro Escola Superior de
Agricultura. 176 p.
- 373 -
Mimosa verrucosa Benth.—'
SYNONYMS
Pithecolobium diversifolium Benth. (1844)
Pithecolobium foliosum Benth. (1844)
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Jurema branca, jurema de oieiras
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A bush tree with a height of 2 to 5 meters, with stem
that is generally multiple; bark dark impregnated with
thorns, with verrucose and tomentose branches. Crown
relatively dense, providing 90% shade in the winter,
and approximately 50% in the summer. Rapid growth.
Inflorescence
A spike of c. six flowers, each with four sepals, four
petals and eight stamens. Calyx 1 mm in length,
corolla c. 3mm, tomentose, whitish or pink in colour;
stamens 10-12 mm long; ovary sessile with long hairs,
flowering occurs from October to December.
Fruit
A small, thin, tegumented pod, articulated and spirally
shaped, 1O cm or more in length, single.
I/ Based on the work of i.E.Pires and C.E.Nascimento,
"" EMBRAPA/CPATA, P.O. Box 23, Petrolina, PE, Brazil.
- 374 -
Foliage
Leaves with 7 to 9 pinnae, each one with 10 to 12 pairs
of folioles; petiole winged , 7.5 cm in length stipulate;
dilated at the base. Folioles 4 to 6 mm long by 3 to
4 mm wide, ovate or oblong, oblique, obtuse and coarse.
Bark
Dark, with rigid thorns; smooth, greyish in colour,
with lengthwise open stripes; has sedative, narcotic,
astringent and bitter properties.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Little is known about the wood characteristics. It is
stated that it has great durability when in contact
with the soil.
Used for stakes, fuel and charcoal.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Occurs in the "caatinga", more commonly in the "Sertao"
of Paraiba on midslopes. It is also found on the
"SertSo" of Ceara and on the "Serfao" of Pernambuco
and Rio Grande do Norte.
CLIMATE
The climate of the areas where the Murema" grows
vary from sub-humid tropical to semi-arid tropical
or arid, with a dry period of 6 to 12 months and a
water deficit reaching 1 300 mm.
- 375 -
SOIL
The "Sertab" species prefers tableland soils.
HABITAT
The species is common in hills, with tableland
soils, and on the humid midslopes. It is not
as dominant as the Mimosa hostilis; it is always
associates with the Bauhinia sp., and sometimes
Anadenanthera sp. ,Torresia sp. and Astronium sp.
SEED HANDLING
No studies have been carried out on seed technology.
Seeds, when dispersed, germinate naturally within 5
days, if conditions are favourable. Direct sowing in
clearings, soon before the rains commences is
recommended.
SILVICULTURE
Enrichment plantings of natural forest through direct
sowing and out-planting of seedlings are recommended;
also through plantations.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
In view of the scarcity of wood in the arid and
semi-arid regions of the Northeast , as well as in the
Central and Southern regions of Brazil, each and
every native forest species is subject to exploitation,
especially those which produce timber for commercial
purposes.
- 376 -
The species presented here is now suffering a slow
decline. Till now the replacement of this species
is by natural regeneration only.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
No measures have been taken at present,, neither for
bringing the species into cultivation nor for
preserving the original gene pool. The studies
underway on this species are limited to studying
its behaviour in pure stands.
In-situ preservation is highly recommended. However,
the fact that the geographical distribution of this
species Is widespread, along with the non-existence
of homogeneous and/or continuous stands, means, that
this would require very vast areas.
Studies of the reproductive system of this species and
establishment of base populations are recommended, to
preserve the original genetic variation and to
provide reproductive material.
- 377 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Braga,R. Plantas do nordeste, especialmente do
1976 Cearsf. 3.ed. Mossord, Escola Superior
de Agricultura. 540.
Brune,A. Preserva5cfo das reservas geneticas de
1975 arvores nativas brasileiras. Brasil
f lores tal, Rio de Janeiro, (24):
19-21.
B rune, A. ImplantacjSo de popul 39068 bases de
1981 esp^cies florestais. Documentos.
EMBRAPA/URPFCS , Curitiba: 1-9.
Correa,M.P. Dictonario das plantas uteis do Brazil e
1969 das exoticas cultivadas. Rio de Janeiro,
IBDF. v.4 p. 582.
Golf ari,L. & Zoneamento ecologico da regiab nordeste
Caser,R.L. para experimentaccio f lores tal. Serie
1977 tecnica. PRODEPEF, Brasilia, (10):
1-116.
TigrefC.B. Estudos de silvicultura especializada
1976 do nordeste. Mossoro", Escola Superior
de Agricultura. 176 p.
- 378 -
Nesoqordonia papaverifera (A. Che v . ) R.Capuron
SYNONYM
Cistanthera papaverifera A.Chev. (1912)
FAMILY
Sterculiaceae .
In earlier taxonomic texts, and even as recently as
1959, (Aubr^ville 1959), this species has been
considered a member of the Tiliaceae.
VERNACULAR NAMES
Kotibe (Attie, Ivory Coast) ; Danta (Twi and Wassaw,
Ghana); Opepe-lra, f6r<J' (Yoruba, Nigeria), Danta
(Trade name Nigeria) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A deciduous, secondary forest species capable of
attaining a height of 45 m, though more frequently
little over 3O m. Bole slender and fairly straight
but often slightly angular, free of branches to
20 m or exceptionally to 25 m; above the buttresses
the diameter of the bole may be as much as 1.2 m but
O.8 - 0.9 m is more common. The buttresses reach
3-4 m in height and are prominent though narrow, thin
and steep. Crown small and irregularly rounded.
Seedling germination is epigeal; hypocotyl 3-5 cm long,
green and puberulous with simple hairs. Cotyledons
I/ Based on the work of John B.Hall, Department of
~~ Forestry, University College of North Wales, Bangor,
U.K, and D.A.Ovat. Nigeria.
PAO also acknowledge the assistance of P.R.O. Klo,
Forest Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria.
- 379 -
spreading, foliaceous and reniform, 7-10 mm long and
16-24 mm wide, with 5 faint, palmately arranged nerves ,
sparsely pubescent at the base; petioles 1-2 mm long
and pubescent with simple hairs. First juvenile
leaves elliptic, 16 mm long and 7 mm wide, borne on
a petiole about 4 mm long; margin dentate, petiole and
midrib pubescent, with simple and scattered stellate
hairs. Subsequent leaves progressively larger with
increasing numbers of stellate hairs.
Inflorescence
An axillary cyme, borne near the ends of the branches;
peduncles densely stellate-puberulous, usually a little
longer than the subtending leaf; bracts present but
early caducous; 1-6 flowers per cyme; buds ovoid,
7-9 mm long and puberulous, on a pedicel up to 2O mm
long, articulate 6-10 mm below apex. Flowers pentame-
rous; calyx slightly imbricate in bud, spreading at
anthesis; sepals lanceolate and acute, 8-10 mm long
and 3-4 mm wide, with a dense external reddish covering
of small stellate hairs/corolla consisting of 5 free
petals, contorted in the bud but later spreading;
petals yellowish-white, glabrous, obovate and slightly
longer than the sepals; stamens 15-20, separated into
5 bundles alternating with the petals; filaments short
(0.5 mm), almost free; anthers 4 mm long and linear,
opening extrorsely; opposite each petal is a strap-
shaped staminode 7-8 mm long, its margin rolled
slightly inwards; ovary 5 - angled, obconical, minutely
puberulous, sessile and about 3 mm in length; adjacent
faces separated by grooved ribs; top of ovary depressed
- 380 -
with a short style surmounted by 5 stigmas 3 mm long;
stigmas lanceolate, fleshy, with a longitudinal range
on the external face; there are 5 carpels; each locule
contains 2 ovules.
Fruit
A yellowish-green, densely puberulous, pentagonal woody
capsule, 20-28 mm long, bell-shaped, with a flattened
apex about 18 mm across and tapered at the base where
the diameter is about 2 mm. Capsules distinctly
5-ridged, splitting down the centre of each ridge at
maturity into 5 valves, releasing up to 2 winged seeds
from each of 5 compartments; valves remain attached
to the tip of the pedicel.
The seed is attached to the central axis of the fruit
close to the apex, elliptic in shape, flattened on one
face, about 6 mm long, with a thin papery wing 10- 15mm
long and up to 7 mm wide, extending downwards from the
seed's lower end to a point midway up its outer edge.
Foliage
Crown dense, the leaves borne in loose tufts at the
ends of the branches. Branchlets densely covered with
small stellate hairs and alternate, stipulate leaves;
stipules paired, linear and pubescent, acutely .pointed,
4-9 mm long, prominent around the terminal buds;
petioles slender and densely puberulous, 10-50 mm long,
with a pulvinus at each end, the lamina, medium green
and glossy with the only pubescence confined to the
impressed midrib on the upper surface; lower surface
- 381 -
paler and initially sparsely pubescent; midrib
beneath prominent , remaining densely puberulous, with
slightly-raised, lax reticulation of veins.
Leaves elliptic to obovate in shape, rarely ovate,
5-13 cm long and 2 . 5 - 6 cm broad; base obtuse or
rounded (exceptionally cuneate or slightly cordate) ;
apex acuminate with an apical mucro; leaf margin entire;
lateral nerves in 5-1O pairs, with axillary tufts of
long hairs; the basal pair of nerves ascending the
lamina more steeply than those above, but rather short.
Bark
Yellowish-brown or grey, darker on trees growing in
exposed conditions, and scaly; the scales form vertical
lines and eventually flake off, leaving darker-
coloured patches.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Produces high-quality timber. The main uses of the
species are in flooring, in boat and vehicle building
and for tool handles; it is also an attractive but
rather heavy furniture wood. The species is listed
among the 20 main export species in Ghana; in Nigeria,
it is mainly used locally for carcassing (shuttering),
door and window frames, roof rafters and purlins.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species has two main areas of concentration; one
across Ghana and the Ivory Coast, and the other one
in the western part of Nigeria's forest zone. Outlying
populations further west occur in Liberia and in
central Sierra Leone. Towards the east, isolated
- 382 -
occurrences are found in northern Gabon and in
western Central African Republic; there are also
reports of isolated occurrences in Cameroon and
Benin. The species occurs at altitudes up to 1000 m
but occurrences above 500m are rare.
CLIMATE
Climatically, the species is found in areas with a mean
annual rainfall of 1 200 to 1 800 mmm, with only some
outlying populations occurring in higher rainfall areas
(Liberia, 2 000 mm/an; Sierra Leone, 3 200 mm/an) .Tempe-
rature variation is small over the range of the species.
Monthly means of daily minima are almost continually
above 20 C while the corresponding maxima are consis-
tently below 35°C. The range between these means is
as high as 8 C in the dry season but may be as low as
3°C in the rainy season.
SOILS
N.papaverifera grows principally on well-drained
fertile ferruginous tropical soils derived from rocks
of the basement complex, and on soils from cretaceous
sediments which are rather similar in fertility where
the mean annual rainfall is low or moderate ( < 2000mm)
It is considered that the southern limit of the
species1 distribution in Nigeria reflects a change in
soil rather than a change in climate. The low frequency
of the species in Ghana in the dry semi-deciduous
forest may also reflect a change in soil rather than
in climate.
- 383 -
HABITAT
Present distribution of N. papa verif era suggests that
it is almost confined to areas where savannas have in
the past replaced forest: it does not appear to have
penetrated older (> 200OO years old) forests that have
withstood changes in climate in the last few
thousand years. Density of the species in the forests
is variable, but where best represented, concentrations
are high, as in the Nesogordonia papaver i f era/Khaya
ivorensis zone of the Celtis spp . /Triplochi ton sclero-
cylon forest type in Ivory Coast. In these areas, the
species accounts for 3-12% of the stems of over 6O cm
in girth (dbh) . In Ghana the species occurs through-
out the moist semi-deciduous forest type but is less
frequent in the dry semi-deciduous forest type.
SEED HANDLING
Flowers and fruits are found throughout the year,
although the main period of flowering varies in
different parts of the species range. Seed
viability is short.
SILVICULTURE
Being a secondary, shade- tolerant species,
N. papaver if era has not been used as a plantation
species*
STATUS
Further study is needed. Endangered in parts of its
geographic range, and subject to genetic impoverishment
in outlying populations in Gabon, Central African
Republic, Cameroon, Liberia and Sierra Leone.
- 384 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Logging and utilization
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The frequently high density of populations , the tendency
to grow in groups and the association with hillsides
are all factors which favour the survival of the
species. With legally gazetted forest reserves the
importance of keeping disturbance minimal on slopes
in order to enhance watershed protection also favours
the species. Furthermore, the likelihood of such sites
being used for plantation establishment is small
as these do not have the most suitable growing
utilisation conditions for the species normally used
in plantations. However, special attention needs to
be given to in-situ conservation of endangered
provenances and of populations threatened with over-
use and genetic impoverishment.
- 385 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adeyoju,S.K.
1970
Aubreville,A.
1936
Aubreville, A.
1959
Bakare,S.A.
1953
FAO
1981
Foggie,A.&
Piasecki,B.
1962
Hall,J.B. &
Swaine,M.D.
1974
The timber economy and the landscape,
University of Ibadan, Department of
Forestry, Bulletin 2.
La flore forestiere de la Cote d'lvoire,
La Rose, Paris.
La flore forestiere de la C8te d'lvoire,
2nd edn. C.T.F.T. Novent-Sur Marne
France .
Olokemiji Forest Reserve 5% enumeration
report. Unpublished Ms. Federal Dept.,
of Forest Research, Ibadan.
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances, FO:MISC/81/11,
FAO, Rome, p. 42-45.
Timber, fuel and minor forest products.
Agriculture and land use in Ghana
(Ed. by J.B.Wills) 236-251. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Classification and ecology of forests
in Ghana. Unpublished Ms., Department
of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon.
Halle, N.
1961
Hutch inson, J.&
Dalziel, J.F.
1958
Keay,R.W.J. >
Onochie,C.F.A.&
Stanfield,D.P.
1960
Okigbo,
1965
Sterculiaceas. Flore du Gabon (ed.by
A. Aubreville) 2.
Flora of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edn.
Vol. 1 (2). (Ed. by R.W.J.Keay) . Crown
Agents, London.
Nigerian trees, Vol. 1. Federal Depart-
ment of Forest Research, Ibadan.
A guide to Building Timbers in Nigeria.
Federal Department of Forest Research,
Ibadan .
- 386 -
Redhead ,J.F.
1964
Redhead, J.F.
1971
Roberts, H.
1969
Taylor,G.J.
1960
Voorhoe ve , A . G .
1965
Stand tables of Nigerian forest reserves.
Unpublished Ms., University of Ibadan,
Department of Forestry, Ibadan.
The timber resources of Nigeria.
Nigerian Journal of Forestry, 1: 7-11.
Forest insects of Nigeria. Commonwealth
Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Syneocology and silviculture in Ghana.
Nelson, London & Edinburgh.
Liberian high forest trees. Centre for
Agricultural Publications and
Documentation, Wagehingen.
- 387 -
Ocotea porosa (Nees and Mart.) Barroso-^
SYNONYMS
Phoebe porosa (Nees and Mart.) Mez (1889)
Cinnamomonum porosum (Nees and Mart.) Kostermans (1961)
FAMILY
Lauraceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Imbuia, eanela imbuia, imbuia ajnarela, imbuia ciara,
imbuia parda, imbuia rajada, imbuia preta, imbufa
zebrina, canela imbufa escura, canela imbla vermelha.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tall straight tree, 15-20 m heigh with a diameter of
between 0.5-1.50 m; bole with evident nodal
swellings; crown of ascending branches.
Inflorescence
Flowers borne in the form of pilose axillary panicles ,
with few flowers, white, pedicels articulate, small
(3-4 ram in length); flowering takes place between
October and February.
Fruit
A globose or ovoid-shaped drupe; calyx growing in the
shape of a shallow goblet, pericarp thin, surface
I/ Based on the work of R.Chiaranda, I.E.Pires and
M.Tomazello FO. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O Box 9, Piracicaba, SP. Brazil.
- 388 -
brown, 13-17 mm in diameter. Fructification takes place
during the month of January.
Foliage
Leaves simple, alternate, elliptical, obtuse, acuminate
and penninerved with two more developed ribs, having
domatia on the underside, shiny on top, and opaque
underneath, petiole flat. Commonly measuring 6-10 cm
in length by 15-20 cm in width.
Branches round, thin, flexible, rough.
Bark
Trunk with a grey coloured bark, thin cracks, and
scaly surface. On older trees the trunk is generally
thick, crooked, with large globose excrescences.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Moderately heavy wood (O.60 to O.70 g/cm ); heartwood,
extremely variable from brownish yellow to grey-brown,
and dark greyish brown; generally with parallel veins
or dark spots; the surface has an irregular shine;
a characteristic scent; taste is somewhat bitter and
astringent; medium texture, uniform; grain straight,
irregular to interlocked. Heartwood reported to be
durable, it is easy to work, finishes very smoothly,
and keeps well after manufacture.
Used for fine furniture, panels and interior decora-
tions, lambrins, tiles, constructions, stairs,
fences, etc.
- 389 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species occurs naturally in the highlands of the
States of Parana" and Northern Santa Catarina, Brazil.
SOILS AND CLIMATE
Qcotea porosa is uniformly distributed throughout
several edaphic conditions, from the bottom of valleys
to the tops of ridges. It is found between 500 and
1 20O meters in altitude, mainly in soils of basaltic
rocks .
The predominant climate of the region is temperate
sub-humid, with temperatures varying between 12° and
18°C with frequent frosts in the winter; annual average
precipitation varies between 1 250 and 2 500 mm,
evenly distributed; there is no water deficit.
HABITAT
0. porosa may be found evenly distributed and in high
frequency as the dominant species of the under storey
of the rain forest (mixed Araucaria and hardwood
forest); associated with other species; or as a
dominant species in later successional stages.
It also grows in isolated clusters in the coastal
tropical forest. Here its behaviour is that of a
pioneer species penetrating in the more open Ocotea
pulchella forests.
SEED HANDLING
It was observed that the greatest seedling survival
rate was obtained when seeds were sown at a depth of
0.5 cm in shade conditions.
- 390 -
SILVICULTURE
In a trial carried out in Santa Rita do Passa Quatro -
SP, and average height of 7.81 m and a dbh of 9 cm were
observed in a 23 years old stand. No
significant differences in height and dbh were found in
a spacing trial with this species at seven years of
age in experiments set up in Angatuba - SP.
In a native forest of the highlands of Santa Catarina,
a volume of 59 » of imbufa wood/ha is reported.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
The regions where this species occurs naturally are
those that have undergone most intense clearing of the
natural vegetation during this century, to give way for
agriculture, livestock and plantation projects using
fast growing species. Presently the last trees of
Ocotea porosa are being gradually cut down, as a
result of their economic value.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
Reforestation trials are recommended in open
woodland , mainly in the regions where this tree occurs
naturally. This should be carried out along with
attempts to conserve the genetic reserves In and
ex situ.
- 391 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Associa9ao Paulista
de Normas Tecnicas.
1964
Boutelje,J.B.
1980
British Standards
1955
Brown ,W.H.
1978
Carvalho,P.E.R.
1978
CorrSa, M.P.
1926
Fanner , R . H .
1975
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Golfari,L.
1972
Golfari,L. ;
Caser,R.L.A
Moura,V.P.G.
1978
Seminario de madeira. Rio de
Janeiro. 258 p.
Encyclopedia of world timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest Products
Research Laboratory. 398 p.
Nomenclature of commercial timbers -
including sources of supply. London.
144 p.
Timbers of the world: 2 - South
America. London, Timber Research
and Development Association - TRADA.
121 p.
Alqumas caracteritfcas ecolcfgicas
e silviculturais de quatro especies
florestais do Estado do Parana".
Curitiba. (Tese - Mestrado - UFPr.)
Oicionario das plantas uteis do
Brasii. Brasilia, IBDF. v.4.
Handbook of hardwoods. 2 ed. London,
Princes Risborough Laboratory. 243p.
Ensaio de Indice da flora dendro-
Idgica do Brasii. Arguivos do
Servipo Florestal, Sao Pauio,
2 (2): 69-156.
Comunidades vegetais do Brasii. In:
II curso de zoneamento florestal
Belo Horizonte. 16 p.
Zoneamento ecolbgico esquematico
para reflorestamento no Brasii.
S^rie tecnica. PRODEPFF, Brasilia,
(11) : 1-66.
- 392 -
Gurgel
Filho,O.A.;
Moraes , J.L.&
Garrido,L.M.A.G.
1982
Klein, R.M.
1980
Klein, R.M.&
Reis,A.
1979
Kribs,D.A.
1970
Kukachka,B.F.
1970
As Madeiras
Brasileiras,
1971
Mainieri/C.
1958
Mainieri,C &
Pereira,J.A.
1965
Mainieri,C.
1970
Mainieri,C;
Chimelo,J.P &
Alfonso ,V. A.
1983
Rizzini,C.T.
1971
Especies nativas enxiloferas,^
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo , Sao Paulo ,
ISA iparte 2) : 89O-4 .
Ecologia da flora e vegetacao do Vale
Itajai": 2. Sellowia,Itajaf , 32 (32):
165-389
Madeiras do Brasil - Santa Catarina.
Florianopolis, Lunardelli. 320 p.
Commercial foreign woods on the Ameri-
can Market. University Park,
Pennsylvania Statre University. 203 p.
Properties of imported tropical woods.
USDA. Forest Service FPL research paper,
Madison, (125) : 1-67.
Suas caracteristicas e aplicaclies
industrials. Sab Paulo, Editora
Industrial Teco. 93 p.
Identificacjao das principals madeiras
de comercio no Brasil. Boletim IPT,
Sab Paulo, (46) : 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracteriza9ao
macrosc<5pica , usos comuns e Indices
qualitativos ffsicos e mecanicos.
Anuario brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro, 17 (17):
1-282.
Madeiras brasileiras: caracterfsticas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrehcia,
dados botanicos e usos. Sab Paulo,
Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado
de Sab Paulo. 109 p.
Manual de identlf icacao das principais
madeiras comerciais brasileiras, SSb
Paulo, Secretaria da Industria,
Comercio, Ciencia e Tecnologia. 241 p.
Arvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil:
Manual de dendrologia brasileira.
Sao Paulo, Edgard Bllicher/EDUSP. 294 p.
- 393 -
Seitz,R.A.
1982
Sohn f S .
1982
Souza,W.J.M.
1982
Sturion,J.A.&
Iede,E.T.
1983
Titmus,F.H.
1971
A regeneracafo natural de Araucaria
angustifolia. Silvicultura em Sao
Paulo, Sab Paulo, 16A (parte 1) :
412-20.
Express*ao volumetrica de comunidade
florestal pinheiro comimbuia.
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo,
16A iparte 1) : 559-61.
Ensaio de espapamento de canela
imbuia - Ocotea porosa (Ness)
L.Barroso, em Angatuba - SP.^
Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sao Paulo,
16A (parte 2) : 1043-6.
Influehcia da profundidade de semeadu-
ra, cobertura do canteiro e sombrea-
mento na formacao de mudas de Ocotea
porosa (Ness) Liberate Barroso
(imbuia) . Silvicultura, Sao Paulo,
8 (28): 513-6.
Commercial timbers of the world.
4 ed. London, Technical Press. 351 p.
- 394 -
I/
Pericopsis elata (Harms) van Meeuwen)
SYNONYMS
Afrormosia elata Harms
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Papilionoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Kokrodua { Ghana ), As same la (Ivory Coast) , Afrormosia
(trade name) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A tall dominant tree in the moist semi-deciduous
forest of Ghana, growing to a height of about 50 m
and about 5 m in girth at breast height.
Crown fan-shaped.
Bole straight and fluted at the base, rather than
buttressed.
Inflorescence
Flowers borne in short terminal panicles on slender,
hairy raches, white, usually 15mm long and 13-14mm
broad; calyx pubescent outside, finely-toothed. Ten
free stamens , gynoecium of a subsessile or shortly .
stalked ovary.
I/ Based on the work of S.P.K.Britwum, FPRI, University
"" of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
- 395 -
Fruit
Pod about 17 cm long and 2.5 cm broad; flat, thin and
light brown , usually with 1 to 3 seeds. Seed reddish
brown, almost rectangular and about 15mm across.
Flowering takes place in April to May. The pods
are to be seen in May but they are not ripe until
October to January.
Foliage
Leaf-rhachis glabrous, 8-15 cm long; leaflets 8-12,
alternate, ovate elliptic, rounded at base, shortly
acuminate, 3-7cm long, 1.5-3cm broad, upper leaflets
longer than the lower, glabrous; stipels sublate, 3mm
long. Leaves in juvenile trees are usually larger than
those in mature trees.
Bark
Conspicuous, smooth brownish-grey to grey, peeling off
readily and leaving bright red-brown patches hence
"Kokrodua-red tree".
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Heartwood yellow-brown, turning to dark brown on
exposure; sapwood narrow, lighter in colour and clearly
demarcated. Texture moderately fine; grain straight
to interlocked; some resemblance to teak. Basic
specific gravity (oven-dry weight/green volume) 0.57.
The species has been popular on the world timber market
since 1948. The wood is a good substitute for teak
(Tectona grandis) in ship decking and rails.
- 396 -
Other uses of the wood include cabinet making;
furniture panelling and joinery: The species has been
exported from West Africa either as log or sawn timber.
It is important in the timber trade, and the species fetches
higher prices than the world known African Mahogany on
the world timber market.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species is known to occur in many West African
countries and in Cameroon and Zaire. The West African
countries are Ivory Coast , Ghana and Nigeria. In
Ivory Coast/ it occurs on the eastern frontier and is
continuous with the range in Ghana where it is found
in the west of the vegetation type described as the
Antiaris-Chlorophora association. In Nigeria it is
known that P. elata occurs in If on, Owo, Afi River and
Eggua Forest Reserves.
The species occurs in the mid-west of Ghana between
latitudes 6°45' and 7°30fN and between longitude
3°0' and 1° 30 'W. It has a restricted distribution
which occupies the general shape of a triangle with its
base along the western frontier from about 7° 40 'N
to about 6° 45 f north latitude. The apex of this
triangle is in the Bounfum Forest Reserve, about 1° 30 ' west
longitude and 7° north latitude. Two groups have been
found in the Worobong Forest Reserve, about 0° 25'
west and 6° 30 'N. These trees are however shorter and
poorer and are likely to be outliers. No specimens
have been seen so far between the Bounfum and Worobong
Forest Reserves.
- 397 -
CLIMATE
The area where the species is found lies in a tropical
humid climate characterised by a two-peak rainy season
from April to October, and a dry season from November
to March. The annual rainfall ranges from 1 270 to
1 500 mm with two peaks occuring in May-June and
September-October. Temperatures are uniformally high
and range from 25° to 26°C. South-westerly moisture-
laden winds prevail during the rainy season. In the
dry season, the dry north-easterly Harmattan winds
prevail.
SOILS
Clay soils in connection with two outcrops of acid
igneous intrusions in the form of latholiths and
consisting of gramites and veins of biotite schists
which give rise to gritty sandy loams. On the summits
and upper slopes, a red gritty light loam with clay
subsoil containing varying quantities of quartz stones
and iron concretions are found. Humus layer has a
depth of 180-210mm. In the lowlands soils of colluvial
or alluvial origin occur.
HABITAT
This species grows in restriced areas within the
Antiaris-Chlorophora association of the moist semi-
deciduous forest. It is sometimes semi-gregarious but
generally scattered. It is a dominant tree in its
locality.
- 398 -
SEED HANDLING
The species is presently not being planted on a large
enough scale to warrant increased seed collection.
However , small quantities of seed are collected every
year for the establishment of small plantations and
growth trials. Germination takes place on 8-10 days.
SILVICULTURE
It can be easily propagated from seed and also from
rooted stem cuttings. In small direct plantations
which have been established in Ghana, the trees branch
at an early age and develop poor stem form. It has
been tried in enrichment planting in a Forest Reserve
where the species does not occur naturally and it has
performed better in branching, stem form, and growth,
and the incidence of attack by caterpillars of
Lamprosema lateritialis Hampson/a defoliator, has not
been severe (personal observation) . Seedlings and
sapplings of the species are seriously attacked by the
defoliator L. lateritialis. The entire set of leaves
on a seedling may be attacked and bundled together in
a loosely knit nest on which the caterpillars feed
gregariously until the leaves are depleted. The
defoliation has a marked effect on both height and
girth increment of young P.elata trees.
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its geographical range. In
danger of genetic impoverishment throughout the
entire range.
- 399 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Lumbering and poor natural regeneration of the species
are the reasons for the decline. The price of the wood
is one of the highest among the tropical hardwoods of
the world timber market with the result that the
species is being heavily cut for export in the form of
logs and saw timber.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
In forest reserves in Ghana where the species occurs ,
exploitation is on the basis of the "Modified
Selection System11 and trees of the species of 2.1m
girth and above are exploited leaving the lower girth
classes. It is recommended that in each of the
forest reserves in which the species occur, an area
of 60-25O hectares should be conserved in situ
without exploitation. Establishment of plantations of
the species is necessary to increase the resources.
- 400 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atuhene,S.K.W.
1983
Aubreville, A.
1938
Aubreville, A.
FAO
1981
Hut chin son, J &
Dalziel, J.M.
Revised
Keay, R.W.J.
1958
Keay, R.W.J. ;
Onochie,C.F.A.&
Stanfield,D.J.
1964
Irvine, F.R.
1961
Quist Arcton,E.
Taylor, C.J.
1960
Twum Ampofo, J.
1969
The biology of Lamprosema lateritialis
Hampson (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae)
A pest of Afrormosia (Pericopsis) elata
(Harms) van Meeuwen in Ghana (Unpu&li-™
shed Ph.D. Thesis).
La foret coloniale: les forets de
1'Afrique Francaise. Ann. occid Sci.
Colon. Paris.
La flore foresti^re de la Cote d'lvoire.
Centre Technique Forestier Tropical,
Nogent-sur-Marne .
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances FO:MISC/81/11.
FAO, Rome, P. 46-47.
Flora of West Tropical Africa, pt. 1 (2).
Crown Agents, London.
Nigerian Trees. Department of Forestry,
Ibadan .
Woody plants of Ghana, London. Oxford.
University Press.
Some observations on Afrormosia elata
(Unpublished) .
Synecology and Silviculture in Ghana.
Edinburgh, Nelson.
Autecological Studies on Afrormosia
elata (Unpublished MSc. Thesis).
- 401 -
I/
Pinus armandii Franchet var. amamiana Hatusima
This is recognized as a distinct species P. amanii
Koidzumi by some authorities.
SYNONYMS
Pinus amamiana Koidzumi
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Yakutane-goyo, Amami-goyo
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree up to 25 m in height and 1 m in diameter, branches
wide spread ing, horizontal and whitish. Branchlets
brown or black, glabrous; buds oblong-ovoid with brown
scales.
Inflorescence
Staminate flowers 2 cm long.
Fruit
Cones short stalked, oblong-ovoid, 5-8 cm long,
peduncle c.l cm long. Seeds about 12 mm long, wingless.
l/ Based on the work of H.Takehara and G.Asafcawa.
"" Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,
Tsukuba Morin Kenku, Ibaraki, Japan.
- 402 -
Foliage
Needles : five in a deciduous basal sheath , 5-8 cm
long; resin canals 3. Needles of this variety are
shorter than those of the P.armandfl. type and more rigid.
Bark
Bark of young tree greyish, smooth; scaly on older
trees .
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The variety produces a good quality timber; however,
because of its limited occurrence, its importance is
minor .
Other Uses
It is an important source of genetic material for
forest tree breeding of the white pine group and is
also of phy to-geographical and taxonomical interest.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Natural distribution of this tree is limited to
Yaku-shima and Tanega-shima, two small islands off
southern Kyushu, Japan. The original type of Pinus
armandii is found in continental China and Formosa.
CLIMATE
Moist temperate zone: Average annual temperature:
ca. 20°C. Lowest and highest average monthly
temperatures are 7°C (January) and 28°C (July)
Annual rainfall more than 3 000 mm.
- 403 -
SOILS
Drier types of brown forest soils and podzolized
soil.
HABITAT
The variety grows in mixture with evergreen broad-
leaved trees (Machilus thunbergii, Castanopsis
cuspidata and evergreen Quercus spp.) or with deciduous
broad-leaved trees (Alnus firma, Kalopanax pictum,
Cornus kousa, etc.). It is scattered in the forest, but
does not form pure forests. It is almost completely
confined to hill ridges or rocky sites.
SEED
Around 5 OOO seeds/kg.
SILVICULTURE
Propagation from seed is not difficult and nursery
work is similar to that for other white pines.
STATUS
Endangered
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Lumbering has been a major reason for the decreasing
population of this species.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
In Yaku-shima, Japan, the habitat of this variety is
included in a national park. However, action is needed
in other areas of the species1 natural distribution
- 404 -
range. It is recommended that populations and
individual specimens of the variety be protected by law
in Japan. No information on action taken to conserve
P. armandii and its variety is available from areas
outside Japan.
- 405 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO Data Book on Endangered Tree Species and
1981 Provenances FO:MISC/81/11. FAO, Rome, p. 48.
Hayashi, Taxonomical and phytogeographical study of
Yasaka Japanese conifers, p. 38, 147.
1960
Iwata, Coniferae Japonicae Illustratae
Toshiharu p. ISO.
& Masao
Kuasaka
1952
Yato, Illustrated Dendrology, 1 - Conifers,
Kenichi 122 p.
1964
Uehara, Encyclopedia of Trees with Illustrations.
Keiji Vol. 1, p. 156.
1959
- 406 -
Pinus eldarica Medw.
Some authors have classified this pine as a variant of
Pinus brutia.
SYNONYM
Pinus brutia Ten. (1815)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Eldar pine, Mondell Pine, Eldar kiefer, Quetta Pine
and Afghanistan Pine.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
P. eldarica is conical in shape with a rounded crown at
maturity. Branches occur in whorls on both the main-
stem and laterals. Colour is deep green or blue green.
The tree exhibits a modified taproot system.
Fruit
Cones spreading or pointing forwards, sometimes borne,
in whorls of 3-6; 5-6 cm long, and 4-5 cm wide.
Foliage
A two needle pine, needles slightly contorted, 1O to
15 cm long.
I/ FAO acknowledges the assistance of R.Morandini,
~~ Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura, Viale S.
Margherita 8O-82, Arezzo, Italy.
- 407 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The timber is useful for lumber and fuel, but is only
considered of medium quality.
Other Uses
For environmental purposes it could be used for
windbreaks, shelterbelts and the reclamation of
desertified regions.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The only documented naturally-occurring stands of
P.eldarica are located in a geographically isolated
area south of the Caucasus mountains (appr. latitude
41° N, longitude 45°E) near the border between the
Russian republics of Azerbaydzhan and Georgia. The
altitudinal range is from 200 to 600 m and the total
area is about 550 ha. Natural stands in Afganistan and
northern Pakistan, have been reported recently.
CLIMATE
Semi-arid, with hot summers and cold winters; the total
precipitation is fairly even distributed throughout the
year, and amounts to 250-300 mm.
SOILS
The tree thrives normally where soils are alkaline and
not very rich in nutrients; it is also reported to
show some resistance to salty soils.
HABITAT
Semi-arid, lower mountain region.
- 408 -
SEED HANDLING
11-25 000 seeds /kg; stratification has been used as
pretreatment .
SILVICULTURE
Useful for afforestation in mountainous semi -arid zones/
and has a tremendous potential to improve the economic
and environmental conditions in arid zones. In the
nursery P.eldarica shows excellent germination and
very fast initial growth of the upper parts. Usually
the trees are transplanted to the field after the
second year. The growth is fast during 15-20 years,
afterwards it slows down. In Iran it has been
advised to clearcut after 20-25 years.
STATUS
Endangered in the URSS, only one native endemic stand
is left in the Eliar-Ugi mountain range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
It is considered to be an Oligocene relic.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The last known natural stand in URSS has been declared
a natural reserve. The species has been extensively
planted as an exotic outside its natural site.
International seed collections and provenance trials
have been organized jointly by FAO and the Istituto
Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura in Italy.
- 409 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anon.
Information on coniferous species of
Iran.
Dallimore,W.& A Handbook of Coniferae & Ginkgonceae. Ed. 4
Jackson, A. B. Edward Arnold (Publishers)' Ltd.
Rev . Harrison , S . G .
1966
FAO Mediterranean conifers. In Forest
1976 Genetic Resources Information No. 5:
12-18.
Hertzea, B. Tupper Tree Farms Inc., Marketing
Division 9701 Wilshire Blvd., Beverly
Hills, CA 90212
Male jeff, W. Pinus pithyusa Stev. and Pinus eldarica
1929 Medw., Zwei Relikt-Kiefern der Taurisch-
Kaukasischen Flora. Mitteilungen der
deutsche dendrologischen Gesellschaft.
Jahrbuch 1929.
Mirov, N.T.
1967
Weber, E.J.
1981
The genus Pinus.
Company, N.Y.
The Ronald Press
Pinus eldarica, a valuable resource
for arid zones. Arid Lands Newsletter.
No. 13, March 1981, pp. 41-44.
- 410 -
I/
Pinus koraiensis Scb. et.Zucc.
SYNONYMS
Pinus mandshurica Ruprecht (1857)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Chosen-goyo, Chosen-matsu (Japan),
Korean Nut pine .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Pyramidal tree of 2O-25 m height and 4O - 7O cm
diameter. Branchlets with yellow-brown tomentose
pubescence. Buds oblong-ovoid , dark chestnut-brown.
Fruit
Cones short-stalked, 9-14 cm long, conic-ovoid or
conic-oblong, yellow-brown, on short peduncles;
scales with recurved, obtuse apex. Seeds wingless,
obvoid, 10-18 mm long.
Foliage
Needles in fives, glaucous green 8-12 cm long, serru
late with 3 internal resin channels.
I/Based on the work of Tafcemara and G.Asakawa,
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,
Tsukula Nor in, Kenkyu Ibaraki, Japan.
- 411 -
Bark
Scaly , grey-brown, thin, peeling off in irregular
flakes; reddish-brown beneath.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The species produces good constructional timber. In
North Korea it is one of the most important timber
species on the market. In Japan, where the amount of
timber available is smaller, the species is of minor
commercial importance .
Other Uses
It is widely used as an ornamental tree, and some
special varieties have been developed for this use.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species is distributed through the mountainous
areas of central Honshu (Nagano, Yamanashi, Tochigi,
Gunma and some adjacent prefectures) and Shikoku in
Japan, and extends to the Korean peninsula from the
north-eastern part of South Korea to North Korea and
to the border area between North Korea and China.
CLIMATE
Cool temperate zone, average annual temperature:
c. 1O°C. Annual precipitation: ca. 2 OOO mm.
SOILS
Frequently, podsolized soils*
Similar to sites of Firms pentaphylla, but slighly
wetter.
- 412 -
HABITAT
In central Honshu , the species occurs from 1 O50 m to
2 6OO m a. s.l. In this area, it is found both in the
sub-alpine conifer zone and in the higher parts of
the broad-leaved zone. In the former , it is associated
with Abies veitchii, Tsuga diversifolia and Picea
jezoensis var. hondoensis. In the latter, it grows in
mixture with Sciadopitys verticillata, Thuja standishii,
Thujopsis dolabrata and Quercus crispula. The species
does not form pure forests.
SEED HANDLING
Around 2 000 seeds/kg; warm stratification followed by
cold is needed for germination. Air-dried seed can be
stored at low temperature.
SILVICULTURE
The species is usually propagated by seed. Vegetative
propagation of the species is also possible.
STATUS
Not endangered, but in danger of depletion in parts of
its geographic range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Logging operations and cutting of the natural forest.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOIW1ENDED
The populations in central Honshu are represented in
national parks and thus protected from logging
operations. In addition, experimental plantations
established in Iwate and Tokyo Prefectures by District
- 413 -
Forest Offices and the Forestry and Forest Products
Research Institute will help ensure the conservation
of the resource.
No information is available from N. & S. Korea on
protective measures for the conservation of the
genetic resources of the species.
- 414 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO
1981
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances FO: MISC/81/11,
FAO , Rome , p. 49-50.
Forest Agency
of Japan
1964
Hayashi,
Yaska
1960
Iwata ,
Tshiharu
& Kusaka,
Masao
1952
Shirasawa,
Yashumi
1911
Uehara ,
Keiji
1959
Illustrated important forest trees of
Japan , p . 16.
Taxonomical and phytogeographical study
of Japanese conifers/ 40 (152).
Coniferae Japonicae Illustratae 148 pp.
Icones of the forest trees of Japan ,
I. Tab. 2
Encyclopedia of Trees with Illustrations.
Vol. 1, p. 147-151
- 415 -
Pinus patula Schiede & Deppe subsp. tecunumanii
(Eguiluz 6 Perry) Styles ^
SYNONYMS
Pinus tecunumanii Eguiluz & Perry (1983)
£• tecumunanii Schwerdtf . Norn, invalid. (1953)
P. oocarpa var. tecumumanii (Schwerdtf.) Aguilar (1962)
P. oocarpa var. ochoterenae Mart. (1948)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Tecun Uman Pine, 'Tec1 pine (Eng.)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Very large, straight -boled, evergreen tree reaching
50 m or more in height, usually 35-^0 m; bole with a
diameter of 40-80 cm or more. Crown light, conical
or rounded, consisting of few slender ascending
branches .
Inflorescence
Trees monoecious; male flowers yellowish, sometimes
with a purplish tinge; quickly deciduous.
I/ Based on the work of B.T. Styles (Oxford Forestry
Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford - 0X1 3RD,
England) .
- 416 -
Foliage
Buds ovoid-cylindrical , brownish, 1-1.5 cm long,
slightly resinous. Needles light green, spreading or
pendulous, usually 4 per fascicle, but sometimes 3 or 5;
from 12-25 cm long, sheaths slender, 10-25 mm long.
Resin canals 2-3 (-5), usually medial, rarely with one
internal (never septal) .
Fruit
Female cones strongly persistent, slightly asymmetrical
small, hard, narrowly conoidal with a pointed apex and
rounded base; from 4-9 cm long and 3-6 (-8) cm broad;
light brown, varnished; sometimes sessile, or with a
peduncle up to 3.0 cm long; cone scales narrow, 15-2 5mm
wide, opening quickly on ripening, apophysis raised,
slightly ridged. Cones borne singly, in pairs or in
clusters up to 8. In some localities the crop is
always very sparse. Seeds light brown, up to 2.0 cm
long (including wing) . They mature between October and
February .
Bark
Distinctive, rough at the base, but smooth above,
reddish-brown or orange, exfoliating in thin papery
scales or strips.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTION
This pine has the best form of any Latin American
species. Its boles are among the straightest and
largest yet encountered. This, plus the small crown,
results in a maximum amount of convertible timber. It
is important for industrial use in the form of general
- 417 -
constructional timber. Its mechanical characteristics
have yet to be investigated.
Other Uses
It is recognized to be a better producer of resin than
all of its closest relatives.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This pine has a large but very scattered and disjunct
distribution in S.Mexico and C.America. A few small
stands occur in Oaxaca and Chiapas, but some of the
best trees are seen in pure forests in Guatemala,
Honduras and Nicaragua. The species also occurs in
Belize and in El Salvador.
Its altitudinal range is very great, occurring at 550m
alt. in the southern part of the range but can be found
growing at altitudes of up to 2 700m in Guatemala.
CLIMATE
Areas with higher rainfall are preferred within the
range of between 1 500-2 500 mm p. a.
SOILS
£• P*tula subsp. tecunumanii normally occurs on the
richer and deeper fertile soils of upland valleys and
plateaux.
HABITAT
It sometimes grows in association with other pines
including P.ayacahuite, p.oocarpa, P. maximtnoi ,
P.paeudostrobus and the broad-leaved Liguidambar
styraelflua. Associated understorey vegetation is
generally dense, reflecting the richer site conditions.
- 418 -
SEED HANDLING
Seed extraction is similar to that for other species of
pine. However seed production per cone is generally very
low. The number of cones per tree is frequently also
low. Both factors are reasons for the high cost of seed
on the commercial market.
SILVICULTURE
This is presumably similar to other related pine species
for which abundant literature is available. Some diffi-
culties with germination have apparently been
encountered in Nepal.
STATUS
The species as a whole is under threat throughout its
entire range and more so than any other Latin American
Pine. Some populations have already been destroyed in
C.America and others have been severely depleted and
reduced in area.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Because this pine grows on the most fertile sites,
forests in which it occurs are being felled and cleared
for agriculture (slash and burn) . Such areas near
centres of population e.g. Siguatepeque in central
Honduras have now been totally deforested for maize
cultivation. Forests in Guatemala have also suffered
particularly from attacks by Dendroctonus sp.(Dark beetle).
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford, England, and
CAMCORB, School of Forest Resources, N.Carolina State
University, Raleigh, N.C., USA and National Seed
- 419 -
Centres of Central American Countries have made seed
collections of many of the important provenances of the
species throughout the entire natural range. These have
now been planted as ex situ plantations, conservation
stands and research trials throughout the tropics.
Conservation of indigenous forests of the species will
prove difficult, even impossible, for the reasons
stated.
- 420 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eguiluz,T.
1982
Eguiluz, T.&
Perry/ J. P.
1983
McCarter,P.S.
1983-4
Schwerdtf eger , F .
1953
Styles, B.T,
1976
Styles, B.T. 4
Hughes, C.E.
1983
Styles, B.T.
1985
Natural variation and taxonomy of Pin us
tecunumanii from Guatemala. Unpublished
Ph.D. Thesis, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, USA, 74 p.
Pinus tecunumanii; una especie nueva de
Guatemala . Ciencia Forestal 8 (4):
3-22.
Data sheets on Pinus patula subsp.
tecunumanii, C.F.I., Oxford (Unpublished)
Informe al Gobierno de Guatemala sobre
la entomologia forestal de Guatemala I.
Los plnos de Guatemala. Informe
FAO/ETAP, FAO, Rome No. 202 58 p.
Studies of variation of Central American
Pines I . , The identity of Pinus oocarpa
var. ochoterenae Martfnez Silvae
Genetlca 25:109-118 .
Studies of variation in C. American Pines
III. Notes on the taxonomy and
nomenclature of the pines and related
gymno sperms in Honduras and adjacent
Latin American Republics. Brenesia
21:269-291.
The identity of Schwerdtf eger ' s Central
American Pine. For. Gen. Res. Inf. 13:
47-51, FAO, Rome.
- 421 -
Pinus pentaphylla Mayr-'
There is considerable disagreement about the classifica-
tion nomenclature of the 5 -needled pines of Japan. In
this account we are following the work of O.Jisaburo
(1972): Flora of Japan.
SYNONYMS
Pinus parviflora Sieb. & Zucc.var. pentaphylla Mayr
(Henry) (19O9) (northern type) .
Pinus parviflora Sieb. ft Zucc. (1842)
Pinus hiroekomatsu Miyabe & Kudo
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Himekomatsu, Goyoomatsu (southern type), Kita-goyoo
(matsu) (northern type)*
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree up to 3Om in height, 8O cm in diamter, with
slender branches and dense, pyramidal habit. Branchlets
greenish brown, puberulous when young. Buds ovoid,
scarcely resinous, outer scales free at the tips.
FRUIT
Cones avoid to oblong-ovoid, (5) 6-10 cm long and 6-7.5
cm wide (northern type); nearly sessile; scales abruptly
i/Based on the work of H.TaKehara and G.Asafcawa.
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,
Tsukuba Mar in Kenku, Ibaraki, Japan.
- 422 -
convex near the apex or irregularly warped, the umbo
confluent with thin margin. Seed about 1-1.2 cm long,
with the wing longer than seed itself. The original
type found at Kyushu and Shikohu, is distinguished by
a short wing (wing shorter than seed) . Seeds/kg varies
between 8 OOO for southern type and 9000 for northern type.
Foliage
Needles in fours or fives, slender, 4-8cm long; finely
serrulate; bluish green, conspicuously whitened on the
ventral surface, with 2 external resin canals.
Bark
Bark of young trees smooth, of older trees fissured into
thin flaky scales, red-brown underneath.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The species produces good construction timber and is
also used for long fibre pulp. However, its use in
plantations is negligible, because of the existence of
better alternative species.
Other Uses
It is used widely as an ornamental and in "Bonsai"
cultivations, for which many varieties with special
characteristics have been developed. The species has
potential in hybridization work within the white pine
group.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species including the northern type occurs from
the Oshiinia and Hidaka districts of Hokjcaido through
the mountainous areas of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu,
- 423 -
Japan. Outside Japan, the species is found on the
island of Querpaert ( Ul lung-do ), Korea*
CLIMATE
Cool temperate zone. The species occurs at a little
lower elevation than Pinus koraiensis, meaning that the
climate of the area where it occurs would be a little
milder.
SOILS
Podzolized soil and sometimes drier types of brown
forest soil. The tree is found at altitudes of 150 -
2 000 m a. s.l. (southern type) and 60-2 500 m a.s.l.
(northern type), although variable due to latitude.
HABITAT
It generally grows in small groups in mixed stands on
hilltops and rocky outcrops in the deciduous broad-
leaved zone (Fagus zone) and the sub-alpine conifer
zone (Abies picea) . In the former it is associated
with Sciadopitys verticillata, Thuja standishii,
Thujopsis dolabrata and Chamaecy par i s obtusa or
alternatively with Quercus crispuls, Tilia japonica,
Betula grossa, etc. In the latter zone, it grows in
mixture with Abies veitchii, Tsuga diversifolia and
Picea jezoensis var, hondoensis.
SEED HANDLING
8 OOO - 9 OOO seeds/kg. For germination, a warm
stratification followed by a cold one Is needed for
the northern type and cold stratification alone is
needed for the southern type.
- 424 -
SILVICULTURE
The species is propagated without difficulty by seed
and grown in nurseries in the same way as other pine
species. Vegetative propagation is often used for the
varieties developed for amenity and ornamental purposes.
Grafting has been successful using 2-4 year-old
root stocks of Pinus thunbergii.
STATUS
Not endangered, but in danger of depletion in parts of
its geographic range, especially in its northern and
south-western parts.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Logging operations and cutting of the natural forest.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The majority of the populations growing in Japan are
represented in national parks and thus protected from
logging operations. Systematic collections of germp-
lasm should be undertaken in the northern and south-
western limits of the species' distribution for
conservation, utilization and breeding purposes.
- 425 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
PAO
1981
Forest Agency
of Japan
1964
Hayashi,
Yasaka
1960
Iwata ,
Toshiharu &
Masao Kusaka
1952
Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
Species and Provenances FO:MISC/81/11.
p. 51-52.
Illustrated important forest trees of
Japan, 34, PI. 17.
Taxonomical and phytogeographical study
of Japanese conifers, 40, p. 154.
Coniferae Japonicae Illustratae
p. 152-156.
Miyabe, Kingo & Icones of the essential forest trees of
Yushun Kudo
1920-23
Rehger, Alfred
1940
Shirasawa,
Yasumi
1912
Uehara, Keiji
1959
Hokkaido, I., tab. 8.
Cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in
North America (2nd ed.).
Icones of the forest trees of Japan, II.
Tab. 2.
Encyclopedia of Trees with Illustrations
Vol. I, p. 140-147.
- 426 -
Pin us pseudostrobus Lindl.— '
SYNONYMS
pjnus orizabae Gord. (1846)
P.protuberans Roezl (1847)
P . pseudostrobus f . protuberans (Roezl) Mart. (1948)
P • pseudostrobus f . megacarpa Loock (1977)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Pinabete (Honduras) ; pino bianco (Guatemala, Mexico) ;
Pino ortiguillo (Mexico) ; False Weymouth Pine
(England)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Medium size to large, evergreen tree up to 45 m tall,
bole with a dimater of up to 8Ocm, normally less.
Crown of several thick, whorled branches. Branches
horizontal or ascending.
Inflorescence
Trees monoecious; male flowers yellowish, 1-2- 5 cm long;
deciduous.
Foliage
Buds ovoid, with an acute apex; brownish-yellow, 1-2.0
cm long, resinous. Needles dark green, sometimes
glaucous, pendulous or spreading, stiff; usually 5 per
fascicle, very rarely 4 or 6; from 18.0-33.0 cm long
I/ Based on the work of B.T. Styles, (Oxford Forestry
Institute, University of Oxford - OX1 3RD England) .
- 427 -
and up to 1.25 mm wide. Sheaths persistent, scaly,
15-25 mm long. Resin canals 2-4 (rarely 5 or 6) , usually
medial, very rarely external, internal or septal.
Hypodermal intrusions into chlorenchyma absent.
Fruit
Female cones persistent, ovoid to cylindrical, 7-14 cm
long, 5-11 cm wide, robust and very woody; dark brown;
sessile or with a peduncle up to 1.0 cm long; a few
basal scales remain attached to it when the cone
eventually falls; cone-scales broad, 1.0 - 2.2 cm
wide; apoplyses flattened, sometimes raised and ridged.
15-20mm high. Cones are mature from November to
February.
Bark
Thick, dark grey, platey; reddish-orange in the cracks.
Bark of branchlets, distinctly pruinose.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The timber is white and of good quality. It is used in
industrial work for general construction and joinery.
Other Uses
The tree is very rarely tapped for resin.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This pine has a scattered distribution in Mexico
(particularly in the western states) , on the Central
plateau and further south in Oaxaca and Chiapas. It is
'fairly common in Guatemala, but is rare In £1 Salvador
and Honduras. It does not occur further south.
- 428 -
CLIMATE
Growth is best where rainfall is between 1 OOO-l 6OO mm
per year.
SOILS
Frequently on poor, shallow soils on drier sites,
especially exposed ridges.
HABITAT
It grows most commonly and best at altitudes between
2 000- 2500m a.s.l. In Central America it sometimes
occurs in a mixture with P. maximinoi and in Mexico
with P.montezumae, P. douglasiana and P . oocarpa .
SEED HANDLING
As per related species e.g. P. oocarpa. Seed production
is plentiful and there is normally a good yield from
each cone. Seed extraction follows methods used for
other pines.
SILVICULTURE
Straight forward; as for other pines.
STATUS
This pine does not normally have a good form since the
tree often tends to have a large crown of many whorled,
coarse branches; heavy branching occurs low down the
bole, even when grown at close spacing in plantations*
However, some provenances particularly from Oaxaca in
south Mexico and Guatemala have trees with lighter
crowns and longer, straighter boles of superb shape.
These are being felled on a large scale, during
commercial exploitation of the indigenous forest. A
- 429 -
variety of P. pseudostrobus var. oaxacana (as
P. oaxacana) is listed as a taxon vulnerable to extinc-
tion by the International Dendrology Society
Conservation Committee (Kew) . It is fairly wide-spread
in south Mexico, Guatemala and £1 Salvador. Only
some provenances of better form are considered as
endangered.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Selective logging of best phenotypes as indicated above,
particularly in Guatemala where population pressure is
greatest.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Seed collections of selected provenances have been made
by the Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford, England and
the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales,
(INIF) , Mexico. These will enable provenenace trials,
conservation stands and ex situ plantations to be set
up in tropical countries where conditions are suitable
for the growth of this species.
- 430 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO
1960
Loock,E.E.M.
1977
Martinez, N.
1948
Mirov,N.T.
1967
Stead, J.W.
1983a
Stead, J.W*
1983b
Stead, J.W.
Styles, B.T.
1984
Seminar Study Tour of Latin American
Conifers, Mexico.
The Pines of Mexico and British
Honduras. Ed. 2. Bull. 35. South Africa
Dept. of Forestry.
Los Pinos Mexicanos. Mexico
The genus Pinus.
New York.
Ronald Press Co.
A study of variation and taxonomy of
the Pinus pseudostrobus complex.
Comm. For. Rev. 62: 25-35.
Studies in Central American Pines V:
a numerical study of variation in the
Pseudostrobus group. Silvae Genet ica
32 (3-4): 101-115.
Studies in Central American Pines:
a revision of the 'Pseudostrobus1 group
(Pinaceae) .
249-275.
Bot. Journ. Linn. Soc. 88:
- 431 -
Pinus radiata D.Don—'
SYNONYMS
Pinus insignis Dougl. (1838)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Insignis pine, monterey pine, radiata pine
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A medium-sized tree up to 60 m in height, usually
between 30 and 50 m. It is regularly branched, with
long, actively-growing side branches and tip, producing
a narrow crown. Old or mature trees usually develop an
open or irregular crown with a few large branches, with
the lower trunk and lower part of each branch quite
bare of living foliage or side branches. Foliage
dense near the ends of the living branches .
Inflorescence
Male yellow in spikes; female dark purple.
Fruit
Cone 5 to 21 cm long, 3.5 to 10 cm wide; apophyses
generally rounded and protuberant! prickle on umbo
0.5 to 1.5 mm long, becoming partly or completely
weathered away as the cone ages. Cones contain up to
i /Based on the work of W.B.Libby (School of Forestry
and Conservation, University of California, Berkeley,
California, §4720 USA).
- 432 -
2OO seeds, 4.5 to 10.5 mm long and 2.5 to 6 mm wide.
The cones remain on the tree for several years after
maturity.
Foliage
Needles generally in clusters of 3 in the native
American stands; mostly in clusters of 2 in the island
populations; 7 to 12 cm long, 1 to 2 mm wide; dark
bluish to yellowish-green in colour.
Bark
The bark of young trees or actively growing branches
is dull grey, but mature trunks become reddish or very
dark brown-black with narrow ridges and furrows.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Fast-growing trees produce wood of excellent commercial
quality. Wood variously used for pulp, plywood,
building and packaging materials.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Five natural populations of the species are known -:
3 on the coast in California in the USA. 2 island
populations off the coast of Baja California (Mexico) .
CLIMATE
In its natural range the climate is temperate to mild
with a rainfall of 330-457 mm, concentrated in winter
and early spring. The summer fogs, however, play an
important part in preventing any excessive drought.
Mean annual temperature of about 13°C, absolute
minimum -1°C.
- 433 -
SOILS
In its natural range the tree thrives on almost pure
sand, sandy loam, gravelly and sandy clays; elsewhere
it grows in a great variety of soils - practically
any deep soil. Friable soils are the best, as long as
there is sufficient moisture*
HABITAT
Occurring in areas of fog where other factors are not
limiting. Associates include live oak, mazanita,
Ceanothus and Cupressus, and in the northern population,
Douglas fir and redwood.
SEED HANDLING
Around 30 000 seeds/kg; no special pre-treatment
recommended; germination high (more than 60%) , normally
good seed crops every year*
SILVICULTURE
Easily propagated from seed or via rooted cuttings.
Hedged trees maintain juvenile characters and produce
vigorous cuttings* The tree has been successfully
planted as a timber species in many Mediterranean-
climate countries. Especially successful in Chile,
New Zealand and Australia.
STATUS
Guadalupe Island population -: endangered. Monterey and
Cambria population -: genetic integrity endangered.
Cedros Island and Afio Nuevo -: populations are not
presently endangered.
- 434 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Guadalupe Island: grazing of seedlings by goats
introduced by sailors in mid 1800s. All regeneration
has effectively been precluded; population is becoming
extinct. Monterey and Cambria populations: highly
urbanized. Ornamental planting of P.radiata derived
from the other populations is contaminating the native
gene pools.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Cuttings from nine trees from each of 10 stands in each
of the 3 mainland populations were rooted in 1962.
Seeds were collected from 98 and 77 trees in Cedros and
Guadalupe Islands in 1964. Collections were repeated
by CSIRO, Australia in 1979. Replicate plantations
have been established in a number of countries, using
seed from these collections. A programme complementing
the 1964 seed collections was started in the winter of
1973, when pollen was collected from several hundred
trees. The pollen was used partly for controlled
pollinations and partly placed in long-term storage.
These activities will ensure that samples of the
unselected, native gene pools are maintained for
future use. With the possible exception of the Cedros
Island, the native gene pools cannot be maintained via
protection of in situ populations. Ex situ
conservation as seed, pollen and ex situ conservation
stands to maintain these gene pools seems the most
logical alternative and is recommended.
- 435 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eldridge,K.G. Seed Collections of Pinus radiata and
1979 P.muricata in California. Forest
Genetic Resources Information No. 9j
Forestry Occasional Paper 1979/1 , p. 44
FAO , Rome .
FAO Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree
1981 Species and Provenances FO:MISC/81/11,
FAO, Rome, EX 53-54.
Scott, C.W. Pinus radiata . Food and Agriculture
1960 Organization of the United Nations,
Rome.
- 436 -
Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth.
SYNONYMS
Acacia angustifolia DC. (1825)
Acacia microphylla Willd. (18O6)
Acacia niopa H.B.K. (1820)
Acacia peregrina Willd. (18O6)
Mimosa niopa Poir. (181O)
Mimosa parvifolia Poir. (181O)
Mimosa peregrina L. (1753)
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Angico Branco, Angico, Angico de Curtume, Angico do
Cerrado, Angico Niopo, Caubi, Curupaiba, Curupari,
Niopo, Parica" da Terra Firme, Angico Vermelho.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPITION
General
A tree which reach up to 2O m in height and a diameter
above O . 50 m .
Inflorescence
Inflorescence a globose capitulum consisting of many
terminal panicules of white flowers. Flowers appear
in the period from October to December.
Fruit
A dehiscent dry, long, legume, up to 16 cm in length.
Fructification occurs from August to September,
Seeds: Circular, long, dark brown, shiny.
I/ Based on the work of M.Tomazello Fu, R.Chiaranda and
M.L. Marque s. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP ,
PO Box 9, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.
- 437 -
Foliage
Leaves alternate, bipinnate, about 20 cm in length.
Petiole with a wide base and sessile glands; pinnae,
10-30 jugate; opposite or sub-opposite, linear, glands
between the five pairs of pinnas.
Branches: rough and lenticellate.
Bark
Trunk bark rough, thorny when young; with age the thorns
are restricted to the base of the trunk.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Moderately heavy, heartwood light pink, uniform, darke-
ning on the surface; shiny finish, smooth; a medium to
rough texture; straight grain; indistinct aroma, taste
is slightly adstringent. It is considered highly
durable under natural conditions. Fibers have reduced
lumen and pores are clogged by resin oil and tyloses,
with low permeability of preservative solution in
experimental treatments under pressure.
Recommended for the construction of outside structures,
stakes, poles, fence posts, sleepers, etc., as well as
for civil construction, as rafters, door-posts, tiles
and floor boards, etc., and for fuel wood and charcoal.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species is scattered throughout all of Southern
Brazil, in the states of Minas Gerais (MZona da mata"),
Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catariana and Rio Grande do
Sul. It is also found in the Amazon region and on
the coastal strip from the State of Rio Grande do Norte
to the State of Espirito Santo.
- 438 -
SOILS AND CLIMATE
As indicated by its wide geographical distribution, it
is found in several soil and climate types; however ,
more detailed information in this respect does not exist.
HABITAT
Occurs in several types of forest formations , from the
coastal woodlands to the Amazon. Prefers swampy and
riparian conditions.
SILVICULTURE
In the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce it showed an average
height of 8 m at two years of age. Although a good
development in pure stands is reported, reliable data
is not yet available from the few existing experiments.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
There are no precise data as to the status of this
species. However, the forests of the Northern region
where it is found are being devastated for the
expansion of agriculture and cattle rearing. This
species is very rare in the South, and is being reduced
further, due to its economic value.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The species occurs in the Reserva Biol6gica da Mata do
Acaua, in the Parque Floras tal de Jaiba and in the
Parque Florestal do Rio da Onca.
Planting of seven base populations from 75 trees, through
a contract with the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq) and the Programa Nacio-
nal de Pesquisa Florestal (PNPF) in collaboration with
the Sociedade de Investiga9oes Florestais (SIF^is reported.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 439 -
Paulista
de Normas Tecnicas
1964
As Madeiras
Brasileiras
1971
Boutelje, J .B.
1980
Correa, M.P.
1926
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Galvao,A.P.M.
1982
Golfari,L.
1972
Hueck,K.
1972
Lopes, A. C.
1983
Manner, A. E,et alii
1976
Seminario de madeiras. Rio de
Janeiro. 258 p.
Suas caracterlsticas e aplicayoes
industrials. S3To Paulo, Editora
Industrial Teco. 93 p.
Encyclopedia of world timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest
Products Research Laboratory. 398p.
Dicionirio das plantas uteis do
Bras£l. Brasilia, IBDF, 5v. 6TS p.
Ensaio de fndice da flora dendro-
IcJgica do Brasil. Arquivos do
Servico FlorestaJ , SaTo Paulo,
2 (2): 69-156.
Contribui9ab da EMBRAPA/IBDF-PNPF
para a p^squisa com especies nati-
vas e florestas naturais no Brasil.
Sil"1cultura em Sao Paulo, Sab
Paulo, 16A (parte 1): 150-159.
Comunidades vegetais do Brasil.
In. ? II Curso de Zoneamento
Florestal. Belo Hoeizonte. 16 p.
As FJ ores tap da America do Sul.
SSb Paulo, Poligono/Ed. Universi-
dade de Brasilia. 466 p.
Estudo comparativo entre ess&hcias
nativas e exoticas. Silvicultura,
Sao Paulo, 8/281: 87-89.
Contribuiyab ao estudo das „
essencias florestais e frutiferas
nativas no Estado do Rio Grande do
Sul. Trigo e Soja, Porto Alegre,
(18) : 3-20, novembro/dezembro.
- 440 -
Mainieri,C.
1958
Mainieri,C.ft
Pereira, J.A
1965
Manieri/C.
1978
Mainieri,C.;
Chimelo,J.P.ft
Afonso,V.S.
1983.
Identif ica9ao das principals madeiras de
comtfrcio no Brasil. Boletim IPT,Sab
Paulo, (46) : 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracterizayafo micro-
scopica, usos comuns e ndices qualitativos
ffsicos e mecdnicos. AnuSrio Brasileiro
de Economia Florestal, Rio de Janeiro,
17 (17): 1-282.
Ficha de caracterfsticas das madeiras
brasileiras. sYo Paulo, IPT. v.D.
Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnol<5gicas. 197p.
Manual de identifica£ab das principals
, madeiras comer cia is brasileiras. Sao Paulo,
Secretaria da Indus tria,Comercio, Ciencia
e Tecnologia. 241 p.
Ramalho,R.S.
1973
Record, S.J.&
Hess,R.W.
1949
Rezende,G.C.&
Fonseca,A.
1982
Rizzini,C.Tft
Mors,W.B.
1976
Rizzini,C.T.
1971
Sanford, P. A.
1961
Dendrologia: notas de aula. Vi<josa.
95 p.
UFV.
Strang, H.E.?
Lanna Sobrinho,
J. de P. ft
Tosetti,L.D.
1982
Timbers of new world. 4 ed. New Haven, Yale
University Press. 64O p.
Considerables sobre essdncias nativas em
projetos de ref lores tamento. Silvicultura
em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo, 16A (parte 2):
1512-1518.
Botanica Economica Brasileira. S3b Paulo,
EPU/ed.Universidade de Sao Paulo. 207 p.
JCrvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil: manual
de dendrologia brasileira. Editora Edgard
Blucher/EDUSP. 294 p.
For rage iras^arboreas do Cearrf. Servi9o
de Informa9ao Aqrfcola. Rio de Janeiro,
Ministerio da Agricultura. 24 p.
Parques Estaduais do Brasil, sua caracte-
rizay"ao e ess^ncias nativas mais impor-
tantes. Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, S&o
Paulo, 16A (parte 3): 1583-1712.
- 441 -
Platanus orientalis L.—
Platanus orientalis hybridizes with P. occidentalis
(the American sycamore) when they come in contact and
produce vigorous and fertile hybrids, with normal
meiosis. Fossils indicate that the two species were
isolated for at least 2O million years.
FAMILY
Platanaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Chenar, Platanos (TT*QT=*\, os)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A large deciduous tree up to 3O m tall, with large
spreading crown, which can attain great age and
diameter. In Greece the platanum of Hippocrates
(4OO b.C.) is still alive in the island Kos.
Inflorescence
Many minute greenish flowers, tinged with red, are
borne in spring with the leaves, on long-stalked
drooping balls or heads, male and female (monoecious).
Fruit
Drooping, ball-like fruits, maturing in September-
October and shedding untill autum or spring. They
are composed of many crowded, minute nutles
surrounded by hairs.
I/ FAD acknowledge the assistance of K.ftmetaos (Aristotelian
Dhivereity of TtoeaBaloniki, School of Agric. and Forestry,
Ttess&lonlki, Greece) .
- 442 -
Foliage
The alternate, long-petioled leaves are palmately 3 to 9-lobed and
palmately veined, usually broad, often toothed. A large,
toothed stipule surrounds the twig of the leaf base and
sheds early, forming a ring scar. The slender zig zag
twigs without terminal buds bear short-pointed lateral
buds covered by a scale and hidden inside the petiole
base.
Bark
Platanus orientalis is easily recognized by the whitish
bark which separates into large thin flakes. These
fall irregularly and expose patches of brown, green and
grey inner bark with a mottled appearance. Bark at the
base of large trunks becomes thick, dark brown and
deeply furrowed into broad, scaly ridges.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
General
The most important uses are for veneer, carpentry,
box-making, door and window frames, and Joinery. It
also makes a good fuel wood.
Other Uses
Used for roadside plantings and as a shade tree.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Platanus orientalis is the only species of Plane in
the old world. Its distribution range embraces the
East Mediterranean countries (viz. Balkan Peninsula, to
42° N, Crete, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine) and
some W . Irano-Turanian countries (viz.E. Turkey, Iraq,
Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan) as well as some
- 443 -
districts of the Himalayan Province and the S.E. Province
of the Euro-Siberian region. This distribution pattern
suggests that it is an element of the ancient
E.Mediterranean and North African flora, but this is not
fully understood.
CLIMATE
This species exhibits remarkable plasticity, with
respect to temperature fluctuations, growing from sea
level to high altitudes (14OO m) . It seems that, at
higher altitudes, the limiting factors are temperatures
below - 25°C; and strong winds. It experiences extremely
variable precipitation, but in Iran generally between 100
and 500 mm with a maximum in winter or spring. At
least three summer months of total drought, extending
up to nine months in the most arid regions, occur in
some areas. In Greece it is not considered a drought
resistant species.
SOILS
It can grow on soils derived from a variety of parent
materials. Its occurence, however, is related directly
to availability of soil moisture during the dry summer
months. For this reason Platanus grows in small
or large populations in areas where ground or surface
water is available throughout the growing season.
HABITAT
Usually Platanus orientalis forms narrow bands along
moist, ephemeral, stony or gravelly ravines. In Iran
it is often accompanied by species of Salix, Tamarix,
Elaeagnus , Fraxinus , Vitex and especially Nerium
oleander . In Crete the other main species are
- 444 -
Populus nigra, _P. nigra var. pubescencens , Alnus glutinosa and
Populus alba.
SEED HANDLING
200-260 OOO seeds per kg. Fruiting heads of oriental
plane can be collected any time after they turn brown ,
but the task is easiest soon after leaf fall. Since the
heads are persistent, collection can be made into the
next spring. As heads begin to fall apart in the
early spring, they may be stripped onto canvas sheets.
Heads should be dried in well-ventilated trays until
they can be broken apart. Seeds should be extracted by
crushing the dried fruiting heads and removing the dust
and fine hairs that are attached to the individual seeds.
If the seeds are to be sown soon after collection, they
may be stored in a cool, well-ventilated place in open-
mesh bags or spread out on shelves. For storage longer
than 1 year, seeds should be dried to 1O to 15 percent
moisture and stored in air-tight containers at
-6° to + 14°C. Pregermination treatments are not
required. Normal germination of seeds from natural
populations varies between 40-60 percent. Only 1-2
percent of seeds, however, from self-pollination
germinated, indicating that the species is self-sterile.
SILVICULTURE
The seedlings grow slowly at first and it is
preferable not to plant them out untJ 1 they are at least
two years old. The tree can be raised successfully
from layers and cuttings, even large thick stakes
rooting successfully. In irrigated commercial planta-
tions in the Soviet Union, a planting density of
- 445 -
3 OOO stems/ha is recommended. It is important to do
deep soil cultivation before planting. In Iran,
£• orientalis is pruned every year in such a way that
2/3rds of the crown is left. In Greece P. orientalis
is considered as a species able to occupy any
available niche, due to its advantage of wide seed disse-
mination by wind. Moreover, the seeds can be carried
by water and are often deposited on mudflats or
sandbars, where conditions are favourable for germina-
tion.
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its natural range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Perhaps the high mortality caused in Platanus
plantations in Italy and France by Ceratocystis f ibri-
ata may be the reason to consider P. orientalis as an
endangered species. It is also true that Platanus is
continuously restricted in distribution, especially
by changing water courses, in order to use the water
for irrigation - also by the expansion of agriculture
to river banks where it grows. A variety named cretica
grows on the island of Crete. The variety is ever-
green and grows together with typical trees of
P. orientalis. This variety was known from the ancient
times since it is described by Theophrastus in his book
(Enquiry into Plants). Experiments have shown that it
is sensitive to low temperatures and can not grow
normally below - 5°C. In the north, when the tempera-
ture falls abruptly, it is severely damaged, losing
leaves, twigs and even the whole part of the tree
above ground. Depending upon the severity of the frost
- 446 -
it may regenerate from sprouts in the next spring*
Under greenhouse condition it grows well all the
winter. In Crete only 20-30 trees have been found of
this variety, which shows that it is under great danger
of becoming extinct.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
For the variety growing on Crete it is a matter of
urgency to protect the last trees of the natural
population. Preservation of this rare variety might
be important in breeding programmes of the genus
Platanus.
_ 447 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mossadegh, A Mini-monograph on Platanus oriental is L.
1979 in Iran. Technical Consultation on
Fast-Growing Plantation Broadleaved Trees
for Mediterranean and Temperate Zones,
Lisbon, Portugal 16-20 October 1979.
FO: FGB-79-8/2, June 1979, FAO.
Pane t sos, K. Comments given in letter to the Director,
1984 Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome,
dated 19 October 1984.
- 448 -
Platymenia foliolosa Benth.^
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Mimosoideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Vinhatico da mata, Vinhatico Rajado, VinhStico Amarelo,
Amarelinho, Amarelo, Pau Amarelo, Candeia, Paricazinho,
Oiteira, Pau de Candeia, Acende Candeia, VinhStico do
Campo, Vinhatico, Candeia de Folha Grande, Vinhatico
Cabeleira, Vinhatico pe de Boi.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A tall tree, reaching a height of 30 m and a diameter
of approximately 1 m.
Inflorescence
Flowers white or light yellow in rounded spikes,
penduncles short, shorter than the leaves, about
10 - 13 cm in length; flowering occurs in November
and December.
Fruit
Legume flat, redish brown, smooth, pointed, 15 to 25 cm
in length by 3.5 to 4.5 cm in width; stipe 2 - 3 cm
long. Fructification occurs in October and November.
Seeds covered by the endocarp which is subcoriaceous
and separated from the rest of the fruit; it has the
appearance of an elliptical wing, measuring 3.5 - 4.5
cm in length.
I/ Based on the work of R.Chiaranda, I.E.Pires and
M.Tomazello F°. Forestry Department, ESALQ/USP,
P.O.Box 9, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.
- 449 -
Foliage
Leaves compound, alternate, bipinnate, with 8 to 14
opposite pinnae and 11-19 folioles, alternate,
oblong-ovate to elliptical, meznbranaceous , emarginate,
varying from glabrous to slightly pilose, 10-20 mm
in length by 4 - 10 mm in width.
Branches: greyish, normally greenish with lenticels
that are not easily distinguishable*
Bark
Trunk straight, cylinder- shaped with small expansions
at the base. Bark hard, brownish, cracked in plates
or sheets, somewhat rectangular, loose on the upper
part of the tree.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood light, the heartwood varying from a golden-yellow
to burnt yellow or brownish yellow with a golden ton;
sapwood well defined, whitish-yellow; a very shiny
surface, moderate roughness to the touch, medium
texture; straight or irregular grain. Presents a
natural high resistance to rot.
The vinhatico wood, in experimental treatments using
pressure, revealed a low permeability to preservative
solutions. It has a low retractability and mechanical
resistance.
It is recommended for veneer sheets for decorative
covers, furniture, panels, topographic tripods, etc.
In civil construction it may be used for internal
- 450 -
finishings , for panel, frames, shutters etc. It is
still used in plywood production, naval constructions,
and for wine barrels, etc*
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The tree occurs in the Fluminense coast, in the "zona
da mata" of the State of Minas Gerais, in the valley
of the Rio Doce, in the North of the State of
Espirito Santo and Southern Bahia, where it is rare.
It also sporadically appears in other regions more to
the North, up to the State of Pernambuco.
SOILS AND CLIMATE
It occurs in the most diverse types of soil and
climate/ confer its wide geographical distribution.
The climate varies from a dry sub-humid tropical type
with periodical rains, to sub-tropical humid, with
annual precipitation up to 2 OCX) mm.
HABITAT
The species is found in the more humid zones of the
low altitude rainforest, as well as in the tropical
riparian forest, and in the mountain ridges of the
States of Pernambuco and Ceare, and on the "cerrados".
SEED HANDLING
Not recorded
SILVICULTURE
No results on growth are available frcn experiments carried out
with this species. In a mixed stand of native
species, planted in the State of Minas Gerais over
20 years ago, this species produces a straight trunK
- 451 -
with a diameter of over 20 cm, and a crown reaching
the superior layer of the forest.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
Due to the selective exploitation of all the
native species, and mainly those of economic value such
as this one, as well as the inability of natural rege-
neration, this species is undergoing a slow extinction.
This is evident in the coastal areas of the State
of Espirito Santo.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Five base populations have been established with
seeds collected from a total of 113 selected trees*
This work has been undertaken through a contract
between the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq) and the Programa
Nacional de Pesquisa Florestal (PNPF) in collaboration
with the Sociedade de Investigates Florestais (SIF).
A planting of a base population consisting of 403
trees in Aracruz - ES is reported.
- 452 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Associayab Paulista
de Normas Tecnicas.
1964
Boutelje,J.B.
1980
Correa, M.P.
1926
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Galvao,A.P.M.
1982
Golfari,L. ;
Caser,R.L. &
Moura,V.P.G.
1978
Heringer,E.P.4
Ferreira,M.B.
1972
Ikemori,y.K. &
Campinhos JR.,E.
1971
Kribs, D.A.
1970
Seminario de madeiras. Rio de
Janeiro. 258 p.
Encyclopedia of world timbers -
names and technical literature.
Stockholm, Swedish Forest Products
Research Laboratory. 398 p.
Dicionario das plantas uteis do
Brasfl. Brasilia, IBDF, 6 v.
Ensaio de i'ndice da flora dendro-
Idgica do Brasil. Arquivos do
Service Florestal, Sao Paulo,
2 (2) : 69-156.
Contribui9ao da EMBRAPA/IBDF -
PNPF para a pesquisa com especies
nativas e florestas naturais no
Brasil. Silvicultura em SSTo Paulo,
Sao Paulo, IbA (parte 1): 150-9.
Zoneamento esquematico para reflo-
restamento no Brasil. Se^rie tecni-
ca. PRODEPEF, Brasilia, (11):
1-66.
Arvores uteis do cerrado (I) -
Vinhatico. Cerrado, Brasilia,
5 (17) : 28-34.
Informa^oes preliminares sjobre o
comport amen to do jacaranda* da
Bahia, peroba-amarela, pau-ferro
e arariba*, na regiao costeira
do norte do Espfrito Santo. In:
Congresso Brasileiro de Florestas
Tropicais, Vicosa, 1971. Anais.
p. 425.
Commercial foreign woods on the
American Market. University Park,
Pennsylvania State University.
203 p.
- 453 -
Mainieri,C &
Pereira,J.A.
1965
Mainieri,C.
1978
Mainieri, C. ;
Chimelo,J.P &
Alfonso,
Pereira,A.J.
do R.et al.
1970
Ramalho,R.S.
1973
Record, S.J.&
Hess,R.W.
1949
Rizzini,C.T.
1971
Rizzini,C.T.
1979
Rizzini,C.T &
Mors, W.B,
1976
Trang,H.E. ;
Lana S7,
J.de P. &
Tosetti,L.D.
1982
Madeiras do Brasil: caracteriza9?o
macrtfscopica, usos comuns e fndices
qualitativos ffsicos e mecanicos.
Anuario brasileiro de economia florestal,
Rio de Janeiro, 17 (17): 1-282.
Ficha de caracterfsticas das madeiras
brasileiras. Sab Paulo, Institute de
Pesquisas Tecnologicas. 2v.
Manual de identif 1039^0 das principals
madeiras comerciais brasileiras. S3b
Paulo, Secretaria da Inaustria,
Comercio, Ciencia e Tecnologia. 24 p.
Caracteres tecnologicos de 25 especies
de madeiras do nordeste do Brasil.
Boletim de recursos naturais, Recife ,
H (1/2): 5-148.
Dendrologia: notas de aula. Vicosa, UFV.
95 p.
Timbers of new world. 4 ed. New Haven,
Yale university Press. 640 p.
Arvores e madeiras utais do Brasil:
manual de dendrologia brasileira. s£b
Paulo, Edgard Blucher, 294 p.
Tratado de fitogeografia do Brasil.
Sab Paulo, MUCITEC/EDUSP. 374 p.
Botanic a economica brasileira. SSo Paulo,
EPU/EDUSP. 207 p.
Parques Estaduais do Brasil, sua
caracterizaclfo e ess^ncias nativas mais
importantes. Silvicultura em SSb Paulo 9
Sab Paulo, 16A iparte 2): 1583-712.
- 454 -
Populus ilicifolia (Engl.)
Populus ilicifolia is the most puzzling species within
the Salicaceae. At first it was classified in a totally
different family, (Ulmaceae) , and described as a species
in the genus Celtis. Recently, there has been no doubt
whatever that it belongs to the Salicaceae family. It
has been recognized as a separate, monotypic genus
Tsavo Jarm.
SYNONYMS
Celtis illicifolia Engl. (1895)
Populus euphratica Oliv. subsp. denhardtiorum Engl. 0.898)
Populus denhardtiorum Dode (19O9)
Turanga illicifolia (Efcgl.) Kijnura (1938)
Balsamiflua illicifolia (Engl.) Kimura (1939)
Tsavo illicifolia (Engl.) Jantol (1949)
FAMILY
Salicaceae
VEFNACULAR NAMES
Kenya: Tana River Poplar; Malala; (Galla) ; Lalaf tu (Pok. ) ;
Mugai, Makini (Kamba) ; Siricha (Boni.) Gucuba
( Boran ) 9 Guduma ( Boran ) .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tall deciduous, riparian tree (7-) 15-27 m tall.
Crown columnar when young, later conical. Stem rough,
longitudinally fissured.
I/Based on the work of J.A.Odera (Forestry Research Dept., Konya
Agricultural Research Institute, Kikuyu, Kenya) ana Ms.C.Kabuye
(East African Herbarium, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya),
- 455 -
Inflorescence
Male catkins 8-10 f lowers/ up to 2.5 cm long, arising
from previous year's growth: flowers with about 30
stamens and a deeply laciniate membranous disc.
Female catkins 4-14 flowered, on terminate short 1-3
leaved shoots, up to 2.5 cm long, arising from previous
year's shoots. Ovary grey, tomentose and sessile on the
2-3 partite or filiform segmented disc; stigmas 2-fid.
Fruit
A capsule, ovoid 7 - 15 mm long and 4 -8 mm wide with
pedicel up to 7 mm, glabrous; surface rough with pale
lenticels visible, longitudinally 4-furrowed; splitting
along furrows into 2-4 valves. When the seed is ripe
the whole branchlet with 2 leaves and 2-5 capsules is
shed.
Foliage
Leaves ovate or elliptic (linear on seedlings, young
plants and coppice shoots), deeply toothed up to 7.6 cm
long (usually to 5.0 cm) and 3.2 cm broad, acute or
rounded at apex, cuneate to truncate at base; margin
coarsely and acutely toothed; lamina coriaceous,
somewhat glaucous and with 2 glands at base; petiole
slender to 3.8 cm long and usually twisted so that the
leaves hang vertically.
Bark
Smooth and white becoming dark and rough with deep
fissures.
- 456 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Timber dark brown, soft and white, somewhat coarse. It
seasons well and is easy to work. The logs are favoured
for dug-out canoes.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Kenya: Tana, Athi and Uaso Nyiro River systems; from
sea level to 1 2OO m. Four large trees of unknown
history have been reported along the Nyando river
basin in western Kenya. In Tanzania it occurs in the
Ruvu river systems.
CLIMATE
Annual rainfall c. 250 mm.
SOILS
(1) Alluvial, sandy
(2) Grey-brown, sandy mud.
HABITAT
Riparian, with Acacia, Ficus, Antidesma and Borassus
spp. appearing in patches.
SEED HANDLING
Not recorded
SILVICULTURE
Reported cultivated in Tanzania, N.Kiria village, Ruvu
rivers, Same District in the 1960's.
- 457 -
STATUS
Endangered , only known from a few very scattered
localities.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Clearing of vegetation. Most of the seeds get washed
away during floods. Seeding is in October while the
highest floods come in November.
In Kenya the irrigation and settlement programmes along
the Uaso-Nyiro, Tana and Athi river basins pose a
looming threat to this species.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
No recorded protective measures have been taken.
Protective measures proposed:
(1) Detailed local surveys of existing sites are
needed to assess population sizes so that
conservation measures can be formulated.
(2) Protection of the existing trees.
(3) Protection of the habitat.
(4) Bringing the species Into cultivation.
- 458 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Browicz,K. Populus illicifolia (Engler) Rouleau
1966 and its taxonomic position. Acta
Societatis Botanicum Poloniae
35 (2): 325-335.
Dale,I.R.&
Greenway, P.J.
1961
Kenya Trees and Shrubs. Hatchards,
London.
In Preparation
Flora of Tropical East Africa,
Salicaceae (Typescript) .
- 459 -
Prosopis cineraria (L.) ^-'
SYNONYMS
Prosopis spicigera L. (1753)
FAMILY
Leguminosae subf am. Mimosoideae .
VERNACULAR NAMES
Jand, Khejiri, Shami (India); Thand, Kandi, Jandi
(Pakistan); Ghaf (Arabia).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Small to medium-sized, deciduous, spiny tree, 5-9 m
high, with crooked trunk up to 30 cm in diameter; thin,
open crown of many irregular branches, and large very
deep taproot; leafless for a short time before
flowering or locally evergreen.
Inflorescence
Flower clusters (spikelike racemes) appearing after the
new leaves, several along each stalk at the leaf base,
5-13 cm long. Flowers many, almost sessile f small,
5 mm long, yellow, glabrous, composed of a short cuplike
calyx 1 mm long, corolla of 5 narrow petals 3.5 mm
long, becoming reflexed; with 10 separate, threadlike,
spreading stamens 5 mm long, and pistil with a cylind-
rical glabrous ovary, long threadlike style, and
inconspicuous stigma.
- 460 -
Fruit
Fruits or pods (legumes) short-stalked, beanlike,
narrow, almost cylindrical, 8-9 cm long, 4-7 mm diameter,
slightly narrowed between seeds, long-pointed at apex;
with thin brittle wall and mealy sweetish pulp, not
dehiscing. Seeds several, bean-shaped, 6 mm long,
flattened.
Foliage
Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, glabrous or
sparsely hairy, with main axis 0.5-4 cm long and 1-3
pairs of side branches (pinnae), 2-7 cm long. Leaflets
7-14 pairs on each side of axis, stalkless; narrowly
oblong, 4-15 mm long, 2-4.5 mm broad, straight or
slightly curved, ending in a short sharp point, with
midvein on side and without side veins, grey-green.
Bark
Ash grey, rough thick, with deep long furrows and
horizontal cracks.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood with thick sapwood and smaller irregular masses
of purplish-brown heartwood, heavy (sp.gr . 1 . 15) , fine-
textured, straight-grained, with small to medium-sized
pores and growth rings, very hard, tough. Easy to
work but not durable, susceptible to dry rot and
insects. An excellent fuelwood, preferred locally for
cooking and heating. Used also in locomotives and
river steamers. Produces high-quality charcoal.
Wood is used for house construction, posts, tool
handles, boat frames, and occasionally for furniture,
though trunks often have poor form.
- 461 -
Other Uses
Gum exuding from wounds in bark not used. Pods are
valued for fodder or forage. Branches also cut or
lopped for forage. Species is locally classed among
the best browse plants for cattle, sheep, goats and
camels. Mealy nutritious pulp of immature pods is
high in protein. It can be ground and eaten raw or
boiled to enrich the diet.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Arid regions of southwestern Asia from northwestern
India (Punjab, West Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh)
to dry parts of central and southern India, also
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Arabia. At low altitudes,
Not widely introduced elsewhere.
CLIMATE
Dry tropical with long dry seasons and hot winds.
Plants withstand both slight frost (-6°C minimum) and
high temperatures (4O-5O°C maximum) . Annual rainfall
75-85O mm.
SOILS
Soils vary from alluvial and course sands often
alkaline (as high as pH 9.8) to moderately saline,
dry stony, and black cotton soil.
HABITAT
Species is scattered in rocky uplands or found pure or
mixed with other species in open groves in the
tropical thorn forest. Where rainfall is less than
25 mm plants are confined to stream banks.
- 462 -
SEED HANDLING
About 25 OOO seeds/kg. The seeds require soaking in
water 24 hours prior to sowing. They remain viable for
decades.
SILVICULTURE
P. cineraria reproduces freely by root suckers and
establishes well from seed. The tree has been seeded
directly in the field with success. However, it would
be better to sow it in a nursery and transplant it to
the field when 2-3 months old. Young trees should be
planted in spring immediately after the last frost-free
date or at the onset of the rainy season.
STATUS
Endangered in parts of its geographical range.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Increasing human pressure and changing land-use
patterns.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Is one of the species included in the FAO/IBPGR Project
on Genetic Resources of Arid and Semi-Arid Zone
Arboreal Species for the Improvement of Rural Living.
Seed collections for evaluation and conservation have
been made in India and PDR Yemen. Action towards
AH 8itu conservation in PDR Yemen has been taken
recently.
- 463 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cossalter, C.
1985
FAO
1980
Little, E.L. jr.
1983
N.A.S.
1980
Palmberg, C.
1981
Proposition pour la conservation de
ressources genetiques de Prosopis
cineraria en Republique Danocratique et Populaire
Du Yenen. CTTT/FAO.
Genetic Resources of Tree Species in
Arid and Semi-Arid Areas. Based on the
work of F.B.Armitage, P.A.Joustra and
B.Ben Salem. FAO, Rome.
Common Fuelwood Crops.
Communi-Tech Associates , Morgantown,
West Virginia.
Firewood Crops - Shrub and Tree
Species for Energy Production. National
Academy of Sciences , Washington, D.C.
A Vital Fuelwood Gene Pool is in Danger.
Unasvlva, 33 (133): 22-30.
- 464 -
Pseudotsuga gausseni Flons —
SYNONYMS
Pseudotsuga sinensis auct. non Dode
FAMILY
Pinaceae
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An evergreen coniferous tree, up to 40 m in height and
1 m in diameter.
Fruit
Cone globular, ovoid 4 to 5 cm long by 3 to 4 cm wide.
Scales large. Bracts curved with a short median point,
3 to 4 mm long. Seed winged, rounded at the top. Cone
matures in October.
Foliage
Leaf rounded, notched at the top, straight or slightly
falcate, not persistent; 2O to 30 mm in length, on
pubescent twigs.
Bark
Bark dark-grey, fissured into irregular plates.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The wood is considered as rot-resistant and of a
superior quality. Sapwood is light brown, heartwood is
reddish brown, grain is straight. Normally used for
construction and furniture.
I/ FA(F acknowledge" the assistance of Pan Chlh Kang.
The Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing,
China.
- 465 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Localized in eastern China in the provinces of Chekiang
and Ngan-Hoei (at elevations between 1 500-2 800 m in
eastern Szechuan and north-eastern Yunan, 100 - 1 500 m
in Anhwei and Chekiang Province) .
SOILS
Normally found on acid, yellow mountain soils.
HABITAT
In mixed coniferous/broad leaved forests together with
Pinus hwangshanensis , Fagus spp. and Tsuga spp.
STATUS
Endangered
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
In need of basic research programmes on distribution
and genetical variation.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 466 -
F1OUS, F.
1936
Esp^ces Nouvelles de Pseudotsuga
Asiatiques. Extrait du Bulletin
de la Societe d'Histoire
Naturelle de Toulouse. 2 (13):
1-3.
In Chinese;
Agendae Academiae
Sinicae
Edita, 1978
Flora Reipublicae Popularis
Sinicae ^omus 1, p. 101-102,
Cheng Wan-Chun
1982
Sylva sinica Vol. 1 p. 199-201,
- 467 -
Pseudotsuga sinensis Dode.-
SYNONYMS
Keteleeria fortune! Carr. (1855)
FAMILY
Pinaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Chinese Douglas Fir
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A tree about 50 m in height and 1 m in girth; young
shoots reddish-brown at first/ becoming grey with age,
covered with minute hairs.
Fruit
Cone ovoid, cylindrical, composed of about 20 rounded
scales, thick, woody and large, each subtended by a
3 - clef t exserted, reflexed bract. Seed 2-2.5 cm long,
including the wing.
Foliage
Leaves, 2 - 2i cm long, light green above and
whitish beneath; upper surface furrowed from the base
to apex, lower surface with a raised midrib.
Bark
Deeply furrowed bark, dark grey colour, twisted,
fibrous , fissured .
I/FAO acknowledge the assistance of Pan Chih Kang, The
Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beij ing, China.
-468 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The quality of wood is superior; sapwood is light brown,
heartwood is reddish brown. The timber is used for
construction, boat-building and furniture.
Specific gravity: O.6.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In China in the provinces of Chekiang and Anhwei. It
is usually found at elevations between 800-1 20O m in
western Hupeh, Hunan province; 1 5OO-2 8OO m in
south-west Szechuan and central Yunan.
CLIMATE
Warm and humid. P sinensis can endure drought during
spring and winter.
SOILS
The tree normally grows on red mountain soils, yellow
soils or brown forest soils, also on limestone
formations.
HABITAT
Nixed coniferous broadleaved forest.
STATUS
This is a rare species, even in its nature habitat.
No specimens are Known in the west.
- 469 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dallimore,W.&
A.B.Jackson
1966
Lee,S.C.
1935
A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgonceae
(Rev. S.G.Harrison) Edward Arnold
(Publishers) London.
Forest Botany of China. The Commercial
Press, Limited, Shanghai, China.
In Chinese:
Cheng Wan-Chun Sylva Sinica - vol. 1 p. 199.
1982
Agendae
Academiae
Sinica Edita
1978
Flora Reipublicae Popularis
Sinicae - Tomus 7 p. 97-101.
- 470 -
Pterogyne nitens Tul.—
SYNONYMS
Machaerium pseudotipe Griseb. (1879)
Tipuana pseudotipa Griseb. (1879)
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Caesalpinioideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Amend oim bravo, candeirao, madeira nova, 6leo branco,
pau amende im, pau de fava, madeira nova, carne de vaca,
viraro , jacutinga .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree of medium size and crooked bole, with a grey
rough, lenticellate bark, about 10 mm thick, and with a
bitter taste; crown with round ascending branches.
Inflorescence
An axillary panicle made up of 3 racemes of small
flowers, with yellow, pubescent peduncles, brown at the
base, white on top, with a deciduous bract at the
insertion of each pedicel. Flowering occurs from
January to March.
Fruit
A winged achene with the pedicel on the seminiferous
thick side; the wing is connate to the pericarp by an
oblique slit. The back side of the seed has protruding
I/ Based on the work of M.L. Marques, M.Tonazello F and I.E.Pires.
Forestry Dept., ESALQ/USP,P,0 Box 9,Piracicaba, SP,Brazil.
- 471 -
ribs; the wing also has curved ribs. Ripening takes
place from May to June. It is generally recognized
that seeds must be collected from April to May.
According to some authorithies the best harvest season
is, however, the month of August. Seed elliptical,
long, dark yellow.
Foliage
Leaves alternate, pinnate, with 6 pairs of alternate
folioles, petiole sulcate in the upper part, with a
strong pulvinus at the base; short petloled folioles,
oblong, entire, shiny above and opaque below,
with protruding ribs and veins.
Branches: Grey, round, wrinkled and lenticellate.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy with a dark beige-pink or uniform light
brown heartwood; distinct sapwood, slightly yellow to
'light beige; with a shiny uniform surface; grain
straight to irregular; medium texture; slight odor in
the sapwood layer; a slightly astringent taste. Mode-
rate natural resistance to rot. As the heartwood of
amendoim wood presents veins that are partially
obstructed by oil-resin that reduce the lumen of the
fibers/ it probably has a low permeability to
preservative solutions under pressure.
The amendoim wood is recommended for fine furniture,
veneers for lambrins, interior decorating, etc., as well
as in civil construction for beams, rafters, laths,
tiles and boards for floors etc. It has a low retracti-
bility, a handsome appearance and a medium mechanical
resistance. It is also recommended for the construction
of truck bodies, the interior of railway wagons,
- 472 -
agricultural implements, etc. It is widely used in the
manufacturing of large barrels, water kegs and tanks
for drinks, and also for tanks for acid solutions.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
This species occurs in Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil
(from the state of Ceara to the state of ParanS,
reaching the Central-eastern region) .
HABITAT
P.nitens grows in the dry deciduous forests of the
"sertoes" where there is a well defined dry season.
As indicated by its wide distribution, this species
occurs in several soil and climatit conditions.
SEED HANDLING
The fruit stays on the tree for a long period. For
time of seed collection, see above. When stored in
the open it is frequently attacked by fungi and should
be treated accordingly. A 75* germination after 45
days storage in the open has been observed. The
germination period is from 3 to 47 days after sowing.
Germination at 10 days after sowing without breaking
seed dormancy Is resported; and a 5JS germination
for untreated seeds. According to several authors
1 kg contains approximately 5 500 seeds.
SILVICULTURE
An average height growth of 0.68 m for a one year old
provenance trial set up in Pedernelras - SP Is
recorded. In Sao Simao - SP a height growth of 9.02 m,
a DBH of 10.71 cm and a survival of 94.7* for a stand
established In 1968 was reported In 1982.
- 473 -
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
The tree has been very much in demand, as its wood has
characteristics that are very favourable for industrial
use. The species is becoming rare, because of
continued exploitation in the areas of natural
occurrence.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The CNPq/PNPF with the collaboration of IFSP, maintains
4 base populations and 10O selected trees. The
"Institute Florestal de sSb Paulo" (IFSP) established
a trial in Pederneiras in 1981 using 4 provenances
and 36 progenies, and has observed a high genetic
variation.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Associayab Paulista Seminario de madeiras. Rio de
de Normas T^cnicas, Janeiro. 258 p.
1964
Barbosa,J.M.
1982
Biella,L.C.&
Cape lanes fT.M.C.
1984
Boutel je, J.B.
1980
Kribs,D.A.
1970
Fraga,M.V.G.
1946
Galvao,A.P.M.
1982
Gurgel Filho,
O.A. et al.
1963
Gurgel Filho, 0. A.;
Moraes,L.T.&
Moraes,E.
1982
Germinapao de Sementes de 7^essencias
nativas. Silvicultura em Sao Paulo,
Sao Paulo, vol. 16A (parte 1);
322-328 p.
Produ^ab e Tecnologia de Sementes de
Especies Florestais Nativas na
Companhia Energetica de Sab Paulo.
In: 1? Simpdsio Brasileiro Sobre
Tecnologia de Semen Tes Florestais,
Belo Horizonte.
Encylopaedia of world timbers names
and technical literature. Stockholm,
Swedish Forest Products Research
Laboratory 398 p.
Commercial foreign woods on the
American Market. University Park,
Pennsylvania State University. 203 p.
Ensaio de i'ndice da flora dendrolo-
gica do Brasil. Arquivos do Servi$o
Florestal. 2(2): 69-156.
Contribuiffao de EMBRAPA/IBDF-PNPF -
para a pesquisa com especies nativas
florestais naturais no Brasil^.
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo, Sab Pauloy
vol. 16A (parte Dp. 150-159'
Fenoloqia e comportamento em Alfobre
de especies florestais e ornamentals.
Silvicultura em Sao Paulo, Sab Paulo,
vol.1, p. 291-304.
Caracteres Silviculturais e compe-
ti<jao entre espcTcies folhosas.
Silvicultura em S<To Paulo, Sab Paulo,
vol. 16A (parte 2); p. 895-900.
- 475 -
Jesus, R.M. ;
Menandro,M.J. &
Rodr iques f F . C . M . P ,
1984
Mainieri, C.
1958
Mainieri, C.&
Pereira, J.A.
1965
Mainieri, C.
1970
Mainieri, C.
1978
Mainieri, C.;
Chimelo, J.P. &
Alfonso, V.A.
1983
Nogueira,J.C.B.
et.al.
1982
Nogueira, J.C.B.
et.al.
1983
Tecnologia e prodi^ao de especies
florestais nativas desenvolvidas na
floresta Rio Doce S/A. 1? Simposio
Brasileiro Sobre Tecnologis de
Semen Tes Florestais.
Identif icacjao das principals madeiras
de comercio no Brasil. Boletim IPT,
Sab Paulo, (46) : 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil: caracterizapao
macroscopica, usos comuns e indices
qualitativos fi'sicos e me c an i cos,
Anuario brasileiro de economia
florestal, Rio de Janeiro 17 (17):
1-282.
Madeiras brasileiras: caracteristicas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrencia,
dados botanicos e usos. Sao Paulo,
Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado
de Sao Paulo. 109 p.
*
Ficha de caracteristicas das
madeiras brasileiras: Sao Paulo, IPT.
v. 1. 197 p. Institute de Pesquisas
Tecnologica do Estado de Sao Paulo.
Manual de identif ica9?o das
principajs madeiras comerciais
brasileiras. Sab Paulo, Secretaria
da Industria, Comercio, Ciencia e
Tecnologia. 241 p.
Conserva9<ao genetica de Essencias
nativas atrav^s de ensaios de
Progenie eprocedencia. Silvicultura
em Sab Paulo, Sab Paulo, Campos do
Jordao, vol. 16A (parte 2): 957-969p.
Conservajab genetica de essencias
nativas atraves de ensaios de
progenies e procedencias.
Silvicultura, Sao Paulo, 8 (28):
391-397.
Pazstor,Y.P.C,
1983
Pickel,J.B.
1953
Metodos usados na colheita de
Sementes. Silvicultura em Sao Paulo,
Sab Paulo, vol. 1. p. 3O3-323.
As principals arvores que dab
madeira, m^todo pratico para o seu
reconhecimento. Anuario brasileiro
de economia florestal, Rio de
Janeiro 6 (6): 58-86.
Pickel,J.B.
1955
Record, S.J.&
Hess,R.W.
1949
Rizzini,C.T.
1979
Rizzini,C.T. &
Mors, W.B.
1976
As principals a'rvores que dab
madeira: metodo pratico para seu
reconhecimento. Anuario brasileiro
de economja florestal, Rio de
Janeiro, 8 (8) : 16-87.
Timbers of new world. 4 ed. New
Haven, Yale University Press.
640 p.
Tratado de f itogeograf ia do Brasil.
Sao Paulo, fluatec/Ed.
Universidade de Sab Paulo. 274 p.
Botanica Economica Brasileira.
Sab Paulo, EPU/Ed. Universidade
de Sao Paulo. 2O7 p.
- ^77 -
Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl.—
FAMILY
Anacardiaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Barauna, brauna.
BOTANICAL DISCRIPTION
General
One of the largest trees found in the semi-arid region
of Northeastern Brazil. There are trees from 12 to
2Om in height and from 30 to 60 cm in diameter.
Inflorescence
In panicles of white, small flowers, occuring from
November to December and November to February.
Fruit
A samara or drupe of light brown colour, measuring 3O
to 40 mm in length.
Foliage
Leaf petiolate, subcoriaceous, dark green on the upper
surface and light coloured on the under side, with 10
pairs of oblong folioles, tip obtuse and oblique-acute
at the base.
Bark
The bark is approximately 17.0 mm thick with a dead
external layer, rough, rigid, light grey to black.
I/ Based on the work of I.E.Pires and C.E.S.Nascimento,
EMBRAPA/CPATSA, P.O.Box 23, Petrolina, PE, Brazil.
When injured it shows a resinous exudate, which is
transparent and without odor.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Hard and heavy, with a brownish-yellow colour, becoming
dark brown with age and when exposed to air. The
presence of resin and tannin renders a large durability
when it is submitted to adverse conditions.
The wood is appropriate for construction, rafters,
pillars, beams, sleepers, fuel, charcoal, etc.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
A species typical of the "Sertao" and "Agreste" of the
state of Pernambuco and Bahia. It has been found in
the states of Paraiba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceara and
Piaui. Trees are generally found in the "caatingas"
of Northeastern Brazil.
CLIMATE
The climate where barauna grows is dry
sub-humid tropical to dry tropical, where
the dry period may reach up to 12 months, with a water
deficit reaching a level of 1 3OO mm.
SOILS
This species is found in all soil types with the
exception of those that are deep and sandy,' preference
for deep and fertile soils has also been noted.
HABITAT
The tree thrives best in the high lands of the
"caatinga", and does not appear in pure formations;
- 479 -
It is found mixed with species such as
Astronium sp. Tabebuia sp. Caesalpinia ap.
Ziziphus sp. and Bombax sp.
SEED HANDLING
Little information is available; however, it is
known that the seeds are susceptible to borer
attacks while stlil on the tree. Studies are
required on the physiological maturation. The
seeds present coat dormancy which will also need
to be studied. The weight of 1OOO seeds is
about 106 g.
SILVICULTURE
This species is normally not planted. A review
of the forest experiments in the Northeast and
other studies under semi -arid conditions, show
an average survival of approximately 6OJ(, with
a very slow growth.
The seedlings are raised by employing traditional
methods. The seed dormancy causes delay and
irregular germination.
STATUS
S. brasiliensis is suffering a slow decline.
The studies underway on the species are limited
to studying its behaviour in pure stands.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
In situ conservation is highly recommended.
Studies of the reproductive system and the
establishment of base populations should also
be undertaken to preserve the genetic variation
and to provide reproductive material.
- 480 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Braga,R.
1976
Brune, A.
1975
Brune, A,
1981
Corr£a, M.P.
1926
Golfari,L &
Caser, R.L.
1977
Lima, D.de A.
s.d.
Lima, J.L.S.de
1982
Lima,P.C.F. ;
Souza,S.M.de &
Drumond,M.A.
1982
Plantas do nordeste, ^especialmente do
Ceara", 3 ed. Mossoro", Escola Superior de
Agricultura. 540 p.
Preservapao das reservas geneticas de
a'rvores nativas brasileiras. Brasil
florestal, Rio de Janeiro, (24): 19-21.
de populaqoes base de
espefcies florestais. Documentos.
EMBRAPA/URPFCS, Curitiba: 1-9.
Dicionario das plantas liteis do Brasil
e das ex6ticas cultivadas. Rio de ^
Janeiro, Service de Informa9ao Agricola.
v, 1 p. 127, 326.
Zoneamento ecologico da regiefo nordeste
para experimenta9§b f lores tal. Se'rJe
t^cnica. PRODEPKF, Brasilia, (10):
1-116.
Contribution to the study of the flora
of Pernambuco, Brazil. New York. 154 p.
(Tese - Mestrado - State University of
New York).
Reconheciznento de trinta e species
arboreas e arbustivas da caatinga. atrr\-
ves da morfologia da casca. Recife. 144p.
(Tese - Mestrado - UFRPE) .
Competi9ab de especies florestais nativas
em Petrolina - PE. Silvicultura em Sab
Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2):
1139-48.
Noraes,G.J. Insetos associados a sementes de
de et al. forrageiras e essehcias florestais no
1981 trcfpico semi-alrido do Brasil. Pesquisa
em andamento. EMBRAPA, Petrolina (11):
i-2.
- 481 -
Silva, H.B. da Comportamento de essencias florestais nas
et alii regioes air Ida e semi-arida do nordeste
198O (resultados preliminares) . Documentos
EMBRAPA/DID, Brasilia: 1-25.
Souza,S.M.de & Caracterizagao de sementes de algumas
Lima,P.C.F. especies florestais nativas do nordeste*
1982 Silvicultura em Sab Paulo, Sao Paulo,
16A (parte 2) : 1156-67.
Tigre,C.B. Estudos de silvicultura especializada do
1976 nordeste. Messo'ro, Escola Superior de
Agricultura. 176 p.
Vasconcelos As regioes naturais do nordeste, o meio
Sobrinho, J, e a civiliza^ab. Recife, Conselho do
1970 uesenvolvimento de Pernambuco. 441 p.
- 482 -
Stuhlmannia Moavi Taub.-'
SjBoavi is the only known species of the genus.
FAMILY
Leguminosae Subfam. Caesalpinioideae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Tanzania: Mkwizingi
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Tree 7.5 - 9 m high, apparently evergreen. Young
branchlets tomentellous.
Inflorescence
Racemes 9 - 13 cm long (up to 20 cm in fruit) ; outside
of calyx with a dense t omen tell us brownish indumentum
like that of the branchlets, also with some scattered
round red sessile glands in addition. Petals yellow,
unguiculate, obovate - spathulate, 1.6 - 2 cm long
and 6 - 9 mm wide. Pods obliquely oblanceolate + 5 cm
long and 2 cm wide, olive-brown, glabrous and rather
glossy. Seeds broadly obovate to elliptic, + 14 mm
long and 10 mm wide, brown and glossy.
Foliage
Leaves with a petiole (0.6 - )1-1.7 cm long, rhachis
(3.5 - ) 6 - 12 cm long, at first with a sparse
indumentum like that of the branchlets. Leaflets
I/Based on the work of J.A.Odera (Forestry Res. Dept.,
~~ Kenya Agric. Research Institute, Kikuyu, Kenya) and
Ms.C.Kabuye (East African Herbarium, National Museums
of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya) .
- 483 -
3-5 (-6) pairs, ovateelliptic to elliptic, usually
with a subrhombic tendency. 2.5 - 9 (-12.5) cm long and
1.3- 5 -6. 5 cm wide, obtuse to rounded at apex,
asymmetric at base, glabrous (except on midrib when
young); venation prominent on both surfaces.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Pangani District in Tanzania (Mkwaja, Mkaramo,
Wachenya, 23 Nov., 1955).
CLIMATE
The mean annual rainfall varies widely, from 32 - 24O
cm a year. There is a long dry spell with rain
restricted to the period from November to May.
HABITAT
Lowland dry evergreen and riverine forests of the
Pangani area in Tanzania.
SILVICULTURE
Not recorded
STATUS
Endangered
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Settlement and clearing of forests.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
The forests in which the species occurs are in the
Central Government Reserve. Research is required to
study and document:
1. the flora and ecology of the region,
2. the requirements of the species so that it can be
brouaht into cultivation.
- 484 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brenan,J.P.M.
1967
Leguminosae sub-family Caesalpi-
nioideae. In Milne - Redhead, E.&
Polhill, R.M. (eds.) .
Flora of Tropical East Africa.
Crown Agents, London.
Brenan, J.P.M. &
Greenway, P.J.
1949
Polhill, R.M.
1968
Check lists of the Forest Trees and
Shrubs of the British Empire,
Tanganyika Territory, No. 5, Imp.
Forestry Institute Oxford.
Conservation of Vegetation, in
Africa South of the Sahara by Inga
and Olov Hedberg (eds.).
Acta phytogeogr. suec.
- 485 -
Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart.) Standl.—
SYNONYMS
Tecoma impetiginosa Mart (1845)
Tebebuia impetiginosa (Mart, ex DC.) Tol. (1952)
FAMILY
Bignoniaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Pau d'arco, ip£-roxo, pau d'arco-roxo, ipe-una,
ipe-preto, pau d'arco-rosa.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A tree which reaches 8 to 1O meters in height when
isolated; in the forest it reaches a height up to 30m
with a 100 en diameter. The crown is long and
irregular , always reaching the dominant stratum; the
trunk is generally straight.
Inflorescence
In clusters of ordinate triads in sub-umbellate panicles
the axes branch out dichotomously, and are thick and
heavily covered with a yellow-white layer which also
covers the pedicels and the calyx; bracts yellow-pilose,
generally deciduous; calyx, bellshaped, scaly, tomentose,
5 to 8 mm in length; corolla pink-violet, 6 to 7 cm in
length; ovary elliptical, 3 to 5 mm in length.
Flowering begins in September; or earlier in July to
August. Fructification occurs in September.
I/ Based on the work of I.E.Pires and C.E.S.Nascimento,
EMBRAPA/CPATSA 23, Petrolina, PE, Brazil.
- 486 -
Fruit
A long linear, coriaceous, pointed, capsule reasuring
25 to 3O cm in length and 15 to 20 run in width.
Foliage
The leaves are opposite, digitate, large, with 5
pubescent folioles; coriaceous, oblong-ovate, with a
rounded base and shortly wedged apex, margin entire,
somewhat pubescent; lateral ribs 6 to 10 nun apart,
measuring 8 to 22 mm in length and 4 to 12 in width.
Bark
2 to 3 cm in thickness, rigid, dark brown on the
outside and inside, with lengthwise furrows and trans-
verse fissures, with no detaching plaques. The bark
is bitter, astringent and mucilaginous.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Light brown to dark greyish-brown in colour, very heavy
and hard, resistant to adverse conditions; the sanwood
is light brown. The specific gravity is 1.083.
Wood is used for carved pieces, construction, hydraulic
projects, sleepers, fence posts, pillars, etc.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
It grows from Piaui to SSo Paulo, and is found in the
region of "Cariri* in Gear? and on the "cerrados" of
central Brazil.
CLIMATE
This tree grows from a humid sub-tropical climate, with
periodical rains, to an arid tropical climate subject
to prolonged dry periods of up to 12 months.
- 487 -
SOILS
The tree has a preference for deeper aluvial soils in
gallery forests/ ridges and tablelands; it is rarely
found in shallow rocky soils.
HABITAT
In Ceara and Rio de Janeiro it is found in the rain
forest, while in Minas Gerais it is found in forest, as
well as on pasture land, as solitary trees. There
exists no pure natural stands and it is usually found
among other species such as Astronium s£., Anadenanthera
S£. and Torresia S£,, etc.
SEED HANDLING
The seeds are winged and easily dispersed by the wind.
This requires care in collecting them before the fruits
open. When stored in the open germination percentage
is reduced by 30% within 6 months. However, when
stored in cold chambers, the germination percentage
is maintained above 70% up to 7 months. Germination
takes place during a period of 15 days.
SILVICULTURE
This species is normally not cultivated on a commercial
scale but is frequently grown as an ornamental tree
(for parks and avenues). Its growth in pure stands is
slow, but satisfactory when compared to the majority
of native species. It presents a high survival rate
even in regions where there is a high water deficit
e.g. in Petrolina - PE.
- 488 -
STATUS
The species is suffering a slow decline.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
No measures have been taken at present either for
ex situ nor iri situ conservation. The studies underway
on this species are limited to studying the behaviour
of trees in pure stands. In situ preservation is
highly recommended. Studies of the reproductive
system and the establishment of base populations is
also recommended, to preserve the genetic variation
and to provide reproduction material.
- 489 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Braga, R.
1976
Brunef A.
1975
Brune, A*
1981
Correa, M.P.
1974
Gofari, L. &
Caser, R.L.
1977
Golfari,L. ;
Caser , R.L. &
MourarV.P.G.
1978
Lima, P.C.F.;
Souza,S.M.de &
Drumond,M.A.
1982
Rizzini,C.T.
1971
Souza,S.M.de;
Pires,I.E.a
Lima,P.C.F.
1980
Tigre, C,B.
1976
Plantas do nordeste, especialmente do
Ceara''. 3.ed. Mossoro, Escola Superior de
Agricultura. 540 p.
das reservas geneticas de
arvores nativas brasileiras. Brasil
florestal, Rio de Janeiro, (24): 19-21.
Implantacab de popula9oes base de especies
florestais. Documentos EMBRAPA/URPFCS ,
Curitiba: 1-9.
Dicionario das plantas utei«5 do Brasil e
das exoticas cultivadas. Rio de Janeiro,
IBDF. v. 5 385 p.
Zoneamento ecologico da regiao nordeste
para experimenta9ab florestal. Se'rie
tecnica. PRODEPEF, Belo Horizonte, (10):
116 p.
Zoenamento ecologico esquema tico para
re f lores tamento no Brasil. Se'rie tecnica.
PRODEPFF, Belo Horizonte, (11): 66 p.
Competigao de especies florestais nativas
em Petrolina - PE. Silvicultura em Sao
Paulo, Sao Paulo, 16A (parte 2): 1139-48
Arvores e madeiras uteis do Brasil:
Manual de dendrologia brasileira. Sao
Paulo, Edgard Blucher. 294 p.
Inf luencia da ambalagem e condi9Ses de
armazenamento na longevidade de sementes
florestais. Bol«tim de pesquisa.
EMBRAPA/CPATSA, Petrolina, (2): 15-24.
Estudos de Silvicultura especializada no
nordeste. Mossoro. Escoia Superior
de Agricultura. 176 p.
Taiwania cryptomerioides Hayata-
This species strongly resembles Cryptomeria in its
growth habit*
FAMILY
Taxodiaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Taiwan-Sah (Japan)
Taiwania (English in Taiwan)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An evergreen coniferous tree with a conical form, up to
60 m in height and 2-3 m in diameter, with a clear bole
up to 20 m.
-Fruit
Cones small, terminal on the young twigs, cylindrical,
composed of 12-2O scales; mature cones 10-12 mm long
and 3-6 mm wide, tapering at the base, brown in
colour; seeds winged or samara- like, oblong, two under
each scale.
Foliage
Leaves dimorphic, scale-like on the older branches
imbricate and incurved, and short needled, falcate or
subulate, on young branches, with an acute apex and
broad base; leaves arranged opposite in alternate pairs,
pale green in colour.
I/ FAO acknowledge the assistance of Pan Chin Kang.
"" (The Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry,Beij ing, China).
- 491 -
Bark
Bark greyish brown with very long longitudinal furrows,
breaking off into long narrow strips.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The wood is considered to be moderately strong and to
some extent resistant to termites. The timber is very
easy to operate with tools and machines and is princi-
pally used for general construction and furniture, it is
especially good for products of saw-timber and veneer.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
A native of Taiwan, China, and possibly North Burma.
HABITAT
In Taiwan, China, it is found in the central mountain
ranges. There it usually occurs at elevations
between 1 800 m and 2 600 m and is usually found in
scattered stands mixed with cypresses and hardwoods*
SEED HANDLING
Normally a low germination rate, ranging from 11 to 18%
(Taiwan) . Germination after 24-26 days.
SILVICULTURE
In Taiwan, China, it is recommended that a heavy grade
first thinning should be carried out at about the age
of 14 years, when the stands appear too dense in crown
cover. Five years after first thinning, another
thining of moderate grade should be carried out again.
The rotation age ranges from 60 to 80 years.
- 492 -
STATUS
Endangered in certain areas.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Large scale clear-cuttings during the past several
decades (Taiwan) .
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
In Taiwan, China, recommendations to preserve
T. cryptomerioides have been made.
- ^93 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hung, L.P Study on Stand Growth of Taiwania Planta-
1974 tions Established by Testing Planting in
Different Forest Districts in Taiwan.
Taiwan Forestry Research Institute No. 226 ,
p. 1 - 26.
Lu, Chin-Ming Variations in Seedling Characters of
973 Taiwania cryptomerioides from various
provenances. Taiwan Forest Research
Institute, No. 246, p. 1 - 18.
Shun-Ching, Forest Botany of China. The Commercial
M.L. Press, Ltd. Shangai, China.
1935
Streets, R.J.
1962
Wang,Chi-Wu
In Chinese:
-\qendae Aca-
demiae Sini-
cae Edita
Exotic Forest Trees in the British
Commonwealth. Clarendon Press, Oxford, U.K.
Genotype-environment Interactions of
provenances of Zin-Sah (Cryptomeria) ,
(Taiwania) and Sah-Moo (Cunninghamia) .
Paper presented at the Eighth World Forestry
Congress, Jakarta 1978, FID-1/17-4.
Flora Reipublicae Poplaris Sinicae - Tomus
7. p, 292-293.
Chen Wan-
chun
1982
Sylva Sinica Vol.1 p. 311-313.
l/
Taiwania flousiana Gaussen
This species is doubtfully distinct from T. cryptomeri-
oides.
SYNONYMS
Taiwania yunnanensis Koidz. (1925)
FAMILY
Taxodiaceae
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An evergreen coniferous tree, up to 75 m (generally
3O-40 m) in height and 2 m in diameter.
Fruit
Cone oblong, 14 to 21 mm long (17 nun being the most
common length); usually with about twenty scales;
purplish-grey in colour; edge of the scale fairly
clearly marked; scales 9 mm long, with internal lateral
edges slightly concave at the base, 7 to 9 mm wide.
Winged seed 6 to 7 mm long.
Foliage
Leaves almost touching edge to edge when the branch
is flattened; 4 to 5 mm long, fairly closely over-
lapping. On 1 cm of branch there are 12 to 14 leaves.
Free end of the leaf a little bent, but heavily keeled
up to the apex, giving a quadrangular general section.
I/ FAO acknowledge the assistance of Pan Chin Kang,
The Arboretum, Chinese Academy of Forestry,Beijing,China.
- 495 -
Bark
Bark grey-brown , fissured into irregular long plates.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Sapwood light reddish-yellow. Heart-wood purplish brown,
Wood light and soft, with straight grain. The timber
is easy to operate with tools and is used for general
construction and furniture.
Other Uses
The tree has also been planted for ornamental purposes
and watershed protection.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
In the mountain chains which separate the parallel
courses of the rivers in Upper Burma and Yunnan:
from west to east, the upper Irrawaddy, the
upper Sal ween, the upper Mekong and the
Kin-Cha-Kiang (upper Yang-Tse-Kiang) . The species
appears to have originated in this mountainous zone on
the frontier between Burma, Tibet and Yunnan. Along
the rivers the tree seems to have come as far south as
Myitkyina. Elevations: 1 TOO - 2 700 m in western
Yunnan, 800 m "in western Hupeh.
CLIMATE
The climate of the Taiwania flousiana range is warm and
cool. Most rainfall occurs in summer and autumn.
Spring and winter are normally dry.
SOILS
Prefers red soil, yellow mountain soil or brown forest
soil.
- 496 -
HABITAT
Found in mixture with Chinese fir, Schima spp.
Lithocarpus and Castanopsis spp,
SEED HANDLING
Seed weight is measured to 1 556 ^ram/1000 seeds.
Germination around 38$.
STATUS
Endangered
REASONS FOR DECLINE
No information available
PROTECTIVE MEASURES RECOMMENDED
In need of basic research programmes on distribution
and genetic variation.
- 497 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agendae Academiae Flora Reipublicae Popular is Sinicae
Sinicae Edita Tomus 7. p. 29O-292 (in Chinese).
1978
Cheng Wan-chun Sylva Sinica, Vol.1, p. 311
1982 (in Chinese) *
Gaussen, H. Une Nouvelle Espece de Taiwania -
1939 T. f lousiana .Travaux du Laboratoire
Forestier de Toulouse Tome I - iii
Art. II. p. 6.
- 498 -
Tectona hamiltoniana Wall =*
FAMILY
Verbenaceae
VERNACULAR NAME
Dahat (Burma)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A moderate-sized, deciduous tree with clean bole up to
8 m tall and diameter up to 7O cm. Branchlets 6-8
angular, the younger parts shortly and densely tonentose.
Inflorescence
Flowers small, pale blue or white, indense tomentose
corymbose panicles 15-3O cm long, borne at the end of
the branchlets. Corolla 8 mm long very hairy in the
throat. Flowering period June to August (Troup 1921),
M... before the leaves are fully developed11 (Hooker
1885), "March-May, with the young foliage11 (Brandis
1921), July (Kurz 1877). The inflorescences are
normally developed from axillary buds along the
terminal parts of the tree branches.
Fruit
Fruit a small four celled drupe, between 4 x 8 mm and
6 x 20 mm. Fruit ripening period (in Lampang, Thailand)
is between September-October. There are 4 OOO - 46OO
fruits per 1 kg. (1 litre - 0.1 kg.).
I /Based on the work of T.Hedegart (Saatvedt. Skollenborgi
Norway) and A.Kaoza-Ard (Teak Imp. Centre, Royal
Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand).
- 499 -
Foliage
Leaves ovate, 10 to 20 cm long, 4-6 cm wide, mostly in
whorls of 3, sometimes opposite /base rhomboid or
obtuse, apex acuminate; white tomentose beneath, later
softly hairy.
Bark
Smooth, in younger trees the outer-layer of the bark
will peel off and shed naturally.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
T.hamiltonia is not an important timber species, but its
potential value for plantations on dry sites and for
teak breeding should be investigated. The timber has
a different appearance from that of Tectona grandis.
The wood is of good quality, uniformly pale brown or
yellow, streaked, close-grained and finely fibrous.
Heavier than Tectona grandis wood (oven-dry 0.90-0.95
as compared to 0.60-0.65 g/cm ). It takes a fine polish.
Natural resistance to fungi and termites has been
observed.
Other Uses
Locally the bark is grinded with a stone and used as a
drug, mainly against lung deseases.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
A limited natural distribution range (about 150 by 80
km) in the dry zone of Burma (Prome District and Upper
Burma). Approximately 20°N latitude, 95°E longitude.
CLIMATE
Growing in dry localities (rainfall 400 to 800 mm).
- 500 -
SOILS
Often on poor, stony soil (calcareous sandstone).
HABITAT
A light demanding, drought resistant tree. In open
stands, it is associated with Terminalia oliveri,
Acacia catechu, Acacia leucophloea, Diospyros burmanica
and other species of the dry open scrub forest. Seldom
overlapping with Tectona grandis in its distribution.
SEED HANDLING
About 40 000 seeds/kg; no special pre-treatment is
recommended.
SILVICULTURE
In Thailand, plants were easily grown from seeds harve-
sted from a few specimens growing at the Forest Research
Institute Dehra Dun, India. The resulting trees
(approximately 1OO) are on a relatively poor site
showing an initial development superior to that of
Tectona grandis on the same site. Another seed sample
obtained from Burma failed to produce any seedlings.
It is believed that reproduction from seed should
normally be easy. In Thailand grafting of T.hamiltoni-
ana buds on to T. grandis root stocks has shown some
success (approximately 50%) .
STATUS
Further study is needed, but species is likely to be
endangered .
- 501 -
REASONS FOR DECLINE
The wood is used locally for fuel and construction
(house posts and parts of carts) . Annual forest fires
are also severely diminishing the existing populations.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
A few plantation plots have been established in Burma.
One plot of 66 trees planted in 1940 is reported from
Indonesia. It is recommended that a representative seed
collection is arranged in the natural distribution
range and that ex situ gene conservation plots are
planted on sites under full control in Burma, India and
Thailand.
- 502 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brandis, D. Indian Trees. Constable and Company Ltd.,
1921 London.
FAO Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree Species
1981 and Provenances. FO:MISC/81/11, FAO, Rome,
p. 55 - 56.
Hedgart, T. Tropical Trees, Ed. J. Bur ley and B.T. Styles.
1976 Linnean Society Symposium Series No. 2.
Academic Press, London.
Hooker, J.D. Flora of British India. L. Reeve and Co.
1885 London.
Kurz, S. Forest Flora of British Burma, Calcutta.
1887
Troup, R.S. The Silviculture of Indian Trees.
1921 Clarendon Press, Oxford.
- 503 -
Tectona philippinensis Benth. & Hook, f .
FAMILY
Verbenaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Bunglas, Malapangit (Phil.)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A moderate sized tree reaching a height of about 15m.
Inflorescence
Flowers approximately 8 mm long and 10 mm in diameter,
throat of corolla hairy inside. Cymes terminal, at
anthesis rather dense, becoming rather diffuse in fruit.
Fruit
Drupe: about 8 mm long, enclosed in persistent calyx.
Foliage
Leaves elliptic-ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 8 to 15 cm
long, 3 to 6 cm wide. The upper surface glabrous,
rather densely white-verrucose, paler beneath and
densely stellate -puberulent. Nerves 5 to 7 on each
side of the midrib. Petioles densely puberulent, 5 to
7 mm long.
I/ Based on the work of T.Hedgart, Saatvedt, Skollenborg,
"" Norway.
- 504 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The timber is of the same type as that of T . hamiltoniana ,
i.e. pale brown or yellow, close-grained and heavier
than T.grandis wood. It is not an important timber
species, but as for T. hamiltoniana, its potential value
for plantations on dry sites and for teak breeding
should be investigated.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Endemic to the Batangas and the Iling Island near
Mindoro, the Philippines, approximately 14°N latitude,
121°E longitude.
HABITAT
Occurs in dry, exposed ridges in thickets and secondary
forests at low altitude.
SILVICULTURE
Reproduction from seed most probably easy
STATUS
Further study needed, but species likely to be
endangered.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
The tree is not common even in its natural distribution
range. The wood is sought after for house-posts and
general constructions.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
Probably no protective measures have so far been taken.
It is recommended that a representative seed collection
is arranged in the natural distribution area, and that ex situ
gene conservation plots are planted in the Philippines ft Ohailand.
- 505 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO Data Book on Endangered Forest Tree Species
1981 and Provenances FO:MISC/81/11, FAO, Rome,
D. 57.
Merrill, E.D. Philippine Journal of Science (5) p. 1910.
1910
Keyes, L. Philippne Woods. Technical Bulletin, No. 7.
1938
- 506 -
Ulmus wallichiana Planch.-'
Two different subspecies have been identified:
subsp. wallichiana and subsp. xanthoderma Melville &
Heybroek. Subsp. wallichiana has more or less roughly
hairy leaves and fruits that are sparingly hairy over
the seed. The var. tomentosa Melville & Heybroek has
densely softly hairy leaves and branchlets, and
uniformly hairy fruits. Subsp. xanthoderma Melville
& Heybroek has smooth yellowish branchlets and hairless
fruits. Related species , with similarities in
ecology, are U.glabra Huds. in Europe, U. laciniata,
H- bergmanniana and U. uyematsui in Central and North-
eastern Asia.
SYNONYMS
Ulmus erosa sensu Wall. (1831)
FAMILY
Ulmaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
Brare, himri, imroi, mair, marai.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
A deciduous tree up to 30 m high and over 1.25 m in
diameter. Branches several, ascending.
I/ Based on the work of H.M. Heybroek, Dorschkamp
Research Institute, Wageningen, Netherlands.
- 507 -
Inflorescence
Flowers borne on leafless twigs in spring, with
elongated axis 7-12 mm long, in groups of 15-30;
perianth lobes 5-6, stamens 5-6, anthers red; ovary
densely hirsute.
Fruit
Samara orbicular to broadly obovate; 10-13 mm in
diameter, seed central; wing sparingly pubescent. For
differences between subspecies see the introduction.
Foliage
Leaves elliptic-acuminate with unequal base
6-15 cm long and 2.5 - 6 cm wide (longer and broader
on coppiceshoots) ; margin doubly-serrate.
Bark
Grey brown longitudinally furrowed or reticulate
with the ridges + interweaving.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
U. wallichiana produces a good quality timber with many
uses.
Other Uses
The tree is being used in programmes to breed elms for
city and landscape use in the temperate climates, as it
exhibits a certain degree of resistance to Dutch elm
disease. Its potential to produce a high quality
fodder may still be utilized under certain conditions.
- 508 -
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species extends from NE Afghanistan through Pakistan
and India into Neapal, between 1 500 and 3 000 m above
sea level.
HABITAT
The western part of the area is occupied by subsp.
xanthoderma , the eastern half by subsp. wallichiana;
var. tomentosa is rare and has been found in the upper
Ravi valley only. The species occurs mainly as a
specimen tree in mixed stands. It is a member of the
Temperate Oak and Coniferous Mixed Forest, of the
Temperate Coniferous Forest and of the Cedrus deodara
forest zones in the Western Himalayas. In humid sites,
it occurs mainly in mixture with many other deciduous
species near streams; sometimes as an admixture of
Abies forest.
SEED HANDLING
The seeds do not retain their viability for long and
should be sown immediately; they germinate within a
few days.
SILVICULTURE
Plants can easily be grown from seeds, which, however, are
not available where trees are lopped regularly. Various
methods of vegetative propagation are effective, such
as grafting, layering, and rooted cuttings under mist in
the summer.
- 509 -
STATUS
Endangered
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Elm is preferred over most other tree species for use
as fodder for cattle, sheep, goats, and cows.
Wandering shepherds lop every elm in the forest severely,
which leads to their destruction, as they cannot
reproduce, because the developing coppice-sprouts bear no
flowers. This happens on a large-scale over the whole
distribution area. Trees in game reserves and those at
inaccessible places (cliffs etc.) are the only ones to
escape distinction. This used to be counteracted, in
part, by the fact that villagers planted elms near
houses for a sustained yield of fodder, which was
dried and Kept for winter usage. For this purpose,
however, hybrids are often used (U. x brandisiana);
moreover, new types of fodder will mostly replace elm.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN AND RECOMMENDED
The fact that the species flourishes and is able to
complete its regeneration in the Dachigam Game Reserve
near Srinagar, Kashmir, shows that protection from
cattle may suffice to save the species. In establi-
shing new game and forest reserves in the Himalaysa,
attention should be paid to including elms and elm
habitats. Small stands of elms could be planted near
foresters' and wardens1 homes, where they are protected
from lopping. This would make their protected status
clear to all, at the same time producing seed for
forestry use.
- 510 -
Such plantings should consist of at least ten
seedlings (clones) of local origin to provide
possibility for sufficient cross-pollination. Special
care should be taken to preserve a wide range of
forms in the upper Ravi valley area, including the
var. tormentosa. A small collection of clones of the
two main sub-species is being maintained at the
"Dorschkamp" Research Institute in Wageningen,
Netherlands .
- 511 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
FAO
1981
Gamble, J.S.
1902
Heybroek,H.M.
1981
Heybroek, H.M.
1963
IUCN
1978
Melville, &
Heybroek, H.M.
1971
Pearson, R.S.&
Brown, H.B.
1932
Data Book on Endangered Tree Species and
Provenances PO:MISC/81/11, FAO, Rome,
p. 58 - 59.
Manual of Indian Timbers. Sampson Low,
Mar s ton & Co.
Minimonograph on elms in agroforestry.
FAO Techn. Consult. Fast-growing
Plantation Broadleaved Trees for
Mediterranean and Temperate Zones, 1979
FO:FGB-79-8/7, p. 423 - 441,
Diseases and Lopping for Fodder as
Possible Causes of a Prehistoric Decline
of Ulmus , Acta Bot. Neerl. 12 (1):
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (Ed.G.I-ucas
& H.Synge) Morges, Switzerland, P- 527-528.
The Elms of the Himalaya.
26 (1): 5-28.
Kew Bull.
Commercial Timbers of India, 2: 894-902,
- 512 -
I/
Vepris glandulosa (Hoyle & Leakey) Kokwaro
Hoyle and Leakey placed this species in a new genus
Tecleopsis which they did not compare directly with
Vepris. By inference they probably thought it differed
in the hermaphrodite flowers and the presence of only
one ovule in each of the two locules of the ovary. The
degree of dioecism is unstable throughout the
Toddalieae and a single ovule per locule also occurs
in V. eugeniifolia (Engl.) Verdoorn, while the ovary is
further reduced in V. arushensis and V. glomerat
(F. Hoffm.) Engl. to a single carpel. It seems prefer-
able to retain all species in Vepris which is then
distingulished from Teclea and Diphasia solely by the
more numerous stamens and from Toddaliopsis Engl. by
the smooth or bullate, not markedly verrucose fruits.
SYNONYMS
Tecleopis glandulosa Hoyle and Leakey 1932.
FAMILY
Rutaceae
jl/ Based on the work of W.G.Dyson, U.K, t.
FAO also acknowledge the assistance of J.A.Odera
(Forestry Research Department, Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute, Kikuyu, Kenya) and Ms.C.Kabuye
(East African Herbarium, National Museums of Kenya,
Nairobi, Kenya).
- 513 -
VERNACULAR NAMES
MOnderendQ-itu (Kikuyu) . MunderendO is the Kikuyu name
for several species of Teclea. The suffix "itu" serves
to distinguish Tecleopis glandulosa from Teclea simpli-
cifolia which grows in the same locality and closely
resembles it in general appearance and habit.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
An unarmed, evergreen tree up to 6 m tall.
Inflorescence
Flowers clustered in axillary and terminal panicles/
branches densely tomentose, hermaphrodite, sepals 4,
united at the base or halfway, 4- 1 mm long, broadly
ovate to deltoid, glabrous, petals 4, broadly ovate -
oblong or elliptic, 1.8 - 3 mm long, 1.5 - 3 mm broad,
obtuse. Stamens (6-) 8, 2-3.8 mm long, anthers 0.8-lmm
long, pistils densely glandular wooly; ovary 1-1.5 mm
long, bilocular, with 1 ovule in each locule, style
very short or absent, stigmas 2, obscured by simple and
glandular hairs.
Fruit
A + bilobed drupe (lobes sometimes different in size if
one ovule is aborted) , compressed elliptic to somewhat
quadrate, 12 - 16 mm long and broad, glandular, pilose
or strigose, bright crimson red or brown when ripe.
The seed slightly compressed ellipsoidal, 5 mm long.
Foliage
Leaves opposite to subopposite, trifoliate; petiole
3.4 - 6.5 cm long tomentose but becoming glabrescent
with age, terete and longitudinally furrowed above.
Leaflets subsessile or with a short petiolule up to
1 cm long, elliptic to elliptic-oblong 8-18 (-22) cm
long, 3 - 6.5 cm broad, sometimes unequal-sided; acumi-
nate or occasionally acute at the apex, cuneate and
sometimes oblique at the base; entire to shallowly and
broadly crenate; generally glabrous except the midrib
which is pubescent or pilose beneath; pellucid gland
dots numerous and conspicously dark beneath and furrowed
above; lateral nerves 14-22 pairs.
Bark
Smooth grey bark.
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
The tree is now too extremely rare to have any economic
value. In the past it was presumably utilized together
with Teclea simplicifolia, for walking sticks, spear
shafts, bows and arrow shafts. The wood as judged from
a small branch, is similar to that of T .simplicifolia
and is suitable for such purposes and small turned tool
handles.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION & CLIMATE
Central Kenya (Muguga nature reserve) . Dry sub-humid to
semi-arid eco-zone, mean annual rainfall of 970
mm and mean monthly temperature of l6°C. Rainfall
is bimodal but the 'short1 rains (October to December)
are less reliable.
SOILS
The soils are red, well drained, fertile volcanic loams
but with high clay content at lower depths. The soils
have mean organic matter content of 5,1 per cent
throughout the profile to 6.0 cm depth and mean topsoil
(0-30 cm) with pH of 5.6.
HABITAT
The tree is one amongst numerous species of small ever-
green understorey trees occurring in the semi-
deciduous forest of Central Kenya. This type of forest
occurs in scattered patches at elevations of 1 550 to
2 150 mf between the lower edge of the montane conifer
forest and the grass and open woodlands found at lower
elevations. These forests were once abundant near
Nairobi but many have now been cleared for settlement.
In the Muguga area, the main overstorey species are
Calodendrum capense, Croton megacarpus , Plea africana
an<* Warburgia ugandensis. Juniperus procera was also
common formerly, but has now mostly been felled. The trees
are in dense shade in the wet season but are more
exposed in dry weather when the Calodendrum and Croton
of the overstorey are leafless. A small number of
seedlings to 20 cm, can be found growing under the
parent trees, but they are very sensitive to sun-
scorch and apparently only a few survive to become adult.
SILVICULTURE
Raising seedlings is difficult. Germination and field
regeneration are being studied. Measurements on growth
are being taken on one plot in the Muguga Research
Arboretum. Seedlings for another plot are being raised.
- 516 -
STATUS
Endangered.
REASONS FOR DECLINE
Settlement and clearing of forest.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
The species is presently Known only from a part
of Muguga Forest (Kenya), where 15*5 ha of
indigenous forest has been retained as a nature
reserve on the estate of the Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute (1° 13'S, 36° 38'E, 2 10O m
a.s.l.). Eight mature trees, over 4 m tall, are
known and have been marked. Small seedlings
can be found near the parent trees but do not
appear to survive the dry season.
Gichulro Forest (Kijueru), the typical locality,
was situated 3 km to the South of Muguga but was
cleared in 19^1. The two type specimens from
there, were the only known collections until 196?,
and the species was thought to be extinct*
In 1967, a systematic collection was made by the
East African Herbarium in the Muguga nature
reserve, and the species was rediscovered.
A careful watch for ripe seed was maintained
throughout 1972 and a collection made in June
1973 (E.A.A.F.R.O. Seed Batch No. 2412) from
which 140 seedlings were raised* They are slow
growing and very liable to sun-scorch* A
preservation plot has been established in Muguga
arboretum using this seed*
- 517 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burtt-Davy, J. &
Hoyle, A.C.
1932
Dale, I.R. &
Greenway, P.J.
1962
FAO
1981
Kokwaro, J.O.
1978
Kokwaro, J.O. in
Milne-Redhead,
Polhill, R.M. (eds)
1982
Trapnell,G.C. &
Langdale-Brown , I .
1969
Kew Bulletin pp. 266-272
Kenya Trees & Shrubs. Buchanan
Estates. Nairobi.
Data Book of Endangered Forest
Tree Species and Provenances.
FO: MISC/81/11. FAO, Rome,
p. 60 - 61.
New Taxa and combinations in
Rutaceae of E. & NE Africa.
Bulletin, p. 795.
Kew
Flora of Tropical East Africa,
Rutaceae .
Natural Vegetation. In Morgan
East Africa: its peoples and
resources O.U.P. Oxford,
(Ed)
- 518 -
Zeyhera tuberculosa Bur.-
SYNONYMS
Bignonia tuberculosa Veil. (1835)
Zeyheria tuberculosa Bur. ex Ver. (1868)
FAMILY
Bignoniaceae
VERNACULAR NAMES
IpS felpudo, bolsa-de-pastor , camarucyu, bucho-de-boi ,
ipe preto, ipe tabaco, ipe b6ia, ip§ combuca, ipe"
cabeludo , ve lame-do-ma to .
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
General
Medium sized to large tree, 20 - 25 m in height and
50 - 8O cm in diameter; crown cone or pyramid shaped
with ascendant branches and racemose ramification.
Inflorescence
A short, erect, pyramid-shaped, terminal panicle, dense,
furry, formed of many tiny flowers 2 cm long, furry;
calyx of two sepals, corolla funnel shaped, furry,
furrowed, light brown outside and red-brown inside, with
a yellow coloured throat; four stamens; flowering from
December to February.
I/ Based on the work of M.Ferreira and H.F.Luz, Forestry
Department, ESALQ/USP, P.O.Box 9, Piracicaba ,SP, Brazil.
- 519 -
Fruit
A large woody, ovoid capsule, 15 x 10 cm; on the outside
densely covered with short hairs, 1 cm thick, twisted,
smooth inside; dehiscent, opening by two halves by a
lengthwise split, exposing the septum or replum; dark
and smooth where the seeds are fixed (more than 9O) ,
half on each side, in layers. Fructification is from July
to October, and trees shed all leaves when the fruits
are ripe, facilitating the dispersion of seeds by the
wind.
Seeds: Winged, flat, heart-shaped, 2 cm in diameter,
white, rough, surrounded by a thin and irregular
circular wing, 4 to 5 cm in diameter, generally dark.
Foliage
Leaves terminal, opposite, digitate, with 5 folioles
with petioles, large, 50 x 30 cm. Petiole thick,
25 cm long, round, furry. Folioles obovoid with a
pointed apex and sinuous margins, sometimes serrated;
upper side is dark green, opaque, rough, with ribs
forming a dense network; beneath the leaves are a pale
green, velvet-like, with protruding veins. Young
leaves reach up to 90 x 50 cm.
Branches: Thick, cracked, rough; the younger branches
covered with a brown-grey felt pubescence, which
gradually becomes a tomentum that is dense, dark and
rusty, covering all the extremities and the leaves.
Bark
Cylinder-shaped trunk, erect, long (more than 2/3
of each tree); very thick bark (5 cm), fissured,
forming long lengthwise crests.
- 520 -
WOOD PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS
Wood heavy (0.75 to 0.80 g/cm ); burnt yellow heartwood,
sometimes with green highlights, which changes, when
exposed, to a brown-yellow; uniform; irregular surface,
shiny, smooth; fibrous aspect, lessening in some
samples; medium texture; grain straight, indistinct
odour, a slightly bitter taste. Resistant and durable.
Commonly used in civil construction. As this is a tree
with a very resistant wood with a long and very straight
trunk, several other uses are recommended, such as for
fence posts, sleepers etc. Is also used for tool
handles, tiles, fuel wood etc.
Other Uses
Leaves of the young trees are eaten by cattle during
dry periods. They are non-poisenous to animals.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The tree occurs in the southeastern region of Brazil
(States of Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and
Esplrito Santo) .
SOIL AND CLIMATE
It is found in various climates, such as tropical humid
(rain forests) , tropical hot and dry with rains only
in the summer (dry forests and "cerrados"\ and tropical
at altitudes with frequent frosts (mountain ridge and
meridional forests). Adapted to all soil types, but is
generally found in poor shallow soils, such as lithosols
and much eroded podzolic soils, almost always in
granite rock regions.
- 521 -
HABITAT
It is a pioneer species in altered ecosystems (pastures,
secondary forests) , presenting abundant natural vegeta-
tion, forming large homogeneous stands (there are no
known pests or diseases) .
SEED HANDLING
Seeds last, at the most, 18 months, when stored in
a cool and dry chamber (18°C and 60% of relative
humidity) . Do not have dormancy; germinate easily
within 10-20 days, when placed on a shallow layer of
soil and/or straw.
SILVICULTURE
As this species is not widely cultivated and studies
are only in the initial phase, no information on
silviculture is available.
STATUS AND REASONS FOR DECLINE
Stands are being cut down and even becoming extinct
due to advancing agricultural, livestock and charcoal
making activities, that are very intense in the region
of natural occurrence of this species.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES TAKEN
Through a contract between the Escola Superior de
Adgricultura "Luiz de Queiroz" ESALQ/USP, the Instituto
de Pesquisas e Estudofc Florestais (IPEF) and the Erapre-
sa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria (EMBRAPA), 7
populations were located and registered in distinct
- 522 -
ecological regions of the States of Minas Gerais, Sao
Paulo, Espfrito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, with
selection and identification of 80 trees.
A trial of 5 provenances with 55 progenies was
established as a genetic conservation measure by ESALQ.
-523 -
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Correa, M.P.
1926
Fraga ,M.V.G.
1946
Lopes , A. C.
1983
Luz, H.F.
1984
Mainieri,C.
1958
Mainieri, C.&
Pereira,J.A
1965
Mainieri,C.
1970
Manieri,C. ;
Chimelo,J.P.&
Alfonso, V. A
1983
Pickel, J.B.
1953
Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil.
Brasilia, IBDF.
Ensaio de indice da flora dendrologica^do
Brasil .Arquivos do Servi9O Florestal , Sao
Paulo, 2 (2) : 69-156.
Estudo comparative entre essencias nativas
e exoticas. Silvicultura, Sao Paulo,
8 (28) : 87-89.
Conservacao genetica do ipe felpudo
(Zeyhera tuberculosa) . IV Congresso Bra-
si leiro de Iniciacao Cientific* em Cien-
cias Agrarias, Taubate - SP, P- 27.
Identifica9ao das principals madeiras de
comercio no Brasil. Boletim IPT,Sab Paulc>
(46): 1-189.
Madeiras do Brasil icaracterizac^ao macro-
scopica, usos comuns e indices qualitati-
vos fisicos e mecSnicos. Anuario brasi-
leiro de economia florestal, Rio de
Janeiro, 17 (17): 1-282.
»
Madeiras Brasileiras: caracteristicas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrencia, dados
botanicos e usos. Sao Paulo. Secretaria
de Agricultura do Estado de Sa6 Paulo. 309p.
Manual de identif icacao das principals
madeiras comerciais brasileiras. Sab
Paulo, Secretaria da Industria, Comercio,
Ciencia e Tecnologia. 241 p.
As principals a'rvores que dab madeira:
metodo pra'tico para seu reconhecimento.
Anuario Brasileiro de Economia Florestal,
Rio de Janeiro, 6 (6): 58-86.
Pickel, J.B. As principals arvores que dab madeira:
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Anuario Brasileiro de Economia Florestal
Rio de Janeiro, 8 (8): 56-87.
Ramalho,R.S. Dendrologia: notas de aula. Vicosa, UFV.
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FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS
FAO FORESTRY PAPERS:
1. Forest utilization contracts on public land, 1977 (E* F* S*)
2. Planning of forest roads and harvesting systems, 1977 (E* F S')
3. World list of forestry schools, 1977 (E/F/S')
3 Rev. 1 - World list of forestry schools, 1981 (E/F/S*)
3 Rev. 2 — World list of forestry schools, 1986 (E/F/S')
4. World pulp and paper demand, supply and trade - Vol. 1, 1977 (E* F S')
Vol. 2, 1978 (£' F' S')
5. The marketing of tropical wood in South America, 1978 (E' S')
6. National parks planning, 1978 (E' F' S'")
7. Forestry for local community development, 1978 (E* F' S')
8. Establishment techniques for forest plantations, 1978 (Ar'" C' E" F' S')
9. Wood chips, 1978 (C* E' S')
10. Assessment of logging costs from forest inventories in the tropics, 1976
1. Principles and methodology (E* F* S*)
2. Data collection and calculations (E' F S')
11. Savanna afforestation in Africa, 1978 (E* F')
12. China: forestry support for agriculture, 1978 (E*)
13. Forest products prices, 1979 (E/F/S')
14. Mountain forest roads and harvesting, 1979 (E')
14 Rev. 1 — Logging and transport in steep terrain, 1985 (E')
15. AQRIS forestry wood catalogue of information and documentation services, 1979 (E/F/S')
16. China: integrated wood processing industries, 1979 (E* F' S'")
17. Economic analysis of forestry projects, 1979 (E' F' S')
17 Sup. 1 — Economic analysis of forestry projects: case studies, 1979 (E* S')
17 Sup. 2 — Economic analysis of forestry projects: readings, 1980 (E')
18. Forest products prices 1960-1978, 1980 (E/F/S')
19. Pulping and paper-making properties of fast-growing plantation wood species — Vol. 1, 1980 (E')
— Vol. 2, 1980 (£')
20/1. Forest tree improvement, 1985 (E* F' S*)
20/2. A guide to forest seed handling, 1985 (E')
21. Impact on soils of fast-growing species in lowland humid tropics, 1980 (E' F')
22/1 . Forest volume estimation and yield prediction, 1980
Vol. 1 — Volume estimation (E' F' S')
22/2. Forest volume estimation and yield prediction, 1980
Vol. 2 - Yield prediction (E* F' S*)
23. Forest products prices 1961-1980, 1981 (E/F/S')
24. Cable logging systems, 1981 (E')
25. Public forestry administration in Latin America, 1961 (E')
26. Forestry and rural development, 1981 (E' F' S')
27. Manual of forest inventory, 1981 (E* F')
28. Small and medium sawmills in developing countries, 1981 (E* S*)
29. World forest products, demand and supply 1990 and 2000, 1982 (E* F' S')
30. Tropical forest resources, 1982 (E/F/S')
31. Appropriate technology in forestry, 1982 (E')
32. Classification and definitions of forest products, 1982 (Ar/E/F/S*)
33. Logging of mountain forests, 1982 (E')
34. Fruit-bearing forest trees, 1982 (E* F' S')
35. Forestry in China, 1982 (E')
36. Basic technology in forest operations, 1982 (E' F' S')
37. Conservation and development of tropical forest resources, 1982 (£' F' S')
38. Forest products prices 1962-1981, 1982 (E/F/S')
39. Frame saw manual, 1982 (E*)
40. Circular saw manual, 1983 (E')
41. Simple technologies for charcoal making, 1983 (E' F' S')
42. Fuelwood supplies in the developing countries, 1983 (Ar' E' F S*)
43. Forest revenue systems in developing countries, 1983 (£')
44/1. Food and fruit-bearing forest species, 1983 (E* F')
44/2. Food and fruit-bearing forest species, 1984 (E* F' S')
44/3. Food and fruit-bearing forest species, 1986 (E*)
45. Establishing pulp and paper mills, 1983 (£*)
46. Forest products prices 1963-1982, 1983 (E/F/S*)
47. Technical forestry education — design and implementation,
48. Land evaluation for forestry, 1984 (f= S')
49. Wood extraction with oxen and agricultural tractors, 1986 (E* S')
50. Changes in shifting cultivation in Africa, 1984 (£' F')
50/1. Changes in shifting cultivation in Africa - seven case-studies, 1985 (E )
51/1. Etudes sur lea volumes et la productivity des peuplements fbrestiers tropicaux
1: Formations forettieres seen**, 1984 (F)
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