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CARVED LOUIS XVI. ARM CHAIR.

WALT :R D. REED -,

ARCHITECT '>

FURNITURE -
DESIGNING AND
DRAUGHTING

NOTES ON

The Elementary Forms, Methods of Construction and
Dimensions of Common Articles of Furniture

BY
ALVAN CROCKER ^YE, PH.B.

INSTRUCTOR IN FURNITURE DESIGNING
PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK CITY

NEW YORK

WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK
1900

ENVIRON,
DESIGN

Rec'd UCB ENVI

MAY l 6 1986

1900

280

PREFACE

THIS book for the use of students, architects and others who at
times find it desirable to make drawings for furniture, has
been prepared from material collected during an experience of
some years as a designer of furniture for several of the most
important furniture-makers in New York City.

It is assumed that a knowledge of how projection and perspec-
tive drawings are made has been obtained, and that the general
principles of design and ornamental forms are familiar to the
reader. It describes methods of construction as far as they relate
to draughtsman's work, but stops there, for it is not the intention
to make this an instruction book for those who wish to become
cabinet-makers. The " man at the bench " may, however, find the
parts relating to designing of interest even though the practical
details are already known, and seem to him incomplete because
many mechanical matters that he realizes are necessary in making
furniture are not mentioned.

Construction details that have been omitted were not thought
essential to the draughtsman, and if known by him would be of no
service in making the design or working drawing, as they would
not appear on either.

A. C. N.

•

New York City, 1900.

CONTENTS

Page.
Preface 3

CHAPTER I.
Definitions, Classification, Proportion 9

CHAPTER II.
Tables, Turnings, Cross Veneering 15

CHAPTER III.
Chairs, Seats, Sofas, Upholstery 36

CHAPTER IV.
Casework, Panelling, Bedsteads 57

CHAPTER V.
The Drawer 81

CHAPTER VI.
Ornamentation of Furniture 86

CHAPTER VII.
Theories of Design, Rendering .94

LIST OF PLATES

Frontispiece. Louis XVI. Chair.

I. The Construction of a Table.
II. Chair and Table Legs.

III. French Chair Leg.-

IV. Drop Leaf Tables.
V. Pivoted Top Tables.

VI. Extension Tables.

VII. Chairs. Front and Side Elevations.
VIII. Armchairs. Seat Plans. Stretchers.

IX. Outline of Chair Backs.
X. Composition of Chair Backs.

XI. Construction and Upholstery of Chairs.
XII. Composition and Proportion.

XIII. Case Construction.

XIV. Mouldings and Panels.
XV. Hanging Doors and Lids.

XVI. The Drawer.
XVII. Ornamental Chair Backs.
XVIII. Louis XV. Table.
XIX. Louis XVI. Cabinet.
XX. XV. Century Cabinet.
XXI. Louis XV. Arm Chair.

LLUSTRATIONS IN THE
TEXT

Page.
Bedstead framing 79

Card table hinge 31

Effect of mouldings 62

Joints 65

Meeting stiles for hinged doors 75

Meeting stiles for sliding doors 75

Pin hinge 72

Secretary hinge 76

Turnings . 21

INDEX

Arm chairs, Plans of, 46.

Applique metal work, 91.

Bandy legs, 16.

Brackets, supporting leaves, 28.

Banister back chair, 45.

Bearer, 82.

Bedstead, 78.

Bookcase, 77.

Burnt ornament, 92.

Built-up table top, 24.

Butt joint, 66.

Cane seats, 56.

Case work, proportion, composition, 57.

Case work, construction, 65.

Classification, 9, 10.

Castors, 47.

Carving, 86, 87, 88.

Chair, plan of arm 46; arms 48; ban-
ister back, 45; carved back, 88; cane
seat, 56; construction, 45; dimensions,
46; elementary forms, 37; four backed,
46; for use at table, 48; Hepplewhite,
49; parts of 37; rush seat, 55; seat
dimensions, 47, 48; stretchers, 46;
scissor pattern, 38; slope of back, 49;
upholstered, 49; Windsor. 38; wood
seat, 45.

Cover, for upholstery, 55.

Cross veneering, 24.

Composition of case work, 57.

Construction of bedsteads, 79; drawers,
81; case work, 65; chairs, 45; tables,
23.

Draw table, 51.

Drawer, hanging, 82; slides, 85; triangu-
lar, 85; depth of, 81; pivoted, 85; for
music cabinets, 83; construction, 81;
runners, 82.

Desk lids, 76

Dimensions of bedsteads, 80; case work,

78; chairs, 56; component parts, 11;

sofas, 56; tables, 23.

Disposition of ornament, 93.
Doors, sliding, 75; swinging, 72.
Dove tail, 67.
Dowel joint, 24, 66.
Drop leaves, 27.
Dust panel, 82.
Extension table, 31.
French bandy legs, 16.
First things considered, 11.
Finger joint, 28.
Four-backed chair, etc., 46.
Furniture, what is good, 12; plan, 100.
Glazing, 71.

Hepplewhite chair, 34, 49.
Hinging, 71.

Joints, 66; knuckle, 28; finger, 28; mitre,
66; mortise and tenon, 67; rule, 27.

Leaves, for table, 27.
Liining-up, 24.
Marquetry, 92.
Mediums, for sketching, 63.
Meeting stiles, 72.
Mirrors, 71.
Mortise and tenon, 67.

Mouldings, 61; effect of, 62; ornamenta-
tion, 65.

Music cabinets, 85.
Ornament, 93; painted, 92.
Over-stuffed work, 53.
Originality, 94.
Ormolu, 91.

Plan, furniture, 100; chair seat, 38.
Panels, 67.

Painted ornament, 92.
Perforated carving, 88.
Pivot hinge, 72; top table, 28.
Pivoted drawer, 85.
Rush seat chairs, 55.
Rule joint, 22.
Runners, 82.
Scale of sketches, 90.
Stability, of tables, 22.
Seats, plans of, 38; wood, 45.
Sketch, purpose of, 95; scale, 96; medi-
ums, 99.

Styles, 94.

Spread, of table feet, 22.

Stretchers, chairs, 4(5; table, 21.

Shelving, 77.

Slides, for extension tables, 32; drawers,
88.

Sliding doors, 75.

Shield-back, 38.

Stiles, meeting, 72.

Scissor chair, 38.

Sofas, 56.

Stub tenon, 67.

Stumbling block, 11.

Tables, construction of, 23; draw, 33;
definition of, 15; extension, 31; frame
of, 22; height, 22; leaves, 27; legs, 1(5;
overhang, 22; parts of, 15; spread of
feet, 22; stability of, 22; tops, built-up,
24.

Tracings paper, use of, 96.

Turnings, 21.

Tufting, 54.

Upholstery, 49; block, 53.

Varnishing, 86.

Veneers, 91; built-up, 24.

Vernis Martin, 92.

Wood, qualities of, ]<); srat, 4.~i.

Windsor chair, :{s.

Wrought iron, 91.

FURNITURE.

CHAPTER I.
Definitions/ Classification, Etc.

F^URNITURE designing is the art of delineating and ornament-
1 ing household effects so they become objects of beauty and
pleasure as well as service. Furniture designing means giving
thought and study to the proposed plan; the seeking for the best
forms, sizes, proportions, materials, and workmanship to produce
what is required. It may be necessary to make several attempts be-
fore success is attained, but the result will be the best individual
effort. In this sense designed furniture should be useful, handsome,
and well made of properly selected material used in an attractive way.
Furniture may be made without any special study or thought,
the result being mechanical, careless, and lacking in artistic qualities.
A mechanic may make something that is serviceable but extremely
ugly, and without design. If, however, he has the personal quality
that causes him to take pride in the appearance of his> work com-
bined with the knowledge of how to proceed to obtain the beautiful
he will become a designer, for he will put his mind to his work,
giving it a personality, independent of chance effects.

Furniture made without this thought and study brings to the mind
at once the feeling that something is wanting. Either the lines indi-
cate an indecision in the mind of the maker, or the methods employed
in its construction show no desire to produce the best effect with the
material.

Furniture can be divided into three classes, according to use.

First, DOMESTIC FURNITURE, including that for dwellings
of every rank.

,0 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION, ETC.

Second, CIVIL FURNITURE, that for public buildings and
places of business.

Third, ECCLESIASTICAL FURNITURE, for churches.

Furniture may also be divided into two groups named for the
methods of construction. The first, Framework, includes seats, tables,
mirrors, screens, etc., and all articles not boxed in. The second,
Casework, includes chests, bureaus, sideboards, desks, etc., and all
articles which are cased (boxed) in by panel work or its equivalent.

The materials from which furniture is usually made are wood,
metal and stone. The use of metal and stone need not be considered
here, because these materials are employed for extraordinary furni-
ture of a more or less fixed architectural character not strictly within
the general accepted meaning of the word. The natural material is
wood, which has many qualities to recommend it. It is abundant,
easily obtained, and easily prepared in convenient form for use. It
is of light weight so that objects made from it are not heavy enough
to become inconvenient, and it is sufficiently strong to serve all prac-
tical purposes.

The ease with which it is worked into the forms desired, and the
facility with which necessary repairs may be made are recommenda-
tions in its' favor. In addition to these advantages, which may be
called technical, there are the aesthetic and physical reasons why
wood is superior to other materials. It is agreeable to the eye in its
natural state, which furnishes a large variety of colors, but if these
do not meet the requirements stains of any shade can be applied with
ease. It also assumes, under proper conditions, a polish of a greater
or less degree. There are no objectionable sensations experienced
when it is touched by the hand, as it is not hard or harsh, nor is the
temperature unpleasant.

The kind of wood used may have an influence on the character of
the design. Some woods are of a coarse, open grain hardly adapted
to small details or fine work. Such woods are oak and ash. They are
well suited to large, heavy articles for severe usage, and of broadly
executed designs. Woods like mahogany, satinwood and maple are
of a fine, close grain and admit of a more delicate treatment. Mould-
ings and carving in these woods may be smaller in detail than seems
proper for those of a coarser grain. This feeling is quite well recog-
nized by everyone, so that furniture for halls, libraries, etc., is often of
the coarse woods, reserving those of finer grain for the living-room,
parlors and bedrooms.

FIRST THINGS CONSIDERED. II

The character of the wood need not affect the quality_of_the design,
as each variety may receive equal aesthetic treatment. The bold,
coarse work may have just as much feeling expressed in the design as
the more delicate. It is not the material used that is the most im-
portant consideration, but the form and proportion of the article, and
the harmony of the design with the surroundings. It is the study of
these conditions that gives opportunity for the designer to display his
skill. He asks himself: Shall the article be square or oblong? Shall
it be high or low in proportion to the width? Or if, as frequently is
the case, one or two dimensions are given, what will be the best pro-
portion for the other?

After the general proportion and form is determined, then the dimen-
sions of the component parts are considered, and it may happen that
these will be the only ones left for the designer, as the conditions of the
problem sometimes fix all other sizes. By the component parts is
understood (taking a table as an example) the relation of the size of
the leg to the whole, the thickness of the top, and its projection ; the
depth of the frame, etc. Such questions must be answered for every
article, and on the solution depends the quality of the design.

The stumbling block for beginners in design is the habit of thinking
in feet and inches. One of the first questions usually asked by stu-
dents is, how many inches wide shall this, or that, be made? There is a
feeling that because it cannot be answered at once it is impossible to
make the drawing correctly. It is not necessary, in most instances, to
know the figure, as the dimension is dependent entirely on the
sense of proportion and practicability. All dimensions fixed by com-
mon usage are known or given to the designer ; the others should be
determined by the knowledge obtained from experience and observa-
tion. As the designer becomes proficient he learns that within limits
a square post of a given size may be used in certain places, but
whether it will look better a little larger or a little smaller is deter-
mined by judgment.

The sizes of material found in stock need not interfere with the ex-
pressing of ideas that may occur. Lumber can be obtained of almost
any size desired, and if it is not at hand the next largest dimension can
readily be cut down, at the small expense for waste and labor, which
in special work is hardly to be considered. It certainly is not advis-
able to spoil a good design in order to use material without cutting a
little to waste.

A good piece of furniture must be adapted to the intended use, and

12 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION, ETC.

it should not defy the laws of nature even in appearance. It is not
sufficient for it to be strong, but it must appear so, that no thought of
weakness may occur; nor ought it to appear unstable. It must be
well constructed, otherwise it soon becomes broken or rickety ; and
when new, if carelessly made, there will be something about it to
cause dissatisfaction. It ought to be pleasing to the eye, not only in
design but in workmanship, and its form should express its pur-
pose. Excessive ornamentation is to be avoided. It is better to have
too little ornament than too much.

Construction has been placed second in these requirements for
good furniture, believing that by following the laws of utility and con-
struction natural and rational forms will be obtained. A designer
should, then, have a little knowledge of the principles of construction,
and in the following chapters the usual methods will be described as
far as is necessary for the needs of a draughtsman.

PLATE I

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A TABLE

FRAME DOWELED
T° THE LEG

FRAME TENONED
INTO THE LEG.

5ECTION°f A5UILT-UPTOP

ntllSH VEhEER.

T°P SECURED
BLOCKS TONGUED INT°

^\ ..-..«»

CHAPTER II.
Tables*

THE table consists of a flat, level surface, suitable to receive what-
ever may be placed upon it, supported on one or more up-
rights. The word table properly applies to the top which in early
times was called a board, and it was, indeed, nothing more, the sup-
ports being trestles not attached in any way to the top itself. The top
may be made of wood, marble, glass, etc., and is spoken of accord-
ingly as a wooden table, marble table, glass table, etc. If the material
is not mentioned it may be supposed to be of wood. The name of the
material is sometimes linked with the geometrical form of the top ;
thus, a square table, a circular marble table, an oval slate table, etc.

Tables are made high or low, according to the purpose for which
they are used, and may be either with or without drawers. They are
composed of three parts1 — the top, the frame and the legs. Plate I.
The top has been described above. The frame is composed of hori-
zontal rails immediately beneath the top and parallel with its edge.
It is sometimes omitted on small tables, called "stands," but is com-
mon for the larger varieties. It serves as a means' of binding the sup-
ports and top together as well as strengthening the top, which might
otherwise sag beneath its load. The depth of frame gives apparent as
well as real solidity to the whole structure. The legs are the supports
for the table, and may be secured in several ways to the frame, or its
equivalent. There may be but one leg, or post, directly under the
center of the top, and ending at the floor in a spreading foot, thus
forming a "pillar table." There may be two uprights, one at the
middle of each end of a rectangular top, terminating in spreading
feet, usually connected by a horizontal rail, near the floor. There may
be three, four, or more legs, but four are most frequently used. These
legs may be of an endless variety of shapes, and decorated by mould-
ings, carving, inlay, etc.

On Plate II. are shown twelve legs which can be termed elementary

1 6 TABLES.

forms, as nearly all others can be reduced to one of these. They are
shown as chair legs, but they differ from table legs in proportions
only. By comparing the plans and elevations the drawings explain
themselves clearly; but it is desirable to study particularly numbers
1 1 and 12. Eleven is the "bandy leg" with the ball and claw foot used
on "Dutch" and "Colonial" furniture. In many ways it resembles 12,
which is the "Louis XV." or "French bandy leg." This latter is
much lighter, more graceful and ornamental than the Dutch form,
but it at times seems too frail to support the weight it carries ; and,
again, the curved lines make it appear as if bending beneath the
strain. In many of the exaggerated patterns of these legs the violent
curvature causes the defects not only to become more prominent but
actually makes the leg weak. If the curvature is great the vertical
grain of the wood crosses it at one or more points, and at each of these
places there is danger of the leg breaking. By examining the draw-
ings Nos. ii and 12 (a larger drawing of 12 in three positions is
shown on Plate III.) it will be seen that a vertical line may be drawn
throughout the entire length of the leg without intersecting its
curved outline. This vertical line represents, then, a portion of the
stick from which the leg is cut that has not had the strength weak-
ened. The leg increases in strength directly in proportion as the dis-
tance between the contour lines and such a vertical widens. The
draughtsman is to observe that, although moulded and cut in irregu-
lar forms, the cross section of this leg at any place is practically
square, and that in making it a square stick is first sawn so as to have
the shape shown as front and side elevation (Plate III.) and then
turned over at right angles, on the vertical axis, and the same form
cut again. As a result the diagonal view will curve as shown. When
the leg is complete and casually examined it is seen in the diagonal
view. It is with the recollection of such a view in mind that the de-
signer too frequently lays out the curve for the front and side eleva-
tion, giving them the sharp sweep he really intends for the diagonal
resultant curve. When the work is made from such a drawing the
draughtsman is surprised to find how great the curve is. In design-
ing the bandy leg the proper method is to draw its three elevations
and plans as on Plate III. and study the outlines carefully till sure
they are right.

Whatever may be the shape of table legs they should be propor-
tioned to the dimensions of the top that they may not seem either too
frail or stronger than necessary for the purpose of support. Occa-

CHAIR AND TABLE LEGS

LATE

L I

ELD/ATION5

m m

PLAN5

ELEVATION5

FLANS

FRENCH CHAIR LEG

FLATE I,

DIAOOhM ELWTlOd.

•I2L-

fo-

-0-

FROriT

AhD 5IDL [LtVATIOn

DIAGOflAL LIIVATIOTI.

XALL

TURNINGS.

sionally it may be desirable to make them so small and delkate that
the table becomes shaky, owing to the elasticity of the wood, though
they may be quite strong enough in appearance, and in reality, to
sustain the weight intended to be placed on them. When such is the
case the legs can be connected, near the floor, by horizontal braces,
known as stretchers. Plate VIII. shows three arrangements of
stretchers as applied to chairs, and those for tables are similar.

• TURNINGS

Stretchers are sometimes used for aesthetic reasons when not needed
to stiffen the support. Tables having legs like Nos. 7 and 8, Plate II.,
do not look well without stretchers ; the baluster forms of the turn-
ings and the heavy foot of each leg seeming to demand a framework
binding the supports together.

Turnings are used continually in the construction of furniture, and
they always appear smaller than a square stick of the same dimen-
sions. This is apparent in the above illustrations. No. i
shows the projection of the corner of a parallelepiped beyond the

22 TABLES.

inscribed cylinder turned from it. The angular projection exists
whenever an abrupt change from a square to a turned section is made.
As this. is objectionable in furniture work, it is cut away by rounding
off the angle as in No. 2, or by moulding it as in No. 3. Neverthe-
less if, as in these examples, the diameter of the cylinder and the side
of the square are the same the turning appears so- much smaller than
the square portion of the stick that the transition is too great.

When the design will admit the square parts of the stick are cut
down after the turning is made, so that they are a trifle smaller than
the turned portions. This makes the two sections seem more nearly
of the same dimensions, and is shown in No. 4, where a torus and
fillet are also introduced to make the change of form more gradual.
This same feature is shown in No. 5, where the angles of the square
are cut away. The square is smaller than the diameter of the turning,
and the torus is introduced to grade the transition. No. 6 is a longi-
tudinal section of No. 5. The use of the torus or a bead between the
square and turned parts of a post seems desirable in most cases, what-
ever the profile of the turning. No. 7 shows it in use on a twisted
turning.

The depth of the frame of the table is largely a matter of individual
taste. If, however, the table is one at which a person is to sit, with his
knees beneath it, the frame must not be so deep as to reduce the space
between its lower edge and the floor to less than two feet.

An important condition of beauty in a table is its stability. It
should not appear insecure on its feet, as happens if the legs are placed
too far beneath the top. A safe guide is not to make the spread of the
feet of a table less than two-thirds the spread of the top ; or, in other
\vords, the overhang is one-sixth of the top. The overhang may be
considerably more than this before the table becomes dangerously in-
secure, but it will have, nevertheless, an appearance of instability, es-
pecially if the width of the top is less than the height above the floor.

It is well to round off slightly the corners of rectangular tables,
that they may not present a sharp angle.

The size of a table is determined by its use and the location it is to
occupy. Unless intended for a special purpose it is thirty inches
high.

Possibly the most important uses to which tables are put are those
of dining and writing. For either of tliese a table thirty inches high
can be and is used continually, but there are those who find this some-
what too high. A dining table should be sufficiently low that a per-

DIMENSIONS OF TABLES. 23

son need not raise the elbows when cutting his food, and trlarhis plate
rests well below him. If a writing table is too high it is tiresome to
sit at and write. Many dining tables and writing tables are, therefore,
made but twenty-nine inches high. The side table used in dining
rooms as a place from which to serve dishes or to carve should be
thirty-six inches high.

A dressing table is made thirty inches high unless the person to use
it requests that it be made otherwise. Parlor, fancy tables, etc., in-
tended for ornamental use only, are made to correspond with the sur-
roundings of the rooms in which they are placed, and may be any de-
sired height, as they are neither intended to sit or stand at. The fol-
lowing list will give the dimensions of tables of average sizes that
have been made and found satisfactory. It will serve as a guide or
starting point in laying out new designs :

DIMENSIONS OF TABLES.

Variety.

Length.

Width.

Height.

Remarks.

Bedroom

Commode.

Bijou

Carving table

42>

Dressing table. . . .

3(>

Extension table . .

Rcund.

« «

'30

Square.

Library table ....

Oval.

" "

« «

« <i

T.^a table

Round.

, 18

.< ,1

5 23

Upper shelf.

i 30

Lower Shelf.

Note: All dimensions are in inches.

The parts of a table have already been named ; it remains to see how
they are put together.

The frame is joined to the legs either by the mortise and tenon or
by doweling. The former joint was the old way o<f framing, but since
the introduction of dowels the tenon has largely gone out of use
among furniture makers. They consider it old-fashioned. And
owing to the shrinkage of the tenon or the carelessness with which it
is made it does not seem as strong or equal to a dowel-joint.

The mortise and tenon consists of a tongue (tenon) cut on the end
of one of the joined pieces so as to fit tightly in a cavity (mortise)
sunk in the other piece. In table work the tenon is on the end of
the frame and may or may not be its full width, while the mortise
is in the leg. Plate I.

24 TABLES.

The dowel joint derives its name from the dowel, a wooden pin,
used for fastening the two pieces together by inserting part of its
length in one piece, the rest of it entering a corresponding hole in the
other. Where possible more than one dowel is used. In table work two
or more are fitted in holes bored for them in the end of the frame,
and in the proper position on the legs are corresponding holes in
which the dowels fit, and are glued when the two parts are brought
together. Some small tables are constructed without a frame; in
place of it there is a wooden cleat fastened to the underside of the
top and the full diameter of the leg is inserted in this block; or if
the leg is of large size it is tenoned into the block.

The top of a table may be solid or veneered. When small and
cheap work is desired it can be made of solid wood; but otherwise
it should be built up and veneered. Solid wood tops shrink, crack,
or warp. The only sure way "of avoiding these unfortunate occur-
ances is to "build-up" the top. The building up process consists in
constructing a core of some common, well-dried, lifeless wood, pre-
ferably chestnut or pine. This core is of several strips of wood
doweled together at the edges until a board is made about the size
of the required top. These strips are arranged in a way that the an-
nular rings curve in opposite directions in each alternate piece. The
core is next cross veneered on both sides with hardwood, generally
oak. A cross veneering is laid so that the grain is at right angles to
that of the wood on which it is applied. In table work it is at right
angles to the grain of the core and the finish veneer ; both of these
naturally follow the length of the top. All round the edge of
the top, after it is cross veneered, is fastened a strip of the finish
wood of the table. (Plate I.) Finally, both sides are again veneered
with the finish wood ; that is, if the wood is not too expensive. If
it is costly a cheaper veneer is placed on the underside.

When the design calls for the edge of the top to appear thick it is
a needless waste of material to construct it of wood the full thick-
ness, besides making an unnecessarily heavy piece of furniture. To
avoid this, and yet obtain the appearance wanted, a frame of wood is
fastened to the underside of the otherwise thin top, giving the thick-
ness required. This frame is called the lining piece and the top is
said to be lined up.

The method of fastening the top to the frame of the table varies
with the class of work, and the size. If it is a small table no special
care is taken, the fastening consisting of screws driven through the

DROP LEAF TABLES

PLATE IV.

DUTT HINGED JOINT
©

FlrtG EH J<>!t1T

FADING SRACKETS r°n 5iipp°RTinG LEAVES

TABLE LEAVES. 27

rail into the underside of the top. If the rail is narrow -and thick
enough the screw is set straight through it. If, however, it is a wide
rail the screws are driven in recesses cut for them on the inner side.
Most tables are too large to admit of this method. A top fastened as
just described is held fast to the frame so if shrinkage takes place
there is a strain somewhere that may result in a cracked top. To
allow for any movement that may occur short blocks having a tongue
that fits securely in a groove cut on the inner side of the table frame
are screwed to the underside of the top. These blocks hold the top
firmly in position and yet if a shrinkage takes place they are free to
move in the grooved frame.

Tables are frequently provided with a drawer either in the frame
or hung beneath the top on cleats. How drawers are made, and the
different kinds, are described in Chapter V.

There are occasions that require a table larger than it is conven-
ient to keep standing continually in a room. In early times when
tables were nothing more than boards resting on trestles, if they were
not needed, the board was turned up against the wall and the trestles
stowed away. When the top and the supports became fastened to-
gether methods were invented for reducing the size of the table, that
it might not take up too much space ; or for enlarging it for special
purposes. One of these methods is the use of leaves or flaps, that
fold down against the side of the legs. Two things are to be ob-
served in such tables ; the way the leaves are hinged, and how they are
supported when raised.

In cheap work the edges of the leaves and top, where they meet,
are cut straight and square, forming a plain joint, and the leaf is
hung with a hinge on the underside. Plate IV., No. i. When hung
in this way a small crack is seen between the top and the leaf as the
latter hangs down, and the hinge also shows.

In better work both these things are considered faults and to avoid
them the rule joint is used. Plate IV., No. 2. This joint is made by
moulding both the edge of the leaf and the top where they meet ; the
moulding on the leaf being the reverse of that on the top. The top
is cut with a projecting tongue rounded like a quarter cylinder, and
the leaf is hollowed to receive it. The hinges are sunk into the under-
side of the top and leaf with their center corresponding with the cen-
ter of the quarter round moulding of the meeting edges. Then, as
the leaf swings up or down its rebated edge fits snugly against the
moulded edge of the top. The hinge is practically concealed and
there is no open joint.

28 TABLES.

There are small tables made with two leaves hinged in a similar
way to that just described, so when both are down the table is no
wider than the cylinder plus the thickness of the leaves.

Leaves may be supported by brackets attached to the frame and
swinging out under them. The brackets may be hung with metal
hinges, but better ways are illustrated on Plate IV., Nos. 3 and 4.
These drawings show folding brackets somewhat similar in construc-
tion made by fastening to the side rail of the table frame a block with
one end cut so as to interlock with one end of the bracket. A metal
pin through the two pieces where they interlock serves as an axis
on which the bracket turns. In No. 3, the finger joint, the corners
of the working parts are bevelled off that the bracket may turn. In
No. 4, the knuckle joint, they are rounded so the parts fit closely and
are in contact in whatever position the bracket may be. The finger
joint can be made the strongest as more wood may be left between
the pin axis and the ends of the tongues than in the other. The
knuckle joint is considered the neatest, but it is more difficult to con-
struct, and as the bracket is hidden from view the difference in ap-
pearance does not warrant its use.

Sometimes when the depth of the frame will permit a portion of it
may be cut so as to swing on a pin at the middle, and thus when
turned at right angles to the frame one half is beneath the top, the
rest acting as a support for the leaf. Plate IV., No. 5.

Bracket supports are not strong, and a table with a large leaf is
unstable. To obviate this tables are made with a leg that swings out
under the leaf giving it support, and stability to the table. When
such a table has a stretcher the movable leg is strengthened by fas-
tening it to a hinged bracket at the stretcher level in addition to the
one on the frame. Another way of supporting drop leaves is to ar-
range slides that may be pulled out from the table frame" beneath the
leaves when they are raised.

The tables described thus far have the top fixed, but there are those
'with the tops pivoted so when they are turned about the pivot a
quarter way round the leaves will be supported by the frame of the
table, which in the revolved position of the top, lies beneath them.
Two varieties of this style are illustrated on Plate V. The first is an
old style drop-leaf table pivoted at the middle of the top. By rais-
ing both leaves and turning the top on its pivot the ends of the frame
are brought beneath the leaves to support them. The second table
is in more common use. The top is of two parts, of the same size

PIVOTED TOP TABLES

PLATE V.

DR°P LEAf TABLE

s*».

EXTENSION TABLES. 31

and shape, hinged together so one part folds over on the other.
When folded the top is but half the size it is when open,' and can be
turned on the pivot to a position over one end of the frame with the
hinged edge directly across the middle. The upper leaf may then
be unfolded and will rest on the other end of the frame. Such tables
are usually square, when open, and are spoken of as card tables.

CAR.D- TABLE. HINGE..

The hinges used for joining the two parts of the top are not ordin-
ary butts. They are of a special form, as will be seen from the ad-
joining illustration, and are placed at each end of the leaves with the
screws driven into the edges. This avoids the appearance of any
objectionable metal work on the surface of the table top, as would
be the case if ordinary butts were used with their entire flaps exposed
to view. The card-table hinge has no projecting knuckle above the
surface of the table, as its parts, instead of turning on a single pin,
are joined by a link turning on a pin in each flap of the hinge. This
link is flush with the edge of the table when the leaves are closed, and
flush with the top when they are open. There are other forms of this
hinge available.

Other ways of increasing the size of tables are shown on Plate VI.
These are extension tables.

The upper one is the old "draw-table," and is not used much now.
A study of the drawings will show that the leaves enlarging the table
are slides that pull out from beneath the top. Each slide is about
half the length of the top, so the table is nearly doubled in length when
both are pulled out. It should be noted, too, that to be of service
the slide must be pulled out its full length, otherwise the top and slide
are not on the same level. This means that there are but two changes
in size for this kind of a table. Either it is increased by the whole of
one leaf or by both. The top of the table is not solidly fastened to
the frame, but is free to move vertically, a little, though prevented
from moving in any other direction by keys fastened to its underside
and passing through a rail, the same thickness as the leaves, fastened

32 TABLES.

to the frame. Each slide has two bearing pieces fastened to its un-
derside, one at each end. The bearing pieces are as long as the
frame of the table, or a little longer, and when the slide is drawn out
one end of them bears against the underside of the rail to which the
top is keyed, while their lower edge rests on the frame of the table,
notched to receive it. They are cut at the proper bevel, so when
drawn out the top and slide are on a level, and the slide is held se-
curely in place against the edge of the top.

The common extension table is familiar to every one. The
illustration presents it in the simplest form. It is really a table with
a telescopic frame, and provided with extra sections of a top that may
be added till the frame is extended its full length. The leaves are
made of sizes from twelve inches to twenty wide, and the tables are
made to extend as desired, the average being from twelve to sixteen
feet.

Each manufacturer has his own method of constructing the tele-
scopic frame, or slides as they are called, the differences depending
on patented devices for holding the slides together. The principle,
however, is the same in all. Plate VI. illustrates a section through
two slides showing one device. The sides of the slides are grooved
to receive keys that dovetail them together. Each slide when pulled
out to the extreme laps over those adjoining it about one-third, and
stops are provided to prevent their being separated more than this.
The slides are of wood, an inch and a half to two inches thick, nearly
as wide as the table frame is deep and about as long as the under-
side of the table, when closed, will permit. The number of slides de-
pends on the length to which the table is to be extended. There are
two sets ; an odd number on each side of the table. The outer pair
are screwed firmly to the underside of one-half of the top, and the
inner pair to the other half. All the slides, except these, are free to
move. As most tables extend too much for the slides to support
the weight at the middle, it is usual to provide a center leg. This leg
is fastened to the middle of a transverse rail screwed securely to
the middle slide of each group.

The frame of the table when extended is separated at the middle,
and if a cloth cover is not used the slides are exposed to view. This
interrupted frame is unsightly, and each leaf may be provided with
its section of frame so that when in place no gap is left between the
extended ends. There are card tables made so two of the legs and one
side can be pulled out to support a leaf when it is open. They are
small extension tables, the frame itself forming a part of the slides.

A DRAW TABLE

5L1DE. CLOStD

5LCTi°M THROUGH
T°P CF DRAW TABLE j

EXTENSION TABLES

PLATE VI.

"""V SLIDE. DWIWN OUt

ENLARGED SECTI°n 5H°W!NG
KEY THROUGH RAIL *A T°
H°LD T°P IN PLACE)

£§

§ ^

ARCHITECT

CHAPTER III.
Chairs, Seats, Sofas.

THE parts of a chair are the legs, the seat frame, the back, and
the arms. Plate XL

The seat frame, and in most instances all the rails are dowelled to
the legs and back posts. The seat frame is stiffened by corner blocks
screwed securely to the inner side. If these blocks are wide and
well fastened they add very materially to the strength of the chair.
The upholstery blocks mentioned on page 31 also stiffen the fram-
ing. The conditions given the designer usually determine the use
of the chair and how much of it is to be upholstered. With this in-
formation given, he is free to make the rest as he likes, and he de-
cides upon the form and proportion of the chair as a whole without
respect to detail. This may be studied in plan and elevation at a
convenient scale, or perhaps, in perspective, if the idea is sufficiently
clear in the mind to do so. It is, however, only by means of the pro-
jection drawings that the true forms of the different parts may be
known, and even though the sketch is made at once without their aid
a knowledge of what they are like is necessary. Chairs, when drawn
in side elevation, assume one of the five elementary forms shown on
Plate VII., where attention is called to the relation of the supporting
members to a vertical line. These outlines are drawn from actual
examples, and are at the same scale for purposes of comparison.

The front elevation will appear like one of the three types shown
on this plate. The one on the right, if drawn in side elevation, would
have a straight back and straight legs ; the one on the left would
have the side elevation like one of the first three illustrated; the one
in the middle would appear in side elevation much the same as it
does in the front, i. e., all legs and the back inclined. It is a drawing
of a Windsor chair, with a solid wood seat, sometimes called the sad-
dle seat because of its shape. The legs and back posts are fastened
in this seat by inserting the full size of the turning in holes bored for

38 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS.

them, and the seat frame is omitted ; but the legs are tied together by
stretchers.

Italian and German chairs, with backs and legs of solid boards
elaborately carved, appear in the same inclined form when drawn in
elevation. The "scissor" pattern was originally a folding chair, but
although the form is retained it is not always made to fold, though
both folding and fixed chairs present a similar elevation. The plan
of a chair seat approximates a square, a triangle, or a circle. The
principle varieties with the position of the legs, in relation to the
frame, indicated by the shading, are shown on Plate VIII. The
square plan, though not uncommon, is less frequently seen than the
trapezoidal. This latter is perhaps the most used, either with the
straight frame, as on the left of the dotted line in the illustration, or
curved as on the right. Triangular seats though used in olden times
are not common now, except for corner seats.

The circular and composite plans are constantly employed. The
composite form made up of curves and marked "French," is the
plan of the Louis XV. arm chair given as an example of rendering,
Plate XVIII. , and the plan on the right marked "Windsor," is that of
a Windsor chair similar to the "inclined form," Plate VII.

The outline of nearly all chair-backs is either rectangular or trap-
ezoidal. Plate IX. If of the first, the back posts are perpendicular
to the floor line and the legs are the same distance apart at the floor
as at the seat level.

If of the second form, the back posts are inclined to the floor line
so that the legs are nearer together at the floor than at the seat level,
and the back of the chair is proportionately wider at the top than it is
at the seat. Though a chair may have a more complex and elaborate
back than any of those taken as examples for illustration, an analysis
of the outline will result in finding that it is based on one of these
figures. The other four shapes illustrated are not as frequently used
as the first two. This is particularly true of the polygonal and semi-
circular patterns.

Both of these are taken from French examples. The elliptical
back is also a favorite form for French chairs. The shield-back is
characteristic of chairs made by Hepplewhite about 1793, and called
by many "Colonial." It is well to observe, while studying these
outlines, a constructive principle common to all of them. Whatever
[he outline of the back it is made up of two vertical posts extending
from the floor to a horizontal rail connecting them at the top ; at the

ARMCHAIRS

SEAT PLMS

P°5IT!ON °F LEGS.

H°RIZ°flTAL ARM

JQlMUL

PLATE IX

OUTLINE OF CHAIR BACKS

TRAPEZOIDAL

P°LY<i<>r<AL

ELLIPTICAL

SEM|v CIRCULAR, (5

SHIELD

COMPOSITION OF BACH

PLATE X,

PANELED

'SPLAT
VERTICAL

'BANISTER*

VERTICAL

U 0 () b

04K>

C'-nr^siTE.

_^ S^ ft R

' f<>l)R BACK" (4)

HORIZONTAL

OUTLIML °F T°P RAILS

TRAPEZOIDAL

CIRCULAR.

CONSTRUCTION OF BACK. 45

seat level is a horizontal rail (seat frame) ; and in some instances there
is another horizontal rail at a greater or less distance above the seat.

The student is to notice especially that the uprights (the back legs)
are of one piece from the floor to the top rail of the back. This is
often forgotten by beginners in chair designing, and weak, almost
impossible, shapes are given to the back as a result. The elliptical
and shield-backs, though at first glance violating this rule, are really
composed of the parts as mentioned above. A larger drawing of the
shield-back is given on Plate XVII., showing by the dotted lines the
prolongation of the lower part of the leg; and the joints where the
top and bottom rails of the shield meet the uprights are also indicated.
Another chair back is also shown on the plate illustrating the same
principle. There is but one exception to the above method of con-
struction, and that is, when a solid wood seat is used ; similar to the
saddle seated Windsor; the German Stuhle, with turned legs; and
the Italian Scabelum, with its solid board supports. In this case the
legs and the back are separate. Each leg is inserted in holes for the
purpose in the board seat.

Having determined on the outline of a chair back it is necessary
to study its composition, that is, to decide how the space within the
outline is to be treated. This question is sometimes decided before
the design is begun, as, for instance, when it is panelled, or uphol-
stered. If, however, it is to be of some other pattern, study is neces-
sary. Aside from the methods just mentioned, the back may be
filled with slats arranged in one of the four ways shown on Plate X.

A single broad slat ("splat") may be placed in the middle of the
back between the top and the seat rail, or it may stop on a horizontal
rail just above the seat. Such a slat can be treated as desired either
with figured veneers, inlay, painting, carving, perforations, etc. A
back composed of a number of vertical turned or half turned slats
filling the space has been called a "banister back." But the slats are
not always turned, they are sometimes flat, moulded, perforated, in-
layed, or carved. They are sometimes placed horizontally and bowed,
the concave side toward the seat. The curvature increases as the
slats approach the top; so, though the lower slat may be nearly
straight, the top one is hollowed considerably to receive the shoulders
of a person sitting in the chair. This gradual change in the curva-
ture of the slats is sometimes substituted for the sloping of the back
posts.

Chairs made with turned posts and having horizontal slats in the

46 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS.

back were named by the number of slats. As, three backed, or four
backed chairs; that is, three or four horizontal slats. Five backed
chairs were quite uncommon.

It is perhaps almost unnecessary to say that both horizontal and
vertical slats may be used in the same back. There is an endless
variety of ways in which these slats and balusters may be grouped,
spaced, and proportioned to fill the space well. Whether the slats
or the spaces shall be the broadest? What is the best outline for the
balusters? Are the kind of questions the designer is to ask himself,
striving always to obtain the beautiful rather than the eccentric and
curious forms.

The outline of the top rail of the "rectangular" and "trapezoidal"
backs has its influence on the appearance of the chair, and it may be
more or less ornamented. Four forms are shown on Plate X. which
explain themselves.

In Plate VIII. are shown five plans of arm chairs. One of these
has the arm straight, following the plan of the seat. Two of the
others indicate how the space between the arms is made wider than
the seat at the back by curving the arm ; the front post remaining in
the same position as in the first plan. The plans drawn beneath the
chair with the "receding arm post" show how the arm may be a
compound curve or a continuation of the curve of the back. In the
former not only does the curve give a maximum width between the
arms, but it also permits of the front scroll of the arm turning out,
thus preventing the chair from seeming narrow.

In some chairs the plan of the arm follows the curve of the back
so there is no angle where the two join. This is illustrated in the
plan of a "Windsor" chair, where the piece from which the arm is
cut is continuous from one side of the chair to the other, the slats of
the back passing directly through it.

Chair arms may be horizontal or they may slope to a greater or
less degree with the highest point where they join the back.
Stretchers are used to strengthen the chair. The legs when braced
by them are more firm and less likely to loosen at the seat frame
joint. Plate VIII. gives the plans of three arrangements of stretchers.
When placed high enough to be out of the way of the feet of a person
using the chair the stretcher may form a trapezoid parallel to the
seat frame ; or, if the chair seat is high and a foot rest is desired, the
stretcher may be arranged this way and set low for the purpose. In
olden times European chairs were always made high and with a foot

DIMENSIONS OF SEAT. 47

rest, that a person might keep his feet off of the cold fkrofs. Now
that it is not necessary to keep the feet away from the floor, it is not
customary to allow them to touch the stretchers of chairs. These
are, therefore, arranged diagonally between the legs of the chair ;
or, the front and back legs are joined together by rails, while a third
unites the two side rails. This third rail may be set in any position,
but frequently it is a little nearer the front than the back.

One of the most difficult tasks the furniture draughtsman has is
to design and lay out for the shop the drawing of a chair that will be
satisfactory. No drawing is more deceptive than the full size for a
chair, and it is by experience only that a draughtsman can judge what
will result from the working drawing. Most draughtsmen of con-
siderable experience when working out a detail endeavor to have be-
fore them a chair somewhat similar to the one they are drawing.

A good chair should first of all be comfortable to sit in. If in-
tended for general service it ought not to be too heavy to move about
easily, and it should be well proportioned.

In planning the seat determine its height above the floor, its width
at the front, its width at the back, and the depth from front to back.
These vary as desired, and what will make a satisfactory chair for one
person, may be quite unsuited to another ; consequently there are all
sorts and sizes of chairs. It is, however, desirable to have a starting
point from which to reckon, and experience has fixed a chair seat
eighteen inches above the floor as proper, no conditions being given.
If it is less than this it is considered low, and if more it is high. The
purpose for which a chair is to be used also serves as a guide for di-
mensions. If intended for use at a writing table eighteen inches will
be 'satisfactory ; if for a dining chair eighteen and a half, or nineteen
inches is not too high. Occasionally as high as twenty inches may
be used. When the chair is not to be used at a table seventeen and a
half, or seventeen inches high is satisfactory for most purposes.

In making the drawing from which a chair is to be constructed
care must be taken to determine whether it is to have castors or not.
If it is to have them the leg must be shortened accordingly, for the
average castor is one and five eighths inches high from the floor to
the top of the plate screwed to the under side of the chair leg.

The depth of the seat, that is, the distance from the front to the
back, is varied with the height. It is not entirely a matter of appear-
ance, though within limits it may be made to please the eye. . Gener-
ally, the lower the seat, the deeper it should be. If the chair seat is

48 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS.

high, and too deep, the feet of the occupant will not rest on the floor,
if he sits back in the chair. Such a chair is uncomfortable, and any
one using it either sits on the front edge, perhaps tilting the chair
forward on the front legs, or uses a foot stool. Either there is no
support for the back or none for the feet when such a chair is used.

A chair that is too low, and shallow in the seat, obliges the occu-
pant to stretch his legs out in front or he becomes cramped against
the back of the chair so that almost unconsciously he tips it back-
wards. Many have tried to devise a rule by which the correct pro-
portion between height and depth of seat can be determined, but
thus far none seems to suit all conditions. Approximately, the sum
of the depth of the seat plus its height is equal to thirty-five inches.

Chairs for use at a table may be from fifteen to eighteen inches
deep ; comfortable, upholstered chairs twenty inches deep ; large,
low, upholstered chairs may be twenty-four inches deep inside meas-
urement The width of the seat, from side to side, may be any size
called for by the character of the design, except in the case of an arm
chair, when it must not be too narrow.

Arm chairs are necessarily wider than others, in order that there
may be room between the arms for a person to sit easily without feel-
ing crowded. The space between the arms should not be less than
twenty inches at the front edge of the seat, nor less than eighteen at
the back. The arm ought also to be of such a height, slope, and
length that it will form a convenient rest for the hand and forearm,
as well as a side support for the body. Here again arises the condi-
tions of the use of the chair ; for, if it is to be used at a table the arm
ought not to project forward in a way to prevent placing the chair
as close to the table as is desirable for comfort. For such chairs the
arm post, that is the upright from the seat supporting the arm, if a
continuation of the front leg, is curved backward sufficiently to keep
the scroll of the arm back of, or on a line with, the front edge of the
chair seat.

The arm post may, however, not be a part of the front post, but
entirely independent. Then, it also receeds that the scroll of the arm
may be kept well away from the front of the chair. Plate VIII. This
arrangement has the advantage of leaving the front of the seat free
from obstructions that too closely confine the sitter.

Arm posts on the front edge of the seat interfere with ladies
dresses, and in many of the French chairs the arm posts not only re-
ceed but curve outward at the same time, thus giving considerable
more freedom for the person and the clothing.

INCLINATION OF BACK.

It is customary to make the width of the seat at the-ba-ek a trifle
less than at the front, in order to avoid the optical illusion of its ap-
pearing wider at the back than at the front, as is sometimes the case
when the sides are parallel. This difference in width is about two
or three inches.

Hepplewhite gives as the general dimensions of a chair: width in
front 20 inches, depth of seat 17 inches, height of seat frame 17
inches, (his chair seats are about 1-2 or I inch above the frame);
total height 3 feet I inch.The height of a chair back is a matter of de-
sign, and it may be proportioned accordingly. It may, or may not,
be inclined to the seat ; its side posts may be slightly inclined, while
the middle slopes considerably, thus providing a hollow in which the
shoulders of the sitter rest comfortably. Modern chairs usually have
the back inclined, though chairs for use in the entrance hall and
dining-room are, perhaps, made with the back vertical.

. The amount of slope given the back depends on the use to which
the chair is put. An easy chair reclines the most, and just as a low
chair is deeper in the seat than a high chair, so, too, may the back
slope more on a low seat chair than on a high one. A chair with
arms may also have a back more inclined than one without.

The appearance of stability is largely influenced by the inclination
of the back. So much so, that it is found desirable in most chairs to
slope the back legs outwards a little to counteract the apparent ten-
dency of the chair to upset. An arbitrary rule is: the slope of the
back for a chair without arms should not be more than one fourth
the depth of the seat and chairs with arms not more than one half.

The legs and rails of chairs should appear firm enough to sup-
port, not alone the chair, but the person that sits in it. For chairs
with straight legs, whether turned or square in section, the matter of
strength is one of size only. The bandy-leg, however, requires more
care that the curve may not be too great. Rococo work defies the
laws of wood structure, yet it may be properly made so as, in a meas-
ure, to reconcile the critic to its eccentricity. In describing the
rococo table leg (page 14) it was told how to overcome the ap-
parent, as well as actual, weakness of this form of support, and what
was said then will apply as well to* chair legs.

'Many chairs are more or less upholstered. It may be the seat
only that is thus treated, or the entire woodwork, except perhaps the
legs, may be hidden by a covering of upholsterer's work.

The simplest methods of upholstering seats are the two padded

50 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS.

varieties in which no springs are used. No. i, Plate XL, shows a
cheap way when a hard seat is not objectionable, and it is desir-
able that there should be a little elasticity. In the illustration the pad-
ding is fastened directly to the frame of the seat so when complete it
appears the same as an upholstered, spring seat. In some instances
the padding is fastened to a separate, loose frame resting in a re-
bate of the seat frame, and if the chair is turned bottom up the seat
will fall out. Such is the way Chippendale and Hepplewhite chairs
are often made.

The foundation for the padded seat is webbing stretched as tightly
as possible across the frame, front to back, and side to side. The
widths interlace, over and under, each other so as to make a firm
plaited mat covering the frame. On top of this a piece of burlap is
stretched and tacked all round the edge of the frame. On the burlap
is spread sufficient curled hair to make the requisite padding of the
seat, and this is held in place by a piece oi muslin, or cotton flannel,
drawn tightly over it and tacked to the side of the frame. The web-
bing and burlaps are tacked to the upper edge. The seat is now
ready for any cover that may be chosen, and when at hand the up-
holsterer spreads it over the muslin cover and tacks it to the frame.
The tack heads are afterwards covered by a gimp, which is usually
glued on, even though nails are afterwards driven in to apparently
secure it. The seat just described is the simplest, as well as the
cheapest form of upholstery permissible in good work. It has the
disadvantage of being hard, and in a short time the webbing becomes
stretched so the seat sags in the middle.

A better seat, requiring a little more work, is shown in No. 2,
Plate XL It differs from No. i only in the amount of hair and the
way it is used. As there is more hair than in the first instance, the
seat frame is made lower that the extra quality of hair may not
raise the seat too high.

The hair is placed on the webbing foundation and covered with
burlaps. The edges are then stitched by passing a needle in at the
side, out at the top, and then back again to the side, and so forth,
until the entire edge of the seat has been sewed in this way. When
the edge becomes quite hard and firm with the amount of hair that
has been stitched in it the middle of the seat is also sewed through
and through until it is a trifle lower than the edges. This makes a
firm, somewhat hard, hair cushion with its edge a little higher than
the rest. The hollow is then well filled with hair, and over this the

PLATE. XI

CONSTRUCTION AND UPHOLSTERY OF CHAIRS

UPHOLSTER

COVER

UPHOLSTERY 0l«CK

UPHOLSTERY. 53

muslin, and finally the cover is drawn. Such a seat has all the ap-
pearance of one upholstered with springs, and is comfortable enough
where something firm is wanted.

No. 3 illustrates the spring seat. It differs from No. 2 in this re-
spect: the webbing is fastened to the underside of the seat frame, in-
stead of the top, and on it are placed the springs. Over them is
stitched a burlap on which the hair or stuffing is placed. The re-
mainder of the work is the same as for padded seat No. 2. The edge
is stitched, hair is added, the muslin is drawn over, and finally the
cover.

If it is desirable to make the seat so that none of the woodwork
shall show, no difference occurs until the cover is put on, when in-
stead of fastening it, as illustrated, just above the lower edge of the
frame, it is brought down over the frame and tacked to the under
side. In such work cotton wadding is placed between the frame and
the cover that the wood may not be felt, if the hand is in contact with
the lower part of the seat.

Chair seats that are upholstered have a block of wood notched
around the corner post on the inner side, and fastened to the top
of the seat frame, where it joins the back. This is the "upholstery
block," and is needed by the upholsterer to tack the cover on where
it fits around the back post. The upper surface of this block is about
one-half inch below the level of the finished seat.

Chair backs may be upholstered in a manner similar to seats, and
the methods are the same. The term "over-stuffed pieces" is ap-
plied to furniture that is upholstered so that none of the framework,
except the legs, is visible. No. 4, Plate XL illustrates an arm chair
of this description, showing the framework and the method of cover-
ing it. The frame is of hardwood, and is constructed the same as
any other chair. The seat frame is set low in order that there may
be plenty of room for large springs, making the seat soft and easy.

Beneath the upper rail of the arm, and also of the back is a second
rail left loose that it may be fastened where desired by the upholsterer.
These rails are used by him for fastening the lower edges of the arm
and back covers, which are put on after the seat is upholstered.

The seat frame of overstuffed pieces should be so constructed that
the webbing may be tacked to it at a point not more than eleven inches
below the level of the top of the springs, if springs of usual dimen-
sions are used. It may be less, if desired, for then smaller springs
can be used, or large springs may be tied down. The top of the seat

CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS.

is about two and a half inches above the top of the springs. Some-
times the seat frame is very deep, and were the webbing tacked to
its lower edge the springs would be much below the level required.
In such instances either a strip of wood is fastened all round the inside
of the frame to which the webbing may be tacked or else an extra
loose frame is covered by webbing and set inside the seat frame at the
proper level.

The upper edge of the seat frame is usually about halfway between
the level of the webbing and top of the springs. The method of up-
holstering the seat and back when springs are used, is the same as
described above for No. 3. In the work on the back, however, there
will be noticed on the illustration a portion marked ''roll." This is
made of hair stitched in burlap to make a firm edge, all round the
back frame, possessing elasticity enough not to feel hard when
leaned against. Over this the covers are drawn.

In good work the upholsterer carefully covers all edges of the
wood with hair stitched in burlap and all flat surfaces with cotton
batting, so that at no point is the wood beneath easily detected by
the touch.

Overstuffed pieces do not admit of a great variety of good forms.
There are no end of patterns, or designs, in which an attempt has
been made to produce something new and good; but most of them
are unsatisfactory.

The beauty of this class of work is dependent on the absence of
fussy, unnecessary trimmings, and on the outline. This outline
ought to be one that seems the natural result of using upholsterers'
materials, and the simplest best fills this requirement. Upholstery
may be either plain or tufted, and the choice is at times a matter of
taste, but frequently tufting is a constructive necessity. When the
seat level is high above the frame tufting of the front edge prevents,
to a degree, the sagging of the covering when the chair is occupied
and the springs compressed. A border formed by a line of stitching
along the front about half the height of the seat sometimes serves
the same purpose. These methods also prevent the cover from ap-
pearing too large after the piece has been used awhile and the stuf-
fing is matted down. It is also advisable to tuft the seat and back of
very large pieces for the same reason ; or, as a decorative feature if
the covering material is plain, unfigured goods. The tufting should
always be proportioned to the size of the article. Where the surface
to be upholstered is concave tufting is necessary, otherwise the ma-

THE COVER. 55

terial can not readily be made to follow the curve. The ordinary
form of tufting is to sew the goods in at the four corners-~f>f-a diamond,
but occasionally for concave surfaces it becomes more like a series of
rolls side by side and the full length of the hollow.

The material used as a cover for over stuffed pieces largely affects
their appearance ; goods that would be well suited to one chair may
not look right on another. The color is governed by the decora-
tions of the room in which the furniture is placed. It need not, per-
haps should not, be the same color as the walls since contrast is de-
sirable, but it must be in harmony with the surroundings. The pat-
tern of the goods may be of a historic style similar to the design of
the room, though it does not seem necessary to confine oneself too
closely, for in many instances, the figure of the goods is entirely lost
in the tufting, and a color effect is all that impresses itself on the
mind. This is largely true also of pieces without tufting.

It is well to avoid patterns too pronounced in form or out of scale
with the article covered. Then, too, it is not desirable to use de-
signs composed of objects that a person would not care to sit on, as
shells, sharp tesellated forms, musical instruments, buildings, land-
scapes, etc. The suitable materials are those woven with an "all
over" ornament of a size adapted to the intended use, and treated in
a flat way without imitating modelling in relief.

Over stuffed articles have no woodwork, except the legs, show-
ing and they sometimes seem too light for the mass above, though
really they may be more than strong enough. If fringe is hung
from the lower edge of the upholstery to the floor the feet are hidden
and the general mass is apparently resting on the floor, the fringe
serving to carry the color and lines to that level. The length of the
fringe may be about one-half the height of the seat. The best taste
admits of only simple fringes free from small drapings, "skirts," or
elaborate nettings that soon become dirty and shabby. When the
supports of the furniture are sufficiently heavy to suggest no thought
of weakness, and there is a frame of show wood below the upholstery
no fringe is required.

The rush seat chair is not in common use, as it was a number of
years ago, yet occasionally it is wanted. The frame for such a seat
is shallow, not more than an inch and a quarter, and has all its edges
rounded. Sometimes the frame is nothing more than turned sticks
over which the rushes are twisted and woven into a seat entirely cov-
ering them.

56 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS.

The cane seat requires a flat frame usually above the seat frame,
though it may replace it. On the inner edge of this frame holes are
bored through which the cane is drawn and stretched across the open-
ing until a seat is formed.

•The sofa is practically an extremely wide chair, and the data given
for chairs may be applied to it.

The following is a table of dimensions of various chairs taken from
satisfactory examples :

CHAIR DIMENSIONS.

Arms.

Seat. Depth Height

/-— Width.—- •> Out- < --- Back. --- > from

Variety. Height. Front. Back. side. Height. Slope, floor.

Bedroom chair. . . . 18 16 13 17 34 2% . .

Baby's high chair1 .. 20 14 12 13% 37 3 27

Cheek chair3 ...... 17 29 25 27y2 44 4% . .

"Chip" chair ...... 17 22 17% 17 39

" ...... 18 22 17 17% 38

Dining chair ...... 20 24 22 L'2 45 2% LN>%

" ...... 20 19 17 19 43 2

" ...... 19 19 17 18 38% 1% ..

" ...... 18 20 15 15 36 2

Easy chair ........ 17 33 28 *24 43 5 21

Easy chair3 ....... 17 27 25 27% 41 (»% 20

"Hepplewhite" chair 18 21% 17 17 34% 2 27

Parlor chair3 ...... 16% 24 19% 18% 36 4 25%

Parlor chair2 ...... 14 21 21 *18 29

Parlor chair2 ...... 18 26% 22% 2(5% 37 4 2."»

Parlor chair* ...... 18 20 13 19 36 3 23

Piano bench ...... 20 40 .. 15 ......

Reception chair5. . . 17 21 19 21 30 2

Recking chair ..... 16 23% 20% 19% 41 2 24

"Roundabout" chair 18 18 18 18 29% 0 28%

"Rubens" chair ____ 20% 17% 17% 15 40 O

"Slipper" chair. ... 12 18 15 17 28

1Foot rest 12 ins. above floor; 2overstuff ed ; 3French cane seat and
back; *wood arm and back; 6upholstered seat.
*Depth inside.

SOFA DIMENSIONS.

Seat.

Depth

Arms.
Height

, Width.—- >

Out-

/ Back. — -^

frr m

Variety.
Small

Height.
IK

Front.
43

Back.
40

side.
21

Height.
32%

Slope.

flocr
24

•

Extra large

Ordinary sofa

Lounge

Note.— All

dimensions are

given

in inches.

Heights.

are above the

floor. Slope cf back is measured, at seat level, to a perpendicular
through highest point of the back.

CHAPTER IV.
Casework, Panelling, Bedsteads*

The beauty of casework is- dependent on : Firstly, its proportion as
a whole. That is whether the height, the width, and the depth are of
dimensions that appear well together. In most problems at least
one of these dimensions is fixed by some requirement of utility. The
designer is then expected to decide the other two.

Secondly, the disposition of the parts (i. e. panels, framing, archi-
tectural members, such as columns, mouldings, etc.), of which the
case is composed has its influence on the design. Whether the panels
are large, or small ; whether they are arranged in pairs, or grouped
in another way; whether the mouldings are heavy or light; etc., are
the questions studied.

Thirdly: The ornamentation. This is the last point to be consid-
ered, because if the general form is bad no amount of decoration,
whatever its quality, will make a good piece of furniture. As the
subject of the ornamentation of furniture is treated as a separate
chapter (VI) it need not be discussed further here.

In front elevation casework usually approaches more or less the
form of a rectangle and the first condition in its design is to find a
method for determining the ratio of the sides of a rectangle most
agreeable to the eye. This has already been studied by several writers
with at least two solutions.

One assumes a square as the starting point and implies that any rec-
tangle, having two sides equal to the sides of the square will be well
proportioned if the other two sides are not more than twice its length.
In other words, a well-formed rectangle is not more than two squares
long. Plate XII.

Another ratio given is that of two to three. Assuming that if the
width of the rectangle is two, the length should be three. This ratio,
of course, is included within the limits of the first method.

For the purposes of designing it may be assumed that the rectan-

58 CASEWORK.

gle, whether vertical or horizontal, represents the principle mass of
the case. What is technically known as the body. To this may be
added at the top the crowning members, and at the bottom the base
on which the whole is supported. To the sides may be added the
projections of mouldings, columns, brackets, or other decorative
features.

The relation of the various parts to each other and to the whole
should be kept in mind. Often casework consists of an upper and
lower section. The lower part must not only be sufficiently strong to
support what is above it, but it ought to appear so without seeming
heavier than is necessary. The base or feet should be proportioned
to the mass above and the crown members, well supported, are to
be made large enough to serve as a finish for the case without appa-
rently crushing it.

The spacing and arranging of the principal lines dividing the case
into panels, drawers, etc., is to be such as will give pleasing results,
and there are an infinite number of arrangements possible. The
whole mass may be divided into two equal parts by a post the same
size as one on each corner of the cabinet, No. 3, Plate XII. This
sort of a division has the disadvantage of causing the case to appear
as if it were made of two smaller ones placed together, and as if the
two parts were balanced on the middle line. It is not considered the
best way of doing.

A similar composition is one in which the case is divided into three
parts with the middle one the smallest. This has the faults of the for-
mer method though not in such a marked degree. When three di-
visions are made the best appearance is obtained by making the mid-
dle one larger than those each side of it. No. 6, Plate XII. Other
arrangements are also shown on this same plate.

As was mentioned above, furniture should be adapted to its use,
and if possible its design should indicate the use. The location of an
article in a room has its effect on the appearance. So much so, that if
possible the designer should study the surroundings. He is then in
a position to make a design that will harmonize with the decoration
of the room, and an article of a size best suited to the space it will oc-
cupy. He can also see how much light will fall on it and be governed
somewhat by this in determining the size of the mouldings, etc. If
the room is well lighted a moulded member if fine and delicate will
show to advantage but in a dark corner larger moulding will be more
suitable.

COMPOSITION

AND

PROPORTION

PLATE XH.

MOULDINGS. 6 1

As casework pieces are usually the largest in the room they are
quite prominent, no matter how simple they may be, and "care must
be taken not to make their presence obtrusive by over ornamentation.
The decoration used should be appropriate, sparingly applied, and
of the highest quality of execution. Casework approaches nearer to
architectural designing than any other furniture draughting. In
nearly every article mouldings are used that are identical with those
of architecture. They are combined in the same way and their use is
for much the same purpose. There are eight forms from which nearly
all others are derived by combination or variation and their names
are of importance as serving a means for description.

Plate XIV. illustrates these mouldings as follows:

The -fillet is a narrow, flat surface, usually above or below another
moulding, and it may be either a projecting or receding member.
When below the surrounding surface it is a sunk fillet.

The bead is a small, half-round moulding either projecting from or
even with the surrounding surface. In the latter case there is a nar-
row groove at one side, and it is called a quirked bead.

The cavetto is a hollow moulding, the outline of which does not ex-
ceed a quarter circle; and the ovolo is the reverse of the cavetto; that
is, a projecting member of which the outline is a segment not exceed-
ing a quarter. The cavetto and ovolo are not always circular in out-
line. Any curve may be employed, but the circular or elliptical form
are most common.

The cynia recta, or ogee, has a profile composed of two arcs hol-
low and convex, like a wave, the hollow at the top. The crown mem-
ber of cornices is often made with this moulding.

The cyma reversa, as its name indicates, is the reverse of the ogee ;
the convex curve is at the top and the concave below.

The scotia is a concave moulding with the outline a segment of a
circle often greater than a semi-circle. It is sometimes called a thumb
moulding, and the hollow section is then composed of two tangent
arcs of different radii.

A torus is a large convex moulding usually with a semi-circular
profile. When any of these mouldings are used beneath a horizontal
surface forming an angle with a vertical one it is called a bed mould.

Later we will see that mouldings used to hold panels in place are
sometimes partly above the surrounding rails. They are then called
raised mouldings to distinguish them from Hush mouldings which are
level with the rail. Mouldings serve various practical purposes but

CASEWORK.

their aesthetic effect is to be thought of. They produce much the same
result, when used as a frame, that a line border does about a drawing.
The effect of light and shade on a moulding is to produce a series of
lines that vary indefinitely, according to the proportions of the mould-
ings and its parts. A deep undercut moulding gives a heavy dark
shadow, a black line ; and a narrow flat moulding a light shadow ; a
fine line.

•«» ^

The position of the moulding in relation to the eye may also appar-
ently increase or diminish its members. If it is placed above or be-
low the eye so the mouldings ascends or descends, respectively,
and recede from the eye the member will diminish in size appearing
thinner than it is. On the other hand, if the moulding descends or
ascends respectively the member will appear thicker than it really is.

When a moulded member is composed of two or more of the sim-
ple forms described above it owes its charm somewhat to the intro-
duction of a fillet which separates each moulding from that adjoining.
An important combination of mouldings is their use in the crown
members of cabinets. We have already called attention to having
this proportioned to the size of the body below ; in addition, it should
not project too much. If its overhang is not greater than its depth it
will usually look well but in many instances it will be found desirable
to keep somewhat within this limit.

Mouldings may be ornamented by carving and when so treated

CASE CONSTRUCTION

All

CORN ICE.

PLINTH •*

RIBATt TO RECEIVE SACK,
TOP

TO ttftlYt BACK,

CONSTRUCTION.

care must be taken to preserve their general form. It is usual on
architectural members to employ the profile of the moulding as the
leading line of the ornaments upon it. Thus, the fillet may be dec-
orated by vertical lines as flutes, fret, or dentils ; the bead, by "pearls,"
bead and spindle ; the torus by the guilloche ; the ovolo, by an egg and
dart ; and the cymas, by the heart ornament, etc.

Cases are composed of a top, a bottom, and uprights between which
are panels of wood or glass. Plate XIII. shows a section of a cabinet
with the parts separated so as to illustrate how it is constructed.
The column forming the corner post is doweled to the base and cor-
nice. The sides and back are panelled and are either doweled or re-
bated to the other parts. The bottom and top is composed of a frame

JOINTS

PLAIN DOVETAIL

LAP DOVETAIL

MITRED DOVETAIL

MGRT15E. AMD TENON

DOWEL JOINT

5TU3 TENOM

surrounding a panel. In order to build all parts together use is made
of several kinds of joints. Though these are not always shown; on
the drawings it is desirable that the draughtman be familiar with them.
They may be arranged in three groups, comprising those commonly
used in furniture construction ; the butt, the angle, and the framing
joint.

66 CASEWORK.

The butt-joint is employed when two pieces of wood are joined to-
gether in the same plane. The simplest form is when the edges of the
two pieces are brought together and held by glue, no other connect-
ing medium being used. This is often sufficient, and when properly
made is quite strong. It is almost invisible in the majority of woods
when made so the grain is parallel with the line of contact.

When a stronger method is required, and one side of the pieces
joined is hidden from view, blocks are glued across the joint, on the
unexposed surface, so as to stiffen it. The grain of these blocks must
be parallel with that of the joined pieces that shrinkage may not
loosen, or cause them to crack.

Another way of uniting the edges of two boards is by the tongue
and groove. A tongue, or projecting piece, along the middle of the
edge of one piece is matched to a groove in the edge of the other.
Sometimes in place of this, a groove is cut in the edge of each of the
boards throughout their entire length. Into these grooves is then
glued a hardwood strip, called the tongue or slip-feather, uniting the
two pieces.

The most popular joint with the cabinet-maker is the dowel-joint.
It is, perhaps, the best where the wood is of sufficient thickness to per-
mit its use. A dowel is a wooden pin used for fastening two pieces of
wood together by inserting part of its length into one piece, the rest
entering a corresponding hole in the other. Sometimes a number of
dowels are fitted tightly into holes bored for them in one of the pieces
to be joined and the other has corresponding holes bored in it, in
which the dowels also fit tightly when the two pieces are glued to-
gether.

Angle joints are frequently mitred. That is the joined edges are
cut at a bevel bisecting the angle between them when united. The
union is made by butting the pieces and gluing them together. As
this does not make a strong joint in itself it is stiffened in various
ways. One method is to drive small bits of corrugated metal in the
ends of the pieces, and across the joint, thus binding the parts to-
gether. At other times corner blocks are glued on the inner side of
the mitred angle.

For rounded corners, or when a mitred angle is not wanted, the
two pieces may be tongued and grooved together. The tongue is
on the inner edge of one of the pieces so that as much wood as possi-
ble is retained outside the groove on the other. The best and strong-
est method of joining two pieces at an angle is by dovetailing. When

JOINTS. 67

the joint is made so the full thickness of each piece jqine_d is visible,
and the shape of each dovetail can be seen, the joint is a plain dove-
tail. The lapped dovetail is constructed so the joint is seen at the
side only, and is commonly used for fastening the sides and front of
drawers together. When it is desirable to have all indications of the
dovetailing hidden a combination of the mitre and dovetail is used in
which the dovetails are cut in part of the thickness of the wood and
the mitre in the remainder. Such a joint is a mitred dovetail.

The usual framing joints used by furniture makers are the dowel-
joint, and the mortise and tenon. (See also page 17.)

The true mortise (cavity) is cut near the end of one piece to receive
the tongue (tenon) of the other. The tenon is not always the full
width of the piece on which it is cut but often is narrower.

When framing for a series of panels, a groove is sunk the whole
length of two of the framing pieces (those extending horizontally,
called rails), and those at right angles to them (vertical pieces be-
tween the panels, the stiles) have tenons cut on them which fit in the
grooves. These grooves also receive the panels.- This method avoids
cutting a mortise for each tenon and the name given to the joint is
stub-tenon.

When two pieces are joined by cutting away half the thickness of
each, and then lapping them together they are said to be halved.
Such a joint is sometimes combined with a mitre so that where ex-
posed to view it appears like any mitred joint. It is then said to be
halved-mitred.

Broad surfaces of casework are panelled partially as a means of
decoration but principally for constructive reasons. If the surface
were made from a solid board it would soon crack and warp as the
wood became dryer. It might be built up and veneered as has been
described for table tops (page 18), and this is occasionally done, but
as panelling gives a change of plane with a chance for light and shade
it is more commonly used.

The panels are, however, veneered and cross-veneered on both
sides of a core whenever perfect workmanship is wanted.

Panels are surrounded by a frame which may be grooved to receive
them, but a better way is to rebate the frame and hold the panels in
by mouldings. Three ways of doing this are shown on plate XIV.
In the joiner's method either a groove is worked in the styles of the
surrounding frame to hold the panel, and then the moulding is placed
in the angle against the panel ; or, a rebate is cut in which both panel
and moulding1 are set.

68 CASEWORK.

In either case, if the moulding is nailed in, the nail will probably
be driven directly in the panel or else diagonally through both the
edge of the panel and rail. In the first instance any shrinkage of the
panel causes a crack to appear between the frame and the moulding.

To avoid this a rebate can be cut in the moulding, when it is large
enough to permit, so it will lap over on the frame a little and hide the
joint.

But here although (see illustration) the nail holds the moulding
close against the frame, it also catches the edge of the panel and pre-
vents it moving. The result is that cracks appear in the panel itself.

It does not improve matters much if the moulding is glued in for
the glue almost always binds both moulding and panel to the frame
so that a rupture will occur somewhere.

The cabinet-maker avoids these difficulties. First, he cuts a rebate
in the frame on the finish side. In this the moulding is glued solidly
so it becomes a part of the frame itself. When the glue is dry the
varnished panel is set in from the back and held in place by plain
mouldings nailed to the frame. This leaves the panel loose and free
to move should shrinkage take place. The object in varnishing the
panel before setting it is that if any movement does occur it will not
be seen by the exposure of a line of unfinished wood.

Flush panels are so named because their surface is level with the
surrounding frame. They are set in a rebate from the back and se-
cured by a nailed moulding. In most cases a bead is run all round
the edge of the panel so as to hide the joint between it and the frame.
Such panels are used for the back of cases and in places where no
decorative effect is wanted.

Panels may have the edges beveled or rebated below their sur-
face, so as to produce a sort of border around the panel itself. Such
panels are sometimes spoken of as raised panels to distinguish them
from a flat, even surface.

The surface of a panel is made of more carefully selected wood than
that used for mouldings, and rails, with the intention of having a
handsome grain. Veneers are chosen that have been cut from a por-
tion of a log furnishing strong markings, or "figures," when polished,
and these are sometimes cut in smaller pieces either half or quarter
the size of the panel, and placed together so the lines of the grain will
form a pattern or a "picture." At other times a design is inlaid on
the panel, or it is carved. The simplest form of carved panel is that
with the surface moulded to resemble, more or less, the folds of drap-
ery, and called linen, or parchment panels.

MOULDINGS AND PANELS

XIV.

flLLET. BEAD.

CAVETTO. OVOLO. CYMA RECTA AND REVER5A. 5COTIA. TORUS.
OGLE.

CLASSIC MOULDINGS'

FLUSH PAMt-L.

JOIMER5 MCTH°D. CABINET flAXEto M:

MLTHOD5 °f 5[TTIMQ PANELS

RAIL

unL

BEVELLED PANEL INLAYfP. * PAR.CHMEHT" PANEL . CARVED PA HtL .

TREATMEMT OFTHE PAMEL 5URFACL

QLAS5 fULL SIZE.
A5 A PAH EL

QLA5S ON BLOCKS MIRRORS BtVElltD GLA5S.

GLAZING. 7l

By arranging the mouldings around flat panels so as to produce
forms with a broken outline the stiff rectangular parreHs avoided.
Three varieties are shown on Plate XIV.

Bookcases, china cabinets, and others of the same class of case
work have portions of their sides glazed either with clear glass c

mirrors.

In the best of glazed work plate glass is used, but where something
less expensive is wanted the best quality of double thick sheet glass
is used Anything poorer than this should not be placed in good
work Mirrors should always be of plate glass. Glass set in doors or
substituted for panel work is cut the full size of the rebate opening
in the frame and is held in place by a loose moulding the same as a
panel Plate XIV. It is only when some special condition requires
it that the glass is secured in place by putty and glaziers' points in-
stead of the loose moulding.

Mirrors are not often cut to the full size, but are a trifle smaller
than the rebate measure and the glass is held in place by a number of
triangular blocks about three inches long placed at intervals m t
rebate These blocks serve to wedge the glass securely in place that
it may not slide in the rebate, and tfipy also reduce to a minimum the
surface of wood in contact with throating on the back of the mirror.
The silvering is protected from injury by a panelled back board
screwed to the frame after the glass w fastened in. This backboard
must not ±ouch the mirror at any point.

The glass is held in front by a moulding set in a rebate, as we
have described for panelling.

Doors are composed of a framework enclosing panels,
rights of the frame are the stiles and the horizontal parts are the rails.
They are hung either with hinges or pivots. The former are more or
less visible, but the latter are concealed. Plate XV. illustrates various
applications of these methods, No. I shows the door hung with but
and without a rebate for the door to shut against. Such a door would
be used in cabinets where the uninterrupted joint between the edge •
the door and the side of the case is not objectionable. Notice also
that unless the door can swing through an arc of 180° the width of the
opening is reduced by about the thickness of the door ; or A in ti
illustration. In most instances a rebate to receive the door is desir-
able ; and still the door hung with butts would reduce the size of 1
opening as at A, No. 2, unless the rebate is as deep as the door i
thick, No. 3.

72 CASEWORK.

Doors for cabinets having drawers within are hung this latter way,
as it enables one to pull out the drawer though the door is open at the
right angle only. No. 4 shows how a door may be hung when the
design calls for a pilaster on the corner of the case and yet the condi-
tions require that a maximum width be given to the interior. An ar-
ticle having the door hung in this manner must stand sufficiently
away from the wall or other pieces of furniture to permit the pilaster
to turn on the axis of the hinge.

Pill OR, CENTRL
HlhOE.

The pivot, pin, or center hinge is invisible and in high-class work
this is an advantage. It is also strong, and is screwed to the upper
edge of the top rail, and the lower edge of the bottom rail of the door
in a position such that a strain does not start the screws. The illus-
tration shows what it is like. There are two bars of metal narrow
enough to be entirely concealed by the thickness of the door. In one
of these bars is a hole receiving a pin, on the other bar. One of the
bars, that with the socket, is set in the frame receiving the door, the
other is on the door itself, and when complete the door turns on the
pin as an axis.

It is well to set the pivot on a line through the middle of the thick-
ness of the door; and about half the thickness of the door, plus an
eighth of an inch, away from the post against which the door turns.
That is, C = B + £ inch. No. 5 shows a pivoted door in a position
where it reduces the width of the door opening, and No. 6 shows the
pivote'd edge of the door turning in a hollow prepared for it and
provided with stops against which the edge of the door strikes either
when open or shut.

The thickness of door rails is dependent entirely on the size and
design of the door; but the bottom rail is made a little wider than the
top rail and side stiles which are of the same width.

The meeting stiles of a pair of doors are sometimes rebated, so the
joint does not extend straight through.

HANGING DOORS AND LIDS

PLATE XV.

PRAWER.

SLIDING DOORS.

Sliding doors may be provided with rollers at the bottom, or the
top, or they may slide in a groove without aids for reducing friction.
Sliding doors are often in pairs and then it is necessary to arrange
that they close tightly at the meeting stiles which overlap a little.

5TILE5 OF HINGED DOOR5.

•ASTRAGAL

f[ErnttG5TlLl5 OF GLIDING D(W5.

There is more or less space between the doors, due to the thickness
of a "parting strip," at the bottom and top, forming the groove in
which the door slides. To close this space a thin strip sufficiently
wide to extend across it is fastened to the back edge of each door.
'When the doors are closed these two strips are in contact and lap
over each other.

Desk lids may be considered as doors hung by the bottom rail, but

CASEWORK.

they seldom open wider than an angle approximately 90°, and the
method of hinging is dependent on the way the lid is supported.
. When ordinary butts are used it is necessary to have slides that
pull out beneath the lid for it to rest on, or else metal elbow-pieces,
chains, or quadrants are fastened above. Otherwise the weight of a
person's arms on the lid when it is down will break the hinges.

Illustration No. 7, Plate XV., represents a section of a lid hung in
this way ; and No. 8 is a method without slides or quadrants that may
be used for lids of cabinets where no great weight is to come on them
and butts are used. Here the hinge is not directly on the edge of the
lid, but is set a little beyond it, the lid and hanging stile having been
cut on a bevel to permit the lid swinging down to the horizontal. A
T3ortion of the case (X) just below the lid is also arranged so the lid
when down will rest on it.

The strongest lid hinge is the pivot No. 9, Plate XV. The lid
when down presses against Y and Z, and the hinge itself is con-
structed so as to take part of the strain.

tacRtTAItt HINGE.

It is practically the same as the pin hinge described above. The
part serving as a socket for the pin is, however, shaped somewhat like
a rectangle with a small projecting square on one side near one cor-
ner. The other corner of the side from which this square projects is
rounded off as a quadrant with the socket for a center. The pin bar
is also extended sufficiently to receive a second pin located so that it
just clears the edge of the quadrant, when the two parts of the hinge
are placed together, and will strike against the projecting piece of the
socket plate.

If now the socket plate is properly fastened to the side of the cab-
inet the parts of the hinge are in the position shown in the illustration,
when the lid is turned down. The second pin of the bar strikes against
the projection on the socket plate, and acts as a stop. This brings
the greater strain on the metal of the hinge itself. The location of the
pivot on the edge of the stiles is such that the screws are not pulled
out if an extra strain is jnit on them. As in every drop lid. there is

DESK LIDS. 77

more or less leverage there will be some spring when weight is ap-
plied to it. It is, therefore, advisable to use aids for srrpport; either
quadrants or braces.

The lid for small compartments of desks, or the desk lid itself may
be hung so as to raise and then slide back out of the way. A section
of a lid of this kind is given in No. 10, Plate XV. The dotted line
shows the position of the lid raised and ready to be pushed back into
the pocket. When the lid is down the upper edge strikes against the
back of a moulding so as to hide entirely the pocket into which it
slides when raised. The hinge is on the lower edge of a rebate cut in
the lid. This rebate matches a similar one cut in a strip fitted so as to
slide easily in the pocket, yet provided with stops to prevent its be-
ing pulled out. When the lid is raised this guide and the lid halve
together so as to become practically one piece.

The cylinder top desk is made so the lid will slide back into a
pocket, the edges of the lid moving in grooves cut in the sides of the
desk. When the desk is small a lid working in this way does not
slide back sufficiently to expose a convenient writing surface. The
difficulty is overcome by making the writing surface so it may be
pulled out about two-thirds the depth of the desk, and the pigeon
holes with the inkstand, etc., may be placed immediately above at
the back of the. desk. This arrangement makes quite a roomy writ-
ing table of one that would otherwise be small. It is convenient to
construct such desks so one operation will pull out the slide, and
open the lid instead of requiring each movement to take place sep-
arately.

There are many ways of doing this and the one illustrated (No. n,
Plate XV.) is by Sheraton. A metal bar is pivoted to the edge of the
lid near the back, and it is similarly attached to the slide. This bar
has a slot cut at the lower end in which the pivot on the slide may
move, and another slot near the middle in which moves a pivoted
guide attached to the side of the desk. This latter pivot is the cen-
tral point about which turns the bar connecting the slide and lid, so
when either is moved the other moves also. There are two of these
connecting bars one at each end of the desk.

Shelving in cabinets, and bookcases are made so as to be adjustable
to any heights. Sometimes they are supported by four pins, one at
eajch corner of the shelf, placed in holes bored in the sides of the case.
These holes are one inch or more apart and by changing the location
of the pins the shelf is adjusted.

78 CASEWORK.

At other times four vertical notched strips are fastened to the ends
of the case, two at each side, and in the notches cleats are placed on
which the shelves rest. By shifting the cleats the shelves are placed
as desired.

The following is a table of dimensions taken from existing exam-
ples of case work :

DIMENSIONS OF CASEWORK.

Variety. Width. Depth. Height. Remarks.

Bureau 45 20% 36%

51 23 37i/2

48 22 36%

54 20 42

Bookkeepers' desk 60 33 42

" 60 32 44 Deck 11 ins., slope 22.

Chiffonnier 39 20 48

36 20 51

Cheval glass 25 . . 65

Commode 16 16 31

Sideboard 84 32 30

Wardrobe 36 19 69

54 24 9(5

Note: All dimensions are in inches.

Bedsteads.

Bedsteads have a head board, a foot board, and two side rails. The
head and foot board are often panelled, and sometimes the side rails
also. In the old style bedstead there were four posts. These were
joined together in pairs by a rail above which was a second rail more
or less elaborately decorated by sawing, carving, turning or panelling,
thus making the head and foot boards according to the position they
occupied when united by two rails that formed the sides of the bed-
stead.

The side rails, with the lower ones of the head and foot board
formed the frame across which cords were stretched to support the
mattress. In the modern bedsteads the arrangement is much the same
except that in many of them the post is reduced to its lowest terms
and exists only as the stile for the panel work of which the head and
foot board is composed.

The side rails are made much wider than in olden times, that they
may hide the box spring which has taken the place of the cording,
and they are constructed so they may be removed and replaced as de-
sired. There are many contrivances for accomplishing this, each
manufacturer having his preference.

BEDSTEADS.

A strong and substantial way is shown in the illustration.

The ends of the rails are provided with tenons, that Jit .mortises in
the posts of head and foot board, and with screws that work in nuts
sunk in the posts. These screws fasten the rails and end boards se-
curely together while the tenons stiffen the joint, preventing any
twisting of the sides.

BED5TEAD

On the lower edge of the side rails, inside, is a ledge to support the
spring. The box spring is sometimes supported on slats, and some-
times on the side rail of the bedstead, a cleat having been placed on
it so as to rest on the ledge of the rails.

The mattress is placed on the springs. In designing a bedstead it
ought to be constructed so the top of the mattress will not be much
over twenty-five inches above the floor.

Bed slats are about an inch thick, a double box spring about ten
inches thick, and a good mattress seven inches thick.

To keep within the limit of height, then, the upper edge of the sup-
port for the slats should not be more than seven inches from the
floor. But slats are sometimes omitted and then the side rails may be
set higher as the springs can hang a little below them without being
seen.

80 CASEWORK.

The following is a table of measurements of bedsteads :

DIMENSIONS OP BEDSTEADS.

Width. Height.

/ Inside. — -% r--Height.-- > Side Bottom

Variety. Length. Width. Foot. Head. Rail. Side Rail.

Single 78 42 40 62 9y2 9%

78 42 41 60 10 10

Double bed 78 58% 42 63 11 10%

" 78 56 36 67 13 9%

Ncte: All dimensions are in inches.

WALTER D. REED
ARCHITECT

CHAPTER V.
The Drawer* Plate XVI.

Nearly every article of furniture may be provided with a drawer ,'
and the ease with which it slides, and its accuracy of fitting are tests
of good workmanship. To have a wide, deep drawer slide so easily
that the pressure of a finger placed against the front at one end is
sufficient to move it, means careful adjustment, skilled labor, and the
best materials.

The drawer is composed of a front, back, two sides and a bottom.
The front is the only part visible when the drawer is closed, and upon
its treatment depends the decorative value of the drawer. It may be
considered as a panel surrounded by mouldings ; or it may be left
plain, depending on the hardware for its ornamentation.

If the front is on the same plane as the surrounding surfaces of the
case the line of the joint about the drawer is too clearly defined. It
is better to hide this joint by allowing the drawer to slide in a six-
teenth of an inch beyond the face of the framework, or to place a bead
all round the edge of the drawer.

Sometimes the front of the drawer has its edge rebated so that in-
stead of sliding into the pocket beyond the surface of the case it pro-
jects beyond, and the lip of the rebate covers the joint around the
drawer. The sides of the drawer are dovetailed to the front and the
bottom is either grooved directly in the sides or in strips glued to
them. This latter method is used when the sides are too thin for
grooving. The full thickness of the bottom is not grooved into the
front and sides, but its edge is reduced in thickness by bevelling, or
rebating, thus permitting the bottom to be placed low without making
the portion of the sides below the groove too thin.

The space between the lower edge of the drawer front and the
bottom at its thickest part is about one-eighth inch. Hence the in-
terior depth of a drawer is the depth of the front minus the thickness
of the bottom plus one-eighth inch. The average drawer having a

82 THE DRAWER.

bottom of half an inch would, therefore, have an interior depth five-
eighths of an inch less than it appears on the front. Wide drawers,
like those extending the full width of a bureau, sometimes have the
bottom divided through the middle, from front to back, by a rail or
muntin. This prevents the bottom from bending beneath the weight
placed on it and also decreases the tendency to warp. The bottom
should be long enough to extend beyond the back piece. It is also
grooved into the front, where it is fastened, but it ought not to be
secured elsewhere. This method of construction admits of the
bottom shrinking, but as it is fastened on the front only and free to
move elsewhere it will not crack, and the extra length beyond the
back prevents an opening appearing at that end.

The back may be grooved or dovetailed in the sides. The dimen-
sions of the different parts are dependent on the size of the drawer.
For ordinary work the front is seldom more than seven-eighths inch
thick ; and the sides, bottom and back more than one-half inch.

In casework the drawer slides in a pocket, and often there are
several drawers, one above the other. When enclosed the drawer
slides on a supporting frame, the front rail of which is called the
"bearer," and the side rails "runners." Close against the sides
and supported by the runners are narrow strips of wood that serve to
keep the drawer in place ; these are the "guides."

Sometimes the frame between the drawers is open, and if one of
the series is removed that beneath may be emptied by reaching
through the opening above. In better work the frame is filled with
a panel, called a dust panel, that prevents this.

The drawer is not always enclosed. Sometimes it is hung beneath
a table top and exposed to view. When used in this way cleats are
fastened to the outer surface of the sides and slide in grooved pieces
screwed to the underside of the table top. If the cleats set close to
the upper edge of the sides of the drawer they increase the thickness
of this edge which is in contact with the under surface of the table
top. As this surface may not be true the drawer will not work
smoothly unless hung loosely.

A better arrangement is the one illustrated with the cleat set a little
below the edge of the drawer, and fitted smoothly in the grooved
bearer. The edge of the drawer may then be set so as not to rub
against the top of the table, and yet the drawer is held secure by the
cleats sliding in the grooved supports. Sometimes the groove is in
the side of the drawer, and the bearer is provided with a tongue that
fits it, reversing the method just described.

fUTtXVI.

THE DRAWER

SIDE}

BACK-

P/AHEL

BEARER.

3ECT!Ofl THROUGH

THROUGH BACK AND 5IDt.

HINQtD

DRAWER WITH SLIDES. 85

When it is desirable to place a drawer in a piece of furniture having
a triangular plan, as for instance a corner cabinet, tEe guides at the
side are useless, as the drawer does not come in contact with them
except when pushed in. As soon as the drawer is pulled out ever so
little it no longer fills the width of the pocket. If it is necessary to
slide a drawer of this shape a rail is placed in the middle of the bottom
the length of the drawer from front to back. The underside of this
rail is grooved over a tongued strip immediately beneath it, that
serves as a guide to keep the drawer in the middle of the pocket.
Such an arrangement is not always feasible, and then the triangular
drawer is pivoted at the front edge, so instead of sliding it swings out
of the pocket.

For music cabinets, library cases, etc., the use of the drawer may
make it necessary to pull it out sufficiently that the entire length can
be seen. A drawer constructed in the usual way would, if pulled out
so far, fall to the floor as soon as the hand left it. A drawer is made,
however, with slides at the sides that support it when out its full
length. The illustration shows such a method. The side of the
drawer is about twice as thick as ordinarily, and the lower portion is
rebated about half its depth and thickness. In this rebate a slide is
fitted, exactly filling it. The rear end of the slide is increased in width
to the full depth of the drawer. When the drawer is closed the slide
and the side of the drawer are practically one; when the drawer is
pulled out to a fixed point the slide catches against a stop and does
not move any further, but.the drawer then moves along the slide until
it is nearly, or entirely, out of the pocket, when it is stopped by a pin
moving in a groove in the side of the slide. The drawer is then resting
entirely on the slides, which are sufficiently far in the pocket to carry
the weight, and the widened portion at the rear end of them filling the
space between the runners, prevents upsetting1.

When a pair of doors closes against a case of drawers another
system may be used in place of the above. The doors can be hung so
as to open to a position in the plane of the sides of the cabinet and
held there by stops. Their inner surface may also be provided with
runners on which the drawer can slide when it is pulled out beyond
the pocket.

CHAPTER VI.
Ornamentation of Furniture*

IN addition to the general outline and proportion of furniture, its
appearance is dependent upon ornamentation. This should not,
however, become so important as to destroy the constructive elements
or the utility. A properly designed article may be quite as pleasing
when entirely devoid of ornament as when its surfaces are covered by
enrichments of some sort.

In many instances what is termed ornament is but a roughening or
coloring of the surface in hopes to divert the attention from bad forms
or poor construction. It is understood that woodwork free from sur-
face ornament must be well made, the wood carefully selected, and
care taken to use together pieces of the same color and figure of grain.
The joints unless properly made become conspicuous, exposing the
poor workmanship. The finish, that is the varnishing and rubbing,
must be well done that the wood may not appear to be covered by a
candied surface full of lumps and streaks. Work well made and
finished feels to the hand almost as soft and smooth as silk velvet,
while to the eye the grain of the wood shows clear and sparkling be-
neath the thin well-rubbed film of varnish which fills the pores yet
scarcely more than covers the surface. In such work the beauty is
dependent upon pleasing outlines, good proportions and workman-
ship. The smallest details, like softening the angle, rounding a
corner, etc., require attention because of their influence on the appear-
ance of the whole.

There are times when it is desirable to do more than fill the de-
mands of service, and additional expense may be incurred by en-
riching the simple form with decoration.

There are several methods of doing this. Perhaps the most diffi-
cult to do well, and yet the most common, is carving. It can be used
as a surface ornament, treated as a panel, either cut below the surface
of the wood or in relief. The constructive parts, as posts, rails,

CARVING. 87

mouldings, etc., may be also in ornamental forms. In the first in-
stance, panel work, the problem is one of designing ^n -ornament to
properly fill the space, keeping in mind the effect of light and shade.
The pattern is in relief of varying planes, and the different parts must
be of a size that will be in keeping with the space filled as well as the
entire article.

The ornament may closely fill the whole space or be loosely scat-
tered over the surface, but in either instance it should seem to belong
where it is, and not as if it might be placed elsewhere or was floating
about in a space much too large for it.

In some kinds of furniture may be seen small ornaments in high
relief cut from a block glued in the middle of a plain surface many
times; the length and width of the ornament. Such carving appears
as if stuck on, even if it is well executed, for it is wrongly placed and
inadequate to the space it occupies. It is not because it is glued ->n
that makes it uninteresting, as might be supposed, but because it i.s
badly designed. Had the surface of the solid wood been ur away
to leave carving of the same design in relief a similar feeling of its
having been applied would exist. Nevertheless the practice of gluing
en carving should be discouraged.

When the constructive parts are carved care should be taken to
design the ornament so the contour of the part is not destroyed. In-
stead of detracting from the form it ought to enforce it. This may be
accomplished by keeping the principal masses of the ornament well
within the boundary lines of the part decorated and by making the
ornamental growths follow the direction of the structural lines.

If the carving is on the surface of a chair back where it may be
leaned against it should not be of such a high relief as to be disagree-
able or so sharp as to be dangerous to the clothing. The illustration
given (frontispiece) here is an example of over ornamentation and ex-
quisite carving misplaced. It is a chair with the arm post finely and
skilfully carved, but so delicate in its detail as to be almost too frail
for practical use. And so rough and sharp are the angles that should
a delicate dress be pulled across it it would probably be torn.

Plain surfaces have quite as1 much value as those that are orna-
mented, and by bringing them in conjunction so as to secure a con-
trast the best results are obtained.

It has been mentioned in a previous chapter (page 10) that the
wood used for the construction has an influence on the design. This
is especially true of carved ornament. Although it may be possible

88 ORNAMENTATION.

to do delicate carving in the coarse-grained woods it is certainly not
good taste to do so. In the close-grained woods, like satinwood,
mahogany and maple, we expect to see delicate and fine work, while
in oak, ash and walnut we at once look for a different sort of thing.

Carved surfaces with the background cut entirely through, that is
perforated, are serviceable forms of ornamentation for chairs, tables,
and occasionally for case work.

What has been said relative to surface carving is applicable to this
style of work. The design ought to be of a kind in which the spaces
and the solids balance each other properly, and no portion should be
cut around so as to leave it joined to the rest of the work at one
point only. Aside from the poor appearance of such a form it is weak
in construction and likely to split off.

Plate XVII. illustrates perforated carving in use on chair backs
and shows how the parts are joined. It will be noticed that the per-
forated ornament is confined to the slat in the middle of the back,
one-half of which is drawn as it appears when finished, while the other
half is only blocked out ready for ornament.

This is quite clear in the shield back design, where the middle slat
is simple in form. The other chair has a more elaborate slat and its
character as such is almost hidden by the form of the ornament. It
should be noticed in designing a back of this sort that the general out-
lines are first determined, keeping in mind the constructive prin-
ciples. In the chair illustrated the outline of the back is drawn first,
next the ellipses composing the slat, and finally the carving. This
latter follows carefully the lines of the composition so as not to de-
stroy the original forms. The acanthus on the sides of the center
ellipse lap close about it, and as the opening in the middle of this
ellipse was too large for practical purposes or appearance, the group
of husk ornaments was placed in the middle.

Where the top of the slat, in the form of a horizontal ellipse, joins
the top rail of the back a dowel is placed. The thickness of the ma-
terial included in the outlines of the ellipse is hardly sufficient to make
a strong joint, and to have increased the thickness at this point only
would have destroyed the appearance of the design unless some way
had been taken to prevent it.

This was done by turning a scroll at the point where the dowel oc-
curs and filling in between the scroll and top rail with a small acan-
thus. This gives the increased material without injuring the ap-
pearance, and is a rational method of using carved ornament.

PL.

_i
CL

METAL APPLIQUE. 91

Applique of metal work is a form of relief ornamentation in many
respects closely related to carving. It may be either 'caster wrought.
Castings, called ormolu, are usually of brass plated with gold and
finished a dull color. They are especially used in the styles of Louis
XV., Louis XVI. and Empire. In the Louis XV. style much of the
ornament is applied in places where carving might have been used,
and it is properly joined with the lines of the article so as to -become a
part of them. In the Louis XVI. to some degree, and in the Empire
style almost entirely, the applique ornaments are fastened directly on.
a plain surface without any relation to the construction whatever, as
the article is complete without them. The beauty of their use depends
oh the arrangement of the pieces in relation to each other, the way
they fill the space which they occupy, and on the design and execu-
tion of the metal work itself. Much of the metal work in ordinary
use is poor in both respects. Perhaps the design is good and the
pattern was well modelled, but so many copies have been made, each
cast from a previous moulding instead of from the original pattern,
that all form and crispness is lost. Such work is neither handsome
or decorative, and the designer should discourage its use whenever
he can. In the best French examples applique metal work is care-
fully cast, exquisitely chased, so it becomes a beautiful piece of work-
manship, and it may be admired as such even though its use is not
approved. When wrought metal work is applied to furniture it is
usually in the form of hinge plates, lock plates, or ornamented straps
binding parts of the woodwork together. Furniture decorated in this
way is best made of a coarse-grained wood and designed with large
flat surfaces on which the metal may be applied for ornamental effect.
Good results are obtained by sinking the metal work so it is level with
the wood surface, particularly when in the form of rosettes.

The markings of the grain of woods used for furniture is in itself
an ornamentation, and many times it is quite sufficient. But to in-
crease its decorative effects veneers cut in various ways are used. A
veneer is a thin slice of wood, and in the choice woods of the furni-
ture maker many pieces with rich figures in the grain can be had as
veneers that otherwise could not be obtained in shape to use. Then,
also, by cutting a log in different ways the beauty of the grain is ex-
posed so that its value is increased.

The veneers are not always used entire like so many boards. They
are sometimes cut in geometrical patterns varying in size, and the
pieces placed side by side in such a manner that the grain of adjoining

92 ORNAMENTATION.

pieces runs in different directions, thus covering the surface with an
almost inconspicuous diaper pattern.

In this method of using veneers but one kind of wood is required,
though at times two or more may be used. When a color effect is
wanted marquetry is used introducing the various colored woods,
metal, shell, or ivory in the form of ornament on a ground of the
wood of which the furniture is constructed.

There are no special difficulties to be avoided in designing a pattern
for inlay. Almost any ornament that appears well in flat colors will
make good inlay, so that the problem is one of designing a conven-
tional ornament suited to decorate the space when rendered in flat
colors.

The nearest approach to inlay is ornament painted on the surface
of the wood. This has been a common and handsome method of
decorating furniture, though it is not now popular. One method is to
treat all the ornament flat similar to inlay ; another is to paint natural
forms in a realistic way. The ornament is sometimes painted on the
varnished surface of natural wood, and again it is placed on an
enamel. In one class of work painting is executed on a panel first
covered by silver or gold leaf, the design introducing figures, pas-
toral scenes, architectural compositions, etc.

The surrounding parts of the article are thickly varnished, and at
times. specks of gold leaf are mixed with the varnish. Such work is
more or less an imitation of Japanese lacquer work, but is known as
Verm? Martin because during the reign of Louis XV. the brothers
Martin secured the exclusive right to make furniture varnished in
this way, they claiming to have discovered the secret of making the
lacquer used:

There remains another means for ornamenting the plain surface
of furniture woodwork. That is by burning on it with a metallic
point an appropriate design. It is a method that lends itself to suc-
cessful treatment in proper hands. Such examples as are most fre-
quently seen are not desirable, largely because the patterns burned
are not suitable. The color effect is, however, charming, running
from soft brown tones of a pale color to a deep rich black. A com-
bination of carving and burning gives satisfactory results. The wood
may be light in color, like white maple, and the carving somewhat of
the Indian (Hindoo) order; this, when complete, has the edges and
background burned by a cautery. The work then varnished in the
usual manner resembles a little old ivory carving and is well suited
to certain rooms.

DISPOSITION OF ORNAMENT. 93

Whatever form of ornamentation may be used, it should be borne
in mind that no amount of decoration will make a poorly propor-
tioned or badly formed article good. It may be possible to divert
the eye for a time from the general shape by placing before it a
multitude of small details, but these will generally become tiresome
and the article will then be considered as a whole.

In all design work it is not a question of how much ornament, but
how well the ornament may be designed. It is advisable to use it
sparingly, erring, if it may be, on the side of too little rather than too
much. The object of ornament is to decorate the otherwise plain
surfaces, and if it does not do this it is better left off.

The sources of pleasure in all decorative designs are the beauty ot
forms employed and the sense of study having been given to their
composition. There is satisfaction in examining a piece of ornament
to find it has been arranged with some regard to the massing of the
parts instead of being merely placed at random in a careless way.
The pleasure of discovering the plan on which an interesting orna-
ment was built has been experienced by every designer. The foun-
dation should not be so prominent as to be forced on the mind, but
it may be so well conceived that a thoughtful study will disclose it
hidden among the beautiful forms of which the composition is
made up.

What may be termed visibility demands attention in the disposi-
tion of ornament. Much labor and expense are wasted by placing
the decorative features in positions where they are not seen, or if
seen it is to a disadvantage. There is no reason for a finely executed
ornament so near the floor, or far under a table or chair that it can-
not be seen without getting on the floor. Nor is there any sense in
decorating the frame of a table which is presumably to be covered
continuously by a cloth.

Though everyone recognizes the impropriety of the bad disposition
of ornament, in this respect, it is not easily guarded against. The de-
signer will find, unless he is extremely careful, that he has indicated
on his drawings work that will be entirely lost to view.

CHAPTER VII.
Theories of Design, Rendering, Etc*

IT is necessary that the designer should be familiar with the his-
toric styles of architecture and furniture. He should also study
the characteristic forms and ornamental details of each period. This
will enable him to recognize the kind of furniture needed to har-
monize with surroundings, learn what has been made and store his
mind with material that suggests new forms and ideas. In many in-
stances the designer is" required to make his work correspond with a
historic style; then his best course is to hunt up good existing ex-
amples of the style (not necessarily the articles he is working on, but
any in the style), and with these before him try to give their char-
acter to the problem. When not restricted in any way he should
work out the forms suggested by the purpose for which the furniture
is used. Study this purpose and consider the character of the ma-
terial used in meeting it. By working with a knowledge of these re-
quirements a design may be made that does not resemble any style.
It is more probable, however, a close adherence to the demands of the
problem will lead to the employment of a style, and it is well that it
should, as then some good example may be taken as a model. There
are excellent models for modern furniture in all styles, though many
of them may not be suited to exact reproduction owing to change of
customs. But when possible furniture should have the character-
istics of some recognized style.

Many poor designs are due to a striving to produce something new
and original ; different from what is seen every day. The result is
rarely pleasing. Any article that is designed with the intention of
making it odd, peculiar, or picturesque is usually poor. Aim to make
it beautiful, not by disregarding styles but by working upon rational
methods. The result will be furniture with possibly but little orna-
ment, and it may be noticeably plain and simple. But it is not de-
sirable that all furniture should be richly ornamented, and overload-

THE SKETCH. 95

ing with ornament is, of course, to be avoided. Study good ex-
amples, whether ancient or modern, and if an article appeals to you
as particularly good try and find why it does so. Make a memo-
randum of it, and put it in a scrap book for future use. Often a long
time after seeing several objects it happens that some one of them is
recalled vividly while the others are forgotten. This impression is
caused either by the value' of the material from which the object is
made, the beauty, the ingenuity of mechanical construction, or the
eccentricity of design, and it should be valued accordingly.

The secret of successful study is the knowing what to select, and
how to use the material at hand. To know what not to do is almost
as good as knowing what to do. It cannot be expected that a
draughtsman will make a good sketch for an article unless he knows
what he is trying to draw. The object should be as clearly defined in
the mind as if the completed work was before him, otherwise his
drawing will be vague and uncertain.

As the purpose of the sketch is to show someone, usuall) a person
ignorant of conventional methods of draughtsmanship, the appear-
ance of the completed furniture, too much care cannot be taken in
making the sketch accurate and showing the detail in a way that will
leave little doubt in the mind what is intended, that there may be no
cause for dissatisfaction with the completed article because the draw-
ing was not understood.

The sketch should represent the article correctly, and sufficient
skill to make such a drawing is obtained by practice. There is no
better preparation for designing than drawing from existing exam-
ples of good furniture. By sitting in front of a chair, for instance,
and drawing it as it appears a knowledge of the way its curves and
lines should be represented in a sketch are learned. It should be
drawn as it is seen, not as it is known to be. That is, if the curve of
the arm looks like a straight line draw it so. If it is necessary that
the curve appear on the sketch, change the position of the object so
as to present the line as it is wanted, but do not make the drawing in-
correct for the sake of presentation. A position can usually be taken
that will show all that is necessary ; if one drawing does not suffice to
do so make others rather than draw incorrectly.

The completed sketch should be as perfect a picture of the article
as the draughtsman can make it in the time available. This is prefer-
ably a perspective drawing, though not necessarily one constructed
mechanically. In fact, a freehand drawing made without the use of

THEORIES, ETC.

draw in this way, and if this
ceeds the resu/will be *

" ^ "

a necessary

drawn larger than others
mensions. For instance a cha
aH its details, while a cabine i
otherwise it appears too large

size and in

M'T artideS may be
h H >' °f ^ Pr°per di~

sketchT T ^ T tO Sh°W
3t a Sma"er scale> as

ct. So,

of one and a half inch toThe T foot

a Sma!I

s to be repre-

f° the 6>'e at a

can aiways

preliminary work is required A ^ P*'"1"6 3t °nce'

•n orthographic projection to SSmJ* dy may be made

and the arrangement of the par sH Pf°P°rtion of the whole

dings ofparts ^^S "

JSStsi °fr

ith drawings made at ft^tcates ^f± ^ inch tO the foot-

e difficulty in rnaking " **

the

general proportions and oudine Then to Pf ° '

erasures and corrections, lay a 1CI of t' ' ?* ^ ti™ °f making

study and make a more careM , ^ °f tracin^PaPer °ver this rough

and used as

n portfohs h, w often
cating sketches, suiting ^Seas etc

b°°ks °r
*"

PLATE XXI

PEN AND INK SKETCH OF A LOUIS XV. CHAIR.

MEDIUMS. 99

The mediums and methods of rendering the final sketch are de-
pendent on the personality of the draughtsman. The materials used
by one designer might not please another, and each may have a differ-
ent way of presenting the same object. Certain methods have been
used by the best men and seem to give satisfactory results, but some-
one may rightfully claim that other ways are equally as good.

The student can study the advantages and disadvantages of the
leading methods and choose the one best suited to himself.

The lead pencil is an exceedingly pleasant medium for furniture
sketching when used on a smooth, 'soft card, like ordinary mounting
board. The point should not be too sharp, and with pencils of differ-
ent degrees of hardness any amount of elaboration may be given the
sketch.- It may be delicately drawn in outline, or it may be bold,
broad and shaded if desired. Pen and ink are, perhaps, the best in-
struments for a clear indication of the facts. They are used by the
majority of designers of experience, and many seem to prefer them
to any other mediums. The inks available are the liquid India inks,
Front's brown, and writing fluids.

India ink has the advantage of giving a solid black line that does
not change, and that may be photographed for reproduction readily.
It has the objection of being thick and of making an intensely black
line, sometimes too heavy on smooth paper unless a fine pen is used.

Prout's brown ink is not as intense in color as India ink, but it re-
quires the proper combination of pen and paper to give the fine deli-
cate line best suited to furniture work.

Writing fluid when used with a smooth surface writing paper and
a moderately fine pen gives very pleasing results. It flows readily,
produces a fine line without the use of an exceedingly fine pen, and
though not black when first used, it turns shortly after. The paper
should be selected according to the ink and pen used ; rough paper
requires a coarse pen, and vice versa. Bristol board, India ink and
a ( iillot 303 pen make a good combination.

Sketches may be made in color, but this medium sometimes makes
the furniture appear clumsy and uninteresting. The amount of small
detail necessary to make a sketch serviceable is lost in a water color
if it is broadly done, and if it is otherwise the drawing requires con-
siderable time in rendering, besides seeming hard and mechanical.
Water color is an excellent medium, however, for sketches of up-
holstered work. It enables the draughtsman to show the color of the
goods, the pattern, and also to indicate the tufting with the least

100 THEORIES, ETC.

labor. Occasionally a combination of line drawing and color is
serviceable, but it requires judicious handling or the result is any-
thing but artistic.

The purchaser of furniture is sometimes at a loss to know how
much is necessary to furnish a room comfortably, and he can be ad-
vised most readily by the designer if a plan of the room is made and
on it the furniture is laid out at scale. A convenient scale is one-half
inch to the foot.

RN ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN LIBRARY

-* 210 Wurster Hall 642-4818

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