^ j\^*amiAMl
di
Given By
U. S. SUPT Or DOCUMENTS
334
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
2166. Jurisdiction Over Criminal Offenses Committed by
Armed Forces: Agreement Between the United States
of America and India— Effected by exchaage of notes
signed at New Deltii September 29 and October 10, 1942 ;
effective October 26, 1942. Executive Agreement Series
392. 10 pp. 5<f.
2170. The Department of State Bulletin, vol. XI, no. 271,
September 3, 1944. 20 pp. 10^.
2174. Diplomatic List, September 1944. ii, 124 pp. Sub-
scription, $1.50 a year; single copy, 15^.
2175. The Proclaimed List of Certain Blocked Nationals :
Revision VIII, September 13, 1944, Promulgated Pur-
suant to Proclamation 2497 of the President of July 17,
1941. ii, 882 pp. Free.
2176. The Department of State Bulletin, vol. XI, no. 272,
September 10, 1944. 36 pp. liH-
2178. The Proclaimed List of Certain Blocked Nationals:
Cumulative Supplement No. 1, September 22, 1944. to
Revision VIII of Septemljer 13, 1944. ii, 19 pp. Free.
2179. The Department of State Bulletin, vol. XI, no. 273,
September 17, 1944. 24 pp. 10^.
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^ TREATY INFORMATION
Military-Mission Agreement With Iran
There has been effected by an exchange of notes
signed in Washington on August 4 and September
6, 1944, between the Minister of Iran in Washing-
ton and the Secretary of State, an extension, for a
period of one year, of an agreement signed at
Tehran on November 27, 1943 between the Govern-
ments of the United States of America and Iran
which provides for the assignment of a United
States military mission to Iran.^ The extension
is effective as of October 2, 1944.
' Executive Agreement Series 361.
July 23, 1944, p. 88.
See also Bulletin of
U. 5. GOVERNMENT PRINT1H8 OFFICEl tt44
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
^y
J
-Lj
-i
J
VOL. XI, NO. 275
OCTOBER 1, 1944
In this issue
THE ARGENTINE SITUATION: Statement by President Roosevelt *
INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY ORGANIZATION: Con-
elusion of the First Phase and Opening of the Second Phase of the
Conversations ■tr-t^-tc-tr-A-tiiritii-tt-it
THE PRESIDENT'S WAR RELIEF CONTROL BOARD * * A
AMERICAN SEAMEN: Address by Jesse E. Saugstad * * * *
.^■e.fiT 6*,
^■4TeS O*
D£C 4 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BULLETIN
October 1, 1944
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a weekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication, Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government icith
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
work of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BVLLETIIS
includes press releases on foreign policy-
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as well as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United Stales is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulative lists of which are published
at the end of each quarter, as well as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
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is $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
cents.
ontents
American Republics p«g»
The Argentine Situation: Statement by the President . . . 337
Visit of Ecuadoran Banlter 340
Contributions by Brazil to the Allied Cause: Statement by
Jefferson Caffery 345
Europe
Present Problems in Italy: Statement by the President and
Prime Minister Churchill 338
Tribute to American Aid in the Defense of Warsaw. . . . 350
Economic Affairs
Continuation of Proclaimed and Statutory Lists 340
Responsibilities of FEA After the Defeat of Germany:
Letter of the President to Leo T. Crowley 354
General
Treatment of Axis War Criminals: Statements by the Secre-
tary of State 339
The President's War Relief Control Board 346
American Seamen: Address by Jesse E. Saugstad 351
Exchange of American and German Nationals 355
Post-War Matters
International Peace and Security Organization:
Conclusion of the First Pliase of the Conversations —
Remarlss at the Closing Session by the Under Secretary
of State; Ambassador Gromyko; and Sir Alexander
Cadogan 341
Joint Statement by Heads of American, British, and
Soviet Delegations 342
Second Phase of the Conversations —
Remarks by the Secretary of State at the Opening Ses-
sion 342
Remarks by Sir Alexander Cadogan at the Opening
Session 343
Remarks by Ambassador Koo at the Opening Session . 344
International Conference on Civil Aviation 349
Treaty Information
Merchant Shipping 357
Detail of American Naval Officer to Brazil 361
Parcel-Post Agreement 361
Wounded and Sick; Prisoners of War 361
Military-Service Agreement, Great Britain and Mexico . . 361
Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation 361
Regulations Relating to Migratory Birds 362
The Department
Centralized Transportation Service 356
Appointment of Officers 357
The Foreign Service
Diplomatic and Consular Offices 353
Publications 353
The Argentine Situation
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House September 29]
I have been following closely and with increas-
ing concern the development of the Argentine situ-
ation in recent months. This situation presents
the extraordinary paradox of the growth of Nazi-
Fascist influence and the increasing application of
Nazi-Fascist methods in a country of this hemi-
sphere, at the very time that those forces of op-
pression and aggression are drawing ever closer
to the hour of final defeat and judgment in Eu-
rope and elsewhere in the world. The paradox is
accentuated by the fact, of which we are all quite
aware, that the vast majority of the people of
Argentina have remained steadfast in their faith
in their own, free, democratic traditions and in
their support of the nations and peo]"les who have
been making such great sacrifices in the fight
against the Nazis and Fascists. This was made
clear beyond all doubt by the great spontaneous
demonstration of public feeling in Argentina after
word was received of the liberation of Paris.
Tlie policy of the Government of the United
States toward Argentina as that policy has been
developed in consultation with the other American
republics has been clearly set forth by Secretary
Hull.' There is no need for me to restate it now.
The Argentine Government has repudiated
solemn inter-Anierican obligations on the basis
of which the nations of this hemisphere developed
a system of defense to meet the challenge of Axis
aggi'ession.
Unless we now demonstrate a capacity to de-
velop a tradition of respect for such obligations
among civilized nations, there can be little hope
for a system of international security, theoretically
created to maintain principles for which our peo-
ples are today sacrificing to the limit of their re-
sources, both human and material.
In this connection I subscribe wholeheartedly
to the words of Prime Minister Churchill in the
House of Commons on August second when he
declared that :
"This is not like some small wars in the past
where all could be forgotten and forgiven. Na-
tions must be judged by the part they play. Not
only belligerents but neutrals will find that their
j)osition in the world cannot remain entirely un-
affected by the part that they have chosen to play
in the crisis of the war."
I have considered it important to make this
statement of the position of the Government of
the United States at this time because it has come
to my attention that the Nazi radio beamed to
Latin America, the pro-Nazi press in Argentina,
as well as a few irresponsible individuals and
groups in this and certain other republics, seek
to undermine the position of the American re-
publics and our associates among the United Na-
tions by fabricating and circulating the vicious
rumor that our counsels are divided on the course
of our policy toward Argentina.
" Bdixetin of July 30, 1944, p. 107.
337
338
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Present Problems in Italy
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT AND PRIME MINISTER CHURCHILL
[Released to the press by the White House September 26]
The President and the Prime Minister held
further discussions Monday and Tuesday, Sep-
tember 18 and 19, at Hyde Park, on subjects deal-
ing with post-war policies in Europe. The result
of these discussions cannot be disclosed at this time
for strategic militai-y reasons, and pending their
consideration by our other Allies.
The present problems in Italy also came under
discussion, and on this subject the President and
the Prime Minister issued the following state-
ment :
"The Italian people, freed of their Fascist and
Nazi overlordship, have in these last twelve months
demonstrated their will to be free, to fight on the
side of the democracies, and to take a place among
the United Nations devoted to principles of peace
and justice.
"We believe we should give encouragement to
those Italians who are standing for a political re-
birth in Italy, and are completing the destruction
of the evil Fascist system. We wish to afford the
Italians a greater opportunity to aid in the defeat
of our common enemies.
"The American and the British people are of
course horrified by the recent mob action in Rome,
but feel that a greater responsibility placed on the
Italian people and on their own government will
most readily prevent a recurrence of such acts.
"An increasing measure of control will be gradu-
ally handed over to the Italian Administration,
subject of course to that Administration's prov-
ing that it can maintain law and order and the
regular administration of justice. To mark this
change the Allied Control Commission' will be
renamed 'The Allied Commission.'
"The British High Commissioner in Italy wiU
assume the additional title of Ambassador. The
' BuiiETiN of Aug. 6, 1944, p. 137.
United States representative in Rome already
holds that rank. The Italian Government will be
invited to appoint direct representatives to Wash-
ington and London.
"First and immediate considerations in Italy are
the relief of hunger and sickness and fear. To this
end we instructed our representatives at the
UNRRA Conference to declare for the sending of
medical aids and other essential supplies to Italy.
We are happy to know that this view commended
itself to other members of the UNRRA Council.
"At the same time, first steps should be taken
toward the reconstruction of an Italian economy —
an economy laid low under the years of the mis-
rule of Mussolini, and ravished by the German
policy of vengeful destruction.
"These steps should be taken primarily as mili-
tary aims to put the full resources of Italy and
the Italian people into the struggle to defeat Ger-
many and Japan. For military reasons we should
assist the Italians in the restoration of such power
systems, their railways, motor transport, roads
and other communications as enter into the war
situation, and for a short time send engineers,
technicians and industrial experts into Italy to
help them in their own rehabilitation.
"The application to Italy of the Trading with
the Enemy Acts should be modified so as to en-
able business contacts between Italy and the out-
side world to be resumed for the benefit of the
Italian people.
"We all wish to speed the day when the last
vestiges of Fascism in Italy will have been wiped
out, and when the last German will have left
Italian soil, and when there will be no need of
any Allied troops to remain — the day when free
elections can be held throughout Italy, and when
Italy can earn her proper place in the great fam-
ily of free nations."
OCTOBER 1, 1944
339
Treatment of Axis War Criminals
STATEMENTS BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE
[Released to the press September 28]
On August 21, 1942 and again on July 30, 1943
President Roosevelt publicly denounced the
crimes which the Axis Powers, their leaders, and
criminal associates were committing against in-
nocent people. In his statement of July 30, 1943
the President expressed incredulity that any neu-
tral country would give asylum to or extend pro-
tection to such persons and added that the Gov-
ernment of the United States "would regard the
action by a neutral government in affording asy-
lum to Axis leaders or their tools as inconsistent
with the principles for which the United Na-
tions are fighting". He expressed the hope that
no neutral government would permit its terri-
tory to be used as a place of refuge or otherwise
assist such persons in any effort to escape their
just deserts.
The governments of the neutral nations in
Europe and of Argentina were formally apprised
of this statement.
The rapid progress of the armed forces of the
United Nations in recent weeks led the Depart-
ment of State late in August to call this matter
again urgently to the attention of a number of
neutral governments. This Government's action
had the support and approval of the British and
Soviet Governments.
The neutral governments were reminded that
it was the intention of this Government that the
successful close of the war would include provi-
sion for the surrender to the United Nations of
war criminals. They were advised that if they
refused to admit Axis leaders and their henchmen
and criminal subordinates to their territories
problems between those govermnents and the
United Nations could be avoided. It was pointed
out that the neutral governments themselves
would undoubtedly regard persons guilty of such
crimes against civilization as thoroughly unde-
sirable aliens whose admission to their territories
would not be in the interest of the neutral govern-
ments even if such persons were not wanted for
eventual trial by the United Nations. They were
advised that the American people would not un-
derstand the extension of asylum or protection by
neutral countries to any of the persons responsible
for the war or for the many barbaric acts com-
mitted by the Axis leaders, and that relations be-
tween the United States and the neutral govern-
ments concerned would be adversely affected for
years to come should the Axis leaders or their
vassals find safety in those countries.
Some of the neutral governments had already
been giving serious thought to this problem. The
Swedish Government's policy was publicly an-
nounced on September 5 in a declaration to the
effect that Sweden's frontiers would not be open
to those who by their actions had defied the con-
science of the civilized woi'ld or betrayed their
own countries, and that persons of this character
who succeeded in slipping into Sweden would be
promptly deported. It is understood that the
Swedish Govermnent has taken concrete steps
to implement that policy.
No representations were made to the Turkish
Government in view of its recent rupture of rela-
tions with Germany. The Turkish Government,
nevertheless, announced on September 8 that
Turkish frontier authorities had been instructed
not to permit Axis nationals, either civil or mili-
tary, to enter Turkey by land or by sea.
The Swiss Government has indicated that it is
fully alive to the problems which would arise
sliould Axis leaders find asylum in Switzerland.
A public statement has been made by the Span-
ish Ambassador in Washington denying that
there was any basis for supposition that Axis
leaders might find refuge in Spanish territory.
No indication has yet been received of the views
of certain other governments.
The Department is continuing to impress upon
those governments whose policy has not yet been
clearly stated the importance which it attaches
to the taking of adequate measures to insure that
Axis war criminals do not find asylum in their
countries.
340
[Released to the press September 28]
Considerable attention has been attracted by a
statement that a list of war criminals compiled
by the War Crimes Commission in London does
not include the names of Hitler and other top
Nazi officials. The answer to any suggestion that
they have been or are likely to be overlooked by
the United Nations is found in the Moscow Dec-
laration of 1943 on German atrocities, which, after
stating that the perpetrators of atrocities in occu-
pied territories will be brought back to the scene
of their crimes and judged on the spot by the
peoples whom they have outraged, specifically de-
clares that the "major criminals, whose oflFenses
have no particular geographical localization . . .
will be punished by the joint decision of the
Governments of the Allies."
The omission of the names of these people from
any particular list compiled by the War Crimes
Commission is without any significance whatso-
ever from the point of view of what the Allied
Powers have in mind in regard to them.*
Visit of Ecuadoran Banker
[Released to the press September 25]
His Excellency Senor Galo Plaza, Ambassador
from Ecuador, has made arrangements with the
Department of State for a series of conversations
to be held in Washington between Senor Victor
Emilio Estrada, personal representative of the
President of Ecuador, and various officers of the
Government of the United States. Seiior Estrada,
a well-known Ecuadoran banker, has been presi-
dent of the municipality of Guayaquil since June
1944 and is also a director of the Ecuadoran De-
velopment Corporation, which is in part financed
by the Export-Import Bank of Washington. His
conversations with officials of our Government
will be of an exploratory nature and will concern
the possibility of certain further cooperative eco-
nomic developments in Ecuador. It is understood
that; the projects which Seiior Estrada will dis-
cuss are part of a broad economic program which
is designed to take advantage of Ecuador's re-
sources through improvements in transportation,
agriculture, health, and sanitation.
' Statement made by the Secretary of State at his press
and radio news conference on Sept. 28, 1944.
' Bulletin of July 19, 1941, p. 41.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Continuation of Proclaimed
And Statutory Lists
[Released to the press September 26]
The Department of State issued the following
statement on September 26 :
"It has been determined by the United States
Government and the British Government that the
continuation of the Proclaimed^ and Statutory
Lists will be necessary following the cessation of
organized resistance in Germany. This action is
required in order to permit the Allied Govern-
ments to deal properly with firms which have been
part and parcel of the Axis effort to gain world
domination. Many of these firms have been con- j,
trolled from Axis territory and have been utilized
as instruments of the Axis war machine. Control
over these Axis subsidiaries will be necessary as a
supplement to Allied control of the head offices of
these firms in Germany mitil adequate measures
are taken to prevent the further utilization of these
firms as instruments of Axis policy. It will also be
necessary to continue on the lists those firms that
have sold themselves out to the Axis through their
desire to make temporary exorbitant profits at the
expense of the cause of democracy. The continua-
tion of the lists is also necessary in order to main-
tain controls over foreign assets, which have been
looted from their rightful owners by the Axis Gov-
ernments, until steps are taken to deprive the Axis
of this stolen property. Other firms on the lists
constitute foreign investments by Axis leaders in
an effort to finance themselves and their cause fol-
lowing the surrender of Germany. The lists will
also constitute a means of furthering the wartime
economic strangulation of Japan.
"Wliile the lists will be maintained during the
transition period from war to peacetime conditions
wherever the remnants of Axis activity require, it
is contemplated that the complete or virtual with-
drawal of the lists will be possible at an early date
with respect to those countries where adequate
controls have been established and Axis spearhead
firms have been eliminated.
"The United States Government expresses its
hope that all governments and persons in support
of the cause of democracy will cooperate to the end
that these stated objectives shall be accomplished."
OCTOBER 1, 1944
341
International Peace and Security Organization
Conclusion of the First Phase of the Conversations'
REMARKS BY THE UNDER SECRETARY OF
STATE AT THE CLOSING SESSION^
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations September 20]
Mr. Ambassador, Sir Alexander, Gentlemen:
Nearly six weeks have elapsed since we began these
important conversations. In this brief period of
time we have accomplished a great deal, more than
many thought possible. Li large measure, our
achievements have been made possible by the cor-
dial cooperation of my fellow chairmen. Ambas-
sador Gromyko and Sir Alexander Cadogan, and
all who have worked with us. I wish to express
my deep personal appreciation and thanks for this
cooperation, which has resulted in the splendid
spirit of harmony and good-will which has pre-
vailed throughout the conversations.
We have every reason for satisfaction with what
has been accomplished. We have developed in
the brief period of six weeks a wide area of agree-
ment on the fundamental and necessary princi-
ples for an international organization to maintain
peace and security. These principles will be of
vital importance in guiding our Governments at
every step that must yet be taken to bring into
existence the organization which we have here en-
visaged.
The peace-loving peoples of the world will be
heartened and encouraged by what we have ac-
complished at Dumbarton Oaks. They will await
with eager hope the early completion of the task.
We must not fail them and I confidently anticipate
that the spirit of cooperation which has united our
nations in war and which has prevailed through-
out our deliberations here will lead to early agree-
ment among the governments of all peace-loving
nations.
^ The conversations among the representatives of the
United States, the United Kingdom, and the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington
began on Aug. 21, 1944. See Bulletin of Aug. 27, 1944,
p. 197.
' Mr. Stettinius is cliairman of the American Delegation.
' Head of the Soviet Delegation.
'Head of the United Kingdom Delegation.
REMARKS BY AMBASSADOR GROMYKO AT
THE CLOSING SESSION'
The three delegations have sat together from
August 21 until now discussing a number of impor-
tant questions of the establisliment of an interna-
tional security organization. Today we have
ground to state that the conversations have un-
doubtedly been useful. On behalf of the Soviet
Delegation, I wish to express appreciation of the
friendly atmosphere in which the delegates carried
on their work. I believe I will express the opinion
of all present if I thank Mr. Stettinius for his able
chairmanship. I also wish to thank the United
States Government, and in this I am sure I express
the appreciation of every one of us for the hospi-
tality that we have received.
REMARKS BY SIR ALEXANDER CADOGAN AT
THE CLOSING SESSION*
I should like to thank you, Mr. Chairman, for
what you have said on behalf of all of us. I agree
that much useful work has been done here which
will contribute to ultimate success in the later
stages of the discussions.
I wish to say a word about the manner in which
Mr. Stettinius has conducted the conversations.
He knew how to combine energy with courtesy and
patience, and thus, as chairman, he has hastened
our passage over the smooth parts of the road
and has helped to iron out the asperities. A large
part of such success as we have achieved is due to
him.
I do not, of course, use the word "asperities" in
its more sinister sense. There was never anything
of that. Sometimes we found ourselves in dis-
agreement in our discussion, but I believe that we
disagreed amiably and reasonably. It was the
experience of each of us at some time to be in
opposition to the other two delegations, but even
if we considered the views of the other two pecu-
liar, we recognized that they were sincerely held,
and therefore worthy of respect. I believe this is
a good augury for the future.
I wish to add my thanks to the secretariat.
342
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
They have been prompt, eflScient, and helpful. I
also wish to express our indebtedness to the United
States Government for their hospitality. They
have given us every facility in this wonderful set-
ting. They have filled, in fact almost over-filled,
our scanty leisure hours. We will go home with
the most agreeable memories and a deep sense of
gratitude.
JOINT STATEMENT BY HEADS OF AMERICAN,
BRITISH, AND SOVIET DELEGATIONS'
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations September 29]
Conversations between the United States,
United Kingdom, and Soviet Union Delegations
in Washington regarding the establishment of a
World Security Organization have now been com-
pleted. These conversations have been useful and
have led to a large measure of agreement on
recommendations for the general framework of
the Organization, and in particular for the ma-
chinery required to maintain peace and security.
The three Delegations are making reports to their
respective Governments who will consider these
reports and will in due course issue a simultaneous
statement on the subject.
Second Phase of the Conversations'
REMARKS BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE AT
THE OPENING SESSION
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations September 29]
In opening this phase of our conversations, it is
my pleasure to bring to you the cordial greetings
of President Roosevelt and to extend to you the
best wishes of both of us for the complete success
of your labors.
We are particularly happy to welcome here the
distinguished Delegation from the Republic of
China. The great wisdom and experience in in-
ternational affairs which is represented by your
Delegation reflects not only the high importance
which your Government attaches to this subject,
but assures that the Chinese contribution to the
conversations will reflect mature and practical
considerations.
All of us are constantly mindful of the tre-
mendous hardships and sacrifices which the
Chinese people have suffered over the long years
since the cruel and barbarous enemy first launched
upon its course of conquest. Nor can we ever for-
' See BuLMTiN of Sept. 3, 1944, p. 2a3.
'Tlie opening of the second phase of the conversations
among the representatives of the Republic of China, the
United Kingdom, and the United States on the general
nature of an international organization for the mainte-
nance of i)eace and security began on Friday, Sept. 29,
1944 at Dumbarton Oalis, Washington.
get with what patience and courage the great
Chinese people have fought on when almost every
avenue of assistance seemed closed. Happily for
all of us their dauntless faitli in ultimate victory
and their unyielding belief in human freedom have
been steadfastly maintained. Tlieir heroic ef-
forts, together with our efforts and those of our
other gallant Allies, have brought to all of us the
assurance of complete victory.
It is of the highest importance, therefore, that
we ijrepare with vigor, determination, and expedi-
tion for the new day which is dawning.
The preceding phase of the conversations has
been carried out in this spirit. I wish to take this
ojDportunity, on behalf of the President as well
as on my own behalf, to express again our deep
appreciation of the significant contribution which
the Governments of the United Kingdom and the
Soviet Union have made through their able rep-
resentatives. Sir Alexander Cadogan and Ambas-
sador Groinyko and their associates. I am fully
convinced that the excellent work already done,
and that which we are about to undertake, will
carry us a long way toward complete understand-
ing among our Governments and toward the wider
understanding which the peace-loving peoples of
the world so ardently desire.
We all realize that the successful conclusion of
these exploratory conversations will constitute
only the first step in the formation of the inter-
OCTOBER 1, 1944
343
national organization which we seek to establish.
Other steps must be taken as quickly as possible
if we are to be prepared for the peace. The joint
recommendations to be made by the representa-
tives of our Governments will, upon the conclu-
sion of this phase of the conversations, be made
available promptly to our peoples and to the peo-
ples of other peace-loving nations for full public
discussion. The strength of the organization
which we propose to establish can be no gi'eater
than the support given to it by an informed pub-
lic opinion throughout the world.
It is also our hope that a full United Nations
conference may be convened at an early date to
bring to fruition the work which has been initiated
in these conversations.
In all these deliberations we must never forget
that millions of people throughout the world are
struggling for an opportunity to live in freedom
and security. Our great objective must be to cre-
ate conditions which will make for the mainte-
nance of international peace and security and for
the advancement of human welfare, and to estab-
lish an organization for the effective realization
of these high purposes.
REMARKS BY SIR ALEXANDER CADOGAN AT
THE OPENING SESSION*
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations September 29]
In opening our discussions with our Chinese
friends we are gratefully conscious that there is
already a very large measure of agreement between
them and us. We are all, I am sure, well aware of
the importance and complexity of the problems
which we have set out to resolve, but we know that
the Chinese Delegation will bring all their ability
and all their good-will to their solution. We look
forward with pleasure to consultation with repre-
sentatives of the oldest civilisation in the world,
which throughout many trials, as severe as any
nation has endured, has kept intact the moral ideals
which are the foundations of its unique culture and
way of life.
The "Cliinese Delegation will, I am confident,
make a large contribution to the establishment of
' Head of the United Kingdom Delegation.
611828 — 44 2
a world organisation for the maintenance of peace
and security. China has shown herself ready to
assume the responsibilities which her position in
history, her vast and industrious population, and
the heroic conduct of her armies in a seven-year
struggle against a cruel and implacable enemy have
placed uj^on her. As a signatory of the Moscow
Declaration she has declared her intention to join
in setting up at the earliest practicable date a world
organisation in which all peace-loving states can
take part.
The papers that have been exchanged between us
have shown not only that we are agreed on the main
objectives, but that there is a very large measure of
agreement even in detail on the methods by which
these objectives shall be reached. We all desire to
see set up an Assembly of all peaceful states, with
a smaller Council of great and small states, together
with an efficient secretariat and an international
court of justice. We are all anxious to give the
new organisation life by basing it on the moral
ideas on which our civilisations are founded. We
all also recognise that responsibility should be com-
mensurate with power. It is for us to find the
methods by which power may be rightly applied
in the best interests of all nations. The horror and
suffering that the world has endured should give
us the will and energy to overcome all the tremen-
dous difficulties which history shows have con-
fronted those who apply themselves to such a task.
No peoj)le has suffered more than the Chinese.
They, like the peoples of the British Common-
wealth, have known what it is to stand alone on the
brink of disaster. Now we ai'e all conscious of the
terrible danger that threatened not only this na-
tion or that but the whole future of the world on
which the happiness and well-being of every man
and woman depends. We hope, therefore, that the
memory of the danger that we have escaped, as
well as of the sufferings which we have endured,
will bring a unity to the world such as it has never
before had. If we can agree to work together to
this end we shall be able to devise, in the light of a
common experience, institutions necessary to carry
out our purpose. Without such common purpose
and practice no institutions however well devised
have the necessary strength when the moment for
action comes.
344
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
REMARKS BY AMBASSADOR KOO AT THE
OPENING session'
[Released to the press September 29]
It. is a matter for congratulation that the Gov-
ernment of the United States has arranged the
present series of preliminary consultations for the
establishment of an international system of peace
and security. This is the great object set forth in
the Four Nations Declaration of October 30th,
1943 at INIoscow, and these discussions constitute
another significant step towards the realization of
our high purpose. One part of the consultations
has already taken place and yielded fruitful re-
sults. Today's meeting marks the beginning of
another pai't whicli will complete the first place in
seeking an agreed set of proposals for approval by
the Governments of the four signatory States to
the above-mentioned declaration, and for recom-
mendation to the other United Nations.
We of China, like you, Mr. Secretary of State,
and like our British and American colleagues, at-
tach the greatest importance to the work lying
ahead of us, and we shall participate in it with
the guiding thought of contributing to its success.
The lack of security which has been responsible for
the present world catastrophe made my country
its first victim. Just as the long years of resistance
to invasion with all its attendant suiferings and
sacrifices have been singularly painful for China,
so the prospect of a new international organization
rising to effectively maintain peace and justice is
particularly welcome to us.
Our desire to see it come into existence is all the
keener, not only because our appeals and warnings
in the past did not always meet with tlie response
tliey deserved, but also because, loyal to our tradi-
tional sentiment of peace, we have ever believed
in the need and the wisdom of collective effort to
ensure the peace and security of nations. Our
common experience has made it clear to us all that
the unity of purpose and the spirit of unreserved
cooperation which have together yielded such
striking results in our joint struggle against the
forces of tyranny and barbarism, are equally es-
sential in our striving to build a system of durable
peace.
' His Excellency V. K. Wellington Koo, Chinese Ambas-
sador to Great Britain, is the cbairijinn of the Chinese
Delegation.
All nations which love peace and freedom, what-
ever their size and strength, have a part to play
in any security organization which is to be set up.
We believe that such an organization should be
universal in character, and that eventually all na-
tions should be brought into it. In order to achieve
full and permanent success, the new institution
requires such general participation in its member-
ship. The responsibility of member states in safe-
guarding international peace and security may
vary according to their respective resources, but
sovereign equality as reaffirmed by the Four Na-
tions Declaration of Moscow should remain a guid-
ing principle of the new organization.
There is a consensus of opinion among the free-
dom-loving peoples of the world that all dis-
putes between nations should be settled solely by
pacific means. Resort to force by any member
state should be proscribed except when authorized
by the new organization and acting in its name in
accordance with its declared purposes and prin-
ciples. Any breach of or threat to the peace should
be stopjjed or forestalled by the application of mea-
sures which may, if necessary, take the form of
military action. Since peace is the supreme in-
terest of the world, vital for the well-being of all
l^eoples, we think no effort should be spared in
ensuring its maintenance. But to be able to carry
out this primary duty, we fii'mly believe that the
proposed structure should have at its disposal an
adequate force which it can promptly use when-
ever and wherever it may be needed.
In the light of past experience, we believe that
plans for the application of necessary measures
should be worked out beforehand by appropriate
agencies and reviewed from time to time, taking
into account changed and changing conditions in
the world. In our view it is important that such
measures, to serve as an effective deterrent to actual
or potential aggression, must have certainly def-
initeness and promptness of execution. Provision
should therefore be made to obviate the necessity
of consultation and debate at the last minute,
which, in the light of experience, would invariably
cause delay and thereby lead to an aggravation of
a situation already critical.
However, the world does not stand still; and
international life, like life in other domains, must
grow and develop. We should, therefore, make it
possible to bring about such adjustments by peace-
OCTOBER 1,1944
345
fill means as may be required by new conditions.
In order to facilitate tlie necessary pacific settle-
ment, full provision sliould be made in the basic
instrument of the new institution.
This is also true of international law. As the
intercourse between peoples grows in complexity
and the common interests of nations multiply and
become more varied, principles and rules of con-
duct for their guidance need ehicidation, revision,
and supplementation. For such work I can think
of no more authoritative or better qualified body
than the proposed new institution.
One more point I wish to bring forward before
I conclude. Wliile the safeguarding of interna-
tional security is an essential condition to the gen-
eral welfare and peaceful development of hu-
manity, positive and constructive efforts are also
required to strengthen the foundation of peace.
This can only be achieved by mitigating the
causes of international discord and conflict. It
is therefore our beJief that the new organiza-
tion should also concern itself in the study and
solution of economic and social problems of in-
ternational importance. It should be able to
recommend measures for adoption by member
states, and sliould also play a central role in the
directing and coordinating of international
agencies devoted to such purposes. With the con-
tinuous revelation of the wonders of science and
the unending achievements of technology, a sys-
tematic interchange of ideas and knowledge will
be invaluable in the promotion of the social and
economic welfare of the peoples of the world.
Similarly common effort should be made to ad-
vance international understanding and to uproot
the causes of distrust and suspicion amongst na-
tions by means of educational and cultural col-
laboration.
The few observations which I have just pre-
sented reflect the general views of the Government
and people of China. I hope they are largely in
harmony with your sentiments. We have come
to take part in the consultations not merely to pre-
sent our own views, but also to hear with an open
mind tlie opinions of the other delegations. Above
all, we are animated by the spirit of cooperation
and by the desire to promote the success of our joint
task.
The establishment of an effective international
peace organization is the united hope and aspira-
tion of all the freedom-loving peoples who have
been making such heroic sacrifices in life, blood,
and toil. We owe it to them as well as to human-
ity at large to subordinate all other considerations
to the achievement of our common object. We of
the Chinese Delegation felicitate ourselves upon
the opportunity afforded us of exploring this all-
important problem with the eminent representa-
tives of the United States and Great Britain. We
are confident that with a common will to cooper-
ate, with faith in our ideal, and with determina-
tion to share the responsibility, we cannot fail in
our undertaking.
Contributions by Brazil to the
Allied Cause
STATEMENT BY JEFFERSON CAFFERY '
It is well known that Brazil has contributed
mightily to the Allied cause for winning this war.
Perhaps her outstanding contribution has been in
allowing us to set up the "Corridor to Victory"
over northeast Brazil. Thousands of planes and
thousands and thousands of boxes and crates have
been flown over the "Corridor to Victory" on their
way to the battlefronts. Munitions flown at a
critical time during the Battle of Egypt saved the
day when the Germans were almost at the gates
of Alexandria.
It is true that there was a time when the Germans
and the descendants of Germans in Brazil were
very, very active; and there were some Brazilians,
too, who believed that Germany was going to win
the war. At one time those Germans and pro-
Germans without any doubt were very noisy and
frightened many people.
Now, if there are any pro-Germans left in Brazil,
they do not admit it. Why? Without question
the answer is to be found in the fact that the
leaders of the Brazilian Government and the Bra-
zilian press led the way and brought the entire
nation over to the Allied side. They fought a good
fight for the Allied cause and flouted and routed the
enemy within their own borders. Axis partisans
in Brazil have disappeared.
'Mr. Caffery, the former American Ambassador to Bra-
zil, was recently appointed by the President as Representa-
tive of the United States, with the personal rank of
Ambassador, to the de facto French authority now estab-
lisl^ed at Paris.
346
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
The President's War Relief Control Board
The regulator and controller of all private war
relief is a small but full-powered body called the
President's War Relief Control Board. Estab-
lished by Executive Order 9205 of July 25, 1942,=
for the duration of the war and six months there-
after, its purpose is to control in the j)ublic in-
terest all foreign and domestic private relief by
a simple system of licenses, a few regulations, and
far-sighted coordination.
Its history illustrates well the State Depart-
ment's ability to meet and handle special war
problems which relate to the Government's for-
eign policy. As a result of war, in 1939 hundreds
of small and large foreign war-relief charities —
inspired to action by the plight of enslaved, hun-
gry, and disease-ridden nations — mushroomed all
over this country.
The Neutrality Act of 1935 prohibited all activ-
ities on behalf of the belligerent countries. The
act excelled, however, those activities carried on
by agencies for relief purposes, provided they
registered with the State Department.^
This registration system worked for a time, but
the Department soon found itself faced with many
difficulties: Its personnel was overtaxed with the
issuance of licenses to 545 agencies, and it lacked
any effective means for determining which agen-
cies, really acting in the public interest, should be
licensed. Further difficulties ai'ose from the fact
that the provisions of the Neutrality Act ex-
empted agencies aiding technical non-belligerents
like China or Spain from regulation, thus leaving
a huge area of relief completely uncontrolled. In
answer to the Department's call for help the Presi-
dent in the spring of 1941 * appointed a commit-
tee of three — Joseph E. Davies as chairman, Frecl-
* Tliis article was prepared by the President's War Re-
lief Control Board.
= Bulletin of Aug. 1, 1942, p. 658.
"Section 3 (a) ot the joint resolution of Congress ap-
proved May 1, 1937 (Public Res. 27, 7.jth Cong,, 1st sess.),
amending the joint resolution approved Aug. 31, 1935.
See BtTLLETiN of Sept. 9, 1939, p. 222.
' Bulletin of Mar. 22, 1941, p. 336.
° In December 1943 Charles Warren was apiiointed to
membership on the Board to fill the vacancy created by
the death of Dean Frederick P. Keppel. See Buixetin
of Dec. 11, 1943, p. 415.
erick P. Keppel,^ and Charles P. Taft — to study
the problem and to recommend appropriate action.
For several months these men studied informa-
tion from 600 private relief agencies; they held
conferences with appropriate governmental agen-
cies concerned with relief and welfare activities;
and they combed the outstanding national infor-
mation services, as well as the National Depart-
ment of War Services in Canada, for all valuable
experience.
The results of this investigation showed that
immediate action was imperative. More than 700
agencies that were operating in the foreign-relief
field were comjjeting in their struggle to raise
funds. Many of the agencies were acting, how-
ever, without adequate knowledge of relief needs.
More than 80 separate groups were helping Great
Britain, and similar duplication existed for many
other countries. There was an appalling amount
of waste, and the funds collected were often poorly
distributed or spent unproductively with excessive
administrative costs. Without any cooperation or
regard for each other's plans agencies conducted
drives for funds. Frequently whole communities
were plagued by five or six campaigns at once for
the Poles, the British, the Norwegians, and others.
The committee of three worked hard : It pre-
pared an exhaustive report to the President and
did its best to coordinate some of the agencies.
But in spite of good-will and general cooperation
the Committee was powerless when it met a de-
termined chiseler or was faced with opposition
from a group of people unwilling to integrate its
activities. As a result of that study the com-
mittee was transformed by Executive Order 9205
into a permanent, unpaid board, which was
autliorized to issue regulations that were soon to
put war relief in the United States on a better-run
and more carefully planned basis.
Not all private charities in the United States
were placed within the Board's jurisdiction. In
the foreign field its authority was limited to war
relief, including refugee relief; in the domestic
field it included welfare activities on behalf of the
active members of the armed forces and the mer-
chant marine and their dependents. Responsi-
bility previously held by the Secretary of State
OCTOBER 1. 1944
347
for regulating relief agencies was transferred to
the Board, which was not to grant, renew, or can-
cel licenses but was to control the collection and
distribution of funds in the interest of economy, to
merge duplicating agencies, to coordinate the
dates, and to recommend amounts for fund-raising
appeals. The Board was required to consult the
Secretary of State on all matters relating to
foreign policy.
The Board first tackled the problems of waste
and inefficiency. In order to determine whether
an agency was really active in the public interest
the Board worked out a simple set of regulations
stipulating that the agency should have a re-
sponsible governing body willing to work without
pay; that the purpose it wished to serve should
not duplicate an already existing service ; that the
agency use ethical methods of solicitation ; that it
avoid in its appeals any conflict with the recog-
nized campaigns of the National War Fund and
the Ked Cross, and of the Treasury for War Bond
sales; that the overhead costs be not unreasonable ;
and that reports be made to the Board with de-
tailed information concerning methods of solicita-
tion, receipts, and disbui'sements. The Board also
determines whether the suggested means of
financing the agency are appropriate; whether a
program should be supported from public or pri-
vate funds from American citizens ; whether it can
be carried out under the prevailing political,
economic, and military conditions, including ex-
port of commodities and transfer of funds — all
within the limitations of American foreign policy ;
and whether shipping space is available to the area
of distribution. In addition the Board must be
sure that the campaign for funds does not impair
the work carried on by normal home charities.
Wilful breach of any of those rules results in can-
cellation of the agency's license to operate.
After that first move the Board, to make sure
that it could pass intelligently on requests for
registration and that it had effective help in deal-
ing with occasional rackets and fraudulent pro-
moters, established close contacts with the National
Information Bureau, Better Business Bureaus,
Chambers of Commerce, licensing officials in the
cities, and even with the FBI.
Seldom has the Board been forced to use the
broad powers it possesses. The three members be-
lieve that a persuasive rather than a coercive
method is the best way to get results. Wlien neces-
sary, members of the Board meet with the heads
of the various private agencies to talk over their
problems.
Another early move by the Board was to ques-
tion 600 sponsors about their agencies; the result
was a flood of letters from prominent citizens all
over the country apologizing for their neglect of
the worthy causes they were supporting and prom-
ising either to resign or to play an active role in
their organizations. That attitude is a good in-
dication of the public's response to the activities
of the Board.
At times in the face of stormy opposition, the
delicate task of merging rival agencies was carried
on by persuasion and appeals to common sense. It
was difficult to make hard-working, well-meaning
people admit that their work was perhaps not the
only important relief job that was being done and
that perhaps they might do a better job by com-
bining their efforts with those of similar groups.
The Board brought their representatives together,
and as a result of patient efforts at conciliation
lai'ger groups were soon formed by the merger or
federation of smaller ones. The number of agen-
cies has been reduced from 700 to just over a
hundred.
United China Relief and Russian War Relief
are two outstanding examples of the large affil-
iated groups. Recently created were American
Relief for Italy and American Relief for France.
The Board's policy is to centralize all major
relief activities for one national group abroad
in one private agency in the United States and
similarly to coordinate all the agencies serving
the same function, such as relief to refugees. If
agencies begin to reflect the political rivalries of
the "home" country or wish to engage in political
activities as well as relief work, the Board applies
this policy : keep politics out of relief or get out of
relief woi'k.
The Board's main function is not to act as a
glorified policeman but to serve rather as a clear-
ing house of information and advice for relief
groups and to make sure that every dollar spent
is put to its best use. Members of the staflf, who
are familiar with the work of all the relief groups
and who are in a good position to advise, give
careful consideration to the programs of all the
agencies. Not only does the Board evaluate each
change in program in terms of need and feasibility,
but also it scrutinizes four times a year the pro-
611828 — 44-
348
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
posed programs and budgets of all agencies
financed through the National War Fund, with
the advice of government officials from all depart-
ments familiar with relief activities. Representa-
tives from the State Department, the Treasury
Department, UNRRA, the Army and Navy, the
Combined Production and Resources Board, the
War Production Board, the Foreign Economic
Administration, the Red Cross, and other agencies
study the private relief plans and suggest neces-
sary modifications to be enforced by the Board.
Private relief must be made to complement and
not to duplicate in any way the relief and supply
programs undertaken under governmental aus-
pices. For instance, since the Army distributes a
certain amount of basic foods to the populations of
liberated areas, private groups obviously should
not try to send the same foods. UNRRA may be
invited to bring aid to the starving population of
a Balkan country. Private relief therefore should
try to fill in the gaps and not attempt to carry on
activities of the same kind or on the same scale
as those financed by Government funds. When
a foreign government is planning to buy a certain
quantity of medical supplies for distribution to
its nationals, American-contributed dollars should
not be used for the same job.
The Board is particularly aware of the fact that
a great many relief jobs exist for which public
funds cannot be used or which only private groups
are equipped to handle. For instance, private
groups may send appreciable quantities of special
foods and layettes for babies and clothing for
children, and they may establish public-health pro-
grams for special purposes. Local committees of
private relief agencies are particularly good at fer-
reting out from the public's attics supplies of
used clothing and reconditioning these precious
textiles for relief distribution. No Govenunent
salvage program has so far been so uniformly suc-
cessful as that of the private agencies, whose initia-
tive has in many cases made them pioneers in i-e-
lief measures. They bring aid and comfort to
prisoners of war and to refugees from the Axis
terror. They have initiated measures which have
enabled the governments of homeless nationals to
assume gradually the financial burden of that
aid — a burden now too great for the private agen-
cies to carry alone.
The Board maintains regular contact with other
Government agencies on the day-to-day policy de-
cisions which must be made for carrying out pri-
vate relief work. In addition the Board maintains
contact with the Treasury Department, which must
grant permission for any transfer of funds abroad.
The Board makes recommendations to the Treas-
ury when the transfer is for relief purposes under
the Board's jui'isdiction. Cooperation with FEA
is also essential since every three months the agen-
cies make out lists of the products which they want
to ship overseas, a great many of which are on the
FEA list of materials in short supply. After FEA
allocates a quota for the private agencies the Board
clears applications for export licenses requested by
the agencies wishing to ship these and other reiief
commodities abroad.
The Board has, of necessity, a very special rela-
tionship with the State Department. Close liaison
is maintained, not only because war relief must be
carried out in accordance with the foreign policy
of the United States, but also because the Depart-
ment provides relief intelligence for the Board.
For the first two and a half years Homer S. Fox, a
Foreign Service officer, was Executive Director of
the Board and provided liaison with the Depart-
ment. About the time of Mr. Fox's resignation
Charles P. Taft, one of the original Committee
members, was appointed Director of the Office of
Wartime Economic Affairs in the State Depart-
ment. This dual responsibility enabled Mr. Taft
to assure the Board close cooperation on matters of
general policy. The formal liaison, however, is
maintained through the Special War Problems
Division.
With the blessing of the Board the agencies
themselves have formed an organization for
mutual aid, the Council of Voluntary Agencies
for Foreign Service. More than 50 agencies now
working in foreign countries are members of this
consultative body. Their representatives meet
regularly (usually in committees such as the
French Area Committee and the Committee on
Material Aid) to talk over common problems and
to exchange valuable information. The Council,
not only an operating agency, has been the means
of establishing some joint services. In the spring
of 1944 the Council concentrated on recruiting ex-
perts for UNRRA's Balkan mission and worked
out an arrangement permitting private-relief offi-
cers to work with UNRRA on special projects.
Wlio collects the money for this private-relief
activity? The National War Fund which grew
OCTOBER 1, 1944
349
out of the demands of the people throughout the
country. At the request of the Board the National
War Fund was created in 1943 under the leader-
ship of Mr. Winthrop Aldrich, president of the
Chase National Bank, with a board of representa-
tives from the member agencies (now numbering
28), the Community War Funds, and the public
at large. Its purpose is to protect the American
contributor not only by substituting a single fund-
raising campaign for the former successive cam-
paigns of the individual agencies but also by com-
bining those drives to reduce the cost of fxmd-
raising by eliminating competition, conflict, and
duplication.
Preparations for the campaign ai'e made
throughout the year. Once the total quota has
been established on the basis of relief needs and
probable intake, it is divided into sub-quotas for
each State and locality. The actual campaigning
is done not by the national organization but by
War Chests in each commimity, which report to
the county officials, who in turn report to the State
officials. War chests have been organized in all
but a dozen or so of over 3,000 counties in the
United States. The money collected by the cam-
paigns is allocated to the member agencies accord-
ing to their needs as reviewed by the Board and
the War Fund Budget Committees.
Not all private war-relief agencies are rep-
resented in the National War Fund. The Board,
which recommends agencies to the Fund for mem-
bership, will not certify any agency which, for
instance, seeks contributions in kind only, is es-
sentially local in scope, or is one that appeals only
to a limited group of people. But by and large,
the single-fund campaign eliminates a multitude
of conflicting campaigns which formerly plagued
the public.
The scope of private war-relief activities in the
United States is large. The American people have
responded generously to all the appeals for funds
to bring aid to uprooted families and decimated
countries throughout the world. Since the inva-
sion of Poland more than 175 million dollars in
funds and supplies have been sent ovei*seas. Al-
most 20 million have gone to China, about 30
million to Russia, and more than 40 million to
Great Britain. Frenchmen have received about
414 million; more than 12 million have reached
Palestine. The Greeks also have received about 12
million and the Yugoslavs about 2 million.
The rest of these millions have been shared pri-
marily by the refugees, prisoners, and fighting
forces of Norway, Luxembourg, Denmark, Hol-
land, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Italy, Lithuania,
Latvia, Estonia, Albania, the Philippines, and all
others who could be reached.
Those figures do not necessarily reflect the
shadings of American sympathy or relative needs.
Resources were sent where distribution was pos-
sible. It was obviously easier to reach people in
areas not completely occupied by the enemy than
those in enslaved countries. As Hitler's fortress
crumbles and as new areas open up, the necessity
for relief becomes greater : the President's Board,
the Council, and the National War Fund will try
to see that this relief is sent where it is needed
most.
International Conference
On Civil Aviation
[Released to the press September 29]
Supplementing the invitation extended on Sep-
tember 11 ^ for an international civil-aviation con-
ference to be convened in the United States on
November 1, the Department of State has trans-
mitted to the appropriate governments and author-
ities the following proposed agenda for this con-
ference :
Phoposed Agenda foe International Chtl
Aviation Conference
(To be convened in the United States on November 1, 1944)
I. Arrangements covering transitional period:
Establishment of air-transport services on a
provisional basis.
1. Arrangements for routes and services to
operate during a transitional period.
2. Drafting of agreements to implement the
provisional route pattern and to guide oper-
ations durmg transitional period.
(a) Landing and transit rights to permit
establisliment of provisional air services
as soon as possible.
(b) Right of technical or non-traffic stop.
(c) Application of cabotage.
(d) Use of public airports and facilities, on a
non-discriminatory basis.
' Bulletin of Sept. 17, 1944, p. 298.
350
(e) Frequency of operations.
' (f ) Bona fide nationality of air carriers,
(g) Control of rates and competitive prac-
tices.
3 Arrangements for and selection of continuing
Committee on Air Transport to serve during
the transitional period.
II. Technical standards and procedures.
1. Recommendations for setting up and adopt-
ing standards and procedures m the follow-
ing fields :
(a) Commmiications systems and air-naviga-
tion aids, including ground markings.
(b) Rules of the air and traffic-control prac-
ticGS
(c) Standards governing the licensing of
operating and mechanical personnel.
(d) Airworthiness of aircraft.
(e) Registration and identification of air-
(f ) Collection and exchange of meteorological
information.
(g) Logbooks and manifests.
(h) Maps.
(i) Airports,
(i) Customs procedure.
2 Arrangements for and selection of a Tech-
nical Committee and subcommittees to serve
during transitional period, and to draft
definitive proposals for submission to the
interested governments.
III. Multilateral aviation convention and interna-
tional aeronautical body.
1 Formulation of principles to be followed in:
(a) Drawing up a new multilateral conven-
tion on air navigation and related sub-
jects.
(b) Establishing such permanent interna-
tional aeronautical body as may be agreed
on, and determining the extent of its
jurisdiction.
2. Arrangement for and selection of a Commit-
tee on Multilateral Convention and Inter-
national Body to serve during transitional
period and to draw up definitive proposals
for submission to the interested govern-
ments.
IV Consideration of establishment of Interim
Council to serve during a transitional period
which might supervise the work of other com-
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
mittees functioning during this period; and
performing such other functions as the con-
ference may determine.
1. Recommendations concerning locale, com-
position, and scope of Interim Council.
2. Length of transitional period, mechanism for
converting recommendations of Interim
Council and its committees into permanent
arrangements, and other arrangements cov-
ering the transitional period.
Tribute to American Aid
In the Defense of Warsaw
[Released to the press September 25]
The President of the United States has received *
the following message from the Prime Minister
of Poland :
London, Septemher 19, 1944-
The President :
Accept, Mr. President, the heartfelt thanks
which I have the honour to present to you on be-
half of the people of Warsaw for the very effective
aid which the United States Air Force in their gal-
lant flight has given the defenders of the Polish
capital. We owe the successful completion of this
operation to you, Mr. President, who as Supreme
Commander of the United States Armed Forces
gave orders to bring help to the insurgents in War-
saw who have been fighting for seven weeks a
lonely battle against the Germans. This outstand-
ino- example of America's interest in and active
support of those fighting for freedom will be
deeply entrenched in the hearts of all Poles.
Sustained by the tangible proof of a brotherhood
of arms the Poles in Warsaw and throughout
Poland firmly believe that in their struggle against
the barbarous German enemy they will until the
achievement of complete and final victory continue
to receive help from the Allies and that their gi'ow-
ing needs of supplies, particularly of food and
medicals, will be fully satisfied.
We beg, Mr. President, to convey our words ot
thanks to the commanders and the brave airmen
who with such outstanding zeal and devotion to
duty have undertaken this hazardous operation,
also the Polish people's warm sympathy for the
next of kin of those who have lost their lives in the
gallant attempt to bring sorely needed relief to
their Polish comrades-in-arms.
Stanislaw Mikolajczyk
OCTOBER 1.1944
351
American Seamen
Address by JESSE E. SAUGSTAD'
[Released to the press September 28]
The tougli time seamen have had is generally
recognized. If you hadn't been liaving a tough
time, you wouldn't be here. Here something is
being done about it. Official reports of sinkings
and stories of survivors have streamed through our
office, and we believe we know something of what
you have faced in all the vast areas of this war.
You kept the ships going. Our supply line never
failed.
You have shared in making the United States
again a maritime nation. No country is a mari-
time nation unless its ships give employment to its
people and to its resources. The past decline of
the American merchant marine has been repeatedly
stressed. The United States declined as a mari-
time nation when the fringe of seaboard popula-
tion moved to the interior and no longer depended
upon the sea for a livelihood. I do not believe
seamen caused this decline. Seamen simply got
better jobs ashore. So why go to sea ? Ship-own-
ers got more return 021 their investments in other
businesses. So why invest in risky shipping ven-
tures? And so the traditions of seafaring were
lost to this country.
The merchant marine of a truly maritime na-
tion creates seafaring traditions which are handed
down much as the traditions and ethics of other
professions. For a long time the American mer-
chant marine had little seafaring tradition.
Thousands of men followed the sea, but it was
largely without that spirit which makes for gleam-
ing ships and smart performance. Too few have
been dependent upon ocean commerce to be much
concerned with going to sea and with the opera-
tion of ships.
Today the picture is changing. Our ships are
manned by citizens from every State in the Union.
So far as possible seamen are schooled in ship op-
eration before they go to sea. For the first time,
the Federal Government has followed the prac-
' Delivered at the dedication ceremony of the United
Seamen's Service Rest Home, Sands Point, Long Island,
Sept. 28, 1944. Mr. Saugstad is Acting Chief of the Ship-
ping Division, Office of Transportation and Communica-
tions, Department of State.
tice of other governments of both maritime and
non-maritime nations — it has establislied schools
where those who want to go to sea may obtain
training. This looks like the making of a new
sea tradition in the United States, for while the
Government has long maintained professional
schools for the training of its military forces, the
Government of this democracy has not hitherto
established educational institutions for civilian
vocational training.
One question now asked is, Shall the Govern-
ment training schools for seamen continue or will
they have served their public purpose when war
conditions end? The answer will depend largely
upon the seamen themselves who have been
trained in these schools. Will they remain at
sea? Will their training make them more effec-
tive at sea? Will their training contribute a
greater number of responsible and valuable of-
ficers? When we have the answers to these last
questions, we shall know the answer to the first.
One thing is certain — never in history have men
gone to sea under such favorable working condi-
tions as most of you now take for granted. The
houi-s of work; the quality, preservation, and
2)reparation of food; the convenience and com-
parative privacy of living quarters ; the lighting,
heating, washing, and sanitary equipment of the
modern ship are conditions no one believed possible
a few years ago. The floating combination of
home and workshop is one of the wonders of mod-
ern industrial practice. We hear a lot of stuff
about the "glorious clipper days" of this country.
I wonder what an oldtirae clipper shellback would
think if he should board and sail on one of the
new ships !
Wliere does all this come from? From many
elements. It comes from modern standards of
living and social thought; it comes from trail-
blazing and agitation by the seamen themselves;
it comes from designers of ships, built for priv-
ate or public account; and it comes from your
fellow taxpayers. It comes from the same source
which produced seamen's training schools.
What does the seaman propose to do in return
for these conditions of work, pay, and living?
352
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Does he treat or does he expect to treat all this with
a decent regard for the rights of his associates,
■whether these associates are his shipmates, the
ship-owners, or the Government? Wlien a ship is
a man's home, the place of his work as well as the
source of his income, the ship becomes a peculiarly
personal possession. The question is. Do seamen
treat the ship in this spirit? The equipment is
there. Wliat use do you expect to make of it?
When borg at the same time. The British were
repatriated on the vessels Drottningholm and Ar-
undel Castle.
In the repatriation operation there were sent to
Germany approximately 1,600 German prisoners
of war and protected personnel who had been in
United States and British custody.
No American protected personnel were returned
aboard the Gripsholm.
The Swiss Government provided the channels
of communication through which arrangements
for the exchange were successfully made. Mr.
Emil Greuter of the Swiss Legation at Washing-
ton, D. C, acted as neutral representative aboard
the Grifsholm. The Swedish Government per-
mitted the use of port facilities at Goteborg for
the exchange. The thanks of the United States
Government have been expressed to the neutral
Governments for the part which they have played
in the successful negotiation and completion of
this exchange.
It is hoped that with the cooperation of the
neutral nations arrangements can be made soon
356
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
for the repatriation of additional seriously sick
and wounded prisoners of war.
[Released to the press September 30]
On September 11, 1944 the Department of State
received a report from the British Admiralty
through the American Embassy at London to the
effect that the exchange ship GripshoJm. on its re-
turn journey from Goteboi-g carrying sick and
wounded American prisoners of war had been de-
tained on that date at Kristiansans, Norway, by
the German authorities. The Department of State
immediately telegraphed the following protest to
the American Legation at Bern for urgent trans-
mission to the German Government through the
Swiss Government:
"United States Government views with concern
action of Germans in detaining Gripsholm and
preventing communication between her and other
exchange vessels. United States Government ex-
pects that in accordance with previously-granted
safe conduct German Government will immedi-
ately release Gripsholm to continue its voyage.
United States Government expects to receive
promptly explanation of unprecedented action of
German authorities."
The Department of State subsequently received
official reports stating that during the period of
detention of the Gripsholm the German authorities
removed two members of the crew of the vessel.
Upon receipt of this information a second pro-
test was made to the German Government through
Bern, the text of which follows:
"Department now officially informed through
Swiss and Swedish channels that Gripsholm was
allowed to resume her voyage after nine-hour de-
lay and after forcible removal from vessel of two
members of crew, a motorman and a waiter, both of
whom were signed on at New York.
"United States Government can only assume that
removal of these two seamen from the vessel,
hampering its operation and hampering care of
sick and wounded passengers on board, together
with unjustified delay of vessel are the result of
mistaken activity by some subordinate official who
was not aware of German safe conduct covering
vessel and all on boai'd. Department protests this
unauthorized action and expects that the two sea-
men in question will be promptly released from
German custody onto neutral territory. Depart-
ment furthermore expects that official responsible
for this unprecedented action will be appropriately
dealt with."
The two members of the crew who were removed
by the Germans are Robert Raymond Kelly, al-
legedly an American citizen born at Philadelphia
on January 2, 1924, whose mother, Mrs. Blanche
Kelly, resides at 217 West Thirteenth Street, Mis-
sion, Texas, and Erik Poul Hansen, allegedly a
Danish subject. It was Kelly's first voyage on the
Gripsholm. Hansen had previously served on that
vessel.
g THE DEPARTMENT ^
Centralized Transportation Service'
Purpose. The purpose of this order is to create
a centralized transportation service within the
Department of State to facilitate the official travel
of officers and employees of the Department, both
within and outside the continental limits of the
United States, the official travel of officers and
employees of other civilian governmental agencies
outside the continental limits of the United States,
and the travel of foreign nationals.
1 Establishment of Transportation Service
Branch in the Division of Foreign Service Ad-
ministration, Q-jfice of the Foreign Service. There
is hereby created a Transportation Service Branch
in the Division of Foreign Service Administra-
tion, Office of the Foreign Service.
2 Functions of the Tramportation Service
Branch. The Transportation Service Branch
shall be responsible for making all arrangements
to facilitate the official travel of officers and em-
ployees of the Department within and outside the
continental limits of the United States, the official
travel of officers and employees of other civilian
agencies outside the continental limits of the
United States, and the travel of foreign nationals.
This includes the preparation of travel orders, the
issuance of government transportation requests
and bills of lading, the procurement of tickets for
rail, air, boat, or other kinds of transportation, of
freight accommodations, and of air priorities, and
the arrangements for medical and health examina-
tions and inoculations, and other similar services
for authorized travelers. In connection with
' Departmental Order 1286, dated and effective Sept. 18,
1944.
OCTOBER 1, 19U
357
these activities the Transportation Service Branch
shall establish liaison with the appropriate oiRces
and divisions of the Department of State and with
other agencies of the Government, including the
War and Navy Departments and the War Ship-
ping Administration.
3 Functions retained by other divisions of the
Department. The function of authorizing travel
shall continue to be performed in the same man-
ner as heretofore, and the Division of Budget and
Finance shall continue to be responsible for the
administrative audit of all obligation and disburse-
ment documents issued in connection with requests
for reimbursement of the cost of such official travel
and transportation.
4 Procedures goveiimng the authorization., ar-
rangement., and cmdit of official travel. Proce-
dures governing the authorization, arrangement,
and audit of official travel shall be issued in the
Official Travel Series of Administrative Instruc-
tions. As a result of studies which are being made
currently, a series of instructions will be issued
shortly to simplify, clarify, and facilitate the han-
dling of official travel.
6 Transfer of records and personnel. The per-
sonnel in other divisions of the Department at
present performing the functions vested by tliis
order in the Transportation Service Branch, Divi-
sion of Foreign Service Administration, Office of
the Foreign Service, together with all records per-
taining thereto, are hereby transferred to the
Transportation Service Branch.
6 Atnendment of previous orders. Departmen-
tal Order 1218 of January 15, 1944, as amended, is
hereby further amended to give effect to the pro-
visions of this order.
CoEDEUL Hull
September 18, 1944.
Appointment of Officers
Edward G. Gale has been designated Acting
Chief of the Commodities Division, effective Sep-
tember 18, 1944.
TREATY INFORMATION
Merchant Shipping
[Released to the press September 28]
The Agreement on Principles Having Eefer-
ence to the Continuance of Co-ordinated Control
of Merchant Shipping which has now been pub-
lished will bring about an adjustment in the pres-
ent arrangements for the control of the employ-
ment of United Nations shipping.^ It can best be
understood in relation to those arrangements. At
present all British and United States ships (ex-
cept certain coastal vessels) are under requisition
to their respective Governments. The great ma-
jority of ships under the flags of other United
Nations are also under requisition by their Gov-
ernments and have been chartered for the dura-
tion of the war in Europe to the British Ministry
of War Transport or the War Shipping Adminis-
tration or have been otherwise made available for
employment by one or the other of those bodies.
In this way two pools of shipping are constituted
the employment of which is coordinated through
the combined shipping adjustment boards, with
' BxiLLETiN of Aug. 13, 19-14, p. 157.
arrangements for consultation between the Brit-
ish and United States and the other United Na-
tions Governments.
At or soon after the general suspension of hos-
tilities in Europe the existing agreements for the
use by the British Ministry of War Transport
and the War Shipping Administration of United
Nations ships under other flags will terminate;
but the requirements for ships will remain heavy
for military purposes as well as for the supply of
liberated areas and all other purposes of the
United Nations. In the agreement the govern-
ments which have cooperated in the provision of
ships for United Nations purposes have agreed
to continue to devote their shipping resources to
these needs until the war in the Far East is won.
Machinery is provided for the effective collab-
oration by govermnents in the use of available
shipping by the establishment of a United Mari-
time Council and United Maritime Executive
Board. Through these bodies, which will come
into operation on the general suspension of hos-
tilities in Europe, the contracting governments
will implement the principles laid down in the
358
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
agreement. The principles will remain in eflFect
until six months after the suspension of hostili-
ties in Europe or the Far East (whichever is the
later) unless terminated or modified earlier by
unanimous agreement.
The agreement has been signed by the Govern-
ments of Belgium, Canada, Greece, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, the United Kingdom, and the
United States of America, while the French Com-
mittee of National Liberation has signified that all
French shipping is and remains at the disposal of
the United Nations. The Soviet Government and
other interested United Nations Governments have
been kept informed. The agreement springs from
the close collaboration achieved in the past and
now existing between the governments which have
mainly contributed to the provision of shipping
to meet the needs of all the United Nations, and it
continues that collaboration for the general bene-
fit into the succeeding phases. The cooperation of
all United Nations not presently signatory and
other friendly governments will be welcomed, and
it is contemplated that certain of them will accede
to the agreement and participate in the central
authority.
AGREEMENT ON PRINCIPLES HAVING REFERENCE
TO THE CONTINUANCE OF CO-ORDINATED CON-
TROL OF MERCHANT SHIPPING.
The undersigned representatives, duly author-
ised by their respective Governments or Authori-
ties, hereinafter referred to as contracting Govern-
ments, have agreed as follows: —
1. The contracting Governments declare that
they accept as a common responsibility the provi-
sion of shipping for all military and other tasks
necessary for, and arising out of, the completion of
the war in Europe and the Far East and for the
supplying of all the liberated areas as well as of
the United Nations generally and territories under
their authority.
2. The contracting Governments undertake to
continue to maintain such powers of control over
all ships which are registered in their territories or
are otherwise under their authority as will enable
them effectively to direct each ship's employment
in accordance with the foregoing declaration.
Subject to the provisions of paragraphs 3 and 9,
this control shall continue to be exercised by each
contracting Government through the mechanism
of requisitioning for use or title.
3. The contracting Governments agree not to re-
lease from control any ships under their authority
or permit them to be employed in any non-essen-
tial services or for any non-essential cargo unless
the total overall tonnage is in excess of the total
overall requirements, and then only in accordance
with a mutually acceptable formula which shall
not discriminate against the commercial shipping
interests of any nation and shall extend to all con-
tracting Governments an equitable opportunity
for their respective tonnages to engage in com-
mercial trades.
4. Neutral Governments having ships under
their control in excess of the tonnage required to
carry on their essential import requirements shall
be invited to subscribe to obligations in respect of
all their ships which shall ensure that their em-
ployment is in conformity with the general pur-
poses of the United Nations.
5. The contracting Governments undertake to
exercise control over the facilities for shipping
available in their territories, by suitable measures
on the lines of the United States and British Ship
Warrant Schemes, and to take such other measures
as may be necessary to secure that ships under all
flags are used in conformity with the purposes of
the United Nations. Other Governments acceding
hereto shall give a similar undertaking.
6. Without prejudice to questions of disposition
or title, the employment of such ships as may at
any time be permitted to operate under enemy flag
or authority shall be determined to serve the re-
quirements of the United Nations.
7. — (a) In order that the allocation of all ships
under United Nations control may continue to be
effectively determined to meet the requirements of
the United Nations, a central authority shall be
established, to come into operation ujDon the gen-
eral suspension of hostilities with Germany. The
central authority shall be organised in accordance
with the plan agreed in the Annex.
(b) The central authority shall determine the
emi^loyment of ship)S for the purpose of giving
eifect to the responsibilities assumed by each con-
tracting Government in paragraph 1 to provide
the tonnage required from time to time to meet
current requirements for ships for the military and
other purposes of the United Nations, and ships
shall be allocated for those purposes by those Gov-
eriunents in accordance with the decisions of the
OCTOBER 1, 1944
central authority. So far as is consistent with the
efficient overall use of shipping as determined by
the central autliority for those purposes, and with
the provisions of paragraph 7(c) , each contracting
Government may allocate ships under its own
authority, wholly or partly to cover the essential
import requirements of territories for which it
has special shipping responsibilities.
(c) In general, ships under the flag of one of the
contracting Governments shall be under the con-
trol of the Government of that flag, or the Gov-
ernment to which they have been chartered.
In order to meet the special case of military
requirements those ships which have been taken
up, under agreements made by the United States
Government and/or United Kingdom Government
with the other Governments having authority for
those ships, for use as troopships, hospital ships,
and for other purposes in the service of the armed
forces, shall remain on charter as at present to the
War Shipping Administration and/or the Min-
istry of War Transport as the case may be, under
arrangements to be agreed between the Govern-
ments severally concerned. (Any further ships
required for such purposes shall be dealt with in a
like manner.)
The fact that these ships are assigned to mili-
tary requirements shall not prejudice the right of
the Governments concerned to discuss with the cen-
tral authority the measures to be taken to provide
shipping for their essential requirements within
the scope of paragraph 1.
(d) The contracting Governments shall supply
to one another, through the central authority, all
information necessary to the effective working of
the arrangements, e.g., regarding programmes, em-
ployment of tonnage, and projected programmes,
subject to the requirement of military secrecy.
(e) The central authority shall also initiate the
action to be taken to give effect to paragraph 5 and
shall direct action under paragraph 6.
(f) The terms of remuneration to be paid by
the users (Government or private) of ships shall
be determined by the central authority on a fair
and reasonable basis in such manner as to give
effect to the following two basic principles : —
(i) Ships of all flags performing the same or
similar services should charge the same
freights.
359
(ii) Ships must be employed as required
without regard to financial considera-
tions.
8. The principles herein agreed shall apply to
all types of merchant ships, irrespective of size, in-
cluding passenger ships, tankers and whale fac-
tories when not used for whaling (but paragraph
7(b) will not be applicable to ships engaged in
coastal trades and short trades between nearby
countries, the arrangements for control of which
shall be appropriate to meet the requirements pre-
vailing in each particular area) .
The principles shall also be applied to the ex-
tent necessary, through suitable machinery, to
fishing vessels, whale catchers, and other similar
craft in those areas where special measures in re-
spect of such craft are agreed to be necessary. A
special authority shall be set up capable of appor-
tioning between naval and conmiercial services
such craft as are available in those areas.
9. The foregoing principles shall take effect on
the coming into operation of the central authority,
and shall remain in effect for a period not extend-
ing beyond six montlis after the general suspension
of hostilities in Europe or the Far East, whichever
may be the later, unless it is unanimously agreed
among the Governments represented on the duly
authorised body of the central authority that any
or all of the agreed principles may be terminated
or modified earlier.
Done in London on the 5th day of August, 1944.
Annex
Organisation of the Central Authority.
1. The central authority shall consist of —
(a) A Council (United Maritime Council).
(b) An Executive Board (United Maritime
Executive Board).
(a) THE UNITED MARITIME COUNCIL.
2. Each contracting Government shall be rep-
resented on the Council. Membership of the Coun-
cil shall also be open to all other Governments,
whether of the United Nations or of neutral coun-
tries, which desire to accede and are prepared to
accept the obligations of contracting Governments.
3. The Council shall meet when deemed neces-
sary and at least twice a year at such places as may
360
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
be convenient. Meetings shall be arranged by the
Executive Board. The Council shall elect its own
Chairman and determine its own procedure. The
meetings of the Council are intended to provide the
opportunity for informing the contracting Gov-
ernments as to the overall shipping situation and
to make possible the interchange of views between
the contracting Governments on general questions
of policy arising out of the working of the Execu-
tive Board.
(b) THE UNTTED MARITIME EXECUTIVE BOARD.
4. The Executive Board shall be established with
Branches in Washington and London under War
Shipping Administration and Ministry of War
Transport chairmanship respectively.
5. The Executive Board shall exercise through
its Branches the executive functions of the central
authority. Appropriate machinery under the two
Branches shall be established for the purpose of
enabling them to discharge the functions described
in paragraph 7 of the Agreement on Principles.
Machinery to carry out the arrangements under
paragraph 8 of that Agreement as regards ships
engaged in coasting and short sea trades, and as re-
gards small craft shall be set up under the Execu-
tive Board.
6. The division of day-to-day responsibility be-
tween the two Branches of the Executive Board
shall be established as convenient from time to
time. So that the two Branches of the Executive
Board may work in unison, meetings of the Execu-
tive Board as a whole shall be arranged at the in-
stance of the two chairmen, as often as may be
necessary, and at such place as may be convenient
from time to time.
7. The membership of the Executive Board shall
be restricted in numbers. By reason of their large
experience in shipping normally engaged in inter-
national trade, and their large contribution of
ships for the common purpose, the following Gov-
ernments shall be represented on the Executive
Board :
Government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland;
Government of the United States of America ;
Government of the Netherlands;
Government of Norway.
It shall be open to the members of the Executive
Board to recommend to contracting Governments
additions to the membership of the Executive
Board as circumstances may require in order to
promote the effective working of the central
authority.
8. Each contracting Government not repre-
sented on the Executive Board shall be represented
by an associate member who shall be consulted by,
and entitled to attend meetings of, the Executive
Board or its Branches on matters affecting ships
under the authority of that Government, or on
matters affecting the supply of ships for the terri-
tories under the authority of that Government.
9. The Executive Board and its Branches shall
proceed by agreement among the members. There
shall be no voting.
10. The decisions of the Executive Board affect-
ing the ships under the authority of any contract-
ing Government shall be reached with the consent
of that Government, acting through its representa-
tive on the Executive Board or through its associate
member, as the case may be.
11. The Executive Board shall be the duly au-
thorised body for the purpose of paragraph 9 of
the Agreement on Principles, but it is understood
that no decision reached under that paragraph by
the Governments represented on the Executive
Board shall impose any new or greater obligation
on any other contracting Government without its
exjiress consent.
12. A Planning Committee shall be set up to
begin work in London as soon as possible after the
signature of the Agreement on Principles for the
purpose of working out on a basis satisfactory to
the contracting Governments the details of the
machinery required to enable the Executive Board
to discharge its functions, including the functions
under paragraph 7(f). Any contracting Govern-
ment may be represented on the Plannuig Com-
mittee.
13. The Executive Board shall have the full use
of the machinery and procedure of the War Ship-
ping Administration and Ministry of War Trans-
port in order to avoid duplication.
14. The contracting Governments shall nomi-
nate their representatives on the Planning Com-
mittee to the Governments of the United States
and the United Kingdom, as soon as practicable.
They shall also so nominate their representatives
as members or as associate members of the Execu-
tive Board as the case may be. The Governments
OCTOBER 1, I9U
361
of the United States and the United Kingdom
shall be responsible, in consultation with the other
contracting Governments concerned, for deter-
mining the date of coming into operation of the
central authority in accordance with paragraph
7(a) of the Agreement on Principles.
Detail of American Naval Officer
To Brazil
[Released to the press September 29]
In conformity with the request of the Govern-
ment of Brazil there was signed on Friday, Sep-
tember 29, 1944 by the Honorable Cordell Hull,
Secretary of State, and His Excellency Carlos
Martins, Ambassador of Brazil in Washington,
an agreement providing for the detail of an officer
of the United States Navy to serve in the Ministry
of Transportation as a Technical Adviser to the
Brazilian Merchant Marine Commission.
The agreement will continue in force for four
years from the date of signature but may be ex-
tended beyond that period at the request of the
Government of Brazil.
The agreement contains provisions similar in
general to provisions contained in agreements be-
tween the United States and certain other Ameri-
can republics providing for the detail of officers
of the United States Army or Navy to advise the
armed forces of those comitries.
Parcel-Post Agreement
On September 25, 1944 the President approved
and ratified a Parcel-Post Agreement between the
United States of America and Palestine signed at
Washington on September 6, 1944 and at Jeru-
salem on May 10, 1943, and the regulations of
execution thereof.
Wounded and Sick; Prisoners of War
Venezuela
The Minister of Switzerland transmitted to the
Secretary of State, with a note of July 17, 1944, a
certified copy of the proces-verbal recording the
deposit in the archives of the Swiss Confederation
on July 15, 1944 of the instruments of ratification
by the President of the Eepublic of Venezuela of
the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condi-
tion of the Wounded and the Sick of Armies in the
Field ^ and of the Convention Relating to the
Treatment of Prisoners of War,^ both signed at
Geneva on July 27, 1929.
The conventions will become effective for Vene-
zuela on January 15, 1945, six months after the date
of deposit of tlie ratifications.
Military -Service Agreement,
Great Britain and Mexico
There is printed in the Mexican Diario Oficial
of September 12, 1944, pages 2-3, a decree issued
by the President of Mexico on April 27, 1944 pro-
mulgating a military-service agreement between
the Government of the United Kingdom and the
Government of India on one hand and the Govern-
ment of Mexico on the other. This agreement pro-
vides for the reciprocal exemption from compul-
sory military service of Mexican citizens in the
United Kingdom, India, Newfoundland, Burma,
Southern Ehodesia, in British colonies, in ter-
ritories under British protection or sovereign-
ty, and in territories under mandate exercised by
His Majesty's Government in the United King-
dom; and of British subjects and British-pro-
tected persons belonging to the said territories, in
Mexico. The exchange of notes of July 8, 1943
between the British Minister in Mexico and the
Mexican Minister for Foreign Affairs, which con-
stitutes the agreement between the contracting
Governments, is effective from November 25, 1942.
Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation
Mexico
The Director General of the Pan American
Union informed the Secretary of State, by a letter
of September 14, 1944, that the Government of
Mexico, in accordance with the terms of article
VIII of the Convention on Nature Protection and
Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere
which was opened for signature at the Pan Ameri-
can Union on October 12, 1910,^ wishes to add to
' Treaty Series 847.
' Treaty Series 846.
' Treaty Series 981.
362
its list in the Annex to that Convention the fol-
lowing species :
ELEFANTE MARINO (Machorhinus angustirro-
stris)
FOCA FINA (Aretocephalus townsendi)
MANATI or VACA MAKINA (Trichechus sp.)
Regulations Relating to Migratory Birds
On September 26, 1944 the President approved
and proclaimed amendments to the regulations
approved by Proclamation 2616 of July 27, 1944,^
submitted to him by the Secretary of the Interior,
for the enforcement of the convention between
the United States and Great Britain for the pro-
' Federal Register, Aug. 15, 1944, p. 9873.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
tection of migratory birds signed August 16, 1916,"
and the convention between the United States and
Mexico for the protection of migratory birds and
game mammals signed February 7, 1936.= The
regulations, and amendments thereto, are ap-
proved and proclaimed by the President under
authority of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of
July 3, 1918,* as amended by the act of June 20,
1936.^
The above-mentioned amendments are printed
in the Federal Register of September 29, 1944,
page 11881. Prior amendments are printed in the
Felleral Register of August 29, 1944, page 10441.
2 Treaty Series 628.
' Treaty Series 912.
'40 Stat. 755.
" 49 Stat. 1555.
0. 5. OOVEBNHENT PBtHTlHC OFFICEt 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
^ K II 1
u
J
.J
H
J
VOL. XI, NO. 276
OCTOBER 8, 1944
In this issue
DUMBARTON OAKS DOCUMENTS ON INTERNATIONAL ORGAN-
IZATION -ir -k ^ ic * ir -fr it * -ti * it
THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CARIBBEAN COMMISSION: Address by
Charles W. Taussig -it-it-itit-itit-it-tt-irir
INTER-AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES:
By Edgar S. Furniss, Jr. itit-h-d-ititit-tt-it
THE COSTA RICA-PANAMA BOUNDARY DEMARCATION: By
Sophia Saucerman -ti-tt-ttititititit-ttit
>>
'^^
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BULLETIN
October 8, 1944
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a weekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication, Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government with
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
work of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BULLETIN
includes press releases on foreign policy-
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as well as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United States is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulative lists of which are published
at thb end of each quarter, as well as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
approval of the Director of the Bureau
of the Budget, is for sale by the Super-
intendent of Documents, United States
Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton 25, D. C, to whom all purchase
orders, with accompanying remittance,
should be sent. The subscription price
is $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
cents.
ontents
American Republics page
Presentation of Letters of Credence by the Ambassador
of Chile 380
Compensation for Petroleum Properties Expropriated in
Mexico 385
Visit of Personal Representative of the President of Ecua-
dor 385
Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences: By Edgar
S. Furniss, Jr 386
The Costa Rica- Panama Boundary Demarcation: By
Sophia Saucerman 390
Visit of Brazilian Official of the Ministry of Education . . 391
Visit of Paraguayan Judge 391
The Caribbean
The Anglo-American Caribbean Commission: Address by
Charles W. Taussig 377
ElROPE
Present Problems in Italy: Statement by the President . . 382
Near East
Military Action Toward Liberation of Greece:
Statement by the President 379
Statement by the Secretary of State 380
Economic Affairs
Plans for Economic Reports from Liberated Areas .... 382
General
Request to Neutral Governments Concerning Enemy
Loot 383
Death of Wendell Willkie 385
Death of Alfred E. Smith 385
Post-War Matters
International Peace and Security Organization — Washington
Conversations:
Statement by the President 365
Statement by the Secretary of State 366
Report to the Secretary of State Submitted by the Chair-
man of the American Delegation 367
Statement Issued Simultaneously by the Participating
Governments 367
Proposals for the Establishment of a General International
Organization 368
Conclusion of the Second Phase of the Conversations:
Remarks by the Under Secretary of State at the
Closing Session 374
Remarks by Ambassador Koo at the Closing Session . . 375
Remarks by the Earl of Halifax at the Closing Session . 375
Joint Statement by Heads of American, British, and
Chinese Delegations 376
Final Meeting of American Delegation 376
International Civil Aviation Conference 366
Treaty Information
Expiration of Certain Agreements Between the United
States and Haiti Upon Termination of Haitian-Domin-
ican Commercial Treaty 394
The Department
Inquiries on American Citizens in Paris 391
Division of Administrative Services 392
Departmental Issuances 393
Appointment of Officers 394
The Foreign Service
Consular Offices 381
Publications 889
Leoislation 384
Washington Conversations on
International Organization
Statement by the President
[For release to the press by the White House on October 9]
I wish to tiike this opportunity to refer to the
work of the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations be-
tween the delegations of the United States, the
United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China on
tlie plans for an international organization for the
maintenance of peace and security.
The conversations were completed Saturday,
October 7, 1944, and proposals were submitted to
the four Governments for their consideration.
These proj^osals have been made public to permit
full discussion by the people of this country prior
to the convening of a wider conference on this all-
important subject.
Although I have not yet been able to make a
thorough study of these proposals, my first im-
pression is one of extreme satisfaction, and even
surprise, that so much could have been accom-
plished on so diiScult a subject in so short a time.
This achievement was largely due to the long and
thorough preparations which were made by the
Governments represented, and in our case, was
the result of the untiring devotion and care which
the Secretary of State has personally given to this
work for more than two and a half years — indeed
for many years.
The projected international organization has
for its primary purpose the maintenance of inter-
national peace and security and the creation of the
conditions that make for peace.
We now know the need for such an organization
of the peace-loving peoples and the spirit of unity
which will be required to maintain it. Aggressors
like Hitler and the Japanese war lords organize
for years for the day when they can launch their
evil strength against weaker nations devoted to
their peaceful pursuits. This time we have been
determined first to defeat the enemy, assure that
he shall never again be in position to plunge the
■world into war, and then to so organize the peace-
loving nations that they may through unity of de-
sire, unity of will, and unity of strength be in posi-
tion to assure that no other would-be aggressor or
conqueror shall even get started. That is why
from the very beginning of the war, and parallel-
ing our military plans, we have begiui to lay the
foundations for the general organization for the
maintenance of peace and security.
It represents, therefore, a major objective for
which this war is being fought, and as such, it in-
spires the highest hopes of the millions of fathers
and mothers whose sons and daughters are engaged
in the terrible struggle and suffering of war.
The projected general organization may be re-
garded as the keystone of the aich and will include
within its framework a number of specialized eco-
nomic and social agencies now existing or to be
established.
The task of planning the great design of secu-
rity and peace has been well begun. It now re-
mains for the nations to complete the structure in
a spirit of constructive purpose and mutual con-
fidence.
565
366
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Statement by the Secretary
Of State
[For release to the press on October 9]
The proposals for an international organization
for the maintenance of international peace and
security, upon which the representatives of the
United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet
Union, and China have agreed during the conver-
sations at Dumbarton Oaks, have been submitted
to the four Governments and are today being made
generally available to the people of this Nation
and of the world.
All of us have every reason to be immensely
gratified by the results achieved at these conver-
sations. To be sure, the Proposals in their pres-
ent form are neither comj)lete nor final. Much
work still remains to be done before a set of com-
pleted proposals can be placed before the peace-
loving nations of the world as a basis of discussion
at a formal conference to draft a charter of the
projected organization for svibmission to the gov-
ernments. But the document which has been pre-
pared by the able representatives of the four par-
ticipating nations and has been agreed to by them
as their recommendation to their respective Gov-
ernments is sufficiently detailed to indicate the
kind of an international organization which, in
their judgment, will meet the imperative need of
j)roviding for the maintenance of international
peace and security.
These proposals are now being studied by the
four Governments which were represented at the
Washington Conversations and which will give
their urgent attention to the next steps which will
be necessary to reach the goal of achieving the
establishment of an effective international organi-
zation.
These proposals are now available for full study
and discussion by the peoples of all countries.
We in this country have spent many months in
careful planning and wide consultation in prepa-
ration for the conversations which have just been
concluded. Those who represented the Govern-
ment of the United States in these discussions
were armed with the ideas and with the results of
International Civil Aviation
Conference
[Released to the press October 7]
The Department of State has announced
the selection of the Stevens Hotel in Chi-
cago as the site for the International Civil
Aviation Confei-ence, which is scheduled to
convene on November 1, 1944.
thinking contributed by numerous leaders of our
national thought and opinion, without regard to
political or other affiliations.
It is my earnest hope that, during the time which
must elapse before the convocation of a full United
Nations conference, discussions in the United
States on this all-important subject will continue
to be carried on in the same non-partisan spirit of
devotion to our paramount national interest in
peace and security which has characterized our
previous consultations. I am certain that all of
us will be constantly mindful of the high respon-
sibility for us and for all peace-loving nations
which attaches to tliis effort to make permanent a
victory purchased at so heavy a cost in blood, in
tragic suffering, and in treasure. We must be con-
stantly mindful of the price which all of us will
23ay if we fail to measure up to this unprecedented
responsibility.
It is, of course, inevitable that when many gov-
ernments and peoples attempt to agree on a single
plan the i-esult will be in terms of the highest com-
mon denominator rather than of the plan of any
one nation. The oi'ganization to be created must
reflect the ideas and hopes of all the peace-loving
nations which participate in its creation. The
spirit of cooj^eration must manifest itself in mu-
tual striving to attain the high goal by common
agreement.
The road to the establisliment of an interna-
tional organization capable of effectively main-
taining international peace and security will bo
long. At times it will be difficult. But we cannot
hope to attain so great an objective without con-
stant effort and unfailing determination that the
sacrifices of this war shall not be in vain.
Sill
T
OCTOBER 8, 1944
367
Report to the Secretary of State Submitted by the Chairman
Of the American Delegation
[For release to the press on October 9]
I take great pleasure in submitting to you the
results of tlie exploratorj' conversations on inter-
national organization lield in Washington between
representatives of the Governments of the United
States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union,
and China. The first phase of the conversations,
between representatives of the United States, the
United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, took place
from August 21 to September 28 ; the second phase,
between representatives of the United States, the
United Kingdom, and China, was held from Sep-
tember 29 to October 7. The results of the work
accomplished in both phases are embodied in the
following Proposals which each of the four dele-
gations is transmitting to its respective Govern-
ment as the unanimously agreed recommendations
of the four delegations.
I am happy to report that the conversations
throughout were characterized by a spirit of com-
plete cooperation and great cordiality among all
participants, the proof of which is evident in the
wide area of agreement covered in the Proposals.
The few questions which remain for further con-
sideration, though important, are not in any sense
insuperable, and I recommend that the necessary
steps for obtaining agreement on these points be
taken as soon as possible.
It is proper to emphasize, at the conclusion of
these preliminary conversations, that the Propo-
sals as they are now submitted to the four Gov-
ernments comprise substantial contributions from
each of the delegations. It is my own view, which
I believe is shared by all the participants, that the
agi'eed Proposals constitute an advance over the
tentative and preliminary proposals presented by
each delegation. This has resulted from a smgle-
minded effort of all the delegations at Dumbarton
Oaks to reach a common understanding as to the
most effective international organization capable
of fulfilling the hopes of all peoples everywhere.
I wish to take this opportunity to express my
grateful recognition of the contribution to the suc-
cessful outcome of these conversations made by the
members of the American delegation and to com-
mend the advisers and the staff for their most
helpful assistance. Above all, I wish to express
my profound appreciation to the President and
to you, Mr. Secretary, for the constant advice and
gaiidance without which our work could not have
been accomplished with such constructive and
satisfactory results.
E. R. Stettinius, Jr.
Statement Issued Simultaneously
Participating Governments
[For release to the press on October 9]
The Government of the United States has now
received the report of its delegation to the conver-
sations held in Washington between August 21 and
October 7, 1944, with the delegations of the United
Kingdom, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
and the Republic of China on the subject of an
international organization for the maintenance of
peace and security.
There follows a statement of tentative proposals
by the
indicating in detail the wide range of subjects on
which agreement has been reached at the conversa-
tions.
The Governments which were represented in the
discussions in Washington have agreed that after
further study of these proposals they will as soon
as possible take the necessary steps with a view to
the preparation of complete proposals which could
then serve as a basis of discussion at a full United
Nations conference.
368
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Proposals for the Establishment of a General
International Organization
There should be established an international or-
ganization under the title of The United Nations,
the Charter of which should contain provisions
necessary to give effect to the projDosals which
follow.
Chapter I
PURPOSES
The purposes of the Organization should be:
1. To maintain international peace and security ;
and to that end to take effective collective measures
for the prevention and removal of threats to the
peace and the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by
peaceful means adjustment or settlement of in-
ternational disputes which may lead to a breach of
the peace ;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations
and to take other ai)prt)priate measures to
strengthen universal peace :
3. To achieve international cooperation in the
solution of international economic, social and
other humanitarian problems : and
4. To afford a center for harmonizing the ac-
tions of nations in the achievement of these com-
mon ends.
Chapter II
PRINCIPLES
In pursuit of the pui"poses mentioned in Chap-
ter I the Organization and its members should act
in accordance with the following principles :
1. The Organization is based on the principle of
the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states.
2. All members of the Organization undertake,
in order to ensure to all of them the rights and
benefits resulting from membership in the Organ-
ization, to fulfill the obligations assumed by then\
in accordance with the Charter.
3. All members of the Organization shall settle
their disputes by peaceful means in such a manner
that international peace and security are not en-
dangered.
4. All members of the Organization shall re-
frain in their international relations from the
threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent
with the purposes of the Organization.
5. All members of the Organization shall give
every assistance to the Organization in any action
undertaken by it in accordance with the provi-
sions of the Charter.
6. All members of the Organization shall re-
frain from giving assistance to any state against
which preventive or enforcement action is being
undertaken by the Organization.
The Organization should ensure that states not
members of the Organization act in accordance
with these principles so far as may be necessary
for the maintenance of international peace and
security.
Chapter III
MEMBERSHIP
1. Membership of the Organization should be
open to all peace-loving states.
Chapter IV
PRINCIPAL ORGANS
1. The Organization should have as its principal
organs :
a. A General Assembly;
b. A Security Council ;
c. An international coui't of justice ; and
d. A Secretariat.
2. The Organization should have such subsidi-
ary agencies as may be found necessary.
Chapter V
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
Section A
COMPOSITION
All members of the Organization should be
members of the General Assembly and should have
a number of representatives to be specified in the
Charter.
SBcnoN B
FUNCTIONS AND POfTERS
1. The General Assembly should have the right
lo consider the general principles of cooperation in
OCTOBER 8, 1944
369
the maintenance of international peace and se-
curity, including the principles governing dis-
armament and the regulation of armaments; to
discuss any questions relating to the maintenance
of international peace and security brought before
it by any member or members of the Organization
or by the Security Council; and to make recom-
mendations with regard to any such principles or
questions. Any such questions on which action is
necessary should be referred to the Security Coun-
cil by the General Assembly either before or after
discussion. The General Assembly should not on
its own initiative make recommendations on any
matter relating to the maintenance of international
peace and security which is being dealt with by the
Security Council.
2. The General Assembly should be empowered
to admit new members to the Organization ujion
reconnnendation of the Security Council.
3. The General Assembly should, upon recom-
mendation of the Security Council, be empowered
to suspend from the exercise of any rights or privi-
leges of membership any member of the Organiza-
tion against which preventive or enforcement ac-
tion shall have been taken by the Security Council.
The exercise of the rights and privileges thus sus-
pended may be restored by decision of the Secuiity
Council. The General Assembly should be em-
powered, upon recommendation of the Security
Council, to expel from the Organization any mem-
ber of the Organization which persistently violates
the principles contained in the Charter.
4. The General Assembly should elect the non-
permanent members of the Security Council and
the members of the Economic and Social Council
provided for in Chapter IX. It should be em-
powered to elect, upon recommendation of the Se-
curity Council, the Secretary-General of the
Organization. It should perform such functions
in relation to the election of the judges of the in-
ternational court of justice as may be conferred
upon it by the statute of the court.
5. The General Assembly .should apportion the
expenses among the members of the Organization
and should be empowered to approve the budgets
of the Organization.
6. The General Assembly should initiate studies
and make recommendations for the purpose of pro-
moting international cooperation in political, eco-
nomic and social fields and of adjusting situations
likely to impair the general welfare.
7. The General Assembly should make recom-
mendations for the coordination of the policies of
international economic, social, and other special-
ized agencies brought into relation with the Or-
ganization in accordance with agreements between
such agencies and the Organization.
8. The General Assembly should receive and
consider annual and special reports from the Se-
curity Council and reports from other bodies of
the Organization.
Seciion C
VOTING
1. Each member of the Organization should
have one vote in the General Assembly.
2. Important decisions of the General Assem-
bly, including recommendations with respect to
the maintenance of international peace and se-
curity ; election of members of the Security Coun-
cil; election of members of the Economic and So-
cial Council ; admission of members, suspension of
the exercise of the rights and privileges of mem-
bers, and expulsion of members; and budgetary
questions, should be made by a two-thirds major-
ity of those 23i"esent and voting. On other ques-
tions, including the determination of additional
categories of questions to be decided by a two-
thirds majority, the decisions of the General As-
sembly should be made by a simple majority vote.
Section D
PROCEDURE
1. The General Assembly should meet in regu-
lar annual sessions and in such special sessions as
occasion may require.
2. The General Assembly should adopt its own
rules of procedure and elect its President for each
session.
3. The General Assembly should be empowered
to set up such bodies and agencies as it may deem
necessary for the performance of its functions.
Chapter VI
THE SECURITY COUNCIL
Si!x:tion a
COMPOSITION
The Security Council should consist of one rep-
resentative of each of eleven members of the Or-
ganization. Representatives of the United States
of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northei-n Ireland, the Union of Soviet Social-
ist Republics, the Republic of China, and, in due
370
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
course, France, should have permanent seats. The
General Assembly should elect six states to fill the
non-permanent seats. These six states should be
elected for a term of two years, three retiring each
year. They should not be immediately eligible
for reelection. In the first election of the non-
permanent members three should be chosen by the
General Assembly for one-year terms and three
for two-year terms.
Section B
PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS AND POWERS
1. In order to ensure prompt and effective ac-
tion by the Organization, members of the Organi-
zation should by the Chai'ter confer on the Secu-
rity Council primary responsibility for the main-
tenance of intenaational peace and security and
should agree that in can-ying out these duties un-
der this responsibility it should act on their behalf.
2. In discharging these duties the Security
Council should act in accordance with the pur-
poses and principles of the Organization.
3. The specific powers conferred on the Security
Council in order to carry out these duties are laid
down in Chapter VIII.
4. All members of the Organization should ob-
ligate themselves to accept the decisions of the
Security Council and to cany them out in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Charter.
5. In order to promote the establishment and
maintenance of international peace and security
with the least diversion of tlie world's human and
economic resources for armaments, the Security
Council, with the assistance of the Military Staff
Committee referred to in Cliapter VIII, Section
B, paragraph 9, should have the responsibility for
formulating plans for the establishment of a sys-
tem of regulation of armaments for submission to
the members of the Organization.
Section C
VOTING
(Note: The question of voting procedure in the
Security Council is still under consideration.)
Section D
PROCEDURE
1. The Security Council should be so organized
as to be able to function continuously and each
state member of the Security Council should bs
permanently represented at the headquarters of
the Organization. It may hold meetings at such
other places as in its judgment may best facilitate
its work. There should be periodic meetings at
which each state member of the Security Council
could if it so desired be represented by a member
of the government or some other special repre-
sentative.
2. The Security Council should be empowered
to set up such bodies or agencies as it may deem
necessary for the performance of its functions in-
cluding i-egional subcommittees of the Military
Staff Committee.
3. The Security Council should adopt its own
rules of procedure, including the method of se-
lecting its President.
4. Any member of the Organization should par-
ticipate in the discussion of any question brought
before the Security Council whenever the Securitj'
Council considers that the interests of that mem-
ber of the Organization are specially affected.
5. Any member of the Organization not having
a seat on the Security Council and any state not a
member of the Organization, if it is a party to a
dispute under consideration by the Security Coun-
cil, should be invited to participate in the discus-
sion relating to the dispute.
Chapter VII
an international court of justice
1. There should be an international court of
justice which should constitute the principal ju-
dicial organ of the Organization.
2. The court should be constituted and should
function in accordance with a statute which should
be annexed to and be a jjart of the Charter of the
Organization.
3. The statute of the court of international jus-
tice should be either (a) the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice, continued in
force with such modifications as may be desirable
or (b) a new statute in the preparation of which
the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice should be used as a basis.
4. All members of the Organization should
ipso facto be parties to the statute of the interna-
tional court of justice.
5. Conditions under which states not members
of the Organization may become parties to the
statute of the international court of justice shoiild
be determined in each case by the General Assem-
bly upon recommendation of the Security Council.
OCTOBER 8, 1944
371
Chapter VIII
ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF
INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY IN-
CLUDING PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF
AGGRESSION
Section A
PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
1. The Security Council should be empowered to
investigate any dispute, or any situation which
may lead to international friction or give rise to a
dispute, in order to determine whether its con-
tinuance is likely to endanger the maintenance of
international peace and security.
2. Any state, whether member of the Organiza-
tion or not, may bring any such dispute or situa-
tion to the attention of the General Assembly or
of the Security Council.
3. The parties to any dispute the continuance of
which is likely to endanger the maintenance of in-
ternational peace and security should obligate
themselves, first of all, to seek a solution by nego-
tiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration or ju-
dicial settlement, or other peaceful means of their
own choice. The Security Council should call
upon the parties to settle their dispute by such
means.
4. If, nevertheless, parties to a dispute of the
nature referred to in paragraph 3 above fail to
settle it by the means indicated in that paragraph,
they should obligate themselves to refer it to the
Security Council. The Security Council should in
each case decide whether or not the continuance
of the particular dispute is in fact likely to en-
danger the maintenance of international peace and
security, and, accordingly, whether the Security
Council should deal with the dispute, and, if so,
whether it should take action under paragraph 5.
5. The Security Council should be empowered,
at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred
to in paragraph 3 above, to recommend appropri-
ate procedures or methods of adjustment.
6. Justiciable disputes should normally be re-
ferred to the international court of justice. The
Security Council should be empowered to refer to
the court, for advice, legal questions connected
with other disputes.
7. The provisions of paragraph 1 to 6 of Sec-
tion A should not apply to situations or disputes
arising out of matters which by international law
are solely within the domestic jurisdiction of the
state concerned.
612696-^4 2
Section B
DETERMINATION OF THREATS TO THE PEACE OR
ACTS OF AGGRESSION AND ACTION WITH RESPECT
THERETO
1. Should the Security Council deem that a fail-
ure to settle a dispute in accordance with proce-
dures indicated in paragraph 3 of Section A, or I
in accordance with its recommendations made un-
der paragraph 5 of Section A, constitutes a thi-eat
to tlie maintenance of international peace and
security, it should take any measures necessary
for the maintenance of international peace and
security in accordance with the purposes and i
l^rinciples of the Organization. ,
2. In general the Security Council should de-
termine the existence of any threat to the peace,
breach of the peace or act of aggression and should .
make recommendations or decide upon the meas-
ures to be taken to maintain or restore peace and
security.
3. The Security Council should be empowered to
determine what diplomatic, economic, or other
measures not involving the use of armed force
should be employed to give effect to its decisions,
and to call upon members of the Organization to
apply such measures. Such measures may include
complete or partial interruption of rail, sea, air,
postal, telegraphic, radio and other means of com-
munication and the severance of diplomatic and
economic relations.
4. Should the Security Council consider such
measures to be inadequate, it should be empowered
to take such action by air, naval or land forces
as may be necessary to maintain or restore inter-
national peace and security. Such action may in-
clude demonstrations, blockade and other opera- i
tions by air, sea or land forces of members of the
Organization.
5. In order that all members of the Organiza-
tion should contribute to the maintenance of in- j
ternational peace and security, they should under- j
take to make available to the Security Council, on
its call and in accordance with a special agreement
or agreements concluded among themselves, armed
forces, facilities and assistance necessary for the
purpose of maintaining international peace and '
security. Such agi'eement or agreements should i
govern the numbers and types of forces and the j
nature of the facilities and assistance to be pro- |
vided. The special agreement or agreements
should be negotiated as soon as possible and should
in each case be subject to approval by the Security
372
Council and to ratification by the signatory states
in accordance with their constitutional processes.
6. In order to enable urgent military measures
to be taken by the Organization there should be
held immediately available by the members of the
Organization national air force contingents for
combined international enforcement action. The
strength and degree of readiness of these contin-
gents^'and plans for their combined action should
be determined by the Security Council with the
assistance of the Military Statf Committee witlnu
the limits laid down in the special agreement or
agreements referred to in paragraph 5 above.
7. The action required to carry out the decisions
of the Security Council for the maintenance of in-
ternational peace and security should be taken by
all the members of the Organization in cooperation
or by some of them as the Security Council may
determine. This undertaking should be carried
out by the members of the Organization by then-
own action and through action of the appropriate
specialized organizations and agencies of which
they are members.
8. Plans for the application of armed force
should be made by the Security Council with the
assistance of the Military Staff Committee re-
ferred to in paragraph 9 below.
9. There should be established a Military Staff
Committee the functions of which should be to
advise and assist the Security Council on all ques-
tions relating to the Security Council's military
requirements for the maintenance of international
peace and security, to the employment and com-
mand of forces placed at its disposal, to the regu-
lation of armaments, and to possible disarmament.
It should be responsible under the Security Coun-
cil for the strategic direction of any armed forces
placed at the disposal of the Security Council.
The Committee should be composed of the Chiefs
of Staff of the permanent members of the Security
Council or their representatives. Any member of
the Organization not permanently represented on
the Committee should be invited by the Committee
to be associated with it when the efficient discharge
of the Committee's responsibilities requires that
such a state should participate in its work. Ques-
tions of command of forces should be worked out
subsequently.
10. The members of the Organization should
join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out
the measures decided upon by the Security Council.
11. Any state, whether a member of the Organi-
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
zation or not, which finds itself confronted with
special economic problems arising from the carry-
ing out of measures which have been decided upon
by the Security Council should have the right to
consult the Security Council in regard to a solu-
tion of those problems.
Section C
REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
1. Nothing in the Charter should preclude the
existence of regional arrangements or agencies for
dealing with such matters relating to the main-
tenance of international peace and security as
are appropriate for regional action, provided such
arrangements or agencies and their activities are
consistent with the purposes and principles of the
Organization. The Security Council shoxdd en-
courage settlement of local disputes through such
regional arrangements or by such regional
agencies, either on the initiative of the states con-
cerned or by reference from the Security Council.
2. The Security Council should, where appro-
priate, utilize such arrangements or agencies for
enforcement action under its authority, but no en-
forcement action should be taken under regional
arrangements or by regional agencies without the
authorization of the Security Council.
3. The Security Council should at all times be
kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in
contemplation under regional arrangements or by
regional agencies for the maintenance of interna-
tional peace and security.
Chapter IX
ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COOPERATION
Section A
PURPOSE AND RELATIONSHIPS
1. With a view to the creation of conditions of
stability and well-being which are necessary for
peaceful and friendly relations among nations, the
Organization should facilitate solutions of inter-
national economic, social and other humanitarian
problems and promote respect for human rights
and fundamental freedoms. Kesponsibility for the
discharge of this function should be vested in the
General Assembly and, under the authority of the
General Assembly, in an Economic and Social
Council.
2. The various specialized economic, social and
other organizations and agencies would have re-
OCTOBER 8, 19U
373
sponsibilities in their respective fields as defined in
their statutes. Each such organization or agency
should be brought into relationship with the
Organization on terms to be determined by agree-
ment between the Economic and Social Council and
the appropriate authorities of the specialized
organization or agency, subject to approval by the
General Assembly.
Section B
COMPOSITION AND VOTING
The Economic and Social Council should con-
sist of representatives of eighteen members of the
Organization. The states to be represented for
this purpose should be elected by tlie General As-
sembly for terms of three years. Each such state
should have one representative, who should have
one vote. Decisions of the Economic and Social
Council should be taken by simple majority vote
of those present and voting.
Section C
FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL COUNCIL
1. The Economic and Social Council should be
empowered :
a. to carry out, within the scope of its functions,
recommendations of the General Assembly ;
b. to make recommendations, on its own initia-
tive, with respect to international economic,
social and other humanitarian matters;
c. to receive and consider reports from the eco-
nomic, social and other organizations or agen-
cies brought into relationship with the Or-
ganization, and to coordinate their activities
through consultations with, and recommenda-
tions to, such organizations or agencies ;
d. to examine the administrative budgets of
such specialized organizations or agencies
with a view to making recommendations to
the organizations or agencies concerned ;
e. to enable the Secretary-General to provide
information to the Security Council;
f. to assist the Security Council upon its re-
quest; and
g. to perform such other functions within the
general scope of its competence as may be as-
signed to it by the General Assembly.
Section D
ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE
1. The Economic and Social Council should set
up an economic commission, a social commission,
and such otlier commissions as may be required.
These commissions should consist of experts.
There should be a permanent staff which should
constitute a part of the Secretariat of the Or-
ganization.
2. The Economic and Social Council should
make suitable arrangements for representatives of
the specialized organizations or agencies to i^ar-
ticipate without vote in its deliberations and in
tliose of the commissions established by it.
3. The Economic and Social Council should
adopt its own rules of procedure and the method
of selecting its President.
Chapter X
THE SECRETARIAT
1. There should be a Secretariat comprising a
Secretary-General and such stafl' as may be re-
quired. The Secretary-General should be the
chief administrative officer of the Organization.
He should be elected by the General Assembly, on
recommendation of the Security Council, for such
term and under such conditions as are specified in
the Charter.
2. The Secretary-General should act in that
capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly,
of the Security Council, and of the Economic and
Social Council and should make an annual report
to the General Assembly on the work of the Or-
ganization.
3. The Secretary-General should have the right
to bring to the attention of the Security Council
any matter which in his opinion may threaten in-
tcDiational peace and security.
Chapter XI
AMENDMENTS
Amendments should come into force for all
members of the Organization, when they have been
adopted by a vote of two-thirds of the members
of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance
with their respective constitutional processes by
the members of the Organization having perma-
nent membership on the Security Council and by
a majority of the other members of the Organiza-
tion.
Chapter XII
TRANSITIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
1. Pending the coming into force of the special
agreement or agreements referred to in Chapter
374
VIII, Section B, paragi-aph 5, and in accordanca
with the provisions of paragraph 5 of the Four-
Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow, October
30, 1943, the states parties to that Declaration
should consult with one another and as occasion
arises with other members of the Organization
with a view to such joint action on behalf of the
Organization as may be necessary for the purpose
of maintaining international peace and security.
2. No provision of the Charter should preclude
action taken or authorized in relation to enemy
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
states as a result of the present war by the Govern-
ments having responsibility for such action.
Note
In addition to the question of voting procedure
in the Security Council referred to in Chapter
VI, several other questions are still under con-
sideration.
Washington, D. C.
October 7, 19U
Conclusion of the Second Phase of the Conversations
REMARKS BY THE UNDER SECRETARY OF
STATE AT THE CLOSING SESSION
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations October 7]
Duriaig the past week we have had opportunity
to consider the document of proposals with our
colleagues from China. Our thoughtful reexami-
nation of these proposals in plenary session, in the
formulation grouj), and in the Steering Committee
has been most fruitful. We have benefited greatly
from the close study which Dr. Koo and his asso-
ciates have given the document and from their
penetrating observations and their new perspec-
tives. I am deeply gratified -that the members of
the Chinese group have found in the proposals,
based as they are upon the documents submitted
by all four participating groups, an acceptable
body of principles for an international organiza-
tion to maintain peace and security. Out of our
discussions during this phase have emerged many
points to which we shall all want to give consid-
eration in preparations for a full conference.
It has been rightly said of war-makers that they
destroy in days that which has taken generations
to build. Our task has happily been to construct.
I sincerely hope it may sometime be said that the
men of peace who have sat around this table have
reached agreement in days upon principles which
strengthen the promise of security and peace for
generations.
The common understanding we have achieved
and the agreements we have reached in so brief
a period have been possible because of the great
qualities of statesmanship of my fellow chairmen,
Dr. Koo and Lord Halifax, and of the construc-
tive spirit of cooperation which has prevailed
among all who have worked with us. I wish to
express my deep appreciation and that of the
American group for the cordiality and the wisdom
wliich our British and Chinese colleagues have
brought to the task and for the spirit of harmony
which has pi'evailed in our deliberations.
The peace-loving peojiles of the world will soon
have o]5portunity to judge what we have accom-
l^lished here. They will appraise our work criti-
cally, for they are deeply earnest in their search
for means to rid the world of the horrors of war
and insecurity under which they have suffered so
cruelly and so long. I am fully confident that the
proposals upon which we have agreed will meet
the test of their scrutiny. Within these proposals
are contained the more important principles for
an organization that will make possible, in our
era, effective international cooperation for peace
and security.
As we conclude this final phase of our conver-
sations at Dumbarton Oaks I am deeply conscious
of the bonds of friendship and common purpose
which join us with China and with the United
Kingdom in our common struggle to defeat the
Japanese and German aggressors. I anticipate
with full confidence that the unity which the
United Nations have achieved in war, and which
has so richly manifested itself in our present con-
versations, will strengthen in peace. The four
nations which have participated in these conver-
sations will, I am sure, take early steps to com-
plete the task we have begun at Dumbarton Oaks
and therebj' make possible in the not-distant fu-
OCTOBER 8, 19U
375
ture the calling of a general conference for the
establishment of the organization which we have
projected here and whicli is so devoutly desired
by the peace-loving peoples of the world.
REMARKS BY AMBASSADOR KOO AT THE
CLOSING session'
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations October 7]
Ms. Chairman, Gentlemen :
I have listened with deep appreciation to the
generous tribute which you, Mr. Chairman, have
paid to the Chinese Delegation and the fair ap-
praisal which he has made of the work of the sec-
ond phase of the Dumbarton Oaks conversations.
I wish to say how grateful we of the Chinese Dele-
gation feel toward you, Mr. Chairman, for having
acted as chairman of our meetings, over which you
have presided with such marked ability and un-
failing courtesy. We wish also to express our
thanks for the hospitality of the Government of
the United States, which left nothing to be de-
sired in affording facilities for our meetings and
comfort for the delegates. The efficient secre-
tariat provided by the State Department has also
been a xerj great help to us in our work.
In our deliberations, we found the achievement
of the first phase of the conversations excellent
groundwork. The set of proposals which has now
received the endorsement of the different partic-
ipating delegations furnishes a preliminary and
concrete plan for the formation of an interna-
tional organization to maintain peace and security.
We hope that the fruits of our labor will contribute
in the end to the strengthening of the foundation
of this new structure to be reared.
From the outset we were animated by an earnest
desire to promote the success of our joint task.
We are glad and delighted to be able to say that our
spirit of collaboration was fully reciprocated by
our colleagues on the American and British Dele-
gations. At all the meetings we had, whether of
the plenary session, the Steering Committee, the
formulation group, or of the military experts, an
atmosphere of frankness and cordiality prevailed.
The learning and wisdom of our American and
British colleagues made a deep impression on us.
All this made our deliberations and participation
both pleasant and profitable.
We believe that this important series of con-
versations initiated by the United States Govern-
ment has accompli.shed its purpose. The set of
agreed proposals, when approved by the four gov-
ernments and finally embodied in a more complete
form, will constitute a most valuable instrument
for consideration and adoption by all the inter-
ested nations at a general conference. It is our
hope that this conference can be held in the near
future so that the ardent wish of all the peace-
loving peoples to see the establishment of a uni-
versal organization to safeguard international
peace and security after the achievement of vic-
tory over our common enemy in the East and in
the West can find its early fulfilment.
REMARKS BY THE EARL OF HALIFAX AT
THE CLOSING SESSION*
[Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations October 7]
Mr. Stettinius, and Dr. Koo, and Ladies and
Gentlemen :
The conversations just concluded under your
able chairmanship have in my own view and in
that of all the members of the British Delegation
made a great contribution to the eventual estab-
lishment of the International Organisation that
we seek. The Chinese Delegation I have no doubt
feel with us that we have owed much to the rare
personal qualities that you. Sir, have brought to
your duties in the Chair, and to the large-minded
participation of the whole American team. We
have throughout the consideration of these prob-
lems been much influenced- by the views which the
Chinese Delegation were good enough to jjlace be-
fore us at an early date, and we were much en-
couraged by finding that the line of approach
which Tie ourselves favoured was very similar to
that advocated by our Chinese friends. On most
questions of the first importance we found our-
selves in close agreement with them.
Thus, the plan which we have worked out to-
gether at Dumbarton Oaks owes much to the wise
and consistent thinking of the Chinese Delegation.
Dr. Wellington Koo has, as always, given to us
1 Chairman of the Chinese Delegation.
' The Earl of Halifax, Chairman of the British Delega-
tion during the second phase of the conversations, is
British Ambassador to the United States.
376
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
freely and candidly the results of his long experi-
ence of international affairs, and the exchanges
which we have had with him and with his col-
leagues have been both searching and constructive.
The large measure of agreement that we have
reached shows that there is no barrier between the
East and the West on these questions, which mean
so much to tlie future of the world.
We have all recognised the common interest in
the solution of these large issues, and, if we have
not resolved all of them, that is because some of
them require more prolonged and intense study
than we have been able here to give. But a gi-eat
deal has been accomplished, and I can say frankly
that when the suggestion was first made that these
conversations should take place, I had no expecta-
tion that we should have been able to go so far at
this stage. That we have done so, Mr. Chairman,
is of good augury for the future.
We must all be very conscious of the difficulty
of the problems that confront us, but if we handle
them with the same spirit of good-will and com-
mon sense which has shown itself at all our meet-
ings in these hospitable quarters, I am certain
that we can find answers for them which all peace-
loving nations can accept, and thus make possible
the creation of an international society in which
mankind can find the opportunity to reach a higher
level of civilization than has previously existed.
A great Greek philosopher said that the State
came into existence in order that men might live,
but that its justification was to be found only if
men lived nobly. So (and I believe that in this
thought I have the full agi-eement of all those who
have taken part in these conversations), the In-
ternational Organisation should be brought into
existence in order that nations may be saved from
destruction; but it also will only be justified if
through the years all humanity is enabled by it to
find the way to a better and a nobler life.
JOINT STATEMENT BY HEADS OF AMERICAN,
BRITISH, AND CHINESE DELEGATIONS
[ Released to the press by the State Department
on the Washington Conversations October 7]
Conversations between the United States, the
United Kingdom, and the Chinese Delegations in
Washington regarding the establislmient of a
World Security Organization have now reached a
satisfactory conclusion. Rapid progress has been
made possible because of the work accomplished
at the first phase of the Dumbarton Oaks discus-
sions and because the three delegations liad earlier
exchanged written memoranda on the subject.
These conversations have afforded the delegations
the opportunity of a full and frank excliange of
views and have resulted in an agreed set of pro-
posals for the general framework of an interna-
tional organization and the machinery required
to maintain peace and security which the three
delegations are now reporting to their respective
governments. The three governments will issue a
statement on the subject in the near future.
Final Meeting of American
Delegation
[Released to the press October 7]
At the final group meeting of the members of
the American Delegation on October 7, held as
usual in the American Room at Dumbarton Oaks,
Mr. Stettinius in his capacity as chairman of the
American group made the following statement:
"This is the last time we shall meet together at
Dumbarton Oaks. I wish to expi'css to each of you
my very deep personal gratitude for the contri-
bution tliis team has made individually and col-
lectively to the success of these conversations. I
assure you that what has been done would not
have been jjossible without benefit of the clarifi-
cation of our thought and the balancing of our
judgments hammered out in the long hours we
have spent in this most-used room at Dumbarton
Oaks."
Mr. Henry P. Fletcher then made, on behalf of
the American Delegation, the following remarks:
"I would like at this our final meeting of the
American group to express to you, Mr. Stettinius,
on behalf of my colleagues our deep appreciation
of your patience, tact, good humor, and efficiency
in presiding over the discussions of our delega-
tion and the deliberations of the conference.
''We leave with the happiest impression of our
association with you in these conversations, which
we hope may prove useful and fruitful."
OCTOBER 8, 19U
377
The Anglo-American Caribbean Commission
Address by CHARLES W. TAUSSIG'
[Released to the press October 7]
The interest of the United States in the region
known geographically and politically as the Carib-
bean springs from several causes. Our ties with
the area are many — historical, romantic, humani-
tarian — and of the utmost importance, those of
national security. Perhaps the most impelling
from a hiunan-interest point of view are the his-
torical ties which date back to the colonial period
of our history when West Indian trade was the
lifeblood of our New England economy — that
rugged, vigorous, although cruel era of "mission-
aries on deck and slaves in the hold", of "rum, ro-
mance, and rebellion". But of more importance
are the traditional interests of the United States
in the well-being and political advancement of de-
*. pendent peoples, which interests are merged in this
region with vital considerations of national se-
curity. The tranquility and stability of the Carib-
bean countries are important elements in that
security.
The European colonies in the Caribbean area
belong to the Netherlands, France, and Great Brit-
ain. The majority of inhabitants of these terri-
tories and of our own United States possessions
are an underprivileged peojile. They suffer from
a lop-sided economy and are, for the most part,
poor, undernourished, inadequately educated,
badly provided for in matters of health and sani-
tation; and many are dissatisfied with their politi-
cal status.
Politically, substantial changes in the direction
of self-government are now taking place. Jamaica
has been granted a new constitution with a lower
house elected by universal suffrage and an execu-
tive council composed equally of elected and ap-
pointed members. The new set-up contains the
beginnings of a ministerial system. British Gui-
ana has increased the number of unofficial members
in its legislature and will give majority control to
elected members. The Secretary of State for the
Colonies has accepted the report of a British Gui-
ana franchise commission reducing the property
qualifications for voting by approximately one
half. Barbados also has sharply reduced the re-
quirements for voting, and only two months ago
the Secretary of State for the Colonies announced
his acceptance of a plan for universal adult suf-
frage for both men and women in Trinidad.
Puerto Kico and the Virgin Islands of the United
States have had universal suffrage for many years,
and President Roosevelt has initiated a plan under
which the people of Puerto Rico would have the
right to elect their own governor. That plan in
principle has already been approved by the United
States Senate and is now awaiting action by the
House.
You will remember that in December 1942 Queen
AVilhelmina announced that when Holland and
the Netherlands East Indies are liberated she will
call a conference in which representatives of Suri-
nam and Curagao will discuss constitutional re-
construction. According to the director of the
West Indies division of the Netherlands Ministry
of Colonies such a conference "might well recom-
mend the creation of a Commonwealth in which
there would be even more regional autonomy, while
the four parts would share in controlling de-
fence, foreign policy and international economic
relations".
In Curagao a committee appointed by the gov-
ernor has just prepared a plan for increased local
self-government in the various islands of the col-
ony through councils elected by the people.
Early in 1942 the Governments of the United
States and Great Britain agreed that the welfare
of the area was of international concern and of
particular importance to these two metropolitan
countries. On March 9 of that year a joint com-
munique was simultaneously issued in Washing-
ton and in London creating the Anglo-American
Caribbean Commission. The communique said:
"For the purpose of encouraging and strengthen-
ing social and economic cooperation between the
United States of America and its possessions and
bases in the area . . . and the United Kingdom
and British colonies in the same area, and to avoid
'Delivered before the Foreign Policy Association, New
York, N. Y., Oct. 7, 1944. Mr. Taussig is Cliairman of tlie
United States Section, Anglo-American Caribbean Com-
mission.
378
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
unnecessary duplication of research in these fields,
a commission, to be known as the Anglo-American
Caribbean Commission, has been jointly created
by the two Governments. The Commission will
consist of six members, three from each countrj',
to be appointed respectively by the President of
the United States and His IMajesty's Government
in the United Kingdom — who will designate one
member fi'om each country as a co-chairman."
The communique was specific in its frame of
reference as to what should concern the Commis-
sion. These were matters primarily "pertaining
to labor, agriculture, housing, health, education,
sCKjial welfare, finance, economics, and related sub-
jects in the territories under the British and
United States flags within this territory, and on
these matters [members of the Commission] will
advise their respective Governments".
It should be noted that the communique did not
envisage purely Anglo-American activities. It
stated : "The Anglo-American Caribbean Com-
mission in its studies and in the formulation of
its recommendations will necessarily bear in mind
the desirability of close cooperation in social and
economic matters between all regions adjacent to
the Caribbean." As a matter of fact, the Nether-
lands territories in the West Indies, Cuba, Haiti,
the Dominican Republic, and Canada have al-
ready participated in one way or another in some
of the work carried on under the auspices of the
Commission.
The President appended to the joint communi-
que an assurance of territorial integrity in the
Caribbean, stating, in reference to the term of
the 99-3^ear leases, that his "Government had no in-
tention of requesting any modification of the
Agreements already reached; that the acquisition
of the bases granted to the United States would
be for the term of 99 years as fixed in these Agree-
ments". He also made the categorical statement
"that the United States does not seek sovereignty
over the islands or colonies on which the bases are
located". This assurance has created a mutual
feeling of confidence which augurs well for inter-
national collaboration in the area.
The activities of the Commission are carried on
through the Commission itself and two auxiliary
bodies. The Commission is tlie directing body
and reports to the two metropolitan governments.
The Caribbean Research Council, which was
created by the Commission, is quasi-autonomous
and acts as the technical adviser to the Commission
in the fields of agriculture, fisheries, forestry,
nutrition, public health and medicine, industries,
building and engineering problems, and in the field
of social sciences. For the most part the persomiel
of the Caribbean Research Council is drawn from
the Caribbean. The Netherlands territories in the
West Indies are now represented on the Caribbean
Research Council, and we hope to increase further
the Council's membership.
In order that a democratic approach might be
made to the problems of the area, a second agency,
a standing body known as the West Indian Con-
ference, has been set up. The Government of each
colony and territory appoints two delegates to this
Conference. An effort is made to have at least one
delegate chosen, more as a representative of the
people than as a representative of the Government.
The first meeting of the West Indian Conference
took place at Barbados, March 21 to 30, 1944.
Eight British colonies were represented as well as
Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United
States. The Netherlands and Canada each sent
an observer. This was the first international con-
ference ever held by representatives of dependent
peoples. Three fourths of the delegates were
West Indians, and the races were about evenlj'
divided. The standing Conference makes recom-
mendations which are transmitted through the
Commission to the metropolitan governments and
to the territorial governments. The vitality of
the Commission is enhanced with the increasing
participation of West Indians in its work.
The approach of the Anglo-American Carib-
bean Commission to its problems was succinctly
summarized by Col. Oliver Stanley, Secretary of
State for the Colonies, on March 16, 1943, in Par-
liament. "The Commission has not started on a
high plane of broad theoretical discussions; it has
started on a plane of practical solutions to com-
mon problems facing both countries, and the sort
of problems which will face them in that area after
the war, problems of economics, transport, health
and connnunications which go far beyond the
frontiers of one particular unit and can only be
solved by common effort."
The Commission is a down-to-earth body which
concerns itself with and works with human beings
within and outside the Caribbean, who individ-
ually and collectively create the problems and who
themselves must plaj' their part in solving them.
The Commission is primarily an advisoiy body,
but under the pressure of war emergency, when it
OCTOBER 8, 1944
379
became necessary almost over night to organize
civilian life in the Caribbean to meet the subma-
rine menace, tlie Commission acquii'ed the added
function of "expediter" in regard to supplies and
other activities. The Commission's work is car-
ried on in collaboration with men and women of
the area, with laborers, planters, merchants, pro-
fessional men and women, and officials — in short,
with the people.
In the field of agriculture, the Commission as-
sociates itself with scientists and technicians, not
merely that it may become a repository for learned
papers but that it may serve as an agency to pro-
vide the links between the laboratory and experi-
ment station and the farm. In the realm of health,
the Commission has assisted in providing for re-
gional cooperation in matters of quarantine and
in the control of malaria and venereal disease.
The Commission is receiving valuable support
from the governors of the territories and colonies
of the Caribbean and from their administrations.
It woi'ks in the closest cooperation with the De-
partment of the Interior, which has jurisdiction
over our own possessions, with Federal and Insu-
lar agencies in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands
of the United States, and with the Development
and Welfare Organization in the British West
Indies, of which my colleague, the able British co-
chairman of the Commission, Sir Frank Stock-
dale, is the comptroller.
We intend to relate our work to that of other
international organizations. As an example, we
have developed our agriculture and nutrition pro-
gram within the framework of the resolutions
adopted by the United Nations Conference on
Food and Agriculture at Hot Springs. We be-
lieve that we were the first international body to
take formal action in implementing that program.
Those of you who are acquainted with the Car-
ibbean and are aware of the prevailing insularity
of the people would be surprised and gratified to
observe how, through the activities of the Com-
mission, there has been a substantial reduction in
the barriers to the free exchange of knowledge
throughout the area. This spirit of cooperation
has also been a feature within the Commission it-
self. Personal contacts have been of the happiest
and all discussions have been of the most friendly
nature. Throughout there has been an endeavor
to develop a working example of regional collab-
oration in the solution of problems of conamon
concern. The possibility has not been lost sight
of that the Anglo-American Caribbean Commis-
sion may point the way to the creation of other re-
gional commissions for the benefit of dependent
peoples in other parts of the world.
It is axiomatic that regional commissions such !
■as the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission
should neither frustrate normal development in
colonial self-government nor pose as an alterna-
tive to it. Through their forward-looking policies
and efforts, however, such bodies should contribute
much to the preparation of dependent peoples for
economic self-help and political self-sufficiency.
The Commission is still in its trial-and-error pe-
riod, but it has found an approach, a method, and I
the institutions for regional collaboration. There i
is evidence that the dependent peoples of the Car-
ibbean and other areas of the world are watching
the work of the Commission with interest and hope
and perhaps with some skepticism. They know
that no matter how perfect the machinery of in-
ternational organization may become the benefits
to be derived will ultimately depend upon the '
vision, the courage, and above all upon the integ-
rity of the participating nations. We must not
and shall not betray this trust.
Military Action Toward
Liberation of Greece '
Statement by THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 6]
I am deeply moved at the news that the libera-
tion of Greece has begim. In a truer sense, its en-
slavement has never been a fact. For nearly four
years an indomitable Greek nation has suffered I
the terrifying effects of aggression on an unprece-
dented scale. When many men — even stout-
hearted men of good-will — had almost lost hope, |
the Greek people challenged the invincibility of
the mechanized Nazi monster, pitting against in-
human engines of war and cold-blooded, calculat-
ing strategy little more than the fierce spirit of
freedom.
Four years is a long time to starve and die, to ;
see cliildren massacred, to watch villages burn to
rubble and ashes. But it is not a long enough time
to extinguish the clear flame of the Hellenic herit-
age which throughout centuries has taught the
dignity of man. It is more than fitting, it is in- |
evitable, that as hopeless darkness is engulfing the j
ideals of Nazi barbarism the clear Greek air will I
380
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
once more be breathed by free men without fear of
oppression, and that the Acropolis, for 25 cen-
turies a symbol of man's accomplisliment in an
environment of human liberty, will again be a
beacon of faith for the future.
Statement by THE SECRETARY OF STATE
[Released to the press October 6]
The present military action to liberate Greece
and release the Greek people from the martyrdom
which they have suffered for three and a half long
years comes as welcome news to the American Gov-
ernment and people. Greek resistance has never
faltered, either inside or outside the country, de-
spite the starvation of the poi^ulation, the savage
destruction of Greek towns, and the wanton killing
of Greek hostages by the enemy.
The entire civilized world will rejoice in the ex-
pulsion of the Nazis from this cradle of our west-
ern civilization, where the presence of these mod-
ern barbarians has seemed particularly odious.
Presentation of Letters of
Credence by the Ambassador
Of Chile
[Released to the press October 5]
A translation of the remarks of the newly ap-
pointed Ambassador of Chile, Senor Don Marcial
Mora Miranda, upon the occasion of the presenta-
tion of his letters of credence, October 5, 1944,
follows :
Mr. PfiEsmENT:
At the same time that I present to you the letters
of recall of my predecessor, my dear friend Oon
Rodolfo Michels, I have the honor to place in your
hands the credentials which acci'edit me as Am-
bassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of
Chile before Your Excellency.
I am here to undertake this high and honorable
mission at a time when there is approaching the
happy ending of the war on the European Conti-
nent, a fact which is producing happiness and hope
in my country, where Government and people in
perfect community of purpose have embraced with
fervor the cause of the democracies, have dedi-
cated their most loyal effort to collaborate for the
triumph of the United Nations, and have placed
themselves decisively at the service of continental
solidarity.
Chile is a democracy not only in its constitu-
tional organization and in the free and regular
functioning of its republican institutions, but also
in tlie deep-rooted realization which public opin-
ion has of its duties and civil rights, and in the
civic spirit which animates our national being.
Liberty and independence have always directed
the course of our destiny, and, during this war,
the Chilean people has felt itself fully interpreted
in its dearest aspirations in the foreign-policy di-
rectives of His Excellency President Don Juan
Antonio Rios, as well as in the postulates of the
Atlantic Charter and in the repeated declarations
of Your Excellency and of the most Excellent Sec-
retary of State, Mr. Cordell Hull, in the sense that
"the principle of the sovereign equality of all
peace-loving states, whatever may be their size
and power, as members of a system of order under
law, should constitute the foundation of any inter-
national future organization for the maintenance
of peace and security".
In the hour of the realization of those postu-
lates, an hour which is approaching rapidly, Chile
will always be at the service of democracy and of
American solidarity, and will be disposed to as-
sume the responsibilities proportionate to its ca-
pacity, in the certainty that it will encounter in
the high understanding and appreciation of Your
Excellency and of all jour Government firm sup-
port for its legitimate aspirations of a juridical
nature, as well as of a moral and economic nature.
The "good neighbor" policy, with which Your
Excellency has written the most beautiful and
promising pages in the history of the relations be-
tween the American republics, is a policy which
necessitates a great foundation of knowledge and
understanding in order that it may produce its best
results. To that reciprocal knowledge and com-
prehension I am especially charged by my Govern-
ment to dedicate my best efforts and my most con-
stant concern, because my country hopes that, ap-
plying "good neighborliness" in the brotherly sense
which it is conceded in habitual usage in North
American life, there will be facilitated for it the
solution of the numerous and serious problems
which it will have to confront in the post-war
period, and that it will be respected in the posi-
tion which it has achieved by its democratic tradi-
tion, its line of international policy, and by its
clear and well-defined personality of a nation lov-
ing peace, progress, and liberty.
OCTOBER 8, 1944
381
It is for me exceedingly pleasing to convey to you
the best wishes of His Excellency the President of
tlie Republic and of the people of Chile for the
triumph of the United States of North America
and for its growing prosperity, as well as for the
health and personal well-being of Your Excel-
lency, best wishes to whicli I permit myself to add,
with the most sincere cordiality and esteem, my
own personal best wishes.
The President's reply to the remarks of Senor
Don Marcial Mora Miranda follows:
Mb. Ambassador:
I am deeply pleased to receive from Your Ex-
cellency the letters accrediting you as Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Chile, and
to extend to you a most cordial welcome to the
United States.
I accept the letters concluding the mission of
Don Rodolfo Michels, your distinguished pre-
decessor. Ambassador Michels made important
contributions to the furtherance of the friendly
relations which so happily exist between your
country and mine.
I note with sincere pleasure Your Excellency's
reference to the fervent espousal by the Govern-
ment and people of Chile of the cause of the
United Nations and of the principle of continental
solidarity. The collaboration of the Government
and people of Chile will continue to be of great
value in hastening the inevitable final triumph of
the forces of democracy in the great world strug-
gle; and Chile has been and is in a position, as
an important bulwark of the solidarity of the
American hemisphere, to make invaluable con-
tributions to this great inter-American cause she
has espoused.
I welcome Your Excellency as the distinguished
representative of a great nation which has carried
to high levels the principles of democracy, human
dignity, and freedom. Chile is an outstanding ex-
ample to all the world of the strength and power of
these great ideals.
I also greet Your Excellency as a personal de-
fender of the principles for which the United Na-
tions are fighting. I know well that by word and
deed you have shown yourself to be a valiant
champion of the cause of democracy.
The principle of the sovereign equality of peace-
loving nations, irrespective of size and power,
should indeed constitute the foundation of any fu-
ture international organization for the mainte-
nance of peace and security. I am delighted to
hear from Your Excellency that, now that the
hour is approaching for the translation into re-
ality of this ideal, Chile is disposed to assume the
responsibilities proportionate to her capacity. I
am certain that in the future, as the nations of the
world shoulder the task of maintaining the peace,
Chile will continue to find in the United States a
sincere and steadfast friend.
The "good neighbor" policy, as Your Excel-
lency has so clearly indicated, should most cer-
tainly not be unilateral ; it depends for its strength
and effectiveness upon the participation and joint
efforts of the American nations. I am sure that
your efforts toward developing and strengthening
mutual knowledge and understanding between
Cliile and the United States will be a valuable
contribution to inter- American good-will and hap-
piness. You will find, on the part of the Govern-
ment and people of this country, a great respect
for the democratic and liberty-loving country
which you represent, and a sincere desire to coop-
erate and collaborate in the solution of the prob-
lems of the present and of the future.
I am deeply appreciative of the good wishes of
His Excellency the President of Chile and of the
Chilean people for the peojjle of the United States,
and of the personal greetings which His Excel-
lency was so kind as to send me. Please convey to
President Rios the expression of my deepest grat-
itude, and send to him my sincere wishes for his
continued good health and happiness and for the
welfare and prosperity of the people of Chile. I
reciprocate with pleasure the personal sentiments
which you so kindly expressed.
^ THE FOREIGN SERVICE ^
Consular OflSces
The Consulate at Rome, Italy, was established
on September 26, 1944.
The Consulate at Coatzacoalcos, Mexico, was
closed on September 30, 1944.
The Consulate at Marseille, France, was reestab-
lished on October 1, 1944.
382
Present Problems in Italy
Statement by THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 4]
In accordance with the policies with respect to
Italy which were outlined jointly by the Prime
Minister and me in a statement issued to the press
on September twenty-sixth,^ measures are now be-
ing taken to provide Italy with supplies necessary
to prevent civilian hunger, sickness, and fear dur-
ing the forthcoming winter. Steps are also being
taken to restore the damaged transportation and
electrical generating facilities of Italy to the ex-
tent necessary to enable the Italian people to
throw their full resources into the fight against
Germany and Japan.
A delegation of supply officers has been called
from Italy to Washington to review the needs and
requirements of the Italian civilian population.
In addition to the substantial quantities of food
and clothing which are now being shipped, and
have for some time been shipped into Italy, 150,000
tons of wheat and flour are now scheduled for
shipment. Steps are being taken to increase the
bread ration in those areas in Italy where food
supplies are below the standard necessary to main-
tain full health and efficiency. The distribution
of food and essential supplies within the country
has been seriously impeded by the damage done
to the transportation system and the wholesale
commandeering of trucks by the enemy. To meet
this emergency need it is planned to send 1,700
additional trucks to Italy.
In addition, preparations are vmder way to sup-
ply substantial quantities of generating equip-
ment includmg temporary power facilities to fur-
nish electricity to essential industries and public
utilities in central Italy which have been brought
to a standstill by the almost complete destruction
by the Germans of power plants.
The aid which the Allies have already given to
Italy has been substantial. Since the invasion of
Sicily to the end of this year, 2,300,000 long tons
of civilian supplies will have been shipped to Italy.
Of this total, 1,107,000 tons were food and the bal-
ance consisted of coal, fertilizer, seeds, medical
and sanitary supplies, and clothing. As an inte-
gral part of military operations the Army has done
a great deal to repair roads and bridges and rail-
roads and to repair water and power systems and
motor transport.
> BuLuniN of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 338.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Through these and other measures of assistance
which are now in preparation, the Italian people
will be enabled to increase their already signifi-
cant contribution toward the defeat of the enemy.
By doing these things, this country is serving the
militaiy aims and objectives of the United Na-
tions, which require the greatest possible contri-
bution from the manpower and the resources of
every nation engaged in the final overthrow of
Germany and Japan.
Plans for Economic Reports
From Liberated Areas
[Released to the press by the State Department
and the Department of Commerce October 5]
Under instructions worked out by the Depart-
ment of State in cooperation with the Depart-
ments of Commerce and Agriculture and the For-
eign Economic Administration together with other
interested agencies, diplomatic and consular rep-
resentatives assigned to areas liberated from Axis
control will expedite reports on economic condi-
tions and trends within such areas for the guidance
of both the Government and business.
The instructions are detailed and specific. The
point is strongly emphasized that restrictions on
the flow of information from these areas prior to
their liberation make the need for organized re-
porting acute.
In general the instructions call for : first, re-
ports concerning the immediate supply require-
ments of liberated areas and estimates of economic
conditions, on which considerable initial work has
been done, chiefly by the Foreign Economic Ad-
ministration in conjunction with the military au-
thorities and with the assistance of the Foreign
Service ; second, interpretative reports covering all
aspects of economic and social conditions within
liberated areas as an essential guide to American
foreign policy; and third, analyses of economic
conditions in liberated areas as an essential guide
to American interests concerned in the resumption
of commercial trade and investment.
In some areas and with respect to some com-
modities an immediate and full return to private
trade will not be possible because of disrupted eco-
nomic conditions. The economic and trade re-
porting from these territories will, therefore, be
particularly helpful during this interim period.
In the instructions sent out officers of the For-
eign Service are being reminded that American
OCTOBER 8. 1944
383
trade interests desire information regarding the
condition of their business contacts and interests
in liberated areas.
In the case of branch factories or affiliated com-
panies, American businessmen wish to know the
condition of these properties, how they were em-
plo.yed during the war, the state of inventories and
organization, and the factors involved in consid-
ering a resumption of business.
Wliere American businessmen before the war
operated through agency or distributor arrange-
ments, they wish to know the status of former mar-
keting or purchasing connections, their financial
condition, and the possibilities of making a new
start.
Reports on these subjects require an appraisal
of the new market situation. While the larger in-
dividual companies will probably be in position to
make their own surveys, most medium-sized and
small business concerns will turn to the Govern-
ment for assistance.
To meet this need for information, summary re-
ports are requested regarding the status of Ameri-
can branch plants and capital investments in lib-
erated areas as well as reports on the condition and
facilities of principal importers and distributors
formerly handling or in position to distribute
American products.
Foreign Service officers are being advised that
particular attention should be given to the acqui-
sition by the Axis of former American interests in
liberated areas as well as any transfer of owner-
ship or control within liberated areas of trading
companies, distributor or agency concerns, and
similar commercial organizations.
They are likewise being advised that various
legal questions regarding the possibility of recov-
ering damages, realizing upon old debts, the valid-
ity of contracts, patent rights, and the like are an-
ticipated and that information generally applica-
ble to such problems in liberated areas should be
reported.
Meanwhile interested American businessmen
are urged to channel specific inquiries through the
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, De-
partment of Commerce, in order that diplomatic
and consular representatives may be free to devote
their time to the preparation of these reports. If
swamped with direct individual requests for infor-
mation the preparation of reports will necessarily
be delayed.
The Bureau maintains close liaison with the De-
partment of State, and the desire of both is to
make information available as quickly as possible
to interested businessmen. When an inquiry is re-
ceived by the Bureau and the desired information
is not immediately available, the facilities of the
Government will be utilized to obtain it at the
earliest possible date.
Request to Neutral
Governments Concerning
Enemy Loot
[Released to the press October 4]
On October 2 the Government of the United
States requested the neutral governments to in-
stitute measures to prevent enemy governments
and leaders and their collaborators from retaining
their loot under neutral protection and from find-
ing safe haven for their wealth in neutral terri-
tories. These representations were made in keep-
ing with resolution VI of the Bretton Woods Con-
ference and were directed at objectives similar to
those of the United Nations Declaration of Janu-
ary 5, 1943 with resjject to looted property and the
Declaration of February 22, 1944 concerning looted
gold. Similar representations were made by the
British Government.
The i^roblem of uncovering and disentangling
enemy and looted property is one of international
character, which can be most effectively handled
in cooperation with the neutral countries. The
enemy has been taking property of occupied coun-
tries and their nationals by open looting and plun-
dering, by forcing transfers under duress, and by
subtle and complex devices. The enemy has
often operated through the agencies of puppet
governments to give the cloak of legality to his
robbery. The enemy has also been attempting to
conceal his assets by passing the chain of owner-
ship and control through occupied and neutral
countries. In anticipation of impending defeat
the enemy is increasing these activities in order
to salvage his assets and to perpetuate his eco-
nomic influence abroad and his power and ability
384
to plan future aggrandizement and world domi-
nation.
This Goveriunent in presenting its note to the
neutrals indicated that it considered cooperation
in this matter to be of "primary importance to the
welfare of occupied nations and to the protection
of the lives and property of their nationals and to
the peace and security of the post-war world".
The text of resolution VI, adopted by the dele-
gates assembled at the United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference at Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, follows.
Resolution VI
Whereas, in anticipation of their impending de-
feat, enemy leaders, enemy nationals and their
collaborators are transferring assets to and
through neutral countries in order to conceal them
and to perpetuate their influence, power, and abil-
ity to plan future aggrandizement and world dom-
ination, thus jeopardizing the efforts of the United
Nations to establish and permanently maintain
peaceful international relations ;
Wliereas, enemy countries and their nationals
have taken the property of occupied countries and
their nationals by open looting and plunder, by
forcing transfers under duress, as well as by subtle
and complex devices, often operated through the
agency of their puppet governments, to give the
cloak of legality to their robbery and to secure
ownership and control of enterprises in the post-
war period ;
Whereas, enemy countries and their nationals
have also, through sales and other methods of
transfer, run the chain of their ownership and
control through occupied and neutral countries,
thus making the problem of disclosure and disen-
tanglement one of international character ;
Whereas, the United Nations have declared their
intention to do their utmost to defeat the methods
of dispossession practiced by the enemy, have re-
served their right to declai-e invalid any transfers
of property belonging to persons within occupied
territory, and have taken measures to protect and
safeguard property, within their respective juris-
dictions, owned by occupied countries and their
nationals, as well as to prevent the disposal of
looted property in United Nations markets;
therefore
The United Nations Monetary and Financial
Conference
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
1. Takes note of and fully supports steps taken by
the United Nations for the purpose of :
(a) uncovering, segregating, controlling, and
making appropriate disposition of enemy assets;
(b) preventing the liquidation of property
looted by the enemy, locating and tracing owner-
ship and control of such looted property, and tak-
ing appropriate measures with a \'iew to restora-
tion to its lawful owners ;
2. Recommends: That all Governments of coun-
tries represented at this Conference take ac-
tion consistent with their relations with the
countries at war to call upon the Governments
of neutral countries
(a) to take immediate measures to prevent any
disposition or transfer within territories subject
to their jurisdiction of any
(1) assets belonging to the Government or
any individuals or institutions within those
United Nations occupied by the enemy; and
(2) looted gold, currency, art objects, securi-
ties, other evidences of ownership in financial or
business enterprises, and of other assets looted
by the enemy;
as well as to uncover, segregate and hold at the
disposition of the post-liberation authorities in
the appropriate country any such assets within
territory' subject to their jurisdiction;
(b) to take immediate measures to prevent the
concealment by fraudulent means or otherwise
within countries subject to their jurisdiction of
any
(1) assets belonging to, or alleged to belong
to, the Government of and individuals or in-
stitutions within enemy countries;
(2) assets belonging to, or alleged to belong
to, enemy leaders, their associates and collabora-
tors ;
and to facilitate their ultimate delivery to the post-
armistice authorities.
LEGISLATION
An Act To amend the Nationality Xct of 1940 to permit
the Cummissiuuer to furnish copies of any part of thfi
records or information therefrom to agencies or olHcials
of a State without charge. Approved September 27, 1944.
[H. R. 1680.] Pul)lic Law 428, 78th Cong. 1 p.
An Act To amend the Nationality Act of 1940 to preserve
the nationality of citizens residing abroad. Approved Sep-
tember 27, 1944. [H. R. 4271.] Public Law 432, 78th
Cong. 1 p.
OCTOBER 8. 1944
Death of Wendell Willkie
(Released to the press October 81
The Secretary of State has sent the following
message to Mrs. Wendell Willkie :
October 8, 1944.
It is most shocking to nie to learn of the un-
timely passing of your distinguished husband,
Wendell Willkie. He was a man of the finest
cliaracter who staunchly and sincerely held to his
principles. Not only during the presidential cam-
paign of 1940 but in the years since then his able
and forthright presentation of his views on pub-
lic questions was a great stimulus to the forming
of public opinion. His death brings a definite loss
to the Nation. Mrs. Hull and I send our sincerest
sympathy in your bereavement to you and the
members of the family.
Compensation for Petroleum
Properties Expropriated in
Mexico
[Released to the press October 2]
The Charge of Mexico has presented to the Sec-
retary of State his Government's check for $4,085,-
327.45 in payment of the instalment due at this
time under the agreement effected through an ex-
change of notes on September 29, 1943' establish-
ing the manner and conditions of payment of com-
pensation to this Government for the benefit of cer-
tain American nationals who sustained losses as a
consequence of the expropriation of iietroleum
properties in Mexico in March 1938. The Secre-
taiy of State requested the Charge to convey to his
Government an expression of tliis Government's
appreciation.
With the present payment of $4,085,327.45 the
balance remaining amounts to $12,255,982.35, to be
liquidated over a period of three years by the pay-
ment of $4,085,327.45 on September 30 of each year.
Upon payment of the remaining instalments the
total paj'ments will amount to $29,137,700.84.
' See Bulletin of Oct. 2, 1943, p. 230.
385
Visit of Personal Representative
Of the President of Ecuador
[Released to the press October 5]
During the last several days the United States
Government has had the honor to be host to Seiior
Victor Emilio Estrada, who is visiting this coun-
try as personal representative of His Excellency
Senor Velasco Ibarra, President of Ecuador.
Senor Estrada is one of the leading bankers and
l)iisinessmen of Ecuador and was recently elected
mayor of the city of Guayaquil.
Seiior Estrada has presented an outline for long-
range economic and social development in Ecua-
d(;r, and numerous interesting studies and discus-
sions have been initiated. Further detailed
studies will be carried on in Ecuador as well as in
this country with a view to arriving at mutually
advantageous plans for future cooperation be-
tween the two countries.
Seiior Estrada's visit and the discussions ini-
tiated at this time with various departments and
agencies of this Government are a further mani-
festation of the miitual desire of Ecuador and the
United States to face the problems of the future
in the same spirit embodied in their collaboration
in the cause of the democracies.
Death of Alfred E. Smith
[Released to the press October 4]
Secretary Hull sent the following message to
Mrs. John A. Warner upon the death of her father,
the Honorable Alfred E. Smith :
October 4, 1944.
I am greatly distressed to learn of the passing
of your distinguished father, who was my friend
for many years. He was blessed with imusual
gifts of leadership and he rendered outstanding
service to his State and to his country. His un-
swerving honesty, his noble character, his high
integrity, and his devotion to the welfare of all
the peoj)le earned for him a unique place in the
hearts and minds of his countrymen. Mrs. Hull
joins me in extending heartfelt sympathy to you
and to the members of the family in your irrepa-
rable loss.
386
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Inter- American Institute of Agricultural Sciences
By EDGAR S. FURNISS, JR.'
On November 30, 1944,
three months after the
deposit of the fifth rati-
fication with the Pan
American Union, the
convention establishing the Inter- American Insti-
tute of Agricultural Sciences will enter into effect.
The Agricultural Institute was conceived to fulfil
the need for cooperative study of agricultural
problems common to the several American repub-
lics, the solution to which would result in a gen-
eral improvement in the economies of those coun-
tries and in an eventual raising of the standard of
living of their peoples by the adoption of more de-
sirable agricultural methods.
Prior to the formation of plans for the Agri-
cultural Institute such programs as existed for ag-
licultural cooperation with the other American
republics were carried out on an ad hoc basis by
the United States Department of Agriculture and
by such committees as the Interdepartmental Com-
mittee on Cooperatit^n With the American Re-
publics,- the Committee on Tropical Agriculture,
and the President's Advisory Committee on Inter-
American Cooperation in Agricultural Education,
the latter being under the auspices of the Depart-
ment of State. When Vice President Wallace
was Secretary of Agriculture he extended and in-
tensified the programs; he also realized the need
for coordinating the work that was being done
and for locating it in an inter-American institu-
tion from which all the American republics could
derive benefits. In addition the Interdepart-
mental Committee approved in December 1939 a
recommendation for such an institution.
Further impetus to the project was given at the
Eighth American Scientific Congress, which met
in June 1940.^ Mr. Wallace delivered an address
to the Congress favoring an agricultural institute.
The Congress at that session also adopted a resolu-
tion advocating an Institute of Troj^ical Agricul-
ture for the dual purpose of establishing means
for research and of training technical personnel.
The Pan American Union was asked to appoint a
committee to make a report on recommendations
regarding the establishment of the institution. An
Inter-American Commission of Ti'opical Agricul-
An example of inter-American cooperation de-
signed to encourage and advance the develop-
ment of agricultural sciences in and to aid the
economies, largely agricultural, of all the Ameri-
can republics.
ture was accordingly
formed by the Pan Anaer-
ican Union.
The report of the Com-
mission was submitted to
and approved by the Governing Board of the Pan
American Union in October 1942. This Commis-
sion had requested technical assistance in the
selection of a site for the Institute, and Mr. Ralph
H. Allee, Chief of the Division of Latin American
Agriculture of the United States Department of
Agriculture, had been named chairman of a com-
mission appointed for this purpose. From sites
offered by 12 countries Turrialba, Costa Rica, was
ultimately selected. In addition to recommending
that site the Commission of the Pan American
Union advocated that an Inter- American Institute
of Agricultural Sciences be temporarily incorpo-
rated under a charter of the District of Columbia.
The directore of tlie institute were to be the mem-
bers of the Governing Board of the Pan American
Union. It was understood and was so stated by the
commission that the Institute was to be founded
on an inter-American convention to be negotiated
as soon as possible.
On December 15, 1943 the Governing Board of
the Pan American Union approved a convention
establishing the Inter-American Institute of Agri-
cultural Sciences. Article I of the convention sets
the location of the Institute. Incorporated in
Washington under date of June 18, 1942, its ex-
ecutive headquarters were to be in that city, while
the location of the field headquarters was to be
at Turrialba. Provisions were also made for the
establishment of regional offices in other American
republics. The purpose of the Institute is de-
scribed in article II as follows: "to encourage
and advance the development of agricultural
sciences m the Amei'ican republics through re-
search, teaching, and extension activities in the
theory and practice of agriculture and related arts
' Mr. Furniss is a Divisional Assistant in tlie Division
of American Republics Analysis and Liaison, Office of
American Repiiblic Affairs, Department of State.
= Bulletin of Sept. 24, 19-14, p. 310.
' Bulletin of Jan. 20, 1940, p. 83 ; May 11, 1940, p. 494 ;
May IS, 1940, p. 537.
OCTOBER 8, 1944
387
and sciences". The fulfilment of this purpose
might entail the development, financing, and op-
eration of "similar estahlishments in one or more
of the American republics" and the giving of
"assistance to the establishment and maintenance
of organizations having similar purposes in the
said republics".
Other articles of the convention set up the con-
trol of the Institute. As envisaged by the earliei"
Commission, the convention provides for a Board
of Directors, composed of representatives of the
21 American republics on the Governing Board of
the Pan American Union, and empowered to elect,
to remove, and to provide compensation for a di-
rector and a secretary of the Institute, in which
oflicers is vested the actual administration of the
affairs of the Institute. In addition an admin-
istrative committee and a technical advisory coun-
cil may be formed, the latter composed of an agri-
cultural expert named by each of the contracting
states to the convention.
Fiscal management of the Agricultural Institute
is vested in the Pan American Union, which is to
receive and disburse Institute funds. These
funds are to come from contributions, legacies, and
donations but, more regularly, from annual quotas
contributed by the contracting states according to
their relative population as given by Pan Ameri-
can Union statistics. No quota, however, is to
exceed the rate of one United States dollar per
thousand population. The convention's terms
provide that it is to enter into effect three months
after the deposit of the fifth ratification with the
Pan American Union, with additional ratifica-
tions to become effective one month after their
deposit.
On January 15, 1944 the convention establishing
the Inter-American Institute of Agi-icultural
Sciences was opened for signature.* On that date
the United States, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Pan-
ama signed the convention, and subsequent signa-
tures have brought the total to 13. These addi-
tions include Cuba and Ecuador, who signed on
January 20; the Dominican Republic and Hon-
duras, on January 28; El Salvador, February 18;
Guatemala, March 16; Uruguay, April 18; Chile,
May 13; and Bolivia, July 12. Of the 13 states
signatory to the convention, five have now ratified.
These are Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Nicaragua, and the United States. The ratification
* Bulletin of Jan. 15, 1944, p. 90.
of the United States was effected on June 29, and
that of Nicaragua, the fifth in chronological order,
was deposited with the Pan American Union on
August 30.
Although the site of the Institute at Turrialba
is in the tropical zone and adherents to the con-
vention to date have, aside from the United States,
been states near the location of the Institute, it
should be emphasized that the objectives of the
Institute are not confined to the solution of agri-
cultural problems confronting only the nations of
Central America. Although they have not yet
ratified, the signatures of Chile, Uruguay, and
Bolivia attest to the value which those states, lo-
cated, like the United States, in a temperate zone,
exjject to realize through the Institute's activities.
An increase in the knowledge of scientific agricul-
tural techniques and the training of experts to
apply those techniques will aid the economies,
largely agricultural, of all the American republics.
Thus the potential value of the Institute is, like
the convention by which it was established, truly
inter-American in character.
Before the Institute Convention goes into effect
quota contributions by the various American re-
publics cannot be relied upon for the main sup-
port of the Institute, which has as a consequence
been forced to rely on other financial contribu-
tions. Of these the chief assistance has come from
the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American
Affairs, whose head. Nelson A. Rockefeller, was
one of the first to realize the importance of the
establishment of such an institute. In 1942
$500,000 was allocated to the Institute by the Office
of the Coordinator. The United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture was to receive $35,000 of that
amount for the purpose of preliminary study and
planning preparatory to the establishment of the
Institute. The remainder, $405,000, was turned
over in 1942 to the Pan American Union, fiscal
agent for the Institute, to be expended on the field
headquarters at Turrialba. The actual construc-
tion program was assigned $305,000, and the re-
maining $100,000 was allocated for operating ex-
penses. Subsequent gi-ants, amounting to $160,000,
brought the sum to be used for operating expenses
to a total of $260,000. The Office of the Coordi-
nator has recently allocated $300,000 to complete
the present construction program at Turrialba.
The Government of Costa Rica has made a mate-
rial contribution to the Agricultural Institute in
the form of its site at Turrialba. A coffee planta-
388
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
tion at Tiirrialba, valued at approximately
$250,000, was turned over to the Institute. The
donation by the Costa Rican Government of more
land for crops, buildings, and experimental and
other activities brought the total acreage to 2,500
and increased the value to about half a million
dollars. Research in rubber cultivation and dis-
eases affecting rubber trees was made possible in
1943 by the donation on the part of the Goodyear
Tire & Rubber Company of its rubber plantation,
located in Panama, formerly operated by the Rub-
ber Development Corporation.
Directorship of the Agricultural Institute was
vested in Earl N. Bressman with his appointment
in 1942 by the Board of Directors. Dr. Bressman
had formerly been the Assistant Director of the
Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations and Sci-
entific Adviser to the Secretary of Agi-iculture.
Subsequently he was Director of the Agricultural
Division of the Office of the Coordinator. On the
recommendation of Dr. Bressman Jose L. Colom,
Chief of the Division of Agricultural Cooperation
of the Pan American Union, was named Secretary
of the Institute.
Active work in utilizing the funds provided by
the Coordinator's Office was begun with the official
inauguration of the field headquarters on October
7, 1942. In March 1943, when he was on a trip
through Central and South America, Vice Presi-
dent Wallace laid the actual cornerstone of the
Institute. The construction of housing facilities
for workers, students, and faculty was begun. In-
tensive labor was also required on the plantations
and for starting experimental crops which com-
posed such a necessary part of the Institute's
activities.
It had been anticipated that the field headquar-
ters would be completed and that the first students
and faculty would arrive by the middle of 1944,
but it became impossible to complete the program
with the amount of money at first available for
that purpose. As a result it was necessary to halt
construction temporarily in May 1944 when the
first grant from the Coordinators Office was ex-
hausted. To complete the jirogram which had
been contemplated additional grants totaling $460,-
000 were subsequently added.
According to Dr. Bressman, Director of the In-
stitute, it is envisaged that the Inter-Americau
Institute of Agricultural Sciences will eventually
comprise five divisions. Courses, seminars, and
research opportunities will be offered in the fields
of animal industry, agi-icultural engineering, en-
tomology, plant industry, and soils. Not more
than 10 students will be assigned to any of the
divisions, and the Institute will, at the outset, op-
erate with 25 students. To enter the Institute a
student will have had to receive a bachelor's de-
gree or its equivalent in agrictdture or in a related
science, and he must have a thorough understand-
ing of the basic elements of chemistry, physics,
botany, and zoology. He will stay at the Institute
not less than one j'ear and not more than three, the
contemi^lated average term being two years.
^\niile he is at the Institute the student will de-
vote part of his time to organized course work,
but the gi'eater part of it will be spent in research
problems concerned with the particular division of
agricultural science in which he has chosen to
specialize. Satisfactory completion of the Insti-
tute schedule will involve the writing of a thesis
based on the results obtained from a comprehen-
sive research undertaking. Degrees of master of
science will be awarded students who complete
satisfactorily the work of the Institute.
The site at Turrialba is suitable for research
studies in the cultivation of coffee, cacao, sugar-
cane, corn, rice, fruit trees, and vegetable crops.
Rubber, abaca, and cinchona may also be grown,
as well as barley, wheat, and potatoes. Experi-
ments concerned with all these products are not
under way at present, but iull operation of the In-
stitute will eventually involve their cultivation.
The construction program is not yet completed;
however, work has already been done on experi-
mental crops of coffee, sugarcane, and silage and
on the improvement of the Panama rubber planta-
tion.
Within the five divisions the Institute will op-
erate as a research center, as an institution of
education, and ultimately, it is hoj^ed, as an exten-
sion service. Research will be conducted in dis-
eases affecting the agricultural crops and livestock
of the other American republics. The educational
aim of the Institute is to train students from all
American countries to assist in the fuller utiliza-
tion of the agricultural economy in those coun-
OCTOBER 8, 1944
389
tries. Such ti'aining is designed not to compete
with, but rather to supplement, facilities that may
exist or may later be established on a national
basis. Finally, the extension services of the Insti-
tute will furnish information, supply samples of
experimental crops, and give advice on cultivation
of crops and care of livestock. Thus it may be
seen that the purpose of the Institute is concretely
inter-American in nature, designed to raise the
agricultural standard of the American republics
and in so doing to ameliorate their economy, in
many instances based primarily on agriculture.
It is appropriate to examine in some detail the
advantages accruing to the United States by reason
of its support of the Inter- American Institute of
Agricultural Sciences. These advantages, of both
a direct and an indirect nature, are substantial.
In the first place the United States will gain by
a rise of the standard of living in the other Ameri-
can republics, which is a basic aim of the Institute.
A rise in living standards may be expected to
increase both in amount and in diversity the de-
mand by the other American republics for the
products of the United States. It has already
been pointed out that the Institute, by the func-
tions of research, education, and extension which
it will perform, will increase the spread of scien-
tific knowledge relating to agriculture.
In the second place, an advantage to the United
States from the operation of the Agricultural In-
stitute will be the diversification of the economies
of the other American republics. These two ad-
vantages are related in the sense that a well-
planned, scientific diversification may logically be
expected not only to raise the standard of living
in the other countries but also to strengthen there-
by American agriculture. Wien the nations of
Latin America have been foi-ced to rely almost ex-
clusively on American knowledge, American re-
search, and American education they have to a cer-
tain extent been forced to import techniques ap-
plied to agricultural products produced in the
United States. The economies of the other re-
publics have thus tended to become competitive
with our own instead of complementary. Because
of its location in the tropical zone, one of the aims
of the Institute will be to consider problems relat-
ing to tropical agricultural products. As a result
of such activity the economies of the other Ameri-
can states may become diversified and will supple-
ment our own.
In the third place, the United States will benefit
from the research in agricultural diseases con-
ducted by the Institute. Many of the diseases,
such as Tryjjanosomiasis, which has two types,
one affecting horses and the other cattle, would
be a menace to the United States should their
spread result in their importation into this coun-
try. Checking such diseases as a result of added
knowledge based upon scientific research would
spare the United States the agi-icultural losses
which the diseases have caused in many of the
nations to the south.
Finally, as a participant in the Institute the
United States may be expected to derive another
concrete advantage — an of)portunitj' through an
inter-American convention to demonstrate its in-
terest in the other nations of the hemisphere and
to undertake with their cooperation and with their
equal participation to solve problems common
to all.
PUBLICATIONS
Department or State
Military Aviation Mission : Agreement between the
United States of America and Venezuela — Signed at Wash-
ington January 13, 1044;, effective J.inuary 13, 1944.
Executive Agreement Series 398. Publication 2169.
14 pp. 100.
Upi>er Columbia River Basin : Agreement between the
United States of America and Canada — Effected by ex-
change of notes signed at Ottawa February 25 and March
3, 1944. Executive Agreement Series 399. Publication
2171. 5 pp. 50.
Radio Broadcasting Stations : Agreement between the
United States of America and Canada— Effected by ex-
changes of notes signed at Ottawa November 5 and 25,
1943 and January 17, 1944. Executive Agreement Series
400. Publication 2172. 7 pp. 5^.
Naval Aviation Mission : Agreement between the United
States of America and Peru renewing and amending the
agreement of July 31, 1940— Effected by exchanges of
notes signed at Washington January 31, February 18,
April 6, April 29, and May 2, 1944; effective July 31,
1944. Executive Agreement Series 402. Publication 2173.
6 pp. 5^.
390
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
The Costa Rica-Panama Boundary Demarcation
By SOPHIA SAUCERMAN '
The following statement by the Secretary of
State on a meeting between the Presidents of Costa
Rica and Panama was released to the press on Sep-
tember 18, 1944 : -
"The Presidents of Costa Rica and Panama are
meeting today at a point near the border of their
two countries to celebrate an auspicious event — the
final demarcation of their common boundary. As
a tribute to the collaboration of the Chilean ad-
viser to the Boundary Commissions, they have se-
lected today, the Chilean national holiday, to cele-
brate the conclusion of this task.
"In arriving by mutual agreement at a definitive
settlement of this old and difficult problem, the
Governments of Costa Rica and Panama have not
only shown great statesmanship but have also
demonstrated the effectiveness of the inter- Amer-
ican principle of the settlement of disputes by
l)eaceful means and have provided another ex-
ample of the practical value of hemisphere soli-
darity and cooperation."
Controversies involving this boundary question
arose from time to time from about the first quar-
ter of the nineteenth century and comprised, in the
earlier period, the claims of governments of states
to which, as concerns the boundary, the Republics
of Costa Rica and Panama succeeded. Many at-
tempts were made to settle the problem, which
was greatly confused by lack of adequate knowl-
edge of the geography of the region.
By the terms of a convention of November 4,
1896 the boundary dispute, then between Costa
Rica and Colombia, was submitted to the aibitra-
tion of the President of France. The award, given
Ijy President Loubet on September 11, 1900, was
accepted both by Costa Rica and by Colombia so
far as the boundary from the central Cordilleras
1 Mrs. Saucerman Is Special Assistant to the Chief,
Division of Geography and Cartography, Oflice of Depart-
mental Administration. Department of State.
= Bulletin of Sept. 24, 1944, p. 315.
' Hackworth, Digest of International Law, I, p. 729;
VI, pp. 28 and 83.
to the Pacific was concerned ; but Costa Rica pro-
tested against the boundary as laid down by Presi-
dent Loubet from the Cordilleras to the Atlantic.
Subsequently the unsolved problem was referred
to Chief Justice White of the United States, as
arbitrator, under a convention of March 17, 1910
between Costa Rica and Panama. The award of
the Chief Justice, given on September 12, 1914,
proved unacceptable to Panama.^
The entire boundary from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, as now determined, was defined in the
treaty concluded by the Republic of Costa Rica
and the Republic of Panama at San Jose on May 1,
1941.
The line was described in article I of that treaty,
in free translation from the Spanish text, in the
following terms :
"Leaving the actual mouth of the Rio Sixaola,
in the Caribbean Sea, it follows the thalweg of said
river up-stream to its confluence with the Rio
Yorkin ; thence it follows the thalweg of the Rio
Yorkin up-stream to the parallel of latitude 9°30'
N. of the Equator; thence by rhumb line S. 76°37'
W. to the meridian of longitude 82°56'10" W. of
Greenwich ; thence southward along this meridian
to the Cordillera which separates the waters of the
Atlantic from those of the Pacific; thence it fol-
lows the above-mentioned Cordillera to Cerro
Pando, connecting point of the said Cordillera
with the spur {contra fuerte) which constitutes the
parting of waters (eJ dirorcio de agues) between
the affluents of the Golfo Dulce and the affluents
of the Bahia Charco Azul; thence it follows this
spur to end in Punta Burica on the Pacific."
The boundary so described departs from the
line of the White award in allocating to each
country a small parcel of territory just south of
latitude 9°30' N. The treaty provided for the
naming of mixed boundary commissions by the
Governments of the two Republics and for the
designation by the President of the Republic of
Chile of an adviser to the boundary commissions.
OCTOBER 8, 19U
391
Under date of May 31, 1941, President Roose-
velt sent identic telegrams concerning the bound-
ary treaty to the Presidents of Costa Rica and
Panama :
"The announcement of the boundary settlement
between Panama and Costa Rica [between Costa
Rica and Panama] has brought deep gratification
to the people of the United States and to their
Government.
"This agreement now ratified by the legislative
bodies of the two neighboring republics is a fur-
ther and eloquent manifestation to the world at
large that the democracies of the New World are
able and willing to settle the differences which may
arise between them by pacific methods and in
that spirit of justiice and mutual understanding
which characterizes the independent nations of the
Americas.
"I offer Your Excellency the hearty congi-atu-
lations of the Government and people of the
United States and through you to the people of
Panama [of Costa Rica] on this significant and
auspicious event.
"Please accept [etc.] Franklin D. Roosevelt"
The demarcation having just been completed,
signatures were affixed on September 15, 1944 to
the "acta final" and the general map, in accordance
with the stipulations of the agreement for the exe-
cution of the boundary treaty ratified by the two
countries in May 1941. The signing and exchange
of formal notes ratifying the boundary conven-
tion took place with appropriate ceremony on
September 18 at a spot where the Inter-American
Highway crosses the international boundary be-
tween Costa Rica and Panama.
Inquiries on American
Citizens in Paris
[Released to the press October 5]
The Department of State has announced that the
American Mission at Paris is now prepared to re-
ceive inquiries regarding the whereabouts find
welfare of American citizens who are believed to
be in the Paris area. Such inquiries should be ad-
dressed to the Department. In view of existing
conditions some delay in the response to these in-
quiries must be anticipated.
For the time being inquiries regarding persons
who are not American citizens or who are not re-
siding in the Paris area cannot be accepted.
Visit of Brazilian Official
Of the Ministry of Education
Dr. Augnsto Meyer, director of the National
Book Institute of the Brazilian Ministry of Educa-
tion, has arrived in Washington on the invitation
of the Department of State. The purpose of Dr.
Meyer's visit is to investigate technical library
services in this country. The National Library of
Brazil at Rio de Janeiro, which has valuable colo-
nial collections, has requested that Dr. Mej^er give
special attention to the conservation of documents
and books.
Much of Dr. Meyer's time will be devoted to ob-
servation in The National Archives and the Li-
brary of Congress. He will visit municipal
libraries in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia,
and libraries of various colleges and universities.
He is accompanied by Mrs. Meyer, who is a writer
of distinction.
Visit of Paraguayan Judge
The Honorable Alberto Nogues, judge of the
Civil Court of Asuncion, Paraguay, is in this coun-
try as a guest of the Department of State. While
in the United States Judge Nogues will make
observations of juvenile courts and the organiza-
tion of lower courts in general, and he will study
the municipal and police courts, the methods of
cooperation between the police and the judiciary,
and the penitentiary S3'stem.
Judge Nogues will make a comparative study of
the four-year undergraduate system of colleges in
the United States as contrasted with the special-
ized system of the National University of Para-
guay at Asuncion. Included on his itinerary
will be Amherst and Williams Colleges.
392
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
THE DEPARTMENT
Division of Administrative Services'
Purpose. The purpose of this order is to abol-
ish the Division of Administrative Management,
to create a Division of Achninistrative Services in
the OiRce of Departmental Administration, and
to define tlie functions of the new Division.
1 AhoUshinent of the Division of Achnimstra-
tive Management. The Division of Administra-
tive Management in the Office of Departmental
Administration, as provided for in Departmental
Order 1218 of January 15, 1944, is hereby abol-
ished.
2 Creation of a Division of Administrative
Services. There is hereby created in the Office of
Departmental Administration a Division of Ad-
ministrative Services which shall have full re-
sponsibility in all matters relating to the follow-
ing functions :
(a) Through an Operation-management
Branch :
(1) Continuing study of the Division in or-
der to provide adequate administrative
services for the Department ;
(2) Development of procedures and instal-
lations of systems in the Division;
(3) Investigation of irregularities and com-
plaints concerning administrative services;
(4) Preparation of administrative instruc-
tions covering administrative services for the
Department ;
(5) In cooperation with the Department's
management-planning staff, determination of
space needs and development of plans for the
maximum utilization thereof;
(6) Procurement, through negotiations with
the Public Buildings Administration, of space
required to meet the Department's needs and
allocation of space to the several offices and
divisions ;
(7) Building security and protection, includ-
ing direction over receptionists, as well as
control over the issuance of passes ;
(8) In cooperation with other branches of
the Division to cooperate with the Division
of International Conferences in connection
with the latter's responsibilities for the de-
velopment of plans to provide adequate ad-
ministrative services for international co^n^
ferences and related activities.
(b) Through a Facilities Branch:
(1) Administration and operation of the
Diplomatic Pouch and mail services for the
Department, and also for other government
agencies sending mail-matter abroad ;
(2) In cooperation with the Division of For-
eign Service Administration, technical in-
spection of the Department's postal facilities
and operations abroad ;
(3) Maintenance of a central intra-depart-
mental pick-up and delivery service;
(4) Maintenance of mechanical inspection
and repair services for all types of machines
in the Department;
(5) Supplying special secretarial and confer-
ence-reporting services for the Department;
(6) Maintenance of all duplicating facilities,
including microfilming, photographing, mim-
eographing, etc. ;
(7) Preparation for and control over all
moving ;
(8) Liaison with Public Buildings Adminis-
tration for maintenance of buildings;
(9) Repair of property and equipment;
(10) Coordination of a translating service
for all Federal agencies through the Central
Translating Division of the Department,
other Federal Departments, or contracts with
Commercial Services ;
(11) In cooperation with the Office of Public
Information and the Division of Interna-
tional Conferences, for the organization, pre-
sentation, and control of the Department's ex-
hibits at national and international exposi-
tions ;
(12) Maintenance, supervision, and conti-ol
over motor vehicles and operations;
(13) Sujaervision of messenger service;
(14) Maintenance of telephone equipment and
services, including the preparation and
' Departmental Order 1289, dated Sept. 29, 1944, effective
Sept. 1, 1944.
OCTOBER 8, 1944
m
periodic issuance of telephone directories.
(c) Through a Procurement Branch :
(1) Procurement, purchase, and supply activi-
ties of the Department;
(2) Making of contracts for special services
and equipment;
(3) Control over contingent-expense appro-
priations ;
(4) Preparation of budget estimates for con-
tingent-expense appropriations of the Depart-
ment, including travel;
(5) Issuance and control of supplies and
equipment ;
(6) Maintenance of inventory records of sup-
plies and equipment ;
(7) Warehousing, supply and shipping func-
tions for the Department, including sliipment
of supplies and materials from Washington;
(8) Administration of travel appropriations
for Departmental personnel.
3. Organisation of the Division. The Chief of
the Division of Administrative Services shull be
assisted in the performance of his duties by three
Assistant Chiefs of Division, in charge, respec-
tively, of the Operation-management Branch, the
Facilities Branch, and the Procurement Branch.
4 Signing and certifying authority, (a) The
Chief of the Division of Administrative Services
is hereby authorized to :
(1) Sign and issue certificates of authentication
under the Seal of the Department of State, in
conformity with the Department's regulations
(22 CFR, pt. 8 as amended on this date) ;
(2) Prepare the nominations of officers ap-
pointed and promoted by the President through
the Department of State;
(3) Issue commissions, certificates of designa-
tion, and exequaturs ;
(4) Have custody of current records regard-
ing Presidential appointments, commissions, et
cetera ;
(5) Have custody of and control over the Great
Seal of the United States ;
(6) Certify, with or without seal, copies of the
official texts of United States treaties ;
(7) Sign contracts, upon appropriate written
' Departmental Order 1290, dated Sept. 29, 1M4 ; effective
Sept. 1, 1944.
' Bulletin of May 13, 1944, p. 436.
authorizaiion, for expenditures under appro-
priations for contingent expenses of the Depart-
ment, under appropriations for passport agen-
cies, international commissions, conferences,
congresses, conventions, meetings, and exposi-
tions, and under miscellaneous appropriations;
(8) Certify vouchers covering expenditures un-
der the appropriation for contingent expenses of
the Department and covering such other miscel-
laneous obligations as he may, under appropri-
ate written authorization be directed to incur;
(9) In special cases, waive the requrement of
advance payment for unofficial photostat work
provided for in the Department's regulations
(22 CFR, pt. 12).
(b) The Chief of the Procurement Branch is
hereby authorized to sign, under appropriate di-
rection of the Assistant Secretary in charge of ad-
ministration, purchase orders and contracts cover-
ing expenditui'es coming under the appropriation
for contingent expenses of the Department.
5 General delegation of authority. Full au-
thority is hereby delegated to the Chief of the Di-
vision of Administrative Services to enable him to
effectively discharge all the responsibilities as-
signed herein.
6 Routing synihol. The routing symbol of the
Division of Administrative Services shall be AM.
7 Amendmeiit or abrogation of previous orders.
Departmental Orders 1218 and 1219 are hereby
amended, and Departmental Order 1218-A is here-
by abrogated, in accordance with the provisions of
this order.
CoRDELi, Hull
September ^9, 19U-
Departmental Issuances'
Administrative Instbuctions
Purpose. The purpose of this order is to rede-
fine the coverage of the General Administration
series of Administrative Instructions and to re-
delegate the signing authority for the General Ad-
ministration series and Operating Facilities series.
A7nendme7it of Departinental Order 1269.^ (a)
Paragraphs 5 and 10 of Departmental Order 1269
are hereby amended to read as follows :
5. Administrative Instructions — General Ad-
ministration, (a) This numbered series wiU com-
prise detailed instructions on subjects not prima-
394
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
rily or exclusively related to those specifically dealt
with ill tlie otlier categories of Administrative In-
structions.
(b) Tliis series of Administrative Instructions
will be signed by the Director of tlie Office of De-
partmental Administration.
10 Administrative Instructions — Operating
Facilities, (a) This new numbered series will
comprise detailed instructions on supplies, equip-
ment, space, messenger service, duplicating serv-
ice, and other operating facilities of the Depart-
ment.
(b) This series of Administrative Instructions
will be signed by the Chief of the Division of Ad-
ministrative Services and approved by the Direc-
tor of the Office of Departmental Administration.
(b) All references to the Division of Adminis-
trative Management appearing in any Depart-
mental Order or Administrative Instruction is-
sued firior to this order, are hereby amended to
read "Division of Administrative Services".
CoRDELL Hull
September 29, 19U-
Appointment of Officers
Maxwell M. Hamilton as Special Assistant to
the Secretary, effective September 28, 1944.
Millard L. Kenestrick as Chief of the Division
of Administrative Services, effective September 1,
1944.
^ BtTLLETiN of Apr. 1, 1944, p. 305.
^ Executive Agreement Series 238.
^ Executive Agreement Series 252.
* Executive Agreement Series 78.
g TR EATY INFORMATION ^
Expiration of Certain Agreements Be-
tween the United States and Haiti
Upon Termination of Haitian-Domin-
ican Commercial Treaty
The American Embassy at Port-au-Prince
transmitted to the Department, with a despatch
of September 19, 1944, exchanges of notes of Feb-
ruary 15 and 19 and September 9 and 16, 1944 be-
tween the American Ambassador and the Haitian
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs relating to
the automatic termination of the provisions of
certain agreements between the United States and
Haiti upon the termination of the Haitian-Domin-
ican commercial treaty of August 2C, 1941.^
In an exchange of notes of February 16 and 19,
1942 with Haiti,- amended by an exchange of notes
of April 25, 1942,^ the United States agi-eed not
to invoke the pertinent provisions of the trade
agreement of March 28, 1935 * between the United
States and Haiti for the purpose of claiming the
benefit of the tariff preferences granted by Haiti
to the Dominican Republic which were specifically
provided for in the commercial treaty of Augiist
26, 1941.
By the notes of February 15 and 19 and Septem-
ber 9 and 16, 1944 the Governments of the United
States and Haiti confirm their tniderstanding that
the exchange of notes of February 16 and 19, 1942
and numbered paragraph 3 of the exchange of
notes of April 25, 1942 automatically terminated
at the expiration of the Haitian-Dominican com-
mercial treaty on March 24, 1944.
O. S. fiOVERNyENT PRINTINO OFFICEi IS4I
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
1 jnri
E
J
H
1
VOL. XI, NO. 277
OCTOBER 15, 1941
In this issue
SHOULD WE HELP ITALY?
Article by Dallas Dort
EVOLUTION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN ITALY
Article by Howard McGaw Smyth
^Vl^NT o^
* *
"*Tes o^
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BULLETIN
Vol. XI. No. 277, "^^^m . Pdblicatiob 2198
October 15, 1944
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a meekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication, Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government with
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
tcork of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BULLETIN
includes press releases on foreign policy-
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as tvell as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United States is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulative lists of which are published
at the end of each quarter, as well as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
approval of the Director of the Bureau
of the Budget, is for sale by the Super-
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Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton 25, D. C, to whom all purchase
orders, with accompanying remittance,
should be sent. The subscription price
is $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
cenU.
Qontents
Ambhican Republics Page
Visit of Director of Peruvian Hospital 441
Europe
Should We Help Italy?: Article by Dallas Dort .... 401
Evolution of Local Government in Italy; Article by Howard
McGaw Smyth 404
The Polish Situation 428
German Atrocities in Poland 428
Far East
National Anniversary of China:
Statement by the President 400
Message from the President to Generalissimo Chiang
Kai-shek 400
Message from Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek to the
President 400
Message from the Secretary of State to the Chinese Min-
ister for Foreign Affairs 400
Summary of Steps Taken by the Department of State in
Behalf of American Nationals in Japanese Custody . . 439
Economic Affairs
Financial Arrangements for Italy: Statement by the Presi-
dent 403
Public and Private Foreign Trade: Address by Bernard F.
Haley 429
Concerning Cartels: Address by Charles Bunn 433
Post- War Trade Policy: Address by William A. Fowler . . 436
General
Columbus Day:
Address by the President 397
Message from the Prime Minister of Italy to the Presi-
dent 398
Remarks by the Under Secretary of State 399
The Four Freedoms Award to the President: Remarks Upon
Acceptance 432
Treaty Information
Trade Marks 442
Inter-American Coffee Agreement 442
Canadian- New Zealand Mutual-Aid Agreement 443
The Department
The Inter-Agency Economic Digest 441
The Foreign Service
Legation at Luxembourg 428
Publications 443
Columbus Day
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT'
[Released to the press by the White House October 12]
Today — the birthday of the New World — the
peoples of the American republics join in paying
tribute to the courage and vision of Cliristopher
Columbus, whose name we honor and whose ad-
venturous spirit we perpetuate.
The survival of that spirit is more important
than ever, at this time when we are fighting a
■world war and when we are building the solid,
durable foundations for future world peace.
The little fleet with which Columbus first
crossed the ocean took 10 weeks for the voyage.
The crews of the three ships totalled approx-
imately 90 men.
Today — every day — many times that number of
men and many tons of cargo are carried across
the ocean by air in a few hours. And by sea
transport, an entire division of some 15 thousand
men can be sent across the Atlantic in one ship
in one week.
When we remember the rapid development of
aviation since the last war we can look ahead to
the coming years, and know that all the airways
across all the seas will be constant lines of com-
munication and commerce.
Thus the margin between the Old World and
the New — as we have been used to calling the hemi-
spheres — becomes constantly narrow-er. This
means that if we do not now take effective meas-
ures to prevent another world war and if there
were to be a third world war, the lands of the
Western Hemisphere would be as vulnerable to
attack from Europe and Asia as were the Island
of Crete and the Philippine Islands five years ago.
It is a significant fact that today in Italy — the
homeland of Columbus — forces from many parts
of this hemisphere and from many distant parts
of the civilized world are fighting for freedom
against the German threat of medieval tyranny.
Serving in the Allied armies in Italy are men
from the 48 United States, from the United King-
dom of Great Britain, and the Republic of France.
There are also strong, well-trained, well-equipped
forces from Brazil; there are units from Puerto
Rico; there are Greeks and there are Poles who
have distinguished themselves in bitter fighting
at Cassino and Ancona and Rimini ; there are gal-
lant men from Canada, Ireland, New Zealand,
South Africa, and India ; there are combat teams
composed of Americans of Japanese ancestry
who came from Hawaii — all providing an effec-
tive answer to the false Nazi clauns of "Nordic
superiority".
And there are also Italians bravely fighting for
the liberation of their country. They are fighting
in the Allied armies, and they are fighting in the
underground forces behind the German lines.
If the spirit of Columbus hovers over his native
land today, we can be sure that he rejoices in the
varied nature of the Allied forces. For he was one
of the truly great internationalists of all time.
During the past century, many millions of Ital-
ians have come to the Western Hemisphere seeking
freedom and opportunity. In Italy there is hardly
a town or village that does not contain families
who have blood ties with the New World. This is
one of the many reasons why the forces of libera-
tion have been welcomed so cordially by the Italian
people after 22 years of Fascism.
' Di'livered at the White House before the chiefs of the
diplomatic missions from the other American republics
on the occasion of Columbus Day. The speech was broad-
cast by the three major networks and was also carried by
short wave to South America.
397
398
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
The Fascists and the Nazis sought to deceive and
to divide the American republics. They tried not
only through propaganda from across the seas,
but also through agents, spies, and fifth columnists
operating all over the Western Hemisphere. But
they failed. The American republics were not
deceived by their protestations of peace and
friendship; they were not intimidated by their
threats.
The people of the United States will never for-
get how the other American republics, acting in
accord with their pledges of solidarity, rallied to
our common defense when the continent was vio-
lated by Axis treachery in an attack on this
country. At that time Axis armies were still un-
checked, and even the stark threat of an invasion
from Dakar hung over our heads.
We have maintained the solidarity of the gov-
ernments of all the American republics — except
one. And the people of all of the republics will
have the opportunity to share in the achievement
of the common victory.
The bonds that unite the American republics
into a community of good neighbors must remain
strong. We have not labored long and faithfully
to build in this New World a system of interna-
tional security and cooperation merely to let it be
dissipated in any period of post-war indifference.
Within the framework of the world organization
of the United Nations, which the governments and
people of the American republics are helping to
establish, the inter-American system can and must
play a strong and vital role.
Secretary Hull has told me of the conversations
he has had with representatives of our sister
republics concerning the formation of a world se-
curity organization. We have received important
and valuable expressions of views from several of
these governments. I know that Secretary Hull,
and Under Secretary Stettinius, who led the
United States Delegation at Dumbarton Oaks, are
looking forward to further exchanges of views
with our good neighbors before the meeting of
the general conference to establish the world or-
ganization. We must press forward to bring into
existence this world organization to maintain peace
and security. There is no time to lose.
It is our objective to establish the solid founda-
tions of the' peace organization without further
delay, and without waiting for the end of hostili-
ties. There must, of course, be time for discussion
by all the peace-loving nations — large and small.
Substantial progress has already been made, and
it must be continued as rapidly as possible.
Like the Constitution of the United States it-
self, the Charter of the United Nations must not
be static and inflexible, but must be adaptable to
the changing conditions of progress — social, eco-
nomic, and political — all over the world.
In approaching the great problems of the fu-
ture — the future which we shall share in common
with all the fre« peoijles of this earth — we shall do
well to remember that we are the inheritors of the
tradition of Christopher Columbus, the navigator
who ventured across uncharted seas.
When Columbus was about to set forth in the
summer of 1492 he wrote : "Above all it is very
important that I forget sleep, and labor much at
navigation, because it is necessary".
We shall require the same determination, the
same devotion, as we steer our course through the
great age of exploration and discovery which lies
before us.
MESSAGE FROM THE PRIME
MINISTER OF ITALY TO THE
PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 12]
On the occasion of the recurrence of Columbus
Day, I am grateful for the opportunity, Mr. Pres-
ident, to send to you the vivid and warm good
wishes of the new Italy. The name of Columbus
is the concrete symbol of the centuries old ties
uniting Italy to the United States, and is today
cemented and reinforced by the blood shed to-
gether against a common enemy. These ties find
shining confirmation in the great and spontaneous
support shown to us in our present tragic struggle
by the noble North American nation. The Italian
people are grateful to you, Mr. President, for the
cordial words directed to us at this time, and for
the announcement of the steps which have been
and are to be taken. We know that we can count
at this time on the rebirth of the friendship for
us of the great and free people of the United
States.
BONOMI
OCTOBER 15, 1944
399
REMARKS BY THE UNDER SECRETARY OF STATE'
[Released to the press October 12]
Secretary Hull has asked me to express to you
his great regret that he cannot be with you this
afternoon, for this day has always been an occasion
of special and solemn significance to the peoples of
the American republics. We are particularly
happy to welcome you here, and I extend to you
the Secretary's most cordial greetings.
The members of the American group who par-
ticipated in the Dumbarton Oaks conversations
kept constantly in mind, as I am confident you
knew we would, our inter-American relations and
the contribution which all the American nations
cooperating together can make toward a peaceful
and stable world order. We referred frequently to
the various principles and arrangements developed
through inter-American conferences, particularly
in recent years. We tried also to examine each
proposal in the light of the common interests of
our hemisphere in peace, security, and friendly
cooperation.
You will have seen a special reference in the
Dumbarton Oaks proposals to regional arrange-
ments. It is hoped that the Council will encourage
the settlement of local disputes through regional
arrangements or agencies consistent with the pur-
poses of the world organization. We believe that
the effect of this will be to enhance the position and
responsibilities of the inter- American system.
A great opportunity lies open to the American
republics in strengthening our inter-American
system of cooperation and in making our contribu-
tion to cooperation among all peace-loving nations
in order that the problems of the future may be met
with the greatest possible effectiveness.
Our capacity to perform great tasks together
has been clearly demonstrated in the war. The
greatest source of strength which the American re-
publics have found has been the solidarity with
which they met the threat to their common safety.
That solidarity, and the strength which flowed
from it, has proved to be a mighty weapon for the
forces of liberation.
' Delivered at a reception given to the chiefs of the diplo-
matic missions from the other American republics at the
Blair House on Columbus Day, Oct. 12, 1944.
The future will, I am sure, judge as of supreme
importance the fact that through the strain and
difficulties of this world war 20 American republics
have stood firmly by their declarations of soli-
darity. Through their loyalty to their pledged
word as sovereign equals, they have given to each
the strength of all in the defense of their security
and independence.
Neither the American republics, nor for that
matter any other nations of the world, can at this
time afford to retreat from the position that
nations, while preserving their own sovereignty,
must at the same time respect and fulfil their obli-
gations to others. Had not 20 American republics
recognized the importance of that position and
acted accordingly, the war might have taken a far
more difficult course than it has. And only if the
nations of this world do in the future abide by
their pledges of mutual support, recognizing that
the security of each is linked to that of others, shall
we be able to present a united defense against any
new aggressor who may try to repeat the mad per-
formance of the Axis triumvirate.
The principles which underlie the inter- Ameri-
can system, growing as they do out of long and
fruitful experience, cannot but have an important
bearing upon the operations of the proposed inter-
national organization. The recommendations for-
mulated at Dumbarton Oaks are of course only
proposals. They should be carefully studied,
worked over, improved, and supplemented as nec-
essary to meet the needs of all nations which will
participate in drafting the charter at a United
Nations conference to be held as soon as may be
practicable. I hope that we shall have oppor-
tunity to discuss matters of mutual interest in
connection with the establisluuent of the proposed
world organization.
As you are aware, our ambassadors in your
countries have already informed your foreign
ministers that we desire to keep in the closest touch
with their chiefs of mission in Washington in order
to facilitate the fullest possible exchange of views.
It is most appropriate, I believe, to discuss these
vital subjects, together, in conformity with the
spirit of free and frank consultation which has
400
cliaracterized the relations of our countries. The
Secretary and I, as well as Mr. Pasvolsky, Mr.
Armour, and the chiefs of appropriate divisions,
will all welcome the opportunity of discussing
these matters with you.
I know that each of us here feels a deep respon-
sibility in this matter, and that we will all carry
it out in the same spirit of mutual understanding
and good-will which has long marked our collabo-
ration and solidarity.
National Anniversary of China
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 10)
Today is the thirty-third anniversary of the
outbreak of the Chinese Revolution. It is essen-
tially a Chinese anniversary. But it is also an
anniversary of importance to the whole world —
because it marks the day on which one fifth of the
world's population threw off a reactionary and op-
pressive alien yoke and started anew on the path
of democracy.
The Chinese people are now in their eighth year
of resistance to Japanese aggression. The Amer-
ican people salute them and pay tribute to their
courage and fortitude.
We join them in the confident hope that the day
is near at hand when the Japanese will be driven
from the homeland of China, so that the people
of China may join with us and the other United
Nations in building a durable peace in a world
free from aggression.
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT TO
GENERALISSIMO CHIANG KAI-SHEK
[Released to the press October 10]
On behalf of the American people I extend
to you and to the people of China congratulations
and good wishes upon this thirty-third anniver-
sary of China's national revolution for freedom.
Aware of the difficult military situation con-
fronting the valiant Chinese armies, we have
especial happiness in sharing with them the
inspiring knowledge that complete victory is now
vouchsafed and that China's sacrifices to finis-
trate the aggressor's last desperate endeavors will
play an important part in facilitating and hast-
ening the final Allied drive that is fast gather-
ing with overpowering might.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
It is a pleasure to reaffirm the pride we take
in our deep and enduring friendship with the
great Chinese nation and the satisfaction with
which we welcome the even closer association
pledged for the common task of creating a just
and stable peace among nations.
MESSAGE FROM GENERALISSIMO CHIANG
KAI-SHEK TO THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 12)
In the name of the Chinese people I wish to
thank you and the American people most sin-
cerely for the message of congratulation you sent
me on the occasion of our National Day. In our
present war of resistance, which has already
lasted more than seven years, the unbounded
sympathy of the American people has always
been an unfailing source of encouragement to us.
As the time for the Allied powers to deal a death
blow to the aggressors is fast approaching, China,
as one of the Allies, will do her utmost to drive
the enemy from her shores and help bring about
his final collapse. The people of China are
deeply indebted to the American Nation for her
friendship in lending hearty support to China's
cause. We have the deepest admiration for the
prodigious efforts you have made to lay a solid
foundation for a better world order and will
never cease to strive for the realization of the
democratic ideals we have long cherished so as to
usher in a new era of peace, freedom and justice
for all mankind.
MESSAGE FROM THE SECRETARY OF STATE
TO THE CHINESE MINISTER FOR
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
[Released to the press October 10]
On this national anniversary of the Republic of
China, it gives me great pleasure to convey to you
my warm personal greetings and my cordial felici-
tations and good wishes for your country's welfare
and happiness.
China's epic struggle against aggression consti-
tutes a magnificent contribution to the cause of
freedom. The indomitable spirit which has moti-
vated that struggle, together with the Chinese peo-
ple's vast capabilities, inherent democracy and rich
cultural heritage, gives me every confidence that
China's contributions to the post-war peace and
progress of mankind will be equally impressive.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
401
Should We Help Italy?
By DALLAS DORT'
THE serious plight in which the Italian people
now find themselves has been the cause of a
great deal of public discussion and comment during
the past several months. Correspondents have
written long despatches from Rome underlining
the lack of food and other necessities and discussing
the serious inflation with its attendant black-mar-
ket activities. They have in some cases severely
criticized the measures which the Allied authorities
have or have not undertaken to alleviate those con-
ditions. General William O'Dwyer, Vice Presi-
dent of the Allied Commission, in charge of its eco-
nomic section, has recently returned with a report
to the President which points out the serious prob-
lems involved. It seems likely that the economic
condition of Italy will continue to evoke a great
deal of attention on the part of the American pub-
lic, as it has up to this time.
There are a number of reasons for this interest.
In the first place there is a large population of Ital-
ian origin in the United States, which is naturally
interested in the conditions existing in Italy. In
the second place Italy is the first European country
to have been occupied by the Allies. In the third
place the economic condition of Italy, particularly
that part of it which we have occupied up to this
time, is probably more critical, both now and po-
tentially, than that of most other European coun-
tries, with the possible exceptions of Greece and
Poland. Italy is short both of supplies necessary
to maintain the barest minimum standard of living
and of financial resources to obtain them.
There are 46 million Italians living in an area
smaller than the State of California. Italy has
never been able to produce enough food to feed
such a population. Prior to the war she normally
imported upwards of 800 thousand tons of grain
a year. The peninsula is lacking, moreover, in
most of the raw matei-ials needed by a modem in-
dustrial economy.
' Mr. Dort is Adviser In the War Areas Economic Divi-
sion, Office of Wartime Economic Affairs, Department of
State.
Italy furthermore has been the scene of continu-
ous fighting for over 15 months. The Germans
have been forced back almost foot by foot from the
southern tip of Sicily to the edge of the Po Valley.
As the Germans have retired they have had time —
and they have generally utilized it well — to de-
stroy whatever essential power plants and other
utilities, factories, and railroads have escaped the
Allied bombings. They have taken with them
trucks, railway cars, and movable machinery and
equipment. Out of a total power-plant capacity
of 667,000 kilowatts in the southern and central
areas only 60,000 kilowatts remain. The extent
of the German efforts to remove machinery to Ger-
many is well illustrated by the fact that over 500
railway cars loaded with machinery and equip-
ment from the Terni electrical and chemical plants
were overtaken by the Allies, because in that area
the Germans retired too quickly to get them under
way. An additional factor is that the part of
Italy which we have occupied to date has always
been economically dependent to a great extent on
the Po Valley, which not only produces surpluses
of grain and other agi-icultural products but also is
the industrial heart of the country.
AVe in the United States are now faced with
the problem of determining to what extent we
are interested in those conditions and to what
extent, if any, we want to provide assistance in
improving them. The purpose of the Allied
military authorities in Italy has been simply to
maintain order behind the lines. In addition to
exercising or controlling governmental functions
this involved providing the bare minimum of
food, fuel, and medical supplies needed to pre-
vent disease or disorder, which would interfere
with military operations. The principal items
imported originally were wheat, coal, and medi-
cines. As time went on it became evident that
even under this limited military objective the
importation of some rehabilitation supplies was
warranted to increase the production and make a
more effective distribution in Italy of basic I'elief
402
supplies and thereby reduce the amount of such
supplies which would have to be imported. In
this category were included such items as phos-
phate rock for the manufacture of fertilizer, coal-
and sulphur-mining machinery, and caustic soda
for the production of soap. The basic concept of
the military authorities always has been, however,
that their job was to fight a war and that they
had no responsibility for providing economic as-
sistance beyond that necessary to safeguard their
operations. Whether they have fully succeeded
in their objective has been the subject of some
controversy. The difficulties of supplying even
minimum necessities have been very great. For
many months the major part of supplies both
military and civilian had to be funneled through
the port of Naples, and ship berths were at a
premium. With railroads and motor transport
largely out of commission, internal transportation
facilities were strained to the utmost to maintain
the ever-lengthening lines of supply to the fight-
ing front — and military operational supplies gen-
erally received priority. Military authorities say
however that their purpose has been attained,
since disease and disorder which would have in-
terfered with military operations have not in fact
occurred.
In a recent joint statement to the press following
their Quebec conference President Roosevelt and
Prime Minister Churchill set forth an objective
of our two Governments toward Italy somewhat
broader than that heretofore followed by the
military authorities. They said:
"At the same time, first steps should be taken
toward the reconstruction of an Italian economy —
an economy laid low under the years of the misrule
of Mussolini, and ravished by the German policy
of vengeful destruction.
"These steps should be taken primarily as mili-
tary aims to put the full resources of Italy and the
Italian people into the struggle to defeat Germany
and Jajjan. For military reasons we should assist
the Italians in the restoration of such power sys-
tems, their railways, motor transport, i-oads and
other connnunications as enter into the war situa-
tion, and for a short time send engineers, tech-
nicians and industrial experts into Italy to help
them in their own rehabilitation." '
' Bulletin of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 338.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
If the full resources of Italy are to be put into
the struggle to defeat Germany and Japan, its
economy obviously must be revived to a point be-
yond that necessary merely to prevent widespread
disease and disorder. Beyond the concept of pro-
viding assistance in order that Italy can contribute
to the prosecution of the war, there is a question as
to whether or not it is worthwhile from our own
interest to provide them further assistance toward
a more basic rehabilitation of their economy.
The task of planning and executing a long-term
program of rehabilitation must be a responsibility
of the Italians themselves. As mentioned, Italy
has always lacked essential foods and raw mate-
rials, and as a result of the war she has lost a
great deal of her industrial machinery and trans-
portation equipment. She also lacks the means
to buy them because her foreign assets are neg-
ligible. The Italians will have to face the fact
that their whole economy — which under the Fa-
scist regime was based on efforts to make the state
economically independent of other nations — will
have to be altered. Italy will have to readjust her
agricultural and industrial patterns to concen-
trate on specialty products and manufactured
goods where she can most effectively use two of
her greatest assets, climate and manpower. She
should be able to sell such products abroad in ex-
change for the foods and raw materials which she
needs.
In view of their lack of foreign exchange, how-
ever, and the present control by the Allies of
supply and shipping facilities, the Italians actually
can accomplish very little without cooperation and
assistance on our part. Assistance which we
would need to furnish would involve primarily the
provision of necessary credits to permit Italy to
buy machinery, raw materials, and other items
needed to revive her economy. It would also in-
volve in the initial stages making available ship-
ping and some supplies which might be in short
supply as well as lightening as far as possible the
burden of our military occupation of Italy.
Although the American people will undoubted-
ly contribute through private channels a great
deal of money and supplies in order to relieve
distress in Italy, it is not to be expected that the
American taspaj-er or investor would desire to
participate in financing the cost of substantial
economic assistance to Italy purely on humani-
(Continued on next page)
OCTOBER 15, 1944
Financial Arrangements
For Italy
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 10]
I have today approved the recommendation of
the Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War, and
of the Foreign Economic Administrator, that tlie
United States Government currently malie avail-
able to the Italian Government the dollars equiv-
alent to the Italian lire issued up to now and here-
after as pay to United States troops in Italy.
The dollar proceeds of remittances made by in-
dividuals in this country to friends and relatives
in Italy are also being made available to the Ital-
ian Government as are the dollar proceeds of any
products exported by Italy to this country.
It has been our intention to make available to
the friendly western European countries dollars
equivalent to the local currency issued as pay to
American troops in their territory. This policy
differs from that to be applied in the case of Italy
since in the latter case it is subject to special re-
strictions reserved to the United States in connec-
tion with the final peace settlement.
The dollars made available to Italy will be used
by the Italian Government to pay for essential
civilian supplies {purchased in this counti-y for use
in liberated Italy. The United States Army has
supplied substantial amounts of certain essential
civilian goods such as food, clothing, and medical
supplies as a necessary part of military operations
in Italy. The funds which I am now making
available will enable the Italian Government
under control of a])propriate Allied authorities to
obtain in this country other essential civilian sup-
plies and to continue to obtain essential supplies
after the United States Army program ceases.
This step has been taken after consultation with
the British Government, which has also been pro-
viding essential civilian supplies to the Italians
and will continue to provide its share of an agreed
program of such' supplies, but under different
financial arrangements.
The Fascist dictatorship which led Italy into
war against the United States and the other
United Nations has been overthrown. Today, the
Italian people are cooperating with the United
Nations forces in driving the Germans from Italy.
613688—44 2
403
Our soldiers, sailors, and airmen are welcomed
and assisted by the civilian population in Italy
wherever they go. Italian troops are joined with
our forces at the front. And behind the German
lines, Italian partisans are heroically giving their
lives in the struggle.
It is to our interests that Italy be able to con-
tribute as fully as possible to the winning of final
victory. While the reestablishment of Italy as a
free, independent, and self-supporting nation
must be primarily the responsibility of the Italian
people themselves, it is also to our interest that
the Italian people be given the opportunity to
obtain and pay for the necessities they need from
us if they are to be able to help themselves.
DORT — Continued from page 402
tarian grounds. Many Americans will remember
that the soldiers of Fascist Italy only a few
months ago were shooting at our own troops and
that Fascist Italy's record over the past two
decades is certainly not one which would inspii-e
much sympathy or confidence.
On the other hand, if, by our providing help
at this critical period, Italy can achieve economic
and political conditions favorable to the develop-
ment of democratic institutions and policies, and
to a cooperative attitude in her dealing with
other nations in solving the many problems grow-
ing out of the war, our investment in effort and
money may be well worthwhile. The effective
activity of Italian partisans behind the German
lines and the cooperative attitude of the present
Italian Government and great numbers of the
Italian people are evidence that a large portion
of the population is ready and anxious to accept
democratic ideas and desires a more free and
cooperative relationship between Italy and the
rest of the world. Such sentiments will of course
be greatly retarded or eliminated if Italy remains
in a condition of economic chaos.
From the standpoint of sound investment pos-
sibilities and profitable commercial relations in
the future, as well as of world peace and security,
we have a definite stake in a democratic and
cooperative Italy. We must decide whether this
stake is worth the immediate cost. A clear-
headed determination of what course is in the
best interest of the United States should be the
guiding factor in making our decision.
404
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Evolution of Local Government in Italy
By HOWARD McGAW SMYTH'
10CAL government in Italy is a great para-
J dox. In no European national state are the
local differences in language, cultural traditions,
and economic conditions so great as they are in
Italy. At the same time the system of government
is unquestionably the most highly centralized and
bureaucratized of any European state, designed
to give the national government control over even
the most minute aspects of local affairs. Local
government in Italy has been a matter of great
discontent since the very beginnings of the present
national state and is destined to be a matter of
primary importance in the impending political
reconstruction of Italy.
This article offers an account of the origins of
the system of local government in modern Italy
and its development in the pre-Fascist and Fascist
periods.
I. Historic Particularism in Italy
The political unification of Italy was completed
only in 1870, within the memory of living men.
For more than a thousand years earlier the Italian
peninsula had been divided into a number of dif-
ferent states. The early development of urban
life in the late Middle Ages fostered among the
Italians an extraordinary municipal spirit, which
was reflected in a vigorous development of com-
munal self-government in the city-republics, par-
ticularly in central and northern Italy. During
the period of the Renaissance considerable politi-
cal consolidation developed around certain natural
centers. Despite frequent foreign invasions and
dynastic changes the political map of Italy did
not alter greatly between the sixteenth century
and the Napoleonic conquest. The historic parts
of Italy were :
1. Sardinia, a feudal kingdom which in 1720
was acquired by the House of Savoy, thereby
conferring to it the royal title
1 Mr, Smyth is a Country Specialist, Central European
Section, Division of Territorial Studies, Offlce of Special
Political Affairs, Department of State.
2. Piedmont, which, with French-speaking
Savoy, formed the continental possessions
of the Savoy dynasty
3. The city-state Republic of Genoa
4. The Duchy of IMilan or Lombardy
5. The Republic of Venice
6. The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
7. The Duchy of Modena
8. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany
9. The Duchy of Lucca
10. The States of the Church
11. The Kingdom of Naples, whose dynasty
also ruled
12. The Kingdom of Sicily
A great diversity of customs and traditions existed
among the peoples of those different states and
even among those under the same rule. The
Sicilians regarded continental Naples with a feel-
ing not unlike that of the Irish for England;
Piedmont was the traditional enemy of the Geno-
ese Republic. The mainland cities under the Vene-
tian Republic were jealous of their lost independ-
ence; Bnlogna and Ferrara resented the rule of
papal Rome; Siena despised Florence although
both were embraced within the Grand Duchy of
Tuscany.
After the Napoleonic conquest the whole of con-
tinental Italy was reduced to three states: (1) the
parts of the French Empire which were assimilated
to France and ruled by prefects appointed from
Paris; (2) the Kingdom of Italy with its capital at
Milan, where Eugene Beauharnais acted as Napo-
leon's viceroy; and (3) the Kingdom of Naples
under Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon.
The autonomy of the Italian communes, which has
endured for centuries, came to a sorry end under
the Napoleonic military empire.
The Treaties of Vienna (1815) reestablished the
ancient principalities of Italy, eliminating only the
republics of Genoa and Venice. The Hapsburg
Empire, which regained possession of Lombardy
and absorbed the Venetian territories, dominated
all Italy. Tiisc;iny, Parma, and Modena were ruled
by members of the imperial House of Hapsburg.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
405
The "independent" Italian states were either under
Austrian protection or bound by alliance to the
court of Vienna. All the Italian governments of
the restoration era, however, retained the French
system of centralized administration.'"
The restoration also ushered in a period of in-
creased agitation for Italian unification, which first
took the form of literary propaganda for an Italian
fatlierland — a phase of the Risorgimento that was
the prelude to the later political union. Because
of the strength of the municipal and provincial
spirit, however, most of the literary proponents of
unification favored federalism.^ Even Mazzini,
who called for the overthrow of all the dynasties
and the formation of a unitary republic with Rome
as the capital, desired administrative decentraliza-
tion with the "region" serving as an organ of gov-
ernment intermediate between the commune and
the state.
II. The Origin of the System of Centralization :
The Legislation on Local Government in the
Period of Italian Unification (1847-65)
A. The Period 1847^9
In the years 1846-48 the movement for Italian
unification came to a head. This initial movement
was twofold : a liberal-revolutionary movement
within each of the several states resulting in the
grant of a constitution and an attempt to form a
league of the Italian states and to drive Austria
out of Italy.
The movements of 1848-49 failed either to drive
Austria out of its Italian possessions (the Lom-
bardo- Venetian Kingdom) or to create an Italian
confederation or league. The Italian princes, jeal-
ous of each other, failed to unite their forces
against Austria. Piedmont demanded the absorp-
tion of Lombardy and Venetia under the House of
Savoy. Such an increase of strength would have
brought about a hegemony over the other Italian
states, which refused therefore to exert themselves
in a national war that would have resulted chiefly
in the growth of Piedmont. In the early spring of
1849 the temporary republican governments of
Rome, Venice, and Tuscany failed even more mis-
erably than the princes in 1818 to develop a con-
federation.
The real burdens of the wars against Austria
fell on Sardinia-Piedmont, in both 1848 and 1849.
Despite its failures Piedmont gained the unques-
tioned leadeiship in the Italian national struggle.
Although federalism was still the dominant con-
ception for the form of future Italian unity, the
new schemes of federation (after 1849) were built
around the theory of an enlarged Piedmont which
would be dominant in the North.
In reality Piedmont was destined to absorb all
Italy and extend its own institutions throughout
the country. That state, technically known as the
Kingdom of Sardinia, was unique in Italy. Alone
among the Italian states it had a native dynasty, a
real military force, and an aristocracy accus-
tomed to military and bureaucratic service under
the crown. King Charles Albert ( 1831-49) , whose
dynastic aim was to gain Lombardy, was a firm be-
liever in the divine right of kings. Yet hoping to
utilize the national-liberal movement for the ac-
quisition of Lombardy, he was forced to make con-
cessions to the liberals.
The Royal Edict of October 27, 1S47 on the Ad-
ministration of Commimes and Provinces
In October 1847 Charles Albert issued an edict
providing for a series of reforms in the local ad-
ministration of his continental domains. Hitherto
the state had been an absolutism tempered only
by custom: all political jDower emanated from the
crown. The edict provided for communal, provin-
cial, and divisional councils whose functions were
to assist the officials appointed by the royal gov-
eriunent. Only the communal councilors were
directly elected. Charles Albert's purpose was not
to prepare his people for constitutional self-gov-
ernment but rather to make the minimum conces-
sion necessary to retain the support of the liberal
forces. Although this law was in operation for
only a year and was intended only for the main-
land parts of Sardinia-Piedmont, it is a basic text
in Italian local government. Certain of its fea-
tures have been retained to the present day.
All the territory of the mainland kingdom was
divided into three units of administration: (1)
'° E. Brusa, Das Staatsrecht dcs Ki'migreichs Italien,
Freiburg i. B., 1832, Vol. IV, P.u't I, in Haiidbuch des oef-
fcntlichCH Rccltts der Qcr/enwart, edited by Helurich Mar-
qua rrl sen, p. 337.
' Such as Cesare Balbo, Vincenzo Giolierti, Antonio Ros-
mini, Gioacchino Ventura, Pellegrino Rossi, Carlo Troya,
Giuseppe Ferrari, and Carlo Cattaneo. See Antonio Monti,
L'idea federalistica nel Risorgimento italiano, Bari, 1922,
p. 6.
406
communes, (2) provinces, and (3) divisions (divi-
sioni).^ The mandamenti were retained as the
lowest judicial unit, of whicli tliere were 410 on
the mainland.
The Commune
The administration of the commune consisted of
(1) the syndic (sindaco), (2) one or more vice
syndics, (3) the executive council {consiglio di
credema), and (4) the communal council {con-
siglio communale). Except for the division of
communes into classes according to size, all were
regulated alike. Tlie number of members of the
communal council varied according to size of pop-
ulation (articles 32, 33) :
numbeb of
Class Coun-cilobs
Turin and Genoa 80
First class (population 10,000 or over) GO
Second class (population 3,000-10,000 or capoluogo
of a province) iO
Third class (population under 3,000) 30
The suffrage in electing the communal councilors
was based chiefly on wealth. In communes of 500
inhabitants or fewer the 10 percent of the popu-
lation who were the highest contributors of direct
taxes were entitled to vote. This percentage on
whom the suffrage was conferred varied inversely
with the size of the commune :
Population of Percent Paying
Commune Highest Taxes
500-.5,0<X) 5%
5,000-10.000 3%
lO.OOO-LCOOO 2%
Above 20,000 1%
Masters of elementary schools, those with univer-
sity degrees, and persons with various military or
political distinctions were also enfranchised
(article 34). The communal council proposed to
hold two regular annual sessions of 15 days each,
in the spring and in the autumn. It elected the
executive council (consiglio di credensa), whose
term was one year, to carry on its work during tlie
intervals between sessions; and it voted the com-
munal budget.
The syndic was both the liead of the communal
administration and an agent of the rnyal govern-
ment (ai-ticle 6) appointed by tlie king foi- a
'The text consists of 268 articles, pnbli' lied in full in
Calendnrio prnprale pp'repii stali. Anno XXV. 1F48. pp.
715-7ij6. The 11 divisions and 39 provinces are listed on
p. 708.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
three-year period but from among the elected
council members (article 9). The communes were
given the functions of maintaining local schools
and charities and municipal police.
Despite the elective element represented by the
communal council the government retained cer-
tain effective controls over the communes. The
intendant (head of the provincial government)
or the intendant general (head of the divisional
government) might intervene directly or by
means of a delegate in the sessions of the com-
munal council, but without the right to vote (ar-
ticle G4). The .syndic might be suspended by the
intendant general (article 10) or might be re-
moved from office by the king (article 11).
The Province
Above the commune was the local unit termed
"the province", of which there were 39. The
province, like the commune, was a legal person
{corpo morale) with power to hold property
(article 149). The intendant (intendente), an
appointee of the crown, headed the administra-
tion. The provincial council varied in number
according to the population of the province
(article 1G6) :
Population of Numeee of
Prownce Councilobs
Below 100,000 18
100,000-150,000 24
Over 150,000 30
The members of the provincial council were
chosen by the crown: one third from among
the syndics of the province and two thirds from
among nominees proposed by the communal
councils (article 167).
The Division (Divisione)
The division constituted the largest local unit.
Its administration was headed by the intendant
general (intendente gencrale), who had oversight
of the intendants of the provinces and of the syn-
dics of the communes as well (articles 154, 161,
1G4). The divisional council {consiglio di di-
vision)') was composed of delegates elected by the
provincial councils in such numbers as the crown
should specify (article 177). The divisional ex-
ecutive council {consiglio divisionale di credenza)
consisted of five persons chosen by the divisional
council from among its own members (article
•206). Its function was to represent the divisional
OCTOBER 15, 1944
council during intervals between sessions (article
205).
This system of local oovernmcnt liad scarcely
gone into operation (January 1, 1818) when it
was followed bj' a powerful agitation for a con-
stitution. Fearing a revolution Cliarles Albert
and his ministers made the momentous decision
to grant the Statuto. The document was com-
posed in great haste, largely in imitation of the
French Constitution of 1830, and it made only a
general reference, in article T-l, to local govern-
ment : "Communal and provincial institutions and
the boundaries of the communes and provinces
shall be regulated by law."
The Piedmontese Parliament which was inaugu-
rated on May 8, 1848 found no opportunity to
legislate on local government. The national
struggle against Austria which the king had begun
on March 23 chiefly absorbed its attention. Fol-
lowing the revolt of Milan a Provisional Govern-
ment of Lombardy had been established which
acted as the ally of Piedmont. It was recognized
that the hastily devised Statuto was not suitable
for a Kingdom of North Italy embracing Lom-
bardy and Venetia as well as the hereditary states
of the House of Savoy. Hence it was agreed, as
a condition of the "fusion" of Lombardy with
Sardinia-Piedmont, that a constituent assembly
would be chosen to draft a new constitution. On
this condition the Lombards were willing to accept
the House of Savoy.*
Charles Albert's first attempt to gain Lombardy
ended in the disastrous defeat of Custozza (July
23, 1818). He was driven headlong out of the
Austrian territories and was compelled to accept
an armistice, "as a prelude to j^eace", which stipu-
lated withdrawal of his forces to his own heredi-
tary states (August 9). A conservative ministry
followed the military defeat and governed the
coimtry on the basis of the emergency powers
conferred on the government by parliament on
August 2. Thus it came about that the first legis-
lation on local government under the Statuto was
not made by parliament but by the ministry alone
as a royal decree {rcgio decreto).
The Royal Decree of October 7, 18!i8 '
This new emergency law on local government
was largely modeled after the royal edict of 1847.
It was, however, stipulated in the preamble that :
4ffl
"The complex of the following dispositions,
signed by us in original duplicates, shall have pro-
visionally (he force of law, and shall be presented
to parliament in its next session, along with the
modifications recognized in the interval as useful,
in order that it may be converted into definitive
law."
The units of local government remained the same —
communes, provinces, and divisions. Communal
government was organized on the same pattern.
Article 6 provided for the same classes of com-
munes according to size. Membership in the com-
munal council was slightly reduced (article 8) :
Population of Numbeb of
Commune Counciloks
More than 80,000 80
First class (more than 10.000 population or
capoluogo of a province) 40
Second class (more than 3,000 population) 20
Third class (all others) 15
Communal suffrage was conferred on the same
groups as earlier (article 9). The executive coun-
cil of the commune was now termed the consiglio
delegato (article 7), and this was the chief depar-
ture from the earlier communal system.
The government retained all the earlier checks
and controls over the municipalities. The syndic
remained the same combination of local official and
representative of the government (article 73). He
was nominated as formerly by the king for a term
of three years, and from among the elected com-
munal councilors (article 78). He was subject as
formerly to suspension by the intendant general
(article 79) and to removal by the king (article
80).
Tlie provinces were retained with an adminis-
tration headed by the intendant and assisted by a
provincial council (article 190). The divisions
were likewise retained with an administration
headed by the intendant general and assisted by a
divisional council. The most important change
effected by the decree of 1848 was that the elective
'Law on the union with Lombardy, Royal Decree
747. .luly 11, 1848, published in full in CoUcziove Celerifera
(Idle Icggi pubblicate nelVanno 1S4S, Turin, 1848, Part I,
p. 634.
' Royal Decree 807, approved Oct. 7, 18-18: published Oct.
10, 1848. The text of 280 articles is published in full in
CoUezhmr Cplerifrrn dellr Icggi pubblicate nelVanno 1848,
Turin, 1848, Part II, pp. 1021-G5.
408
principle was established for both provincial and
divisional councils. The members of these coun-
cils were to be chosen directly by those having
communal suffrage (article 201).
The provincial council varied in number accord-
ing to population (article 198) :
Ntjmber of
Population of „ , „=
councilobb
Pbovincb
More than 150,000 f
More than 100,000 -"
Less than 100,000
The divisional council was composed as follows
(article 199) :
NtlMBEK OF
POPtJXATION OF „ „
councilobs
Division
More than 400,000 ^.
More than 300,000 ^^
Less than 300,000
The term of office of both divisional and pro-
vincial councilors was five years, with one fifth of
the membership renewable each year (article 201).
As a partial check against the democratic elective
principle the councilors were required to serve
gratuitously (article 235). They were forbidden
to discuss matters extraneous to their functions
(article 240). The intendant, appointee of the
crown, remained the executive official of the prov-
ince: the intendant general remained as the repre-
sentative of the authority and power of the king
within the division. The whole administrative
system remained highly centralized, after the
model of France. All executive officials, syndics,
intendants, and intendants general remained royal
appointees.
The emergency law of 1848 was designed prin-
cipally to enable the conservative ministry to hold
the country in check against the democratic agita-
tion which held the king and the royal army re-
sponsible for the militaiy defeat. New syndics
were to be appointed for the whole realm by Janu-
ary 1, 1849. After parliament was reconvened
(October 15) there was some sharp criticism from
the Left of the power of the government to appoint
the syndics. A bill was proposed on December 15
limiting the choice of the government to three
nominees selected by the communal council. The
next day, however, the ministry was overthrown
and a democratic ministry succeeded to power.
The democrats were not displeased to inherit the
power of appointing the syndics. A conservative
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
thereupon urged action on the bill for reform of
local government (December 22). A dissolution
of parliament followed (December 30). The new
p;irliament, which opened on February 1, 1849, was
completely absorbed in the preparation for re-
sumption of war against Austria. The reform of
municipal administration, empowering the com-
munes to choose their own syndics, had seemed
inevitable within a short time in 1848. Not before
1896, however, was the reform effected.'
Piedmont's second attack against Austria ended
in the disastrous defeat of Novara (March 23,
1849) . Victor Emmanuel II, who succeeded to the
throne on the night after the battle, was forced
to accept an armistice and to agree to a heavy in-
demnity in the peace treaty. The democrats, how-
ever, bitterly opposed the ratification of the treaty
in parliament, making use of the support of their
appointees in the communes. The treaty was not
ratified until after a second dissolution of parlia-
ment (November 1849) . A moderate conservative
majority was obtained as a result of the direct ap-
peal of the king (the Proclamation of Moncalieri)
and the employment in certain instances of the in-
tendants to influence the elections.' The prece-
dent was thus established for what later came to
be a great abuse in Italian politics: the employ-
ment of the centralized administrative system to
manipulate parliamentary elections.
The defeat of Novara ushered in a period of re-
action in which the constitutions of all the Italian
states were withdrawn with the exception of the
Stntuto of Sardinia. Alone among the princes of
Italy, Victor Emmanuel II maintained his royal
promise to act as a constitutional sovercigii. The
continuance of parliamentary government in little
Piedmont was a great factor in the leadership of
the House of Savoy in the new movement for
Italian unification under Cavour. The Pied-
montese Constitution, although in origin an ex-
tremely conservative document, gradually became
vested with a peculiar prestige because it under-
lay the only living constitutional system in Italy.
A 10-year period of parliamentary experience in-
tervened before Piedmont again challenged the
•Edoai-do Arbih, Cinqunnt'atini di storin parlamentare
del Regno d'ltnlia, 3 vols.. Rome, 189S-1902, I, pp. 147-150.
' Arbib, op. cit., L pp. 370-377 ; Bolton King, A History of
Italian Unity, 2 vols., London, 1809, I, p. 359.
OCTOBER IS, 1944
Austrian domination. Throughout that period
the Royal Decree of 1848 regulated local govern-
ment.
B. The Teeritoelvl Unification of Italy and
THE Regulation of Local Government (1859-
65)
In 1858 the agreement of Plombieres with Na-
poleon III embodied Cavour's plans for uniting
Italy. At this stage Cavour's aims were directed
toward creating a federation under the aegis of an
enlarged Piedmont. It was stipulated that France
would assist Piedmont against Austria, which
would be completely expelled from Italy; that
Piedmont would annex Lombardy, Venetia, the
Po Duchies (Parma and Modena), and the Ro-
magna and would thus constitute a state of 11 mil-
lion people ; that an Italian federation would then
be formed consisting of four states, North Italy
under the Savoy dynasty, a Kingdom of Central
Italy (Tuscany and Umbria), the remnant of the
Papal State, and the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies; and that France in return would re-
ceive Nice and Savoy.
The essential feature of the Franco-Sardinian
alliance was the condition of the complete ex-
plusion of Austria from Italy. In such a case
Piedmont, enlarged by the addition of the whole
of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, would have
dominated tlie other Italian states, which would
no longer have been able to look to Austria for
protection. The defense of Italy and the mili-
tary power would have been concentrated in the
Kingdom of North Italy. The local institutions
and usages in the other Italian states would have
remained, although it was the plan of Cavour
that the domination of the confederation by par-
liamentary Piedmont would have forced a liberal
policy on the Pope in Rome and on Ferdinand II
of the Two Sicilies.
The war of 1859 brought a terrible disappoint-
ment to Cavour. JJapoleon III stopped half-
way to his goal, suddenly making a truce with
the Austrian Emperor. The armistice of Villa-
franca (July 11, 1859) provided indeed for the
cession of Lombardy, but Austria retained
'Lcgge 3702, dated Oct. 23, IS.TO, publi-shed in the Gnz-
zetta Piemontese, Nov. 1, 1859; text in fuli in CoUezione
Celerifera delle leggi, drcreti, istruzioni e circolari puh-
blicate nelVanno 1S50, Turin, 1859, pp. 1252-96.
409
Venetia. Tiie Emperor Francis Joseph would
remain an Italian prince; Austria would still be
the greatest power and influence in Italy. Ca-
vour resigned in disgust at the peace which
Victor Emmanuel II regretfully accepted. The
armistice of Villafranca and the Treaty of Zurich
(November 10, 1859) which confirmed it gave the
deathblow to the federal plans for Italian unifi-
cation.
AVhile the liberal-revolutionary movement
throughout Italy became completely unitarian,
concentrating on the single aim of annexation by
Piedmont, Cavour's successors in the ministry
marked time, waiting on the decisions of Napoleon
III. Lombardy, however, was ceded to Piedmont,
and a new law to provide for a common system of
local government was issued.
The Law of October 23, 1859 on Communal and
Provincial Government
On April 25, 1859, shortly after the outbreak of
the war and after conferring extraordinary powers
on the government during the emergency, parlia-
ment adjourned. Thus the law of 1859, like that of
1848, was not discussed and approved by the legis-
lature but was issued by the ministers and the king
on the basis of delegation of emergency legislative
power by parliament.'
C ommunal Government
The framework of communal government re-
mained practically the same, its organs being the
syndic, the communal council, and the executive
council, now renamed giunta vnmicipale (article
11). The numbers of councilors were slightly
modified (article 12) :
poptjlation op numbeb of
Commune Councilors
More tlian 63,0C0 60
Mji-e than 30 000 40
Mure than 10,000 30
More than 3,000 20
In all others 15
The municipal executive council {giunta munici-
pale) was more precisely defined and, in addition
to tlie syndic, had these members (article 13) :
popdlation of
Commune Membeks
More than 60,000 8 assessors
(assessori)
4 deputies
(svpplenti)
410
Population op
CoMMiTNE Members
(Cent.) (Cont.)
More than 30,000 6 assessors
2 deputies
More than 3,000 4 assessors
2 deputies
In all others 2 assessors
2 deputies
The suffrage in municipal elections was slightly
modified, but the pattern remained the same.
Those over 21 years who enjoyed civil rights could
vote if they paid direct taxes of (article 14) :
5 lire in communes of 3,000 or fewer
10 lire in communes of 3,000-10,000
15 lire in communes of 10.000-20,000
20 lire in communes of 20,000-00,000
25 lire in communes of more than 60.000
The government retained the earlier checks over
municipal affairs. The syndic, who was defined
as head of the communal administration and of-
ficial of the government (article 94), was ap-
pointed by the king from among the elected coun-
cilors for a three-year term (article 95), subject to
suspension by the governor and to removal by the
king (article 104). In addition the king was em-
powered to dissolve the municipal council "for
grave reasons of public order", subject only to the
restriction that a new council would be elected
within three months (article 222).
Provincial Government
The law of 1859 brought some change in termi-
nology for the local units, but the pattern of cen-
tralized control was actually intensified. Tlie
largest local unit, hitherto designated by the term
divisione, was now termed the province. In old
Piedmont, however, it corresponded very closely to
the former division.*
The organs of provincial government were the
governor {governatore), the vice governor, the
executive council of the governor {consiglio di
governo), and the elective elements — the provin-
cial council and its provincial deputation (articles
2, 146). The governor exercised practically the
same functions hitherto performed by the intend-
ant general. He represented the executive power
'The enlarged Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont and
I/omljardy) was divided into 14 provinces as follows:
Alessandria, Annecy, Bergamo, Cagliari, Cianiberi, Cre-
mona, Cuneo, Genova, Milano, Nizza. Novara, Pavia, Sas-
sari. Torino. See the table of territorial units, appendix
to the law of 1859, Collezione Celerifcra 1S59, pp. 1280-9G.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
in each province, provided for the publication and
execution of tlie laws of the state, was responsible
for public security, and had the power to summon
the armed forces (article 3). In case of illness
or absence he was represented by the vice governor
(article 4).
The executive council of the governor consisted
of not more than five appointed members (article
6), whose duties consisted of assisting the gov-
ernor in his functions as executive of the central
power and giving him their views in cases of dis-
putes concerning administrative jurisdiction (ar-
ticle 5).
The i^rovincial council was composed, like the
former divisional council, in accordance with the
population (article 148) :
P0PUT.ATI0N OF Number op
Pkovince Councilors
More than 000,000 60
More than 400,C0O 50
More than 200,000 40
In all others 20
Those who enjoyed communal suffrage elected the
councilors.
The provincial deputation {deputazione pro-
vinciale) acted as executive committee for the
council, representing it in the intervals between
sessions. The governor was ex officio a member
and presided over it. The council by absolute
majority elected the other members, who were
eiglit, six, or four in number, according to the size
of the province (article 171).
^'■Cii'condari^'' and '■'■MandamentV
Two territorial units intervened between the
province and the commune. The circondario was,
in effect, the unit formerly termed a province. At
its head was the intendant, the agent of the gov-
ernor, appointed by the state (article 7). The
circondario was essentially a sub-division of the
province for administration by the state.
The mandamento remained the lowest judicial
unit and was made to serve also as the electoral
district in the distribution of scats in the provin-
cial council (article 149). Whereas both com-
munes and provinces were constituted as legal
persons (corpi morali) with property riglits, no
sucli attributes were conferred on the intermediate
units.
In the emergency which faced the Italian na-
tional movement after Villafranca the control by
the central government over the local units was
OCTOBER 15. 1944
411
actually increased. The king (in practice, the
Minister of the Interior) was empowered to dis-
solve any of the local elected bodies, the provincial
councils, or the communal councils (article 222).
It was further stipulated (article 8) that:
"The Governors, the Vice Governors, the Intend-
ants, and those who perform their functions may
not be called to render account of the exercise of
their functions except by the superior administra-
tive authority; nor may they be subject to pro-
cedure for any act in the exercise of their func-
tions without the authorization of the King sub-
ject to previous review by the Council of State."'"
Revolutionai-y movements in all the minor
states of the north — Parma, Modena, Tuscany,
and the Romagna — followed the outbreak of the
war of 1859. The nationalists seized control, and
after the Peace of Villafranca they refused to
permit the return of the princes or, in the Ro-
magna, the restoration of papal rule. As a re-
sult of Villafranca, federalism was dead. The
issue was simple : either incorporation by Pied-
mont or the restoration of the old regime and
Austrian hegemony. When Cavour returned to
power in 1860 he quickly made arrangements for
the annexation of those territories, which had al-
ready begun to assimilate their institutions to
those of Piedmont. Plebiscites were held (March
11 and 12) ; arrangements were made for the new
provinces to elect deputies to parliament; and
Piedmont took over the administration by ap-
p)ointing governors in accordance with the law of
1859. Cavour paid Napoleon III for his ac-
quiescence by ceding Nice and Savoy.
The wholesale annexations in central Italy gave
an enormous impetus to the unitary movement
which now embraced most of the Italian national-
ists. The Garibaldian expedition to Sicily and
'"The Council of State (Consiglio di Stato) was estab-
lished by the edict of Aug. IS, 1831, issued by Cliarles
Albert. It originally consisted of three sections: (1)
interior, (2) grace, justice, and ecclesiastical affairs, and
(3) finance. In the pi'e-constitutional period it served as
an advisory council to the king and as a kind of court of
administrative law. By article 83 of the Statuto the king
reserved the right to reorganize the Council of State. By
the legislative decree (No. 3707) of Oct. 30, 1S59 it was
reorganized, the third section being made a court of ad-
ministrative law. See F. Racioppi and I. Brunelli, Corn-
mento alio statuto del regno, 3 vols., Turin, 1909, III,
pp. 740-^1.
813688—44 3
the South followed. The Red Shirts overran the
island and then proceeded to attack the mainland
forces of Naples. When Garibaldi's forces were
temporarily checked Cavour again secured the
assent of Napoleon III for action by Piedmont.
The royal army under Cialdini, which was sent
south, defeated the papal army at Castelfidardo
(September 18, 1860). The regular troops then
continued the war against Francis II (King of
the Two Sicilies, 1859-61). By February* 13,
1861 the campaign was ended.
Cavour had already sent his agents, as lieu-
tenants with exceptional powers," in the wake of
Garibaldi's irregular army. Even before the com-
pletion of the campaign, plebiscites were held in
Sicily and Naples (October 21, 1860) and in the
Marches and Umbria (November 4 and 5, 1860),
which went overwhelmingly for annexation by
"the constitutional monarchy of King Victor Em-
manuel II".
The territorial unification of Italy was an ex-
traordinarily rapid process. In less than 18
months (July 1859 to January 1861) the House of
Savoy extended its rule from Sardinia-Piedmont,
a small state with about 6 million people, to most
of Italy with a jDopulation of 21 millions. Only
two parts of the peninsula remained unredeemed :
Venetia, still a part of the Hapsburg Empire,
and Rome, the last remnant of the Papal State.
Cavour, the great architect of Italian unity, died
suddenly on June 6, 1861, leaving the unfinished
business of establishing the institutions of the new
state.
By the simple process of extension the Statuto
became the constitution of united Italy. Local
government was, however, at the time of Cavour's
death, the most difficult of all the problems. The
Ijeople of Naples, of Sicily, even of central Italy,
were utterly different from the northerners. It
cannot be too much emphasized for the sake of an
understanding of modern Italy that the Rkor-
ghnento, the whole movement for national unifica-
" Such a lieutenancy (luogotcncnza) is not to be con-
fused with the office of Lieutenant General of the Realm
(L-uogotcnente Generale), a kind of regency instituted for
the whole kingdom during a temporary absence of the
king. The lieutenants sent by Cavour were really extraor-
dinary commissioners with full powers limited to certain
territories. See Racioppi and Brunelli, op. cit., I, pp.
560-61.
472
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
tion, was the work of a small fraction of the total
population.'^ That element, composed partic-
ularly of the upper bourgeoisie and liberal nobles,
was fairly wide-spread and powerful in the North.
In the South, however, there was scarcely any
middle class. Those in Sicily and Naples who
flocked to Garibaldi's banner (after his victories)
hoped for jobs in the new order or for some per-
sonal advantage.
Immediately after the first flush of the triumph
of unity the reaction set in. As Cavour said, '"To
harmonize North and South is harder than fight-
ing Austria or struggling with Rome". The
South was cursed with terrible poverty and cor-
ruption, the heritage of centuries of niisgovern-
ment, and with the greatest crime ratio in all
Europe. The influential classes, the landlords and
the priests, were Bourbonist in their sympathies
and were opposed to unity. When some of the
landlords gradually came to accept the idea of
national unity it was only on the condition that
their powers and privileges be maintained. That
development, however, still lay in the future. The
Sicilians, who had a distrast for the mainland and
an ancient hatred of Naples, clamored for home
rule. Throughout the whole of the South there
came in the spring and summer of 1861 certain
dangerous sjnn])toms of reaction.
Garibaldi had favored a temporary dictator-
ship for holding Sicily, and his followers gained
positions of power following his conquest.
Cavour's attempt to govern the islands by means
of lieutenants met with disaster: He had to recall
his appointees, who were forced to flee from
Palermo. The Maffia, a secret criminal society,
which had started in tlie firet part of the nine-
teenth century to combat the Neapolitan Bourbons
"Guglielmo Ferrero speaks of thorn as the Jucobius of
Italy : "The new Piedmontese Government was strength-
ened by those intellectual Italians wlio were forced to
emigrate from their country. It procured the assistance
of France and of all those di'cJas-i^s, discontented men,
rebels, heroes, and maniacs who abound in a country so
fertile in great men, criminals, and fanatics as Italy. But
the conquest once achieved, the Jacobin Slate found itself
in the same straits as in the French Revolution — that is
to say, they had to enforce by violent means a regime of
liberty on a country that was, as a whole, indifferent
or adverse ; to establish the minority rule In the name of
popular sovereignty ; to substitute their own protective
system for that of the Church." Militarism, Boston, 1903,
p. 244.
and had become entrenched after the conquest by
Garibaldi, continued to flourish as an expression
of Sicilian mistrust and defiance of the central
government.'^
On the mainland the situation was, if anything,
worse. The Vatican and the dispossessed Bour-
bons encouraged a great outburst of brigandage.
The Piedniontese, who were sent down to govern
the southerners, were utterly antipathetic to them :
they were regarded with an attitude not much
different from that of our own South toward the
carpet-baggers. Ponza di San Martino, a Pied-
montese, whom Cavour had sent as his lieutenant
in Naples, found that the force of 5,000 regular
troops was quite insufficient to deal with the violent
elements. When his request for more men was
denied he resigned (July 12, 1861). When the
new outburst of violence in August was followed
by the sending of General Cialdini with plenty of
regulars, a savage series of small campaigns en-
sued. Possibly two or three thousand brigands
were shot or hanged. D'Azeglio, a leading Italian
nationalist and Cavour's predecessor as President
of the Council of Ministers (1849-52), blurted out
the remark : "The Neapolitans do not want us and
we have no right to stay there." '^
The Plans of the Leaders for Local Self-Govern-
ment
What was acute in the South was present in some
degree in all the newly annexed territories. The
Lombards objected to the immediate introduction
of Piedmontese law ; the Tuscans tried to postpone
the process in their land. All the great leaders of
the Piedmontese-Italian parliament recog-nized
the extraordinary difficulties of creating one gov-
ernment out of such heterogeneous elements. Ca-
vour was a firm believer in decentralization. In
July 1860 he had Farini, Minister of the Interior,
draw up a scheme of local government. Farini's
project called for the formation of rather large
local areas called "regions", but their boimdaries
were not to be coterminous with the former states
" Bolton King. op. cit., II, p. 188 ; for the Maffla see
Leopoldo Franchetti and Sidney Sonnino, Lii Sicilia nel
/67C, 2 vols., Florence, 1S77, I, pp. 121 fE; Francis M.
Guercio, Sicilp, the Oardcn of the Mediterranean, London,
1938, pp. 64-75; Ci'sare Mori, The Last Slnnjrilc with the
Mafia, London, 1033.
"Bolton King, op. cit.. II, pp. 190, 223, 226.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
413
which had just been annexed. It would have been
too dangerous for the new national government to
recognize the boundaries of the old states. The
regions were to be administrative areas: within
each the province was to be the real unit of local
government, with the chief control over roads, pub-
lic health, rivers, secondary education, and the
more important charities vested in elective coun-
cils."
Meanwhile the problem of holding the South
had grown acute, and to the advocates of national
unity the demand for local autonomy seemed
merely a guise for attempts to luido their work.
Minghetti, who succeeded Farini as Minister of
the Interior, drew up a bill for local government
in November 1860. It was something like
Farini's scheme. There were to be communes
and provinces (just as in old Piedmont and as
in France). But in each of those units locally
elected covmcils were to have large powers. The
communal council was to elect the syndic; the
provincial council was to be independent of the
prefect who would represent the central govern-
ment. A group of provinces was to constitute
a region. The government of the region was
to comprise a governor and a council whose mem-
bers were to be elected by the provincial councils.
The governor, as a kind of viceroy, would control
the prefects of his region, with no appeal beyond
his authority. The region would have powers
over higher education, roads, public works, and
agriculture. The Minghetti bill, just like the
scheme of Farini, wished to cut across the old
boundaries in order to give no opportuninty to
separatists. So dangerous, however, was the
sentiment against the new unity that Cavour
dared not push the bill. The question was left
hanging in the air at Cavour's death.^*
Bettino Ricasoli (President of the Council of
Ministers, June 1861 to March 1862), who suc-
ceeded Cavour, was a Tuscan, proud of the tra-
ditions of his native land and fearful of its being
melted down in the unification of the peninsula.
Onco in power, however, and faced with the for-
midable problem of governing the South, he
quickly dropped his belief in local autonomy. He
forced his unwilling colleagues in the cabinet to
accept a scheme of local government that was
closely copied from France.
The Ricasoli Decrees on the Organization of Local
Government {1861)
Once again parliament granted the executive the
power to legislate on the forms of local govern-
ment. The Decree Law (No. 249) of October 9,
1861, by extending the application of the law of
1859, equalized and made uniform throughout the
whole kingdom the system of administration. At
the same time certain modifications were made in
the earlier law, the chief one of which was the
abolition of the oiBce of vice governor."
On the same day, October 9, a Royal Deci'ee (No.
250) was issued which contained the following
pi'ovision :
"In all the Provinces of the Kingdom the Gov-
ernors and the Intendants General shall assume
the titles of Prefects, the Intendants of the Cir-
condari shall be termed Sub-Prefects, the members
of the Executive Council of the Governor, or of
the P]xecutive Council of the Intendant, shall be
called Councilors of the Prefecture {Gonsiglieri
di Prefettura)"
Italy was divided into 59 provinces, identical
in form except for variations in numbers of the
provincial council, which varied, in accordance
with the law of 1859, in proportion to the popula-
tion.'* Piedmont— that dynastic military state —
had organized its administrative system closely on
that of France of the ancien regime. The House
of Savoy, having absorbed Italy, took over the
Napoleonic system of administration, including
the very names of the officials, prefects and sub-
prefects.
Two basic factors were responsible for this de-
cision : the military-diplomatic situation and the
domestic problem. Italian unity was not com-
pleted at this time since Venetia and Rome had still
to be won. The years 1859 to 1866 were a period
" Brusa, op. cit., p. 23 ; Bolton King, op. cit., II, p. 193 ;
Arblb, op. cit., II, p. 713.
'* Bolton King, op. cit., II, pp. 194-95 ; Arblb, op. cit.,
II, pp. 714-17.
" Tbe law was signed Oct. 9 and publisbed in the Oaz-
zelta Uffiziale, Oct. 10, 1861. Text In full In CoUczione
Ceterifera delle Icggi, decreti, istruzionl e circolari ptib-
blicate neU'anno 1861, Turin, Part II, 1861, rp. 2040-41.
"The 59 provinces are listed in Royal Decree 250,
Oct. 9, 1861, CoUczione Celerifera, 1861, II, pp. 2042-43.
414
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
of life-and-death struggle of the new Italian state.
It faced the alternatives of completing the process
of unification or being smashed to pieces in the
attempt. Yet it was in that emergency period
that the basic legislation of modern Italy was
devised. It was thought at the time that it could
be only a provisional system, a temporary dicta-
torship. As Jacini wrote:
"The task of legislation, of administration, and
of finance, in the presence of the occupation by the
menacing Austrian Empire of the fortresses of the
Quadrilateral, is comparable to the work of Gen-
eral Totleben, who constructed the fortifications of
Sebastopol within range of the cannon of the
allies".i»
The nationalists recognized that a new war
would have to be waged against Austria to gain
Venetia and that the country would have to pre-
pare for that war. Rome would also have to be
annexed to carry out the pledge of parliament that
the Eternal City would become the national capital.
Pius IX, who was determined to maintain the tem-
poral power, hoped to undo Italian unity. Francis
II, the deposed king of Naples, fled to Rome, where
the Pope welcomed him. Thus the problems of
completing Italian unity and of maintaining the
hold of the North on the South became merged.
The threat to Italian unity was in all three points :
Rome, Venetia, and the South. As long as Em-
peror Francis Joseph held Venetia he was still an
Italian prince: he regarded united Italy as an
ephemeral creation without legitimate basis and
hoped to get back Lombardy. He would probably
have acted if the loss of Lombardy had not forced
him in 1860 to reorganize his domains and make
concessions to the Hungarians.
The Pope, whose army had been destroyed at
Castelfidardo, relied on the French garrison to
maintain the papal government. The brigands
and Bourbonists who kept the South in uproar
could escape over the border into Rome and receive
encouragement and arms. As long as the South
was unsettled the Pope continued to appeal for in-
tervention by the great powers. Pius IX desired
particularly a joint action by the two Catholic
powers, France and Austria, which would destroj^
the work of Victor Emmanuel II, "the Cisalpine
usurper". United Italy had therefore to prepare
for war and centralize the administration as part
of the preparation. Against Austria, Italy began
to think of an alliance with Prussia.
In the South it had become clear that there were
no local elements which could be relied upon for
leadership under the national government. Had
any scheme of local autonomy been granted the
South the priests and landlords would have un-
done the work of unification. In essence, then, the
adoption bj' the new Italian Government of the
French system of extreme centralization was a rec-
ognition of the fact that unity was tlie work of a
small minority. By means of the system of cen-
tralization the "elite" who forged united Italy de-
vised a means of maintaining it and of maintain-
ing themselves in power. It became known to the
rest of the country as "Piedmontizing", and in
historical formula it is known as "the royal con-
quest".""
Th^ Administrative Code of 1S65
In 1864 the Italian Parliament took up the work
of codifying the laws for the new kingdom and of
establishing a uniform financial system. At the
same time it prepared a consolidated law on local
government. That was a large order; and the
legislature was faced with a great varietj' of other
problems arising from the recently consummated
unification. The proposal was therefore made
that the ministry be empowered to publish certain
fundamental laws and the more important codes,
subject only to the limitation that summary bills,
outlining the main provisions, be ajjproved by
parliament. The ministers hastened to utilize this
blanket authorization conferred on them on No-
vember 19, 1864. Although conunittees had pre-
jDared elaborate reports and considerable discus-
sion on the measure had taken place in each branch
of the legislature, the text of the new law on com-
munal and provincial administration was the
work of the ministry, which retained the right of
the goverimient to interfere in the affairs of the
communes and to alter the boundary lines of local
units regardless of local wishes."'
" Slefano Jacini, / Conservatori e revolu::ionf naturale
dei partiti polilici in Italia, Milan, 1879, pp. 61-62.
"Luigi Stui'zo, Italj/ and Fascisiiio, New York, 1926, pp.
20, 287.
" Arbili. op. cit.. Ill, pp. 226-28.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
415
With the issuance of the law of March 20, 1865
(No. 2248) the pattern of centralized control over
the administration was fixed.^- Suggestions had
been made during the course of the parliamentary
discussions to limit the control of the central gov-
ernment over the communes. The same motives,
however, which had prompted the nationalists in
the cabinet in 1859 and in 1861 to adopt a system
of extreme centralization, prompted the nation-
alists in parliament to retain it. Parliament's
work was little more than approval and systema-
tization of the earlier regulations which had been
established by royal decree. In absorbing Italy,
Piedmont left none of the institutions of the other
former states, left none of the boundaries of the
old governments, and permitted none of the new
units to function except under the veto of the
central power.
III. Local Government in United Italy: Effects
of Centralization in the Operations of
Politics (1865-1922)
Legislation of the New Period
Venetia was annexed to Italy as a result of the
war of 1866. The administrative system was
promptly extended to the new territories, except
that the units of territory corresponding to the
eirco7\dari were termed distretti. Then with the
annexation of the Roman territoiy in 1870 the
total number of provinces was increased to 69 and
remained fixed at that figure until 1914. There
were at this date 284 circondari and 1,806 manda-
menti. The number of communes was actually re-
duced from 8,381 in 1871 to 8,323 in 1914.^^
The basic i^attern fixed in 1865 was retained
throughout the whole period. The most impor-
tant modifications were those of 1891 and 1896, the
first permitting the election of the syndic by all
communes of more than 10,000 persons and the
second extending the election of the syndic to all
communes. The last comprehensive law (testo
unico) of the pre-war period was that of 1908.
""Text in Collczione Celerifera 1SG5, Part I, pp. 706-7.
The law on communal and provincial government, AUegnto
A, in Collezione Celerifera 1S65, Part II, Siipplemento,
pp. 5-54.
The SrsTEM of Local Government
In the pre-war period each province was di-
vided into circondari, which in turn were divided
into mandamenti. One or more communes con-
stituted a mandamento. The determination of
boundary lines of all the units pertained to the
central government. All existed on the basis of
a delegation of power by the Government of
Italy.=*
The province had a dual character. It was an
area of the state, intended to render the action of
the executive power rapid, vigorous, and simul-
taneous in all parts of the kingdom. For that
purpose it was the seat of the various local ad-
ministrative agencies of the central government,
headed by the prefect. As the representative of
the central power the prefect supervised public
security and had the authority to call in the
armed forces. At the same time the province
was also a legal person {corpo 7norale) with the
function of providing for those local interests
which were beneath those of the state but broader
than purely municipal concerns.
The circ&ndano (and likewise the distretto of
Venetia) was purely an area of state administra-
tion, intermediate between province and com-
nume. It had no elective administration, nor
was it a legal person, although it might own
property. In each circondario, except that in
which the prefect resided, the executive power
was represented by a sub-prefect.
The mandartvento was the unit of judicial ad-
ministration and the seat of the pretore. Lists
of jurors were composed on the basis of the man-
dainento, which served also as an electoral dis-
trict in the distribution of seats in the provincial
council.
The commune represented a natural and or-
ganic society, recognized rather than created by
law, although, as noted above, the powers of a
communal government were purely a delegation
from the state.
^ "Circoscrizione," Enciclopedia Italiana, X, p. 413.
"The following description is largely based on the
work of Racioppi and Bruuelli, op cit.. Ill, pp. 594-618.
See chart on local government according to the law of
1908, post, p. 416.
416
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
PRE-FASCIST LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN ITALY (1908)
Round figures- appointive officials
Square figures - elective officials
Straight lines- appointive power
Broken lines- elective power
Syndic
T
1 Communal Clunla 1 >
Communal Council
1
Electorates \
FASCIST LOCAL GOVERNMENT !N ITALY (1934)
Round figures - appointive officials
Straight lines-power of appointment
Broken lines- authority of nomination
(Communal Consulta A
(If any) J
(Syndicate ^ { Syndicate j
V of capital y V of labor /
> &■ Ocl. 3. 1934 l«TZ
II a* Otf 3, 1934 >«T3 D
OCTOBER IS, 1944
Communal Government
Communal government was on a uniform pat-
tern throughout Italy. Its organs were the
council, the giunta (executive committee), and the
syndic. Each commune had also a secretary
{segretario).
The council members were chosen by an elec-
torate somewhat broader than that for parlia-
mentary elections. The elections usually were
held after the spring session of the council and
never later than the month of July. The voting
was by scrutinio di lista with limited vote, i. e.
each voter could vote for a list of candidates for
four fifths of the total number of seats in the coun-
cil, thus assuring a degree of proportional repre-
sentation. Disputes concerning elections went
first to the commimal council, then on appeal to
the giunta provinciale, thence to the court of ap-
peal {carte (Va.ppello), and finally to the fourth
section of the Council of State. Communal and
provincial elections usually aroused much more
interest and the participation of a larger propor-
tion of the electorate than the parliamentary elec-
tions.
The numbers composing the communal council
varied with the population according to the fol-
lowing scale :
POPTTLVTION OP NUMBBaS OF
CoirMUNE Councilors
Less than 3,000 15
3,000-10,000 20
10,000-30,000 30
30,000-60,0rt0 40
60,000-250,000 60
More than 250,000 80
A councilor was elected for a term of six years.
One third of the council membership was renewed
every two years. The council usually held two
annual sessions of about 15 days each, one in the
spring and one in the fall, over which the syndic
presided, and the sessions were usually open to
the public. In the spring session it examined the
accounts for the administration of the preceding
year; in the fall session it voted the budget, se-
lected the auditors (who could not be members of
the giunta), chose the commissioners for revision
of the electoral lists, and elected the giunta.
The communal giunta was the executive com-
mittee of the communal council, chosen by it from
among its own members, according to the following
scale :
417
Population of Number op
Commune Members
Below 3,000 4
3,000-30,000 6
30,000-C0,000 8
00,000-250,000 12
Dver 250,000 14
Tlie syndic was an ex ofjicio member of the giv/nta
and presided at its meetings. Functions of the
giunta consisted of representing the council in the
intervals between its sessions and of supervising
the lesser officials of the commune. Its sessions
were secret.
As contrasted with the communal council and
giunta, which were organs of purely communal
affairs, the syndic had a dual f miction : He was both
the executive head of the commune and an official
of the state. Until 1891 he had been named by the
central government, technically by the king, but in
practice by the Minister of the Interior. After
1896 all communes were permitted to elect their syn-
dics.^'' That reform came as a reaction against the
use of royal appointment as a means of electoral
influence in the hands of the local deputy. The
syndic, according to the law of 1908, was elected by
the council by secret ballot fi-om among its own
members for a term of 4 years and was indefinitely
reeligible.
As chief of the local administration the syndic
presided over the council and over the giunta.
As an official of the state he published the laws and
decrees of the government and supervised their
local application. For certain specified causes the
prefect might annul the election of a syndic. The
king could remove him, or the prefect could sus-
pend him. In addition to its controls over the
syndic, the Government had the power, through
the prefect, to dissolve the municipal council.
Provincial Government
In accordance with its dual character the prov-
ince had two sets of officials : Those who provided
for the local interests devolving on it as a legal
person and those national officials who functioned
in the province as an area of state administration.
"'The concession of the right to elect the syndic in all
towns came as a reaction against the dictatorship of
Crispi, which was ended by the defeat of Adua, Mar. 1,
1896. A circular of the Ministry of the Interior, Mar. 16,
requested the communal councils to nominate their syndics
for confirmation by the Government. See Collezione Celeri-
fera 1896, I, p. 600. The formal legal change was made
by the law of July 29, 1896, No. 342.
418
The local organs were the provincial council and
the provincial deputation {deputazione provin-
ciale). The organs of state administration operat-
ing within the province were the prefect, the coun-
cil of the prefecture {consiglio di prefeitura) , and
the provincial administrative giunta (giunta pro-
vinciale amviinistrativa) .
The provincial council was elected by those per-
sons entitled to vote in communal elections. The
Tnandam^ento constituted the electoral district.
Contested elections might be appealed to the court
of appeal (corfe d,''appello) and thence to the
fourth section of tlie Council of State. The size of
the council varied according to the following scale :
Population of Numfee of
Peovince Councilors
Less than 200,000 20
200,000-100,000 40
Over 600,000 60
A councilor was elected for a term of sis years
and was indefinitely reeligible, but one third of
the membership was renewed every two years.
Ordinarily the provincial council held a single ses-
sion each year, usually beginning in August and
lasting for about one month. It elected its officials
(for one-year terms) from its own membership :
the president, vice president, secretary, and vice
secretary.
Functions of the provincial council consisted of
administering the public buildings and property
owned by the province, of supervising contracts
made in its name, and of providing for secondary
education, poor-relief, provincial roads, and works
on rivers and streams which were allocated to the
province. It also chose commissioners to super-
vise provincial elections and elected the provincial
deputation.
The provincial deputation {deputazione provin-
ciale) constituted the executive organ of the pro-
vincial council. Until 1888 the prefect was ex
officio president; thereafter the president was
elected by the council from among its own mem-
bers. In addition to the president the provincial
deputation had a membership according to the
following scale :
Population op Number op
Province Councilors
Less tlmn 300,000 6
300,000-600,000 8
More than 600,000 10
The provincial deputation, in carrying out the
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
functions ascribed to it, represented the provincial
council in the intervals between its sessions; pro-
vided for the execution of decisions by the pro-
vincial council, supervising the employees of the
provincial government; prepared the provincial
budget; stipulated contracts for the province; and
presented its views to the prefect when called upon
to do so. In judicial matters the president of the
dejDutation acted in the name of the province as a
legal person, signing the necessary documents.
Parallel to the local organs of the province as a
quasi-autonomous unit were the national officials
who of)erated within the province as an area of
national administration. But since the province
and its communes enjoyed only a limited auton-
omy, the national officials exercised also a general
supervision over the province and the communes.
The prefect was the chief official of the Govern-
ment. His primary task was to provide for the
execution of the laws and the decrees of the state.
He was appointed technically by the king, but in
jDractice by the Minister of the Interior. In each
circo7idario other than the one in which he himself
resided, the orders of the prefect were executed by
the sub-prefect (sotto-prefetto).'^ Although he
was primarily dependent on the Minister of the
Interior at Rome, the prefect was also the local
agent and representative of the other ministries
concerned with internal affaii-s.
The council of prefecture {consiglio di prefet-
tura) assisted the prefect as agent of the state. It
was composed of the leading functionaries serving
the prefect.
The giunta provinciale amministrativa was a
mixed body whose function was to assist the pre-
fect in the exercise of his tutelage over the admin-
istration of the communes. Its composition was
as follows : the prefect, who presided at its meet-
ings; two members from the council of prefecture,
designated by the prefect; one deputy member
{consigliere supplente) of the council of prefec-
ture; and four members and two deputies chosen
by the provincial council but from outside its own
membership.
The chief task of the provincial administrative
giunta was the supervision of the action of the com-
munes in the management of their real property.
" In the distretti of the provinces of Venetia and Mantaa
the sotto-prefetto was termed the commi$sario distrettuale.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
419
The tutelage, supervision, and interference of
the central government in local affairs remained
excessive, despite the very significant reforms of
1891 and 1896. For a variety of reasons the prefect
might annul the election of the syndic. Further-
more the prefect was authorized to suspend the
syndic, and the king (actually the Minister of the
Interior) might remove him from office.^' The
prefect had great powers over both the communal
council and the provincial council : he could annul
any decision of either contrary to the law, and he
might dissolve either council. In case of such a
dissolution a new council was to be elected within
three months. When a communal council or a pro-
vincial council was dissolved, an extraordinary
commissioner (commiissario straordinario) was ap-
pointed to manage its affairs.^*
The Effects of the System of Centralized Ad-
ministration IN THE Operations of Italian
Politics (1865-1922)
Once the system of centralized administration
was adopted, it proved too useful to whatever
group was in power for any government to dream
of abolishing it. It was used by the old Right
until their overthrow in 1876; it was used by the
Left when they came to oiEce; it was an essential
part of the dictatorships of Crispi (1893-96) and
of General Pelloux ; and it was the mainspring of
Giolitti's machine. The results of the system were
notorious : it led to a perversion of parliamentary
government; it tended to destroy local initiative,
to deprive local elements of political experience,
and to bring an oppressive uniformity as a substi-
tute for unity; it facilitated a constant exploita-
tion of the South by the North, wliich was com-
bined with the general system of exploitation of
the poor by the wealthy; and it led to constant
protests and occasional open revolt.
The Perversion of Parliamentart Government
The prefect, in whose hands was the adminis-
tration of the province, was appointed by the Min-
ister of the Interior, i. e. by the party in power.
" Law of 1908, No. 269, articles 142, 144, Racioppi and
Brunelli, op. cit.. Ill, pp. 60&-07.
" In the five-year period 1907-12, there were 640 munici-
pal councils dissolved "for grave reasons of public order".
Dissolutions of provincial councils were less frequent : only
five of these were ordered in the same period, Annuario
statistico italiano, 1912, p. 74.
613688 — 44 4
He quickly developed into a political official of
primary importance. When Ricasoli in 1867 or-
dered a dissolution of parliament he directed the
prefects to work the elections.^" Then when the
Left gained control of the ministry in 1876, the
practice was continued and extended.
Master of the province, the prefect was the slave
of Rome.
"By hints to a commune regarding the admin-
istrative action he might take, if electoral results
showed that the commune accepted his advice, he
exercised a far-reaching pressure upon the voting.
There was no limit to his power of interference in
the administration of finance, education, public
works, the very keeping of the peace. He could
become an unmitigated despot if he would." ^
It was the system which forced the illicit po-
litical action on the prefects. If a man of char-
acter refused to interfere in the elections within his
province, he was temporarily suspended and had
to wait either for a new appointment or for a cabi-
net crisis.^' Ordinarily, however, it was taken for
granted that the prefect would use all his influence
to secure the election of the ministerial candidate.
By means of police and administrative control the
opposition could be prevented from holding meet-
ings or from conducting other forms of electioneer-
ing. If necessary the ballot boxes could be stuffed
or the returns could be falsified. In 1892, in order
to help the ministry win the election, 46 of the
69 prefects were dismissed or transferred to other
provinces.^^ In Crispi's period undesirable voters
were often arrested on false charges on the eve of
elections and were kept locked up until the ballots
were counted. In Sicily the gangs of the Maffia
were used to terrorize the voters.^^
The operation of parliamentary government in
Italy thus developed into a caricature of the Eng-
lish system. The Italian constitution appeared as
a "monstrous connubium" of British parliamen-
tarism with French administrative centraliza-
" Bolton King, op. c«., II, pp. 307, 334.
^ Henry Russell Spencer, Oovernment and Politics of
Italii, New York, 1934, p. 206.
" Luigi Villari, Italinn Life in Tomi and Country, New
York, 1903, pp. 217-18.
" A. Lawrence Lowell, Oovernm-entg and Parties in Con-
tinental Europe, 2 vols., Boston, 1896, I, p. 169, n. 2.
" Bolton King and Thomas Okey, Italy Today, London,
1901, pp. 16, 121-22.
420
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
tion.^* In England the dissolution of Parliament
and the holding of a new national election is a
genuine "appeal to the country", because the cen-
tral government scarcely interferes in local affairs,
and the ministry is in no position to manipulate
the voting.'^ In Italy, however, a dissolution of
Parliament meant the signal to the prefects to
see that the party or parties who ordered the dis-
solution were returned to office.
One result of the use of the administrative offi-
cials of the state to influence parliamentary elec-
tions was that the Church confirmed its boycott of
the parliamentary system. The Non Expedit, the
papal prohibition on Catholics to participate in
parliamentary elections, was formulated in 1867
and was frequently renewed, as it became clear that
the state itself manipulated its elections. It was
argued, not without reason, that if Catholics as
such attempted to enter parliamentary politics,
they would not be given a fair chance. In turn,
the absence of the clericals from party politics in
Italy tended to rob the country of a real conserva-
tive party. Those who entered parliament were,
so to speak, all from one party which consequently
divided into groups and factions.^^
The extreme centralization of administration
concentrated decisions on even the most minor de-
tails in the offices of the ministries at Rome, par-
ticularly the Ministry of the Interior and the Min-
istry of Public Works. The minister, however,
was himself under the constant pressure of the
deputies. If he offended too many, the cabinet
would be overthrown by the chamber. Parliament
thereby tended to become "a market place for bar-
gains between the King's Government and the con-
stituencies" rather than the ultimate platform for
airing and sifting policy. Regionalism had been
completely banished in the administrative system
by the destruction of the old states and the creation
of the new artificial provinces. It reappeared
triumphant in the bosom of parliament itself in
" Jacini, op. cit., p. 67 ; Vilfredo Pareto, La liberty ico-
nomique et les ivinemcnis d'ltalie, Lausanne, 1898, pp.
32-33.
"Cecil J. S. Sprigge, Thv Development of Modern Italy,
London, 1943, p. 49.
*■ Lowell, op. cit., I, p. 206. The A'ore E.rpedit was partial-
ly relaxed in 1904 and 1909. Not before 1919, however, did
Catholics participate in politics on a national scale. See
D. A. Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy, O-xford,
1941. pp. 61-65.
the form of cliques and groups who acted together
for the purpose of securing from the central gov-
ernment local appropriations and benefits.^'
The Destrtjotion of Local Initiative
The destniction of the old historic states of Italy
and the creation of the artificial provinces as units
of administration tended to destroy local initiative.
As was noted earlier, the Minister of the Interior
named the syndic in every town in Italy until 1891.
Even after the reforms of 1891 and 1896, the cen-
tral govermnent retained extraordinary controls
over the most minute aspects of local affairs. The
result was apoplexy at the center and paralysis at
the extremities. The central government was
charged with thinking and providing for every-
thing, "even to the naming of the beadle of the
high school and the doorkeeper of the sub-prefec-
ture". The fate of every citizen and the decisions
on his affairs devolved exclusively on the minis-
terial officials of the capital.
The officials who represented the central govern-
ment in the provinces could do little themselves.
Deprived of real responsibility, they simply trans-
mitted petitions and requests to the ministries at
Rome. The replies from Rome were considered as
evidence of omniscience and omnipotence. The
lack of decentralization, either territorial or in-
stitutional, reduced the benefit of liberty simply to
the power of speaking one's thoughts and to the
satisfaction of choosing the all-i)owerful deputy to
Parliament. Since everything was in the hands
of the central power, the citizens ran to their dep-
uty for evei-ything, in order that he might bring
pressure on the ministry : ^* that in Italy, whose
medieval cities had been the first in Europe to de-
vise and practice communal self-government !
"This system dried up the springs of local
energy, those springs that had produced the men
of the Risorgimento, and sapped the power of
tradition, one of the greatest sources of moral
strength a people can have. . . . When the pio-
neers of liberalism have passed from the scene,
most of the other men of Italy, now a kingdom,
came forward as parvenus with a narrow outlook.
Thus the first expression of the thought, literature,
and art of that time was restricted and provincial,
and the period in comparison with the great periods
■" Spriggo, op. cit., p. 49; Jacini, op. cit., pp. 74, 135.
'"Jacini, op. cit., pp. 67-68, 130.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
421
of the past was known as that of Italietta — ^'Little
Italy'. Those, men had wished to cut away the
roots of communal tradition and the vitality of the
regions . . . they had centralized all vitality in
the Government which became the center of in-
trigues and jobbery, and they failed to perceive
that they had thrown away one of the vital forces
of the new kingdom." ^^
The centralized political structure brought with
it a very oppressive and often unwise uniformity.
A single code of laws was imposed on the whole
state ( 1865) . That code did not encounter so much
difficulty as might have been expected, since the
codes of all the different Italian states had been
greatly influenced by the Code Napoleon. How-
ever, in the confiscation and sale of ecclesiastical
and crown properties, in the laws regarding forest
lands and communal properties, the application
of laws which were perhaps well-designed for
North Italy proved hannful in the South. The
sudden introduction of conscription into Sicily
(which had never known the institution) greatly
augmented the number of outlaws and produced a
curious kind of feeling of affection for the lost
cause of the Bourbons.
The Exploitation of the South by the Noeth
The greatest single problem in Italian internal
politics after unification was the difference be-
tween North and South, or, as it was called, the
problem of the South. In the period immediately
after the achievement of unity, it was Piedmont
that supplied the dominating elements in the army
and in the government. Since the frontiers lay
in the North, in that section were built the strategic
railways. In the distribution of public works, the
North got the greater share. But in the process
of unifying Italy, the Kingdom of Sardinia trans-
ferred its heavy public debt to the whole country.
The public debts of the annexed states were rela-
tively light. In other words. Piedmont forced the
rest of Italy to pay for its conquest.'"' Another
aspect of national policy which bore particularly
heavily on the South was the tariff. Until 1878,
Italy was a country of comparatively free trade
and with very little industry. The bulk of her
exports were agricultural. The fusion of North
and South- in 1861 had tended to destroy the be-
ginnings of industry in Naples and the South.
Then under the tariff the protection was for in-
dustry which was concentrated in the North, par-
ticularly in the triangle, Turin-Genoa-Milan. The
moderate tariff revision of 1878 was followed in
1887 by a tariff war with France, which had hither-
to been Italy's best customer. The value of the
Franco-Italian trade dropped to less than half;
and for the 10-year period of this tariff war, it
was the agricultural South which suffered most
acutely.
In the manifold system of exploitation of the
South by the North, the political structure of rigid
centralization was an essential part. Although in
the first period after unification the dominant class
of the South — the landlords — remained aloof and
opposed to unity, that opposition gradually
weakened with the passing of time. After the
coming of the Left to power (1876) they began to
accept united Italy as a fact. Their cooperation,
however, was based on the preservation of their
own dominant social and economic position. It is
those elements, the latif undia owners and long-term
leasers (gabeUotti), who have dominated politics
in southern Italy. Time after time, investigations
have been undertaken by parliament and its com-
mittees of the deplorable conditions of the South-
Italian peasantry.*^ No effective action has ever
followed such investigations because of the politi-
cal control maintained by the landlord class.
Whatever the names of the parties, the South re-
mained conservative, an inexhaustible reservoir for
every reaction, always sending a fiock of deputies
obedient to the government."
Protests and Criticisms Against the System of
Centraiization
The system of extreme centralization has been
an object of bitter protest ever since its inception.
The war of 1866 was not yet finished when Sicily
broke into revolt and Palermo had to be recon-
""Sturzo, op. cit., p. 21.
" Pareto, op. cit., pp. 21-23 ; Robert Michels, Italien von
Seute, Zurich and Leipzig, 1930, pp. 44-^6.
" See Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our
Times, Cambridge, 1924, pp. 64-82, for a careful description
of the South in the period before the first World War.
Pranchetti and Sonnino, op. cit., is a leading study of the
70's. A mass of material is contained in Atti della giunta
per la inchiesta agraria e sulle condizioni delle classi
agricoli, 15 vols., Rome, 1881-86.
•^ Michels, op. cit., p. 47.
422
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
quered by the royal army.^' In Sicily the popular
distrust and suspicion of the central government
was such that the police and jury system produced
only a travesty of justice. The MafiBa became the
real povs^er in the island, settling accounts in its
own way. The boycott of the courts and police
was practically universal — no native would inform
the police or testify in court. The official govern-
ment was merely a sham. After the Maffia became
entrenched the government made use of it to
secure the return of ministerial candidates.**
Italian critics have constantly deplored the de-
fects of extreme centralization. As noted earlier
the system of local government was accepted by
parliament only with misgivings, and it was the
hope that once the foreigner was expelled and unity
was achieved, the central government would be
able to relax its rigid supervision of local affairs.
The various schemes which were proposed in Par-
liament in the critical period of the movement of
Italian unification (1859-65) were based on the
idea of recognizing the regions as the natural com-
ponent parts of Italy. In the decades which fol-
lowed the completion of unity the Lombard con-
servative, Stefano Jacini, called for the formation
of a truly conservative party with a progi-am of
decentralization. He insisted that the mere grant-
ing of maximum autonomy to the existing units,
the communes and provinces, would not be a solu-
tion of the problem. Between the functions of the
state and the affairs of the commune was a complex
of matters which were broader in scope than pro-
vincial boundary lines, such things as public works,
public instruction, agriculture, industry, and com-
merce. Any real program of decentralization, he
insisted, would have to be regional."
At the turn of the century, Luigi Villari (who
by no means could be called radical ) wrote :
"Among the reforms of a general character in the
local administration, one which has been frequently
suggested is to abolish the provinces. The whole
country should be divided into sixteen large divi-
sions (regioni), each of which would be ruled by a
governor and a council having wider powers than
the present provincial authorities, and able to make
different laws and regulations, according to the
special needs of each district. Although the pro-
posal has found favour in many quarters, it has
never been seriously discussed in Parliament, owing
to the fear of weakening the bonds of national
unity. But now that the danger is less pressing,
it is probable that a project of this sort will even-
tually be accepted." ^
At the end of the first World War, which gave
conclusive proof of the strength of the Italian
national state, there was a wide-spread agitation
for regional autonomy, and many of the parties
demanded regional decentralization. The Sicil-
ians raised their old cry for home rule. In Sar-
dinia was formed the Partito Sardo, demanding
autonomy for the island. The Partito Popolare,
led by Don Sturzo, was perhaps the chief advocate
of regional decentralization, but it is interesting to
note that even the early Fascist Party (of 1919-20)
advocated decentralization of the executive
power.*'
A committee was named to consider the problem
of administrative decentralization, and Parliament
was assured (April 7, 1921) : "Now that the na-
tional unity is beyond any discussion, it will be
possible to proceed to a rational decentralization
which will limit the intervention of the state to
the services of a national character." *^
The next year, 1922, came the Fascist coup
d'etat.
IV. Local Government under Fascism
(1922-43)
Legislation Since 1908
Just prior to Italy's entrance into the first World
War, the law of 1908 was superseded by the law of
February 4, 1915 on communal and provincial gov-
ernment.'"' This codified text "represented the
" Bolton King, op. cit., II, pp. 323-26.
"Lnigi Villari, op. cit.. pp. 8, 230.
" Jacini, op. cit., pp. 134, 138.
"Luigi Villari, op. cit., pp. 226-27.
" Sturzo, op. cit., p. 100.
" Rehizione delta co-mmissione parlamentare d'inchiesta
sulVordinamcnto detle amministrazioni di stato e suite con-
dizioni del personate, Rome, 1921, p. 14.
'"No. 148, printed in full in Manuale ad nso dri dcputaii
at parlamento nazionatc, XXVIII tegislatura, Rome, 1929,
pp. 445-567.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
423
last step in a long process aimed at securing to
local bodies the largest possible degree of inde-
pendence from interference on the part of the
central government".^" Certain minor modifica-
tions were made in the system by the law of
December 30, 1923. about a year after the Fascist
"March on Rome".'^
In his first two years of office Mussolini did not
make any great changes in the constitutional sys-
tem but operated through existing forms. The
prefects had offered little opposition to Fascism's
attack after the vital lines of communication had
been seized. By securing appointment as Minister
of the Interior, Mussolini gained control over
the prefects. They were ready tools for Fascism
because they were already accustomed to pay more
attention to the political powers in Rome than to
the law. Having been Rome's electoral agent, the
prefect now became the local factotum of Fascist
Rome. For a brief period the Fascists experi-
mented with military prefects; but after their con-
quest of power was completed, the prefects began
to be chosen from tried and true Fascists, regard-
less of their experience."^
The Fascist Party was able to "win" the parlia-
mentary election of 1924, held in accordance with
the notorious Acerbo electoral law, by using the
administrative apparatus which was in their
power. The abuses committed by the Fascist
government at this time were not new and un-
precedented. They represented only an extreme
extension of the old abuse of governmental manip-
ulation of parliamentary elections.
As long as there was a parliament, however, it
was possible to criticize the conduct of Mussolini.
After the Matteotti affair in 1924, the Duce began
the reorganization of the state on a totalitarian
basis, and local government was subjected to a
series of drastic changes. The law of February 4,
1926 empowered the government to appoint the
podestd (the Fascist name for the syndic) in all
communes of less than 5,000 population." At the
same time the prefect was empowered to appoint
two thirds of the members of the local councils.
The Royal Decree Law of September 3, 1926 ex-
tended the institution of the appointive podesta
to all communes in Italy except Rome and Naples."
The two laws of December 27, 1928 eliminated the
last vestiges of electionisra in provincial govern-
ment. On March 3, 1934 a new codified text was
issued on communal and provincial government
which embodied all the Fascist changes."
The Fascist System or Local Government
This was the system of local government as em-
bodied in the law of 1934. The former interme-
diate units, the clrcondari and mandamenti, were
abolished. Article 17 declares : "The Kingdom is
divided into provinces and communes." The num-
ber of provinces, which was increased to 75 in
1922, was further increased to a total of 94 at the
time of the census of 1936, the last to be held.^" The
communes at that time numbered 7,339.
Communal Government
Except Rome, which was given a peculiar status,
all communes in Italy were governed according to
the same pattern. The organs of communal gov-
ernment were three: the podestd, the communal
secretary, and the communal consultative council
{co7isulta) .
The podestd was the executive officer of the com-
mune, occupying the position of the former syndic
and combining the functions of representative of
" Carlo Rossi, "Local Government In Italy under Fas-
cism", The American Political Science Review, XXIX, 1935,
p. 659.
" Royal Decree 2839, printed in full in Manuale ad uso
dei deputati, 1929, pp. S68-614.
" Spencer, op. cit., pp. 206-7.
" No. 237, printed in full in Manuale ad uso dci deputati,
1929, pp. 643-47. The medieval and modern significance
of the term podesta is discussed by Lester K. Born in
"What is the Podestd?" The American Political Science
Review, XXI, 1927, pp. 863-71.
"No. 1910, text in full in Manuale ad uso dci deputati,
1929, pp. 648-52.
°'The following description is largely taken from the
article by H. Arthur Steiner, "Italy", in Local Government
in Europe, edited by William Anderson, New York, 1939,
pp. 307-80. An English translation of the law of 1934 is
printed by Steiner, op. cit., pp. 339-80. For a diagram of
the relations of the officials according to the Fascist system,
ante, p. 416.
" For a list of the provinces at the present day (census
of 1936) see table, post, p. 426.
424
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
ITALY: REGIONS AND PROVINCES
BOUNDARIES
— INTERNATIONAL
REGIONAL
PROVINCIAL
50 too ISO •*"
OCTOBER 15, 19U
the state and of head of the communal adminis-
tration. He was appointed by the king for a term
of four years. He could be removed from office
by the king and was subject to suspension by the
prefect. A city with a population between 20,000
and 100,000 might have one vice-podestd, and in
case a city were larger than 100,000 there might he
two assistants. The vice-podestd, were appointed
by the Minister of the Interior.
The communal secretary was the official who
handled most of tlie routine business under imme-
diate responsibility to the podestd. He was locally
chosen, on the basis of special qualifications and
examinations, and enjoyed the status of a "func-
tionary of the state", the chief permanent civil-
service officer of the commune. His formal ap-
pointment, however, was from the Minister of the
Interior.
The communal consulta took the place of the
elective council of pre-Fascist days. The podestd,
however, had the power of local legislation, and the
consulta was restricted to offering him advice. The
number of members of the communal advisory
council varied according to the following scale :
Population op Numbeb of
Commune Counciloes
Over 100,000 24-40
10,000-100,000 10-24
Less than 10,000 6-10
The precise size of the consulta of any given com-
mune was determined by a decree of the prefect.
The prefect also appointed the members after re-
ceiving nominations from the local syndical asso-
ciations representing capital and labor. The coun-
cil was formally appointed for a term of four years,
but it was subject to suspension by the prefect, or
to dissolution by the Minister of the Interior. The
communes which were less than 10,000 in popula-
tion might have councils, but only if the prefect
judged it desirable. Under the law of 1934, less
than 10 percent of the communes had councils.'*'
Provincial Government
The five organs of provincial government in the
Fascist system were the prefect, the council of the
prefecture or prefectoral council, the administra-
tive giunta, the president (preside), and the rec-
tory (rettorato).
The prefect was substantially the same official as
before with some additional powers. He acted, as
before, under the immediate supervision of the
425
Minister of the Interior but was also the agent
for other ministries such as those of Public Works,
Finance, and Corporations.
Before 1927 considerable rivalry existed between
the prefect and the federale, the provincial secre-
tary of the Fascist Party. Mussolini's circular of
January 5, 1927, however, declared the prefect to
be "the highest authority of the State in the prov-
ince" and urged the Fascist Party officials to co-
operate, in subordination to the prefect. The
chief additions to the powers of the prefect were
in his powers of appointment.
The prefectoral council consisted of two mem-
bers in addition to the prefect appointed to advise
him in his capacity as representative of the central
power. Associated with this organ was an "in-
spection service" controlling the provincial and
communal administrations.
Under Fascism the affairs of the province as a
legal entity, which formerly devolved on the prov-
incial council and deputation, were conferi-ed on
the rectory (rettorato) and the preside. The
rectory varied according to population :
Population op Number of
Province Membees
More than 600,000 8
300,000-000,000 6
Less than 300,000 4
Those representatives of the province were, how-
ever, no longer elected but were appointed by the
Minister of the Interior. The rectory was also
subject to suspension by the prefect and to dissolu-
tion by the Minister of the Interior.
From among the members of the rectory were
chosen the president and vice president. The rec-
tory and its president constituted "the provincial
administration".
Even though the provincial administration was
strictly api^ointive, the central power maintained
extensive controls. The provincial giunta was the
chief organ for the exercise of this control and for
supervision of the communes as well. It was com-
posed of the prefect, who summoned it and pre-
sided over its sessions; the two members of the
prefectoral council; the chief provincial inspector;
and four members of the Fascist Party, nominated
by the Secretary of the Fascist Party, and for-
mally appointed by the Minister of the Interior.
' H. Arthur Steiner, op. cit., p. 317.
426
Significance of the Fascist Changes in the
ADsiiNiSTRATm: System
Comparison of the Fascist system with the pre-
vious system of local government reveals the appli-
cation of three principles: the abolition of elec-
tions, the substitution of appointive for formerly
elective officials, and the integration of the Fascist
Party into the political structure. The most se-
rious change was the abolition of elected communal
and provincial councils, which in the earlier period
had displayed considerable vitality. The revival
of the term podestd with appointment by the cen-
tral government was merely a return to the condi-
tion which had existed before 1891. The office of
prefect was not much changed.^' He was under
Fascism what he had been before — the chief power
in the province and the representative of the state.
But because elections were no longer held, his
powers were more directly expressed. As Musso-
lini declared, "the Fascist prefect is not the prefect
of the demo-liberal days. Then the prefect was
primarily an electoral agent. Now that there is no
longer talk of elections, the form and figure of the
prefect change." ''
The Fascist changes were, indeed, radical. From
1861 until 1915 there had been a gradual develop-
ment of autonomy in the communes and provinces,
based on the exercise of increased powers by locally
elected councils and executive officers. Fascism
swept this development away and carried centrali-
zation to an absurd degree. Fascism considered it
to be one of its principal tasks to fight regionalism
whatever its manifestations. Freed of the pres-
sure of an alei't public opinion, many of the podesfd
saddled the communes which they governed with
heavy debts. The budgets of the communes ceased
to be published under Fascism. Under the old
system one of the chief arguments for the reten-
tion of the power of interference of the govern-
ment in communal affairs was the tendency of the
oommunes toward reckless expenditure. Under
the Fascist system, however, the abuse was even
""He [the prefect] has always been In a dominating
position : Mussolini has only made him more so, analogous
in the province to the Head of the Government." Spencer,
op. cit.. p. 205 ; see also Rossi, op. cit., p. 663.
" Circular of Jan. 5, 1927, as cited by Steiner, op. cit.,
p. 323.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
worse. Between 1926 and 1935 the total debt of the
communes was increased by several billion lire.
Many loans were contracted in the United States
on comparatively unfavorable terms.*"
Harsh as were the Fascist changes in the system
of local government, it must be recognized that in
a larger sense those changes were merely an ex-
treme extension of the fundamental feature of the
old system : concentration of power in the Ministry
of the Interior. The original system of local gov-
ernment of the Kingdom of Italy was designed to
extinguish regionalism, to prevent any local ele-
ment from opposing the national policy. It was
designed to enable a minority to exercise effective
political control over the whole nation. Its effects,
as Jacini observed, were financially disastrous : in-
stead of aiding the accumulation of wealth, it
sucked up the savings of farmers and artisans for
the sake of high policy as conceived in the cities.
The Fascist system was designed to serve essen-
tially the same purposes. It prevented any local
protest against the burdens imposed on Italy for
the sake of the dream of a new Roman Empire.
TABLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS IN ITALY "'
Number OF
Provinces Communes Population
Piemonte
Alessandria 165 493, 698
Aosta 107 227,500
Asti 105 245, 764
Cuneo 203 608,912
Novara 142 395,730
Torino 181 1, 168, 384
Vercelli 165 366,146
1, 070 3, 506, 134
Ligiiria
Geneva 66 867, 162
Imperia 53 15S, 56.5
La Spezia 32 222, OSO
Savona 68 219, 108
219 1, 466. 915
" Rossi, op. cit., pp. 660-61.
" Annua rio Statistico Italiano, 1938, pp. 13-14, census of
1936. (Names of the Compartimenti are italicized.)
OCTOBER 15, 19U
427
TABLE OP LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS IN
ITALY— Continued
TABLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS IN
ITALY— Continued
numhee of
Provinces Communes
Lombardia
Bergamo 218
Brescia 171
Como 210
Cremona 110
Mnntova 70
Milano 246
Pavia 180
Sondrio 79
Varese 116
1,400
Venezia Tridentina
Bolzano
Trento
92
127
219
Teneto
Belluno 69
Friuli (Udine) 171
Padova 105
Rovigo 48
Treviso 90
Venezia 43
Verona 93
Vicenza 125
744
Venezia Qinlia e Zara
Carnaro (Fiume) 13
Gorizia 42
Istria (Pola) 41
Trieste 30
Zara 2
128
Emilia
Bologna 61
Ferrara 20
Fori! 50
Modena 46
Parma 51
Piacenza 47
Ravenna 18
Reggio neU'Emilta 45
338
Population
605, 8U0
744, 571
501, 752
369, 483
407, 977
2, 175, 838
492, 090
142, 919
395, 896
5, S36, 342
277, 720
391, 309
669, 029
216, 333
721, 670
6G8, 025
336, 807
570, 580
629, 123
585, 893
559, 375
4, 287, 806
109, 018
200, 152
294, 492
351, 595
22, 000
977, 257
714, 705
381, 299
444, 528
467, 555
381, 771
294, 785
279, 127
375, 288
3, 339, 058
numbee of
Peotinces Communes
Toscana
Arezzo 38
Flreuze 49
Grosseto 24
Livorno 19
Lucca 35
Massa e Carrara 17
Pisa 38
Pistoia 21
Siena 36
Umbria
Perugia .
Terni . . ,
277
Marche
Ancona 43
Ascoli Piceno 72
Macerata 57
Pesaro e Urbino 58
230
59
30
89
Lazio
Frosinone 89
Littoria 27
Rieti 63
Roma 109
Viterbo 59
347
Abruzxi e MoHse
Aquila degli Abruzzi 103
Campobasso 127
Chieti 99
Pescara 42
Teramo 45
416
Campania
Avellino 114
Benevento 90
Napoli 137
Salerno 145
486
Population
316, 380
853, 032
185, 801
249, 468
352, 205
196, 716
341, 428
210, 950
268, 459
2, 974, 439
372, 229
303, 869
290, 057
311, 916
1, 278, 071
534, 359
191, 559
725, 918
445, 607
227, 218
174, 961
1, 562, 580
236, 722
2, 647, 088
365, 716
399,095
374, 727
211, 561
249, 532
1, 600, 631
451, 406
349, 707
2, 192, 245
705, 277
3, 698, 695
428
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
TABLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS IN
ITALY "—Continued
Provinces
Piifflie
Barl
NUMBEE OF
COMMtJNES
.... 47
POPTTLATION
1, 010, 907
Brindlsi
Foggia
.... 20
.... 59
27
254, 062
523, 012
321, 888
.... 91
526, 553
244
2, 637, 022
Lticania
32
166, 776
91
376, 486
123
543, 262
Calabrie
C:ifanz:iro
155
606, 3W
Cosenza
Reggio di Calabria ....
136
88
587, 025
578, 262
379
1, 771, 651
Sicilia
Agrigonto
Calt.inissetta
41
418, 265
256, 687
53
713, 160
Enna
20
89
218, 294
627, 093
76
890, 752
12
223, 086
19
277, 572
Trapanl
20
375, 169
352
4, 000, 078
Sardcgna
118
507, 201
88
224, 643
Sa.ssail
72
302, 362
278
1, 034, 206
Total
7, 339
42, 993, 602
THE FOREIGN SERVICE
Legation at Luxembourg
The American Legation at Luxembourg was
opened to the public on October 2, 1944.
The Polish Situation
[Released to the press by the White House October 11]
The President made the following remarks on
the occasion of his meeting on October 11, 1944
with officials of Polish-American organizations:
"I am glad of the opportunity I have had to talk
about the present position of Poland in the war
and about the future of Poland. You and I are
all agreed that Poland must be reconstituted as a
great nation. There can be no question about that.
"Of course we should all bear in mind that no-
body here has accurate information about every-
thing that is going on in Poland. Even I, as
President of the United States, with access to all
the information which is available, am not fully
informed of the whole story. As an example, I
still do not know all tlie facts about the recent
events in Warsaw. As new information comes
every day, we will get a clearer picture about the
whole situation.
'•The broad objective which we all seek is excel-
lent. I am certain that world opinion is going to
back up that objective — not only to reconstitute
Poland as a strong nation but also as a representa-
tive and peace-loving nation. I wish to stress the
latter. It is very important that the new Poland
be one of the bulwarks of the structure upon which
we ho2:)e to build a permanent peace."
German Atrocities in Poland
[Released to the press October 10]
The United States Government has been in-
foi-med by the Polish Government that it has re-
ceived reliable information that G?rman officials
in Poland are making plans for the extermination
of tens of thousands of innocent persons of Polish
and other United Nations nationalities as well as
Jewish deportees from area.s under German control
who are now held in concentration camps, partic-
ularly those at Brzezinki and Oswiecim.
The United States Government takes this occa-
sion to warn again the German Government and
Nazi officials that if these plans are carried out
those guilty of such murderous acts will be brought
to justice and pay the penalty for their heinous
crimes.
OCTOBER 15. 1944
429
Public and Private Foreign Trade
Address by BERNARD F. HALEY"
[RpIenBed to tlip press October 11]
During this war the Government of the United
States has found it necessary to intervene in for-
eign trade, as it has in the domestic economy of
tlie country, in a way and to an extent that would
not have been regarded as possible five years ago.
Exports have been licensed, imports channeled
to essential items, shipping rationed and allocated,
financial transfers blocked, and certain foreign
firms proclaimed as out of bounds for trading
purposes. The Government has controlled the
movement of goods into and out of the country and
has directly conducted a large part of the move-
ment through its own agencies. To a large extent
the controls have been merged, through the Com-
bined Boards, with the similar controls of Great
Britain and of Canada.
The business community has cooperated loyally
with these controls, as it has with the equally
extensive controls of domestic business. It has
been generally recognized that if we were to win
the war as rapidly as possible we must make abso-
lutely sure that resources be denied the enemy,
that they be made available to us and our Allies,
that inflation be avoided, and that the limited
supplies and services available be applied to the
best uses from the single f)oint of view of military
victory.
The quality and volume of equipment now in
the hands of our armed forces and those of our
Allies is the best proof that the job has been well
done. War supply to fighting fronts has never
been so good on any side in any war as it now is
on our side in this one. Every part of the economy
of many countries shares the credit for this effort.
The reward will be the victory toward which we
are now moving at an accelerating pace.
With that inevitable victory coming closer, the
question is, AVhere do we go from there? Specifi-
cally, in the field of foreign trade, should our
' Delivered before the Thirty-first National Foreign Trade
Convention, New Yorli, N. Y., Oct. 11. 1044. Mr. Haley is
Director of the Office of Economic Aft'airs, Department of
State.
national policy be to demobilize controls and to
discontinue public trading as rapidly as possible,
or should controls and public trading be continued
for some purpose beyond milit ary victory ? Should
the Government staj' in business in peacetime as
an importer and exporter, or should it get out as
soon as possible?
There is only one possible answer to that ques-
tion. The preference of the American people for
private initiative and management in the conduct
of most business enterprise has been made clear
many times and has never been clearer than at the
present moment. This preference extends to
foreign trade. Indeed it is if anything clearer in
that field than in others.
There are two reasons why this preference for
private enterprise in the conduct of our foreign
trade is clearly right. In the first place, since
foreign trade is an integral segment of our total
economic life, it would be very hard for govern-
ment either to conduct or to apply detailed controls
to the foreign sector without doing the same thing
to the domestic part of the same trade. The
present war has furnished many illustrations. In
those cases in which it has been found necessary
to control the imports of a commodity, it has fre-
quently also been necessary to allocate the imported
supply among users. In such cases the agency
administering the control has had to decide who
needed the article, how much they needed, what
domestic supplies were available, and how much of
the demand could and should be filled from each
source. If the product were an important raw
material these decisions, and the allocations based
ui^on them, have very largely determined the rate
of operation of the industry and of each enter-
prise within it, the rate of operation of domestic
suppliers of the same material, and their prices.
Private initiative and competition have had to
express themselves chiefly in petitions to the regu-
lating agency. Wliere the Government fixed ex-
port quotas the situation has been much the same.
Total quotas have had to be broken down, and the
participation of each enterprise in export has had
to be fixed by the agency that fixed the total quota.
430
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
That is not the way we want permanently to con-
duct private business in this country. If we want
to retain private initiative and enterprise inter-
nally, we cannot afford to abandon it in foi'eign
trading operations.
The other reason for our preference for private
enterprise in foreign trade is even more important.
Trade implies competition, and competition im-
plies rivalries. When trading competition is con-
fined to private firms, trade rivalries are likely to
remain at levels which do not threaten to disturb
relations among governments. But when two
governments compete for the trade or the resources
of .some third country, it is impossible for anyone
to forget the fact that the competitors have under
their control weapons other than price and quality
and service. I cannot believe that a general
regime of foreign trading competition between
governments is conducive to loyal cooperation in
other fields between the same governments on
which the peace depends.
It follows that the Government of the United
States ought to retire, after victory, both from
actual conduct of import and export operations and
from the detailed regulation of our foreign trade.
This is not just my own view, or just the view of
the Department of State. It is the view of the
executive departments and agencies concerned with
the subject, and I am sure also of the Congress.
You have already seen in the press, and experienced
in your business operations, various actual moves
in the direction of the relaxation of wartime con-
trols.
The War Production Board has removed vari-
ous important commodities from its import-control
order M-63. The "decentralization" export-con-
trol procedure under the Foreign Economic Ad-
ministration for destinations in the American re-
publics has been progressively rolled back during
the year as the shipping situation has improved.
The "program license procedure" governing many
exports to the British Empire, the Soviet Union,
the Middle East, and French, Belgian, and Dutch
possessions was discontinued on October 1. Both
the War Production Board and the Foreign Eco-
nomic Administration have made it clear that there
will be further substantial relaxation of war con-
trols immediately after victory in Europe. Each
control is being regularly considered on its merits
by the responsible agencies concerned, and the use
of each will be adjusted to the actual requirements
imposed by the progress of the war.
About two weeks ago the President in a letter to
Mr. Crowley, Administrator of the Foreign Eco-
nomic Administration, said :
"With a view to encouraging private trade with-
out interfering with the successful prosecution of
the war against Japan, the FEA should relax con-
trols over exports to the fullest extent compatible
with our continuing war objectives, particularly
that of defeating Japan as quickly and effectively
as possible.
"International trade on as full and free a basis
as possible is necessary not only as a sound eco-
nomic foundation for the future peace, but it is also
necessary in order that we may have fuller pro-
duction and employment at home. Private indus-
try and private trade can, I am sure, produce a high
level of international trade, and the Governnient
should assist to the extent necessarj' to achieve this
objective by returning international conmierce to
private lanes as rapidly as possible." '
It is of course quite clear, however, that even
final victory will not necessarily mean the imme-
diate end of all import and export operations by
the Government, or of all war controls. Obvi-
ously, if war supply is to continue full-blast until
the enemy surrenders, as it should, the Government
will end the war with substantial inventories and
with substantial commitments both to suppliers
and recipients. There must be an orderly liquida-
tion both of inventories and commitments. Ob-
viously, too, some things will be scarce for some
time after victory, and export control of any com-
modity can hardly be released until the same com-
modity is freed from allocation and domestic
rationing. Questions of timing will be difficult
and critical. But it is the direction that counts,
and that is clearly toward release of war controls
and the retirement of the Government from for-
eign business operations, as rapidly as each prac-
tical situation will permit.
So much for our own wartime controls. Many
countries are lilfely to take a corresponding course
with theirs. But some countries have a different
view, or different necessities, and their action may
be different.
' BXJLIJCTIN of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 354.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
431
Our Russian friends have a different view of
economic organization from our own, and I tal^e
it to be clear that export and import trade of the
Soviet Union will continue to be conducted directly
by the state. I have no doubt that American
businessmen will find it wholly possible to deal on
a mutually satisfactory basis with the foreign trad-
ing organs of the Soviet Government, as they did
before the war. A very large expansion of our
Russian trade is a real and early possibility. The
principal limiting factor will be the amount of
dollars available to the Russians from their exports
and otherwise.
The countries of western Europe have been under
enemy occupation for four years. The destruc-
tion has been and will be enormous, both of docks,
transportation, shipping, factories, and ware-
houses and of the equally important intangible
structure of trade ^connections, confidence, and
credit. The governments of these countries can-
not let their peoples starve and are wholly likely
to take temporary charge of many things them-
selves, especially of the imports of essentials. How
long such public intervention may last there is no
way of knowing. But the most effective way that
I know of to influence European thinking in this
matter is for us to take the lead in laying the
groundwork for the earliest possible resumption
of private trade after the war.
Great Britain occupies in this respect a posi-
tion somewhere between our own and that of west-
ern Europe. Physical destruction has been heavy,
and the scope of private foreign trade has been
very sharply cut by war conditions and controls.
But the main industrial and transportation plant
of Great Britain is intact and so is British com-
mercial experience and skill. We may expect, and
will of course welcome, a prompt and great re-
vival of British private foreign trade in all direc-
tions after victory.
Some of this trade the British Government may
for a time find it necessary to control more closely
than we expect to control ours. We all realize
that the operations of British industry and the
standard of living of the British people depend
on large and continuous overseas supplies of raw
materials and foodstuffs. For these and other im-
ports Great Britain made payment in the past
with the proceeds of her foreign sales and the
earnings of -her merchant fleet and of her great
investments overseas. The conduct of two wars
has forced large liquidation of those overseas in-
vestments, and the sums which they formerly con-
tributed to the settlement of British balances will
be very much reduced after this war. In order
to conserve exchange for the most necessary pur-
poses the British Government may therefore find
it necessary to restrict less essential imports. We
hope that the jjeriod during which this may be
necessary will not be long. We can contribute
to its shortening by collaborating in common
measures to reduce trade barriers throughout the
world, to increase the productivity of undeveloped
countries, and to promote full and prosperous em-
ployment. Freer trade in a more prosperous
world will improve the prospects for British ex-
ports as well as for our own and will ease the Brit-
ish balance-of-payments position just as it will
contribute to our own prosperity.
In one important field there is strong support in
Great Britain for a continuation of the policy of
the Government conducting a substantial import
trade for some time after the defeat of Germany.
The British Ministry of Food has performed
splendidly during the war, and from the point of
view of the common man and woman the experi-
ence of large-scale public purchase of overseas
foodstuffs has been a most successful one. There
is substantial British support for the continuation
of such operations, and the Ministry has recently
entered into bulk-purchase contracts for certain
foodstuffs with the governments of some of the
Dominions, running for some years. We cannot
help thinking, however, that the fear of the scar-
city of food after the war, which seems to be the
major reason for these contracts, is not entirely
justified. Wartime agriculture has demonstrated
great productive powers in all areas except the
scenes of actual military operations, and there is
every reason to hope that the world's food supply
will be more adequate in the future than before.
British policy is obviously influenced by the desire
to assure adequate supplies of basic foodstuffs at
reasonable prices, but we hope that these bulk-
purchase contracts do not represent a permanent
preference for government trading. Our best ar-
gument, again, is to take the lead in a cooperative
effort to bring about an expansion of private trade
432
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
as soon as possible and to demonstrate the superior
effectiveness of f)rivate enterprise.
So much for war controls and government trad-
ing. Even after they are dealt with there still re-
main at every national frontier the old restrictions
against trade: prohibitions, quotas, tariffs, cur-
rency controls, preferential systems, and the rest.
If trade is to bring the benefits which it can bring,
to us and everyone, we must redouble the efforts of
the last 10 years for the reduction of these barriers.
This organization has supported Mr. Hull's efforts
in that direction since 1934, and I am sure it will
continue that support. Efforts in that direction
will be more than ever needed now and after the
war if we and the people of other countries are to
attain and maintain the high levels of production,
trade, and consumption which are capable of at-
tainment and which are one of the important pre-
requisites for a peace that will last.
The Four Freedoms Award to the President
REMARKS UPON ACCEPTANCE
[Released to the press by the White House October 12]
For over twenty years we in America have
watched with anxious eyes the steps taken by the
Fascist gangsters to enslave the Italian people.
The Italian people were thrown into an alliance
they detested. They were ordered, against their
will, to fight on the side of their traditional ene-
mies against their traditional friends.
Mussolini, the would-be Caesar, underestimated
the will of his people. Large numbers of them
were brave enough to rally to our ranks. As part
of the Allied armies, and behind the German lines,
they have carried on our common fight for liberty.
The American Army — including thousands of
Americans of Italian descent — entered Italy not
as conquerors but as liberators. Their objective is
military, not political. When that military objec-
tive is accomplished — and mucli of it has not yet
been accomplished — the Italian people will be free
to work out their own destiny, under a govern-
ment of their own choosing.
The act of the Attorney General — removing the
status of "enemy alien"' from Italians — has been
justified by their corresponding effort to help us
wage war.
Of course, the people of Italy have suffered ter-
ribly, and it will not be humanly possible to take
' Delivered by the President from the White House on
Oct. 12. The radio presentation was made from New York
in behalf of the Italian American Labor Council, assem-
bled at a Columbus Day celebration in the Hotel Commo-
dore, New York City.
wholly adequate measures to relieve all suffering
until Germany has been finally and decisively de-
feated. But the United Nations are determined
that every possible measure be taken to aid the
Italian peoi^Ie directly and to give them an oppor-
tunity to help themselves.
The civilian administration has been fully dis-
cussed by me with the British Prime Minister.
The British Government is agreed that as the
problem is great, so also is our responsibility to
help.
The mails have been opened for letters to the
liberated provinces. Facilities are now available
for small remittances of funds from this country
to individuals in Italy for their individual sup-
port. Shipments of food and clothing have been
delivered. Normal life is being gradually intro-
duced. We are taking every step possible to per-
mit the early sending of individual packages by
Americans to their loved ones in Italy. Our ob-
jective is to restore all avenues of trade, commerce,
and industry, and the free exercise of religion, at
the earliest possible moment.
I am deeply grateful therefore for this award.
It represents your appreciation both of the prob-
lems and the efforts of the American Government.
The Charter from which this award takes its
name — the Four Freedoms — is a firm bond be-
tween the great peace-loving nations of the world.
To the people of Italy we have pledged our help —
and we will keep the faith !
OCTOBER 15, 1944
433
Concerning Cartels
Address by CHARLES BUNN '
[Released to the press October 10]
On September 8 last the White House released
to the press the text of a letter from the Presi-
dent to the Secretary of State on international
cartels, as follows : ^
"During the past half century the United States
has developed a tradition in opposition to private
monopolies. The Sherman and Clayton Acts have
become as much a part of the American way of
life as the due process clause of the Constitution.
By protecting the consumer against monopoly
these statutes guarantee him the benefits of com-
petition.
"This policy goes hand in glove with tlie liberal
principles of international trade for which you
have stood through many years of public service.
The trade-agreement program has as its ob-
jective the elimination of barriers to the free flow
of trade in international commerce ; the anti-trust
statutes aim at the elimination of monopolistic
restraints of trade in interstate and foreign
commerce.
"Unfortunately, a number of foreign countries,
particularly in continental Europe, do not possess
such a tradition against cartels. On the contrary,
cartels have received encouragement from some of
these governments. Especially is this true with
respect to Germany. Moreover, cartels were uti-
lized by the Nazis as governmental instrumentali-
ties to achieve political ends. The history of the
use of the I. G. Farben trust by the Nazis reads
like a detective story. The defeat of the Nazi
armies will have to be followed by the eradica-
tion of these weapons of economic warfare. But
more than the elimination of the political activities
of German cartels will be required. Cartel prac-
tices which restrict the free flow of goods in foreign
'Delivored liefore a meeting of the United Nations
Association at Waterbm-y, Connecticut, Oct. 9, 19U. Mr.
Bunn is Consultant in tlie Division of Commei-cial Policy,
Office of Economic Affairs, Department of State.
' BmiBFiN of Sept. 10, 1944, p. 254.
commerce will have to be curbed. With inter-
national trade involved this end can be achieved
only through collaborative action b}' the United
Nations.
"I hope that you will keep your eye on this whole
subject of international cartels because we are
approaching the time when discussions will al-
most certainly arise between us and other nations."
You w^ill notice that the President's letter states
two principal objectives, to eliminate the political
activities of German cartels and to curb those car-
tel practices which restrict the free flow of goods
in foreign commerce. I shall discuss briefly the
second objective- — that relating to the restrictions
upon the free flow of goods in foreign commerce.
The term "cartel" has come to be used commonly
to describe a wide variety of business organiza-
tional schemes, private trade agreements, and col-
lusive arrangements, any of which has the eflect
of restraining competitive trade. In this sense the
term "cartel" is almost synonymous with "monop-
olistic." More specifically, however, a cartel may
be described as an agreement among rival busi-
ness firms, often in the same line of business, en-
tered into for the primary purpose of reducing or
eliminating competition. The -members of the|
cartel carry on business separately for their own
profit, but they act together in deciding such mat-
ters as the quantities and kinds of goods to be pro-
duced, the prices to be charged, and the particular
parts of the market to be regarded as the exclusive
domain of each of them. In short they organize
their relations with their market, in agreement with
each other, in the way which they think will best
promote their own profit.
In the United States such arrangements among
business competitors are clearly illegal under the
Sherman Anti-trust Act. The illegality of cartel-
like arrangements under the Sherman act was clear-
ly established in a pioneer decision under the act
almost 50 years ago. This decision, by Judge Taft
434
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
in the Addyston Pipe Case, is still the law with
resj^ect to this kind of activity in the United States.
Competing businessmen may have association with
each other for many proper purposes, but they may
not lawfully reach agreements or make arrange-
ments with each other concerning how much or
what they will produce, or the prices they will
charge, or the markets in which they will sell.
Such practices would be regarded as in restraint of
trade under the anti-trust laws. Through the anti-
trust laws Congress has expressed the American
policy of free competition in both our interstate
and our foreign commerce. The purpose of the
anti-trust laws has been clearly stated by Mr. Chief
Justice Stone. In his decision in the Trenton Pot-
teries Case, he said :
"Whatever difference of opinion there may be
among economists as to the social and economic de-
sirability of an unrestrained competitive system,
it cannot be doubted that the Sherman Law and the
judicial decisions interpreting it are based upon
the assumption that the public interest is best pro-
tected from the evils of monopoly and price con-
trol by the maintenance of competition."
The enforcement of the Sherman act and kindred
laws is, as you know, the duty of the Anti-trust
Division of the D.'partment of Justice. Because of
the very general character of the provisions of the
act its eflPectiveness depends in no small degree
upon the skill and vigor of its enforcement.
There is I think no doubt that the Sherman act
has the support of the very great majority of
American opinion, including business opinion.
We are convinced that contracts in restraint of
competition tend to reduce employment and pro-
duction, to raise prices to consumers, to restrict
the adoption of improvements both of product and
of methods, to hold back the efficient, to prevent
the entry of new firms, and to reduce the over-all
effectiveness of business operations. The ideal of
American business is success in open competition,
not protection of vested interests in a soft berth.
Combined with the system of free trade among
the States under the Constitution, the scope and
wealth of the national market, and the varied
.skills and talents of Americans, the Sherman act
and its observances and enforcement have given
us the largest, richest, and most competitive na-
tional market in the world. The benefits of the
system of competition are there for all to see, and
we are not likely to abandon them for any other
system, even though under certain special circum-
stances competitive activity must be supplemented
or replaced by governmental control in the public
interest. The President's statement which I have
quoted — that the ideas of the Sherman act have
become a part of the American way of business
life — should be reemphasized.
The cartel problem becomes of current impor-
tance because of the fact that many other countries
either do not agree with American views upon this
problem or have been unable under past world
conditions to adopt this kind of policy. In Canada
and in most of the other countries of the Western
Hemisphere existing policy and legislation is gen-
erally not unlike our own. But on the continent
of Europe, and especially in Germany, another
system of law and another business philosophy has
prevailed for many years. Cartels have not been
illegal in most European countries, and in some
they have been actively supported by public au-
thority. Although aggressive and compulsory use
of the cartel characterized Nazi economic opera-
tions, cartels were strongly established in Ger-
many, as well as in other European countries, long
before the advent of Hitler. The ideal of business
conduct and of business law on the continent of
Europe has stressed security and stability rather
than active and vigorous competition. The laws
of many European countries have therefore sanc-
tioned restrictive national and international cai'tels
and have adopted more or less rigid state regula-
tion of cartel and other business practices.
Great Britain occupies in this respect a position
somewhere between the continent of Europe and
ourselves. The English common law has con-
demned contracts in restraint of competition since
the time of Queen Anne, but the condemnation has
meant only that the courts would not enforce such
contracts. No statute made them criminal and no
Government department was charged with their
prevention. English businessmen were free to
enter into arrangements to restrict competition,
and a good many such arrangements have existed.
The arrangements which other countries make
for the management of their internal business af-
fairs are of course their own business, even though
they may be of concern to us indirectly through
their impact on international trade. But the oper-
OCTOBER 15, 1944
435
ations of cartels in international trade have faced
American businessmen with two serious problems.
One problem relates to export markets. When
an important foreign market is controlled by a
cartel it may be very hard for American interests to
make sales there unless they are prepared to come
to terms with the cartel. This is particularly true
if the cartel has the support of the foreign govern-
ment concerned. It is partly for this reason that
various American business interests have, or are
alleged to have, entered into arrangements with
cartels organized abroad.
Another point at which foreign cartel operations
may be very damaging to American business in-
terests is in the supply and price of raw materials.
If a particular raw material used in American in-
dustry has to be imported from abroad, and if the
supply is controlled by a cartel, American buyers
may be required to pay prices above economic
levels. This aspect of the cartel problem has been
important in a number of essential matei'ials in-
cluding tin, rubber, quinine, and others.
International cartel operations, moreover, may
seriously interfere with the public policy of gov-
ernments. The United Nations have repeatedly
emphasized that they propose to see what they can
do to bring about increased production, employ-
ment, exchange, and consumption of useful goods
throughout the world, and that as one means to-
ward this end they propose to adopt measures for
the reduction of barriers to international trade and
the removal of discriminations. But in respect of
any commodity which is controlled by a cartel the
benefits which freer trading opportunities should
bring to all of us might be much reduced or alto-
gether prevented by restrictions engineered by the
cartel.
For all these and other reasons the President has
said, in the letter which I read before: "Cartel
practices which restrict the free flow of goods in
foreign commerce will have to be curbed." The
sentiment of the people in the United States and
the reflection of this sentiment in our Congress
among members of both parties confirm the wide
agreement on this policy.
The question is how to accomplish it. The Sher-
man act can deal with restrictive operations in this
country, but obviously neither it nor any other
American law can operate, as law, beyond our
shores. The President's objective, as his letter says,
"can be achieved only through collaborative action
by the United Nations"', that is to say, by inter-
national negotiation and agreement.
The aim of our policy is clear. Although there
are differences in tradition and experience in many
other countries, there is increasing indication that
others recognize the undesirable and even danger-
ous implications of following a cartel policy. The
tradition of most of the countries of this hemi-
sphere, as I said before, is not unlike our own. On
the continent of Europe recent expressions of cer-
tain French leaders indicate a definite opinion that
cartels have been bad for France. In Britain also
there is a definite movement toward facing se-
riously the important issues which international
cartels pose. In the important Cabinet White
Paper "Employment Policy", laid before the Par-
liament in May of this year, af)pears the following
passage :
"There has in recent years been a growing tend-
ency towards combines and towards agreements,
both national and international, by which manu-
facturers have sought to control prices and output,
to divide markets and to fix conditions of sale.
Such agreements or combines do not necessarily
operate against the public interest; but the power
to do so is there. The Government will therefore
seek power to inform themselves of the extent and
effect of restrictive agreements, and of the activi-
ties of combines ; and to take appropriate action to
check practices which may bring advantages to sec-
tional producing interests but work to the detri-
ment of the country as a whole."
The similarity of these expressions to the policy
expressed in the President's letter of last Septem-
ber 6 is cause for real encouragement.
The attempt to curb the restrictive practices of
cartels in international trade should of course not
be thought of as something by itself. It is an
integral and necessary part of the general effort
to achieve an expanding world economy and an
increased world trade. Trade may be restricted
and prevented or pressed out of its natural chan-
nels, either by public regulation or by restrictive
arrangements made by private interests. A realis-
tic program looking to freer trade must take
account of both.
{Continued on page 4S8)
436
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Post- War Trade Policy
Address by WILLIAM A. FOWLER'
[Released to the press October 11]
A comprehensive international trade policy
suited to the needs and conditions of the post-war
world is a high-priority item on the United Na-
tions' agenda of unfinished business. Fortunately,
we do not liave to start from scratch. Since the
passage of the Trade Agreements Act in 1934, the
policy of the United States has been to expand
private international trade on a nondiscriminatory,
nudtilateral basis. The purpose of this policy has
been to raise employment and living standards to
higher levels. The same policy, with the same pur-
pose, is stated in the Atlantic Charter, to which
the governments of all tl\e United Nations have
subscribed, and in article VII of mutual-aid agree-
ments with many of our Allies.
The trade agreements we made witli 20 non-
Axis countries — and Finland — before the outbreak
of this war strengthened our economy, and theirs,
by encouraging a two-way increase in trade. They
also strengtliened the bonds of friendship between
the peoples of this country and those of other coun-
tries. During the war period we have concluded
trade agreements with seven additional countries.
All these agreements together cover a large area
in which our international trade, particularly in
time of peace, is protected and encouraged. They
are symbols of a new America — an America aware
of its place and of its opportunities, in an interde-
pendent world.
There seems to be wide approval and support for
the principles of the trade-agreements program as
a basis for this country's post-war international
trade policy. But there are still a few groups and
individuals who would destroy completely both the
program and the agreements concluded under it,
or would saddle the program with weakening
amendments. Just a few weeks ago a bill for out-
right repeal of the Trade Agreements Act before
next June was introduced in the House of Repre-
sentatives.
' Delivered before the Thirty-first National Foreign Trade
Convention, New York, N. Y., Oct. 11, 1944. Mr. Fowler is
Chief of the Division of Commercial Policy, Office of Eco-
nomic Affairs, Department of State.
Some erstwhile isolationi.sts, now self-styled
nationalists, would take us back to the Hawley-
Smoot days if they could manage to do so.
Others, blind to the ability of the vast majority
of American producers to compete on a fair basis
with all comers in the liome market as well as
abroad, oppose the trade-agreements program be-
cause they doubt our ability, as a nation, to face
fair competition. They are men of little faith
in the economic greatness of America.
These minority groups will bear watching in
the critical weeks and months ahead. Their power
is great in proportion to their numbers. They are
organized to function quickly, quietly, and effec-
tively in key places and at crucial times. No one
interested in a dynamic post-war trade policy
should allow himself to be lulled into a false sense
of security of the seemingly general and over-
whelming public support for such a policy.
Vigorous action, now and for an indefinite time to
come, is needed if we and our friends in other
countries are to succeed in preparing the way for
a substantial expansion of trade after the war.
The need for such an expansion of international
trade is not a matter of abstract theory. Expert
British opinion, for example, points to tlie need for
a 50-percent increase of United Kingdom post-
war exports to pay for imports at pro-war levels.
This calculation takes into account the greatly re-
duced British income to be expected from overseas
investments and from services; it does not take
into account tlie possibility of financial assistance.
Here at home some 10 million men and women
returning from the armed services, as well as mil-
lions now at work, will need productive peacetime
jobs. Only through international cooperation can
problems of sucli magnitude be solved satisfac-
torily. The levels of productive employment at-
tained, here and elsewhere, will depend to a very
important extent on what tlie nations do in the
field of trade and trade barriers.
The necessary trade expansion will not be
brought about merely by getting rid of unnecessary
wartime trade restrictions and controls and by
refraining from imposing new trade bai-riers after
OCTOBER 15, 1944
437
the war. A formidable network of tariffs, quotas,
exchange controls, cartel arrangements, and
other trade barriers was in existence when this
war broke out. This pre-war network of trade
barriers, if allowed to stand unchanged, would
prevent the rapid development of international
trade to levels substantially higher than those at-
tained prior to the outbreak of the war.
Similarly, post-war commercial policy built
around the idea of importing raw materials in ex-
change for exports of finished goods would be en-
tirely inadequate. In 1940, the value of our im-
ports of raw materials, plus foods, such as coffee,
tea, and the like, was equal to only about one third
of the value of our exports. If every country
adopted a lop-sided raw-material import policy,
world trade would shrink, not expand. The
United States and the United Kingdom, for ex-
ample, both industrialized nations, have carried
on a substantial and profitable two-way trade in
manufactured products. It could have been much
larger, to the benefit of all, had it not been for
burdensome trade restrictions. A substantial in-
crease in imports of manufactured specialties from
other countries would not only help to raise our
standard of living but also enable our foreign
customers to pay for larger imports of many dif-
ferent kinds of things from us.
Some hold the view that if the United States
manages, somehow, to achieve high levels of em-
ployment, production, and national income, our
foreign trade will take care of itself, that it will
increase automatically and mathematically as our
national income rises. It is true that imports and
exports are larger when the national income is
higher, but they are not greater merely because
national income has risen. Importers know, of
course, that a high tariff can hold imports of a par-
ticular product down to a mere trickle even if
national income rises sharply. The basic fallacy
in this theory, however, is the failure to appreciate
the fact that our international trade is a vital part
of the national income and cannot be abstractly
measured as a separate, or residual, aspect of that
income. Our economy is indivisible; it is affected
by both internal and external forces and by the
interaction between these forces. Our interna-
tional trade can be an important factor contribut-
ing to domestic employment, industrial activity,
and farm prosperity.
One sure way to destroy rather than to expand
our international trade after the war would be to
resort to bilateral balancing of trade, intergovern-
mental barter deals, and other types of inherently
discriminatory trade arrangements. Such ar-
rangements multiplied during the inter-war period.
We know that they destroy normal trade and gen-
erate international enmity. Going back to their
use would be disastrous. Such arrangements vio-
late the unconditional most-favored-nation prin-
ciple which has been basic in United States trade
policy since 1922 and is specifically written into
the Trade Agreements Act. This principle has
long protected our commerce in many markets of
the world against discriminatory and unfair treat-
ment. It has, furthermore, enabled us to avoid a
great deal of friction in our general relations with
other nations.
Assuming that there is general, and non-partisan,
agreement that the basic principles embodied in the
Trade Agreements Act should underlie our post-
war trade policy, the main question is : How shall
those principles be applied so as to bring about a
substantial expansion of international trade over
pre-war levels ?
One thing is certain. Only a thorough-going
attack on all forms of excessive and unreasonable
trade restrictions, and on trade discriminations
throughout the world, with as many nations as
possible cooperating, will meet the requirements
of the post-war world. Our strong economic posi-
tion and great influence place the opportunity and
the responsibility for leadership largely on the
United States.
Our goal should be the establishment of an in-
ternational trade policy which is an integral part
of the whole system of international economic and
security relationships toward which we and other
like-minded nations are now working. Any such
general system must provide for stability in inter-
national monetary and currency relations if we are
to have conditions most favorable for the growth
of trade. It must likewise provide for coopera-
tion in regard to international investments, be-
yond the scope and interest of private enterprise,
that assist in the economic growth of undeveloped
areas. The plans for an International Monetary
Fund and a World Bank, worked out at Bretton
Woods, include such provisions.
International cooperation for the relief and re-
habilitation of war-devastated countries, through
438
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
UNRRA and otherwise, has a direct bearing upon
the future of international commerce. Only when
devastated countries can again producs things
which we and others wish to buy from them can
they begin to pay us for the things we want to
sell to them. The proposed Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations should help
to improve the production, distribution, and con-
sumption of agricultural, forestry, and fishery
products and thus aid in raising living standards
in all countries.
The proposal for a general international organ-
ization developed at Dumbarton Oaks includes as
one of its purposes the achievement of interna-
tional cooperation in the solution of international
economic, social, and other humanitarian prob-
lems. It is pointed out that the international or-
ganization should seek solutions for these prob-
lems with a view to creating the conditions of sta-
bility and well-being which are necessary for
peaceful and friendly relations among nations.
It contemplates that specialized economic, social,
and other organizations and agencies would have
responsibilities in their respective fields, and that
these agencies would be related appropriately to
each other and to the general organization.
In the field of trade and trade barriers the
United and Associated Nations should endeavor
to reach early agreement on an effective program
and organization. Such a program should include
the reduction of trade barriers and restrictions,
the elimination of harmful trade discriminations,
the methods for dealing with difficult commodity
problems, and the prevention of restrictive cartel
arrangements and practices. The technical and
other problems involved in such a comprehensive,
cooperative approach can be solved just as others
equally difficult have been and are being solved
cooperatively in carrying on the war.
Public support which is general, intelligent, and
active is one of the first essentials to success both
in setting up a sound trade policy and in making
it work. Americans who are engaged in foreign
trade understand its principles and processes better
than do many others. Groups such as those gath-
ered here at the Thirty-first National Foreign
Trade Convention can render a great public service
by using their knowledge to help other Americans
to understand the vital necessity for a sound inter-
national trade policy and the essential require-
ments of such a policy.
CONCERNING CARTELS— Continued from page 435
All of us have a great stake in the freedom of
business enterprise from unreasonable regulation.
We depend on private business in all capitalist
countries, not only for most of the employment
by which we earn our living but for the supply of
food, clothing, shelter, and many of the other
physical necessities and amenities of life. To
enable it to perform these great functions indi-
vidual enterprise in peacetime must be reasonably
free to make its own decisions in the open market,
assume its own risks, take its own losses, and
obtain its own rewards. We do not expect to see
the end of public regulations — indeed some regu-
lation of business competition has been a recog-
nized necessity almost as long as business com-
petition has existed. What we do expect to see
after this war is, first, a gradual relaxing of the
special emergency controls connected with the war,
and then, in respect of international commerce,
which is all I mean to speak about, an organized
concerted effort to reduce those elaborate restric-
tions and discriminations which so limited busi-
ness decisions and so hampered business transac-
tions across national frontiers in the years be-
tween the wars. And we will I hope agree that
whatever restrictions on business liberty are neces-
sary in the post-war years should be continued or
imposed not by the decisions of private and in-
terested groups, but by the public authority after
due consideration of all the interests involved,
including those of the consumer. The liberation
of the world's trade from restrictions imposed by
private and interested combinations is not only in
accordance with American ideas, it is in accord-
ance with the interests of common people in every
country in which private enterprise is a part of
economic life.
OCTOBER 15. 19U
439
Summary of Steps Taken by the Department of State
In Behalf of American Nationals in Japanese Custody'
Proposals for the Exchange of Nationals
With Japan
In March 1944 the Department of State re-
opened, through the Swiss Government, the ques-
tion of further exchanges of nationals with the
Japanese Government. A complete plan was
presented under which, on a reciprocal basis, ac-
celerated exchanges might be made. In May 1944
the Japanese Government informed the Swiss
Government that it would study this proposal.
Since then the Department of State has done
everything possible to obtain the Japanese Gov-
ernment's views in this matter and, deeply con-
cerned about Japan's dilatory attitude, has also ad-
vanced further proposals, including one suggest-
ing a series of continuous small-scale exchanges
involving the use of available railroad connections
between JaiJanese-held territory on the Asiatic
Continent and the Soviet Union. Despite such
efforts the Japanese Government has so far not
shown a disposition to discuss this subject.
The reluctance of the Japanese Government to
negotiate for further exchanges of nationals will
not deter the United States Government from tak-
ing all necessary and proper steps to keep the
question of such exchanges continually before the
Japanese authorities and to be prepared to ensure
the speedy execution of any further exchanges of
whatever character to which Japanese agreement
may eventually be obtained.
Shipment of Relief Supplies to the Far East
The matter of the transportation to Japanese-
held areas of the relief supplies now on Soviet
territory for distribution to American and other
Allied nationals in Japanese hands stands as fol-
lows: The Soviet Government has generally
agreed to the additional conditions imposed by the
Japanese Government (Biilletin of Aug. 20,
1944, p. 179) and has granted permission for a
Japanese ship to enter a Soviet port to take on
the supplies. The Japanese ship will be accorded
safe-conduct by the Soviet Government within
Soviet waters and by the Allied military au-
thorities outside those waters. The United
States Government has agreed to pay all costs
connected with the transportation of these sup-
plies to Japan and has confirmed to the Japanese
Government the willingness of the United States
fully to reciprocate in regard to the transporta-
tion and distribution of relief supplies sent by
Japan for Japanese nationals in United States
custody. It is hoped that as a result of these de-
velopments the supplies that have been so long
awaiting onward shipment from Soviet territory
will soon reach those for whom they are intended.
As regards subsequent shipments of relief sup-
plies, the Soviet Government has again suggested
to the Japanese Government tliat shipments be
sent overland to Japanese-controlled territory if
the Japanese Government fails to utilize the port
named by the Soviet Government for this purpose.
The United States Government for its part has
urged the Japanese Government to use this means
by which regular and continuous shipments can be
made of sujjplemental foodstuffs, medicines, and
clotliing for American and other Allied nationals
in Japan and Japanese-occupied territories.
In a further effort to bring aid to Americans
through any means available, the American Red
Cross is attempting to forward by the mail route
through Tehran described below small packages
containing concentrated vitamins and medicines
of a sort which are thought to be scarce in the Far
East. There are, however, no assurances that sup-
plies so sent will reach those for whom they are
intended.
Regardless of all obstacles the Department and
the American Red Cross are continuing diligently
to endeavor to arrange with the Japanese Govern-
ment for the shipment of relief supplies on a regu-
lar and continuing basis to American prisoners of
war and civilian internees in Japanese custody.
' Information contained herein amends the summary
printed in the BtriXETiN of Jan. 15, 1944, p. 77. Informa-
tion in sections 1, 3, 4, and 5 of that summary remains
current. See also Bulletin of July 2, 1944, p. 6; July 16,
1944, p. 63; July 30, 1944, p. 115; Aug. 6, 1944, p. 142;
and Aug. 20, 1944, p. 176.
440
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Sending of Individual Parcels to American Na-
tionals Interned by the Japanese Government
No means of transportation are currently avail-
able for the sending of any next-of-kin parcels to
American nationals in Japanese custody. In the
event the Government's further efforts to arrange
for the regular and continuous shipment of such
relief supplies as those discussed above should be
successful, the Department would expect the Japa-
nese Government reciprocally to accept and to de-
liver next-of-kin packages sent by the same means
of transportation for delivery to interned Amer-
ican nationals, both military and civilian, in Japa-
nese hands.
The Office of the Provost Marshal General, War
Dei^artment, has jurisdiction over the issuance of
labels permitting next of kin to send parcels to
American nationals in enemy custody whenever
facilities for this purpose are available. All per-
sons desiring to be provided with such labels, in
the event facilities for shipment of individual pack-
ages to the Far East should become available, are
advised to communicate with that office for infor-
mation in this regard.
Provision of Financial Assistance to American
Nationals in the Far East
Monthly transfers of United States Government
funds to American civilian-internment camps in
the Philippine Islands (Bulletin of Jan. 15, 1944,
ID. 82) were increased from the original monthly
total of $25,000 to $37,500 and subsequently to
$100,000. The Department of State has generally
authorized the Swiss Government to furnish such
additional amounts as may be required by rising
price levels.
The United States Government, acting through
the Swiss Government, has constantly endeavored
since the spring of 1942 to arrange for the transfer
of funds to American prisoners of war in the Phil-
ippine Islands. The Japanese Government has
now indicated that it would be disposed to consider
requests made by the Swiss Government to transfer
funds through Japanese military channels for the
assistance of American prisoners of war in the
Philippine Islands, limiting such payments to 20
pesos monthly (approximately $10) for each pris-
oner of war. The Department of State has re-
quested the Swiss Government to arrange for the
transfer on a continuing basis of sufficient United
States Government funds to provide the maximum
amount permitted by the Japanese authorities for
each prisoner of war.
The Japanese authorities recently agreed to per-
mit the extension of financial assistance to Ameri-
can prisoners of war as well as to interned civilians
in the Netherlands East Indies, and the Swiss Gov-
ernment has been specifically requested to arrange
for the transfer of United States Government
fmids to the maximum amount allowed by the Jap-
anese authorities.
Elsewhere in the Far East, in territory under
Japanese control, financial assistance is being ex-
tended to all American prisoners of war and civil-
ian internees who can be reached either by Swiss
Government representatives or by delegates of the
International Red Cross Committee. Both the
Swiss Government and the International Red Cross
Committee are being allowed to exercise broad
discretion in the disbursement of United States
public funds in order to ameliorate to the greatest
extent possible the detention of American na-
tionals.
Transmission of Mail Between the Untted
States and Areas Under Japanese Control
The Post Office Department is now sending aU
mail addressed to prisoners of war and civilian in-
ternees in the Far East by air without charge to
the sender to Tehran, Iran, from which point, with
the cooperation of the Soviet Government, it is for-
warded across Soviet territory and delivered to the
Japanese authorities. According to reports re-
ceived from the International Red Cross Commit-
tee at Geneva, prisoner-of-war and civilian-inter-
nee mail has reached the Far East. Mail to the Far
East is, of course, subject to the delays and uncer-
tainties of war, and once it reaches the Far East
its delivery to Americans is dependent upon the co-
operation of the Japanese authorities. Prisoner-
of-war and civilian-internee mail addressed to per-
sons in the United States which originates in Japan
and Japanese-controlled territory is being routed
by the Japanese authorities to Tehran, from which
point this mail is being carried by air to the United
States free of charge.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
441
Visit of Director of
Peruvian Hospital
Dr. Guillermo Almenara Irigoyen, director of
the Workers' Hospital at Lima, Peru, and head
of the Peruvian National Security Organization,
is ^^siting medical and public-health centers in
this counti-y as a guest of the Department of State.
The Inter-American Hospital Association is co-
operating with the Department in making arrange-
ments for his itinerary.
Dr. Almenara was elected vice president of the
Inter- American Hospital Association at the meet-
ing of the First Regional Institute of Hospitals
held in Mexico in January of this year, and he was
made an honorary fellow of the American College
of Hospital Administrators at their recent meetijig
at Cleveland, Ohio.
^ THE DEPARTMENT ^
The Inter-Agency Economic Digest'
Purpose. This instruction is issued in order to
describe the functions and locate within the De-
partment the secretariat servicing the ^''Inter-
Agency Economic Digest".
1. Nature of the, '■'Inter- Agency Economic Di-
gest", (a) The Department is interested in stimu-
lating a flow of selected materials on background
information and policy developments to United
States missions abroad, in order that overseas
staffs may be currently and fully apprised of
economic developments in Federal agencies in
Washington. Some months ago, on the instigation
of the Mission for Economic Affairs in the United
States Embassy in London, a group of inter-de-
partmental representatives of several Federal
agencies in Washington began sending fortnightly
progress and policy reports on economic activities
to certain United States missions abroad.-
(b) There has developed an increasing demand
from overseas missions for current economic in-
formation in the form of a consolidated report,
rather than progress reports from individual agen-
cies. This would not only obviate the confusion
from duplicate reporting, but would also provide
a concise summary of major economic activities of
direct concern to our foreign missions.
(c) F'ollowing an interchange of letters between
the Under Secretary of State and appropriate offi-
cials of other agencies, an Inter- Agency Editorial
Board was created for the purpose of compiling a
consolidated periodical, the "■Inter- Agency Eco-
nomic Digest" with representation from the fol-
lowing agencies :
Combined Production and Resources Board
(U. S. side)
Combined Raw Materials Board (U. S. side)
Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce
Department of State
Department of Treasury
Foreign Economic Administration
Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American
Affairs
Petroleum Administration for War
War Food Administration
War Production Board
War Shipping Administration
(d) The Inter-Agency Editorial Board, in a
meeting August 25, 1944, defined the coverage of
the digest as :
A brief digest of the most important economic
developments of special concern to the U. S. Gov-
ernment staffs abroad. Emphasis will be given
to emerging problems and policy developments.
The report will be confined largely to information
and material not generally available from other
sources to officials of all U. S. Government agencies
abroad.
2. Location and Fmictions of the Secretariat.
In accordance with the policy of the Department
to assume the leadership in seeing that United
States missions receive adequate background and
current information and policy guidance, the sec-
retariat for servicing the consolidated "/n^er*-
Agency Economic Digest" shall reside in the De-
partment of State. The secretariat, including the
Chairman of the Inter-Agency Editorial Board, is
' Administrative Instruction (General Administration
7) , dated and effective Oct. 2, 1944.
' Bulletin of Feb. 12, 1944, p. 181, and June 24, 1944, p.
489.
442
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
hereby established in the Office of the Foreign
Service, in accordance with Departmental Order
1229, of February 23, 1944, which located the De-
partment's Information Service Committee in that
office. It shall be responsible for liaison with the
Inter-Agency Editorial Board, assembling and
analyzing pertijient materials, compiling and
editing the consolidated Digest, and processing and
distributing the Digest.
^ TREATY INFORMATION ^
Trade Marks
On September 29, 1944 the Secretary of State
transmitted to the Director General of the Pan
American Union a letter giving notice of denuncia-
tion by the United States of America of the Pro-
tocol on the Inter- American Registration of Trade
Marks signed at Washington on February 20, 1929.^
The text of the letter follows :
Septembee 29, 1944.
The DnsECTOR General,
or THE Pan American Union.
Sir:
As the result of the experiences of the last sev-
eral years, the Government of the United States
of America has come to the conclusion that the
Inter- American Trademark Bureau at Habana and
the Protocol on the Inter-American Registration
of Trade Marks signed at AVashington on February
20, 1929 have failed to serve any purpose which
would adequately justify the annual quota of funds
contributed by it for the support of the Bureau.
Accordingly, the Government of the United
States of America, acting in conformity with the
provisions of the third paragraph of Article 19
of the Protocol under reference, gives notice hereby
of its denunciation of the Protocol, and, having
thus given notice, understands that the Protocol
will cease to be in force as regards the United
States of America upon the expiration of one year
from the date of this notice.
Very truly yours,
CoRDELL Hull
The Director General of the Pan American
Union informed the Secretary of State, by a letter
of October 3, 1944, that, in accordance with the
terms of paragraph 3 of article 19 of the Protocol,
under which notice of denunciation is given, the
Pan American Union will inform the countries
parties to the Protocol of the decision of the Gov-
ernment of the United States of America.
Inter-American Coffee Agreement
The English text of a declaration signed on July
25, 1944 by the delegates of the governments par-
ticipating in the Inter-American Coffee Agree-
ment, signed at Washington on November 28, 1940,
follows : "
Declaration by the Inter-American Coffee
Board Providing for the Continuation or
THE Inter-Asierican Coffee Agreement for
A Period of One Year From October 1, 1944.
Whereas : The Inter-American Coffee Board, in
its resolution adopted August 5, 1943, recom-
mended to the participating Governments the con-
tinuation without any change of the Inter-Amer-
ican Coffee Agreement for a period of one year
from October 1, 1944.
Wheee.\s: All the participating Governments
have expressed their acceptance of the aforesaid
resolution, as evidenced by official communications
received from the Governments of Brazil, Colom-
bia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Hon-
duras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, the United States
of America, and Venezuela;
The Inter-American Coffee Board, in accord-
ance with the provisions of Article XXIV of the
aforesaid Agreement.
Declares :
That the Inter-American Coffee Agreement,
subscribed to in the City of Washington, D.C., the
28th day of November, 1940, shall be deemed to
be renewed and in effect, without any change what-
' Treaty Series &33, p. 46.
= Treaty Series 970 and 979.
OCTOBER 15, 1944
443
soever, for all the signatory Governments, for a
period of one year from the first of October, 1944.
As provided for in Article XXIV a certified
copy of this Declaration shall be sent to the Pan
American Union and to each of the Governments
I^articipating in the Agreement.
The original of this Declaration shall be de-
posited in the Pan American Union, as an appen-
dix to the Inter-American Coffee Agreement and
to the Protocol to same.
Done at Washington, D.C., in English, Spanish,
Portuguese and French, this 25th day of July,
1944.
The chairman of the Inter-American Coffee
Board has informed the Secretary of State that
the original signed copy of the declaration, in the
four official languages of the Inter-American
Coffee Board, has been forwarded to the Pan
American Union for deposit.
Canadian-New Zealand Mutual-Aid
Agreement
The American Legation at Wellington trans-
mitted to the Department of State, with a despatch
of September 20, 1944, the text of an agreement
(New Zealand Treaty Series 1944, No. 2), signed
at Ottawa on June 30, 1944, between the Govern-
ments of Canada and New Zealand on the princi-
ples applying to the provision by Canada of Ca-
nadian war supplies to New Zealand under the
War Appropriation (United Nations Mutual Aid)
Acts of Canada, 1943 and 1944. The agreement
became effective on June 30, 1944, the date of sig-
nature. The Canadian - New Zealand agreement
is similar to the mutual-aid agreement between the
Government of Canada and the French Committee
of National Liberation printed in tlie Bulletin of
May 13, 1944, pages 456-457 ; see also Bulletin of
May 27, 1944, page 504.
PUBLICATIONS
Depaktment of State
Dumbarton Oaks Documents on Internation.al Organi-
zation. Conference Series 56. Publication 2192. 27 pp.
50.
Copyright Extension: Agreement between the United
States of America and the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland — Effected by exchange of
notes signed at Washington March 10, 1944 ; effective
March 10, 1944. Executive Agreement Series 401. Pub-
lication 2181. 12 pp. 50,
Reciprocal Trade: Agreement between the United
States of America and Turkey, in accordance with article
1 of the Agreement of April 1, 1039— Effected by exchange
of notes signed at Washington April 14 and 22, 1944.
Executive Agreement Series 406. Publication 2182.
4 pp. 50.
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
J
J
^ r
„ «/i
1
I
VOL. XI, NO. 278
OCTOBER 22, 1941
In this issue
AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY: Address by the President i, -k -tx
THE DUMBARTON OAKS CONVERSATIONS: Article by James Frederick
Green -d-iiiiiririi-tiic-tr-Ct-d-tt
EDUCATION IN GERMANY UNDER THE NATIONAL SOCIALIST
REGIME: Article by Leon fF. Fuller •(( -h ir ir * *
^Vl«^NT o*.
* *
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BULLETIN
Vol. XI - No. 278.
POBLICATION 2204
October 22, 1944
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a tceekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication, Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government tcith
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
tcork of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BVLtETlJS
includes press releases on foreign policy
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as well as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United States is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulatit^e lists of which are published
at the end of each quarter, as well as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
approval (tf the Director of the Bureau
of the Budget, is for sale by the Super-
intendent of Documents, United States
Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton 25, D. C; to whom all purchase
orders, with accompanying remittance,
should be sent. The subscription price
is $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
cenU.
ontents
American Republics Page
Pan American Conference on Geography and Cartography . 475
Europe
Participation of United States in Surrender Terms for
Rumania 453
Education ih Germany Under the National Socialist Re-
gime: By Leon W. Fuller 466
Far East
Landing of American Forces in the Philippines:
Statement by the President ' 454
Messages of the President 455
Statement by the Secretary of State . , 455
Economic Affairs
The Proclaimed List 480
International Conference on European Inland Transport . . 480
General
American Foreign Policy: Address by the President . . . . 447
The Individual and International Affairs: Address by As-
sistant Secretary Shaw 456
Civil Air Attach^ Appointments 458
The American Outlook in Foreign Affairs: Address by As-
sistant Secretary Berle 476
Post-War Matters
Informal Discussions on Peace Organization:
Organizations Represented 450
Remarks by Ernest Martin Hopkins 451
Remarks by the Under Secretary of State 452
Remarks by the Under Secretary of State at the Closing
of the Meeting 453
The Dumbarton Oaks Conversations: By James Frederick
Green 459
Grayson N. Kefauver Returns From London 465
Treaty Information
Jurisdiction Over Armed Forces 481
Inter- American Institute of Agricultural Sciences .... 481
The Department
Functions and Responsibilities of the Shipping Division,
Office of Transportation and Communications .... 482
Consular Services to Ships and Seamen 483
Changes in Organization of the Office of Wartime Economic
Affairs 483
Functions of the .\dviser on Refugees and Displaced Per-
sons 485
Appointment of Officers 486
The Foreign Service
Consular Offices 481
Publications ^°°
Legislation ^°"
American Foreign Policy
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT'
[Released to the press by the White House October 21]
When the first World War was ended, I be-
lieved — I believe now — that enduring peace in the
world has not a chance unless this Nation is will-
ing to cooperate in winning it and maintaining it.
I thought then — I know now — that we have to
back our words with deeds.
A quarter of a century ago we helped to save
our freedom, but we failed to organize the kind of
world in which future generations could live in
freedom. Opportunity knocks again. There is no
guaranty that it will knock a third time.
Today Hitler and the Nazis continue the fight —
desperately, inch by inch, and may continue to do
so all the way to Berlin.
And we have another important engagement in
Tokyo. No matter how long or hard the road we
must travel, our forces will fight their way there
under the leadership of MacArthur and Nimitz.
All of our thinking about foreign policy in this
war must be conditioned by the fact that millions
of our American boys are today fighting, many
thousands of miles from home, for the defense of
our country and the perpetuation of our American
ideals. And there are still many hard and bitter
battles to be fought.
The leaders of this Nation have always held that
concern for our national security does not end at
our borders. President Monroe and every Ameri-
can President following him were prepared to use
force, if necessary, to assure the independence of
other American nations threatened by aggressors
from across the seas.
Tlie principle has not changed, though the
world has. Wars are no longer fought from
horseback or from the decks of sailing ships.
It was with recognition of that fact that in 1933
we took, as the basis for our foreign relations, the
Good Neighbor policy — the principle of the neigh-
bor who, resolutely respecting himself, equally
respects the rights of others.
We and the other American republics have made
the Good Neighbor policy real in this hemisphere.
It is my conviction that this policy can be, and
should be, made universal.
At inter-American conferences, beginning at
Montevideo in 1933, and continuing down to date,
we have made it clear to this hemisphere that we
practice what we preach.
Our action in 1934 with respect to Philippine
independence was another step in making good the
same philosophy which animated the Good
Neighbor policy.
As I said two years ago: "I like to think that
the history of the Philippine Islands in the last
44 years i^rovides in a very real sense a pattern for
the future of other small nations and peoples of
the world. It is a pattern of what men of good-
will look forward to in the future."
I cite another early action in the field of foreign
policy of which I am proud. That was the rec-
ognition in 1933 of Soviet Kussia.
For 16 years before then the American people
and the Kussian people had no. practical means
of communicating with each other. We reestab-
lished those means. And today we are fighting
with the Russians against common foes — and we
know that the Eussian contribution to victory has
been, and will continue to be, gigantic.
• • • • ■
The American people have gone through great
national debates in the recent critical years. They
were soul-searching debates. They reached from
every city to every village and to every home.
We debated our principles and our determina-
tion to aid those fighting for freedom.
' Excerpts from an address delivered before the Foreign
Policy Association in New York, N. Y., Oct. 21, 1944.
U7
448
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Obviously, we could have come to terms with
Hitler and accepted a minor role in his totalitarian
world. We rejected that!
We could have compromised with Japan and
bargained for a place in a Japanese-dominated
Asia by selling out the heart's blood of the Chinese
people. And we rejected tliat !
The decision not to bargain with the tyrants
rose from the hearts and souls and sinews of the
American people. They faced reality, they ap-
praised reality, and they knew what freedom
meant.
The power which this Nation has attahied — the
moral, the political, the economic, and the military
power — has brought to us the responsibility, and
with it the opportunity, for leadership in the com-
munity of nations. In our own best interest, and
in the name of peace and humanity, this Nation
cannot, must not, and will not shirk that respon-
sibility.
The United Nations have not yet produced such
a comfortable dwelling-place. But we have
achieved a very practical expression of a common
purpose on the part of four great nations, who
are now united to wage this war, that they will
embark together after the war on a greater and
more difficult enterprise— that of waging peace.
We will embark on it with all the peace-loving
nations of the world — large and small. .
Our objective, as I stated 10 days ago, is to
complete the organization of the United Nations
without delay and before hostilities actually cease.
Peace, like war, can succeetl only where there
is a will to enforce it, and where there is available
power to enforce it.
The Council of the United Nations must have
the power to act quickly and decisively to keep
the peace by force, if necessary. A policeman
would not be a very effective policeman if, when
he saw a felon break into a house, he had to go
to the town hall and call a town meeting to issue
a warrant before the felon could be arrested.
It is clear that, if the world organization is
to have any reality at all, our representative must
be endowed in advance by the people themselves,
by constitutional means through their representa-
tives in the Congress, with authority to act.
If we do not catch the international felon when
we have our hands on him, if we let liini get away
with his loot because the town council has not
passed an ordinance authorizing his arrest, then
we are not doing our share to prevent another
world war. The people of the Nation want their
Government to act, and not merely to talk, when-
ever and wherever there is a threat to world
peace.
^Ve cannot attain our great objectives by our-
selves. Never again, after cooperating with other
nations in a world war to save our way of life,
can we wash our hands of maintaining the peace
for which we fought.
The Dumbarton Oaks conference did not spring
up overnight. It was called by Secretary Hull
and me after years of thought, discussion, prepara-
tion, and consultation with our Allies. Our State
Department did a splendid job in preparing for
the conference and leading it to a successful ter-
mination. It was another chapter in the long
process of cooperation with other peace-loving
nations — beginning with the Atlantic Charter con- |
ference, and continuing through conferences at '
Casablanca, Moscow, Cairo, Tehran, Quebec, and
Washington. ;
The peace structure which we are building must ;
depend on foundations that go deep into the soil
of men's faith and men's hearts — otherwise it is '
worthless. Only the unflagging will of men can i
preserve it.
No President of the United States can make the
American contribution to preserve the peace with- i
out tlie constant, alert, and conscious collaboration i
of the American people.
Only the determination of the people to use the
macliinery gives wortli to the machinery.
Tlie very fact that we are now at work on the '
organization of the peace proves that the great
OCTOBER 22, 19U
449
natifOns are committed to trust in each other. Put
this proposition any way you w\]\, it is bound to
come out tlie same way; we either work with tlie
other great nations, or we might some day have
to fight them.
The kind of world order which we the peace-
loving nations must achieve must depend essen-
tially on friendly human relations, on acquaint-
ance, on tolerance, on unassailable sincerity and
good-will and good faith. We have achieved that
relationshiij to a remarkable degree in our dealings
with our Allies in this war — as the events of the
war have proved.
It is a new thing in human history for Allies to
work together, as we have done — so closely, so
hai'moniously and effectively in the fighting of a
war, and — at the same time — in the building of the
peace.
If we fail to maintain that relationship in the
peace — if we fail to expand it and strengthen it —
then there will be no lasting peace.
As for Germany, that tragic nation which has
sown the wind and is now reaping the whirlwind,
we and our Allies are entirely agreed that we shall
not bargain with the Nazi conspirators, or leave
them a shred of control — open or secret— of the in-
struments of government.
We shall not leave them a single element of
military power — or of potential military power.
But I should be false to the very fomidations of
my religious and political convictions, if I should
ever relinquish the hope — and even the faith — that
in all peoples, without exception, there live some
instinct for truth, some attraction toward justice,
and some passion for peace — buried as they may b©
in the German case under a brutal regime.
We bring no charge against the German race,
as such, for we cannot believe that God has eter-
nally condemned any race of humanity. For we
know in our own land how many good men and
women of German ancestry have proved loyal,
freedom-loving, peace-loving citizens.
There is going to be stern punishment for all
those in Germany directly responsible for this
agony of mankind.
The German people are not going to be en-
slaved — because the United Nations do not traf-
fic in human slavery. But it will be necessary for
them to earn their way back into the fellowship
of peace-loving and law-abiding nations. And,
in their climb up that steep road, we shall cer-
tainly see to it that they are not encumbered by
having to carry guns. They will be relieved of
that burden — we hope, forever.
I speak to the present generation of Americans
with reverent fiarticipation in its sorrows and in
its hoj^es. No generation has undergone a greater
test, or has met that test with greater heroism and
greater wisdom, and no generation has had a more
exalted mission.
For this generation must act not only for itself,
but as a trustee for all those who fell in the last
war — a part of their mission unfulfilled.
It must act also for all who have paid the su-
preme price in this war — lest their mission, too,
be betrayed.
And finally it must act for the generations to
come — which must be granted a heritage of peace.
I do not exaggerate that mission. We are not
fighting for, and we shall not achieve, Utopia.
Indeed, in our own land, the work to be done iarts of
peace-loving peoples everywhere. Ours is the
grave responsibility to assure that this hope is ful-
filled.
Participation of United States
In Surrender Terms
For Rumania
LKeleased to the press October 19]
On October 19 the Department of State issued
the following statement in reply to requests for
comment on Governor Dewey's remarks regarding
the surrender terms for Rumania.
614934 — 44 2
Governor Dewey's statement leaves out the fol-
lowing facts :
The terms of surrender for Eumania were in
the form of an armistice agreement in which
this Government participated at all stages. Pre-
cisely because it was a military document and not
a peace settlement it was presented by Marshal
Malinovski, the theater commander, duly author-
ized by the Governments of the United States,
the U.S.S.R., and the United Kingdom. This
action by Marshal Malinovski followed directly
the j)attern of General Eisenhower in signing the
armistice with Italy on behalf of the United States,
the United Kingdom, and the U.S.S.R. With
regard to the terms themselves, Secretary Hull on
September 20, 1944 pointed out in a statement to
the press that the question of the final disposition
of Transylvania would depend upon confirmation
at the time of the general peace settlement.^ The
settlement with regard to Bessarabia merely re-
stores the frontier between the two states as estab-
lished by the Soviet-Rumanian agreement of June
8, 1910.
Secretary Hull made it clear to correspondents
that this Government participated at all stages in
the discussions leading to the armistice agreement
with Eumania, when, in a press statement on
September 20, 1944, he pointed out that this Gov-
ernment had pai'ticipated in the discussions leading
to the surrender terms, and he stated specifically
that this Government had been kept fully advised
of the terms regarding Transylvania.
Wien the Secretary of State at his press and
radio news conference on September 13 announced
that the Rumanian armistice had been agreed to
and indicated that he had not received its con-
tents, he, of course, referred to the final official
text, the provisions of which had been agreed to
by this Government's representative on the basis
of his sjJecific instructions from this Government
and the discussions in which the Department had
participated. The definitive text was received
later the same day and immediately released to
the press.^
' Secretary Hull's statement referrert to in this release
was made to correspondents at the Department.
^BuiXETiN of Sept. 17, 1944, p. 289.
454
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Landino; of American Forces in the Philippines
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 20]
This morning American troops landed on the
island of Leyte in the Philippines. The invasion
forces, under the command of General Douglas
MacArthur, are supported by the greatest con-
centration of naval and air power ever massed m
the Pacific Ocean.
We have landed in the Philippines to redeem the
pledge we made over two years ago when the last
American troops surrendered on Corregidor after
5 months and 28 days of bitter resistance against
overwhelming enemy strength.
We promised to return; we hare returned.
In my last message to General Wainwright, sent
on the fifth of May 1942 just before he was cap-
tured, I told him that the gallant struggle of his
comrades had inspired every soldier, sailor, and
marine and all the workers in our shipyards and
munitions plants. I said that he and his devoted
followers had become the living symbol of our war
aims and the guaranty of our victory.
That was true in 1942. It is still true in 1944.
We have never forgotten the courage of our
men at Bataan and Corregidor. Their example
inspired every American in the stern days of
Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Salerno, and Normandy.
And in every campaign— on battle-front or home
front— we remember those men, and their memory
spurs us to greater effort.
Nowhere has the desire to avenge their comrades
been stronger than among the forces of the South-
west Pacific. Leyte is another rung in the long
ladder General MacArthur's men have been climb-
hig for two years.
Starting on the underside of New Guinea in the
autumn of 1942 when Australia herself was in
danger, pushing over the Owen Stanley Moun-
tains, burning and blasting the Japanese out of
Buna and Gona, digging them out of Wewak,
starving them at Hollandia— the advance has been
a slow, tough struggle by our jungle fighters.
Now they have reached Leyte.
In the six years before war broke out, the Philip-
pine Government, acting in harmonious accord
with the United States, made great strides toward
complete establishment of her sovereignty. The
United States promised to help build a new nation
in the Pacific, a nation whose ideals, like our own,
were liberty and equality and the democratic way
of life — a nation which in a very short time would
join the friendly family of nations on equal terms.
We were keeping that promise. When war came
and our work was wrecked, we pledged to the
people of the Philippines that their freedom would
be redeemed and that their independence would
be established and protected. We are fulfilling
that pledge now. When we have finished the job
of driving the Japs from the Islands, the Philip-
pines will be a free and independent republic.
There never was a doubt that the people of the
Philippines were worthy of their independence.
There will never be a doubt.
The Filipinos have defended their homeland
with fortitude and gallantry. We confidently ex-
pect to see them liberate it with courage and
audacity.
Under the leadership of President Manuel
Quezon, whose death came on the eve of his coun=-
try's liberation, and now under the leadership of
tlieir President, Sergio Osmena, the Filipinos
have carried on, and are carrying on, with gal-
lantry — even in midst of the enemy.
We are glad to be back in the Philippines but we
do not intend to stop there.
Leyte is only a waystation on the road to Japan.
It is 700 miles from Formosa. It is 850 miles from
China. We are astride the life-line of the war-
lords' empire ; we are severing that life-line. Our
bombers, our ships, and our submarines are cut-
ting off the ill-gotten conquests from the home-
land. From our new base we shall quicken the
assault. Our attacks of the last week have been
destructive and decisive, but now we shall strike
even more devastating blows at Japan.
We have learned our lesson about Japan. We
trusted her and treated her with the decency due
a civilized neighbor. We were foully betrayed.
Tlie price of the lesson was high.
Now we are going to teach Japan her lesson.
OCTOBER 22, 1944
4S5
We have the will and the power to teach her the
cost of treachery and deceit, and the cost of steal-
ing from her neighbors. With our steadfast
Allies, we shall teach tliis lesson so that Japan will
never forget it.
We shall free the enslaved peoples. We shall
restore stolen lands and looted wealth to their
rightful owners. We shall strangle the Black
Dragon of Japanese militarism forever.
MESSAGES OF THE PRESIDENT
[Released to the press by the White House October 20]
77i.c President to General MacArthur
The whole American nation today exidts at the
news that the gallant men under your command
have landed on Philippine soil. I know well what
this means to 3'ou. I know what it cost you to
obey my order that you leave Corregidor in Feb-
ruary 1942 and proceed to Australia. Since then
you have planned and worked and fought with
whole-souled devotion for the day when you would
return with powerful forces to the Philippine
Islands. That day has come. You have the na-
tion's gratitude and the nation's prayers for suc-
cess as you and your men fight your way back to
Bataan.
fixed resolve to restore peace and order and de-
cency to an outraged world.
"Until we were attacked at Pearl Harbor we
had done our utmost to live as friendly self-
respecting neighbors of the Japanese in the
Pacific.
"For half a century, in spite of signs of a de-
cadent and militaristic Japanese leadership, we
studiously avoided any acts that might provoke
distrust or alarm. Our decency was mistaken for
weakness.
"Our plans for the dignity and freedom of the
people of the Philippines have been ruthlessly —
but only temporarily — ^brushed aside by Japanese
acts of exploitation and enslavement. When the
Japanese invaders have been driven out, the
Philippines will take their place as a free and
independent member of the family of nations.
"On this occasion of the return of General Mac-
Arthur to Philippine soil with our airmen, our
soldiers and our sailors, we renew our pledge.
We and our Philippine brothers in arms — with
the help of Almighty God — will drive out the in-
vader; we will destroy his power to wage war
again, and we will restore a world of dignity and
freedom — a world of confidence and honesty and
peace."
The President to Admiral Nimits and
Admiral Halsey
The country has followed with pride the mag-
nificent sweep of your Fleet into enemy waters.
In addition to the gallant fighting of your flyers,
we appreciate the endurance and superb seaman-
ship of your forces. Your fine cooperation witli
General MacArthur furnishes another example of
teamwork and the effective and intelligent use of
all weapons.
The President to President Osm^na
Please deliver the following message to the
Philippine people from me :
"The suffering, humiliation and mental torture
that you have endured since the barbarous, unpro-
voked and treacherous attack upon the Philippines
nearly three long years ago have aroused in the
hearts of the American people a righteous anger,
a stern determination to punish the guilty, and a
STATEMENT BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE
[Released to the press October 20]
The landing of American forces on the strategic
island of Leyte in the Philippines not only ful-
fils General MacArthur's promise that he would
return to the Islands, but it also marks an im-
jjortant step toward the realization of the Presi-
dent's pledge given to the Filipino people on
December 28, 1941.'^ On that occasion the Presi-
dent said: "I give to the people of the Philip-
pines my solemn pledge that their freedom will
be redeemed and their independence established
and protected." The landing on Leyte is an in-
spiring example of the resourcefulness, determina-
tion, and courage of the American armed forces.
It represents magnificent qualities of leadership
and exemplifies the fighting spirit of our officers
and men — a guaranty of complete triumph over
our enemy in the Pacific.
' BaLLETiN Of Jan. 3, 1942, p. 5.
4S6
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
The Individual and International Affairs
Address by ASSISTANT SECRETARY SHAW
[Released to the press October 21]
The older alumni of any university are an in-
evitable and oftentimes an irritating source of ad-
vice. You have greatly honored me today by
making me an alumnus of Bucknell University,
and as unhappily I cannot count myself among
the yomiger alumni you must bear the conse-
quences of your generous action and listen to a
talk which has a very definite purpose, and a talk
with a purpose cannot altogether escape the ele-
ment of advice.
I want to urge j'ou to interest yourselves and in-
terest yourselves actively and positively in the con-
duct of the foreign affairs of the United States.
That in a word is the purpose of my remarks this
morning. Now in trying to carry out this purpose
please do not expect me to reveal to you the in-
wardness of some problem of our foreign relations
now in the headlines. I am going to begin far
more realistically — perhaps, you will feel, far
more prosaically. I am going to begin with yuu,
with you as the individuals your lives so far and
your formal education have helped you to become.
Just how ready are you to play a part in the
carrying on of the foreign relations of the United
States? Perhaps you are thinking of making of
that participation your career and your profes-
sion, but perhaps j'our participation is destined to
be that of the alert and informed citizen. The kind
of participation matters little when it comes to
the first and the foremost prerequisite I am going
to emphasize. In interviewing prospective candi-
dates for the Foreign Service recently out of col-
lege we ask them a couple of questions which often
throw them into quite a bit of confusion. The
first is : "Do you think people like you and do you
like jjeople; are you reasonably popular?" Of
course most of us, while we do not proclaim the
fact too loudly, consider ourselves quite reasonably
popular, and within limits we are of course right,
so that the answer that we usually get to that ques-
tion is a more or less embarrassed ''yes". But then
comes the second question, and that is the real ques-
tion : "How popular are you among people whose
' Delivered at the commencement exercises of Bucknell
University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Oct. 21, 1944.
economic background, race, or religion is alto-
gether different from your own?" That question
usually starts a very interesting and a very reveal-
ing conversation, and without going into details I
may say that it is discouragingly seldom that we
find someone whose practice of democracy is so
genuine and whose basic preparation for the For-
eign Service is so adequate that that person can
truthfully say that he understands and likes all
kinds of people and that all kinds of people under-
stand and like him. If you analyze through that
second question and its implications I do not be-
lieve you will have any difficulty in grasping why
it is a very practical question to address to candi-
dates for the Foreign Service. If at home you dis-
like people because they have fewer dollars than
you have and therefore live in a different kind of
house or on the other side of the tracks, or because
the color of their skin is not the same as yours, or
the terms in which they describe their relationship
to God are not as your terms — if you dislike these
people for any such reasons or even if these differ-
ences arouse in you any emotions other than a
genuine desire to understand and to appreciate, if
that really is j'our attitude at home, what chance is
there that when you are called upon as an officer of
the United States Government to understand and
work abroad for 3'our country with foreign gov-
ernments and with foreign peoples your attitude
will in any degree change for the better? Your
college education should of course have taught you
to appreciate differences and to understand the
factors which have led to them, should have
aroused your intellectual curiosity and stirred you
deeply with a desire to study and know these dif-
ferences at first hand, should have enabled you to
achieve those essentially philosophical concepts
without which democracy has little or no meaning.
That is one thing the privilege of a college educa-
tion should have done for you, but there is some-
thing more and something which is fully as im-
poi'tant if you are to take an effective part in the
conduct of the foreign relations of this country at
this time. When I graduated from college in 1915
we were naive enough to believe in a stable world
inevitably improving by the mere elapse of time
OCTOBER 22, 1944
457
and through the application of rules which we
genially took for granted that we understood.
That is not the world of today, not the world in
which you are to take the leading part. That
world is essentially a revolutionary world, a world
which may get better or may got worse depending
upon the quality of the thought and the moral and
the intellectual courage which you bring to its
problems. I do not for a moment mean that you
should ignore the jiast, that you should ignore the
great underlying lessons of history or the tradi-
tions of thought. On the contrary your education
is a defective education, a caricature of an educa-
tion, unless you have a clear and a thorough grasp
of those lessons and of those traditions. But I
do mean that your education should also have
endowed you with that quality of intellectual flex-
ibility which will enable you to understand new
illustrations of those lessons and new forms in
which those traditions may manifest themselves.
The future leaders of Europe, for instance, many
of whom have participated in the underground,
will not be as the leaders of pre-war Europe. Be-
cause of the soul-searing experiences they have
suifered they will have gained a renewed insight
into the meaning of brotherhood and a new appre-
ciation of what is essential in life and of what is of
second- or even third-rate importance. We must
not meet their eilorts to apply that which the bit-
terness and the heroism of these experiences have
taught them by an overly rigid adherence to forms
useful indeed in the past but subject to restatement
and modification in the light of new conditions.
The tradition of American radicalism is one of the
most authentic of our traditions, and the names of
such radicals as Jefferson and Lincoln are names
which we revere. We were born of a revolution
and we should be the last to fail to understand a
revolution.
Some of you I hope will go into foreign affairs as
a profession and become Foreign Service officers
or officers of the Department of State. But for
most of you your 23art in the conduct of foreign
affairs will be less direct, although none the less
real. "Less direct, but none the less real" — those
words will perhaps puzzle you. Here is what I
mean.
Our place in the world as a great power depends
not only upon our material resources and the im-
pressive utilization which we make of them, nor
upon our military strength, but also — and person-
ally I think primarily — upon our standing for a
great idea and upon the consistency and the effec-
tiveness of our practice of that great idea. I am
of course referring to the fundamental beliefs
which are at the very heart of our American life,
the conviction of the worth of each and every indi-
vidual human being, regardless entirely of eco-
nomic status or of race or creed, of the rights with
whicli that human being is endowed, and of our
unrelenting efforts to fashion a government, an
economic system, and a society in which that con-
viction may constantly be translated into an ever
larger measure of reality. That of course in es-
sence is what we mean by democracy, and its effec-
tive formulation and practice constitute an essen-
tial element — indeed the most essential element —
in determining our influence and our significance
in the world. You, therefore, who are going to
take part in efforts to combat racial discrimina-
tion in any one of its many menacing forms or to
abolish the scandal of the slum or to assure a wider
distribution of medical services — you will not only
be helping to solve some vital domestic problem.
Because you will be helping to translate more per-
fectly into reality our democratic ideal, you will
also be contributing to the power and to the sig-
nificance of the United States abroad; to a most
important degree, you will be participating in the
conduct of our foreign relations.
But that is not the only way in which you can
achieve that participation. Our foreign policy
and the hundreds of acts and the thousands of
words which are its manifestation are not the
product of the thinking of some isolated, esoteric
gi-oup of individuals housed in some mysterious
building in Washington. Constantly impinging
upon these individuals and shaping their thoughts
and their words and acts are opinions and counter-
opinions of all sorts emanating from Congress,
from the press, and from the jDublic, whether ex-
pressed by groups or by individuals. Public criti-
cism of officials is the surest criterion of the
existence of genuine democratic government, and
the part which that criticism, particularly if it is
informed criticism, must play in the formulation
of our foreign policy and in its execution is of the
highest importance. Since those of us who are
professionally concerned with foreign affairs nec-
essarily have access to sources of information not
available to the general public it is our obligation
to make available to that public as large a part
458
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
of that information as is compatible with the obvi-
ous practical conditions under which international
relations must be carried on. But do not forget
that it is no less your obligation, particularly as
educated members of the public, to distinguish be-
tween fact and fancy, between fact and the selfish
or sinister distortion of fact; to analyze those
facts; to discuss them; and to make known your
considered judgments conscientiously and with a
maximum of effectiveness.
And finally there is a way of taking an active
part in international affairs to which you here at
Bucknell have made an important contribution.
You have extended the hospitality of your class-
rooms and of your campus to students from coun-
tries to the south of us. You have practiced what
we call cultural cooperation, and cultural coopera-
tion I firmly believe is destined to play a most
significant pai't in our efforts to bring about that
better, that happier world in which we hope future
generations may live. In the past we have often
seen efforts on the part of one country to impose
its culture on some other country ; that indeed has
been the characteristic attitude of countries of
so-called superior culture in their relations with
countries which have been classified as backward.
Thei"e is nothing new in that sort of relationship.
It is simply cultural imperialism. In the present
war and even before its formal outbreak we have
also seen what has come to be termed "psychologi-
cal warfare" — an unmensely powerful weapon of
first-rate military significance. Cultural coopera-
tion, however, has nothing in common with either
cultural imperialism or psychological warfare.
There are three fundamental principles which ex-
plain cultural cooperation. In the first place is the
conviction that relations between peoples, given
the progress which transportation and communica-
tion have made, are even more important than
relations between governments and that one of the
most important functions of government is to
foster those very relations between peoples. Sec-
ondly is the belief that cultural cooperation must,
as the very name proclaims, be carried on on a
sincerely reciprocal basis. There can be no ques-
tion of imposing or even exclusively of giving
those things which our history and our culture
enable us to give to the world. There must of
course be that giving, but just as certainly there
must also be receiving; there must be a genuine
interdependence. And finally if cultural coopera-
tion is to fulfil its real opportunity there must be
even more than an understanding and an apprecia-
tion of differing cultures ; there must be, doubtless,
a slow and often a precarious but none the less a
real and a growing perception that underneath
these differing cultures are principles, beliefs,
emotions fundamentally the same, fundamentally
unifying, essentially calculated, instead of driving
us apart, to bring us all together.
Civil Air Attache Appointments
[Released to the press October 20]
The Department of State announces that the
following civil air attaches have recently been
assigned to posts abroad in recognition of the
growing importance of civil aviation :
A. Ogden Pierrot will be civil air attache at
Lisbon and Madrid. Mr. Pierrot until recently
was Washington representative for an aircraft
manufacturing firm. In 1942 he organized the
office of the United States Commercial Corpora-
tion at Lisbon, prior to which he was an official
of the Aircraft Production Division of the War
Production Board. He also represented a num-
ber of American aircraft manufacturers in Argen-
tina from 1934 to 1940 and before that was assist-
ant commercial attache at the American Embassy
in Eio de Janeiro for 11 years.
The civil air attache at Paris will be Howard B.
Railey, who for the jDast six years has been liaison
consultant for the Civil Aeronautics Board, spe-
cializing in problems in international aviation.
Charles M. Howell, Jr., has been designated as
civil air attache at Rio de Janeiro. For the past
year he has been in Brazil, connected with a group
of American technicians who have been aiding in
the development of certain Brazilian airlines
under the auspices of the Defense Supplies Cor-
poration. He was previously associated with an
aircraft manufacturing firm in Kansas City, and
was also Assistant Attorney General of the State
of Missouri.
The first civil air attache, assigned to London,
was designated several months ago. He is Living-
ston Satterthwaite, who is likewise assigned to
several other Eurojjean countries.
It is expected that the above-mentioned civil
air attaches will attend the International Civil
Aviation Conference to be convened in Chicago
on November 1, 1944.
OCTOBER 22, 1944
459
The Dumbarton Oaks Conversations
By JAMES FREDERICK GREEN i
CAmi:D in stone on the west wall of Dumbarton
Oaks are these prophetic words : "Quod Seve-
ns Metes — As you sow, so shall you reap"'. Within
a few hundred yards of this wall the representa-
tives of (he United States, the United Kingdom,
and the So^'iet Union and, more recently, of the
Republic of China began the arduous task of
creating an international organization for the
maintenance of international peace and security.
The difficulties of the task were apparent on occa-
sion diiring the seven weeks of discussions; its
successful accomplishment never seemed impos-
sible. The alternative to the creation of such an
international organization — a third world war
within our lifetime — seemed unthinkable to those
laboring at Dumbarton Oaks.
Few settings in this continent could have been
more suited to these preliminary conversations
than that gracious estate, with its fine Georgian
house, its formal rose gardens and boxwood hedge,
its rambling paths and pleasant arbors. For
there, atop an oak-crowned knoll, a pioneer Scots-
man banished from his homeland more than 200
years ago sought peace and security from a Eu-
rope incessantly racked by war. There, in 1801,
when the world was in turmoil, the present house
was built in the thriving port of Georgetown.
The spacious halls and handsome rooms of Dum-
barton Oaks, where for a time John C. Calhoun
lived, have almost spanned the life of the Repub-
lic. They have lent a quiet dignity and a sense
of history to the labors of twentieth-century
statesmen who endeavored once again to solve the
ancient problem of war.
The physical arrangements at Dumbarton Oaks
proved entirely satisfactory for a small interna-
tional meeting. In an alcove in the central hall,
facing the front door, was placed a reception and
information desk. A reference library was near-
by. The large music room, from which many of
the furnishings were temporarily removed, served
as an assembly hall. In this magnificent two-story
room. Renaissance in character, the European tap-
estries and cabinets and a bronze Chinese owl
seemed equally appropriate as the background for
these historic talks. At the opposite end of the
house, an English drawing-room of the Adam pe-
riod was used as a lounge. The paneled library
on the first floor was occupied by Under Secretary
Stettinius and his staff. The headquarters of the
American Delegation were in the former dining-
room of the house, a handsome square room with
buff walls, French windows, and a marble-trimmed
fireplace. The British Delegation occupied, during
both jjhases of the Conversations, a lai'ge library
on the second floor of the house and an adjoining
room which was used as an office by Sir Alexander
Cadogan. A suite of rooms on the second floor
of the east wing was used by the representatives
of the Soviet Union during the first phase of the
Conversations and by the Chinese during the sec-
ond. I'he diplomats were not alone in their toil,
for in remote parts of the house scholars pursued
their studies in the art collections and libraries,
which, together with the house and grounds, were
given to Harvard Univei-sity in 1941 by Mr. and
Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss. Harvard University
generously lent the estate to the Department for
the Conversations.
Informality was the keynote of these prelim-
inary conversations at Dumbarton Oaks. The
usual trappings of a conference, attended by large
delegations and secretaries and hedged in by pro-
tocol, were strikingly absent. The arrangements
were simple and informal, designed to facilitate
frank and rapid exchange of views. When obliged
to work all day at Dumbarton Oaks the various
participants, delegates and staff alike, lunched to-
gether in the vine-covered orangerie or on the ad-
jacent terrace. Wliile most of the large meetings
were held in the music room, considerable business
was also transacted in the rooms of Fellows House,
a smaller building, about one block away on the
estate, that is normally used as a residence by
visiting scholars. More informal talks took place
in the gardens or on the terrace beside the swim-
ming pool.
'Mr. Green, of the Division of International Security
and Organization, Office of Special Political Affairs, De-
partment of State, was Documents Officer at the Washing-
ton Conversations on International Organization, Aug. 21-
Oct. 7, 1944.
460
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Although the havish entertainment that is
usually associated with international conferences,
at least in novels and movies, was notably absent
during the Conversations, informal social func-
tions did much to smooth the interchanges of views
and viewpoints among tlie several national
groups. Special efforts were made to give the
foreign visitors as mucli insight into American
life as possible during the period of the Conver-
sations. On tlie weekend of August 25-27 the
British and Soviet delegates visited New York,
which some of them had never seen before, and
were entertained at dinner in Rockefeller Center
by Mr. Nelson Rockefeller and were shown through
Radio City. Tliey made a journey around
lower Manhattan and the harbor aboard the yacht
of Maj. Gen. Homer M. Groiiinger, USA, Com-
manding General of the New York Port of
Embarkation. Some of the delegates subse-
quently attended theaters, and others attended a
baseball game or viewed the art collections of the
Metropolitan Museum. Several weeks later, on
September 10, the British and Chinese partici-
pants travelled across the Skyline Drive to Char-
lottesville, where they were greeted at the
University of Virginia by the Governor of Vir-
ginia and the President of the University. After
brief visits to Monticello, Ashlawn, and Mont-
pelier, the homes of Jefferson, Monroe, and Mad-
ison, respectively, they were entertained for supper
at the Under Secretary's farm, "The Horseshoe",
in Culpeper County.
The American Participants
The American Group at Dumbarton Oaks was
characterized by remarkable resources of political
and military experience. Among its eleven civil-
ian members were four who have been Ambas-
sadors, three who have been Under Secretaries
of State, one who lias twice been Assistant Secre-
tary of State, and three who participated in the
Paris Peace Conference. The civilian members
were as follows : Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., Under
Secretaiy of State and Chairman of the Group;
Dr. Isaiah Bowman, President of Johns Hopkins
University and Special Adviser to the Seci-etary
of State on post-war problems and plans; Dr.
Benjamin V, Cohen, General Coimsel to the Office
of AVar Mobilization; James Clement Dunn,
Director of the Office of European Affaii-s, De-
partment of State; Henry P. Fletcher, Special
Adviser to the Secretary of State; Joseph Clark
Grew, formerly Ambassador to Japan and now
Director of the Office of Far Eastern Affairs,
Department of State ; Green H. Hackworth, Legal
Adviser, Department of State; Dr. Stanley K.
Hornbeck, Special Assistant to the Secretai\y of
State and Ambassador-designate to the Nether-
lands ; Breckinridge Long, Assistant Secretary of
State; Dr. Leo Pasvolsky, Special Assistant to
the Secretary of State and Executive Director of
the Committee on Post -War Programs ; and Edwin
C. Wilson, Director of the Office of Special
Political Affaii's, Department of State.
Tlie six military members of the American
Group included some of tlie most distinguished
men in our armed forces, leaders in the post-war
I^lanning work of the Army and Na\'y. Among
them were a former Deputy Chief of Staff of the
United States Array and a former Commander in
Chief of the United States Fleet. They included
the following : Admiral Arthur J. Hepburn, USN,
Chairman of the General Board of the Navy De-
partment; Lt. Gen. Stanley D. Embick, USA,
Chairman of the Inter-American Defense Board
and Member of the Joint Strategic Survey Com-
mittee in the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff;
Vice Admiral Russell Willson, LTSN, Member of
the Joint Strategic Survey Committee in the
United States Joint Chiefs of Staff; Maj. Gen.
George V. Strong, USA, Member of the Joint
Post-AVar Committee in the United States Joint
Chiefs of Staff; Rear Admiral Harold C. Train,
USN, Navy Member of the Joint Post-War
Committee in the United States Joint Chiefs of
Staff; and Maj. Gen. Muir S. Fairchild, USA,
Member of the Joint Strategic Survey Committee
in the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff. Three
of these officers have specialized in international
conf ei-ence work : Admiral Hepburn and Admiral
Train attended the Geneva Conference on Limita-
tion of Armaments in 1927 and the London Naval
Conference in 1930, and they, as well as General
Strong, participated in the Traffic in Arms Con-
ference, Geneva 1925, the Preparatory Commis-
sion, Geneva 1926-31, and the Conference on Lim-
itation of Armaments at Geneva in 1932.
Michael J. McDermott, Special Assistant to the
Secretary, served as the friendly and experienced
Press Officer of the Conversations. G. Hayden
Raynor, Special Assistant to the Under Secretary,
assisted the Group and secretariat alike.
Most of the 17 members of the American Group
had worked together for manv months in the vari-
OCTOBER 22, 1944
461
ous committees organized in the Department of
State to consider post-war problems. All of them
attended daily study and discussion meetings of
the Group for two weeks before the opening of the
Conversations, and later participated in meetings
that lasted for full days — occasionally from 9 : 30
in the morning until midnight.
Throughout the period of preparation and dur-
ing the Conversations the American representa-
tives were assisted by three principal secretaries or
technical advisers designated from the Depart-
ment of State: Benjamin Gerig and Durward V.
Sandifer, Assistant Chiefs of the Division of Inter-
national Security and Organization, and Charles
W. Yost, Executive Secretary of the Policy Com-
mittee. The following officers from the Office of
Special Political Affairs and from the War and
Navy Departments served as assistant secretaries :
Donald C. Blaisdell, Mrs. Esther C. Brunauer,
Ralph J. Bundle, Col. Paul W. Caraway, USA,
Capt. Jolm M. Creighton, USN, Clyde Eagleton,
Dorothy Fosdick, Grayson L. Kirk, Walter M.
Kotschnig, Col. David Marcus, USA, Marcia
Maylott, Mrs. Alice McDiarmid, Lt. Col. W. A.
McRae, AUS, Norman Padelford, Lawrence
Preuss, Mrs. Pauline R. Preuss, Col. W. F. Rehm,
USA, and John D. Tomlinson. In addition to
their services for the American Group, these
officers became at Dumbarton Oaks the inter-
national secretariat for the Conversations, keeping
the records of the various meetings and being
responsible for the drafting of documents.
The American Delegation was further aided by
a General Adviser, Harley A. Notter, Chief of the
Division of International Security and Organiza-
tion, and by six Area Advisers : Joseph W. Ballan-
tine, Deputy Director of the Office of Far Eastern
Affairs; Charles E. Bohlen, Chief of the Division
of Eastern European Affairs; John M. Cabot,
Chief of the Division of Caribbean and Central
American Affairs ; Raymond A. Hare, Division of
Near Eastern Affairs; John D. Hickerson, Chief of
the Division of British Commonwealth Affairs;
and Joseph E. Johnson, Division of American Re-
publics Analysis and Liaison.
The British Representatives
The British Delegation at Dumbarton Oaks in-
cluded men outstanding in the civil service, mili-
tary affairs, and public life. The Chairman of
the Group during the first phase, Sir Alexander
614934 — 44 3
Cadogan, Permanent Under Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, is one of Britain's most expe-
rienced diplomats. The other members were as
follows : Col. Denis Capel-Dunn, Military Assist-
ant Secretary of the War Cabinet ; Gladwyn Jebb,
Head of the Economic and Reconstruction Depart-
ment of the Foreign Office ; Peter Loxley, Private
Secretary to the Permanent Under Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs; Lieutenant General
Macready, Chief of the British Army Staff in
Washington ; Sir William Malkin, Legal Adviser
of the Foreign Office; Admiral Sir Percy Noble,
Head of the British Naval Delegation in Washing-
ton ; Prof. C. K. Webster, member of the Research
Department of the Foreign Office and outstanding
scholar in the field of nineteenth-century diplo-
matic history; Air Marshal Sir William Welsh,
Head of the Royal Air Force Delegation in Wash-
ington. The British advisers and secretaries in-
cluded Paul Falla, Economic and Reconstruction
Department of the Foreign Office; P. H. Gore-
Booth, First Secretary, British Embassy; Maj.
Gen. M. F. Grove- White; A. R. K. Mackenzie,
Press Officer; and A. H. Poynton, official of the
Colonial Office and Private Secretary to the
Minister of Production.
After the opening of the second phase of the
Conversations, the Right Honorable the Earl of
Halifax, British Ambassador to the United States,
became Chairman of the Delegation, which was
reconstituted as follows: Conunodore A. W.
Clarke, British Chief of Staff to the Head of
the Admiralty Delegation to the Joint Staff Mis-
sion and Acting Deputy Head of the Admiralty
Delegation; Gore-Booth; Major General Grove-
White; Jebb; Lieutenant General Macready; Sir
George Sansom, Minister and Adviser on Far
Eastern Affairs, British Embassy, and authority
on Japanese history and culture ; Professor Web-
ster; and Air Vice-Marshal R. P. Willock, Deputy
Head of RAF Delegation to the Joint Staff Mis-
sion. Berkeley Gage served as Secretary.
The Soviet Delegation
The Soviet participants at Dumbarton Oaks
were men of broad and varied experience. Chair-
man of the Delegation was Ambassador Andrei
A. Gromyko, Ambassador to the United States
and Minister to Cuba. The other members of the
Soviet Group were Grigori G. Dolbin, Foreign
Office official who accompanied Vice President
Wallace on his recent trip through the Soviet
462
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Union ; Prof. Sergei A. Golunsky, Foreign Office
official and distinguished scholar in the field of
international relations; Prof. Sergei A. Krylov,
Professor of International Law, University of
Moscow ; Kear Admiral Konstantin K. Rodionov,
Chief of the Administrative Division of the Navy
Commissariat; Maj. Gen. Nikolai V. Slavin, at-
tached to the Soviet General Staff and liaison
officer between the Red Army Staff and the Amer-
ican and British Military Missions; Arkadii A.
Sobolev, Counselor of the Soviet Embassy in Lon-
don, with the rank of Minister, and formerly
Secretary General of the Commissariat of For-
eign Affairs ; and Semen K. Zarapkin, Chief of the
American Section, Soviet Foreign Office. The
Soviet advisers and secretaries included Valentin
M. Berezkhov, Secretary and Translator; Fedor
T. Orekliov, Press Officer ; and Mikhail M. Yimin,
Secretary.
The Chinese Participants
The Chinese Delegation, which participated in
the second phase of the Conversations at Dum-
barton Oaks, was headed by Dr. V. K. Wellington
Koo, Ambassador to London and one of China's
most experienced diplomats. Other delegates
were: Dr. Wei Tao-ming, Ambassador to the
United States of America; Dr. Victor Chi-tsai
Hoo, Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs; and Gen.
Shang Chen, Chief of the Military Mission to the
United States. The technical delegates of the
Chinese Group included the following : Dr. Chang
Chung-fu, Director of the Department of Ameri-
can Affairs of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
Dr. Kan Lee, Commercial Counselor, Chinese Em-
bassy; Liu Chieh, Minister-Counselor, Chinese
Embassy, and Secretary-General of the Delega-
tion; Rear Admiral Liu Ten-fu, Naval Attache
to Washington; Maj. Gen. P. T. Mow, Deputy
Director of the Commission on Aeronautical Af-
fairs and concurrently Director of the Washing-
ton Office of the Commission on Aeronautical
Affairs; Poe D. Hsueh-feng, Counselor of the
Supreme Defense Council ; and T. L. Soong, Dele-
gate to the United Nations Monetary and Finan-
cial Conference.
The advisers to the Delegation were Dr. S. H.
Tow, Dr. C. L. Hsia, Dr. C. Y. Cheng, Dr. James
Yu, Dr. Liang Yun-li, Chen Hung-chen. Serving
as secretaries were Tswen-ling-Tsui, F. Y, Chai,
C. K. Hsieh, Dr. Men Sheng Lin.
The Executive Secbetariat
During both phases of the Conversations, a
small central secretariat, with the assistance of the
secretariats of the four groups, provided necessary
services. Alger Hiss, Special Assistant to the
Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs,
served as Executive Secretary in charge of general
arrangements; Easton Rothwell, Executive Sec-
retary of the Committee on Post-AVar Programs,
served as Assistant Executive Secretary. Under
their direction, Donald B. Eddy, of the Division
of International Conferences, and Louise 'Wliite,
Administrative Assistant in the Office of Special
Political Affairs, handled most of the physical
arrangements.
James Frederick Green, of the Division of In-
ternational Security and Organization, served as
Documents Officer with responsibility for the proc-
essing, safekeeping, and distribution of docu-
ments. The stenogi'aphic staff was located on the
third floor of Dumbarton Oaks and on the second
floor of nearby Fellows House. The fact that all
hectographed documents were processed at Fel-
lows House required frequent sprinting between
the two buildings when memoranda were needed
urgently at Dumbarton Oaks. All documents were
handled through the Communications Center, a
somewhat ostentatious name for the Dumbarton
Oaks kitchen, and were stored for safekeeping in a
large and secure icebox approximately ten feet
long, five feet wide, and eight feet high.
The servants' entrance of the house was dignified
by the name of Receiving Room, where incoming
and outgoing communications were handled.
Documents and papers were carried between
buildings on the estate and between Dumbarton
Oaks and other buildings in Washington by a
regular courier service maintained by Army and
Navy officers.
Lt. Frederick Holdsworth, Jr., USNR, was in
charge of transportation and courier arrange-
ments, the Army and Navy having provided suffi-
cient cars to take care of both the principal par-
ticipants and the secretariat.
The Formxtlation of Proposals
The meeting of the representatives of these four
states at Dumbarton Oaks was a direct result of
the Moscow Declaration. In the Four Nation Dec-
laration signed on October 30, 1943, the United
States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and
OCTOBER 22, 1944
463
China recognized "the necessity of establishing at
the earliest practicable date a general international
organization, based on the principle of the sov-
ereign equality of all peace-loving states, and open
to membership by all such states, large and small,
for the maintenance of international peace and
security." Since the Soviet Government is a neu-
tral in the Pacific war, it proved necessary to
arrange separate discussions with the Chinese
Government. The Russians, British, and Amer-
icans began their work on August 21 ; the Chinese,
British, and Americans commenced discussions on
September 29.
Completion of the task of drafting an agreed set
of recommendations within a period of only seven
weeks, August 21 to October 7, was an extraor-
dinary achievement. The process of discussion and
agreement was prolonged not only by the complexi-
ties of the subject-matter but also by mechanical
difiiculties of translation and communication.
Each of the foreign governments had to consult
at intervals with its home government by cable or
radio messages, and the Russians and Chinese had
to translate the texts of documents during the
course of those consultations.
The Conversations were preceded only by an
exchange of tentative proposals. After barely
sufficient time had been allowed for the British,
Soviet, and American Govenunents to study and
compare the three sets of docimients, the first
phase of the Conversations was inaugurated on
August 21 in a formal opening session, presided
over by Secretary Hull and attended by the Brit-
ish Ambassador, Lord Halifax. It was apparent
throughout the Conversations that the three gov-
ernments were genuinely determined to work to-
gether toward the creation of an effective interna-
tional organization. The emphasis and tone of
the three opening addresses were strikingly simi-
lar — agreement that the present wartime unity
must be continued in peacetime.
Immediately after the opening session, the three
groups announced the appointment of a series of
subcommittees to expedite their work, including a
Joint Steering Committee, a Drafting Subcom-
mittee, a Legal Subcommittee, a Subcormnittee on
General Questions of International Organiza-
tion, and a Subcommittee on Security.^ The Joint
Steering Committee consisted of the chairmen of
the thi-ee groups, together with Mr. Dunn, Mr.
Jebb, Mr. Pasvolsky, and Mr. Sobolev. Mr. Hiss
acted as secretary, and Mr. Berezhkov, secretary-
interpreter of the Soviet Group, also attended the
meetings of the Committee. It met at frequent
intervals, planned the work, and passed upon the
work of the subcommittees. Most of the other
groups met regularly during the first two weeks
in order to seek general agreement on basic prin-
ciples. As agreement was reached, specific pro-
posals were drafted by a small formulation
group — composed of Mr. Pasvolsky, Mr. Dunn,
and Mr. Hackworth for the United States; Mr.
Jebb, Sir William Malkin, and Professor Webster
for the United Kingdom; and Mr. Sobolev and
Mr. Berezhkov for the Soviet Union. Admiral
Willson, Admiral Train, General Grove-White,
and Colonel Capel-Dunn participated on occasion.
Mr. Notter also regularly attended, and Mr. Gerig
and Mr. Yost assisted the group.
The remaining three weeks and more were de-
voted to refining and reconsidering the basic
text — point by point, word by word. By Septem-
ber 28 the three delegations had reached a suffi-
cient consensus of view to be able to adjourn their
discussions. At the final plenary meeting all
expressed the feeling that the work accomplished
constituted a substantial beginning.
On the day following the conclusion of the first
phase of the discussions, the Chinese, British, and
American Delegations began their negotiations.
After an opening session, addressed by Secretary
Hull, Ambassador Koo, and Sir Alexander Cado-
gan, and attended by Lord Halifax and Dr. H. H.
Kung, Finance Minister of the Chinese Govern-
ment,^ the participants recessed until Monday,
October 2, in order to study and to plan their
discussions during the week to follow.
During the following week, October 2-7, the
three delegations gave consideration both to the
basic princii^les of international organization and
to detailed proposals for providing future peace
and security. Several plenary sessions were held
to open and close this phase of the Conversations,
while a small formulation group drafted specific
recommendations. This group consisted of the
following : Mr. Dunn, Mr. Grew, Mr. Hackworth,
Mr. Pasvolsky, and Rear Admiral Train for the
' For a list of the members of these subcommittees, see
Bin,i£TiN of Aug. 27, liM4, p. 203.
' BtJLLETiN of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 342.
464
United States; Major General Grove-Wliite, Mr.
Jebb, Mr. Sansom, and Professor Webster for the
United Kingdom, with Mr. Gage as adviser ; and
Ambassador Koo, Dr. Hoo, Dr. Chang, and Dr.
Liu for China, with Dr. Cheng, Dr. Liang, and
Mr. Liu as advisers.
The general program of work was directed and
reviewed by a Joint Steering Committee, com-
posed of the chairmen of the three delegations,
together with ^h: Dunn, Mr. Grew, and Mr. Pas-
volsky for the United States; Mr. Jebb and Pro-
fessor Webster for the United Kingdom ; and Dr.
Koo and Mr. Liu for China. Mr. Hiss acted as
secretary for the Committee.
At the close of the first phase of the Conversa-
tions, the American, British, and Soviet Govern-
ments simultaneously issued a joint communique
summarizing their work.^ Because of the differ-
ence in time in Washington, London, and Mos-
cow, careful preparation was required to insure
simultaneous publication at a convenient hour in
all three capitals. The date finally agreed upon
by the three press officers was 10 a.m., Washington
time, on Friday, September 29. At the close of
the second phase of the Conversations, similar
arrangements were undertaken for the simul-
taneous issuance on October 9 of the final pro-
posals, together with a brief explanatory statement
by all four governments.^ In this country further
information about these proposals was provided
in statements by President Roosevelt and Secre-
tary Hull and in the report of Under Secretary
Stettinius on the work of the American Delegation.
The peoples of the four participating nations, as
well as the rest of the world, were thus fully
informed, according to the finest traditions of the
democratic system, about the recommendations
agreed upon at Dumbarton Oaks.
Pkeparations by the American Government
The work of the American Delegation at Dum-
barton Oaks was the culmination of three and one-
half years of intensive research and discussion
within the Department of State, under the active
leadership and wise guidance of Pi-esident Roose-
velt and Secretary Hull. During this long period
of gestation, the Department had the aid and
counsel of high officers of the War and Navy
Departments, many members of the Senate and
" Bulletin of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 342.
" Bulletin of Oct. 8, 1944, p. 367.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
House of Representatives, and a large number
of eminent private citizens. These painstaking
preparations were discussed and described by the
President in his address on October 21 before
the Foreign Policy Association in New York City :
"The Dumbarton Oaks conference did not
spring up overnight. It was called by Secretary
Hull and me after years of thought, discussion,
preparation, and consultation with our Allies.
Our State Department did a splendid job in pre-
paring for the conference and leading it to a suc-
cessful termination. It was another chapter in
the long process of cooperation with other peace-
loving nations — beginning with the Atlantic
Charter conference and continuing tlirough con-
ferences at Casablanca, Moscow, Cairo, Tehran,
Quebec, and Washington."
Influence of Public Opinion
Thorough as all these preparations may have
been, it is fully appreciated that they can only be
fruitful and succeed if they accord with the will
of the people and have the fullest public support
when implemented. Unprecedented efforts were
made to conceive the proposals in terms that rep-
resented the aims of the American people as a
whole. The Secretary of State conferred fre-
quently with individuals and groups of members
of the Congress, including members of the Foreign
Relations Committee of the Senate and the Foreign
Affairs Committee of the House.
During the past three and one half years thou-
sands of Americans have written to the Depart-
ment of State and hundreds have called in person
to express their desire for the establishment of a
general international organization and to give the
Department the benefit of their ideas. Indivi-
duals and organizations have submitted plans,
blueprints, proposals, and projects of every con-
ceivable variety, but all to the end that peace and
security must somehow be achieved. These letters
and resolutions, as well as newspaper and radio
comment, have been studied with care by officers
of the Department, who have endeavored to fasten
attention upon the ideas that seem most useful.
The grave sense of responsibility which has under-
lain this task has been deepened by letters from
the mothers who, having lost sons in the hedge-
rows of Normandy or on the beachheads of
Saipan, beseech their Government to find some
alternative to war.
OCTOBER 22, 1944
465
SlGNmCANCE OF THE DUMBARTON OaKS PROPOSALS
The contributions to the proposals that emerged
from Dumbarton Oaks did not come wholly from
America or from any one nation. They represent
a pooling of policies, a sharing and fusion of ideas
contributed by people of many lands.
Starting with tentative proposals of the partici-
pating Governments, the negotiators for many
long weeks followed at Dumbarton Oaks the ad-
vice of the Gilbertian Colonel :
Take of these elements all that is fusible,
Melt them all down in a pipkin or crucible,
Set them to simmer and take off the scum. . .
The residuum was not a Heavy Dragoon but a set
of proposals that in clarity, precision, and compre-
hensiveness far surpassed any one of the four pa-,
pers originally presented. Diplomacy, like chemis-
try, can compound from a variety of elements
something stronger and finer than any one of
them.
Equally significant is the manner in which effort
has been made to avoid past mistakes of omission
or commission. Twenty-five years ago, when rela-
tively few Americans were experienced in inter-
national relations or even interested in the subject,
President Wilson tapped out his proposals for a
League of Nations Covenant on his own type-
writer; this time the President and Secretary of
State have been able to draw upon the experience
and thought of many men and women. The League
Covenant was drafted at Paris by presidents and
prime ministers without preliminary exchange of
views by their technical assistants; now the initial
drafting is done on what Sir Alexander Cadogan
calls the "humble official level". In 1919, the prob-
lem of international organization became ensnarled
in dozens of difficult territorial questions ; in 1944,
these territorial problems are being reserved for
later consideration. Then, the creation of a world
organization became the central issue of partisan
politics in the United States; today, this problem
is being removed from the electoral battlefield by
the unceasing efforts of the President, Secretary
Hull, and Governor Dewey, to make the security
and peace of the United States, and the world, a
common national endeavor and not a partisan
issue.
Out of the long discussions at Dumbarton Oaks
has come a set of proposals recommended by the
614934 — 14 1
Delegations to the Governments which signed the
Four Nation Declaration at Moscow. These pro-
posals constitute merely the foundation and frame-
work of the ultimate structure of international
peace and security. Soon they will be considered
in a larger conference and will undoubtedly be
improved by the contributions of the many other
nations which will participate. Not before a final
agreement of views has been reached will the build-
ing be constructed. Only after years, perhaps even
decades, of testing against economic and political
storms can this earnest and intensive preparation
and the initial work at the Moscow Conference
and the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations be fully
judged.
Grayson N. Kefauver Returns
From London
[Releasea to the press October 16]
Dr. Grayson N. Kefauver, member of the Ameri-
can Education Delegation to the Conference of
Allied Ministers of Education, has returned to the
Department of State after a period of six months
in England. After the return of the other mem-
bers of the Delegation in May he carried on the
work of formulating programs for assisting in
the educational reconstruction of the war-torn
countries in collaboration with the Conference and
its various subcommissions.^ He gave especial at-
tention to international organization for assisting
in educational and cultural reconstruction and the
supplying of basic school equipment to the war-
torn countries. He, has also cooperated with the
representatives of the Koberts Commission and
with the Supreme Military Command in work
which beare on cultural and educational matters.
In the week before his departure for the United
States, he visited Brussels and Paris and certain
rural areas in France, where he saw at first hand
the reopening of schools. Before returning to
London Dr. Kefauver will consider with officials
of the Department certain educational and cul-
tural problems which the changing military situa-
tion is bringing to the fore.
' BuxLEJTiN of May 6, 1944, p. 413.
466
Antecedents of National Socialist Education
Some Aspects of the German Mind
Before considering the remarkable changes
which National Socialism has effected in the
German educational system, it should be empha-
sized that National Socialism is an ideology as well
as a political system and that its degree of success
or failure has depended upon its ability to shape
the German mind in its own image. While it is
not maintained that there exists a fixed and stere-
otyped mentality shared by all Germans, it is the
consensus of informed opinion that there are cer-
tain common attitudes and habits of thought, not
racially inbred but the outcome of history, tradi-
tion, and circumstance, which are widely charac-
teristic of Germans. Hitlerism, obnoxious though
it may be to other nationalities, has gaged cor-
rectly certain Teutonic traits and folkways, even
though its ultimate crystallization into a pattern
of thought and conduct is certainly an exaggera-
tion and perversion of Germanic ideals. It is sig-
nificant that Hitler gained his initial hold upon
the German nation primarily as a popular educa-
tor and molder of the collective mind ; his political
system was and is primarily a vast educational
establishment geared to the mass-production of
a required type of mentality.
The German mental character evades sharp
definition and seems at first a cluster of paradoxes.
It is complex and many-sided, reflecting the poly-
glot racial composition of the Reich, its political
"indeterminacy", and its failure to coalesce into a
nation of clearly defined traits. The polarity of
North and South, of Ostelbien and the Rhineland,
of Protestant and Catholic, and of Potsdam and
Weimar has impressed all observers.
' Mr. Fuller i.s a Country Specialist. Central European
Section, Division of Territorial Studies, Office of Special
Political Affairs, Department o( State. This is tlie first
of a series of three articles on German education : In the
BniLETiN of Oct. 29 will appear "National Socialist Edu-
cation in Theory and Practise" and in the Bdlletin of
Nov. 5, "Higher Learning and Extra-Curricnlar
Educatiou".
' F. H. Heinemann, "The Unstable Mind of the German
Nation", Hihbert Journal, Jan. 1940, pp. 219-20. T. H.
Minshall, What To Do With Oermany (London, 1941),
pp. 25-29.
'George H. Danton, Germany Ten Years After (Boston,
1928), pp. 41-47. Paul Gaultier, La Uentallti AUemande
et la Otierre (Paris, 1016), pp. 45-67.
Education in QjjJ„a„y Under the
National So,ialist Regime
""fiuili
J'ona/Soca/,,^,,
hetiveen G,
acceittuatc!
«"^erup„;„^ ,
The German often seems to
combine antagonistic traits — de-
votion and treachery, lawlessness
and love of order, sentimentality
and brutality, romantic mysti-
cism and gross materialism, love
of truth and blind acceptance of
dogma. There is evidence of a
lack of certainty and an absence
of that inner sense of security
which marks those peoples who
have "arrived at a specific way of
life". The German will is undetermined, without
limits or seiLse of direction (Hitler insists that tlie
average German -wants not freedom but direction
and a guide to action).^
A number of traits, however, may be noted with
some degree of accuracy, although generalization
in such matters is always dangerous.
Subjectivity
German thinkers tend to evolve reality out of
their own consciousness. They are notoriously
egocentric. Depth, feeling, and inwardness char-
acterize German art, notably music. The mystic,
intuitive approach is natural to the German
{Atischauung is a favorite word in German phi-
losophy, not quite translatable into "insight").
There is an introvert quality about much German
thinking — it lacks healthy rational objectivity.
The German is inclined to be hypersensitive, to be
unable to view himself as he is or as others see
him. In time of stress this trait becomes exag-
gerated into a species of national touchiness and
spiritual isolation which often takes the form of
an almost pathological resentment of criticism.
Germans have had little training in the "objective
evaluation of other people's ideas." "
Idealism
Closely associated with his mystical bent is tlie
German's conception of reality as consisting ^
ideal or abstract qualities. Perhaps G'"''^'''!"^^
greatest contribution to modern thought has ee^
the philosophy of idealism with its profound
at least abstruse) inwardness, subjectivity,
flllLEB'
■lUntern World. It
' ,. the amorabsm oj
the subservience to
mlbursts of sadistic
..™,.^rion" «''"'<^'"''""'^/*
sane cooperation ,aZe^,boring states, the
craving /or untm.JZet "'^ conquest, and
the inability lo
"'prtiktronf"'
or
and
mysticism. Ideals subjectively
conceived are accepted as abso-
lutes and constrain to passionate,
irrational, and unrealistic action.
The German readily loses him-
self in a self -subordinating "fol-
lowership" if convinced that his
leader embodies the ideal reality
of his heart's desire — whence his
unquestioning loyalty, self-efface-
ment, and willing sacrifice of
f reedom^and he will pursue his
ideal "over corpses" if necessaiy.''
Dynamic Instability
A leading Nazi educator has said : "We are the
ever nascent, never complete; we are the eternal
strivers after completion, struggling for a higher
and a final destiny, always at the start and never
at the finish." This restates clearly a concept of
the German mind (or will) that has often been
expressed by German thinkers and one which finds
vindication in history (Luther : "We are not yet
but we will be"; Nietzsche: "To be German means
to be in the process of growth."). A perpetual
restlessness marks the German. Life is not being
but becoming. The world is a theater of conflict ;
struggle, the law of life. There are no natural
frontiers, fixed and eternal, either to his country
or to his thought. The "divine discontent" of the
German was symbolized in the masterpiece of
Germany's gi-eatest poet. Hegel's dogma that
reality is only a progressive attempt to realize full
self-consciousness, never achieved and repudiating
every stage as insufficient, is applicable to the
German mind if not to the objective universe.
The German is richer in dreams and potentialities
than in achieved realities. Impulse and irrational
sentiment often prevail over reason. The Ger-
man has been for the West a catalyst, disturber,
agitator, and motive force, suffering greatly but
working much good and evil.
Polarity With Western Thought
■ ^<=<=<»-ding to Alfred Biiuraler, German thought
« the polar opposite of the Roman-derived Euro-
467
pean culture. Together these two cultures consti-
tute the dialectic of Europe. Germany, exposed
spiritually as well as physically to the Romanized
West, alternately has been strongly attracted to
foreign ideas and has reverted to a narrow and in-
tense Germanism. She is both highly susceptible
to outside influence and possessed to an unusual
degree of a "centralized race-personality." Al-
though she is capable of developing a highly cos-
mopolitan outlook, of contributing more than her
share to the intellectual and cultural well-being of
Europe, Germany has yet remained an element un-
assimilated by western culture; her separatist
impulses recurrently engender an acute conscious-
ness of her own "tribal personality", exaggerating
the ever-latent tension between Germanism and
the West. The two worlds, says Hans Backer,
"face each other in the panoply of their mutiial
alienation".'^ The German attitude toward the
West seems to be a blend of two elements : a sense
of "not belonging", which assumes in poUtics the
form of an isolation or encirclement complex, and
the conviction that Germany's fore-ordained mis-
sion is to achieve a synthesis of the two great
cultural elements of the West, Latin-Christian
tradition and Germanic strength.
Susceptibility to Collective Mania
Although it is probably unscientific to ascribe
psychopathic traits to the "mind" of a nation, it
is generally agreed that Germans have shown
themselves susceptible to an unusual degree to col-
lective psychological forces, especially in moments
of stress and strain deeply affecting the national
life. The post-1919 German has been described
as an "anguished man", afliicted with a "crisis men-
tality". The collapse of old values and a con-
tinuing sense of inner and external insecurity
made many Germans increasingly amenable to
what might be termed psychic mass diseases. The
failure of German education to develop self-reliant
and integrated personalities left the average Ger-
man without adequate defense against irrational
propagandas and waves of collective emotionalism,
particularly when the satisfaction of certainty,
security, and assured guidance was offered. Wliat
'Charlotte Biihlcr, "Why Do Germans So Easily For-
feit Their Freedom?". The Journal of Abnormal and So-
cial Pxlichology, Apr. 1943, pp. 49-57.
' Erich Kahler, Der deutsche Chariildcr in der O^schichte
E\iropaa (Ziirich. 1937), I, pp. 5-9. Aurel Kolnai. The War
Against the West (New York, 1938), pp. fiti2-65. Hans
Bilcker, Deutschland und das Aicndland (Jena. 1935).
t(>8
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
iipjioai's to I ho mitsidor iis a l;i(eii( iiistiiut for
sorvitmlo is nitlior (lie instinctive tendeney of thp
Gerni;ui to seek freedom in subnierijenee of self in
a movement, a ''foUowership" which resolves the
dilemmas of his personal confusions in the pur-
suit of a collective ideality attuned to his inner
hopes and strivinjis.
In the opinion of some students of the Cicruian
problem the German mentality, particularly in
recent years, is clearly psychotic or paranoiac,
evidenced, it is argued, by such traits as chronic
suspiciousness, fancied grievances, a sense of
mai'tyrdom. extreme ethnocentrism ("we" v.
"they" complex), mciiahanaiiia, passion for domi-
nation, and fanatical belief in a mission." Hence
the amoralism of German political conduct, the
subservience to unscrupulous leaders, the out-
bursts of sadistic cruelty, the "fatherland hxa-
tion" which thwarts s;ine cooperation with neigh-
boring states, and the craving for unlimited power
and conquest. Hence also the extreme intolerance,
the violent insistence by (Jermans upon their own
point of view, the inability or unwillingness to
argue controversial issues which has often been
noted by foreign observers. That such traits are
prevalent can hardly be doubted ; that they consti-
tute a national paranoia or neurosis is open to
([uestion. Obviously such characteristics of the
German tenipcramcnt have been made more appar-
ent and obnoxious by her recent historical experi-
ences and by the National Socialist system of
education. 'The [u-esent German state of mind
seems to be a resultant of the interaction between
tragic group experience as a nation and predispo-
sitions inherent in the German character.
Education Before National Socialism
General Ch-vrvVctee of Ebucation Under the
Empire
As a background for the consideration of Na-
tional Socialist reforms, certain fundamental char-
acteristics of (Jerman education prior to 15U4 may
be noted. Although no system of national con-
trol then existed, each state being in complete con-
trol of its own school system, the schools of the
Heich, particulai'ly of Prussia, constituting two
I birds of the whole, liad developed a fairlj- uni-
form pattern of organization, subject-matter, and
objectives. They were geared to a society essen-
tially aristocrat ic and authoritarian. Educational
leaders and the ranks of the teaching profession
were recruited mainly from the upper classes and
repi'esented conservative, often reactionary social
ideals. The universities, the higher professional
schools, and even the secondary schools were vir-
tually barred to the sons of workers and the poorer
classes by jprohibitive tuition fees and a rigidly
selective system. There existed not even a common
elementary school for all classes but rather various
types of schools catering to differences in social
status and religious creed. Religious instruction
was — and still is- — imjiarted in the public schools,
and there were few .schools of an inter-denomina-
tional character. Pre-1014 education is well char-
acterized by James Russell :
''The vigorous discipline of the schools, which
brooks no opposition and tolerates no parental
interference; the methods of instruction, which
leave nothing to chance and individual initiative,
and the system of privileges, which dominates
teachers and pupils alike — all tend to the develop^
ment of a character which feels no restriction of
personal liberty in the constant surveillance of the
police and the rule of a military despotism. The
social institutions, the school sj'stem and the meth-
ods of instruction in Germany are calculated to
beget dependence on authority rather than inde-
pendence and freedom of action."
-Vbove the elementary schools, a system of
middle and vocational schools continued the train-
ing of the majority who were destined to industrial
and mechanical pursuits. An elaborate system
of secondary schools carefully .segregated the
minority who were to be educated for the higher
professions and positions of leadership in the
state. The latter was exceptionally important
since the German bureaucracy has always enlisted
a large percentage of highlj' educated personnel.
The secondary schools wei-e of two main types:
one (the Gt/mnasiuni) emphasizing classical cul-
ture and ancient languages, and the other (the
RtiiI>ir/ni/() stressing science and modern lan-
guages. The classical universities and the higher
leehnical and professional schools achieved a world
" liieliard JI. Hi-iekner, "Tlic German Cultural Paranoid
Trend", Anwricnn Journal of Orthopftiichiotrii, Oct. 1&42,
pp. tni-lD. Xatioii. .Tune 5. ISMS, pp. 812-14. Sebastian
HiitTMor. (Icrmiiiiii: Jcki/U and Jliidc (New York, 19411.
ficssim.
OCTOBER 22, 1944
reputation for sound and efficient scholarship and
a remarkable degree of academic freedom and
immunity from state interference. Many became
renowned centers of study and research, attract-
ing students from all parts of the world. The
universities of the Empire have often been criti-
cized, however, on two grounds (significant in
view of later Nazi reforms) : their extreme loose-
ness and informality of organization, which re-
sulted in the elimination of all but the most mature
and .self-reliant students, and their tendency to an
isolated inteilectualism which was often out of
touch with the realities of national life.
The German schools prior to 1914 did not con-
cern themselves with political education except in
the sense of training obedient and loyal servants
of the state. They educated subjects, not citizens.
History texts stressed the role of Germany in Eu-
ropean development, depicting the unification of
the Reich as its culminating event, and they em-
phasized the superior merits of the German people,
their culture, and their rulers. But there was
little endeavor to acquaint German youth with
civic institutions or with the principles and func-
tioning of government. No positive social duties
were inculcated — civic obligation consisted mainly
of unquestioning obedience to the civil and crim-
inal codes. The mechanics of government was
noted, but politics was viewed as a sphere of
activity extraneous to the life of the average in-
dividual. The growth of Social Democracy in
Germany led to some attempt on the part of the
Party to impart civic instruction to its members.
In 1913 the fiist national conference on civic train-
ing was held in Berlin, sponsored mainly by
bourgeois and middle-class groups. But the
dominant tendency in the schools until 1914 was
to assume that government was the monopoly of
the ruling elite and did not vitally concern the
masses of the population.
German education until 1914 may be said to
have been marked by meclianical efficiency and
spiritual decline. It reflected the industrial and
technological expansion of the Reich and its rapid
emergence as a world power, but it proved that
the inner spiritual life was not adjusted to external
forms and changes. Over-specialization, effi-
ciency, and "soulless omniscience" characterized an
era that felt the surge of progress but was losing
its faith in traditional values. The war of 1914
demonstrated the high degree of literacy and tech-
46^
nical proficiency of the German nation but at the
same time gave evidence of the materialistic stand-
ards and moral confusion of the (Jerman people
when they were confronted by a major spiritual
crisis.
Educational Refoem Under the Republic
New Social and Educational Theories
War and revolution disposed of the old order
and opened the way for revoluf ionaiy innovations
in education, yet without generating clear and pos-
itive criteria for a new society. Educational
theory reflected this dilemma. A Germany accus-
tomed to regimentation of social and intellectual
life controlled from above was unprei)ared for
the liberty which had been thrust upon it. In
formulating an educational program little in the
way of background or experience could be utilized.
Post-war years were marked by a collapse of norms,
a sort of "liberty of catastrophe" or "cultural
Bolshevism" as one scliool of critics called it. It
was an era of bold and vigorous experimentation
but one that was characterized by uncertainty and
divided oi)inion on the ultimate goals of education.
The Weimar Constitution exi)ressed a liberal
and idealistic philosophy of education. It advo-
cated the duty of parents to provide physical,
social, and spiritual education for their children
and the necessity of supervision by the state.
Exploitation or neglect of youtli was to be guarded
against. Communities, states, and Reich were to
collaborate in a free, public system of schools with
compulsory attendance of pupils and uniform
training of teachers. Greater unity of organiza-
tion and organic development was to be attained.
Equalization of opportunity for children of all
classes was mentioned (although not achieved in
practice). Religious instruction was to form an
integral part of the curriculum. In all schools
"moral training, a sense of civic responsibility,
personal and vocational efficiency in a spirit of
national German feeling and international con-
ciliation" were to be aimed at (article 148).
Perhaps the keynote of the new education was
the effort to derive all procedures from tlie needs
of the child {vo7n Kinde aus). A new humanism,
akin to the progressive philosophy represented by
John Dewey in America, aimed at the rationaliza-
tion of education by seeking to develop the totality
of the individual's capacities in organic relation
470
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
with the social environment.' Vital experience
(Erlebnis) became the watchword. There was a
revolt against standardized procedures. The ob-
jective was a rounded personality, not uniform
rights or mechanical freedom; however, the
Gemeinschaft idea, the Volk, appealed, rather than
individualism in the prevalent Western sense.
There was a conscious attempt to counter the ego-
centric individualism of the time by emphasizing
civic duty and the demands of a close-knit cooper-
ative society, and to break down the class and re-
gional particularism of German life by making
education an experience of shared living.
Although far from chauvinistic and, in fact, in-
clined toward the ideal of international under-
standing, Weimar education displayed a tendency
to stress the sources of German cultural national-
ism {alt Deutschtum) . probably as a defensive reac-
tion against the feeling of repression, isolation,
and ostracism induced by Germany's treatment at
the hands of the Allies. It was animated less by a
sense of hostility toward the Western powers than
by a conscious need to find sovirces of strength
within her own history and traditions in the face
of a hostile and suspicious world. This emphasis
on Germanism in the Weimar schools is exceed-
ingly important since it tended to reenforce the
introvert traits of the German mind, since it handi-
capped the really sincere efforts at international
reconciliation put forth by Rathenau, Stresemann,
and other leaders, and since it prepared the Ger-
man people for extreme nationalistic indoctrina-
tion under Nazi leadership. It had a beneficial
effect, however, in that the Republic rooted the
German nation more firmly in the soil of its tradi-
tional culture than the Empire had ever succeeded
in doing.
Educational Innovations
Vnifoation. Although it left control with the
state ministries of education, the Reich assumed
a greater interest in education and influenced
policy tlirougli directives (suggested, not dictated)
and tlie effecting of uniform laws with regard to
teacher-training. A basic four-year elementary
school {G rundschule) was established through-
out the Reicli. The age of compulsory schooling
'Carl H. Beckei', Secondary Education and Teacher
Training in Germany (New York, 1931), pp. 13-15.
Thomas Alexander and Beryl Parker, The New Education
in the German Republic (New York, 1929), pp. 358-62.
was uniformly extended one year (to the age of
18). Secondary schools were simplified to four
basic types. A compulsory three-year vocational
course (beyond the Grundschule) was uniformly
established.
Democratization. The reduction of fees and the
awarding of scholarships afforded greater equality
of opportunity (the secondary schools remained
essentially aristocratic, however, as before train-
ing a selected group for leadership). The maxim
"an open road for the capable" was adopted as a
guiding princijile in pupil selection. Co-education
was admitted to some degree although it has never
won much approval in Germany, and special
schools for girls were established. Much more
attention was given to civic education and specific
training for participation in a democratic com-
monwealth. More freedom, pupil initiativa, and
tolerance were permitted in the classroom — there
was less regimentation and indoctrination. Ad-
ministration was decentralized to permit more
flexible adaptation of schools to local needs. Ad-
visory parents' councils were established.
&vhject-matter and methods. More stress was
placed upon physical training and vocational
instruction adapted to individual needs; also, as
previously mentioned, emphasis was placed upon
civic training and German studies. A greater
effort was made to integrate subject-matter about
units of interest related to students' needs. The
trend was away from purely intellectual training.
The spontaneous interests and activities of the
child became the starting-point in teaching pro-
cedure (untrue, however, of many conservative
schools). Work groups, student councils, labora-
tory methods, and activity programs were fostered.
A more conscious endeavor was made to reshape
society through the schools than to educate, as
before 1914, to a given type.
Teacher training. The preparation of teachers
was put upon a broader basis. The old-time
normal schools in Prussia were replaced by peda-
gogical institutes which offered some basic elements
of a liberal education as well as the mechanics of
pedagogy. The training of secondary teachers was
placed upon a strict university standard.
New types of schools. A new German high
school {Deutsche Oherschule) was established as a
basic type of secondary school, devoted largely to
the study of Gorman art, literature, and folk-
ways. The AufhauschuJe, a continuation high
OCTOBER 22, 1944
471
school, especially adapted to rural districts and
with a vocational emphasis, was established. "Ac-
tivity schools", inaugurated as early as 1909, were
greatly extended. They were radical in method,
centering all education around the natural life
experiences of the child and dedicated to the re-
shaping of society through naturalistic education.
Community schools {Gemeinsch-aftschulen) em-
phasized social, cooperative living as the essence of
educational experience. Country home schools
were established in an effort to counteract city in-
fluences and to make natural rural surroundings an
educational force in the life of the city child. This
attempt to overcome the evils of Germany's exces-
sive urbanization was later continued and ampli-
fied by Nazi educators. The People's High
Schools, which sprang up abundantly after 1919,
were an attempt to solve the problem of adult edu-
cation and to counteract the materialistic in-
fluences of German industrial and urban life.
They were mainly night schools (a few boarding
schools wei-e set up), were mainly sponsored by
worker groups, were entirely free of state control,
and stressed liberal and cultural subjects in their
relation to the life and interests of the people.
They attacked the isolation of culture from the life
of the nation and pioneered a new, humanistic ap-
proach, much in the spirit of the famous Danish
Folk College, seeking to popularize knowledge and
to break down the monopoly of "detached culture"
by specialists and elite groups. They were highly
democratic, non-political, and non-sectarian and
sought to eliminate class barriers, dogmas, and
prejudices. The Nazis, naturally, had little use
for them and eventually supplanted them with
their own characteristic forms of adult education,
a part of their system of state control and indoctri-
nation.
The Youth Movement
Aside from schooling, formal or informal, a
significant educational force of the Weimar period
was the largely spontaneous activity and organi-
zation of youth. This movement had originated
with the Wandervogel, an exceedingly informal
association of youth (the first group having gath-
ered in 1899 under the inspiration of Karl
Fischer), and had rapidly spread throughout Ger-
many and neighboring lands. It was what the
name implies; a free and spontaneous association
of youth in revolt against the rigid restraints of
bourgeois social life, scholastic discipline, and the
artificialities and restraints, the materialism and
stuffiness of German mores at the end of the cen-
tury. Its watchwords were Nature, Folk, and
Freedom. It grew naturally out of the disposition
of the Germans to wander — a disposition especially
strong now as a reaction to the restraints imposed
by a mechanized urban civilization. It was an
escapist movement which sought refuge in the
loved objects of the German land and its history —
old castles, pine woods, the old folk traditions, and
shrines of historic and patriotic appeal. It re-
verted instinctively to the older roots of German
life — to medieval and classical influences and to
pagan Germanism. It was adventurous, romantic,
addicted to the simple life, and non-conformist.
Prior to 1914 it was almost purely individualistic
in character, with little sense of social responsibil-
ity or urge for reform, although its members im-
posed upon themselves a code of self-discipline.
Its aims were wholesome comradeship, recreation,
and health, and a greater knowledge of the Ger-
man fatherland — all transfused with an exhilirat-
ing sense of freedom.
The war of 1914 interrupted the movement but
intensified the patriotism of youth and its sense of
identity with the Volk. The movement revived
amid the chaos and difficulties of the war's after-
math, chastened by a consciousness of social re-
sponsibility. The old leadership of the Reich had
been discredited, and youth was more definitely
committed to creating a new order nearer to its
heart's desire, more realistic and seeking not escape
from but mastery of the forces of machine-age
civilization. The movement no longer held aloof
from the national life but became associated with
the various adult organizations, social, religious,
and political, while retaining its own autonomy
and youthful idealism. By 1927 the membership
of the various organizations was as follows :
Lutheran 595, 772
Catholic 881, 121
Jewish 4, 750
Socialist
Political
Vocational
Youth-Movement Clubs
Athletic Associations
Miscellaneous
Total 4, 135, 79T
These were united in a National Council of Ger-
man Youth Organizations but, unlike the later
56, 239
44,300
401, 897
29,755
1, 577, 563
544,400
472
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Hitler Youth, were not rigidly controlled by a
centralized hierarchy.
The Weimar youth movement was more serious
and less irresponsible than the pre-1914 Wander-
vogel. It continued and intensified, however, cer-
tain characteristics of the earlier movement. It
was more nationalistic but not in a chauvinistic
sense; it was mainly middle-class in composition
and essentially democratic. More than ever the
compact German landscape, rich in cultural tradi-
tion and not yet too completely industrialized or
motorized, exerted a strong attractive force. Youth
"hostels were established in town, village, or open
countiy (2,200 by 1929), providing comfortable
and congenial facilities for youth on their rambles.
The school authorities recognized and utilized the
educational value of "wandering". Instructors
and their classes often used youth camps on jour-
neys of exploration into natural lore and folklore.
Although the majority of high-school and univer-
sity youth were members of some youth organiza-
tion and although their extra-cui'ricular activities
were encouraged by the authorities, the state
avoided exercising any direct control or super-
vision over the various groups. There was no effort
to inculcate nationalistic ideals, yet the movement
undoubtedly fostered a democratic and unifying
spirit. An impartial contemporary observer could
say: "There is not the slightest trace of false na-
tionalistic propaganda in the movement, but it is
infused with noble and worthy sentiments that any
nation would do well to emulate."
Certain aspects of the movement more sinister
in import may be noted. Wliile essentially equal-
itarian and democratic in its own organization, the
movement was never integrated with the Republic
nor committed to its ideals. The Weimar credo
aroused little enthusiasm. With the failure of
successive regimes to solve the almost insuperable
problems imposed by the economic and interna-
tional situation, youth was estranged and disillu-
sioned with the Weimar brand of democracy.
Rightly or wrongly, many of the younger genera-
tion saw in the Republic only a reminder of
national defeat and humiliation. They viewed
its politicians as self -centered partisans and time-
servers, its methods as corrupt or inept, its objec-
tives as materialistic. Youth was increasingly in
a mood to be swayed by some new and dynamic
' Ch.arles H. Herford, The Post-War Mind of Qennany
(Oxford, 1927), pp. 28-34.
ideology promising hope and the prospect of a
"world fit for heroes". Moreover, German youth
was never strongly oriented to cosmopolitan and
international ideals. The troublesome and disap-
pointing era, with its economic disasters, unem-
ployment, and hopeless outlook for the generation
just coming of age, accentuated the introvert tend-
ency in the thinking and reactions of young Ger-
many. The experiences of the Republic seemed to
offer little hope of accommodation between Ger-
many and her former — and always potential —
enemies. Youth became convinced that a way out
could be found only in a resort to nationalistic
policies. Particularly in the hai-sh years from
1929 to 1932 they were inclined to repudiate
a regime committed to a policy of "fulfilment"
and to support extremist programs, especially
those which seemed grounded in an intense and
increasingly intransigent and uncompromising
Germanism.
Liberalism and Reaction
The major tragedy of the Weimar Republic was
perhaps that it failed to win the German people
to whole-hearted devotion and support of its prin-
ciples. That failure was reflected in its educa-
tional experience, and it rendered possible the
success of the psychological blitzkrieg to which
Hitler subjected the nation. The ultimate failure
of tlie Republic to retool the German mind was
due to no lack of idealism or good intentions. No
modern constitution has ever placed gieater stress
upon education as a medium of social and inter-
national enlightenment than the document of 1919.
It contemplated education in the spirit of freedom,
democratic equalitarianism, and the harmonious
adaptation of nationalism to the cosmopolitan
environment. It was one of the only two constitu-
tions — the other being that of republican Spain in
1931 — of modern Europe to specify international
conciliation as a goal of education. The debacle
of 1918 had created a genuine, if temporary, reac-
tion against militarism, which was evidenced in
the abundant literature of a pacifist nature that
marked the Weimar decade.* School textbooks
were revised or rewritten and are generally ad-
mitted to have been admirably objective in their
treatment of historical and international data.
The higher schools gave more attention to the
study of modern foreign languages and cultures.
Correspondence with foreign students, as well as
OCTOBER 22, 19U
473
visits abroad, was systematically encouraged.
Special bureaus in Berlin and Leipzig were estab-
lished for the puipose of encouraging student ex-
changes and better mutual understanding of
European cultures. It was widely realized that
Germany's tragic experience of 1914-18 was due in
part to misunderstanding of foreign peoples.
Also, for the first time, civic education was exten-
sively introduced, and a conscious effort was made
to train for intelligent participation in political
life. History instruction, while still centering
uijon Germany, emphasized cultural achievements
and movements for unity and freedom rather than
military enterprises.
Yet fundamentally the Republic failed to liberal-
ize its schools. The old imperial bureaucracy, in-
cluding most of the teaching personnel, which was
virtually unchanged by the revolution, remained
in oifice. A great majority of the teachers at all
levels probably remained monarchists at heart
or at best were lukewarm converts to the Republic.
Some of the high educational officials in the vari-
ous states pursued a reactionary policy. Repub-
lican ideals elicited little emotional response either
from teachers or students. It is highly significant
that in explaining the rights and duties of citizens
to the state it was the German, not the republican,
character of the state that was stressed. The
woi-k of the school was in large part neutralized
by the incessant projiaganda emanating from the
army, veterans' groups, and other reactionary or-
ganizations. The essentially class basis of educa-
tion remained relatively unchanged; moreover no
effort was made to win over the teachers' corps.
The ReiDublic, deejily involved in its pressing
economic and financial difficulties, did not offer its
teachers adequate salaries, security, or satisfying
IDrestige. Many teachers of the older age group
still longed for the "good old days" and openly
propagated monarchism in the classroom. Teach-
ers of middle-class origin blamed the regime for
the destructive inflation and the international hu-
miliations to which the Reich was subjected. The
youth themselves were never aroused to enthusiasm
or a sense of true devotion by their republican
schooling."
So significant does the failure of the republican
educators seem in retrospect that a more detailed
examination of some of the forces making for
reaction may be of value. One of these forces
was simply the excessive subjectivity of German
thinking, which carried the stress on Germanism
to extremes. Whether under monarchic, I'epub-
lican, or Nazi regimes, German education has em-
phasized the teaching of the study of the home
enviromnent {Heimatkunde), with its motto
"from the homeland out". This stress on local
folklore, geography, and history might have been
entirely beneficial if it had not been exaggerated
to the extent of making Germany the sole criterion
of values and creating in the pupil's mind a one-
sided picture of cultural development. The direc-
tive of the ministry of education of Saxony
which exalted "Germanism as the fundamental
idea of the entire education in the school" was
tyi:)ical." There was a deliberate effort, even un-
der the Republic, to awaken in the child a "feeling
for the common racial and national unity". The
life, institutions, and history of other peoples were
to be presented only so far as they had decisively
influenced German history. Foreign traits were
to be studied only that the Gei-man character
might become more clearly etched in contrast. In
the secondary schools students were to learn to
"feel, think and live in German"; instruction
should be in the scientific spirit, but it must never
"lose sight of its goal beyond the scientific —
namely, education for a spiritual goal, and cou-
rageous, joyous Germanism". In all schools
geography was used to cultivate a love for the
native soil; literature, to unveil the German soul;
music, to demonstrate German aesthetic pre-
eminence ; and history, to stimulate a will for the
preservation of German culture.
This extreme orientation of the youthful Ger-
man mind toward race, folk, and native culture
might have been innocuous enough under more
normal conditions, but in tlie turbulent times of
the Weimar Republic it doubtless contributed to
the distorted image the German people had
already formed of themselves in relation to the
outside world. It fertilized the mind of youth for
the seeds of destructive racial and ' nationalistic
propaganda soon to be sown broadcast over the
land. This point deserves concrete illustration.
To many a Weimar school child, the following
"Paul Kosok, Modern Germany (Chicago, 1933), pp.
1(18-73. Edgar A. Mowrer, Germany Puis the Clock Back
(New York, 1939), pp. 153-65.
'"Cecilia H. Bason, The Study of the Homeland and
Civilization in the Elementary Schools of Germany (New
York, 1937), p. 31.
Gebmant
Homeland
A pui'e and vigorous race
Soulful music
Heroism
Idealism
Society as organic folk-
community
Personality
Esthetic appreciation
Orderly government
Soldierly virtues
474
stereotypes were true pictures of his own country
and America :
America
Vast, crude cities
Mixed, iiiongrelized races
.Jazz, negroid music
Mammonism and greed
Materialism
Society as a chaos of un-
bridled individualism
Standardization
Esthetic illiteracy
Rule by the mob or by
gangsters
Excessive emphasis on
competitive sports
Similarly, distorted pictures of other nationalities
were uncritically accepted as truth. The majority
of Germans traveled little outside their own bor-
ders; those that did carried their prejudices with
them. The Republic, unfortunately, did little to
overcome the German national disposition for
misunderstanding alien peoples and cultures.
The teacher, generally a man, well-trained and
respected in the community, is of unusual im-
portance in the German school. He relies less
upon textbooks or routine aids than an American
teacher, and his personal presentation of material
is all-important. It was a major tragedy, there-
fore, that, on the average, the Weimar teacher was
not won over to republican principles. In thou-
sands of classrooms monarchism, Prussianism,
and militarism continued to be eulogized. A reac-
tionary type of patriotism marked the attitude of
a majority of the teachers. In many communities
it was an act of martyrdom to profess republican
or liberal convictions. The most progressive ele-
ment was to be found in the elementary schools of
the industrial districts; in the smaller t«wns and
rural areas and in the upper schools everywhere
reaction prevailed. Under these circumstances it
is not surprising that little enthusiasm for repub-
lican ideals was aroused in the minds of youth.
In one Berlin Gymnasium., according to a former
student, the teachers taught contempt for democ-
racy and exalted the Prussian monarchical ideal.
He reports : "The flag of the democratic Republic
was never raised in our hearts." '^ A survey of
pupil opinion of children 11 to 14 years old in
the Volkschulen in 1932 indicated that 69 percent
" Edward Y. Hartshorne, German Youth and the Nazi
Dream of Victory (New York, 1941), pp. 11-12.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
hated the French, 92 percent hated the Poles, and
a majority accepted readily the prospect of a new
war. Friedrich Walter, in Der Vertrag von Ver-
sailles, used widely in German schools under the
Republic, stressed the following points :
France's "annihilation policy" toward Ger-
many
The unfairness of the "war guilt" clause
Allied violations of the Fourteen Points
Economic discriminations against Germany
German heroism, 1914-18 ; defeat due to over-
whelming superiority of enemy forces
Necessity of revising the Versailles Treaty
if Germany is to live
Many teachers instilled a reactionary point of view
under the guise of teaching reverence for the na-
tional past. A law of the Diet of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz (June 1932) required that "German his-
tory henceforth be taught on decidedly national-
istic lines, with the aim of educating the young
to militarism \Wehrhaftigkeit^''\
Youth were educated not only by the schools but
also through their total environment and associa-
tions. Social and cultural influences under the Re-
public were on the whole conservative, often re-
actionary. A society whose mores remained basic-
ally unchanged could not create a liberal atmos-
phere for its youth. Conservative parental in-
fluence doubtless undid many a lesson learned in
liberal schools. Reichswehr officers lectured at
many schools and universities as advocates of
Wehrwissenschaft and soldierly ideals. The Ger-
man cinema either was escapist or tended to glorify
the "good old times" of monarchy and the exploits
of German war heroes. No films glorified repub-
lican ideals. The numerous free corps movements
as well as the revived Reichswehr kept alive the
military concept. Above all it must be admitted
that Germany's bitter national experiences of the
era — defeat and humiliation, poverty, inflation, the
liquidation of the middle class, the occupation of
the Ruhr, the barriers to economic and professional
opportunity, and the unclear guidance and spirit-
ual chao.s — all these combined to associate democ-
racy, in the eyes of German youth, with national
degradation, liberalism with self -centered individ-
ualism, and republicanism with economic and po-
litical chaos. AVeimar youth craved a vision of
the future and reasonable economic opportunity.
The Republic could offer them neither.
OCTOBER 22, 1944
475
The universities were the chief educational
stroiigliokls of reaction under tlie Republic." The
faculties were carried over essentially unchanged
from the imperial regime. The students (number-
ing 130,000 in 1932) were either of the old priv-
ileged classes, always reactionary and now dis-
gruntled at republican innovations, or of the mid-
dle classes, which had been decimated by inflation
and depression. Many were hungry, hopeless of
jobs in the economically foundering Republic, and
bitterly hostile to "the System", which they blamed
for their ills. They were anti-democratic, anti-
socialist (few Social Democrats could find en-
' trance into the higher schools), anti-cosmopolitan,
and anti-Semitic. They looked forward to a day
of victory over the enemies of Germany both with-
in and without. Freedom to them became merely
a symbol of the forces which had brought Ger-
man}' to its present plight. Even before the ad-
vent of Hitler to power, students had begun to
demonstrate against the few liberal professors.
They opposed the "weak" policy of the Republic
(the Juden-re'publik to many of them) and gravi-
tated naturally to National Socialism, attracted by
its militantly and fanatically nationalistic pro-
gram. Probably a substantial majority sympa-
thized more or less openly with the Nazis at the
time of their advent to power.
The Republic failed to win over the universities.
It left their administration in the hands of reac-
tionary bureaucrats and professors ; it retained the
selective procedure whereby few but conservatives
were ever able to matriculate; it failed to over-
come their aloofness and intellectualism and to in-
tegrate tliem with the life and needs of the peo-
ple; and it left the problem of unemployment in
the intellectual professions not only unsolved but
considerably more acute. The universities became
a factor in the ideological attack upon the Re-
public and were speedily absorbed into the Na-
tional Socialist educational establishment.
Pan American Conference on
Geography and Cartography
The Second Pan American Consultation on
Geography and Cartography, to which all the
American nations were invited by both the Bra-
zilian Government and the Pan Ajnerican Institute
of Geography and History, was held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, from August 14 to September 2,
1944. Delegates were present from all American
nations except El Salvador, Haiti, and Nicaragua.
The Brazilian National Council on Geography
acted as host agency of the Brazilian Government.
This meeting was preceded by a consultation of
leading cartograjjhers of the Americas vhich took
place in the preceding year at Washington, D. C.
Mr. Robez't H. Randall, member of tlie Bureau
of the Budget and chairman of the Commission
on Cartography of the Pan American Institute,
was chief of the American Delegation as well as
a vice chairman of the Consultation. Other offi-
cial delegates of this Government were Col. Gerald
FitzGerald, Army Air Forces; Capt. Clement L.
Garner, Coast and Geodetic Survey; Mr. Otto E.
Guthe, Department of State; Mr. Thomas P.
Pendleton, United States Geological Survey; and
Capt. Charles C. Slayton, Hydrographic Office of
the Navy Department. Mr. Reginald Kazanjian
of the American Embassy at Rio de Janeiro acted
as secretary for the Delegation. Official observers
from the United States Government were Cmdr.
K. T. Adams and Lt. Cmdr. Paul A. Smith, Coast
and Geodetic Survey; Cmdr. Irwin Chase, Hydro-
graphic Office of the Navy Department; and Col.
Geoi-ge G. Northrup, Army Air Forces.
Technical sessions, conducted as open meetings
of the Commission on Cartography of the Pan
American Institute, were organized under five dis-
cussion topics: Geodesy, topographic mapping,
aeronautical charts, hydrography, and geography
and cartography. Among the resolutions ap-
proved by the delegates to the Consultation were
the furtherance of inter-American collaboration
for improvement of basic mapping in the Amer-
icas; the standardization of symbols, scales, and
projections used in map construction; the exten-
sion and coordination of basic control for surveys;
the acceleration of mapping programs; and the
promotion of effective exchange of cartographic
materials and technically trained iDersonnel.
Delegates to the Consultation visited various
technical agencies of the Brazilian Government
at Rio de Janeiro. Official visits were also made
to Petropolis, Volta Redonda, and Santos, and to
technical agencies in the city of Sao Paulo.
'■ Edward Y. Hartshorne, TUe German Universities and
National Socialism (Cambridge, 1937), pp. 42-45.
476
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Tlie American Outlook in Foreim Affairs
Address by ASSISTANT SECRETARY BERLE '
[Released to the press October 21]
Ladies and Gentlemen :
During "this season, your Forum lias rightly de-
cided to spend the major part of its time in dis-
cussing problems of foreign affairs. There could
be no better subject.
The years 1944 and 1945 closely resemble the
years 1919 and 1920, which followed the first World
War. There is a difference. A definite attempt
is being made, as the present World AVar ap-
proaches its climax and its end in Europe, to reach
agreement on the fundamentals of peace during,
rather than after, the war. At least a part of the
difficulty with the settlements at Versailles, and
the American attitude toward them, arose from the
fact that new questions were suddenly uncovered
and had to be settled without preparation through
public discussion.
Some of us who were in the United States, later
in Europe, and then returned to the United States
in 1918 and 1919 had a startling experience. Mat-
ters which were elementary in Europe, where the
war was being fought and peace was being made,
seemed strange, sensational, and surprising to
most Americans. This country had simply not
tuned in on the European wavelength. We dis-
cussed here, as matters of petty partisan politics,
subjects which meant life and death to millions of
Europeans. Happily, that is one mistake which
we shall not make this time. The position which
America has in the world, and the part she must
take in the ensuing peace, is being discussed on a
high plane, and not as a matter of party politics.
This is mature democracy, and we can be proud
of it.
I
The first point to be made is that the United
States is entitled to assert, and cannot escape as-
serting, an American point of view.
Up to a generation ago in our history we did
not feel the necessity of initiating world policy.
Our chief concern was with the development of
the United States and the handling of affairs in
conjunction with our neighbors in the Western
Hemisphere. No one expected us to be a factor
in the balance-of-power politics in Europe. We
had the surprising and unusual privilege of stay-
ing out of the main-line settlements. We had
little or nothing to do with the defeat of Napo-
leon; and the kings, princes, and diplomats who
met in the Congress of Vienna had little con-
cern with us, or we with them. The Holy Al-
liance and the concert of powers assumed and
got authority over Europe, and though their de-
cisions made history, they hardly rated an item '
in the American press. This situation continued
through the entire nineteenth century and well
toward the twentieth. The intrigues and move-
ments between imperial Russia and imperial
Austria in the Balkans were subjects of romance
and not of discussion. What interest had we in
the seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina, or the de-
sires of Serbia to weaken the Hapsburg dynasty ?
Even the crash of World War I affected us
little; our major preoccupation was that Ameri-
can ships should not be seized by British warships
or sunk by German submarines. We were drawn
into that war really by two forces: the rising
American indignation against German cruelty and
wanton slaughter by land and by sea. and by the
direct affront to the United States when Germany
declared unrestricted submarine war. But we, as
a nation, did not feel that we were particularly in
danger, or that our national interests were vitally
threatened. Space and time still i^rotected us
adequately.
Yet in Europe a quite different notion pre-
vailed, and history shows that the European view
was right, and that ours was wrong. Europeans
saw the United States as a country capable of de-
veloping great force, economic and military, and
capable of putting that force onto the other side
of the world and settling the outcome of Old
World struggles. The record shows that military
leaders in Europe, and particularly in Berlin,
began by assuming that this was a military im-
possibility, and ended by realizing that a new
force existed which had to be taken into account.
From that moment on, America figured in every
European calculation — though we sailed blissfully
' Delivered before the Charles Carroll Forum of Wash-
ington, Washington, Oct. 20, 1944.
OCTOBER 22, 19U
477
tliroiigli the 1020's and the early 1930's in complete
ignorance of that fact.
We were due for a rude shock, and we got it.
Secretary Hull had been steadily warning the
country that the Axis j)artners planned world con-
quest, no less, and that this meant a threat to the
United States. The President vainly endeavored
to make the country realize that aggression in
Europe and Asia now involved the United States.
But there were all too many people in the country
who were living in the past: international affairs
were primarily European in origin ; America
could take them or leave them. While the
country was considering the situation without par-
ticular disturbance. Hitler made an alliance with
Japan.
That alliance was directly aimed at this country.
The military theory behind it was perfectly clear.
Hitler's plans contemplated the domination of
this hemisphere, probably beginning with South
America. Also, he had to reckon on the possi-
bility that we might not wait till he attacked but
might defend on the other side of the ocean, as
we now are doing. His alliance with Japan was
so drawn up that in either case the Japanese would
declare war on the United States. Equally,
should the Japanese attack us, the Germans would
join in the attack. This, it was thought, would tie
up substantially all the American fleet in the
Pacific and would render it impossible for this
country to take any substantial military action in
the Atlantic or in Europe. With us engaged in
the Pacific, Hitler was reasonably confident that
he could defeat his EurojDean victims.
This was a diplomatic situation which we could
not take or leave at our option. We were in-
cluded in the diplomatic-military game, whether
we liked it or not.
It is clear now that we shall never again be
able to say for ourselves whether we shall or shall
not be a part of world diplomacy. Even with-
out a world organization, no great power in the
future will make world plans without calculating
the position of this country. Either we shall be
consulted and our agreement asked, or arrange-
ments will be made to keep us occupied or out of
action if the plans are hostile to us.
There is just no escape from this. A country
which has been able to fight a huge war in the
Pacific with brilliance and success, and at the same
time to keep and maintain an army of some mil-
lions operating on the continent of Europe, and
while doing that, to make herself the arsenal for
many other covnitries combined — a country which
can do that will always figure in every inter-
national calculation, whether it wills or no.
This condition of necessity compels the United
States to consider and to make up its mind in a
great number of situations which, in yeai-s gone
by, we merely ignored.
We had, and we will continue to have, a per-
manent stake in the continued peace and security
of the world, because we have a permanent inter-
est and stake in our own peace and security. The
combination of circumstances not only entitles us
but obliges us to have and to maintain an Ameri-
can point of view. In these circumstances, isola-
tion at best means weakness and at worst positive
danger.
II
I think it probable that the changed position
of the United States does mean some evolution in
our own practices in dealing with foreign affairs.
In fact, that evolution has already begun.
Wien we were a small country, or an isolated
country, we did not as a general rule take initia-
tive in foreign affairs. Rather, we considered pro-
posals made by other countries, and passed upon
them, agreeing to them or refusing to join as our
interest dictated. The constitutional processes set
up in 1787, indeed, were adapted to that end : in-
ternational commitments were negotiated by the
executive branch of the Government and presented
then to the Senate, or, in some cases, to both
Houses of the Congress, for ratification. The
Congress was not bound in any way by the gov-
ernmental negotiation. It could and frequently
did decline to accept the results of negotiation.
This meant, in substance, that agreements to take
future action could not be made. The position
was advantageous for the representatives of the
small countrj'. For a great power it was not so
advantageous; and method had to be found by
which the legislative and executive branches of
the Government could act together.
Other governments — for example, that of Great
Britain — do not have the same difficulty. A Cabi-
net, responsible to a Parliament, has its majority
in its legislature assured in advance, and such
commitments as it makes will be those which it
is known the legislature will accept. Some equiv-
alent for this had to be found in the United States,
478
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
and some measure of progress has already been
worked out.
One of the great developments in method was
worked out by Secretary Hull in the Trade Agree-
ments Act. In substance, this act gives advance
legislative authority for agreements which follow
a line of policy; and the debate npon that policy
thus precedes the actual negotiation of the agree-
ment. For 10 years this mechanism has worked
with great success.
A second practical development is presently
going forward. This is the process of consultation
of the congressional leaders and the relevant com-
mittees of Congress by the Executive, in the form-
ative stages of policy. Consultation had between
members of the Senate and the Congress by the
President and by Secretary Hull in advance of
the Dumbarton Oaks conference is a matter of
history and has received the general approval of
the American public. In still other fields, this
practice has been made general : The relations be-
tween the executive officials primarily concerned
with the early phases of air settlements, and the
congressional committees, have been continuous
and close; and certainly, from the side of the
Executive, I can testify to the very great useful-
ness and profit which has been drawn from these
consultations, which have been going forward for
a period of well over a year. As this consultative
practice proceeds, it is fair to assume that a prac-
tical solution of the problem will be found within
the framework of our constitutional practice. We
shall, I believe, arrive at a point where foreign
affairs become increasingly non-partisan, although
the subject-matter is increasingly laid out for
public discussion.
Indeed, such a development is essential, in view
of our major interest. Peace and security may
well depend, in any given set of circumstances,
on whether other countries can know with cer-
tainty what we will do — and that means knowing
in advance, and not afterward. It has frequently
been argued that if Germany in 1914 had known
with certainty that Great Britain would declare
war upon her if she attacked Belgium, there
would have been no World War I. Proponents of
that theory insist that Britain did not define her
position until too late, and thereby permitted the
Kaiser and the German General Staff to continue
m the illusion that they could reckon without the
force of Gi'eat Britain.
It is not difficult to imagine that a similar set
of circumstances may apply in the future to us,
and that the peace and security of the world, and
incidentally of the United States, may well depend
upon the ability of an American President or of
an American Secretary of State to make the posi-
tion of this country clear in advance, with the cer-
tainty that the Congress will back him up. All
that is really called for is an increasingly close
relationship between the executive and the legisla-
tive branches of the Government, and an increas-
ing knowledge by the American public of the real
position of affairs at any given time.
This last deserves emphasis. No President, no
Secretary of State, can move beyond the limits set
on them by the Congress; and no Congress can
move beyond the limits set on it by public opinion.
The three elements must march together in the
development of policy, realizing that the failure
of any one of them may mean sacrifice of the vital
interests of the country.
Ill
By now it is reasonably clear that the over-
whelming majority of Americans realize perfectly
that they must play a part in world affaii'S.
As matters now stand, indeed, this country has
probably the greatest potential both for war and
for peace possessed by any single nation in the
world. This situation may change : The Soviet
Union has a larger territory, quite as well equipped
with natural resources as do we, and it has a larger
IDopulation, and it has demonstrated its ability to
engage in industrial f)roduction and mechanical
development. There are also two great countries
with immense latent j)ower: China, with a huge
population and a not inconsiderable outfit of
natural resources, and Brazil, with a territory
larger and richer than that of the United States
and a population which is likely to grow rapidly
both because of its birthrate and because of Euro-
pean immigration. Our present population can
unquestionably be maintained in absolute figures
and can be improved. Relatively, however, we
nuist assume that other countries will come along,
slowly or rapidly, as their genius of organization
permits. The British Commonwealtli, with a vast
organization throughout the world, indeed de-
pends now more on its power of organization of
hnmense and scattered areas than upon tlie con-
centrated potential of any one area, and thus has
a unique position in world affairs.
OCTOBER 22, 19U
479
Probably these simple facts, more than any
elaborate reasoning, determine American thinking.
A countiy whose primary interest is the assurance
of peace and security throughout the world in es-
sence has only three alternatives. It can attempt
the maintenance of peace through continuous bal-
ancing of power — the scheme followed during the
nineteenth century with occasional successes and
conspicuous failures. The United States has
never accepted the balance of power as anything
more than a doubtful expedient, and would prefer
to see the system discarded.
The second alternative is world conquest: the
creation of a new world-wide Koman Empire.
No sane man believes that possible. A madman
by the name of Hitler thought it could be done;
and he should know better tonight.
The third alternative is a cooperative system
based on mutual resjiect and relationships, out of
which international institutions may be soundly
built.
In the further future, a statesman must like-
wise consider the emergence of India ; and the re-
emergence of the potential of Western Europe
may not be far away. In these circumstances,
the cooperative solution is the only rational line
cajjable of being followed.
Is this a change in American policy? Plainly
not, though it reflects change in method. Histori-
cally the United States has always talked the lan-
guage of world peace, but has preferred to exercise
influence only by example and by persuasion.
Even after the defeat of the Covenant of the
League of Nations in the Senate in 1919, this coun-
try stimulated and supported conferences looking
toward disarmament — that being the method
chiefly advocated as a means of assuriaig world
jjeace. The Kellogg-Briand pact outlawing war
was an American attempt to act through strictly
moral force, since the treaty itself provided no
means of enforcement. In point of fact, American
attempts to meet the problem of world peace were
continuous from 1921 on ; but they assumed that
agreements to keep the peace, followed by disarma-
ment through general consent, would be sufficient
for the task. It remained for the Axis to make it
unhappily clear that agreements are not self-
executing and can be broken, and that policing is
as necessary as piety. Probably the fact that air
warfare puts this country out of the class of dis-
tant spectator and in the direct range of events
was the most powerful argument of all. There was
universal approval when the Atlantic Charter, put
forward in August 1941, forecast as a joint aim of
the United States and Britain the establishment
of a wide and permanent system of general secu-
rity, plainly implying closer relations between a
number of countries ; and there was universal ap-
proval when Secretary Hull brought back from
Moscow the pledge that the Soviet Union, Britain,
China, and the United States would endeavor to
construct, as soon as practicable, international in-
stitutions designed to preserve peace.
That work has been carried forward at Dumbar-
ton Oaks and may be reasonably regarded as well
advanced. It may fairly be said that the fact of
the Dumbarton Oaks agreement is probably even
more important than the text of the agreement it-
self. No two nations will use the same language,
even when they have the same idea; just as two
men even when they are like-minded will com-
monly exjDress themselves differently. Nor is it to
be expected that institutions are created complete ;
they grow and develop as experience is gained and
as mutual confidence rises. The ultimate strength
of the Dumbarton Oaks proposals must rest on the
common realization that everyone's national inter-
est is forwarded by the success of the experiment.
In the early stages there is a great hope, accom-
l^anied by faith and by a determination that the
experiment shall be a success. Gradually, as the
inherent usefulness of the process appears, hope
and faith are strengthened by actual experience.
I think it is fair to say that the feeling in the
United States, strong as it is, perhaps yields by
comparison to the feeling of the people in Europe.
They have seen these great experiments tried — as
in the case of the League of Nations ; they are skep-
tical of words. But they know the price of failure,
as we do not. Great masses in the Old World
literally looked over the brink of extinction : They
faced not merely the wounds and scars which
were familiar to them from older wars but the
actual and tangible possibility of being wiped off
the face of the planet. They know, as we do, that
a next war, should it exist, will probably disclose
weapons 10 times more powerful than those we
know today — just as the armies in World War I
were bow-and-arrow troops comjjared to the mech-
anized land and air armies of the present. No
national interest, in the limited sense, can com-
pare with the people's interest in the survival of
their civilization. To them, debate over relatively
minor problems of organization is ahnost beside
480
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
the point. The thing simply must work.
Some of us have had the doubtful privilege of
seeing a little into the processes of scientific re-
search which war has pushed forward with the
exigence of necessity. It is very much like looking
over the rim of hell. For man is increasingly
learning to unlock nature on the grand scale ; and
nature is replying that man had better learn to
restrain himself. It is literally true that science
is showing us ways of conducting diabolically ef-
ficient offenses, but is showing us few, if any, com-
parable defenses. It needs only slight progress
in a few fields — a progress already foreshadowed
by existing experiments — to make it possible for
any grou]) of men, anywhere, to threaten the exist-
ence of ahnost any other group of men anywhere
else, more or less irrespective of geography.
And so we are brought back, as always, to an
ultimate realization of certain moral imperatives.
Begimiing with the national interest in inde-
pendence, peace, and security, and then proceeding
to the reality that our independence and i^eace and
security are safe only if the world is reasonably
peaceful and secure, and flanking that knowledge
with the consciousness that a number of coun-
tries — and ultimately any reasonably sized coun-
try — may command weapons capable of shatter-
ing much of the fabric of civilization, we are
necessarily led to the realization that what goes
on in men's minds is of first importance. In a
small state across the sea, a group of men with
concrete-mixers may be building a structure.
Only their own desires dictate whether that struc-
ture may be something capable of launching a
robot bomb of unheard-of size, loaded with ex-
plosives of undreamed potential, or whether it is
a quite innocent stadium for healthy sport. Un-
less you are to conquer the world, you can only
influence the minds of those men with their con-
crete-mixer by some general acceptance of com-
mon values. This means conquest or conversion ;
and conquest is impossible.
For this reason the American outlook on inter-
national affairs must be universal, and it must
base itself on certain eternal values : the value of
life as against death; the value of happiness as
against misery; the value of freedom as against
bondage; the value of good-neighborship as
against the value of domination. There can be
no other sound apioroach.
The Proclaimed List
[Released to the press October 22]
The Secretary of State, acting in conjunction
with the Acting Secretary of the Treasury, the
Attorney General, the Secretary of Commerce, the
Administrator of the Foreign Economic Admin-
istration, and the Coordinator of Inter- American
Affairs, on October 21 issued Cumulative Supple-
ment 2 to Revision VIII of the Proclaimed List
of Certain Blocked Nationals, promulgated Sep-
tember 13, 1944.
Part I of Cumulative Supplement 2 contains
33 additional listings in the other American re-
publics and 209 deletions. Part II contains 103
additional listings outside the American repub-
lics and 32 deletions.
International Conference on
European Inland Transport
[Released to the press October 17]
A United States Delegation is participating in
an international conference in London on Euro-
pean inland transport. Tlie United States Delega-
tion is lieaded by Ambassador John G. Winant
and Maj. Gen. Frank Ross and includes Mr. Philip
D. Reed, Chief of American Mission for Economic
Affairs, London, Mr. Cassius M. Clay, Solicitor
General of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad on
leave with the Department of State, Mr. Robert
G. Hooker, Jr.. and Miss Helen Moats of the De-
partment of State, Mr. John M. Allison of the
American Embassy in London, Mr. Winthrop G.
Brown of the American Mission for Economic
Affairs, London, and Lt. Col. C. Z. Case, alternate
for General Ross.
The conference was convened to discuss arrange-
ments regarding inland transport in continental
Europe after the liberation of territories of the
United Nations in Europe and the occupation of
any enemy territories, with a view to ensuring
rapid movement of supplies for both the military
forces and the civilian populations, to providing
for the transport of displaced persons, and to
creating conditions in which the normal movement
of traffic can be more rapidly resumed.
The countries participating in the conference
are Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece,
OCTOBER 22, 1944
481
Luxembourg:, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
the United Kingdom, tlie United States, the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics, and Yugoslavia.
The Danish JWinister in London has been invited
to send an observer.
The opening meeting of the conference took
place at Lancaster House, St. James, London, on
October 10, under the chairmanship of Mr. P. J.
Noel Baker, Parliamentary Secretary to the Minis-
ter of War Transport.
The President's War Relief
Control Board
CORRIGENDA
Bulletin of October 1, 1944, page 347, first col-
umn, first paragraph, second line: Delete "not"
and in lieu thereof insert "now" ; same paragraph,
third line : Delete "but was" and in lieu thereof
insert a comma; page 348, second column, third
paragraph, eleventh line : Delete "only" and in lieu
thereof insert "ordinarily."
^ THE FOREIGN SERVICE ^
Consular Offices
The American Vice Consulate at Mendoza, Ar-
gentina, was closed on October 14, 1944.
The American Consulate at Rome, Italy, was
opened to the 23ublic on October 16, 1944.
^ TREATY INFORMATION ^
Jurisdiction Over Armed Forces
On October 11, 1944, under authority of the act
of June 30, 1944, Public Law 384, 78t"h Congress,
entitled "An act to implement the jurisdiction of
service courts of friendly foreign forces within
the United States, and for other purposes", the
President issued Proclamation 2626^ respecting
armed forces of the United Kingdom and Canada
within the United States. Agreements regarding
criminal offenses committed by members of armed
forces have been concluded by the United States
with the United Kingdom ~ and Canada.^
Inter-American Institute of
Agricultural Sciences
Venezuela
The Director General of the Pan American
Union informed the Secretary of State, by a letter
of October 12, 1944, that on October 10, 1944 the
Ambassador of Venezuela in the United States,
Senor Dr. Don Diogenes Escalante, signed in
the name of his Government, with reservations,
the Convention on the Inter-American Institute
of Agricultural Sciences, which was opened for
signature at the Pan American Union on Jan-
uary 15, 1944.
A translation of the Venezuelan reservations
follows:
First: With respect to the stipulation con-
tained in article XII by which the signatory
states undertake to grant exemption from State
or Municipal taxes in favor of the real property
belonging to the Inter- American Institute of Ag-
ricultural Sciences, it declares expressly that it
cannot grant the said exemption, because the sys-
tem of such taxes does not come within the com-
petence of the Federal Power, according to
number 3 of section 4 of article 17 of the National
Constitution.
Second: With respect to the stij^ulation con-
tained in section 2 of article XVI, by which it is
provided that the future destiny of the Institute
shall be determined by the Board of Governors of
the Pan American Union, in case the present Con-
vention should cease to be in effect, the Govern-
ment of Venezuela reserves to itself the rights that
may belong to it, should that eventuality arise,
with regard to the real property situated in its
territory which might be devoted to the purposes
contemplated in the Convention, and which can-
not be transferred, ceded nor alienated or incum-
bered in any way except in conformity with the
laws in force in the country.
' 8 Federal Register 12403.
' Executive Agreement Series 35.5.
' Executive Agreement Series 405.
482
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
THE DEPARTMENT
Functions and Responsibilities of the Shipping Division, Office of
Transportation and Communications '
Purpose. Thi s order is issued in order to clarify
and amplify the description of functions and re-
sponsibilities of the Shipping Division, Office of
Transportation and Communications, as set forth
in Departmental Order 1218 of January 15, 1944,
pp. 10 and 11. It is necessary that the functions
of this Division be understood throughout the De-
partment, in order that matters belonging pri-
marily within the scope of its responsibilities will
be referred to that Division and in order that the
Shipping Division will be consulted on matters
handled by other offices when aspects of problems
or policy bear on international shipping.
1 Functions and responsibilities of the Shipping
Division. The Shipping Division of the Office of
Transportation and Communications shall have re-
si^onsibility for the initiation, formulation, and
coordination of policy and action of the Depart-
ment of State in matters concerning international
shipping (excepting those functions relating to
shipping space requirements and allocations vested
in the Division of Supplies and Resources of the
Office of Wartime Economic Affairs). This in-
cludes such activities as :
(a) Analysis and study of all international as-
pects of shipping and, in cooperation with other
economic and geographic divisions, formulation of
policy concerning the economic, commercial, and
political aspects of international shipping.
(b) Observation and review of developments in
the maritime services and laws of other countries
in order to identify and advise on their implica-
tions to the foreign policy of the United States.
(c) Analysis and recommendation with regard
to foreign policy aspects of subsidies and other
governmental assistance to sliipping and with re-
gard to discriminatory laws or practices against
American shipping.
(d) Development and recommendation on for-
eign policy aspects involved in relationships be-
tween private and governmental shipping, with
particular reference to problems of the transitional
period of adjustment from war to post-war con-
ditions. '
(e) In cooperation with the geographic and
other interested offices of the Department, conduct
of negotiations between foreign governments and
tlie Maritime Commission and War Shipping Ad-
ministration with regard to disposal of tonnage,
transfer of nationality, redistribution of ships to
essential trade routes, and other shipping matters.
(f) Formulation and carrying through of
policy recommendations on matters that involve
the effect of ocean freiglit rates, marine insurance
rates, and war risk insurance rates on foreign
trade.
(g) Analyzing and making reconnnendations
regarding legislation and executive orders affect-
ing international shipping, and international con-
ventions, treaties, and agreements governing
shipping and shipbuilding industries.
(h) Analyzing and recommending on policy of
the Def)artment regarding revision of navigation
laws and tlieir adjustment to current sea-going
conditions.
(i) Interpretation and liaison in all matters
within the responsibility of the Division relative
to international conventions concerning seamen.
(j) In cooperation with the Office of the For-
eign Service and other interested divisions, and in
collaboration with the Maritime Commission and
other agencies, drafting of instructions to the For-
eign Service establishments regarding reports on
matters of economic and political significance in
the maritime services and shipbuilding industries
of other countries.
(k) Analyzing reports from the field for de-
velopments that are significant from a policy
standpoint, and furnishing of pertinent informa-
tion to offices of the Department or other Govern-
ment agencies on international shipping matters.
(1) Analysis of regulatory measures and stan-
dards that affect shipping and trade, in order to
determine their relationship to foreign policy.
2 Relations vnth other divisions of the Depart-
ment and other agencies. In carrying out these
^Departmental Order 1291, dated Oct. 13, 1944, effective
Oct. 16, 1944.
OCTOBER 22. 1944
483
functions and responsibilities, the Shipping Divi-
sion shall work closely with the geographic, eco-
nomic, and other divisions of the Department
which may be concerned. The Shipping Division
shall maintain effective liaison with the Maritime
Commission, the War Shipping Administration,
the Navy Department, the Commerce Department,
and other departments and agencies of the Govern-
ment concerned witli shipping and seamen.
3. Routing symbol. The routing symbol of the
Shipping Division shall continue to be SD.
CoRDELii Hull
Consular Services to Ships and Seamen'
Purpose. This order is issued to centralize
within one division the responsibility for direction
and administration of the work of the Department
of State concerned with consular services to ships
and seamen by the Foreign Service of the United
States.
1 Transfer of responsibility for consular serv-
ices to ships and seamen. The responsibility for
direction and -administration of the work of the
Department concerned with protection abroad of
seamen and official services to ships by the Foreign
Service of the United States, is hereby transferred
from the Shipping Division, Office of Transporta-
tion and Communications, to the Division of For-
eign Service Administration, Office of the Foreign
Service. This includes such activities as : (a) ship-
ment, discharge, relief, repatriation, and burial of
seamen, and also services to American aircraft
and crews; (h) adjustment of disputes between
masters and crews of vessels; (c) handling of
estates of deceased seamen; (d) issuance of bills
of health, and liaison in that connection with the
United States Public Health Service; and (e) as-
sistance to masters of vessels in matters relating
to entrance and clearance of vessels in foreign
ports and in ports of the United States.
2 Departmental Order amended. Departmental
Order 1218, January 15, 1944, (p. 10 and p. 41) is
accordingly amended.
COEDELL HtJLL
'Departmental Order 1292, dated Oct. 13, 1944, ef-
fective Oct. 16, 1944.
' Departmental Order 1293, dated Oct. 13, 1944, efCective
Oct. 16, 1944.
Changes in Organization of the Office
Of Wartime Economic Affairs^
Purpose. This order effects certain organiza-
tional changes among the Divisions of the Office
of Wartime Economic Affairs, including the
abolition of two divisions and the renaming of
two divisions, and outlines the main functions of
the Supply and Resources Division in terms of its
sectional organization and states certain of its
functions in detail. It also makes certain i-elated
and clarifying adjustments in the Office.
1 Title and organization of the Supply and Re-
sowces Division. The title of the Supply and Re-
sources Division is hereby changed to War Supply
and Resources Division. The principal functions
of the War Supply and Resources Division, as out-
lined in Departmental Order 1218, January 15,
1944 (pp. 12 and 13), are conducted by the fol-
lowing sections :
(a) The Industrial Resources Section is con-
cerned with the discharge of the Division's re-
sponsibility with respect to all wartime economic
problems relating to supplies and resources other
'than agricultural.
(b) The Agricultural Resources Section is con-
cerned with the discharge of the Division's re-
sponsibilities with respect to all wartime economic
problems relating to agricultural supplies and
resources.
(c) The Shipping Section is concerned with the
discharge of the Division's responsibilities in war-
time shipping matters.
(d) The Munitions Control Section is concerned
with administration of Section 12 of the Neu-
trality Act of November 4, 1939, the Helium Act
of September 1, 1937, and the Tin Plate Scrap
Act of February 15, 1936. For purposes of clarifi-
cation, these responsibilities are described more
fully in section 2 of this order.
(e) The Surplus Property Section is concerned
with the interim coordinating role of the Division
in matters that concern surplus war property.
In this connection, the Section services the Director
of the Office of Wartime Economic Affairs who
is the liaison officer of the Department of State
with the government agency handling surplus
property. In discharging the Section's responsi-
bility for coordinating the policy of the severaj
offices and divisions of the Department concerned
4S4
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
with various aspects of surplus war property and
related matters, including installations abroad, the
Surplus Property Section assumes the initiative
for convening from time to time, and acting in
concert with, a working group of representatives
of the various divisions concerned, including the
Commodities Division and the Division of Com-
mercial Policy and the Division of Financial and
Monetary Affairs, Office of Economic Affairs, and
the office of the Legal Adviser, together with such
other units within the Department (including the
Shipping Division, the Aviation Division, and the
Telecommunications Division) as may be involved
in particular matters.
(f) The Wartime Trade Policy Section is con-
cerned with coordination of Departmental views
on the economic policies to be followed in the appli-
cation of wartime trade controls by various
governmental agencies. In this connection, the
Section convenes and acts with a working group
of representatives of the various divisions con-
cerned, including those of the Office of Economic
Affairs.
2 Description of the functions of the Mmiitio77S
Control Section. For purposes of clarification, the
duties of the Munitions Control Section, War
Supply and Resources Division, are described in
detail :
(a) Initiation of policy and action of the De-
partment on problems arising from the interna-
tional traffic in arms, ammunition, and implements
of war and other munitions of war, and the rela-
tion of such controls to the national defense of
the United States;
(b) Formulation of policy regarding treaties
and international agreements, and obligations un-
der treaties and agreements, pertaining to inter-
national traffic in arms, ammunition and imple-
ments of war and other munitions of war;
(c) Performance of duties with which the De-
partment may be concerned in connection with the
administration of the Tin Plate Scrap Act of
February 15, 1936 and the Helium Act of Septem-
ber 1,1937;
(d) Performance of all necessary duties in con-
nection with the administration of the statutes
providing for the control of the international traf-
fic in arms, ammunition and implements of war
and other munitions of war, so far as the adminis-
tration of these statutes is vested in the Secretary
of State;
(e) Assistance to the Secretary of State in the
performance of Itis duties as Chairman and Execu-
tive Officer of the National Munitions Control
Board ;
(f ) Assistance to the Department of Justice and
other Departments and agencies of the Govern-
ment, as may be required, in the investigation
and prosecution of violations of the treaties and
statutes within the scope of the duties of the sec-
tion ;
(g) Performance of duties with which the De-
partment may be concerned in connection with
the administration of sections (1) and (2) of title
1 of the Espionage Act, dated June 15, 1917, re-
lating to the exportation of articles involving mili-
tary secrets;
(h) Performance of necessary duties as may
concern the Department in connection with the
clearance of all military and other inventions with
the National Inventors' Council, Department of
Commerce ;
(i) Conduct of special surveys and studies as
may be required by the Director of tl.e Office of
Wartime Economic Affairs or the Secretary of
State; and
(j) Maintenance of liaison with the War and
Navy Departments and with otlier Departments
and agencies of the Government regarding matters
within the jurisdiction of the section.
These duties require that the Munitions Control
Section shall maintain liaison with the various
interested divisions within the Department, and
that the various divisions of the Department shall
consult with the section in matters pertaining to
the resj)onsibilities of the section.
3 Chanr/e in title of the Liberated Areas Divi-
sion. The name of the Liberated Areas Division
is hereby changed to War Areas Economic
Division.
4 Abolition of the Eastern Hemisphere Divi-
sion and transfer of its functions. The Eastern
Hemisphere Division is hereby abolished. Its
functions and persomiel responsible for initiation
and coordination of policy and action in wartime
economic matters pertaining to European neutral
countries and their colonial possessions, France
and the French Empire, Belgian Congo, Turkey
and the Middle East, are transferred to the War
Areas Economic Division. The functions and per-
sonnel of the Eastern Hemisphere Division re-
sponsible for coordination of policy and action in
OCTOBER 22, 1944
485
all wartime economic matters pertaining to other
countries of the Eastern Hemisphere including
the British Empire and, in the Western Hemi-
sphere, to Iceland, Greenland, Canada and British
Colonies and Possessions (except in the Caribbean
area and in South America) are transferred to
the War Supply and Resources Division.
5 Abolitian of Amencan Republics Require-
ments Division and transfer of its functions.
The American Republics Requirements Division
is hereby abolished. Its functions and personnel
are transferred to the War Supply and Resources
Division.
6- Amendment of Departmental Order. Depart-
mental Order 1218 of January 15, 1944 (pp. IS-
IS) is accordingly amended.
7 Routing si/mhoh. The routing symbol for
the AVur Supply and Resources Division shall con-
tinue to be SR, and for the War Areas Economic
Division, LA.
CoEDEUL Hull
Functions of the Adviser on Refugees
And Displaced Persona'
Purpose. The growing activities of the Depart-
ment on the foreign policy aspects or problems of
displaced persons warrant a clarification of the
responsibilities of the Adviser on Refugees and
Displaced Pei-sons, Office of Wai-time Economic
Affairs (Departmental Order 1227, February 16,
1944).
1 Changing emphasis in the work of the Adviser
on Refugees and Displaced Perso)is. The work of
the Adviser on Refugees and Displaced Persons,
in the Office of Wartime Economic Affairs, has
been growing as the devastation and dislocations
of the war have spread and as the United Nations
governments have become more active in planning
and taking measures to cope with resulting condi-
tions. The stress will fall increasingly on the
problem of displaced populations. This problem
must be worked out in terms of long-range inter-
ests and policies which take into consideration so-
cial and economic, as well as political, conditions
of particular areas and countries of the world.
The problems of displaced persons which are aris-
ing from wartime conditions are admittedly of a
nature that demands planning and attention for
' Departmental Oiaer 1294, dated Oct. 13, 1944, effective
Oct. 16, 1944.
an extended transitional period lasting well into
the period after cessation of hostilities. Later
they will merge into long-run problems of migra-
tion and settlement.
2 Functions of the Adviser on Refugees and
Displaced Persons. The Adviser on Refugees and
Displaced Persons shall be resj^onsible for the fol-
lowing functions :
(a) Coordination of policy and action on all
displaced jjersons and refugee affairs within the
Department of State.
(b) Special research and analysis on problems
comiected with displaced persons and refugees to
develop data and recommendations for meeting
these problems during the period of hostilities and
the post-war period.
(c) Development of documents and studies and
participation in the deliberations of the Special
Committee on Migration and Resettlement.
(d) Representation for the Department, as the
United States representative, on the Technical Ad-
visory Committee on Displaced Persons of the
Council of the United Nations Relief and Rehabili-
tation Administration.
(e) Following for the Department of State
the activities of the Intergovernmental Committee
on Refugees meeting in London and, when apj^ro-
priate, assisting in its work.
(f ) Provision of the secretariat of the interde-
partmental committee known as the Special Com-
mittee on Migration and Resettlement.
(g) Liaison between the Department and the
War Refugee Board, established by Executive
Order 9417 of January 22, 1944. The Board, con-
sisting of the Secretary of State, Secretary of the
Treasury, and Secretary of War, is responsible
for "the development of plans and programs and
the inauguration of effective measures for (a) the
rescue, transportation, maintenance and relief of
the victims of enemy oppression, and (b) the
establishment of temporary refuge for such vic-
tims". The Secretariat of the Board is a unit in
the Treasury Department. The liaison relation of
the Department of State is indicated in section 3
of Executive Order 9417, which directs that:
It shall be the duty of the State, Treasury, and
War Departments, within their respective spheres,
to execute at the request of the Board, the plans
and programs so developed and the measures so
inaugurated. It shall be the duty of the heads
of all agencies and departments to supply or ob-
486
tain for the Board such information and to extend
to the Board such supplies, shipping and other
specified assistance and facilities as the Board
may require in carrying out the provisions of this
Order. The State Department shall appoint
special attaches with diplomatic status, on the
recommendation of the Board, to be stationed
abroad in places where it is likely that assistance
can be rendered to war refugees, the duties and
responsibilities of such attaches to be defined by
the Board in consultation with the State Depart-
ment.
3 Relationships of the Adviser on Refugees and
Displaced Persons icith other offices and divisions.
In coordinating and taking action on matters
within its jurisdiction, the Adviser on Refugees
and Displaced Persons shall consult and work in
cooperation with the geographic divisions, the
Labor Relations Division, the Office of Special
Political Affairs, the Division of Special War
Problems, and any other units which from time
to time may be concerned. These offices shall assure
that matters concerning international migration
and displaced persons and refugees which may
arise in the course of their work are referred to
the Adviser on Refugees and Displaced Persons.
4 Routing symlol. The routing symbol of the
Adviser on Refugees and Displaced Persons shall
continue to be WRB.
CoEDELL, Hull
Appointment of Officers
Jesse E. Saugstad as Chief, of the Shipping Di-
vision, effective October 13, 1944.
The following designations are effective Octoler
16, 19U--
Wayne G. Jackson as Deputy Director, Charles
F. Knox as Adviser, Robert D. Howard as Execu-
tive Officer, and Mrs. Nancy W. Davis as Acting
Information Liaison Officer, Office of Wartime
Economic Affaii-s.
Courtney C. Brown as Chief, and Everett R.
Cook, Frederick W. Gardner, and Hallett John-
son as Advisers, War Supply and Resources
Division.
Livingston T. Merchant as Chief, and Elmer G.
Burland, Dallas Dort, Sidney L. W. Mellen, Ed-
ward G., Miller, Stephen A. Mitchell, Abbott Low
Moffat, Orsen Nielsen, James A. Stillwell, and
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Frederick Winant as Advisers, War Areas Eco-
nomic Division.
LEGISLATION
Administration of Alien Property : Hearing Before Sub-
committee No. 1 of the Committee on the Judiciary, House
of Representatives, 7Sth Cong., 2d sess., on H.R. 4840
(subsequently amended and reintroduced as H.R. 5031)
To Amend the First War Powers Act, 1941 ; June 9, 13, 14,
and 15, 1944, Serial No. 18. iv, 133 pp.
The Merchant Marine in Overseas Aviation : Executive
Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Merchant Marine
in Overseas Aviation of the Committee on the Merchant
Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, 78th
Cong., 2d sess., on H.Res. 5^, a Resolution Authorizing
Investigation of the National Defense Program as It Re-
lates to the Committee on the Merchant Marine and Fish-
eries ; Sept. 11, 12, and 13, 1944. [State Department, p. 78.]
iii, 247 pp.
To Permit the Naturalization of Approximately Three
Thousand Natives of India: Hearings Before a Subcom-
mittee of the Committee on Immigration, United States
Senate, 78th Cong., 2d sess.. on S. 1595, a Bill To Permit
Approximately Three Thousand Natives of India Who
Entered the United States Prior to July 1, 1924, To Become
Naturalized; Sept. 13 and 14, 1944. iii, 58 pp.
PUBLICATIONS ^
Depaetment of State
Presidential Elections: Provisions of the Constitution
and of the United States Code. Publication 2177. 14 pp.
Free.
United Nations Monetary arid Financial Conference,
Bretton Woods, New Hami>shire, July 1 to July 22, 1944 :
Final Act and Related Documents. Conference Series 55.
Publication 2187. iii, 122 pp. 25c.
Military Mission : Agreement between the United States
of America and Ecuador— Signed at Washington June 29,
1944 ; effective June 29, 1944. Executive Agreement Series
408. Publication 2184. 14 pp. 5c.
Construction of a Port and Port Works: Agreement
between the United States of America and Liberia — Signed
at Monrovia December 31, 1943; and exchange of
notes. Executive Agreement Series 411. Publication 2186.
7 pp. 5c.
Jurisdiction Over Criminal Offenses Committed by the
Armed Forces of the United States in the Belgian Congo :
Agreement between the United States of America and
Belgium — Effected by exchanges of notes signed at Wash-
ington March 31, May 27, June 23. and August 4, 1943. ..
Executive Agreement Series 395. Publication 2180. 7 pp. i;
5c. I
Military Mission : Agreement between the United States y
of America and Peru — Signed at Washington July 10, 1944 ; J
OCTOBER 22, 1944
487
effective July 10, 1944. Executive Agreement Series 409.
Publication 2185. 14 pp. 5c.
The Proclaimed List of Certain Blocked Nationals :
Cumulative Supplement No. 2, October 20, 1944, to Revision
VIII of September 13, 1944. ii, 30 pp. Free.
Other Government Agencies
The articles listed below will be found in the October
21 issue of the Department of Commerce publication en-
titled Foreign Commerce Weekly, copies of which may be
obtained from .the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Office, for 10 cents each :
"Mexican Fats and Oiljs Meet Wartime Challenge",
based in part on a report from the American Embassy,
Mexico, D.F.
"Brazil's Chemical and Drug Industries and Trade Ex-
pand" by Aldene Barrington Leslie, economic analyst,
American Embassy, Rio de Janeiro.
U. 5. fiOVERNMENT PRINTINS OFFICE, 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
JD U
J
J
H
1 r
"^
VOL. XI, NO. 279
OCTOBER 29, 1944
In this issue
THE SECOND SESSION OF THE COUNCIL OF UNRRA: Article by
Edward G. Miller, Jr. ^-{f-h-b-h-d-tt-tr-k*
NATIONAL SOCIALIST EDUCATION IN THEORY AND PRACTICE:
Article by Leon W. Fuller ii-k-ttir-A-kiriti!
VV^^^'T o^
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BULLETIN
Vol. XI • No. 279 . W^W • PoBllCiTloN 2207
October 29, 1944
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a weekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication. Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government with
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
work of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BULLET IIS
includes press releases on foreign policy-
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as ire// as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United Stales is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulative lists of which are published
at the end of each quarter, as well as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
approval of the Director of the Bureau
of the Budget, is for sale by the Super-
intendent of Documents, United States
Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton 25, D. C, to whom all purchase
orders, with accompanying remittance,
should be sent. The subscription price
ii $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
cents.
(^ontents
American Republics Page '■
Statement on Reported Communication From Argentina , . 498'-
Consultation on Matters Relating to International Orgaui- j
zation 525
Europe
Recognition of the de /ac(o French Authority 491
Renewal of Diplomatic Relations With Italy 491 '
Anniversary of Czechoslovak Independence: ■;
Message From President Roosevelt to President BeneS
of Czechoslovakia 497 '■
Statement by the Acting Secretary of State 497 1
Passports for Travel to France 498 j
Education in Germany Under the National Socialist Regime: '
National Socialist Education in Theory and Practice.
Article by Leon W. Fuller 511 1
Far East , j
Relief Supplies for Allied Nationals Interned in the Far '
East 494'
Our Navy and a Warning to Japan: Address by Joseph C. ,
Grew 496 (
Gener.^i, '
Degrees Conferred on the Under Secretary of State j
Remarks Upon Acceptance of Degree From New York i
University 509 ]
Remarks Upon Acceptance of Degree From Stevens '
Institute of Technology 509,1
Post-War Matters
International Civil Aviation Conference
Members of the American Delegation 4995;
Members of the Secretariat 499 I
The Second Session of the Council of UNRRA: Article by
Edward G. Miller, Jr 501
Treaty Information
Armistice Terms for Bulgaria 492 ■
Protocol Prolonging International Sugar Agreement . . . 526 I
Rubber Agreement With Venezuela 526 |
Monetary Agreement, United Kingdom and Belgium . . , 526
Commercial Modus Vivendi, Venezuela and Spain .... 526-
The Department ,
Appointment of Officers 525 i
The Foreign Service j
Diplomatic and Consular Offices 510 i
P.
Publications 525!
Legislation 524|
Recognition of the De Facto French
Authority
STATEMENT BY THE ACTING SECRETARY OF STATE
[Released to the press October 23]
The Government of the United States has today
recognized the French de facto autliority estab-
lished in Paris under the leadership of General de
Gaulle as the Provisional Govermnent of the
French Republic. A communication in this sense
has today been addressed to the Provisional Gov-
ernment. Mr. Jefferson Caft'ery will, if agree-
able to the Provisional Government, assume the
duties of Ambassador to France.
This action on the part of the United States
Government is in harmony with its policy toward
France as publicly enunciated from time to time
by the President and the Secretary of State.
As the Secretary of State in his si>eech of April
9, 1944 stated, it was always the thought of the
President and himself that Frenchmen themselves
should undertake the civil administration of their
country and that this
Government would
look to the organiza-
tion then known as
the French Commit-
tee of National Lib-
eration to exercise
leadership in the
establishment of law
and order. In ac-
cordance with this
policy, agreements
were entered into be-
tween the Supreme
Allied Commander
and the de facto
French authority,
headed by General de
Gaulle, covering the
administration of
civil affairs in France
and other related
subjects.
Renewal of Diplomatic
Relations with Italy
[Released to the press October 26]
The following statement was made by the Act-
ing Secretary of State :
"After consultation with the other American re-
publics, as provided in the resolutions made at Rio
de Janeiro in January 1942, it has been agreed
that diplomatic relations with the Government of
Italy should be resumed. The Governments of
Great Britain and the Soviet Union likewise have
been consulted.
"Consequently, the President will submit to the
Senate, after it reconvenes on November 14, 1944,
the nomination of the Honorable Alexander C.
Kirk as American Ambassador to Italy. Mr. Kirk
is presently American Representative on the Ad-
visory Council for Italy in Rome."
In accordance with the pi'ocedure envisaged in
the civil-affairs agreement, an "Interior zone" has
been established to include a large part of France,
including Paris. The agreement provides that in
the interior zone the conduct of the administration
of the territory and responsibility therefor will be
entirely a matter for the French authorities.
Today the vast majority of Frenchmen are free.
They have had opportunity during recent weeks
to demonstrate their desire to have the duties and
obligations of government assumed by the admin-
istration which is now functioning in Paris and
which has been reconstituted and strengthened by
the inclusion of leaders of the valiant forces of re-
sistance within France.
The intention of the French authorities to seek
an expression of the people's will at the earliest
possible date, following the repatriation of French
prisoners of war and
deportees in Ger-
many, has been made
known on different
occasions. Pending
the expression of the
will of the French
people through the
action of their duly
elected representa-
tives, the Provisional
Government of the
French Republic, in
its efforts to prose-
cute the war until
final victory and to
lay the foundations
for the rehabilitation
of France, can count
on the continued,
full, and friendly
ooofDeration of the
Government of the
United States.
491
492
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Armistice Terms for Bulgaria
[Released to the press October 29]
The terms of the Bulgarian armistice agreement
which has been signed in Moscow follow :
Agreement Between the Governments of the
United States or Asierica, the United liiNG-
DOM, AND THE UnION OF So\-IET SOCIALIST REPUB-
LICS, ON THE One Hand, and the Government of
Bulgaria, on the Other Hand, Concerning an
Armistice
The Government of Bulgaria accepts the armis-
tice terms presented by the Government of the
United States of America, the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics and the United Kingdom act-
ing on behalf of all the United Nations at war
with Bulgaria.
Accordingly the representative of the Supreme
Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, Lieuten-
ant General Sir James Gammell, and the rep-
resentative of the Soviet High Command, Mar-
shal of the Soviet Union, F. I. Tolbukhin, duly
authorized thereto by the governments of the
United States of America, the Union of the Soviet
Socialist Republics and the United Kingdom act-
ing on behalf of all the United Nations at war
with Bulgaria, on the one hand, and representa-
tives of the Government of Bulgaria, Mr. P.
Stainov, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. D. Ter-
peshev. Minister Without Portfolio, Mr. N. Petkov,
Minister Without Portfolio and Mr. P. Stoyanov,
Minister of Finance, furnished with due powers,
on the other hand, have signed the following
terms :
Article One. (A) Bulgaria having ceased hos-
tilities with the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub-
lics on September 9, and severed relations with
Germany on September 6, and with Hungary on
on September 26, hostilities has ceased against all
the other United Nations.
(B) The Government of Bulgaria undertakes
to disarm the German armed forces in Bulgaria
and hand them over as prisoners of war. The
Government of Bulgaria also undertakes to in-
tern nationals of Germany and her satellites.
(C) The Government of Bulgaria undertakes to
maintain and make available such land, sea and
air forces as may be specified for service under the
general direction of the Allied (Soviet) High Com-
mand. Such forces must not be used on Allied
territory except with the prior consent of the Allied
Government concerned.
(D) On the conclusion of hostilities against
Germany the Bulgarian armed forces must be de-
mobilized and put on a peace footing under the
supervision of the Allied Control Commission.
Article Two. Bulgarian armed forces and of-
ficials must be withdrawn within the specified
time limit from the territory of Greece and Yugo-
slavia in accordance with the pre-condition ac-
cepted by the Govermnent of Bulgaria on October
11; the" Bulgarian authorities must immedi-
ately take steps to withdraw from Greek and
Yugoslav territory Bulgarians who were citizens
of Bulgaria on January 1, 1941, and to repeal all
legislative and administrative provisions relating
to the annexation or incorporation in Bulgaria of
Greek or Yugoslav territory.
Article Three. The Government of Bulgaria
will afford to Soviet and other Allied forces free-
dom of movement over Bulgarian territory in any
direction if, in the opinion of the Allied (Soviet)
High Command, the military situation so requires,
the Government of Bulgaria giving to such move-
ments every assistance with its own means of
communication, and at its own expense, by land,
water and in the air.
Article Four. The Government of Bulgaria
will immediately release all Allied prisoners of
war and internees. Pending further instructions,
the Government of Bulgaria will at its own ex-
pense provide all Allied prisoners of war, in-
ternees and displaced persons and refugees, in-
cluding nationals of Greece and Yugoslavia, with
adequate food, clothing, medical services and sani-
tary and hygienic requirements and also with
means of transportation for the return of any
such persons to their own country.
Article Fh-e. The Govermnent of Bulgaria will
immediately release, regardless of citizenship or
nationality, all persons held in confinement in con-
nection with their activities in favor of the United
Nations or because of their sympathies with the
United Nations cause or for racial or religious rea-
sons, and will repeal all discriminatory legislation
and disabilities arising therefrom.
OCTOBER 29, 1944
493
Article Six. The Govenunent of Bulgaria will
cooperate in the apprehension and trial of persons
accused of war crimes.
Article Seven. Tlie Government of Bulgaria
undertakes to dissolve immediately all pro-Hitler
or other Fascist political, military, para-military
and other organizations on Bulgarian territory
conducting propaganda hostile to the United Na-
tions and not to tolerate the existence of such or-
ganizations in the future.
Article Eight. The publication, introduction
and distribution in Bulgaria of periodical, or non-
periodical literature, the presentation of tlieatrical
performances or films, the operation of wireless
stations, post, telegraph and telephone services
will take place in agreement with the Allied
(Soviet) High Command.
Article Nine. The Government of Bulgaria
will restore all property of the United Nations and
their nationals, including Greek and Yugoslav
property, and will make such reparation for loss
and damage caused by the war to the United Na-
tions, including Greece and Yugoslavia, as may
be determined later.
Article Ten. The Government of Bulgaria will
restore all rights and interests of the United Na-
tions and their nationals in Bulgaria.
Article Eleven. The Government of Bulgaria
undertakes to return to the Soviet Union, to Greece
and Yugoslavia and to the other United Na-
tions, by the dates specified by the Allied Control
Commission and in a good state of preservation,
all valuables and materials removed during the
war by Germany or Bulgaria from United Na-
tions territory and belonging to state, public or
cooperative organizations, enterprises, institu-
tions or individual citizens, such as factory and
works equipment, locomotives, rolling-stock, trac-
tors, motor vehicles, historic monuments, museum
treasures and any other property.
Article Twelve. The Government of Bulgaria
undertakes to hand over as booty to the Allied
(Soviet) High Command all war material of Ger-
many and her satellites located on Bulgarian ter^
ritory, including vessels of the fleets of Germany
and her satellites located in Bulgarian waters.
Article Thiri'een. The Government of Bul-
garia undertakes not to permit the removal or ex-
propriation of any form of property (including
valuables and currency), belonging to Germany or
Hungary or to their nationals or to persons resi-
dent in their territories or in territories occupied
by them, without the permission of the Allied Con-
trol Commission. The Government of Bulgaria
will safeguard such property in the manner speci-
fied by the Allied Control Commission.
Article Foi;eteen. The Government of Bul-
garia undertakes to hand over to the Allied (So-
viet) High Command all vessels belonging to the
United Nations which are in Bulgarian ports no
matter at whose disposal these vessels may be, for
the use of the Allied (Soviet) High Command
during the war against Germany or Hungary in
the common interest of the Allies, the vessels to
be returned subsequently to their owners.
The Government of Bulgaria will bear full ma-
terial responsibility for any damage to or de-
struction of the aforesaid property up to the mo-
ment of its transfer to the Allied (Soviet) High
Command.
Article Fifteen. The Government of Bulgaria
must make regular payments in Bulgarian cur-
rency and must supply goods (fuel, foodstuffs, et
cetera), facilities and services as may be required
by the Allied (Soviet) High Command for the
discharge of its functions.
Article Sixteen. Bulgarian merchant vessels,
whetlier in Bulgarian or foreign waters, shall be
subject to the operational control of the Allied
(Soviet) High Command for use in the general
interest of the Allies.
Article Seventeen. The Government of Bul-
garia will arrange, in case of need, for the utiliza-
tion in Bulgarian territory of industrial and trans-
port enterprises, means of communication, power
stations, public utility enterprises and installa-
tions, stocks of fuels and other materials in ac-
cordance with instructions issued during the armis-
tice by the Allied (Soviet) High Conuuand.
Article Eighteen. For the whole period of the
armistice there will be established in Bulgaria an
Allied Control Commission which will regulate
and supervise the execution of the armistice terms
under the chairmanship of the representative of
the Allied (Soviet) High Command and with the
participation of representatives of the United
States and the United Kingdom. During the pe-
riod between the coming into force of the armistice
and the conclusion of hostilities against Germany,
the Allied Control Commission will be under the
general direction of the Allied (Soviet) High Com-
mand.
494
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Article Nineteen. The present terms will come
into force on their signing.
Done at Moscow in quadruplicate, in English,
Russian and Bulgarian, the English and Russian
texts being authentic.
October 28, 1944.
For the Governments of the United States of
America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
and the United Kingdom:
Marshal F. I. Tolbukhin, representative of the
Soviet High Command.
Lieutenant General James Gammell, repre-
sentative of the Supreme Allied Commander in
the Mediterranian.
For the Government of Bulgaria: P. Stainov,
D. Terpeshev, N. Petkov and P. Stotanov.
Protocol to the Agreement Concerning an
Armistice With Bulgaria
At the time of signing the armistice with the
Government of Bulgaria, the Allied Governments
signatory thereto have agreed to the following :
One. In connection with Article IX it is under-
stood that the Bulgarian Government will imme-
diately make available certain foodstuffs for the
relief of the population of Greek and Yugoslav
territories which have suffered as a result of Bul-
garian aggression. The quantity of each product
to be delivered will be determined by agreement
between the three governments, and will be con-
sidered as part of the reparation by Bulgaria for
the loss and damage sustained by Greece and Yugo-
slavia.
Two. The term "war material" used in Article
XII shall be deemed to include all material or
equipment belonging to, used by, or intended for
use by enemy military or para-military formations
or members thereof.
Three. The use by the Allied (Soviet) High
Command of Allied vessels handed over by the
Government of Bulgaria in accordance with Ar-
ticle XIV of the armistice and the date of their
return to their owners will be the subject of dis-
cussion and settlement between the Allied Govern-
ments concerned and the Government of the Soviet
Union.
Four. It is understood tliat in the application of
Article XV the Allied (Soviet) High Command
will also arrange for the provision of Bulgarian
currency, supplies, services, et cetera, to meet the
needs of the representatives of the Governments
of the United Kingdom and the United States in
Bulgaria.
Done at Moscow in triplicate, in English and
Russian languages, both English and Russian texts
being authentic.
[Note: The foregoing Protocol was signed in Moscow
on October 28, 1044 on behalf of the three Allied Govern-
ments by George F. Kennan, American Charg6 d'Affaires;
Andrei Ya. Vyshinski, Vice Commissar of Foreign Affairs
of the U.S.S.K.; Sir Archibald Chirk-Kerr, the British
Ambassador.]
Relief Supplies for Allied
Nationals Interned in
The Far East
[Released to the press October 24]
The Japanese Government, through neutral
channels, has informed the United States Govern-
ment that on October 28 a Japanese ship, the Haku-
san Maru, will depart from Japan and proceed to
a Soviet port to pick up relief supplies previously
sent from the United States and Canada intended
for distribution to American, British, Canadian,
Dutch, and other Allied prisoners of war and civil-
ian internees held by Japan.' The Japanese Gov-
ernment's announcement culminates protracted
negotiations in this regard carried on through the
Swiss Government between the Governments of the
United States and Japan. The Soviet Government
has cooperated in making this operation possible
by permitting the use of a Soviet port as a transfer
point and by giving safety guaranties for the Japa-
nese ship while in Soviet waters, in addition to
moving these supplies from the United States to
Soviet territory. The United States Government
has agreed to the departure dates and route pro-
posed by the Japanese authorities and has taken
the necessary steps to safeguard the Japanese ves-
sel from Allied attack during its voyage to and
from Soviet waters. Previous recent announce-
ments in regard to this matter were made in the
Department's press release dated September 1,
1944 - and b}' the Under Secretary of State in his
press conference on October 20.
' Bulletin of Oct. 15, 1944, p. 439.
' Bulletin of Sept. 3, 1944, p. 235.
OCTOBER 29, 1944
495
Our Navy and a Warning to Japan
Address by JOSEPH C. GREW
[Released to the press October 27]
In the life of every nation, as in the life of
every individual, tliere come occasions wlien it
is good to pause for a moment in the midst of
great endeavor to take stock of the road already
traveled, and of the road ahead. Navy Day 1944
is such an occasion. And if the Japanese are
listening in, let them take stock, too.
First, the road already traveled. The darkest
day in the naval history of our country was De-
cember 7, 1941, the day of infamy. There we were
on the threshold of a two-ocean war, a war which
rapidly spread to the seven seas, confronted with
what then appeared to be the ruins of a substantial
part of our one-ocean navy. The Japanese had
ione their despicable work well; just as at Port
A.rthur, at the opening of the Russo-Japanese
War in 1904, they struck without a declaration
Df war. Perhaps we ought to have remembered
:liat every seasoned criminal has a special tech-
lique of his own, and is likely to follow the
same technique in successive crimes. But that is
ill water over the dam now. Tlie Japanese gang-
ster is not going to be given the opportunity to
Mmmit further international crimes if the present
emper and determination of our people and of
Hir Allies are any criterion.
At any rate, there we were, on December 7,
L941, momentarily stunned in contemplation of
ffhat then appeared to be the smoking ruins of
3ur once-proud Pacific fleet and in contemplation
)f our dead. Had the Japanese at that moment
jeen prepared to land in force on the island of
3ahu and to occupy Pearl Harbor, we might now
la^e been very far from entering upon what we
:onfidently believe are the decisive phases of the
Pacific war. Fortunately for us, they hadn't the
rision to follow through. Vision is not one of
;heir strong points. If it had been one of their
strong points, they would never in the world have
ittacked us anywhere.
Then came the American miracle. It was a
niracle by every standard of experience and of
listory. Had the Japanese military and naval
ligh command been told at that time what we were
;o do, they would have scoffed with their hilarious
but mirthless humor. But now they know. No
dream castle ever erected could have surpassed
the construction in these three years of the great-
est, most powerful, and certainly the most efficient
and effective navy that the world has ever seen.
Yes, now they know. They began to know in the
Coral Sea, and they continued to learn at Midway,
at Guadalcanal, in the Kula Gulf, at Attn, at
Kwajalein and Saipan, at Tinian and Guam and
Palau, and now, at last, in the Philippines them-
selves, in what may prove to have been a decisive
naval battle and one of the greatest victories in
history, rivaling Trafalgar itself. They have not
only continued to learn of the fighting power of
our ships and of the aggressive spirit of our officers
and men, whether in the Army or Navy, the Ma-
rine Corps or the Air Forces — a quality in which
the Japanese believed themselves paramount and
to which they attached the greatest importance in
their own fighting machine — but they have dis-
covered one other essential truth, namely, that our
American fighting men do not go into battle like
regimented automatons; they use their heads as
well as their guns and thus constantly outguess
and outmaneuver the enemy.
The Japanese Navy, ivifhoui a declaration of
war, exploited the tactical advantage of initiative
and surprise. They had their day, but now they
are learning to their sorrow that initiative and
surprise — when war is on — are no Japanese mo-
nojioly. The glories of our victories and those of
our Allies already achieved will ring down through
the ages in the annals of military and naval
history.
So much for the past and present. Now for
the road ahead. This is no time for our people to
sit back in smug contentment. Pride in past and
present achievements should be but a spur to future
effort. This Navy Day should be not a day of
exultation, but a day of rededication — rededica-
tion to the mighty task of winning the war against
"Delivered at the Navy Day Dinner sponsored by the
District of Columbia Council of the Navy League of the
United States at Washington on Oct. 27, 1944. Mr. Grew,
former American Ambassador to Japan, is Director of the
Office of Par Eastern Affairs, Department of State.
496
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
both Germany and Japan. And when we think
and speak of winning tlie war, let us not again
fall into the fatal error of believing the enemy
finally defeated just because he asks for an armis-
tice and a peace conference.
I wish to take this important occasion to repeat,
with all possible force, the warning which I have
continually tried, all over the country, to drill
home into the consciousness of our people, namely,
that we must not, under any circumstances, accept
a compromise peace with Japan, no matter how
alluring such a peace may be or how desirous we
may become of ending this terrible conflict. An
enticing peace offer may come from Japan at any
time. The facts of the situation are beginning to
seep into the consciousness of the Japanese people.
Some of them — perhaps only a few at the present
time, but the number will grow steadily — know
beyond peradventure that they are going to be
defeated, that their merchant fleet is being whittled
down to the vanishing point, that their war plants
are gradually being blotted out of existence, and
that their gangster loot will eventually be taken
away from them. They know that if the war con-
tinues long enough their military machine and cult
will be — to use the word so much loved by our
enemies — liquidated, and that their nation will then
be reduced to the status of a third-class power.
All Japanese are not stolid, long-suffering, blindly
obedient peasants or emotionally unstable fanatics.
There are many shrewd, level-headed, coldly cal-
culating Japanese — including not only some of
their statesmen but also men such as those who
built up the great business houses and shipping
companies and industrial concerns of Japan. Be-
fore the complete ruin of Japan, these men are
almost certain to make an attempt to save some-
thing from the wreckage. I can foresee with little
doubt the general methods they would use. As a
facade, they would in all probability produce as
Prime Minister some former statesman who they
believe is labeled in our minds as a liberal, rein-
forced by an ostensibly liberal cabinet. They
would probably offer to withdraw their troops from
the occupied areas and return those areas to their
former status. They miglit even offer to give up
their control of their puppet state in Manchuria.
All this they might offer to do if only we would
agree to leave their homeland free of further attack.
Yes indeed, the bait would be beautifully sugar-
coated and painted in the most attractive colors,
the sort of bait that the American people, a peace-
minded and kindly people, weary of war and eager
to get our fighting men home from the far-flung
battle-fronts would, the Japanese believe, grate-
fully accept.
Should that moment come, xVmerica, the United
Nations, would be put to a most severe test. The
temptation to call it a day might be stronger than
we can now visualize. That, my friends, would be
the moment to fear, not for ourselves but for our
sons and grandsons, lest they should have to fight
this dreadful war over again in the next genera-
tion. For assuredly, if we should allow ourselves
to relax before carrying to completion our present
determination to render the Japanese impotent
ever again to threaten world peace, that would be
the fate of our descendants. That cancerous
growth of Japanese militarism would follow the
example of the German war-machine after 1918 —
perpetuate itself and prepare Japan again for
some future Armageddon. I have no fears as to
the nature of our decision, so long as our people
fully understand the dangers of a premature and
compromise peace, but let us be warned in time.
There is, however, still an alternative open to
Japan, and I address these words directly to the
more intelligent elements in that misguided coun-
try. There is one way bj' which the Japanese can
keep their homeland free from further attack. If
the Japanese leaders can read the handwriting on
the wall and can come to the realization that for
them the war is already lost and that their situa-
tion is hopeless, if they can realize that the deter-
mination of the United Nations to carry through,
regardless of time or cost, to complete and un-
equivocal victory is inflexible, and that no tem-
porizing or compromise is conceivable, let them
unconditionally surrender now. That alternative
is open and will remain open. The Japanese can-
not avert defeat by postponing the inevitable. If
they act now, they will avoid useless sacrifice of
lives and wholesale devastation. Let fficm- call it
a day.
Now, what of the future of our Navy? May I
quote from a recent article in the Saturday Eve-
ning Post by Secretary Forrestal a passage which
should be the fundamental creed of the American
people in the difficult 3'ears that lie ahead? "In
spite of this war," he wrote, "we shall continue to
OCTOBER 29, 1944
497
be a peace-loving nation, with neither greed nor
desire for world domination. The very concept of
imposing our rule upon other people is not con-
sistent with our national character and would be
repugnant to our peoi^le. Therefore, it is good
and desirable that we keep the dream that some
day, somehow, a framework of permanent peace
will be evolved by men of sense and good will
throughout the world.
"In the meantime, we dare not forget an anony-
mous admiral's words after the last war: 'The
means to wage war must be in the hands of those
who hate war'."
May our country take those words to heart. At
Dumbarton Oaks we have tried to lay a firm foun-
dation upon which that framework can and will
be built. I believe that never before have the peo-
ples of the world been more determined that such
a structure shall be built, that it shall be effective,
and that it shall endure.
"The means to wage war must be in the hands of
those who hate war." Behind our day-to-day
diplomacy abroad there lies a factor of prime im-
portance, namely, national support, demonstrated
and reinforced by national preparedness. With
such a background, and only with such a back-
ground, can we pursue our diplomacy with any
confidence that our representations will be listened
to or that they will lead to favorable results. Gen-
eral Douglas MacArthur, when Chief of Staff of
the United States Army, said : "Armies and na-
vies, in being eiScient, give weight to the peaceful
words of statesmen, but a feverish effort to create
them when a crisis is imminent simply provokes
attack." We need thorough and permanent pre-
paredness not in the interests of war but of peace.
Let us constantly have in mind the eminently
wise advice of Theodore Roosevelt : "Speak softly
<md carry a hig stick.''''
Let our people appreciate the tremendous im-
portance of learning the lessons of history for
future guidance. We intend, with all the deter-
mination and energy that is in us, to contribute to
the erection of a world organization for the main-
tenance of peace and security that will some day
render superfluous the great armaments that now
so heavily handicap the development of peaceful
economies. But until that day comes, I wish that
every American would consider it a patriotic duty
to familiarize himself with Secretary Forrestal's
615883 — 44 2
article entitled "Will We Choose Naval Suicide
Again?" and let his warning become a funda-
mental concept in our national thinking, our fu-
ture action, and our inexpressible pride in the
American Navy.
Anniversary of Czecho-
slovak Independence
MESSAGE FROM PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT TO
PRESIDENT BENES OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA
[Released to the press October 28]
October 28, 1944.
This anniversary of the independence of Czecho-
slovakia is of especial significance.
The people and armed forces inside Czechoslo-
vakia have joined actively and gloriously with
their comitrymen abroad in the ranks of the na-
tions united against tyranny, and can look for-
ward confidently to the celebration of future anni-
versaries in the full enjoyment of unsuppressed
freedom.
We Americans salute our Czechoslovak com-
rades-in-arms who are today so bravely contribut-
ing to the liberation of their homeland and the
rest of Europe.
The close ties and deep sym[>athy between the
democratic peoples of Czechoslovakia and the
United States have never ceased to find concrete
exjjression since the days of President Masaryk
and President Wilson.
I look forward to the day when, victorious after
a second great war for freedom, they can continue
to work in harmony for their mutual security and
welfare in a peaceful world.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
STATEMENT BY THE ACTING
SECRETARY OF STATE
[Released to the press October 28]
Today is the anniversary of the founding of
the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The people of
Czechoslovakia, within their own country as well
as abroad, are boldly facing the despoilers of
Europe and wisely planning with the other free-
498
spirited nations for a sound and just peace when
that struggle shall have been won. They are win-
ning their fight for freedom; they, with all the
United Nations, propose to win the fight for lasting
peace.
This occasion makes it appropriate to recall the
great contributions which the people of Czecho-
slovakia have always made in maintaining free-
dom, in advancing civilization and culture, and
in forwardmg international cooperation. May
they long continue in that role.
Passports for Travel to
France
[Released to the press October 23]
In view of the agreement which has been reached
between the French and the Supreme Headquar-
ters Allied Expeditionary Force declaring a con-
siderable part of France including Paris an "inte-
rior zone", the Department of State will accept
applications for passports from American citi-
zens for such zone if they are accompanied by ap-
propriate evidence establishing (1) that their
presence in France will contribute directly or indi-
rectly to the military effort, or (2) that their pur-
pose in desiring to travel in France will serve the
national interests by the resumption of economic
or other activities disrupted by the war, or (3)
that their going to France would materially aid
that country in meeting its requirements for civil-
ian consumption and for reconstruction.
A person who considers that his presence in
France will contribute directly or indirectly to
the military effort should support his application
by a letter from an appropriate department or
agency of this Government stating in what way his
going to France would contribute to the war
effort.
A person who represents an American business
organization must establish that the organization
has heretofore had a branch or subsidiary in
France or that his organization prior to the dis-
ruption caused by the war periodically sent a
representative or representatives to France.
American professional men who had established
themselves in their professions in France and left
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
that country because of conditions growing out of
the war must submit with their passport applica-
tions satisfactory evidence that they previously
followed their professions in France.
It must be clearly understood, however, that the
facilities for transportation between the United
States and France are extremely meager, and the
appropriate authorities in the United States hold
out no encouragement at this time that such facil-
ities will be increased. Consequently, any Ameri-
can citizen who considers that he comes within one
of the classes of persons above mentioned should
advise the Department of the arrangement he has
concluded for his transportation to and from
France.
Military permits will not be i-equired for the
interior zone of France, but each American citizen
desiring to enter the zone must obtain a French
visa on his American passport.
Statement on Reported
Communication From
Argentina
[Rele.ise(l to the press October 28]
Asked for comment upon a reported communi-
cation from the Argentine Government through
the Pan American Union, the Department of State
issued the following statement : '
No communication has as yet been received by
the Government of the United States. In the event
that a communication such as that reported in the
press is received either through a government
which maintains relations with the Argentine Re-
public or through the Pan American Union, the
Government of the United States will, of course,
exchange views fully with the Governments of the
other American republics before taking any deci-
sion.
' As reported in the pre.ss on Oct. 28, Argentina has asked
the Pan American Union in Wasliington to call a confer-
ence of foreign ministere of the American republics to set-
tle the current crisis between Argentina and other countries
of the Western Hemisphere. That government is reported
to have sent memoranda to foreign offices of the American
republics, a<lvising them of this action and inviting them
to support its move.
OCTOBER 29, 1944
499
International Civil Aviation Conference
MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN DELEGATION
[Released to the press October 27]
The President lias designated the following
members of the American Delegation to the Inter-
national Civil Aviation Conference which will
convene at Chicago on November 1:
Delegates
The Honorable Adolf A. Bci-Ie, Jr., Assistant Secretary
of State, Chairman of the Drlegation
The Honorable Josiah W. Bailey, Chairman, Committee
on Commerce. United States Senate
The Honorable Owen Brewster, Member, Coiomittee on
Commerce, United States Senate
The Honorable Alfred L. Bulwinkle, House of Repre-
sentatives
The Honorable William A. M. Burden, Assistant Secre-
tary of Commerce for Air
Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, U. S. N., retired, Boston,
Massachusetts
The Honorable Fiorello H. LaGuardia, Chairman, United
States Section, Permanent Joint Board on Defense
(Canada-United States)
The Honorable L. Welch Pogue, Chairman, Civil Aero-
nautics Board
The Honorable Edward Warner, Vice Chairman, Civil
Aeronautics Board
The Honorable Charles A. Wolverton, House of Repre-
sentatives
Consultants
The Honorable Artemus L. Gates, Assistant Secretary
of the Navy for Air
Dr. J. C. Hunsaker, Chairman, National Advisory Com-
mittee for Aeronautics
The Honorable Robert A. Lovett, Assistant Secretary of
War for Air
Maj. Gen. C. R. Smith, Air Transport Command
Secretary Oeneral of the Delegation
Mr. Stokeley W. Morgan, Chief, Aviation Division, De-
partment of State
Adi-isers
Mr. John C. Cooper, Vice President, Pan American Air-
ways
Mr. Ralph Danson, Vice President, American Airlines,
Inc.
Col. H. R. Harris, Chief of Staff, Air Transport Com-
mand
Mr. Stephen Latchford, Adviser on Air Law, Aviation
Division, Department of State
Mr. Carleton Putnam, President, Chicago and Southern
Airlines
Comdr. Paul Richter, U.S.N.R.
Mr. Frank Russell, National Aircraft War Production
Council, Inc., and President, Cerro de Pasco Copper
Company
Seereiaries of the Delegation
Mr. Livingston Satterthwaite, Civil Air Attach^, Ameri-
can Embassy, London
Mr. Joe D. Walstrom, Assistant Chief, Aviation Division,
Department of State
Technical Experts
Mr. Russell Adams, Civil Aeronautics Board, Depart-
ment of Commerce
Mr. R. W. Craig, Weather Bureau, Department of
Commerce
Mr. C. F. Dycer, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Mr. Glen A. Gilbert, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Mr. James L. Kinney, Civil Aeronautics Administra-
tion, Department of Commerce
Mr. Eugene Sibley, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Lt. Comdr. Paul A. Smith, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Department of Commerce
Mr. Harry G. Tarrington, Civil Aeronautics Adminis-
tration, Department of Commerce
Mr. A. A. Vollmecke, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Press Relations Officer
Mr. John C. Pool, Department of State
Special Assistant
Mr. William J. Primm, Assistant Clerk, Committee on
Commerce, United States Senate
MEMBERS OF THE SECRETARIAT
[Released to the press October 30]
The President has designated Adolf A. Berle,
Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, as tem^jorary
president of the International Civil Aviation
Conference which will convene at Chicago, Illi-
nois, on November 1, 1944. The President also
has designated Warren Kelchner, Chief of the
Division of International Conferences, Depart-
ment of State, as Secretary General of the Con-
ference.
In accordance with international practice, this
Government will provide certain conference offi-
cers to be responsible, under the direction of the
Secretary General, for units of the Secretariat
500
being furnished by the host government. With
the approval of the President, the Acting Secre-
tary of State has designated the following indi-
viduals to serve in the capacities indicated :
Secretary General
Warren Kelchner, Chief, Division of International
Conferences, Department of State
Special Assistants
James Espy, Foreign Service OflBcer, Department of
StO-te
Morris Nelson Hughes, Foreign Service Officer, De-
partment of State
Technical Secretary
Theodore P. Wright, Administrator of Civil Aeronau-
tics, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Department
of Commerce
Special Assistants
Thomas B. Bourne, Director of Federal Airways, Civil
Aeronautics Administration, Department of Com-
merce
John M. Cliamberlain, Assistant Director, Safety Bu-
reau, Civil Aeronautics Board, Department of Com-
merce
Douglas D. Crystal, Senior Attorney, Aeronautical Le-
gal Division, Civil Aeronautics Administration, De-
partment of Commerce
Fred M. Lanter, Director of Safety Regulations, Civil
Aeronautics Administration, Department of Com-
merce
Secretaries and Assistant Secretaries of Technical Coni-
mittees and Su1)Committ€es
Harry A. Bowen, Civil Aeronautics Board, Department
of Commerce
Paul T. David, Bureau of the Budget, Executive Office
of the President
Alfred Hand, Civil Aeronautics Administration, De-
partment of Commerce
Robert D. Hoyt, Civil Aeronautics Board, Department
of Commerce
Alfred S. Koch, Civil Aeronautics Administration, De-
partment of Commerce
Delbert M. Little, Weather Bureau, Department of
Commerce
Virginia C. Little, Bureau of the Budget, Executive
Office of the President
Erwiu R. Marlin, Bureau of the Budget, Executive
Office of the President
Keuneth Matucha, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
John T. Morgan, Civil Aeronautics Administration, De-
partment of Commerce
Jeremiah S. Morton, Coast and Geodetic Survey, De-
partment of Commerce
George C. Neal, Civil Aeronautics Board, Department
of Commerce
Howard Railey, Civil Aeronautics Board, Department
of Commerce
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Lloyd H. Simson, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Omer Welling, Civil Aeronautics Administration, De-
partment of Commerce
Executive Secretary
Clarke L. Willard, Assistant Chief, Division of Inter-
national Conferences, Department of State
Assistatit Executive Secretary
Lyle L. Schmitter, Foreign Affairs Specialist, Division
of International Conferences, Department of State
Chief Press Relations Officer
Lincoln White, Office of the Special Assistant to the
Secretary of State
Press Relations Officers
William H. Donaldson, Superintendent, House Press
Gallery
Joe S. McCoy, Jr., Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Raymond Nathan, Civil Aeronautics Administration,
Department of Commerce
Ben Stern, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Depart-
ment of Commerce
Liaison Secretaries
Philip O. Chahners, Acting Chief, Division of BrazUian
Affairs, Department of State
Raymond A. Hare, Foreign Service Officer, Department
of State
Charles M. Howell, Jr., Civil Air Attach^ at Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
Paul W. Meyer, Foreign Service Officer, Department
of State
A. Ogden Pierrot, Civil Air Attach^ at Lisbon and
Madrid
Robert B. S'tewart, Division of British Commonwealth
Affairs, Department of State
Geographer
Samuel W. Boggs, Chief, Division of Geography and
Cartography, Department of State
Cartographer
Arthur J. Hazes, Division of Geography and Cartog-
raphy, Department of State
Administrative Secretary
Millard L. Kenestrick, Chief, Division of Administra-
tive Services, Department of State
Operations Officer
R. M. F. Williams, Division of Administrative Services,
Department of State
Assistant Operations Officer
Victor Purse, Office of Departmental Administration,
Department of State
Technical Documents Officer and Secretary for Docu-
mentation
John O. Bell, A,viation Division, Department of State
Assistant Technical Documents Officer
R. B. Maloy, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Depart-
ment of Commerce
{Continued on page 525)
OCTOBER 29, 1944
501
The Second Session of the Council of
UNRRA
By EDWARD G. MILLER, JR.'
Anticipated as an important and even critical
point in the history of the United Nations Relief
and Rehabilitation Administration was the Sec-
ond Session of the Council, which was held in
Montreal " September 16-26. For the member
governments that had created UNRRA, the Ses-
sion afforded the first opportunity to discharge
their duty and privilege of examining and criticiz-
ing the progress of this first post-war organiza-
tion. For UNRRA itself, the Session presented
an occasion of reminding these governments that
UNRRA's success, like that of any other mutual
undertaking, can be no greater than the support
that the members accord to it.
The First Session of the Council at Atlantic
City last November was in itself a notable
achievement in international cooperation.
UNRRA, with the enthusiastic backing of its mem-
ber governments and of the public, got off to a
flying start. The Second Session, while less spec-
tacidar, was in many respects a more difficult
occasion, not only for the organization itself but
also for its member governments.
The First Session, which followed immediately
upon the signature of the agreement at the White
House,' was in effect part of the organization of
UNRRA: the culmination of two years of nego-
tiations among governments for the establishment
of an international administration for post-war
relief and rehabilitation in war-torn countries.
Although many controversial questions arose at
Atlantic City, it was not difficult to find a common
gi'ound for a solution of all pi'oblems. Getting
UNRRA started was the fundamental concern of
each delegation at Atlantic City; all other con-
siderations of national interest were subordinated
to this one.
Between November 19-13 and September 1944
UNRRA went through what will undoubtedly
prove to be one of the most difficult periods in its
history. It became the task of the Director Gen-
eral and his staff to put in operation the purposes
of the Agreement and Resolutions with little to
go on in the way of precedent and, at the begin-
ning, without funds or material resources. A
large and specialized organization, international
in character, had to be created under exceedingly
trying wartime conditions. Relations with a va-
riety of agencies, national and international, mili-
tary and civilian, had to be established. Most
trying of all, by force of circumstance, the role of
the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Ad-
ministration has been confined to sitting on the
sidelines with little to do beyond the planning
stage.
A sympathetic public interest, eager for the suc-
cess of this first operating international organiza-
tion, began gradually to become critical, first of
UNRRA and then of the support accorded to it
by its member governments.
As to the latter, it was charged that UNRRA
was being deliberately stifled by its member gov-
ernments for reasons of jurisdictional rivalry and
for other motives. It had been deliberately re-
duced, it was said, to the status of a soup kitchen
and deprived of all its rehabilitation activities.
The combined armies, according to the allegations,
were going to monopolize relief and rehabilitation
activities in liberated areas and manipulate them
to suit their convenience. Finally, it was charged,
the governments were not releasing first-class per-
sonnel to UNRRA. On the other hand, there were
certain sectors of public opinion in this country to
whom UNRRA was always per se anathema.
These persons expressed alarm over our contribut-
ing funds to rehabilitate foreign lands, possibly to
enable them to compete with our industry, and es-
pecially over our giving substantial United States
funds to an international organization in which
' Mr. Miller is Adviser in the War Areas Economic Divi-
sion, Office of Wartime Economic Affairs, Department of
State.
' Bulletin of Sept. 10, 1944, p. 255.
' Bulletin of Nov. 13, 1943, pp. 317, 335.
502
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
we had only one vote in 44. The drafters of the
Agreement doubtless realized that it is not possible
to please everyone.
As to UNRRA itself, the charge was sometimes
heard that its sole activity consisted of turning out
reams of mimeographed paper in the form of press
releases and requirements programs and that its
failure to progress beyond the planning stage was
due to lack of initiative rather than to other
factors.
The Montreal session affoi-ded, therefore, a
timely opportunity to review the status and prog-
ress of the organization and to assess the degree of
cooperation by the member governments.
At the outset, one thing was made clear by all
concerned ; no effort had been made to constrict the
nature of UNRRA's duties more narrowly than the
program that had been provided for at Atlantic
City. The re25resentatives of the Combined Chiefs
of Staff who addressed the Council on behalf of the
American and British Governments iterated the
military position that they will relinquish the task
of civilian relief behind the lines as soon as mili-
tary necessity permits. The armies, they pointed
out, are not relief organizations, and they are only
too glad to be relieved of tliese functions as soon
as practicable ; this position has been made abund-
antly clear in France. On the other hand, long
before the Atlantic City meeting, it has been clear
that the armies will have to exercise discretion in
determining when the responsibility for civilian
supply can be relinquished to the civilian author-
ities. The entire pattern of civil-affairs arrange-
ments in liberated areas recognizes that basic fact.
Secondly, it was emphasized that there has oc-
curred no change in UNRRA 's scope so far as re-
habilitation is concerned. Under the basic Agree-
ment UNRRA is concerned with the rehabilitation
of industry, transport, and public utilities only to
the extent necessary to meet immediate relief
needs. Other agencies, such as the prospective
Monetary Fund and Reconstruction and Develop-
ment Bank, will concern themselves with prob-
lems of a more long-range character. As was ex-
pected, the United States Congress was emphatic
in its disapproval of any long-term reconstruction
functions for UNRRA. This does not mean, how-
ever, that UNRRA will be simply a soup kitchen
and that it will not endeavor to confer lasting
benefits upon the countries which it may aid. Cer-
tainly in the field of agriculture, rehabilitational
activities will form an important part of UNRRA's
contribution to the recovery of these countries.
Those activities should prove considerably more
economical, both of UNRRA's funds and of ship-
ping, than the furnishing solely of processed foods.
The extent of UNRRA's functions in the field
of industrial rehabilitation will depend to a large
degree upon the conditions found in the areas
after liberation. Even within the limited scope
prescribed in the Agreement and Resolutions of
the Council (which parallel those set forth in
the act of the United States Congress), there are
many usefid functions which UNRRA can per-
form in this field and which may be considerably
more economical from the standpoint of its re-
sources, as well as more beneficial for the recipient
country, than concantiating exclusively on the
provision of finished goods. For example, in an-
ticipation of the critical need for transport in
eastern Europe and the Balkans, UNRRA has
already taken steps to commit part of its funds
for the procurement of 280 locomotives for that
area, although the Director General expects that
locomotives and other transport equipment fur-
nished by him should be sold as soon as possible
to individual countries or to an international
transport authority. But since the first call on
UNRRA's resoui-ces will be to provide for the
immediate needs of the liberated areas, its ability
to engage in industrial rehabilitation to any great
extent will depend upon the degree of damage
done to j^roduction and transportation facilities
and the consequent ability or inability of these
areas to begin to meet their own immediate needs.
It is significant in this connection that there has
been a tendency on the part of the supply authori-
ties of the countries of western Europe to shift in
recent months from demands for finished goods
exclusively to demands for supplies including raw
materials of a more rehabilitational character.
A perhaps inevitable cause of delay in UNRRA's
planning and the definition of the actual scope of
its operations has been, until the present time, the
uncertainty with regard to the degree to which the
occupied member countries will require its finan-
cial assistance. It is understood that formal re-
quests for financial assistance in accordance with
the procedure prescribed in the Financial Plan
have already been received from Greece, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and China. It is
probable that these countries will be those in be-
OCTOBER 29, 1944
303
half of which UNRKA will perform its principal
functions at least in respect of the furnishing of
bulk supplies. In addition, it will have important
duties in Italy and probably in Albania and Den-
mark. The status of the Soviet Union as a recipi-
ent of assistance from UNRRA has not yet been
defined.
UNRRA's only function, however, with refer-
ence to the wealthier countries of northwest Eu-
rope, will not necessarily be the purely negative
one of monitoring supply programs in the interest
of preventing them from obtaining excessive
amounts of short items at the expense of poorer
countries. Although no official determination has
yet been made of the capacity of the western Euro-
pean countries to pay for supplies or, indeed, of
their desire for financial assistance from UNRRA,
it is likely that they will themselves meet all or
the greater part of the cost of their import pro-
grams in accordance with the principle that
UNRRA is a service agency designed to perform
only those functions that cannot be undertaken by
existing agencies — and, specifically, that it will not
deplete its resources for the relief of any area that
is in a position to pay in foreign exchange.' How-
ever, even in the field of supply, it is expected that
UNRRA may be of considerable assistance to some
of these governments in helping them procure and
ship specific commodities. The same may be true
to a large extent with respect to some or all of the
British, French, and Netherlands territories in
Asia which have been occupied by Japan.
Beyond the field of supply, however, UNRRA
has important functions with respect to all the
occupied countries in the fields of health and wel-
fare and in the care and repatriation of displaced
persons. In varying degrees, depending upon con-
ditions found after liberation, it is likely that these
governments will look to UNRRA as a reservoir
of assistance in those activities. The importance
of UNRRA's work in the field of displaced persons
speaks for itself; the care and orderly repatriation
of the 20 million displaced persons of Europe is a
task which is vital to the future of every Allied
country of Europe. With respect to public health,
UNRRA's functions will range from direct med-
ical assistance in the more ravaged countries to
the furnishing, in the case of others, of key tech-
nical personnel to help in the reestablishment of
national agencies. All the countries of northwest
Europe have indicated to UNRRA that they will
wish to avail themselves of these services. In
view of the universal importance of this work to
the occupied countries, it is encouraging to note
the close working relations that have been estab-
lished between UNRRA and the Anglo-American
military authorities in matters of health and
displaced persons which will permit UNRRA per-
sonnel to participate in operations in these fields
during the military period.
It is hoped that as the great nations of north-
west Europe arise again to resume their accus-
tomed places among the nations of the world, their
greatest source of interest in participating in
UNRRA will be to contribute in personnel and in
other ways to the Administration's work in other
lands. This in effect was the answer of these
countries, as indicated by the quality of the dele-
gations which they sent to Montreal, to the rumors
that some or all of them were to withdraw from
UNRRA.
II
The Report of the Dy-ector General to the Coun-
cil on the progress of the organization disclosed
many encouraging and concrete steps in making
effective the provisions of the Agreement and Reso-
lutions.
With respect to finance, 34 of the 44 governments
have paid in whole or in part their quotas of ad-
ministrative expenses for 1944, the amounts paid
by tliem aggregating about $8,300,000 out of an
administrative budget of $10,000,000 for this year.
In addition to the United States, which has au-
thorized total appropriations of $1,350,000,000 in
accordance with the Financial Plan and made a
substantial appropriation under this authorization,
several member governments have taken significant
action on their operating contributions. The
United Kingdom, Canada, and Brazil have com-
pleted action to make available the full amount of
1 percent or more of their respective national in-
comes for the year ended June 30, 1943, in accord-
ance with the Financial Plan. The amounts of
their contributions are the equivalent of $320,000,-
' Recent press report.s indicate, in view of the extent of
destruction in tlie Netherlands owing to recent military
developments, enemy sabotage of non-military installa-
tions, and general disruption of economic activities, that
the Netherlands Government may find it necessary, de-
spite earlier indications to the contrary, to request finan-
cial assistance from UNRRA in obtaining needed imports
of relief supplies.
504
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
000, $70,000,000, and $30,000,000, respectively. The
Union of South Africa, Iceland, and Liberia have
made initial appropriations for this purpose of
the equivalent of $1,000,000, $50,000, and $15,000,
respectively. Australia and New Zealand have ini-
tiated legislation on contributions of the equivalent
of $39,000,000 and $8,500,000, respectively, corre-
sponding in each case to 1 percent of the national
income for the period in question, and Uruguay
on a contribution of the equivalent of $500,000.
Other countries have indicated their intention of
initiating action toward their contributions in the
near future so that it is expected that a fund of
approximately $2,000,000,000 as visualized at At-
lantic City should in fact be realized.'
With respect to supplies, the Report disclosed
that excellent progress had been made in estab-
lishing relationships with the combined supply
boards and the national supply agencies of the
supplying countries. The Administration has
made noteworthy progress in pressing its require-
ments programs before these agencies. Arrange-
ments have been made with the military author-
ities for the integi-ation of planning for liberated-
areas requirements, including the understanding
that in the event of the relinquishment by the mili-
tary of their responsibility for relief in any given
area before the termination of the assumed period
of six months of military responsibility, the mili-
tary will deliver to UNRR A, upon reimbursement,
the remainder of the supplies procured by them
for that area.
Encouraging reports were delivered to the Coun-
cil by the combined boards, the purport of which
was that it should be possible to meet the require-
ments of the liberated areas for 1945 with the ex-
ception of certain items, notably textiles, with
which considerable diiiiculty may be experienced.
In general, these reports disclosed a firmness of
purpose on the part of the responsible agencies of
the supplying countries in discharging their re-
sponsibilities for relief. Since the termination of
'An UNRRA mission, headed by Deputy Director Gen-
eral Eduardo Santos, formerly President of the Republic
of Colombia, and including Assistant Diplomatic Adviser
Laurence Duggan, formerly Director, Office of American
Republic Affairs. Department of State, is now engaged in
an official tour of most of the other American republics for
the purpo-se of discussing with them various phases of their
participation in UNRRA. Preliminary reports indicated
that this mission has been most cordially received in the
countries thus far visited and that an important degree of
support can be expected for UNRRA from these countries.
the Session it is understood that, in connection
with the Brazilian contribution, a special UNRRA
mission to Brazil has completed arrangements
with the Brazilian Government for the delivery of
90 million square yards of cotton textiles for the
liberated areas.
In the organization for relief and rehabilitation
services and specifically in the organization and
recruitment of personnel, the Administration's
record is likewise one of considerable accomplish-
ment. A staflf of more than 450 is now on hand at
headquarters and about 300 at the regional office
in London, and more than 500 have been recruited
for the Balkan-Cairo mission. In addition, the
Administration has made arrangements for ap-
proximately 400 representatives of voluntary re-
lief organizations to serve under its direction in
the Balkans (a fact which, incidentally, should
dispel some publicly expressed fears concerning
the extent to which voluntary agencies were to be
allowed by UNRRA to participate in relief in
liberated areas). Substantial numbers of these
agencies have already been transported to Cairo,
and with the liberation of Greece rapidly becom-
ing an accomplished fact, this personnel will soon
be actively engaged in this critical area of UNRRA
operations.
Although thus far the Administration's ener-
gies have been devoted primarily to Europe, plan-
ning for operations in the Far E,<ist is under way,
and increasing attention should be given to them
with the opening in the immediate future of
branches in Sydney and Chungking in accordance
with the announcement made by the Director Gen-
eral in presenting the Report.
The foregoing is a summary of some of the high
lights of the Director General's Report, which was
well received by the member governments in the
debate before the Council. The members of the
Council from the United States and the United
Kingdom both recognized, however, that UNRRA,
for reasons previously alluded to, had been sub-
jected to considerable public criticism in their re-
spective countries. Both urged that UNRRA
should mobilize itself for action and be prepared
upon immediate notice to begin its duties in the
liberated areas; both pledged their country's full
cooperation and support to the success of UNRRA.
m
Although the principal item of business at the
Session was the receipt and consideration of the
OCTOBER 29, 1944
Director General's Keport, significant questions of
policy which had arisen since the First Session
were placed before the Council for decision. The
principal decisions made by the Council are sum-
marized as follows :
1. The Council unanimously adopted a resolu-
tion introduced by the United States member of
the Council, Assistant Secretary Acheson, accept-
ing certain declarations and reservations of the
United Spates Congress in the enabling legislation
which authorized aj)propriations for our partici-
pation in UNRRA and declaring that the provi-
sions in question are consistent with the provisions
of the Agreement and Resolutions on Policy. The
Council also accepted parallel recommendations of
the United States Congress and of the Legislative
Assembly of India to the effect that, so far as funds
and facilities permit, any area of importance to
the military operations of the United Nations
which is stricken by famine or disease may be in-
cluded in the benefits to be made available through
UNRRA. Although this resolution meets a wide-
spread public demand for making areas such as
India eligible for assistance from UNRRA in tlie
event of their being adversely affected by the war,
other principles applicable to UNRRA's opera-
tions apply to these areas as well as to those which
have suffered from enemy occupation, including
the provision that UNRRA shall not deplete its
available resources for the relief of any area which
is in a position to pay in foreign exchange.
"~2. The most important and difficult problem pre-
sented to the Council was the motion of the United
States member to authorize UNRRA to conduct
certain operations in Italy. The presentation of
this resolution was strongly urged by all agencies
of this Government having responsibility for eco-
nomic and health conditions in Italy, and it also
had wide-spread popular support throughout this
country. In presenting the resolution, the United
States representative made reference to the poor
health conditions in Italy resulting from occupa-
tion by the enemy and destructive activities dur-
ing his retreat. He stressed also that the action
was not to be considered as a precedent for opera-
tions to relieve the civilian populations of Germany
or Japan. The debate on the resolution and also
particularly the statements of the members of the
Council for France, Greece, Ethiopia, and Yugo-
slavia were moving and impressive. The Council
unanimously authorized the Director General to
615883 — i4 3
505
operate in Italy for the purposes of (a) providing
medical and sanitary aid and supplies; {h) assist-
ing in the care and return to their homes of dis-
placed persons of Italian nationality; and (c) car-
ing for children, pregnant women, and nursing
mothers. The Director General was authorized in
the resolution to expend up to $50,000,000 in for-
eign exchange for the cost of this program. The
UNRRA program for Italy, of course, will solve
only partially the problem of meeting the imme-
diate needs of that country. The greater part of
the bulk supplies which must be moved into Italy
from abroad will continue to be financed through
other sources. The Italian Government will hence-
forth be in a position to pay for a substantial part
of such supplies by virtue of the recent action of
this Government in making available to the Italian
Government for this purpose certain dollar funds
resulting from the issue of lira for the pay of
United States troops in Italy, from emigrant re-
mittances, and from exports from Italy to this
country.^
3. Certain complicated questions arose concern-
ing operations in enemy or ex-enemy territory and
certain classes of persons of enemy or ex-enemy
nationality. On the motion of the United King-
dom Delegation a resolution was adopted making
it clear, despite the restrictions in the Resolutions
with respect to operations by UNRRA in ex-enemy
areas, that UNRRA should have authority to oper-
ate in such areas for the purpose of combatting
epidemics and assisting in the care and repatri-
ation of displaced United Nations nationals. On
the motion of the United States Delegation, there
was adopted an am.endment to that resolution,
based in part upon recommendations submitted by
Jewish and other interested organizations, which
gives UNRRA authority to assist persons, regard-
less of nationality, who have been obliged to leave
their country or place of origin or former residence
or have been deported therefrom, by action of the
enemy, because of race, religion, or activities in
favor of the United Nations; the Council also
authorized the Administration to assist such per-
sons found in the liberated areas. These resolu-
tions, therefore, will give UNRRA considerably
more flexibility in its operations than that given
under the more rigid provisions of the resolution
adopted at Atlantic City which required specific
Council approval for any operations in ex-enemy
' BuixETiN of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 338, and Oct. 15, 1944, p. 403.
506
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
areas ; one of UNRRA's principal tasks will be the
care and repatriation of displaced persons of
United Nations nationality fomid in such areas.
4. With furtlier reference to restrictions on
operations in ex-enemy areas, the Council, on the
motion of tlie Greek Delegation, declared the
Dodecanese Islands eligible for assistance from
UNRRA. In view of subsequent military devel-
opments, this action was particularly timely and
will enable UNRRA to assist the distressed in-
habitants of these islands who are almost entirely
of Greek origin or nationality.
The Greek proposal was followed by the presen-
tation of resolutions by the Yugoslav and Polish
Delegations proposing that minorities of their
respective nationalities in certain enemy terri-
tories should be eligible for assistance from
UNRRA. These proposals were subsequently
withdrawn, however, with the expression of the
hope on the part of the Yugoslav and Polish
Delegations that the acceptance of the Greek pro-
posal might eventually constitute a precedent for
these types of operations.
5. The Council voted to include India on the
Committee on Supplies of the Council. The
Government of India has informed the Director
General that it proposes to submit to the Legis-
lative Assembly of India at its next session,
commencing November 1, the question of India's
contribution to the operating expenses of the
Administration.
6. The Council approved, virtually without
change, the bases of requirements (relief stand-
ards) recommended by the Committee of the
Council for Europe, on the basis of which the
Director General will compute the requirements
for the European area. The Council also adopted
a separate resolution introduced by the Soviet
Delegation, recognizing that it is UNRRA's pri-
mary responsibility to secure relief and rehabili-
tation supplies for liberated areas of the United
Nations and that special weight and urgency shall
be given to the needs of those countries in which
the extent of devastation and the suffering of the
people is greater and has resulted from hostilities
and occupation by the enemy and active resistance
in the struggle against the enemy.
7. The Standing Conunittee on Displaced Per-
sons considered certain difficult questions within
its competence which had not been entirely clari-
fied at Atlantic City. Tlie politically difficult
question of the handling of so-called "intruded"
enemy nationals was decided by the adoption of a
resolution which confers upon the Administration
authority, if invited by the government of any lib-
erated area, to assist in the removal of enemy or
ex-enemy nationals who have been intruded into
the liberated areas.
The Council also adopted a recommendation of
the Displaced Persons Committee, the purpose of
which is to define the extent of UNRRA's respon-
sibility for the care and repatriation of displaced
persons located in territories which the enemy has
never occupied. This recommendation refers to
the problem of displaced persons and refugees of
war located in territories such as Africa, the Mid-
dle East, and the Western Hemisphere. The reso-
lution, which is in conformity with the principle
that UNRRA's resources shall be devoted prima-
rily to relief activities in liberated areas of the
United Nations, provides that (a) the Adminis-
tration shall allot its resources for the care of per-
sons in this category princij^ally when they are in
congregated groups rather than in favor of dis-
placed individuals; (6) the 'Administration shall
render assistance to such persons only when they
lack resources to return to their homes; and (c)
the Administration shall in general assume re-
sponsibility for such persons only in areas where
the resources for their maintenance are inade-
quate or cannot continue to be made available.
8. The Council authorized the Central Commit-
tee under certain conditions to admit Denmark
after its liberation to membersliip in UNRRA.
9. The Council considered a proposal of its
Committee on Health for the amendment in cer-
tain respects of the existing international sanitary
conventions which provide for the exchange of
epidemiological information and for quai-antine
measures in connection with international mari-
time and air travel. The purpose of the amend-
ments is to adjust the provisions of these conven-
tions to modern medical practice and to authorize
UNRRA to exercise for a limited period the func-
tions previously exercised under these conventions
by the International Office of Public Health in
Paris which is unable for the time being to carry
out its duties. The Council approved in principle
preliminary drafts of amending conventions and
requested the Director General to submit copies of
these drafts to the member governments for their
consideration and for the subsequent submission
of their comments to the Council's Committee on
Health. It is estimated that UNRRA would be
OCTOBER 29, 1944
507
able to assume the functions of the International
Office of Public Health for a minimum of addi-
tional expense and that it would thereby be placed
in a better position to discharge its functions in the
fields of displaced persons and epidemic control.
10. The Committee on Financial Control held
detailed hearings on the admmistrative budget for
1945. While recommending that tlie activities of
the Administration should be decentralized to the
regional offices and field missions, it commended
the Director General for having laid the founda-
tions of a soundly designed organization. The
Council also accepted the recommendation of the
Committee for the approval of an administrative
budget for 1945 of $11,500,000, of which $4,000,000
is to be carried over from tlie unexpended amount
of the administrative budget for 1944. Of the
additional funds of $7,500,000 allocated to the
member governments for 1945, the share of the
United States is 40 percent or $3,000,000. This
amount will, of course, be paid out of the funds
already appropriated by the Congress for United
States particijjation in the work of UNRRA. The
Council also approved the recommendation of the
Committee on Financial Control for the appoint-
ment of the firm of Deloitte, Plender, Griffiths &
Co. as the auditors of UNRRA and provided that
the auditors shall consult with an Audit Subcom-
mittee of the Committee on Financial Control to
consist of not less than three and not more than
five persons of special technical competence from
the member countries.
11. On the motion of the Delegation of Czecho-
slovakia, the Council adopted a resolution calling
the attention of the member governments to the
restricted scope of UNRRA's activities in indus-
trial rehabilitation and to the importance of pro-
viding means for joint consideration of the prob-
lems of continued rehabilitation. Although the
agreements recommended at Bretton Woods would
afipear to go far toward meeting the needs pointed
out by the Czechoslovak Delegation, the need for
action in this field certainly will contiiuie to exist
at least until the Bretton Woods arrangements
have been made effective or until other methods
of financing have been evolved.
Other features of the Session included an in-
spiring address of welcome by Prime Minister Mac-
kenzie King ; the reports of the combined military
authorities and combined boards referred to above;
and a joint meeting of members of the Standing
Committees of the Council on Health, Welfare, and
Displaced Persons with representatives of volun-
tary agencies for the purpose of discussing prob-
lems of mutual concern in connection with relief
in liberated areas.
Although the agenda did not present questions
approaching the complexity of those discussed at
Atlantic City, many of the items at Montreal were
of a highly controversial nature which, if consid-
ered under less favorable circumstances and if co-
operation on the part of the delegations had been
lacking, might well have given rise to irreconcil-
able differences of view and tendencies toward
separatism.
It will be noted particularly that many of the
proposals presented, in addition to some that were
discussed during the Session but not formally
moved, called for the extension of the Administra-
tion's activities into new fields. However justifi-
able these proposals may have been intrinsically,
it is difficult to quarrel with the views expressed
by certain members of the Council that UNRRA
should not extend itself into new fields before it
has mastered the tasks with which it is primarily
concerned, namely, relief to the liberated areas of
the United Nations. One of the most difficult
points in connection with the American proposal
for relief to Italy was that by force of circumstance
Italy, an ex-enemy country, will be one of the first,
if not the first, direct recipients of UNERA's bene-
fits. It can be understood that this fact was not
viewed with enthusiasm by countries whose con-
tinued occupation by the enemy is due in part at
least to Italy's previous attitude and actions.
In view of factors of this nature as well as of
the concern of the governments of the occupied
countries over the adequacy of the resources of
UNRRA and the availability of sufficient supplies
and personnel to enable it to perform its basic
duties, it is of some consequence that agreement
was reached on points where compelling reasons
led to the imposition of new demands upon the
Administration's facilities — even though such new
demands do not in any sense alter the basic pattern
of UNRRA's operations. Although it is fre-
quently said that "if the nations can agi-ee on
anything, they can agree on UNRRA," the achieve-
ment of that agreement is somewhat easier in con-
templation than in execution. Perhaps we may
indulge in the hope, however, that the tendency to
reach agreement will be cumulative, in this and in
other sectors of international endeavor.
508
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
It seemed to be generally agreed that the Ses-
sion was successfully concluded. Although more
liberty might have been accorded to the press in
attending meetings of the Council and its commit-
tees, there was no lack of official information on
the proceedings; press comment was remarkably
accurate and understanding throughout the Ses-
sion, and the members of the press were unanimous
in praising the manner in which relations with
them were conducted.
The efficiency and courtesy of tlie Government
of Canada, an outstanding supporter of UNKRA
since its inception, and the effective leadership of
the Canadian Council member, Mr. L. B. Pearson,
as Chairman of the Session, contributed notably
to the success of the proceedings.
IV
The Council Session has resulted in a definition
of UNREA's scope so far as it can now be set
down on paper and, with the rapid military de-
velopments in recent weeks, the way is now clear
for UNRRA to undertake important activities in
the field.
Two main jobs remain to be completed before
large-scale operations can be undertaken, namely,
the mobilization of personnel for action and the
accumulation of reserve stocks of supplies. With
respect to organization, competent staffs have
been assembled to handle UNRRA's planning,
particularly in the vital functions of supply,
health, and displaced persons and in other key
positions. Much progress has been made in as-
sembling and training personnel for the field
within the limits of UNRRA's present knowledge
of the actual extent of its responsibilities. But,
as urged by certain members of the Council at
Montreal, the organization and personnel must be
constantly scrutinized in the light of actual de-
mands to insure that it is adapted to action.
In the matters of personnel and supplies, as in
all phases of UNRRA's work, the support and
cooperation of its members will be decisive in the
performance of its tasks.
The Congress of the United States has by large
majorities taken the first important step, so far
as our participation is concerned, by voting funds
in accordance with the recommendations of the
Council. The President, in appointing the For-
eign Economic Administration as the service
agency for UNRRA in the United States, has
strongly emphasized the importance as a matter
of national policy of our participation in UNRRA
and of there being available in all liberated areas
those supjjlies that will be necessary for the health
and welfare of the peoples in those areas. The
national allocating-and-supply agencies have
given great attention to the problem of meeting
UNRRA's requirements. The military authori-
ties have shown an increasing recognition of
UNRRA's importance and have taken significant
steins toward establishing liaisoji with it in all
fields of its activities.
There are many difficulties, particularly in war-
time, in adjusting national governmental proce-
dures to those of an international organization.
Those difficulties can be overcome only through
trial and error and through the practical working
out of operating relationships.
On the one hand, there is a wide-spread diffi-
dence in dealing intimately with an international
organization. Aside from obvious and frequently
overstressed security considerations, the novelty
of such an organization', particularly when it is
concerned with duties of a somewhat eleemosynary
nature, has sometimes led to the characterization
of UNRRA as an idealistic enterpi'ise which may
furnish a calm haven for international do-gooders
but one that will never accomplish much of lasting
value. (''We handled it alone last time in a hard-
headed and businesslike way and that should be
good enough this time.") The great advantages
of a pooling of the resources,' talents, and knowl-
edge of all interested nations, whether suppliers
or recipients, may become obscured by its strange-
ness. There is a tendency to forget that we have
entrusted upon this organization our participation
in the first vital post-war job abroad and that we
in this country have a very great stake in its
success.
On the other hand, there is sometimes an equally
unfortunate tendency to look upon this organiza-
tion as an agency of this Government and to deal
with it accordingly. Familiar faces well-known
throughout Washington constantly turn up in
UNRRA, and it is natural that these persons carry
the brunt of the liaison with our national agencies.
This unconscious sense of familiarity is all too
often coupled with a conscious realization of the
preponderance of United States funds and sup-
plies in meeting the UNRRA programs to tlie ex-
(Continucd on page 524)
OCTOBER 29. 1944
509
Degrees Conferred on the Under Secretary
of State
REMARKS UPON ACCEPTANCE OF DEGREE
FROM NEW YORK UNIVERSITY '
[Released to the press October 23]
I am deeply gratified to receive this honorary.
degree of doctor of laws from a university which
has so outstanding a record as one of America's
great institutions of higher learning. In your
contributions to the enlightened leadership of
American youth, who are carrying to the far bat-
tlefields of this war the traditions which make
America great and her universities a bulwark of
civilization itself, I can see the great influence for
enduring values which you, and others of the Re-
public of Letters, will bring into the life of this
Nation, and of all nations, when peace comes
again. New York University, through its Insti-
tute on Post-war Reconstruction, its seminars on
post-war problems, its far-seeing lectures mider
the Stokes Foundation, is continuing the best tra-
ditions of higher education throughout the ages.
One of the statements embodied in the Dum-
barton Oaks proposals looks forward to the pro-
motion of '"human rights and fundamental free-
doms". These are the same human rights and the
same fundamental freedoms for which the great
intellectual leaders of mankind have struggled
since the ancient beginnings of Athens, Jerusalem,
and Rome. The Charter of the United Nations,
toward the establishment of which we took the
first steps at Dumbarton Oaks, will be designed to
advance these rights and these freedoms for all
peace-loving peoples. Organization, however,
will never alone suffice : Pacts and treaties and in-
stitutions are necessary instruments, but they will
lead to effective action only when there is a firm
will to support peace and to develop the fuller life
which they are intended to make possible.
The challenge to our colleges and universities
now and in the future is as unmistakable as their
opportunity. It is for them to assert anew the
great principles which have given rise to our civi-
lization. It is for them to strengthen the ties with
our own past, that glorious history of a people in-
tent on freedom and haj)piness for all in a law-
abiding society. And it is for them to demon-
strate the not fully understood truth tliat in this
interdependent ■<yorld of the twentieth century
the freedom and well-being of nations and peo-
ples, hand in hand with security itself, must be
advanced by international cooperation rather than
by national action alone. As reflected by the
Dumbarton Oaks proposals, security resides not
only in the collective determination and action of
all peace-loving nations and peoples but also in
their friendly coopei-ation for the solution of inter-
national economic, social, and other humanitarian
problems.
The great opportunity of American colleges and
universities lies in the fact that they are institu-
tions of the people. They ai-e open not only to
the selected few but to those of gift and promise
from all walks of life. Their research and their
teaching belong to the people. This has been
one of our great sources of strength as we built
our own democracy. This will enable us also as a
nation to act in the future with enlightened self-
intei'est, with thoughtfulness, and with a common
will for the realization of a world order within
which we shall be able to live at peace. Hitler
destroyed his universities and as a result the mind
of Germany was blighted and science was dis-
torted for deadly purposes. Our universities and
their students must continue to serve the truth
which alone can make mankind truly free and
enable our people and all peoples to live the life
abundant.
REMARKS UPON ACCEPTANCE OF DEGREE
FROM STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY '
[Released to the press October 28]
I am deeply gratified to receive this honorary
degree of doctor of engineering from Stevens In-
stitute of Technology, the same great institution
of learning which at the close of the last war
honored my father by the award of a similar
' Delivered on the occasion of receiving the degree of
doctor of laws, New York University, on Oct. 23, 1944.
"Delivered on the occasion of receiving tlie degree of
doctor of engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, on
Oct. 28, 1944.
510
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
degree. In addition I must mention, at this point,
my long association and great admiration and
friendship for the distinguished chairman of your
board of trustees, Mr. Robert C. Stanley.
Ever since its establishment in 1870, Stevens
Institute has been among the pioneers of scientific
advance and of progress in engineering. It has
thus perpetuated the great traditions laid down by
the Stevens family, from Col. John Stevens to
Robert L. and Edwin A. Stevens, who are justly
counted among the greatest contributors to the
industrial development of this country, and who,
by their work for steam navigation and railroad
transportation, opened up ever wider horizons
before the American people. In recent years,
Stevens Institute has made outstanding contribu-
tions towards making our country the arsenal of
democracy. In this connection I desire to pay
special tribute to President Harvey Nathaniel
Davis, who, as Director of the Office of Produc-
tion Research and Development of the War Pro-
duction Board, has carried the traditions of Stev-
ens Institute for public service into his splendid
achievements in aiding 'our Nation and our Allies
toward the attainment of victory.
Great tasks await the men of science during the
years to come. The peace-loving nations of the
world are determined to put an end to wanton ag-
gression and wars. To this end they are now en-
gaged in creating an international organization
for the maintenance of peace and security, in
which this country is to play a role commensurate
with its strength and resources. It will be for our
scientists and engineers to give us the technical
equipment, embodying the best scientific achieve-
ments, which will enable our great Nation, in co-
operation with the other peace-loving nations, to
carry out its mission. The forces of destruction
must not again dare to break the peace and assault
the forces of freedom in the world.
It is in such a world built on law and order that
science and engineering will be able to attain their
greatest triumphs. The inventive genius of scien-
tists and engineers, having helped to free the world
from fear, will be called upon to help create a
world free from want. Their work will be as vital
in laying the foundations of a new prosperity in
this country as it will be in building peaceful inter-
national relations through the improvement of
communications, of transport — of all the helpful
exchanges and interchanges which support peace
and advance the well-being of peoples. The pro-
posals resulting from the international conversa-
tions at Dumbarton Oaks envisage that under an
Economic and Social Council of the United Na-
tions there should be a number of specialized agen-
cies. By these and other means, experts in various
fields of human endeavor, including the humani-
ties, will be able to further the peace, security, and
well-being of the peoples of the world once their
vast achievements can again be fully devoted to
the progress of mankind.
In 1928 the faculty of Stevens Institute under-
took to strengthen the study of economics and the
humanities. It thus gave recognition to the fact
that scientific progress must be accompanied by
an equal growth in understanding of the great
moral laws of life. By this pioneering move Ste-
vens Institute advanced the day when science itself
will be generally recognized as one of the great
branches of the humanities, with scientists and
engineers in the vanguard of human advancement,
serving the needs and aspirations of a humane
society. This, as much as anything, gives us hope
that the time is near when nature's resources will
be harnessed, not for destructive warfare, but for
the construction of a society in which the least
among us will be able to live a creative life in peace
and security.
I am indeed proud that from this day on I shall
have an even closer association with your great
institution, which embodies the genius of our peo-
ple at their best, their inventiveness and their skill,
as well as their abiding faith in humanity.
^ THE FOREIGN SERVICE ^
Diplomatic and Consular Offices
The American Embassy at Bru.ssels, Belgium,
was opened to the public on September IS, 1944.
The American Consulate General at Antwerp,
Belgium, was established on October 17, 1944.
OCTOBER 29, 19U
511
Education in Germany Under the
National Socialist Regime
By LEON W. FULLER '
National Socialist Education in Theory
and Practice
The Educational Theory of National Sociaijsbi
The Appeal of National Socialisnk
The Nazi conquest of power came about largely
as a result of a successful educational campaign to
win the mind of the nation ; not that even a major-
ity were convinced adherents of Nazism in Jan-
uary 1933, but the foundations had been laid for
acceptance of its doctrines. Hitler's talents were
primarily those of the popular educator and prop-
agandist — Mein Kampf was a fighting document, a
creed, and a program fervidly and fanatically pre-
sented. The Nazi gospel was an effective fusion
of three elements — nationalism, socialism, and
racism — and it was broadcast to a population at-
tuned by their discontent to a ready acceptance of
its irrational but compelling appeal.
The strength of the Nazi movement resided in a
population group of from 20 to 35 years of age, the
unrooted generation who had never experienced
normal and stable conditions and whose youth and
early maturity had paralleled an era of war, revo-
lution, social and economic chaos and insecurity,
and international disturbance. Adventurous and
reckless, unadjusted to civilian pursuits, contemp-
tuous of the bourgeois ethos and of a system which
had failed, they were ready to accept iconoclastic
dogmas and dangerous but alluring programs.
This group was relatively easy to win over, and
with its enthusiastic support the Nazi leaders were
enabled to broaden their appeal to the many dis-
contented elements in the nation. To reaction-
aries they could offer a war on Bolshevism and a
strongly nationalist creed. To workers and the
unemployed they could promise an end to the sys-
tem of capitalistic exploitation and a rehabilitated
economy. To those disillusioned with parliamen-
tary government they offered the Fuhrerprinzip
in the old German tradition. To nationalists and
militarists they promised revision of the Versailles
Treaty and the rearmament of the Reich. To all
who had suffered from humiliation and loss of
status they offered a scapegoat theory, anti-Semit-
ism, and a sense of racial pride and superiority.
The formula of National Socialism, however in-
consistent and irrational, was a common denomi-
nator of the fears and hatreds, the hopes, cravings,
and ambitions of thousands of Germans of every
group and class.
Moreover the National Socialist ideology was
exclusively derived from German and European
thinkers whose concepts already were a part of
the mental furniture of many Germans. Among
the seminal ideas which inspired the Nazi theo-
rizers were :
Subordination of private interests to public
welfare (Plato, Adam Midler, Fichte)
Freedom as organic relatedness and limitation
or Bindung (Hegel)
The Folk as organic entity embraced m total
state (Fichte and many others)
The Nordic or "Aryan" race myth (Gobineau,
H. S. Chamberlain, Lagarde, Wagner)
The leader principle (Fichte)
Duty as absolute imperative (Kant)
State as total power (Machiavelli, Treitschke)
Sense of a German mission (Geibel, Fichte,
Lagarde, and innumerable others)
However distorted to their own uses by the
Nazis, these and other ideas were at least familiar
to most educated Germans and highly acceptable
in their Nazi guise to many. In fact it may be
' Mr. Fuller is a Country Specialist, Central European
Section, Division of Territorial Studies, OflBce of Special
Political Affairs, Department of State. This is the second
in a series of three articles by Mr. Fuller on education in
Germany under National Socialism. For the first article
on "Antecedents of National Socialist Education" and
"Education Before National Socialism", see Bulletin of
Oct. 22, 1944, p. 466 ; the third article, "The Higher Learn-
ing and Extra-Curricular Education", will appear in the
BuiXBTiN of Nov. 5, 1944.
512
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
argued that National Socialism has come to be
considered widely in Germany as a definitive
statement of Germanism in essence — hence the
ease with which it has been propagated and the
difficulties which will probably be encountered in
any attempt to destroy it by severing its rootage
in traditional German views which are an out-
growth of German historical experience and, as
part of the national heritage, are tenaciously held.
The Nasi Critique of Liberal and Hiumamstic
Education
That National Socialism is an attack upon the
Western heritage is now a generally accepted tru-
ism, nowhere more applicable than in the field of
education. Before considering this basic antago-
nism the underlying premises of Nazi educational
theory may be noted.= To the Nazis the individual
is a myth, having no separate existence apart fi-om
the "total collective-personality" of which he is a
member. This larger, all-comprehending corpo-
rate personality is the Volk, a spiritual-historical
being, the ideal form, mold, or type for all its
members. It is immutable and eternal, the reality
which endures and transcends ephemeral circum-
stance, always embodying the ideality and objec-
tives of personal, group, and national life. Thus
educational objectives cannot be devised or formu-
lated for preconceived ends — they are predestined
by the nature of the Volk and must be discovered.
Personality is a derivative of race and cannot be
fashioned arbitrarily, nor can it evolve autono-
mously in accordance with its own laws. The
forming of personality consists in activating those
powers which are inherent in the individual as a
member of the collective organism, the Volk. The
goal of education is "German, folk-bound, moral-
religious character" or, more simply, the making
of a German man. True education is always "to
type"; its objectives are shaped by the "world-
outlook" (Weltanschauung) of a particular Volk.
- Walthei- Wallowitz, Deutsche Nationalerziehxing (Leip-
zig, 1036) , pp. 5-14. Max Troll, Die Schule im drittcn Reich
(Langensalza, 1933), p. 2.
' Fritz Solllioim, Erziehimg im neueti Btaat (Berlin,
1934), pp. 2.5-83. Karl F. Sturm, Deutsche Erziehung im
Werden (Berlin, 1938), pp. 75-77. Hermann Schaller, Die
Bchule im Slaat Adolf Hitlers (Breslaii, 1935), pp. 28-85.
Richard Oechsle, Erziehimg und QIauben (WUrzburg,
1939), pp. 31-55. Erich Lohl, Das pUdagogische Erbe des
Libcralismus und das volkische Weltbild (Dilsscldorf,
1937), pp. 1-52. Alfred Biiumler, Politik und Erziehung
(Berlin, 1937), pp. 57-66.
There is no place for free, that is arbitrary and
unmotivated, cultivation of the mind; "abstract
life-strange theories" are to be avoided. The to-
tality of life is embraced in the educational proc-
ess, which is a function of life itself, life conceived
as unending struggle, activity, tasks to be per-
formed. But life has meaning and values only as
it flows naturally from the necessities of the Volk.
An ethno-cultural determinism must rule all edu-
cational procedures.
It becomes evident that Nazi education could
have little in common with the liberal and human-
istic concepts which have guided modern progres-
sive education and which had gained a foothold in
the schools of the Weimar Republic. Nazi educa-
tional theorists developed an elaborate critique of
so-called "liberal" education in contrast to the
volkisch type which they championed.' Liberals,
they argued, ever since the Renaissance had mis-
takenly posited the free, unbound personalitj' em-
bodying its own law of development, without root-
age (Bindung) in society, folk, or state. Hence
humanistic education became essentially "egocen-
tric self-cultivation" {selbstzxveckliche Elgenbil-
dung). From this erroneous concept flowed all the
evils of modern liberal "reformist pedagogy". It
ignored the existence of the folk-community
(Volkische Gemeinschaft), the concrete, historical
realities of folk and state, race and culture as con-
ditioning factors. "Psychologism" became an ob-
session, pedagogy a mere "technology of instruc-
tion" isolated from its "social feeding ground", cut
off from the living histoi'ical social structure. The
positivist pedagogical science of Herbart had as-
sumed an abstract, generalized humanity, an atom-
ized, disassociated individual. Hence it had pro-
duced a mechanical system adapted only to the
mythical lone individual in a general qualityless
society. "King Child ruled the school", a condi-
tion resulting only in a training without values,
goals, or objectives. All talk of the "unchaining of
creative powers", or the "harmonious development
of personality" was meaningless as long as it ig-
nored the Volk as frame of reference. The inevi-
table evils of such schooling were over-emphasis
on sheer intellectualism and the acquisition of use-
less knowledge, anarchic individualism, one-sided
development, estrangement of the academic world
from life, a flabby cosmopolitanism, and ultimately
social and political chaos and disintegration.
Nazi theorists were convinced that the era of
liberal education had ended and that a new day
OCTOBER 29, 1944
513
had dawned. The "world picture" (WeltbUd)
must now be redrawn in terms of "folkish" con-
cepts, instead of seeking to portray an abstract
humanity. Education must have firm rootage in
the soil of native culture. There was to be no
self-contained or self-determined schooling but
only the shaping of the individual as a cell of the
organic whole. The limits of reason were to be
recognized — instinct and emotion, blood, race, and
folk-personality must come into their own. In as
much as the state was merely the incarnation of
the folk {Volk in Form) all education must be po-
litical. Thus leadership would emerge, "folk-
rooted, heroic personalities" endowed with phy-
sique, will, and character. The autonomy and
isolation of the school would be ended — it would
become one of many forces guiding and molding
the ideal racial type and aiming not at an abstract
perfectionism but at growth and maturation of the
folk-bound personality.
The contrast between liberal and Nazi educa-
tional theories may be presented graphically as
follows :
Liberal theory: The Child (Sole Determi-
nant)— >Life Forms (Free Development) -^Insti-
tutions (Economic, Social, Political, Cultural, Re-
ligious).
Nazi theory: Nature (Blood-Eace-Soil)— »
FoZA;-^Physique, Intellect, Character, Spirit (Pre-
Determined Development) — »The German Man.
Hitler's Educational Views
From the beginning Hitler has proclaimed edu-
cation to be the foremost task of the state. In his
New Year's pronoimcement of January 1, 1939 he
declared: "The first task is and remains — as
always in the past — the education of our people
for the National Socialist community." His Mein
Kampf is basically a textbook of Nazi doctrine,
and his speeches have been devoted largely to
popular enlightenment and indoctrination. In
both, as well as through his policies, he has made
clear his conception of education. His success in
putting his ideas into effect is only too apparent
to the world at large.
In Hitler's opinion the first goal of an educa-
tional program must be the elimination of the
errors and fallacies arising from miseducation in
the past.* Education is at first an instrument of
warfare against men, influences, and ideas con-
sidered false or harmful to a people. According
to Rauschning he has said : "I shall eradicate the
thousands of years of human domestication.
Then I shall have in front of me the pure and noble
natural material." Erroneous ideas are slow
poison, undermining and corrupting the healthy
folk-organism and destroying it by disease
(V oikskrankheit) . They must be rooted out and
supplanted by indubitable and unchallengeable
truth. This requires complete control and utili-
zation not only of the schools but also of all media
through whicli thought and conduct may be in-
fluenced. Total experience educates, and conse-
quently social control must be complete and all-
embracing. In a modern complex urban society
much education comes about as an unconscious
conditioning through environment — hence the
necessity for the extensive regimentation of social
life.
True education. Hitler maintains, is a shaping of
the will through instinct and emotion, directed to
action. Its purpose is not to transmit a heritage
but to change men. They are to be changed
through directed activity guided by a clear sense
of values and ends. While he stresses the forma-
tive aspect of education, he admits that all educa-
tion arises from self-knowledge and self-activity.
It cannot be compelled. It is not a forced modifi-
cation of essential nature but a means of assisting
and stimulating the development of what is latent
and innate, awaiting maturation. False education
thwarts natural development; true education
considers the potentialities of the individual, what
he is capable of becoming. But underlying all is
Hitler's major premise of the rootage of the indi-
vidual in the folk-community, his organic related-
ness to it — hence the danger either of "autono-
mous" education or of the attempt to superimpose
alien ideas or concepts. Man cannot absorb learn-
ing passively, and since he can act only in accord-
ance with his own nature education must plumb
the depths of racial instinct and heritage.
In Hitler's opinion physical training is of pri-
mary importance, the molding of character and
will of less importance, and the training of the
mind and the acquisition of knowledge of least im-
portance. Hitler's emphasis on physique and will
at the expense of intellect is due in part to his de-
sire to counteract the over-stress on intellectualism
*Wilhelm Hoper, Adolf Hitler,
Deutschen (Breslau, 1934), part I.
der Erzieher der
574
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
for which German education has often been criti-
cized, but more fundamentally to his racial and ac-
tivistic theories. He believes that a people degen-
erates if it neglects or attempts to transcend its
natural instincts. Education must be kept near
the level of the primitive, even the barbaric, in
man. Instinctive intelligence (Vernunft) is a
surer guide than mere intellectual understanding
(Verstamd) or knowledge {Wissenschaft). His
revolutionary program required that he elicit the
utmost energy and capacity for action from every
individual, which fact may explain his compara-
tive indiffei'ence to purely academic training. He
condemned the' "pumping in" of useless knowl-
edge and the indiscriminate indulgence in "for-
eign fare" apt to poison the true German nature.
This is evident in his attitude toward history,
which he maintains should be taught in broad
outlines as a guide to behavior and a source of na-
tional pride and inspiration, not as objective rep-
resentation of facts. All education should be mo-
tivated by faith rather than reason. It was an
unending process, guiding, shaping, and inspiring
the nation on the road to the fulfilment of its des-
tiny ; and always it was rooted in and determined
by the bio-cultural inheritance, never free, autono-
mous, or arbitrary, but responding to the life-im-
peratives of a race-rooted Volk.
Basic Concepts of Nasi Theory
The broad lines of Nazi educational theory
should now be apparent. Its specific character
and impact upon Western theory and practice may
be further clarified by an analytical summary of
its most fundamental concepts, which, incidentally,
are basic to the whole Nazi ideology.
Naturalism. This much-abused term must be
used here with caution. To Nazis it imj^lies the
organic wholeness, relatedness, and determinism of
life-forms.^ Education is the shaping {Bihhtng)
and unfolding of the organic. It is always goal-
determined, its objective being fruitage in success-
ful functioning and activity. Goethe has inspired
many Nazi educators with his maxim: "I detest
everything which I am merely taught and which
does not bear fruit in my actions." But Goethe
admired a cultivated personality ; Nazis prefer an
education which will release and enhance collec-
"Karl Weber, Der organixclie Oniiuhjcdanke in dcr
neuerstchcvden riJIkisch-poUtischen Bilchirig (Diisseldorf,
1939), pp. 1-33. Hans Suren, Volkscrsiehung im dritten
Reich (Stuttgart, 1934), pp. 64-67, 112-26.
tive powers. The forces to be tapped lie deep;
hence "the irrational and vital values must be
respected." Peasant life, rural landscapes, the
song of the lark — these lie close to nature and have
jDotentiality for education. Deepest in man lie the
spiritual powers {seeUsche Krdfte), springing
from the mystical tie between soul and landscape,
blood and soil. Man's intimate relatedness {Ge-
hundenheit) with nature is the source of all
culture, the inspiration of all true educational
procedure.
Race. Race is the natural form which differ-
entiates life, a primal unity of living substance
expressing itself in body, spirit, and soul, the basic
reality which gives meaning to all knowledge.
Humanity is a myth — there are only racial types.
Education, then, cannot develop man but can only
elicit responses characteristic of a racial group.
Blood has symbolic significance — it is the source
of the sj^irit of a race and transmits the ancesti'al
heritage. The end of education is the develop-
ment of the child for full membership and func-
tional participation in the folk-community based
on blood and soil. The preservation of racial
purity is of paramount importance; education
becomes a matter of breeding in the literal sense.
It must o-uard against the infiltration both of alien
blood and of alien ideas.
Volk. The German word Volk is untranslatable
as "folk" or "people." It implies the organic union
of a raciallj' determined community in a collective
personality embracing generations past, present,
and to come. Hence it is eternal, immutable — as
fixed as a Platonic type or form. It is somewhat
elusive but none the less real as a spirit or symbol
to which men attach themselves, in which they fer-
vently believe — a myth, in the Sorelian sense,
which gives meaning to their lives. Its existence
and perpetuati(m depend upon a common body of
teachings which provide a people with an inner
bond and conviction and spiritual nourishment.
It is the magic formula of National Socialism,
not conceived by the Nazis — for Herder, Fichte,
and many others had emphasized it — but utilized
by them as a universal solvent of problems, the
criterion of all policies and values. For education
it meant that the curriculum must be .shaped by
the heritage and needs of the folk-community
{Volk-Gemeinschaft). The rootless individual
and a mythical humanity were no longer of value
as criteria ; education must return to the organic
OCTOBER 29, 1944
515
unity and wholeness of the Volk. It must view the
total coniniiinity as a school, all culture as Ileinmt-
KuJftir." Alien cultures must be studied with cau-
tion and only against the background of the cul-
ture of the homeland ; all contact with what is alien
to one's being {Artfremdeu) is dangerous. It is a
law of education that each individual can grow
only into what his own nature dictates. This na-
ture is predetermined by that organic entity of
which he is a member; hence all education that
ignores this fact can result only in undisciplined,
ill-balanced, and unintegrated personalities.
Only through "folkish" education can the indi-
vidual achieve fullness of personality and the har-
monious development of capacities and powers.
The emphasis upon the volkisch principle in edu-
cation, which antedates the Nazis, illustrates the
introvert character of German thinking and con-
tributes to a dangerous distortion of reality, since
the German tends to give the surrounding world
the form and imprint of his own ideas.
Anti-inteUectu<dism. The Volk is a communion
as well as a community, a fellowship of faith and
feeling. The lone thinker easily becomes divorced
from his community and no longer shares its in-
tuitive grasp upon vital truths. The typical in-
tellectual is described by Hitler as "always indulg-
ing in sophistry, always searching and probing but
always wavering and uncertain". Nazis argue
that modern education has disturbed the natural
balance between the human faculties; "the lost
equilibrium must be restored", declares Rust.
They cite Froebel: "The whole life of man is edu-
cation" {'■'■ AUe ersiehen AUe") . ■ The intellect must
be put in its place and the dangers of soulless
specialization avoided. The mechanical, isolating,
abstracting function of reason (Verstand) must be
held within bounds. Nazi educators profess to
aim at the creation of rounded, dynamic char-
acters, and they feel that the potency of intellec-
tual training alone for this purpose is limited.
"You do not grasp after the truth with cold-
blooded reason, but with the passion of a glowing
heart, in which reason ranges side by side with,
will, courage, imagination, and enthusiasm."
Freedom. Nazi thinkers, as indicated earlier,
criticize the liberal concept of freedom in its ap-
plication to education as mistakenly assuming an
autonomous and self-directive principle in the in-
dividual considered apart from his folk-commu-
nity and state. They maintain — as German phi-
losophers, notably Hegel, have generally done —
that the only freedom is the realization of poten-
tiality; there can be no freedom to achieve the
impossible. The individual is free if he wills as
the Volksstaat wills — all else is anarchy and fu-
tility. Society is a hierarchy of unequal person-
alities of varying and unique capacities, and free-
dom can consist only in their development through
the participation of the individual in the life of the
folk-community in harmony with its collective
ends.
This view of freedom eliminates the dualism be-
tween the individual and society which pervades
liberal educational theory; self and society are
merged and freedom becomes organic relatedness
(Bitulunff). It is scarcely accurate to speak of
Nazi education as destroying the freedom of the
schools, since the Western-liberal concept of free-
dom has never prevailed in Germany. The Nazis
simply utilized the old German concept {deutsche
Freiheit), taking advantage of the fact that the
average German desires direction and orders from
above and feels most free when he is serving some
super-personal end. But undoubtedly the regime
has placed more restraints upon the schools and
brought them into a more rigid scheme of regi-
mentation than they have ever experienced before.
State and Politics. The state is held to be the
outward form, bearer, and protector of the Volk,
and as such it is absolute collective power, main-
taining and jDerpetuating the national community.
Education is the inner molding of life for fitness
to share creatively in the tasks of the political
community. Politics is the outward, education
the inward aspect of national life. The two are
vitally related and mutually indispensable. Since
education is the inner preservative of the folk life
as embodied in the state, it must follow the pattern
set by the state and cannot function in a zone of
detachment and aloofness from liolitics. Educa-
tion becomes essentially the "political manipula-
tion" of youth — education and political science are
one. Schooling means national discipline.' The
state, however, is no inflexible instrument of
power; it responds to the living, growing will of
the Volk. Thus education by molding popular
culture and ideals may influence the state. Since
" Walter Gross, Rasse, Weltanschaiiunff, Wissenschaft
(Berlin, 19.36), p. 11. SoUhelm,, op. cit., pp. 5-7, 41-49.
'Ernst Krieck, National PoUHsche Erziehimg (Leipzig,
1933), imssim. Cecilia H. Bason, The Study of the Bome-
land and Civilization in the Elementary Schools of Ger-
many (New York, 1937), p. 106.
516
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
the state can function only through an elite of
leaders, the selection and training of leaders be-
comes one of the most essential tasks of education
in the National Socialist state.
The Soldierly Ideal. Since war is the crucial
test of survival for the state, education must con-
tribute to the moral and technical armament of the
nation. It must from the earliest years inculcate
the warlike or soldierly virtues. Since struggle is
the law of life the educator cannot neglect its im-
plications. A heroic will outweighs encyclopedic
knowledge. All subjects must contribute to de-
fense-mindedness and to understanding of the art
and science of war. Perhaps half the articles pub-
lished in National Socialist educational journals
during the last decade relate directly or indirectly
to preparedness for war. From folk tales of he-
roes to the study of chemical warfare, school in-
struction becomes training in W ehnvissenschaft.^
The prefix ^'■Wehr" has of late years become at-
tached to many subjects of the curriculum. The
Nazi stress on "education for death" is to be ex-
plained in part by the political imperatives of the
movement; but it is also due to the underlying
philosophy which holds that all life is warfare and
that states can survive in the modern world only
by mobilizing the moral energies as well as the
material resources of their peoples for war.
The Relativity of Truth. Nazi theory denies the
existence of a positivist system resting on truths
of universal validity. "Every science is an ever-
changing thing, its contents ever renewed, always
growing with the total scientific and cultural de-
velopment, hence an eternally new science." More-
over truth is a unifying principle engendered
within — the central axis or "kernel-concept" which
harmonizes all detail into a Welthild, a structure
of thought stemming from a particular Gcsamt-
schmi, comprehensive over-view, or Weltanschau-
ung. Its source is the unconscious — a healthy
folk-instinct is a surer guide than reason. "Reality
is not a thing one can see from without . . . one
can only understand it by belonging to it." Truth
is a self-generated myth.
'An entire issue of Deutsche Volkserzlehung (German
People's Education) was devoted to air defense. Other
issues, 193.5-39, dealt with geopolitics, Jewish imperialism,
the psychology of defense, the service of mathematics and
physics to warfare, Germany's colonial needs, and similar
topics.
It follows that no educational system can claim
eternal verity and validity. Education is bound
to an ever-changing social and cultural complex
as fluid and dynamic as the life supporting it. But
the constant factor, the Volk, as a community ra-
cially and historically determined and evolving its
own unique form and style, conditions its own type
of education, thus avoiding the chaos of interests
and ideals characteristic of liberal pedagogy. It
preserves its own form and values through all the
vicissitudes of historical change. Thus while, in
the words of Max Scheler, there is no "absolute
historical constant" as a guide for all peoples at all
times and in all places, a Volk in a given state of
development, that is, at a given time and under
particular historical circmnstances, creates its own
valid criteria for science and truth and conse-
quently for its own educational theory and practice-
Views of Krieck and Rust. This analysis of
Nazi educational concepts may be concluded by
noting the views of the two men who are, perhaps,
the most important official exponents of Nazi edu-
cational doctrine: Ernst Krieck, long associated
with Heidelberg University as professor of phi-
losophy and rector, and Bernhard Kust, Reich
and Prussian Minister of Science, Education and
Popular Instruction.
Krieck maintains that character is destiny. The
individual is indissolubly related to his Volk —
education cannot be autonomous but can only de-
velop in him the potentialities of his people and
race. Race determines national character, which
in turn shapes the individual. Education is
merely the unfolding of race-bound traits in
accordance with the native capacity of each indi-
vidual. The rootless, self-centered dilettante
can have no place in a national community. All
Germany's troubles have arisen from the defects
of her Volk character or lack of it. Not Weimar
dilettantism but the soldierly spirit of Potsdam
has created the new Germany. The notions of
general education and the universality of culture
will "melt away together with the outworn idea of
humanity". Methodology in education is less
important than the play of social forces — life has
meaning only in the great organic whole. Hence
education derives its entire meaning from the his-
torical necessities and present tasks of the state;
it must be essentially political in character. The
pupil must be treated as an "evolving member of
OCTOBER 29, 1944
517
the Volk"; the school is a smaller segment of the
folk-community.^
Rust sees in education a weapon of the Volk in
the struggle for a more abundant life. The con-
sciousness of race, long slumbering in Germany,
has awakened to new life and has supplanted
every other consciousness, whether religious or
humanistic. "Action and action alone, not indo-
lent pondering of the past, is the soul of educa-
tion." The school must emulate life, which is
struggle. Passion, will, and feeling are all-impor-
tant in learning which depends not on understand-
ing only but on the creative powers. "Life can
only be kindled by life." Race is the "fecund and
animating principle" of human life, shaping the
social order and inspiring the directives of educa-
tional procedure. The aim of education is not
culture, spiritual freedom, or emaiicipation of the
mind. It is the shaf)ing of each individual as a
proper member of his Volk and for the common
tasks imposed upon all by this membership.
"Education is training for a life of might."
Learning is conquest.'"
National Socialist School Reform
Changes in Organization
The M'mistnj of Education. In 1934 all educa-
tional authorities of the Reich were centralized in
a Reich and Prussian Ministry of Science, Edu-
cation and Public Instruction, effective January
1, 1935. This included :
1. Central Office for Administration
2. Office of the Minister
3. Office of Science, with control over univer-
sities, higher education, and research
4. Office for Education, controlling the ele-
mentary, middle, secondary, and voca-
tional schools
5. Office for Adult Education and Popular
Training
6. Office for Physical Education
7. Land Year Division
8. Division for Church Affairs
In each state the former education ministry was
supplanted by a State Education Office under the
Reich ministry. In the Prussian provinces the
control over the elementary, middle, and sec-
ondary schools was further centralized. Thus for
the first time the entire school system of Germany
was placed under a single control.
Centralization was carried further by the appli-
cation of the leader principle throughout the
system, which now, from elementary school to
university, became a hierarchy culminating in the
Ministry of Education. The school principal was
restored by decree to a dominant position in school
administration, a status wliich he had lost under
the Republic when he shared power with a demo-
cratically controlled Teachers' Council. He could
now visit, criticize, or discipline teachers as
National Socialist exigencies might demand. All
groups of teachers and students were brought
together in miified national associations. A
stream of decrees and directives emanating from
the central ministry sought to mold the entire
system in harmony with the national interest.
All aspects of school administration were stand-
ardized and coordinated; the system became the
"perfection of deputized efficiency".
The Elementary and Middle Schools. The basic
elementary school {Grundschule) was retained by
the Nazis. Its task remained essentially the same
but with increased emphasis upon "German"
studies. Classroom instruction was supple-
mented — often interfered with — by outside ac-
tivities related to the youth organizations and
national services. The pedagogical institutes of
the Republic were transformed into high schools
for teacher-training {Hochschulen fiir Lehrer-
hildung),eL name which significantly avoided alien
terminology. These were purposely located in
smaller towns to give the cadet teachers close con-
tact with the countryside and its people. There
was for a time a requirement, later eliminated, that
secondary teachers as well must spend one year in
the elementary training schools before going on
to the university, the aim being to level the barrier
of caste which has traditionally separated elemen-
tary and secondary teachers in Germany and to
imbue all teachers with the sense of a common
national obligation. The trauiing of the teacher
'Krieck, op. cit., pp. 16-23. Aurel Kolnai, The War
Against the West (New York, 1938), pp. 818-20.
■"From official pronouncements cited in Volkische Beo-
hachter, Feb. 13, 1938. Gregor Ziemer, Education for
Death (London, 1941), pp. 17-19. L'enseignement pri-
maire et Veducation raciste in Allemagne (Paris, 1940),
pp. 63-64.
518
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN 'I
was more along the lines of YoTkskunde than peda-
gogical method. The German landscape, the tra-
ditions and folklore of the comitryside, folk arts,
race hygiene, the German national idea, and the
requirements of ''Greater Germany" were stressed.
In turn, then, the schools were converted to the
service of the state, the subject-matter, methods,
and atmosphere of the schoolroom jjromotmg not
so much the free development of childish capaci-
ties as the subjection of the child to influences
molding him for service to the National Socialist
commmiity."
There were attempts to simplify the various
types of middle school (extending six years be-
yond the four-year Gi'undschule) along the lines
of the Prussian model. Vocational emphasis was
increased, but a minimum of '"cultural" education
was retained. These schools were designed to pre-
pare for the "middle" type of vocations in indus-
try, trade, and public service. Qualified gradu-
ates might enter the upper classes of the secondary
schools. In 1940 it was decreed that the Haupt-
schule (four years of free, compulsory instruction
and two years of optional work with fees) should
be introduced and ultimately should supplant all
other types of middle schools. It was distinctly a
vocational school, intended to deflect pupils from
the still-exclusive secondary schools and to elimi-
nate gradually the class idea in public-school edu-
cation. School authorities were to exercise broad
jurisdiction in deciding what coui-se each student
should follow.
Secondanj Schools. The Xazi leaders were dis-
turbed at the class-selective character of the sec-
ondary schools, yet they had no wish to open the
way to higher education for the masses. The clas-
sical Gyratiasium has been reduced in importance
as being too far out of touch with current life and
l)roblems ; other tyj)es of higher schools have been
simplified, with one basic type predominating, the
Oherschule or upper school. The period of sec-
ondary education has been reduced from nine to
eight years. Schools are separate, as heretofore,
for boys and girls : Those for boys offer two main
types of programs, one' emphasizing science and
mathematics, the other modern languages; those
" Hans-Joachim von Schumann, Die nalionat-soziaUs-
tischc Erzichung im Rahmfn amtlicher Bcstimmunncn
< Langensalza. 1943), pp. 21-24. Bason, op. cit., pp. 53-58.
'^Deutsche Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung,
Feb. 0, 1938, official organ of the Ministry of Education
(Berlin), pp. 48-52.
for girls offer a language program and another
with stress on home economics. The major em-
phasis in the newer-type secondary schools is upon
nationalistic ideology and training for war serv-
ices. These schools are rapidly supplanting the
old Gymnasium with its classical and humanistic
training. The Aufhau school continues as a six-
year institution, mainly vocational and found
chiefly in rural districts.
The Nazi concept of education is clearly ex-
pressed in the comments of Minister Rust on the
decree of March 27., 1937 for reform of the higher
schools.'^ The older schools, he argued, had lost
contact with the vital currents of national life
which alone can create a social order and shape its
culture. The classical GymnaMum with its ideal
of a cultivated personality must make way for a
school fitted for the real German man as blood and
historic destiny had made him. A new society
must set for itself definite goals to which educa-
tion must conform. "The German school is a part
of the National Socialist educational establish-
ment. Its task is, along with the other educational
forces of the people but in accord with its own par-
ticular means, to form the National Socialist man,"
The upper schools, while no longer the prerogative
of a class, were still to be selective, but blood, con-
duct, attitude, and character were to be the criteria
rather than intellecual accomplishment. Like all
other Nazi institutions they must be "fighting or-
ganizations"; there could be no "closed system" of
education standing aloof from the battle. The
schools must close ranks. Not pedagogy but
"shared combat" in behalf of a preconceived polit-
ical order was the true educator.
The Land Tear and the Rural School-Home.
Nazi educational philosophy is well expressed in
the institution of the land year, established in
March 1934 in Prussia, whereby qualified Aryan
students who left school after the eighth year, the
period of compulsory education, were to spend
eight months in the countiy combining a program
of practical work with physical exercise, recrea-
tion, and study. It was intended particularly for
■children from the crowded industrial areas who
might never have an opportunity otherwise to en-
joy the invigorating contact with the soil and with
peasant and rural surroundings. Such a life was
to link city with country, develop a taste for
healthful rural living, and train for community
life and responsibility. In 1936 there were 31,500
children in 600 camps throughout rural Prussia,
OCTOBER 29, 19U
519
The country school-home, an institution already
common under the Republic but developed by the
Xazis, served a similar purpose. School groups
migrated to the country, there to live and study
together in intimate contact with peasant life and
ideas. Instruction was adapted to the region, re-
lating to such matters as landscape, local resources,
crafts and industries, type of settlement, racial
make-up of population, historical background and
destiny of region, and values of regional activities
for the National Socialist state. Its goal was "the
incorporation of youth into homeland, folk and
state through the awakening and directing, in a
politically conscious sense, of sound racial
powers."" School journeys utilizing special
school-homes, youth hostels, and historic sites were
a common practice and endeavored to connect'
learning with actual observation and experience,
always with an eye to developing pride in the na-
tional heritage and a sense of the unity of all Ger-
man life.
7'he Teacher Under National Socialism
As indicated above, the teacher is all-important
in the German schools. The Xazis went even fur-
ther than earlier regimes in stressing the impor-
tance of the personal factor in instruction. There
must be an end of the "bloodless intellectual", the
"stoop-shouldered pedagogue'' who could never in-
spire his young charges. The Nazi schoolmaster
must be a rugged outdoor man skilled in sports
and military techniques, a statesman well grounded
in National Socialist principles and qualified to
inculcate them in an effective manner. He must be
a stimulating leader, a living exponent of National
Socialist ethos. The man is prior to methods;
hence capable teachers can be developed only
through a regimen of living experience. Says a
Nazi educator :
"Youth is anxious to embrace everything that con-
tributes to enthusiasm, devotion, courage, and
good-will, and every teacher must of necessity lose
his hold on young hearts who thinks he can satisfy
them merely by feeding their intellectual appetite. .
This is the very reason why, for three decades, the
young have continuously turned away from school
with disinterest and dislike.'"
Teacher-training under National Socialism was
modified to accord with these principles. The
curriculum was now to include more "German sub-
jects" : Race hygiene, political psychology and ped-
agogy, VolksJcunde, prehistory, defense geogra-
phy, the German borderlands, and the "Greater
Germany" idea. Teachers from the primary to the
university level were to spend some time in a la-
bor camp accjuiring a sense of community life and
cooperation and an understanding of peasant life
and folk values. Secondary teachers, still trained
mainly in the universities, must correct any regret-
table tendency toward excessive intellectualism by
demonstrating their thorough familiarity with the
requirements for training youth "in the spirit of
National Socialism". The test in philosophy pre-
viously required in the oral examination was re-
placed by problems relating to the required subject-
matter and to "fundamental political ideological
questions'". The official regulations of Septem-
ber 1938 for the qualifying of teachers in the con-
tinuation schools of Austria required that candi-
dates be examined in the following subjects: Race
eugenics, the Nuremberg laws, blood and soil,
Mein Kampf, the Four Year Plan, army organiza-
tion, the Labor Front, organic, as opposed to lib-
eral, views of the state, the menace of Bolshevism,
folk culture, recent German history, Hitler"s
achievements, and the greatness of eternal Ger-
maiiy.
The new regime lost little time in "coordinating"
the teachers. The Civil Service Law of April 7,
1933 provided for dismissal or exclusion from
teaching posts on the following grounds :
1. Inadequate training
2. Political unreliability
3. Non-Aryan descent
4. Need of reorganizing school administration
A personal oath of loyalty to Hitler was required.
Large numbers of police records were examined
and many teachers were dismissed, although exact
figures are unavailable. A considerable per-
centage of the teachers under the Republic was
conservative or reactionary by conviction and no
doubt accepted the new regime whole-heartedly.
In July 1933 a decree was issued which required
that all teachers who were members of the Social
Democratic Party, which embraced many primary
teachers, sever their connections with that organ-
ization. Communists, of course, were promptly
dismissed. Teachers' councils, which had been
established under the Republic, were abolished.
All suspected saboteurs on the educational front
" yationatpolitische Lchrgange It"' ScliiiJer (Denksehrift
des Oberprasidenten der Rhelnprovinz) (Frankfurt, 1935),
p. 1.
520
were liquidated, and absolute political conformity
was imposed. All self -administering associations
of teachers were eliminated and a National So-
cialist League of Teachers was made the ofScial
organization of all educators. This league was
mainly political in character, and under the lead-
ership of Hans Schemm it has been concerned
chiefly with providing political instruction to its
members along lines dictated by National Socialist
ideology. Applicants for admission to training
institutions are carefully examined regarding
their previous record, "Aryanism", labor and
military service, and membership and activity in
youth or other party organizations. The selective
and sifting process insures that none but devotees
of National Socialism may find their way into
the teaching profession.
Contents, Methods, and Objectives of Instruction
German Studies. German schoolrooms often
display European and world maps with the areas
inhabited by Germans carefully marked and ac-
companied by the admonition: "Germans all!
Wlierever you may be, never forget that you are a
German." A child exposed to the Nazi system of
instruction is not likely to forget. The emphasis
on Heimathimde in the lower schools, already sig-
nificant under the Republic, was considerably in-
creased by the Nazi authorities. A decree of April
10, 1937 declared that the child must '"learn to
know, experience, and love the homeland, and
. . . feel himself a rooted member of the Ger-
man people". To this end German sagas and folk-
lore, heroic legends, local history and geography,
folkways, traditions, and literature were to be
studied. School journeys were to inculcate pride
in homeland, race, and culture. From the earliest
years the child was to think of freedom as attach-
ment to his country and people, as a fulfilment of
self in service to race and nation. According to
a decree of January 22, 1938 the amount of time
to be devoted to German studies in the secondary
schools ranged from 35 percent of the total hours
in the Gymnasium to 44 percent in the girls' upper
school. The main objectives of these studies are
to inculcate a leverence for the old Germany {alt
Deutschtum) and to train, discipline, and inspire
youth to a defense of their nation, now always
depicted as menaced by sinister forces both within
" W. M. Kotschnig, "The Learned Class in Germany To-
day", World, Education, Jan. 1940, p. 66.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
and without. Youth must evolve, or be given, a
philosophy which nothing can shake. The tech-
nique is to arouse strong feeling rather than to
develop understanding.
The Nazi emphasis upon Germanism has been
clearly oriented to political objectives. Heimat-
kimde has stressed the urgency of defense, military
routes and strategy, and modes of approach to
"enemy" countries as well as the superiority of
German culture. The schools devoted much at-
tention in their geography classes to the colonial
question, hammering home the iniquity of the
Versailles Treaty in this particular and Germany's
need for colonies. A superior race must be a rul-
ing people ; hence a colonial empire was essential.
A Colonial Society carried on an active campaign
in the schools, collecting funds and disseminating
propaganda. The Verein fiir das Deutschtum in
Auslwul was diligent in cultivating contacts with
Germans abroad. A decree of March 8, 1933 de-
clared it the duty of the school to create a feeling
of racial solidarity with the 30 million Germans
abroad, particularly those in the adjoining areas
severed from Germany by treaty. Even the study
of foreign peoples and cultures was to serve one
purpose only — the attainment of a clearer under-
standing and appreciation of German culture and
achievements. Germanism was the invariable
criterion for a critical approach to all things alien.
Prussian students might not travel abroad before
they had learned to know their own land from
personal observation. "The ultimate goal of such
travel must be that the student arrive at a height-
ened national consciousness and a deeper under-
standing of his own Volkstmn.''''
The Teaching of History. The use or abuse of
subject-matter for political ends is most obvious in
the teaching of history. Nazi educators agree with
the Fascist Brodrero (cited in Hartshorne, Ger-
man Universities, p. 116) : "History is effective as
myth and not as truth. It is not the truth of the
historical fact which is of significance, but the
effect which follows from it." Karl F. Sturm
frankly admits : "We take sides in teaching history.
And our side is Germany. Far be it from us to
taint the hearts of our children with the curse of
objectivity. We educate our young to recognize
exclusively the rights of our own nationality.""
Walter Franck, president of the Reichsinstitut fur
die Geschichte des neuen Deutschlands (established
in 1935) asserts : "History is a fighting science and
OCTOBER 29, 1944
521
as such it cannot be obiective." It rests upon value
judgments and can never be the outcome of ''mere
scholarship". Eust dech^res for objectivity "cor-
rectly interpreted". History must be functional
and dynamic, a molder of men, the "central, uni-
fied, patriotic and political experience" of the race.
Its purpose is to demonstrate the direction, mis-
sion, and destiny of a people, not to offer a com-
pendium of irrelevant facts. Nazism has thus
broken completely with the Von Ranke tradition
of history "as it actually happened". This is now
supplanted by Hitler's dictum: "One learns his-
tory not in order to know about what has happened
but in order to possess a key to the future and to
the progress of one's own people." '°
According to official decrees and directives his-
tory is now presented in the German schools to
achieve the following specific objectives : '"^
To exalt the heroic achievements of the Ger-
man past
To produce inner conviction and loyalty to
"folkish" ideals
To stress the supreme importance of the
racial factor in history and to exalt
the Germans as the "primal people"
(Urvolk) of Europe
To portray German culture as antithetical to
Latin-Christian culture
To stress the sinister and corrupting influ-
ences of alien forces upon Germany at all
times
To inculcate respect for the leader principle
through exaltation of German heroes,
such as Frederick the Great
To present the history of other peoples only in
its bearing upon German history
To glorify German conquest of the Ostland in
the Middle Ages and depict Germans
always as bearei-s of civilization
To show war as a creative and necessary
pi'ocess in the making of nations and in
the triumph of superior cultures
To show Germany as struggling for existence
in a hostile world and to contrast her
"heroic world viewpoint" with the mate-
rialism or barbarism of other peoples
To emphasize the reasons for Germany's de-
feat and humiliation, 1918-33, and her
revival under National Socialist lead-
ership
To show at all times the salutary (volkisch)
forces shaping German destiny and the
corrupting, alien influences at work to
thwart its fulfilment
A survey of courses and textbooks in use in the
German schools is enlightening. Topics generally
emphasized are the creative role of the Nordic
race, Luther as a German national hero, anti-
Semitism in history, the career of Frederick the
Great, the "dictate of Versailles" and the "war-
guilt lie", the weakness and humiliation of the
Weimar Republic, the Ruhr invasion and Ger-
many's resistance, the Hitler movement, Ger-
many's need for living-space, the menace of
Communism, and Germany's national ideals and
destiny. The central theme and thesis of histoi-y
instruction is about as follows :
Germany is a nation in process of becoming.
In spite of racial superiority and heroic leader-
ship she has incessantly been attacked, encircled,
or corrupted by lesser breeds. Her history is a
tragedy of frustration and incomjalete achieve-
ment. Yet Germany and Germany alone pos-
sesses the genius for order and creative achieve-
ment that can end Europe's long tale of futile and
fratricidal wars. She alone can become the
^^europdische Ordmrngsmacht". The Hitler move-
ment is her final struggle for liberation and self-
fulfilment — its triumph will mean the liberation
of Europe and its unification under the aegis of
the one race predestined by history and fate to
achieve the task.
Books and Literature. The reading of German
children is carefully controlled and directed to
political ends. Of a list of preferred children's
books for use in the schools, published in the
official school journal, some 40 percent related to
military or racial topics. Representative titles of
recommended books for the year 1938 include :
German Defense
School and Weltamcha^mng
On the Way to World Power
German Blood in German Space
"■ John B. Mason, "Nazi Concepts of History", The Review
of Politics. April 1940, pp. 180-96.
"Adolf Viernow, Zur Theorie und Praxis des national-
sozialistischen Geschichtstinterrichts (Halle, 1935), pp.
5-41. C. A. Beard, "Education under the Nazis", Foreign
Affairs, April 1936, p. 447.
522
Fly, German Youth!
German Colonial Pioneers in Africa
What German Youth Must Know About
Racial Inheritance
Race, Folk and Soldierliness
Race and History
Soldiers of Tomorrow
German Tanks, Attack !
Heroism and Belief in Destiny
Versailles and St. Germain— World Peace
Against the German People
Atlas of German Living Space in Central
Europe
Nuremberg— the Spirit of Old Germany
Carl Schurz : German and American
Nordic Beauty in Art and Life
Folk in Fire
Nation in Need
Folk Science on German Principles
Comradeship, Battle and Death
The Heroic Form in German Art
Stories of Front Fighters
The minds of young Germans are nourished al-
most exclusively on reading dealing with the fol-
lowing themes : Old German myths and folklore,
tales of adventure and heroism, wars and battles,
rural and peasant life, racial science and anti-
Semitism, travel, geography, politics, soldiers' ex-
periences, and the lives of German warriors and
statesmen.
The teaching of literature at the higher school
levels is designed to strengthen political convic-
tion. Goethe's Goefz von Berlichingen is pre-
sented to exemplify the fighter-for-freedom of
the Reich, but attention is not called to the great
poet's cosmopolitan ideals. Schiller's WaUen-
stein portrays the strong politically minded
fighter, and Wilhelm. Tell the awakening of
Volkstum against alien oppression, but Schiller's
concept of freedom is not generalized. War liter-
ature is abundantly used to illustrate German
heroism as well as the causes of collapse. Front-
line experiences are idealized as furnishing the
inspiration for Germany's political and moral re-
awakening. An eighth-grade reader, Da.s Ewige
Deutschland., by F. Hackenberg and B. Schwarz,
" Wilhelm Hartnacke, Der Neiibau des deutschen SchuU
wrscns (Lpipzig, 1033), pp. 17-18. Claus Tletjen, Lehr-
plan im Aufbau der deutschen Schitle (Leipzig, 1934),
p. 24.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
may be described as typical. The first part con-
tains excerpts from Klopstock, Kant, Schiller,
Goethe, and others, each with a special application
to present events; the second part includes patri-
otic extracts from Hiilderlin, Fichte, Clausewitz,
and others, glorifying German traits and deeds
(Fichte is depicted as rallying the German people
in the War of Liberation by arousing them to a
true sense of their racial origins and worth).
Albrecht Diirer is presented as "our venerable
ancestor" ; Nietzsche is quoted on "German manli-
ness". The final portion applies historical ideas
to the present era of the Reich, justifying hatred
of the Jews, showing Germany to be the land of loy-
alty and truth, and praising Hitler as the leader
predestined to fulfil Germany's historic mission.
Mathematics and Scierice. Even the more ob-
jective and abstract subjects have been mobilized
in the Nazi crusade for the minds of the young.
Scientific instruction, argues a Nazi educator, can
no longer be a "poorly concealed materialism" ; as
now offered it "opens the way to life's highest
values, to faith in the soul, the free will and divine
powers". No recondite or disconnected matter
unrelated to the German spirit need be presented.
After all, Nature herself is an organic community
through the study of which the child derives in-
sight into his own Volhsge^neinschaft in its natural
and cosmic setting."
An "Aryan" mathematics was developed which
was calculated to safeguard the youthful German
from the distorted concepts introduced by such
"non-Aryans" as Einstein. Geometry was pre-
ferred to algebra as offering a concept of nature
based on "spatial intuition" rather than a con-
fused juggling with numbers. Arithmetical ex-
ercises which dealt with "German" problems, rang-
ing from declining birthrates to the acceleration
of falling bombs, were formulated. Among the
titles of new educational works in this field were
The German PeopWs Fate in Figures, Examples
of Calculation in a New Spirit, Mathematics
Teaching in Relation to the Fall and Rise of Ger-
many, and Mathematics in the Service of National
Socialist Edxusation. Mathematics was not a mere
"tool of learning" but a means to an understand-
ing of that "ordering and arranging power" which
Hitler had brought into German life. It had been
misused and corrupted by liberalism and capital-
ism; it was now to function in behalf of a renewed
Reich in characteristically German fashion.
OCTOBER 29, 1944
523
The distortion of the various sciences to suit
Nazi purposes is well known. Biology became
race science. Sociology was the "study of the folk
community". Physics and chemistry merely
added the prefix "IFe/;?-" and made their contribu-
tions to aviation, ballistics, and chemical warfare.
A considerable percentage of the articles in Ger-
man educational journals between 1935 and 1940
deals with the applications of the sciences to war-
fare. *' So important was the new study of race
"science" considered that by decrees of September
13, 1933 and Jnnuary 15, 1935 it was made com-
pulsory in the fifth year of the Volkschule and in
the lower years of the secondary and middle
schools. A more thorough study was to follow in
the upper years in order to achieve a "full appre-
ciation of the necessity and spirit of blood purity".
Examinations in this field were to be required for
the issuance of the certificate of maturity by any
school and for all teaching credentials.
Education for War. The official journal of the
German League of Teachers {Der Deutsche Er-
sieher, 1938, No. 2) declared: "Every German
child should know that the future war will not be
waged merely by front-line combatants but also by
all the people — men, women, old folks and chil-
dren. . . . The idea of war should be inculcated
in every child." The necessity of education for
war is reflected in virtually every educational peri-
odical, every pedagogical work, and every text-
book of the pei'iod. In an issue of the Hitler
Youth organ, WiUe und Macht, April-May, 1941,
the goal for German youth — heroic courage and
soldierly bearing {soldatische Haltung) — was
elaborated in great detail through excerpts from
Hitler's speeches. Years before the outbreak of
war the theory of Ewald Banse, Germany's fore-
most exponent of total national mobilization for
war, had been fully embodied in the Reich's educa-
tional program. Banse advocated teaching that
would not hand out mere "lumps of knowledge" but
would "pour steel into the nerves of the German
people". Such a program was too vast to be
achieved by the schools alone but had to enlist'
the cooperation of schools, youth organizations,
labor service, the army itself as a "university of
patriotic education", and all instrumentalities
of propaganda. The German people were to be
made war-conscious — def ense-mindedness ( Wehr-
gedanke) must be thoroughly inculcated.
The role of the school in achieving these ends
was not to offer actual military training but to
become a preparatory school for the army and
for the war to come.^^ The curriculum, as indi-
cated above, was thoroughly militarized. Instruc-
tion emphasized physical fitness, the training of
character, will, courage, endurance, political con-
sciousness, and a knowledge of military tech-
niques. Aviation was particularly stressed — -it
was officially stated to be the duty of the schools
to further it as a "condition of life for the German
people".^" Germany's "regrettable past" and her
mistakes, humiliations, and sufferings of the first
World War were to be harped upon. All studies
were to be "politicalized" to develop a clear con-
sciousness of Germany's needs and objectives.
The soldier was to be glorified as the "embodiment
of purest manhood", military service as the highest
honor. The ideal of pacifism {nie wieder Krieg)
was to be relentlessly attacked. History must
l^resent the "becoming," of the nation through
struggle and glorify military heroes and virtues.
Political training must instil a passionate aware-
ness of national objectives. Foreign languages
and cultures must demonstrate the superiority of
Kultw and the dangers of Uherfremdung . Geog-
raphy became the science of Geojjolitik, a justifica-
tion for German expansion. Science must justify
its place in the curriculum by its contributions to
total war preparedness. A "political-military
elite" must be trained to become the bearers of
state power, the active, disciplined, soldierly nu-
cleus of the embattled Volk. Nazi education in
all its aspects, in school and out, was essentially a
play on emotions and attitudes, a Begeisterwng;
its central drive was the spiritual preparation of
the people for war.
Religion. The anti-Christian tendency of Naz-
ism has not been so influential in education as
often supposed. There is no evidence that "Nor-
dic religion" has superseded Christianity in the
schools ; instruction in both Catholic and Evangeli-
" This was found to be true of Deutsche Volkserziehung,
(Frankfuj-t a.M. ), Nationalsozialistisches Bildungswesen,
(Munich), Die Brzieliung (Leipzig), and Monatschrift fiir
Hijliere Schulen (Berlin).
'"Leo Gruenberg, Wehrgedanke und Schule (Leipzig,
1934), pp. 4-11, 39-42.
=°"Pflfge der Luftfahrt in den Schulen und Hoch-
schulen", Deutsche Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volks-
bildung, Feb. 5, 1940, p. 85.
524
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
cal faiths continues to be given. Yet a number
of significant developments indicate clearly the
lessening importance of religion as a factor in
German education, a situation, it may be noted,
common today throughout the Western World.
Religion remains, as in the past, part of the cur-
riculum of the common schools, but the time de-
voted to it has been reduced in favor of physical
education. In secondary schools the number of
hours per week has been reduced from 19 to 12.
A decree of 1938 assures freedom of conscience
and bans the forced indoctrination of pupils by
teachers. Sectarian schools are still legal but have
been largely closed down by the device of local
plebiscites under Nazi auspices, the choice being
between a parochial school and a public inter-
denominational one. Virtually all elementary
schools have now become non-denominational.
The elementary teachers, even prior to 1933, were
largely anti-clerical in sentiment and supported
the government's efforts to curtail sectarian in-
fluences in the school. Many clerical teachers have
been replaced by laymen. School prayers were
abolished in 1939. Undoubtedly the hours de-
voted to religious instruction have frequently been
used for the inculcation of National Socialist doc-
trines. Many teachers have made a sincere effort
to reconcile Nazi ideas with Christianity, but it
seems that they have achieved only moderate suc-
cess. Religion has been less effectively coordi-
nated with National Socialism than any other ele-
ment of German culture.
The crisis in German thought is very real and
as yet unresolved. The German mind is inherently
mystical and craves a faith. The disillusionment
and cynicism of the post- Weimar era created a sus-
ceptibility to new spiritual forces. Hitlerism, in
the minds of many, is essentially a secular religion.
It fills the vacuum left by the collapse of old values.
But in spite of the pagan tendencies of the Hitler
Youth, especially under its former leader, Baldur
von Schirach, and the "German Christian" move-
ment, the vast majority of converts to National
Socialism have not renounced traditional Christi-
anity. Although no doubt disturbed by the in-
herent conflict between the particularism of the
German "folkish" concept and the universalism
of the Christian ideal, these converts are appar-
ently able to accept both — perhaps an instance of
the dualism that so often characterizes German
thinking.
UINRRA — Continued from page 508
tent of blotting out completely the stake and voice
of other nations in this organization.
Between these two extremes of maladjustment,
however, an encouraging degree of unanimity has
been arrived at among all agencies of this Govern-
ment concerning the proper procedures for dealing
with UNRRA. For example, the arrangements
which have been worked out by the national supply
agencies for the consideration of import programs
for the liberated areas show not only an apprecia-
tion of the importance of this work and of the
important position of UNRRA in relation thereto
but also a serious effort to adjust their procedures
to the complex administrative problems involved.
The same is true, as has been noted, of the progress
of UNRRA 's relations with the combined military.
Much remains to be done, however, both here and
in other member nations, in developing and con-
tiiming the necessary support for UNRRA.
The actual work of UNRRA is onlj' now begin-
ning. It would be foolhardy for anyone to under-
estimate the complexity and difficulty of its tasks;
it would be even moi-e rash to predict the degree
to which it will attain success. It would be even
more mistaken to assume that the most brilliant
success of this venture would be more than a begin-
ning toward a better world.
But we can be equally positive that this is our
task and that we are in it, not merely to justify
some charitable impulse or an urge to practice up
on international cooperation, but because of the
intrinsic importance to us, politically and eco-
nomically, of this work and its most effective
administration.
LEGISLATION
Scieutiflc and Technical Mobilization : Hearings Before
a Subcommittee of tlie Committee on Military .•\-ffairs,
United States Senate, TSth Cong., 2d sess., pursuant to S.
Res. 107, a Resolution Authorizing a Study of the Possi-
bilities of Better Mobilizing the National Resources of the
United States. Part 16, Aug. 29 and Sept. 7, 8, 12, and 13,
1944. Cartel Practicea and National Security, xvi, pp.
1965-2453.
OCTOBER 29, 1944
525
Consultation on Matters
Relating to International
Organization
[Released to the press October 26]
The Acting Secretary of State, Edward K. Stet-
tiniiis, Jr., was host on October 2G to chiefs of mis-
sions representing other American republics at an
informal meeting at Bhiir House for an exchange
of views regarding provisions of the Dumbarton
Oaks proposals and related inter-American ar-
rangements.
The present consultation is being undertaken
pursuant to the good-neighbor policy, in accord-
ance with which exchanges of information and
views regarding matters of peace and security have
long been customary among the American repub-
lics. It is intended to provide opportunity for
consideration of points raised by various repre-
sentatives of the American republics from the
standpoint of their national and the general in-
terest.
Studies relating to international organization
and inter-American arrangements have been in
progress in the American republics throughout the
war. By enabling American governments
through their diplomatic representatives to be-
come fully acquainted with each other's attitudes
toward such fundamental questions, each govern-
ment will be better able to formulate, in its indi-
vidual sovereign capacity, its policy toward these
vital matters of common interest.
AVIATION— OonMn wed from page 500
Chief of the Interpreting and Translating Bureau
Guillermo A. Suro, Acting Chief, Central Translating
Division, Department of State
Assistant Chief of the Interpreting and. Translating
Bureau
Jean Pierre de Loeschnigg, OflBce of War Information
Director of Air and Courier Services
Maj. John R. Young, War Department Liaison Officer ;
Chief, Air Priorities Section, Division of Foreign
Service Administration, Department of State
Security Officer
Maj. John E. Johnson, Director, Security and Intelli-
gence Division, Fort Custer, Michigan
Secretary for Transportation and Special Services
Daniel H. Clare, Jr., Department of State
Assistant Secretary for Transportation and Special
Services
Albert Fletcher, Department of State
Finance and Disbursing Officer
William J. Heneghan, Division of Budget and Finance,
Department of State
Personnel Relatioins Officer
Virginia Brittingham, Division of Departmental Per-
sonnel, Department of State
Editor of the Journal
Frances Armbruster, Division of Research and Pub-
lication, Department of State
Archivist
Ruth K. Wailes, Division of International Conferences,
Department of State
^ THE DEPARTMENT ^
Appointment of Officers
Louis Silverfield as agent of the DejJartment of
State for the purpose of taking applications for
passports and administering oaths in connection
therewith in the area of San Francisco, California,
effective October 19, 1944.
Louis G. Owens as agent of the Department of
State for the purpose of taking applications for
passports and administering oaths in connection
therewith at the Department of State, effective
October 26, 1944.
George V. Allen as Executive Officer of the Office
of Near Eastern and African Affairs in concur-
rence with his duties as Chief of the Division of
Middle Eastern Affairs, effective October 16, 1944.
g PUBLICATIONS ^
Department of State
Purchase of Dominican Food Surpluses : Agreement be-
tween the United States of America and the Dominican
Republic approving memorandum of understanding dated
November 1, 1943 — Effected by exchange of notes signed
at Ciudad Trujillo December 17, 1943 and February 11,
1944. Executive Agreement Series 404. Publication 2188.
21 pp. 10«i.
Military Service: Agreement between the United States
of America and Colombia and related note of February
12, 1944 — Effected by exchange of notes signed at Wash-
ington January 27, 1944 ; effective January 27, 1944. Ex-
ecutive Agreement Series 407. Publication 2195. 7 pp. 5^.
Regulations for the International Radioelectric Service
of Air Navigation, May 1938. [Reproduction of Volume
I (General Regulations) Published by International Com-
mission for Air Navigation.] Publication 2200. 31 pp.
150.
526
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN I
g TREATY INFORMATION ^
Protocol Prolonging International
Sugar Agreement
Tlie American Embassy at London transmitted
to the Department, with a despatch of October 14,
1944, certified copies of a protocol, dated at London
on August 31, 1944, to prolong for one year after
August 31, 1944 the International Agreement Re-
garding the Regulation of Production and Market-
ing of Sugar, signed at London on May G, 1937,'
as enforced and prolonged by a protocol dated at
London on July 22, 1942.= The protocol of Au-
gust 31, 1944 was signed on behalf of the United
States of America (with a reservation "Subject to
ratification"), the Commonwealth of the Philip-
pines, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Cuba, Czecho-
slovakia, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Netherlands,
Peru, Poland, Portugal, the Union of South Africa,
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland.
Rubber Agreement With Venezuela
The American Embassy at Caracas transmitted
to the Department, with a despatch of September
28, 1944, the text of an agreement eifected by an
exchange of notes dated September 27, 1944 be-
tween the Government of the United States and
the Govermiient of Venezuela, amending the
rubber agreement between the United States and
Venezuela signed October 13, 1942.'
' Trenwith, Treaties, Conventions, International Acts,
Protocols, and Aorcements Between the United States of
America and Other Powers, 1923-1937, vol. IV, p. 5599;
Treaty Information Bulletin 92, May 1937, p. 19.
' Bulletin of Aug. 1, 1942, p. 678.
' Bulletin of Oct. 17, 1942, p. 838.
Monetary Agreement, United Kingdom
and Belgium
The Ajnerican Embassy at London transmitted
to the Department, with a despatch of October 10,
1944, the text of a monetary agreement between
the Government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and the Govern-
ment of Belgium, signed at London on October
5, 1944 (Belgium No. 1 (1944), Cmd. 6557).
Article 8 provides in part as follows:
"If during the currency of this Agreement the
Contracting Governments adhere to a general in-
ternational monetary agreement, they will review
the terms of the jjresent Agreement with a view to
making any amendments that may be required."
Article 12 provides that the agreement shall
come into force on the day of its signature and
that it may be terminated by notice of either con-
tracting government to the other, the agreement
ceasing to have effect three months after the date
of such notice. The agreement "shall terminate
three years after the date of its coming into force,
unless the Contracting Governments agree other-
wise".
The agreement of October 5, 1944 abrogates the
Anglo-Belgian financial agreements of June 7,
1940 and of January 21, 1941.
Commercial "Modus Vivendi'",
Venezuela and Spain
The American Embassy at Caracas transmitted
to tlie Department, with a despatch of October 3,
1944, a copj' of an exchange of notes signed at
Caracas on September 18, 1944 effecting a further
renewal for one year from September 18, 1944 of
the commercial modus vii'oull between Venezuela
and Spain concluded on September 17, 1942. The
notes of September 18, 1944 are published in the
Venezuelan Gaceta Ofcial No. 21,514 of Septem-
ber 19, 1944.
D. S. 60VERNUENT PRINTIMS OFFICE: 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
A_y
.J_j
J
^
J
rrr^
VOL. XI, NO. 280
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
In this issue
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION CONFERENCE AT CHICAGO:
Message of President Roosevelt and Addresses by Assistant Secretary Berle
CONFERENCE AT BRETTON WOODS PREPARES PLANS FOR
INTERNATIONAL FINANCE: Article by John Parke Young ft ft
EDUCATION IN GERMANY UNDER THE NATIONAL SOCIALIST
REGIME: HIGHER LEARNING AND EXTRACURRICULAR
EDUCATION. Article by Leon W. Fuller ft ft ft ft ft
VV«^NT o^
■^tes °*
DEC 4 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BULLETIN
Vol. XI . No. 280
Pdblication 2210
November 5, 1944
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a weekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication, Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government tcith
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
work of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BVLLETIIS
includes press releases on foreign policy
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as well as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United States is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulative lists of which are published
at the end of each quarter, as well as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
approval of the Director of the Bureau
of the Budget, is for sale by the Super-
intendent of Documents, United States
Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton 25, D. C, to whom all purchase
orders, with accompanying remittance,
should be sent. The subscription price
is $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
cents.
ontents
American Republics Fage
Meeting of the Governing Board of the Pan American Union:
Remarks by the Acting Secretary of State 550
Anniversary of the Independence of Panama 561
Europe
Invitation to the President and the Secretary of State To
Vi.sit France 536
Education in Germany Under the National Socialist Regime:
Higher Learning and Extracurricular Education.
Article by JLeon W. Fuller 551
Far East
Birthday of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek 561
Economic Affairs
American Delegates to the International Wheat Council . . 536
Economic Mission to Liberia 536
Economic Aid to Italy: Exchange of Letters Between the
Mazzini Society and the Department of State . . . 537
Conference at Bretton Woods Prepares Plans for Interna-
tional Finance: Article by John Parke Young . . . 539
Post-War Matters
International Civil Aviation Conference — •
First Plenary Session: 1
President Roosevelt's Message to the Delegates . . . 529 1
Address by Assistant Secretary Berle 530 i
Second Plenary Session: Address by Assistant Secretary
Berle 530
I
The Department I
Appointment of Officers 562 |
The Foreign Service 1
Retirement of Homer M. Byington: Remarks by the Act- i
ing Secretary of State 560 '
Diplomatic and Consular Offices 561 I
i
Treaty Information *
Commercial Modus Vivendi, Venezuela and Brazil .... 562 |
Customs Union, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Nether-
lands 562
Publications 156
International Civil Aviation Conference
First Plenary Session
PRESIDENT Roosevelt's message to the delegates'
On behalf of the United States, I offer a hearty
welcome to the delegations of the 51 nations rep-
resented at this International Conference on Civil
Aviation. You were called to undertake a task
of the highest importance. I am very sure that
you will succeed.
The progress of the armies, navies, and air
forces of the United Nations has already opened
great areas to peaceful intei-course which had been
closed for more than four black years. We can
soberly hope that all Europe will be reclaimed for
civilization before many months have passed.
Steadily the great areas of the Pacific are like-
wise being freed from Japanese occupation. In
due time, the Continent of Asia will be opened
again to the friendly intercourse of the world.
The rebuilding of peace means reopening the
lines of communication and peaceful relationship.
Air transport will be the first available means by
which we can start to heal the wounds of war and
put the world once more on a peacetime basis.
You will recall that after the first World War a
conference was held and a convention adopted de-
signed to open Europe to air traffic; but under the
arrangements then made years of discussion were
needed before air routes could actually be flown.
At that time, however, air commerce was in its in-
fancy. Now it has reached maturity and is a
pressing necessity.
I do not believe that the world of today can
afford to wait several years for its air communi-
cations. There is no reason why it should.
Increasingly, the airplanes will be in existence.
When either the German or the Japanese enemy is
defeated, transport planes should be available for
release from military work in numbers sufficient
to make a beginning. Wlien both enemies have
been defeated, they should be available in quantity.
Every country has airports and trained pilots; and
practically every country knows how to organize
airlines.
It would be a reflection on the common sense of
nations if they were not able to make arrangements,
at least on a provisional basis, making possible the
opening of the much-needed air routes. I hope,
when your Conference adjourns, that these ar-
rangements will have been made. Then, all that
will be needed will be to start using the air as a
great, peaceful medium, instead of a battle area.
You are fortunate in having before you one of
the great lessons of history. Some centuries ago,
an attempt was made to build great empires based
on domination of great sea areas. The lords of
these areas tried to close these seas to some and to
offer access to others, and thereby to enrich them-
selves and extend their power. This led directly
to a number of wars both in the Eastern and the
Western Hemispheres. We do not need to make
that mistake again. I hope you will not dally with
the thought of creating great blocs of closed air,
thereby tracing in the sky the conditions of pos-
sible future wars. I know you will see to it that
the air which God gave to everyone shall not be-
come the means of domination over anyone.
As we begin to write a new chapter in the funda-
mental law of the air, let us all remember that we
are engaged in a great attempt to build enduring
institutions of peace. These peace settlements
cannot be endangered by petty considerations, or
weakened by groundless fears. Kather, with full
recognition of the sovereignty and juridical equal-
ity of all nations, let us work together so that the
air may be used by humanity, to serve humanity.
' Read b.v Assistant Secretary Berle to the delegates at
Chicago on Nov. 1, 1944.
529
530
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
ADDRESS BY ASSISTANT SECRETARY BERLE
[Released to the press by the Conference November 1]
The International Conference on Civil Aviation
is declared open.
In the name of the United States, let me extend
a cordial welcome to the delegations from the 51
countries who are assembled here today.
We are met in a high resolve that ways and
means may be found, and rules may be evolved,
which shall permit the healing processes of peace
to begin their work as rapidly as the interruptions
resulting from aggressive war can be cleared away.
Few of our countries have escaped grief and
agony, and many are sore with honorable wounds
in a common struggle. All of us know that the
pain can be alleviated and tlie wounds healed only
by common action in reestablishing peaceful life.
There are many tasks which our countries have
to do together. In none have they a clearer and
plainer common interest than in the work of mak-
ing the air serviceable to mankind. God gave the
air to everyone; every nation in the world has
access to it. To each nation th^re is now available
a means of friendly intercourse with all the world,
provided a working basis for that intercourse can
be found and maintained.
It is our task to find this working basis and
thereby to open the highways of friendship, of
commerce, and of thought.
The United States counts it a high privilege to
be host to a conference called for that purpose.
The world has learned to take seriously the scien-
tific develoiiments which enlarge the scope of na-
tional and international life. The lesson has been
long in the learning. At the close of the Napo-
leonic wars, there was convened the Congress of
Vienna, famous in diplomatic history. But while
it met, men then obscure were working in shops to
develop the use of steam. Today, more than a
century later, who will say that Watt in Scotland,
Trevithick in England, Woolf in Cornwall, Fulton
in the United States, Cugnot in France, and their
later followers, did not do more to change the face
of the world with their steamships and railroads
than did all the diplomats and ministers at Vienna
in 1815?
Even as late as 1919 it was the opinion of the
jDowers assembled at Paris — the United States
among them — that aerial navigation was not a sub-
ject pertaining to the peace conference.
This time we shall not make that mistake.
The air has been used as an instrument of ag-
gression. It is now being made a highway of lib-
eration. It is our opportunity to make it hereafter
a servant of peojjles.
In bidding you welcome, let our labors be lighted
by vision, and made fruitful by insight.
Second Plenary Session
ADDRESS BY ASSISTANT SECRETARY BERLE '
[Released to the press by the Conference November 2]
On behalf of the American Delegation, I set
forth the position of the Govermnent of the United
States.
The use of the air has this in common with the
use of the sea : it is a highway given by nature to
all men. It differs in this from the sea : that it is
subject to the sovereignty of the nations over which
it moves. Nations ought, therefore, to arrange
among themselves for its use in that manner which
' Delivered at Chicago on Nov. 1, 1&44. Mr. Berle is
ch.Tirman of the American Delegation and temporary
president of tlie Confeience.
= Delivered Nov. 2, 1944.
will be of the greatest benefit to all humanity,
wherever situated.
The United States believes in and asserts the
rule that each country has a right to maintain
sovereignty of the air which is over its lands and
its territorial waters. There can be no question of
alienating or qualifying this sovereignty.
Consistent with sovereignty, nations ought to
subscribe to those rules of friendly intercourse
which shall operate between friendly states in time
of peace to the end that air navigation shall be
encouraged, and that communication and com-
merce may be fostered between all peaceful states.
It is the position of the United States that this
obligation lests upon nations because nations have
a natural right to communicate and trade with each
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
531
otlier in times of peace ; and friendly nations do not
have a right to burden or prevent this intercourse
b_v discriminatory measures.
In this respect, there is a simihirity between in-
tercourse by air and intercourse by sea; for, ab is
well known, intercourse by sea between friendly
nations in times of peace often requires the passage
of ships tlirough the waters of other countries so
that voyages may be directly and safely made.
At sea, the custom of friendly permission for
such transit has, after centuries, ripened into the
right of innocent passage, but its beginning was in
the customary permissions granted by friendly na-
tions to each other.
It is the view of my Government that, in the
matter of passage through the air, we are in a
stage in which there should be developed estab-
lished and settled customs of friendly permission
as between fi'iendly nations. Indeed, failure to
establish such customs would burden many coun-
tries and would actually jeopardize the situation
of most of the smaller nations of the world, espe-
cially those without seacoasts. For, if the custom
of friends did not permit friendly communication
and commerce and intercourse through the air,
these countries could at any time, or at all times,
be subjected, even in peace, to an air blockade.
Clearly this privilege of friendly passage ac-
corded by nations can only be availed of or ex-
pected by nations which themselves are prepared
to accord like privileges and permissions.
It is, therefore, the view of the United States
that, without prejudice to full rights of sover-
eignty, we should work upon the basis of the ex-
change of needed privileges and permissions which
friendly nations have a right to expect from each
otlier.
II
No greater tragedy could befall the world than
to repeat in the air the grim and bloody history
which tormented the world some centuries ago
when the denial of equal oi:)portunity for inter-
course made the sea a battleground instead of a.
highway.
You will recall that for a time nations forgot
the famous Koman observation that the law was
lord of the sea, and endeavored to establish great
closed zones, from which they attempted to ex-
clude all intercourse except through their own
ships, or to place any other nation permitted to
enter these zones at a discriminatory disadvantage.
At various times there were included in these zones
a great part of the north Atlantic and the North
Sea; the waters lying between North and South
America which today we call the Caribbean and
the Gulf of Mexico, together with much of the
middle Atlantic; the Mediterranean; and great
parts of the western Pacific and the waters sur-
rounding the East Indies. These zones became fer-
tile breeding grounds for commercial monopolies,
which sought to levy tribute on the commerce of
the world or to exclude or discriminate against
the trade of other nations. Political complications
followed which set neighbor against neighbor and
friend against friend. War after war resulted
from the attempts of bold pioneers, supported by
extreme nationalist policy, to claim and exercise
these special privileges. One result of one such
controversy was the emergence of a young Dutch
lawyer, by name Hugo Grotius, who, in a contro-
versy over a Dutch ship, undertook to argue the
case for the right of friendly intercourse, in a
book addressed to the free and independent
peoples of Christendom, and thereby began the
long march of history toward the law of freedom
of the sea in time of peace.
It is true that there are differences between
closed zones upon the sea and closed zones in the
air, arising from sovereign rights of nations af-
fecting the air above them which they do not have
in the open sea. Yet the dangers from closed air,
where it lies across established or logical routes
of commerce, are not dissimilar from the dangers
which arose through the closing of the sea lanes.
Indeed the base from which Grotius argued was
not different from the base of our contention to-
day, namely, that friendly nations in time of peace
have the right to have intercourse each with the
other, and, in friendliness, should make this inter-
course possible to others.
Perhaps no greater misfortune could befall the
world than to set up a scheme of things by which
new, shadowy barriers are traced in the air, mark-
ing out for the future huge invisible frontiers, cer-
tain to become high future battlelines.
The United States accordingly will propose that
there shall be an exchange of the needed privileges
of intercourse between friendly nations, and that,
in such exchanges, no exclusion or discrimination
shall exist.
Ill
The privilege of communication by air with
friendly countries, in the view of this Government,
532
is not a right to wander at will throughout the
world. In this respect traffic by air differs mate-
rially from traffic by sea, where commerce need
have no direct connection with the country from
which the ship may come. In air commerce, there
appears at present to be little place for tramp trade.
In point of fact, the great air routes are not as
yet sources of profit to the carriers, or indeed to
nations fostering them, but rather have been de-
veloped at large expense by subsidies and other
assistance. It would seem neither equitable nor
just that routes so developed should be claimed
by other countries not for the purpose of main-
taining their own communications but merely for
the purpose of speculating in the possible profits
of a commerce worked up by others among them-
selves. In this respect the air routes of the world
are more like railroad lines than like free ship-
ping; and, indeed, the right of air intercourse is
primarily a right to connect the country in which
the line starts with other countries, from which, to
which, or through which there flows a normal
stream of traffic to and from the country which es-
tablishes the line.
These problems may well be left for later con-
ferences. It is probably best not to try to see too
far into the unknowable future. The business we
have in hand now is the business of establishing
the means by which communications can be estab-
lished between each country and another, by rea-
sonably direct economic routes, with reasonably
convenient landing points connecting the chief
basins of traffic. So far as this country is con-
cei-ned, the United States has made public the
routes which it will endeavor to obtain by the
friendly exchange of permissions of transit and
landing between it and the countries concerned.
It is prepared to discuss like permissions with
other countries seeking intercourse with the
United States, and it hopes that similar agree-
ments may be worked out between the other coun-
tries here present to take care of their own needs
for comraimication.
In respect of establisliment of routes which do
not affect the United States, this Government dis-
claims any desire to intervene ; and it does not be-
lieve that countries not interested in the routes
sought by the United States will wish to intervene.
Rather, by common counsel, we should work out
the general form of the friendly permissions here
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
to be exchanged on a provisional basis and then
avail ourselves of the opportunity here presented
to bring together all the countries interested in any
route which may be proposed at this time for the
purpose of reaching, now, the relevant arrange-
ments.
As the United States conceives it, this will be
the work of the Committee on Provisional Eoutes.
If its work is well done, I hope that we shall be able
at the close of the Conference to report a great
number of agreements between the interested coun-
tries, which, taken together, shall thus establish a
provisional-route pattern capable of serving the
immediate needs of the world and ready to be put
in effect where and when the military interruptions
of war shall have ceased.
Thus handled, no existing route or rights will
be prejudiced or need come into discussion. The
desire of any nation to obtain routes in the future,
which it may not presently be able to use, will not
be foreclosed. The pressing necessities of the situ-
ation will be taken care of, and the customs and
practices will have ample room in which to grow
as experience makes us wiser.
IV
There is, in the view of the United States, a basis
for attempting now, in addition to the route agree-
ments proposed, an air-navigation agreement
which shall modernize and make effective the rules
of aerial navigation.
This task was attempted in Paris in 1910 with-
out success, was carried forward with more suc-
cess by the drafting of the Paris Convention of
1919.' Another effort was made in the Habana
Convention of 1928,^ and there were other agree-
ments, among which must be cited the Warsaw
Convention.
Yet the fierce developments compelled by five
years of war have vastly changed and advanced
the art of aviation, and at the same time have
vastly increased the division between military avi-
ation and civil air transjjort. According to ex-
perts, it is not possible to convert a peaceful trans-
port plane into an effective instrument of war de-
spite wide-spread popular misconception to the
contrarj'; and it is very nearly impossible to con-
vert a warplane into an economically available in-
strument of commerce. Twenty-five years of ex-
' Department of State publication 2143.
'Treaty Series 840.
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
533
perience since the Paris Convention have taught us
many things about the needs of travel and com-
nierce by air. It is the hope that we shall here be
able to agree upon a draft of an air-navigation
convention.
The customs affecting friendly intercourse in
the air between nations, giving effect to the natu-
ral right of communication, have been far devel-
oped. So far as possible, it is hoped that they
can be embodied in a document which will set out
in these respects the fundamental law of the air.
"Should this prove impossible, the Government
of the United States believes that in any case we
shall be able to agree upon a number of guiding
principles which may serve, at least in part, as
terms of reference and instructions for an interim
drafting committee which can complete the work,
should we be unable to finish it here, and submit
the result for ratification by all nations.
This task is a challenge to a noble piece of work.
To the extent that intercourse by air can be
brought within accepted rules of orderly develop-
ment, we shall have removed great areas of con-
troversy from future generations. If we are suc-
cessful, we shall have rendered a real service to
mankind.
V
Intimately connected with the problem of
routes and that of rules of the air is the problem
of international organization, designed to make
more effective that friendly cooperation which is
essential if airplanes are not to be locked within
their national borders.
The preparatory conversations for this Confer-
ence have revealed two schools of thought on this
subject, both of which are entitled to be examined
witli respect.
All agree that an effective form of world organ-
ization for air purposes is necessary. Tliis does
not exclude regional organizations having pri-
mary interest in the problems of their particular
areas; but no regional organization or group of
regional organizations can effectively deal with
the new problems resulting from interoceanic and
intercontinental flying. This development, ten-
tatively begun before the outbreak of the present
World War, has now achieved a vast develop-
ment, so that planes span oceans and continents
on regular schedule with less difficulty than was
involved in crossing the English Channel a few
years ago.
The problems resulting from this development
fall roughly into two great categories : The com-
mercial and economic problems occasioned by
competition between different transit lines and
streams of commerce, private or governmental;
and the technical problems involved in establish-
ing a system of air routes so handled and so stand-
ardized that planes may safely fly from any point
in the world to any other point in the world under
reasonably uniform standards of pi'actice and
regulation. Of this last, a separate word will be
said later.
But while there is general agreement on the
need of organization, there is difference as to the
extent of powers to be accorded a world authority
or commission such as has been forecast.
It is generally agreed that, in the purely tech-
nical field, a considerable measure of power can
be exercised by, and indeed must be granted to, a
world body. In these matters, there are few in-
ternational controversies which are not susceptible
of ready solution through the counsel of experts.
For example, it is essential that the signal ar-
rangements and landing practice at the Chicago
airport for an intercontinental plane shall be so
similar to the landing practice at Croydon or Le-
Bourget or Prague or Cairo or Chungking that
a plane arriving at any of these points, whatever
its country of origin, will be able to recognize
established and uniform signals and to proceed
securely according to settled practice.
A number of other technical fields can thus be
covered, and, happily, here we are in a field in
which science and technical practice provide com-
mon ground for everyone.
Some brave spirits have proposed that like
powers be granted to an international body in the
economic and commercial fields as well. One
cannot but respect the boldness of this conception
and the brilliance and sincerity with which it has
been urged. But — and this, to the Government
of the United States, is tlie cardinal difficulty —
there has not as yet been seriously projDosed, let
alone generally accepted, any set of rules or prin-
ciples of law by which these powers would be
guided. Thus it is proposed that an international
body should allocate routes and divide traffic,
but a great silence prevails when it is asked on
what basis shall routes be allocated or traffic di-
vided, or even, what is "equitable" in these mat-
ters. Shall an international body be authorized
534
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
The press release of October 30 listing
the members of the Secretariat for the In-
ternational Civil Aviation Conference at
Chicago was printed in the Bulletin of
October 29, 1944, page 499.
to say, "We do not like Lusitania at present;
therefore we deny her carriers routes; we favor
for the moment the aspirations of Shangri-la;
therefore we give her license to fly" ? Shall it be
empowered to say, "We wish to preserve a Scy-
thian route from competition, and accordingly
divide traffic so that Numidia shall have little or
none"? Shall the first flying line in the field be
protected against newcomers, or shall there be a
policy of fostering newcomers to the end that
aviation may be encouraged ? Shall the members
of such a board represent their national interest,
or shall they be denationalized, vmcontrolled arbi-
ters? On the political side, can any nation dele-
gate at this time, in the absence of such estab-
lished law, the power to any international group
to say, "You are entitled to access to the air; but
we deny it to your neighbor" ? Tender these cir-
cumstances, imprecise formulae mean in reality
arbitrary power, or petty deals to exclude com-
petitors where one can and to divide traffic and
profits where one must.
For this reason, the opposite school of thought,
which is shared by the United States, believes
that international organization at tliis time in eco-
nomic and political fields must be primarily con-
sultative, fact-gathering, and fact-finding, with
power to bring together the interested states when
friction develops; with power to suggest to the
countries possible measures as problems existing
and unforeseen come up; and designed to set up
a system of periodic conferences which may lay
out and agree upon and continuously develop the
necessary rules as experience and prudence shall
indicate their possibility and gathering custom
shall make them feasible.
After a reasonable period of experience, and
the development of ever-growing areas of agree-
ment through processes of consultation and mu-
tual agreement, we may then reexamine the pos-
sibilities of entrusting such an organization with
such added powers as experience may have shown
wise, and as prudence and well-being may dictate.
No one in the English-speaking world is un-
familiar with the real and poignant hopes which
lie behind the position of our friends from New
Zealand and from Canada, who have been most
active in propounding the doctrine of an organi-
zation with power as a solution. Most of us are
familiar with the hopes expressed by the great,
imaginative English writer. Mr. H. G. Wells, that
an aerial-transport board might come to regulate
the airways of the world untrammelled by these
blundering things called government, and thereby
minimize the danger of struggles like that through
which we are now passing. All of us have read
the brief, disguised as a piece of brilliant fiction,
by Mr. Kudyard Kipling called With the Night
Mail in which, under cover of a description of an
airship crossing the Atlantic in a heavy storm,
he developed his theory of an aerial-transport
authority, regidating the affairs of the world.
Many of us are not too old to remember that it
was Alfred Lord Tennyson who connected the
hope of a lasting world federation for peace with
the coming of air commerce, in passionate lines
showing the wonders of the world yet to come
which he never saw but part of which have proved
marvelously and terribly true :
Saw the heavens (511 with commerce, argosies of magic
sails,
Pilots of the purple twilight, dropping down with
costly bales;
Heard the heavens fill with shouting, and there rain'd
a ghastly dew
From the nations' airy navies grappling in the cen-
tral blue. . . .
Till the war drum throbbed no longer and the battle
flags were furled
In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the
world.
I would not willingly close any door to the ulti-
mate realization of that splendid dream, and I be-
lieve that, painfully and point by point, we are
peihaps beginning to approach an era in which
it may be realized. But it would be neither states-
manship nor practical to pretend that that situa-
tion has presently arrived. It would be un-
worthy not to go as far, at present, as we can.
But the process must be one of evolution, for
world peace must be world law and not world
dictatorship. You solve no problem of peace
merely by delegation of naked power.
For that reason, the United States will support
an international organization in the realm of air
commerce jiaving power in technical matters and
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
535
havmg consultative functions in economic matters
and the political questions which may be directly
connected with them under a plan by which con-
f inuiii"; and collected experience, widening custom,
and the growing maturity of its counsel may es-
tablish such added base as circumstances may
warrant for the future consideration of enlarging
the functions of the consultative group.
VI
Certain s])ecific matters remain to be dealt with.
It is the view of the United States that each coun-
try should, so far as possible, come to control and
direct its own internal air lines. In the long view,
no country will wish to have its essential internal
air communications under the domination of any
save their own nationals. This, of course, does not
exclude arrangements by which assistance can be
obtained from other countries in the form of capi-
tal, or technical assistance, but suggests recogni-
tion of the principle that the people of each coun-
try must have the dominant voice in their own
transport systems. If air transport is not to be-
come an instrument of attempted domination,
recognition of this principle seems to be essential.
For this reason, this country reserves, and be-
lieves that every country will insist on the right to
reserve to itself, the internal traffic known as
cabotage, so that, if it chooses, traffic between
points within its borders may be carried by its own
national lines. Clearly, the right of reserved
cabotage can be exercised by one counti'y only, for
if a number of countries were to combine to pool
their cabotage as between each other, the result
would be merely to exclude nations not parties to
the pool ; and it is the firm conviction of this Gov-
ernment that discriminatory or exclusive agree-
ments are raw material for future conflict.
Partly as a result of the turn which has been
taken by war production, the United States has, at
the moment, substantially the only supply of trans-
jiort planes and of immediate productive facilities
to manufacture the newer types of such planes.
The Government of the United States does not
consider that this situation is permanent — or, in-
deed, that it should be permanent. It knows very
well that other countries are quite as capable of
manufacturing planes as we are; that their engi-
neers are as good, and their science as far-reaching.
Far from using tliis temporary position of monop-
oly as a means of securing permanent advantage,
we feel that it is against our national interest and,
616728—44 — —2
we think, against the interests of the world to try
to use this as a means of preventing others from
flying.
Consequently, this Government is prepared to
make available, on non-discriminatory terms, civil
air-transport planes, when they can be released
from military work, to those countries which rec-
ognize, as do we, the right of friendly intercourse
and grant permission for friendly intercourse to
others.
This means that no country desiring to enter the
air is barred from the air because it may have suf-
fered under the hea\'y hand of enemy invasion or
because we may have played a leading part in the
task of manufacturing and developing long-range
commercial planes.
A by-product of war has been the development
of a great range of aids to navigation and flying
which should vastly increase the safety and speed
and comfort of aii- connnerce. We are prepared
to encourage the exchange of technical information
between ourselves and other countries, to the end
that the best of the art of aviation may become a
part of the general fund of the world's resources.
There has been fear, a fear widely spread in this
country, that devices such as subsidies would be
used by us or by other nations so that the rates and
charges in air commerce might reach such levels
as would be designed to drive other planes out of
the air. We have no such intent ourselves, and we
would ojipose any such policy if practiced by others.
No country can expect at present to have wide-flung
aviation lines without subsidies, as matters now
stand ; but while a subsidy is legitimate and usef id
to keep needed planes in the air, it is cei'tainly
noxious if designed to knock the planes of others
out of the air. For this reason, the United States
is prepared to discuss ways and means by which
minimum rates can be agreed upon and by which
the subsidies which are involved in all transport
trade shall be used for the purpose of legitimate air
communication but not for the purpose of assisting
rate wars or uneconomic competition.
In this way, we believe there can be achieved a
rule of equal opportunity from which no nation at
this table shall be excluded.
VII
All of us here assembled are in some sense ti'ustees
of the present, and what we do will also influence
the future in ways which we can hardly calculate.
Science has vouchsafed us a great tool of interna-
tional relationships, and custom is beginning to
536
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
teach us its use. But science leaves human values
to men; and this tool may serve or injure, unite or
divide, kill or save, as men use it. If we are able,
now and later, to bring the experience and the
knowledge gained in the laboratory, on the battle-
field, and in peaceful flying within the range of
sound and effective rules and of gracious practices,
excluding none and conceived on a basis of world-
wide equality of opportunity, we may open a new
and statelier chapter in the history of the conquest
of the air.
Oppressing none, considering all, establishing
law where we can, and taking common counsel
where the law has yet to emerge through custom
and experience, liberating the wings whose line
goes out to the ends of the earth, we shall succeed
if our decisions are informed by that honor and
vision and common kindness which, now and al-
ways, are the great content of wisdom.
American Delegates to Interna-
tional Wheat Council
[Released to the press November 1]
The President has now approved the designa-
tion of the following persons as American dele-
gates to the International Wlieat Council : '
Carl C. Farrington, Vice President of the Com-
modity Credit Corporation, Department of
Agriculture
Edward G. Cale, Assistant Chief of tlie Com-
modities Division, Department of State
Mr. Farrington is an additional delegate to the
Council and Mr. Cale has been designated in place
of Robert M. Carr, who at the time of his appoint-
ment was Assistant Chief of the Division of Com-
mercial Policy and Agreements, Department of
State, and who now has a new assignment in the
Office of Economic Affairs, Department of State.
Invitation to the President
And the Secretary of State
To Visit France
[Released to the press November 5]
The following note, dated November 4, was sent
to the Secretary of State by the Minister Pleni-
' BULLEIIN of July 4, 1942, p. 582, and Aug. 1, 1942, p. 670.
potentiary. Delegate of the Provisional Govern-
ment of the French Republic to the United States.
A translation follows:
Mr. Secretary of State:
I have been requested by Mr. George Bidault,
Minister of Foreign Affairs, to inform Your Ex-
cellency that the Provisional Government of the
French Republic, as an expression of the appre-
ciation of the entire French Nation for the out-
standing contribution which the people and
armies of the United States have made to the liber-
ation of the capital of France and of the greater
part of her territory, would be happy to receive
President Roosevelt in liberated Paris.
The Provisional Government would be par-
ticularly hap])y should Your Excellency accom-
pany tlie President on this visit.
I should be grateful if j'ou would deliver this
invitation to the President of the United States.
I hold myself at your complete disposal for the
purpose of transmitting to my Government Presi-
dent Roosevelt's reply and of informing it, in the
event that tliis reply, as the French Government
hopes, is favorable, the time at which this visit
might take place.
Please accept [etc.] Henri Hoppenot
Economic Mission to Liberia
[Keleitsed to the press October 31]
The Foreign Economic Administration at tlie
suggestion of the Department of State and with
the approval of the Liberian Government is send-
ing an economic mission to Liberia. The mission,
which will leave in the near future, will have the
dual aim of increasing Liberia's production of
such strategic materials as rubber and palm oils,
wliich are vitally needed in the war effort, and
developing other resources needed by the United
Nations. An important part of the mission's
work will be connected with the development of a
seaport to be constructed by a private American
contractor under the supervision of the Bui'eau
of Yards and Docks of the United States Navy.
Funds advanced by the Foreign Economic Ad-
ministration for this purpose are to be repaid
from commercial port income. The mission will
be concerned with coordinating port activities
with other plans for aiding Liberia in the devel-
opment of its resources.
Mr. Earl Parker Hanson, FEA special repre-
sentative to Liberia, will head the mission.
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
537
Economic Aid to Italy
EXCHANGE OF LETTERS BETWEEN THE MAZZINI SOCIETY AND THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
[Released to the press November 4]
October 30, 1944.
Mv Dear ISIr. Secretary :
Reports from Italy have given rise to some con-
fusion and concern among Americans of Italian
descent and to friends of Italian democracy with
resp2ct to the present economic situation and the
future outlook in that stricken land.^
We would appreciate it, therefore, if you would
help to clarify a situation which holds for us a
deep interest for the present and the future. We
believe that such clarification would help the mo-
rale of those of us who have ardently desired to
see Italy fight and win for itself an honored place
among the United Nations.
Very respectfully yours,
UmBERTO GtTALTIERI
National Secretary
November 3, 1944
Mt Dear Mr. Gualtieri :
In reply to your letter of October 30, 1914, re-
questing information on the economic situation in
Italy, I am happy to give you the following facts :
The Government of the United States has been
and continues to be very much interested in the
plight of the Italian people, particularly in their
economic wellbeing. The heritage of Western and
Christian civilization, which has played such a
fundamental role in the life of this country, is
based largely on the contributions made by Greece
and Italy. No .small part of the population of the
United States is of Italian origin, making Ameri-
can interest in conditions in Italy even more direct
and real. Furthermore, Italy is the first European"
country to be liberated by the Allies. Italy thus
presented a challenge to the United Nations and
called for such interest owing to the fact that eco-
nomic conditions in the liberated parts of Italy
were critical.
It must be remembered that we went into Italy
to defeat the enemy and to liberate that country
' Bulletin of Oct. 15, ltW4, pp. 401, 403.
from the control of the Fascists and the Germans.
Our prime contribution, therefore, was military.
As the Allies moved in, they found a country whose
economy had progressively deteriorated under
Fascist mismanagement, Nazi oppression, and as
a result of military operations to drive the Nazis
from Italy. Under FascLst control a large part of
Italian resources and productive capacity had been
devoted to preparing for and engaging in war
rather than producing to meet the needs of the
people of Italy. A country which has always been
economically insufficient and dependent on large
imports from abroad had thereby been put in a
deplorable state. Nazi oppression and plundering
made the situation worse. Bombing and other
military operations to drive the Germans out
caused further devastation and deterioration of
Italy's economic, agricultural, and industrial sys-
tem.
Such was the chaotic and critical situation which
faced us and our Allies in Italy and which had to
be met despite the fact that we were carrying on
active wai'fare against the enemy in the Mediter-
ranean, in Northwest Europe and in the Far East
and these military efforts were straining our re-
sources severely in shipping, port facilities, critical
supplies and manpower. Our accomplishments to
date in remedying the conditions inherited from
nearly a quarter of a century of Fascist misrule,
Nazi oppression and the devastation of war have
been substantial. The facts and figui-es relating
to the accomplishments speak for themselves.
In addition to our prime aim in ridding most of
Italy of Fascist and German oppression we and
our Allies have accomplished the following :
1. We have supplied 1,107,000 tons of basic food-
stuffs to the Italian civilian population and pro-
vided another 1,193,000 tons of other civilian sup-
plies making an aggregate material contribution
to Italy's economic wellbeing of 2,300,000 tons. In
order to insure the equitable distribution of these
supplies and to make their use more effective, we
have helped the Italians iron out the inequalities
538
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
and render more efficient their rationing system
and assisted them in every way possible in tlie col-
lection and distribution of domestic supplies, par-
ticularly the food crops of the current year.
2. The United States has made available to the
Italian Government the dollar proceeds of the pay
of United States troops in Italy as well as the
dollar proceeds of remittances from and through
the United States, and of Italian exports to the
United States in order to permit Italy to procure
such supplies as the United States and British
Ai'mies are not bringing in as part of their program
of military operations.
3. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilita-
tion Administration is supplementing our direct
efforts in the relief and rehabilitation of Italy.
UNRRA has undertaken to make an allocation of
$50,000,000 for supplemental relief within Italy.
UNRRA plans, as part of this expenditure, to de-
liver 15,000 tons of extra foods monthly, to care
for approximately 1,700,000 children and ex-
pectant or nursing mothers. In addition, pro-
fessional personnel would assist Italian health au-
thorities and UNRRA would supply about $8,000,-
000 worth of supplemental medical supplies over
a period of a year. This is over and above the aid
being given by UNRRA to United Nations na-
tionals who are refugees in Italy.
4. We have restored postal services with the
rest of the world for most parts of liberated Italy,
arranged for the shipment of supplies by private
relief organizations and for parcel post gift pack-
ages, and have lifted the ban on commercial com-
munications with Italy at a time when a major
military campaign is still being waged on Italian
soil.
5. We have encouraged the export of Italian
products to this country and Great Britain, both
in the hope of aiding the Allied etfoi-ts and of
restoring Italy's place in international commerce.
6. We have assisted and reorganized the ad-
ministrative machinery of the nation and its
provinces so as to facilitate the country's rehabili-
tation.
7. We have repaired and reconstructed shat-
tered vital lines of transport, including highways,
bridges, railways, and the doclts and facilities of
many ports.
8. We have restored, repaired, and rebuilt es-
sential public utilities — such as waterworks, elec-
trical systems, gasworks and sewers — to the extent
necessary for military usage and for essential
civilian economy in many cities, including Rome,
Naples, and the devastated areas of Sicily.
9. We have assisted labor, after the abolition of
Fascist syndicates, to set up its own organizations,
and mediated and advised in settling all disputes.
No major strikes have occurred and work stop-
pages were prevented without the use of
compulsion.
10. We have rehabilitated key industries,
wrecked by bombing and German demolition, in
order to process food stuffs, manufacture textiles,
mine essential minerals and to jjrocess them, both
for military and essential civilian use, thus pro-
viding jobs as well. Planning for the rehabilita-
tion of the following industries is well under waj' :
soap, paper, textiles, tobacco and matches (im-
portant for government revenue as a monopoly)
and fertilizers.
11. We supported banks after the crisis of liber-
ation and permitted their rapid reopening on a
sound basis, as indicated by the fact that deposits
have increased.
12. We set up price controls for 21 major neces-
sities, and we ai'e curbing black market operations.
This has been especially successful where it has
been possible to increase rations.
13. We have made a complete study of agricul-
ture, forestry and fishing with a view to deter-
mining precisely the supplies and finances needed
for their restoration.
14. We initiated a quick and complete census of
the people and of industry in order to obtain a
clear picture of the country's needs and potentiali-
ties for rehabilitation and helped the Italian Gov-
ernment to set up appropriate machinery for re-
establishing their industrial and transportation
economy.
The Government of the United States foresees
that with the termination of military operations
and with the reduction in the calls being made on
our resources and facilities for the conduct of
the war, the Italian Government and people will
be affoi-ded even greater opportunities to rehabili-
tate their basic national economy and to take their
rightful place in the world's economy.
Sincerely yours,
For the Secretary of State :
Dean Acheson
Assistant Secretary of State
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
539
Conference at Bretton Woods Prepares
Plans for International Finance
By JOHN PARKE YOUNG'
The United Nations Monetary and Financial
Conference which met at Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, from July 1 to July 22, 1944 pro-
duced two major proposals: The International
Monetary Fund and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development. These two in-
stitutions are parts of the general program being
planned by the United States and other peace-
loving nations to improve economic conditions
generally throughout the world.
At Dumbarton Oaks plans were made for gen-
eral security and for an international organiza-
tion with broad responsibilities. The Economic
and Social Council proposed there would be a
high coordinating body and would perform such
functions as are assigned to it by the General
Assembly. In addition, several specialized agen-
cies whose responsibilities and authority would
cover the major economic fields are planned.
Plans for the Food and Agriculture organization
were worked out at the conference at Hot Springs,
Virginia. Measures are also being considered to
bring about a general reduction of trade barriers
and the abandonment of undesirable practices.
The various measures and machinery that are be-
ing planned at this time constitute a unified pro-
gram and are to be considered as parts of a whole.
In the field of finance, the agencies proposed are
the International Monetary Fund and the Inter-
national Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-
ment. These two companion institutions are de-
signed to provide a basis for the development of
international financial transactions and thereby
to facilitate expansion of trade and fuller utiliza-
tion of the world's productive resources. They
are pointed toward the goal of higher national in-
comes and general security.
The two plans represent the combined eiforts of
44 nations and are the culmination of study and
informal discussions spread over an extended pe-
riod of time, among the technical experts of these
governments. The main outlines and principles
of the plans were thus generally agreed upon prior
to the Conference, but a great deal of work
remained.
From the near-range viewpoint the Conference
was marked by an unusually large amount of hard
and intensive work and by a determination of the
nations represented to find common ground for
agreement and to produce a plan. The delega-
tions included men of the highest level of tech-
nical competence.
From the long-range viewpoint the Conference
represents a significant step in international col-
laboration. Technical experts from 44 nations
have set forth what they consider to be rules of
the game in the field of currency and exchange.
With pre-war currency and trade disorders fresh
in mind, the nations recognized that their eco-
nomic interests were interlocked and that coopera-
tion was essential; they recognized also that the
machinery they were designing could, if properly
designed, make a major contribution to the lasting
health and prosperity of the world.
The agreements worked out at the Conference
do not commit any government. They are now
before the governments of the United Nations for
their considei'ation and action. The Fund agree-
ment shall go into effect when approved by na-
tions having 65 percent of the quotas; the Bank
agreement shall go into effect when approved by
members of the Fund whose minimum subscrip-
tions to the Bank comprise 65 percent of the total
subscriptions scheduled.
Origin of Plans
Wlien currency systems were restored after the
last war there was little or no attempt at coordi-
nation of measures to provide stability; no ma-
chinery was set up to facilitate an orderly adjust-
ment of exchange rates when fundamental condi-
' Mr. Young, Adviser on International Financial In-
stitutions, Division of Financial and Monetary Affairs,
Olflce of Economic Affairs, Department of State, was a
member of the Secretariat at the Bretton Woods
Conference.
540
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
tions necessitated such a revision. The disturb-
ances of the 1930's, involving a resort to com-
petitive currency depreciation, imposition of ex-
change restrictions, import quotas, and other de-
vices which all but stifled trade, made it clear that
improved international financial arrangements
were necessary. The currency and exchange diffi-
culties of that period are generally regarded as
contributing to a considerable extent to the out-
break of the present war.
As the war progressed, discussion of interna-
tional financial objectives and procedures was stim-
ulated. In the United States Dr. Harry Wliite
of the Treasury Department prepared a plan for
an international stabilization fund and an invest-
ment bank which he presented confidentially early
in 19i2 to a small group in Washington.
Discussions had also been under way in Eng-
land, and soon thereafter Lord Keynes offered a
proposal for an "International Clearing Union".
The British Government printed this proposal as
a secret document without Lord Keynes' name.
Copies were made available to United States Gov-
ernment officials. These two proposals became
known as the AVhite Plan and the Keynes Plan.
They were actively discussed in government circles
both in Washington and London beginning about
the middle of 1942, and early in 1943 they were
confidentially communicated to other United
Nations.
In April 1943 the two plans were made public.
The American release to the press of a "Prelimi-
nary Draft Outline of Proposal for a United and
As.sociated Nations Stabilization Fund" and the
British White Paper presenting "Proposals for an
International Clearing Union" pointed out that
each proposal was the work of government tech-
nical experts and that it did not involve any official
commitment. Although the original White Plan
provided for the creation of an investment bank
as well as a stabilization fund, the material made
public in April 1943 did not include the proposal
for a bank. Attention was concentrated on the
stabilization fund. The British proposal referred
to the need for other institutions, including a
Board for International Investment, and men-
tioned the services which the Clearing Union
might perform for such a Board.
In the spring of 1943 the President created a
committee known as the Cabinet Committee, con-
sisting of the heads of the Department of State,
DeiJartment of Commerce, Foreign Economic Ad-
ministration, and Board of Governors of the Fed-
eral Reserve System, to work with the Secretary
of the Treasury on the question. A technical
commission composed of Government financial ex-
perts under the chairmanship of Dr. Wliite was
also established.
When the American proposal was made public
the Secretary of the Treasury sent copies to 37
nations and invited them to send technical experts
to Washington to make suggestions and to dis-
cuss the jji'oposal. Accordingly, about the middle
of 1943 discussions with experts from a large num-
ber of countries were held informally in Wash-
ington. Many valuable changes and additions
developed from these discussions. Shortly after-
ward the Canadian experts offered a plan which
presented their views, and a little later China and
France came forward with proposals. The sim-
ilarities of the various viewpoints were much more
marked than were the differences. Following
these discussions between American and foreign
technical experts a revision of the so-called AVliite
Plan was published in July 1943.'"
In the fall of 1943 British economic and finan-
cial experts came to the United States to discuss
various topics. The financial discussions dealt
almost entirely with the currency-stabilization
proposals and only to a small extent with plans
for a bank. The British and American experts
found themselves in substantial agreement on the
major principles of stabilization, so that the pros-
pects of designing a plan agreeable to both coun-
tries appeared bright. The discussions continued
by correspondence, and there was prepared a so-
called joint statement of principles on which there
was agreement.
Meanwliile, in November 1943 the Treasury De-
partment liad publibhed a draft of the bank pro-
posal. Russian experts came to Washington early
in 1944 and engaged in extended discussions with
respect to both prof)osed institutions. These dis-
cussions were undertaken with considerable inter-
est in view of the differences between the Russian
economic system and the systems prevailing in
most other countries. It soon developed that
agreement with Russia on both the Fund and the
Bank was possible.
Out of these various discussions there developed
a document known as the Joint Statement of Ex-
' Bulletin of Aug. 21, 1943, p. 112.
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
541
pcrts on the International Monetary Fund. This
document represented the common area of agree-
ment among the nations that had participated in
the discussions. It was publislied on April 22,
1944 simultaneously in Washington, London,
Moscow, Chungking, Ottawa, Rio de Janeiro,
Mexico City, and Habana, and in full or abbrevi-
ated form in many other countries. It represented
tlie views of the experts of approximately 30 coun-
tries and constituted a basis for the development
of the subsequent detailed plan.
Time had not permitted preparation of a simi-
lar statement with respect to the Bank. The dis-
cussions had indicated a large measure of agree-
ment on the Bank, but the plan was not so far ad-
vanced as was that for the Monetary Fund.
During this period tha Secretai'y of the Treasury
kept the Congress informed regarding develop-
ments and at various times made arrangements to
appear before congressional committees. Prior to
the publication of the Joint Statement he ex-
plained the proposals in considerable detail to
congressional committees; he indicated that an
international conference on the subject would
probably be called. This Government's position,
as explained by Secretary Morgenthau, was to the
effect that the Joint Statement was a statement of
the Government's financial experts and that it was
not a commitment of the Government itself.
Whatever plan the conference would work out
would, necessarily, be submitted to the Congress
for its consideration. Other governments took a
similar position.
In ]\Iay 1944 the Piesident issued invitations to
the 44 United and Associated Nations to attend a
conference to be held at Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, in July 1944. The conference was to
discuss the proposed Monetary Fund within the
terms of the Joint Statement and was to consider
if possible the bank proposal.
In order to facilitate the work of the conference
and to work out some of the many details, a pre-
liminary meeting was held at Atlantic City. On
June 15 a group of American financial experts
assembled there and were joined a few days later
by experts from 15 other countries. The group
worked intensively, endeavoring to deal with some
of the unsettled questions and to produce a more
finished document. At this preliminary confer-
ence the British experts presented proposals for
the Bank which involved some changes from the
earlier plan but which met with almost immediate
approval of the experts of the other nations, in-
cluding the United States. It became clear that
the Bank proposal was to receive major consider-
ation at the Conference. The group at Atlantic
City went directly from there to the Conference at
Bretton Woods which assembled on July 1, 1944.
International Monetary Fund
Purposes
The International Monetary Fund Agreement,
drawn ui^ at the Conference, sets forth what the
nations consider to be the principles and pro-
cedures or "rules of the game" in the field of
currency and exchange, as well as with respect to
certain phases of commercial policy. These princi-
ples and the machinery of the Fund are designed
to facilitate the expansion of trade and also to
prevent conditions which cause governments to im-
pose restrictions on trade and resort to other un-
economic devices. A consultative procedure,
moreover, is established whereby representatives of
the member governments would regularly consider,
in a dispassionate manner, their mutual problems.
The Fund, as noted above, is part of the program
to promote a fuller flow of trade and to improve
economic conditions generally throughout the
world.
The Fund provides facilities to assist countries
in reducing or avoiding many of the disturbances
that accompany changes in trade and other condi-
tions. In periods of exchange stringency it would
relieve the pressure for deflation and would tend
to check many of the influences which depress
trade, production, and employment. It would pro-
mote orderly changes in exchange rates and other
economic adjustments when changes and adjust-
ments are necessary.
The Fund is designed to provide machinery
which would, so far as possible, make the currencies
of its members freely convertible one for the other
at established rates. Such convertibility would
permit foreign trade and other international
transactions to take place with a minimum of risk
and difficulty arising out of the existence of dif-
ferent currency systems. These risks and diffi-
culties in the past, especially during the 1930's,
have greatly restricted international trade.
The proposed plan endeavors to provide a sys-
tem wherein traders would be able to buy and sell
in any market in the world, wherever such buying
and selling could be done to the best advantage,
542
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
and to discourage arrangements whereby trade is
channeled or is confined to pairs of countries. A
broad muUilateral trading system is the type en-
visaged, in order that trade may expand and may
realize its full potentialities. Traders would re-
ceive accordingly some assurance regarding the
amount of their own money to be realized from
tlie ])roceeds of a foreign sale and that the money
could be transferred without hindrance.
The purposes of the Fund are stated in article I
at the begiiming of the Agreement. The Fund is
to be guided in all its decisions by these purj^oses,
which are as follows :
(i) To promote international monetary cooper-
ation through a permanent institution which pro-
vides the machineiy for consultation and collabo-
lation on international monetary problems.
(ii) To facilitate the expansion and balanced
growth of international trade, and to contribute
thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high
levels of emijloyment and real income and to the
development of the productive resources of all
members as primary objectives of economic policy.
(iii) To promote exchange stability, to main-
tain orderly exchange arrangements among mem-
bers, and to avoid competitive exchange deprecia-
tion.
(iv) To assist m the establislmient of a multi-
lateral system of pajnnents in respect of current
transactions between members and in the elimina-
tion of foreign exchange restrictions which
hamper the growth of world trade.
(v) To give confidence to members by making
the Fund's resources available to them under ade-
quate safeguards, thus providing them with op-
portunity to correct maladjustments in their bal-
ance of ])ayments without resorting to measures
destructive of national or international prosperity.
(vi) In accordance with the above, to shorten
the duration and lessen the degree of disequi-
librium in the international balances of payments
of members.
Gen-eral Nature of Provisions
The basic principles or means by which the above
purposes are to be achieved are fairly simple.
They are essentially these:
1. Member countries undertake to keep their ex-
change rates as stable as possible; accordingly, no
changes in rates are to be made unless essential to
correct a fundamental disequilibrium.
2. If basic conditions have changed so that a
new rate becomes necessary, an adjustment can be
made, but it must in all cases be made by consul-
tation with the Fund and according to estab-
lished procedures. Beyond certain limits rates
can be changed only with the concurrence of the
Fund.
3. Currency values are to be stated in terms of
gold (or U. S. dollars), and the stability of a
currency is to be gaged by its relation to gold
(or U. S. dollars). Gold is to be accepted by
members in settlement of accounts.
4. A common pool of resources, contributed by
the members, is to be established and made avail-
able under safeguarding conditions to meet tempo-
rary shortages of exchange and thereby to help
maintain the value of a member's currency until
such member has had time to correct the mal-
adjustment which may be causing the difficulty.
5. Member countries agree not to engage in
discriminatory currency practices and similar de-
vices or to impose restrictions on the making of
payments and transfers for current international
transactions. Existing restrictions are to be
abandoned as soon as the post-war transitional
l^eriod permits.
C. During the post-war transitional period
flexibility in rates is provided, until rates can be
found which give promise of permanence. The
resources of the Fund are protected during this
period.
7. Countries agree to maintain the gold value of
their currency held by the Fund, so that the assets
of the Fund will not depreciate in terms of gold.
Countries thus guarantee the Fund against loss
due to possible depreciation of their currency.
8. The Fund is to deal only with governments
or their agencies and is to have no direct contact
with the exchange market. Its facilities are to
be utilized to clear only those balances not other-
wise cleared by the market.
In the proposed Agreement tliese and other pro-
visions are elaborated in detail. The provisions
of the Fund are summarized below.
Memhership and Subscription to Fund's Re-
sources
Although original membership is confined to
the United Nations that were represented at the
Bretton AVoods Conference, other countries may
become members on such terms as the Fund may
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
543
prescribe. Each member is to contribute to a
common pool which will constitute the resources
of the Fund. For this purpose each country is
assigned a quota which is related to the size of the
member's foreign trade and other international
transactions and to fluctuations therein. A table of
quotas for the nations at the Conference is given on
page 54G. The total of these is $8,800,000,000.
Subscriptions are to be paid in gold to the ex-
tent of 25 percent of the quota or 10 percent of the
country's net official holdings of gold and United
States dollars, whichever of these amounts is the
smaller. In the case of the United States this
would be about $688,000,000 and for all nations
at the Conference about $1,800,000,000. Each
country is to pay the remainder in its own cur-
rency.
A member may withdraw from the Fund at any
time. If a member misuses the Fund or fails to
fulfil its obligations under the Agreement it may
be denied access to the Fund and may eventually be
required to withdraw.^
Rates of Exchange
In order to provide for stability of exchange
rates, each currency unit is to have a definite par
value in terms of gold or in terms of the United
States dollar. These pars are to be determined
originally as follows. Each member will commu-
nicate to the Fund the par value which it desires
for its currency, such par being based on the rates
of exchange prevailing on the sixtieth day before
the Agreement comes into force. Unless within
90 days the Fund notifies the member that the rate
is unsatisfactory, or the member so notifies the
Fund, this par value becomes effective. If the
Fund and the member cannot agree on a suitable
par, the member must withdraw from the Fund.
Countries that have been occupied by the enemy
are allowed more time to select and adjust their
pars, under conditions prescribed by the Fund.
This period of adjustment provides flexibility dur-
ing the transition until currencies have settled to
levels that the Fund believes can be maintained.
This arrangement also protects the Fund's re-
sources because during such a period access to the
Fund is limited or denied entirely.
Rates for transactions between members may
not differ from parity by more than one percent in
the case of spot transactions and by a percentage
' This requires a majority vote of the Governors repre-
senting a majority of the total voting power.
616728 — 44 3
that the Fund considers reasonable for other trans-
actions.
Membere are given a certain amount of initial
leeway with regard to changes in rates; but once
that leeway has been used up, rates can be changed
only by permission of the Fund. Changes are not
to be made under any conditions except to correct a
fundamental disequilibrium, and then only by con-
sultation with the Fund.* The Fund is not allowed
to deny a proposed change if it is satisfied that the
change is necessary to correct a fundamental dis-
equilibrium.
Special arrangements exist for the post-war
transitional period. The Fund may postpone be-
ginning exchange transactions until it is satisfied
that conditions are appropriate. It may also post-
pone transactions with any member if it believes
such transactions would be prejudicial to the
Fund. Countries that have been occupied by the
enemy and that are granted an extension of time
to select and adjust their par values may be re-
stricted in their access to the Fund's resources.
Use of Fundus Resources
The resources of the Fund are intended to help
members meet temporary needs for foreign ex-
change due to fluctuations in their current foreign
transactions. Members may therefore acquire
from the Fund, under certain conditions, the cur-
rency of any other member by paying their own
currency, or gold, in exchange. For example, a
country that ordinarily exports agricultural prod-
ucts may as a result of a crop failure find itself
short of foreign exchange with which to pay for
its regular imports. If it has not previously been
using the Fund to excess or is not otherwise ineligi-
ble, it could acquire foreign exchange from the
Fund.
The resources of the Fund are not intended to be
used to provide a member with foreign capital for
investment or long-term needs. The currency
acquired must be needed for making payments for
current transactions and not for the purpose of
■ The Agreement provides that if a memher proposes to
change the par value of its currency because of a funda-
mental disequilibrium, the Fund may not object if the
total of all previous changes (whether increases or de-
creases) does not exceed 10 percent of the initial par. Any
change beyond this requires approval by the Fund. If
the member proposes a change which exceeds the 10 per-
cent but does not exceed a further 10 percent of the par,
the Fund must give its opinion within 72 hours.
544
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
transferring capital from one country to another.
Capital transfers of a large and sustained nature
are excluded, since, if allowed, tliey might soon
cause the Fund to be depleted of currencies which
happened to be in strong demand. If the Fund
were to be able to provide for flight of capital
it would need to be very much larger. It is in-
tended to provide only for fluctuations in current
' or noncapital items in the balance of payments.
Current transactions are defined to include pay-
ments having to do with foreign trade, short-term
banking, the transfer of interest and dividends,
moderate amortization of the principal of loans,
and remittances for family living expenses.
The needs for foreign exchange that are to be
met by the Fund are the net amounts that are
not cleared through ordinary market transactions.
The Fund does not deal with the public but only
with governments or their agencies. If a coun-
try needs foreign exchange from the Fund, its
government must do the buying and can then
make the exchange available to private parties.
A member may not ordinarily acquire foreign
currencies in exchange for its own currency to a
point where the Fund's holdings of such mem-
ber's currency increase by more than 25 percent of
its quota during the previous 12 months, nor ex-
ceed 200 percent of its quota. Furthermore, if the
Fund believes that a member is using the resources
of the Fund in a manner contrary to the purposes
of the Fund, it may limit or deny such member
access to its resources. If the Fund believes that
a member is making improper use of the Fund's
resources, it is required to make a report to such
member setting forth the views of the Fund.
Members using the Fund's resources are re-
quired to pay certain charges which increase as
the member's recourse to the Fund increases, and
which also increase according to the length of
time that its currency in excess of its quota is
held by the Fund.
Several provisions exist to build up or replenish
the Fund's holdings of gold and of curi-encies
which may be in strong demand. The purpose
of these important provisions is to strengthen the
Fund over the years and to keep its holdings of
the different curi'encies in reasonable balance.
In the first place, members desiring to buy the
currency of other members with gold shall do so
from the Fund if this purchase can be made with
equal advantage. Moreover, in certain cases mem-
bers are I'equired at the end of each financial year
of the Fund to repurchase from the Fund a portion
of their currency held by the Fund if such holding
has increased during the year or if the member's
monetary reserves have increased.* These provi-
sions are designed to prevent countries from in-
creasing their own reserves at the expense of the
Fund and from using the Fund's resources when
their own are available. If the Fund is short of a
certain currency, it may borrow the currency, pro-
vided the member whose currency is involved ap-
jjroves. Members also agree to sell their curren-
cies to the Fund for gold, so that if the Fund needs
more of a certain currency, it can, if it desires, ob-
tain this with gold.
Access to a large pool of foreign currencies, as
provided to members of the Fund, would, it is be-
lieved, tend to inspire confidence in a member's
currency and thereby to prevent speculative at-
tacks on such currency and to promote stability.
It would also give a country time in which to make
necessary adjustments when the lack of balance in
its foreign payments and receipts is not of a self-
correcting but of a continuing nature.
Exchange Restrictions
Since restrictions on the purchase and sale of
foreign exchange are inconsistent in general with
the expansion of world trade and with the pur-
poses of the Fmid, these transactions are with a
few exceptions prohibited by the Fund. This is
an important aspect of the Fund Agi-eement and
recognizes that the stability which the Fund en-
deavors to promote would be interfered with by
measures which restrict trade. Such restrictions
have been used to interfere with the flow of trade
' The amount to be so repurchased is to be equal to one
half of any increase in the Fund's holdings of such cur-
renc.T, plus one half of any increase that may have oc-
curred in the member's monetary reserves. If the mem-
ber's reserves have decreased, there is to be subtracted
from the amount to be repurchased one half of such de-
crease. If, after the above repurchase, a member's hold-
ings of the currency of another member have increased
as a result of transactions in that currency with other
members, the member whose holdings of such currency
have increased must use the increase to repurchase its own
currency from the Fund. None of the above adjustments,
however, are to be carried to a point where the member's
monetary reserves fall below its quota, or where the Fund's
holdings of .such currency fall below 75 percent of its quota,
or where the Fund's holdings of the currency to be paid
to the Fund are above 75 percent of the quota of the mem-
ber concerned.
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
545
and to discriminate between countries and have
been the soiu'ce of serious economic difficulties.
Tile Fund Agreement therefore provides that,
apart from a few exceptions and approval of the
Fund, no member may impose any restrictions on
the making of payments for current international
transactions. Current transactions, as noted
above, include those dealing with foreign trade,
short-term banking, payments of interest and divi-
dends, reasonable amortization, and remittances
for family living expenses.
Exceptions that are permitted deal with re-
strictions on the transfer of capital, on a currency
that is scarce and camiot be supplied in adequate
amounts by the Fund, and on transactions during
the post-war transitional period. Restrictions are
allowed on transactions with non-members unless
the Fund disapproves.
Since members are not allowed to use the re-
sources of the Fund to meet large or sustained
outflows of capital, restrictions on capital trans-
fers may be necessary fi-om time to time in some
countries. Large capital movements can be so
unpredictable and can so upset economic and
fuiancial stability that members are permitted to
exercise such controls of capital movements as
they consider necessary. The Fund may require
a member to restrict capital movements if it be-
lieves such movements are utilizing the Fund's
resources.
If a scarcity of a particular currency develops,
the Fund may formally declare such cun-ency
scarce and thereafter apportion the Fund's sup-
ply as it deems appropriate. This is a necessary
safety valve since it is possible that in spite of the
Fund and the corrective measures i^rovided a sit-
uation may develop wherein there is a general
shortage of a certain currency. Whenever the
Fund declares a currency scarce, members may
thereafter impose restrictions on exchange opera-
tions in that currency, but this must be done in
consultation with the Fund. The restrictions are
to be no greater than necessary to limit the de-
mand for the scarce currency to the supply held
by the member, and they must be removed when-
ever the Fund declares the currency no longer
scarce.
If the Fund anticipates that a scarcity is de-
veloping it may issue a report setting forth the
causes of the scarcity and giving the Fund's rec-
ommendations. In the event the Fund declares a
currency scarce it is required to issue a report.
Members are allowed to retain or impose ex-
change restrictions during the post-war transi-
tional period provided they believe that otherwise
they could not settle their balance of payments
without undue recourse to the Fund. During this
period the Fund is to report on restrictions si ill in
force, and after five years from the time when it
begins operations it may make representations to
a country regarding the removal of such restric-
tions. If the member persists in i-etaining them
the member may be denied access to the Fund and
may even be compelled to withdraw from the Fund.
An important provision of the Fund is that
which prohibits members from engaging in dis-
criminatory currency arrangements or multiple
currency practices, except as may be authorized by
the Fund. If any such arrangements or practices
exist, members must consult with the Fund con-
cerning their progressive removal. These devices
were especially damaging to trade and to interna-
tional economic conditions generally during the
1930's, so that the ban on them by the Fmid is
a notable accomplishment.
In order to provide for the convertibility of
members' currencies each member agrees to redeem
any of its currency that is held by other members,
provided such currency has been acquired as a re-
sult of current transactions or its conversion is
needed to make payments for current transactions.
A member may redeem its currency either in gold
or in the currency of the member requesting re-
demption.'
In cases where a member is authorized according
to the Fund Agreement to maintain or establish
exchange restrictions, and at the same time has
engagements with members previously entered into
which conflict, the parties to such engagements are
to consult regarding any adjustments necessary.
Previous engagements, however, are not to be al-
lowed to interfere with restrictions that may be-
come necessary when a currency has been declared
scarce by the Fund. This provision means that
° Certain exceptions are made to this requirement, such
as when the convertibility of the balances for which re-
demption Is requested has been restricted by permission of
the Fund, when the balances were accumuhited from trans-
actions which took place before the restrictions had been
removed, when the balances had been acquired contrary
to the exchange regulations of the member asked to re-
deem then*, when the currency of the member requesting
redemption has been declared scarce, or when the member
requested to make redemption is not entitled to buy cur-
rencies from the Fund for its own currency.
546
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
the stability of exchange rates is not to be upset
when the situation is of such a nature that a tempo-
rary imposition of exchange restrictions would per-
mit the maintenance of established rates.
Management
The Fund is to be administered by a Board of
Governors consisting of one Governor appointed
by each member. The Board meets annually or
oftener if it desires. The immediate management
of the Fund is entrusted to the Executive Direc-
tors, who function in continuous session. There
must be at least twelve Executive Directors, five
of whom are appointed by the five members hav-
ing the largest quotas. Two are to be elected by
the American republics not entitled to appoint
Directors, and the remaining five are to be elected
by the other members.
Each member of the Board of Governors may
cast 250 votes plus a number of votes determined
by the size of the member's quota. On the basis
of the present quotas the United States will have
27,750 votes, or 28 percent of the total. The
United Kingdom comes next with 13,250 votes, or
13.4 percent of the total. Russia is third with
12,250 votes, or 12.4 percent of the total. China
has 5.8 percent of the votes, France 4.8, India 4.3,
and Canada 3.3. Each Executive Director is al-
lowed to cast the number of votes which counted
toward his election.
The above voting power is to be adjusted de-
pending upon whether, and the extent to which, a
member has recourse to the resources of the Fund.
A member acquires one additional vote for the
equivalent of each $400,000 of net sales of its cur-
rency. Similarly, a member who is buying cur-
rencies from the Fund loses one vote for the equiv-
alent of each $400,000 of its net purchases of the
currencies of other members.
Any net income realized by the Fund is to be
distributed to the members in proportion to their
quotas, although before this is done a two-percent
non-cumulative payment is to be made to countries
whose currencies have been in special demand, on
the amount by which the Fund's average holdings
of such currencies fall below 75 percent of their
quotas.
The Fund may at any time that it desires advise
any member concerning the Fund's views on mat-
ters affecting the Fund. By a two-thirds major-
ity of the total voting power the Fund may publish
a report made to a member regarding monetary or
economic conditions in such country which tend
to produce disequilibrium in the balances of pay-
ments of members.
The principal office of the Fund is to be in the
territory of the member having the largest quota.
Depositories are to be maintained in other mem-
ber countries.
Quotas for Inteknational Monettabt Fund poa Countries
Represented at the Conference
(In mlUions of United States dollars)
.5
Australia
2(X)
Iraq
8
Belgium
225
Liberia
Bolivia
10
Luxembourg
10
Brazil
150
Mexico
90
Canada
300
Netherlands
275
Chile
50
New Zealand
50
China
550
Nicaragua
2
Colombia
50
Norwa.v
50
Costa Rica
5
Panama
Cuba
50
Paraguay
2
Czechoslovakia
125
Peru
25
Denmark
(•)
Philippine
Dominican Republic
5
Commonwealth
15
Ecuador
5
Poland
125
Egypt
45
Union of
El Salvador
2.5
South Africa
100
Ethiopia
6
Union of Soviet So-
France
450
cialist Republics
1,200
Greece
40
United Kingdom
1.300
Guatemala
5
United States
2,750
Haiti
5
Uruguay
15
Honduras
2.5
Venezuela
15
Iceland
1
400
Yugoslavia
Total
60
India
8,800
Iran
25
.5
•The quota of Denmark shall be determined by the Fund after
the Danish Government has declared its readiness to sign the
Agreement but before signature takes place.
International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development
The international flow of long-term capital has
been seriously disrupted for some years and has
also at times been subject to excesses and other
difficulties. Judging from existing facilities and
conditions, including the hesitancy of private
capital to seek investment abroad, it does not ap-
pear likely that very large sums of money will
be available for foreign investment unless con-
structive action is tftken. But it is generally be-
lieved that a large volume of foreign investment,
properly guided, is of special importance to the
United States and to the world at large from
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
S47
the standpoint of economic expansion, full em-
ployment, and stable international conditions.
Moreover, during the immediate post-war yeai-s
the needs of capital for reconstruction are
expected to be pressing.
The resources of the Monetary Fund, as noted
above, are not to be used for capital investment
or long-t^rm transactions. They are therefore
not available to finance reconstruction of devas-
tated countries or for economic development.
The Bank for Keconst ruction and Development
is designed, as a companion institution to the
Fund, to help meet these needs. The Bank is in-
tended to facilitate the flow of long-term capital
on proper terms and for productive purposes. ,
If private foreign lending is to revive and achieve
its purpose it should be on a basis which protects
the interests of both investors and recipients of the
capital. The proposed Bank would endeavor to
promote such a condition by offering its facilities
for loans that were properly approved and that
came up to certain standards. The Bank is al-
lowed to make direct loans itself, but most of its
capital is available only to guarantee loans. In
making or guaranteeing loans, the Bank would
give careful attention to all the circumstances,
including the capacity of the borrower, the
nature of the project for which the loan is con-
tracted, and the terms and conditions. The Bank
presumably would not make or guarantee a loan
which imposed onerous or unreasonable conditions
upon the borrower. Loans would need to be scru-
tinized from the standpoint both of their invest-
ment soundness and of their broad economic as-
pects.
The BaiJi is not concerned with provision of
funds for relief ; that is the responsibility of other
agencies. Loans to governments for public pur-
poses that may be socially desirable though non-
revenue-producing are permitted, provided repay-
ment and service on the loan are amply provided
for.
By eliminating certain risks, by minimizing
others, and by spreading widely those risks which
could not be avoided, the Bank would perform an
important economic function. The risks, accord-
ing to the Agreement, would be spread mternation-
ally among the members in proportion to their
shares of stock.
The Bank would endeavor to use its influence
and facilities to promote the development of stable
and prosperous international financial conditions;
thus it would supplement the work of the Fund in
the field of currency and exchange. It would
endeavor to stimulate trade and to increase the
level of national incomes. It is part of the general
economic program for the post-war world. It
would tend to eliminate basic causes of disequi-
librium by regularizing and reducing the wide
fluctuations in the flow of investment and also by
raising the levels of economic activity in the
nations of the world. By making capital avail-
able under proper conditions it would hasten eco-
nomic adjustments as well as help to prevent I
maladjustments. The Bank would thus operate j
directly on the causes of disequilibrium. j
The purposes of the Bank, which are stated in
article I of the Agreement and which are to guide
the Bank in all its decisions, are as follows :
(i) To assist in the reconstruction and devel-
opment of territories of members by facilitating
the investment of capital for productive purposes,
including the restoration of economies destroyed
or disrupted by war, the reconversion of produc-
tive facilities to peacetime needs and the encour-
agement of the development of productive facili-
ties and resources in less developed countries.
(ii) To promote private foreign investment by
means of guarantees or participations in loans and
other investments made by private investors; and
when private capital is not available on reason-
able terms, to supplement private investment by
providing, on suitable conditions, finance for pro-
ductive purposes out of its own capital, funds
raised by it and its other resources.
(iii) To promote the long-range balanced
growth of international trade and the maintenance
of equilibrium in balances of payments by en-
couraging international investment for the de-
velopment of the productive resources of mem-
bers, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the
standard of living and conditions of labor in their
territories.
(iv) To arrange the loans made or guaranteed
4 by it in relation to international loans through
other channels so that the more useful and urgent
projects, large and small alike, will be dealt with
first.
(v) To conduct its operations with due regard
to the effect of international investment on busi-
ness conditions in the territories of members and,
in the immediate post-war years, to assist in bring-
548
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
ing about a smooth transition from a wartime to
a peacetime economy.
MemhersMp and Subscriptions
Membership in the Bank is open only to mem-
bers of the International Monetary Fund. Apart
from the original members of the Fund, other
countries may become members of the Bank on
terms prescribed by the Bank, but they must also
be members of the Fund. If a country ceases to be
a member of the Fund it automatically ceases to
be a member of the Bank unless retained by a
three-fourths majority of the total voting power.
Since the existence of the Fund would promote
stable currency and exchange conditions, which
are of considerable importance to international in-
vestment, it was decided that members of the Bank
should be required to participate in the Fund.
The requirement also helps protect the Bank by
providing safeguards for reasonable stability of a
borrower's currency.
The authorized capital of the Bank is 10,000,000,-
000 United States dollars, of the present weight and
fineness, but the total of the prescribed minimum
suhscriptions amounts to $9,100,000,000. Each
member is required to subscribe to a minimum laum-
ber of shares of the capital stock assigned to such
member in the Agreement.
The capital is to be divided into two parts. The
first portion, namely 20 percent, may be used to
make direct loans. The remaining portion, 80
percent, is not available for lending but constitutes
a reserve fund for guaranteeing loans. It may be
called up only when needed to meet obligations of
the Bank in connection with loans which the Bank
has guaranteed or to make payments on the Bank's
own borrowings.
Payments on subscriptions are to be made partly
in gold or United States dollars and partly in the
currencies of the members. Each share of stock
must be paid for in gold or United States dollars
to the extent of two percent of its price and in the
currency of the member to the extent of 18 percent.
This accounts for the first or 20-percent portion of
the capital. As regards the other portion, namely
80 percent, payment may be made either in gold.
United States dollars, or the currency required to
discharge the obligations of the Bank for which
the call was made. On the basis of the quotas
assigned at the Conference the gold or United
States dollar subscription (apart from tbe 80-per-
cent portion) would amount to $753,500,000, of
which the United States subscription would ac-
count for $635,000,000. Twenty percent of the
quotas would amount to $1,820,000,000.
The above two percent is to be paid within 60
days from the beginning of operations and the 18
percent when the Bank calls for it. During the
first year of operations, however, the Bank must
call for at least 10 percent of its subscribed capital.
If a member's currency depreciates the member
must provide the Bank with enough additional cur-
rency to maintain tlie original gold value of its cur-
rency held by the Bank and derived from the 20-
percent portion of capital.
Loans and Guaranties
The Bank would provide funds to borrowers
either by making loans itself or by guaranteeing
loans in order to aid borrowers to obtain them on
reasonable terms from the private market. The
Bank is not allowed to have outstanding at any
one time loans or guaranties in excess of its unim-
j)aired capital, surplus, and reserves.
All loans which the Bank may make or guaran-
tee must be guaranteed by a member or its central
bank or equivalent agency. The resources of the
Bank are not available for the benefit of non-mem-
bers. The Bank may guarantee or make a loan
only when it is satisfied that the borrower would
otherwise be unable to obtain the loan on reason-
able terms. The Bank thus would not interfere
with private lending unless exorbitant terms were
being imposed.
In order to safeguard the resources of the Bank
and to make sure that loans are for proper pur-
poses, each loan or guaranty must first be recom-
mended by a tecluiical committee after it makes a
careful study of the project. The Bank must also
assure itself that the proceeds of a loan are used for
the purposes for which the loan was granted.
Loans and guaranties are ordinarily to be for spe-
cific projects of reconstruction and development.
The Bank may acquire additional funds to lend
by borrowing in the market of a member, provided
the member approves and agrees that the proceeds
may be freely convertible into the currency of any
other member. Loans out of the Bank's resources,
namely out of the 20-percent portion of the capital,
however, must be approved by the member whose
currency is involved. The Bank is not allowed to
impose any conditions tliat the proceeds of a loan
be spent in any jiarticular country.
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
549
When the Bank makes a loan it provides the
borrower with such currencies as may be needed
for expenditures within the territories of other
menibers. Only in exceptional circumstances will
the Bank provide a borrower with the borrower's
own currency.
Payments of interest and principal on loans out
of the Bank's own capital are to be made in the
same currency as that lent, unless the member
whose currency is lent agrees otherwise. These
payments are to be equivalent to the value of the
contractual payments at the time the loan was
made, in terms of a currency specified for the pur-
pose by the Bank. Loans out of money borrowed
by the Bank may be in any currency, but the total
outstanding loans in any one currency may not
exceed the total of outstanding borrowings by the
Bank in the same currency. This means that the
Bank is protected in the event of depreciation of
a currency owed to it.
If a member suffers from an exchange strin-
gency, the Bank may accept that member's own
currency temporarily or make other adjustments,
provided adequate safeguards are arranged.
The commission which the Bank is to receive
for loans which it may guarantee is to be between
one percent and one and a half percent a year.
After 10 years' experience the commission may
be adjusted if the Bank deems advisable. In the
event of default by a borrower guaranteed by the
Bank, the Bank may terminate its liability by
offering to purchase the obligations at par and
accrued interest. All commissions received by
the Bank are to be set aside as a special reserve to
meet liabilities.
The Bank may buy and sell securities which
it has issued or guaranteed, with the approval of
the member in whose territories the securities are
to be bought or sold. It may buy and sell other
securities for the investment of its special re-
serve. Each security which the Bank guarantees
or issues must carry a conspicuous statement to
the effect that it is not the obligation of any
government unless exjjressly stated on the
security.
The Bank may not interfere in the political
affairs of a member, nor may it be influenced in
its decisions by the political character of the
member concerned.
Management
The Bank is to be administered by a Board of
Governors, one Governor appointed by each mem-
ber. The Board of Governors is to meet at least
annually. Each member of the Board is to have
250 votes plus one vote for each share of stock
held. On the basis of the quotas drawn up at
the Conference, the United States would have
32,000 votes or 31.4 percent of the total; the
United Kingdom, 13 percent; Russia, 12 percent;
China, 6.1 percent; and France, 4.6 percent.
The immediate conduct of the Bank's opera-
tions is in the hands of twelve Executive Di-
rectors. Five of the Executive Directors arc
to be appointed by the five members having the
largest number of shares; the remaining seven
are to be elected by all the Governors other than
those appointing the above five membei-s. The
system of election of these seven Directors is
arranged so that it gives special consideration to
small countries whose votes might otherwise be
ineffective.
In making decisions on applications for loans re-
lating to matters within the competence of other
international organizations, the Bank is to give
consideration to the views of such organizations.
The principal office of the Bank is to be in the
territory of the member holding the largest num-
ber of shares. The Bank may establish agencies,
branches, or regional offices elsewhere.
The net income of the Bank is to be distrib-
uted to shareholders in proportion to their shares,
although a two-percent non-cumulative dividend
is to be paid first to each member on the basis of
the average amount of loans outstanding dur-
ing the year out of currency corresponding to its
subscription.
A member may withdraw from the Bank at any
time. If a member fails to fulfil its obligations to
the Bank it may be suspended by a decision of the
majority of the Governors exercising a majority
of the total voting power.
Amendments to the Bank Agreement require a
vote of three fifths of the members having four
fifths of the total voting power. The Bank is to
have an Advisory Council of not less than seven
persons selected by the Board of Governors, in-
cluding representatives of banking, commercial,
industrial, labor, and agricultural interests.
550
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
SUBSCBIPTIOXS TO THE BANK FOE RECONSTEtTCTION AMD DE-
VELOPMKN !■ Allocated to Countries Represented at the
Conference
(In millions of United States dollars)
Australia 200 Iraq 6
Belgium 225 Liberia .5
Bolivia 7 Luxembourg 10
Brazil 105 Mexico 65
Canada 325 Netherlands 275
Chile 35 New Zealand 50
China 600 Nicaragua • 8
Colombia 35 Norway 50
Costa Rica 2 Panama .2
Cuba 35 Paraguay . 8
Czechoslovakia 125 Peni 17.5
Denmark (*) Philippine
Dominican Republic 2 Commonwealth 15
Ecuador 3.2 Poland 125
Egypt 40 Union of
El Salvador 1 South Africa 100
Ethiopia 3 Union of Soviet So-
France 450 cialist Republics 1, 200
Greece 25 United Kingdom 1, 300
Guatemala 2 United States 3, 175
Haiti 2 Uruguay 10.5
Honduras 1 Venezuela 10.5
Iceland 1 Yugoslavia 40
India 400
Iran 24 Total 9,100
•The quota of Denmark shall be determined by the Bank after
Denmark accepts membership in accordance with the Articles of
Agreement.
Other Actions of the Bretton Woods
Conference
Although the Conference was devoted pi-imarily
to consideration of the Fund and the Bank, it
passed several resolutions dealing with economic
and financial questions. These included a I'esolu-
tion that the wide fluctuations in tlie vakie of silver
were to receive further study by the interested
nations; that the Bank for International Settle-
ments be liquidated at the earliest possible mo-
ment ; that measures be taken to see that the prop-
erty looted by the enemy is restored to its rightful
owners, and that all neutral countries be asked
to take measures to prevent the enemy from trans-
ferring or concealing such looted property; that in
order to attain the broader objectives of economic
policy and the purposes of the Fund, the govern-
ments participating in the Conference seek agree-
ment on the best means to reduce obstacles to inter-
national trade, to bring about orderly marketing of
staple commodities, to deal with problems arising
from the cessation of war production, and to har-
monize national policies directed toward main-
taining high levels of employment and rising
standards of living.
Meeting of the Governing Board of the Pan American Union
Remarks by THE ACTING SECRETARY OF STATE '
[Released to the press November 1]
I should like to express on behalf of Secretary
Hull his deep and sincere appreciation for tlie gen-
erous remarks of the Ambassador of Honduras in
proposing his name for reelection as chairman of
the Governing Board of the Pan American Union.
It is, moreover, a great honor to my Government
that its Secretary of State should once again be
chosen to preside over so distinguished a body of
statesmen, whose accomplishments have won for it
a position of highest significance in the interna-
tional atfaii-s of the world.
Were Secretary Hull able to be here this after-
noon, he would be able to state far more clearly
than anyone else the importance which he has
attached throughout the past 11 years to his asso-
ciation with the members of this body. The
'Delivered at the meeting of the Governing Board, Pan
American Union, Nov. 1, 1944.
friendships made here, the devotion with which the
members of this Board have undertaken their
work, and the enlightened spirit of mutual trust
and cooperation which have characterized its de-
liberations have played no small part in making
l^ossible the growth of our inter-American sys-
tem of consultation and collaboration.
At this time in history, when the minds of lead-
ing statesmen throughout the world are wrestling
with the problem of establishing a world order
for the maintenance of peace, the eyes of all men
are turned to the inter-American system. They
are weighing its significance and scrutinizing the
principles on which it rests. Above all they seek
to derive from it a faith that through international
cooperation, guided by men of good-will, the world
can establish a peaceful order in which to cultivate
the spiritual advancement of mankind.
I know I speak for Secretary Hull when I re-
affirm his unquestionable faith that we can achieve
(Continued on page 562)
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
551
Education in Germany Under the
National Socialist Regime
By LEON W. FULLER >
Higher Learning and Extracurricular
Education
Science and the UNrvERSiTiES
The Nasi Attitude Toward Science
National Socialist reforms in the field of higher
learning can be understood only in the light of
the Nazi attitude toward science and research — an
attitude which springs inevitably from the ethno-
centric nature of the premises underlying all Na-
tional Socialist thinking. It attacks first the de-
tachment of the scientist. "Scientific objectivity",
asserts a German educational journal, "is only one
of the many errors of liberalism. The libei-al man
is only an artificial construction. He does not
exist in reality ; there are only men who belong to
a nation and to a specific race." Science, then, like
all other aspects of culture, is conditioned by its
"folkish" environment and camiot exist without
presuppositions. Modern liberal thought has
eri-ed in removing man from the center of things,
presupposing a universe of abstract and eternal
law in which human cultures could exist as de-
tached entities. National Socialism seeks a return
to man (as a particular type, a Volk) as the living
center and criterion of scientific investigation.
Science thus becomes "critical anthropomor-
phism" ; the task of German thinkers is to "build
up a culture which corresponds to this, the German
type".
Every science is ne<;essarily conditioned by a
racial-political awareness; each observer is bound,
whether consciously or not, by the forces of his
race, surroundings, people, and soil. The alleged
objectivity of science is, in fact, only a reflection
' Mr. Fuller is a Country Specialist, Central European
Section, Di%'ision of Territorial Studies, OflBce of Special
Political Affairs, Department of State. This article con-
cludes a series on education in Germany under National
Socialism. For the first article, on "Antecedents of Na-
tional Socialist Education" and "Education Before Na-
tional Socialism", see Bulletin of Oct. 22, 1944, p. 466 ; for
the second article, on "National Socialist Education in
Theory and Practice", see BtjLLEriN of Oct. 29, 1944, p. .'511.
of the "bourgeois secular spirit" of the times. Sci-
ence is no mere "function of the intellect"; it can-
not shut out will, faith, and passion.^
According to Bernhard Rust science must pos-
sess a binding central idea. For National Social-
ists a WeltanschMiimng is the "fruitful Mother
Earth from which ever'y creation of the human in-
tellect takes its growth. . . . Science is as
much free as it is bound". Emst Krieck repudi-
ated "scientific absolutism". There can be no
"pure reason" since man is both subject and object
of knowledge. Science is necessarily conditioned
by time and place; each generation, each unique
national group arrives at its own form of truth.
Thus there can be no "liberal neutrality" for sci-
ence or education. Science must share in the total
life of the community — must, in short, be "politi-
cal" science. Science depends on the scientist. To
Alfred Baumler science was "heroic rationalism" ;
research was conquest. A bellicose, not theoret-
ical, approach has created a science which must be
as partial, as one-sided as a cavalrj' attack in pur-
suing its objectives. Philipp Lenard (eminent
Nazi physicist and author of DeuAsche PhysiTt)
denied that science could be universal : "Science,
like every other human product, is racial and con-
ditioned by blood."
It follows from the Nazi assumptions that
science can have no autonomy — there can be no
"science for science's sake". It nuist serve the
German folk-movement. Its specialists must en-
rol in the joint enterprise, and learning must
serve the great cultural and political tasks of the
epoch. Only pragmatic and useful truths are of
value. In the preamble of the law of March 16,
1937 for establishing a National Research Coun-
cil, the mobilization of research in behalf of
the Four Year Plan was justified on the grounds
that, by necessity, "scientific investigation has the
task of reaching goals on which the existence of
' Erich Jaeusch,' Hie Wissensohaft und die deutsche
volkische Bewcgung (Marburg, 1933), pp. 4-9. G. Leib-
brandt and E. Zechlin, "Weltpolitik und Wis.senschaft",
Nationalsoxialistische Monatshefte, Dec. 1940.
552
tlie whole nation depends". The entire purpose
of Nazi science was expressed most candidly by
Professor Kahrstedt of Gottingen:
""VVe renounce international science. We re-
nounce the international republic of learning.
"We renounce research for its own sake. We teach
and learn medicine, not to increase the number
of known microbes, but to keep the German
people strong and healthy. We teach and learn
history, not to say how things actually happened,
but to instruct the German people from the past.
We teach and learn the sciences, not to discover
abstract laws, but to sharpen the implements of
the German people in their competition with
other peoples."
Nazi-fication of the Universities and Higher
Schools
The Nazi View of Uigher Learning. The at-
titude of the Nazi regime toward Germany's
world-famous universities and other institutions
of higher learning was dictated by its conception
of the role of education and science as outlined
above. Despite the fact that the universities had
remained distinctly reactionary under the Repub-
lic and had continued to recruit both student
bodies and faculty personnel from upper-class
conservative elements, Nazi educational leaders
discovered ample grounds for attacking them.
The university (in the words of student-Fiihrer
Dr. Schul) is "in constant danger of degenerating
into a purely intellectual institution, whereas its
true function is that of a training center".
There must be no dabbling in irrelevant knowl-
edge; all research must contribute directly to the
upbuilding of the nation. All work, even the most
specialized, must rest upon the firm ground of
a common Weltanschauung. So-called academic
freedom was a sham since there could be no free-
dom to question truths historically conditioned
by the imperatives of "folkish" existence. The
"salon skepticism", the "pulpit nihilism" of teach-
ers who felt no sense of responsibility to Volk and
nation could no longer be tolerated. The aloof-
ness of the universities from political life and the
ivory-tower existence of the professor engi-ossed
in his researches but indifferent to the vital needs
of his students and of his nation were condemned.
The true function of the institution of advanced
learning, training, and research in the National
Socialist state was tlie furnishing of direction,
leadership, and inspiration in the molding of those
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
students best qualified for high responsibility.
The German university had never enrolled more
than an exceedingly small percentage of the
eligible age group, which by the Nazis was re-
duced still further. The last remnants of indi-
vidualism were swept away, bringing to an end the
"positivist cult of the intellect". Student and pro-
fessor alike were to be deemed public functionaries
performing essential national tasks. Research
was to become directed investigation determined
by the demands of a totalitarian society. The uni-
versity must become volMsch, rooted in the na-
tional soil, serving the most vital interests of the
nation.
Administrative Reorganisation. German higher
institutions of learning had traditionally been con-
trolled by the appropriate state authorities (there
were 23 universities and a total of 106 institutions
of all types). These were all placed under the sin-
gle authority of the Reich Ministry of Education
and every vestige of particularist or state control
was eliminated. Each university was reorganized
in accord with the leader principle. The rector,
formerly chosen by the faculty, was now appointed
by the Minister of Education, as were also the
deans presiding over the various faculties. All
faculty appointments or promotions, formerly in
the power of the faculty itself, were now subject
to state control and required the approval of the
Minister, who acted in consultation with high
party officials. The entire instructional staff
(Dozenten.<<chaft) was coordinated under a leader
appointed by the Ministry; the students {Sfwlent-
enschaft) were similarly organized under a state-
appointed student leader. The Ministry had the
absolute right to demote, transfer, or dismiss fac-
ulty members. Student bodies were coordinated
in a Reichxchaft under a government-appointed
leader. A Studentenhund of party members oc-
cupied a privileged status within the general stu-
dent organization. The historic Studentencorps
of the universities were liquidated, against per-
sistent opposition, and every effort was made to
promote the solidarity of the national student
group and its sense of identity with the VoJh. A
special office was established for SA groups in the
universities.
An elaborate system of controls has been set up
for the selection of university teaching personnel.
The former "habilitation" by the faculty, testing
scientific competence, is retained, but additional
requirements are imposed. The applicant for the
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
553
license to teach (Dozentwr) must take a four-week
training course "which is intended to familiarize
him with the main questions of science and research
in relation to the National Socialist Party and to
devoloi^ his community spirit beyond that of mere
faculty boundaries". He must serve in a com-
munity camp where his character traits and views
come under the scrutiny of party officials. There,
for six weeks, hard physical labor, common tasks,
and simple fare are calculated to harden him and
broaden his mental horizon beyond his own spe-
cialty. His qualifications as an inspiring leader
of youth as well as his ability to impart scientific
instruction are rigorously examined. As a uni-
versity teacher he remains under the continuous
observation of rector, deans, faculty, student lead-
ers, and special party representatives.
Decline in Enrolment. The rapidly declining
enrolment of students in higher institutions has
been one of the most s,triking aspects of Nazi-con-
trolled education. The approximate enrolment
in all such institutions showed a decrease as fol-
lows:^ 1933, 127,000; 1935, 77,000; 1939, 58,000.
Decline has been most marked in the technical
schools, least, in the schools of theology. The
number of women in the schools by 1939 was little
more than one third the pre-Nazi figure. The
war, which closed many of the universities, has
aggi'avated still further the decline. The Frank-
furter Zcifvng of December 3, 1941 estimated that
Germany may expect a deficit of from 50,000 to
80,000 students in the next decade.
The reasons for reduced enrolments are various.
In Germany in 1933, as elsewhere, the intellectual
professions, particularly law and medicine, were
seriously overcrowded. The annual demand for
university graduates was less than half the number
available. It is estimated that there was a reserve
army of from 40,000 to 50,000 intellectual workers
in 1933. In 1935 there were 6,411 judges and at-
torneys in the Reich, but there were an additional
5,542 qualified candidates for such posts. In
Prussia in 1934 there were 2,649 applicants for 250
posts. The discontent and bitterness among this-
intellectual proletariat was one significant factor
in the collapse of the Republic and the advent of
National Socialism.
The Nazis undertook to remedy the situation
through planned restriction and selection. The
law of April 25, 1933 for combating the overcrowd-
ing of the higher schools established maximum
quotas for all the states and provided for assistance
in securing employment for those persons excluded.
By subsequent decrees selective tests for admission
to the universities were to be of three types : physi-
cal-intellectual, moral-political, and racial. The
criterion of admission became inci-easingly that of
political rectitude and fitness for service to the
state. Ultimately the quota system was elimi-
nated; qualitative tests in the selection of candi-
dates were relied upon entirely. Preference was
given to party members and also, later, to those
with a background of combat service. Maximum
quotas were later set for the seven largest univer-
sities and technical schools located in metropolitan
areas, but no restrictions were placed upon enrol-
ments in other institutions located mainly in small-
er towns — evidence again of the Nazi preference
for the rural and village environment. A network
of selective measures and institutions helped to
eliminate those who were not qualified for higher
education in the National Socialist sense; among
these were the Land Year, the Labor Service, mili-
tary service, a Reich vocational competition, a Na-
tional Student Welfare Organization, and the
youth organizations.
Another significant cause of reduced enrolments
was the simple fact that the university was no
longer the main road to a career. It had been by-
passed by the party organizations. Economic
considerations bar many students from the uni-
versities. Fees are high and scholarships few and
inadequate, and not many students are self-sup-
porting. The regime has failed, at least at the
higher levels, to fulfil its promise to equalize edu-
cational opportunities. The requirements of two
years of military service and a half-year in labor
camp defer or eliminate a college education for
many. Furthermore, reduced enrolments at the
college age between 1933 and 1939 resulted from
the decline in birthrates from 1914 to 1918. More-
over the disrepute of the intellectual under the
Nazi regime and the enlisting of manpower and
talent in activities which require little academic
preparation have not created a situation favorable
to increased college enrolments.
Coordination of the Faculties. A purge of the
faculties of the higher institutions was inevitable
in view of the attitude of the Nazis toward learn-
ing. They were hostile to the whole world of im-
' W. M. Kotschnig, V nemployment in the Learned Pro-
fessions (London, 1937), pp. 206-207. Detitsches Hoch-
schidvci-;:cichnis (Berlin, 1935-38). William Ebenstein,
The Nazi State (New York, 1943), p. 165.
554
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BVLLETIN
partial and objective scholarship. The Nazi tend-
ency to see in diversity of opinion disloyalty to the
regime meant that any exponent of views consid-
ered unorthodox by the canon of National Socialist
dogma was in danger. Although the Jews repre-
sented only about one percent of the population,
members of that race occupied 12 percent of the
university professorships. Any instructor tainted
with Marxist or pacifist ideas was suspected.
Warning was given that academic freedom was
not to be used as a cloak for an aloofness or detach-
ment {Ungebundheit) which ignored the well-
being of the National Socialist community.
Under the Civil Service Law of April 7, 1933,
members of the teaching staifs of the universities
and other collegiate institutions might be sum-
marily removed for "non-Aryan" origin, unsatis-
factory political records or views, membership
in "subversive" organizations, or on grounds of
administrative necessity. By May 4, according to
reports in the German press, about 200 teachei-s
had been dismissed, mostly because of their Jewish
origin or liberal views.'' This number included
former ministers of state, world-famous scientists,
historians, jurists, and two Nobel prize-winners.
A year later, according to an estimate of the Lon-
don T!inp!i (Apr. 18, 1934). 800 college and univer-
sity teachers had been dismis.sed because of their
Jewish blood. Other techniques than outright dis-
missal were frequently used, such as transfer to a
smaller institution, denial of the right to teach
certain lucrative courses (many German instruc-
tors are largely dependent financially upon course
fees), or demotion and loss of status.
It is difficult to obtain reliable data on personnel
changes in the German universities, but fairly
trastworthy statistics are available to 1939.
Hartshorne estimates that of a total teaching staff
of 7,979 in all higher institutions in 1932-33, 1,145
had been dismissed by 1935. This figure does not
include normal retirements or deaths.' Thus in
two years about 14 percent of the staff had been
dismissed on racial or political grounds. The
' MatwhFxter Guardian, May 13, 1933.
'Edward T. Hartshorne. The German Unirersities and
National Socialism (Cambridge, 1037), pp. 87-95; "Ger-
man Universities and the Government", Ayinals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science. Nov.
1938.
° Statement of Professor Menzel, leader of the Office of
Science in the Reich Mini.stry of Education, in Frankfurter
Zeitung, May 31, 1939.
percentage of loss ranged from as high as 32.4 at
Berlin to only 1.6 at Gottingen. As a rule the
metropolitan universities suffered most severely.
It is estimated that by 1936 over 21 percent of the
faculty personnel had been eliminated for racial
or political reasons; by 1939, according to official
German statement, 45 percent of the teaching staff
of all higher schools had been replaced either on
political grounds or because of retirement." Of this
number probably two thirds represent arbitrary
dismissals. Thus on the eve of the war approxi-
mately 2,300 scholars (about 30 percent of the pre-
Nazi total) had been ousted, and almost one half of
the teaching personnel had been replaced. Pre-
sumably by that time the others had given evidence
of their loyalty to the regime — whether from con-
viction or from motives of expediency it is impos-
sible to assert.
The position of the college or university teach-
er in Germany has become one of complete subor-
dination to the regime. Incessant pressure is put
upon him to participate in party functions (which,
incidentally, monopolize much of the time and
energy of his students), to subscribe for the official
journals, to lecture at Land-Year camps and SA
gatherings, to favor students who miss work be-
cause of party activity, and to refrain from mak-
ing complaints except through official channels.
He may be disciplined in innumerable and vexa-
tious ways. His lectures may be canceled if they
conflict with party functions. He may not travel
abroad without official permission. His favorite
seminar may be abolislied. He may be transferred
as a disciplinary measure. If he is retired his
utterances are still to be officially approved. He
may be excluded from important examining com-
mittees. Boycotts of his lectures may be engi-
neered by the Nazi student organization. He may
be attacked by party organs. His post may be
placed in jeopardy by charges made by colleagues,
students, and even menials. His courses may be
"doctored" or their contents prescribed. In short,
his position, security, and livelihood are completely
dependent upon the zeal he displays in cooperat-
ing with the powers that now dominate the admin-
istration of the universities.
Cvrricular Tendencies. The curriculum in Ger-
man colleges and universities has been modified
mainly in two directions — greater stress on Ras-
senkunde (race science) and on Wehrwissenschaft
(science of war). New chairs have been estab-
lished in such fields as peasant lore, race science,
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
555
defense physics, and folk problems. All subjects
are to be presented from the Nazi viewpoint; old
courses are adapted to this end and all knowledge
that is "useless" or volksfrernde is to be elimi-
nated. The autonomy of the universities with re-
spect to determination of courses has been super-
seded by the fornudation by the central Ministry
of identical study plans in the various profes-
sional fields. These plans blend practical and
ideological considerations. For instance, the state
study plan for economics prescribes courses on
German economic life, folklore, people and race,
people and state, Germans abroad, injustice of
the Versailles Treaty, the folk-community, and de-
fense economics. Extreme political orientation
tends to undermine speculative science. Rearma-
ment has tended to reinvigorate the study of
science along practical lines; the great theoretical
innovators are viewed with distrust, although
some of them (Planck, Heisenberg) have been re-
tained in service. The social studies and the hu-
manities are completely dominated by race
science, in which subject the University of Berlin
alone offers 30 seminars. Nazi mathematicians
have founded a new journal, Deutsche Mathe-
matik, to deal with their subject along racial lines.
The party has financed at Frankfurt an Institute
for the Investigation of the Jewish Question, de-
signed as the first division of a Nazi high academy
as a center of scientific study from the point of
view of race. It is significant that the number of
users of 18 leading university libraries dropped
from 37,000 in 1932 to 10,000 in 1937 ; the average
daily attendance dropped from 3,357 to 1,169.
Books play a decreasingly important role in Nazi
education. Virtually every course has been con-
scrif)ted for war. A host of new subjects whose
names contain the prefix "Tf'eAr" have appeared,
and "war philosophy'' is the culminating science
in the Nazi educational pattern. All doctoral dis-
sertations, by decree of November 9, 1939, must be
submitted to the Party Examining Committee for
the Protection of National Socialist Literature for
the elimination of any taint of "politico-ideologi-
cal"' heresy.
National Socialist policy toward higher learn-
ing did achieve a number of beneficial results.
Admission was more effectively controlled so as to
forestall professional unemployment ; there was a
gain in unity of goal and purpose ; and the univer-
sities were more closely integrated with society and
state. These gains were far more than offset by
the complete loss of academic freedom, the whole-
sale exodus of eminent scholars from the Reich, the
perversion of science to racial and political ends,
and the increasing isolation of German intellec-
tual life from that of the rest of the world. Ger-
many had secedecl from the republic of learning.
Thus there were immediate though dubious gains
for the nation but far more significant losses to
science and universal scholarship.
ExTRActnuaoDiiAR Education of the Nation
2'he Hitler Youth
Tlie Nazi totalitarian ideal as applied in the
field of education does not stop with the schools but
envisages the utilization of every social grouping
and thought-molding agency to achieve its ends.
It has been noted that both prior to and after the
first World War the youth movement in Germany
was becoming a significant educational force. Na-
tional Socialism, itself essentially a movement of
j'outh, immediately enlisted the youth organiza-
tions in its national enterprise, and through them
it has endeavored to influence the social, recrea-
tional, and political life of youth outside the
school. The Hitler-Jug end and the Bund
Deutscher Mcidel were established, open to boys
from 10 to 18 and girls from 10 to 21. By 1936
all other sectarian and political youth organiza-
tions were dissolved and the entire youth of the
Reich was brought within the Nazi orders. A
smaller and more select group constituted a "Stock
Hitler Youth" who were prepared especially for
party activity and membership. The entire or-
ganization was unified in a rigid hierarchy under
the control of a Reich youth leader. The organi-
zation is similar to that of the army, embracing as
many as 14 levels or ranks and integrated by the
leader principle.
The educational function of the youth organi-
zations has been to supplement academic school-
ing by a broadly conceived program of physical
and recreational training directed toward war
activity and by j)olitical and cultural indoctrina-
tion. After-school hours and Saturdays are used
for these purposes. The fundamental objective
is the creation of attitudes — blind obedience to
the regime, devotion to the leader principle, com-
munity consciousness, and war-mindedness. The
youth hostels are extensively used for journeys
intended to arouse a feeling of loyalty to the
556
unified fatherland. A love of Spartan living and
a sense of comradeship are inculcated. Hitler
has declared: "I want the German boy to be
weatherproof, quick as a greyhound, tough as
leather, hard as Krupp steel. We must educate
a new species of man, lest our people succumb
to the degenerative tendencies of the age." ' The
official youth organ of the Reich, Wille und
Macht, has in recent issues included articles on
the following significant topics: Sport, and Poli-
tics, The German Infantry, France as Aggressor,
National Socialist War Economy, Germans in
the East, Our Living Space in Europe, A New
Historical Consciousness, A Journey to the Front,
Southeastern Europe and the German Spirit.
The organization has continually extended its
scope so as to embrace the whole field of interest
and activity of each German youth. Its primary
function is to train the prospective members of
the party and to prepare a generation for active
and whole-hearted participation in the new so-
ciety, which since 1936 has meant a society geared
to total war.
The failure of many of the nominal members
of the youth organization to take an active part
resulted in executive orders (Mar. 25, 1939) pro-
viding for the compulsoi-y service of all youth
from 10 to 18. General organization activities
and also special duties relating to the war are
required. For neglect to observe the law severe
penalties, including imprisomnent up to a period
of three months, are imposed. There is evidence
that violations are rather frequent. The attitude
of youth, as well as the apparent resentment of
many parents, indicates a significant growth of
opposition to the govenunent's attempt to regi-
ment the younger generation completely in the
service of the state.
Training for Leadership
The chief responsibility for instilling political
consciousness into the nation and for qualifying
a selected elite for leadership is delegated to the
party. It is an all-embracing educational or-
ganization, utilizing a great variety of techniques,
such as mass meetings, parades, evening classes,
sports, uniforms, and symbols, to mold the citi-
zenry through vital experiences. Its innumer-
able branches and affiliated organizations com-
' Address to Hitler Youth at Nuremberg, Sept. 1935.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
prehend or affect virtually the entire population.
The skill of its leaders has been highly developed
in the art of "educating" the masses through
crowd manipulation and appeals to group senti-
ment, as in the great assemblages at the Keich
sport stadium or the Sportspalast at Berlin or,
before the war, at the "Party day" at Nurem-
berg.
Three types of schools for the development of
future leaders have been set up under the ex-
clusive control of the party :
1. The Adolf Hitler Schools. These schools,
established in 19.37, are 10 in number and are
designed to train selected boys from 12 to 18
who are recruited from the ranks of the
Hitler Youth. Scholastic background is unim-
portant; leadership traits are considered the
prime essential. Successful graduation is the key
to entrance to a university or professional school
or to posts in the army or state or party bu-
reaucracy. "Political orientation" is the essence
of the course which centers around biological, ra-
cial, and "folkish" science. World affairs are
presented from the party standpoint. The in-
structors are specially trained party leaders who
are devoid of any academic background or ex-
perience. Only a few hundred boys are admitted
to these schools each year.
2. The National Political Institutes of Educa-
tion. These are Nazified versions of the old Prus-
sian cadet schools. They are 31 in number and
concentrate on preparation of leaders in the armed
formations of the party. Storm Troopers and Elite
Guards, or in the Labor Service camps. Their
program, according to Das Reich, April 27, 1941,
"is essentially centered around struggle and com-
petition. Combat is the organ of selection in peace
and war is the primary instrument of education in
these institutions." The curriculum emphasizes
physical training supplemented by Nazi indoc-
trination. Entrance is based on the results of rig-
orous selective tests, and the xmfit are rapidly
weeded out. The term is eight years, after which
time graduates may enter a university, the state
police, or posts in the armed formations of the
party. A large number of these institutes, some
of which have operated since 1933, have been added
since the outbreak of war in 1939.
3. The Order Castles (Ordenshurgcn). Four
of these have been set up for the purpose of de-
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
557
veloping a super-elite from tlie most select grad-
uates of tlie other leadership schools. Admission
must be preceded by two years of military service,
one year of labor service, and one to three years of
activity in youth and party organizations. Stu-
dents concentrate first on racial and ideological
"science", second on physical training, and finally
on political education accompanied by the devel-
opment of physical and military skills. The cul-
minating year at Marienburg in East Prussia em-
phasizes the medieval conquest of the East by the
Teutonic Kniglits and the predestined right of the,
master race to living space in the East at the ex-
pense of the native Slavic population.
In all these leadership schools the aim is not so
much to educate as to develop a type and to train
and condition youth for a specific task. Books
and classroom methods play little part in the
process. The totality of environment and experi-
ence is carefully adapted to the ends in view. It is
too early to judge the results of such training.
"Leaders" produced by these schools might func-
tion effectively within the Nazi scheme, but they
would probably be lacking in initiative and in flex-
ibility of mind if confronted by new and luifamil-
iar situations.
The Labor Service
By law of June 26, 1935 labor service, previously
introduced under the Republic, was made compul-
sory for all males. More recently this requirement
has been extended to women as well. A six-month
period of work is required, generally in a rural
camp or (for women) in the homes of peasants.
There were 1,300 labor camps in 1938. The edu-
cational objective of the service is "to inculcate in
the German youth a community spirit and a true
concept of the dignity of work". It is, in a sense,
a "back to the land" movement, similar in purpose
to the Land Year. Love of nature and ffeimat,
physical development, character values, and a sense
of patriotic collaboration in the service of the state
are among the desired ends. It is an experiment
in total education, forming youth to a specific bear-
ing (Haltung) which combines the qualities of
worker, peasant, and soldier. It is democratic in
that no classes are exempt, but it is highly anti-
individualistic in that free personality is sup-
pressed. Here as everywhere under National So-
cialism every effort is made to inculcate in the Ger-
man youth a sense of the solidarity of all Germans
{Volhsgenossen) and to indoctrinate them in the
tenets of the Nazi WeltanschavMng.^
'■'Strength Through Joy''
The adult masses of Germany are regimented
largely in the Labor Front, whose "Strength
Through Joy" division superintends their leisure-
time activities. Although mainly devoted to social
and recreational interests, this organization has de-
veloped a comprehensive scheme of adult education.
It conducts study courses of a vocational or cultural
character and in many ways seeks to cultivate the
interest and even active participation of the work-
ing people in drama, music, and the arts. Under
its egis the German people with their bent for asso-
ciation have formed innumerable leagues and clubs
devoted to various hobbies. Of most immediate
educational significance is the taking-over of the
People's Colleges, established under the Republic,
which have been converted into propaganda units
of the party. Conducted primarily as evening
schools, they serve the purpose of indoctrinating in
racial and "folkish" precepts the great number of
adults who have not had the advantages of ad-
vanced schooling. Like all other institutions at
the higher level they have been largely "political-
ized" and have become ideological supfiorts of the
regime.
The Propaganda Mhiistry
The Nazi system for shaping the mass mind is
an integral and vital part of the regime. The
Ministry for Propaganda and Public Enlighten-
ment, established in 1933, has carried into effect the
ideas of Hitler and of its chief, Herr Goebbels, re-
garding the "enlightenment" of the German
people." These men deemed it essential that a
revolutionary regime win over and mobilize for
action the powerful force of public opinion. The
Nazis have astutely realized that the present era is
one of mass organization and force in the psycho-
logical and political as well as the economic fields.
Propaganda to them is essentially psychological
' Wolfgang Schiebe, Aufgabe und Aufbati des Reichs-
arbeitsdienstes (Leipzig, 1938), pp. 19-26. C. W. Guille-
baud, The Social Policy of Nazi Qermany (Cambridge,
1941), pp. 65-68.
" Hans Herma, "Goebbels' Conception of Propaganda",
Social Research, May 1943, pp. 200-218. Wilhelm Hoper,
Adolf Hitler, der Erzieher der Deutschen (Breslau, 1934),
pt. 1, pp. 85-87. Bbenstein, op. cit., pp. 108-25. Hart-
shorne, op. cit., pp. 28-35.
558
warfare. "Enlightenment" informs the masses by
attacking and undermining erroneous beliefs and
by sui^planting them with passionately held con-
victions. Propaganda disseminates doctrine, wins
new adherents, and converges upon a program of
action. The Nazis have had considerable success
in gaging the German mentality, its traditional
attitudes and its emotional values.
The depressed, almost neurotic state of the
German mind of the early thirties made easy the
task of eliciting and manipulating emotional re-
sponses through the media of stereotypes and sym-
bols. The goals have been to convert, to clarify
insight, to strengthen community feeling, to spur
the will, and to inflame to action.
The new Ministry was set up, in the words of
Goebbels, "to serve the purpose of building the
intellectual-spiritual foundation of our power and
of capturing not only the apparatus of the state
but the people as a whole". Although Hitler has
expressed contempt for the intelligence of the
masses and has openly advocated deliberate falsi-
fication of fact, Goebbels' concept is more subtle.
He believes that truth, for the vast majority, rests
upon the manner in which objective reality is
presented to their minds. Hence propaganda
must create a picture sufficiently distorted to suit
the needs of policy but near enough to reality so
that it may be later corroborated by events and
thus verified. This kind of presentation requires
adroit manipulation of facts and skilled manage-
ment of attitudes and ideas. Propaganda must
achieve "a ruthless and fanatically one-sided
orientation". Objectivity weakens the will to ac-
tion; all incompatible points of view other than
the one relevant to a predetermined policy must
be precluded. The educational objectives of Goeb-
bels' policy, since they characterize all Nazi edu-
cation to some degree, are worth stating. They
are to achieve emotional involvement ; the elimina-
tion of alternative choices other than the one of-
fered ; the exclusion of "frames of reference" other
than the folk-community; the imposition of an
egocentric conception of reality; the scientific
building-up of the "psyche" of the people; the
inhibition of the use of autonomous reason; and
the substitution of action for thinking.
The Ministry has comprehensive jurisdiction
over all opinion-forming agencies of the Reich ex-
cept the schools. A Culture Chamber provides
separate yet integrated units for the press, film,
radio, theater, art, music, and literature. Within
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
these divisions are regimented all acceptable
artists, writers, and practitioners of culture of the
Reich, and only these are authorized to engage in
their respective professions. In addition every
activity or function calculated to influence the
popular mind in any way is placed within the
scope of the Ministry, which is made "competent
to deal with all measures for mental influence
upon the nation, the publicity for state, culture
and business, the instruction of the public within
and outside the nation concerning the above, and
the administration of all devices that serve these
purposes". In all matters the Minister has ab-
solute administrative, legislative, and judicial
authority.
In short, the Propaganda Ministry becomes .^
"national witch-doctor", relieving the populace of
enervating worry about insoluble questions and
organizing the collective will for the common task.
It acts upon the maxim "what cannot be coordi-
nated must be eliminated". Its success has
blighted creative thought and cultural activity —
in Germany, especially, always fertilized by for-
eign contact — and has powerfully reenforced the
introvert tendencies of German thinking. But it
has achieved its primary purpose by consolidat-
ing the national will in support of the political
objectives of the Nazi regime.
Evaluation
The changes effected in the German educational
system by the National Socialist regime represent
an attempt on the part of a revolutionary group
to achieve total control over the national mind in
the interests of the "folkish state" and its military
objectives. Perhaps never has there been a more
conspicuous instance of the neglect of values in-
trinsic to true education and of the subordination
of schooling to ulterior objectives.
Nazi policy even prior to the war was rapidly
depleting the ranks of the teaching profession. By
1939 the German press was reporting 3,000 vacant
teaching posts in Prussia alone; the universities
and training schools were preparing only 2,500
candidates a year for 8,000 posts to be filled an-
nually. Nazi anti-intellectualism has brought the
scholarly professions into disrepute, and the co-
ordination of schools, universities, and all cultural
agencies has had a devastating effect upon creative
cultural activity. Many of Germany's most emi-
nent scholars, writers, and artists have emigrated,
NOVEMBER S, 1944
559
voliintrti-ily or by compulsion, while those that re-
mained have been hedged about with restrictions
which, with a few rare exceptions, have permitted
little freedom of action.
The war has had a destructive effect upon the
schools. It has meant shorter hours and lowered
standards. Tliousands of children receive only
part-time schooling. War work occupies much of
the time even of younger children. More than
ever education has been militarized. More re-
cently the bombing of German cities has seriously
interfered with the maintenance of schooling in
some areas. The shortage of textbooks is uni-
versally felt. The supply of qualified teachers is
totally inadequate — many are now teaching who
lack proper credentials, and subjects are often
dropped for lack of competent personnel. So few
were the candidates for teacher training that in
1941 the newly established Hochschulen fur
Lehrerhildung were supplanted by LehrerMldung-
sanstalten, which dropped all pretense of univer-
sity standards and provided for a five-year course
beyond the eight years of the elementary- and
middle-school period. These would provide a
minimum of special and professional training,
highly "politicalized" and with little attention to
general or cultural background. The work of the
schools at all levels as well as the extracurricular
training of youth is more than ever influenced by
the national emergency and is subordinated to the
war effort.
The universities, most of which were closed at
the outbreak of war, have reopened and, accord-
ing to recent reports of the German press, in 1943
enrolled 80,000 students, a substantial increase over
1939. However, many of these are members of the
armed forces on special furlough. Few students
are able to devote full time to academic pursuits.
The student disorders at the University of Munich
in February 1943, in which three leaders were ar-
rested, tried on charges of "giving comfort to the
enemy", and guillotined, seem to indicate a spirit
of revolt among the younger generation and a
sense of disillusionment with Nazi war objectives.
The force of this sentiment is difficult to gage with
accuracy at this time, but there are indications
that it is wide-spread.
The balance-sheet of Nazi education may be
briefly presented, with the qualification that all
points are definitely controversial.^" To its credit
are the following: More adequate emphasis on
physical training and skills and upon the role of
labor in the educational process; an attempt to
root education in the folk-life of the nation ; a
somewhat greater degree of educational oppor-
tunity for talented youth regardless of social
status; training of will and character and chan-
nelizing of individual energies into community
service ; systematic selection and training for lead-
ership ; and the expansion of adult education, espe-
cially through party and Labor Front organi-
zations.
To its discredit stand the following: Denial of
free inquiry ; complete indoctrination and "thought
control"; neglect of cultural and intellectual
values; deliberate misinformation through the dis-
torted teaching of history, science, and racial con-
cepts; inculcation of false or unethical ideals; un-
due subordination of all instruction to the objec-
tives of total war; and insulation of the German
mind against all foreign and cosmopolitan
influences.
Nazi educational reform has undoubtedly
achieved a certain spectacular if temporary suc-
cess in attaining the goals set for itself. This suc-
cess has been due in part to the crisis in German
life and thought which marked the inter-war pe-
riod and to the failure of a liberal-democratic
leadership to emerge capable of inspiring and
mobilizing German spiritual energy in the task
of national rehabilitation. It has been due even
more to the acumen of Nazi leaders in fashioning
a system well adapted not only to the crisis but
also to ingrained German cultural traits and ways
of thinking. It is open to serious question, how-
ever, whether such a system can, or could, even
mider more favorable circumstances, withstand the
test of time. Its more creditable features are not
original and were embodied to some degree in the
Weimar school system. Its more aggressive traits
are obviously the corollary of crisis government
and adapted only to an emergency situation. Its
ethnocentric excesses and its repudiation of uni-
versal values of time-tested validity may well re-
sult in its speedy collapse, once the special cir-
cumstances that engendered this latest German
revolt against the ethos of the West no longer
exist.
" Based in part on a memorandum, "Postwar Educa-
tional Reconstruction in Germany", by B. Q. Morgan and
associates in the department of German, Stanford Uni-
versity.
S6d
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Retirement of Homer M. Byington From the
Foreign Service
Remarks by THE ACTING SECRETARY OF STATE'
[Released to the press November 2]
Mr. Byington and my colleagues in the Depart-
ment and in the Foreign Service :
It is a great honor this afternoon to share in this
tribute to Mr. Homer M. Byington. From every
aspect he heads the Foreign Service List. His
lifetime reflects the highest ideals of our Foreign
Service : advancement by merit ; assigimients faith-
fully discharged to the lasting ci'edit of the United
States at posts throughout the world ; a full share
in guidance to the Service ; a lifetime of devotion to
duty. You must always be proud, Mr. Byington,
of your decision in 1897 to join the Service.
The best possible recognition of your contribu-
tions of forty-seven years to the Service would be
an assurance for the future, an assurance that
plans are under way to meet the ever-increasing re-
sponsibilities of the Foreign Service, that they are
such as to add further strength to the organiza-
tion you in such great measure have helped to
build.
During the coming years, our Government's
representation abroad must be equipped to meet
tremendous assignments ahead. It must be vigor-
ous, intelligent, and manned for the task. This re-
sponsibility has not been overlooked. As a fonner
Chief of Foreign Service Personnel, I know that
you must have given this problem the most careful
consideration. I have myself given the matter
much attention and consideration. Study has
been devoted to requirements and ways and means
of improving the Foreign Service. A program is
coming into focus based on our experience in meet-
ing the demands of war, a f)rogram attuned to new
international responsibilities of peace.
There can be little disagreement on the main
problems of our Foreign Service.
We need more men. I am confident that when
the problem is put frankly before the Congress the
necessary funds will be appropriated to the De-
' Delivered at a reception given by the Foreign Service
Association in honor of Consul General Homer M. Bying-
ton on the occasion of his retirement after 47 years in the
Foreign Service.
partment to carry through speedily a successful
recruitment program. We shall draw extensively
upon the fighting men who are now in our mili-
tary forces. They deserve heavy representation
in the Department that will maintain the peace.
We need some mature men, particularly for spe-
cialized Service jobs. For this purpose we should
perfect an orderly scheme of drawing talent from
the Federal Government for temporary assign-
ments in today's complex foreign relations.
We need talent from civil life. Just as the Army
and Navy drew upon reserve officers in the hour
of crisis, we in the Foreign Service may need a re-
serve corps wherein prestige will help to enlist
ability.
We must increase the interchange of personnel
between the Foreign Service and the Department.
Such an interchange, extended to all branches of
the Department and the Foreign Service, will en-
hance mutual understanding of our common re-
sponsibilities.
In all this we must safeguard the career prin-
ciple. On the basis of your intimate and mature
knowledge of the Foreign Service and its problems,
I know you will agree with me that our tested
organization must be the nucleus of expansion.
Morale will be fortified and recruitment facili-
tated by speeding up the machinery for promotions,
by better evaluation and recognition of work well
done, by making top diplomatic posts available to
men without private means, by opening assign-
ments of responsibility to men of ability while they
are still young.
We must continue to improve operating condi-
tions overseas. This means better offices and bet-
ter equipment. It means realistic living allow-
ances. We should never require men to choose be-
tween skimping on the responsibilities of their
assignments or neglecting their personal and fam-
ily requirements.
Out of the fullness of your experience, Mr. By-
ington, I know that you fully appreciate the neces-
sity for these imi^rovements and that you will
welcome the efforts being made to bring about
NOVEMBER 5, 1944
561
these improvements. In your case, your Govern-
ment has demanded your talents and devotion for
a lifetime. These you have given in full measure.
In addition, you and your wife have given one son
to the Foreign Service, a young man whom I see
every day and in whom I have great confidence;
another to American civil aviation abroad ; another
to the Naval Academy; one daughter honored by
a doctor's degree in her teaching of languages ; two
daughters who are mothers of families, one of
whom awaits her husband's return from the Pa-
cific theater of war.
It is my great privilege now, in behalf of my
associates in the Department and in the Foreign
Service, to hand you three gifts in commemora-
tion of your outstanding contribution to the Serv-
ice. Tliey are evidence of our profound esteem^
a silver tray engraved with the affection and ad-
miration of your colleagues and friends in the
Department; these goblets for a toast to your
health and continued happiness; this testimonial
of our respect and good wishes always to you and
Mrs. Byington.
Birthday of Generalissimo
Chiang Kai-shek
[Released to the press November 3]
President Roosevelt has sent the following tele-
gram to His Excellency Generalissimo Chiang
Kai-shek, President of the National Government
of the Republic of Cliina, on the occasion of the
Generalissimo's birthday :
October 31, 1944
It gives me great pleasure to extend, on this the
anniversary of your birthday, my warm good
wishes to you for your health and for the well-
being of the people of China.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Anniversary of the
Independence of Panama
[Released to the press November 3]
President Roosevelt has sent the following tele-
gram to His Excellency Ricardo Adolfo de la
Guardia, President of the Republic of Panama, on
the occasion of the anniversary of the independ-
ence of Panama :
November 3, 1944.
It gives me great pleasure upon this national
anniversary of Panama to join with the people of
the United States in sending to you and to the
people of Panama congratulations and best wishes.
I take this opportunity to express my confidence
that the success which has attended the cooperative
efforts of our two countries in the cause of the
United Nations will continue to our mutual bene-
fit in the difficult times which lie ahead.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
^ THE FOREIGN SERVICE ^
Diplomatic and Consular Offices
The American Embassy at Athens, Greece, was
reestablished as a combined office on October 27,
1944.
The American Consulate at Gibraltar was re-
opened to the public on November 1, 1944.
PUBLICATIONS
Department of State
Jurisdiction Over Prizps: Agreement between the
United States of America and Canada, and Proclama-
tion — Agreement effected by exchange of notes signed at
Washington May 24 and August 13, 1943. Executive
Agreement Series 394. Publication 2196. 9 pp. 50.
Jurisdiction Over Prizes: Agreement between the
United States of America and the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and Proclamation —
Agreement effected by exchange of notes signed at Lon-
don October 1 and November 3, 1942. Executive Agree-
ment Series 393. Publication 2199. 7 pp. 5t
Other Government Agencies
The articles listed below will be found in the November
4 issue of the Department of Commerce publication en-
titled Foreign Commerce WeeJcly, copies of which may be
obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Govern-
ment Printing Otiice, for 10 cents each :
"Swedish Industries' Trends in War-time", based on a
report by Harold Carlson, vice consul, American Legation,
Stockholm.
"Sweden Needs Fishnets and Finds Supply Scarce",
based on a report by Harold Carlson, vice consul,
American Legation, Stockholm, and Margaret Wambs-
ganss. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
Department of Commerce.
562
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN '
^ TREATY INFORMATION ^
Customs Union, Belgium, Luxembourg,
and the Netherlands
The American Embassy near the Belgian Gov-
ernment at London transmitted to the Depart-
ment, with a despatch of September 12, 1944, a
copy of the text of a convention between Belgium,
Luxembourg, and the Netherlands relating to a
customs union, signed at London on September 5,
1914. The convention provides that it shall come
into force eight days after the exchange of ratifica-
tions and that, pending the exchange of ratifica-
tions, the convention shall come into effect pro-
visionally as soon as the Belgian and Netherlands
Governments are reinstated in their territories.
Commercial "Modus Vivendi",
Venezuela and Brazil
The American Embassy at Caracas transmitted
to the Department, with a despatch of October 2,
1944, a copy of an exchange of notes signed at
Caracas on September 27, 1944, effecting a further
renewal for one year from September 27, 1944 of
the commercial modus vivendi between Venezuela
and Brazil concluded on June 11, 1940. The notes
of September 27, 1944 are published in the Vene-
zuelan Gaceta Ofickil No. 21,522 of September 28,
1944.
g THE DEPARTMENT ^ i
i
Appointment of Officers !
1
James H. W right as Chief of the Division of ,
North and West Coast Affairs, effective October
16, 1944. Mr. Wright will continue as Assistant :
to the Director of the Office of American Republic ,
Affairs.
PAN AMERICAN VmO?i— Continued from page 550
that goal. His faith owes much to his association
with his colleagues on this Board and to the warm
friendships he has enjoyed with other statesmen
of your countries. The record of Pan American
relations, in which the members of this Board
have played so important a part, has demonstrated
that even the gravest problems which nations must
face in the changing current of world affairs can
be solved if intelligent thought is applied in a
spirit of honesty, mutual respect, and good-will.
That fact is of the greatest significance to the
world today.
Gentlemen, I thank you again for the honor you
have bestowed upon my Government and our Sec-
retary of State. It is an honor received with a
deep sense of the responsibility involved but with
a profound confidence that our cooperative effort
will lead us to ever gi-eater achievements.
O, «. SOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1944
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
.A
VOL. XI, NU. 2<;l
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
In this issue
CERTAIN NEW INSTRUMENTALITIES FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOP-
MENT IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS
Article by tVilliam Yale
KOREA: INTERNAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE
Article by Hugh Barton
Vl^NT o^
* i^
-A-
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BU LLETIN
November 12, 1944
ontents
The Department of State BULLE-
TIN, a weekly publication compiled and
edited in the Division of Research and
Publication, Office of Public Informa-
tion, provides the public and inter-
ested agencies of the Government icith
information on developments in the
field of foreign relations and on the
tcork of the Department of State and
the Foreign Service. The BULLETIN
includes press releases on foreign policy
issued by the White House and the De-
partment, and statements and addresses
made by the President and by the Sec-
retary of State and other officers of the
Department, as tcell as special articles
on various phases of international af-
fairs and the functions of the Depart-
ment. Information concerning treaties
and international agreements to which
the United States is or may become a
party and treaties of general inter-
national interest is included.
Publications of the Department,
cumulative lists of which are published
at the end of each quarter, as tcell as
legislative material in the field of inter-
national relations, are listed currently.
The BULLETIN, published with the
approval of the Director of the Bureau
of the Budget, is for sale by the Super-
intendent of Documents, United States
Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton 25, D. €., to whom all purchase
orders, with accompanying remittance,
should be sent. The subscription price
is $2.75 a year; a single copy is 10
rents.
American Republics Page
Recognition of Guatemalan Government 568
Certain New Instrumentalities for Economic Development
in the South American Republics: Article by William
Yale 571
Europe
Anniversarj- of the Founding of the Soviet Union:
Message of President Roosevelt to the President of the
Presidium 569
Message of the Acting Secretary of State to the People's
Commissar for Foreign Affairs 569
Destruction by the Nazis in the Netherlands 570
Full Membership for Provisional Government of France on
European Advisory Commission 583
Appointment of Harold MacMillan as Head of the Allied
Commission 583
Far East
Milton J. Helmick To Visit China 576
George H. Grim Returns From China 576
Korea: Internal Political Structure. Article by Hugh
Borton . 578
Near East
Death of the Ambassador of Turkey:
Telegram from President Roosevelt to the President of
Turkey 570
Telegram from the Acting Secretary of State to the
Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs 570
Statement by the Acting Secretary of State 570
General
Renunciation of Nationality in the United States 576
American Commission for the Protection and Salvage of
Artistic and Historic Monuments in War Areas . . . 577
Civilian Travel in Certain Foreign Areas 584
Death of Lord Moyne 585
Post-War Matters
Discussion of Dumbarton Oaks Proposals:
Meeting of Representatives of American Republics and
Department of State 565
Meeting of Representatives of Peace-Study Groups:
Address by Benjamin Cerig 565
Anniversary of UNRRA: Letter from the President to
Herbert H. Lehman 569
Treaty Information
Inter-American Automotive Traffic 585
Educational and Publicity Films; Nature Protection and
Wildlife Preservation 585
Barbadian Laborers in the United States 585
The Department
Designation of Officers 586
The Foreign Service
Consular Offices 583
Publications 586
Discussions of Dumbarton Oaks Proposals
Meeting of Representatives of American Republics and
Department of State
[Released to the press November 9]
On the afternoon of November 9 there was
held in the Department of State another meeting
of the heads of mission of the American repub-
lics in Washington with officials of the Depart-
ment of State, headed by the Acting Secretary
of State, Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. The purpose
of the meeting was to continue the exchange of
comments on the Dumbarton Oaks proposals.^
Following the meeting the Acting Secretary
of State said :
"We met today with the heads of mission of
the American republics for the purpose of further
exchange of comments on the Dumbarton Oaks
proposals. We had a most fruitful discussion,
and we are encouraged by the support that the
American republics are showing for the basic
ideas embodied in the Dumbarton Oaks pro-
posals. We received assurances today that all the
American republics are giving careful study to
the jDroposals and are going to bring their com-
ments to the group. Some of the heads of mis-
sion have already placed the views of their govern-
ments before the group."
Meeting of Representatives of Peace-Study Groups'
{Address by BENJAMIN GERIG'
[Released to the press November 10]
I welcome this opportunity to consider with you
some aspects of the Dumbarton Oaks proposals,
more particularly as the groups represented here
today approach the great question of world or-
ganization with a long background of experience
and with a sincere desii'e to assist in finding an
effective way to develop enduring peaceful inter-
national relations.
The Department of State has followed with
close attention the splendid woi'k which has for
years been carried forward by your several organ-
izations in the field of education and as regards
the principles which must guide any successful
program for good understanding among nations on
which peace depends. The Carnegie Endowment
for International Peace and the Commission To
Study the Organization of Peace have produced
many objective and incisive studies in the field of
international organization and law, which have
been of the greatest value to all students of the
subject. The League of Nations Association and
the National Peace Conference have in their sev-
eral ways sought to disseminate an understanding
of the principles which should underlie successful
international cooperation, while the Church Peace
Union and the World Alliance for International
' Bulletin of Oct. 29, 1944, p. 525.
'Meeting of the Commission To Study the Organiza-
tion of Peace, the Church Peace Union, and the National
Peace Conference in cooperation with the World Alliance
for International Friendship Through the Churches, the
League of Nations Association, and the Carnegie Endow-
ment for International Peace held in New York, N. Y.,
Friday, Nov. 10, 1944.
' Mr. Gerig is Associate Chief of the Division of Inter-
national Security and Organization, Office of Special
Political Affairs, Department of State.
565
566
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Friendship Through the Churches both at home
and abroad have for years upliekl without sec-
tarian bias those moral and religious standards
without which mankind cannot live on a plane of
mutual cooperation and resjaect.
The Dumbarton Oaks proposals are relatively
simple in form and brief in content, but I think
you will find in them a reflection of many of the
principles and proposals which have been urged
upon American attention by your own groups
over recent years. It is true, of course, that when
streams of thought and experience coming from
different nations and peoples must be taken into
account none of us will find in such a composite
document all the points to which we may severally
have attached great importance. The Dumbar-
ton Oaks proposals represent, as Secretary Hull
rightly said, "the highest common denominator
rather than the plan of any one nation".
I think you will not wish me to attempt any
detailed exposition of the document as it now
stands nor to discuss in any detail those open ques-
tions which still remain under consideration before
the completed document is formally and officially
submitted to the various governments prior to the
forthcoming international conference. It might
be more profitable if we consider together several
of the major features of the proposals which have
emei'ged in the discussion of the proposals since
they have been before the public.
First of all, I would like to stress the essentially
democratic character of the proposed international
organization. I realize that there is some discus-
sion that in one major respect the Organization,
by reason of the fact that very special and heavy
responsibilities for the maintenance of peace and
security are laid upon the great powers, departs
from this democratic basis. I believe, however,
that a closer examination of the proposals will lead
one to a different conclusion.
The maintenance of security must inevitably be
a special responsibility of those states which have
the capacity and the will to contribute effectively
to it. The Security Council, therefore, would be
organized in such a way that enforcement action
may be taken promptly and effectively. The
special powers conferred upon the Security Coun-
cil, and in particular upon the members capable
of exercising them, are clearly defined and limited.
Tlie functions of the proposed Security Council
should not be compared with the functions of the
League of Nations Council, which covered a much
wider field. It should be noted that action by the
Security Council would require discussion among
all its members and would be based upon a decision
which — no matter how the voting question is
settled — would almost certainly require the assent
of some of the non-permanent members who would
be elected by the General Assembly. Moreover,
the action of the Security Council is not one of
complete freedom ; it would be obligated to act in
accordance with the principles and purposes laid
down in the Charter. The place of the perma-
nent members of the Security Council, therefore,
is not one of domination but rather one of leader-
ship aiid responsibility flowing from the position
of these powers in the world.
There is some discussion to the effect that the
proposed Organization would be more democratic
if a weighted voting system were adopted in the
General Assembly. This, however, would have
the effect of emjahasizing the position of the great
powei's not only in the Security Council but also
in the General Assembly, thus accentuating in
some degree the difference between great and
small powers.
A second feature of the Dumbarton Oaks pro-
posals to which I should like to refer is the pro-
posed security arrangements. The experience of
the inter-war period, together with the experience
of the United Nations in conducting the present
war to a successful conclusion, was fuUy taken
into account in developing these arrangements. I
think it will be generally agreed that in the Dum-
barton Oaks proposals the security machinery is
much more fully developed and laid out in a more
detailed and well-defined manner than in any pre-
vious plan. Promptness of action is rendered
more likely by placing responsibility for action in
one organ alone without the possibility of shift-
ing it to another venue, as for example the General
Assembly.
Furthermore, in developing a Military Staff
Committee composed of the Cliiefs of Staff of the
permanent members of the Security Council there
is an extension of the experience which has
proved, even in a limited way, to be so successful
in this war. And finally, by making it possible
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
567
to utilize regional arrangements or agencies for
enforcement action taken under the authority of
the Security Council, there is a further promise
that the security objectives of the new proposals
can be more successfully and efficiently cari'ied
into effect.
An additional feature of the security arrange-
ments of the proposed Organization is the pro-
posal that all the members of the Organization
should, by special agreement, undertake to make
available at the call of the Security Council
armed forces, facilities, and other assistance, and
that in particular national air-force contingents
should be held immediately available for combined
international enforcement action when an emer-
gency arises. The philosophy behind this proposal
is that armed force should become the strong arm
of the universal will to peace, available for the
protection of all jDeace-loving states, rather than
something which in itself is objectionable and to
be dispensed with ; hence the emphasis on the reg-
ulation of armaments, with a definite anticipation
that this arrangement should and would result in
the maintenance of international peace and secu-
rity "with the least diversion of the world's human
and economic resources for armaments".
All this security action is, of course, based on
the principle that all members of the Organiza-
tion shall settle their disputes by peaceful means
and shall refrain in their international relations
from the threat or use of force in any manner in-
consistent with the purposes of the Organization.
A third feature of the Dumbarton Oaks pro-
posals is the wide scope which is given to ma-
chinery and activity for the creation of the condi-
tions which in the longer view will make for
greater prosperity and well-being and thus take
away the occasion for war. Repressive measures
alone would not appeal to the moral conscience or
the intelligence of mankind. Positive and con-
structive forms of international cooperation for
the benefit of all have long been regarded by all
the principal faiths of the world as essential to an
orderly and civilized world.
While responsibility for maintaining peace is
equally shared by all states, not all states are
in an equal position to discharge this responsibility
for the maintenance of peace and security. But
when it comes to facilitating solutions of economic,
social, and other humanitarian problems, par-
ticularly in the field of educational and cultural
activity, the distinction between large capacity
and power and smaller capacity and power tends
to disappear. In the world of economics, of sci-
ence, and of education contributions do not cor-
respond with the size or power of states.
In the proposed plan the General Assembly,
where all states are represented, is given the func-
tion — which in the longer view is likely to be the
most important constructive function within the
scope of the Organization — of considering and
making recommendations for the purpose of pro-
moting international cooperation in political, eco-
nomic, and social fields and of adjusting situations
likely to imj^air the general welfare. I think you
will agree that this function of wide range and ef-
fect opens up a vista of usefulness which is almost
unlimited. In carrying out this responsibility the
General Assembly would make recommendations
for the coordination of the policies of economic, so-
cial, and other specialized agencies brought into
relation with the Organization. Here may be seen
an activity which in a world of peace and stability
would enable mankind to attain standards of
health, well-being, and general advancement such
as the world has never seen.
As an instrument for giving effect to this great
field of activity there would be established the Eco-
nomic and Social Council of 18 states-members,
elected by the General Assembly. Here may be
seen an extension and development of the efforts
that had been made just prior to the war by the so-
called Bruce Committee, which recommended on
the basis of experience and world needs that cer-
tain steps in this direction be taken by the League
of Nations.
This Economic and Social Council would not
only carry out recommendations of the General
Assembly but also on its own initiative would make
recommendations with respect to international
economic, social, and other humanitarian activi-
ties. It would receive and consider reports from
all the various specialized agencies brought into
relationship with the Organization and would
make recommendations for the cooi'dination of
their activities whenever it would be in the general
interest.
All this economic and social activity is appro-
f)riately recommendatory rather than executive in
568
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
character. Wlien all the states, through common
action in the General Assembly, and when 18
governments send their most highly qualified rep-
resentatives to the Economic and Social Council
to consider these questions in their widest impli-
cations, it is clear that the recommendations is-
suing from such bodies would carry the greatest
weight among all the governments of the world.
As my fourth and last point I should like to
call your attention to a phrase which will deserve
your steadfaf^t interest, namely, that the Organi-
zation should "promote respect for human rights
and fundamental freedoms." All the churchmen
in this audience will be full}' aware of the far-
reaching implications of these few but pregnant
words. It has now become api:>arent to almost
everyone that the present conflict is, in a very
important degree, the result of a denial of those
human rights and fundamental freedoms with-
out which political liberty and the human con-
science must ever be stultified. Territorial con-
siderations will have their important place in the
eventual peace settlements, but who can doubt
that such a jpeace would be ephemeral so long
as human beings were denied those rights and
freedoms which are necessary to life itself and
which we, as Americans, will always regard as
the very basis of our national existence?
The implementation of this provision will be
slow and undoubtedly difficult, and it would be
impossible to forecast at this time all the ways
and means for carrying it into effect. Its im-
plementation must vary according to circum-
stances and places. States are rightly jealous of
their domestic jurisdiction. The experience of
the League of Nations with the minorities treaties
shows how difficult it is to apply regulations which
are not by treaty universally applicable. The
American Law Institute in this country has at-
tempted to foreshadow the content of what might
be called an international "Bill of Eights" by
which minimum standards might be agreed to by
all subscribing nations. The determination of the
best machinery for the application of this prin-
ciple is left for the future, but just as some of
the sentiments in the Preamble of the Constitution
of the United States proved to be so far-reaching
in our history, so it may well be that the doctrine
of promoting respect for human rights and fun-
damental freedoms may emerge as one of the chief
cornerstones of the new edifice.
Mr. Chairman, I should like to say just a word
about the spirit in which the Dumbarton Oaks
conversations were conducted. The British, So-
viet, and Chinese Delegations exhibited the finest
spirit of cooperation, always trying to find prac-
ticable, working solutions susceptible of winning
the widest degree of assent. There was no evi-
dence of an attempt to score points which would
embarrass other governments but rather a sincere
desire to make' possible the establishment of an
effective international organization, conscious that
the prosperity and even the destiny of their na-
tions depended upon its success. It was because
of this spirit that the President was able to ex-
press his satisfaction "that so much could have
been accomplished on so difficult a subject in so
short a time". If other governments and peoples
will approach this subject in the same spirit of
cooperation and accommodation there can be no
doubt that the high hopes of the peoples of the
world can be realized in the establishment of the
Organization, and, if the public will and deter-
mination do not flag, there also can be no doubt
that this great instrumentality will faithfully
serve its high purposes.
Recognition of
Guatemalan Government
[Released to the press November 7]
The Acting Secretary of State, Edward K. Stet-
tinius, Jr., announced on the afternoon of No-
vember 7 that the Government of the United States
would extend recognition to the Government of
Guatemala on that day.
The American Ambassador in Guatemala City
was to call on the new Minister for Foreign Af-
fairs of Guatemala at 5 p.m., Guatemala time (7
p.m., E.W.T.), November 7, to inform him of this
action by the Govermnent of the United States.
It is understood that many other American re-
publics are taking similar action following full
consultation and exchange of information pursu-
ant to resolution XXII of the Committee for Po-
litical Defense at Montevideo,
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
569
Anniversary of the Founding of the Soviet Union
MESSAGE OF PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT TO THE
PRESIDENT OF THE PRESIDIUM '
[Released to the press November G]
November C, 1944.
It gives me great pleasure on this national an-
niversary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Re-
publics to send greetings to you and to the people
of the Soviet Union.
At this fateful time when the Red Army and
the armies of the United States and other United
Nations are fighting on German soil, we can look
forward with even greater confidence to the early
defeat of the Nazi aggressors and the attainment
of our common goal — a durable and just peace and
a continuance of close collaboration between all
the United Nations.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
MESSAGE OF THE ACTING SECRETARY OF
STATE TO THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSAR
FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS '
[Released to the press November 6]
November 6, 1944.
On this the twenty-seventh anniversary of the
founding of the Union of Soviet Socialist Re-
publics, may I express on behalf of Secretary
Hull and myself sincere felicitations to you. We
may all look forward with full confidence to an
early victory over the Nazi barbarians and the
establishment of an enduring and just peace built
upon the firm foundations of cooperation and
mutual understanding which have been wrought
so firmly in the crucible of war.
Stettinius
Anniversary of UNRRA
LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT TO
HERBERT H. LEHMAN*
[Released to the press by the White House November 9]
On the first anniversary of the creation of
UNRRA, I wish to send to you and to the mem-
bers of your staff my warmest congratulations on
the great progress which you have made during
this last year in preparing for the tremendous
tasks ahead and my renewed good wishes for the
successful fulfillment of your noble undertaking.
I and the other responsible officials of this Gov-
ernment have watched with keenest interest the
development of UNRRA from the signing of the
Agreement in the White House last November 9
to the present moment when UNRRA men and
women are actually engaged in bringing hard-
won assistance to the gallant people of Greece.
This Government has endeavored in every way to
support you and your staff to the fullest limit of
our ability. This has not always been an easy
task in the face of the pressing and staggering
demands which the fighting of a deadly war on
many fronts has placed and will continue to place
upon our resources of manpower, of supplies and
of transportation. But we are determined that
the sacrifices of the liberated peoples shall be re-
warded and that, to the extent we have it in our
power to help, these people shall promptly receive
the clothing, food, and other supplies which they
need to start life over.
I am confident that your inspiring leadership,
together with the cooperation of the member gov-
ernments, will result in making UNRRA an en-
during example of international cooperation in
action.
" Mikhail Kalinin is President of the Presidium of the
Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R.
' V. M. Molotov is People's Commissar for Foreign Af-
fairs of the U.S.S.R.
'Director General of the United Nations Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration,
570
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Death of the Ambassador of Turkey
TELEGRAM FROM PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT TO
THE PRESIDENT OF TURKEY
[Released to the press November 11]
I send you my sincerest condolences in connec-
tion -with the death of your Ambassador to this
country and personal friend, Mehmet Miinir
Ertegun. You must be proud of his able record
here and tlie officials of this Government who have
learned to appreciate Ambassador Ertegun's per-
sonal integrity and noble and kindly spirit share
in your loss. It is with particular sadness that I
send to you, and through you to the Government
and to the people of Turkey, the deep regret of my
country upon the death of such a distinguished
Turkish citizen and public servant.
TELEGRAM FROM THE ACTING SECRETARY
OF STATE TO THE TURKISH MINISTER
OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS '
[Released to the press November 11]
On behalf of Secretary Hull and myself I send
you our deepest sympathy. The death of Mehmet
Miinir Ertegiin has filled us with a sincere and
deep sorrow, a sorrow which we share with his
hundreds of friends in this country. His kindly
and noble spirit and his great ability have given
him a beloved position both in and out of Gov-
ernment circles. His loss will not be forgotten.
For more than ten years he has represented Turk-
ish interests in the United States with skill and
honesty and all of us in the Department of State
will miss his many high qualities.
STATEMENT BY THE ACTING SECRETARY
OF STATE
[Released to the press November 11]
I have just returned from a call at the Turkish
Embassy to express nij' sincere condolences to the
family and staff of the late Turkish Ambassador,
His Excellency Mehmet Miinir Ertegiin, who died
this morning. I am speaking for all of his many
friends in the Department of State when I say that
his death has filled us with a deep sense of personal
loss.
For more than 10 years Ambassador Ertegiin,
or Miinir Bey, as he was known to his many inti-
mate friends, has ably represented the interests
of Turkey in the United States, and his invaria-
bly fair dealings and high personal integrity, his
great personal charm, and his unfailing coopera-
tion have given him an almost unique place among
the diplomats in Washington. Since the death of
the Peruvian Ambassador last April, he has been
the distinguished Dean of the Diplomatic Corps.
His kindly spirit, illuminated by his conviction
that the nations in the world not only should but
could follow the way of peace, will not be forgotten.
He must have taken considerable satisfaction in
the fact that American-Turkish relations have
been most cordial throughout his tour of duty in
this country.
In the death of Ambassador Ertegiin the Re-
public of Turkey has lost one of its most able
public servants.
Destruction by the Nazis in the Netherlands
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT TO QUEEN
WILHELMINA OF THE NETHERLANDS
[Released to the press November 9]
November 9, 1944.
I have been inexpressibly shocked by the re-
ports which have reached me of the savage and
willful destruction being carried out by the Nazi
' His Excellency Hasan Saka.
barbarians in the Netherlands. I am confident,
however, that the blows being struck by our united
forces will soon result in the total liberation of
your country and in the meantime you may be sure
that all possible steps are being taken to ensure
that relief will be made available to the people of
the Netherlands.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
NOVEMBER 12, 194i
571
Certain New Instrumentalities for Economic
Development in the South American Republics
By WILLIAM YALE '
During the past five j'eai-s new types of finan-
cial and managerial organizations to deal with
the problems of economic development have been
evolved in the South American republics.
The foment u (development) organizations
created in South American countries, at times
with the cooperation of the United States, are
not sufficiently well Iniown. Consequently, the
future potentialities of this type of organization
remain unknown to those interested in similar
economic problems in other countries.
The South American fonwntos are in tlie process
of modifying the ways in which foreign capital
has been invested in South American countries
since the middle of the nineteenth century. A
planned and rational development of the natural
resources and potentialities of countries whose
economies are not fully developed did not result
from the traditional form of economic imperial-
ism. Under it, on tlie contrary, capital which was
invested in such countries, although it brought
substantial but limited benefits, did not lead to
a well-considered economic development. In some
cases cajDital was lent to governments to carrj' out
public works, to balance tlie budget, or for un-
specified purposes. In other cases capital was
lent to municipalities and to private companies.
Frequently those who made the loans had no other
interest than in floating bond and stock issues at
a considerable profit. Often high discount and
interest rates were charged, and in some cases
graft and corruption were concomitants of the
transactions. Much capital was dissipated with-
out creating tangible benefits to the countries
involved.
Although directly invested capital was often
soundly and wisely invested, it was usually em-
ployed to develop some specific natural resource
or to create some one specialized industry or type
of agriculture. Such investments were generally
made for the sole puipose of enriching the creditor.
Foreign capital invested in countries with unde-
veloped economies has not been interested, nor
has it been employed, under the traditional forms
617632
of foreign investment, in bringing about the gen-
eral, well-rounded economic development of such
countries. Nevertheless, certain large American
corporations with important investments in for-
eign countries have made considerable contribu-
tions to the social welfare and economic well-being
of their workers aiid to the immediate communities
in which they operate. The f omenta organizations,
on the contrary, are changing the emphasis from
limited development, through the exploitation of
exceedingly profitable undertakings, to general
development for the improvement of basic eco-
nomic conditions. The fomento organizations are
designed to provide financial, managerial, and
operational instrumentalities which will assure
security and a reasonable return on investments
to foreign and local investors, and, at the same time,
to malce possible a rational and planned all-round
development of the economic resources and po-
tentialities of the countries in which investments
are made.
The fomento organizations in considerable
measure free those charged with implementing a
development program from political pressures
and interference. They provide the instruments
by which commercial methods may be employed
in carrying out development projects efficiently
and wisely under the supervision of skilled tech-
nicians. Furthermore, the South American fo-
mento organizations tend to facilitate the pur-
chase of foreign machinery and supplies and to
jjrovide the means of securing prompt and full
payment for such materials exported to the re-
cipient countries. The foTnentos are used to as-
sist private enterprise and to encourage private
capital to participate in the general program of
national economic development. They serve in a
capacity similar to that of a national chamber of
commerce, for the purpose of inducing domestic
and foreign capital to invest in new industries for
which the fomenton provide financial assistance.
' Mr. Yale Is Area Specialist in the Near Eastern and
African Branch of the Division of Territorial Studies,
Office of Special Political Affairs, Department of State,
572
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
In other parts of the world the political and
economic leaders of countries with weak economic
systems might study witli considerable profit the
structure and functioning of the famento organi-
zations of the South American republics. They
could thus determine in what ways the fomento
type of organization might best be adapted to
meet the needs of their own countries. By em-
ploying the fmnento method small countries with
undeveloped economic systems might avoid the
possibility of falling under the econoinic domi-
nation and political control of powerful states.
Such small countries might thus improve consid-
erably the economic well-being of their people and
the financial stability of their governments.
The Fomento Organizations
The idea of a fomento or development corpora-
tion originated in Chile in 1939. To meet the
national emergency resulting from the devastat-
ing earthquake of January 1939 the Chilean Gov-
ernment created the Chilean Fomento Corpora-
tion, which was soon adapted to carry out a broad
program of economic development. The out-
break of the war in the summer of 1939 sharply
revealed the weaknesses in the economic struc-
ture of some of the South American countries.
The result was that some South American govern-
ments initiated plans for long-range economic de-
velopment.
SeveraJ South American republics organized
development corporations or development com-
missions to meet the war situation. The Colom-
bian Government lent its financial support to the
Instituto de Fomento Industrial, which was es-
tablished in June 1940. The Ecuadoran Govern-
ment organized the Corporacion Ecuatoriana de
Fomento on June 6. 1942. In Peru the Corpora-
cion Peruana de Amazonas was organized on June
19, 1942 to administer loans granted by the Ex-
port-Import Bank to the Central Reserve Bank of
Peru. On September 20, 1942 the Corporacion
Boliviana de Fomento was formed to operate in
conjunction with the Export-Import Bank to un-
dertake the economic development of Bolivia.
Although Argentina, Brazil, and Venezuela
have not organized general development {fo-
mento) corporations they have created organiza-
tions to undertake development projects similar
to those of the fomento corporations. The Argen-
tine Government set up in March 1941 two gov-
ernment agencies to foster industry and commerce :
The Comite de Exportacion y de Estimulo Comer-
cial o Industrial and the Corporacion para la
Promocion del Intercambio. The Brazilian Gov-
ernment set up in 1942 a number of organizations
and agencies to foster specific economic develop-
ments. The Venezuelan Ministry of Fomento
organized as early as 1936 the Direccion de Indus-
tria e Comercio to prepare plans and to finance
development projects. In other American re-
publics similar developments have taken place:
The Haitian Government in August 1941 organ-
ized the Society Haitiano-Americaine de Deve-
loppement Agricole (SHADA) ; the Cuban
Government by a law of November 22, 1941 set
up in May 1942 tlie Comision de Fomento Nacional ;
and El Salvador organized a social development
corporation.
The exigencies of the war stimulated these
activities. The economic emergency resulting
from the war brought into existence thi-ee main
types of development organizations : The fomento
corporation, the fomento commission, and the
fomento agency.
7. The Fomento Corporation
The fomento corporation as it has evolved in
South America is a corporate organization brought
into existence as a governmental instrument to
undertake planning for general development of
the resources and economic life of the country and
to initiate and manage specific development proj-
ects. Two different kinds of fomento corporation
have been created :
a. The National Fomento Corporation. The
national fomento corporation is a development
corporation created and controlled by the national
government. Ownership of the bonds and stocks
of this type of fomento corporation is not extended
to foreigners or to foreign governments. The
national fomento corporation is an indigenous
organization, controlled and managed by the gov-
ernment of the country in which it is established.
This control, however, does not prevent the na-
tional fomento corporation from obtaining loans
and advisory assistance from foreign governments,
which can exert a certain measure of control over
specific development projects for which foreign
credits have been secured.
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
573
b. Fomento Corporations in Joint Association
With a Foreign Country Entity. Foreign collab-
oration witli the fomento corporations may be
financial, technical, and managerial. The opera-
tional activities of the joint fomento corporations,
with foreign financial assistance and with foreign
technical and managerial aid, are controlled by
foreign experts in association with the adminis-
trative personnel of the country concerned. In
order to provide the foreign country with some
voice in the policy of the development corporation,
stock of the joint foinento corporation up to 50
percent is turned over to the Export-Import Bank,
or an agency thereof, by proxy, to assure voting
power to the foreign collaborating goverimient.
The board of directors, half of whom are United
States citizens appointed by the Export-Import
Bank, is the program-making body of the joint
fomento corporation. Responsibility for man-
agement and operations resides in the general
manager, who is usually a United States citizen
suggested by the agency extending credit to the
corporation. The contributing foreign govern-
mental agency does not usually propose a program
of development nor control the development policy.
It does, however, give or withhold its approval of
the specific projects for which it is asked to ad-
vance credits. In these ways the foreign mana-
gerial and technical persomiel are able to super-
vise the operations and undertakings of the joint
fomento corporations without infringing upon the
policy-making prerogatives of the local govern-
ment.
2. The National Development Commission
The national development commission is set up
by the national government to act independently
of the governmental ministries and is directly re-
sponsible to the executive head of the national
government. The commission may appoint a
permanent board of experts and it may draw upon
the services of the technical personnel of the vari-
ous ministries. The commission midertakes sur-
veys of economic projects; on their approval by
the chief executive, the commission may obtain
funds for carrying out the projects from loans
made by a foreign government (in most cases the
United States), if the agency of the foreign gov-
ermnent making the loan gives its approval of
the project.
3. Governmental Fomento Agencies
Various types of government development agen-
cies which are not essentially of the fomento type
have been set up in some South American countries
and in one Central American country. Brazil in
order to meet the war situation created a Coordi-
nator of Economic Mobilization who in turn set
up several agencies to carry out specific projects.
Venezuela organized a Ministry of Fomento which
created the Direccion de Industria e Comercio,
with a technical staff and funds to finance develop-
ment projects in conjunction with private inter-
ests. The Argentine Ministry of Agriculture cre-
ated the Comite de Exportacion y de Estimulo
Comercial o Industrial as a sub-agency ; the Min-
istry of Finance created the Corporacion para la
Promocion del Intercambio. These Argentine
agencies cooperate closely with private banking,
business, and industrial groups. In Central
America El Salvador in 1943 changed a govern-
ment commission known as the Mejoramiento So-
cial, S.A., into a corporation (the Social Develop-
ment Corporation of El Salvador) financially
connected with the Mortgage Bank of El Salvador.
It is interested primarily in land distribution and
low-cost housing projects rather than in general
economic development.
The Scope and Nature of the Programs of
Development Undertaken by Fomento Or-
ganizations
The scope and nature of the development pro-
grams undertaken by the different South Ameri-
can fomento organizations vary greatly. The
Chilean and Bolivian fomento corporations, which
incidentally appear to have been the most success-
ful, have undertaken broad and diversified de-
velopment programs.
In the field of agriculture the Chilean fomento
allocated $3,600,000 for the purchase of agricul-
tural machinery, for irrigation projects, for the
more intensive use of fertilizers, for the improve-
ment and increase of livestock, and for agricul-
tural education and experimentation. In the
field of trade and commerce $4,200,000 were al-
located for the building of cold-storage plants and
general warehousing facilities, for a national
merchant marine, for encouragement of the tourist
trade, and for investments in foreign trade and
574
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
distributive enterprises. In the field of indus-
try $4,000,000 were allocated to encourage indus-
trial education, to carry on experimental work,
and to develop specific industries. In the field
of mining, loans and investments of $3,200,000
were provided for experimental work and for ex-
panding mining operations.
To exjiand tlie power resources of Chile, the
Chilean /omenta invested $7,200,000 in new elec-
trical power plants and provided an annual sum
of $1,600,000 for the improvement of fuel and
electrical power plants.
The Bolivian f omenta, following the recom-
mendations of the United States Economic Mis-
sion to Bolivia of 1942, has undertaken a program
of great importance to the economic welfare of
Bolivia. The program is threefold: Highway
construction and transportation; petroleum de-
velopment consisting of the financing of new
wells in proven areas and the construction of a
refinery and a two-hundred-mile pipe-line; and
agricultural development to make Bolivia self-suf-
ficient in foods and to promote a new agricultural
economy to take an increasingly important place
in the Bolivian economic structure as the im-
portance of mineral production decreases. Tlie
agricultural program includes also building of
food-processing plants and encouragement of the
growing of export crops which have a large and
stable market in the United States.
As a corollary to its general development pro-
gram the Bolivian Development Corporation has
initiated an educational program by setting up a
scholarship jjlan in collaboration with the Inter-
national Training Administration under which
Bolivian students are sent to the United States
for technical training followed by one or two
years of practical experience with American busi-
ness and industrial concerns. The purpose of this
educational program is to provide the Corporation
with Bolivian technicians and experts.
Measure of Success and Failuke or the Fomento
Organizations
In order to weigh judicially the validity of some
of the criticisms made of the fomento organiza-
tions it is necessary to examine the conditions un-
der which they have operated and the factors
which have affected their operation and develop-
ment.
Most of the South American fomentas have
come into existence during the war. At a time
when the normal methods and channels of inter-
national trade were disorganized by the war and
by wartime restrictions, the fomentos undertook
to stabilize local economic conditions which were
upset by world conditions. The activities of fo-
mentos were affected by the restraints placed on
normal international trade, by the difficulties in
obtaining from foreign countries both producer
and consumer goods and the equipment and ma-
terials lequired for development projects, by dis-
locations in foreign exchanges, by the necessity of
controlling trading with the enemy, and by the
need to meet wartime demands at home and abroad.
From their inception the fomento organizations
were compelled to contend with unusual and dif-
ficult economic conditions.
Those most familiai; with the fomento organi-
zations agree that their success depends largely
upon the capacity and judgment of the managerial
staff and upon the support of the local govern-
ment. The activities of the organizations are for
the most part in the nature of business opera-
tions. When these have been handled with sound
business judgment, success has been achieved.
When the contrary has been the case, there have
been failures.
The question of whether the collaborative type
of foTTventa coi-poration has proved efficient has
been raised on the grounds that the joint f amenta
corporation has offended national sensibilities,
that is, has aroused national jealousy, and that it
has led to accusations of Yankee imperialism. In
certain quarters it has been recommended that no
more joint fomento corporations be formed and
that those in existence be transformed into na-
tional fomentos. Others ai'e of the opinion that
it is not the fundamental nature of the joint
fomentos which has been the cause of failures but
rather in part the local conditions, in part the
caliber of the United States managerial personnel,
and in part conditions created by the war.
It is apparent that lack of tact and adaptability
on the part of United States managerial personnel
could create friction and animositj' which in devi-
ous ways, including political opposition, could
result in ill-will and obstructive tactics injurious
to the proper functioning of a jomt fomento. On
the other hand it is certain that some areas where
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
575
the corporate instrumentality of a f omenta organ-
ization might be of value lack the ilidigenous man-
agerial and technical persomiel capable of oper-
ating a corporation entity such as the fomento and
that foreign participation is absolutely essential.
The answer, perhaps, lies in the inclusion in
the charter of a joint fomenio of a provision for
the joint development corporation's idtimately
becoming a national development corj)oration and
for the education and training of an indigenous
managerial and technical persomiel cajjable of
eventually assuming control. Furthermore, it is
essential that the United States managerial and
technical personnel of a joint fomento corporation
be chosen for their adaptability in dealing with
foreigners.
The Financing of Fomento Organizations
Both local and foreign capital are used to finance
the operations of the fomento organizations. Tlie
government of a country undertaking a develop-
ment program, after creating a fomento organiza-
tion, may allot to it the initial capital required
for organizational puri^oses and for operational
activities in connection with the carrying-out of its
development program. Capital has been obtained
from the United States by the South American
fomento organizations by application to the
Export-Import Bank. The method usually fol-
lowed is that of submitting to the Export-Import
Bank the general development program and ask-
ing for loans to carry out specific projects as inte-
grated parts of the program.
The general practice of the Export-Import
Bank when it has in jDrinciple agreed to assist in
financing a general development program has
been to advance credits to finance specific projects
which the Bank has approved. It is contraiy to
the Bank's general policy to advance lump sums
for general development. The Bank insists that
a competent technical and professional staff be
placed in charge of those development projects
which it finances. So far as it is practicable, the
funds advanced by the Export-Import Bank are
employed to finance the purchase of supplies 'and
equipment in the United States.
In the case of the South American republics the
fomento organizations have sought foreign capital
almost exclusively from the United States. The
Export-Import Bank has set as its purpose in the
granting of foreign loans the fostering of United
States foreign trade, the improvement of economic
conditions in the country to which loans are made,
and the maintenance of friendly relations between
the United States and the recipient country. The
creation of the fomentos has been on a bilateral
basis between the recipient country and the United
States.
There is no reason, however, why the jomanto
organizations might not obtain credit from more
than one foreign country on a multilateral basis.
This might well prove to be the case in the post-
war world if an International Bank for Recon-
struction and Development is set up. In such an
event a fomento organization might obtain foreign
ci'edits from an international bank in ways similar
to those by which tlie South American fomentos
obtain loans from the Export-Import Bank.
Conclusions
The corporate type of organization which can
operate on commercial lines, which can be free
from the more gross forms of political interfer-
ence, and which can j^rovide an instrumentality
by which foreign managerial and technical assist-
ance can be provided on a non-political basis is a
satisfactory instrument tlirough which foreign
capital may be provided.
The development corporation is an instrument
through which local capitalists, who invest their
capital abroad or in unproductive ways at home,
may employ their capital profitably in local enter-
prises which contribute to the general economic
development of their countries. This is particu-
larly true of countries where managerial experi-
ence and technical knowledge are lacking.
It is important that the type of development
organization created should be adapted to the
special conditions — political, economic, and psy-
chological — peculiar to the country concerned.
It is essential that the foreign personnel at-
tached to a development corporation or organiza-
tion, be it national or joint, should, besides their
professional and technical qualifications, be men
who are capable of dealing tactfully with local
leaders and of adapting themselves to situations
in foreign lands. The lack of these qualities is
as dangerous to the success of a development pro-
gram as the lack of technical proficiency.
576
Recommendations for the creation of an instru-
mentality to undertake a development program
with foreign financial assistance should take into
consideration the conditions which prevail in the
country seeking foreign assistance. A country
with a well-trained professional class and a busi-
ness class familiar with modern scientific methods
and conunercial and financial procedures should
be able to operate a national development corpo-
ration with considerable success. Such has been
the case in Chile. On the other hand a country
without a class trained in managerial and teclmi-
cal knowledge and skills and without a strong
business class cannot be expected to operate suc-
cessfully a national development corporation.
For such a country some type of joint fomento
corporation is essential.
Milton J. Helmick To Visit
China
[Released to the press November 7]
The Department of State is sending Judge
Milton J. Helmick to China to make a general
survey of Chinese laws, regulations, and judicial
administration, with particular reference to com-
mercial laws affecting American firms having com-
mercial interests in China.
The Chinese Government has informed the
Department of State that Judge Helmick's visit
will be welcome and that due facilities will be
extended to him during his sojourn in China so
as to make his visit of mutual benefit to the two
countries. Judge Helmick expects to remain in
China for about three months.
Judge Helmick was born in St. Louis, Missouri,
November 27, 1885. He attended Stanford Uni-
versity, the University of Colorado, and the Uni-
versity of Denver. In 1912 he was admitted to the
New Mexico bar. He became Assistant Attorney
General of New Mexico in 1917 and served as
Attorney General of that State from 1923 to 1925.
From 1925 to 1934 he was judge of the Second
District Court of New Mexico. He was judge of
the United States Court for China from 1931 until
May 20, 1943, when the treaty terminating Ameri-
can extraterritorial jurisdiction in China came
into efiFect. He was repatriated to the United
States on the first Gripsholm exchange in 1942.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
George H. Grim Returns
From China
George H. Grim has returned from China,
where for the past j'ear he has been serving at
the re(luest of the Chinese Ministry of Informa-
tion as a specialist in the field of radio broadcast-
ing under the program of cultural cooperation
of the Department of State.
Mr. Grim was program adviser to the Chinese
International Broadcasting Station XGOY in
Chmigking. He worked closely with officials of
China's radio-broadcasting administration in the
training of Chinese students in American tech-
niques of broadcasting, production, script-writmg,
and programming. As a further contribution to
cooperation between the United States and China
during the war, he broadcast to the United States
more than 700 radio programs which were heard
in this country from coast to coast. He also
broadcast to American troops a nightly news pro-
gram which was heard over 12 transmitters in
unoccupied China. Upon his departure, Mr.
Grim was thanked for his services by Generalis-
simo Chiang Kai-shek.
Renunciation of Nationality
In the United States
On July 1, 1944 the President approved an act
amending section 401 of the Nationality Act of
1940 by adding a new subsection to be known as
subsection (i). Section 401 (i) provides that:
"Sec. 401. A person who is a national of the
United States, whether by birth or naturalization,
shall lose his nationality by :
"(i) making in the United States a formal
written renunciation of nationality in such form
as may be prescribed by, and before such officer
as may be designated by. the Attorney General,
whenever the United States shall be in a state of
war and the Attorney General shall approve such
renunciation as not contrary to the interests of
national defense."
The subsection is effective only when the United
States shall be in a state of war. During such
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
577
time and while in the United States an Aanerican
national who desires to renounce the nationality
of the United States may make a formal written
renunciation of nationality in such form as may
be prescribed by, and before such officer as may be
designated by, the Attorney General, but such
renunciation shall become effective only when the
Attorney General shall approve it as not contrary
to the interests of national defense.
On October 6, 1944 the Attorney General issued
pursuant to tlie act of July 1, 1944 regulations gov-
erning tlie renunciation of American nationality
while in the United States.^ Under these regula-
tions any national of the United States may make
while in the United States a request in writing to
the Attorney General for the form, "Application
for Renunciation of United States Nationality".
A completed and signed application for renuncia-
tion of United States nationality on the form pre-
scribed by the Attorney General may be sent to the
Attorney General together with any certificate of
citizenship, certificate of naturalization, certificate
of derivative citizenship, or United States pass-
j5ort which may have been issued to the applicant.
If it is determined that the requested renunciation
of American nationality appears to be contrary to
the interest of national defense the applicant will
be notified to that effect. If the requested renun-
ciation does not appear to be contrary to the in-
terests of national defense a hearing will be con-
ducted by an officer designated by the Attorney
General after notification to the applicant of tJie
time and place of hearing. After the hearing the
applicant may file with the hearing officer on the
form prescribed by tlie Attorney General a formal
written i-enunciation of nationality and request the
approval of the Attorney General of such renun-
ciation as not contrary to the interests of national
defense. The hearing officer is required under
the regulations to recommend the approval or dis-
approval by the Attorney General of the appli-
cant's request for approval of his formal written
renunciation of American nationality. The re-
nunciation shall not become effective unless and
until an order is issued by the Attorney General
approving the renunciation as not contrary to the
interests of national defense. The regulations pro-
vide that when an application for renunciation of
American nationality is approved by the Attorney
General, notice thereof shall be given to the in-
terested departments and agencies of the Govern-
ment, including the Department of State. If the
applicant submitted with his application for re-
nunciation a United States passport, such pass-
port will be sent to the Department of State with
the notice of approval of the renunciation of
American nationality. The regulations issued by
the Attorney General on October 6, 1944 are ef-
fective from such date and until cessation of the
present state of war unless sooner terminated by
the Attorney General.
American Commission for the
Protection and Salvage of
Artistic and Historic
Monuments in War Areas
[Released to the press November 8]
In August 1943 the President approved the es-
tablishment of the American Commission for the
Protection and Salvage of Artistic and Historic
Monuments in Europe.^ Early in 1944 the Pres-
ident decided to enlarge the scope of activity of
the Commission to include functions relating to
certain irAi-ts of the Pacific area. This enlarge-
ment of the purview of the Commission's activi-
ties was accompanied by an alteration in its title,
wliich now reads "The American Commission for
the Protection and Salvage of Artistic and His-
toric Monuments in War Areas." The Piesident
has now approved the designation of the follow-
ing persons as additional members of the Com-
mission.
His Excellency, the Most Reverend Francis
Joseph Spellman, D.D., Archbishop of New
York
Mr. Huntington Cairns, Secretary-Treasurer
and General Counsel of the National Gal-
lery of Art
Mr. Cairns has previously served as Secretary-
Treasurer of the Commission.
'The complete text of the reguUitions appears in the
Federal Register of Oct. 10, 1944.
' Bulletin of Aug. 21, 1943, p. 111.
B78
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Korea: Internal Political Structure
By HUGH BORTON'
From the record of Japanese colonial acbninis-
tration in Korea it is apparent that there has
been maladministration from the point of view
of the Koreans. Progress has been made in snch
fields as public health and education, but these
programs have been designed to make Korea
function more efficiently as a part of the Jap-
anese Empire rather than to bring material
benefit to the Koreans. Reforms to allow the
Koreans a limited participation in the colonial
government have been introduced simultaneously
with economic measures designed to exploit Kor-
ean resources and labor for the benefit of the
Japanese. A study of the Korean internal politi-
cal structure is important, therefore, to show how
far Japanese control has extended and how
limited Korean experience in self-government
has become.
I. Political History Prior to Annexation
L History to 1905
During nearly six centuries, from the rise of
the Yi Dynasty in the mid-fourteenth century to
the formal annexation by Japan in 1910, Korea
enjoyed a larger measure of political stability
than did other countries in northeastern Asia.
She was sufficiently off the beaten track of in-
vasion to enjoy a fairly continuous existence as a
nation. There evolved within Korea, however,
two distinct groups: The exploiting and corrupt
court of the Yi family and the exploited populace.
This development led to internal weakness, and it
pei'mitted the growth by the late nineteenth cen-
tury of a vicious rivalry between China and Japan
for the control of Korean suzerainty.
Although China claimed old rights of suze-
rainty over Korea as a tribute-bearing state,
Korea had the right to make peace and war on
her own account. On the other hand, in 1876,
' Mr. Borton is a Country Specialist, Division of Terri-
torial Studies, Office of Special Political Affairs, Depart-
ment of State.
- Foreign Relations, 1S95, p. 199.
= /6i(J., 1905, p. 824.
* nid., 1907, p. 77.3.
Japan by a show of force secured a treaty of amity
and commerce with Korea in which Korean in-
dependence was recognized. In subsequent trea-
ties other foreign powers recognized the full
sovereignty of Korea. Powerless to take issue with
her more powerful neighbors, she became increas-
ingly the victim of foreign intrigues. By the
late 1880's China and Eussia supported the con-
.servative clique in the Korean court and Japan,
the progressive group. The jealousy of both
China and Japan on the question of control over
Korea's political status and foreign relations led
to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95.
The Treaty of Shimonoseki of 1895 - provided
that China recognized definitely the full and com-
plete independence and autonomy of Korea, but
this recognition did not necessarily make Korea
a free and independent nation. The clash of Chi-
nese and Japanese intrigue was merely replaced
by a clash between Russia and Japan. The Ko-
rean court, to prolong its existence, played off one
against the other. Again the struggle for the
control over Korea became a chief cause of war,
but this time in the treaty ^ that followed, Russia
surrendered all claims to national interest in
Korea and also recognized that Japan possessed
in Korea paramount political, military, and eco-
nomio interest.
'2. A Protectorate Followed by Annexation
It was obvious to Japan that a really independ-
ent Korea would be open to intrigues and pressure
from other nations. In order to assure her own
control Japan hastened to establish a protectorate
even before the exchange of ratifications of the
Portsmouth Treatj' was completed in 1905.^
Under the Protectorate Japan assumed control of
Korean foreign affairs and diplomatic and con-
sular services. Two years later the Korean Em-
peror appealed to the Hague Tribunal to review
the regime imposed on Korea by Japan. In-
dignant over this affront, the Japanese forced
Korea to sign a new convention whereby the Resi-
dent General was given practically complete con-
trol over the Government.^
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
579
A secret convention between Japan and Eussia
assured the recognition by the latter of "the rela-
tions of political solidarity between Japan and
Korea." Finally the Korean Emperor was forced
by Japan to plead for annexation to Japan. The
fiction therefore of Korean independence came to
an end.
According to a declaration " by the Government
of Japan upon the annexation of Korea, in the
Treaty of Annexation signed August 22, IQIO," the
system of government inaugurated since 1905 had
"not proved entirely equal to the duty of preserv-
ing public order and tranquillity, and, in addition,
the spirit of suspicion and misgiving dominates the
whole peninsula." Thus annexation was the step
proposed to "maintain peace and stability in Korea,
to promote the prosperity and welfare of Koreans,
and at the same time to insure the safety and re-
pose of the foreign residents." The Treaty of An-
nexation provided for the complete annexation of
Korea to the Empire of Japan. The Imperial
Government of Japan assumed "the entire gov-
ernment and administration of Korea" and under-
took to afford full protection to all law-abiding
citizens. It furtlier provided that Japan would,
"so far as circumstances permit, employ in the
public service of Japan in Korea those Koreans
who accept the new regime loyally and in good
faith, and who are duly qualified for such service."
Korea had been able to survive as a nation even
though other areas in northeastern Asia were torn
with strife, but when the peninsula became impor-
tant as a gateway to the fast-developing Asiatic
mainland, it became a pawn in the hands of China,
Eussia, and Japan. It completely lost its auton-
omy in less than two decades. Japan supported
Korean independence only so long as that policy
was the best means of preventing rival powers
from controlling Korea. As soon as circumstances
permitted Japan assumed exclusive control.
Since the formal annexation of Korea by Japan in
1910 Korea has become increasingly an integral
part of the Japanese Empire.
II. Organization and Administration of
Colonial Government
The Government General of Korea has func-
tioned through the Governor General as an autono-
mous organization subject only to the Japanese
Emperor and to restrictive legislation of the
Japanese Parliament. Since November 1942
Korean affairs have become the direct responsi-
bility of the Japanese Home Minister, and the
peninsula has been administered as an integral
part of Japan proper. An analysis of the general
administration of Korea from the time of annexa-
tion indicates how Japanese policy has made this
eventual absorption possible and to what extent
Koreans themselves have participated in the
government.
1. Government General
The administration of Korea was carried out by
the Governor General, appointed by the Japanese
Emperor, with power to control all administrative
functions exercised in Korea. The powers of the
Governor General were restricted by the following
regulations : All decrees of the Governor General
must receive the sanction of the throne, and juris-
diction over finances and legislation on broad
policies concerning Korea must reside in the hands
of the Imperial Diet. The Governor General was
assisted by an administrative superintendent or
Vice Governor.
The government consisted of eight main admin-
istrative offices: The secretariat, home affairs,
finance, industry, agriculture, judiciary, education,
and police. Various bureaus had charge of the
government monopolies, the forests, and similar
interests. A provincial governor, appointed by
the Governor General and subject to his veto, was
in charge of administrative details for each of the
13 provinces. Japanese law and law courts pre-
vailed, and a central i^olice headquarters super-
vised the control of police and sanitary affairs.
To fulfil in principle at least the terms of the
Treaty of Annexation, which provided for the
employment of duly qualified Koreans in the gov-
ernment, those Koreans willing to collaborate were
given minor posts, and certain consultative coun-
cils composed of Koreans were established. The
severe and rigid police control and other oppres-
sive measures, as well as the desire of the Koreans
to bring to the attention of the Paris Peace Con-
ference their right to independence under the
principle of the self-determination of peoples, had
resulted in a wide-spread passive rebellion for
independence in March 1919. The Japanese thus
-/6id., 1910, p. 681.
" Ihid., p. 682.
580
realized they would have to be less oppressive and
would have to seek more cooperation from the
Koreans.
£. Reforms of 1919
Various proclamations of the new Governor
General, Admiral Saito, stated that full considera-
tion would be given to the appointment and treat-
ment of Koreans and that improvements had been
made on the problem of their eligibility as officials.
The actual reforms introduced included the equal-
ization of pay for Koreans and Japanese, except
the 60-percent bonus given the latter for overseas
service; the permission for Koreans to become
school principals and for Korean judges and pro-
curators to try cases which concerned persons other
than Koreans ; and the taking away from the gen-
darmerie of regular police functions, which meant
the cessation of what was practically military gov-
ernment, although police control continued to be
both thorough and severe.
a. Advisory Councils. Since the annexation of
Korea the highest consultative body has been the
Central Advisory Council. Members of that body
were appointed from among the old nobility and
officialdom which had governed under the mon-
archy ; however, the functions of the Council were
distinctly limited. It has met only when called
by the Governor General to discuss matters pre-
sented by him on such subjects as native burial
customs. Factional differences within the group
further nullified its effectiveness.
In 1920 the first advisory councils for provinces
(f/o), prefectures ((/tw), municipalities (/?<), and
the most important townships {yti) were estab-
lished. Members of the 14 municipal advisory
councils and the 41 township councils were elected
by males over 25 years of age who paid an annual
tax of ¥5.00. This rule automatically restricted
the electorate to a minimum number of Koreans,
but it did not prevent most of the male Japanese
over 25 years from voting. These councils dis-
cussed matters referred to them, primarily of a
local and financial nature, and nominated mem-
bers for appointment by the provincial governors
to the provincial councils. One third of the mem-
bership of the provincial councils was composed
of direct appointments by the governors. The
provincial councils were likewise merely consulta-
tive bodies and expressed their opinion on mat-
ters of finance, taxation, and loans in the prov-
inces.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
h. Quasi-Legislative Councils, 1931-33. On
the theory that the most effective way to assure
the eventual and complete amalgamation of Korea
with Japan was to grant, in a paternalistic man-
ner, limited self-government to the Koreans, fur-
ther reforms in the colonial system were inaugu-
rated in 1931 and 1933. Advisory councils were
given power to make decisions on matters of local
concern. The term of office for the councilors
was extended from three to four years. Further-
more, two thirds of the members of the provincial
councils were to be elected by the lower councils,
which meant that the electorate had at least an in-
direct choice in the membership of the council
in the province. In all cases, however, the deci-
sions of the councils were subject to the veto of
the administrative official over them, regardless
of whether the administrative official was a pro-
vincial governor, prefect, or head of the town-
ship. The councils could be suspended by the
supervisory official, and regulations could be en-
forced in spite of the dissent of the council. If
it came to a matter of opposition to government
policy, therefore, the most that the council could
do would be to express its disapproval. Never-
theless, the election returns from 1920 to 1935
show an increasing interest by the Koreans in the
use of the franchise and a greater representation
of their candidates in the councils.
3. Korean Participation in Government
Even though many Koreans felt that the re-
forms that had been inaugurated were palliative
and gave little real power to the advisory coun-
cils, the latest available statistics show an in-
creased participation in governmental affairs by
Koreans. After the inauguration of the new re-
forms more than twice as many Koreans as
Japanese served on the provincial councils (296
to 126). Among that portion of the councilors
that was elected and not appointed, the propor-
tion of Koreans to Japanese was nearly six to one
(241 to 42). In view of the fact that the Japa-
nese composed only three percent of the popula-
tion, however, the proportionate representation
was still much greater for the Japanese than for
the Koreans. Moreover, among the high offices,
over four fifths were held by Japanese, and only
in the state schools and provincial positions did
the Koreans have a slight preponderance. The fig-
ures on the total number of Koreans employed by
the Government General in recent years are not
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
581
available, but in 1936 Koreans comprised about
one third of the C0,000 emploj'ees, and it is be-
lieved that a slightly higher percentage of
Koreans has been used in the past five years. In
all cases a wide discrepancy in salaries for Japa-
nese and Koreans in the same posts prevailed
because of the bonuses for all Japanese.
The limitation of the electorate by a minimum
tax eligibility resulted in the fact that the great
mass of Koreans have had no experience in use
of the franchise or in real self-government. The
main contact of the ordinary Korean ^yith the ad-
ministration is through the local police or civilian
magistrate, and complete and strict control by the
authorities has given the average farmer little
chance to develop an interest in changing the form
of govermnent. Whenever Koreans have had ex-
perience in government, it has always been under
direct Japanese supervision, and there has been
no opportunity for choice as to policies to be pur-
sued. The Korean bureaucrat has always beau
aware of the fact that he works not for his own
government but for a branch of the Japanese Gov-
ernment. Eeal Korean self-government has been
practically non-existent.
4. Colonial Policies
The basic policy of Japanese colonial adminis-
tration has been increasingly to prepare the pen-
insula not for independence, which has long been
the desire of the majority of Koreans, but for even-
tual amalgamation of Korea into the Japanese
nation. Thus the various administrative reforms
were inaugurated partly to fulfil the desire of the
Koreans for more representation in government
but more especially to educate the more prosperous
Koreans for their responsibilities as Japanese sub-
jects witliin the Japanese Empire. A former Gov-
ernor General, Gen. Jiro Minami, in 1937 defined
his administrative policies in broad terms. Since
the Japanese Empire was "the only stabilizing
force in the Orient and as it was determined to
uphold justice and fairness and enhance culture
for the peace and welfare of Asia", he argued, it
behooved the authorities in Korea to stamp out
Communism. He was encouraged by the progress
he noticed in the complete Japanization of Koreans
in such things as the enforcement of obeisance at
Shinto shrines, the hoisting of the national flag,
the respect for the national anthem, and the use
of the Japanese language. In matters of industry,
economy, and self-defense, he urged the necessity
of the "identiftcation of Chosen [Korea] and Man-
chukuo". He concluded by stating that the first
aim of education in Korea was the fostering of
the Japanese national spirit. This he believed
should take precedence over mere book knowledge.
III. Education
The educational system in Korea has been used
as much as possible to foster and develop Japanese
nationalism. The primary concern of this system
has been the education of the Japanese living in
Korea; therefore, only a limited number of Ko-
reans have been given a basic primary education.
This condition is the result, as well, of the limited
portion of the budget devoted to education (about
two percent of the regular and one percent of the
total budget in 1939) and the limited local funds
available for educational purposes. Although a
total of 1,572,000 pupils are reported for 1939,
nearly twice that many children of school age had
no adequate school facilities. The most recent
available figures indicate, however, a marked in-
crease in the total number of pupils in schools in
Korea. The total enrolment in 1911 was reported
to be 2,266,800.
Although distinct school systems were adopted
for Koreans and Japanese prior to 1938, a uniform
system for all, based on the educational system in
Japan proper, is now used. Koreans and Japanese,
however, usually attend separate schools. The
adoption of similar instruction for both Koreans
and Japanese was inaugurated to facilitate "the
clarification of the national policy" and to assure
that "all may be formed into true and loyal Im-
perial subjects". In 1939 Japanese students com-
prised about eight percent of the total student
population. The school texts give only a few care-
fully selected examples from Korean history ; they
refer to Jimmu Tenno (the founder of the Jap-
anese imperial line) and Meiji Tenno (grand-
father of the present sovereign) as "Emperors of
our country". Shrines to the Japanese imperial
ancestors are being erected in all schools, and a
conscious attempt is made to instil into the student
the concept that there is nothing purely Korean as
such and that Korea is only a part of Japan.
In contrast to the lack of instruction in the
Korean language, a minimum of nine hours week-
ly is required in Japanese, which is the medium
of instruction for practically all institutions. A
limited number of higher schools, special indus-
582
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
trial and trade schools, and agricultural experi-
mentation centers makes it possible for a few
Koreans to improve their skills. Five thousand
Korean students are said to be studying each year
in Japanese schools of higher learning.
Emphasis has recently been placed on "social
education for the promotion of the national spirit".
To ai-ouse loyalty and patriotism for Japan, offi-
cials and the people, labor and capital are urged
to cooperate to assure the prosperity of the im-
perial throne. On every ceremonial occasion the
schools, government offices, banks, companies, fac-
tories, shops, and all social bodies are required to
repeat the Oath of Imperial Subjects :
"We are Imperial Subjects, we pledge our al-
legiance to the Empire. We, the Imperial Sub-
jects, by mutual faith, love and cooperation will
strengthen our union. We, the Imperial Sub-
jects, by perseverance and training, will cultivate
strength to exalt the Imperial Way."
The whole educational system is set up, therefore,
with the express purpose of making the Koreans
loyal Japanese subjects, with the hope of obliterat-
ing all vestiges of Korean opposition and culture.
IV. Health and Sanitation
In matters of improvement of health conditions,
the Japanese have, according to official claims, been
extremely successful. The official report of the
Government General declares that the energetic ef-
forts of the autliorities have been most success-
ful in the control of epidemics and contagious dis-
eases. Of these, cholera was the most pi^evalent,
with 13,000 deaths from this disease recorded in
1920 and only one in 1937. Smallpox likewise was
endemic until deaths from this cause were reduced
as a result of wide-spread vaccination to less than
50 annually. Other prevalent diseases include ty-
phoid fever, dysentery, diphtheria, typhus, and
scarlet fever. One explanation for the fact that
official figures show a lower incidence of all these
diseases in Korea than in Japan would seem to
be the fact that in Korea medical practice is lim-
ited to one physician for every 7,500 of the popu-
lation. Numerous cases in all these diseases are
thus never recorded. In reality conditions are
much worse than indicated. At the same time it
should be realized that the police authorities con-
trol the sanitation and hygiene of the counti-y, and
if any locality develops an epidemic, speedy meas-
ures BJe enforced to isolate it.
In 1937 there were 144 government hospitals;
of a total of nearly two million patients for the
year, one fourth were in-patients. Thirty mission
hospitals, especially those for lepers, supplement
the official institutions. So far as the lepers are
concerned, less than one half of the total of more
than 13,000 have been cared for. Some institutions
for orphans, the blind, and deaf-mutes have been
established, but much still remains to be done in
the whole field of social welfare. Opium-smoking
has been methodically reduced by the establish-
ment of an Oi^ium Monopoly Bureau and by com-
plete governmental control over the disposal of
the drug.
V. Recent Changes
The final establishment of the Greater East Asia
Ministry on November 1, 1942 and the simul-
taneous reduction in personnel in other branches
of the government had far-reaching effects upon
the administration of Korea. The new Ministry
is authorized to administer all affairs, except
purely diplomatic relations, in Greater East Asia
exclusive of Japan, Korea, Formosa, and southern
Sakhalin. This authorization means that Korea
henceforth is to be considered an integral part of
Japan. The Governor General is the governor no
longer of a colony but of one of Japan's outlying
"prefectures"; he administers political affairs
under the supervision of the Japanese Home Min-
istry. Furthermore, the Governor General is
appointed by the Premier on the recommendation
of the Home Minister, not, as previously, directly
by the Emperor. The appropriate Minister of
State or Premier within Japan will supervise the
various aspects of life in Korea.
Such a profound shift in administration neces-
sarily means a conspicuous shift in the personnel
of the office of the Government General and the
inauguration of new policies. At a conference of
governors of prefectures, held November 13-14,
1942, the Governor General of Korea attended for
the first time "as a head of a prefecture". In De-
cember 1942 the Cabinet approved the inaugura-
tion of compulsory education in the peninsula by
1946. This program will require the training of
additional teachers, the construction of more
schools, and the gradual increase in student enrol-
ment. Bills passed by the Diet early in 1943 in-
cluded two which provided for conscription within
Korea. Registration for males of military age
was inaugurated in the spring of 1944, and a
NOVEMBER 12, 1944
583
limited number of Korean conscripts have already
been called to the colors. Previously certain
volunteer military units existed: One unit, re-
portedly organized in 1938 as an integral part of
the "Manchukuo" armj', has been active in patrol-
ling the province of Chientao in 'southern Man-
churia; other units have been trained to guard
American and British prisoners of war. With
the inauguration of compulsory education and
conscriiJtion, the final stage of the effort to
Japanize Korea will have been reached, and Korea
will be no longer a colony but another "prefec-
ture", an integral part of Japan proper. What-
ever role Koreans will play in the government
under the new reorganization, they necessarily will
participate in the Japanese administrative organ-
ization for the benefit of Japan as a whole, not for
the benefit of Korea. Obviously, this Japanese
program of complete integration of Korea into
Japan will end abruptly with the liberation of
Korea by the United Nations.
Full Membership for Provi-
sional Government of
France on European Ad-
visory Commission
[Released to the press November 11]
At the Moscow Conference a year ago the Amer-
ican, British, and Soviet Governments decided to
establish in London a European Advisory Com-
mission for the purpose of studying certain Eu-
ropean questions and submitting joint recommen-
dations thereon to the three Governments.
Among the matters which are receiving the
close attention of the Commission is the question
of the surrender terms to be imposed on Germany,
and the treatment to be accorded that country.
Conscious of France's vital interest in the solu-
tion of the German problem and of the part which
France will inevitably play in maintaining the
future peace of Europe, the Government of the
United States is happy to join in extending to the
Provisional Government of the French Republic
an invitation to full membership on the European
Advisory Commission.
Representatives of the three Governments are
today communicating this decision to the Provi-
sional Government of the French Republic at
Paris.
Appointment of Harold
MacMillan as Head of the
Allied Commission
[Released to the press November 10]
As already announced ^ the President of the
United States and the Prime Minister of Great
Britain recently reviewed the situation in Italy
and agreed on a general policy to meet the many
economic and other difficulties of that country.
In order to facilitate the task they have agreed
that the Right Honorable Harold MacMillan, M.P.,
British Resident Minister at AFHQ, Mediterra-
nean, should, in addition to his present post, be-
come responsible head of the Allied Commission.
In order to effect this. General Wilson will dele-
gate to Mr. MacMillan his functions as President
of the Commission. Commodore Ellery Stone of
the United States Navy, at present Acting Chief
Commissioner, will be appointed Chief Commis-
sioner. Mr. MacMillan as Acting President will
be specially charged with the duty of supervising
development of new measures together with any
change in the structure of the Commission neces-
sary to carry them out.
J THE FOREIGN SERVICE ^
Consular Offices
The American Consulate at Ceuta, Spanish
North Africa, was closed on October 31, 1944.
' Bulletin of Oct. 1, 1944, p. 338.
584
bEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Civilian Travel in Certain Foreign Areas
[Released to the press November 11]
The Joint Chiefs of Stail with the concurrence
of the Secretary of State have removed, effective
November 10, 1944, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Libya, Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Cyprus, and the
Zone of the Interior of France from the list of
areas of active military operations in which civil-
ians, with certain exceptions, may not travel with-
out first receiving military permission. The Zone
of the Interior of France comprises all territory
in continental France within the eastern bound-
ai'ies of the Departments of Seine Inferie'ure, Oise,
Seine-et-M;irne, Yonne, Nievre, Saone-et-Loire,
Khone, Ardeche, and Gard.^ Civilians will, with
certain exceptions, still be required to obtain mili-
tary permission for travel in the following areas:
Theater or area Areas of active operations
European Coutinent of Europe (except Portu-
gal, Spain, Swedeu, Switzerland,
and the Zone of the Interior of
France)
Mediterranean Italy and the islands in the Medi-
terranean
Middle East — Continent of Europe (except Tur-
Ceutral Africa key) and the islands in the Medi-
terranean (except Cyprus)
China China, French Indochina, and Korea
India-Burma Assam, Burma, and Thailand
Southeast Asia Area .east of longitude 92° E. and
north of latitude 16° 30' S.
Pacific Ocean New Hebrides, Santa Cruz, Solomon,
areas EUice, and Gilbert Islands ; Can-
ton Island ; Baker Island ; How-
land Island ; Aleutian Islands
west of Dutch Harbor ; Hawaiian
Islands (exclusive of those is-
lands east of longitude 162° W.
and north of latitude 18° N.) ;
Araito, Paramushiro and Shumu-
shu Jima : and all islands in east
longitude between latitude 0° and
50° N. and between the Asiatic
mainland and longitude 180°
aoutnwest Pacific All islands north of the mainland
of Australia
Wliile Switzerland has not been and is not con-
sidered an area of military operations it is nec-
essary to travel through such an area in order to
reach that country and consequently military jjer-
mission to transit such an area is required.
' Bulletin of Oct. 29, 1944, p. 498.
The Department of State will accept applica-
tions from American citizens for the Zone of the
Interior of France, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Libya, Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, and Cyprus when
such applications are accompanied by appropriate
evidence establishing (1) that their presence in
any such place will contribute directly or indi-
rectly to the war effort, or (2) that their purpose
in desiring to travel in any such place will serve
the national interests by the resumption of eco-
nomic or other activities disrupted by the war,
or (3) that their purpose in traveling to any such
place would materially aid that place in meeting
its essential requirements for civilian consumption
and reconstruction.
The Department will continue to accept appli-
cations for passports for Portugal, Spain, and
Sweden if accompanied by appropriate evidence
establishing a reasonable necessity for visiting
such countries.
The Department will accept applications for
passports for travel in or through an area which
is still considered an area of active military oper-
ations when they are accompanied by appropriate
evidence establi.shing that such travel will con-
tribute directly or indirectly to the war effort.
In the cases in which the Department considers
that the travel is essential to the war effort, it
will seek to obtain military permits from the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, without which travel in
or through such an area will not be permitted.
A i^erson who considers that his presence in
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Syria, Lebanon,
Turkey, Cyprus, the Interior Zone of France, or
any areas of active operations will contribute di-
rectly or indirectly to the war effort should sup-
port liis application by a letter from an appro-
priate department or agency of the Government
stating in what way he would contribute to the
war effort.
The Department will continue to receive ap-
plications for passports for travel in countries
in the Western Hemisphere, except where the
United States maintains defense bases, if they are
accompanied by evidence establishing reasonable
necessity for such travel.
It must be clearly understood that the facilities
for transportation are extremely meager and that
NOVEMBER 12. 1944
SM
the appropriate authorities in the United States
hold out no encouragement at this time that such
facilities will be increased.
Each American citizen to whom a passport is
issued for foreign territory not within an area of
active operations and consequently for which a
military permit is not required must comply with
the visa or other regulations applicable to travel
in such territory.
Death of Lord Moyne
[Released to the press November 8]
The Acting Secretary of State, Edward R. Stet-
tinius, Jr., has sent the following telegram to the
American Embassy at London :
"Please convey to Mr. Eden at once the sincere
sympathy of this Government, as well as myself,
in the untimely death of Lord Moyne,^ a public
servant of outstanding merit with whom American
otficials maintained the most cordial relations.
The shock of this news was intensified by the tragic
circumstances of his death."
^ TREATY INFORMATION ^^
2. Articles XIV and XVI of the present Con-
vention shall be binding on Chile in everything
that is not contrary to her laws in force.
3. The Government of Chile reserves the right
to sign traffic agreements with American countries
on such bases as it may deem necessary.
Educational and Publicity Films; Nature
Protection and Wildlife Preservation
Ecuador
The Director General of the Pan American
Union informed the Secretary of State, by a letter
of October 25, 1944, of the deposit with the Pan
American Union on October 20, 1944 of the in-
struments of ratification by the Government of
Ecuador of the following conventions:
Convention Concerning Facilities for Educational
and Publicity Films, signed on December 23,
1936 at Buenos Aires at the Inter-American
Conference for the Maintenance of Peace.^
Convention on Nature F'rotection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere,
which was opened for signature at the Pan
American Union on October 12, 1940.^
The above-mentioned instruments of ratification
are dated November 15, 1913.
Inter -American Automotive Traffic
Chile
The Director General of the Pan American
Union informed the Secretary of State, by a
letter of October 31, 1944, that on October 27,
1944 the Ambassador of Chile in the United
States, Seiior Don Marcial Mora, signed ni the
name of his Government, with reservations, the
Convention on the Regulation of Inter-American
Automotive Traffic, which was opened for signa-
ture at the Pan American Union on December
15, 1943.
A translation of the Chilean reservations
follows :
1. This adherence is subject to subsequent
ratification after approval of the Chilean National
Congress in accordance with article XX of the
Convention.
Barbadian Laborers in the United States
The American Consulate at Barbados, British
West Indies, transmitted to the Department, with
a despatch of October 11, 1944, copies of an ex-
change of notes between the Government of the
United States and the Government of Barbados
dated September 29, 1944 and October 11, 1944
modifying the Memorandum of Understanding
signed May 24, 1944 which provided for the re-
cruitment of Barbadian laborers for work prin-
cipally in agriculture and in food processing.*
By the exchange of notes the Memorandum of
' British Minister Resident in tlie Middle East.
'Report of the Uelcgation of the United States of
America to the Inter-American Conference for the Mainte-
nance of Peace, Conference Series 33, p. 198.
' Treaty Series 981.
* Bulletin of June 3, 1944, p. 512.
586
DEPARTMENT OF STATE BULLETIN
Understanding has been modified to provide for
recruitment of Barbadian workers for employ-
ment in ''incluslries and services essential to the
war effort." The amendment of the Memorandum
of Undei'standing became effective on October
11, 19 
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