Full text of "The decorative arts in England, 1660-1780"

THE

DECORATIVE ARTS
IN ENGLAND

1 660- 1 7 Bo

H. H. MULLINER.

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THE DECORATIVE ARTS
IN ENGLAND

1660— 1780

H. H. MULLIXER

LONDON : B. T. BATSFORD, LTD., 94 HIGH HOLBORN.

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NOTE.

My object has been to embrace for the first time in one work representative
examples of the various decorative articles produced in England during the late 17th
and the 18th Centuries, as the more comprehensively the subject is treated the more
interesting it appears, and the more readily it is understood.

No work covering such a wide field can possibly be complete. For instance, I
have not dealt with costumes, pottery or porcelain ; and paintings, pastels, mezzotints,
engravings and jewellery are entirely omitted.

My original intention was only to have a few copies of this work printed for private
circulation, but Mr. H. Batsford pointed out that in view of the very great interest now
taken in the development of the arts of England during the period which the collection
covers, it would prove of general interest.

H. H. MULLINER.

INDEX

Chapter I.

11.
„ HI.
„ IV.

V.
,. VI.
,, VII.
„ VIII.
,. IX.

X.
„ XI.
„ XII.
„ XIII.
„ XIV.
„ XV.
„ XVI.
„ XVII.
,, XVIII.
„ XIX.
„ XX.

Introduction

Preface

Furni

ture, 1660-1745 -

1740-1763 -

1763-1790 -

Lacquered

Marquetried

Gilt -

Wood Carvings - - -
Chandeliers

Silver - - - - -
Medals - - - -

Stuart Enamel
Locks - - - - "
Battersea Enamel
Ormolu - - - -
Glass - - - - '
Tapestries - - - -
Needlework

Bookbindings, Embroidered
,, Leather

with Royal Arms

Pages 5— 7

„ 8- 9

Figs. 1— 11

12— 20

22— 33

34— 39

40— 57

58— 65

66— 73

74— 76

77—131

132—145

146—151

152—157

158—162

163—169

170—173

174—189

190—201
202—214
215—233
234—256

AN INTRODUCTION

j. STARKIE GARDNER, F.S.A.

IN many respects I regard the catalogue raisoiincc, which Colonel Mulliner has
compiled, as the most important contribution yet offered towards the study of
English decorative art. He has succeeded in showing what excellent work was
produced in this country during that great movement in the decorative arts which
enveloped both England and France from the latter part of the 17th until after the
middle of the 18th Century. The results of that movement in France are w^ell known
and have been fully appreciated, but the developments in this country have until lately
almost entirely lacked similarly enthusiastic research.

The Wallace Collection at Hertford House is, of course, far larger, but what the
Wallace Collection has effected for French decorative art, the collection here
described has— up to the limit of its size— fulfilled for English. A difference, however,
is that whilst at Hertford House we see specimens with the character and style
of which we are already well acquainted, few of us were aware that English work
had reached the high standard of the objects here illustrated. Both collections
embrace the work of the same period, the late 17th and the 18th Centuries, and it was
then that decorative surroundings such as are aimed at to-day reached perfection. A
collection of objects of that period, therefore, possesses far greater educational value
than if— as in so many Museums— the earlier work is almost exclusively represented.
Surely the primary objects of a Museum of Decorative Art are to improve taste and to
be a guidance and help to the designers of articles for modern requirements? Oak
credences and settles, Gothic tapestries, mazer bowls, etc., however interesting to the
antiquary, possess little value for practical purposes.

Every great movement in art has been primarily due to the patron ; artists and
craftsmen have always appeared to carry out the demand so created, and the history of
ancient Greece and Rome, of the mediteval Church, of the Burgundian Princes and of
the diverse development of the Renaissance in districts of Italy, of the wealthy Dutch
traders during the first half of the 17th Century are independent illustrations of this
truth. Therefore, in endeavouring to understand any period of art, it is an advantage
to realise the patronage which induced it.

With the downfall of the Constable of Bourbon in the reign of Frangois I", there
disappeared the semi-independent great French noble ; and from that time till the
latter part of the 18th Century the peers of France became more and more dependent
upon and subservient to the King, and the fashions of the Court were slavishly followed

by them. The patronage of the French Kings and their courts has dominated the
decorative arts of that country since Frangois I'^'^ introduced the Italian Renaissance
into France to the time when Napoleon desired that the art of the Ca'sars should be
modernised to reflect his Imperial ambitions.

In England the position was entirely different ; except for the art-loving Kings,
Charles I and William III, the influence of royalty upon the decorative arts of this
country has been negligible. The unstinted patronage, however, of the English nobles
has produced a more varied and individual result than in France. This is apparent
in many of the objects in this collection where the names of the original possessors are
recorded. In France, nobles and wealthy patrons imitated the stateliness of the royal
palaces, hence French interiors often display a formal and even theatrical effect never
quite absent from royal associations.

In England the old feudal nobility disappeared with the end of the Wars of the Roses ;
a new social class then arose, namely, the English traders, who began to supersede the
foreigners. The downfall of the Hanseatic League, which for centuries had mono-
polised or stifled English commerce, presented vast opportunities. Wealth was largely
in the hands of these traders, and they were able to acquire many of the Church
estates, which after the Reformation had been granted to those maintaining the policy
of Henry VIII. This trading class, now becoming the aristocracy, benefited by the
honours and dignities bestowed by James I. Again, those who had been instrumental
in furthering the Restoration received their share of royal patronage, which included
the bestowal of the hands of heiresses, a rich source of family aggrandisement. But
by far their chief means of obtaining wealth and power was through bargains made with
William III ; for bribery was his admitted policy in this country. Power and influence
thus became vested in the hands of peers created during the latter part of the 17th
Century, and the great Whig oligarchy then founded not only ruled England until
after the middle of the 18th Century, but dominated the world of literature and the
arts. It happens that the greatest period of English decorative art coincides with the
duration of this Whig oligarchy, and its members were the principal patrons. This
patronage was more widely spread here than in France, and the example of our
great nobles was imitated by members of the wealthy classes, many of whom studied
art abroad. By these luxury and comfort was aimed at more than stateliness, and it
is the resultant variety and individuality that adds so much to the charm of our
decorative art.

While public and private munificence has preserved the finest examples of English
painting for our museums and public galleries ; and our mezzotints, engravings, silver-
work and bookbinding have also been appreciated and preserved to a lesser extent ;
it has been until recent years customary to admire only French furniture, and English
work, including tapestries, needlework and other coverings, has been ignored.*

* The fashion of admiring French furniture be;^an with the purchases of the Prince Ref^ent, who imported considerable
quantities from France, to make room for which Windsor Castle and other palaces were then stripped of many of their former
treasures. The fashion of buying French furniture continued during the greater part of the 19ih Century; in other words,
during the period when most important collections were formed and existing collections began to be properly preserved. It was
almost complete ignorance that caused the continued neglect of the English decorative arts, a position which, however, is now
considerably modified.

In the Victoria and Albert Museum, for instance, in certain sections the English
examples are representative, but the absence of important examples of decorative
work (especially in our 18th Century furniture) is regrettable. French decorative
art can be studied in the Jones Collection and at the Wallace Museum, but of
English work (apart from the Victoria and Albert Museum) we have only access to
Kensington and Hampton Court Palaces, both of which are very scantily furnished.
On the other hand, in and near Paris, there is the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, the
Musee Carnavalet, the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, and the Palaces of Versailles,
Compiegne, Fontainebleau and Malmaison, all preserved as national monuments
forming a permanent school of historic decorative art.

J. STARKIE GARDNER.

PREFACE.

IT is not easy to follow the successive changes of style which have taken place in
English decorative arts since the opening of the reign of Henry VIII without
realising the three principal foreign influences to which these changes were
largely due. Naturally other causes, such as dynastic changes, wars, religion,
the development of national wealth and social conditions, have also induced varying
efifects, but foreign influences may be regarded as paramount. In tracing these
influences, Holland and France are instanced so frequently that the impression may be
conveyed that in England we have been solely scholars and adapters. If, however, the
art of Holland and France were under consideration, it would show that these countries,
in their turn were indebted to Italy.*

The first influence was that of the Renaissance, of which, however, little in the early
stages reached us direct from Italy, but filtered through the medium of Augsburg and
Bruges, and later through Antwerp. f The second was that of the new Dutch Republic,
where during the first half of the 17th Century a definite school had developed, original
to a large extent, but into which much of the art of other European countries had been
absorbed, and which for the first time was afifected by Oriental design.

Thirdly, that of France, where the ambitions of Louis XIV to frame his glorious
reign in magnificent surroundings had succeeded in making France not only the
recognised authority upon art in northern Europe, but the principal producer of objects
of luxury. This predominance continued until after the middle of the 18th Century,
but it will be seen that however strong this influence may at times have been, English
art has retained a certain originality and individuality, and never — as in all other
European countries — has it become so subservient to France as to exclude earlier
traditions.:!:

* Also, in a minor degree, and at a certain period, to Oriental art.

t The development of art in this country received considerable stimulus during the reign of .lames I, owing to that Kmg
emulating the e.\ample of, and the encouragement received from his brother-in-law. Christian IV (1588-1648), King of Denmark
and Norway. It cannot, ho\ve\er, be said that Denmark influenced the art of England, as prior to the introduction of the
Renaissance no art existed peculiar to Denmark.

When Christian IV succeeded to the dual monarchy, the power of the Hanseatic League (which had previously
monopolised trade in Scandinavia) was rapidly diminishing; comparative peace was established, and due largely to his own
tact and energy, the power and wealth of Denmark largely increased. He made Copenhagen his capital and erected many
fine buildings there. His palaces of Rosenborg and Frederiksborg, with the furniture, tapestries and other articles which
they still contain, show the extraordinary development of the decorative arts which took place during his reign.

Close intimacy existed between the courts of King Christian and King James both before and after the latter ascended the
throne. King Christian visited this country in 1606. Inigo Jones paid a visit to Italy about 1600, and during this visit achieved
such a reputation that Christian asked him to enter his service. He is claimed as the architect of several buildings in Denmark.
The decorative arts of the two countries show certain parallels, for instance, much of the plaster strap-work is very similar to
work of the same date in England; tapestry weavers and other craftsmen are known to have worked in both countries; and Danish
silver plate, made from the Norwegian silver mines developed by Christian IV, closely resembles English work.

I In certain branches French influence was stronger than in others. For instance, at the end of tne 17th Century the
quality of silversmiths' work produced in this country was equal to any made in France, and although we then began to borrow
much as regards design, at no date during the 18th Century can France claim superiority. This French influence which appears
on so much of our silver was principally due to the advent of French silversmiths who settled here after the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, and were continuously followed by other immigrants until the reign of George II. Owing to this, French
designs appear much earlier in silver than in furniture. No French cabinet makers are known to have come over, and the
rococo of Chippendale seems to have been entirely inspired by the pattern books of Meissonnier, Oppenordt and other designers.
Again, our silverwork was not (like our architecture, decoration and furniture) appreciably affected during the reigns of the
first two Georges by the taste brought from Venice by the Palladians.

It was only in France and in England that there was sufficient wealth during the
18th Century to assure that generous encouragement of art which is necessary where
the best results are to be obtained. This high standard showed signs of deterioration
towards the close of the century. In England this decadence was due to the growing
absorbing commercialism and trade enterprise, in France to the upheaval of the
Revolution. There are consequently but two great types of decorative art suitable for
modern requirements, the French and the English. It is true that lacking the Royal
patronage which the applied arts received in France during the late 17th and the 18th
Centuries, English work was never able to reach the elaboration and importance of the
greatest French examples, such as the sets of tapestries produced at the Royal factories,
or the Bureau du Roi of Louis XV. On the other hand, the amount of good English
work of that period is impressive ; it possesses well defined characteristics, originality
(despite well-marked traces of foreign influence), a sobriety of form even in the midst of
the rococo movement, and high technical achievement.

The years from 1740 to 1780, a period including the ages of mahogany and satin-
wood, marked the apogee of English furniture. Masterly skill in cabinet making,
sharpness and vigour in carving are found in the best examples, and for elegance and
classic refinement much work of the latter part of the century does not suiTer by
comparison with that of the French ebenistes of the Louis XVI period. This high
quality depended upon four main elements. There was, firstly, the skill of the English
craftsmen. The excellence and finish of English furniture was recognised both here
and in France in the 18th Century, and the experience and training of the leading
craftsmen and modellers must have been far more thorough and varied than is that of
their successors at the present day.

A second element was the enterprise and taste of certain manufacturers, such as
Matthew Boulton, Wedgwood and Tassie, who were in touch with the informed taste
of the collectors and architects of the day. The third element was the influence which
cultivated patrons of art exercised on public opinion. During the Georgian period,
architecture was always studied by men of education and position, and the builders of
the great houses interested themselves in their decoration and furnishing as well as in
the structure of the building. Moreover, the fashion for foreign travel gave impulse
to the formation of the private collections for which England was, and still remains,
famous. The Diletanti Society, it will be remembered, was established by gentlemen
who were "desirous of encouraging at home a taste for those objects which had
contributed so much to their entertainment abroad."

The fourth and last element was the influence of the direct rivalry with the
Continent. The taste for art was stimulated by intercourse with Holland, Venice and
France, which the long period of peace Walpole's policy had fostered had made
easy for men of means and position. Travel was scarcely interrupted by the Seven
Years' War, and it was not until the opening of the Twenty Years' War with France in
1793 that English travellers were no longer able to visit the Continent, and the
cosmopolitan atmosphere among English patrons of art came to an abrupt end.

Chapter I.

FURNITURE UNDER THE DUTCH, LOUIS XIV
AND VENETIAN INFLUENCES.

1660-1745.

Fig. 1. High back chair, with scroll carving on back

2. ,, ,, with cane in back -----

3. ,, ,, with narrow walnut splat and caning in back

4. Armchair in the style of Grinling Gibbons

5. Chair with back upholstered in needlework

6. State chair in the style of Daniel Marot - - - -

7. Stool of walnut, carved with grotesque masks, shells, etc. -

8. Table with marble top, and legs carved with masks

9. Bedstead of carved mahogany

10. Stool of mahogany, with gilt enrichments - - - -

11. Chair of mahogany, with gilt enrichments - - - -

ircu

1690
1690
1690
1697
1690

1695
1730

1720
1735
1730
1735

For other examples of work of this period see : —

Chapter IV.
V.
VI.
VIII.

Lacquer
Marquetry -
Gilt Furniture
Chandeliers
XVI. Tapestry -
XVII. Needlework
XI. Enamel
IX. Silver -

Fig. 34

40— 49

58— 65

74 & 75

181—184

190—201

146—151

All pieces with date marks between 1660 and 1745

Chapter I.

FURNITURE UNDER THE DUTCH, LOUIS XIV
AND VENETIAN INFLUENCES.

1 660- 1 745.

PRIOR to the Restoration English furniture had been mainly constructed of oak,
confined to comparatively few types, and was both in execution and design far
inferior to the contemporary work of Italy, the Low Countries and Burgundy,
and the provinces now included in France. From the Restoration onwards,
however, the standard of English workmanship improved, owing to direct foreign
influence, and the palaces of Charles II and the homes of his ministers and favourites
were filled with furniture and objects of art which could bear comparison with the
possessions of the great French nobles and the rich merchants of Holland. The earlier
of the determining influences was that of Holland, due to the close commercial and
social intercourse between the two countries and also to the influ.x of Dutch artists and
craftsmen into England. The resemblance between the furniture of the two countries
is most pronounced during the reigns of Charles II and James II, and it is even difficult
to distinguish between them. Of Dutch origin were the pieces of marquetry furniture,
such as cabinets, chests of drawers and tables, on which birds, scrolls and foliage are
represented in coloured woods and ivory ; also the ebony or ebonised furniture with
silver mounts ; and the elaborately carved stands for lacquered cabinets, which occa-
sionally show the influence of the free carving of the school of Grinling Gibbons. From
the time of William and Mary, a pronounced Louis XIV influence appears in a more
luxurious and French style of furniture introduced by the influx of Huguenot workmen
on and after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The two influences were
combined in the person of Daniel Marot, a French architect and designer who
emigrated to Holland and entered the service of William III. The impress of the
Louis XIV style is most clearly seen in the changed fashion for silver, in gilt gesso
furniture and in the use of refined turning and symmetrically designed ornament, in
which details of French character (such as the lambrequin and trellis) are commonly
found, as well as in marquetry approximating in design rather to the work of Boulle
than to that of Dutch designers. As a result of the higher standard of decoration and
furnishing after the Restoration, there was a renaissance of English craftsmanship.
John Evelyn could write that "Locksmiths, Joyners and Cabinet makers and the like,
from very vulgar and pitiful Artists are now come to produce works as curious for the
filing and admirable for their Dexterity in Contriving as any we meet with abroad, and
in particular our Smiths and Joyners, they excel all other nations whatsoever."

Although the Court and the great nobles followed the traditions of Versailles in
furnishing their rooms with gilt gesso, much plain walnut and walnut veneered furniture
continued to he made from the early years of the 18th Century in which traces of
Dutch influence were evident. The salient characteristic of this furniture is the
substitution* of curved construction for the rectangular in chairs and supports of tables ;
this pronounced and constructional alteration dating from the last years of the 17th, or
the beginning of the 18th Century. In the early pieces of walnut, reliance is often
placed upon the quality of the veneer alone, and there is little carved ornament beyond
a plainly treated escallop shell on the knees of chairs and tables. The claw-and-ball
motif, derived from the Chinese lacquer and bronzes then freely imported into this
country, is seen in early walnut furniture, and continues throughout the greater part of
the age of mahogany. Later enriched pieces of mahogany are often decorated with a
grotesque head or lion's mask and paw.

An entirely new departure, the boldly carved and gilded furniture of the early
Georgian period, of which William Kent was the principal exponent, owes its origin
to the monumental pieces from Venetian palaces. This furniture was designed in an
architectural manner, and is only suited to the lofty rooms of the Palladian school.
Types of furniture which occur very frequently under the influence of William Kent
are side-tables with carved frames and marble tops, stools, pedestals and consoles
to support busts and bronzes. In many of these, classical details were introduced, and
also figure sculpture, a mark of the Venetian influence. The carved detail is large in
scale; the material, white wood gilded or mahogany with gilt enrichments.

* Also the use of carefully designed mouldings.

THREE HIGH-BACK CHAIRS.

Fig. 1.

High-back chair (one of a pair) of walnut painted black to imitate ebony, the design of the back
composed of uprights in the form of fluted balusters, connected at the top by a cresting of carved
scroll-work. The splat consists of moulded segments with scroll design between. The shaped front
legs are connected by a hooped stretcher of scroll design. The loose covering of the upholstered
seat is of blue velvet, with a deep tasselled fringe. Circa 1690.

Fig. 2.

High-back chair of walnut, with caned seat and back, the framework of the back carved with a
rosette "enrichment and surmounted by a pierced cresting. The front legs have an inverted top-
haped enlargement, terminate in whorl feet, and are connected by a moulded and pierced
hooped stretcher. Circa 1690.

Fig. 3.

High-back chair (one of a pair) of walnut, with spooned back, having a plain centre splat and two
caned panels, and carved and pierced cresting at top consisting of acanthus leaves and moulded
scrolls. The front legs are of cabriole shape, carved with leaves and pendant husks, and terminate
in hoof feet connected to back legs with a shaped and moulded stretcher.

The seat is stuffed and covered with Genoese velvet, having a design of foliage in red on a
yellow ground. <^''''" ^690.

Prior to the Restoration, plain or spiral turning and carving in low relief were the
only ornament of chairs and settees. Immediately afterwards, elaborate carving appears
on the backs, consisting usually of a combination of short scrolls, but crowns and cherub
heads and other details were also introduced.

The depth and carving on the stretchers, and the shapes of the framing bars
connecting the four legs, were special features at the close of the 17th Century.

Chapter I.

•an

■or,

AN ARMCHAIR.

Fig. 4.

Of chestnut with caned seat and back panel. The cresting, splat and stretcher are ornamented
with openwork carving of scrolls. The arms and legs are shaped and carved. The seat cushion,
which is of rose coloured linen, is decorated with applied petit-point tigures, insects and flowers in
natural colours. Circa 1697.

The cafving upon this chair so closely resembles the Bishop's chair at St. Paul's
Cathedral that the same authorship may be assumed. Grinling Gibbons first received
payment for work done at St. Paul's in 1694, and his charges (included in the books for
1696 and 1697) amount to the large sum of two thousand eight hundred and ninety-four
pounds, eleven shillings and eleven pence ; and from the items furnished it is evident
that he employed a large number of assistants. It is remarkable that only ten shillings
is charged in his accounts for "a great chair frame for ye Bishop's Throne." The choir
was opened to the public in October, 1697.

The chair illustrated is stated to have belonged at one time to Dr. Johnson, and
descended to the late owner through the family of Robbins, Johnson's publisher.

AN UPHOLSTERED CHAIR.

Fig. 5.

The under-framing is of carved walnut; the legs are vase-shaped, finishing in scroll feet and
connected by a moulded cross stretcher on which are carved figures of dolphins and a central
turned boss. The high back with shaped top is connected to the seat by rectangular supports carved
in low relief with S scrolls. The detachable covering of the seat and back is of ,?ro.s--/io/)ii.

Circa 1690.

A considerable number of chairs with upholstered backs were made in the late
years of the 17th and early 18th Centuries, and were an advance in comfort upon those
with carved backs. The needlework coverings of seat and back are worked in all-over
floral design of English type, in vari-coloured wools upon a blue-green ground.

Chapter I.

A STATE CHAIR.

Fig. 6.

Of walnut, the design of the back composed of nn oblong octagonal panel containing a sphit of
pierced and carved broken scroll ornament from which develop acanthus leaves; on either side and
at the bottom of the panel are reversed scroll luotijs. The cresting above, which is composed of
balanced scrolls clothed with acanthus, is supported by balustered columns with Corinthian capitals.
The arms, which are moulded and splayed, terminate in volutes carved with acanthus leaves, and rest
on turned baluster supports. The turned vase-shaped legs are carved and connected by moulded
cross-stretchers with a turned boss in centre.

The chair has a loose cushion seat covered in 17th Century material, having a scroll and leaf
design in red velvet applique on dull gold silk repp. Circa 1695.

{Fro)n the collection of Sir Spencer Maryon-Wilson, Bart.)

This walnut armchair represents a type with upholstered seat and elaborately carved
back which came into fashion in the reign of William III, and is based on French models
of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV. The back is remarkable for the elaboration
of the pierced carving, of which the design, like contemporary French patterns, is
symmetrical and balanced.

This chair, together with the examples of the rococo period {Figs. 12, 185 and 186)
and that of the later 18th Century (Fig. 27), may be classed amongst the finest repre-
sentative examples of chairs of English design and workmanship during a century
(1670-1770) which witnessed the most interesting development of furniture.

Chapter I.

Fig. 6.

A STOOL.

Fig. 7.

Of walnut, with shaped seat rails carved with grotesque satyr masks, on boldly modelled cabriole
legs carved with shells and husks and finishing in lion paw feet. It is upholstered with contemporary
gros and petit-point needlework. Circa 1730.

{Exhihitcd at the liurliw^ton Fine Arts Club, 1920-1.)

In the reign of George I certain fantastic )notijs were introduced in carving, such
as dogs' and lions' heads, satyrs' masks and grotesque human heads. In a gilt suite
at Houghton, comprising a winged armchair, single chairs and armchair, this identical
satyr's mask occurs on the seat-rails; the legs of the Houghton set are, however,
shouldered with lions' masks, whereas the illustrated example is carved on the shoulder
with an escallop shell and a pendant of husks.

A TABLE.

Fig. 8.

Of sabicu, with plain moulded frieze, supported on cabriole legs connected by a moulding
carved with a central leaf patera and reversed gadrooning. The legs are ornamented with finely
modelled masks and leaves and finish in lion paw feet. The top is a slab of figured Rhondonna
marble, framed in a gilt brass moulding ornamented with a chased central clasp and with shaped
panels engraved with baskets of flowers at the corners. Circa 1720.

{From the collection of Colonel Way, Dcnhani Place, lincks.)

Furniture of the early Georgian period is, as a rule, massive ; however, certain pieces
of lighter make exist in both gilt wood and mahogany, in which the slender cabriole
legs are shouldered with a fantastic mask with leaf pendant, such as the present
example and the gilt gesso table {circa 1720) in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire
at Hardwick Hall, where the legs are carved with a Red Indian mask with upstanding
head-dress of feathers.

Sabicu, a wood from Cuba and Porto Rica, is occasionally, but rarely, used in
English furniture during the 18th Century.

The gilt brass moulding framing the marble slab is exceptional at this early date. A
side table by William Kent from Devonshire House, however, dating from 1730-1735,
has its marble top framed in a somewhat similar brass moulding, but not, as in this
example, engraved.

Chapter 1.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

A BEDSTEAD.

Fig. 9.

Of mahogany, with fluted posts terminating in cabriole legs carved with lions' heads and paw
feet. The upper part of the head hoard is ornamented with swags of drapery, cords and tassels, and
below is a shaped board, carved with a shell in centre and scroll leaf ornament at either side. The
tester is coved and moulded, and the cornice carved with leaf and dentil enrichment.

The hangings are composed of head and base valances and curtains of red damask, and the
coverlet is of similar material trimmed with fringe. Circa 1735.

(From the Edgcotc collection.)

The structural features of beds were first exposed soon after the second quarter of
the 18th Century, owing, no doubt, to the popularity of mahogany. The slender fluted
posts, as in the present example, and in the somewhat similar bed at Ramsbury (dating
from about 1735), rest upon short cabriole paw feet, with escallop shells at the junction
of the leg with the bed post. The carving of the tall head board is exceptional in the
present example, as most beds have a low head board and drapery, or else a back
completely draped.

Chapter I.

Fig. 9.

A MAHOGANY STOOL.

Fig. 10.

Of oval shape, with cabriole legs terminating in claw and bail feet, having carved and gilt
acanthus leaf and other ornament on each knee. 'l"he seat is covered in very fine Genoese velvet.

Circa 17.^0.

Few stools dating ffom the 17th and early 18th (Centuries exist to-day in comparison
with the number of chairs of the same period, although inventories show that the former
were much more numerous ; indeed, the use of chairs then conveyed some qualification
of distinction.

After the middle of the 18th Century, when chairs became almost universal, many
stools must have been destroyed, and occasionally examples are met with which have
been converted into chairs.

A WALNUT CHAIR \MTH GILT GESSO

ENRICHMENT.

Fig. 11.

The recessed panels on the splats, legs and shell-shaped cresting are ornamented with carved
and gilt gesso, the carved mouldings and other enrichments being also gilt. (Urea 173,^.

Mirrors, tables and candlestands were the articles most frequently treated with gilt
gesso, but for reception rooms chairs and settees (notwithstanding the unsuitability of
gesso for this purpose) were similarly ornamented ; for instance, at Houghton, the great
house which Sir Robert Walpole furnished early in the 18th Century, quite a number
of gilt gesso chairs still exist, very similar in design to this example. Occasionally the
gesso was only inserted in panels.

The original set to which this chair belonged probably consisted of a settee and eight
chairs, this chair being marked No. VII. Another of the same set is now in the
Metropolitan Museum, New York, and the settee is in the possession of Mr.
J. A. Holms.

Chapter I.

■oo

10/;

Chapter II.

FURNITURE UNDER THE FRENCH
ROCOCO INFLUENCE.

INDEX.

Fig. 12. Armchair with scrolls and animals' heads - - - - -

13. Mahogany commode with shaped front

14. Mahogany wardrobe with bombe lower part . - - -

15. Cabinet of architectural design -

16. Commode with serpentine front and applied carvings

17. Writing table with serpentine front and applied carvings -

18. Writing chair with carved lyre-shaped splat - - - -

19. Enclosed chair with guilloche ornament on rail and fronts of
arms, which terminate in carved dogs' heads -

20. Three-chair-back settee in the Gothic taste - - - -

Circa 1740
1755
1750
1740
1750
1755
1745

1750
1755

For other examples of furniture of this period see: —

Chapter XVI. Tapestries and Carpets
IX. Silver

Figs. 185—189

,, 97—100, 116 and 117

Chapter II.

FURNITURE UNDER THE FRENCH
ROCOCO INFLUENCE.

1 740- 1 763.

THE middle period of the 18th Century represents the finest years of English
furniture making, when our cabinet makers, though subject to the French rococo
movement, displayed a greater originality than at any preceding period. The
French influence upon the applied arts of England was carried across the
Channel by immigrant goldsmiths, craftsmen and engravers, such as Gravelot,* and by
wealthy Englishmen travelling on the continent. The importation of French stuffs and
furniture, due to the intimate relations between the two countries during and before
the Seven Years' War, aroused a certain opposition among the partisans of English
goods. A correspondent in the London Mu^aziue for November, 1738, wrote: —
"The ridiculous emulation of the French now became the epidemical distemper of this
kingdom ; the travesty is universal ; poor England produces nothing fit to eat or drink

or wear; our cloaths, our Furniture, nay our food, too, all is come from France

I do not mean to under-rate the French, but like all true mimicks we only ape their
imperfections and awkwardly copy those parts which all reasonable Frenchmen them-
selves contemn in the originals Our taste and manufactures are at stake and

what seems at first sight only very silly is in truth a great national evil and a piece of
civil immorality."

A counterstroke was the founding of the Antigallican Society, so called from the
endeavours of its members "to promote the British manufactures, to extend the
commerce of England and discourage the introduction of French modes, and oppose
the transportation of French commodities." Mention of this society appears in 1749, f
and at various intermediate dates until 1771, but it does not appear to be known when
or why it became extinct. It had its meetings in various London taverns, and according
to Larwood's "Signboards" several public houses at the end of the 18th and beginning
of the 19th Centuries bore the name "The Antigallican Arms." The snuffbox and a
badge of the society are in this collection {Fig. 161), and another badge set with paste,
formerly in the possession of Lady Charlotte Schreiber,! is now in the Victoria and
Albert Museum.

* Hubert Franfois Gravelot (1699-1773) who came to London in 1732 and remained here for several years. He greatly
influenced contemporary art in England.

t On November 30th of that date the following advertisement appears : "To the Antigallicans. Gentlemen, You have
now an opportunity of doing your country a considerable piece of Service, and you are from the nature of your Society
peculiarly call'd upon to do it. All eyes are fixed on you and we hope you will not be contented with refusing to drink Claret
and wear French lace, while the French are endeavouring to gain a settlement in your Capitol. You, gentlemen, particularly
must be sensible how much farther the infection is like to spread by the establishment of a French company among you. You
are very numerous and have the Hearts and may on occasion have the Hands too of the people with you; therefore e.vert your-
selves and you will crush the brood of Vipers in the bosom of your country. Dare, and the spirit of those English Heroes, the
conquerors of France, who still live on our stage, inspire you."

X -Jfiiiitufls of Laih' Cluwlitltc Schrcihcr (edited by Montague Guest), Vol. II, pn^c 25S.

The French style upon which the English cabinet makers and carvers modelled
their designs was that which, developing in the period of the Regence, reached its
maturity in the early part of the reign of Louis XV. In furniture the change was
shown in the introduction of certain types of furniture previously unknown in England,
especially the commode and varieties of drawing room chairs, in the introduction of
characteristically French ornamental details, such as the ribbon, the rococo shell and
leafage, the cabochon and leaf and also the hoof and scroll foot.

Further, the elaboration of keyplates and handles as well as the limited use of ormolu
mounts on commodes can be traced to French influence.

This French influence is clearly evidenced in Chippendale's Director* His
upholstered chairs are termed "French Chairs" ; he gives upon one plate "two designs
for couches, or what the French call Pechc mortcl/' and his commodes are all built upon
French lines ; on one occasion in a design for a commode, with a silver surtout on the
top and a candlestand at each end, he seems to try to rival the most florid efforts of
Meissonnier. It does not appear from the contents of English houses that French
furniture was — in spite of the protests of the Anti-Gallicans — imported in any quantity ;
the collections, indeed, of French furniture at Windsor Castle and the great houses of
England date only from the reign of George IV. The spirit of the contagious French
rococo was, however, spread abroad by designers like Meissonnier and Oppenordt and
to a certain extent by immigrant engravers and designers such as Gravelot, and silver-
smiths such as Paul Lamerie.

* Owing to the publication of his pattern book. The Genllcmiin and Cubinet Maker's Director, the name of Thomas
Chippend.ile must always be very prominent in connection with the furniture of this period. Miss Constance Simon, in her
book English Furnilute Designers of the IStJi Century, gives all the information which is available respecting the Chippendale
fainily. She points out that there are three Chippendales.

Chippendale I was a carver and picture frame maker of considerable standing in Worcester at the close of the 17th
Century. There his son, the more celebrated Thomas (Chippendale II) was born. Both father and son settled in London
before the year 1727, and Chippendale I continued his former work with great success in the metropolis, as mirrors formed
such an important feature of the decoration of Palladian houses. Chippendale II found employment as a joiner, and became
in the reign of George I "a most eminent cabinet maker and carver." In \7A'i he took a shop in Conduit Street, Long Acre,
and in 1753 removed to larger premises at No. 16, St. Martin's Lane. He married Catherine Redshaw.

He published the first edition of his book in 1751; it contained 116 engraved plates, and the list of subscribers shows that
he had patrons and customers in all classes of society. In 1755 a fire broke out in his workshops. The second edition of the
nircctiir was published in 1759, and a third in 1761, and a still larger edition in 1766. In 1760 Chippendale II was elected a
member of the Society for the encouragement of Arts, which included amongst its members. Sir Joshua Reynolds, David
Garrick, Horace Walpole. Up to this time Chippendale II had .i partner named James Rannie. who died in 1766. and
Chippendale then advertised that he carried on the business himself.

Chippendale died in 1779, leaving a widow and four children the eldest of whom, Thomas (Chippendale III). succeeded to the
business. He entered into a partnership with Thomas Haig, a Scotsman, who had been book-keeper to James Rannie. Haig
withdrew from the firm in 1796, at which time it would appear that Chippendale III was in some financial difficulties. Like
his father, he was a member of the Society of Arts, and not only devoted himself to decorative, but also to the fine arts, and
exhibited five pictures at the Royal Academy.

Chippendale III received orders to furnish large country houses, and he and his men spent some months at Lord
Townshend's seat, Raynham Hall, Norfolk.

Chippendale III must have visited Paris early in the 19th Century, as his sketch book (which was formerly in the Hern.il
collection) illustrates furniture which he had sketched there and at Versailles. Many of these designs closely resemble the
illustrations in Iloiisehohl Furniture by Thomas Hope. 1807. He died in 1822.

AN ARMCHAIR.

Fig. 12.

One of n pair, of mahogany, with stuffed seat and back. The under-framing is shaped and carved
witli a rococo shell and balanced leaf scrolls, connecting the cabriole legs which are boldiy carved with
lions' heads and paw feet.

The arm supports, carved with scroll leaves on a background of rococo ornament, terminate in
hand grips of grotesque animals' heads.

The covering o[ ^ros and pctit-poiut needlework has a design of a vase and flowers in varicolours
on a light buff background. '^''■'■" ^740.

(ExhihitCil at tlie Burlington Fine Arts Clnh, 1920-1.)

This chair is an example of the heavy and handsome armchairs of great width,
made at the date when ladies' hoops had assumed their most ample proportions. A
writer in the Loudon Magazine for 1741 speaks of the pains a lady is put to to reduce
that wide, extended petticoat to the narrow limhs of a chair or chariot. The arm-
supports are richly carved in front and rake rapidly backward, a detail characteristic
of the period. The depth of the ornamental shaping uniting the legs is more usual in
tables than in chairs of this type. A chair of this set is illustrated in the Age of
Mahogany (F/?. 103), and Mr. Macquoid compares this with a second set with which it
has "a strong similarity of construction" {Figs. 104 and 105, ibid). Underneath one
of the chairs belonging to this latter set is the label of the maker, Giles Grendey of St.
John's Square, Clerkenwell.*

The lions' heads on the arms very closely resemble those on the Master's chair of
the Joiners' Company, which was carved in 1754 by Edward Newman, now in the
Bethnal Green Museum.

* Age of Malwgiiny. p"Sc 1-0.

Chapter II.

Fig. 12.

A COMMODE.

F/?. 13.

'*>

Of mahogany, the front and sides shaped and divided by flat pilasters. The fronts of the six
drawers are each outlined with carved rope ornament and fitted with chased and lacquered brass
handles. At each of the four corners is a bold composition of reversed scrolls, overturned acanthus
leaves and other rococo ornament, a continuation of which forms the legs. The front pilasters are
ornamented with carved pendants, and the deep frieze above the drawers with swags of flowers in
high relief. The deep front and side aprons are elaborately carved with scrolls, foliage and other
ornament. The edge of the top is carved.

4 ft. 8 in. long, 2 ft. 8 in. high. Circa 175S.

(Fro)» the cnllcctinu of the Marquis Toii'nshend.)

In 1754, Thomas Chippendale issued the first edition of his Director, a large number
of the drawings in which, including six "French Commode Tables," were evidently
inspired from published designs by Oppenordt. Among the subscribers to Chippendale's
book were a number of cabinet makers, so that however closely any example may
follow his design, it does not necessarily follow that it was actually made in his workshops,
nor is there any reason to believe that the work turned out by his firm was superior to
that of several other contem.porary cabinet makers. His reputation must rest upon his
main claim as "inventor and delineator."

No designs in Chippendale's book are of greater interest than these French commode
tables, as they were entirely different to anything that had been previously made in
England, and also because their manufacture is a somewhat complex problem, affording
great scope for the skill of the craftsman.

Only four examples of commodes resembling Chippendale's illustrations are known
to exist— two of these, are, however, comparatively plain and less important, owing to
the pilasters on the serpentine front being omitted, thus reducing them to the category
of ornamented chests of drawers. Of these, one was formerly at Chastleton, and the
other was at Ravnham. Of the two more elaborate examples, one is illustrated by Mr.
Percy Macquoid in the Age of Mahogany {Fig. 134, page 152), and the other, by far
the most ornate, is now in this collection. This commode was disposed of by the
Marquis Townshend's trustees in July, 1921

There can be no doubt that it is the piece referred to in an inventory of 1757.
where it is described as "Sideboard, the one in the room of Captain Townshend." The
label on the back of the commode corresponds with the inventory entry. The Captain
Townshend referred to was George (born 1724, a godson of King George I), who
succeeded as 4th Viscount in 1764 and was created Marquis in 1787, attaining the rank
of Field Marshal in 17^6.

Mr. Herbert Cescinsky, the author of an article dealing with this commode, which
appeared in the Burlington Magazine of June, 1921, was informed by a lawyer who acted
in connection with the Townshend estates that Chippendale & Haig's original bill for
this commode is in existence, and he stated that he had inspected it several times ;
it could not, however, be produced at the time of the sale. The lawyer further stated
that according to the bill the commode was supplied by Chippendale's firm to Balls
Park, Hertfordshire, which came to the Townshend family by the marriage of Charles,
afterwards 3rd Viscount, in 1723. to Audrey, only daughter and heiress of Edward
Harrison.

As the Director was published in 1754 (most of the engravings are dated 1753), and
as the inventory dates from 1757, the commode must have been made between those
dates.

Chapter il.

A WARDROBE OF MAHOGANY.

Fig. 14.

The lower portion, which is of bombe shape, has two small and one long drawer, fitted with
chased brass drop handles. The angles, plinth and feet are carved with bold leaf and scroll ornament
of rococo character. The upper portion is fitted with sliding shelves and enclosed by two doors
panelled with mouldings and with carved leaves in the top corners. The angles are splayed and
ornamented with carved pendants of flowers. The cornice is moulded. Circa 1750.

{Exhibited at the Burlington Fine Art^ Club, 1920-].)

This wardrobe is illustrated in Chippendale's Director, Plate CIV of the first edition
(1754), and follows the left hand version of the design in every detail except as to the
pendant of flowers in the upper part ; but this is shown as an alternative in the right half
of the illustration. The design is thus described in the text: "A clothes press with
different doors, the underpart is in shape with carved ornaments for the feet which go
up to the corners." Usually Chippendale's version of French furniture was inspired
from designs which had appeared in published pattern books. In this case, however,
It is evident that he had access to a very fine French commode of the Regency period
with a bombe front. The carving at the corners and along the bottom of the lower
part is a reproduction in wood of the fine chased brass-work of French metal workers,
such as CafHeri. The beautiful undercutting and the general treatment could never
have been so successfully interpreted without a close study of an actual example.

Chapter II.

Fig. 14.

A CABINET OF MAHCXJANY.

Fig. 15.

The lower part is fitted with doors covered with mahogany veneer, behind these are small
drawers; the surbase moulding and plinth have a carved enrichment.

The centre door of the upper part has a semi-circular head carved with egg and tongue ornament ;
the flat pilasters are ornamented with pendants of flowers, and the spandriis of the arch are similarly
treated. The plinth below the centre door is enriched with a key pattern, at the sides of which are
draw-out candle-stands; a broken pediment crowns the top.

The wings are recessed and fitted with glazed doors, framed with rope ornament, with frieze
above carved with a Vitruvian scroll and surmounted by carved lateral trusses. Cirra 1740.

(From the collection oj Sir Spoiccr Maryoii-\\'ilso)i, Barf.)

Bookcases and cabinets afforded more scope than any other articles of furniture for
architectural treatment, and this characteristic is here very strongly marlved. The
rococo of the furniture designer is, however, introduced in the ornament. Usually fine
examples of early mahogany furniture have been ruined by the application of French
polish or furniture polish, thus destroying the patina and the crispness of the carving.
Fortunately this piece has never suffered from such treatment.

Chapter II.

Fig. 15.

A COMMODE.

Fig. 16.

Of mahog.'iny, the front of serpentine shape, containing a slide and three drawers, the angles
boldly carved with cherubs' heads and the emblems of architecture amongst branches of foliage; the
base carved with a border of rosette ornaments and the top with a band of fluting. The elaborate
ormolu escutcheons and handles are finely chased with a design of foliage surrounding a cartouche.

Circa 1750.

In this instance, the unusually important handles and escutcheons are clearly
inspired by contemporary French taste, while the carving is reminiscent of earlier work.

The piece was designed specially for a great house in Yorkshire, from whence it
came to this collection. The original owner was a nobleman interested in architecture,
and the set square and compasses in the ornament symbolise his taste.

A WRITINCi TABLE.

Fig. 17.

Of mahogany, with pedestals fitted with drawers having chased brass drop handles oi the English
rococo type. The serpentine front has its canted corners ornamented with trusses, carved with
over-turned leaves, from which hang pendants of husks. The kneehole in the form of an arch with
moulded ke.\stone is supported on fluted pilasters, and the spandrils above are carved with scrolling
leaves. The straight back is fitted with imitation cupboards and drawers. The top is covered with
green mcjrocco leather with a tooled and gilt margin. Circa }7F<S.

The large pedestal or writing table designed to stand centrally in a room is a creation
of the middle years of the 18th Century. The usual type has two large lateral pedestals,
opening as cupboards, as in Chippendale's design in the Director (1754) and in the
table probably made by him to this design at Coombe Abbey ; or in drawers as in the
present example. A form with a central pedestal and circular revolving top is sometimes
met with. In the illustrated example the carving of the trusses, of the pendants of
husks at the corners, and in the spandrils of the knee-hole arch, together with the finely
chased brass handles, serve to enrich a simple structure.

Chapter II.

Fi-. 16.

Fi'^. 11.

A WRITING CHAIR

Fig. IS.

Of mahogany, the splat and arm sujiports carved with leaf (jrnanient in low relief; the top rail
is semi-circular, terminatiniS, in scrolls. The framing of the seat is circular in plan with moulded
edge; the cabriole front legs are carved with shell and leaf ornament and finish in finely modelled
claw and ball feet, the plain back legs finishing in club feet. The drop-in seat is covered in pciit-
poiiit needlework, the design consisting of flowers on a yellow ground. (.irca 174S.

{Kxhihitcd at the Uitrlbvitou I'iiic Arts Cluh, 1920-1.)

Mr. Macquuid in his Uistoyy of l-.iiglish FiDiiitiirc (Vol. HI. Plate IV) illustrates this
chair and describes it as of Irish workmanship, dating from 1730. Irish origin has been
attributed to certain carved mahogany tables of the middle of the 18th C.entury, and
the characteristics of this Irish school have been dwelt on by various writers. Miss
Simon, for instance, writes that "In Ireland much beautiful work was produced during
the Chippendale period,* and though no doubt based on the design of London makers,
the Irish style of carving showed marked individuality ; on the whole it was heavier in
design than the English, and had a flatter surface."

AN ENCLOSED CHAIR.

Fig. 19.

Of mahogany, with rail all round the seat car\ed with a ringed mnukling. '1 he fronts of the
arms are similarly carved and finish in boldly modelled grt)tesque animal heads. The front legs
are of cabriole type, carved with acanthus leaf ornament, the back legs plain. The seat and enclosed
back are stulTed and covered with black hide. ('iicu 17.S0.

Mr. Mactiuoid, who illustrates this chair, describes it as follows : "The upholstered
back and arms form one graceful curve, the latter terminate in dogs' heads supported
by facings of a good ringed moulding that also surrounds the seat frame. The front legs
are in pure Chippendale style ; the ornament on the shoulders in slight relief, and the
rather delicate scrolled feet decorated with a cubochoii, show the Louis XV feeling that
was gradually influencing ornamentation."

* Enf;tisli I'uinttiiic Dcsiiincrs iii tlic ISlli Century, l^ir^c 53.

Chapier II.

fi.

A SETTEE IN THE GOTHIC TASTE.

/';>;•. 21).

Of nialiog;iny, the design of the b;ick is composed of three cii;iir-b:icks with open\v()rl< sphus,
tiie tracery outlined with scrolls, the arm supports carved with scroll leaves. The front anti side
rails are ornamented with a geometric fret; the four front legs are tapered and carved with leaf and
tracery ornament, and connected with the back legs by nioLdded scroll-shaped stretchers.

The seat is co\'ered in the original needlework, the central panel having a design with detached
sprays (jf flowers in natural colours on a cream background, worked in pctit-foiiit, and framed with
a design of scroll ornament of darker tone. Along the outer margin is a design of detached sprays
of flowers on canary coloured background, executed in .i^ros-foiut. Circa 1755.

(Exhihilcd at the Burlm'^ton Fine Arts Cliih, 192tl-l.)

The "Gothic," of which this settee is an example, was one of the fashions of the
middle years of the 18th Century. The design of the splats was evidently suggested by
tracery in Gothic windows, but rococo details are also present. The patterns of these
open splats of chairs and settees are very varied, one set being rarely similar to another
in pattern.

The stretchers connecting the legs are very unusual at this date. A most interesting
feature is the beautiful needlework, designed specially for the purpose, with which the
seat is covered. An illustration of this settee appears in Mr. Macquoid's History of
English Furniture {Vol. Ill, Fig. 251).

Chapter II.

Chapter III.

FURNITURE UNDER THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.

1 763- 1 790.

INDEX.

(./) THE FRENCH INFLUENCE.

Fig. 22. Dressing table - - - ^'>''-'" ^^75

23. A pair of commodes - - " " " ^'^^'

24. Commode or chest of drawers with brass mounts and fretwork

gallery above - - - - - - ■ ■ - .. 1''-"

For other examples of furniture under this influence see : —

Marquetry --------- Figs. 50 and 51

(/;) THE INFLUENCE OF ROBERT ADAM,

Fig. 25. Dressing table with marquetry ornament - - - -

26. Table with applied brass ornament . - - - -

27. Armchair with gilt framework ------

28. Pair of circular cupboards with marquetry ornament
,, 29. Cellaret or pedestal with applied brass ornament

30. Small gilt table on tripod stand -

For other examples of furniture under this influence see
Lacquer --------

Marquetry -------

Silver ..--.---

Circa 1780

1780
1770
1775
1770
1780

Fig. 39
Figs. 52— 57
,, 112—115

{c) THE INFLUENCE OF THE LATER i8th CENTURY DESIGNERS.

Fig. 31. Bureau cabinet with painted upper panels

32. Wine waiter - - - - -

33. A pedestal writing table

Circa 1775
„ 1770
., 1765

Chapter III.

FURNITURE UNDER THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.

1 763- 1 790.

THE classic reaction which originated in France with a number of archaeologists
and amateurs, such as Cochin, affected the art of that country before reaching
England, and Cochin's official position as adviser or guide to the Marquis de
Marigny, Madame de Pompadour's brother, gave especial weight to his
criticism of the final extravagances of the moribund rococo. But apart from official
sanction thus given to the revival in France, the way for the classic was prepared by a
number of archfEological studies of the remains of ancient Greek and Roman art. In
1757, descriptions were published in the Accudemia ErcoltDiese of the excavations at
Herculaneum, and those at Pompeii, begun in 1755, had disclosed numbers of statuettes,
vases and objects in silver and bronze.

Winckelmann's publications, the appearance of Le Roy's Lcs /i/«.s heunx )ii()nit}}ic)its
de hi Grece, Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens (1762), the effective popularisa-
tion of Roman ornament by Piranesi, and Robert Adam's Kitins of the Palace of
Diocletian at Spalato, were all instrumental in creating and furthering the change.

This change was earlier in France. Horace Walpole, writing in 1765, tells us that
"the French had grown very simple, whilst we English were living on our old gods
and godesses" ; but from about 1760 onwards there arose in England a demand
for greater severity of outline in furniture and in the arts of the silversmith and potter,
and a tendency to adopt classical ornamental detail. In France, on the other hand,
there was far less reliance upon classical motijs and details in interior decoration and
furniture. Decorative ornament was confined to symmetrical spaces, but the ornament
itself was either semi-naturalistic foliage, such as the bay and olive, with swags or
garlands of flowers treated with the freedom of the earlier rococo style, or painted
arabesques and ornament after the Pompeian type. In these arabesques, classic motijs
such as urns and sphinxes appear, but are fancifully treated. The same adoption
of both free and floral details was a feature of contemporary French furniture.
English interior decoration under the classic revival was dominated by Robert Adam,
and took a severer and colder form than in France. It is the contrast between the
boudoir of Madame de Serilly, at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the state rooms
at Kedleston.

As regards English furniture, it is convenient to deal separately with the three
principal influences.

(</) THE FRENCH INFLUENCE.

The revived classic as interpreted in France was the result of the close inter-
communication between the two countries, especially after the peace of 1763. Wealthy
Englishmen flocked to Paris after peace was signed, and Horace Walpole writes in 1765
that "there were swarms of English here" and "our Ambassador had to entertain
ninety-nine of them to dinner on the King's birthday." The taste for continental travel
was on the increase; "where one Englishman travelled in the reign of the first two
Georges," wrote an acute observer in 1772, "ten now go on a grand tour. Indeed, to
such a pitch is the spirit of travelling come in the kingdom that there is scarce a citizen
of large fortune but takes a flying view of France. Italy and Germany in a summer's
excursion."*

The influence of France as a leader in the arts of life and of design had never been
greater. Louis XV had, like his great-grandfather, a taste for building and decoration.
D'Argenson writes in 1752, "La Marquise et ses amis disciit qit'oii uc pent amuser le
Roi uhsohnuent que de dessins d'architecture, que S.M . lie respire quavec dcs plans
et des dessins sur sa table, ce qui ruine les finances.'' During the twenty years of her
reign, Madame de Pompadour contributed in no unworthy fashionf to the development
and progress of the applied arts. While she placed the construction of her chateaux or
hotels in the hands of the leading architects, such as Gabriel, I'Assurance, Blondel and
Soufflot, she reserved to herself the final perfecting by a "dernier ameuhlement," in
which she showed a "horreur du banal, du comnuin, des iiicublcs de pacotille fails sur
une type connu et repandu." Madame du Barry continued less intelligently, but
hardly less extravagantly, the work of her predecessor. It is not, therefore, surprising
that English furniture of the classic revival should be penetrated with the French spirit,
and in spite of differences in national taste, the description of it as Louis XV f a I'aniilaise
is not misleading.

(/)) THE INFLUENCE OF ROBERT ADAM.

The most familiar name among furniture designers of the classic revival is that of the
architect, Robert Adam, who, in addition to a large practice as an architect, designed
the complete interior decoration and furniture of the houses which he built, even
including carpets, fabrics and door furniture. He left Scotland in 1754 and first visited
France. During his three years spent abroad, chiefly in Italy and Dalmatia (1754-1757),
he examined the remains of Roman architecture, and made a special study of the
ruins of Diocletian's Palace at Spalato for his work on that subject. During his stay
abroad, Adam became intimate with Clerisseau, a French architect and a friend of
Winckelmann, Piranesi, Antonio Zucchi, and Bartolozzi, who helped in the engraving
of several of the plates of the Ruins of the Lulace of Diocletian. Some of the artists
and engravers he met abroad returned with him to England and were associated with
his work. The most remarkable and the most influential of this circle was Piranesi, and
there is no doubt that his architectural designs served as a convenient text book of Roman
ornament, and the arresting and imaginative quality of his work was no small factor in
the spread of the classic revival. Piranesi's work, as Mr. Samuel writes, "was a fitting

^Letters concerning the present state of EnnLiml, 1772.

t L.idy Dilke. Fnruh Dccriralion and Furniture of the ISlli Century, 1901, pa^e 74.

Chapter III.

text book, rich in formula?, easy both of access and comprehension. His ideas, inter-
pretations and details, again, were as useful to the architect and draughtsman as are the
services of the refiner to the worker in metal."*

The sources of influence to be traced in Adam's work are to be found in Roman
remains, and in the decorative work of artists of the Italian Cinquecento. In his
publications,! Robert Adam is always ready to acknowledge the assistance he had
derived from a knowledge of French architecture, and at this period it was necessary
for an architect and decorator to be intimately acquainted with the fashions and art of
France.

Adam's original sketches, which are preserved in the Soane Museum, cover a
period from 1757 to 1790, and a comparison of the actual pieces designed by him at
Kedleston, Harevvood, Syon House and Nostell shows the progressive development of
his style. His early pieces, such as those made for Lord Scarsdale at Kedleston, are
conservative, following to some extent the earlier Georgian furniture designers, such
as William Kent, and abandoning the rococo ; and this is also the case in a drawing for
Sir Lawrence Dundas of a sofa with female figures as arm supports, dated 1762. In a
sofa and chairs in the possession of the Marquis of Zetland, the lines are French, the
motifs classical scrolls, sphinxes and griffons. Shortly before 1770 inlay became a feature
of his pieces, and some of the furniture made for Osterley and Harewood is distinguished
by inlay very broadly designed. In wall furniture, such as mirrors and girandoles for
wall lights, Adam apparently followed his own fancy, and his designs are versions of
classical detail, paterte, griflfons and sphinxes, linked together by swags of husks. In
his later movable furniture, and in pieces adapted from French originals, such as
commodes, sofas, hergeres, a pronounced Louis XVI feeling is noticeable after about
1775. French furniture of the Louis XVI period was usually painted in light tones or
gilt, and Adam from about 1770 made a free use of painted furniture to bring this
into complete harmony with his mural decoration. Small medallions painted by, or
more usually after designs by Angelica KaufFman, Cipriani and other decorative artists,
accompany this painted furniture, with which the name of Pergolesi is associated.

A group distinct from Robert Adam, consists of furniture makers and designers of
the late 18th Century, of whom little is known but their trade catalogues. These
contain illustrations of furniture veneered in light woods, such as satinwood, sycamore
and chestnut, polished in their natural colours, or stained (as in the case of sycamore,
with a solution of oxide of iron, producing what is known as "harewood.") Furniture
was also made in inferior woods, such as beech, and then painted or japanned. As
distinguished from the preceding period of carving, the age was an age of inlay and
painting, sometimes rising to the high technical quality of French work, as in the small
dressing table {Fi,ii. 25), but more usually restricted to small formal medallions, fans
and bandings of contrasting woods. The furniture of this group diflEers from that of
Robert Adam in being designed for the general purchaser, and not specially for
individual patrons.

* I'iranesi, page 57.

t The Works of R. i? J. Adam.

The types of furniture in general demand, as evidenced by the pattern books of
Shearer, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, were glass-fronted bookcases, bureau writing
tables, sideboards (still usually made of mahogany) occasional tables, work tables,
commodes, screens, chests of drawers and chairs. It is significant that the authors
of the Ciiiide state that they have "steadily adhered to such articles only as are of
general use and service." The prominence given to combination pieces of furniture,
in which dressing tables are designed as writing tables and so on, suggests the small
purchaser. The legs of chairs and tables were usually straight and tapered, with a
plinth-shaped block ; sometimes they are fluted, or enriched with pendant husks.

A pronounced French influence is noticeable in the designs of Hepplewhite, and
in particular those for drawing room furniture, such as chairs, sofas and half-round
commodes, which are close adaptations from French models, recognised as French by
the public, and described by their French names, as juutciiib, duchesses, bergeres
(biirjairs), codidkxIcs and couftdeiites.

Hepplewhite's (Aibiiiet-Duikers' mid Uf^halsterers' Guide was issued in 1785, and
a second and third edition in 1789 and 17^4. In his upholstered chairs and settees,
the back and seat rails are shaped in the French manner, and the upholstery itself
shows the striped effect then fashionable in French textiles.

In his bar-back settees and open-back chairs are found many varieties of design for
shield and oval-backed types. In the cost books of the firm of Gillow, a Lancaster
firm which started a London branch in 1744, there are sketches of chairs very similar
to those designed by Hepplewhite; a shield-back chair appears in 1782, and in 1788
a chair with a back composed of a design of interlacing hearts.

Thomas Sheraton* published the Cahi>ict-nuikers' London Book of Prices in 1788,
and the Cabinct-iiuikeis' and Upholsterers Drawing Book in 1791-1794, when he
states that his intention is "to exhibit the present taste of furniture," i.e., the Empire.
His earlier work is deeply affected by French influence, especially in upholstered
chairs and settees, as well as in pier tables and other types, and his treatment of
upholstery is also in the French manner, f

* Born nbout 1750.

f "French strappinji ;ind tassels" are instanced in illustration of drapery; curtains are drawn on "French rods." "French
state heds" have been introduced of late with great success in England. The festooned valances of upholstery in beds, chairs
and settees, as illustrated in Lalonde, is reproduced by Sheraton.

A DRESSING TABLE.

Fio. 22.

Witli slinped frieze :ind ciiliriole legs connected by a shaped stretcher, the whole overhiid with
veneer. The top is inhiid witii an oval panel, framing a vase on a pedestal surrc^unded by sprigs of
flowers and draped swags. The four corners are ornamented with scroll and leaf enrichment; the
wide margin is inlaid with scroll design, the frieze and stretcher being similarly inlaid.

The top slides back and the front slides forward; the interior is fitted with compartments for
toilet requisites and a hinged mirror. Circa YllS.

Veneers of various woods are here very skilfully comhined to obtain a decorative
effect, the ground of the centre oval panel being of satinwood, the enclosing oblong of
sycamore, and the outer margin of harewood (or stained sycamore). The veneer of
the legs and banding is of laburnum, the small ornament principally of holly. The
marc|uetry is fine in execution and is engraved.

The dressing table, when closed, has the appearance of an occasional table. Many
graceful enclosed dressing tables, ingeniously fitted with hinged mirrors, drawers and
wells for toilet accessories, were made in the late years of the 18th Century, and are
illustrated in the works of Hepplewhite and Sheraton.

A PAIR OE COMMODES.

Fig. 23.

Of mahogany, with bow-shaped fronts and sides. The three drawers are fitted with chased brass
drop handles. The top and the sides are overlaid with veneers of harewood and outlined with
narrow borders of tulipwood and kingw(n)d. Circa 1780.

These two small commodes offer an example of the sober and graceful furniture of the
late 18th Century, and depend for their effect upon the quality of the veneerof harewood,
outlined with borders of tulipwood and kingwood, and the bow-shaping of the front and
sides. There is neither carving nor ornament of any description, and the chased drop
handles are of simple design.

Chapter III.

Fis. 22.

Fig. 23.

SECRETAIRE.

Fig. 24.

Veneered with niiihogany, consisting of a serpentine-fronted chest of drawers (the upper drawer
forming a secretaire), mounted at the angles with long acanthus leaves and with acanthus shoes,
handles and mountings of chased and gilt brass. There is a fretted mahogany super-structure with
galleried shelf. Circu 1775.

This secretaire of original and graceful design follows the precedent of French
cabinet making in the use of brass mounts for the salient features and feet. Such mounts
were in England furnished by the firm of Chippendale, Haig & Co., for the furniture at
Harewood, but are elsewhere only found on a few exceptionally fine pieces. It will be
noticed that the ripple-figured mahogany gives a greater play of colours and variety
of surface than was possible with "Spanish" or San Domingo wood. The fretted super-
structure, though delicate in appearance, is strongly made ; the frets being formed of
three thicknesses of wood glued together, the grain of the centre layer running in a
contrary direction to that of the outer lavers.

Chapter III.

Fig. 24.

A DRESSING TABLE.

Fie. 2^.

'4>

Of nuihognny cMitirely overlaid with veneer of harewood, on tapered legs with lift-up top, and
fitted with two drawers and a shaped shelf below. It is ornamented with inlaid patera-, swags and
pendants of laurel in satinwood; and the drawers are outlined with borders of tulipwood. The top
is similarly treated, and each flap inlaid with an oval trophy of pastoral attributes in coloured
woods. The interior is fitted with many compartments for toilet requisites, and a framed mirror
with back support, adjustable on a ratchet. (.ircu l/SD.

After the middle of the 18th Century, much ingenuity was displayed hy furniture
designers upon dressing tables, those for gentlemen having no fewer fittings and compart-
ments for powder and cosmetics than those intended for ladies' use. Plain pieces of
such types are to be met with in considerable number, hut the marquetry ornamentation
in this example is exceptionally fine. According to tradition, it was made to the order
of George, Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV, and had been intended as a gift to
the Comte d'Artois, brother of Louis XVI ; but the political troubles in France
prevented its despatch to France.

A FOLDING TABLE OF MAHOGANY.

Fin. 26.

The frieze is fiuted, and the centre panels are mounted with swags, pendants and a circular
patera of finely chased and gilt brass. The fronts of the tapering hexagonal legs are also mounted
with chased and gilt pendants, and the feet carved with leaf enrichment. The shaped top is
overlaid both inside and out with finely figured mahogany veneer, inlaid with satinwood bands,
the edges are carved with interlaced ribbon and flower ornament, and gilt. Circa 17S0.

This table was formerly in a large house built and decorated by Robert Adam, and
it is probable that he also designed this piece. The method by which it opens is
ingenious ; when folded it becomes a side-table, but when open (owing to the concertina
action) all four sides are exactly the same, the centre ornament on the frieze appearing
on each of the four sides.

Chapter III.

Fig. 26.

AN ARMCHAIR.

Fig. 27.

The finely carved framework is gilt in two shades. The arched back is carved with a wreath and
laurel sprays tied with a bow of ribbon, and the whole back outlined with leaf ornament. The open
arms, carved with leaves and guilloche, are connected with square tapered front legs carved with urns
and pendants of husks. In the centre of the front rail is a classic urn with drapery. The seat, back
and arm-pads are covered with rose-coloured Spitalfields silk, with representations of Neptune and
Flora woven in green and silver. Circa 1770.

This chair, formerly at Stansted Park, Sussex, was probably designed by Robert
Adam, who in suites at Osterley and Nostell designed chairs with upholstered backs
and cylindrical legs in the French manner, in which little of his typical ornament is
introduced. The urns and pendants of husks upon the front legs and rails are
characteristic of Robert Adam's detail, but the wreath and laurel sprays, tied with a
bow of ribbon upon the cresting, are in the French style.

The frame is water-gilt in two shades of gold, a feature characteristic of late 18th
Century French decoration and furniture, and is highly burnished all over. The quality
of the gilding is superior to that usually met with in English furniture. The con-
temporary rose-coloured Spitalfields silk is the original covering.

Chapter III.

ii
^

Fig. 27.

A CIRCULAR CUPBOARD.

Fig. 28.

One of a pair, the body, which is of mahogany, has the frieze inlaid with a large guiiloche
ornament; the tambour below (fitted with six small drawers) is decorated with alternate vertical
bands of harewood and inlaid satinwood, with a beading above and below of chased and gilt brass.
The top is also of harewood inlaid with fan-shaped and husk ornamentation. The tripod legs (of
rosewood) are decorated above with rams' heads, and the feet with rococo ornament in chased and
gilt brass. The stretcher is similarly inlaid and edged with a gilt brass beading. ('Area 1775.

{Fro))i the collection oj the Earl oj (Carnarvon.)

An example illustrative of the close imitation of French models and the excellence
of English craftsmanship. This piece is a French type, and of French design also are
the vertical banding and the enriched guilloche ornament of the frieze. The rams' heads
and husks, however, and the design of the inlay on the top and the stretcher are in the
manner of Robert Adam. Judging by its close similarity to the furniture at Harewood,
it may be assumed that this piece was also produced by Chippendale, Haig & Co. about
1775. Like certain other pieces in this collection, it originally came from Bretby,
formerly the seat of the Stanhopes, Earls of Chesterfield.

A cp:llaret or pedestal.

Fig. 29.

Of mahogany, octagon shaped with square body and splayed base fitted with two cupboards
enclosed by doors. Ornamented above, on front and sides, with large circular fiuted patera-, and
below with oblong shaped panels. The mouldings are of chased and lacquered brass. To the frieze
is applied an enriched Vitruvian scroll in chased brass. Circa 1770.

{Fro))i the collection oj the Duke of Portland.)

Pedestals surmounted by urns were after 1760 a frequent accompaniment in
"spacious dining rooms" of sideboards, which were merely side tables with little or no
storage capacity. The pedestals were cupboards, one (which was usually reserved for
the heating of plates) being fitted with racks, and lined with metal, as in this example.
They were usually surmounted by urns, either of wood, silver-gilt, or of japanned metal.

Chased and lacquered brass ornament applied to furniture appears with the French
influence ; but Robert Adam extended its use by employing it as bands, mouldings and
pateric. The quality of this brass ornament used under his direction is invariably
excellent. This pedestal, of exceptionally large size, was formerly at Welbeck.

A GILT TABLE OR CANDLESTAND.

Fig. 30.

One of a pair, on a carved and gilt tripod stand, the pillar finely carved with leaf enrichment
and spiral fluting; the three shaped legs are also ornamented. The oval top of satinwood has a
narrow margin of kingwood ; the edging, which is carved with leaf ornament, is gilt. ('irca 1780.

This small table or stand came from the same collection, and was part of the same
suite as the gilt armchair {Fig. 27, q.v.), and is of similar high quality as regards carving
and gilding.

Chapter III.

<3s
to/i

<>1

A BUREAU CABINET.

Fig. 31.

Of mahogany overlaid with finely figured veneers of satinwood and Spanish mahogany, bordered
with fine lines of tiilipwood and ebony.

The break-fronted upper part is fitted with three doors, surmounted by a painted frieze and
moulded cornice. Over the centra! portion is a curved pediment surmounted with openwork
carving of ribbon and sprays. Over the wings are shaped spandrils, and at each corner small turned
vases are set on pedestals having panels of avanturine glass imitating lapis lazuli.

Each of the three doors in the upper part of the cabinet is ornamented with bars representing
Gothic tracery; the two side doors being filled in with wavy strip ornament in green and gold.
The centre door is treated more elaborately. Three of the lights are fitted with paintings of female
figures in grisaille.

The lower portion of the cabinet is fitted with a draw-out secretaire, below which arc folding
doors, engraved with garlands of flowers in the large oval panels, and with trophies at each of their
angles. This engraved ornament is filled in with colours. Circa 1775.

The curved pediment over the central portion contains a painting of winged amorini
sacrificing a goat, and the shaped spandrils over the wings paintings symbolising Science
and Art. The decorative ornament in the spandrils over the "Gothic" window of the
centre door, and the frieze, suggest the work of Michael Angelo Pergolesi, author of
Desig)is for various OruamenU in seventy Plates (1777-1801). In the centre door of the
upper part of the cabinet, three of the lights are filled with grisaille paintings of female
figures, representing Fortitude, Justice and Temperance, the three cardinal virtues. In
the other lights are a trophy of a quiver, caduceus, etc., and arabesques. The three
figures are from designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds for the window of New College Chapel,
Oxford, which were painted on glass by Gervas.

Chapter III.

Fis. 31.

A WINE WAITER.

Fi^. 32.

Of mahogany, the top arranged in compartments, with hand grip in centre, supported on four
cabriole legs carved with leaf ornament on the knees and terminating in paw feet. The sides and
cross partitions are fret-cut in a scalloped design. Circa 1770.

The shape of the legs and apron of this piece resembles English work of about 1750,
but the style of carving identifies it as being of Irish manufacture of some twenty years
later.

Throughout the 18th Century, attention was devoted to the appointments of the
dining room, and the silver used was often extremely costly. This piece of furniture was
designed to hold bottles. Other contrivances with the same object (often of Irish
manufacture) are frequently met with at a later date.

A PEDESTAL WRITING TABLE.

Fig. 33.

Of mahogany, with trefoil shaped ends and incurving kneeholes. The six drawers in the frieze
are each fitted with chased brass drop handles formed of wreaths of laurels, having pierced back
plates. The pedestals, fitted inside as cupboards, have curved fronts and ends surrounded with
inlaid lines of boxwood, with carved fan ornament applied at the corners. The top is overlaid with
dark red morocco leather with tooled borders of scroll and guilloche detail. Circa 176S.

{From the collection o/ the Countess oj Dartrey.)

In the first edition of the Director is an illustration of a kneehole writing table (dated
1753), with shaped fronts to the drawers and a curve inwards above the kneehole.
Chippendale writes that "they frequently stand in the middle of the room, which
requires both sides to be made useful." Writing or library tables with so many curves
as the example illustrated are rare, and it speaks well for the skill of the craftsman,
and for the selection of the timber, that it could have lasted for over 150 years,
without any of the panels warping or becoming out of shape. The mouldings on this
table are identical with the details given in the Director, but the fan ornament at the
corners of the panels, and the design of the handles, indicate a date about ten years
later than the Director.

Somewhat similar tables are shown in the illustrations of Hepplewhite, Sheraton,
and of the other late 18th Century designers, and instructions are given for the
preparation of the framework to avoid warping in the curved panels.

Chapter III.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

Chapter IV.

LACQUERED FURNITURE.

INDEX.

Fig. 34. Lacquer cabinet on gilt stand - Circa 1690

35. Chinese red lacquer screen, with the Imperial arms in carving - ,, 1700

36. Details of same - ,, 1700

37. „ ,,----------,, 1700

38. Writing table of English design, made in China - - - After 1710

39. Commode covered with Chinese lacquer panels - - - Circa 1770

Chapter IV.

LACQUERED FURNITURE.

SPECIMENS of Oriental art, such as porcelain, found their way to Europe before
the 17th Century, but the expeditions of the Dutch and Danish traders at the
beginning of the 17th Century were the means of importing a fuller knowledge
of the art of the East to Europe. Probably the greatest amount of porcelain
and lacquer was imported by the East India Company of Holland, which was up to the
middle of the 17th Century far the most successful. The English East India Company,
although founded by Royal Charter in 1600, was unsuccessful until after the Restoration,
but in 1676 it had become a flourishing concern paying a dividend of 300 per cent.

European imitations differ essentially from Oriental lacquer. Holland led the way in
this industry towards the middle of the 17th Century. In France, imitation of lacquer
also flourished, but in England, though advertisements appear in the reign of William III
in the London Gazette, offering for sale "Screwtores, Table Stands and Looking Glasses,
of Japan and other work," and "Japan Cabinets, Indian and English," raised lacquer
appears to have been mainly an accomplishment or a fashionable amusement. The
English lacquer work had, as a ground, a varnish paint, differing greatly from the smooth
and brilliant Oriental lacquer; the raised ornament (a paste made up of gum, bole-
ammoniac and whiting) was dropped from a brush or stick upon the design, and
sometimes carved and trimmed when hard set. The raised ornament was then coloured
or gilt and the subsidiary ornament painted flatly with a brush.

Incised lacquer work, a Chinese speciality, was also imitated here and known as
"Bantam work"; a ground of firwood in this variety being covered with a composition
of size and whiting (similar to that used in gesso work) afterwards incised and coloured.
English "Bantam work" as it was termed, fell out of fashion in the late 18th Century,
but raised lacquered furniture and decoration in imitation of Chinese ornament remained
fashionable until early in the 18th Century. About 1750 it again appeared in conjunc-
tion with rococo ornamentation, and in the Director many designs are given in the
Chinese taste. The most famous of English pattern books for Oriental ornament, that
of Edwards and Darley, which has designs suitable for lacquer, appeared in 1754.

It might have been predicted that lacquer would not have been tolerated by Robert
Adam, the exponent of the "pure taste" of antiquity. At Osterley and at Nostell,
however, he has made use of a most effective lacquered furniture with classic enrich-
ments, dating from about 1770. During the later years of the century, painted furniture
with ornament picked out in gold and colours superseded lacquer work as a fashionable
treatment.

AN ENGLISH RED LACQUER CABINET
ON A CARVED STAND.

Fig. 34.

The cabinet is entirely ornamented both inside and out with red lacquer with raised decorations
in gold and silver, in designs of Chinese landscapes. The doors, enclosing a number of small drawers,
are mounted with gilt and engraved brass handles, clasps and lock plates. The carved and silvered
stand is formed of six baluster-shaped supports, united above by draperies and below by scroll
stretchers carved with leaf enrichments. Circa 1690.

Red lacquer was highly prized for its decorative effect, and "C.K." in the Arts'
Masterpiece differentiates its three tones as the "common red, the deep dark red and
the light pale red."

Lacquered cabinets were usually placed upon stands, elaborately carved and gilt
(or more rarely silvered). In the 1679 inventory of Ham House, "Two Cabinets of
Japan and Frames" are entered, while in the picture gallery is especially noted, "One
Indian Cabinet with a guilt Frame carved." Designed to stand, like the cabinet they
support, against the wall of a room, the decoration of these stands is confined to the
front. The most usual ornament was a deep apron of large acanthus leaves, centring
in some motif, such as amorini supporting a crown ; the outward curving legs (often
formed as to the upper portion by a terminal figure) ending below in a scroll foot.

Later the stands of the reign of William and Mary closely follow the Louis XIV
style, having baluster legs and crested stretcher, as in the example illustrated. The
stands are of whitewood, lime, pine or pear, coated with composition before gilding,
the texture of these woods allowing greater freedom than was possible in carving oak
or walnut. The silvering of this example is original, and was discovered under a coat
of paint.

Chapter IV.

Fig. 34.

A CHINESE RED LACQUER SCREEN.

Fig. 35.

With six folds (each 6 ft. 7 in. hi^h by 1 ft. 9 in. wide). On a iiriiliant warm red background is
depicted, in graded tones of gold, a scene of continuous landscape, where a large company has met
to enjoy sports. The figures are in pAiropean costumes of the late 17th Century. The upper part
of each leaf has a deep border carved in openwork and gilt, showing in every section the Imperial
Eagle of the German Empire, with sunflowers and foliage. The entire screen is edged with narrower
bands of carved scrolls; and the back is painted with slight floral ornament on a dull red ground.
Period of K'ang Hai. Circa 1700.

Towards the close of the 17th Century, a Jesuit mission, which had been sent to
China, was enabled, owing to the broad-minded tolerance of the Emperor K'ang Hai,
to establish itself in that country. These Jesuit fathers had been encouraged and assisted
by the Archduke Leopold of Austria, and when he was elected Emperor in 1700, they
sent him in commemoration of the event a pair of red lacquer screens. The subsequent
history of these two screens is as follows : —

One was taken by the Archduke Charles (son of Leopold L :ind himself elected Emperor in
1711) to Palermo during the Austrian occupation of Sicily (1720-1734), and passed into the possession
of an ancestor of the Marchese Airoldi, then occupying a high official position. Probably it had
never been removed from the state apartments of the Palazzo Airoldi, until recently acquired for
this collection. To this circumstance and to the Sicilian climate, the extraordinary perfection of its
present condition is doubtless due. (This screen is here illustrated.)

The other was presented to the Duke of Marlborough by the Archduke Charles, probably in
recognition of the Duke's services when the Archduke came to England in 1703. The Duke of
Marlborough then conducted him to Windsor, and twice entertained him as his guest. The screen
is still at Althorp (the property of Earl Spencer) where it has always been known as the Marlborough
screen, having passed to the Spencer family through the Duke of Marlborough's second daughter and
co-heiress Anne, who married Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland.

Oriental lacquer screens were customary articles of furniture in all English country
houses during the 18th Century, and were very frequently given as presents.

Chapter IV.

liiC:^,^ ^v^ i^--

&S^^^^

A CHINESE RED LACQUER SCREEN.

(Continued) .

Detail of the carving of the top panels (Fig. 36) : —

That this screen was made expressly for presentation to the Emperor is clear from the Imperial
Eagle which ensigns each of the carved panels. There are other instances of the heraldic eagle
appearing on Chinese wares— one being a salt cellar of blue and white porcelain, and another a
tankard painted in jainiUe vertc; both are in the British Museum, and both also date from the
K'ang Hai period.

A portion of the design showing European costiones (tig. 37) : —

Over the six leaves is spread a continuous landscape of one of the Imperial pleasure parks. The
whole setting of the scene is Oriental, but the actors are European— that is to say, European in dress,
though every pose and every feature betrays the touch of the Chinese draughtsman. Substitute
Eastern for Western costumes, and we have in almost every instance a Chinaman. The costumes
belong to the close of the 17th Century, the late K'ang Hai period in Chinese chronology.

An eminent authority on Chinese Art writes as follows : —

"As to the provenance of the work, both Foochou and Canton have long been celebrated for
"painted lacquer. The European influences, which are so apparent in the screen, seem to point to
"the latter place of manufacture, for the Cantonese were in close touch with the earliest European
"traders. The lacquer has stood the test of two centuries and its freshness to-day speaks eloquently
"for the careful preparation of material and the skilful workmanship of the old Chinese artists."

(^HAl'lr.K l\'.

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

A LACQUERED WRITING OR DRESSING

TABLE.

Fig. 38.

(Of Chinese miinufiicture throughout) with shaped front and kneehole, and pedestals at sides,
which each contain three small drawers, with one long drawer above. The piece is entirely decorated
with black Chinese lacquer, representing rocky landscapes, trees, etc., in gold; the whole outlined
with narrow borders of geometric design. The drawers have gilt metal handles.

Apart from the lacquering, this is an exact reproduction of an English piece of furniture of about
1710, which had been taken to China.

Dutch and English merchants shipped models of cabinet work for manufacture to the
East, as well as actual pieces for decoration in lacquer. The inferiority of Oriental
cabinet work did not, however, suit the English taste, according to Captain Dampier,
who wrote that "the joyners . . . may not compare their work with that which the
Europeans make." The cabinet work of this example is, however, excellent. Imported
lacquered furniture following English models is not now of frequent occurrence. The
practice of shipping models of cabinet work to the East seems to have been principally
between 1710 and 1730, when the taste for "Japan" was at its height. To this date
belonged the original model from which this example was reproduced.

Chapter IV.

A LACQUERED COMMODE.

Fiii. 39.

Of mahogany, with shaped front and sides.

The frieze is fitted with a long drawer with chased brass drop handles designed as laurel wreaths.
The lower part is divided into three compartments enclosed by doors, behind which are three tiers
of drawers. The stand has a carved rail and turned and fluted feet. The whole is overlaid with
Chinese lacquer panels; the designs on the front and sides being landscapes, trees and pagodas, in
black and gold. The top is similarly treated except that figures are introduced. The fronts of the
inside fittings are veneered with Chinese panels of floral ornaments, while the upright framings
between the doors and the canted corners are ornamented with pendants of husks, in black and gold
Kngiish lacquer. ^^'''"f" ^770.

Length 5 ft. 1 in., depth 2 ft. 2 in., height 2 ft. 10 in.

(Froui the collection oj the Karl of Dnudonahi.)

Apart from the traditions attached to certain houses designed by Robert Adam, and
from the evidence of his original sketches in the Soane Museum, there is little evidence
on which the attribution of any piece of furniture to Robert Adam can be based. At
Nostell, the seat of Lord St. Oswald, furniture designed by Adam is still preserved, with
the bills of Chippendale, Haig & Co. for supplying it. One of the state bedrooms there
is furnished with pea-green lacquer, ornamented whh designs in gold and silver, and
there is no doubt that they were made by the firm that undertook the furnishing and
decorating of the house. The similar pea-green commode at Nostell (illustrated in Mr.
Macquoid's Age oj Satinwcjod, Fig. 21) is almost a replica of this piece, but whereas the
Nostell commode is of English lacquer, this is veneered with panels of Chinese manu-
facture. Somewhat similar is a lacquer commode at Osterley (illustrated in the Age oj
Satinwood, Fig. 25) and Horace Walpole, who visited the house in 1773, describes the
decorations as "masterpieces of Adam."

Another commode, which is of the same design, though not of lacquer, is at
Harewood House, where the bill of Chippendale, Haig & Co. for supplying it is
preserved. The commode here illustrated, which was made for Thomas, 8th Earl of
Dundonald, may be fairly attributed on internal evidence to Robert Adam as designer,
and to the firm of Chippendale, Haig & Co. as cabinet makers.

Chapter IV.

Chapter V.

MARQUETRY.

INDEX.

Fig. 40. Table on scroll legs with floral ornament - - - -

41. Top of same.

42. Table on scroll legs with ornament in panels

43. Top of same.

^^ 44. Chest with coloured inlays -------

45. Top of same.

46. Writing desk with sloping top ------

47. Top of same.

48. Table with turned legs and ornament in panels -

49. Top of same.

50. Commode with chased gilt mounts and ornament of trophies

51. Top of same.

,, 52. Commode with chased gilt mounts and a marble top -

,, 53. Commode with serpentine front and splayed ends -

55. Oval tray with husk ornament ------

,, 56. Balloon bracket clock with chased metal plaque

57. Oval tray with fan ornament -

Circa

1675

» »

1700

» J

16%

J y

1690

) »

1695

» »

1770

> »

1775

J »

1775

> >

1780

J y

1780

y y

1780

Chapter V.

MARQUETRY.

THE art of enriching woods with inlays of other woods, metal, bone or ivory, is
known as inlay or intarsia. It is thus distinguished from marquetry, a more
modern process, in which the component parts of the design are saw-cut from
various coloured veneers, and assembled according to design before being
glued upon a prepared ground. The two processes are distinct ; there is, however, an
intermediate stage which can be still classed as iiihiy, in which the panels of veneer are
let into or applied to a ground, so that no portion of this ground is exposed. This is the
case in the rare examples of English rosewood inlay of the late 16th Century. Though
the appearance of such work resembles marquetry rather than inlay, it should still be
classed as inlay, marquetry being restricted to patterned saw-cut veneers, laid either
with the hammer or the caul.

Examples of Assyrian and Egyptian inlay, dating from the 8th and 10th Centuries B.C.,
consisting of "patterns of metal and ivory, or ebony or vitreous paste, inlaid upon both
wood and ivory"* exist in museums.

Intarsia was practised in Sienna during the 13th Century, and from Sienna the art
spread to other Italian cities, such as Florence, f where much of the finest late 15th
Century inlay was made ; and beyond the borders of Italy to the rich cities of South
Germany, Augsburg and Nuremburg (which lying on the trade-route between Italy and
countries north of the Alps, were first to receive and adopt Italian influences), and
thence to the northern German cities and the Netherlands. The early South German
inlay followed Italian design, but the work of the Netherlands assumed other and
definite characteristics. The French learned the art from the craftsmen of the Low
Countries, and Jean Mace of Blois, the first Frenchman known to have practised the art,
was lodged in the Louvre in 1644 "eti honneur de la longiie et belle pratique de son art
dans les Pays Bus" ; but both in the development of marquetry and inlay, their
wonderful achievements of the 18th Century are characteristically national in design.

Marquetry of the Netherlands differed from that of other countries by its tendency
to realistic floral design, and its free use of exotic woods, which their commerce had
made available for cabinet makers during the 17th Century.

English inlay under the Tudors and early Stuarts is almost entirely of an elementary
character, the inlay consisting of woods, such as holly or bog oak, sunk into cells cut in
the solid wood, generally oak. Representations of buildings in inlay of coloured woods
are found in a number of oak chests dating from the second half of the 16th Century,
which have been termed Nonesuch chests, after the palace of that name built by
Henry VIII towards the end of his reign. Representations of very similar buildings
are, however, found in inlaid chests of German and Low Country make.

* F. Hamilton Jackson, Inlnrsia and Marquetry, page 2.
t F. Hamilton Jackson, Intarsia ami Marquetry, page 81.

Of greater refinement is the well-known inlaid furniture at Hardwick Hall, such as
the two tables, one of walnut inlaid with musical instruments, made for Elizabeth of
Hardwick on the occasion of her marriage with the Earl of Shrewsbury, in 1568 ; the
other the small walnut gaming table with parquetried top comprising a border of playing
cards. The rare rosewood inlay is interesting from the use of a rosewood veneer ground
and its peculiar and elegant designs, consisting mainly of curving floral scrolls springing
from vases or baskets. Out of this rosewood veneer, cells are cut to receive insets of
various coloured woods, such as holly and red cedar, which are often engraved. A
peculiar and distinguishing feature of this type of inlay is the presence of small dots of
whitewood in the design of the various pieces. These are not merely an ornamental,
but a constructional feature, the dots being the heads of pegs about half an inch long
which are driven through the veneer into the carcase, thus rendering the veneer very
durable. The peculiarities of this type of inlay suggest that all the examples are the
product of one craftsman, influenced by the Italian artists at the court of Henry VHI.
The top of a box in the possession of Canon Gilbertson, is, for instance, similar to the
lateral panels of the lower portion of a drawer in the possession of Mr. Macquoid
(illustrated in the Age of Oak, page 63) ; the design of both consisting of a square
quartered and centring in a cartouche. The picotee flower often terminating the floral
scrolls, is found in several examples.

That marquetry of floral design is a foreign art imported into England at a fully
developed stage is evidenced by the fact that no transitional pieces exist showing the
change from the crude inlay in which, according to Evelyn, an earlier generation "did
formerly much glory," and the finished style familiar upon cabinets and tables. A
number of Dutch craftsmen were present in England during the last forty years of the
17th Century, by whom marquetry cutting was no doubt introduced. Garrett Johnson
(Gerreit Jensen), a Dutch cabinet maker in the reigns of Charles II, William and Mary
and Anne, who became known as the best cabinet maker of his time, made much fine
marquetry furniture for his royal clients. In 1690 he made four looking glasses, tables
and stands for Hampton Court Palace. It is interesting to find that he also used metal
inlay.*

The differences between English and Dutch marquetry for some years after the
Restoration deserves close study. Owing to the greater number of rich patrons in this
country, there are more fine English pieces, and the close and accurate English crafts-
manship is noticeably superior to that of the Dutch. In Holland, willow and poplar
were sometimes used for the carcases, woods which were never used in this country for
such purposes. The English sycamore and plane also took the various stains with
greater purity than beech or hornbeam, which were largely used in Holland.
Borderings of black stained wood appear more often in Dutch examples and the palette
of exotic woods is greater in that country. The laying of veneers and marquetry
upon curved surfaces was employed to a greater extent in Holland than in England,
though English examples exist — such as a table at Ham House, in which the
cylindrical portions of the spirally twisted legs are skilfully marqueteried, a proof that
the possibilities of the hot caul and press were understood in this country. Though

E. A. .lones, "Some old English furniture rn;ikcr,s." ('(nindissrin . M:iy 1920, put^c

Chapter V.

engraving had been practised at an earlier date on the continent, the design of English
marquetry relies entirely upon the juxtaposition of separate pieces of wood cut
by the saw.

Furniture with large flat surfaces, such as cabinets, chests of drawers and tables, was
decorated with marquetry during the late years of the 17th and early 18th Century.
The floral marquetry' is usually found in reserved flattened oval panels, divided by a
broad banding from the spandril corners, upon cabinet doors and tables which present
large oblong surfaces. The colour scheme of the early floral marquetry is brilliant,
striking effects being introduced by green-stained bone and ivory. Evelyn described
the inlayers of his day as using "Fustic, Locust or Acacia, Prince or Rosewood for
yellows and reds," besides other woods brought from both the Indies, and the process
of shading leaves and flowers by dipping the pieces into sand "heated in some very thin
Brasse Pan." The present contrast of light and dark colouring in marquetry is less
marked than at the time of its manufacture, owing to the slight yellowing of white tones.

It is obvious that several layers of thin woods of alternate colours placed together
could be cut at the same time to the same design, the ground of one portion being the
inlay of another and vice versa. Thus in the treatment of a valuable material, such as
ivory, and exotic and figured woods, an economy was effected both in material and
labour.

During the early years of the 18th Century, a more sober marquetr>- appears, with
fine seaweed or scrolling designs, reminiscent of the work of Boulle, cut from holly,
pear, box and sycamore ; or larger foliated scrolls of the acanthus type, this variety of
marquetry being found at a period when the French influence predominated in England.
Chairs are rarely treated with marquetry, but panels of arms or cyphers, enclosed in
scrolls, appear in the splats of some chairs of the early 18th Century. With the intro-
duction and popularity of mahogany, however, the fashion for this form of decoration
temporarily disappears.

English marquetry of the reign of George III, based on the achievements of the
great French marqueteurs, differs very considerably from that previously described. A
strong contrast between ground and ornament was avoided, a fuller palette of delicate
hues being used ; and the designs instead of being full and closely composed, allow wide
spaces of ground, which is generally some light wood, such as satinwood or harewood.
In pieces designed by Robert Adam, his characteristic classic details, paterte, wreaths
of husks, urns and the anthemium appear; while in other examples, such as the satin-
wood commode {Figs. 50 and 57), trophies or floral sprays appear, closely following the
French school of design, in which musical instruments and attributes of country life
were usually in gracefully designed groups or trophies. Late Georgian marquetry has
been usually associated with the name of Hepplewhite, but Thomas Chippendale at an
earlier date made use of inlaid and marqueteried furniture, as is seen by the accounts of
the furnishing of Nostell and Harewood House in Yorkshire, where the furniture,
executed from the designs of Robert Adam still remains. A bill for a commode in the
French style at Nostell, the front and sides inlaid with garlands of flowers, is dated 1770 ;
and the bill for a dressing commode at Harewood describes this as "a very large rich
commode with exceedingly fine Antique ornaments, curiously inlaid with various fine
woods, drawers at each end, enclosed with folding doors, with Diana and Minerva and
other emblems curiously inlaid or engraved."

A MARQUETRY TABLE.

Figs. 40 (Hid 41.

A marquetry table (with drawer in the frieze) supported upon S-shaped legs with ball feet,
connected by a shaped stretcher. The top is ornamented with finely cut marquetry in a design of
flowers, acanthus leaves and birds; the drawer front, and also the legs and stretcher, being similarly
treated. Circa 1675.

Size of top, 3 ft. 3 in. by 2 ft. 3 in.

(Froni ihc collection of the Baroness Zotichc of Haryii'4icorth.)

The design of this table shows the interest which was taken in garden flowers,
especially tulips, during the 17th Century in Holland and England. Tulips were intro-
duced into the Low Countries in the 16th Century from Constantinople and the Levant,
and their cultivation became so fashionable that in the 17th Century tulipomania became
a form of gambling, in which interest in the development of the flower was a secondary
consideration. In England tulip growing was in vogue during the Commonwealth
period, and in John Rea's gardening book. Flora, Ceres cnul Pomona, the taste for
striped and marbled flowers is evidenced both in the descriptions and plates. The
realistic iidelity with which the flowers on this table, tulips, lilies, carnations, corn-
flowers, jasmine and roses are represented is remarkable, and the stripings and
variegations of each flower are skilfully rendered by sand-burning and juxtaposition of
many pieces of wood of diflferent colours. At this period engraving was not used.

The table top is of oak veneered with walnut, inlaid with various woods, including
holly, and for the dark inlay satinee rouge is used, a wood imported from Madagascar.

This piece came from Parham, a property bought in 1540 by Robert Palmer, whose
son, Thomas, completed the house. In 1597, it was sold to Sir Thomas Bisshopp,
Secretary of State under Sir Francis Walsingham. The eighth Baronet established his
claim to the barony of Zouche in 1815. The house contained many other fine examples
of furniture of the late 17th Century.

Chapter V.

Fig. 41.

Fig. 40.

A MARQIT.TRY TABLE.

Fijis. 42 iitid 4.-).

With drawer in frieze, supported upon S-siiaped legs witii ball feet, eonnected hy a shaped
stretcher. The top is ornamented with finely cut marquetry, the centre panel inlaid with a design
of foliage, flowers, birds and two amorini.

The connecting panels and outer margin are similarly treated and separated by a band of cross-
cut tulipwood veneer. The drawer front is ornamented with two flattened oval panels of marquetry,
and fitted with drop handles.

The out-turned faces of the leas, and the centre panel of the stretcher, are enriched with
marquetry of similar design.

Size of top, 3 ft. 2 in. hy 2 ft. 2 in. (^'rca 1700.

{Front the cnlleclioti of the Dowaiicr Lady Tankcrvillr.)

The only other e.xample of a marquetry table of this design known to the writer is
at Kimbolton Castle, which is believed to have also been the original home of the
example in this collection. The design of the marquetry shows a complete change
from the table top in the preceding illustration {Figs. 40 and 41) ; and, instead of being
directly inspired from the Dutch, the influence of Louis Quatorze work of the last
quarter of the 17th Century is dominant.

The wide band is veneered with tulipwood imported from the West Indies. The
veneer of the ground work of the panels and of the outer border is holly, and the
ornament is chiefly obtained by the use of stained holly, whilst for the darker portions,
"purple wood" has been used.

(IllAI'IIH V.

wmmmmmmmmmm

mmm

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'•^^m^ ■ -"^^^^ ■''^kip^ <~^^- "y^^m^^y^^

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ffs-*—

-^ *-"^

^'S^wmm^-'s^mm^m.

Fiii. 43.

giHHaiiiiiiiiifiiiliiMiiiiiiiliifliiilii^^

Fi£. ■/2.

A MARQUETRY CHEST.

Figs. 44 (Did 45.

With lift-up top and n drawer beneath supported by spirally turned legs and ball feet connected
by an ogee shaped stretcher, centring in an oval panel. The design of the shaped centre panel of
the top is composed of a parrot and vase of flowers, flanked by an acanthus scroll from which
develop further scrolls of balanced design and sprigs of flowers. This panel is framed in a wide
margin of oyster-shell walnut veneer, and the spandrils are ornamented with cornucopia: containing
branches of roses, lilies, tulips and carnations.

The drawer fronts are fitted with chased brass key escutcheons and ornamented with reserved
panels of flowers on a field of oyster-shell walnut veneer. The centre panel of the stretcher is
similarly marquetried. '^"'"^ ^690.

This marquetry, consisting of scrolls and flowers in their natural colours, forms a
vivid contrast with the ground of pearwood stained black and highly polished. The
banding enclosing the centre panel is of oyster-shell veneer, obtained by cross-cutting
boughs of certain trees, such as walnut and laburnum. The white flowers are rendered
in polished bone, and the leaves are of the same material, stained in different shades of
green. As is usual, a large proportion of the ornament is executed in holly, a close-
grained wood which lends itself best to staining and sand-burning.

Chapter V.

Fig. 45.

Fig. 44.

A MARQUETRY WRITING DESK.

Figs. 46 (Did 47.

With sloping top and a flat frieze, supported by six spirally turned legs and ball feet connected
with plain cross stretchers. The whole of the upper part is ornamented with finely cut marquetry
in a balanced design of arabesques and closely interwoven foliage. It is fitted with chased brass key
escutcheon.

The interior is fitted with drawers, and a well with sliding lid, which is also enriched with similar
marquetry. (^irca 1690.

The ground of the veneer of this piece is walnut, while for the ornament holly alone
is used, part of which is shaded. Much of this restrained and sober-coloured marquetry,
frequently called "endive" or "sea-weed," was produced in England in the last years
of the 17th and beginning of the 18th Century, and is remarkable for the technical
excellence of the workmanship. The design closely follows the contemporary French
work of BouUe, where the balanced arabesque ornament, diversified with fine scrolls
and leafage, was rendered in metal and tortoiseshell.

This example shows an early form of writing table, combining the sloping desk and
small table.

Chapter V.

Fig. 47.

Fig. 46.

A MARQUETRY TABLE.

Figs. 4S and 49.

With four turned legs connected by a shaped stretcher. The drawer in the frieze is fitted with
brass drop handles; the frieze and top of the table being overlaid with finely figured walnut veneer.
The reserved panels are of marquetry. The stretcher is overlaid with cross-banded veneer.

Size of the top, 3 ft. in. by 1 ft. 11 in. Circa 1695.

The design of the marquetry in this is similar to that of the previous example, but
instead of the ornament covering the entire surface it is restricted to reserved panels,
the intermediate spaces being filled with oyster-shell veneer.

Small tables of this type first appear in the reign of Charles II ; in some cases they
were mounted with silver repousse work, in certain rare examples the tops are of inlaid
marble or composition, and many were lacquered.

Chapter V.

Fig. 49.

Fig. 48.

A COMMODE.

Figs. 50 and 51.

With serpentine front and sides, overlaid with satinwood veneer with wide margins of
laburnum, fitted with two doors and supported on out-turned feet.

The top is inlaid with a scroll leaf design and the edge outlined with a border of interlaced
ribbon and reed ornament.

The doors are inlaid with swags, from which trophies of musical instruments are suspended,
and pendants of laurel leaves falling over circular patera;.

The meeting of the doors is disguised by an inlaid pendant of graduated husks. The angles
are decorated with chased and gilt brass mounts of scroll and leaf design. Circa 1770.

Not only is the shape of this piece inspired by French models, but the trophies of
musical instruments, caught up by a ribbon, and the chased and gilt brass mounts are of
French type.

The marquetry of the third quarter of the 18th Century, although not considered
of the same interest as that of the late 17th and early 18th Century, shows ever-
increasing skill in craftsmanship. The quality of the veneer employed was remarkable,
and great care was taken in its selection. In this example the satinwood is of Porto
Rico origin, which is a finer quality than the Cuban. The ornament is obtained by the
use of veneers of holly and sycamore, the shading (as in earlier examples) effected by
sand-burning. About the middle of the 18th Century a new feature appears, the
engraving of the inlaid ornament, which is particularly noticeable on the swags and
patera, and which very much increases the decorative effect.

Chapter V.

Fig. 51.

Fig. 50.

A VENEERED COMMODE.

Fig. 52.

With doors at each end, surmounted by a yellow-veined marble slab. The front is veneered
with quartered Costa Rica satinwood, cut from the root to obtain a fine figure. The broad shaped
margin and groundwork of the frieze is of kingwood. The front is inlaid in holly and other woods,
with a short Corinthian ct)iunin and plinth decorated with rams' heads, also with chained urns
linked to the column by laurel festoons, and with acanthus scrolls. In the centre of the frieze, which
is inlaid with fluting and small rosettes, is a rayed head. The ormolu angle-mounts consisting of a
draped ram's head and hoofs, and the narrow mouldings chased with foliage, are highly finished.

Circa 1775.
(From the collection oj the 1st Lord Tweedmoidh, at Guisachan House, N.B.)

This commode resembles in technique the fine inlaid furniture at Harewood*
designed by Robert Adam. But in the fantastic quality of the design of the angle
mounts and front panel, this piece is far removed from the style of Robert Adam. In
all probability it was designed for the firm of Chippendale by an Italian, such as
Michele Angelo Pergolesi, whose book of decorative designs appeared in parts dating
from 1777, and who, in his prospectus, states that "he has long applied his attention
to the ornaments of the ancients, and has had the honour of designing and painting
rooms, ceilings, staircases and ornaments for the nobility and gentry of England and
other countries." The fanciful and attenuated character of the detail resembles the
work of Pergolesi.

* e.g., the writing t.ible in the Gallery, Harewood House. This piece has ram-he.nded ormolu angle mounts and applied
mouldings. The ormolu mounts of the sideboard, pedestals and wine cooler at Harewood are also remarkable. The existing
accounts, dating from about 1772-3, show that the furniture and "brass antique ornaments tinely finished" were supplied by
Chippendale, Haig & Co.

Chapter V.

A MARQUETRY COMMODE.

Fig. 53.

A marquetry commode with serpentine front and splayed ends constructed of Honduras
mahogany, overlaid with satinwood veneers and finely inlaid with sycamore and other woods.
The oval panels of the doors and sides which are surrounded with a border of husks and palm
branches are ornamented with bouquets of flowers in vases. On the top is a panel of various
fruits with groups of flowers on each side. The top, front and sides are each outlined with a bold
key pattern, enclosing alternate rosette and honeysuckle ornaments. The inlay throughout is very
finely engraved.

The handles, angle mounts and the border round the top are of ormolu finely chased.

Length, 54 in. ; width, 26 in. ; height, 37 in. Circa 1775.

{From the collection of the 1st Lord Tweednioiitli, at Guisachau House, N.B.)

This commode came from the same collection as the example on the preceding
page (Fig. 52) ; an examination of the workmanship affords proof that it was made by
the same craftsman, but the shape, the ornament and the design of the ormolu mounts
are entirely different in character, and are clearly the work of an English instead of
an Italian designer.

This is of interest as demonstrating the fidelity with which the designer's work was
reproduced.

A comparison of this piece with the mahogany commode by Chippendale {Fig. 13)
shows the change in English decorative art between 1755 and 1775.

Chapter V.

AN OVAL TRAY.

Fig. 55.

Of finely figured mahogany, framed with inhiid borders of "bead and reel" and honeysuckle
ornament and plain bands. The outer margin is decorated with festoons of laurel tied by bows of
ribbon and finished at the edge with an ornamented band. The rim of the tray is waved and
constructed of laminated veneers. Size of tray, 2 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 10 in.

The central ova! is of mahogany, the outer broad band is of satinwood, inlaid with holly stained
green and engraved, the inner bands are of kingwood, the outer bands of tulipwood. Circa 1780.

AN OVAL TRAY.

Fig. 57.

With fan ornament in the centre enclosed by bands of various woods, inlaid with honeysuckle
ornament, and having a wide outer border inlaid with festoons of husks tied by ribbons. The plain
rim is fitted with grip handles. Size of tray, 2 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 10 in.

The fan-shaped oval is of holly shaded by sand. The outer band is of rosewood inlaid with holly
stained and engraved, and the inner oval band is of willow, stained green. Circa 1780.

Very fine examples of late 18th Century marquetry can be found on some trays of
this period. The development of English porcelain about 1775 was no doubt the reason
for so many fine trays being produced. Hepplewhite, in the Cabinet Maker and
Upholsterer's Guide, gives designs (Plate 59) for tea trays, and writes that "several very
good and proper designs may be chosen from the various kinds of inlaid table tops which
are given in this book. Tea trays may be inlaid of various coloured woods, or painted
and varnished. This is an article where much fancy maybe shown."

A BALLOON BRACKET CLOCK.

Fig. 56.

In shaped case; the front is inset with a gilt metal panel, pierced and engraved with scroll foliage,
surrounded by border of inlaid vine leaves and grapes. The square base is moulded, with gilt metal
feet. There are bold brass drop handles on either side, and on the top a cone-shaped finial. The
back plate of the movement is finely engraved with three ostrich feathers (the badge of the Prince
of Wales). Circa 1780.

Before 1780, when this clock was made, the French had equalled, if not surpassed,
English horologists, and the clock cases made in that country were more elaborate.
English balloon clocks in wooden cases of the late 18th Century are numerous, but
specimens so highly ornamented as the example illustrated are extremely rare. This
example is believed to have been made for George IV (1762-1830) when Prince of
Wales. The sides and top are veneered in satinee, a wood largely used during the 18th
Century. It was imported from Madagascar and varies considerably from the satin-
wood. The marquetry is principally of holly, stained and engraved.

Chapter V.

•o

Chapter VI.

GILT FURNITURE AND GESSO ORNAMENT.

INDEX.

Fig. 58. Stool with tapestry upholstery - - - - - * - Circa 1725

59. Fire screen with needlework panel ------,. 1710

60. Mirror, with barometer, thermometer and clock - - - ,, 1710

61. Pair of sconces with embroidered satin panels ----,, 1730

62. Elbow chair upholstered in velvet ,, 1725

63. Elbow chair upholstered in velvet ,, 1725

64. Chair with arms of Sir William Humphreys, upholstered in cut
velvet " 1720

65. Chair upholstered in cut velvet ., 1710

For other examples of gilt furniture, see : —

Chandeliers

Glass . - . .

Fig. 74
., 170

Chapter VI.

GILT FURNITURE AND GESSO ORNAMENT.

GILT furniture became fashionable in the reign of William and Mary, and con-
tinued so in the succeeding reign and during the early Georgian period for
the decoration of stately reception rooms. The gilt furniture of the late 17th
and early 18th Century is mainly of the variety enriched with gesso ornament ;
but during the early Georgian period, boldly carved and gilded furniture, which owes
its origin to contemporary Venetian examples, is seen without gesso low-relief
ornament.

Gesso is a term used for a process by which wood is covered with successive coats
of a composition made of whiting and size, until a ground is formed ; upon this,
ornament is carved and the surface gilt. Details of bold projection were either carved
out of the solid wood, or affixed before the application of the gesso coating. The
objects most frequently decorated with gesso are mirrors, gueridons and small tables.
A feature of many of the existing examples of gesso furniture is the prominence of the
cypher of the owner. The ornament in the case of gesso is of a pronounced French type,
with balanced symmetrical ornament of light scrolls, the tasselled lambrequin motive
(Fig. 59) and the decorative use of female and grotesque heads, which is characteristic
of French designers of the late Louis XIV period.

A STOOL WITH GILT GESSO ENRICHMENT.

The legs of cabriole form, which are carved with lions' heads and rings, from which are suspended
pendants of ribbons and flowers, terminate in ball and claw feet. The rails are shaped and carved
with overturned scroll leaves and a flat design in gesso of strap ornament and husks; the background
is punched with (vil dc perdrix enrichment. The whole is gilded and the high relief carving
burnished. The covering of the loose seat is of English tapestry woven with tulips, stocks, roses and
other flowers and foliage on a blue background of two shades. Circa 172S.

It is believed that this stool was originally at Stowe, formerly the seat of the Dukes
of Buckingham and Chandos. It would probably have been one of a large set— with
perhaps only two armchairs en suite, following the fashions both of the Court of
Louis XIV and of Venice, where stools were used in State apartments by all except the
principal guest and the owner. The elaborate carving, the gesso enrichment, the
gilding and the tapestry covering render this a remarkable piece.

The tapestry is extremely fine, having twenty warps in the space of one inch. It is
of English design, but was probably woven by a foreign weaver working in this country ;
many foreign weavers resided in London during the early part of the 18th Century,
and from them were recruited the staflE of fourteen arras makers and repairers whose
workshop was in the Great Wardrobe.

A FIRESCREEN WITH GILT GESSO
ENRICHMENT.

Fig. 59.

The whole of the woodwork is decorated with gesso ornament ; the shaped top being surmounted
with a basket of flowers above a tasselled lambrequin, and terminating at the corners with monsters'
heads, the space below being filled in with acanthus foliage. The uprights and cross-rails are enriched
with interlaced strapwork. The feet supporting the stand are of cabriole shape.

The design of the panel of petit-point consists of a blue and white delft vase on a pedestal, with
carnations, tulips, roses and other flowers in natural colours on a dark brown background.

Circa 1710.

(Fro») the collection oj the Earl oj Carnarvon.)

This screen was formerly at Bretby (an estate which came by purchase to the
Stanhope family in the 16th Century), and was made for Philip, second Earl of
Chesterfield, a staunch loyalist and supporter of the Royal cause during the Civil War.
This second Earl (d. 1713) who lived chiefly at Bretby in great magnificence, married :

(1) Anne, daughter of the tenth Earl of Northumberland ;

(2) Elizabeth, daughter of the first Duke of Ormonde.

(3) Elizabeth, daughter and co-heir of the second Earl of Carnarvon.

This gilt screen, partly carved in wood and partly in gesso, is a remarkable example
of the sumptuous furniture of the period and of the strong influence of the style of
Louis XIV.

Chapter VI.

Fig. 5S.

Fig. 59.

A MIRROR WITH BAROMETER & THERMOMETER

Fig. 60.

The carved and gilded wood frame of balanced ogee curves, ornamented with egg and tongue
and leaf enrichment, encloses a barometer, a thermometer and a bracket for supporting a clock.
Above is the figure of an eagle in flight, surrounded by a garland of flowers. The spaces are filled
in with mirrors. The carved cresting has a central motij of a shell, and at the sides are foliated
scrolls terminating in eagles' heads. The base has carved foliated scroll ornament. Circa 1710.

{From the collection o/ G. St. John Mildmay, Esq.)

Chimney mirrors elaborately framed, such as that designed by the Sergeant-painter
Streeter and executed by Gerreit Johnson at Kensington Palace, are exceptional ; and
the illustrated mirror which includes the unique features of a clock bracket, barometer
and thermometer, may have been also the result of collaboration of a painter or architect
with a highly skilled cabinet maker.

This example was formerly in the possession of Mr. G. St. John Mildmay at Queen's
Camel (where the Mildmay family owned land from 1555 to 1690), which when
Humphrey Mildmay died without issue, passed to his great-niece Jane, who married in
1786 Sir Henry Paulet St. John, Bart., who afterwards took the name of Mildmay.
The mirror is said to have been removed to Queen's Camel from Mildmay House,
Stoke Newington, a house acquired by Sir Henry Mildmay, one of the Judges at the
trial of Charles I, by his marriage with Ann, eldest daughter and heiress of Alderman
Halliday. Sir Henry's estates were forfeited at the Restoration, with the exception of
Mildmay House, which was settled on his wife as her own inheritance. Mildmay
House is described in the Beauties oj England and Wales (1816) as "an old dwelling
situated here, called Mildmay House, then a boarding school for young ladies."

A BRACKET CLOCK BY THOMAS TOMPION.

An eight-day repeating clock in an oak case veneered with ebony and ornamented with chased
and lacquered brass mounts. The mechanism operating the repeating movement is arranged to
work either from the right or left; there is a geared rise and fall regulator operating from the dial.

Circa 1705.

In the manufacture of clocks and scientific instruments England surpassed all
countries at the latter part of the 17th Century, largely owing to an encouragement of
the Royal Society, which included many men of outstanding ability, such as Boyle, Sir
Christopher Wren and John Evelyn. Of all clocks of that period those actually made
by Thomas Tompion (1638-1716) are by far the most highly prized. He was known as
"the father of watch-making," and throughout his career he was closely associated with
some of the leading mathematicians and philosophers of the time. The theories of Dr.
Hooke and the Rev. Edward Barlow would probably have never materialized without
his skill. He became the leading clock-maker at the court of King Charles II. The
only horologist of his time who can be admitted as his equal is Daniel Quare, though
numerous skilled craftsmen, including his favourite pupil, George Graham, carried on
the industry.

Another example of the work of Thomas Tompion in this collection is illustrated in
Fig. 131.

Chapter VI.

Fig. 60.

A PAIR OF GILT GESSO WALL SCONCES.

Fig. 61.

The frames are ornamented with carved and gilt gesso surmounted with the three ostrich
feathers, and decorated with floral and other designs. At the bottom are sockets into which fit
brass candle-holders, chased, moulded and ornamented with satyrs' heads.

The panels are of cream coloured satin, on which is worked in coloured silks a design of flowers.
The panels are protected by bevelled glasses. ^'"''■'" ^^^O.

The three feathers with which this pair of sconces are surmounted are the badge of
the Prince of Wales, and this may denote the ownership of Frederick Lewis, eldest son
of George II (1707-1751), who was created Prince of Wales in 1729. This badge,
however, was frequently used by the political party which opposed Sir Robert Walpole
during his long administration, the Prince being the recognised leader of this opposition.

Petit-point needlework was very rarely used as a background for sconces as far back
as the end of the 17th Century, but no other example of delicate free embroidery on
satin or silk is known. The Vauxhall bevelled plates which protect the satin panels
which are contemporary serve to reflect the light. The quality of the chased brass-
work of the candle-holders is also unusual.

Chapter VI.

Fig. 61,

ARMCHAIR.

Fig. 62.

Of carved and gilt wood, with shaped back and seat upholstered in ruby coloured velvet. The
front legs which are hipped on to the front rail, terminate in a dolphin's head. Circa 172S.

(Fr(j)ii the collection oj Sir (h'orgc D(j)uildso)i.)

The very low stuffed back, wide seat and rich carving of legs and arm supports, and
the gilding and parcel-gilding of the framework are characteristic of the chairs designed
about 1725-1740 by William Kent for his patrons.

A chair (Fig. 63) from the collection of the Duke of Leeds is of similar character.
The dolphin terminal, instead of the more usual claw and ball foot, is unusual, but
occurs in a tripod in the possession of Lord Leverhulme.

AN ARMCHAIR.

Fig. 63.

With upholstered seat and back covered in blue silk velvet. The underframing and cabriole
legs connected by a shaped stretcher are ornamented with carved and gilt gesso in a design of
acanthus leaves and husks. The supports and tinials of the arms (composed of out-turned eagle's
heads) are similarly carved and treated in gesso. Circa 1725.

{From the collection oj the Diilcc oj Leeds.)

Gilded gesso furniture became fashionable in great houses soon after 1710. Chairs
of this type and period had low backs and cabriole legs, and were richly upholstered.
Though figured velvets were also used (see Figs. 64 and 65) some pieces, such as this
armchair and a contemporary set at Houghton, comprising chairs, stools and sofas,
were covered with plain Italian velvet of a quality now unobtainable, often trimmed
with silver galoon.

This chair came from Hornby Castle, and dates from the period of Peregrine Hyde
Osborne, third Duke of Leeds (1691-1731), who married three times, firstly (in 1712),
Elizabeth, daughter of the first Earl of Oxford; secondly (1719), Anne, daughter of
the sixth Duke of Somerset; and thirdly (in 1725), Juliana, daughter and co-heir of
Roger Hele Halewell.

Chapter VI.

■^
^

■oj;

A GILT GESSO CHAIR.

Fig. 64.

With balloon shaped back and square seat ; the framework carved with scroll ornament richly gilt
and supported on finely shaped scroll legs terminating in square feet. The flat surfaces of the gilding
are matted with small punched (vil dc pcrdrix ornament, the back and removable seat are stuffed
and covered with 18th Century Genoese velvet, the design being in old rose colour on a gold ground.
The top of the back is finished with a whorled hand-grip and a panel carved with crest of lion rampant.

Circa 1720.

An innovation of the early years of the reign of George I, was a shaped upholstered
back of hoop or balloon form, finishing, as in this example and a set at Houghton, in a
whorled hand-grip. The arms on the cresting are those granted in April, 1717, by the
College of Arms, to Sir William Humphreys, of Bloomsbury Square. Sir William, who
was Lord Mayor in 1714-15, and died in 1735, was created a baronet in 1714, and
entertained George I and the Prince of Wales at the Guildhall.

AN UPHOLSTERED CHAIR WITH
GILT GESSO ENRICHMENT.

Fig. 65.

The four legs and the central boss of the seat rail are ornamented with carved and gilt gesso
in a design of leaves, patera; and interlaced strapwork. The seat rails are moulded and carved
with egg and tongue enrichment. The seat and back are covered with contemporary English cut
velvet. ^-- 1710.

In the early 18th Century the appearance of chairs was ahered by the introduction
of a cresting to the leg, which is hipped on to the seat rail (sometimes broken, as in this
example, by a central ornament or boss). The broken curve of the leg is also found
on certain gesso furniture of this period, such as a set at Blenheim, comprising a console
table, torcheres and chairs. The interlaced strapwork on the legs in this example is
characteristic of French ornament.

The design of the cut velvet, which is in tawny, olive and claret colour on a cream
ground, is the same as that of the upholstery of Queen Anne's state bed and the
accompanying furniture at Hampton Court, which is of Spitalfields make. The
covering of this example has never been removed and the bordering of large brass-
headed nails is also contemporary.

Chapter VI.

Chapter VII.

WOOD CARVINGS.

INDEX.

Fig. 66. Group of carvings on overmantel

67. A mirror frame - - - -

68. Details of rococo carving -
69.
70.

71.
72.
73.

Circa 1685
1685

1745-65
1745-65
1745-65
1745-65
1745-65
1745-65

Chapter VII.

WOOD CARVINGS.

A CONSIDERABLE amount of carving applied as enrichment for interior
decoration, consisting for the most part of swags of fruit and flowers, was
^ introduced prior to the Restoration. No special technical ability was, how-
ever, required in the execution of this earlier work, which has none of the
extreme delicacy, patient realism and refinement which appears in carving after the
Restoration. This new school of applied carving was undoubtedly introduced by
Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), a carver and sculptor born at Rotterdam, who had
probably been a pupil of Artus Quellin, who decorated panels in the Town Hall of
Amsterdam with carvings, in which swags of fruit, flowers, shells, fish and military
trophies appear. These carvings were not completed until long after the Town Hall
was opened, and later examples of the skill of Quellin exist which still more closely
resemble the work of Gibbons in this country. Discovered by Evelyn in 1671, Gibbons
was introduced by him to King Charles II, to Wren and to his friends.

Wren, who was responsible for the most important public buildings erected in
England at the close of the 17th Century, adopted applied wood carvings as an
important feature for interior decoration. It is known that Gibbons designed and
executed carved enrichments at Windsor, St. Paul's and Trinity College, Cambridge,
and work either by him, his pupils or his imitators and rivals is to be found at Burghley,
Petworth, Belton, Cassiobury and Lyme. The carvings formerly at Holme Lacy are
now dispersed. Ornaments of carved wood applied to the panelling became a usual
feature in the principal rooms of houses at the end of the 17th Century, these ornaments
being generally confined to the upper part of the chimney breast.

Gibbons, who was appointed master carver to George I in 1714, employed, as Vertue
records, "many workmen," among them Laurent Vandermeulen of Mechlin, and
Dievot of Brussels ; English craftsmen, such as Maine, William Emmett (who carved
the pearwood group of military trophies in the drawing room of the Governor's house
at Chelsea Hospital), and a Derbyshire man, Samuel Watson (who worked at
Chatsworth from 1690 to 1712) adopted Gibbons' motifs and methods. His carvings
in lime and light woods, though marvellously light in appearance, are in reality perfectly
strong, and have suffered from the ravages of worm rather than breakages. His peculiar
quality is well described by Horace Walpole, who writes of him as giving to wood "the
loose and airy lightness of flowers," and "chaining together the various productions
of the elements with the free disorder natural to each species."

The use of applied carving disappeared under the Palladian architects, as was
natural considering their preference for stucco decoration ; but during the middle years
of the 18th Century, a certain amount of carved rococo woodwork was applied as mural
decoration. Applied wood carvings in the style of Robert Adam are also found on
doorways and chimneypieces at the end of the century, but more frequently this later
ornament was executed in stucco.

A GROUP OF LIME W^OOD CARMNGS.

Fig. 66.

For the decoration of a chimney breast, composed of a central trophy of musical instruments,
with palm leaves and flowers, flanked hy cornucopi^u filled with fruit and flowers. From these are
suspended hy ribbon pendants other fruits and flowers in groups. Circa 1685.

(From the collection of Vcnioii Woitu-orth, Esq.)

The applied carved wood decorations for chimney breasts frequently consist of drops
of fruit and flowers, often tied by a ribbon, and a richer horizontal portion centring in
some device, such as a bird with outspread wings, a basket of flowers, or (as in this
example) a group of musical instruments. Grouped musical instruments appear in the
drops in the great chamber at Petworth ; and cornucopicr over the chimneypiece in the
Chapel gallen,' at Belton and the Library at Hackwood. In the Museum at Modena is
a group of carvings known to be the work of Gibbons, consisting of various objects, such
as fruit and flowers, also centring in a )notif of musical instruments.

In Gibbons's earlier work, at Cassiobury and Belton, his decorative idea seems to
have been an arrangement of closely-packed groups of leaves, flowers and fruits. Later,
the woodwork of his school develops in the direction of more open design, in which
added value is given to his graceful treatment of flowers and fruit by the relief of firm
leading lines, such as the cornucopite of the present example.

The limewood carving in this collection was originally at Wentworth Castle, to
which Thomas Wentworth (1672-1739), the distinguished soldier and diplomat, made
large additions after he bought it in 1708. He became Baron Raby in 1695, was
envoy at Berlin in 1701, 1703-4 and 1705-11, and Ambassador at The Hague (1711-14).
In 1711 he was created Viscount Wentworth and Earl of StraflEord. He was in England
from May to September, 1708, and after the peace of Utrecht in 1714, when he lived
on his Yorkshire estate, laid out the grounds and added to the nucleus of the old house,
introducing many pictures and works of art which he had collected abroad.

Chapter VII.

Fig. 66.

A CARVED MIRROR FRAME.

Fig. 67.

Of lime, the design representing flowers (including roses, tulips, snowdrops, primroses, dahlias),
currants, hazel nuts and pea-pods. Circa 1685.

There were formerly at Cassiobury, the seat of the Earl of Essex, some square
picture frames in the inner library, and a small oval frame, twelve inches by fourteen,
which closely resemble in design and execution the example here illustrated. John
Evelyn, who visited Cassiobury, notes on April 18th, 1680, the presence of "divers
faire and good rooms and excellent carving by Gibbons, especially the chimneypiece of
ye library," and Cassiobury is, therefore, one of the few houses at which there is
evidence that Gibbons was actuallv at work.

Chapter VII.

Fig. 67.

DETAILS OF WOOD CARVINGS.

Fiss. 68 to 73.

g. 68. Apron of cIkut

69. Lower part of wardrobe -

, 70. Corner of upper part of wardrobe

, 71. Leg of table - - - -

, 72. Corner of commode

73. Apron of commode -

Fig. 12
„ 14
„ 14
,. S
„ 13
.. 13

These details are illustrated to show the complete change in the design of English
wood carving which took place about the middle of the 18th Century.

The realistic school, which we had adopted from Holland, had been superseded by
the universal adoption of classic detail, which was again replaced by rococo. The
designs in the Director illustrate this new taste, and to-day Chippendale's name is always
associated with it. The introduction of the rococo style into this country was largely
due to published designs by Meissonnier and Oppenordt, and it is quite clear that the
English craftsmen were not acquainted with actual examples of French furniture. In
that country there were many exponents of the style, including Oppenordt and Pineau,
but the principal designer was Meissonnier.* Like Daniel Marot and others he designed
gold and silversmith's work, as well as decoration of rooms and their furniture. He
held an appointment under Louis XV, and died in Paris in 1750. The most extravagant
of his designs appear to have been destined for Germany, Poland and Portugal.

A CORINTHIAN CAPITAL \MTH FIGURE

OF AN OWL.

Of oak, finely carved (see title page). ^irca 169.x

Until the middle of the 18th Century the staircase often displayed a considerable
amount of carving, and the detail of the brackets, balusters, and occasionally the soffit,
afforded scope for fine work. The newel sometimes took the form of a slender
Corinthian column ; the capital illustrated surmounted one of these ; and the figure of
an owl above is a reversion to the style of the early Renaissance when heraldic
cognizances were often used in this position.

*Born 1695.

Chapter VII.

Fig. 6S.

; J

l/Jta£» ^' d

•■■^SB

r -Kwl

..'^'^

[& [»W^ - 1

•-v'^^^^^H

IW-^ =

y\|^H

0y^,W ^MiWB^Ut

ii -'^^

Fis. 70.

Fig. 71.

Fig. 69.

Fig. 73.

Fig. 72.

Chapter VIII.

CHANDELIERS.

INDEX.

Fig. 74. Carved and gilt wood chandelier ------ Circa 1700

75. Ivory chandelier ,, 1685

76. Brass chandelier ,, 1770

Chapter VIII.

CHANDELIERS.

CHANDELIERS of brass and latten were made in the Low Countries and also
in Germany in the middle ages, and there exist interesting survivals with
elaborate Gothic ornament, such as the late 15th Century German example
in the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which figures of the Virgin and saints
in silvered metal are set within an hexagonal canopy with buttresses and pinnacles which
forms the central stem ; the candle-branches are also ornamented with cusping and with
figures of St. George and the Dragon. During the 17th Century, the most usual type
of chandelier made in Holland was a simplified version of this style, having plain
S-shaped candle-branches, and central stem terminating in a large globe or ball finished
with a pendant or ring, and such chandeliers were imported at the Restoration and
copied in this country. Evelyn, when in Holland, more than once notices the work of
the Dutch chandeliers, such as that at The Hague "with eight sockets from the middle
stem, like those we use in churches having tapers in them," and in a church at
Haarlem, the "goodliest branches of brasse for tapers that I had seene, esteem'd of
great value for the curiosity of the workmanship." Examples of this type of chandelier
may be seen at Hampton Court, and in many churches, such as St. Helen's, Abingdon
(1710) and Kingsclere (1713). They are often dated and record the names of the
donors or churchwardens.

Brass, however, was not the only metal employed in making chandeliers. Savary,
writing in 173^^ mentions that they may be made of gold, silver, tin, copper, iron,
wood, faience* and crystal. f To this comprehensive list should be added ivory, of
which a rare example is illustrated {Fig. 7ri). At the period of lavish use of silver in
the reign of Charles II, some were produced in this metal, such as the small pair at
Knole. Daniel Marot illustrates several in the style of Louis XIV, two chandeliers,
probably made from his designs, are at Hampton Court ; and there is also a massive
example by Paul Lamerie in the Kremlin. Rock crystal was too expensive a material
for general use, and glass chandeliers, though familiar in Venice and France, were not
usual in England before the latter half of the 18th Century, and it was not until about
1762, the date of the third edition of the Director, that it could be said that chandeliers
were "generally made of glass." It was about this time that the word lustre came into
use for chandeliers of glass, those of other materials being termed "branches" or
girandoles. I

During the early years of the 18th Century, chandeliers of carved and gilt wood
became fashionable, and examples are preserved at Speke Hall, the Hospital, Kirk-
leatham, Grimsthorpe and Lyme Park. Very light rococo chandeliers of wood are
illustrated in the D/recior, and Chippendale writes that "if neatly done in wood, and
gilt with burnished gold (they) would look better and come much cheaper than those
of brass and glass."

♦There was a chandelier of Chelsea china in 1766 at the Duke of Cumberland's, in Windsor Great Park.

t Dictionnaire de Commerce, Vol. I, piige 626.

I Chambers, Encydaticcdia. Supplement, s.v. candlestick.

A CARVED AND GILT WOOD CHANDELIER.

Fig. 74.

r-'or eight lights. The S-sh:iped c:indle branches which emerge from female masks are carved
with scroll leaves and fixed to a central stem, which is fluted and carved with acanthus leaf and other
ornament. The lambrequin ornament at the top, the pendant and wax-pans are also richly carved
with designs of scrolls and acanthus leaves. Circa 1/UU.

{From the collection oj Lady Anna Chajulos-Pole.)

The few existing examples of carved wooden chandeliers, such as the chandelier at
Brympton (formerly at Kensington Palace), at Kirkleatham Hospital, and the pair
formerly at Holme Lacy, show, like contemporary gilt gesso work on mirror frames,
torcheres and tables, certain motifs of French origin, such as the tasselled lambrequin,
and the female mask with fanciful head-dress. All these details appear in Daniel Marot's
plate of designs for chandeliers, and the junction of the candle-branches with the stem
is there frequently faced with a female mask with fan-shaped head-dress, as in the
illustrated example.

The chandelier at Brympton, which is painted, not gilt, somewhat resembles the
present example. The acanthus carving and the /(n^ftrcgn/n ;);of!.f are present in both,
but the carving of this example is far richer and finer in execution, and the masks are
absent from the Brympton chandelier.

The chain by which the chandelier is suspended is covered by a contemporary cord
and three tassels of red and gold silk alternating with facetted knops covered by the
same material.

Chapter VIIJ.

I 2

AN IVORY CHANDELIER.

For six lights, composed of ;i ccntr;il tLirncd slcm c;irved with fi:iilrooninii, IlLitcs :md ncanlliLis
e:if ornament. 'Flic c:irved scroll branches are attached to square blocks where they engage the stem
md are fitted with wax-pans. Circa 1685.

This example is interesting as rendering in a rare material, ivory, a design more often
seen in carved wood. In the acanthus carving of the pendant and upper portion of the
stem, and the S-shaped candle-branches clasped in the centre by leaf-ornament, it
resembles certain carved and gilt wooden chandeliers, such as the pair formerly at
Holme Lacy.

Ivory appears in small pieces on Dutch, Portuguese and English marqueterie, and
was used for the stems of barometers by Tompion and Daniel Quare, but pieces the size
of the stem of the chandelier are rarely met with in England at this period. In India
furniture was made after European designs for the palaces of the Governors of the
Portuguese, French and British possessions and for those of native princes. There are
in the Jones Collection four ivory-veneered armchairs dating from the late 18th
Century which exactly reproduce English and French models of the period.

A BRASS CHANDELIER.

Fig. 76.

Of lacquered brass for sixteen lights, composed of a stem with a globe in the centre, and above
a vase and gadrooned member finished by a finial of flames, and completed with a ring at the base.
The scroll branches are in two tiers springing from a flat band round the globe, and are fitted with
turned wax-pans, and enriched with chased leaf ornament. (.irca l/ZO.

This example, though dating from about 1770, follows closely the type of brass
chandeliers of the early 18th Century, which developed from the simple "ball" pattern
into gracefully swelling plain and gadrooned enlargements, as shown in a chandelier
{circa 1725) formerly in St. Mary's Church at Newmarket, and now in the Victoria and
Albert Museutn. The delicate acanthus ornament clasping the upper portion of the
candle-branches and the vase-shaped member of the stem are, however, in the style
which came into vogue after the middle of the 18th Century.

Chapter VIII.

F/,?. IS.

FiM. 70.

Chapter IX.

SILVER.

INDEX.
Sconces.

Fig. 77. Sconces, gilt

78. ,, ..

Charles II
William III
Charles II
William III

79. ,, ,, -

80. ,, ,,

oj Queen Anne

Toilet.

82. Mirror, parcel gilt ------- William and Mary

83-84. Box Charles II

85-86. ,, gilt

87-88. ,, parcel gilt William and Marv

Sideboard.

89-90. Punch bowl -

91.

Jar, gilt -

92.

Cup,

gilt -

93.

Cup,

gilt -

94.

Dish,

gilt -

95.

Wine

■ urn, gilt -

96.

Pilgrim bottle, gilt

97.

Cup,

gilt -

98.

Cup,

gilt -

99.

Salver, gilt -

100.

Dish,

, gilt -

Charles II

James II
William III
Queen Anne
William III
George II

Dinner Table.

101. Trencher salt, gilt William and Mary

102. Salt, gilt George II

103. Three casters, gilt George I

CHAPTER IX. INDEX-coH^/;;»ef/.

Tea and Coffee.
Kettle stand ---.--.. William and Marv

Fig. 104.

105. Tea pot

106. Coffee pot

107. Hot water jug -

108. Cream jug -

109. Tea caddies

110. Sugar bowl

111. Tray -

112. Tortoiseshell case

113. Spoons

114. Tea caddy -

115. Sugar tongs

George I

George II
George III

Various.

116-117. Standish, gilt - - . .

118. Candlestick, gilt . . . .

119. ,, parcel gilt

120. „ gilt . . . .

121. „ gilt - - . .

122. ,, chamber

123. Snuffer tray, gilt - . . .

124. . . . .

125. Candlestick, gilt . . . .

126. Snuffer tray, upright - - - -

127. Shell, gilt

128. Tumbler cups, gilt . . . .

129. Spice box, gilt

130. Bell, gilt

131. Clock (by Tompion) - - . -

George II
Charles II
William and Mary
George I

9 J

James II
George II

Queen Anne
Charles II

George II

William and Mary

Chapter IX.

SIL\ER.

THE many enactments in England since 1478, when the letter mark changing
each year was instituted, have "given us the means of dating specimens with
far greater certainty and accuracy than is the case with any other series of art
objects that have come down to our time." While it is rare for other objects
of art to be dated, it is unusual for the work of the silversmith to be without the date
stamp, or evidence of the date of production ; and thus silver becomes a key to the
successive phases and styles.

In the art of the silversmith, the Gothic traditions still survive in the earlier portion
of the 16th Century. The Italian influence, then reaching this country, came to us not
directly, but through the medium of the schools of Augsburg— the great centre of
commerce between Northern Europe and Italy— Nuremberg and Flanders ; Hans
Holbein, who was attached to Henry VIII's Court, designed a tine cup for the King
for presentation to Jane Seymour, and German silversmiths are known to have worked
here. Some silver work of the 16th Century, although bearing English hall-marks, was
probably made abroad but stamped here. Instances occur of pieces with both the
London hall-marks and also those of Nuremberg or Augsburg. Much silver plate was
used by Queen Elizabeth,* and in the latter part of her reign the influence of the very
individual school of Antwerp became prominent in this country. The workmanship of
this reign is usually Flemish in character and is marked by extreme richness and
elaboration, and the chasing and repousse work is often masterly in execution.

With a few exceptions, such as steeple cups, no marked change took place in the
form or ornamentation of silversmiths' work with the opening of the new century, but
the peace and prosperity of the reign of James I was beneticial to the arts. A tendency
to simplification developed during the reign of Charles I : the plate of the Commonwealth,
as might be expected, is crude and marked by a plainness in form. The Restorationf
coincides with an interesting period of rich silver work, in which the dominant influence
was that of the rich and powerful Dutch Republic, with which a very close relationship
existed both in the arts and commerce.

The art of the Dutch silversmith, which attained its prime about the middle of the
17th Century, displayed much originality, but had been influenced by the florid and
decadent later schools of Augsburg, Nuremberg, Flanders and Scandinavia, but it had
not been detrimentally affected, as in the case of France, Italy and Spain, by the demand
for ornate embellishments of Renaissance churches in which display of the precious metal
counted for more than either quality or craftsmanship.

Though Charles II was the son of a French princess, and maintained the most intimate
relations with the French court, English art during his reign, as Mr. Starkie Gardner

*"The yeomen of ihe guard entered hMrehended brin<;in>; in at each turn a course ot Ixvcuty-tour dishes, served

on silver, most of it gilt." — II cvlzvcr's Tnivch in Iiiii;I<iiul (l.S<)8).

t Actually the Di!tch influence in England becomes e\ ident a few years before the close of the Conimonwealth period.

Chapter IX

writes, was "almost wholly controlled by the Dutch."* This is not surprising when we
remember that he had resided in their country during its most affluent period, and that
art in France during the first half of the 17th Century had also been affected by Flemish
and Dutch influence. Louis XIV took up the reins of Government at the date of the
Restoration of monarchy in England, and it was not until after that date that French
art began to reassert its individuality. It was fostered by the initiative of Colbert and
Royal patronage, until France became the recognised authority on, and the principal
producer of works of applied art and articles of luxury. From the death of Colbert in
1683 dates the first imitation in this country of the style of Louis XIV.

To such an extent were Dutch models adapted and copied in England in the years
immediately following the Restoration, that it is often— as in the case of marquetry^
difficult to distinguish the work of the two countries. The number of Dutch immigrant
craftsmen working in England at the time was also a determining factor in the style of
the work produced. Owing, however, to the decline of Dutch commerce, and the
patronage of art in this country during the prosperous years following the Restoration,
English silver work begins to display a marked superiority to the Dutch. This country
had recovered from the havoc of the Civil Wars, and the silversmiths were profitably
employed in replacing much of the plate which had been melted down and minted for
the treasuries of King Charles I and the Commonwealth. Municipal bodies provided
themselves with symbols of their authority ; the City Companies ordered plate ; the
Court and courtiers followed the example of Louis XIV f in a taste for extravagant
display. The old semi-Gothic forms, such as the standing and steeple cups disappeared,
and the luxurious mirror frames, sconces, two-handled cups, scent jars and beakers in
the style of Oriental vases, reproduce Dutch models. The silver from which these new-
models were wrought was thinner than that which had formerly been in use and was
embossed in elaborate and boldly treated designs, principally of tulips, anemones, fruits
and acanthus foliage. When figures were introduced, the quality of the work during the
last quarter of the century "will not suffer by comparison with continental work of the
same period. "t

The new style was at first especially prominent upon objects intended more for
display than daily use, which (as had always been the case in Italy, Germany and the
Netherlands) were frequently gilt.|| At no period in the history of silversmiths' art in
England was there such a demand for tables, mirrors, toilet sets, sconces, jars, firedogs,
and chandeliers, either of solid silver, or cased in the Dutch manner with a thin sheet of
the precious metal, as in the reign of Charles II. Some of these objects were elaborately
ornamented, but the ornament was handled with consummate skill and knowledge,
English work then reaching the high standard of general excellence, which it retained
until after the middle of the 18th Centurv.

* Old Silver Work frnm the XV In XVIII Cciihirics. puic SI.

1 1 his ostent.Ttious use of silver objects as furniture is in the first instance tracenlile to Spain. In Spain, tables, escritoires,
balustrades, etc., of precious metals were first produced. "With llie marriage of the daughter of Philip III to Louis XIII. the
road into France was opened to all things Spanish." — Starkie Gardner, Old Silver Work of the XV to XVIII Centuries, fiage 72.

t Jackson, English Plate. Vol. I, piige 223.

II A large proportion of 17th and 18lh Century decorative silver was originally gilt. During the Empire period it became
the fashion to use gilding of a much deeper shade, which produced a very different and much less satisfactory effect than the
former pale gold colour. This led to plain silver being preferred, and this fashion increased during the 19th Century. The old
gilding was removed from a vast number of pieces, possibly for the value of the gold sweated off. The old gilding has also worn
off many articles which have been in use. From Gothic times up to the middle of the 18th Century, gilding was so usual that it
is often not referred to in inventories; plain silver being described as white silver. The decorative value of gilding has been little
appreciated in this country, whereas in France it has always been prized.

Engraved decoration of figures, foliage and trees, in imitation of ornament upon
Chinese porcelain and lacquer first appears in the reign of Charles TT, and continued
during the reign of James II. It is met with on various objects, hut most frequently
upon tankards, porringers and toilet articles, such as boxes, caskets and mirrors.

Owing to the wars in the Netherlands at the close of the 17th and in the early 18th
Century, the prosperity of the French silversmiths was checked, and the chased silver of
both King and Court was sent wholesale to the Mint in 168^.* The shortage of silver
coinage also became a serious problem in England, and a law was passed forbidding
silversmiths to melt the coinage in order to provide metal for their trade ; and to ensure
this enactment being carried out, it was forbidden to make any silver work after March
28th, 1696, except from metal of a higher standard than the coinage.

As many of the old types were unsuitable for the higher, and consequently softer,
quality of silver, the design of silver plate was substantially modified. The new "Britannia
standard" could only be used for ornamental objects designed so that increased strength
was obtained from the ornament itself. Large, spreading designs were, therefore, aban-
doned for smaller, regular enrichments, such as gadrooning and concave and convex
fluting. Thin applied metal cut into regular patterns, known as "cut card work," helped
to give additional strength,! but the principal change was an increase of plain surfaces.
The work of this period of enforced simplicity seems to fulfil the proper functions of
silver, especially for articles intended for use. The style is usually associated with the
short reign of Queen Anne,:j: and it is the plain silver of the early 18th Century which has
given rise to the belief that taste at this time was simple and austere. In addition to the
enforced simplicity due to the softer metal in use, it must be remembered that many
articles were then being made to contain sauces, viands and condiments for the more
elaborate dinners which came into vogue, and also for the purpose of drinking tea, cofTee
and chocolate. Being intended for use and not for display, these articles were naturally
at first made of simple design. The Act relating to the Britannia standard was removed
on 29th May, 1720.

After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the stream of Huguenot immi-
grants first began to flow towards this country. In the case of early settlers, the motive
was doubtless a desire to escape from religious persecution. But the stream continued
to flow after the late 17th Century immigrants, Pierre Harache, Daniel Gamier, David
Willaume, Mark Paillet, Pierre Platel, had settled here. Nearly all the celebrated plate
workers from 1685 to the end of the first quarter of the 18th Century were of French
origin, and Courtauld, Paul Lamerie, Abraham Buteaux, Simon Jouet, Louis Laroche,
Ayme Videau were all entered at Goldsmiths' Hall during the first half of the 18th
Century. The lack of employment in France, and the decline in French prosperity and
patronage until the advent of the Regent, doubtless accounts for these later settlers.
These Huguenots, "necessitous strangers whose desperate fortunes obliged them to work
at miserable rates" sold their plate at lower prices than the native craftsmen, and a
protest was made in 1713 against the practice of some English goldsmiths who, taking
advantage of their low prices, took these foreigners' goods to the (Goldsmiths') Hall to

* 'I'o sueli an extent was French silver mellcd down that examples of the Louis XIV period are very r.ire, and are
principally to be found in other countries where they had been sent before 1689.

t Decoration was also obtained by rows of indentations made with small punches, and great taste and skill was displayed
in the engraving of ornament and coats-of-arms.

X Much plain silver was made in the reign of Oeorge I.

Chapter IX.

be assayed and touched with the English goldsmiths' marks. It was but natural that this
early Anglo-French group of craftsmen should have favoured French motifs, such as
scallops and scrolls, straps and applied cast and chased ornament, and in the case of
later settlers that they should have adopted the rococo.

In France, the free and ornate style of the Regence and early Louis XV succeeded
the formality and symmetry of the grand regne. The chief elements of the first phase,
that of the Regence, which occupied in France roughly the first quarter of the 18th
Century, are already visible in Robert de Cotte's decoration of the golden gallery
(1715-1719) of the Hotel de Toulouse. In the rococo style, shell and rock work take the
chief place as motifs among freely treated foliage ; and the use of balanced but
asymmetrical detail becomes conspicuous, due, no doubt, to the taste for Oriental objects
of art, such as porcelain, lacquer and hand-painted Chinese papers in which Oriental
"Sharawagi" took the place of the symmetry of Western design. One of the earliest of
the French rococo designers was Oppenordt (1672-1742), to whom Cochin attributes the
f^rst falling ofT from the good taste of the reign of Louis XIV ; and a little later Meissonier
(1693-1750) acquired a wide influence as a designer of plate and china as well as of
furniture and decoration. The rococo style was imitated in this country in silver work
as in nearly every other branch of decorative art, and towards the middle years of the
century some English silver reached a pitch of extravagance, which, however, was less
extreme than many contemporary examples produced in France, Germany, Austria and
Russia. The middle of the 18th Century witnessed a natural reaction against the rococo
in France, helped on by archaeologists such as de Caylus and the engraver. Cochin, who
in the Mercitrc dc Fnnice, December 1754, formulates the case against the rococo with
very telling effect ; and in 1763, Grimm speaks of the revolution as already established
and every ornament as a la Grecque in Paris. The change thus dates from the latter
part of the reign of Louis XV. not from that of Louis XVI, although the latter's name is
always given to the style.

In England, silversmiths' work was also affected by the reaction, and as Robert Adam
was the pHncipal factor in the English version of the classic revival and the most prolific
designer of the period, the style is usually associated with his name. His designs for all
kinds of metal work, and for plate in particular, are brilliant. He designed plate for his
patrons, Lord Scarsdale, the Duke of Northumberland and Sir Watkin Williams Wynn.
The later phase of 18th Century design which attained greater delicacy of form, produced
objects more suited to bronze than to silver technique, hence the success of the Sheffield
plated ware at this period. The fashions which prevailed in France under the First
Empire were imitated in this country, and filled the gap between the later Adam style
and the more vigorous but uninteresting work produced under George IV and
William IV.

The characteristically English treatment of piercing through silver in ornamental
patterns, although dating from the 17th, was, as far as its considerable production is
concerned, a feature of the 18th Century. In the reign of George II, numerous articles,
such as bread and fruit baskets and epergnes, were wrought in pierced work with
consummate skill, the designs ranging from a realistic imitation of open wicker-work to
ornamental scroll work and diapering. About the middle of the century, this work was
combined with rococo ornamentation, and later with the usual features of the revived
classic taste.

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT SCONCE.

Fii^. 77.

A silver gilt sconce with flat back plate moulded at the sides, the oviform top outlined with
embossed nulling. It is fitted with a circular flat tray (the front band of which is engraved with a
contemporary coat-of-arms) containing a plain candle-holder. The back is engraved with figures and
floral designs in the Chinese taste; the upper surface of the back-plate is embossed with a design of
flowers and leaves.

Height, 12^ in. ; width, S in. Weight, 27 ozs.

By William Gamble. London, 1665.

This type of sconce with flat hack plate and handed projecting tray, within which the
candle-holder is set, is essentially practical in design, as the flat surface reflects the light
and the candle-holder is more securely fixed in this fashion than in the usual curved
candle-branches. A piece of talc or horn could easily have been inserted within the
band of the tray to protect the flame from draughts. Two similar sconces with flat
back plates and semi-circular grease pans, one bearing the London hall-mark of 1676,
and the other described as French work of the 17th Century, are in the Wallace
collection.

By the hall-mark the sconce in this collection is dated 1665, and the embossed
ornament and other detail are characteristic of that period ; the engraved Chinese
scene, however, is the earliest known example of this peculiar decoration in silver.
Next in date to this example are a pair of candlesticks, dated 166'^^70, engraved with
Chinese subjects, in the possession of Sir Charles Welby, and a tankard in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, chased with decoration in the Chinese style, which bears on the
body the London hall-mark of 1670-1671, and on the lid 1671-2.

Although 1665 is remarkably early for the inception of this style of ornament in
silver, Chinese curiosities had been imported by Jesuit missionaries, which Evelyn notices

in the preceding year (June 22, 1664), "including their idols, saints, pagodas

pictures of men and countries rarely painted, flowers, trees, beasts, birds, etc.,
excellently wrought," and India Houses were a haunt of fashion from early in the reign
of Charles II. The ornament of conventionalised Chinese figures, flowers and land-
scapes was no doubt adapted from porcelain jars and lacquer sent to us from Holland
and imported direct from the East and sold in these India Houses.

A WILLIAM III SILVER GILT SCONCE.

Fif^. 7H.

An oviform silver gilt sconce embossed in high relief with female figures emerging from acanthus
leaf scrolls and supporting a Royal Crown. The centre is ornamented with the Star and Garter
above the interlaced cypher of William III. At the base is a grotesque mask with the candle-
bracket issuing from the mouth. The candle-socket, the stem and the large grease pan are all
decorated with applied chased ornament of acanthus leaves.

Height, 16i in. ; width, 11 in. Weight, 56 ozs. 12 dwts. London, circa 1695.

The Royal cypher and emblems show that this sconce was made for King William III
at some period after the death of Queen Mary ; its date therefore is between W)4 and
1702. Having been made by Royal command it is without hall-marks. Probably it was
oneof a set at Windsor Castle. How it came to Ardington Hall (also in Berkshire)— a
house dating from the close of the 17th Century— cannot be traced, but it is known that
this sconce and two others exactly similar were in existence there prior to the middle
of the 19th Century. They were then the property of the great collector, Robert Vernon,
who formed at Ardington the nucleus of the present National Gallery. After his death,
the three sconces passed to his heirs, who disposed of two of them about 188.S, hut
retained the example here illustrated until it was acquired for this collection.

Chapter IX.

'^1

A CHARLES II SILVER SCONCE.

Fig. 79.

A silver sconce (one of a pair) for two lights each, the design composed of a central shield framed
with scroll and acanthus husk ornament, pierced and engraved. At the top are putti holding festoons
of oak leaves and acorns. The branches are ornamented with intertwined vine leaves and hunches
of grapes. The candle-sockets and pans are formed of oak leaves. On the shield is a swag of flowers,
wheat ears and grapes.

Height, 17 in. ; width, 12f in. Weight of the pair, 293 ozs. 12 dwts. London, circa 1675.

The engraved contemporary coat-of-arms and coronet has been obliterated, so that
definite proof of the provenance of these sconces is lacking. It is, however, probable
that the tradition that they belonged to Louise de Kerouaille, afterwards Duchess of
Portsmouth, is correct. If so, they might be the actual pair of sconces of "massie
silver" seen by John Evelyn in her apartments on October 4th, 1683.*

There is at Melbury, a seat of the Earl of llchester, a pair of silver console-shaped
sconces, the work of Philip Rolles, about 1697, f the ornamentation of which closely
resembles that of this example, especially as regards the construction and the grouping
of the ornament of oak leaves and acorns, which as Sir C. Jackson suggests, may have
been cast from an earlier model.

* "In the Dutchesse o( Portsmouth's dressing roome . . . . I saw . . . great vases of wrought plate, tables, stands, chimney
furniture, sconces, branches, brnseras, etc., all of massive silver."
t Illustnacd History of I'Ldc, Vol. I, page 270.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 19.

A WILLIAM III SILVER SCONCE.

Fig. SO.

An oval silver sconce (one of a pair), of which tlie embossed hack in iiigh relief represents two
angels holding a basket of fruit, upon which stands an eagle with extended wings. Each angel rests
a foot upon the volute of an acanthus scroll. In the centre is a ribboned laurel wreath surrounding
a shield. Below are two amorini holding pendants of fruit, and between them a foliated lion's mask,
to the mouth of which a scrolled bracket with tulip nozzle is fixed.

Height, 12 in. Weight of the pair, 37 ozs. 6 dwts.

By Joseph Ward. I,ond(jn, 17()(),

(Exliihiicd at the Exliihili<jii oj Silvcrsiuitli^:' Works, lUirliir^toii Fine Arts Cliih, I'flll .)

A QUEEN ANNE SILVER SCONCE.

Fig. 81.

A silver oviform sconce (one of a pair), embossed with an oval shield in centre, engraved with a
contemporary coat-of-arms of the Maynard family framed in a gadrooned border and surrounded by
a composition of scrolls, leaf ornament and amorini supporting a basket of fruit and flowers. At the
base is a horned satyr's head from the mouth of which issues the candle bracket.

Height, 8f in. ; width, 6 in. Weight of tlie pair, 26 ozs.

By John Barnard. London, 1702.

The two sconces illustrated vary two years in date, but while the uiotij of angels and
amorini holding up a basket of flowers is the same, the modelling of the figures, fruit,
drapery and other ornament in the earlier example is entirely characteristic of ornament
a quarter of a century earlier. In the later example the design is typical of the date
at which it was made.

In the Victoria and Albert Museum is a pair of silver sconces from the Bond
collection, by John Rand, bearing the London hall-mark for 1703-4. In these the back
plate is in the form of a scrolled cartouche decorated with birds' heads and flowers, and
surmounted by amorini supporting a flaming urn, somewhat resembling the pair by
John Barnard (1702) in this collection.

Chapter IX.

A WILLIAM & MARY PARCEL GILT
MIRROR PRAMK.

Fig. 82.

A p:ircel-i5ilt mirror frnme, the border embossed with gndrooning between sm:ill reeded
mouldings. There is an applied ornament of a draped head and leaf work at each corner. The
shaped cresting is surmounted by vases and swags and amorini holding a vase. The raised shield is
engraved with a contemporary reversed cypher and plume mantlmg.

The size of the glass inside the frame, 17* in. by 14* in. London, 1692.

(From the collection oj the lute Sir John Rohinso)i. Rokehy ILill.)

The earliest English toilet service dates from the reign of Charles II, and includes a
varying number of objects, among them a mirror, a dish, jars, pincushion, brush, perfume
bottles and boxes of various sizes, with, in certain elaborate sets, an ewer and candle-
sticks. A French silver gilt set, made for the occasion of the marriage of Mary,
daughter of the Duke of York, to Prince William of Orange in 1677, consisted of as
many as twenty-three pieces. Toilet sets of silver are mentioned in Evelyn's Miindus
Midiehris, where he writes: —

"A new scene to us presents
The Dressing Room and Implements
Of Toilet Plate, gilt and embossed "

and are characteristic of the luxury of the silver age.

This mirror and the set of toilet boxes illustrated on the following page {Figs. S7
and 88), were formerly at Rokeby Hall, and bear the cypher of a member of the
Robinson family, which owned the property from 1610 to 1765.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 82.

A CHARLES II SILVER TOILET OR
CONEITURE BOX.

Fig^. 83 and S4.

An oval box standing on four scroll feet, the lid engraved with the coat-of-arms of the Harold
family, surrounded hy plume mantling.

The lid 6i in. long by S in. wide. Weight, 12 ozs. 11 dwts.

Maker's mark "IH" with ficiir dc lys and two pellets below. London, 1672.

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT TOILET BOX.

Figs. S5 (Did (S'6.

A silver gilt octagonal toilet box (one of a pair), engraved with figures, birds and sprays in the
Chinese style, having reeded edges and hinged lid.
Diameter, S in. Weight, 23 ozs. S dwts.
Maker's mark, three cranes. London, 1683.

(From the collection oj the late Sir Robert Peel.)

A SET OF WILLIAM & MARY PARCEL GILT

TOILET BOXES.

Figs. S7 and SS.

A set of octagonal parcel-gilt silver caskets, consisting of one oblong casket, 9i in. long by 7i m.
wide, on double scroll feet, with hinged lid ; one casket, 4A in. square ; two small caskets, 3* in. square.

These are engraved with reversed Robinson cyphers on a small raised shield surrounded with
plume mantling, and are ornamented both on the lid and on the lower part of the sides with
embossed gadrooning. The edges of the lids are reeded.

Weight of the set of four, S3 ozs. 7 dwts.

Maker's mark. "TA." London, 1692.

(From the collection oj the late Sir John Robinson.)

During the last quarter of the 17th Century, silver toilet and confiture boxes were
made in great profusion, and many fine examples have been preserved. They were
frequently engraved with European versions of Chinese ornament. The type which is
most prized is oval shaped, such as the example illustrated, and the toilet box, which
bears the hall-mark for 1638-4, standing on four scroll feet, in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.

The toilet boxes from Rokeby Hall, one of which is illustrated, belong to the set
of which the mirror (Fig. 82) is illustrated on the previous page. The gadrooning and
raised shields are gilt, while the rest of the surfaces are plain silver. The decorative
effect of this rare "parcel" gilding is excellent.

Fig. S3.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 84.

Fig. S5.

Fig. S7.

Fig. S6.

Fig. SS.

A CHARLES II SILVER PUNCH BOWL.

Figs. S9 and 90.
A silver punch bowl embossed with eight large and eight small panels, the former engraved with
designs of Chinese figures and foliage, the latter matted. The rim is ornamented with applied
foliage, and there are shaped ring handles and a plain base. The bottom of the inside is embossed
with a coat-of-arms.

Diameter, 12i in. ; height, 6 in. Weight, 59 ozs.

By Benjamin Pyne. London, 1684.

{From the collection oj Sir William Mant'ood.)

The coat-of-arms is that of John Belasyse, created in 1645 Baron Belasyse of Worlaby
(died 1689), and of his third wife, Anne (died 1694), daughter of John Paulet, 5th
Marquis of Winchester.

Lord Belasyse was the second son of Sir Thomas Belasyse, who was created Baron
Fauconberg in 1627 and Viscount Fauconberg in 1643. The 5th Marquis of Winchester
is famous for holding Basing when besieged by Oliver Cromwell. His eldest son was
created Duke of Bolton in 1689.

This punch bowl is believed to have been a wedding present by Lord Belasyse to his
cousin Margaret, daughter of Conyers D'Arcy, 1st Earl of Holdernesse, on her marriage
to Sir Henry Marwood, of Busby Hall, Yorkshire, with whose descendants it remained
until acquired for this collection.

Punch is mentioned in 1632 in a letter by R. Adams to T. Colley, a merchant at
Pattapoli, and Phillips in 1658 speaks of punch as "a kind of Indian drink." Punch
bowls did not appear in England until after the Restoration. In early specimens, such
as this example, the indented rim is not removable ; but in the contemporary evidence
of Anthony Wood, it is stated that Monteiths {i.e., punch bowls with a removable
indented rim) were so shaped "to let drinking glasses hang there by the foot" (1683).

The example illustrated resembles two other bowls, one of which (dating from the
same year and engraved with similar Chinese decoration) was in the collection of the
late Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan.* The present example is, however, larger, more elaborate
and fitted with handles. Even closer is the resemblance to the bowl in the possession
of Mr. F. S. Holdsworth (dated 1688), which has handles and a similar raised and chased
foliage border and similar Chinese decoration in the eight broad panels.

* Illustrated in the ///iisfni/eJ History of I'latc, Vol. II, page 798.

ClIAl'ItR I\.

Fin. S9.

Fin. 90.

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT JAR AND COVER.

Fig. 91.

A silver gilt vase and cover embossed and chased with arabesque foliage and acanthus leaves on
a matted ground. The cover is surmounted by a knob of foliage.
Height, 7* in. Weight, 13 ozs. 8 dwts.

Maker's mark, "JH" with fleiir dc lys below. (^i'ca 166S.

(From the collection of the Ear] of Home. Exhibited at South Keusin.iiton. 1S62.)

The sets of silver beakers and vases for decorative purposes which appear early in
the reign of Charles II, like similar Dutch garnitures, were modelled upon the sets of
Chinese porcelain vases which were imported into Holland by the middle of the 17th
Century. These beakers and jars were sometimes of large size ; the Duke of Rutland
possesses a set of si.x, 2U in. high, and a jar in the possession of the Duke of Portland
measures 17| in. high. Other sets are in the collections of the Marquis of Rreadalbane,
the Earl of Yarborough and Lord Sackville. The jar in this collection, like others of
this type, is of Chinese form, tapering downwards from the shoulder and having a cover
surmounted by a knob, and is embossed and chased with acanthus scrolls and leaves.

The fact that these vases are often not hall-marked or dated, and only bear the mark
of the maker is explained by Mr. Starkie Gardner,* "Most of the existing examples
were made for highly-placed families, who were influential enough to evade the laws
which exempted the Church, or the service of Royalty, from payment."

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT CUP AND COVER.

Fig. 92.
A silver gilt cup and cover with scroll handles, decorated with a band of vertical acanthus leaves
round the lower part of the body, and having a rosette of foliage on the cover, surmounted by a knob
consisting of a melon and foliage. It is engraved with a contemporary coat-of-arms in a lozenge,
surrounded by plume mantling.

Height, 7 in. ; diameter, 61 in. Weight 33 ozs. IS dwts.

Maker's mark "I.N" over a mullet in shield-shaped indent. London, 1678.

{From the collection o/ Lord Brave.)

Bowls and cups with covers appear in early accounts and inventories, and existing
examples are often classified under specific names, such as caudle and posset cups and
porringers, but it is doubtful whether they were restricted to the hot drinks so much in
vogue in the 17th Century, important examples being intended rather for display than
for use. The term posset or caudle cup is applied to cups constricted below the rim,
occasionally accompanied by a plateau. The straight-sided type is termed a porringer.

The two-handled cup of the first half of the 18th Century, which follows the earlier
wide porringer-shaped cup, has a deep bowl divided into two parts by a moulded rib,
scroll-shaped handles and a domical cover.

This two-handled cup and cover closely resembles many other welLknown con-
temporary examples, such as the silver-gilt cup presented by the citizens of Gloucester
to the 3rd Marquess of Worcester in 1672, and a cup in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, dated 1676-7 (51-1865).

* Ohl Silver Work fnim the XV lo XVIII CctUurics. /)</.?(• 74.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 91.

Fig. 92.

A JAMES II SILVER GILT CUP AND COVER.

Fig. 93.

A silver gilt cup and cover of cylindrical form (one of a pair), the lower part ornamented with
eight trefoils in cut card-work upon a matted ground and the base with an applied band.

The cover, rising in three tiers, also has a trefoil design in cut card-work, and is surmounted by
a vase-shaped ornament; the edge is strengthened with applied cut cabling; the foliated scroll
handles have chased bead and reel ornament.

Height, 8'i in. ; diameter, 6 in. Weight of the pair, 100 ozs. 14 dwts.

Maker's mark, "E.G." with an anchor between. London, 1686.

(From the collection oj tlie Duke o/ Hamilton.)

The body of this cup closely resembles that purchased by Samuel Pepys as a
present to Mr. Coventry in 1660; the design of the applied trefoil ornament on the
base is almost identical. A similar cup, dated 1673, is illustrated in Cripps' Old FlngUsh
Plate. The cup illustrated was made in 1686, but its fellow from the Duke of Hamilton's
collection is a reproduction made by John Swift in 1750.

The principal decoration is obtained by cut card-work, in other words, silver sheet
applied to the surface of the article, the use of which became more frequent after 1697.

A WILLIAM III SILVER GILT SIDEBOARD DISH.

Fig. 94.

The centre engraved with the arms of Holies, impaling Eastley, Scopham, Hanham, Denzell,
Gilbert, Clare, Sergeaux, Bulbeck, Vere, Sandford and Badlesmere, surrounded by the Garter and
motto.

Diameter, 20 in. Weight, 83 ozs. 16 dwts.

Maker's mark, "Vn." in a heart. 1700.

{From the collection oj the Duke of Ncn'castle.)

The Whig families had at the end of the 17th Century attained great wealth and
position, and the patronage of the arts was largely in their hands. John Holies, Earl
of Clare and Duke of Newcastle (1662-1711) (whose coat-of-arms is engraved on this
sideboard dish and upon several other pieces in this collection), the eldest son of Gilbert
Holies, third Earl of Clare, took an active part in promoting the accession of William III.
He married Lady Mary Cavendish, third daughter and co-heiress of Henry, second
Duke of Newcastle, who on her death in 1691 left him the bulk of the estate. A
few years later he succeeded to the estates of his kinsman, Denzil, third Lord Holies
of Ifield. Holies was now one of the richest and most powerful men in the kingdom,
and was created Duke of Newcastle in 1692. He entertained William III at Welbeck
sumptuously in 1695, and was in 1705 appointed Lord Privy Seal.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 93.

Fig. 94.

A QUEEN ANNE WINE URN.

Fig. 95.

Shaped as a vase, decorated with hands of fluting edged with sniaii punched foliage ornaments,
engraved with the arms of Holies impaling Eastley, Scopham, Hanham, Denzell, Gilbert, Clare,
Sergeaux, Bulbeck, Vere, Sandford and Badlesmere, with Garter motto and ducal coronet, sur-
rounded by chased foliage and scroll work. The handles are designed as boldly chased lions' masks
holding rings, and the tap formed as two dolphins issuing from a mask.

Height, 2U in. Weight, 308 ozs. 10 dwts.

By J. Ward. London, 1702.

{Fro)u the collection of the Duke of Newcastle. Exhibited at St. JaDies's Court i)i 1902. and
illustrated and described in the catalogue by Mr. ,J . Starkie Gardner, Plate LXXXV, Fig. 1 .)

Wine fountains, which do not appear until the Restoration, and the wine cisterns
which sometimes accompany them, were the largest and most important examples of
plate during the late Stuart and early Georgian period. At the beginning of the 18th
Century they seem to have been in the possession of all ducal families ; the present wine
urn was made for the Duke of Newcastle, and the other well-known examples were
made for the Dukes of Cumberland, Portland, Devonshire, Rutland and Marlborough.

These wine fountains, as Sir C. F. Jackson* writes, "are magnificent examples of
English goldsmiths' work of the time of Queen Anne, and are fully characteristic of
the period to which they belong ; yet, while they are in no sense plainly designed they
are quite free from the overladen and incoherent ornamentation which came into
fashion a quarter of a century later."

The ornament shows the changes necessitated by the enforced use of the Britannia
quality of softer metal. Small regular ornament, obtained by the use of punches, had
appeared on earlier work, but now became more general and vertical flutes were
introduced. As Sir C. J. Jackson writes: —

"A fashionable way of ornamenting plate in the reign oi Queen Anne was by hammering
"into the face of an article vertical concave flutes rounded at each end. It was a great
"departure from the repousse decoration composed for the most part of flowing lines, which
"had prevailed a few years earlier. Notwithstanding its rigid appearance, it has a pleasing
"efTect when used in moderation and in conjunction with a sufficiency of surface differently
"decorated or left plain."

• lUustrateii History of English Phitc. Vol. II. page 292.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 95.

A WILLIAM III SILVER GILT PILGRIM BOTTLE.

Fig. 96.

One of a pair, engraved with the arms of Holies impaling Eastley, Scopham and l)e Vere, with
Garter, motto and ducal coronet, and boldly chased on the shoulders with male masks in relief,
from the top of which are attached chains connected to trefoil loops on the stopper.

Height, 16i in. Weight of the pair, 208 ozs. 3 dwts.

By John Boddington. London, 1699.

(Fro)n the collection of the Duke of Nc~ui'castlc.)

In Old Silver Work jrom. the XV to XVIII Centuries, one of this pair of pilgrim
bottles is shown in Plate LXXXVII, Fig. 1. They are described as follows il^age 78) : —

"The pilgrim bottle or hunting flask, a flattened elliptical gourd-like vessel with long
"neck, stopper, handles and suspended by chains, is of great antiquity. In early times and
"for actual use it was probably of leather or pewter, in the manufacture of both of which the
"English excelled. For decorative purposes it was made everywhere in Italy, and by Bernard
"Palissy in France, of pottery. Exalted as it was in the 14th and 15th Centuries into an
"ornament of the bufifet, silver was not thought too rich to use in their production, though
"they retained the handles and chains of the humble traveller's companion, which in form
"they simulated.

"In the Pitti Palace, at Florence, are specimens in gold, with sunk translucent enamels,
"for long attributed to Cellini. In England they are frequently found in old inventories,
"usually described as flagons, probably from flai;ou. Sir John Fastolfe possessed 'two flagons
"of silver with gilt verges and the cheynes enameled in the myddes 9 c ounces.' In the
"Haddon Hall accounts of 1623, are two 'Guilt Flaggons with chaines.' In the Tower
"inventory of 1649, there are 10 flagons with chains.

"Of actual existing specimens, the pair of silver gilt in the Louvre, presented by
"Henri III to the Knightly Order of St. Esprit, is almost identical with the pair belonging
"to the Duke of Newcastle. The design is comparatively simple, the sole decoration of the
"body being the engraved arms and the two small mouldings round the neck.

"In the Victoria and Albert Museum is a small model of one, labelled English, of the
"year 1546. The Duke of Rutland has a pair marked 'R.C with acanthus leaves and masks,
"dated 1683. Another pair belongs to the Duke of Portland, and is engraved with the
"arms and supporters of Harley, Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, dated 1692. The Duke of
"Devonshire possesses two pairs, one of Dutch manufacture about 1700, and another of
"grander proportions weighing 800 ozs., bearing the arms of the Earl of Burlington, and made
"by Anthony Nelme in 1715. Another pair, almost identical, is at \^■indsor, made at about
"the same date."

Chapter IX.

Fig. 96.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT CUP AND COVER.

Ftg. 97.

Of undulating outline with flutes enriched with scale, guilioche and other patterns. The cover
is surmounted by a fruit and calyx. The handles are formed of twining snakes, the foot panelled
and scaled. P>ngraved with contemporary coat-of-arms.

Height, IS in. Weight, 7S ozs. 14 dwts.

By Paul Lamerie. London, 1737.

(Frovi the collection oj the (Ajiiiitess oj Wancick.)

This cup was originally the pfoperty of Henry, fourth Baron Maynard. The sixth
Baron was created Viscount Maynard in 1766, which title by special remainder devolved
upon his third cousin and heir, Sir William Maynard. Lady Warwick inherited this
cup as elder daughter and heir of the Honble. Charles Maynard, son of the last Viscount
Maynard.

In the catalogue of the Loan Collection of Old Silver Worh oj the XV to XVIII
Centuries a cup, lent by Earl Cowper, is illustrated which is practically identical with
the present example, and is by the same maker and of nearly the same date. It is
described as follows: —

" During the interval the style of Louis XIV had passed away and its place had been filled
"by the rococo of Louis XV, of which this cup is a rare and perhaps matchless English example.
"It admirably illustrates the peculiar type of shell design which gave the style its name. The
"high swelling cover is surmounted by a fruit and calyx, and the body of ogee outline has flutes
"enriched with money, guilloche and other patterns, seated in swirled and matted receptacles.
"The handles are formed of realistic twining snakes which appear to penetrate the vase, and
"the foot is panelled and scaled." (Page S6.)

Sir Charles Jackson in his Illustrated History of English Plate, also illustrates and
describes Lord Cowper's cup (Vol. II, page 730) which is dated 1739-40.

The following extract from Mr. Montagu Howard's book, Old London Silver,
relative to the marks used by Paul Lamerie, may be of interest : —

"He began in 1712, with the mark of the first two letters of his surname

, marking

"the Britannia standard only. He made no change till 1732, when he registered his initials
"for the sterling standard, and when all the marks were changed in 1739, he registered
"rp£\ ''1 italics. He died in 1751.

"There were other marks of LA and PL of about the same period, one (^v) of John
"Ladyman, a spoonmaker, registered in 1697, was mostly previous to Lanierie's time, as the
"last piece known was 1713. Another was fiSj of John Laughton, also registered in 1697,

"but the mark most often taken for Lamcrie's was jp]s of Pierre Plate!. This was in use

"from 1697 to 1720, but Lamerie's mark during that time was LA and not PL. Other marks

"vvereL*rf'J of Gabriel Player, 17U0, and (-Pi,:) of P'rancis Plumley, 171S, but they were witlK)ut

"the crown which is always found with Lamerie's mark, and were also not the right letters for
"Lamerie at that time."

Chapter IX.

Fig. 97.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT CUP AND COVER.

Fig. 9S.

Of cylindricnl form, both the cup iind cover decorated with :ic;inthus leaves and ornamented
with a considerable amount of applied chased work, consisting of figures of the infant Bacchus,
scrolls, vine leaves and grapes.

Height, 13 in. Weight, 73 ozs. 8 dwts.

By Paul Lanierie. London, 17SU.

{From the collection oj the Earl o/ Doihi^h. Exliihited at the liiirliii'^tou Fine Arts Club, 1920-L)

The Earl of Denbigh inherited this cup from Rudolph, eighth Earl, who obtained
it through his first marriage (in 1840) with Miss Pennant, great grand-daughter of the
antiquary, Thomas Pennant, of Downing and Bychton, co. Flint.

A somewhat similar cup, dated 1742, also by Paul Lamerie, is in the possession of
Earl Cowper, in which the whole surface of the bowl, foot and cover is decorated with
voluted scrolls and branches of vine laden with grapes (amongst which a youthful
Bacchus kneels beside a bowl which he is filling with grape juice). This was exhibited
at the loan collection of old silver work and is described both by Mr. Starkie Gardner,
and by Sir Charles Jackson in his Illustrated History of English Plate (Vol. II, p. 720).

Paul Lamerie filled an unique position in his trade ; other contemporary craftsmen
produced as good work, but from about 1720 until his death in 1751, he was the most
prominent silversmith. The number of fine pieces bearing his marks and the names of
his patrons are evidence of his high reputation. Since the middle of the 18th Century
much silver plate has been melted down to be remade in the fashion prevailing at the
time, but examples of Paul Lamerie's art have almost invariably been spared, a fact
which helps to account for the large quantity of his silver which survives.

An impression prevails that Paul Lanierie was the principal — if not the only —
exponent of the rococo, and that his work was always in that style. As the leading
silversmith he naturally followed the varying fashions, hut numerous examples exist of
silver of plain design v^hich bear his marks. In the earlier part of his career the
engraved and chiselled ornament in the Louis XIV style was in vogue ; and this was
gradually replaced by the rococo of Meissonier and other PVench designers. He was
influenced by both fashions in common with other English makers. Paul Lamerie at
the latter part of his career favoured realistic ornament, as in the example here
illustrated. This style reappeared in England at the beginning of the 19th Century,
when examples made by Lamerie half a century earlier were closely imitated.

It is uncertain whether Paul Lamerie was an immigrant or whether he was the son of
an earlier refugee. He is said to have married the daughter of Pierre Platel, another
well-known silversmith.

Chapter I\.

^^^HX-- ^^

Fig. 98.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT CIRCULAR SALVER.

Fig. ^)^f.

A silver gilt circuhir disli witii fluted ;ind esc;illoped borders, engraved with conteniporjiry
oriKinient :ind :iiso in tiie centre witii :i co;it-of-:irnis.
Diameter, Ti in. Weight, 14 ozs. 3 dwts.

By Paul Lamerie. London, 1735.

(Exhibited at the JhiAimiton Fine Arts Cliih, 1920-1.)

This salver by Paul Lamerie, and a salver dated 1734, in the possession of Lord
Swaythling, show in the engraved ornament the beginning of the rococo manner in the
fantastically treated shells.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT CIRCULAR DISH.

Fig. 100.

A silver gilt circidar dish (one of a set of four), with fluted and escalloped borders.
Diameter, 8i in. Weight of the set, S9 ozs. 8 dwts.

By David Willaume. London, 1729.

{From the coUeetion o/ the Duke o/ Hamilton.)

The engraved crest is not contemporary, it represents the oak tree of the Hamiltons
with the escutcheon of Chatelherault, namely, three fieiir dc lys, with the label of an
eldest son.

For upwards of a century from the reign of Charles II, it was usual to decorate bowls
and plates with a succession of embossed radiating lobes with escalloped edges ; some-
times this decoration was applied to the edges only and sometimes was continued to the
centre of the dish. After 1720, instead of the scalloped edges a flat surface appears
outside the radiating lobes, the edge of which is shaped and ornamented with applied
chased gilt ornamentation.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 99.

Fig. 100.

A WILLIAM & MARY SILVER GILT TRENCHER SALT.

Fig. 101.

A silver gilt trencher salt (one of :i pnir), convex in section and ornamented with alternating
bold concave and convex gadrooning.

Diameter, 2f in. Weight of the pair, 6 ozs. 12 dwts.

Maker's mark, "DA" crowned. London, 1690.

(From the collection oj the Duke oj Leeds.)

The salt, or, as it is now usually termed, salt cellar* was the principal article of
domestic plate upon the table until the middle years of the 17th Century, and upon it
goldsmiths displayed their greatest skill. As, until after the middle of the 17th Century,
salt was obtained by the costly process of evaporation from sea water, the importance
of the salt-holder remained until the discovery of salt mines in 1670. Towards the
close of the reign of Charles I, the salt declined in importance, and trencher salts, made
for use not display (of which an example, dated 1603, is known), took their place upon
the table.

Haddon Hall accounts characteristically record the exchange in 1631 of one of the
great gilt double salts for four trencher salts and other articles. Early trencher salts,
circular, triangular or octagonal in plan, were quite plain ; in the reign of William III
they are slightly larger and enriched with simple ornament, such as gadroon. A salt
somewhat similar to Fig. 101, by Peter Harrache, resting on a moulded base, and dated
1694, is illustrated in Sir C. Jackson's JUii:<trated History of Fnglish Plate, Vol. II,
page 568.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT SALT.

Fig. 102.

A silver gilt circular salt (one of a set of four), the bowl decorated with eight applied vertical
leaves, the necking enriched with blossoms and the foot with an ogee moulding enriched with
vertical foliage. Engraved inside with a contemporary coat-of-arms.

Diameter, 3 in. Weight of the set, 26 ozs. 3 dwts.

By John le Sage. London, 1729.

A set of identical salt cellars, bequeathed by Sir Edgar R. S. Sebright, Bart, to the
Victoria and Albert Museum, and bearing the London hall-mark of 1730-1, were
made by another silversmith, Paul Crespin, and a plainer, but very similar, set of four,
bearing the hall-mark of 1728-9, by Louis Cuny, also form part of the same bequest.
The type is interesting as showing the development from the earlier plain trencher salt
to the circular bowl standing on feet.

THREE GEORGE I SILVER GILT CASTERS.

Fig. 103.

Three plain octagonal casters with moulded borders, the tops pierced with foliage and

surmounted by gadrooning, engraved with Royal Arms and cypher of George L

Height of the two smaller ones, 6\ in. ; the larger one, 8? in. Weight of the set, 41 ozs. 7 dwts.

By Louis Mettayer. ,„ ,, ,, ,. w t nr ,i \ London, 1714.

•^ -^ {From the collection oj Lord Metliiien.)

Examples exist of Elizabethan and Jacobean standing salts in which the upper part
has a pierced receptacle for pepper, but separate casters or dredgers do not appear
before the latter part of the 17th Century. Early casters are mostly cylindrical in
form, and in the first part of the 18th Century, a pear-shaped outline appears, narrowiiig
towards the top, and these are in sets of three. The upper part or cover is pierced in
patterns representing flowers or scroll work.

The casters in this collection were made in the year 1714, in which Sir Paul Methuen
(1672-1757) was appointed Ambassador to Spain and Morocco, and created a Privy
Councillor. Being part of his ambassadorial plate, they are engraved with the Royal
Arms.

' Cellar is a corruption of the old English Saler, O.F. Saliere, a salt-holder, so "salt-cellar" is really a duplication.

Chapter IX.

/wy. nil.

Fis. 102.

F/e. 103.

A WILLIAM & MARY SILVER KETTLE STAND.

Fig. 104.

A silver kettle-stand, the stem of baluster form resting on a tripod, engraved with a crest and
coronet of the P'-aris of F.xeter.

Height, 2 ft. 4 in. Weight, 191 ozs. 16 dwts. Circa 1700.

(From the collection of the Earl oj Exeter.)

No similar piece to this kettle stand is known. It was made for John, sixth Earl of
Exeter (1674-1721), chief Butler at the coronation of Queen Anne, who married in
1699 for his second wife, the daughter and co-heir of Sir John Brownlow, third Baronet.
When this kettle stand was disposed of, with pictures and other works of art from
Burleigh House in 1888, it was described as being of silver gilt.* Unfortunately, a
London silversmith removed this gilding, an act of vandalism by no means infrequent,
for which the excuse was that silver was more suitable for the American market.

* Prior to the discovery of electro gilding in the early p.irt of Queen Victori.i's reign, the process of gilding silver
consisted of first making a mixture of gold and mercury, with which the silver article, when red hot, was painted; the mercury
then eats into the silver taking the gold in with it, and evaporating, leaves the gold in the silver ; in other words, the gold becomes
an integral and peimanent part of the surface of the silver. This is sometimes called fire-gilding, but for some unknown reason is
generally referred to as "water" gilding. The use of healed mercury is injurious to health and the trade is carried on imdcr
restrictions.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 104.

A GEORGE I SILVER TEA POT.

Fig. 105.

An octagonn! silver ten pot, pyriform in section, with strnight spout, having a plain moulded
base and moulded domical top, the handle of wood fitting into two sockets, to the upper of which
the lid is hinged.

Total height, fir. in. Weight, 15 ozs. 10 dwts.

By Richard Watts. London, 171.5.

Tea was first imported by the Dutch merchants from Bantam, where it was brought
by Chinese merchants from Amoy about 1610. It was first mentioned as a drink in
France in 1635. and in England during the Commonwealth ; and the Mcrcnriu.'i
Politictts for 1658 (23rd September) speaks of "that excellent drink called by the
Chinese Teha, and by other nations Tay (ilias Tee" ; but tea drinking did not come into
fashion until the reign of Charles II, when it made such rapid progress that though
Pepys mentions it as unknown to him before 1660, the East India Company imported
in 1678, 4,713 pounds.

The earliest knoun silver tea pot having a tapering body and high conical lid is in
the possession of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and dates from 1670. It bears
the arms of the East India Company, and of George, Lord Berkeley, recorded by an
inscription as having presented it to the Company. Other examples of a somewhat
later date are not infrequent. The small melon-shape appears about 1685, and a great
number of tea pots v^-ere made in the reigns of Queen Anne and of the first two Georges.
These are rarelv ornamented until after the Britannia quality enforcement was removed
in 1720.

A very similar tea pot to Fi^. 10.\ also having a bulbous octagonal body and domed
lid (made by Jonathan Lambe and Thomas Tearle), is in the Victoria and Albert
Museum ; the spout is. however, curved.

A GEORGE I SILVER COFFEE POT.

Fig. 106.

An octagonal silver coffee pot, tapered in shape, with curved spout. The wooden handle is

fitted into two sockets, to the upper of which the lid with domed top and small finial is hinged.
Total height, VV} in. Weight, 24 ozs. 10 dwts.

Maker's mark, "FA" in shaped shield. London, 171S.

The use of coffee in England was first known about 1657, when a Turkey merchant
brought from Smyrna to London, Rosee, a youth who prepared cofTee for him every
morning. Later Rosee set up a coffee house, and his hand-bill setting out the virtues
of coffee is extant.

The earliest known coffee pot, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, dated 1681, has
a tall tapering body and conical lid. In early examples the spout is set at right angles
to the handle. Occasionally cofifee pots are octagonal in plan, and these are the most
prized.

CofTee and chocolate pots were very much the same in shape, hut in the coffee pot
the handle is on the opposite side to the spout, whereas in the chocolate pot the handle
is fixed about one-third of the total circumference to the left of the spout, and in
addition the finial is usually hinged so that a stick can be inserted to stir up the chocolate.
The example illustrated possesses the unusual feature of the flat sides being ingeniously
rounded oflf at the junction of the body and the lid, the circular shape providing a
better fit. "

A GEORGE I SILVER HOT-WATER JUG.

Fig. 107.

A silver hot water jug of pyriform outline on a spreading concave base, the dome-shaped top
surmounted by a small finial. There is a hinged cover over the mouth of the spout. 44ie jug is
engraved with a double crest enclosed within a cartouche supported by floral work.

Total height, 11 in. Weight, 26 ozs. 11 dwts.

By Daniel Slcamaker. London, 1717.

Hot water jugs appear simultaneously with tea, coffee and chocolate pots ; hot water
jugs are, however, rarely found octagonal in plan.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 105.

Fig. 106.

Fig. 107.

A GEORGE I SILVER CREAM JUG.

Fig. 10 H.

A bulb-shriped silver cream jug on a low moulded base, with applied spout and plain scroll-shaped
handle.

Height, 3 in. Weight, 3 ozs. 11 dwts. I5y William Hemming. London, 1719.

Sir C. J. Jackson writes that "when tea was first introduced into this country it was
imbibed in the Chinese manner without the addition of any other fluid, and small jugs
for milk and cream, as accompaniments of the tea pot are not found of earlier date
than the 18th Century."

From the reign of George 11 they are usually supported on three small feet instead
of upon a base, as in the example illustrated.

A GEORGE I SILVER TEA CADDY.

Fig. 10^.

An octagonal silver tea caddy (one of a pair) pear-shaped in form, with moulded base antl sliding
top, engraved with a contemporary coat-of-arms.

Height, Si in. By Glover Johnston. London, 1716.

A GEORGE I SILVER SUGAR BOWL.

Fig. nil.

A circular silver sugar bowl on low moulded base, with movable top engraved with n
contemporary coat-of-arms. (£?/ suite with pair of tea caddies, /'/?. 109.)
Diameter, 4 in. Weight of the three pieces, 12 ozs. 10 dwts.
By Glover Johnston. London, 1716.

The fashion of sweetening tea was not introduced till the end of the first quarter of
the 18th Century, when these bowls, designed to contain sugar, first appear. The cover
protected the sugar, and when inverted could be used as a stand. These bowls are
often found without covers and are termed slop basins. It is, however, doubtful
if slop basins were known ; probably examples which are described as slop basins are
sugar basins which have lost their covers.

A GEORGE II SILVER TRAY.

Fig. 111.

A plain oblong silver tray with shaped corners and sides slightly incurved, standing on four
rounded feet ornamented with leaves, and engraved with a contemporary coat-of-arms surrounded
with an elaborate design of scrolled strap work, figures and leaves.

Length, 20 in.; width, 16 in. Weight, 95 ozs. 13 dwts.

By Robert Abercrombie. London, 1733.

Salvers were used during the 17th Century, but the more modern or tray type does
not appear until the beginning of the 18th Century. Probably their first use was for
carrying the necessary accessories for serving tea. The large plain surface afforded
an excellent opportunity for the display of the coat-of-arms of the owner, which, as in
this example, was often surrounded by elaborate ornament. The art of the engraver
found its highest expression on silver trays during the first half of the 18th Century.
Hogarth's chosen profession was that of an engraver, and he was largely employed in
engraving coats-of-arms upon silver. He was apprenticed to Ellis Gamble, a well-
known silversmith, and later worked for Paul Lamerie and others. His first picture
was not painted until 1728, and it is known that he continued to engrave plates after his
marriage in 1730. The tradition that this salver was engraved by him is, therefore,
possibly correct, as the mantling closely resembles his style.

The coat-of-arms is that (rightly or wrongly) assumed by John Scales Barrington,
of Hatfield Broad Oak, co. Essex (born 16*^3, died 1756), the quarterings being: —

1. Quarterly — 1 and 4, Barrington; 2 and 3, Scales. 4. Nevill.

2. Pole. S. Montacute.

3. Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence. 6. Beauchamp.

The quarterings came into the Barrington family by the marriage of Sir Thomas
Barrington, of Barrington Hall, Essex (who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth), with
Winifred, daughter and co-heir of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute. The ancient family
of de Scales became extinct at the death in 1640 of the seventh Baron Scales.

Chapter IX.

FiM. WS.

Fig. 109.

Fi'^. nil.

Fig. 111.

A GEORGE III TORTOISESHELL CASE OF
TEA CADDIES AND SPOONS.

Figs. 112 to 115.

A tortoiseshell case with chased silver rococcj mounts, containing :— Two highly decorated urn-
shaped silver tea caddies, twelve tea spoons, three mixers with pierced bowls, one pair of tongs.
Weight of the silver, 38 ozs. 7 dwts.
Bv Burrage Davenport. London, 1771.

The word caddy is derived from Kati, a Malay word for a pound weight, the term
being first applied to the small box in which tea was originally imported into England.
Silver boxes or caddies were designed specially to contain tea. Caddies first appear
early in the 18th Century, and the design follows the usual evolution of silver work.
Attention was also bestowed on the lock-up boxes made to contain these silver caddies ;
frequently they were of wood covered with shagreen, many were entirely of silver,
and more rarely of tortoiseshell, mounted with silver. The urn-shaped caddy illustrated
shows the revolution in design which took place, as a result of the classic revival, after
the accession of George III.

Sugar tongs were introduced early in the 18th Century, at first being similar to the
fire tongs of the period.

The spoon with a perforated bowl and the long handle with a pointed end is peculiar.
It has been suggested that the long pointed stem was used for clearing out the spout, and
that the tea was poured out through the perforations in the bowl.

Chapter IX

Fig. 112.

/'■/;;. 113.

Fig. 115.

fc^'^

Fig. 114.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT STANDISH.

Figs. 116 and 117.

A silver gilt st:indisli, consisting of an oval tray with cast and chased ornamented borders, the
centre part engraved. Two long depressions are sunk in the tray for sealing wax, and three round
sockets for the ink pot, sand caster and hand bell. All three of these are ornamented with engraving,
and the bell is engraved with an Ivirl's coronet and crest. In the top of the ink pot are holes for
pens, and the top of the sand caster is perforated. The standish rests on four lion paw feet.

Length. 9A in.; width, 8 in. Weight, 34 ozs.

By Paul Lamcrie. London, 1736.

(Fro)n the collection o/ the Earl of Sliajteshiiry.)

One of the earliest known silver inkstands (or standishes, as they were originally
termed) consists of small cylinders for ink pot and sand caster, and cylindrical
receptacles for pens, all fixed to a base plate, and a handle hy which it could be carried
about. This object, dating from 1630, is illustrated in the lllustrutccl History of Plate,
Vol. II, page 902. Later the standish included a dished receptacle for sealing wax,
and sometimes a hand-bell or taper holder. In an advertisement in the London
Gazette, November 30--December 4, 1714, "One round silver standish with silver
boxes for ink and sand," is mentioned ; and one belonging to Dean Swift is described
in his will, dated 1740, as follows : "My large silver standish consisting of a large silver
plate, an ink pot, a sand box and bell of the same metal."

There are several inkstands of Paul Lamerie's make dating shortly after the first
quarter of the 18th Century. An example illustrated in the Illustrated History of
English Plate (dated 1732-3) also consists of an oval tray resting on four scroll feet, and
having two long concave receptacles for sealing wax, and between these three sockets,
in which are fitted an ink pot, a sand caster, and a hand-bell. The example in this
collection is similar in design but considerably more ornate. Both design and work-
manship of the ornamental borders to the tray are of the highest quality.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 116.

Fig. 117.

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT CANDLESTICK.

Fis. lis.

(One of :i pair) the stem formed of clustered engaged columns on plain square plinths, embossed
with a crowned cypher of Charles II.

7i in. high. Weight of the pair, 47 ozs. 2 dwts. Circa I66.1.

(Exhibited at the Iiur!iu,!it())t bine Arts Clith, 1901, ami illustrated in the cataloiljtc.)

These candlesticks, which were originally the property of King Charles II, came
into the possession of Frederick, fourth Marquis of Londonderry, and were left by him
to his wife, who bequeathed them to her son, the seventh Viscount Powerscourt.
Sir C. J. Jackson in his Illustrated History of English Plate * illustrates these candle-
sticks, and accounts for the pattern by explaining that a number of domestic candlesticks
were made shortly after the Restoration "contemporaneously with the short-lived
revival of Gothic art in the manufacture of communion plate." The description of
them is as follows: —

"The earliest candlesticks of the Charles II period are formed as clustered columns on a
"hroad base. An example is the pair belonging to Lord Powerscourt. The pillar consists of a
"cluster of eight small engaged columns arranged in a rectangular form with moulded capital,
"base and midway band, a kind of reproduction in miniature of a 13th Century Gothic pillar.
"Below the moulded base, the pillar is continued with a cylindrical section to the bottom of a
"circular concavity in the upper surface of the supporting plinth ; the junction of the cylindrical
"section with the moulded base being masked by a projecting lobed plate. The plinth is
"rectangular, edged by a wide and deep ogee moulding, and has a small astragal-edged base
"plate. On one side of the plinth is embossed C.R. under the Royal Crown. The candlestick
"is? in. high. There are no hall-marks, but the Royal Crown and cypher of Charles II is on
"the base of each; coupled with the fact that other candlesticks of the same type are known of
"about 1660 to 1670, sufificiently warrants the ascribing them to about that date."— Lo/. /, p. 239.

A WILLIAM & MARY SILVER CANDLESTICK.

Fig. 119.

A silver pillar candlestick (one of a pair), engraved with contemporary reversed cypher.
Height, 8i in. Weight of the pair, 27 ozs. 9 dwts.

Maker's mark, "TA." London, 1692.

(Fr()))i the collection 0/ the late Sir John Rohi)iso)i.)

Sir C. J. Jackson illustrates an exactly similar candlestick of the same date in his
own collection, which he describes as follows: —

"The pillar candlestick . . . has a fluted column, the moidded capital is circular, the
"projecting edge of the fixed nozzle is octagonal and is surmounted by a raised circular gadrooned
"border which surrounds the candle socket. Beneath the Attic base of the column is a bold
"protruding octagonal boss gadrooned on its upper surface. The foot is concave in section and
"circular in plan, with a raised gadrooned lower member supported by a bold spreading octagonal
"base moulding of which the principal member is also gadrooned. The candlestick is 8i inches
"high by 5'i inches in width at the base, and bears the London hall-marks for the year 1692-93."
—Illustrated History of English Plate. Vol. II, pa.i^c S58, Fig. 1117.

* Vol. II. page S52.

Chapter 1,\

•^•""■a^s^^W!"

Fig. lis.

Fig. 119.

A GEORGE I SILVER GILT CANDLESTICK.

Fig. 120.

A silver gilt baluster-shaped candlesticlt, engraved with contemporary crest.

Height, 7J in. ; diameter of base, 5 in. Weight, 36 ozs. 4 dwts.

By Pierre Platel. London, 1718.

The stem of this candlestick closely resembles stems of 16th and early 17th Century
standing cups, and is a type frequently found during the period of the enforced use of
the Britannia quality of silver. Pierre Platel, the maker of these candlesticks, was one
of the early Huguenot refugees who worked in this country after the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes ; he was entered in 1699, and must have quickly attained celebrity, as
in 1701 he made the celebrated gold ewer and basin for the second Duke of Devonshire.
His mark "P.L."— used when the first two letters of the surname was demanded— is
often confused with the mark of Paul Lamerie, when the first letters of the christian and
of the surname were adopted.

A GEORGE I SILVER GILT CANDLESTICK.

Fig. 121.

A silver gilt cast and chased candlestick (one of a pair) standing on an octagonal base.

Height, 6 in. ; width of base, of in. Weight of the pair, 24 ozs. 16 dwts.

By Thomas Folkingham. London, 1725.

The ornamentation shows the change which took place after the Britannia Act was
removed. The shape of the stem and the chased panel ornament closely follow
French work at the latter part of the reign of Louis XIV.

A JAMES II SILVER CHAMBER CANDLESTICK.

Fig. 122.

A chamber candlestick, with circular pan, 4fin. diameter, reeded on edge, and having a long
tapering octagonal handle.
Weight, 7 ozs. 5 dwts.
Maker's mark, "TO" monogram. London, 1685.

Small bedroom candlesticks were made either in silver, pewter or brass, and found
in every household from the late 17th till the end of the 18th Century. The handle of
the example illustrated is essentially practical and more convenient to use than the usual
finger scroll. There is no movable nozzle and the pan is close enough to the candle-
stick to catch any dripping wax.

A somewhat similar chamber candlestick, belonging to Exeter College, Oxford, is
illustrated by Sir C. J. Jackson, Illustrated History of English Plate, Vol. II, hasc 858
Fig. 1116.

Chapter IX.

^K r 1

^- I^^H

^^^^^^^v//

^fl^^nuBs /"- -^^^^^^H

iiB' r ■ — -— — -■(^.■'«» -s

Fi^. i20.

Fi!/. m.

Fig. 122.

TWO GEORGE II SILVER GILT SNUFFER TRAYS.

Figs. 123 and 124.

Each with shaped pans resting upon scroll feet, and with contemporary engraving, the one of a
coat-of-arms, and the other of a crest and coronet.

Weight of the one, 7 ozs. 9 dwts. London, 1729.

Weight of the other, 8 ozs. 5 dwts- London, 1742.

Both by Paul Lamerie.

Until hard candle wick (which is entirely consumed by the flame of a candle) was
invented in the 19th Century, snuflEers were necessary to remove the wick as the candle
burned. The shape of these and of the trays varied considerably. Paul Lamerie, the
most prolific silversmith of the first half of the 18th Century is responsible for a large
number. One of these bears his mark "PL" in block letters, and in the other the "PL"
is in script.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT CANDLESTICK.

Fig. 125.

A candlestick (one of a pair) designed by William Kent, of baluster form, octagonal in section,
elaborately chased with foliage, husks and shells, the mouldings enriched with classic ornament.
The engraving of an Earl's coronet and a crest, enclosed in the Garter, is contemporary.

Height, 12 in. Weight of the pair, 83 ozs. 10 dwts.

By Paul Crespin. London, 1745.

{From the collection oj the Duke of Newcastle.)

The influence of the work of the later Italian architects of the Renaissance, usually
termed Palladian, is a feature of English architecture and interior decoration between
1725 and 1750; its effect, however, upon silver is not nearly so universal, although
William Kent, its most prominent exponent, made many designs for silver work. In
1744, John Vardy published a book illustrating seventeen designs by Inigo Jones and
thirty-three designs by William Kent ; amongst the latter are a considerable number of
candlesticks, chandeliers and other articles of silver ware. A centre piece made from
one of the designs is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and another— a gold
cup — was also amongst the articles included in the Duke of Newcastle's sale.

The candlesticks (one of which is here illustrated) w^ere designed by Kent for one
of his principal patrons, Henry, Earl of Lincoln, K.G., born in 1720, who in 1744
married his cousin Katherine, niece of Thomas Pelham Holies, Duke of Newcastle.
The mannerisms characteristic of William Kent appear on every detail of the ornament
and the candlesticks themselves very closely resemble the illustration in Vardy.

A SILVER QUEEN ANNE SNUFFER AND STAND.

Fig. 126.

The upright stand has a moulded and gadrooned octagonal base and a gadrooned baluster-shaped
stem. The top moulding of the receptacle for holding the snuffer is gadrooned, also the vase-shaped
lower part. The snuffer and stand are both engraved with the same contemporary coat-of-arms and
bear identical hall-marks.

Height to top of stand, 4^ in. Weight, 10 ozs. 7 dwts.

By Anthony Blatchford. London, 1704.

Upright snuffer stands were frequent from the latter part of the 17th until the
end of the first quarter of the 18th Century; afterwards flat trays became more usual.
A very similar upright stand with snuffers of a few years earlier in date is in the
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Chai'ier IX.

Fig. 123.

Fig. 124.

Fig. 12S.

Fig. 126.

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT SHELL.

Fig. 127.

A sweetmeat dish (one of a set of three) in tiie form of a shell.

Width across, 41 in. Weight, 5 ozs. 8 dwts.

Maker's mark, "SH" in dotted oval. London, 1675.

As far back as the 16th Century, the shell was a favourite design with goldsmiths,
and was sometimes used as the lid of small sweetmeat boxes. Silver shells were used
as sweetmeat trays from the reign of Charles II down to the latter part of the 18th
Century. These shells of various dates were imitated so realistically that it is often
difficult to distinguish the period except by the date marks.

A CHARLES II SILVER GILT NEST OF
TUMBLER CUPS.

Fig. 128.

A nest of six silver gilt tumbler cups and a cover, decorated with panels of matting and reeded
borders.

Weight, 12 ozs. 18 dwts.

Maker's mark, "RH" in shaped shield. London, circa 1670.

{From the collection oj the Earl oj Home.)

Plain cylindrical bowls have been used as drinking cups from early times, but after
the Restoration an extra thickness and weight of silver appears in the base, causing the
cup to tumble from side to side until it finally rests in an upright position. These nests
of cups, which were probably intended for use when travelling, are rarely met with
of English make, but were more frequently produced in Nuremberg and Augsburg.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT SPICE BOX.

Fig. 129.

A silver gilt octagonal spice box of sarcophagus shape, having two lids hinged in the middle;
the centre receptacle for nutmeg having a loose cover. It is enriched with plain mouldings and
stands on four lion paw feet. Engraved with a crowned cypher within the Garter.

Length, 4f in.; width, 3 in. Weight, 13 ozs. 19 dwts.

Maker's mark, "AT," with sun and escallop. London, 1728.

In the Victoria and Albert Museum (acquired through the National Arts Collection
Fund) is an exactly similar spice box, evidently one of the same set, either from the
Royal collection, or more probably forming part of ambassadorial plate. Such little
boxes were designed to hold the ingredients for the mixing of spiced wines. The
whole of one side is reserved for allspice, and the other side is divided, one half being
reserved for nutmeg and the other for ginger, the partition being of steel for grinding
the former. These three ingredients were mixed according to taste in the centre
receptacle, the lids being arranged specially to facilitate that purpose.

Spice boxes, very similar in design, are found in French work of a somewhat earlier
date.

Chapter IX.

Fig. 127.

Fig. 128.

Fig. 129.

A GEORGE II SILVER GILT BELL.

Fig. 130.

A silver gilt bell with baluster handle, with contemporary inscription.

Total height, 5* in. Weight, 8 ozs. 3 dwts.

By Richard Gines. London, 1727.

This bell is engraved as follows : —

"This is one of the Bells belonging to the Canopy y' was borne over King George y" Ilnd
"at his Coronation."

At coronations the Royal canopy was carried by Barons of the Cinque Ports, who are
each entitled to one of these bells as a perquisite. The handle is fitted with a slot by
which it is suspended.

A SILVER GILT CLOCK.

Fig. 131.

A miniature bell-top 30-hour repeating travelling clock. The movement is constructed in the
same manner as a striking two-train bracket clock, with barrels and fusees. The escapement is a
verge with balance wheel. The handle at the top of the case is also utilised as a repeater, on
pressing which the hours and quarters are repeated. The case is metal gilt, engraved and chased,
with mouldings in silver.

Height, 5i in.

By Tompion. Circa 1695.

The ornament of this small clock is remarkable for its finish, and is characteristic of
Tompion in having columns to support the domed top, and bun feet. The oblong dial
is of metal gilt, covered with a pierced and engraved silver plate on which are repre-
sented amorini supporting a basket and atlantes supporting the dial proper. Above
the dial is a pierced frieze. The dial proper is of solid silver, carved and engraved,
on the face are the Royal arms, with Tompion, London, engraved on swags in cartouche.

The back plate is overlaid with a carved plate having a design of scrolls and exotic
birds. The cock is of silver, also pierced and carved with grotesque heads of animals
and birds, underneath which is a small silver dial for regulation.

William III appears to have ordered several fine clocks from Tompion, for besides
the example in this collection, the "Record" Tompion clock in the Wetherfield
collection bears his monogram, and the large silver mounted ebony clock in the
possession of Lord Mostyn was made for him by Tompion at a cost of £1,500.*

* Brilten, Olil (Hocks anil Walchcs, Ed. 1919, piiac 93. The Moslyti clock requires to be wound but once a year, and bke
the small clock here illustrated is slill an excellent time keeper.

Chapter IX.

■fT''

.. /^

•5—

— ■~~"^'^^^M

♦i

-'/'' '''^

'^ "-

Fi^. 7J0.

Fi,?. 131.

Chapter X.

MEDALS.

INDEX.

Fig. 132. James I Date of Coron

133. Charles I (English)

134. Charles I (Scotch)

Cromwell ------- ,y

Charles II "

James II -----■"" >>

William and Mary

Anne .-------,.

135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.

George I
George II
George III
George IV
William IV
Victoria

ation 1603
1626
1633
1653
1661
1685
1689
1702
1714
1727
1761
1820
1831
1838

Chapter X.

MEDALS.

NTIL the latter part of the 18th Century, the term medals, as the word
numismatics to-day, included coins for currency, as well as metallic pieces
struck to commemorate important events, and John Evelyn, in his niscoiirse
of Medah, dealt with both.

A few medallions of ancient Rome survive, but commemorative medals— like so
many other products of art— owe their origin to the Italian Renaissance of the 15th
Century, as the design, size and method of construction varied entirely from the earlier
example's which resemble the currency of the period. Vasari described the medallic
art as the link between sculpture and painting. The Italian medals of the Renaissance,
which were cast in moulds, were larger in scale and bolder in design than the Roman
medallion, which was struck. The art flourished in Italy from about 1440 to 1530, and
the names of at least fifty artists are known, many of whom, including Pisano, who
founded the art and was its greatest master, were painters as well as sculptors.

The art passed to France and Germany in the 16th Century, and first appears in
England just before the reign of Henry VIII, a date when the medals are commemorative
of persons rather than events.

English medals are far more interesting for their record of events than as works of
art. The Tudor medals, however, include some excellent portraits, especially those
by the Italian Trezzo and Stephen H (or Stephen of Holland), and the characteristic
portrait of Queen Mary by the Italian Primavera. The series of the Stuart period is
richer, and the fine pieces of the Simons are remarkable and virile works of art.

In the early part of the reign of Charles I, the work of Nicholas Briot, a Frenchman,
who had been chief engraver to the Paris Mint, is the most noteworthy. He came to
England in 1625, and executed a number of dies and moulds for medals, as well as dies
for'the coinage, and during the Civil War he established himself at Oxford, where he
died in 1646. His medals, which are "gems of medallic art" are always cast. The work
of his pupil, Thomas Rawlins, who does not reach the high level of his great
contemporaries the Simons, is not interesting. Like Briot, Rawlins attached himself to
the Royal cause in the Civil War, and on the Restoration was reinstated in his post of
engraver to the Mint, which he retained until his death in 1670.

On the Commonwealth side was Blondeau, the inventor of a machine for striking
coins and medals, who came to England in 1649 at the Parliament's request. Though
he returned to France, he was back in England for a few years immediately after the

Restoration. The brothers Thomas and Abraham Simon, presumably of English birth,
were also Parliamentary medallists. Abraham, the elder (1622-1672), a modeller in
wax, had received his artistic training in Holland, and on his return to England before
the outbreak of Civil War, his portraits were famous. His brother, Thomas, was
appointed joint engraver to the Mint in 1644, and later "Sole chief engraver and medall-
maker" to the Protector. Though Abraham Simon stood high in Charles H's favour
at the Restoration, the chief medallist of his reign was John Roettier, member of a large
family of medallists, who, it is said, were introduced to Charles II during his stay in
Holland. His medals, which are struck, are sharply cut. Hitherto only pieces in low
relief had been struck by dies, but Roettier, by the aid of improved machinery, was able
to turn out larger pieces. Evelyn speaks of "Mons. Roettier and his sons, who
continued their father's travail, and who have given the world such proof of their
abilities and performances of this kind as may rightly paragon them with many of the
celebrated ancients."* In the reign of William III, the most prominent medallist was a
German, Johann Crocker (or John Croker as he called himself) who came to England in
1691, was made chief engraver to the Mint in 1705, and produced the coronation medals
of Anne, George I and George II. With the House of Hanover, the medallic series
loses much of its interest. Medallists are still largely of foreign extraction, such as
Natter, t gem engraver and author of finely executed medals, who first arrived m
England in 1740, and was in 1761 appointed assistant engraver to the Royal Mint. A
Genevan, Jean Dassier,t came to England in 1728, and three years later issued his well-
known series of the English sovereigns from William I to George II, and also a large
number of private medals.

The subject has been exhaustively dealt with in the publication by the Trustees of
the British Museum of The Medallic Illustrations of the History oj Great Britain and
Ireland to the death oj George II, and from this important work the progress of the art
in England can be realised by the number of examples there illustrated : —

Henry VII 6 Commonwealth - - - - 94

Henry VIII - - - - 25 Charles II 258

Edward VI - - - - 13 James II 78

Mary I 29 William and Mary - - - 460

Elizabeth 98 Anne 278

James I 82 George I 106

Charles I 232 George 11 495

While those of the reign of George III would far exceed the whole of the above in
numbers, they had to a large extent degenerated, in fact, in most cases were merely
"tokens."

The above medals are largely portraits, but are also commemorative of every event
of any importance.

Although most modern makers who are exclusively medallists have cut dies, they
now take advantage of the newest methods. At the present day, the medallist
commonly works out his design in wax or similar substance, upon a disc of plaster about

* Numismatii, puge 239.

t Born at Biberach in Suabia. He died at St. Petersburg in 1763.

1 1676-1763.

Chapter X.

12 or 14 inches in diameter. P>om that advanced model a simple mould or matrix is
made, and a plaster cast taken, whereupon the artist can complete his work in the
utmost perfection. Then, if a struck medal is required, a steel cast is made, and from
that a reduction to the size required for the final work is produced by means of the
machine — the tour a reduire, invented by Contamin, who based it upon that tour a
portrait which Houlot invented in 1766.* This machine was first exhibited in Paris
in 1839, while a similar invention devised at the same time by the English engraver Hill,
was acquired by Wyon for £2,000; the modern medallist is, therefore, not so directly
in touch with his material.

The artistic decadence which was so marked with the rise of commercialism at the
latter part of the 18th Century was prominent in numismatics ; this was further increased
by the process of producing medals by mechanical means, as the design has to be in low
relief and the freedom of the work produced by the old method of casting disappears.

Coronation medals have been selected to illustrate the medallic art not for their
importance, but because they are probably the only medals which serve to illustrate a
similar event in each reign, and also the skill of the most celebrated engravers of each
period. The first coronation medal was that of King Edward VI, and the custom
revived with the coronation of James I and has continued until present times. As
regards distribution, in earlier times some were given to persons of distinction and a few
were thrown as largesse to the populace during the procession. The recent practice
has been to issue them from the banks to subscribers.

* EncyclopiBdia HiiUninica, Sub. Voc. medal.

CORONATION MEDALS.

THE HOUSE OF STUART.

Fig. 132. JAMES I.

Bust, r., laureate, in armour, mantle tied in a knot on the shoulder, and falling lace collar.
Leg., lAC : 1 : BRIT : C.^ : AVG : H/E C/ESARVM C/E D.D. (James I, C^sar Augustus of
Britain, Caesar the heir of the Caesars presents this medal), m.m., rose.

Rev., lion rampant, 1., crowned, holding beacon and wheatsheaf. Leg., ECCE. PHAOS :
POPVLIQ'. SALVS (Behold the beacon and safety of the people). Before and after legend, a rose.

This medal was struck for distribution at the King's coronation, 25th July, 1603;
it is the first issued in England for that purpose. As in the accession medal struck the
same year, James I assumed the title of a Roman Emperor and adopted the laureate
crown, the first instance of any English sovereign having done so.

Fig. 133. CHARLES I (English).

Bust, r., crowned, in ruf?, ermine robes, collar and badge of the Garter. Leg., CAROLVS
LD.G. MAG. BRITAN. FRAN. ET. HIB. REX. Below, N.B. (Nicholas Briot).

Rev., an arm issuing from the clouds holds a sword. Leg., DONEC. PAX. RI-:DDITA.
TERRIS. (Until peace is restored to the earth). Ex. Coron. 2. FEBRV. 1626.

There are at least two varieties of this medal. It was executed hy Nicholas Briot,
and struck for general distribution at the King's coronation. James left the kingdom
engaged in war, troops having been sent to assist the United Provinces in establishing
their independence, and he had also promised the Count Palatine to recover his
kingdom of Bohemia. Charles cordially approved of these proceedings, and upon this
medal asserts his determination to prosecute the war to a successful issue.

Fig. 134. CHARLES I (Scottish).

Bust, 1., crowned, in falling lace collar, ermine robes and collars of the Garter and the Thistle.
Leg., CAROLVS, D.G. SCOTI/E ANGLL/E. FR. ET. HIB. R.

Rev., thistle and rose tree combined. Leg., HINC. NOSTR/E. CREVERE ROS.E. (Hence
have our roses grown). E'.x. CORON, 18 IVNII. 1633, under date lozenge, B. (Nicholas Briot).

These medals, also by Nicholas Briot, were issued upon the coronation of Charles I
in Edinburgh, June 18th, 1633. They were struck in large numbers and several pairs of
dies were used, showing slight variations.

Fig. 135. CROMWELL, Protector.

Bust, I., in plain falling collar, decorated armour, and scarf looped on left shoulder. Leg.,
OLIVERVS DEI. GRA' REIPVR. ANGLL/E. SCO'. ET. HIB'. & Protector. Under the bust,
THO. SIMON, F.

Rev., a lion sejant, laureate, supporting the shield of the Protectorate; 1 and 4, Cross of St.
George; 2, Cross of St. Andrew; 3, Irish Harp. On an escutcheon of pretence, the paternal coat
of Cromwell. Leg., PAX. OVAERITVR. BELLO. (Peace is sought by War). Very rare when
struck.

This medal is in general cast ; even in that state not at all common. It was executed
by Cromwell's order to commemorate his elevation to the Protectorate, 16th December,
1653. The die of the reverse was, after a short use, broken across the middle ; which
may account for the rarity of the medal. The portrait was copied from a miniature
by Cooper, now in the collection of the Duke of Devonshire.

Fig. 136. CHARLES II.

Bust, r., crowned, hair long, in royal ermine robes, collar and George of the Garter. Leg.,
CAROLVS. II. D.G. ANG. SCO. FR. ET. HI. REX. On truncation, T.S. (Thomas Simon).

Rev., Charles II, I., in royal robes, holding the sceptre is seated on a throne; Peace hovering
over him, places the crown upon his head. Leg., EVERSO. MISSVS. SVCCVRRERE SECLO.
XXIII. APR. 1661 (Sent to support a fallen age, 23 April, 1661. Comp. Virg. Georg I. 500).

This is the coronation medal struck for distribution among the spectators of that
splendid ceremony. It was engraved by Thomas Simon, and has never been surpassed
for minuteness and delicacy of work. He charged £110 for its execution. Good
specimens are frequently to be met with, but very rarely in such a perfect state of
preservation as not to show some wear in the more delicate and prominent parts of
the work.

Chapter X.

Fig. 132.

Fig. 133.

Fig. 135.

Fig. 136.

THE HOUSE OF STUART— coNtwueJ.
Fig. 137. JAMES II.

Bust, r., laureate, hair long, descendinj^ in front, in armour, mantle and shirt with puckered
frill. Leg.,'lACOBVS, D.G. ANG. SCO. FR. FT. III. RFX. Below monogram, J.R. (John
Roettier).

Rev., Bust of Mary, r., laureate, hair collected in a knot behind whence descend two lovelocks,
in mantle fastened with brooch on right shoulder. Feg., MARIA D.G. ANG. SCO. FR. FT. HI.
RFGINA. Below monogram, J.R. (John Roettier).

This medal is formed of the obverse of two other coronation medals.

Mary Beatrice Eleonora d'Este, usually called Mary of Modena, who was the daughter
of Alphonso IV, Duke of that country, was distinguished for the grace of her person
and bearing.

Fig. 138. WILLIAM AND MARY.

Busts, facing each other, within two wreaths of rose and orange, supported upon a base
consisting of a volume inscribed, LFGFS ANGLL/F (The laws of Fngland) ; on which is an
open book with seals, surmounted by the cap of Liberty; at either side a cornucopia— one
inscribed SAL. RFG. (The safety of the kingdom), contains crowns, coronets, etc., the other
inscribed FFLIC. PUB. (Public happiness), contains corn, fruit, etc. Over the wreaths are
four sceptres, terminating in the royal badges of the kingdom, and surmounted by the crown with
crest All beneath the eye of Providence. Leg., AUREA. POMA. MIXTA. ROSIS. (Oranges
mingled with roses). Fx., D.F. A. WILH. HFNR. FT. MARIA. M. BRIT. R. (Defenders of the
Faith of England, William Henry and Mary, Sovereigns of Great Britain).

Rev., a prostrate uprooted oak, near it a flourishing orange tree, fleet in the distance. Leg.,
MELIORFM LAPSA LOCAVIT (The fallen tree has made room for a better one). Ex.,
INAUGURATIONS MAIFSTATUM PER ACTA LONDINI 1} April 1689 (The coronation of
their Majesties performed at London '.[ April 16S9). R.A.F. (R. Arondeaux fecit). Rare.

Struck in Holland upon the coronation. The obverse is emblematical of Great
Britain. William and Marv, the orange and the rose, with the four sceptres of England.
France, Scotland and Ireland united under one crown, and supported upon the laws
of England and the Bible, thus provide for the security of the kingdom and the happiness
of the people. The eye of Providence indicates the only course of such a happy
combination. In the design of the reverse, James is the fallen oak, William the
flourishing orange tree.

Fig. 139. QUEEN ANNE.

Bust, hair bound with fillet, lovelock on the right shoulder, in gown fastened with brooch in
front. Leg., ANNA. D.G. MAG. BR. FR. FT. HIB. RFGINA.

Rev., Anne, as Pallas, hurls thunder against a double-headed and four-armed monster, holding
clubs and stones, and whose lower limbs terminate in snakes. Leg., VICEM GERIT. ILLA.
TONANTIS. (She is the vice-regent of the Thunderer). Ex., INAVGRAT. XXIII. AP. MDCCII.
(Crowned 23 April, 1702).

Four pairs of dies were executed for this medal by Croker, all slightly varying,
one reading on the obverse "FRA" instead of "FR." It was the official medal which
was distributed bv the Treasurer of the Household at the coronation. Anne adopted
the policv of William in resisting the power of France, and is, therefore, typified by
Pallas wielding the bolts of Jove. Upon the first occasion of addressing her Council,
on the day after the death of William, Anne said, "I think it proper upon this occasion
of mv first speaking to you, to declare my own opinion of the importance of carrying
on all preparations we are making to oppose the great power of France, and I shall lose
no time in giving our Allies all assurances that nothing shall be wanting on my part to
pursue the true interest of England together with theirs, for the support of the common
cause."

Chapter X.

Fig. 137.

Fig. 13S.

Fig. 139.

THE HOUSE OF HANOVER.

Fig. 140. GEORGE I.

Bust, r., laureate, hair long, in scale armour with straps on the shoulder and mantle looped on
the shoulder. Leg., GEORGIVS. D.G. MAG. BR. FR. ET. HIB. REX. On truncation, I.C.
(John Croker).

Rev., the King in royal robes, seated r. in a shell-formed chair, is crowned by Britannia, holding
her spear and shield. Ex., INAVGVRAT. XX. OCT. MDCCXIIII. (Crowned 20 October, 1714).
Common.

This is the official medal struck for distribution amongst the Officers of State and
spectators of the ceremony of the coronation. Several pairs of dies were used to
produce this medal.

Fig. 141. GEORGE II.

Bust, 1., laureate, hair long, in armour and mantle fastened with brooch on shoulder. Leg.,
GEORGIVS IL D.G. MAG. BR. FR. ET. HIB. REX. On truncation, LC. (John Croker).

Rev., the King, seated on King Edward's chair, holds the sceptre and orb, and is crowned by
Britannia, holding a cornucopia and leaning on the fasces. Leg., VOLENTES. PER. POPULOS.
(By a willing people). Ex., Coron. XL OCTOB. MDCCXXVIL

L 35, George II and Caroline, Coronation Verses, front. Common.

This is the official medal distributed at the public expense during the ceremony.
It is said that 200 were struck in gold, 800 in silver and a still greater number in copper.

Fig. 142. GEORGE III.

Bust, r., laureate, hair long, in armour and the ribbon of the Garter. Leg., GEORGIVS 111.
D.G. mag'. BR. FR. ET. HIB. REX.

Rev the King seated beside the British lion, who holds the orb of sovereignty in his paws. On
the left is' the standing figure of Britannia crowning the King. Leg., PATRLE OVANTI (To our
exulting country). Below, CORONAT. XXII. Sept. 176L

These medals were executed in some haste by Laurence Natter, and if the execution
is not equal to many of the earlier reign, the likeness of the King is excellent.

Chapter X.

Fig. 140.

<S IHife^

Fig. 141.

Fig. 142.

TPIE HOUSE OF HANOVER— cof/twuc J.

Fig. 143. GEORGE IV.

Head, 1, Inurentc, hair long. Leg., GEORGIVS. IIII D.G. BRITANNIARUM REX. F.D.

Rev., the King, seated, habited in a Roman costume holding the baton in his right hand.
Behind him. Victory placing the royal crown upon the King's head. On the opposite side are three
figures representing England, Scotland and Ireland, placing their right hands upon an altar. Leg.,
PROPRIO JAM J[IRE ANIMO PATERNO (Now in his own right with his father's mind).

Exception has been taken to the hair as being too wiry, but the design on the reverse
was a great triumph for the skill of Pistrucci who designed it.

The motto is probably a reference to the King having shaken ofl his own undesirable
friends and adopted the men and measures of his father.

Fig. 144. WILLIAM IV.

Head, r.. Leg., WILLIAM THE F'OURTH, CROWNED Sept. 8th, 183L

Rev., the head of the Oueen, with tiara. Leg., ADELAIDE QUEEN CONSORT,
CROWNED Sept. 8th, 1831.

This medal which portrays excellent likenesses both of the King and the Queen was
executed by Wyon in the short space of fourteen days. It is typical of the character of
the King that it was the first time that no wig or laurel wreath, or conventional
ornament was introduced, and the motto is in English instead of Latin.

Fig. 14=,. VICTORIA.
Head, 1. Leg., VICTORIA D.G. BRITANNIARUM REGINA, F.D.

Rev., the Queen, seated on a dais, having in her right hand the orb of sovereignty and in her
left a sceptre. Behind her a lion grasps in his right paw the thunder of Jupiter. On the opposite
side three female figures, representative of the United Kingdom offering an Imperial diadem.
Leg., ERIMUS TIBI NOBILE REGNUM, and underneath INAUGURATA LII June XXVIII,
MDCCCXXXVIII.

For the execution of this, Wyon, who had produced the coronation medal for King
William, was superseded, and it was entrusted to Pistrucci on account of the reputation
he had gained with the coronation medal of George IV. However, Pistrucci was
unwell and almost deprived of his sight ; great public indignation was displayed which
culminated in a debate in the House of Commons, and Pistrucci himself admitted its
imperfections.

Chapter X.

Fig. 143.

Fig. 144.

Fig. 145.

Chapter XI.

STUART ENAMEL.

INDEX.

Fig. 146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.

Andirons with the Stuart arms Circa 1665

of baluster shape - ,. 1665

Disc with the Stuart arms ,, 1665

Candle snuffer ,, 1665

Mirror frame ------- - - - ,, 1665

Sconce ---------,. 1665

Chapter XI.

STUART ENAMEL.

INTEREST in a rare variety of English enamels was aroused when a collection of
European enamels were brought together at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1897,
where among the treasures of French, Italian and Byzantine art there shown, few
objects attracted more attention than a series of rather roughly executed brass
castings, of which the surface, but not the whole surface, was adorned by the application
of bright coloured enamels. In spite of the general rudeness of the castings, and of the
summary manner in which the enamels, left unpolished, were applied to the recesses
of the surface, it was felt that here was a decorative scheme that had a quality of its
own. Previous to this Exhibition, such enamels have been briefly mentioned at the
close of an article by Mr. J. Starkie Gardner in Some Minor Arts in England (1894),
and there have been later articles dealing with the subject in the Burlington Magazine
of February, 1910, and in the Art Journal of September, 1911.

In every case, the article is cast in brass, and the cells or sunken portions filled in
with coarse opaque enamels, the enamel work being always subservient to the design in
relief. Specimens of this work are extremely rare ; and of the twenty-one examples
known to Mr. Edward Dillon, when writing in the Burlington Magazine in 1910, nine
were in the Victoria and Albert Museum and two in the British Museum. His record of
examples in private collections was, however, not exhaustive, and he has omitted well-
known examples, such as those at Windsor Castle. The objects made in this enamel
include badges, vases, candlesticks and andirons. The Victoria and Albert Museum
possesses circular discs or dish-centres, a pair of stirrups, two small oval vases, some
candlesticks and andirons. At the Burlington Fine Arts Club Exhibition (1897) the
exhibits were for the most part andirons. General Pitt Rivers exhibited a pair, on which
the decoration was largely made up of trophies of arms, in a design that is supposed to
commemorate the Restoration of Charles II. The examples of this enamel work as
applied to fire-dogs are extremely interesting and more elaborate in design than small
objects of the ware. The simplest type consists of discs arranged one above the other
on an iron upright, such as the pair at Drayton. A pair of acorn-shaped outline, in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, is ornamented with figure subjects and scroll-work ; at the
top of the upper portion is a coronet and cypher. In the same collection is a pair of
andirons, on which the coat of Royal Arms is supported by atlantes.

The question of the date of these enamels has been discussed, and it seems certain
that, whether or no the manufacture of this enamel ware was practised in England
before the Restoration, all the known objects are of Post-Restoration date judging by
the symbolism of the various objects that commemorate the Restoration, by the shape
of the candlesticks and sconce and the character of the relief ornament in the case of
the octagonal mirror (Fig. 150) in this collection.

A PAIR OF ANDIRONS OF STUART FNAMEL.

Fig. 146.

The design consists of tlie Royal Arms and supporters of the Stuarts, resting on atlantes
separated by a conventional floral ornament issuing from a vase. The whole composition is
supported on convex discs, bearing conventional floral ornamentation. The enamel is worked in
blue, green and white, with touches of red in the Royal Arms and supporters.

24 in. high.

{F(>r}iicrly in the collcftiou of Earl Cinclcy.)

Circa 166S.

Mr. Edward Dillon, in an article dealing with Stuart Enamels in the Burlington
Magazine, favourably compares this pair of andirons with a similar pair in the Victoria
and Albert Museum.

There is a tradition that this pair came from the Palace of Nonsuch at Cheam,
which remained in the Royal possession until 1670, when the Duchess of Cleveland
was granted the place. Later the palace and the andirons passed to Sir Robert Long
and his descendants; and the andirons from them, by female descent, to Garrett
Wellesley, first Earl of Mornington, who bequeathed them to his younger son, Henr>-
Richard, first Earl Cowley.

Chapter XI.

Fi'4. J46.

A PAIR OF ANDIRONS OF STUART ENAMEL.

Fig. 147.

Decorated with designs of foliage in white cnaniei on a blue ground. The standard is of
baluster shape, with a flattened globular enlargement and iinial at the upper, and with a square
pierced knop in the lower portion of the stem.

24 in. high. <^-''>"' Ifi^-"^-

(From the collection of ('liristofyhcr Tower, Esq.)

In these andirons of unusual baluster shape, the square openwork knop gives interest
to the design. When the rarity of enamelled andirons is considered, the variety of
types is remarkable. The simplest consists of convex enamel discs arranged one above
the other on an iron upright ; and there is also the baluster type, the acorn-shaped and
the more important armorial type supported by figures.

These andirons came from Weald Hall, Essex, a property that was granted in 1540
to Sir Brian Tuke, and passed through various owners, including the family of Brown,
which lived here until 1667. Sir William Scroggs, Lord Chief Justice, afterwards
bought the estate, and retired here in 1681. His eldest son parted with it to Erasmus
Smith, and in this family it remained until 1759.

A DISC OF STUART ENAMEL.

Fig. 148.

Decorated with the Royal Arms in red, white and blue enamel on a green ground.
Diameter, 2 in. ^'^''Cfl 1665.

The objects of English 17th Century enamel most frequently to be met with are
discs bearing the arms and supporters of Charles II, usually found let in to the centres
of brass and pewter dishes. There are several examples in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.

They are often termed badges, but there are no holes in the top for suspension with
a cord or ribbon, nor any staple at the back to enable them to be attached, as is usual
with badges.

A CANDLE SNUFFER OF STUART ENAMEL.

Fig. 149.
Decorated with blue and white enamel. Length 7* in. Circa 1665.

During the 17th Century snuffers were in regular use, usually made either of brass
or of pewter. Fi'?. 149 illustrates the only known example of a snuffer decorated with
enamel.

Chapter XI.

Fig. MS.

Fi'4. Ul.

Fig. 149.

A MIRROR FRAME OF STUART ENAMEL.

Fig. ISO.

An octagonal frame with the background filled in with blue and white enamel. The design,
which is in high relief, consists of a scroll throwing out fruit and flowers, including grapes,
convolvulus and roses. At the top of the frame is a pomegranate flanked by two amorini, and at
the bottom a two-handled vase.

Height, 14f in.; width, 12 in. ('irca 166.^.

The metal work is very similar in design to the silver of this period, when, following
Dutch precedent, silversmiths embossed plate in bold relief with scrolling floral designs,
in which tulips, anemones and fruit figure largely.

A SCONCE OF STUART ENAMEL.

Fig. 151.

The wall attachment is of oval shape ornamented with a conventional scrolling design, and a
cherub's head at the top. In the centre is a grotesque foliated mask. The scroll-shaped candle
bracket, which issues from a closed human hand, supports a wax pan and octagonal candle socket,
also enamelled. The enamel is worked in pale blue and white.

Height, 6i in.; width, 4* in. Circa 1665.

The mirror frame {Fig. ISO) is the only known example in Stuart Enamel ; the only
other known sconce is one in the collection of Lord Swaythling.

Chapter XI.

Fig. 150.

Fig. 151.

Chapter XII,

DOOR LOCKS, Etc.

INDEX.

Fig. 152. Lock and catch plate -------- Circa 1680

153. Lock and catch plate ,, 1699

154. Chamberlain's key --.--.--,, 1706

155. Tablet case - - ,, 1680

156. Indicating lock - - ,, 1670

157. Door handle and ornament - ■ - - - - - ,, 1766

Chapter XII.

DOOR LOCKS.

A T the close of the 16th Century, lock-making had made considerable advances
/\ at Nuremberg, a city always subject to Italian influences, and later the
/\ mechanism of the lock was improved by the Dutch in the second quarter of
the 17th Century ; but it was in England and France that perfect precision
and accuracy was attained in the second half of the 17th Century. In France, the
art of the locksmith was highly esteemed, and for several centuries admission to the
guild could only be obtained by the production of a piece de maitrise, which took the
form of a lock or key on which one or two years' work might be expended. Under
Louis XIV door locks, as well as other metal work, were rich and elaborate, and a fine
example of this period is the box lock on the door of the Chapel at Versailles, by
Domenico Cucci.

The development of English locksmithing took place, according to Evelyn, "not
many years after" 1654, and at that time (he writes) nothing was "more frequent than
all sorts of ironwork more exquisitely wrought and polished than in any part of Europe.
The lock-making centres appear to have been Birmingham and Wolverhampton (where
the mechanical skill of the artisans is mentioned by Plot in his history of Staffordshire)
and contrivances bv which it was possible to record how often a door had been unlocked
(as in the example bv Richard Bickford, in the Victoria and Albert Museum) are
also mentioned. A decade after the Restoration we have the rich elaboration of
Richard Bickford of London, and John Wilkes of Birmingham, of whom little is known
beyond the approximate date of his death in 1733. No early tentative experiments
appear to have been preserved ; and the design and finish of locks, such as that made
for Cosimo, Grand Duke of Tuscany, is complete and advanced. This remarkable box
lock engraved with the Medici arms, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, by
Richard Bickford of London, was made for the Grand Duke of Tuscany, when on a
visit to this country in 1669. The lock is of blued steel within a case of pierced and
engraved brass, and the dial on the left indicates the number of times the lock has been
opened, while the right-hand dial is a dummy.* A smaller steel lock from the
Londesborough collection, which is also in the Victoria and Albert Museum is similarly
encased in pierced brass scroll work, and has four knobs for turning the bolts, and a
projecting box, with a sliding panel enclosing two dials for recording the action of the
lock. A third small lock, by Richard Bickford. Jn the Golitzen collection at Moscow
(of similar rich design), is signed and dated 1675.

* 693.693 B, 1893.

King William III was interested in locks, and at Knole there is a set presented by
him to the Earl of Dorset. Similar locks are at De Voorst, built for his favourite,
Keppel, the first Lord Albemarle, and at Zuylesteen. Talman, in 1699, is anxious that the
locks of the State apartments at Hampton Court should "answer ye rest of ye finishing,"
and compares the merits of his protege Key, "the most ingenious man in Europe,"
and Greenway, "His Ma'^ Locksmith by warrant, a very dull smith not brought up
to that trade, but of late yeares has taken it up." "There is," he adds, "as much
difference between the two men in their art as between V^ulcan and Venus."! Joshua
Key, Smith, was entered as debtor for work done at Hampton C.ourt, to the amount
of £800. A fine example of a brass case, dating from about 1700, in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, is that signed by Philip Harris of London. The case is engraved with
angels among foliated scrolls, relieved against a matted ground, and is ornamented
with applied steel ornaments. + In the early 18th Century, engraved decoration takes
the place of piercing on the case.

In the mortise lock of cast and chased brass, as designed by Robert Adam, the
escutcheon for the key, door knob and night bolt knob are the most prominent features,
and were usually linked by openwork ornament. This pattern is described in 1776 as
newly invented, and replaces the box lock in all important rooms. The old process of
treating fine brass work by hand polishing with a steel burnisher and porter as a liquid,
is a lost art, the present process being bufiflng by a wheel ; when finished with gold
lacquer the surface is very difficult to distinguish from gilding.

t Law's llainpti>n Court. Vol. Ill, /).i.!,'i's S6 and S7.
1709— 709 15— 1 'MM, Victoria and Albert Museum.

LOCK AND CATCH PLATE.

Fig. 152.
Of blued steel in :i brass case, pierced and en<5raved with a formal flower issuing from a vase, the
borders engraved with leaf ornament, the remaining knob ribbed. Signed on the border, .JoIkiuiics
Wilkes dc BirDiiugluini jccit. 7 in. by .S in. Circa 1680.

{Fr()))i the collection oj Sir Gcor,<^c Dashicood, Burt.)

Certain locks of John Wilkes, of Birmingham, are signed. A lock and catch plate
of exactly the same pattern as this example exists on the chapel door at Arbury,
Warwickshire, and in the Victoria and Albert Museum,* and both are also signed by
Wilkes. The door hinges and bolts at Arbury are also elaborately wrought. At
Dyrham, in the Balcony Room, is a lock and catch plate identical with the above-
mentioned locks, but it is unsigned. Below it is a bolt and catch plate of similar
design, but smaller.

LOCK AND CATCH PLATE.

Fig. L53.

Of brass, decorated with applied chased brass scroll work at the angles and around the key-iiole,
with ribbed handle and knob for bolt. Circa 1699.

At Hampton Court, there are two varieties of door locks of the reign of William III,
one type is of brass chased, with pierced and applied work, and knobs in the form of
crowns, and the crowned monogram of William and Mary. A lock of this design is
in the Victoria and Albert Museum. A second pattern at Hampton Court is similar
to the example illustrated, which came from a Crown building at Eltham, now
demolished. This bears the cypher of William alone, and must date, therefore,
between 1694, the date of the death of Mary, and 1702, that of William. From the
evidence of Talman's letter of 1699, locks of this pattern are the work of Josiah Key,
who worked at Hampton Court.

CHAMBERLAIN'S KEY.

Fig. 154.
Of chased brass, the pierced bow formed of the letters A.R. (Anne Regina) in cypher, crowned,
the wards engraved. ('irca 1706.

A similar key from the Bernal collection, but bearing the cypher G.P.W. (George,
Prince of Wales), is in the Victoria and Albert Museum (2314-1855) ; another, in the
Wallace collection, bears the cypher G.R. The Chamberlain, as an oflicer of the Royal
household, has, as his mark of office, a key symbolising that of the Royal Palace.

A CASE OF TABLETS.

Fig. 155.

The back and front covers of thin pierced brass and engraved with floral designs in the panels,
pivoted on the top and with hinged hasp at the bottom, inside are six ivory sheets and a brass pencil
case to hold leads is fitted in the side.

Size 3 in. by 2 in. ; thickness j in.

This tablet case is illustrated as a fine example of English pierced and engraved
brass work at the close of the 17th Century, in which the finish and quality of the
workmanship resembles that of the silver work at the same period.

* M. 5405-59.

Chapter XII.

Fig. 152.

Fig. 153.

Fig. 154.

Fig. 155.

INDICATING LOCK.

Fig. 156.

The cnse of chased and ens-raved brass. Circa 1670.

At a meeting of the Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Irehind, held at
Norwich in 1847, a small brass lock was exhibited, signed with the maker's name,
John Wilkes. On the front was "a figure in high relief of a cavalier whose spur and
boot acted as a cover and tell-tale to the keyhole." This lock was then owned by
Mr. Carthen, of East Dereham, but was sold at his death. A lock of similar device is
mentioned by Timmins as existing on the door "of a room at Mr. Thockmortons', in
Northamptonshire."

Ingenuity is shown in the complicated mechanism of this lock, as will be understood
from the following description of how to operate it: —

(1) To of crate latch : —

Pressing down the back of hat releases tiie catch; at tiie same time tlie knob must be
turned.

(2) To ()jicr{itc lock: —

Pull down the little bar under the foot, when the lower part of the leg springs out
and reveals the key-hole. Insert key and give two turns to shoot the bolt. To unlock, turn
key back twice, and, unless the stud on chest of man is pressed, the table will turn one point
thus indicating that the door has been opened.

DOOR HANDLE AND ORNAMENT.

Fig. 157.

Of cast brass, chased and gilt. Circa 1776.

The quality of English-made locks was well maintained in the late 18th Century, and
Harris, travelling abroad in 1768, w-as informed that it would be well for him to carry
with him English brass locks. f Box locks were, however, in Robert Adam's developed
style, considered too heavy as door furniture, and the mortice lock became the fashion
about 1776, j in which only the knob handles are visible on the door, with the filigree
brass work usually connecting them with the escutcheon. In the interests of symmetry,
the knob of the spring catch is of the same size as the handle.

The example illustrated was made from a design of Robert Adam, by Messrs.
Abercrombie, and from this sample this firm obtained the order for similar door
furniture at Syon House.

* huliisliiiil Ilislory of Birminfilunii , piit^c SI.

■\ Mclwcshury Letters. 1745-1820. Vol. 1. pafic <)4.

j Chncring's Carpenter's Viide Mceuiii, 1776. page 19.

Chapter XII

Fig. 156.

Fig. 157.

Chapter XIII.

BATTERSEA ENAMEL.

INDEX.

Fig. 158. A tea urn Circa 1770

,, 159. Case of knives and forks, open -------- 1770

„ 160. ,, ,, closed - 1770

,, 161. Snuf? box and two badges - 1770

162. Tea caddv and two cassolets -------- 1770

Chapter XIII.

BATTERS E A ENAMEL.

AiOUT 1750, the factory at York House, Battersea, was founded by Stephen
Theodore Janson or Janssen, great-grandson of Theodore Janssen de Heez,
of Angouleme, and grandson of Sir Theodore Jansen or Janssen, who came
" to England in 1680, with a considerable estate. Sir Stephen Theodore Jansen,
"citizen and stationer of London," was Sherit? in 1749-50 and Lord Mayor 1754-55,
but became insolvent in 1756. It was stated* that he, like his father,! became
unfortunate in business, was made a bankrupt, but that he voluntarily devoted three-
quarters of an income allowed him by his relations to the gradual settlement of the
debts that had not been fully paid, and when he was chosen Chamberlam of London,
reimbursed the full amount with interest. Many specimens of the output of this
factory at Battersea were disposed of in 1756, at the sale of his effects as a bankrupt
at his house in St. Paul's Churchyard, and among the objects to be sold were : —

"A quantitv of beautiful enamel, coloured and uncoloured, of the new manufactory
c-irried on at 'York House, Battersea, and never yet exhibited to the public view,
consisting of snuff boxes of all sizes, of great variety of patterns, of square and oval
pictures "of the Roval Family, history and other pleasing subjects, very proper
ornaments for the cabinets of the curious, bottle-tickets, with chains for all sorts of
liquors and of different subjects, watch-cases, tooth-pick-cases, coat and sleeve buttons
and other curiosities." Horace Walpole sends a friend a "trifling snuf? box" as a
sample of the new manufacture in 1755, and included in his own collection at Strawberry
Hill a kingiisher and a duck of Battersea enamel.

The directing influence of the factory was French, and Simon Frangois Ravenet, a
Frenchman who settled in London about 1750, was employed to engrave the plates,
subjects after and adapted from engravings by Duflos and Nicolas de Larmessin after
Boucher, Watteau and Lancret ; and details from the designs of Pillement also appear
very frequently. It is also evident from the shapes of the etuis, the mottoes on the boxes
and the raised gilt scroll work, that these objects were an attempt to present a cheaper
version of the highly finished contemporary French gold enamelled etuis and boxes.

The engraver, R. Hancock, worked for the Battersea enamel factory, and pieces
are extant signed R.H.F. Hancock's work for the Worcester china factory is well
known, but his name is not found attached to any of the productions at Worcester

* i>.

Bray's Suircv. Vol- HI, /"'.s'' -'^0.
t His father, Sir Theodore Janssen. was ruined by the collapse of the South Sea Company.

until late in 1757.* The ornament in Battersea enamels is executed on a ground of
opaque tin enamel laid on copper, and left white or painted in enamel colours. The
plaques and the lids of some painted toilet boxes are often brilliantly coloured. In
a number of cases, pieces are decorated with copper-plate engravings, impressions of
these on paper in enamel colours being transferred to the white surface and then fired.
These are printed in black, red and purple, and some are sometimes afterwards finished
by being painted over in colours.

Certain objects which are not decorated with landscape and figure subjects show
the influence of ceramic decoration rather than that of the French miniaturists and
enamellers, and the favourite rose and other ground tints are directly imitative of the
similar tones of Sevres porcelain. The best products of the York House and the most
important pieces appear to date between 1750 and 1765, though good work was done
until about 1780, after which the quality and importance of English enamel declines
noticeably.

At Bilston and Wednesbury, in Staffordshire, enamel works were carried on by
George Brett at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th Century, but the history
of these manufactures is very obscure. It is probable again that certain transfer-printed
enamel objects were executed at Liverpool, as, for instance, the medallions with prints
of the elder Pitt and Frederick the Great, signed by John Sadler, of Liverpool; of
which examples are to be seen both in the Schreiber collection in the Victoria and
Albert Museum and also at Liverpool. "There seems to be no documentary evidence
as to the origin of these pieces, but it is unlikely that they were brought in the white
from Battersea to be printed at Liverpool, and there seems no reason for assuming
that they were not made at the latter place."! Battersea enamels can be studied in the
very representative Schreiber collection and the Kennedy Bequest at the Victoria and
Albert Museum, which contain specimens of varieties of this work. It is unfortunate,
however, that in the Schreiber collection, certain French enamels on a Rose du Barry
ground, consisting of furniture mounts, are labelled "Battersea."

*Binns, A Ccniiny of I'tatma. 1877 (2nd r,lil,„n. pai^c F:9).

t B. Rackharn, "The Engraver Hancock and Haltersea Enamels, " Ihnliii'^hm Mo^uzinc. Vol. .Y,Y17, /),i;>c 156.

A BATTERSEA ENAMEL URN.

Fig. 15S.

The body and cover entirely decorated with a star on a blue ground; on the shaped central
panel is painted a landscape, showing a lake and a castle in the foreground. The urn is fitted with
two handles and a tap, and is mounted on a finely chased and gilt brass base elaborately ornamented
with a pierced scroll and leaf design.

Height 20 in. <^''f« 1770.

(Exhibited at tlic Burliu.titou Fine Arts Cliih, 1920-1.)

This urn is an unique instance of English 18th Centuiy enamel on a large scale, and
may be regarded as the most important known example. In the late 18th Century,
urns of copper, silver and Sheffield plate succeeded the earlier tea kettles, and many of
these having the pointed oval body were made to match the teapots. This urn seems
to have been intended for a permanent ornament in a living room. The pattern of
stars upon a dark blue ground appears also on the pair of cassolets and tea caddy
(Fig. 162) in the same collection.

Chapter XIII.

Fig. 158.

A BATTERSEA ENAMEL CASE WITH
KNIVES AND FORKS.

Figs. 1S9 and 160.

With sloping top and shaped front (height 10 in., width 7 in., depth 5} in.), containing twelve
knives with shaped bhides and twelve two-pronged forks with enamelled handles, the enamel upon
the handles of the knives and forks being ornamented with small flowers.

On the slope of the lid and the lower part of the front are painted landscapes; on the front of
the lid a garland of roses, and the remaining spaces are decorated with flower sprays and birds on a
white ground. The drop handle is of chased and gilt brass. The brass mount round the opening is
engraved. Circa 1770.

(Exhibited at the Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1920-21.)

Boxes, square, circular and oval in shape, are frequently met with ornamented with
Battersea enamel, some small and some as large as nine inches across, but the example
illustrated in Figs. 159 and 160 is the only known example of an enamelled knife box.
Knife boxes with sloping tops and shaped fronts were frequent about the middle of the
18th Century, at first usually covered with shagreen, and later with veneer of wood
(frequently inlaid with fine marquetry) sometimes mounted with silver.

Chapter XIII.

<=5

•or)

A CUP-SHAPED STANDING SNUFF BOX
AND TWO BADGES.

Fifi. 161.

The snufE box is painted on tlie lid with the arms of the Anti-Gallican Society and on the base
with flower sprays and insects on a white ground. The two oval plaques are also painted with the
same arms and mounted in chased metal gilt frames.

{Fro)ii tlic collcctinu o/ Dr. H. R. Fiilley.)

The Anti-Gallican Society was so called from the endeavour of its members "to
discourage the introduction of French modes and oppose the importation of French
commodities." Its arms were as follows : — On "field gules St. George ppr. slaying a
tortoise azure charged with three flcur-dc-Iys or. Crest, between six flags of St. George
ppr, the figure of Britannia, holding in the dexter hand an olive branch ppr. Supporters
on the dexter side a lion rampant gardant with a man's face or. On the sinister side,
a double eagle, with wings displayed argent. Motto 'For our country.'"

The badge of the President of the Anti-Gallican Society, formerly in the Schreiber
collection, is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, but unlike the two members'
badges here illustrated, is set with paste.

A PAIR OF CASSOLETS AND A TEA CADDY.

Fig. 162.

The cassolets are formed as vases with square pedestals, and both these and the tea caddy are
decorated with star ornaments in red and white on dark blue ground.

Candlesticks, 11 in. high; tea caddy, 4i in. high. CJrca 1770.

There are similar examples in the Schreiber collection in the Victoria and Albert
Museum also decorated with star ornament in red and white on a dark blue ground.

Chapter XIII.

,i5S*^S^5^^^

''^^^.^^

Fvi. 16].

T a «

f> <» -O i>

*f a 0^

^sWT.*...iJfc«A^

/•7,!^. 162.

Chapter XIV^

ORMOLU.

INDEX.

Fi<5. 163. Pastille burner

,, 164. Pair of candelabra

,, 165. An agate bowl

166. Pair of vases

Fig. 167. Pastille burner
,, 168. Pair of cassolets
I6y. Pastille burner

Chapter XIV

ORMOLU.

ENGLISH ormolu cannot compare with the magnificent French specimens of
the Louis XV period ; nevertheless, owing to the initiative of Matthew Boulton,
a very high pitch of excellence was attained in this country, and English ormolu
is one of the few objects of decorative art which, during the late 18th Century,
were exported and appreciated on the Continent.

Matthew Boulton (1728-1809), at the early age of seventeen, introduced improve-
ments in the manufacture of buttons, watch chains and trinkets, articles included in his
father's business as "toy maker." After his father's death, he built a new factory upon
a large area of waste land at Soho, near Birmingham (completed in 1762), his aim
being to manufacture such articles as would command the home trade and would also
find a market in the capitals of Europe ; but Boulton was not merely a business man
bent on enriching himself, his enthusiasm for works of art won him the friendship of
men such as the Dukes of Northumberland and Richmond, Lord Dartmouth, Lord
Shelburne, Horace Walpole and Robert Adam, whose "taste he was desirous of
cultivating"* in his productions. According to a history of Birmingham dating from
the early 19th Century, Matthew Boulton's first manufactures were only such as vv'ere
usually made at Birmingham, "but this was followed by the manufacture of plated
ware and later objects of elegance on stone, bronze and ormolu. "t For his Soho
workshops, Boulton made drawings of rare works in metal in the British Museum, and
borrowed vases and articles in metal from the Queen and his patrons ; and he also sent
his agent, Mr. Wendler, on a special mission to Venice, Rom.e and other Italian cities
to purchase for him specimens of metal work and designs useful for ornaments, such as
vases, cameos and intaglios. His success at Soho was somewhat earlier than Wedgwood's
progress at Etruria,^ but the two firms were closely associated in business. "Mr.
Boulton is, I believe." writes Wedgwood to Bentley, "the first and most complete
manufacturer in England in metal. He is very ingenious, philosophical and agreeable."

Boulton's foreign connection was considerable. Writing to Wendler, his agent, in
1767, he states that he would "be glad to work for all Europe in all things that they

* Smiles, Lijc o/ ISoiillon and \V,ill. 186.S. /iiisi- 171.

■f Concise Histnry of ninniiiiluim (5/// alilion. 1817). pn^r ^^.

X Etriiria was not opened till 176q. and was compleled in 177,'5.

have occasion for — gold, silver, copper, plated, gilt, pinchbeck, steel, platins, tortoise-
shell, or anything else that may become an article of general demand."* He sold
specimens of ormolu to the Empress Catherine of Russia, who "thought them superior
in every way to the French," and he records in August, 1767, that "I have French and
Spaniards to-day, and to-morrow I shall have Germans, Russians and Norwegians."!

He employed a number of foreign craftsmen and commissioned Flaxman to make
designs. Wedgwood, when visiting Soho in 1770, wrote that at that date they had
"thirty-five chasers at work and will have a superb show of vases for the spring."
Boulton had mounted porcelain, marble and stones, such as jasper, malachite and agate
with ormolu, and told Wedgwood that "the artists have come over to London, picked
up all the whimsical ugly things they could meet with, carried them to Paris, where
they have mounted them with metal, and sold them to the Virtuosi of every nation,
and particularly to Millords d'Anglise for the greatest raritys."| An interesting picture
of Boulton's activities is furnished by Wedgwood. On a visit to Soho, Wedgwood
"settled many important matters, and laid the foundation for improving our manu-
factures and extending the sale to every corner of Europe ; many of our ornamental
articles will be finished to great advantage with works of metal. He showed me some
specimens of his work which are really admirable." Again, Wedgwood writes, after
he had met Boulton in London : "Mr. Boulton is picking up vases and is going to
make them in bronze — you know how old china bowls, jars, etc., are mounted in
metal; he proposes an alliance between pottery and metal, viz., that we should make
such things as will be suitable for mounting, and he will finish them with mounts. What
do you think of it? The question is whether we shall refuse having anything to do with
him, and thereby afTront him and set him doing them himself."

Amongst the many articles produced at the Soho works were clocks, mathematical
instruments, fancy buttons, watch chains, mounts for Wedgwood medallions and
candelabra ; but the most important were the ormolu mounts for vases. These vases
were of Wedgwood's pottery, antique marbles, coloured glass, but the most interesting
were of the beautiful fluor-spar "Blue John." At one time Boulton had serious
thoughts of becoming a potter, but decided to rest satisfied with his business. "The
mounting of vases," he wrote, "is a large field for fancy in which I shall indulge, as I
perceive it possible to convert even a very ugly vessel into a beautiful vase."l| In the
case of Blue John ornaments, the material itself is attractive. § Without metal mountings
these ornaments are of little interest, as, owing to its brittle nature, no carving is
possible, and it can only be worked into shapes turned on a lathe. The beauty of the
material is said to have been first realised by Lord Duncannon from the accidental
circumstance of his horse striking against this spar lying in the road when he was riding
down Middleton Dale. He sent in 1743 a design for a vase to Henry Watson, a
Bakewell statuary, and from that time dates the manufacture of Blue John ornaments,
which were sold at Buxton, Castleton and Derby in the 18th Century. Matthew Boulton
discovered its decorative possibilities in conjunction with ormolu ; it can be polished

•Quoted in Life <>j Boulton and Watt, page 172.

t Life of Boulton and Walt, page 176.

t Wedgwood. Letters to Bentley (1762-1772), pages 20S. 209 .ind 233.

II Life of Boulton and Watt, page 173.

§ Blue John is found almost exclusively at the Tay Cliff Mines near Castleton.

Chapter XIV.

to a brilliant surface, and its colours are rich and extremely varied, ranging from blue,
green, yellow, pink and brown to a dark purple shade which has always been the most
popular. French ormolu makers adopted it as a body, and to-day among the French
collection of objects of art of the 18th Century, Blue John ornaments are found
mounted in French ormolu.* That Boulton's w^ares commanded a ready sale abroad
is proved by letters of Mrs. Montagu and Wedgwood. f "The superb and elegant
Produce of Messrs. Boulton & Fothergill's Ormolu manufactory at Soho" is mentioned
in a catalogue of a sale at Christie's in April, 1771 ; and the English Gazetteer speaks
of Birmingham ormolu as "highly esteemed all over Europe." It is probable, when we
consider that Soho stood alone in England for the quality of its work, that the fine
ormolu mounts of furniture, made to the design of Robert Adam for Harewood, about
1770, are from the Soho factory, and the fine ormolu enrichments of the chimney-piece
in the drawing room at Syon House date from the period of the factory's greatest
activity.

The rapid increase of Soho business is shown by the gross returns of the firm, which
were £7,000 in 1765, and were £30,000 in 1767, "with orders still on the increase."
After 1770, the quality of the work of Soho declined, as Boulton's personal interests
were absorbed! in his efforts to make Watt's invention of the steam engine into a success,
and later with the arrangements for its commercial development. This part of his
career belongs rather to the industrial than to the artistic history of England. It should,
however, be remembered that it was the machinery installed at the Soho works that
enabled Matthew Boulton to succeed with the steam engine when others had failed.

Soon after the middle of the l^th Century there was a demand for Blue John vases
with metal mountings, and many were then produced, but the work was so coarse and
ill-designed that it is but a travesty of Boulton's designs. Unfortunately, later pieces
are often wrongly classified, and have diverted attention from the beautiful mid-18th
Centurv work at Soho.

•Three vases of Blue John mounted in ormolu are in the Wallace Collection, and are illustrated in E. Molinier, La
Collection Wallace, plate 5S. M. Molinier notes with regret that this beautiful spar is now no longer used. The mounts are
French, and date from the early years of the reign of Louis XVI.

t The former writes to him : "I take greater pleasure in our victories over the French in Arts than in Arms. The achieve-
ments of Soho, instead of making widows and orphans, make marriages and christenings. Your noble industry, while elevating

the public taste, provides new occupations for the poor Go on, then. Sir, to triumph over the French and embelhsh your

country with useful inventions and elegant productions." Wedgwood is surprised at the trade made by Boulton out of vases m
Paris, and at the quantity of ormolu he had sold abroad.

t "I assure you." Boulton writes to Watt, "that all the toys and trinkets we make at Soho, none shall take the place of the
engines in my nttention."

A PASTILLE BURNER.

Fig. 163.

I'^ormed :is ;i vase, witli cover ornamented witli chased and jiilt mounts. I he rim of tlie cover
is perforated to allow the fumes of the pastille {o escape. 'I'he iiody of the vase is mounted with a
hand of guilloche ornament and grotesque heads emerging from acanthus leaves, and tinished with
a base and square plinth decorated with panels of avanturine glass. The whole is supported hy
sphinxes reclining on a square pedestal decorated with picrcetl and chased panels of scroll ornament
and turned feet.

Height, 12rl in. Cina 1770.

(Exlnhitccl at the liiirliii.i^tou Fine Arts Cliih, l')2ll-l .)

The design of the mounts of this pastille burner closely resembles contemporary
silversmiths' work. Cassolets or perfume burners were in frequent use durin;^ the ISth
Century, and a design for a bracket combined with a pastille burner appears in the
]^o^/,^s■ of R. & J. Adaw, Vol. I. Plate MIL

In this collection are two vases with identical mountinos, but they are not described
as a pair, as the body of the one is of alabaster and of the other of tiuor-spar.

ClIM'TtR XI \'.

?rr^;

. i.^J(-i^}

r--/:.; ^/:'V-<i**r!ki^^W&.*Aju.,afe^>;.,.:

*• i ■*. •,

Fin- 103.

A PAIR OF CANDELABRA.

Fig. 164.

The oviform bodies are of Derbysliire fiiior-sp:ir, ornnmented with finely pierced and chased
mounts, water-gilt ; the bases are circular, spirally fluted, with square plinths of statuary marble.
The twisted side-branches for candles are removable, being fixed in sockets formed of acanthus
leaves. The covers which terminate in finials of flames are reversible, and form a third candle
socket when required.

Height, 14 in. Circa 1770.

{Exhibited (It the Biirlix'^tnu Fine Arts Club. 1920-21.)

Candelabra were used either on tables, pedestals or chimney-pieces, and were
favourite ornaments for the chimney-piece in the second half of the 18th Century, when
the gainiturc clc chcDiiucc, consisting of a clock and a pair of candelabra, had become
universal in France. The finely pierced and chased mounts of this pair are in the style
of Robert Adam. Other exactly similar examples exist, which were cast from the same
moulds, for instance, those at Windsor Castle.

Robert Adam regarded candelabra of Blue John mounted with ormolu as suitable to
stand on pedestals which were such a favourite feature of his interior schemes. Examples
are to be seen at 1*^^ Arlington Street (which he designed for Sir Robert Dundas), and
also at Saltram, in Devonshire. His drawings of the furniture and decoration for both
of these houses are in the Soane Museum.

Chapter XIV.

AN ACHATE BOWa. WITH ORMOLU MOUNTS.

Fig. IhS.

Ornnmented with finely chased copper mounts, water-gilt and burnished, consisting of a band
of guilloche ornament round the rim fixed with clasps of overturned leaves from which are suspended
festoons of laurel tied by ribbons. At the sides are grotesque masks with drop handles, 'ihe
mouklctl base is ornamented with acanthus leaves, laurel and reeded bands, aiul gadrooncd
luoulding.

9 in. long by 6,' in. wide by 4;, in. high. (Urea 1775.

{Exhihitcd at llir liurJiw^toii Fijic Arts Cluh. l')2t)-21 .)

This example is remarkable for its close resemblance to French designs of the
Louis XVI period, and the quality of the ormolu equals, and is elaborated with the
richness and finish of, the finest contemporary French work.

A PAIR OF VASES WITH ORMOLU MOUNTS.

Fig. 166.

The oviform bodies of finely figured Derbyshire fluor-spar arc ornamented with chased mounts,

water-gilt. The covers, which are reversible, are provided with candle sockets. The vases stand

on bases, decorated with flutes and bands of laurel leaves, on square plinths. Fitted with scroll

handles.

13 ill. high. Circa 1770.

{Eyiiihitcd at the Ihirliii<:ti>ii I'iuc .\rts Cluh, 1<PII-]1 .)

Vases of this shape were frequently used for the decoration of the chimney-piece.

Wedgwood advertises "Ornamental vases of antique forms for ornamenting

chimney-pieces, bookcases, etc." (1787). They could be also used upon torcheres. The
reversible covers are provided with candle sockets, a device not infrequently met with
at a period when the only means of illumination was candles, of which the chandelier
could carrv not more than sixteen or twentv.

Chapter XIV.

Fii;. 165.

Fig. 166.

PASTILLE BURNERS WITH ORMOLU MOUNTS.

Fi,i^s. 167, 16S and 169.

(1) PASTILLE BURNER (Fig. 167).

Oviform, of Derbyshire fluor-sp;ir, mounted with :] pierced brnss rim, hnviiii; handles emerging
from lions' heads, chased and gilt, anti standing on a turned base mounted with laurel leaves, and
square plinth. The cover is surmounted by a cone-shaped finial.

Height, 10! in. Circa 1780.

(2) A PAIR OF CASSOLETS {Fit:. l^S).

Both the vase and the circular pedestal are of Derbyshire fluor-spar, with very fine ormolu
mounts.

Height, 11 in. Circa 1770.

(3) PASTILLE BURNER {Fig. 169).

The oviform body of Derbyshire fluor-spar is mounted with a chased and gilt rim and handles,
from which are suspended swags of husks. It stands on a fluted base and circular pedestal of statuary
marble, which is ornamented with gilt metal patera^ and swags of laurel, and circular moulded
plinth.

Height, 9* in. C;,V,-„ 1780,

{Fram the collection of tlic Duchess of Ma}ichestcr.)

These ornaments, mounted with typical Boulton ormolu of the late 18th Century,
were, like the objects illustrated {Fig. 166), designed as a part of the decoration of
chimney-pieces, in which the French had hitherto led the way.

Chapter XIV.

-CI

Chapter XV.

GLASS.

INDEX.

Fig. 170. A large mirror - - - William III

,, 171. A glass candle holder ------ William and Mary

172. Commemoration cup ------ George II

173. Commemoration gohlet ------ Queen Anne

Chapter XV.

GLASS.

THE manufacture of glass in England, like tapestry weaving, owes its origin
to the enterprise of foreign immigrants. Leaving on one side the documentary
evidence for the earlier glass making establishments, both Venetian and French
glass workers came to England during the latter part of the 16th Century.
The French glass workers made glass in the Weald and in London some time before
1570, but they had ditificulties with the native workmen, and moved to different parts
of the country, such as Stourbridge and Newcastle-on-Tyne. Eight Muranese glass
workers were imprisoned in the Tower in 1550, and forwarded a petition to Venice
in that year, and after a time they were allowed to return to Murano. Stow writes
that "the first making of Venice glasses in England began at the Crochet Friars about
the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by one Jacob Vessaline, an Italian" ; so
it is to this Venetian Giacomo Verzelini— to give him his correct name — that the making
of the Venetian cristuUo is due. In 1575 he obtained a patent for twenty-one years for
making all kinds of drinking vessels in the style of Murano, and engaged to teach the
English workmen the art. In spite of this venture, it is probable that Venetian glass
ware was still imported.

Sir Robert Mansell, an interesting tigure and "the predominant monopolist in glass"
during the first half of the 17th* Century used every endeavour to secure the services
of Italian craftsmen for the industry which he devoted himself to developing ; and after
his death the making of fine glass in this country is believed to have suffered a serious
decline.

Until the 17th Century, wood was the only fuel used in glass furnaces, and the glass
makers moved from place to place "consuming the woods," according to many com-
plainants in denuded forest districts. In 1581, complaints, for instance, were made by
the Mayor of Rye of the wasting of the woods in the neighbourhood of the iron and
glass houses, and Aubrey states that glass houses at Chiddingfold were put down during
the reign of Elizabeth, and that others were petitioned against at Hindhead.f

During the 17th Century coal began to take the place of wood in glass furnaces, and
this change of fuel led to a change of ingredients in the glass. With wood as fuel, the
pots for melting the glass in were open, but with coal as fuel the pots had to be covered,
owing to the sulphuric fumes, and a small opening only was made at the side. The
partial closing of the pots necessitated a more fusible glass, and to secure this, oxide of

*A. Hartshorne, Old Eiii^liih Glnssi's, 1897.
t Old English Glasses, piige 16S.

lead was introduced in the composition. The characteristics of the resultant lead-glass
are great brilliancy and transparency and the power of dispersing the rays of white
light, a quality only fully brought out by means of angular or facetted surfaces. The
date of the introduction of lead as an ingredient is not definitely known, but a news-
paper written in 1713 states that the improvement in English glass making began about
1680, and other evidence points to the same conclusion. "It is gratifying to read that
prior to 1696 our glass men were supplying not only the Kast and West Indies, Holland
and Vienna, but even the home of glass making, Venice itself."*

Late 17th (Century glasses which have been preserved are very similar in appearance
to those imported from Venice, but the material itself has greater brilliancy and weight,
and glasses are more clumsy and solid in design. The stems of the larger glasses are
hollow, and sometimes enclose a coin. Drinking vessels were not the only objects
manufactured in England at this time in rivalry with Venice ; large sheets of glass were
also in demand for coaches and for mirrors, and when, in 1663, the Duke of Buckingham
obtained his licence, his claim was based upon improvements introduced by him in
looking glass plates and plates for coaches. According to the testimony of John
Evelyn, who visited the Duke's "Italian glass house" at Greenwich, in lb73, the glass
blown there was of "finer metal than that of Murano, at Venice."

During the 18th Century, drinking glasses were the principal output of English glass,
and numerous types (most minutely studied by the late Mr. Albert Hartshorne) were
evolved, which may be divided roughly into four classes : —

(1) Moulded glasses.

(2) Glasses with air twists in the stems.

(3) Glasses with opaque white or coloured twists.

(4) Cut glasses.

During the late years of the 18th Century fine cut glass chandeliers were made in the
various centres. It is said that the first chandelier was made at Bradley, Enser & ("o.,
about 1760, and was kept in a house near the glass works, Stourbridge, as a curiosity,
for many years afterwards. The working drawings of the firm of Perry & Parkes,
dating from about 1780, show chandeliers ; and in a letter, in 1804, they recommend
the branches of a chandelier to be cut plain, "as plain arms have succeeded those cut
with hollows, and are more generally approved." Few chandeliers of the late 18th
Century have survived in their original condition. A deeply-cut facetted ware, solid
and brilliant, was produced both in English and Irish centres in the early 19th (^.entury.f

Irish lead glass was made from practically the same materials as English, the sand
being principally brought from the Isle of Wight, and there were a great number of
English workmen in the Irish glass houses, which may account for the similarity of
Irish and English cut glass; among the Irish centres for cut glass were Waterford,
Dublin, Cork and Belfast.

Almost every piece of 18th Century cut glass to be found in Ireland is now described
as "Waterford," and it is usually stated that Waterford glass is characterised by a
bluish tint. It appears, however, that there was only one factory at Waterford, which

* F. Bickley. I he Glass Trade in Eiv^hnul in tlic 17lli Century. 1914.

t There is a popular idea that 18th Century Irish glass, especially that produced at Waterford, w.is superior to English. 1 his
is not correct; the Irish makers themselves in advertising their wares only claimed that they were "equal lo any in England."

Chapter XV.

was working for a very limited period, and the metal of Waterford specimens in the
possession of Mr. M. S. D. Westropp, "is decidedly whiter than that of most other
Irish glass. The bluish tint is simply caused by impure oxide of lead being used in the
manufacture, and as this might have occurred in any pot of metal, glass of this bluish
tint may have been made in any of the Irish, or even in the English factories."* The
earliest record of a glass house connected with Waterford occurs in 1729 ; and an
extensive glass house was set up in 1783 by George and William Penrose. In an
advertisement in the Lcinster Journal of October, 1784, they claim to make "all kmds
of useful and ornamental flint glass, of as f^ne a quality as any in Europe. They have
a large number of the best manufacturers, cutters and engravers, by which they can
supply every article in the most elegant style, having spared no expense to bring the
business to the highest position possible. t The factory was closed in 1851.

There was a glass house in Dublin in the late years of the 17th Century, and a
considerable number were at work during the 18th and early l^th Century. A glass
house was set up in Belfast in 1766, by a certain Benjamin Edwards, who had previously
had an establishment at Dungannon, and it is claimed in the Belfast News Letter of
January 9th, 1781, that the output of the Belfast factory is equal to any in England.^
The Belfast factory probably ceased about 1829, but there are records of other factories
whose existence lasted some years later. The glass industry at Cork dates from 1782.

London was the premier glass making city in this country, and Houghton, writing in
1696, mentions that there were twenty-four glass houses in the neighbourhood of London,
though, he adds, not all of them were at work.

At Bristol, ornamented glass was made decorated with ornament painted in enamel
colours and burnt. Large quantities of translucent glass of peculiar softness and texture,
very white and closely resembling soft paste Sevres, and blue glass was also made. A
certain M. Edkins was chiefly employed in the ornamentation of Bristol glass.||

Glass cutting was carried on in Birmingham, Bristol, Newcastle, Stourbridge and
Whhtington, in England, the finest specimens dating from between 1780 and 1810 ; but
later the sacrifice of all qualitv to a prismatic brilliance brought cut glass into disrepute,
and towards the middle years of the 19th Century it was the fashion to regard cut glass
as barbarous. It is curious that so little interest has been taken in an industry in which
for some thirty years this country surpassed all competitors, creating a ware which
influenced the glass industry throughout Europe.

-'Irish G1.SS," by M. S. D. Westropp. Nntionnl Museum of Science nnd Art. Dublin, dcncral C.unlc U, the Art
Collection. Fort IX, Glass, 1918. page 63. , . , ,

t Quoted in "Irisl, Glass," by M. S. D. Westropp. National Museum of Science and Art. Dublin. General (.nule to the
Art Collection, I'art IX. Glass, 1918.

t Op. Cit., page 42.

11 H. Owen, Two Centuries of Ceramic Art in Bristol (1873). pa^e 360.

A MIRROR.

Fig. 170.

With sh:iped top surmounted by a carved and gilt wood cresting, of which the design is
composed of scrolls and leaves. The plates are bevelled, and the wide border is decorated in
red and gold with a design of interlaced strap and leaf ornament; on the sides are figures of an
"Indian" man and woman on pedestals.

Height (including cresting), 7 ft. 1 in.; width, 3 ft. 2 in. Circa 170U.

The large ornamental mirrors made to fill the piers between the windows in the reign
of William III, were framed in a variety of ways, sometimes in carved wood and some-
times in glass in which the joints are screened by gilt ornament, or shaped coloured and
ornamented glass. More ambitious efforts, in which a coloured glass border, generally
blue or red, is covered with repeated interlaced strapwork (as in the present example),
are traceable to French influence, though by the evidence of a bill (dated 1711) at
Burley-on-the-Hill, English workmen were able to undertake "corners and slips wrought
with flourishing" for a great glass for the Earl of Nottingham. The gilt wood cresting
of the mirror is characteristic of the rich furniture of the first years of the 18th Century
when Celia Fiennes notices at Lord Orford's the "largest Looking glasses I ever saw,"
having "fine carved head and frames, some of the naturall wood, others gilt."

Chapter XV.

f^b"!

Fig.- 170.

A 17TH CENTURY GLASS CANDLE HOLDER.

Fig. 111.

One of a pair.

Height, 12] in. ; diameter of base, SJ in. Circa 1690.

The fine proportion of these candle holders and the breadth of base lends dignity
and grace to the whole. They are blown and moulded. The long plain moulded candle
holder has a collar of glass on the summit ; below is a small moulded collar of glass, with
a graduated knop below ornamented with blown tear drops, a form of decoration which
had come into vogue for decoration of the stems of the drinking glasses. This knop is
set over a larger "balustered" knop formed by collars of glass, showing much skill in
workmanship and resembling the work found on the fine silver candlesticks of the late
17th Century. The stem stands on a large moulded base with pinched mouldings at
intervals, a form of decoration suggestive of the silversmith rather than the glass maker.
The outer edge of the base is in plain moulded glass.

A COMMEMORATION TWO-HANDLED
CUP AND COVER.

Fv^. 172.

One of a pair, of blue Bristol cut glass, with silver gilt mounts, bearing the stamp "T.H.," the
mark of Thomas Hemming, who was entered as a silversmith in 1745, and who was working
(according to an example in the Victoria and Albert Museum) in 1770. The London hall-mark is
1752. Height, Ui in.

{Exiiibitcd at the Bitrlinaton Fine Arts Club, 1920-21.)

Blue glass, and glass decorated with enamel painting was a speciality of the Bristol
glass houses, but examples mounted in ormolu and silver-gilt are extremely rare. The
design of the mounts, with a serpent entwined with vine sprays and grapes upon the
handle, and grapes and sprays of vine leaves upon the cover is purely naturalistic, an
unusual feature in the rococo period. The cup is enclosed in contemporary lizard-skin
velvet-lined case.

Chapter XV.

■ej,

A COMMEMORATION GOBLET AND COVER.

Fig. 173.

The cover surmounted by a bust upon an ornamented ball ; in the hitter is a Maundy fourpence
of 1709; in the stem is a Maundy shilling of 1714.

Total height, 121 in. <"''''"« 1714.

The late Mr. Albert Hartshorne, in his work Old English (jlasscs, makes the
following reference to the specimen here illustrated : —

"There can be little doubt that the hollow 'blows' in the stem of the larger glasses first
"led to the fashion in England of enshrining a silver coin in them. Unfortunately the piece of
"money cannot be depended upon as supplying the date of the glass, as such reliance would
"imply that the glasses were only made in the actual year of new issues, which is improbable.
"But inasmuch as the greater number of those appear in the stems of glasses are of Charles II,
"it may be reasonably concluded that some of them were patriotically so enclosed in the King's
"honour during his lifetime, and others out of respect for his memory some few years after his
"death. It is to be noticed that all are good broad coins, chosen out of the millions of clipped
"money which became so serious an inconvenience soon after the death of Charles II; the
"above conclusions are also borne out by the character of the glasses themselves in which coins
"of Charles II occur. At first the bulbs of large goblets only were enlarged and so furnished.
"A glass in the possession of Mrs. Schreiber has a shilling of Queen Anne in the bulb, and a
"Maundy fourpenny piece in the knop of the cover, which is surmounted by a bust in 'a Hat
"that was shaped in the Ramillie Cock,' probably intended for Prince Eugene. Both bulbs are
"decorated with strawberries. Before the second decade of the 18th Century the stems of many
"medium-sized wine glasses were systematically fashioned with a neat receptacle for the money,
"at once enhancing the appearance and giving the glass an interest. Examples of old coin
"glasses are now of infrequent occurrence.

"It was the custom in Murano to enclose certain medals in the bottoms of glasses for
"presentation to distinguished visitors. In the British Museum is a Venetian glass containing
"a half sequin of Francesco Molino, elected Doge in 1647; an English glass of about 1740 with
"a threepenny piece of 1679, and another enclosing a Dutch coin of 1739, the probable date of
"the glass."

Another authority on English glass, whose writings under the nom-de-plume of
"Pontil" are well known, is of opinion that this glass goblet commemorates the victory
of Malplaquet, and that the portrait is that of the great Duke of Marlborough. He
writes : —

"This commemoration glass shows the early Dutch influence in its character, though it is
"undoubtedly of English make by the quality and texture of the glass which at this time (the
"early 18th Century) superseded the poor continental glass then being imported into this
"country.

"The form of the glass and cover are excellent, and the craftsman's work is the acme of
"perfection; it stands on a domed base, above this is a baluster or collar of glass, again above
" this is a blown knop on which are bosses or roses of applied glass ; in the interior of this blown
"knop is a Queen Anne shilling of 1714, showing in the first instance the glass was made to
"commemorate the death of Queen Anne (which occurred in this year); furthermore, there is
"a Queen Anne Maundy groat, dated 1709, in the blown knop below the head of the Duke of
"Marlborough which surmounts the cover on the glass, commemorating again his great victory
"at Malplaquet which happened in this year.

"Resuming the description— above the blown knop on the stem is a small baluster, and on
"the extreme bottom of the bowl of the glass are again bosses or roses of applied glass. The
"bowl is slightly funnel shape in plain glass. The cover is of plain glass with a rim, above is
"a blown knop covered with bosses or roses, and above this, surmounting the cover, is the
"wonderful hand-moulded head of the great Marlborough in a cocked hat. One must
"emphasise the hand-moulding of this head on account of the audacious craftsmanship of the
"artist of making a head in glass by hand without the aid of a mould, as this has undoubtedly
"been done; the glass and cover were made probably in 1714."

Chapter XV.

Fig. 173.

Chapter XVI.

TAPESTRIES.

INDEX.

Fig. 174. A Barcheston tapestry of the late 16th Century

175. A Royal tapestry of the early 17th Century

176. Details of ditto
177.
178.
179.
180.

181. A Royal tapestry of the late 17th Century

182. A tapestry border with the Royal emblems

183. A tapestry with the Royal arms, middle of the 18th Century

184. A fire screen with panel of tapestry, by Morris

185. An armchair upholstered in tapestry, by Paul Saunders

186. An armchair upholstered in Fulham tapestry

187. A pair of armchairs upholstered in Fulham tapestry

188. A fire screen upholstered in Fulham tapestry

189. An English pile carpet

Chapter XVI.

TAPESTRIES.

THE sumptuous hangings which existed in English homes and palaces before
the latter part of the 16th Century were almost entirely importations from the
tapestry producing centres in the Low Countries. The few records of tapestry
making in this country before then are chiefly of antiquarian interest, mdeed
the f^rst recognised tapestrv works were those of Barcheston, which were established
about 1550 by William Sheldon, of Weston and Brailes in Warwickshire, and Beoley
in Worcestershire, who despatched Richard Hyckes to study the craft of tapestry
weavinc5 in the Low Countries. In recommending the maintenance of the Barcheston
factory" Sheldon, in his will, stated that much money had been bestowed on the factory
by Hvckes, and that it was a means of retaining great sums of money within the
kin<5dom William Sheldon died in 1570, and his son and successor, Ralph Sheldon,
carried on the factory at Barcheston, receiying commissions from Elizabeth, Countess
of Shrewsbury (1520-1607) ; but little is known of it after the accession of James I.
Possibly some of the workmen were absorbed in the Mortlake workshops. hiye
tapestry maps, two in Bodleian Library and three in York Museum, were known as the
work of the Sheldon looms. In addition to these, other specimens haye been
identified during the last few years, such as the armorial tapestry with the arms of
William Earl of Pembroke, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and a cushion coyer
with the' arms of Sacheyerell. from Wollas Hall, situated on the borders of Worcester-
shire and Gloucestershire, also in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The K)ur Seasons,
and a panel bearing the arms of Cecil impaling Cooke, are at Hatfield.

The far more important factory of Mordake was founded in 1614 by James I, in
imitation of the tapestry works in Paris founded by Henri IV. Expert Flemish weayers
were engaged, and the high standard of craftsmanship, design and material, together
with the actiyity of the weayers, soon raised this factory to a position of pre-eminence.
Just as the English ecclesiastical embroideries of the 13th Century had been superior to
those made on the continent, so the earlier tapestries woyen at Mortlake surpassed
contemporary work in the Netherlands, France or Italy. The names of the f^imous hrs
sets made at Mortlake are recorded, and include the Story of Vulcan anci Venus, the
Twelye Months, the Acts of the Apostles after the cartoons designed by Raphael, the
History of Hero and Leander, and the "Naked Boys," or children playing^ The
decline of the Mortlake factory dates from the Ciyil War, when the factory, being a
Crown property, suffered considerably ; and as no purchasers for tapestry could then
be found in England, petitions for the repeal of the duty against exportation were sough
to allow of the sale of the Mortlake productions in Holland. Some small encouragement
was receiyed during the Commonwealth, but contrary to expectations, little was done

for the manufacture at the Restoration, partly because the quality of the tapestries had
deteriorated, and partly because subjects such as those produced at the Royal factory
in Paris, had become fashionable. Evelyn mentions on his visit, in 1683, to the dressing
room of the Duchess of Portsmouth, "the new fabriq of French tapestry, for designe,
tendernesse of worke and incomparable imitation of the best paintings, beyond anything
I had ever beheld." Notwithstanding its early period of brilliant production, the
quality of the Mortlake tapestries continued to deteriorate, the demand ceased, and the
factory, closed with the century. In 1702, the "surveyors" stated that the "commodity
did not vend as formerly, so there had been hut little work of late years."

During the declining years of the Mortlake factory in the latter part of the 17th
Century, other centres of tapestry weaving had been set up, where better work was
produced, such as Lambeth, which had been in existence some years before 1670. The
famous tiipiissicr, John Vanderbank, whose atelier was in the otifices of the Great
Wardrobe, Great Queen Street, between Drury Lane and Lincoln's Inn, is mentioned
in the Tatler as a man inimitable in his way, and who was working there till 1728.
There are in addition a certain number of English tapestry weavers of whom little is
known. Such was Joshua Morris, "upholsterer and tapestry worker," who was sued by
Hogarth, in 1727, for payment for a tapestry design drawn by the latter, but not
approved by Morris.* Morris in his defence claimed that he employed some of the
finest hands in making tapestry, most of them foreigners, and had himself worked
abroad as well as in England. f The name of I. Morris was found woven into the
border of tapestries from Perrystone Court, sold at Christie's, in July, 1916. A tapestry-
covered settee at Belton House, illustrated in the .Iri ./onnm/ of October, 1911, has the
name of Bradshaw woven into it.

Another tapestry factory was founded at Fulham during the reign of George II,
admittedly to compete with the work then being produced in France. The origin of
this enterprise is described in some detail by its founder, a naturalised Frenchman,
Pierre Parisot, whose establishment according to his own account, practised tapestry
weaving after the manner of the Gobelins, and carpet weaving in the style of Chaillot ;
while there was a school of art connected with the manufactory "for a great number of
artists of both sexes and for such young people as might be sent to learn the arts of
drawing, weaving, dyeing and other branches of the work." Notwithstanding the
excellence of the work produced and the patronage which it received from the Duke
of Cumberland, this establishment had but a short life, for the catalogue announcing
the sale of the stock is dated 1755. From this it appears that the main output was
carpets,! chair-coverings and screens, the most popular designs for the two latter being
iEsop's Fables, exotic birds in "landskips" and vases of flowers.

Owing chiefly to the encouragement of the Marquis of Buckingham and Lord
Charlemont, a tapestry factory was founded in Dublin, and produced excellent work
about the middle of the century ; other factories, about which very little is known, were
started in several country towns. The last tapestry weaver of individuality was Paul
Saunders, of Soho, whose work has certain peculiarities which are not found in earlier

* Burlington Magazine, October, 1917.

t J. Nichols, Biographuid Anccdolcs of Willium Ilm^arth. 1785, pages 24 and 2S.

X See following chapter.

Chapter XVI.

or later hangings. "The mellow golden light is so diffused through them," writes Mr.
Thomson, "that the softly defined trees, the groups of peasants, children and animals
are almost lost in it, while the foliage itself has the peculiar effect seen in Corot's
landscapes. In the midst of these low-toned colours there sometimes comes a sudden
crash where a vivid or dark blue note is struck in some drapery. There is no style of
composition, no scheme of colour, and few subjects that could have been better devised
to enhance the interior decorations of the Georgian mansions as they existed at the time
when these tapestries were woven." The preference for painted stuccoed decoration
becoming more pronounced during the course of the late 18th Century, the demand for
tapestry as a wall covering practically ceased.

PILE CARPETS.

As the weaving of pile carpets is an industry closely allied to tapestry weaving, an
account of English carpet weaving is included in this chapter.

Although the priority in the manufacture of pile carpets in Western Europe has
hitherto been ascribed to France, the discovery within recent years of a number of
specimens of indubitably English workmanship dating from the last half of the 16th
Century to the middle of the 17th has disproved the claim. The earliest and most
beautiful of these bears the Royal Arms of Elizabeth and the date 1570, while its field
is occupied by a pattern of carnations upon which are the arms of Ipswich and
Harbottle. It is the property of the Earl of Verulam. A portion of another containing
the Royal Arms, and dated 1600, was given to the Victoria and Albert Museum, to
which belongs a large carpet of simulated Oriental design, with English arms and the
inscription " Feare God and keepe His commandements made in the yeare 1602."
Lent to the Museum are Sir Hamilton Hulse's carpet, dated 1614, and one of floral
pattern, the property of the Countess of Portsmouth, while two English carpets of later
date are at Knole. Almost all these have a peculiar greenish quality in colour which
seems characteristic. Instances of similar carpets occur in inventories.

Apropos of the manufacture of these carpets, there is the instance of a Scottish
weaver, Thomas Kings, of Crail, Fifeshire, who, before 1590, left that town for Elsinore
to become carpet weaver to King Christian IV, of Denmark, and in 1590 he (Kings)
received a visit from King James I, then courting Anne of Denmark. Kings went after-
wards to Slangerup, to which the tapestry manufactory of Elsinore was transferred.
It is interesting to note that another native of Scotland, James Neilson, became in the
last half of the 18th Century the principal contractor and master weaver at the
Gobelins.

Experiments in the weaving of pile carpets "after the manner of Turkey and the
Levant had been made in France in the early years of the 17th Century, and in 1626
the great Savonnerie factory was founded at Chaillot, a suburb of Paris, which was
almost altogether employed in making carpets and other furniture for the French King's
Palaces."*

* Parisot, .-1 n Account of the new mamijaclory oj Tci[>cstry iifter the manner of that of the Gobelins and of carpels after the
manner of that at (Ihaillot, 1753.

Two workmen from the Savonnerie at Chaillot removed to London in 1750, and
set to work on a carpet in a room in Westminster. In financial difficulties, they applied
to their fellow countryman, Pierre Parisot, a tapestry weaver, who, supported by the
Duke of Cumberland, engaged the men and removed to Paddington. As other French
craftsmen were attracted to London and the manufacture was transferred to Fulham,
the French authorities began to keep strict watch over the correspondence addressed
to weavers and "ou d'autres petits gois duns Ic quurticr dc Gohcliiis on dc la
Suvoiincric," as well as on letters addressed to "M. Parizot in Foullemne manufactory
a London." The first carpet of Parisot's factory was presented by the Duke of
Cumberland to the Princess Dowager of Wales, but after a very short existence the
factory was closed down in 1755, and the entire stock sold, including "nine carpets in
the manner of Chaillot."

The plant was purchased by a French refugee, Passavant,* who, after a first
unsuccessful attempt at reviving the manufacture, removed the works to E.xeter, where
he was assisted by French carpet weavers. That carpets were made in that city is
proved by inscription woven in the border of a carpet recently sold at Messrs.
Christie's, and a similarly inscribed example at Petworth, the design and quality of
both closely resembling Savonnerie, of the reign of Louis XV. The ground of a carpet
in the possession of the Kent Galleries is powder blue, the design consisting of scrolls
upon which parrots are perched, garlands and baskets of flowers. The design centres
in a lap-dog resting on a cushion ; the border consists of a leaf winding round a rod, with
cartouches at the angles and grotesque masks in the centre of each side.

In 1736, the Society of Arts ofifered premiums for carpets made in England "in
imitation of those made in Turkey and Persia." The following year £25 each were
awarded to Thomas Moore, of Chiswell Street, Moorfields, and Thomas Whitty, of
Axminster. The following year, Passavant, of Exeter, received a similar amount, and
in 1759, Whitty obtained a further £30, and William Jeffer, of Frome, £20. Though
the manufacture of pile carpets was not an important industry in this country during
the 18th Century, several fine carpets were made to the design of Robert Adam, by
Thomas Moore, of Moorfields. Of the red drawing room carpet at Syon House, f the
setting out is geometrical, and the name of the weaver, Thomas Moore, with the date
1769, is woven into the border. Two carpets at Strawberry Hill were made at Moor-
fields, that in the round drawing room "having the design taken from the Sevres china
table in the green closet." Lady Mary Coke saw at Moorfields, in 1768, several
different kinds of carpets, "all remarkably fine," including some in imitation of Persian
carpets. Several carpets in the possession of the Earl of Jersey, at Osterley, were also
woven by Moore, the designs for the tapestry room and Etruscan room being dated
1775, while that of the State bedroom is three years later.

The founder of the Axminster industry was Thomas Whitty, a clothier, who
"having seen in London a Turkey carpet ornamented with large figures and without a
seam" was seized with the wish to rival it in 1755. Gilpin visiting Axminster in the
late 18th Century, described the Axminster products as richly coloured, but adds that

* S. Smiles, Tlie Ilusluennts, their Scttlctitcnis, ChiircJics anil huiiislries in Eng,lanii atu! IrchinJ (1867), piiiie 323.
t The office copy of the design, dated 1768, is preserved in the Soane Museum.

Chapter XVI.

"in general they are so gay that furniture must be glaring to be in harmony with them,
and the British carpet has too much meaning. It often represents fruits, and flowers,
and baskets and other things which are generally ill-represented or awkwardly larger
than life."* Among the Axminster products were the costly carpets made for the
Pavilion at Brighton about 1823.

According to Mr. Kendrick.f the Axminster factory was succeeded by that of
Moody's, at Wilton, where carpet making has gone on ever since. There is, however,
evidence that the carpet weaving of Wilton is earlier in date than that of Axminster,
having been started by Henry Herbert, 9th Earl of Pembroke, in 1745. Pococke,
visiting Wilton in 1756, speaks of the town as famous for its manufacture of carpets
"like those of Turkey, but narrow, about three-quarters of a yard wide.":j:

* W. Gilpin, Observiilions on tlic Western parts of Eni^himl, 1798. fmgcs 272 and 273.
f Jounuil of tlie Society of Arts. January 24lh, 1919. ■
X I'mvels througli Eiiillaiul. Vol. II. ptigc 4S.

A BARCHESTON TAPESTRY OF THE LATE

I 6th century.

Fig. 174.

A panel (42 in. by 30 in.) witii coat-of-arms in the centre surrounded by a scrolling design of
fruit and flowers on a blue ground. The border is of flowers and fruit on a yellow ground.

Circa 1595.
{Fi-Diii the collcctiou oj Miss Whitiiiurc .Jones.)

This panel is one of certain Sheldon tapestry panels lately discovered at Chastleton
House, in Oxfordshire, ten miles from Barcheston. Chastleton was built, in 1603, by
Walter Jones (d. 1632), a rich woollen merchant of Witney, who bought the property
from Robert Catesby, of Gunpowder Plot fame, and married Eleanor Pope, maid of
honour to Queen Elizabeth, niece of Sir Thomas Pope, of Wroxton Abbey, near
Chastleton, and daughter of Henry Pope, the Court jeweller. Chastleton House,
which was probably finished about 1614, has never been altered externally, and there
are but minor alterations within doors, the wainscot, tapestry, glass and pewter, still
remaining in the possession of the descendants of the family that built and lived in it.
The connection between the families of Jones and the Sheldons, the founders of the
Barcheston tapestry works, must have been close, for in the room knowm as the Doctor's
Chamber, there is a chimney-piece bearing the Sheldon arms. It was natural,
therefore, that the tapestry hangings for Chastleton should have been woven at
Barcheston.

One of the panels formerly at Chastleton bears the date 1595, others are undated,
but of the same period. The arms upon the panel illustrated are those of Jones
impaling Pope ; Walter Jones's arms were confirmed to him in 1602, together with the
grant of a crest, and as there is no crest in the panel, it dates probably before 1602.
It bears the following inscription: —

DULCE I. PR

RICULUM

SEQUI DEUM*

The strapwork cartouche enclosing the coat-of-arms is typical of Flemish ornament
which was closely imitated in this country. The technique of the Sheldon looms is
excellent in this and the other known examples ; and Mr. W. G. Thomson writes of the
craftsmanship of the maps and borders in the Bodleian Library, as "equal to the best
Flemish ateliers of the period." This panel is worked in wool and silk, with a certain
amount of gold and silver thread, there being 22 warps to the inch.

The blue-green colour of the wool in the background is dyed principally from weld —
a small plant still found in many English counties. It is doubtful whether imported
indigo was then used, probably instead woad was utilised, as it is known that at this
period there were several farms in Lincolnshire where it was grown. Logwood was no
doubt also employed, as it was then being brought from Central America by the Spanish
traders, and had found its way to this country through the Netherlands.

"Periculiim" seems to have been wrongly put here for "in periculo" : "It is sweet, in danger, to follow God."

Chapter XVI.

A ROYAL TAPESTRY OF THE EARLY

17TH CENTURY.

Figs. 17 5-1 SO.

Illustrates "Tlie Trial of Venus" scene, bein<i one of the "Vulcan and Venus" set, the first
tapestries woven at Mortlake. As with the other panels of this series the broad border is enriched
with cartouches and figures. In the middle of the upper border is the badge of the Prince of Wales
and the motto Ich Dicn; at the bottom four crossed sceptres and the motto Sceptra javeni cutis.
At either side arc interlaced "C's" with the Prince's coronet.

Size 14 ft. 4 in. by 18 ft. 11 in. 1620-1622.

The first tapestries woven at the Mortlake works were the series of hangings
representing the story of Vulcan and Venus. The cartoons were either drawn by
Rivieres, or were adapted by him from earlier ItaHan examples.

This set of tapestries was made for Charles, Prince of Wales, and their manufacture
received the enthusiastic encouragement both of King James I himself and of the
Marquis of Buckingham.

The weaving was begun on September 16th, 1620, and the nine hangings were
finished on 6th June, 1622, a rate of progress which seems incredible. The best wool,
silks and gold were used in the manufacture, and the texture was extremely fine,
averaging 23 warp strings to the space of one inch, while the threads of the weft in the
same space average about 50. At this time the woollen yarn cost 6.s-. per lb., the silk
cost 33,s. per lb., and the gold thread 6s. per oz. The weaving of the faces was paid for
at a much higher rate than the other parts, and the overseer, Philip de Maecht, received
a special commission. Upon the completion of this set the reputation of the Mortlake
factory was established, and Sir Francis Crane believed the time opportune to press
for considerable emoluments. The financial embarrassments of the Crown happened
then not to be serious, and Sir Francis Crane rapidly rose to power and wealth. A
petition was presented to King Charles I, about 1630, by a certain Dru Ikirton, setting
forth that His Majesty had been greatly overcharged, especially for the set of Vulcan
and Venus. The subject of the petition, which was entitled Tlic Discovery, was not
even investigated, and the petitioner was deprived of his ofiice as Attorney-General
for presenting it. In TJic Discovery, the set is referred to in the following terms : —

"The first suits of tapistrie of the storie of Vulcan and Venus which is the foundation of all
"the good Tapistries made in England"; and

"The whole suite was sold to yo' Ma'''= being prince for £2000."

Chapter XVI

A ROYAL TAPESTRY OF THE EARLY 17th CENTVKY --ccnitinncd.

Sir iM-ancis ("rane was succeeded hy his brother, Captain Richard Oane, who was
not possessed of the same ability. The works had but little chance of success during
the troubled times of the Civil War, and continued to decline both tinanciallv and in
the quality of the work produced. An attempt was made to improve the work after
the Restoration, and Sir Sackville Crow, who had been granted the Governorship, fell
into poverty and resigned in 1667. hi a letter dated from the Fleet, 7th May, l67(),
enumerating the various cartoons available in England, including the sets of Hero and
Leander, Vulcan and Venus, The Horses, and Ca-sar's Triumphs, he specially recom-
mended the Vulcan and Venus by Rivieres, "an excellent master and in my opinion a
better designe." During the (commonwealth a number of works of art, formerly Royal
possessions, found their way abroad, especially to Madrid, and amongst them was the
tapestry now in this collection. It was discovered in that country some few years
before its purchase by the present owner.

Of the other eight tapestries of the original set, several panels are at St. James's
Palace (some unfortunately much mutilated), one is stated to be in America, another is
in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Chapter XVI.

Fill. 176.

Fig. 177.

Fig. 178.

Fiii. 179.

Fig. ISO.

A ROYAL TAPESTRY OF THE LATE
17TH CENTURY.

An upright panel (height, 9 ft. 6 in.; widtli, 7 ft. lU in.) bearing the arms of King William HI
and Queen Mary, supported by figures of Mars and Minerva, seated upon military trophies and
holding the Royal Crown. Beneath are the heads of the lion and unicorn merging into scroll
foliage, and enriched with festoons which surround a panel of trellis work enclosing a plumed
helmet. In the spaces of the trellis are inserted roses, shamrocks and flcur-de-lys; above is the
motto h' )iuiin ticii dray. The tapestry is framed by a wreath of oak foliage with scrolls at each
corner and the Star and Garter at each side. In the centre of the top border is a cartouche, with
cypher of William III and Queen Mary, connected to the corners of the panel by rich festoons of
flowers.

The tapestry is very finely woven and the design executed in brilliant colours, into which a large
amount of gold and silver thread is introduced, upon a red-brown background. The panel bears
the Brussels mark and is signed "Clerk." Circa 1690.

{From the collection 0} Lady Sackville.)

During the reign of William III, the Mortlake factory fell into its decadence, and
the Soho works had not sufficient reputation to be entrusted with important commissions.
King William, therefore, employed Flemish weavers to portray the Battle of the Boyne
and other of his victories. A revival in tapestry weaving had then taken place in
Brussels, chiefly owing to the demand for military commemoration pieces, in imitation
of the French Court, and it was from that city that the Duke of Marlborough also
ordered the hangings now at Blenheim. The tapestry here illustrated formed one of
an armorial set consisting probably of eight pieces woven with gold and silver by the
Brussels master-weavers— De Clerck, Van der Borcht, Cobus and Coenot. Although
the design is not illustrated in the Works of Daniel Marot, "Architecte des Apartements
de sa Majeste Britannique," every feature is typical of the distinctive style of that artist ;
indeed, all the details appear in his designs ; thus, the motif of lion and unicorn heads
emerging from scroll ornament occurs constantly, notably in the decorations of the
state coach* presented to King William by the citizens of the Hague. Other details
are also repeated, such as the figures supporting the crown, and the trellis work with
the Royal badges in the interspaces. These armorial tapestries do not appear in the
Royal inventory of 1695, and at a late period appear to have passed into private hands.
Two similar panels are now in Windsor Castle, for which they were acquired bv King
George V and Queen Mary in 1914.

The present example was formerly in a house at Lisburn, co. Antrim, and is said to
have been hung in front of King William's tent at the Battle of the Boyne, and to have
been left in Ireland. This house and its contents were bequeathed by the 3rd Marquess
of Hertford, K.G., to Sir Richard Wallace ; and the tapestry was one of the many works
of art in Sir Richard's collection in Paris which did not pass after his death to the
Wallace Collection in Manchester Square, but were sold privately.

Others of this set have appeared at public auctions ; one at Christie's on June 30th,
1881, a second, signed by Le Clerck, at the Lord Leighton sale on July 10th, 1896, and
two more, signed by J. Coenot and Jan Cobus, on December 17th, 1913.

♦This coach is still used, although unfortunately inuch altered, by the Speaker of the House of Con

Chapter XVI

Fig. 181,

A TAPESTRY WITH THE ROYAL ARMS.

F/<^ 1H3.

An oblong p;incl (length, 16 ft. 8 in.; lieiaht, 8 ft. I) in.) hearing the arms of King George III,
willi the cypher, crest, supporters and motto; trophies, balance, mace and sword; fasces, caduceus,
and owl on helmet, occur on left and right respectively. The border is of foliated scrolls with
wreaths of flowers, and groups of roses and thistles. The tapestry is very finely woven and the
design executed in brilliant colours upon a brown background. Circa 1760.

Tile narrow horizontal band of similar tapestry (length. Id ft. 10 in. ; height, 1 ft. S in.) bears the
Roval badges llciir-dc-lvs, rose and thistle, with a foliated scroll work throwing out rose leaves.

Circa 1760.
(Exliihitccl at the llinliirjoii Fine .ir/s Clith. l<nt!-2l.)
(FroDi the collection of l'/.sco//);f Massareoie and Ferranl.)

Aft received enlightened pntronage in Ireland towards the second half of the 18th
C-entiirv, and some of the classic buildings that rose in Dublin during this period are as
tine as any contemporary E".nglish work. There are traditions of tapestry making in
various parts of Ireland, but most of the establishments became extinct about the third
ciuarter of the 18th Century.

In the .loujiiah of the Irish House of Lords, we tind that a Dublin factory, which
onlv lasted a short time, bequeathed two examples of its work, which were in the liank
of Ireland, College Green, when the house ceased to be the Parliatnent House of
Ireland. In 1727, when the erection of a new Parliament House was being considered,
Robert Baillie, "Upholder of the City of Dublin," petitioned the Committee appointed
to receive proposals and plans for the building and furnishing of the new House
(Jouniiils of the House of Lords of heUnid, Tf)/. ///).

His estiinate and plans were accepted in May, 1728. Baillie employed apparently
one artist of the name of Van der Hagen to design the pieces, and a weaver named
John Van Beaver. The factory stood on the site of the present Parnell Street. This
industry seems to have declined, for in November, 1768, at a meeting of the Dublin
Society, a Memorial of a certain Richard Pawlett (who seems to have taken on the
factory) was read, stating that he was bred to the business of the manufacturing of
tapestry and "had made several pieces which were much approved of by the Society,
and for which he then obtained premiums ; that for want of sufficient stock to carry on
the business he is at present confined to the making of sinall pieces, which deprive
him of the opportunity of fully showing his skill in the art he professes, and praying the
aid of the Society," etc. After 1768 there is no record of tapestry making in Dublin
(Proeeedi)igs of the Roy id Duhliii Society).

The tapestry illustrated, which bears the cypher G.R. Ill, was one of those produced
in Dublin, and was manufactiu-ed for the Irish House of Commons, where, as is seen in
contemporary prints, it hung behind the Speaker's Chair. After the Union in 1801,
this tapestry passed to the last Speaker, Lord Oriel, and was removed by him to Antriin
Castle, where it remained until a few years ago. The tapestry is similar in style to a
panel portrait of George 11, which bears the legend "The workmanship of John Van
Beaver ye famous Tapistry Weaver— Alex Riky, Master. Richard W. Nelling, William
Beasley, Wardens, 1738."

TAPESTRY BAND WITH THE ROYAL EMBLEMS.

Fi,ii. /'S-^-
This is of the same inanufacture and fitted round the baldequin above the Speaker's
Chair in the Irish House of Commons.

CHAPTKR XVI.

j^^.-:-

Ksi

ti.

^€t£m

A FIRE SCREEN \MTH PANEL OF TAPESTRY.

Fi,ii. 1S4.

The panel (lieij^ht, 3 ft. 11 in. ; width, 3 ft. 4 in.) is of finely executed Soho tiipestry. The design
consists of a vase of flowers and birds in natural colours in a scroll framework, the background being
of dull gold. The mahogany framework has the top rail shaped and carved with a scallop shell and
leaves. Circa 1720.

At the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a fine ornamental tapestry, the central
feature of which is a vase of flowers with birds, a duplicate of which exists at Normanton.
Roth are attributed to I. Morris, who signed one of two panels of almost identical design
and dated 1723, formerly in the possession of the late General Clive.

The very close similarity, both in design and colouring, of the vase of flowers, birds
and other details of the panel illustrated with the same ornament in the above-mentioned
tapestries, points to identity of origin.

(lllAPIER XVI.

Fig. 184.

AN ARMCHAIR UPHOLSTERED IN
SO HO TAPESTRY.

With tiilt scroll nrnis and feet carved with scale pattern, laurel leaves and foliage. 'I'lie coNerina
on hack, scat and arms is of tapestr\- representing a bouquet of roses, tulips, anemones and other
flowers tied with light purple ribbons, upon a deep red grountl. Circa 1750.

( t'roiii the collection oj daptaiu U. ('. \'cnioii-\\'eiiticoitli , W'ctilicort li ('astlc, )'oihs.}

For quality, this tapestry equals the best French work of the period, and closely
resembles the work of F)eauvais. There are IS warps in the space of one inch, and the
work is shaded with a range of five tones. The delicacy and refinement in the floral
treatment shows that it is the work of Paul Saunders ; the dyes used also ha\e exactly
the quality of those used in his larger signed tapestries. At the Wentworth (lastle sale
in November, IMlM, was also sold a tapestry \\hich was signed by him.

Paul Saunders wove many tapestries for English houses, mostly after designs by L>e
Prince, and a set at Alnwick Castle is signed "P. Saunders, Soho, 1758." h^'om about
1761 until his death in 1770 he tilled the otiice of Royal Yeoman Arras-maker, working
for the Roval Wardrobe.

Chapter XVI.

Fig. 1S5.

AN ARMCHAIR ITHOLSTERED IN
FULHAM TAPESTRY.

Fi.e. 1S6.

The covering of the back and seat, of finely executed Fulham tapestry, shows in natural colours
on the former a parrot pecking fruit, and on the latter a landscape; each framed in a border of
flowers upon a pale blue background.

The mahogany framework is carved with leaf enrichment in the finest English rococo style.

The front rail of the seat centres in a satyr's head; the cabriole legs terminate in claw and ball feet.

Circa 1755.
{Exhihitcd at the Ihnliu'^ton Fine Arts Club, 192(1-21.)

In the sale catalogue of the Fulham factory (April 30th, 1755), two chairs with similar
coverings are included, and the description of either would apply to the example in
this collection. One is described as : —

"A superb State Chair, the back with a parrot eating fruit, and the seat a Landskip,"

And the other : —

"A large mahogany French Chair, the back, with a parrot eating fruit, the seat a landskip
of the beautiful Gobelins work."

Chairs of similar design are always referred to as "French Chairs" in the Director.

For many years this chair occupied a place of honour in one of the Committee
Rooms of the old House of Lords, fortunately escaping destruction when the building
was destroyed by fire. In view of the design and the quality of both carving and
tapestry, this chair is probably the most important known example of a chair of the
Fnglish rococo period.

Chapter XVI

Fi'j. 1S6.

A FAIR OF ARMCHAIRS UPHOLSTERED IN
FULHAM TAPESTRY.

Ft '4. 1S7.

The covering of finely execiileil l'\ilh:ini t;ipcstr\' ilhistrntes both on tlie li;icks ;inti seats, subjects
from .l^sop's Fables in natural colours upon a brown backiirounil.

The mahogany framework of these chairs is car\'ed with leaf enrichment in the English rococo

style. C.'h(7( 175S.

(Exhihilcil al llic Ihtrliimloii Fine Arts Cliih, ]'l2ll-2l .)

yi-'^sop's Fables were popular subjects of design for suites of furniture covered with
Gobelin and other tapestries, and in the sale of the etlfects of the Fulhani works several
tapestries illustrating such subjects are described as coverings for chairs and screens
"in the style of the Gobelins."

In the lirst edition of the Director (1754), four illustrations of very similar chairs
with upholstered backs let into carved framing are included, which are termed "French
('hairs. "

Chapter XVI.

A POLE SCREEN WITH FULHAM TAPESTRY

PANEL.

Fii^. ISH.

A tripod stand of mahogany, the design composed of scrolls and rococo ornament. The finiai
to the pole is carved with a vase of flowers. The frame, boldly carved with floral ornament, encloses
a panel of Fulham tapestry, of which the design in natural colours is a golden pheasant standing by
the plinth of a fluted column, with flowers in the background. Circa ]7.S().

(Exhibited at the Kurliniitou Fine Artx Club, 1^20-21.)

According to Bubb Doddington, the work of Parisot's factory at Fulham was very fine
but very dear; and screens, chair-seats and carpets, were a speciality of the factory.
The enterprise did not prove successful and the effects were sold in 1755. Amongst
the patterns for screens referred to in the sale catalogue, the specimen illustrated may
be identified as : —

"A beautiful Indian Bird in a landskip."

Chippendale, in the first edition of the Director (1754), illustrates several pole fire
screens and candle stands, the feet of the latter being very similar to those of the pole fire
screens. A comparison of the present screen with the Director show-s parts taken
from two of his designs (illustrated on Plate CXXIV).

Chapter XVI.

Fig. 188.

AN ENGLISH PILE CARPET.

f/,?. 1S9.

A design of bouquets :ind spniys of ffowers in natural colours upon a brown chequered ground.
Size, 20 ft. 9 in. by 16 ft. ?, in. Circa 1760.

The design and texture of the carpet illustrated shows that it was made about 1760,
probably at Frome. The floral pattern is more characteristically English than in
carpets known to have been made at Exeter, and it is almost exactly similar to a carpet
still existing at Ramsbury, in Wiltshire, which was supplied to that house, together with
a considerable quantity of furniture, about 1760.

Chapter XVI

Fig. 189.

Chapter XVII.

NEEDLEWORK.

INDEX.

Fig. 190. A portrait of Queen Anne Fig. 197. Winged armchair upholstered

,, 191. A needlework carpet in needlework

192. A winged settee upholstered in H)g

needlework

193. Details of ditto
194.
195.

199. A settee upholstered in needle-
work

200. An embroidered bed cover

196. ,, „ ,, 201.

Chapter XVII.

NEEDLEWORK.

THE history of needlework as applied to upholstery is to a great extent a matter
of records and inventories until the Restoration. Extant examples previous
to that date are mainly to be found in two great houses, Knole and Hardwick,*
where hangings and upholstered furniture of the late 16th and early 17th
Century are preserved.

The evidence of wills and inventories, such as that of Dame Anne Shirley (1622-23)
shows that much English silk and worsted embroidery in the form of bed curtains,
cushions, chair seats and so on, existed in houses of the 16th and 17th Century, as well
as carpets of Turkeyf work, in which the wool was threaded by hand, knotted and cut.
The family arms were frequently worked in the design of these carpets by the ladies of
the house, the practice continuing till the 18th Century. j

After the Restoration, designs in cross-stitch and t>etit point were worked by ladies
for covering furniture instead of the loose cushions which were previously used during
the age of oak. The taste of needlework upholstery was further stimulated by the
example of Queen Mary, and Celia Fiennes noted in the "Queen's closet" at Windsor,
the "hangings, Chaires, Stooles, and Screen the same, all of Satten stitch done in
Worsteads, beasts, birds, ymages and f!ruites all wrought very tfinely by Queen Mary
and her maids of honour." Some of the chairs at Hampton Court still preserve the
seat upholstered with needlework dating from this period ; and during the first half of
the 18th Century, many settees, chairs and stools were covered with gros point or petit
point. In France during this period, Madame de Maintenon was as devoted to
needlework as Queen Mary of England. She sat at her frame while affairs of State
were being discussed, and it was said that she worked not only in her apartments, but
when out walking and driving. "Hardly fairly ensconced in her carriage" (according
to a letter of the time) " and before the coachman had flicked her horses, this good
lady put on her spectacles and pulled her needlework out of the bag she carried with
her." At the College of St. Cyr, while under her direction, needlework and embroidery
formed an important part in the instruction of the young girls educated there, and the
examples of French petit point which are extant show a higher quality of ordered design
than the majority of pieces of contemporary English work.

* Many of the pieces of needlework preserved at Hardwick bear tiie initials of Elizabeth, Countess of Shrewsbury
(1520-1607). Among these is an interesting set of needlework hangings with figure subjects in applique work, and several long
panels of petit point intended for cushions.

t E. P. Shirley, Slcininatu Shirlcitnui.

i "I think it curious to see my Ly. Leicester work at a tent-stitch frame every night by one candle .... it is a carpet she
works in shades of tent-stitch."— Letter from the Hon. Mrs. Boscawen, 1774.

The tendency of English design in needlework upholstery is towards an all-over
floral pattern. A catalogue of plates and pictures printed by Peter Stent in the reign
of Charles II indicates the source of the designs for embroidery. He had for sale
"Books for Drafts of Men, Birds, Beasts, Flowers, Fruits, Flyes, Fishes," including
one "Book of Birds sitting on Sprigs," "one Book of Branches," "one Book of
Flowers." Another bookseller, William Simpson, brought out in 1650 "The second
book of flowers, fruits, beastes, birds and flies exactly drawn," and these sheets used
by the embroiderers of needlework pictures were no doubt also adapted by others
working covers for large surfaces, such as chairs and settees, in which the design is often
structurally weak, the flowers and fruits represented being frequently haphazard
additions to the existing group. In examples where the design is specially shaped and
contrived to fit the chair back or seat, a landscape with figure subjects, armorial
bearings, or a vase or basket of flowers were the most usual ))i()tifs. In many pieces,
the figure subject is worked in [)ctit pioiiit, the surrounding ornament in gros point ; and
the balanced and symmetrical arrangement of the scrolling ornament framing these
medallions is reminiscent of contemporary French design. Examples in which the
needlework follows contemporary patterns of damasks and velvets are extremely rare,
such as the chair at Houghton, illustrated in Furniture in Enghnid from 1660 to 176<l
(Fig. 32), and the settee (Fig. 199) in this collection, in which a large patterned Italian
cut velvet has been copied.

The surface covered by needlework in the tall padded-back armchairs and settees,
from about 1660 to 1710, was considerable, as the chairs and settees were also provided
with a loose squab, and the needlework was carried over the outward scrolling arms.
The fashion for open-back chairs and settees in the early 18th Century, however,
restricted embroidered upholstery to the seat. In the great houses built under the
Palladian influence and furnished with gilt furniture, such as Houghton and Holkham,
velvets, silks and damasks were used to the exclusion of needlework coverings.

About 1740, the occupation of working coverings for furniture began to be super-
seded by the increasing use of tapestry, velvets and damasks. Besides the importation
of French tapestry, an English manufactory was set up in Fulham, which produced a
considerable quantity of furniture coverings. Occasionally needlework of a coarse
quality was made with a trellis pattern enclosing a sprig of flower, for winged armchairs.

In the late years of the 18th Century, leather and horsehair were much used for
dining room chairs, and silk brocade or French tapestry for drawing room sets, and
there was, therefore, little demand for needlework, except for the panels of silk, or
chenille embroidery upon satin, in designs of bouquets of flowers or figure subjects
after well-known prints which were sometimes framed for the pole screens of the period.

A PORTRAIT IN NEEDLEWORK OF
QUEEN ANNE.

Fig. 190.

The design (2 ft. 1 in. by 1 ft. 6 in.) depicts O^ieen Anne in State robes standing upon a terrace
attended by a page in a scarlet and gold dress. The crown, necklet and orb are ornamented with
contemporary "Paris" imitation pearls. The floor is of black and white marble, and in the back-
ground is a balustrade and columns enwreathed with garlands of various flowers. In the top centre
is a baldequin of blue velvet with scalloped edges and tassels, from which curtains of crimson velvet
are draped to the top of the side columns; these support two symbolical figures who lean forward to
hold above the Queen's head laurel wreaths, the other hands bearing palm branches and trumpets.
The frame is finely carved and gilt. Circa 1710.

Needlework portraits of sovereigns are a feature of the Stuart period, and miniatures
of exquisitely fine stitch also exist. Charles I, Henrietta Maria, Charles II and Catherine
of Braganza are most frequently portrayed. James II, whose reign was so short, is, of
course, less frequent, and neither William, Mary nor Anne appealed to the imagination
of the English people, and are thus rarely represented in needlework. Portraits of
George I and George II are sometimes found, but not of such high quality as the
earlier work.

The needlework portrait of the last of the reigning Stuarts follows the engravings
after her portrait by Kneller, and the needlework itself, in split stitch and satin stitch,
is extremely fine in treatment, especially in details such as the Queen's rich petticoat
and the winding garlands on the colonnade. The black and white paving is a favourite
introduction in embroidered pictures of this period, and the baldequin with side curtains
is also a feature in the earlier Stuart pictures.

Chapter XVII.

Fig. 190.

A NEEDLEWORK CARPET.

Fig. 191.

The wide border of roses, tulips :ind other flowers is wortced in n;itur:ii colours on a green
background; the centre is ornamented with a rococo cartouche bordered with flowers and enclosing
a shield of arms, surmounted by a crest and the motto FORI ITER ET STRENUE.

Size, 15 ft. in. by 11 ft. 3 in.

The carpet is worked in double cross-stitcli, the border consisting of a scrolling
design of flowers. The centre is occupied by an irregular cartouche, bordered with
flowers enclosing the arms of the Dempster family of Mures, Scotland.

Fine needlework carpets are of very rare occurrence. The usual type of hand-
made carpets is that known as Turkey work, where the wool is threaded, knotted
and cut, forming a pile.

Chapter XVII.

Fig. 191.

A WINGED SETTEE UPHOLSTERED IN

NEEDLEWORK.

Fiii. 192.

A floral design in :^ros point in rose colour on a background of pale ijreen. The four circular
medallions are worked in petit point in natural colours with subjects representing the four l^lements.

Circa 1690.
{From the collection of the late Rev. Lord John Thynnc.)

During the late 17th Century, the amount of fctit point worked in the form of
screens and pictures was considerable, and medallions were frequently inserted in the
centre of chair and settee backs, the most important examples appearing to date from
the reign of William and Mary.

The original owner of this settee was a well-known personage in the reign of
William III, and the needlework with which it is covered was doubtless the work of
his wife or her household. At Boughton, in Northamptonshire, are a somewhat similar
settee and several chairs covered with needlework of the same colouring and design,
but without the circular medallions of this example, which resemble miniature repre-
sentations of mural decorative paintings of the period.

Chapter XVII.

A WINGED SETTEE UPHOLSTERED IN NEEDLEWORK— co);//;;;,rJ.

Opposite are the details of tlie four t>etit-f)uiiit medallions of the settee illustrated
on the previous page : —

Fig. 193.

JUNO in the rear drawn by peacocks, typifying Air; at the top is a rainbow. Beneath to
the right is Aeohis, releasing the winds at her request to overwhehii the Trojan fleet.

Fig. 194.

NEPTUNE, typifying Water, and marine deities.

Fig. 195.
POMONA, typifying the fruitfulness of the h'artii.

Fig. 196.

VULCAN, typifving Fire; under his direction the armour for Aeneas is being forged.

Chapter XVII.

-ST;

•ir

%\r

6*" ,r

(7--

Ffe. 79J.

"^ **ii>iCi***^Ai**' -

Fi?. iP-/.

^ A

f^n

.^i55^^^'V ^:

^:" ^h^^^--

—< --«)«l»«*5«^,.,-*»

Fi.?. 1%.

Fig. 196.

WINGED ARMCHAIR UPHOLSTERED IN

NEEDLE\\^ORK.

Fig. 197.

The needlework with which this chair is upholstered is entirely f^'t't foint of peculiarly fine
stitch, the ground work is cream colour. On the seat is a bowl of flowers; on the hack Biblical
scenes are introduced, one representing the Apocryphal story of Susannah and the Riders, and the
other Elijah fed by ravens. Various animals and a red brick house are also depicted.

The back of the chair is covered with old watered moreen. Circa 1690.

(From the collection oj the Far! Lovelace.)

The design of this chair covering resembles other needlework of the period in
illustrating the house, with its walled-in courtyard, the park, garden and flowers; and
horses, stags and peacocks are included. However, as was usual. Biblical scenes
(possibly taken from a contemporary print by Stent or Simpson) are introduced, as
well as the Royal lion.

In addition to the grape vine and rose, the iris and carnation are illustrated.

Chapter XVII.

Fig. 197.

A WINGED ARMCHAIR UPHOLSTERED IN

NEEDLEWORK.

Fig. 198.

The needlework with which this chair is upholstered is entirely fctit point. The surface is
covered with a number of flowers, including roses, carnations and tulips, surrounding the figure of a
lady. The background is pale blue.

The walnut cabriole legs are carved with shells on the knee and terminate with paw feet.

Circa 1720.

Needlework coverings were usually worked in gro$ point, figures only and small
panels being in petit point. The work on this chair is, however, entirely composed of
the latter, every inch taking about 600 stitches. By petit point alone could be obtained
the delicate shading for the many flowers, each different, and some representing what
were then rare species, of which the entire design is composed.

Though tulipomania in England never reached the same height as in Holland during
the 17th Century, traders with the Indies were encouraged to bring home specimens
and obtain varieties of new flowers. Amongst the bulb species can be seen the ixia,
tulip and parrot tulip, fritillaria, scilla and various orchids ; amongst those grown from
seeds are the poppy, cobica scandens, convolvulus and nasturtium. The carnation and
peony cactus are also represented.

Chapter XVII.

Fig. 19S.

A SETTEE UPHOLSTERED IN NEEDLEWORK.

Fig. 199.

The needlework with which this settee is upholstered is in exact imitation of the design of a
kite 17th Century Genoese velvet, the design being in red, green, orange and other colours upon a
cream ground.

The mahogany framework is carved along the front rail with the Vitruvian scroll, the arms
terminate in eagles' heads, and the cabriole legs have shell ornamentation on the knees, and
terminate in claw and hall feet. (lirca 1725.

(Exhibited at the Biirlin.nlon Fine Arts Chih. ]y]ll-21.}

During the Palladian period, designs of flowers carried out in needlework were
superseded for seat coverings by velvets from Northern Italy. Imported cut velvets,
were, however, expensive and difficult to procure, except by influential persons, such
as Sir Robert Walpole, and Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. We can form some idea
of the expense of these Italian velvets from the correspondence of the Duchess of
Marlborough and the fourth Earl of Manchester, who procured for her from Italy
quantities of velvet for the furnishing of Blenheim. In the settee in this collection the
design of a piece of Genoese velvet is imitated in needlework. Probably many yards
were worked in repeating patterns in the same width as velvet {viz., 19 inches), to cover
a suite of furniture. The intensity of colour and softness of the velvet half-tones have
been most skilfully reproduced.

Chapter XVII.

■or.

AN EMBROIDERED BED COVER.

Figs. 200 and 201.

Of linen, quilted with cre;im coloured silk, nnd embroidered in coloured silks trimmed with
hand-made knotted fringe. Circa 1700.

{Illustrated froDi photographs taken by the \'ictoria and Albert Mnseimi.)

This bed cover is a remarkable instance of the influence of Oriental design upon
needlework, textiles and objects of art during the last years of the 17th and early 18th
Century. Embroidery was produced in the East at a low cost, and this induced Dutch
traders to send out clothes already cut to be embroidered in China. St. Aubin writes
that embroideries worked with fine and evenly whipped cords and gimps came into
fashion in his day. "This," he adds, "we owe to the Chinese by whom many
embroideries most precise in regularity have been made up for our dandies." Costumes,
hangings and bed covers were also worked in this country in close imitation of Oriental
designs and reproducing Oriental motifs, such as fantastic birds of the hoopoe or
peacock type, and figures in Oriental costume. This cover shows distinct Chinese
influence in certain details, such as the introduction of a pagoda or temple standing
on Chinese rock-work, but the design of the border of delicate floral scrolls, and the
costume of some of the fantastic figures approximate more closely to Persian ornament.

Chai'ier XVII.

Fig. 200.

Fig. 201.

Chapter XVIII.

EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDINGS.

INDEX.

Fig. 202. Petit point, with figures of Moses and Aaron

203. ,, and silver thread, floral design

204. ,, ,, with birds

205. ,, „ floral design

206. Flowers in coloured silk

207. Satin stitch, with female figures representing "Peace and Wisdom"

20S I

2qq' Double book, with heads of Apostles

210. Coloured silks, with portraits of King James I and Anne of Denmark

211. Scroll ornament, with single flower

212. Coloured silks, with various flowers

213. Silver "passing" and purl, with floral design
214

Chapter XVIII.

EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDINGS.

EMBROIDERED bindings came early into use in England, and were produced
in considerable numbers during the Tudor period. They can be divided into
three classes, namely : Velvet, petit point and satin covers. The earliest
extant example of a fine embroidered velvet book is the Ties ample description
de toute la tcrre Saiuete, probably bound about 1540, which was the property of
Henry VHI, and was dedicated to him. The ground is purple velvet ; in the centre is
the Royal coat-of-arms surrounded by the Garter and ensigned with a Royal crown ;
the coat-of-arms and Garter are worked in heraldic colours on linen and applied to the
ground, while the crown is carried out in gold thread.

Velvet was used for the covering of books, and many of the finest examples are in
this material; owing to its nature, applique work or embroidery in gold and silver
thread is always found in conjunction with velvet, and the design is often of a high
quality, as in the case of the crimson velvet Bible in the Bodleian Library, printed
1583, which has a beautiful formal design of scrolls bearing Tudor roses.

Of the extant examples of bindings of embroidered canvas or satin, one of the most
interesting is the Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, in the Bodleian Library, a work
in Queen Elizabeth's own handwriting, translated by her from the French in 1544, and
dedicated to the Oueen Katherine Parr. The ground is worked all over with blue silk
upon which is applied an interlacing scroll pattern of gold and silver braid with the
initials K.P. In each corner is a heartsease worked in coloured silks interwoven with
gold threads.

Bindings of embroidered satin or canvas follow the course of development of
contemporary needlework pictures, but the size of the book cover concentrated
the art of the needleworker, and we avoid the crowded fancies of the needlework
pictures in petit point and stump work. Single figure subjects or portrait heads are
usually enclosed within a raised oval border, or an edging of "couched plate" or
"purl" and gold thread, which served to protect the more delicate needlework. When
subjects, such as an allegorical figure or Royal portraits do not appear, the design is of
a floral character, representing conventional pinks, roses, tulips, pansies and other
well-known flowers, together with birds and insects ; and animals are also sometimes
introduced. The books showing most completely conventionalized design are frequently
worked in a variety of coloured "purl," which consists of copper wire covered with fine
silk. This is then wound tightly on a needle and pushed of? in the form of a short length
of fine coiled tube. Such lengths were then threaded and sewn down to the ground.

Owing to the limitation of the material, only conventional scroll work, sprigs and
flowers are represented in purl, but occasionally the lion and leopard are essayed.
Sometimes whole covers are worked in this manner, in others only smaller details are
rendered in purl on hooks treated with needlework, to which, from its relief, it forms a
very efficient protection as well as an enriched efifect.

The most perishable of bindings are those in satin treated with high relief or
"stump-work" embroidery, which became fashionable during the reigns of Charles I
and Charles 11 ; but such high relief is most unsuitable for any object liable to much
handling, and especially for the back portion which is disturbed by the continual
opening of the book.

The professional origin of the little embroidered psalters and prayer books is
indicated in a MSS. (1638) in the Bodleian Library, by a petition to Archbishop Laud
of the milliners who carried on business in the Royal Exchange. "Imbroderers working
in their own homes." The embroiderers, it is there stated, had for many years been
accustomed to bring to the petitioner's shop "rare and curious covers of Imbrodhery
and needleworke, with which they had covered Bibles, Testaments and Psalm books,
of the best and neatest print to be richly bound up for the nobility and gentry."*

Nicholas Ferrar's "Protestant nunnery" at Little Gidding, in Huntingdonshire, to
which Charles I paid several visits, has been credited with the production of both
bound and embroidered books, and there is a definite proof that they were instructed
by a binder from Cambridge, thus accounting for the appearance of well-known
Cambridge stamps on some of the covers.

* The Librciiy (3rd series), A'o. 39, page 131.

AN EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDING.

Fig. 202.

BIBLE, 1646. Authorised version printed by William Bentley, A.D. 1646. — The Way to True
Happiness leading to the Gate of Knowledge .... newly corrected and augmented, printed by
James Young, n.d. — Whole Book of Psalmes in English Meeter, by Sternhold and others, with apt
notes. A.M. for the Stat. Co., 1647, needlework, g.e. Thick 8vo. Middle of the 17th Century.

{From the Pittar collection.}

The entire cover of this Bible (1646) and Psalms (1647) is embroidered in petit point
upon canvas. On the front is Moses with tablets of stone on his descent from Mount
Sinai, and on the back is Aaron, robed as a high priest, with a golden censer. Each
are represented within an oval medallion.

In the spandrils are sprays of fruit and flowers such as pinks, pansies and straw-
berries, the ground being worked over in silver thread.

Chapter XVIII.

THREE EMBROIDERED BINDINGS.

(h'ro})] the cnllcctio)! o/ \' iscoiiiilcss Wolsclcy.)

Fi-. 203.

The Whole Rooke of David's Psalnies— both in prose and nieeter with apt notes to sing them
withall. London, printed by R.C. for the Company of Stationers, 1643.

Middle oj the 17th Coitiiry.

The covers of this Book of Psalms are ornamented with a rose in the centre of one
side and a tulip on the other ; these are surrounded by various sprigs of flowers,
interspaced with flies, snails, caterpillars and a bird. The back has a floral scroll. The
design is worked in t'ctit point, and the ground is carried out in smooth bright silver
thread called "passing" as distinguished from the more usual twisted silver thread.
The edge of the covers is bound with silver braid and the interior lined with red silk.

Fig. 204.

"Whole Booke of Psalmes collected into P^nglish Meeter," imprinted for the Company of
Stationers, 1638. E(n7v 17th Coitiiry.

The design worked in petit point in natural colours upon a silver background,
consists of birds and insects surrounded by flowers. Upon the back appears the stem
of a vine with grapes, and tulips are also introduced. The gilt edges are tooled.

Fig. 205.

Oblonji note book, with twelve leaves of gessoed velkim prepared for use as memorandum
tablets; embroidered covers with silver stylus and engraved clasp; 2j in. by 3t in.

Early 17th Century.

The binding of this small oblong note book is embroidered in petit point with a
conventional design of a rose and grape vine set in a clump of moss. This moss is
made of silk thread twisted tight and then released so that it springs back into a crumpled
state, as such was used to represent grass and moss in the 17th Century Stuart needle-
work. The background is worked throughout in silver thread, and the cover is lined
inside with blue silk. These note hooks are scarce, especially specimens in a perfect
state of preservation.

Chapter XVIil.

Fig. 203.

Fig. 204.

Fig. 205.

TWO EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDINGS.

{From the collection oj Viscountess Wolseley.)

Fig. 206.

HOLY BIBLE, engraved title, red rules throughout. The contemporary embroidered binding
of flowers worked in coloured silks, with foliage and stems in green silk and silver thread on a satin
ground with silver braid, silver clasps, g.e., s.m. 8vo, 1654. Middle oj the IJlli Century.

The covers of this book are embroidered with a floral design of pansies and
carnations, springing from interlaced conventional stems which are reminiscent of the
16th Century; the work, however, is of the middle of the 17th Century.

Fig. 207.

BAILEY (L.). The Practice of Piety, engraved title, with elaborately embroidered satin binding
of the Stuart period, worked in silver threads and silk of various colours; there arc full length
female figures on both covers, one (front) holding palm branch in left hand, and having a bird
(with a leaf in its beak) perched on the finger of right hand. There are grass and flowers in fore-
ground, and cottage and tree in background. The figure on left cover holds a snake in her hand;
and there are houses, trees, a beetle and caterpillar in background, flowers and grass below; the
back is decorated with the sun emerging from a cloud, a squirrel, butterfly and a rockery. The
cover is fitted with silver clasps, g.e., a portrait of K. Charles I is pasted inside front cover.

First halj oj IJlh Coitury.

The covers are embroidered in silk and silver thread in satin stitch and couched
thread of various twisted characters, with several details in purl. In the centre of the
front cover is a female figure representing Peace ; on the lower cover a figure probably
emblematic of Wisdom. Allegorical figures were frequently introduced in English
embroidered books of the first half of the 17th Century; Faith and Hope, Peace and
Plenty, being those most frequently met with.

AN EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDING.

Figs. 20S and 209.

THE NEW TESTAMENT, B. Burton and John Bell, lb20. The Whole Booke of Psalmes,
collected into English niceter by Sternhold, Hopkins and others, Stat. Co. 1621 ; the Booke of
Common Prayer, ib. 162U, 2 Vol., bound Jo.s- ados. The embroidered binding has on each cover
the figure of an Apostle, enclosed by raised ornamental framework of silver thread with corner
floral decorations; the back is sectioned into four floral panels partly treated with silver purl, the
whole worked with coloured silks and gold and silver thread on a white satin ground, g.e.

First lialj oj 17th doitury.
(From tlic Pittar collection.)

During the 17th Century, double books, especially those containing the Common
Prayer and Psalms were fashionable. These books open dififerent ways and have two
backs, two ornamental boards, and one plain board enclosed between the two books.
"Prayer books of girls and gallants" which, according to Peacham, were "carried to
Church but for their outside," were especially suitable for enrichment by embroidery.

Chapter XVIII.

Fig. 206.

Fi!i. 207.

Fig. 208.

Fig. 209.

TWO EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDINGS.

(FroDt the collcctio)! oj 1 iscouiitcss Wolseley.)

Fin. 210.

PSALMRS OF DAVID (in metre). The embroidered covers are of the Stuart period, the back
is worked with flowers in coloured silks in sections formed with silver thread ; and the centre ovals
on both covers containing respectively embroidered portraits o{ King James I and Anne of Denmark,
the top corners having the rose and thistle, the lower part the lion and unicorn, worked on a cream
satin ground; the blank spaces are powdered with silver spangles. A pink silk tie is fastened to edge
of upper cover, g.e. 12 mo. Early 17th ('eiitiiry.

Portraits on needlework books are rare. In the Bodleian Library, Oxford, is a
volume of Bacon's Essays (1625) given by him to the Duke of Buckingham, having in
the centre a portrait of the Duke. Portraits of Charles I are occasionally met with, but
no other example depicting James I and Anne of Denmark is known to exist.

F/,i/. 211.

THE NEW TESTAMENT, "newly translated out of the Original Greek" by Robert Barker,
1640, bound with Psalmes collected into English meter, 1641. First half of 17th (h'litury.

A conventional design of flowers and scrolls in silver and coloured threads upon a
cream satin ground powdered with silver spangles. The edges are gilt and tooled with
coloured ornament.

AN EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDING.

Fi.^. 212.

THE WHOLE BOOKE OF F^SALMES, etc., with musical notation. The covers are designed
with an elaborate scroll ornament in gold thread and bullion, enclosing a tulip and with pansies in
each corner. The four panels on the back contain a pansy, a heartsease, love in a mist and carnation.

First halj of 17th Century.
{From till' collection of E. .Jackson Barron, F.S..A.)

Many of these small needlework books of the period are similar in design to these
specimens, having for a central »i()tif a single flower, often a rose, iris or tulip, framed
with conventional scroll work.

Chapter XVUl.

Fig. 211.

Fig. 212.

TWO EMBROIDERED BOOKBINDINGS.

{Froi)] the collection o) \'iscou)itess Wohelev.)

Fig. 213.

Treatises and meditations on the Gospels and Kpisties, manuscript (English 17th Century),
165 leaves. The contemporary embroidered covers have a pink satin ground. The sides are covered
with large semi-floral ornaments worked in a silver thread, with a central device of a cross, conjoined
with the letters I.H.S. above a heart pierced by two arrows. The back is divided into nine panels,
each containing a fleuron, g.e., painted with flowers in colours. Early 11th Century.

Fig. 214.

BAILEY (Lewis). The Practice of Piety, title within wcKodcut border. The contemporary
English binding is embroidered on blue satin with a rich design of scroll and fleurons in silver purl.
The back is divided into five panels of quatrefoils and fleurons alternately, also worked in silver
purl and thread, g. tooled e., 12 mo., 1636. First halj of 17th Coitiirv.

These two covers are excellent examples of embroidery in silver "passing," and
purl, arranged in short spiral lengths, forming conventional floral forms which are
outlined with silver thread. The ground is sewn with small spangles, held by tiny pieces
of purl (as a further protection) to the satin ground, some of the purl being looped and
pressed to make a change of effect in the design. Book covers are also found with the
designs in a variety of coloured purl, this being wire coils bound with coloured silk.

Chapter XVIII.

Fiq. 213.

Fig. 214.

Chapter XIX.

LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS.

INDEX.

Fig. 215. Grolier design Circa 1551

216. By Thomas Wotton - ,, 1551

217. By Archbishop Parker - ,, 1553

218. Heavy gilt ornament ., 1614

219. From the library of Henry, Prince of Wales ----,, 1609

220. Black morocco, fine gilt ornament - ,, 1694

221. „ „ „ „ 1685

222. Red morocco ,, ,, - ,, 1679

223. Black morocco, fine gilt ornament, cottage roof pattern - - ,, 1690

224. Dark olive green morocco, with scroll ornament in silver and gilt ,, 1685

225. Bright red morocco, with fine scrolling in gilt ----,, 1685

226. Red morocco, with crowned cypher of Charles II - - - ,, 1680

227. Red morocco, with crowned cypher of Duke of York - - ,, 1680

228. Red morocco, with crowned cypher of Queen Anne - - - ,, 1710

229. Red morocco, with scroll, scale and shell ornament - - - ,, 1725

230. Red morocco, with small scroll ornament -----,, 1735

231. Red morocco, with late classic ornament ,, 1790

232. Calf binding, by Roger Payne - - - - - - - ,, 1790

233. Calf binding, by William Edwards ------,, 1806

Chapter XIX.

LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS.

BEFORE the days of printing, gold, silver or enamelled work, enriched with
precious or semi-precious stones, were used for the covers of valuable
manuscript books, as well as leather and carvings in ivory and wood.* By
the 12th Century many towns and monasteries were centres of bookbmdmg,
particularly London, Winchester and Durham. Examples of early mediaeval binding
from Winchester and Durham, such as the books bound at Durham for Bishop Pudsey
towards the close of the 12th Century, and the Winchester Domesday Book in the
Library of the Society of Antiquaries, are still in existence. Though a number of pre-
Reformation books in plain leather bindings remain, there are few survivals of more
elaborate treatment. Books used in the service of the church, ornamented with gold,
silver and precious stones, were largely destroyed at the Reformation, a special Act
being passed "to strip off and pay into the King's Treasury all gold and silver found on
Popish books of devotion."

With the invention of printing in 1454, the production of bindings in increasing
numbers became necessary, and leather was the principal medium employed, though
for private owners, sumptuously ornamented covers still continued to be made.
Stamped ornamentation upon leather bindings had been in use in Germany and the
Netherlands. The work of Caxton, who on his return from Bruges was busily employed
in England from 1477 to 1491 in printing and translating, and the work of his immediate
successors was much inferior to similar contemporary work abroad. Their designs usually
consisted of a number of diagonal lines, and in the lozenge-shaped panels so formed
were embossed repeated impressions of flowers and fabulous animals. With slight
variations, this type of ornament continued in use until the introduction from the
Netherlands of large panel stamps, by means of which a small book could be decorated
from one block. The advantages of their use was recognised, and large panel stamps
were adopted in France. In England such stamps were used until the close of the
reign of Henrv VIII, and are usually of Gothic character. Many foreign stationers
and bookbinders worked in England during this period, such as Frederick Egmont and
Nicolas Lecomte, who were here as early as 1493, using panels bearing their initials and
marks.

* Ordinary MSS. were hound in wooden boards covered with leather, sometimes with metal bosses.

The binding we have hitherto considered is stamped blind work. Gold tooling,
which originated in Italy, resulted in very high artistic achievements in both Italy and
France, and the development of this type of ornamentation should be briefly considered
before the history of gold-tooled bindings in England, which is later and derivative.

In Italy, during the 15th Century, the great families, such as the Medicis, the Delia
Rovere and the D'Estes, as well as the Popes and Doges, encouraged the ornamentation
of manuscript books, and the jeweller and the metal worker were employed for this
purpose. The popularisation and extension of gold tooling in Europe can be probably
assigned to Aldus, who set up his printing press at Venice in 14^M, and a few years later
his leather bindings were famous. "From this period, at all events,"* writes Miss
Prideau.x, "dates the decoration of bindings by means of small tools, curves and lines
used in combination, as distinguished from the stamped blind work characteristic of the
preceding period in England." The designs adopted show but little trace of the art of
the Renaissance, but are distinctly Eastern in character, which is due to the fact that
the ornamentation of leather (including both gilding and inlaying) had existed for
centuries in the East, and Oriental ornamentation had been imitated by the Venetians
for binding the manuscripts which came to Italy after the fall of Constantinople.

The meeting in 1512 of Aldus and Grolier, who was appointed treasurer of the Duchy
of Milan, by Charles III, has been assumed to have had an important influence on the
evolution of binding. The name of Grolier is so intimately connected with the finest
period of bookbinding, that a brief record of his life is necessary. Count Grolier de
Servin was born at Lyons in 147^-*, and in 1529 was sent by Frangois I" as Ambassador
to Pope Clement VII. In 1545, he was one of the four treasurers of France, and two
years later finance minister, both of which ofiices he retained until his death in 1565.
Notwithstanding his ofificial position, his principal occupation was acting as art adviser
to the five Kings he served and collecting books for his library, which was the finest of
his time. After Grolier's demise, the use of much finer tools and the adoption of gold
dotted lines which formed a background for Mosaic patterns, is a change associated
with the name of Le Gascon, about whom nothing is known. f

Towards the end of the 17th Century, the so-called Bourbon style was in general use,
in which special attention was concentrated on the arms or cypher of the owner.
To obtain this effect the ornament was confined to the outer edges of the cover, and the
leather left plain in the centre except for the coat of arms or cypher.

On certain books in the British Museum, bound by Thomas Berthelet^ for King
Henry VIII and Edward VI, graceful arabesque ornament, Italian or French in
character, appears. About 1540, the art of tooling in gold was introduced in England,
and Berthelet appears to have been the first to practise it, for in a bill, dated 1540,
appears, among other items, a charge for "binding a New Testament in latyne and
a Psalter Englische and latyne, bound back to back in white leather gorgiously gilted on
the leather. "|{ England was, however, after the Reformation dominated by the taste of
the Flemings, whose version of Renaissance ornament appears on bookbindings of the
remainder of the 16th Centur\^

* An Hislniu,,! SkcUli ,,f Boo/,- Biiu!iii-i. liy S. T. Prideau.x, London. 1803. /xii'c 30.

t The on!y signed bindings with dotted lines are the two signed by Florimond Hadiei .

X Appointed printer to the King in 1530; died 1555 or 1556.

II Quoted in W. T. Fletcher's Eniilisit Ri}nkhintlin^s iii llic linliih Mmcnin, 1895, p.ii'i- II.

Chapter XIX.

During the late 16th and early 17th Century, few libraries were formed in England
which could compare with the great collections of the French Kings and their mistresses,
and other patrons of art, such as Grolier and de Thou. Among our chief private
collections were those of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Lord Treasurer Burghley,
Archbishop Cranmer and Archbishop Parker (who established a workshop in his house
for the printing, decoration and binding of books), Henry, Earl of Arundel, and Lord
Lumley, his son-in-law (who died in 1609), Sir Robert Bruce Cotton and Thomas Wotton
(1521-i587, known as the English Grolier, from his adoption of a style and motto
resembling that of the great Frenchman) and Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. The
typical English bindings of this period are of brown leather, with heavy corner pieces
and centre stamps. The diapering of small stamps shows the influence of the French
se;);/s, but some English souis are national in character, such as the thistle, the trident,
etc. Books from the collection of James I show a close resemblance to contemporary
French work, and it may be that these were bound for him in Scotland, a country which
always maintained a close French connection.

During the reign of Charles II, the use of delicate gold tooling became frequent,
and after the Restoration, the renewed relationship between the Courts of France and
England developed our craftsmanship in bookbinding, as well as other arts. During this
period the characteristic cottage pattern (an ornamental pediment) appears frequently
on English books, especially upon those issued from the University presses of Oxford
and Cambridge. The spaces are filled in with sprays and branches in combination with
lace work, sometimes whh rings and scale work. The work produced during the thirty
years following the Restoration reaches the high-water mark of English bookbinding.
it was the fashion to ascribe the fine giU post-Restoration bindings to Samuel Mearne,
who died in 1685, or to his son, Charles Mearne, who died in 1686, neither of whom
probably bound a book in their lives.* This type of binding continued to be produced
in equal profusion after the death of the two Mearnes, and beyond the official position
of Royal binder, no allusion to Samuel Mearne as a bookbinder exists. f

Beautifully minute tooling continued during the late 17th and early 18th Century,
and about 1720, Robert Harley, the first Earl of Oxford, who collected an important
library, gave his name to a style which consisted of a broad tooled border with centre
panels, on which a pineapple design figures prominently as a tool. The centre ornament
is usually diamond-shaped. The style is decadent when compared with the fine English
work of 1660-1690.

In the middle years of the 18th Century, which is a period comparatively barren of
interest as regards bookbinding, the medallist, Thomas Pingo, cut a number of
emblematic tools for Thomas HoUis, with which he decorated the interiors as well as
the exteriors of his books. Both Edinburgh and Dublin had their distinctive styles, the
former adopting a peculiar way of arranging their small gold tools, which may be based
on French or Italian work of the 17th Century ; the latter showing a preference for inlays
of vellow leather.

* Samuel Mearne was a publisher as well ns a bookseller, who was appointed by Charles II Royal Rookbinder on the
Restoration. "Charles Mearne never called himself a bookbinder, but used the more important title of bookseller."-E. Gordon
Duff, The Great Mcmtic Myth, 1918, pufc 6.

t IhuL piifc IS.

The classic reaction of the late years of the ISth Century had its effect upon the
designs of bindings as well as upon every other form of applied art. The most famous
English binder of this period was Roger Payne.* An excellent craftsman, Payne has
perhaps been over-rated. His designs are wanting in originality, the execution of his
tooling is not equal to that of the best French binders. f He appears generally to have
executed the whole of his work himself, even frequently cutting his own toots, and on
his death, John Nichols, then editor of the Gc)itlc)}iini's Magazine, stated that "this
ingenious man introduced a style of binding uniting elegance with durability such as no
person has been able to imitate," and that "those who are not accustomed to see book-
bindings executed in any other than the common manner, can have no idea of the merits
of the deceased, who lived without a rival and, we fear, has died without a successor."
His style, however, has been skilfully imitated by Charles Lewis, as a craftsman imitates
an original artist.

After the 18th Century, as in the other applied arts, whilst mechanical skill continues
to improve, no new school of design has been created.

* 1739-1797.

t Fletcher, Kjii*lisli linolibintliti'^s in tlir British Museum, fni^c 17,

A I 6th century bookbinding.

Fts. 215.

CALVINIJS (Jojinnes). Opiiscuhi Omnia in ununi volnnien collecta quibiis accessit libeilus
nunc priniuni cditus. De Aeterna Dei Praedestinations adversus Alhertiini Pighiuni and Geor^ium
Sicuhini, lit. itiil. Original Knglish calf binding.

The sides are coNxred witli a design of black painted borders, interlaced strapwork, etc., tilled
in with gilt arabesques, stars, roses and dolphin forms. Plain edges, am. fol., s. n. Impr. (Geneva,
Jac. Bourgeois or Jean Gerard l.^S2, device of Flaming Sword at end.)

Pasted in the front c<^ver is an original drawing of an oval portrait of C.alvin in profile, in pencil
and wash on pink paper, in the style of Holbein. "Johanis Calvin, 1,^,->1." ('iica l.■^.■^l.

The design of this calf binding is an excellent example of the patterns introduced by
Grolier. The gilt scroll work, stars, roses and dolphin forms are similar in character to
certain contemporary bindings in the British Museum by Thomas Berthelet, the Royal
binder, such as the MS. Voyages of Josapluit Binburo, translated by William Thomas
and dedicated to King Edward VI, the Kpit<))nc Omunim OpcviDu Augusti)ii Kpiscopi
HIPPONENSIS (from Queen Mary's Library) and Petri Bewhi Cardinali.'^ Jiistonu
Veijeti (1551), bound for Edward VI. From the similarity of style and certain of the
stamps, this copy may reasonably be attributed to Berthelet.

Chapter XIX.

Fig. 21 S.

TWO I 6th century BOOKBINDINGS.

Fig. 216.

OCHINF^ (Barnnrdine). A Tragodie of dialoge of tfie unjustc usurped primacie of the Bisfiop
of Rome and of all the first abolishing of the same, translated intc; P'nglish by J(jhn Ponet, Doctor of
Divinetie, never before printed in any language.

First edition black letter, title within woodcut, architectural border, original l^nglish brown calf,
with black and gilt line geometrical scrolls and foliage in the Grolier manner, with the arms of
Kdward Wotton, tirst Baron Wotton, son of Thomas Wotton ; g.e., sm., 4to. Imprynted for
Gwalter Lynne, dwellyng on Somers Kaye by Byllyngesgate, 1549. Circa 15S1.

(From the library of Lord A)nhcrst oj Hackney.)

This beautiful binding was executed for Thomas Wotton, "a gentleman excellently
educated and studious in all the liberal arts in the knowledge whereof he attained unto
great perfection," probably when he succeeded to his father's estates in 1551, although
he began to collect books at an earlier date. He collected a fine library and adopted
the liberal motto of the great Grolier. Bindings made for Wotton may be divided into
three groups, those with elaborate designs, gilt and enamelled, which often bear his
smaller armorial stamp : those with plain sides and the larger armorial stamp ; and
those with his name roughly printed on the sides and small medallion centres "which
appear to be early and are usually very poor specimens of binding."*

The binding in this collection is similar to that of Cicero's Questions Tusciiliincs,
printed at Lyons in 1543, also bound for Wotton, in the British Museum. Mr. Gordon
DufT suggests that bindings of this type, which all date between 1548 and 1558, and
mostly during Edward VI's reign, are probably the work of the skilled French workmen
who came over as refugees on the accession of Edward VI. f The few later examples
are inferior in design and the black colouring is absent.

Fig. 217.

NEW TESTAMENT. Black letter, double columns ; contemporary English binding of black
morocco, gilt florcated back, sides covered with rich gilt-tooled floral scrolls with centre and corner
ornaments; sm., 4t(). Imprinted in Powles Churchyard by Richard Jugge, n.d. (^irca 1SS3.

This New Testament was bound for Matthew Parker (1504-1575), who became in
1559, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose most distinguished service to the theological
studies of the day was the publication of the Bishops' or great Bible, which largely
occupied his energies from 1563 to 1568. Parker, in the words of the Dictio)niry of
.Witionul Biognil)hy "undoubtedly bore the chief burden of carrying it into accomplish-
ment, devoting several years to the collection of materials and making choice of the
most competent scholars, and personally undertaking the direction of the whole work."
There are several similar bindings of portions of the Bible extant, probably prepared
for hand use and correction by himself, as the Aptocrvpha which is illustrated in
.Almach's Fine Old Bindings, 1910 (p. 19), which bears Parker's arms on the fore-edges,
has corner and centre ornaments identical with the binding in this collection. The
bindings of Parker's books are of high quality and he must have devoted his personal
attention to bookbinding, having, as he tells Burleigh in 1572, "within my house in
wagis drawers and cutters, paynters, lymners, wryters and boke-bynders." The
contrast of the light scroll work and the solid gold portions is extremely effective.
The fine bindings produced for or by Archbishop Parker have perhaps been somewhat
neglected, and in the opinion of some experts, he is more entitled to the reputation of
"The English Grolier" than Thomas Wotton.

* E. Gordon Duff. 'I'lic Bindings i,j Thomai Watlun. Lilir:iry 3rd scries. Vul. I. pai^r 341.
t Ibid, page 346.

Chapter XIX.

TWO EARLY ijth CENTURY BOOKBINDINGS.

Fiii. 2 IS.

THE BOOKE OF COMMON PRAYER, black letter, title within woodcut borders, 1613.
The Whole Book of Psalmes, collected into English meeter, by T. Sternhold, I. Hopkins, etc., black
letter, musical notation, title within woodcut border, 1614. In 1 volume. Old English binding of
brown calf. (-irca 1614.

This brown calf binding has the sides stamped with a solid gold centre and corner
ornaments, the remaining space being scdic with a small rosette device. The corner
ornaments are very similar to those upon the Flares Histoyiani))! per Matth(ieu»i
Westniofiasterienseni collecti (1570) in the British Museum.

f/tf. 219.

SCRIPTORES, Rerum Anglicarum post Bedam pr;ucipui ex vetustissimis codicibus manu-
scriptis nunc primum in lucum editi. (edited by Sir Henry Savile) ; adjecta ad finem Chronologia.
Lond. G. Bishop, R. Newbery and R. Barker. 1S96.

Stout fol. large paper, second and third titles with border signed NH and TC ; initials signed A,
original brown calf binding, having a crowned Tudor rose at each corner and the arms of Henr\-,
Prince of Wales, eldest son of King James I, in centre. On the front of the title page is the
signature of (John Lord) "Lumley," and on the back of it is stamped MVSEVM BRITANNICVM,
Duplicate B.M. 1888. Circa 1609.

A similar binding is that of Germano GnecicB libri sex, etc., also from the Prince's
library, in the British Museum. "Prince Henry," writes Mr. Davenport, "not only
took great interest in the books he already found in his father's library, but he materially
added to it by further collections of his own. In 1609 he purchased the library of Lord
Lumley, who had been his tutor, and which was the finest then in England except that
of Sir Robert Cotton. This library had originally belonged to Henry Fitz Alan, Earl
of Arundel, Lord Lumley's father-in-law, and it has been largely increased since his
death. Prince Henry only possessed the library for three years, and died in 1612.*

* Royal Ettglish Hookbindings, page 59.

Chapter XIX.

!3s

t-3

TWO LATE 17TH CENTURY BOOKBINDINGS.

Fig. 220.

CAUSES OP"" THE DECAY OF CHRISTIAN PIETY (The); by the Author of the Whole
Duty of Man, engraved vignette on title of the burning of Old St. Paul's; with the title of the
first edition 1669, and a vignette of a burning ship ; original English black morocco, covered with
elaborate gilt-tooled floral ornaments, g.e. 8vo. R. Norton for E. Pawlet, 1694. Circa 1694.

Fig. 221.

AGLIONBY (Wm). Painting illustrated in Three Dialogues, containing some choice Observa-
tions upon the Art; together with the lives of the most eminent Painters; large paper, title in red
and black, contemporary English blue morocco, full gilt floreate back, the sides covered with rich
and elaborate gilt tooling of tulips and other flowers and foliage, g.e. (Probably dedication copy to
the Earl of Derby.) 4to. Printed by John Gain for the Author, 1685. Circa 168S.

These two black morocco bindings are fine examples of post-Restoration design,
when the delicate tooling in imitation of French work, already introduced in the reign
of Charles I, was still further developed.

Chapter XIX.

0/)

TWO LATE 17TH CENTURY BOOKBINDINGS.

Fig. 222.

ALLESTRR (Richnrd), or Pakington (Lady Dorothy). The Lively Oracles given to us; or,
the Christian's Birthright and Duty in the custody and use of the Holy Scriptures, frontispiece,
old English red morocco, richly tooled back and sides. There are three inlays of blue and citron
morocco on each side. Oxford at the Theater, 1679. l.atc 17th or early IStlt dcntiiry.

This is a fine and elaborate example of the cottage pattern, which became a special
feature of English bookbinding after the Restoration, especially in books issued from the
University presses of Oxford and Cambridge.

Fig. 223.

MORRTON (A). The Secrets of the Invisible World Disclos'd, plates (mounted and defective)
inserted in a fine old morocco extra binding, sides tooled to an elaborate "cottage roof" pattern,
with the initials "M.R." surmounted by a crown.

This binding was originally on Stanhope's Gospels, and is so lettered on back.

End 0/ the 17tli (Century.

This binding, which was executed for Queen Mary, has the sides decorated with
tooling in gold in the ornamental panel known as the cottage pattern. It closely
resembles in design that of the Fables of Pilpay (1699), from the library of George III,
in the British Museum.

Chapter XIX.

.'Of

TWO LATE 17TH CENTURY BOOKBINDINGS.

Fig. 224.

GENTLEMAN'S CALLING. By the Author of the Whole Duty of Man, engraved title,
contemporary dark olive morocco elaborately tooled with scroll borders, curves, stars and dots in
gilt and silver, g.e. 8vo. Late 17th Century.

Fig. 225.

A PARAPHRASE AND ANNOTATIONS UPON THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL.
Oxford, 1684. This red morocco binding has its sides decorated with fine scrolling gilt tooling
and pointille work in the centre and corners. Late 17th Ceiitnrx.

These two bindings show variations of the refined and well-designed style prevalent
in England after the Restoration. In Fig. 224, a considerable amount of the ornament
is in silver, the effect of which, in conjunction with the gilt, must have been peculiarly
effective when first done, the silver, however, unfortunately always tarnishes much sooner
than gilding.

Chapter XIX.

I*.

<\1

•°/}

THREE ROYAL BOOKBINDINGS.

Fig. 226.

The Greatness of the Mystery of Godliness, together with Hypocrisie discovered in its Nature
and Workings. By Cuthbert Sydenham, Minister of the Gospel at Newcastle upon Tync. The
Third Edition, London. Printed for R.'i'., and are to be sold by Robert Boulter at the Turks-head
in Cornhili, over against the Royail Exchange. 1672.

Presentation copy with the cypher and crown of Charles II. Latter part o/ the IJtli (U')itiiry.

Fig. 227.

ALMANACKS for the year 1684. Lilly (William), Merlini Angli P'phemeris ; Gadbury (John),
A Diary Astronomical, Meteorological; Partridge (John), Merlinus Redivivus; Hill (Henry), A
Starry Lecture; Streete (Thomas), A Complete Ephemeris; Woodward (Daniel), Vox Uranie ;
Saunders (Richard), Apollo Anglicanus; Wing (John); Coelson (Lancelot), Speculum Perspicuum
Uranicum ; Tanner (John), Angelus Britannicus; Andrews (William), News from the Stars; and
others to the number of 26, in 1 vol. am. 8vo (6\ in. by 4 in.), bound in contemporary English red
morocco, g.e. 1684.

Presentation copy with cypher J.D. (Jacobus Dux) and coronet of the Duke of York.

Late 17 til ('ciitury.

Fig. 22S.

A NEW COLLECTION OF SELECT ANTHEMS used at Her Majesty's Chappels Royal,
1712. With cypher and crown of Queen Anne. Beginning of the ISth Century.

These three illustrations show a plainer type of binding, which was frequently used
after the Restoration, and in which the ornamentation is principally confined to very
small stamps of the cypher, crown and palm leaves in each corner, and in each of the
divisions on the back.

Chapter XIX.

•at

«M

•OH

AN EARLY i8th CENTURY BOOKBINDING.

Fig. 229.

This binding (25 in. by 19 in.) of red morocco, elaborately tooled with gilt ornament, has been
converted into a scrap book, and now contains a large collection of contemporary proof caricatures
of George IV and Mrs. Fitzherbert. E)id o/ Ihc first quarter oj the ISth Century.

Though the great period of English bookbinding was over by the opening of the
18th Century, there exist bindings of excellent workmanship in which the design, as in
the silversmiths' work of the period from 1720 onwards, closely follows contemporary
French ornament in its balanced arrangement of short scrolls, scalework and elaborated
shells.

Chapter XIX.

Fig. 229.

TWO I 8th century BOOKBINDINGS.

Fig. 230.

FITZGERALD (Thomas). Poems on Several Occasions. First Edition (dedicated to the
Earl of Middlesex), old red morocco, full gilt back, ornamental borders with birds and centre
ornaments, g.e. Signed "Orrery," and inscribed "sent to me by the Author, Mr. Fitzgerald,
Sept. 2Sth, 1733." 8vo. Printed by J. Watts, 1733. Second quarter of the ISth Century.

John Boyle, 5th Earl of Cork, and 5th Earl of Orrery (1707-1762) succeeded in 1731.
In his father's will reference is made to him as having "never showed much taste or
inclination for the knowledge which study or learning af!ord," and his father's library
was left away from him. He became known later as the author of "Remarks on Swift."

Fig. 231.

DOUGLAS (Adam). Dissertatio medica inauguralis de Epilepsia. Contemporary green
morocco, gilt borders of vase ornaments and small tools, centre ornaments, g.e. 8vo. Edinburgh.
1791. End o/ the IStli Century.

This binding shows the classic ornament, such as vases, oval paterte, etc., which
also appeared upon furniture, silver and all other decorations in the late 18th Century.

Chapter XIX.

•^1

A LATE I 8th CENTURY BOOKBINDING.

Fig. 232.

PARTRIDGE (John). Opus Reformatum ; or a Treatise on Astrology wherein the Common
Errors of that Art are modestly exposed and rejected. First Edition, two portraits inserted, old
Russia, line tooled, joints, g.c, by Roger Payne. Sm. 4to. Printed for Awnsham and John
Churchill. I-ate ISili Cculnry.

{From the Hiith colIccti<>)i.)

This binding of Russia leather was tooled by Roger Payne. This famous bookbinder
of the late 18th Century was famous also for his eccentricity. His work (which had a
great reputation during his lifetime) was always conscientious and, to quote Mr. Fletcher,
"carefully and intelligently carried out," the forwarding and finishing of his bindings
being equally good. As a rule the backs alone of his bindings are elaborately tooled,
the sides being left comparatively plain. Payne appears to have done the whole of the
work himself, even frequently cutting his tools. He describes this present example in
his bill (which is pasted inside the cover) as "bound in the very best manner, the book
lined with Russia under ye Russia cover. Finished very neat. Lettering very correct,
and is a specimen of curious Russia work not clumsy but exceedingly neat."

AN EARLY 19TH CENTURY BOOKBINDING.

Fig. 233.

FALCONER (Wm). The Shipwreck, a Poem, with Life by J. S. Clarke; plates by Fittler;
binding by William Edwards; yellow morocco, inlaid side borders of red morocco, richly gilt,
inside borders, joints, g.e., with a clever painting of a warship with flying flags of! Greenwich. 8vo.
W. Miller. 1806. Beginning of the 19tli (Unittiry.

William Edwards (1720-1808), a bookbinder of Halifax, who afterwards removed to
Pall Mall, London, obtained a considerable reputation by his process of ornamenting
the edges of the leaves of his books with paintings, as in this example. In 1785, he
took out a patent for "embellishing books bound in vellum, by making drawings on the
vellum which are not liable to be defaced but by destroying the vellum itself." The
vellum was first rendered transparent by a peculiar process, and drawings were then
made or engravings impressed on the underside, which could not be obliterated.

Chapter XIX.

•at,

CM
CM

Chapter XX.

ROYAL ARMS ON BOOKBINDINGS.

INDEX.

Fig. 234. Henry VIII

235. Katherine of Aragon

236. Queen Elizabeth

237. James I

238. Henry Frederick, Prince of
Wales

239

240. Charles I

241. Charles II

242. James II

243. William III

244. Queen Anne

245. George II

Fig. 246. George III

„ 248.

Cyphcr-

-Queen Elizabeth

,, 249.

j >

> J

,, 250.

» ♦

„ 251.

J y

Henry Frederick,
Prince of Wales

,, 252.

» »

Charles II

,, 253.

) J

9 >

,, 254.

1 »

Queen Anne

,, 255.

) »

George II

,, 256.

» t

William IV

Chapter XX.

BOOKBINDINGS WITH THE ROYAL ARMS.

THE first King of England to use distinctive arms was Richard I, in 1189, but
in most text books the Royal Arms of England commence with the Norman
Conquest, and two lions are shown for William the Conqueror. There is,
however, no proof that he used these as a personal badge, or that these
constituted the Royal coat-of-arms. Had such been the case they would certainly
have figured in the Bayeux Tapestry.

The flcur-de-lys of France was first introduced into the Royal Arms of England
by Edward III, when in 1341, by virtue of maternal descent, he claimed the vacant
throne of France. The decision, however, was in favour of Philip of Valois, afterwards
Philip VI, to whom Edward did homage for Guienne. On Philip giving assistance to
David II of Scotland, Edward renewed his claims to the Royal title and arms of France
and declared war. His Great Seal of the following year bears, quarterly 1 and 4 the
fleur-de-lys for France, 2 and 3 three lions for England, thus making the arms of
England subordinate to those of France. Later the Royal Coat was varied by intro-
ducing the legendary arms of Edward the Confessor; these Henry V abandoned, but
the fleii)-dc-lys remained in one position or another, until the beginning of the 19th
Century. In the ancient arms of France the fletir-de-lys were semees until Charles VI
reduced the number to three to symbolise the Trinity, and a corresponding change was
made in the English coat.

By the invention of printing in the 15th Century, books, which had formerly been
laboriously copied by hand, could be reproduced in quantities and were obtainable by
wealthy individuals. Henry VIII's love of luxury and splendour was shown in the
beautiful bindings made for his own use, or for presentations to his Queens. The earlier
titles of King Henry were King of England and France, and Lord (afterwards King) of
Ireland, though in Tudor times the Harp of Ireland was not introduced into the Royal
Arms of England. Its association with Ireland is obscure, but it appears on early
16th Century Irish coins, and King James I placed it in the Royal bearings in the third
quarter.

It is impossible to trace adequate authority for the Arms of Scotland. However,
before the accession of James I, they "consisted of the present lion rampant within a
double tressure.

When England and Scotland became one monarchy under James I an important
change took place. The quartered arms of France and England then occupied the
first and fourth quarter, the second contained the arms of Scotland, and the third the
Irish Harp. The Lion and the Unicorn became, and have since continued, the national
supporters.

No further change took place in our Royal Arms until the accession of King
William III, who introduced those of Nassau, and after experimenting with the
position of the flciir-de-lys in the Royal English coat, finally placed them in the fourth
quarter, the lions of England being in the first, the rampant lion of Scotland occupying
the second, and the harp of Ireland the third. Queen Anne, of course, gave up the
arms of Nassau, and at first used the former Stuart coat, but adopting Queen Elizabeth's
motto Sc))ip)cr Eodeiu. A change occurred in her reign after the union of the Parliaments
of England and Scotland, when the Royal Arms became : First and fourth quarters,
England and Scotland impaled; second, France; third, Ireland.

This was adopted by George I, with the substitution of the arms of his German
dominions — Brunswick, Luneburg and Saxony — for the impaled arms of England and
Scotland in the fourth quarter ; and including an escutcheon charged with the crown
of Gharlemagne, to show his claim to the ofiice of High Treasurer of the Holy Roman
Empire.

No further change was made until 1801, when, as a sop to Napoleon, the Royal title
was altered from "King of Great Britain, France and Ireland" to "Of Great Britain
and Ireland, King," and, although the motto Dieu ct mou droit was retained, the
fleur-dc-lys, which had also appeared since 1341, was removed from the coat-of-arms,
but remained on the crown. At the same time, the arms of "Our Dominions in
Germany," instead of occupying the fourth quarter, were shown on a shield of pretence
ensigned with the electoral bonnet. The lions representing England (which, since the
accession of George I, had only occupied one-eighth of the Royal Shield) from that date
have been represented in the first and fourth quarters.

Later in the same reign (1816), upon Hanover being given the rank of a kingdom,
the electoral bonnet was changed to a Royal Crown. As under the Salic law. Queen
Victoria could not succeed to the Hanoverian throne, the arms of Hanover were deleted
No further change has taken place.

BOOKBINDINGS W^TH THE ROYAL ARMS.

Bible printed in Latin, with arms of King Henry VIII on the front cover, and of Queen
Katharine of Aragon on the back.

The Royal Arms shown on this binding were used by the binder as a trade device implying
Royal authority.

Fin. 234. HENRY VIII (reigned 1509-1547).

Arms — 1 and 4, three flciir-de-lys for France; 2 and 3, three lions for England.
Supporters — Dexter, the dragon ; Sinister, the greyhound. Badges — Below, the Port-
cullises of De Beaufort ; above, a Tudor rose.

Surmounted with a Royal Crown and two angels bearing scrolls.

After 1S28, King Henry V^III gave up the Greyhound and adopted a Lion as the dexter
supporter, moving the Dragon to the opposite side.

James I substituted the Unicorn of Scotland for the Dragon. No further change has taken place
in the supporters.

Fig. 235. KATHERINE OF ARAGON (1485-1536).

Impaled Arms. — On the dexter side the arms used by her husband. King
Henry VIII ; on the sinister side are quartered the arms of Castile and Leon (as used
by her mother, Isabella of Castile) and those of Aragon and Sicily (as used by her
father, Ferdinand of Aragon). Below are the arms of Grenada (territory acquired
during the joint reign of her parents).

Surmounted by a Royal Crown and with angels as supporters.

Chapter XX

BOOKBINDINGS WITH THE ROYAL ARMS

(Continued).

An Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the Christian and Reformed Churches, by
Bishop John Jewel, 1586.

Fig. 236. QUEEN ELIZABETH (reigned 1568-1603).

Arms as used by her father (King Henry VIII) within the Garter, ensigned with
the Royal Crown.

King Edward, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth each used the same arms and
supporters.

The Book of Common Prayer, 1622.

Fig. 237. JAMES I (reigned 1603-1625).

The arms of England which had been used since the reign of Edward III now
became only a quartering, and are shown in the first and fourth quarters, and in the
second quarter is introduced the arms of Scotland, and in the third, for the first time,
the harp (representing Ireland) appears in the Royal Arms.

As supporters, the griffin is abandoned and a chained unicorn (one of the two former
Scotch supporters) is substituted.

Chapter XX.

Fiq. 236.

Fig. 237.

BOOKBINDINGS WITH THE ROYAL ARMS

((!<))iti)iuecl).

Discorsi Historici I'liivcrsnli di Cosmo Harloli. (icncv.i, 1S82.

Fiil. J.?.S'. HENRY FREDERICK, PRINCE OF WALES
(born 15^M, died 1612).

The arms as used by James I, with a label of three points (the cadency mark denoting
an eldest son) enclosed in the Garter and ensigned with a princely coronet.

On the back of the title page of this book, there is the stamp "MUSEUM
BRITANNICUM, DUPLICATE for SALE, 17b^)."

Scriptorcs Kenim Anglicaruni post Reciam Praecipui.

Fig. 239. HENRY FREDERICK, PRINCE OF WALES.

As above, but without the Carter and with the thistle of Scotland in the border.

On the back of the title page of this book, there is the stamp "MUSEUM
BRITANNICUM, DUPLICATE, H.M. 1818" ; and on the title page is the signature
of Lord Lumlev.

Chapter XX.

BOOKBINDINGS WITH THE ROYAL ARMS

{('())itiiiticd).

An Isxphination of the Cerenu)ni:il I,:i\vcs of Moses, 1632.

Fi<<. 2(1). CHARLES I (reigned 1625-1649).

The arms (without supporters) as used by him ; the same book stamp had been
previously used by King James I.

Rchuions ;md Observations, Historical and I'olilic upon the i^irlianient begun Anno 1640.

Fig. 241. CHARLES II (reigned 1650-1685).

The arms as used by ('harles I, with the initials C.R.

At the beginning of his reign Charles II used many of the book stamps which had
been made for his father, of which this is probably one.

Acts of Parliament (a collection of). Anno Regno Caroli II.

Fig. 242. JAMES II (reigned 1685-1688; died 1701).

The same arms as in previous reigns were used by James II until 1685 ; afterwards
(whilst living at St. Germains) the flctir-dc-lys of France were frequently omitted in
deference to Louis XIV.

This stamp illustrated is an uncommon one, and is the same as that on the Missal bound for
James II in the Windsor collection.

ApophtesSemes (Les), des Anciens.

Fig. 243. WILLIAM III (reigned with Queen Mary 1689-1694).

( alone 1694-1702).

Arms as used in previous reigns, but with an escutcheon of pretence, showing the
l>ion Rampant for Nassau. Probably bound after the death of Mary in 1694, as during
her joint reign, the initials W.R. and M.R. are generally added.

King William III several times altered the position of the llcnr-clc-Iy^ in the Royal Arms; he
was almost continuously at war with Louis XIV, and it is stated that the clianges were made for
political reasons.

Chapter XX.

Fig. 240.

Fig. 242.

Fig. 241.

Fig. 243.

BOOKBINl)INC;S WITH THE ROYAL ARMS

(doiiliiiiicd).

A Book (',o\cr onl\.

/•■;;>. 211. OUKRN ANNE (reigned 1702-1711).

The first coat-ot-aims used in this reign was the same as that of King William III,
but without the badge O' Nassau. In 1702, a notice was published that the motto
Sojifcr I'lddciii, which had been adopted by Queen Elizabeth, was always to be used
in future.

When the separate Parliaments of England and Scotland were united in 170(i, the
coat-of-arms was changed (as here illustrated) by impaling in the first and fourth quarters
the arms of England and Scotland, and the flvHy-dc-Iys of iM-ance were piacetl in the
second ciuarler.

l')C)ok of (ioiiinioii l'r;i\ci, 175S.

Fiil. 245. CIEORGE II (reigned 1727-1760).

The accession of (jleorge 1 caused an important change in the Royal Arms. The
impaled arms of England and Scotland, which previously occupied the first and fourth
quarters, now appeared in the first quarter only, and in the fourth quarter was placed
a quartered coat containing the arms of the Royal dominions in (Germany, namely,
Brunswick, Luneburg and Saxony, charged with the crown of Charlemagne as a badge
of the office of High Treasurer of the Holy Roman Empire.

These arms continued to be used until 1801.

Chapter XX.

F/C 214.

Fig. 245.

BOOKBINDINGS WITH THE ROYAL ARMS

(doufinttcd).

A Book Cover only.

fi.i.'. 246. GEORGE III (reigned 1760-1820).

In 1801, the title of King of France was abandoned, and the Royal Arms were
consequently altered. The ficur-dc-lys were omitted, the lions of England were placed
in the first and fourth quarters, the lion of Scotland occupying the second, and the Irish
harp remaining in the third quarter. The impaled arms of the German dominions
were now shown on an escutcheon, ensigned with the electoral bonnet. In 181(i,
when Hanover was granted the rank of a kingdom, this electoral bonnet was changed
to a Royal Oown.

After the death of William IV, the German arms were removed and no change has
since taken place.

Architettiira di Andrea Palladio, Venice 157U, with book plate of the Carlton House Library.

Fig. 247. GEORGE IV (reigned 1820-1830).

The arms of George, Prince of Wales, as Prince Regent are the same as in those of
George III, with a princely coronet {i.e., with only one arch) substituted for the Royal
Crown ; also the label of an eldest son is added.

In the ground work of this book stamp, the lines and dots indicate the tinctures. Inside the
cover of this book there is the Prince of Wales's book plate; under this is engraved: Carleton
House Library. The book was in the Carlton House Library, which, upon his accession,
George IV proposed to sell (together with the library he had inherited from his father) to the
I\mperor of Russia. Lord Liverpool, however, managed to find secret funds and acquire both
collections for the nation.

A certain number of duplicates were afterwards sold. Inside this book the stamp of a Royal
Crown and the words "Duplicate 1837."

Chapter XX.

Fig. 246.

Fig. 247.

BOOKBINDINGS \MTH THE ROYAL BADGES

AND CYPHERS.

justinus P.irisus.

Fi,i<. 2IS. QUEEN ELIZABETH.

A fleui-clc-lys representing the claim to France, and the two roses (for Lancaster
and ^ork) royally crowned.

The C-oiintess of Pcnibruke's Arcndi:: h\- Sir Philip Sydncx', 1.^98.

Fig. 249. QUEEN ELIZABETH.

A Falcon royally crowned, holding a royal sceptre and standing on a mound out of
which is growing a rose tree, representing Lancaster and York. The falcon was used
by Queen Elizabeth in memory of her mother, at whose coronation it was shown in a
pageant. A falcon is shown on the tomb of the Earl of Wiltshire, father of Anne Boleyn,
and was also sometimes used by King James I.

The (louiitess of Penihroke's Arcadi;i h\- Sir Pliilip Sydney, 1.S98.

Fig. 250. QUEEN ELIZABETH.

A Tudor rose, in the centre of which is the portcullis of the Beauforts (the badge of
her father, King Henry VIII) royally crowned, with sprays of rose leaves on each side.
The Royal Crown varies in each of the above badges. The four crosses puttee and four
fieur-dc-lys with jewelled arches rising from the centre of the former and surmounted
with a mound and cross, had been olificially adopted by Henry VII (see last illustration),
hut variations are frequent.

Discorsi Flistorici (Jniversiili do Cosmo B:irtoli. Venice 1.^82.

Fig. 2.51. HENRY FREDERICK, PRINCE OF WALES.
The Tudor rose ensigned with Princely coronet.

A Compieal History of tlie Life ;md Reigns of King Charles from his Cradle to his Grave, by
William Sanderson, Id.SS.

/'";;'. 2.^2. CHARLES II.

Car. Rex (Carolus Re.x) ensigned with the Royal Crown. The peculiarity of the
extra arches rising from the fleui-dc-lys is often seen in Stuart crowns.

I'.ikoii Rasilike- The Portraictnre of his Sacred Majestic in his Solitude and Snfferinfts. 1649.

Fig. J5.K CHARLES II.

Crowned initials C.C. within palm branches. This badge w-as the one most frequently
adopted and is usually found on books bound for Charles II.

A Cover onl>'.

Fig. 254. QUEEN ANNE.
The Royal monogram ensigned with the Royal Crown. Entwined monograms with
the letters reversed were largely used at the end of the 17th and at the beginning of the
18th Centuries.

P)ook ni Common Prayer, ]7,S8.

Fig. 255. GEORGE II.
The Royal monogram ensigned with the Royal Crown. This design was adopted bv
each of the four Georges, sometimes with the addition of the numerals 11, HI or IIII.
Demi-figures of angels were also used (as in this case) when the binding was of a praver
or hymn book.

An account of P'ulham, by T. Faulkner, 181.1

Fig. 256. WILLIAM IV.
The Royal cypher "W.R. IIII" (William Rex IIII) within the Garter and ensigned
with the Royal Crown. This design which King William used exclusivelv shows the
decadence of taste which commenced in his reign.

Chapter XX.

FlM. 21 S.

Fig. 2W.

Fig. 2S0.

Fig. 25].

FiM. 2S2.

Fig. 2S.L

Fig. 254.

Fig. 255.

Fig. 256.

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